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Part III.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
22,6
Unfat isfied
defires of
exiftence
and happi-
»eis.
Motives to ^ood minds, and feme traces of which arc found in the
Virtue. loWert, are feldom united with proportioned means or
v opportunities of exercifing them : fo that the moral
faring, the noble energies and impulfesof the mind, can
hardly find proper fcope even in the moft fortunate con¬
dition ; but are much depreffed in feme, and almoil en¬
tirely redrained in the generality, by the numerous
clogs of an indigent, fickly, or embarraffed life. Were
fuch m’ghty powers, fuch godlike affeitions, planted in
the human breaft to be folded up in the narrow womb
of our prefent exiftence, never to be produced into a
, more perfect life, nor to expatiate in the ample career of
immortality ?
Let it be confidered, at the fame time, that no pof-
feftion, no enjoyment, within the round of mortal things,
is cornmenfurate to the delires, or adequate to the capa¬
cities, of the mind. The moft exalted condition has its
abatements-; the happieft: conjundlure of fortune leaves
many withes behind ; and, after the highett gratifica¬
tions, the mind is carried forward in puriuit of new
ones without end. Add to all, the fond defire of im-
mortalitij, the fecret dread of non-exifence, and the
high unremitting pulfe of the foul beating for perfeBion%
joined to the improbability or the impoftibility of attain¬
ing it here; ?LX\d. then judge whether this elaborate
ftru&ure, this magnificent apparatus of inw’ard powers
and organs, does not plainly point out an hereafter, and
intimate eternity to man ? Does nature give the finilhing
touches to the leffer and ignoble initances pf her {kill,
and raife eveiy other creature to the maturity and per¬
fection of his being ; and (hall (he leave her principal
workmanlhip unfinifhed ? D >es (he carry the vegetative
and animal life in man to their full vigour and higheft
deftination ; and (hall (he fuffer his intelleBual, his mor¬
al, his divine life, to fade away, and be for ever extln-
guifhed ? Would fuch abortions in the moral world be
congruous to that perfection of wiflom and goodnefs
which upholds and adorns the natural?
We muft therefore conclude from this detail, that
the prefent fate, even at its beft, is only the WOMB of
man’s being, in which the nobleft principles of his
nature are in a manner fettered, or fecluded from a
correfpondent fphere of action ; and thereiore dellined
for a future and unbounded ftate, where they (hall
emancipate themfelves, and exert the fulnefs of their
firength. The moft: accompliftied mortal, int this low
and dark apartment of nature, is only the rudiments
of what he (hall be when he takes his ethereal (light,
and puts on immortality. Without a reference to
that ftate, man were a mere abortion, a rude unfinilh-
ed embryo, a monfter in nature. But this being once
fuppofed, he ftill maintains his rank of the mafter-
piece of the creation ; his latent powers are all fuitable
to the harmony and progrejfon of nature ; his noble af-
pirations, and the pains ol his dilTolution, are his ef¬
forts towards a birth, the pangs of his delivery
into light, liberty, and perfe&ion ; and death, his dif-
cbarge from gaol, his feparation from his fellowr pri-
foners, and introduction into the affembly of thofe he¬
roic fpirits who are gone before him, and of their
great eternal Parent. The fetters of his mortal coil
being loofened, and his prifon walls broke down, he
will be bare and open on every fide to the admiftion of
truth and virtue, and their fair attendant happinefs;
every vital and intellectual fpnng will evolve itfeif with
Vol. XIV. Part II.
237
Therefore
man im¬
mortal.
a divine elafticity in the free air of heaven. l4e will From the,
not then peep at the univerfe and its glorious Author
through a dark grate or a grofs medium, nor receive
the reflections of his glory through the ftrait openings ——
of ienfible organs: but will be all eye, all ear, all ethe¬
real and divine feeling *. Let one part, however, of^
the analogy be attended to : That as in the womb we flfunre'
receive our original conftitution, form, and the elfen- j
tia! famina of our being, which we carry along with t
us into the light, and _which greatly alFeCt the fuc-
ceeding periods of our life ; fo our temper and condi¬
tion in the future life will depend on the conduCt we
have obferved, and the charader we have formed, in^1
the prefenl life. We are here in miniature what we
{hall be at full length hereafter. The firft rude fhetch or
outlines of reafon and virtue mull be drawn at pre-fent,
to be afterwards enlarged to the f attire and beauty of
angels. 238
This, if duly attended to, muft prove not only almmoita-
guard, but an admirable incentive to virtue. For fie luy » g^aid
who faithfully and ardently follows the light of know-^,!ve ™
ledge, and pants after higher improvements in virtue,tue.
will be wonderfully animated and inflamed in that pur-
fuit by a full convidion that the feene does not clofe
with life—that his ftruggles, ariftng from the weaknefs
of nature and the ftrength of habit, will be turned into
triumphs—that his career in the track of wifdom and
goodnefs will be both fwifter and fmoother—and thofe
generous ardours with which he glows towards heaven,
i. e. the perfection and immortality of virtue, will find
their adequate objeCt and exerciic in a fphere propor-
tionably enlarged, incorruptible, immortal. On the
other hand, w’hat an inexpreftible damp muft it be to
the good man, to dread the total extinction of that
light and virtue, without which life, nay, immortality it¬
feif, were not worth a {ingle wifti ? 239
Many writers draw their proofs of the immortality Proot nom
of the foul, and ot a future ftate of regards and pU_ jF? inequa-
nilhments, from the unequal diftribution. of thefe here,
It cannot be differnbled that wicked men often efcape butions.
the outward punifhment due to their crimes, and do
not feel the inward in that meafure their demerit feems
to require, partly from the calloulnefs induced upon
their nature by the habits of vice, and partly from
the diftipation of their minds abroad by pleafure or
bufinefs—and fometimes good men do not reap all the
natural and genuine fruits of their virtue, through the
many unforefeen or unavoidable calamities in which
they are involved. To the fmalleft refleCfion, how¬
ever, it is obvious, that the natural tendency of virtue
is to produce happinefs; that if it were univerfally
pra&iLd, it would, in fad, produce the greateft fum
of happinefs of which human nature is capable ; and
that this tendency is defeated only by numerous indi¬
viduals, nho, forfaking the laws of virtue, injure and
opprefs thofe who fteadily adhere to them. But the
natural tendency of virtue is the refult of that confti¬
tution of things which was eflabliftied by God at the
creation of the world. This being the cafe, we muft:
either conclude, that there will be a future ftate, in
which all the moral obliquities of the prefent (hall be
made ftraight; or elfe admit, that the defigns of infi^
nite wifdom, goodnefs, and power, can be finally de¬
feated by the perverfe conduft of human weaknefs.—
But this laft fuppoliticn is fo extravagantly abfurd,
3 E that
402
1 24°
Belief of
immortali¬
ty, &c. a
great fu ,>-
port- amidfl
trials.
MORAL P H I L O S O P H Y.
Part III.
241
In the ge¬
tter. 1 courf
of life.
that the reality of a future ftate, the only other pof-
fible alternative, may be pronounced to have the evi¬
dence of perfedl demon ft rat ion.
Virtue has prefent rewards, and vice prefent punifti-
ments annexed to it; fuch rewards and punilhments as
make virtue, in mod cafes that happen, far more eli¬
gible than vice : but, in the infinite variety of human
contingencies, it may fometimes fall out, that the in¬
flexible pradlice of virtue fliall deprive a man of con-
fiderable advantages to himfelf, his family, or friends,
which he might gain by a well-timed piece of roguery;
fuppofe by betraying his truft, voting againit his con-
fcience, felling his country, or any other crime where
the fecurity againft difeovery lliall heighten the temp¬
tation. Or, it may happen, that a ftridl adherence to
his honour, to his religion, to the caufe of liberty
and virtue, (hall expofe him, or his family, to the lols
of every thing, nay, to poverty, flavery, death itfelf,
or to torments far more intolerable. Now what fliall
fecure a man’s virtue in circumftances of fuch trial ?
What fliall enforce the obligations of confcience againft:
the allurements of fo many interefts, the dread of fo
many and fo terrible evils, and the almoft unfurmountable
averfion of human nature to exceflive pain ! The con¬
flict is the greater, when the circumftances of the crime
are fuch as eafily admit a variety of alleviations from
vecejjity, naturalajfeBion, love to one's family or friends,
perhaps in indigence : thefe will give it even the air of
virtue. Add to all, that the crime may be thought to
have few bad confequences,—may be eafily concealed,—
or imagined poftible to be retrieved in a good meafure
by future good conduft. It is obvious to which fide
moft men will lean in fuch a cafe and how much need
there is of a balance in the oppofite fcale, from the con-
fideration of a God, of a Providence, and of an immor¬
tal fate of retribution, to keep the mind firm and un¬
corrupted in thofe or like inftances of lingular trial or
dill refs.
But without fuppofing fuch peculiar inftances, a
fenfe of a governing Mind, and a perfuafion that vir¬
tue is not only befriended by him here, but will be
crowned by him hereafter with rewards fuitable to its
nature, vail in themfelves, and immortal in their du¬
ration, mu ft. be not only a mighty fupport and incen¬
tive to the pradlice of virtue, but a ftrong barrier
againft vice. The thoughts of an Almighty Judge,
and of an impartial future reckoning, are often alarm¬
ing, intxpreflibly fo, even to the ftouteft offenders.
On the other hand, hoiv fupporting mull it be to the
good roan, to think that he a£ls under the eye of his
ty of the
Sonl.
242
friend, as well as judge! How improving, to confuler From the
the prefent fate as connedted with a future one, and Fnmoruli-
every relation in which he ftands as a fchool of difeip/ine
for his a feci ions; every trial as the exercife of fame vir¬
tue ; and the virtuous deeds which reiu't from both,
as introductory to higher feenes of aciion and enjoymentl
Finally, How tranfporting is it to view death as his
difeharge rrom the warfare of mortality, and a trium¬
phant entry into a ftate of freedom, iecurity, and per-
fedtion, in which knowledge and wifdom fliall break
upon him from every quarter 5 where each faculty fliall
have its proper objedl : and his virtue, which was often
damped or defeated here, fliall be enthroned in undif-
turbed and eternal empire ?
On reviewing this fliort fystem of morals, and the ^dvanta-
motives which fupport and enforce it, and comparing
both with the Christian fcheme, what light and vigourfch-me,
do they borrow from thence! How clearly and lully and its cbn-
does Christianity lay open the connexions ©f our na-,'ex^on wdk
ture, both material and immaterial, and future as well ! ' rF’*
as prefent l What an ample and beautiful detail does it m"orality#
prefent of the duties we owe to God, to fociety, and
ourfelves, promulgated in the moft Ample, intelligible,
and popular manner } divefted of every partiality of
fedl or nation •, and adapted to the general ftate of
mankind ! With what bright and alluring examples does
it illuftrate and recommend the pradlice of tliofe du¬
ties : and with what mighty fandiions does it enforce
that pvadfice ! How ftrongly does it deferibe the cor--
ruptions of our nature ; the deviations of our life from
the rule of duty, and the caufes of both ! How7 marvel¬
lous and benevolent a plan ol redemption does it un¬
fold, by which thofe corruptions may be remedied,
and our nature reflored from its deviations to tranfeend-
ent heights of virtue and piety ! Finally, What a fair
and comprehenfive profpedt does it give us of the ad-
minf ration of God, of which it reprelents the prefent
fate only as a fmall period, and a period of warfare and
trial! Flow folemn and unbounded are the feenes which
it opens beyond it ! the refurredlion of the dead, the
general judgement, the equal difnbution of rewards and
punifhments to the good and the bad ; and the full com¬
pletion of divine wifdom and goodnefs in the final efa-
blifhmcnt ef order, perfection, and Iwppinejs! How
glorious then is that Scheme of Religion, and how
worthy of affeciion as wTell as of admiration, which, by
making fuch difeoveries, and affording fuch offences,
has difclofed the unfading fruits and triumphs of vir¬
tue, and fecured its interefts beyond the power of
time and CHANCE.
M O R
Moral Senfe, that whereby we perceive what is
good, virtuous, and beautiful, in adtions, manners, and
characters. See Moral Philofoph/.
MORALITY. See Moral Philofophy.
MoRANT-Point, the moft eafterly point or promon-
toiy of the ifland of Jamaica, in America. W. Long.
75. 56. N. Lat. 17. 56.
MORASS, a marflr, fen, or low moift ground, which
receives the waters from above without having any de¬
le ent to carry them off again, Somner derives the
M o R
word from the Saxon tnerfe, “ lake Salmafius from
mare, “ a colledfion of waters }” others from the Ger- '■
man maraf, “ a muddy place f and others from
marefc, of maricetum, a marifcis, i. e. ruihes. See
Draining, Agriculture Index.
In Scotland, Ireland, and the north of England,
they have a peculiar kind of moraffes called mojfes or
peat-mojfes, whence the country people dig their peat or
turf for firing. See Moss.
MORAT, or Murten, a confiderable town of
Switzerland.
Morat.
M OR [4
Moral, Switzerland, capital of a bailiwick of the fame name,
Rlorata. belonging to the cantons of Bern and Friburg. It is
v feated on the lake Moral, on the road from Avenche
to Bern, 10 miles weft of Bern and 10 miles north-eaft
of Friburg. The lake is about fix miles long and two
broad, and the country about it pleafant and well cul¬
tivated. The lakes of Moral and Neufchatel ar^
parallel to each other, but the latter is more elevated,
difcharging itfelf by means of the river Broye into
the lake of Neufchatel. According to M. de Luc,
the former is 15 French feet above the level -of Neuf¬
chatel lake } and both thefe lakes, as well as that of
Bienne, feem formerly to have extended confiderably
beyond their prefent limits, and from the pofition of
the country appear to have been once united. Former¬
ly the large fiili named jiturus giants, or the faluth,
frequented thefe lakes, but has not been caught in them
•for a long time paft. The environs of this town and
lake were carefully examined by Mr Coxe, during his
refidence in Switzerland, who made feveral excurfions
acrofs the lake to a ridge of hills fitUated betwixt it
and Neufchatel. bdere a:e many delightful profpefts j
particularly one from the top of Mount Vuilly, which,
he fays, is perhaps the only central fpot from which
the eye can at once comprehend the vaft amphitheatre
formed on one fide by the Jura ftretching from the
environs of Geneva as far as Bafle, and, on the other,
by that ftupendous chain of fnowy Alps which extend
from the frontiers of Italy to the confines of Germany,
and is loft at each extremity in the horizon. Moral is
celebrated for the obftinate defence it made againft
Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and for the battle
which afterwards followed on the 22d of June 1476,
where the duke wa^ defeated, and his army almoft en-
* Se« Hi- tirely deftroyed *' Not far from the town, and ad-
Jfory of joining to the high road, there ftill remains a monu-
France' ment of this viftory. It is a fquare building, filled
with the bones of Burgundian foldiers who were ftain at
the fiege and in the battle ; the number of which ap¬
pears to have been very cohfiderable. There are fe¬
veral infcriptions in the Latin and German languages
commemorating the viftory.
MOR ATA, Olympia Fulvia, an Italian lady, di-
ftinguilhed for her learning, was born at Ferrara, in
26. Her father, after teaching the belles lettres in
feveral cities of Italy, was made preceptor to the two
young princes of Ferrara, the fons of Alphonfus L
The uncommon abilities he difcovered in his daughter
determined him to give her all the advantages of edu¬
cation. Meanwhile the princefs of Ferrara ftudying
polite literature, it was judged expedient that’ (he
Humid have a companion, in the fame purfuit j and Mo-
rata being called, Ihe was heard by the aftonilhed
courtiers to declaim in Latin, to fpeak Greek, and
to explain the paradoxes of Cicero. Her father dying,
Hie was obliged to return heme to take upon her the
management of family affairs, and the education of her
brother and three fitters ; both which Ihe executed
with the greateft diligence and fuccefs. In the mean time
Andrew Grunthler, a young German phyfician, who
had married her, and with him (he went to Germany,
taking her.brother along with her, whom ftieinftru&ed
in the Latin and Greek tongues; and after Haying a
fliort time at Auglburg, went to Schweinfort in Fran-
’tonia, where her hulband was born : but they had not
^ ] M O ft
been there long before that town was unhappily befieged Moravia,
and burnt $ however, efcaping the flames, they lied in '“■"‘"v
the utmoft diftrefs to Hammelburg. This place they
were alfo obliged to quit, and were reduced to the ialt
extremities, when the eledor Palatine invited Grunth¬
ler to be profeffor of phyfic at Heidelberg. He en¬
tered on his new office in 1554; but they no fooner
began to tafte the fweets of repofe, than a difeafe, oc-
cafioned by the diftreffes and hardlhips they had fuf-
fered, feized upon Morata, who died in 1555, in the
29th year of her age ; and her hufbartd and brother
did not long furvive her. She compofed feveral works,
great part of which were burnt with the town of
Schweinfort j the remainder, which confift of orations,
dialogues, letters, and tranflations, wTere colleded and
publiffied under the title of Olympiee Fulviee Moratce,
fceminx doBiffimce, et plane divlnce, opera omnia qua hac-
tenus mvemri poluerint; quibus Ccelii fecundi curionis
epijlolce ac orationes accejjerunt.
MORAVIA, a river of Turkey in Europe, which
rifes in Bulgaria, runs north through Servia by Niffa,
and falls into the Danube at Semendria, to the eaft-
ward of Belgrade.
MoraVia, a marquifate of Germany, derives the
name of Mahern, as it is called by the Germans, and
of Morawa, as it is called by the natives, from the ri¬
ver of that name, which rifes in the mountains of the
county of Glatz, and paffes through the middle of it.
It is bounded to the fouth by Auftria, to the north
by Glatz and Silefia, to the weft by Bohemia, and to
the call by Silefia and Hungary j being about 123
miles in length and 100 in breadthi
A great part of this country is overrun with woods
and mountains, where the air is very cold, but much
wholefomer than in the low grounds, which are full
of bogs and lakes* The mountains, in general, are
barren j but the more champaign parts tolerably fer¬
tile, yielding corn, with plenty of hemp and flax, good
faffron, and pafture. Nor is it altogether deftitute of
wine, red and white, fruits, and garden fluff. Moravia
alfo abounds in horfes, black cattle, (beep, and goats.
In the woods and about the lakes there is plenty of
wild fowl, game, venifon, bees, honey, hares, foxes,
wolves, beavers, &c. , This country affords marble*
alum, iron, fulphur, faltpetre, and vitriol, wuth mineral
waters, and warm fprings 5 but fait is. imported. Its
rivers, of wdiich the March, Morawa, or Morau, are
the chief, abound with trout, crayfiih, barbels, eels,
perch, and many other forts of filh.
The language of the inhabitants is a dialedl of the
Sclavonic, differing little from the Bohemian ; but the
nobility and citizens fpeak German and French.
Moravia was anciently inhabited by the Quadi, who
were driven out by the Sclavi. Its kings, who were
once powerful and independent, afterwards became de¬
pendent on, and tributary to, the German emperors
and kings. At laft, in the year 908, the Moravian
kingdom was parcelled out among the Germans, Poles,
and Hungarians. In 1086, that part of it properly
called Moravia was declared a marquifate by the Ger¬
man king Henry IV. and united with Bohemia, to
whofe dukes and kings it hath ever fince been fubjeft.
Though it is not very populous, it contains about 42
greater or walled towns, 17 fmaller or open towns,
and 198 market towns, befides villages, &c. The
3 E 2 ftates
M O R [ 404 ] M O R
flates of the country confift of the clergy, lords, knights,
and burgeffes j and the diets, when furnmoned by the
regency, are held at Brunn. The marquifate is dill
governed by its own peculiar conftitutions, under the
dirc&orium in publicis et cameralibus, and the fupreme
judicatory at Vienna. It is divided into fix circles,
each of which has its captain, and contributes to its
fovereign about one third of what is exacted of Bohe¬
mia. Towards the expences of the military eftabliQi-
ment of the whole Aultrian hereditary countries, its year¬
ly quota is 1,856,490 florins. Seven regiments of foot,
one of cuirafliers, and one of dragoons, are ufually
quartered in it.
Chriflianity was introduced into this country in the
9th century; and the inhabitants continued attached to
the church of Rome till the 15th, when they efpoufed
the do&rine of John Hufs, and threw off Popery : but
after the defeat of the ele&or Palatine, whom they had
chofen king, as well as the Bohemians, the emperor
Ferdinand II. re-eftablilhed Popery j though there are
fiill fome Proteftants in Moravia. The biflaop of 01-
tcmiz, who ftands immediately under the pope, is at
the head of the ecclefiaflics in this country. The fu-
jireme ecclefiaflical jurifdi&ion, under the bilhop, is veft-
?d in a confiftory.
The commerce of this country is inconfiderable. Of
what they have, Brurin enjpys the principal part. At
Iglau and Trebitx are manufa&ures of cloth, paper,
gunpowder, &c. There are alfo fome iron works and
giafs houfes in the country.
The inhabitants of Moravia in general are open-
hearted, not eafy to be provoked or pacified, obedient
to their matters, and true to their promifes ; but credu¬
lous of old prophecies, and much addicled to drinking,
though neither fuch fots or bigots as they are reprefent-
ed by fome geographers. The boors, indeed, upon the
river Hank, are faid to be a thievilh, unpoliihed, brutal
race. The fciences now begin to lift up their heads a
little among the Moravians, the univerfity of Olmutz
having been put on a better footing *, and a riding aca¬
demy, with a learned fociety, have been lately eftablifh-
ed there.
MORAVIAN brethren. See Hernhutters,
anti Unitas Fratrum.
MORAW, or Morava, a large river of Germany,
which has its fource on the confines of Bohemia and
Silefia. It crolTes all Moravia, where it waters Ol¬
mutz and Hradifch, and receiving the Taya from the
confines of Lower Hungary and Upper Auftria, fepar
parates thefe two countries as far as the Danube, into
which it falls.
MORBID, among phyficians, fignifies “ difeafed or
corrupt a term applied either to an unfound confti-
tution, or to thofe parts or humours that are affe&ed by
a difeafe.
MORBUS COMITIALIS, a name given to the epi-
lepfy •, becaufe if on any day when the people were
aflhmbled in comitia upon public bufinefs, any perfon
fuddenly feized with this diforder fliould fall down,
the aflfembly was diffolved, and the bufinefs of the comi-
tia, however important, ivas fufpended. See Comitia.
Morbus Regius, the fame wdth the Jaundice. See
Medicine Index.
Morbus, or Difeafe, in Botany. See Varietas.
MORDAUMT, Charles, earl of Peterborough, a MonLuat
celebrated commander both by fea and land, was the *
fon of John Lord Mordaunt Vii'count Avalon, and was Rlore'
born about the year 1658. In 1675 fucceeded his
father in his honours and eilate. While young he fer-
ved under the admirals Torrington and Narborough in
the Mediterranean .againii the Algerines j and in 1680
embarked for Africa with the earl of Plymouth, and
diftinguilhed himfelf at Tangier when it was belieged
by the Moors. In the reign of James II. he voted
againtt the repeal of the tell aft; and difliking the
meafures of the court, obtained leave to go to Hol¬
land to accept the command of a Dutch fquadron in
the We it Indies. He afterwards accompanied the
prince of Orange into this kingdom ; and upon his
advancement to the throne, was fvvorn of the privy-
ccuncil, made one of the lords of the bedchamber to
his majcfiy, alfo firfl: commiflioner .of the treafury, and
advanced to the dignity of earl of Monmouth. But
in November 1690 he was difmifTed from his poft in
the treafury. On the death of his uncle Henry earl
of Peterborough in 1697, he fucceeded to that title ;
and, upon the acceffion of Queen Anne, was invefted
with the commiffion of captain-general and governor
of Jamaica. In 1705 he was fworn of the privy-
council ; and the fame year declared general and com¬
mander in chief of the forces lent to Spain, and joint
admiral of the fleet with Sir Cloudlley Shovel, of
which the year following, he had the foie command.
His taking Barcelona with a handful of men, and af¬
terwards relieving it when greatly diftreffed by the
enemy ; his driving out of Spain the duke of Anjou,
and the French army, which confifted of 25,000 men,
though his own troops never amounted to 10,000 ;
his gaining pcffeffion of Catalonia, of the kingdoms of
Valencia, Arragon, and the ifle of Majorca, with part
of Murcia and Caftile, and thereby giving the earl of
Galway an opportunity of advancing to Madrid with¬
out a blow; are aftoniflaing inttances of bis bravery
and conduft. For thefe important fervices his lord-
fhip wjas declared general in Spain by Charles III.
afterwards emperor of Germany ; and on his return
to England he received the thanks of the houfe of
lords. His lordlhip was afterwards employed in feveral
embattles to foreign courts, inftalled knight of the gar¬
ter, and made governor of Minorca. In the reign of
George I. he was general of all the marine forces in
Great Britain, in which port he was continued by King
George II. He died in his paffage to Lifbon, where
he was going for the recovery of his health, in 1735.
His lordihip was diflinguiflied by various finning qua¬
lities : for, to the greatefi perfonal courage and refolu-
tion, he added all the arts and addreis of a general ; a
lively and penetrating genius ; and a great extent of
knowledge upon almoft every fubjeft of importance
within the compafs' of ancient and modern literature ;
hence his familar letters, inferred among thofe of his
friend Mr Pope, are an ornament to that excellent col-
left ion.
MORDELLA, a genus of infefts of the coleoptera
order See Entomology Index.
MORE, Sir Thomas, lord high chancellor of
England, the ion ot Sir John More, knight, one of the
judges of the King’s Bench, was born jn the year 1480,
in
More.
M O Pv [ 405 1 M O R
•in M’lk-ftieet London. He was finl fent to a fchool
at St Anthony’s in Threadneedle iireet j and after-
ward introduced into the family of Cardinal Moreton,
who in 1497 fent him to Canterbury college in Ox¬
ford. Daring his refidence at the univerfity he con-
iianily attended the ledlures-of Linacre and GrocinuS,
on the Greek and Latin languages. Having in the
fpace of about two years made confiderable proficiency
in academical learning, he came to New Inn in Lon¬
don, in order to (ludy the law *, whence, after iome
time, he removed to Lincoln’s Inn, of which his father
was a member. Notwithilanding his application to
the law, however, being now about 20 years old, he
was lb bigotted to monkuh difeipline, that he wore a
hair Ihir*- hext his Ikin, frequently failed, and often
flept on a bare plank. In the year 1503, being then
a burgefs in parliament, he diftinguifhed himfelf in the
houfe, in oppofition to the motion for granting a
fubfidy and three fifteenths for the marriage of Hen¬
ry VII.’s eldeil daughter, Margaret, to the king of
Scotland. Idle motion was rejdded; and the king
was fo highly offended at this oppofition from a beard-
lefs boy, that he revenged himfelf on Mr Pvlore’s father,
by fending him, on a frivolous pretence, to the Tower,
and obliging Ifim to pay 1001. for his liberty. Bung
now called to the bar, he was appointed law reader at
Furnival’s inn, which place he held about three years j
but about this time he a!To read a public leflure in
the church of St Lawrence, Old Jewry, upon St Au-
flin’s treatife Dc civitate Dei, with great applaufe. He
had indeed formed a defign of becoming a Francifcan
friar, but was diffuaded from it 3 and, by the advice
of Dr Colet, married Jane, the eldefl daughter of John
Colt, Efq. of Newhall in Elfex. In 1508 he was ap¬
pointed judge of the fheriff’s court in the city of Lon¬
don, was made a juflice of the peace, and became very
eminent at the bar. In 1516 he went to Flanders in
the retinue of Biihop Tonflal, and Dr Knight, who
were fent by King Henry VIII. to renew the alliance
with the archduke cf Aufhia, afterwards Charles V.
On his return, Cardinal Wolfey wrould have engaged
Mr More in the fervice of the crown, and offered him
a penfion, which he refufed. Nevertbelefs, it was
not long before he accepted the place of mafler of
the requefls, was created a knight, admitted of the
privy council, and in 1520 made treafurer of the ex¬
chequer. About this time he built a houfe on the
bank of the Thames, at Chelfea, and married a fecond
wife. This wife, whofe name was Middleton, and a
widow, was old, ill tempered, and covetous 3 neverthe-
leis Erafmus fays, he was as kmd of her as if ihe were a
young maid.
In the 14'h year of Henry VIII. Sir Thomas More
was made fpeaker of the houfe of commons: in which
capacity he had the refolufion to oppofe the then
powerful minifter, Wolfey, in his demand of an op-
preffive fubfidy 3 notvvithilandmg which, it was not long
before he was made chancellor of the duchy of Lanca-
fter, and was treated by the king with lingular familiari¬
ty. The king having once dined with Sir Thomas at
Chelfea, walked with him near an hour in the garden,
with his arm round his neck. After he was gone, Mr
Roper, Sir Thomas’s fon-in-law, obferved how happy
he was to be fo familiarly treated by the king : to which ^
Sir Thomas replied, “ I thank our lord, foil Roper, I
find his grace my very good lord indeed, and believo.
he doth as fingularly favour me as any fubjedl within
this realm : howbeit, I mull tell thee, I have no caufe
to be proud thereof 3 for if my head would wan him a
cable in France, it would not fail to go off.” From
this anecdote at appears, that Sir Thomas knew his
grace to be a villain.
In 1526 he was fent with Cardinal Wolfey and
others, on a joint em-bafiy to France, and in 1529
with Bifinop Tonflal to Cambray. The king, it feems,
was fo well fatisfied with his fervices on thefe occa-
fions, that in the following year, Wolfey being dif-
graced, he made him chancellor 3 which feems the
more extraordinary, when we are told that Sir Tho¬
mas had repeatedly declared his difapprobation of the
kingh divorce, on which the great defenfor jidei fo
pofitively bent. Having executed the office of chan¬
cellor about three years, with equal wifdom and inte¬
grity, he refigned the feals in 1533, probably to avoid
the danger cf his refuling to confirm the king’s di¬
vorce. Fie now retired to his houfe at Chelfea 3 dif-
miffed many of his fervants 3 fent his children with
their refpeflive families to their own houfes (for hi¬
therto, he had, it feems, maintained all his children,
with their families, in his own houfe, in the true llyle
of an ancient patriarch 3 and fpent his time in itudy
and devotion : but the capricious tyrant w7ould not fuf-
fer him to enjoy his tranquillity. Though now re¬
duced to a private flation, and even to indigence, his
opinion of the legality of the king’s marriage with
Anne Boleyn wras deemed of fo much importance, that
various means wTere tried to procure his approbation ;
but all perfuafion proving ineffeflual, he was, with
fome others, attainted in the houfe of lords of miffiri-
fion of treafon, for encouraging Elifabeth Barton,
the nun of Kent, in her treafonable pradlices. His
innocence in this affair appeared fo clearly, that they
were obliged to flrike his name out of the bill. He
w7as then accufed of other crimes, but with the fame
effecl ; till, refufing to take the oath enjoined by the
adt of fupremacy, he w^as committed to the Tower,
and, after 15 months imprifonment, was tried at the
bar of the King’s Bench for high treafon, in denying
the king’s fupremacy. The proof relied on the foie
evidence of Rich the fdicitor general, whom Sir Tho¬
mas, in his defence, fufficiently diferedited 3 neverthe-
lefs the jury brought him in guilty, and he wascom-
demned to fpffer as a traitor. The merciful Harry,
however, indulged him with fimple decollation 3 and
he wjas accordingly beheaded on 'I'ower hill, on the
5th of July 1535. His body, which was firil interred
in the Tower, was begged by his daughter Pvlargaret,
and deposited in the chancel of the church at Chelfea,
where a monument, with an infer!prion written by
hirnfelf, had been fome time before erected. This mo¬
nument with the infeription is lliil to be feen in that
church. The fame daughter, Margaret, a ho procured
his head after it had remained 14 days upon London
bridge, and placed it in a vault belonging to the
Roper family, under a chapel adjoining to St Dun-
flan’s church in Canterbury. Sir Thomas More was
a man of fome learning, and an upright judye 5 a very
prietl in religion, yet cheerful, and even affeblchy
witty
t
Mcm*a,
Morel.
M OR f 406
witty (a). He wanted not fagacity, where religion was
out of the quell on *, but in thac his faculties were fo en¬
veloped, as to render him a weak and credulons enthu-
fiaft. He left one fon and three daughters *, of whom
Margaret, the eldeft, was very remarkable for her
knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages. She
parried a Mr Roper of Wellhall in Kent, whofe life
of Sir Thomas More was publifhed by Mr Hearne at
Oxford in 1716. Mrs Roper died in 15445 and was
buried in the vault of St Dunftan’s in Canterbury, with
her father’s head in her arms.
Sir Thomas was the author of various works, though
his Utopia is the only performance that has furvived in
the efteem of the world 5 owing to the reit being chief¬
ly of a polemic nature : his anfwer to Luther has only
gained him the credit of having the bell knack of any
man in Europe, at calling bad names in good Latin.
His Englilh works were collefled and publilhed by
order of Queen Mary, in 15575 his Latin, at Bafil,
in 1563, and at Louvain, in 1566.
MOREA, formerly called the Peloponnefus, is a
peninfula to the foutb of Greece, to which it is joined
by the ifthmus of Corinth. Its form refembles a mul¬
berry leaf, and its name is derived from the great num¬
ber of mulberry trees which it produces. It is about
180 miles in length, and 130 in breadth. The air is
temperate, and the land fertile, except in the middle,
where it is full of mountains, and is watered by a
great number of rivers. It is divided into three pro¬
vinces 5 Scania, Belvedera, and Brazzo-di-Maim. It
rvas taken from the Turks by the Venetians in 1687 5
but they loll it again in 1715. The fangiac of the
Morea relides at Modon. See Greece and Pelopon¬
nesus.
MOREL, the name of feveral celebrated printers to
the kings of France, who, like the Stephens, were
alfo men of great learning.
Frederic Morel, who wTas interpreter in the Greek
and Latin tongues, as well as printer to the king, was
heir to Vafcofan, whofe daughter he had married.—
He W'as born in Champagne, and he died in an ad¬
vanced age at Paris, 1583. His fons and grandfons
trode in his fleps 5 they diftinguilhed themfelves in li¬
terature, and maintained alfo the reputation which he
had acquired by printing. The edition ef St Gregory
of Nyjfa, by bis fon Claude Morel, is held in great
ellimation by the learned.
Morel, Frederic, fon of the preceding, and Rill
more celebrated than his father, was profeflbr and in¬
terpreter to the king, and printer in ordinary for the
Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and French languages. Pie
was fo devoted to Rudy, that when he was told his
wife was at the point of death, he would not flir till
he had finilhed the fentence which he had begun. Be¬
fore it was finiflied, he was informed that Ihe was ac-
] M O E
tually dead : lam forry for it (replied he coldly), Motel
was an excellent woman. This printer acquired great
reputation from the works which he publiihed, which ! Via ’
were very numerous and beautifully executed. From
the manuferipts in the king’s library, be publilhed fe¬
veral treatifes of St Bafil, Theodoret, St Cyrille 5 and
he accompanied them with a tranflation. His edition
of the wTorks of CEcutnenius and Aretas, in 2 vols.
folio, is much eReemed. In Riort, after diltinguilhing
himfclf by bis knowledge in the languages, he died
June 27. 1630, at the age of 78. His fons and grand¬
fons followed the fame profeflion.
Morel, William, regius profeflbr of Greek, and
direblor of the king’s printing houfe at Paris, died
1564. He compofed a DiBionnaire Grsc-Latin Fran*
fois, which was publilhed in quarto in 1622, and
fome other works which indicate very extenfive learn¬
ing. His editions of the Greek authors are exceed-
ingly beautiful. This great fcholar, who was of a
difterent family from the preceding, had a brother
named John, who died in prifon (where he had been
confined for herefy) at the age of 20, and whofe body
was dug out of the gtave, and burnt Feb. 27. 1559*
They were of the parith of Tilleui, in the county of
Mortein, in Normandy.
MOREN A, in Ancient Geography, a didrift or dL
vifion of Myfia, in the Hither Afia. A part of which
was occupied by Cleon, formerly at the fiiead of a
band of robbers, but afterwards pried of Jupiter Ab-
rettenus, and enriched with poiTeflions, firtt by Antony,
and then by Casfsr.
MORESQUE, Morksk, or Mori/ho, a kind of
painting, carving, &c. done after the manner of the
Moors 5 confifting of feveral grotefque pieces and com-
partiments promifcuouRy intermingled, not containing
any perfeft figure of a man, or other animal, but a wild
refemblance of birds, beads, trees, &c. Thefe are alfo
called arahefques, and are particularly ufed in embroi¬
deries, damalk work, &C.
Moresque Dances, vulgarly called Morricc dance1:,
are thofe altogether in imitation of the Moors, as fa-
rabands, chacons, &c. and are ufually performed with
cadanets, tambours, &c.
There are few country places in England where the
morrice dance is not known. It was probably intro¬
duced about, or a little before, the reign of Henry VIIL
and is a dance of young men in their .Hurts, with bells
at their feet, and ribbands of various colours tied round
their arms and flung acrofs their ihoulders.
MORGAGN A. See Fata.
MORGAGNI, John Baptist, doftor of medicine,
fird profeflbr of anatomy in the univerfity of Padua,
and member of feveral of the mod eminent focieties of
learned men in Europe, was born in the year 1682, at
Forli, a town in the didrift of La Romagna in Italy.
His
(a) This lad difpofition, w:e are told, he could not redrain even at his execution. I he day "being come, he
afeended the fcaffold, which feemed fo weak that it was ready, to fall 5 whereupon, “ I pray (faid he) fee
me fafe up, and for my coming down let me Ihirt for myfelf.” His prayers being ended, he turned to the
executioner, and with a cheerful countenance laid, “ Pluck up thy fpirits, man, and be not afraid to do thy
office 5 my neck is very (hort, take heed therefore thou drike not awry tor faving thy honedy.” I hen laying his
head upon the block, he bid him day until he had put afide his beard, faying, “ I hat had never committed any
treafon,”
A
2
M O R
[ 4°7 1
M O K
Morgagni. His parents, who were in eafy circumfhnces, allowed
'—nr——' him to ollow that courfe in life Ins genius dilated.
He began his fluriies at the place of his nativity ; but
foon after removed to Bologna, where he obtained the
degree of Doclor of Medicine, when he had but juft
reached the 16th year or his age. Here his peculiar
tafte for anatomy found an able preceptor in Vallalva,
who beftowed on him the utrpoft attention •, and fuch
w7as the progress he made under thi > excellent mafter,
that at the age of 20 he himfelf taught anatomy with
high reputation. Soon, however, the fame of his pre¬
lections, and the number of his pupils, excited the
jealoufy ol the public profeffors, and gave rife to in¬
vidious -perlecutions. But his abilities and prudence
gained him a complete triumph over his enemies } and
all oppofition to him was finally terminated from his
being appointed by the fenate of Bologna to fill a me¬
dical chair, which foon became vacant. But the du¬
ties of this office, although important,' neither occu¬
pied the whole of his time, nor latisfied his anxious
defire to afford inftruffion. He ftiil continued to la¬
bour in fbcret on bis favourite fubjeft, and foon after
communicated the fruits of thefe labours to the public
in his Adv erf aria Anatomica, the firft of which was pub-
lithed in the year 1706, the fecond and third in 1717,
and the three others in 1719. The publication of this
excellent work fpread the fame of Morgagni far be¬
yond the limits of the ftate of Bologna. Such was his
reputation, that the wife republic of Venice had no
hefitation in making him an offer of the fecond chair
of the theory of medicine in the univerfity of Padua,
then vacant by the death of M. Molinetti j and, to
enfure his acceptance, they doubled the emoluments
of that appointment. While he was in this department,
he publiflied his treatife, entitled Nova Injlitutionum
medicarum idea, which firft appeared at Padua in the
year 1712. From this work his former reputation fuf-
fered no diminution. And foon after he role, by dif¬
ferent fteps, to be firft profeffor of anatomy in that
celebrated univerfity. Although Morgagni was thus
finally fettled at Padua, yet he gave evident proofs of
his gratitude and attachment to Bologna, which he
confidered as his native country wuth refpedft to the
fciences. Pie exerted his utmoft efforts in eftabliftiing
the academy of Bologna, of which he was one of the
firft affociates; and he enriched their publications with
feveral valuable and curious papers. Soon after this,
the Royal Societies of London and Peris received him
among their number. Not long after the publication
of his Advcrfaria Avatomica, be began, much upon
the fame plan, his Kpiflolce An atomic a', the firft of
which is dated at Padua in the beginning of April
1726. The works of Morgagni which have already
been mentioned, are to be confidered, in a great mea-
fure, as ftriflly anatomical : but be was not more emi¬
nent as an anatomift, than as a learned and fuccefsfui
phyfician. In the year 1760, when he was not far di-
ftant from the 80th year of his ape, he publifhed his
large and valuable work- De canjis et fedibus niorborum
per anatomen indagatis. This !aft and moft important
of all his productions will afford convincing evidence
of his indufiry and abilities to lateft pofterity. Befides
thefe works, he nubiifhed, at difterent periods of his
life, feveral mifceilaneous pieces, which were after¬
wards colleCled into one volptnej and printed tender his
Morifon.
own eye at Padua, in the year 1765. It does not ap~ Morganar
pear that he had in view any future publications j but
lie intended to have favoured the world with a com¬
plete edition of all his works, which would probably
have been augmented with many new obfervations. In
this he was engaged when, on the fifth of December
1771, after he had nearly arrived at the 90th year
of his age, death put a period to his long and glorious
career in the learned world.
MORGANA, or Morgagna, Fata. See Fata.
MORGES, a town of SwiiTerland in the canton of
Berne, a place of fome trade, and fituated on the lake
of Geneva, five miles from Laufanne. E. Long. 6. 42.
N. L^t. 46. 29.
MORGO, anciently Amorgos, an ifland in the Ar¬
chipelago, which produces wine, oil, and corn* It is
well cultivated, and the inhabitants are affable, and ge¬
nerally of the Greek church. The beft parts belong
to a monallery. The greateft inconvenience in this
ifland is the want of wood. It is 30 miles in circumfe¬
rence. E. Long. 26. 15. N. Lat. 36. 30.
MORIAH, one of the eminences of Jerufalem ; on
which Abraham went to offer his fon, and David
wanted to build the temple, which was afterwards exe¬
cuted by Solomon : The threlhing floor of Araunah $
originally narrow, fo as fcarce to contain the, temple,
but enlarged by means of ramparts 5 and furrounded
with a triple wall, fo as to add great ftrength to the
temple, (Jofephus). It may be confidered as a part
of Pdount Sion, to which it was joined by a bridge and-
gallery, (Id.).
MORILLES, a kind of mufhroom, about the fize
of a walnut, pierced with holes like a honey-comb, and
faid to be good for creating an appetite. It is often
ufed in lauces and ragouts.
M0R1NA, a genus of plants belonging to the di-
andria clais ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 48th order, Aggregatce. See Botany Index.
MORINORUM Castellum, in Ancient Geography,
Amply Caftelium (Antonine) •, fituated on an emi¬
nence, with a fpring of water on its top, in the terri¬
tory of the Morini. Now Mont Cajfel, in Flanders.
MORINDA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 48th order, Aggregatce. See Botany In¬
dex.
MORISON, Robert, phyfician and profeffor of
botany at Oxford, was born at Aberdeen in 1620,
bred at the univerfity there, and taught philofophy for
fome time in it} but having a ftrong inclination to bo¬
tany, made great progrefs in that fcience. The civil
wars obliged him to leave his country ; which, how¬
ever, he did not do till he had firft jignalized his zeal
for the intereft of the king, and his courage, in a battle
f©ught between the inhabitants of Aberdeen and the
Prefbyterian troops on the bridge of Aberdeen, in which
he received a dangerous wound on the head. As foorv
as he was cured of it, he went into France j and fixing
at Paris, he applied affiduoufly to botany and anatomy.
He was introduced to the duke of Orleans, who gave
him the direblion of the royal gardens at Blots. He
exercifed the office till the death of that prince, and
afterwards went over to England in 1660. Charles II.
to whom the duke of Orleans had prefented him at
Sloisj for him to London, and gave him the title
*
✓
I
Morifon:a,
Morlachia.
M O *R [ 4c* 1 MO R
of Ills phyfician, ?.nd that of profejfor royal of botany,
with a penfion of 200I. per annum. The Prcclucltum
Botanicum, which he publiihed in 1669, procured him
fo much reputation, that the univerfity of Oxford in¬
vited him to the profeffcrfhip of botany in 1669 i
which he accepted, and acquitted himfehf in it with
great ability. He died at London in 1683, aged 63.
He publifhed a fecond and third part of his Hiftory
of Plants, in 2 vo!s. folio ; with this title, Plantarum
Jii/ioria Oxonievf.t Univerfalis. The firlt part of this
excellent work has not been printed $ and it is not
known what has become of it.
MORISQNfA, a genus of plants belonging to the
monadelphia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 25th order, Pataminece. See Botany In-
tiex.
MORLACHIA, a mountainous country of Dal¬
matia. The inhabitants are called Mor/achs ox-Mor-
lacchi; they inhabit the pleafant valleys of Koter, along
the rivers Kerha, Cettina, Narenta, and among the
inland mountains of Dalmatia. The inhabitants are by
home fa:d to be of Walachian extradlien, as is indicated
bv their name ; Morlachia being a contraction of
Mauro Walachia, that is, Black Walachia : and the
Walachians are faid to be defeendants ol the ancient
•Roman colonies planted in thefe countries. This, how¬
ever, is denied by the Abbe Fortis, who publiihed a
volume of travels into that country. He informs us,
that the origin of the Morlacchi is involved in the
darknefs of barbarous ages, together with that of many
other nations, refembling them fo much in cuftoms and
language, that theV may be taken for one people, d;f-
perfed in the vaft trafts from the Adriatic lea to the
Frozen ocean.
With regard to the etymology of the name, the
Abbe obferves, that the Morlacchi generally call them-
felves, in their own language, Vlcfji; a national term,
of which no velime is found in'the records of Dal-
O
matia till the 13th century. It fignifies powerful
men, or men of authority; and the denomination of Mo-
ro Vlaffi, corruptly Morlacchi, as they are now called,
may perhaps point out the original of the nation. This
word may poffibly fignify the conquerors that came from
the fea ; moor, in all the dialeds of the Sclavonian
language, figPtfving the fea.
With regard to the charafler of thefe people, we
are informed that they are much injured by their ma¬
ritime neighbours. The inhabitants of the fea coaft
of Dalmatia tell many frightful {lories of their avarice
and cruelty : but thefe, in our author’s opinion, are all
either of an ancient date, or if any have happened in
latter times, they ought rather to be aferibed to the
corruption of a few individuals, than to the bad dif-
pofition of the nation in general ; and though thievifh
tricks are frequent among them, he informs us, that
a ilranger may travel fecurely through their coun¬
try, where he is faithfully elcorted, and hofpitably
treated.
As to the Morlacchi themfelves, they are repre-
fented as open and fincere to fuch a degree, that they
would be taken for fimpletons in any other country j
and by means of this quality they have been fo oft< n
duped by the Italians, that the faith of an Italian and
the faith of a dog, are fynonymous among the Morlacchi.
They are very hofpitable to ftrangers j and their hof-
3
pitality is equally confpicuous among the rich and poof.Morlachia.
The rich prepares a roalled lamb or (beep, and the —v'"*' J
poor with equal cordiality offers whatever he has j nof
is this generofity confined to ftrangers, but generally
extends itfelf to all who are in want. When a Mor-
lack is on a journey, and comes to lodge at a friend’s
houfe, the eldeff daughter of the family, or the new
married bride, if there happen to be one, receives and
kiffes him when he alights from his horfe or at the
door of the houfe : but a foreigner is rarely favoured
with thefe female civilities j on the contrary, the wo¬
men, if they are young, hide themfelves, and keep out
of his way.
The Morlacchi in general have little notion of do-
meftic economy, and readily confume in a week as
much as would be lufficient for feveral months, when¬
ever any occafion of merriment prefents itfelf. A mar¬
riage, the holiday of the faint protestor of the family,
the arrival of relations or friends, or any other joyful
incident, confumes of courfe all that there is to eat
and to drink in the houfe. Yet the Morlack is a great
economift in the ufe of his wearing apparel ■, for
rather than fpoil his new cap, he takes it off, let it
rain ever fo hard, and goes bareheaded in the ftorm.
In the fame manner he treats his flioes, if the road is
dirty and they are not very old. Nothing but an abfo-
lute impeffibility hinders a Morlack from being punc¬
tual ; and if he cannot repay the money he botrowed
at the appointed time, he carries a {mail prefent to his
creditor, and requefts a longer term.
Friendlhip is lading among the Morlacchi. They
havp even made it a kind of religious point, and tie
the facred bond at the foot of the altar. The Sclavo¬
nian ritual contains a particular benedi&ion for the fo-
lemn union of two male or two female friends in the
prelence of the congregation. The male friends thus
united are called Pobratimi, and the female Poje/lreme,
which mean half-brothers and half filters. From thefe
confecrated friendlhips among the Morlacchi and other
nations of the fame origin, it {hould feem that the
fworn brothers arofe *, a denomination frequent enough
among the common people of Italy and in many parts
of Europe. The difference between thefe and the
Pobratimi of Morlachia confifts not only in the want of
the ritual ceremony, but in the defign ol the union
itfelf. For, among the Morlacchi, the foie view is
reciprocal fervice and advantage j but fuch a brother¬
hood among the Italians is generally commenced by-
bad men, to enable them the more to hurt and diiturb
fociety.
But as the friendlhips of the Morlacchi are ftrong
and facred, fo their quarrels are commonly unextin-
guilhable. They pafs from father to fon ; and the
mothers fail not to put their children in mind of their
duty to revenge their father if he has had the mis¬
fortune to be killed, and to Ihow them often the
bloody Ihirt and arms of the dead. And fo deeply
is revenge rooted in the minds of this nation, that
all the miffionaiies in the world would not be able
to eradicate it. A Morlack is naturally inclined to
do good to his fellow creatures, and is full of grati¬
tude for the fmalltft benefit j but implacable if injured
or infulted.
A Morlack who has killed another of a powerful
family, is commonly obliged to fave himfelf by flight,
and
M O R • . [
Morlacch!. and to keep out of the way for feveral years.
during that time he has been fortunate enough to
efcape the fearch of his purfuers, and has got a fmall
fum of money, he endeavours to obtain pardon and
peace ; and, that he may treat about the conditions
in perfon, he afks and obtains a fafe condudf, which
is faithfully maintained, though only verbally granted.
Then he finds mediators; and, on the appointed day,
the relations of the two hoftile families are aflembled,
and the criminal is introduced, dragging himfelf along
on his hands and feet, the mufket, piifol, or cutlafs,
with which he committed the murder, hung about his
neck ; and while he continues in that humble pofture,
one or more of the relations recites a panegyric on
the dead, which fometimes rekindles the flames or
revenge, and puts the poor proftrate in no fmall dan-
ger.
The Morlacks, whether they happen to be of the
Roman or of the Greek church, have very Angular
ideas about religion j and the ignorance of their teach¬
ers daily augments this monflrous evil. They are as
firmly perfuaded of the reality of witches, fairies, en¬
chantments, nofturnal apparitions, and fortileges, as
if they had feen a thoufand examples of them. Nor
do they make the leaft doubt about the exiflence of
vampires 5 and attribute to them, as in Tranfylvania,
the fucking the blood of infants. Therefore, when
a man dies fufpe&ed of becoming a vampire, or vu-
kodlak, as they call it, they cut his hams, and prick
his whole body wdth pins; pretending, that after this
operation he cannot wralk about. rI here are even in-
ftances of Morlacchi, who, imagining that they may
pofhbly third; for children’s blood after death, entreat
their heirs, and fometimes oblige them to promife, to
treat them as vampires when they die.
A mod perfedt difcord reigns in Morlachia, as it
generally does in other parts, between the Latin and
Greek communion, which their refpedlive priefls fail
not to foment, and tell a thoufand little fcandalous do¬
ries of each other. The churches of the Latins are
poor, but not very dirty ; thofe of the Greeks are
equally poor, and fhamefully ill kept. Our author
has feen the curate of a Morlack village fitting on the
ground in the churchyard, to hear the confedion of
women on their knees by his fide : a drange podure
indeed ! but a proof of the innocent manners of thofe
good people, who have the mod profound veneration
for their fpiritual padors, and a total dependence upon
them •, who, on their part, frequently make ufe of a
difcipline rather military, and correft the bodies of
their offending flock with the cudgel.
Innocence, and the natural liberty of pafloral ages,
are dill preferved among the Morlacchi, or at lead
many traces of them remain in the places farthed Ai¬
dant from our fettlements. Pure cordiality of fenti-
ment is not there refrained by other regards, and dif-
plays itfelf without any didindlion of circumiT nces. A
young handfome Morlack girl, who meets a man of her
didriiff on the road, kiffes him affectionately, without
the lead imputation of impropriety ; and M. Fortis
has feen all the women and girls, all the young men
and old, kiffing one another as they came into the
churchyard on a holiday; fo that they looked as if
they all belonged to one family. He often obferved
the fame thing on the road, and at the fairs in the ma-
VoL. XIV. Part II,
R
M O
where the Morlacchi came to fell their Morlacchi
4°9 1
If rltime town
commodities.
The drefs of the unmarried wromen is the mod com¬
plex and whimflcal, in refpeCl to the ornaments of the
head ; for wLen married they are not allowed to wear
any thing elfe but a handkerchief, either white or co¬
loured, tied about it. The girls ufe a fcarlet cap, to
which they commonly hang a veil falling down on the.
droulders, as a mark of their virginity. The better
fort adorn their caps with drings of filver coins, a-
mong which are frequently feen very ancient and va¬
luable ones} they have moreover ear rings of very cu¬
rious work, and fmall filver chains with the figures of
half moons fadened to the ends of them. But the poor
are forced to content themfelves with plain caps ; or if
they have any ornaments, they confid only of fmall
exotic ffiells, round glafs beads, or bits of tin. The
principal merit of thefe caps, which conditute the
good tade as well as vanity of the Morlack young
ladies, is to attraft and fix the eyes of all who are
near them by the multitude of ornaments, and the
noife they make on the lead motion of their heads.
Both old and young w’omen wear about their necks
large drings of round glafs beads, of various fize and
colour j and many rings of brafs, tin, or filver, on
their fingers. Their bracelets are of leather covered
with wrought tin or filver ; and they embroider their
domachers, or adorn them wdth beads or Ihells. But
the ufe of days is unknown, nor do they put whale¬
bone or iron in the domacher. A broad woollen
girdle furrounds their petticoat, which is commonly
decked wdth diells, and of blue colour, and therefore
called modrina. Their gown as well as petticoat, is
of a kind of ferge ; and both reach near to the ancle :
the gown is bordered with fcarlet, and called fadak.
They ufe no modrina in fummer, and only wear the
fadak without ileeves over a linen petticoat or fliift.—
The girls always wear red dockings *, and their (hoes
are like thofe of the men, called opanke. The foie is
of undreffed ox hide, and the upper part of fheep’s Ikin
thongs knotted, which they call apute; and thefe they
faden above the aricles, fomething like the ancient co¬
thurnus. The unmarried women, even of the riched
families, are not permitted to wear any other fort of
Ihoes; though after marriage, they may, if they will, lay
afide the opanke, and ufe the Turkifh dippers. The girl*
keep their hair treffed under their caps, but when mar¬
ried they let it fall didrevelled on the bread ; fometimes
they tie it under the chin j and always have medals,
beads, or bored coins, in the Tartar or American mode,
twided amongd it.
Nothing is more common among the Morlacchi than
marriages concluded between the old people of the rc-
fpe&ive families, efpeeially when the parties live at a
great didance, and neither fee nor know.each other j
and the ordinary motive of thefe alliances is the am¬
bition of being related to a numerous and powerful fa¬
mily, famous for having produced valiant men. A de¬
nial in fuch cafes is very rare 5 nor does the father of
the maid inquire much into the circumdances of the fa¬
mily that afks her. Sometimes a daughter of the mnder
is given in marriage to the fervant or tenant, as was
ufual sn patriarchal times j fo little are the women re¬
garded in this country. But on thefe occafions, the
Morlacchi girls enjoy the privilege of refufal. For he
3 F who
M O R [ 410 ] M O R
Morlaccli’. who a&s by proxy, having obtained his iuit, is obliged
' v ^ to go and bring the bridegroom : and, if on feeing
each other, the young people are reciprocally content,
the marriage is concluded, but not otherwife. In fome
parts it is the cuifom for the bride to go to fee the houfe
and family of the propofed hufband, before the gives
a definitive an fiver ; and if the place or perfons are
difagreeable to her, Ihe is at liberty to annul the con-
tradl.
The bride is conduced to a church, veiled, and fur-
rounded by the friends of the bridegroom, or fvati, as
they are called, on horfeback j and tire facred cere¬
mony is performed amidlt the noife of mulkets, piftols,
barbaric fiiouts and acclamations, which continue till
Ihe return to her father’s houfe or to that of her huf¬
band, if not far off. The firif day’s entertainment is
fometimes made at the bride’s houfe, but generally at
the bridegroom’s, whether the fvati haften immediately
after the nuptial benedidlion; and at the fame time three
or four men run on foot to tell the good news; the firft
who gets to the houfe has a kind of a towel embroidered
at the ends, as a premium. The domachin, or head of
the houfe, comes out to meet his daughter in-law 5 and
a child is handed to her, before lire alights, to carefs it-,
and if there happen to be none in the houfe, the child
is borrowed from one of the neighbours. When fine
alights, Ihe kneels down, and kilTes the threfhold.—
Then the mother-in law, or in her place fome other
female relation, prefents a corn fieve, full of different
kinds of grain, nuts, almonds, and other fmall fruit,
which the bride fcatters upon the fvati, by handfuls,
behind her back. The bride does not fit at the great
table the firft day, but has one apart for herfelf, the
two diveri, and the ftacheo. The bridegroom fits at
table with the fvati j but in all that day, confecrated to
the matrimonial union, he muft neither unloofen nor cut
any thing whatever. The knum carves his meat, and
cuts his bread. It is the domachin’s bufinefs to give
the toafts ; and the ftari-fvat is the firft who pledges
him. Generally the bukkara, a very large wooden
cup, goes round, firft to the faint protedlor of the fa¬
mily ; next to the profperity of the holy faith ; and
fometimes to a name the moft fublime and venerable.
The moft extravagant abundance reigns at thefe feafts j
and each of the fvati contributes, by fending a {hare
of provifions. The dinner begins with fruit and
cheefe j and the foup comes laft, juft contrary to our
euftem. All forts of domeftic fowls, kid, lamb, and
fometimes venifon, are heaped in prodigal quantities up¬
on their tables.
Thefe nuptial feafts, called fdravc by the ancient
Huns, are by the Morlacchi called fdravixe, from
whence the Italian word firavi%%o is undoubtedly de¬
rived. They continue three, fix, eight, or more days,
according to the ability or prodigal difpofition of the
family where they are held. The new married wife
gets no inccnfiderable profit in thefe days of joy ; and
it ufually amounts to much more than all the portion
(he brings with her, which often confifts of nothing
but her own clothes and perhaps a cow 5 nay, it hap¬
pens fometimes that the parents, inftead of giving
money with their daughter, get fomething from tire
bridegroom by way of price. The bride carries wrater
every morning, to wTafti the hands of her guefts as long
as the feafting lafts} and each of them throws a fmall
piece of money into the bafon after performing that func- Mornay.
tion, which is a very rare one among them, excepting on v~
fuch occafions.
The Morlacchi pafs their youth in the woods, attend¬
ing their flocks and herds; and in. that life of quiet and
leifure they often become dextrous in carving with a fim-
ple knife : they make wooden cups, and whiffles adorn¬
ed with fanciful bafs-reliefs, which are not void of merit,
and at leaft {how the genius of the people.
MORNAY, Philippe be, feigneur du Pleffis
Marly, was born at Buhy or Biftiuy in Upper Norman¬
dy in France, in 1549, and was educated at Paris.
What was then thought a prodigy in a gentleman, he
made a rapid progrefs in the belles lettres, in the
learned languages, and in theology. He was at firft
deftined for the church -, but the principles of Calvi-
nifm, which lie had imbibed from his mother, effec¬
tually excluded him from the ecclefiaftical preferments
to which he was entitled hy his intereff, abilities,
and birth. After the horrible rnaffacre of St Bartho¬
lomew, Philippe de Mornay made the tour of Italy,
Germany, England, and the Low Countries ; and he
was equally improved and delighted by his travels*
Mornay afterwards joined the king of Navarre, at that
time leader of the Proteftant party, and fa well known
fince by the name of Henry IV. This prince fent
Mornay, who employed his whole abilities, both as
a foldier and a writer, in defence of the Proteftant
caufe, to conduft a negotiation with Elizabeth queen
of England ; and left him wholly to his own diferetion
in the management of that bufinefs. Fie was luccefs-
ful in almoft every negotiation, becaufe he conduc¬
ed it like an able politician, and not with a. fpirit of
intrigue. He tenderly loved Henry IV. and fpoke
to him on all occafions as to a friend. When he was
wounded at Aumale, he wrote to him in thefe words :
“ Sire, You have long enough aefed the part of
Alexander, it is norv time you fhould aC that of
Coefar. It is our duty to die for your majefty, &.c.
It is glorious for you, Sire, and I dare venture to tell
you it is your duty, to live for us.” This faithful
fubjeC did every thing in his power to raife Henry
to the throne. But when he deferted the Proteftant
faith, he reproached him in the bittereft manner, and
retired from court. Henry ftill loved him ; and was
extremely affeCed with an infult which he received in
1 ^97 from one Saint Phal, who beat him with a
cudgel, and left him for dead. Mornay demanded
juftice from the king; who gave him the following
anfiver, a proof as well of his fpirit as of his goodnels *
of heart. “ Monfieur Dupleffis, I am exceedingly of¬
fended at the infult you have received ; and I fympa-
thize with you both as your fovereign and your friend.
In the former capacity, I {hall do juftice to you and
to myfelf; and had I fuftained only the character of
your friend, there are few perhaps who would have
drawn their fword or facrificed their life more cheer¬
fully in your caufe. Be fatisfied, then, that I will aC
the part of a king, a mafter, and a friend,” &c. Mor¬
nay’s knowledge, probity, and valour, made him the
foul of the Proteftant party, and procured him the
contemptuous appellation of the Pope of the Huguenots.
He defended their doCrines both by fpeech and writ¬
ing. One of his books on the Iniquity of the Mafs,
having ftirred up all the Catholic divines, he retufed
to
M O R [ 41
Jvfcrnay to make any reply to their cenfures and criticifms
1! except in a public conference. This was accordingly
Motoc. 8pp0|nted to be held A. D. 1600, at Fountainbleau,
: v where the court then was. The two champions were,
Du Perron biihop of Evreux, and Mornay. After a
* great many arguments and replies on both fides, the
victory was adjudged to Du Perron. He had boafted
that he would point out to the fatisfa&ion of every
one five hundred errors in his adverfary’s book, and
he partly kept his word. The Calvinifts did not fail
to claim the victory on this occafion, and they ftill
Continue to do fo. This conference, inlfead of putting
an end to the differences, was productive of new quarrels
among the controverfialifls, and of much profane wit a-
mong the libertines. A Huguenot minifter, w'ho was
prefent at the conference, obferved with great concern
to a captain of the fame party,—“ The biihop of Evreux
has already driven Mornay from feveral ftrong holds.”
“ No matter (replied the foldier-), provided he does not
drive him from Saumur.” This was an important
place on the river Loire, of which Dupleffis was go¬
vernor. Hither he retired, his attention being con-
ftantly occupied in defending the Huguenots, and in
making himfelf formidable to the Catholics. When
Louis XIII. was making preparations againft the Pro-
teftants, Dupleffis wrote him a letter, difluading him
from fuch a meafure. After employing the molt
plaufible arguments, lie concludes in the following
manner : “ To make war on the fubjedf, is an indi¬
cation of weaknefs in the government. Authority
confifts in the quiet fubmiffion of the people, and is
eftablithed by the prudence and juftice of the governor.
Force of arms ought never to be employed except in re¬
pelling a foreign enemy. The late king would have fent
the new minifters of ftnte to learn the firft elements of
politics, who like unfldlful furgeons would apply violent
remedies to every difeafe, and advife a man to cut off an
arm when his finger aches.” Thefe remonftrances pro¬
duced no other effecl than the lofs of the government of
Saumur, of which he was deprived by Louis XIII. in
1621. He died two years after, November 11. 1623,
aged 74, in his barony de la Foret-fur-Seure in Poitou.
The Protellant caule never had an abler fupporter,
or one who did it more credit by his virtues and
abilities.
Cenfeur des courtifans, tnais a la cour a tine ;
Ficr ennetni de Rome, et de Rome ejlnne.—HENRIADE,
Tire following is a lift of his works : Fn Traite
de FEuchariJle, 1604, in folio. 2. Un Trane de la
verite de la Religion Chretienne, 8vo. 3. A book entitled
La Myficrc d'Iniqaite, 4to. 4. Un difcours fur le droit
pretendu par ceux de la maifon de Guife, 8vo. 5. Ca¬
rious and interefting Memoirs from the year 1572 to
1620, 4 vols, 410, valuable. 6. Letters; which are
written w’ith great fpirit and good fenfe. David des
Liques has given us his life in quarto •, a book more in¬
terefting for the matter than the manner.
MORNE-GAROU>a very remarkable volcanic moun¬
tain on the ifland of St Vincent’s in the Weft Indies.
It was vifited by Mr James Anderfon furgeon in the
year 1784. See St Vincents.
MOROC, or Maroc, a beautiful bird of Abyffinia,
defcribed by Mr Bruce, who thinks its name is derived
from mar “ honey,” though he fays that he never heard
1 ] M o R
it w’as further concerned in the honey than deftroying Morning,
bees. It feems to purfue thofe infedls out of enmity or : J‘^C( ;>'
diverfion as well as for food, leaving great numbers dead
on the ground, befides thofe which it devours for food.
The moroc refembles the cuckoo in fize and Ihipe,
but differs in other refpects. Its mouth is very wide,
the opening reaching alrnoft to its eyes; the infide of
the mouth and throat yellow, the tongue iharp- point¬
ed, and capable of being drawn almoft half its length
out of the mouth beyond the point of its beak, and is
very flexible. The head and neck are brown, v/ithout
any mixture of other colours; there are likewife a num¬
ber of very fmall and fcarcely vilible hairs at the root of
the beak.
This feems to be the bird mentioned by Sparman
under the name of cuculus indicator, which (he fays)
has the Angular property of difcovering the nefts of wild
bees, and leading travellers by a certain cry to the place
where the treafure is dcpofited. According to Spar-
man’s account, it makes known thefe difcoveries by the
fame cry to foxes as wyell as to the h*.man fpecies ; but
Jerome Lobo, who mentions the Abyffinian bird, takes
no notice of the foxes, though he mentions its finging
melodioufly when it arrives at the place where the honey
is depofited. Both thefe accounts are feverely criticifed
by Mr Bruce, wffio fays, that honey is fo abundant on
every hillock and every tree, that a bird poffeffing this
faculty could be of no ufe to man or to any other ani¬
mal in that country, and that having never heard of
fuch a bird in Abyffinia, he confiders the account of it
as a fidlion.
MORNING, the beginning of‘the day, or the time
of the fun rifing. The aftrcnomers reckon morning,
mane, from the time of midnight to that of mid-day.
Thus an eclipfe is faid to begin at 11 o’clock in the
morning, &c.
Morning ftar, is the planet Venus, when a little to
the w'eftward of the fun ; that is, when (he rifes a little
before. In this fituation fhe is called by the Greeks
phorus ; by the Latins Lucifer, Sic. 1
MOROCCO, an empire of Africa, comprehending Situation
a confiderable part of the ancient Mauritania, is bound-^.pb°ul,‘
ed on the weft by the Atlantic ocean ; on the eaft by1"11'''
the river Mulvya, which feparates it from Algiers; on
the north by the Mediterranean ; and on the fouth by
Mount Atlas, or rather by the river Sus, which di¬
vides it from the kingdom of Tafilet. Its greateft length
is from the north-eaft to the fouth-weft, amounting to
above 590 miles ; its breadth is not above 260 where
broadeft, and in the narroweft places it is not above half
that breadth. 2
The ancient hiftory of Morocco has been already
given under the article Mauritania. It continued
under the dominion of the Romans up-wards of 400
years. On the decline of that empire it fell under
the Goths, who held it till about the year 6co, when
the Goths were driven out by the Vandals, the Van¬
dals by the Greeks, and they in their turn by the
Saracens, who conquered not only this empire, but
we may fay the whole continent of Africa ; at leaft
their religion, one way or other, is to be found in all
parts of it. The Sarafcen empire did not continue
long united under one head, and many princes fet up
for themfelves in Africa as well as elfewhere, through
whofe diffenfions the Almoravides were at length
3 F 2 railed
Morocco.
3
CJovern-
ai*nt.
M O H [41
raiTed to the fovereignty, as related under the article
Algiers, N° 2. Yufef, or Jofeph, the fecond mo¬
narch oi that line, built the city of Morocco, con¬
quered the kingdom of Fez, and the Moorifh domi¬
nions in Spain ; all which were loft by his grandfon
Abbu Hali, who was defeated and killed by the Spa¬
niards. On this prince’s death the crown paffed to
the Mohedians, or Almohedes, with w’hom it had not
continued above three generations, when Mohammed
the fon of A1 Manfur loft the famous battle of Sierra
Morena, in which 200,000 Moors were flain, and in
confequence of which Alphonfo X. retook a great
many of the Moorilh conquefts immediately after.
Mohammed died foon after this difgrace, and left
feveral fons, between whom a civil war enfued, during
which the viceroys of Fez, Tunis, and Tremefen, found
means to eftablilh themfelves as independent princes.
At length one of the princes of the royal blood of
Tremelen having defeated the Almohedes, made him-
felf mailer of the kingdoms of Morocco and Fez, and
entailed them on his own family. In a Ihort time,
however, this family was expelled by the Merini, the
Merini by the Oatazes, and thefe by the Sharifs of
Flafcen, who have kept the government ever fince.
Nothing can be conceived more unjuft and defpOtic
than the government of Morocco, and nothing more de¬
generate than the charafter of the people. The em¬
peror* is allowed to have not only an uncontrollable
power over the lives and fortunes of his fubjefts, but
in a great hieafure over their confciences, in as much as
he is the only perfon who, as the fucceffbr of the pro¬
phet, has a right to interpret the Koran ) and appoints
all the judges under him, of whom thofe of Morocco
and Fez are the chief, wdiofe bufinefs it is to explain
and difpenfe all matters relating to their religion ; and
who, being his creatures and dependents, dare not fteer
ctherwife than as he directs. Whenever therefore the
laws are enadled by him, and proclaimed by his gover¬
nors in all the provinces, as is commonly done, that none
may plead ignorance, they are everywhere received
with an implicit and religious fubmiffion. On the
other hand, the lubjefts are bred up with a notion, that
thofe who die in the execution of his command are en¬
titled to an immediate admittance into paradife, and
thofe who have the honour to die by his hand to a flill
greater degree of happinefs in it. After this we need
not wonder at finding fo much cruelty, opprefllon, and
tyranny on the one fide, and fo much fubmiflion, paf-
fivenefs, and mifery on the other.
This latter, however, extends no farther than the '
Account of ^OOTS : for as to the mountaineers, the fubje£lion and
the black tribute they pay to thofe tyrants was always involun-
troops. tary ; and as for the negroes, their zeal and attachment
is owing merely to the great fway and power which
they have gained in the government, on various ac-
, counts. They wrere firft introduced, or rather their im¬
portation increafed, by the policy of Muley Ifhmael, a
late emperor, at a period when there was a great de-
creafe of population in the empire, occafioned in feme
degree by the enormous cruelties excrcifed by its former
fovereigns, who have been known not unfrequently,
through a flight difgufl, to abandon a whole town or
province to the fword. In the charafter of Muley Ilh-
mael were found the moft Angular inconfiflencies; for
it is certain, that although a tyrant, yet in other re-
2 ] M O R
fpeffs, as if to repair the mifehief which he committed, Morocce.
he left nothing undone for the encouragement of popu-
lation.—Fie introduced large colonies of negroes from
Guinea ; built towns for them, many of which are
ftill remaining ; affigned them portions of land, and
encouraged their increafe by every poflible means. *
He foon initiated them in the Mahometan faith ; and
had his plan been followed, the country by this time
would have been populous, and probably flourilhing.
As the negroes are of a more lively, a£Hve and enter-
prifing difpofition than the Moors, they might foon
have been taught the arts of agriculture ; and their lin¬
gular ingenuity might have been dire&ed to other ufe-
ful purpofes. It is true, Muley Ifhmael, when he
adopted this plan, had more obje&s in view than that
of merely peopling his dominions. He flaw plainly that
his own fubjedfs were of too capricious a difpofition to
form foldiers calculated for his tyrannical purpofes.
They had uniformly manifefted an inclination to change
their fovereigns, though more from the love of variety
than to reform the government, or reftrain the abufes
of tyranny. Muley Ifhmael had difeernment enough
to fee, that by forming an army of flaves, whofe foie
dependence fliould reft upon their mafter, he could eafdy
train them in fuch a manner as to adl in the ftridteft
conformity to his wifhes. Fie foon learnt that the
great objedl with the negroes \vas plenty of money and
liberty of plunder ; in thefe he liberally indulged them,
and the plan fully anfwered his expectations. Though,
however, Muley Ifhmael had no great merit in introdu¬
cing fubjedts for the purpofes of tyranny, yet the good
effedts of this new colonization were very generally ex¬
perienced. By intermarrying among themfelves, and
intermixing among the Moors (for the Moors will keep
negro women as concubines, though they feldom marry
them), a new race of people ftarted up, who became as
ufeful fubjedls as the native inhabitants, and brought the
empire into a much more flourifhing ftate than it had
ever been in fince their great resolution.
Sidi Mahomet, his grandfon and fucceflbr, had dif¬
ferent views, and was adluated by different motives.
From his inordinate avarice, he ceafed to adt towards
his black troops in the generous manner which had di-
ftinguifhed his predeceffor Muley Iftimael; and they
foon Ihowed themfelves difeontented with his condudl.
They offered to place his eldeft fon Muley Ali, on the
throne ; but this prince, not unmindful of the duty
which he owed his father and fovereign, declined their
offer. They next applied to Muley Yazid, who at firft
accepted of the affiftance they tendered, but in a ihort
time relinquiftied the plan. Sidi Mahomet, difgufted
with this condudl of the negroes, determined to curb
their growing power, by dilbanding a confiderable part
of thefe troops, and banifhing them to diftant parts of
the empire.
A moft flagrant fpecies of defpotifm, which rendersDef^ifra
the emperors more formidable to their fubjefts, is theirof the era-
making themfelves their foie heirs, and, in virtue of that,PerorSi
feizing upon'all their effe&s, and making only fuch pro-
vifion for their families as they think proper • and often,
on feme frivolous pretence, leaving them deftitute of
any, according to the liking or dillike they bear to the
deceafed 5 fo that, upon the whole, they are the only ma¬
kers, judges, and interpreters, and in many inftances
likewile the executioners, of their own laws, which have
6
Admini-
ftration of
juftice.
M O Pi [ 413
Morocce. no other limits than their own arbitrary will. The
titles which the emperors of Morocco affufne, are thofe
of Mo/7 glorious, mighty, and noble emperor of Afric ;
ling of Fe% and Morocco, Tafilet, Su%, Dorha, and all
the Algarbe, and its territories in Afric ; grand Sharif
(or, as others write it, Xarif that is, fucceffor, or vice¬
gerent), of the great Prophet Mohammed, is’c.
The judges or magiilrates w7ho aft immediately under
the emperor are either fpiritual or temporal, or rather
ecclefiaftical and military. The mufti and the cadis are
judges of all religious and civil affairs; and the bafhaws,
governors, alcaides, and other military officers, of thofe
that concern the flate or the army : all of them the moft
obfequious creatures and Haves of their prince, and no
lefs the rapacious tyrants of his fubjefts, and from whom
neither juftice nor favour can be obtained but by mere
dint of money and extortionate bribery, from the high-
eft to the kweft. Neither can it indeed be otherwife
in fuch an arbitrary government, where the higheft
polls muft not only be bought of the prince at a moil
extravagant price, and kept only by as exorbitant a tri¬
bute, wffiich is yearly paid to him, but where no one is
fure to continue longer than he can bribe fome of the
courtiers to infinuate to the monarch that he pays to the
utmoft of his powder and much beyond what was expec¬
ted from him. There are inftances of the fultan eleva^
ting at once a common foldier to the rank of a baffiaw,
or making him a confidential friend ; the following day
he would perhaps imprifon him, or reduce him again to
the ftation of a private foldier. Yet fuch is the difpo-
fition of thefe people, that they have an unbounded
thirft for rank and power with all their uncertainties ;
and what is more extraordinary, when they have ob¬
tained a high ftation, they feldom fail to afford their
fovereign a plea Tor ill treating them, by abufing in
fome w7ay or other their truft.
From wffiat has been faid, it may be reafonably con¬
cluded that the.revenue arifingto the emperor from the
laft mentioned fource, that of bribery, extortion, and
confifcation, muft be very confiderable, though there is
no poffibility to make any other conjefture of its real
amount than that it muft be an immenfe one. Another
confiderable branch is the piratical trade, which brings
the greater income into his treafury, as he is not at any
expence either for fitting out of corfair veffels, or main¬
taining their men ; and yet has the teYith of all the car¬
go and of all the captives; befides which, he appropri¬
ates to himfelf all the reft of them, by paying the cap-
tors 50 crowns per head, by wffiich means he engroffes
all the Haves to his own fervice and advantage. This
article is indeed a very confiderable addition to his re¬
venue, not only as he fells their ranfom at a very high
rate, but likewife as he has the profit of all their labour,
without allowing them any other maintenance than a
little bread and oil, or any other affiftance when fick,
than what medicines a Spanifh convent, which he tole¬
rates there, gives them gratis ; and wffiich, neverthelefs,
is forced to pay him an annual prefent for that tolera¬
tion, befides furniffiing the court with medicines, and
the Haves with lodging and diet when they are not able
to work. Another branch of his revenue confifts in the
tenth part of all cattle, corn, fruits, honey, w7ax, hides,
rice, and other produfts of the earth, wffiich is exafted
of the Arabs and Brebes, as well as of the natives ; and
thefe are levied, or rather farmed, by the baffiaws, go-
Royal reve¬
nue 4
M Q R
vernors, alcaides, Sec. with all poffible feverity. The Morocco.
Jewrs and Chriftians likew’ife pay an income or capita- v 'f
tion, the former of fix crowns />crhead on all males from
j 5 years and upwards, befides other arbitrary impofts,
fines, &c. That on the Chriftians, for the liberty of
trading in his dominions, rifes and falls according to
their number, and the commerce they drive ; but which,
whatever it may bring yearly into his coffers, is yet de¬
trimental to trade in general, feeing it difcourages
great numbers from fettling there, notvvithftanding the
artful invitations wffiich the emperors and their minifters
make ufe of to invite them to it ; for, befides thofe ar¬
bitrary exaftions, there is ftill another great hardffiip
attending them, viz. that they cannot leave the country
W’ithout forfeiting all their debts and effefts to the
crown. The duties on all imports and exports is ano¬
ther branch of his income, the amount of which, it is
faid, does not exceed 165,000!. per annum. s
The climate of the empire of Morocco is in general Climate of
fufficiently temperate, healthy, and not fo hot as its fitu- Morocco,
ation might lead us to fuppofe. The chain of moun¬
tains wffiich form Atlas, on the eaftern fide, defends
it from the eaft wfinds, that would fcorch up the earth
were they frequent. The fummit of thefe mountains
is always covered with fnow; and their abundant de¬
fending ftreams fpread verdure through the neigh¬
bourhood, make the winter more cold, and temper the
heats of fummer. The fea on the weft fide, which ex¬
tends along the coaft from north to fouth, alfo refreflies
the land with regular breezes, that feldom vary accor¬
ding to their feafons. At a diftance from the fea, with¬
in land, the heat is fo great, that the rivulets become
dry in fummer ; but as in hot countries dew's are plen¬
tiful, the nights are there always cool. The rains are
tolerably regular in winter; and are even abundant,
though the atmofphere is not loaded with clouds as in
northern latitudes. Thofe rains wffiich fall by intervals
are favourable to the earth, and increafe its fecundity.
In January the country is covered wffih verdure, and
enamelled wffiffi flowers. Barley is cut in March, but
the wheat harveft is in June. All fruits are early in this
climate ; and in forward years the vintage is over in the
beginning of September. Though in general there is
more uniformity an^ lefs variation in hot than in north¬
ern climates, the firft are neverthelefs expofed to the
intemperance of weather : too heavy rains often impede
the harveft ; and drought has ftill greater inconvenien¬
ces, for it enfures the propagation of locufts. y
The foil of Morocco is exceedingly fertile. It is Soil, and
moft fo in the inland provinces. On the w7eftern coaft
it is in general light and ftony, and is better adapted to
the vine and olive than the culture of wheat. They an¬
nually burn, before the September rains, the ffubble,
which is left rather long ; and this and the dung of
cattle, every day turned to pafture, form the foie ma¬
nure the laud receives. The foil requires but little
labour, and the ploughing is fo light that the furrows
are fcarcely fix inches deep ; for which reafon, in fome
provinces, wooden ploughffiares are ufed for cheap-
nels. . ^ iq
The empire of Morocco might fupply itfelf with all produce
neceffaries, as wdll from the abundance and nature of*^0115-
its produfts, as from the few natural or artificial wants
of the Moors occafioned by climate or education. Its
wealth confifts in the fruitfulnefs of its foil: its corn,
fruit?,,,
M O R [ 414 ] M O R
^Torccco. fruits, flocks, flax, fait, gums, and wax, would not only
v *' fupply its necefllties, but yield a fuperfiux, which might
become an object of immenfe trade and barter with
other nations. Such numerous experts might return an
inexhauftible treafure, were its government fixed and
fecure, and did fubjedls enjoy the fruits of their labour
and their property in fafety. The increafe of corn in
Morocco is often as fixty to one, and thirty is held to
be but an indifferent harveft.
The Moors, naturally indolent, take little care of the
culture of their fruits. Oranges, lemons, and thick
fk mned fruits, the trees of which require little nurture,
■grow in the open fields •, and there are very large plan¬
tations of them found, which they take the trouble to
water in order to increafe their product. Their vines,
tvhich yield excellent grapes, are planted as far as the
33d degree, as in the fouthern provinces of France, and
are equally vigorous. But at Morocco, where they
yield a large and delicious grape, they are fupported by
vine poles five and fix feet above ground ; and as they
are obliged to be watered, the little wine made there is
feldom preferved. Figs are very good in fome parts cf
the empire, but toward the fouth they are fcarcely ripe
before they are full of worms 5 the heats and night
dews may, perhaps, contribute to this fpeedy decay.
Melons, for the fame reafon, are rarely eatable ; they
have but a moment of maturity 5 which paffes fo rapidly
that it is with difficulty feized. Water melons are
everywhere reared, and in fome provinces are excellent.
Apricots, apples, and pears, are in tolerable plenty in
the neighbourhood of Fez and Mequinez, where water
is lefs fcarce and the climate more temperate. But in
the plain, which extends along the weflern coaft, thefe
delicate fruits are very indifferent, have lefs juice or tafle,
and the peaches there do not ripen. The tree called
the prickly pear, or the Barbary fig, is plentifully
found in the empire of Morocco ; and is planted round
vineyards and gardens, becaufe its thick, and thorny
leaves, which are wonderfully prolific, form impene¬
trable hedges. From thefe leaves a fruit is produced,
covered with a thorny fkin, that muft be taken off with
care. This fruit is mild, and full of very hard, fmall
kernels. The olive is everywhere found along the coait,
but particularly to the fouth.
In the province of Snz, between the 25 th and 30th
degrees, the inhabitants have an almond harveft, which
•varies little becaufe of the mildnefs of the climate ; but
the fruit is fmall, for which reafon they take little care
of the trees, and they degenerate with time. The palm
tree is common in the fouthern provinces of Morocco ;
but dates ripen there with difficulty, and few are good
^except in the province of Suz and toward Tafilet. On
the epaft of Sallee and Mamora there are forefts of oak,
which produce acorns near two inches long. They
tafte like cbefnuts, and are eaten raw and roafted. Salt
abounds in the empire, and in fome places on the coaft
requires only the trouble of gathering. Independent
of the fait pits formed by the evaporation of the foft
water, there are pits and lakes in the country whence
great quantities are obtained. It is carried even as
far as Fombut, whence it paffes to the interior parts of
Africa.
I he Moors cultivate their lands only in proportion
to their wants •, hence two-thirds of the empire at leart
lie wafte. Here the doum, that is, the fan or wild palm
tree, grows in abundance ; and from which thofe peo- Moroce-.
pie, when neceffity renders them induftrious, find great ^—   
advantage. The ffiepherds, mule drivers, camel drivers,
and travellers, gather the leaves, of which they make
mats, fringes, bafkets, hats, Jljoaris or large wallets to
carry corn, twine, ropes, girths, and covers for their
pack laddies. J his plant, with wnich alfo they heat
their ovens, produces a mild and refinous fruit that ri¬
pens in September and Odlober. It is in form like the
raifin, contains a kernel, and is aftnngent and very pro¬
per to temper and counteraft the effedls of the watery
and laxative fruits, of which thefe people in fummer
make an immoderate ufe. ^
Unacquainted v-.ith the fources of wealth of which Mines,
their anceftors were poffeffed, the Moors pretend there
are gold and filver mines in the empire, which the em¬
perors will not permit to be worked, left their fubjedls
ftiould thus find means to ftiake off their yoke. It is
not improbable but that the mountains of Atlas may
contain unexplored riches; but there is no good proof
that they have ever yielded gold and filver. There are
known iron mines in the fouth j but the working of
them has been found fo expenfive, that the natives would
rather ufe imported iron, notwithftanding the heavy
duty it pays, by which its price is doubled. There are
copper mines in the neighbourhood of Santa Cruz,
which are not only fufficient for the fmall confumption
of the empire, where copper is little ufed, but are alfo
an objefl of exportation, and would become much more
fo were the duties lefs immoderate. I2
> Neither the elephant nor the rhinoceros is to be found Animals,
either in this or the other ftates of Barbary j but the
deferts abound with lions, tigers, leopards, hyaenas, and
monftrous ferpents. The Barbary horfes were formerly
very valuable, and thought equal to the Arabian.
Though the breed is now faid to be decayed, yet
fome very fine ones are occafionally imported into Eng- ,
land. Camels and dromedaries, affes, mules, and kum-
rahs (a moft ferviceable creature, begot by an afs upon
a cow), are their bsafts cf burden. Their cows are
but fmall, and barren of milk. Their ffieep yield but
indifferent fleeces, but are very large, as are their goats.
Bears, porcupines, foxes, apes, bares, rabits, ferrets,
weafels, moles, chameleons, and all kinds of reptiles, are
found here. Partridges and quails, eagles, hawks, and
all kinds of wild fowl, are frequent on the coaft.
i" The principal mountains form the chain which goes Mountains,
under the name of Mount Atlas, and runs the whole&c-
length of Barbary from eaft to weft, paffing through
Morocco, and abutting upon that ocean which feparates
the eaftern from the weltern continent, and is from this
mountain called the Atlantic Ocean. See Atlas. The
principal rivers, befides the Malva or Mulvya above
mentioned, which rifes in the deferts, and running from
fouth to north divides Morocco from the kingdom of
Algiers, are the Suz, Ommirabih, Rabbata. Earache,
D-rodt, Sebon, Gueron, and Tenfift, which rife in
Mount Atlas, and fall into the Atlantic ocean.
_ The traffic of the empire by land is either with Ara-Inland
bn or N. groland to Mecca they fend caravans, con-traffic,
filling of feveral thoufand camels, horfes, and mules,
twice every year, partly for traffic, and partly on a
religious account; for numbers of pilgrims take that
opportunity of paying their devotions to their great
r-.ophet. The goods they carry to the eaft are woollen
m.anufaclures,
r5
Traffic.
16
Foreign
eomnierce
MOB. [ 4J5
5?orcrco. manufa^ures, leather, indigo, cochineal, and oftrich
u feathers 3 and they bring back from thence, filk,
muflms, and drugs. By their caravans to Negroland,
they lend fait, lilk, and woollen manufadures, and
bring back gold and ivory in return, but chiefly ne¬
groes.
The caravans always go flrong enough todefendthem-
fel ves againft the wild Arabs in the delertsof Africa and
Aha 3 though, notwithftanding all their vigilance, fome
o! the flragglers and baggage often fall into their hands:
they are alfo forced to load one half of their camels with
w ater, to prevent their periiLing with drought and thirft
in thcfe inhofpitable deferts. And there is Hill a more
dangerous enemy, which is the fand itfelf: when the
wtnds rife, the caravan is perfedfly blinded with duft 3
and there have been inftances both in Africa and Alia,
where whole caravans, and even armies, have been bu¬
ried alive in the fands.
d he natives have hardly any trading veffels, but are
feldom without fome corfairs. Thefe, and European
merchant Ihips, bring them whatever they want from
abroad 3 as linen and woollen cloth, fluffs, iron wrought
and unrought, arms, gunpow der, lead and the like :
for which they take in return, copper, wax, hides,
Morocco leather, wool (which is very fine), gums,
foap, dates, almonds, and other fruits. The duties paid
by the Englifh in the ports of Morocco are but half
thofe paid by other Europeans. It is a general obfer-
vation, that no nation rs fend of trading with thefe
Hates, not only on account of their capricious depotifm,
but the villany cf their individuals, both natives and
Jews, many of whom take all opportunities of cheating,
and when detebled are feldom punifhed.
The land forces of the emperor of Morocco confifl:
principally of black troops, and fome few white ;
amounting altogether to an army of about 36,000 men
upon the eHablifliment, two thirds of w hich are cavalry.
rIh:s eHabliHrment, however, upon occahon, admits of a
confiderable increafe, as every man is fuppofed to be a
foldier, and when called upon is obliged to act in that
capacity. About 6cco of the Handing forces form the
emperor’s body guard, and are always kept near his
perfen ; the remainder are quartered in the different
towns of the empire, and are under the charge of the
bafhaws of the provinces. They are all clothed by the
emperor, and receive a trifling pay 5 but their chief de¬
pendence is on plunder, which they have frequent op¬
portunities of acquiring.
i he black troops are naturally of a very fiery difpo-
;tion, capable of enduring great fatigue, hunger, third:,
and every difficulty to which a military life is expofed.
J hey appear well calculated for fkirmiihing parties, or
for the purpofe of haraffing an enemy 3 but were they
obliged to undergo a regular attack, from their total
want ot difeiphne they would foon be routed. In all
their manoeuvres they have no notion whatever of order
and regularity, but have altogether more the appear-
ance of a rabble than of an army.
Navy. 1 he emperor’s navy confifls of about 15 frnall fri¬
gates, a few xebecks, and between 20 and 30 row-gal¬
leys. The whole is commanded by one admiral 3 but
as thefe veffels are principally ufed for the purpofes of
piracy, they feldom unite in a fleet. The number «f
]
M O R
■7
J and
forces.
I he coins of this empire are a fluce, a blanquil, and Morocco,
ducat. The fluce is a fmall copper coin, 20 whereof J "v "
make a blanquil, of the value of twopence fterling. CoM9
The blanquil is of filver, and the ducat of gold, not ^ *
unlike that of Hungary, and worth about nine flullings.
Both thefe pieces are fo liable to be clipped and filed
by the Jew's, that the Moors always carry feales in their
pockets to weigh them 3 and when they are found to be
much diminilhed in their weight, they are recoined by
the Jews, who are maffers of the mint, by which they
gain a confiderable profit 3 as they do alfo by exchan¬
ging the light pieces for thofe that are full weight. Mer¬
chants accounts are kept in ounces, 10 of which make
a ducat 3 but in payments to the government, it is faid
they reckon 1 7 one-half for a driest. ^
With refpe6l to religion, the inhabitants of Morocco RehVicn
are Mohammedans, of the fed of Ali ; and have a and
mufti or high-priefi, who is alio the fupreme civil magi-
Hrate, and the laH refort in all caufes ecclefiafiical and
civiL They have a great veneration for their hermits,
and for idiots and madmen ; as well as for thofe who
by their tricks have got the reputation of wizzards : all
whom they look upon as infpired perfons, and not only
honour as faints while they live, but build tombs and
chapels over them when dead 3 which places are not
only religioufly vifited by their devotees far and near,
but are efieemed inviolable fanduaries for all forts of
criminals except in cafes of treafon.
Notwithflanding the natives are zealous Mohamme¬
dans, they allow foreigners the free and open profef-
fion of their religion, and their very Haves have their
priefis and chapels in the capital city 3 though it muft
be owned that the ChriHian Haves are here treated
with the utmofi cruelty. Here, as in all other Mo-l;
hammedan countries, the Alcoran and their comments
upon it are their only written law's 3 and though in
fome intlances their cadis and other civil magiffrates
are controlled by the arbitrary determinations of their
princes, bafhaws, generals, and military officers, yet
the latter have generally a very great deference and
regard for their laws. Murder, theft, and adultery,
are commonly punidied with death : and their puuifli-
ments for other crimes, particularly thofe againft th&
Hate, are very cruel; as impaling, dragging the prifon-
er through the flreets at a mule’s heels till all his Hefli
is torn off, throwing him from a high tower upon iron
hooks.
The inhabitants of the empire of Morocco, known
by the name of Moors, are a mixture of Arabian anduf 'h V-L0
African nations formed into tribes 3 with the origin pno ot alo¬
of whom we are but imperfedly acquainted. Theferocco*
tribes, each Hrangers to the other, and ever divided by
traditional hatred or prejudice, feldom mingle. It reems
21
iw;.
the lean en in fervice is computed at 6cco.
probable that moft of the caffs who occupy the provin¬
ces of Morocco have been-repulftd from the eaitern to
the weffern Africa, during thofe different revolutions
by which this part of the world has been agitated 3 that
they have followed the Handard of their chiefs, whole
names they have preferred 3 and that 'by thefe they,
as well as the countries they inhabit, are diflinguilhed.
At prefent thefe tribes are called cq/i/cs or "cabi/es,
from the Arabic word ksbei/a; and they are fo nu me¬
rous, that it is impoffible to have a knowledge of them
all. 0
The
M-crocco.
23
The Brebes
or Maun-
taineers.
24
The Moors
of the coun
try.
IS
Their Am¬
ple way of
life.
26
Occupa¬
tions of the
women,
Sec.
M Oft [41
The native fubjefts of the empire of Morocco may
be divided into two principal clafles ; the Brebes and
the Moon-.
The etymology of the name, and the origin of the
people, of the firft clafs, are equally unknown. Like
the Moors, at the time of the invafron by the Arabs,
they may have adopted the Mahometan religion, which
is confonant to their manners and principal ufages; but
they are an ignorant people, and obferve none of the
precepts of that religion, but the averfron it enjoins
againft other modes of worlhip.
Confined to the mountains, the Brebes preferve great
animofity againft the Moors, whom they confound with
the Arabs, and confider as ufurpers.— I hey thus con-
tradl in their retreats a ferocity of mind, and a ftrength
of body, which makes them more fit for war and every
kind of labour than the Moors of the plain in general
are. The independence they boaft of gives even a
greater degree of expreflion to their countenance. The
prejudices of their religion make them fubmit to the
authority of the emperors of Morocco •, but they throw
off the yoke at their pleafure, and retire into the moun¬
tains, where it is difficult to attack or overcome them.
The Brebes have a language of their own, and never
many but among each other. They have tribes or ca-
file- among them who are exceedingly powerful both
by their number and courage.
The Moors of the plains may be diftinguifhed into
thofe who lead a paftoral life, and thofe who inhabit
the cities.
The former live in tents; and that they may allow
■their ground a year’s reft, they annually change the
place of their encampments, and go in fearch of freffi
pafturage } but they cannot take this ftep without ac¬
quainting their governor. Like the ancient Arabs,
they are entirely devoted to a paftoral life : their en¬
campments, which they call douchars, are compofed of
feveral tents, and form a crefcent; or they are ranged
in two parallel lines, and their flocks, when they return
from pafture, occupy the centre.
The tents of the Moors, viewed in front, are of a
conical figure •, they are from 8 to 10 feet high, and
from 2Q to 25 feet long } like thofe of high antiquity,
they referable a boat reverfed. They are made of
cloth compofed of goats and camels hair, and the leaves
of the wild palm, by which they are rendered impervi¬
ous to water j but at a diftance their black colour gives
them a very difagreeable look.
The Moors, when encamped, live in the greateft
fivnplicity, and exhibit a faithful pifture of the inhabi¬
tants of the earth in the firft ages of the world. 'J he
nature of their education, the temperature of the cli¬
mate, and the rigour ®f the government, diminifti the
wants of the people, who find in their plains, in the
milk and wool of their flocks, every thing neceffary for
food and clothing. Polygamy is allowed among them \
a luxury fo far from being injurious to a people who
have few wants, that it is a great convenience in the
economy of thofe focieties, becaufe the women are in¬
truded with the whole care of the domeftic manage¬
ment. In their half-clofed tents, they are employed in
milking the cows for daily ufe 5 and when the milk
abounds, in makings butter, in picking their corn, their
bailey, and pulfe, and grinding their meal, which they
do daily in a mill compofed of two ftones about 18
1
6 ] M O ft
inches in diameter, the uppermoft having a handle, and Morocco,
turning on an axis fixed in the under one : they make'"1 'v
bread likewife every day, which they bake between
two earthen plates, and often upon the ground after it
has been heated by fire. Their ordinary food is the
coofcoofoo 5 which is a pafte made with their meal in
the form of fmall grains like Italian pafte. This coof¬
coofoo is dreffed in the vapour of boiling foup, in a hol¬
low difti perforated with many fmall holes in the bot¬
tom, and the diffi is enclofed in a kettle where meat is
boiled ; the coofcoofoo, wffiich is in the hollow difh,
grows gradually foft by the vapour of the broth, with
which it is from time to time moiftened. This fimple
food is very nourifliing, and even agreeable when one
has got the better of the prejudices which every nation
entertains for its own cuftoms. The Common people
eat it with milk or butter indifferently j but thofe of
higher rank, fuch as the governors of provinces and
lieutenants, wffio live in the centre of the encampments,
add to it fome fucculent broth, made with a mixture
of mutton, poultry, pigeons, or hedgehogs, and then
pour on it a fufficient quantity of freffi butter.
The women in their tents fpin wool, and weave it
into cloth on looms fufpended the whole length of the
tent. Each piece is about five ells long, and one and
a half broad $ it is neither dreffed nor dyed, and it has
no feam ; they waffi it when it is dirty j and as it is the
only habit of the Moors, they wear it night and day.
It is called Ziaick, and is the true model of the ancient
draperies. 27
The Moors of the plain wear nothing but their Drefs, &c.
woollen fluff} they have neither Hurts nor drawers.
Linen among thefe people is a luxury known only to
thofe of the court or the city. The whole wardrobe of
a country Moor in ealy circumftances confifts in a haick
for winter, another for fummer, » red cap, a hood, and
a pair of flippers. The common people both in the
country and in towns wear a kind of tunick of woollen
cloth, white, gray, or ftriped, which reaches to the
middle of the leg, with great fleeves and a hood 5 it re-
fembles the habit of the Carthufians. *
The women’s drefs in the country is likewife confin¬
ed to a haick, which covers the neck and the fhoul-
ders, and is faftened with a fiiver clafp. The orna¬
ments they are fondeii of are ear rings, which are ei¬
ther in the form of rings or crefcents, made of fiiver,
bracelets, and rings for the fmall of the leg j they wear
thefe trinkets at- their moft ordinary occupations; lefs
out of vanity than becaufe they are unacquainted with
the ufe of calkets or cabinets for keeping them. They
alfo wear necklaces made of coloured glafs beads or
cloves flrung on a cord of filk.
The Moors confider their wives lefs in the light of
companions than in that of flaves deftined to labour.
Except in the bufinefs of tillage, they are employed
in every fervile operation 5 nay, in fome of the poorer
quarters a woman is often feen yoked in a plough along
with a mule, an afs, or fome other animal. When the
Moors remove their douchars, all the men leat them-
felves in a circle on the ground j and with their elbows
refting on their knees, pafs the time in converfation,
while the women flrike the tents, fold them up into
bundles, and place them on the backs of their camcis
or oxen. The old women are then each loaded with
a parcel, and the young carry the chiklrefi on their
ftioulders
Morocco.
sS
Marriages,
See.
29
Entertain¬
ment of
travellers.
3°
.Markets.
M O R [4
(houlders fufpended in a cloth girt round their bodies.
In the more fouthern parts the women are likewife em¬
ployed in the care of the horfes : the hulband, who in
thefe climates is always a defpot, iffues his orders, and
feems only made to be obeyed.
The marriage ceremonies of the Moors that live in
tents pretty much referable thofe of the fame people
that live in the cities. In the douchars they are gene¬
rally molt brilliant and gay •, the ftrangers that pafs a-
long are invited, and made to contribute to the feaft ;
but this is done more from politenefs than from any
mercenary motive.
The tribes of the plain generally avoid mixing by
marriage with one another : the prejudices that divide
thefe people are commonly perpetuated ; or, if they
are partially healed, they never fail to revive upon
trifling occalions, fuch as a ftrayed camel, or the pre¬
ference of a paflure or a w'ell. Marriages have fome-
tiir.es taken place among them, that, fo far from ce¬
menting their differences, have occafioned the moll tra¬
gical feenes. Hulhands have been known to murder
their wives, and women their hulhands, to revenge na¬
tional quarrels.
Parents are not encumbered with their children,
however numerous they may be, for they are very early
employed in domeltic affairs •, they tend the flocks,
they gather wood, and they affifl; in ploughing and
reaping. In the evening, when they return from the
field, all the children of the douchar affemble in a com¬
mon tent, where the iman, who himfelf can hardly
fpell, makes them read a few fentences from the Koran
written on boards, and inftrudls them in their religion
by the light of a fire made of ftrawq of bullies, and
cow dung dried in the fun. As the heat is very great
in the inland parts of the country, children of both fexes
go quite naked till the age of nine or ten.
The douchars difperfed over the plains are always in
the neighbourhood of feme rivulet or fpring, and they
are a kind of inns for the reception of travellers. There
is generally a tent ere&ed for their ufe, if they have
not brought one along with them, where they are ac¬
commodated with poultry, milk, and eggs, and with
whatever is neceffary for their horfes. Inilead of wood
for fuel, they have the cow dung, w-hich, when mixed
with charcoal, makes a very brilk fire. A guard is
always fet on the tents of travellers, efpecially if they
are Europeans, becaufe the opinion of their wealth
might tempt the avidity of the Moors, who are natu¬
rally inclined to thieving.
With refpefl to the roads, a very judicious policy
is eftablifhed, which is adapted to the charadler of the
Moors, and to their manner of life. The douchars are
refponfible for robberies committed in their neighbour¬
hood and in fight of their tents : they are not only
obliged to make reflitution, but it gives the fovereign
a pretence for exafting a contribution proportioned to
the abilities of the douchar. In order to temper the
rigour of this law', they are made refponfible only for
fuch robberies as are committed during the day 5 thofe
that happen after funfet are not imputed to them, as
they could neither fee nor prevent them : on this ac¬
count, people here travel only from funriling to fun-
fetting.
To facilitate the exchange of neceffaries, there is in
the fields every day, except Friday, which is a day of
Voi. XIV.' Part II.
I
7] MO R
prayer, a public market in the different quarters of Morocco,
each province. The Moors of the neighbourhood af- v
femble to fell and buy cattle, corn, pulfe, dried fruits,
carpets, haicks, and in (hort all the produdlions of
the country. This market, which is called Soc, re-
fembles our fairs. The buflle of the people w’ho go
and come, gives a better idea of the manner of life of
the Moors than can be had in the cities. The al¬
caides, who command in the neighbourhood, always at¬
tend thefe markets with foldiers to keep the peace 5 as
it frequently happens that the grudges which thele tribes
harbour againft one another break out upon fuch occa-
fions into open violence. 31
The Moors who inhabit the cities differ from the Of the
others only in having a little more urbanity and a L|Io°Ijs ,w*19
more eafy deportment. Though they have the fame In u'
origin with thofe of the plains, they affedl to decline
all intercourfe with them. Some writers, without any
foundation, have given the name of Arabs to the in¬
habitants of the towns, and that of Moors to thofe
of the plains. But the greater part of the cities of this
empire are more ancient than the invafion of the Arabs,
w’ho themfelves lived in tents.
The houfes in moft of the towms in this empire ap-Their
pear at a little diflance like vaulted tombs in a church-houfes and
yard ; and the entrance into the bell of them has furnkure.
a mean appearance. The rooms are generally on the
ground floor, and whitened on the outfide. As the
roofs are quite flat, they ferve as verandas^ where the
Moorilh women commonly fif for the benefit of the
air; and in fume places it is poflible to pafs nearly over
the whole town without having occafion to defeend in¬
to the ftreet.
As the belt apartments are all backwards, a liable,
or perhaps fomething worfe, is the place to which vifi-
tors are firft introduced. Upon entering the houfe,
the ftranger is either detained in this place, or in the
ftreet, till all the women are defpatched out of the wayj
he is then allowed to enter a fquare court, into which
four narrow and long rooms open by means of large
folding doors, which, as they have no windows, ferve
likewife to introduce light into the apartments. The
court has generally in its centre a fountain •, and if it
is the houle of a Moor of property, it is floored with
blue and white chequered tiling. None of the cham¬
bers have fire places ; and their victuals are always
dreffed in the court-yard in an earthen ftove heated with
charcoal. When the vifitor enters the room, where he
is received by the mafter of the houfe, he finds him fit- ’
ting crofs-legged and barefooted on a mattrefs, covered
with fine white linen, and placed on the floor or elfe on
a common mat. This, with a narrow piece of carpet¬
ing, is in general the only furniture he will meet with
in Moorifti houfes, though they are not deftitute of
other ornaments. ^
The wardrobe of the inhabitants of cities is but little the
different from that of thofe who live in tents.—Like the men-
latter, they have a haick, and a hood more or lefs fine,
and have alfo a hood of coarfe European cloth of dark
blue for the winter. What farther diftinguifhes them
from the country Moors is, that they wear a ftiirt and
linen drawers, and an.upper garment of cotton in fum-
mer, and of cloth in winter, which they call a caftan.
I he white or blue hood, the purpofe of which feems to
be to guard againft bad weather, and which is called
3 G bernuSy
/
M O ]l [ 418 ] M 'O R
Morocco.
34
Drets of the
ladies.
35
Neyots.
3«
Renega-
aipes.
lernus, is likewife a ceremonial part of drefs ; without
which, together with fabve and canjer (or dagger) worn
in a bandelier, perfons of condition never appear before
the emperor.
The Mootifh women who live in cities are, as in
other nations, more addicted to Ihovv and finery in drefs
than thofe of the country ; but as they generally leave
the boufe only one day in the week, they feldom drefs
themfelves, Not allowed to receive male vifitors, they
remain in their houfes employed in their families, and
fo totally in defhabile that they often wear only a thift,
and another coarfer ffiift over the firft, tied round their
vvaift, with their hair plaited, and fometimes with,
though often without, a cap. When dreffed, they
wear an ample and fine linen fhift, the bofom embroid¬
ered in gold •, a rich caftan of cloth, ftuft, or velvet,
worked in gold •, and one or two folds of gauze, (freak¬
ed with gold and filk, round the head, and tied behind
fo as that the fringes, intermingled with their trefffs,
defeend as low as the waiff ; to which fome add a rib¬
band of aTout two inches broad, worked in gold or
pearls, that encircles the forehead in form of a diadem.
Their caftan is bound round their waiff by a crimfon
velvet girdle, embroidered in gold, with a buckle of
gold or filver, or elfe a girdle of tamboured fluff, ma-
nufaftured at Fez.
The women have yellow flippers, and a cuffom of
wearing a kind of flocking of fine cloth fomewhat large,
which is tied below' the knee and at the ankle, over
which it falls in folds. This flocking is lefs calculated
to fhow' what we call a hand Tome leg, than to make it
appear thick ; for to be fat is one of the rules ot beauty
among the Moorifh women. To obtain this quality,
they take infinite pains, feed when they become thin on
a diet fomewhat like forced meat balls, a certain quan¬
tity of which is given them daily 5 and in fine, the fame
care is taken among the Moors to fatten young women
as is in Europe to fatten fowls.
The Negroes, who conftitute a large proportion of
the emperor’s fubjedfs, are better formed than the
Moors; and as they are more lively, daring, and ac¬
tive, they are intrufted with an important (hare in the
executive part of government. They conffitute in fadl
the rnoft confiderable part of the emperor’s army, and
are generally appointed to the command of provinces
and towns. This circumffance naturally creates a jea-
loufy between them and the Moo/s, the latter confider-
ing the negroes as ufurpers of a power wTdch they have
no right to affume. Eefides thofe negroes which form
the emperor’s array, there are a great many others in
the country, who either are or have been (laves to pri¬
vate Moors: every Moor of confequence, indeed, has
his proportion of them in his fervice. To the difgrace
of Europe, the Moors treat their Haves with humanity,
employing them in looking after their gardens, and in
the domeffic duties of their houfes. They allow them
to marry among themfelves •, and after a certain num¬
ber of years, fpontapeoufiy prelent them with the in¬
valuable boon of liberty. They foon are initiated in
the Mahometan perfuaficn, though they fbmetimes in¬
termix with it a few of their original fuperftitious cu-
floms. In every other refpedl they copy the drefs and
manners of the Moors.
Among the inhabitants of Morocco there is ano¬
ther clafs, of whom we muff not omit to make men-
37
tion, Thefe are the Renegndoes, or foreigners, who Morocco,
have renounced their religion for the faith of Maho- v
met. Of thefe there are a great number who have
been originally Jews: they are held in little eftimation
by the Moors; and would be held in abhorrence by
the Jews, if they durft freely e^prefs their averfion.
The families of thefe apoflates are called Toormdis:
not having at any time married with the Moors, they
Hill preferve their ancient charadlerillics, and are known
almoft at fight to be the progeny of thofe who formerly
embraced the Mahometan religion. The Chriitian re-
negadoes are but few 5 and generally are fugitive pecu¬
lators of Spain, or men fallen from power, who becaufe
of theic mifconducl, or in defpair, quit one unfortunate
fituation for another much more deplorable.
The J'i Ws were formerly very numerous in this cm-jews
pire. After being proferibed in Spain and Portugal,
multitudes of them palled over'to Morocco, and fpread
themfelves through the towns and over the country.
By the relations they themfelves give, and by the ex¬
tent of the places affigned them to dwell in, it would
appear there were more than 30,000 families, of whom
at prefient there is fcarcely a refidue of one-twelfth ; the
remainder either having changed their religion, funk
under their bufferings, or fled from the vexations they
endured, and the arbitrary taxes and tolls impofed upon
them. The Jews poffefs neither lands nor gardens, nor
can they enjoy their fruits in tranquillity : they muff
wear only black ; and are obliged, when they pafs near
mofqnes, or through llreets in which there are fanc-
tuaries, to walk barefoot. The loweft among the Moors
imagines he has a right to ill-treat a Jew j nor dares
the latter defend himfeif, becaufe the Koran and the
judge are always in favour of the Mahometan.—Not-
withflanding this Hate of oppreffion, the Jews have ma¬
ny advantages over the Moors : they better underlfand
the fpirit of trade ; they acl as agents and brokers, and
profit by their own cunning and the ignorance of the
Moors.
The Moors, who derive their language and religion state of
from the Arabs, feem not in any manner to have par-knowledge
ticipated of their knowledge. United and confound-amunS ^
ed as thofe of Morocco have been with the Moors 0fMoors-
Spain, the latter of whom cultivated the arts and gave
birth to Averroes, and many other great men, the
Moors of this empire have preferved no traces of the
genius of their ancefiors. They have no conception of
the fpeculative fciences. Education confifts merely in
learning to read and write •, and as the revenues of the
learned are derived from thefe talents, the priefts and
talbes among them are the foie depofitories of thus much
knowledge : the children of the Moors are taught in
their fchools to read and repeat feme fixty leffons, fe-
leffed from the Koran, which for the fake of economy
are written upon fmall boards.
The Moors who formerly inhabited Spain gave great
application to phyfic and aflronomy and they have
left manuferipts behind them which Hill remain monu¬
ments of their genius. The modern Moors are infinite¬
ly degenerate ; they have not the lead inclination to
the fiudy of fcience ; they know the properties of fome
fimples; but as they do not proceed upon principle, and
are ignorant of the caufes and effeffs of difeafes, they
generally make a wrong application of their remedies.
Their moll ufeful phyficians ate their talbes, their fa-
kTs,
M O R [ 419 ]
Morocco, kirs, and their faints, in whom they place a fuperftiti- as the houfes.
ous confidence.
Notwithftanding the Moors have occupied themfelves
little in the ftudy of aftronomy, they have been eager
after aftrology. This imaginary fcience, which made
fo rapid a progrefs at Rome in fpite of the edicts of the
emperors, may be conceived to make ftill greater ad¬
vances among a people wholly ftupid and ignorant, and
ever agitated by the dread of prefent evils, or the hope
of a more happy futurity. Magic, the companion of
aftrology, has here alfo found its followers, and is par¬
ticularly ftudied by the talbes in the fouthern parts,
who fuccefsfully ule it in impofing upon Moorifti credu¬
lity with ftrange dreams and ambiguous forebodings and
39 prophecies.
IVIanutac- The Moorifti manufactures are—The haick, which,
tures and as was before obferved, is a long garment compofed of
*ra^es* white wool and cotton, or cotton and filk woven to¬
gether, and is ufed by the Moors for the purpofe of
covering their under drefs when they go abroad, which
they do by totally wrapping themfelves in it in a care-
lefs but eafy manner; filk handkerchiefs of a particu¬
lar kind, prepared only at Fez ^ filks checkered with
cotton ; carpeting, little inferior to that of Turkey j
beautiful matting, made of the palmetto or wild palm
tree; paper of a coarfe kind ; cordovan, comm mly
called Morocco leather; gunpowder of an inferior na¬
ture ; and long-barrelled mulkets, made of Bifcay
iron. The Moors are unacquainted with the mode
of carting cannon : and therefore thofe few which are
now in the country are obtained from Europeans.—
The manufacture of glafs is likewife unknown to
them ; as indeed they make great ufe of>«arthen ware,
and have few or no windows to their houfes, this com¬
modity may be of lefs importance to them than many
others. They make butter, by putting the milk into
a goat ikin, with its outward coat turned inwards, and
fhaking it till the butter collefts on the fides, when it
is taken out for ufe. From this operation it proves
always full of hairs, and has an infipid flavour. Their
cheefe confifts merely of curds hardened and dried, and
has uniformly a difagreeable tafte. The bread in fome
of the principal towns, particularly at Tangier and
Sallee, is remarkably good, but in many other places
it is coarfe, black, and heavy.
Their looms, forges, ploughs, carpenters tools, &c.
are much upon the fame conftruftion with the unim¬
proved inftruments of the fame kind which are ufed
at this time in fome parts of Europe, only ftill more
clumfily finiftied. In their work, they attend more
to ftrength than neatnefs or convenience ; and, like all
other ignorant people, they have no idea that what
they do is capable of improvement. It is probable,
indeed, that the Moors have undergone no very ma¬
terial change fince the revolution in their arts and
fciences, which took place foon after their expulfion
from Spain. Previous to that period, it is well known
they were an enlightened people, at a time when the
greater part of Europe wras involved in ignorance and
barbarifm ; but owing to the weaknefs and tyranny
of their princes, they gradually funk into the very op-
pofite extreme, and may now be confidered as but a
few degrees removed from a favage ftate.
Their mofques or places of public worlhip are uftially
large fquarc buildings, compofed of the fame materials
M O R
The building confifts of broad and Morocco,
lofty piazzas, opening into a fquare court, in a manner ^
in fome degree fimilar to the Royal Exchange of Lon- 40
don. In the centre of the court is a large fountain, Re!,g10US
and a fmall ftream furrounds the piazzas, where the cerenKmie3*
Moors perform the ceremony of ablution. The court
and piazzas are floored with blue and white checquer-
ed tiling j and the latter are covered with matting*
upon which the Moors kneel while repeating their
prayers. In the moft confpicuous part of the mofque
fronting the eaft, ftands a kind of pulpit, where the
talbe or prieft occafionally preaches. The Moors al¬
ways enter this place of worfhip barefooted, leaving
their flippers at the door. On the top of the mofque,
is a fquare fteeple with a flag ftaflf, whither at ftated
hours the talbe afeends, hoifts a white flag, and. calls
the people to prayers, for they have no bells. From
this high fituation the voice is heard at a confiderable
diftance \ and the talbes have a monotonous mode
of enunciation, the voice finking at the end of every
flrort fentence, which in fome meafure refembles the
found of a bell. The moment the flag is difplayed, every
perfon forfakes his, employment, and goes to prayers.
If they are near a mofque, they perform their devo¬
tions within it, otherwife immediately on the fpot
where they happen to be, and always with their faces
towards the eaft, in honour of their prophet Mahomet,
who it is well known was buried at Medina.
Their Sabbath is on our Friday, and commences
from fix o’clock the preceding evening. On this day
they ufe a blue flag inftead of the white one. As it
has been prophefied that they are to be conquered by
the Chriftians on the Sabbath day, the gates of all the
towns and of the emperor’s palaces are ftiut when at
divine fervice on that day, in order to avoid being fur-
prifed during that period. Their talbes are not di-
ftinguilhed by any particular drefs.
The Moors have three foleran devotional periods in
the courfe of the year. The firft, which is named Aid
de Cabier, is held in commemoration of the birth of
Mahomet. It continues feven days; during which pe¬
riod, every perfon who can afford the expence kills a
(beep as a facrifice, and divides it among his friends.
The fecond is the Ramadam. This is held at the fea-
fon when Mahomet difappeared in his flight from Mec¬
ca to Medina. Every man is obliged at that period
tofaft (that is, to abftain from animal food from fun-
rife to funfet each day) for 30 days ; at the expiration
of which time a feaft takes place, and continues a week.
The third is named L/aJhore, and is a day fet apart
by Mahomet for every perfon to compute the value of
his property, in order for the payment of %akat, that
is, one-tenth of their income to the poor, and other
pious ufes. Although this feaft only lafts a Angle day,
yet it is celebrated with far greater magnificence than
either of the others.
The Moors compute time by lunar months, and
count the days of the w’eek by the firft, fecond, third,
&c. beginning from our Sunday. They ufe a common
reed for writing, and begin their manuferipts from right
to left.
The Moors of the empire of Morocco, as well asLangtage
thofe to the northern limits of Africa, fpeak x'irabic ; of the S
but this language is corrupted in proportion as we re-^oors*
tire farther from Afia, where it firft took birth ; the
3 G 2 intermixture
M O R
[ 420 ]
M O R
Morocco
Z2
Their tem¬
per and
diipUition.
43
Mode of li¬
ving, nfan-
ners, See.
intermixture which has happened among the African
nations, and the frequent tranfmigrations of the Moors,
during a fucceflion of ages, have occaiioned them to
lofe the pur’tv of the Arabic language-, its pronun¬
ciation has been vitiated, the ufe of many vords loll,
and other foreign words have been introduced without
thereby rendering it more copious •, the pronunciation
of the Africans, however, is lofter to the ear and lefs
guttural than that of the Egyptians. The language,
when written, is in effedt much the fame at Morocco
as at Cairo, except that there are letters and expreffions
among the Moors which differ from thofe of the Orien¬
tal Arabs, who, however, underfland the Moors in con-
verfation, notvvithllanding their vitiated manner of pro¬
nouncing. They mutually read each others writings
with fome difficulty.
The Moors are naturally of a grave and penfive dif-
pofition, fervid in profeffions of friendfhip, but very
iniincere in their attachments. They have no curio-
fity, no ambition of knowledge •, an indolent habit,
united to the want of mental cultivation, renders them
perhaps even more callous than other unenlightened
people to every delicate fenfation ; and they require
more than ordinary excitement to render them fenfible
of pleafure or of pain. This languor of fentiment is,
however, unaccompanied with the ffnalieil fpark of
courage or fortitude. When in adverfity, they mani-
feft the moft abjedl fubmiflion to their fuperiors ; and
in profperity their tyranny and pride are infupportable.
Perfonal cleanlinefs has been confidered as one of
thofe circumffances which ferve to mark and deter¬
mine the civilization of a people. It was in vain that
Mahomet enjoined the frequency of ablution as a re¬
ligious duty to the Moors. Their drefs, which fhould
be white, is but feldom wafned •, and their whole ap¬
pearance evinces that they perform this branch of their
religious ceremonies in but a flovenly manner. With
this degree of negligence as to their perfons, we may be
juflly furprifed to find united a moft fcrupulous nicety
in their habitations and apartments. They enter their
chambers barefooted, and cannot bear the ilighteft de¬
gree of contamination near the place where they are
feated. This delicacy again is much confined to the
infides of their houfes. The ftreets receive the wdiole
of their rubbiih and filth j and by thefe means the
giound is fo raife * in moft parts of the city of Morocco,
that the new buildings always ftand confiderably higher
than the old.
With refpe£l to the hours for eating, the people of
this country are remarkably regular. Very foon after
daybreak they take their breakfaft, which is generally
a compofition of flour and water boiled thin, together
rvith an herb which gives it a yellow tinge. The male
part of the family eat in one apartment and the fe¬
male in another. The children are not permitted to
eat with their parents, but take their meals afterw/ards
with the fervants ; indeed in moft other refpedls they
are treated exafidy as fervants or flaves by their pa¬
rents. The mefs is put into an earthen bowl, and
brought in upon a round wooden tray. It is placed
in the centre of the guefts, who fit crofs-legged either
on a mat or on the floor, and who form a circle for
the purpofe. Having previouily wafhed themfelves, a
ceremony always performed before and after meals,
each perfon with his fpoon attacks vigoroufly the
Morocco.
bowl, while they diverfify the entertainment by eat¬
ing with it fruit or bread. At twelve o’clock they
dine, performing the fame ceremonies as at breakfaft.
For dinner, from the emperor down to the peafant,
their difh is umverfally coofcoofco, the mode of preparing
which has been already def'eribed. The dilh is brought
in upon a round tray and placed on the floor, round
which the family fit as at breakfaft, and with their fin¬
gers commit a violent affauit on its contents : they are
at the fame time, however, attended by a (lave or do-
medic, who prefents them with water and a towel oc-
caiionally to wadi their hands. From the want of the
fimple and convenient invention of knives and forks,
it is not uncommon in this country to fee three or four
people pulbng to pieces the lame piece of meat, and
afterwards with their fingers dirring up the palle &r
coofcoofoo, of which they often take a whole handful
at once into their mouth. At funfet they fup upon the
fame diih ; and indeed fupper is their principal meal.
But the common people mud content thernftlves with
a little bread and fruit inftead of animal food, and deep
in the open ftreets. Tliis kind of exiftence feems ill
calculated to endure even in an inatftive liate ; far more
fev ere muft it therefore be to thofe who exercife the la¬
borious employment of couriers in this country, who
tra.'el cn foot a journey of three hundred or four
hunch ed miles at the rate of between thirty or forty-
miles a-day, without taking any other nourilhment than
a little bread, a few figs, and fome water, and who
have no better Ibelter at night than a tree. It is
wonderful with what alacrity and perfeverance thefs
people perform the moft fatiguing journeys at all feafons
of the year. There is a regular company of them in
every town, who are ready to be defpatclied at a mo¬
ment’s warning to any part of the country their em¬
ployers may have eccafion to fend them.
As the Moors are not fond of admitting men into
their houfes except upon particular occalions, if the
weather be fine they place a mat, and fometimes a
carpet, on the ground before their door, feat them¬
felves upon it crcfs-Iegged, and receive their friends,
who lorm a circle, fitting in the fame manner, with
their attendants on the ouiiide of the groupe. Upon
thefe occafions they either drink tea or fmoke and con-
verfe. Ihe ftreets are fometimes crocvded with parties
of this kind ; fome engaged in playing at an inferior
kind of chefs or draughts, at which they are very ex¬
pert; but the majority in conveifation. The people
of this country, indeed, are fo decidedly averfe to
ftanding up, or walking about, that if only two or
three people meet, they fquat themfelves down in the
firft clean place they can find, if the converfation is to
hold but for a few minutes.
The Moors have in general but few amufements j Their a-
the fedentary life they lead in cities is little variegated mufemente.
except by the care they take of their gardens, which
are rather kept for profit than pleafure. Moft of
thefe gardens are planted with the orange, the lemon
tree, and the cedar, in rows, and in fuch great quanti¬
ties, that the appearance is rather that of a foreft than
that of a garden. T.he Moors fometimes, though rare¬
ly, have mufic in thefe retreats : a ftate of llaveiy but
ill agrees with the love of pleafure : the people of Fez
alone, either from a difference in education, or be-
caufe their organs and fenfibility are more delicate,
make
<4
45
Manage¬
ment of
horfes.
M O R [42
Morocco.”make mufic a part of their amufements. There are
— not in Morocco, as in Turkey, public coffee-houfes,
where people meet to inquire the news of the day ;
but inflead of thefe, the Moors go to the barbers
{hops, which in all countries feem to be the rendez¬
vous of newfmongers. Thefe (hops are furrounded by
benches ; on which the cudomer, the inquifitive, and
the idle, feat themfelves, and when there are no more
places vacant, they crouch on the ground like monkeys.
A common diverfion in the towns where there are
foldiers, as well as in the country, is what the Moors
call the game of gunpowder; a kind of military ex-
ercife, that is the more pleating to thefe people, in-
as much as, by the nature of their government, they
all are, or are liable to become, foldiers, therefore all
have arms and horfes. By explofions of powder, too,
they manifelt their feftivity on their holidays. Their
game of gunpowder confifts in two bodies of horfe,
each at adiidance from the other, galloping in fucceflive
parties of four and four, and firing their pieces charged
with powder. Their chief art is in galloping up to
the oppofite detachment, fuddenly flopping, firing
their mufkets, facing about, charging, and returning
to the attack ; all which manoeuvres are imitated by
their opponents. The Moors take great pleafure in
this amufement, which is only an imitation of their mi¬
litary evolutions.
The common topics for converfation among the
Moors, are the occurrences of the place, religion,
their women, but above all their horfes. This lall to¬
pic, indeed appears to occupy by far the greateft por¬
tion of their attention. Thefe animals are feldom kept
in flables in Morocco. They are watered and fed only
once a-day, the former at one o’clock at noon, and the
latter at funfet: and the only one mode which they ufe
to clean them is by wafhing them all over in a river
two or three times a-week, and fuffering them to dry
themfelves.
Like all barbarous nations, the Moors are paflion-
ately fond of mufic, and fome few have a talle for
poetry. Their flow airs, for want of that variety
which is introduced when the fcience has attained a
degree of perfe&ion, have a very melancholy famenefs ;
but fome of their quick tunes are beautiful and fimple,
and partake in fome degree of the charafteritlic melody
of the Scotch airs. The poetry of their fongs, the con-
flant fubjedl of which is love, though there are few na¬
tions perhaps who are lefs fenfible of that paffion, has
certainly lefs merit than the mufic.
Their inftruments are a kind of hautboy, which
differs from ours only in having no keys ; the mando¬
line, which they have learnt to play upon from their
neighbours the Spaniards; another infirument, bear¬
ing fome refemblance to a violin, and played upon in
a fimilar manner, but with only two firings *, the large
drum, the common pipe, and the tabor. Thefe united,
and accompanied with a certain number of voices, upon
many occafions form a band, though folo mufic is more
common in this unfocial country.
The Moors marry very young, many of their fe¬
males not being more than 1 2 years of age at their
nuptials. As Mahometans, it is well known that their
religion admits of polygamy to the extent of four
wives, and as many concubines as they pleafe ; but if
we except the very opulent, the people feldom avail
46
Love of
mufic.
Morocco.
47
1 ] M O R
themfelves of this indulgence, fince it entails on them
a vafi additional expence in houfe keeping, and in pro¬
viding for a large family. In contradling marriage,
the parents of both parties are the only agents ; and the
intended bride and bridegroom never fee each other
till the ceremony is performed. The marriage fettle- Marriage
ments are made before the cadi; and then the friendscerem011ie*'
of the bride produce her portion, or if not, the huf-
band agrees to fettle a certain fum upon her in cafe
he flroul'i die, or divorce her on account of barrennefs,
cr any other caufe. The. children of the wives have
all an equal claim to the eftedls of the father and
mother, but thofe of the concubines can each only claim
half a ihare.
When the marriage is finally agreed upon, the bride
is kept at home eight days, to receive her female
friends, who pay congratulatory vifits every day. At
the fame time a talbe attends upon her, to converfe
with her relative to the folemn engagement on which
fhe is about to enter : on thefe occafions he commonly
accompanies his admonitions with linging a pious hymn,
which is adapted to the folemnity. The bridegroom,
on the other hand, receives vilits from his male friends
in the morning, and in the evening rides through the
town accompanied by them, fome playing on hautboys
and drums, while others are employed in firing volleys
of mulketry. In all their feftivals, the difcharge of
mulketry indeed forms a principal part of the enter¬
tainment. Contrary to the European mode, which
particularly aims at firing with exaftnefs, the Moors •
difcharge their pieces as irregularly as poflible, fo as
to have a continual fucceffion of reports for a few mi¬
nutes.
On the day of the marriage, the bride in the even¬
ing is put into a fquare or o£fagonal cage about X 2
feet in circumference, which is covered with fine white
linen, and fometimes with gauzes and filks of various
colours. In this vehicle, which is placed on a mule,
(he is paraded round the llreets, accompanied by her
relations and friends, fome carrying lighted torches,
others playing on the hautboys, and a third party
again firing volleys of muiketry. In this manner (he
is carried to the houfe of her intended hufband, who
returns about the fame time from performing fimilar
ceremonies. On her arrival, file is placed in an apart¬
ment by herfelf, and her hufband is introduced to her
alone for the firft time, who finds her fitting on a filk.
or velvet cuftiion (fuppofing her to be a perfon of con-
fequence), with a fmail table before her, upon which
are two wax candles lighted. Her (hift, or more pro¬
perly fhirr, hangs down like a train behind her, and
over it is a filk or velvet robe with clofe fieeves, which
at the breaft and wrifis is embroidered with gold ; this
drefs reaches fomething lower than the calf of the leg.
Round her head is tied a black filk fcarf, which hangs
behind as low as the ground. Thus attired, the bride
fits with her hands over her eyes, when her hufband
appears, and receives her as his wife without any further
ceremony : for the agreement made by the friends be¬
fore the cadi is the only fpecific contraift which is
thought neceffary.
If the hufband fhould have any reafon to fufpeft that
his wife has not been ftri&ly virtuous, he is at liberty
to divorce her and take another. For fome time after
marriage, the family and the friends are engaged in
• much
s
M O 11 [ 422 ] M O R
Morocco.
48 .
Circumci-
' lion.
49
Education
of children
5°
’Funeral
rites.
much fearting, and a variety of amufements, which laft
a longer or Ihorter time according to the circumflances
of the parties. It is ufually cuftomary for the man
to remain at home eight days and the woman eight
months after they are firft married ; and the woman is
nt liberty to divorce herielf from her hufband, if fhe
can prove that he does not provide her with a proper
fubfi Hence.
Women fuffer but little inconvenience in this coun¬
try from child-bearing ; they are frequently up the
next day, and go through all the duties of the houfe
tvith the infant upon their backs. In celebrating the
rite of circuincifion, the child is dreffed very fumptu-
ouily, and carried on a mule, or, if the parents are in
poor circumftanees, on an afs, accompanied with flags
Hying and muficians playing on hautboys and beating
drums. In this manner they proceed to the mofque,
where the ceremony is performed. Children, as foon
as they can be made in the leal! degree uleful, are put
to the various kinds of labour adapted to their age and
ftrength. Others, whofe parents are in better circum¬
flances, are fometimes fent to febool 5 and thofe who are
intended for the church, ufually continue their fludies
till they have nearly learnt the Koran by rote. In that
cafe they are enrolled among the talbes, or learned men
of the law j and upon leaving fchool are paraded round
the ftreets on a, horfe, accompanied by raufic and a
large concourfe of people.
When any perfon dies, a certain number of women
are hired for the purpofe of lamentation ; in the per¬
formance of which, nothing can be more grating to
the ear, or more unpleafant, than their frightful moans,
or rather bowlings: at the fame time, thefe mercenary
.mourners beat their heads and breads, and tear their
cheeks with their nails. The bodies are ufually buried
a few hours after death. Previous to interment, the
corpfe is vvafhed very clean, and fewed up in a fhroud,
with the right hand under the head, which is pointed
towards Mecca : it is carried on a bier fupported upon
men’s {boulders, to the burying place, which is always,
with great propriety, on the outfide of the town, for
they never bury their dead in the mofques, or within
the bounds of an inhabited place.
Morocco, a city of the kingdom of Morocco in
Barbary, lying about 1 20 miles to the north of Tarudant,
90 to the eaft of Mogodore, and 350 to the fouth ®f
Tangier. It is fituated in a beautiful valley, formed by
a chain of mountains on the northern fide, and thofe
of Atlas, from which it is difrant about 20 miles, on
the fouth and eaft. The country which immediately
furrounds it is a fertile plain, beautifully diveifified
with clumps of palm trees and ftirubs, and watered by
fmall and numerous firearm which defeend from Mount
Atlas. The emperor’s out gardens, which are fituated
at the diftance of about five miles to the fouth of the
city, and are large plantations of olives walled in, add
confiderably to the beauty of the feene.
Morocco, though one of the capitals of the empire
(for there are three, Morocco, Mequinez, and Fez),
has nothing to recommend it but its great extent and
the royal palace. It is enclofed by remarkably ftrong
walls built of tabby, the circumference of which is
about eight miles. On thefe walls there are no guns
mounted; but they are flanked with fquare towers,
and ftmounded by a wide and deep ditch. The city
3
has a number of entrances, confiding of large double Morocco,
porches of tabby in the Gothic liyle, the gates of ' v '
which are regularly fhut every night at certain houts.
As polygamy is allowed by the Mahometan religion,
and is fuppofed in fome degree to affeft population, it
would be difficult to form any computation near the
truth with refpe£t to the number of inhabitants which
this city may contain. The mofques, which are the
only public buildings except the palace worth noticing
at Morocco, are more numerous than magnificent j
one of them is ornamented with a very high and fquare
tower, built of cut ftone, which is vifible at a confider-
able djftance from the city. The fireets are very nar¬
row, dirty, and irregular, and many of the houfes are
uninhabited and falling to ruin. Thofe which are de¬
cent and refpeClable in their appearance are built of
tabby, and enclofed in gardens. That of the effendi
or prime minifter (according to Mr Lempriere, from
whofe Jhar* this account is tranferibed), was among * Publiflied
the befi in Morocco. This houfe, which confifted oful J??1-
two ftories, had elegant apartments both above and be¬
low, furnifiled in a ftyle far fuperior to any thing our
author ever faw in that country. The court, into
which the lower apartments opened, was very neatly
paved with glazed blue and white tiling, and had in
its centre a beautiful fountain. The upper apartments
were connected together by a bread gallery, the bal-
lufters of which were painted of different colours.
The hot and cold baths were very large, and had every
convenience which art could afford. Into the garden,
which was laid out in a tolerably neat ftyle, opened a
room adjoining to the houfe, which had a broad arched
entrance but no door, beautifully ornamented with
chequered tiling j and at both ends of the apartment
the walls were entirely covered with looking glafs.
The flooring of all the rooms was covered with beau¬
tiful carpeting, the walls ornamented with a large and
valuable looking glaffes, intermixed with watches and
clocks in glafs cafes. The ceiling was carved wood¬
work, painted of different colours ; and the whole was
in a fuperior ftyle of Mooriih grandeur. This and a
few others are the only decent habitations in Morocco.
The generality of them ferve only to imprefs the tra¬
veller with the idea of a miferable and deferted city.
The Elcaifferia is a particular part of the town
where fluffs and ether valuable articles are expofed to
fale. It confifts of a number of fmall fiiops, formed in
the walls of the heufes, about a yard from the ground,
of fuch a height within as juft to admit a man to fit
in one of them croft-legged. The goods and drawers
are fo arranged round him, that when he ferves his cu-
ftomers, who are {landing all the time out in the ftreet,
he can reach down any article he wants without be¬
ing under the neceffity of moving. Thefe {hops, which
are found in all the other towns of the empire, are fuffi-
cient to afford a ftriking example of the indolence of
the Moors. There are three daily markets in different
parts of the town of Morocco where provifions are
fold, and two weekly fairs or markets for the difpofal
of cattle. The city is fupplied with water by means
of wooden pipes connected with the neighbouring
ftreams, which empty themfelves into refervoirs placed
for the purpofe in the luburbs, and fome few in the
centre of the town.
The caftle is a large and ruinous building, the outer
‘ walls
M O R r 423 ] M O R
Morocco- walls of which enclofe a fpace of ground about three
—""v miles in circumference. It has a mofque, on the top of
which are three large balls, formed, as the Moors allege,
of folid gold. The caftle is almoft a town of itfelf;
it contains a number of inhabitants, who in fome de¬
partment or other are in the fervice of the emperor,
and all under the direflion of a particular alcaide, who
is quite independent ©f the governor of the town. On
the outfide of the cable, between the Moor’fh town
and the Jewdry, are feveral fmall diftindt pavilions, en-
clcfed in gardens of orange trees, which are intended
as occafional places of refidence for fuch of the empe¬
ror’s fons or brothers as happen to be at Morocco. As
they are covered with coloured tiling, they have at a
fmall dillance rather a neat appearance ; but upon ap¬
proaching or entering them, that effedl in a great mea-
fure ceafes.
The Jew’s, who are at this place pretty numerous,
have a feparate town to themfelves, walled in, and un¬
der the charge of an alcaide, appointed by the empe¬
ror. It has two large gates, which are regularly {hut
every evening about nine o’clock •, after which time no
perfon whatever is permitted to enter or go out of the
Jewdry till they are opened again the following morn¬
ing. The Jews have a market of their own ; and when
they enter the Moorifh town, caftle, or palace, they are
always compelled to be barefooted.
The palace is an ancient building, furrounded by a
fquare wall, the height of which nearly excludes from
the view of the fpedlator the other buildings. Its
principal gates are conftru£!ed with Gothic arches,
compofed of cut ifone, which condudi to feveral open
and fpacious courts ; through tbefe it is neceflary to
pafs before we reach any of the buildings. Tbefe open
courts were ufed by the late emperor for the purpofes
of tranfafling public bufinefs and exercifing his troops.
The habitable part confifts of feveral irregular fquare
pavilions, built of tabby, and whitened over ; fome of
which communicate with each other, others are diftinfl,
and mofl of them receive their names from the different
towns of the empire. The principal pavilion is named
by the Moors the Douhar, and is more properly the
palace or feraglio than any of the others. It confifts of
the emperor’s place of refidence and the harem, form¬
ing altogether a building of confiderable extent. The
other pavilions are merely for the puvpofes of pleafure
or bufinefs, and are quite diftinff from the douhar. The
Mogodore pavilion, fo named from the late emperor’s
partiality to that town, has by far the fairefl claim to
grandeur and magnificence. This apartment was the
work of Sidi Mahomet, and is lofty and fquare. It is
built of cut ftone, handfomely ornamented with win¬
dows, and covered with varnished tiles of various co¬
lours ; and its elegance and neatnefs, contrafted alto¬
gether with the fimplicity and irregularity of the other
buildings, produce a mofl ftriking effeff. In the in-
fide, befides feveral other apartments, we find in the pa¬
vilion a fpacious room floored with blue and white
chequered tiling, its ceiling covered with curioufiy
carved and painted wood, and its fluccoed walls vari-
oufiy ornamented with looking glaffes and watches, re¬
gularly difpofed in glafs cafes. To this pavilion the
late emperor manifeiled an exclufive preference, fre¬
quently retiring to it both for the purpofe of bufinefs
and of recreation. The apartments of the emperor
have in general a much fmaller complement of furniture
than thofe of the Moors in the inferior walks of life.
Handfome csrpeting, a mattrefs on the ground covered
with fine linen, a couch, and a couple of European bed-
fteads, are the principal articles they contain. The
gardens within the walls of the palace, of which he
has feveral, are very neat: they contain orange and
olive trees, varioufly difpofeu and arranged, and inter-
fecled with flreams of water, fountains, and refervoirs.
Thofe on the outfide are nothing more than large trafls
of ground, irregularly planted with olives; having four
fquare walks, and furfounded by walls.
Morocco, or Marrscuin, the fkin of a goat, or
fome other animal resembling it, drefled in fumach
or galls, and coloured at pleafure ; much ufed in
bookbinding, &c. The name is commonly derived
from the kingdom of Morocco, whence it is fuppofed
the manner of preparing thefe fkins W’as firfl borrow¬
ed. We have Morocco fkins brought from the Le¬
vant, Barbary, Spain, Flanders, and France; red,black,
yellow, blue, &c. For the manner of preparing them,
fee Leather.
MORON, a town of Spain, in Andalufia, feated in
a fertile plain about 30 miles fouth-eafl of Seville.
W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 37. o.
MORPETH, a handfome town of Northumber¬
land, 14 miles from Newcafile, 286 miles from Lon¬
don, is an ancient borough by prefeription, with a
bridge over the Wanfbeck. It had once an abbey
and a caftle, now in ruins, fituated about a quarter of
a mile fonth of the town and river Wanfbeck, on an
eminence which overlooks both. The market-place is
conveniently fituated near the centre of the town ; and
an elegant townhoufe was built by the Carliile family
in 1714, in which the quarter-feffions is held for the
county. It is built of hewn ftone, with a piazza. The
church being a quarter of a mile diftant from the town,
a tower containing a good ring of bells Hands near the
market place. Near the bridge is the county gaol, a
modern ftruflure. Here are a free grammar fchool, a
chapel near the river, on the fite of a chantry that was
granted for the fupport of the foundation of the fchool,
which was part of the old ftruclure, and an hofpital for
infirm people. In 1215, the townfmen themfelves
burnt their town, out of pure hatred to King John, that
he might find no (heller there. Here is a good market
on Saturday for corn, cattle, and all neceftary provi-
fions; and there is another on Wedncfday, the greatefl
in England except Southfield, for live cattle. This
is a poft town and a thoroughfare, with many good
inns, and plenty of fifh ; and here are feveral mills.—
The earl of Carlifle’s fteward holds a court here twice
a year, one of them the Monday after Michaelmas,
when four perfons are chofen by the free barge fie s,
who are about 107, and prefented to the fteward, who
names two of them to the bailiffs, who, with feven
aldermen, are its governors for the year enfuing. Its
fairs are on Wednefday, Thurfday, and Friday before
Whitfunday, and the Wednefday before July 22. It
fends two members to parliament.
MORPHEUS, in Fabulous HiJIory, the god of
fleep, or, according to others, one of the minifters of"'
Somnus, He caufed fleepinefs, and reprefented the -
for ms
Morocco
11
Morpheus.
M O R [ 424 ] MO R
Morreri forms of dreams. Ovid ftyles him the kindeft of the
II,. deities ; and he is ulually defcribed in a recumbent po-
l iture, and crowned with poppies.
MORRERI, Lewis, author of the Hiftorical Dic¬
tionary, was born at Barge-mont in Provence, 1643.
He learned rhetoric and philofophy at Aix, and di¬
vinity at Lyons. At 18 years of age he wrote a fmall
piece, entitled Le Pays d'*Amour, and a collection of
the fined French poems entitled Doux plaijirs de la
Poejie. He learned Spanith and Italian •, and tranflated
out of Spanilh into French the book ehtitled La Per-
feelion Chretienne de Rodrigues. He then refined the
Saints Lives to the purity of the French tongue. Be¬
ing ordained pried, he preached at Lyons, and under¬
took, when he was but 30 years of age, a new Hido-
rical Dictionary, printed at Lyons in one vol. folio,
1673. But his continual labour impaired his health;
fo that he died in 1680, aged 37. His fecond volume
was publidied after his death ; and four more volumes
have fince been added. He left fome other works be¬
hind him.
MORRHINA VASA, were a fort of cups or vafes
made ufe of by the ancients for drinking out of, and
other purpofes. Authors are not agreed as to the fub-
llance of which they were made. Some fay it was
a done ; fome afiert that it wTas a fluid condenfed by
being buried under ground. All that wre know con¬
cerning it is, that it was known by the name of tnurrha,
and that Heliogabalus’s chamber pot was made of it.
The word is fometimes written myrrhina.
MORRISE-dances. See MoRES%UK-Dances.
MORS, Death, one of the infernal deities, born
of Night without a father. She was wTordiipped by
the ancients wTith great folemnity. She was not repre-
fented as an actually exiding power, but as an imagi¬
nary being. Euripides introduces her in one of his
tragedies on the dage. The moderns reprefent her as
a fkeleton armed with a feythe and a feimitar.
MORSE. See Trichecus, Mammalia Index.
MORTALITY, a term frequently ufed to fignify
a contagious difeafe, which dedroys great numbers of
cither men or beads.
. Bills of Mortality, are accounts or regiders fpeci-
fying the numbers born, married, and buried in any
parifh, town, or didrift. In general they contain
only thefe numbers; and, even when thus limited, are
of great ufe, by (howing the degrees of healthinefs and
prolificknefs, and the progrefs of population in the
places where they are kept. It is therefore much to
be widied, that fuch accounts had been always cor-
reftly kept in every kingdom, and regularly publifiied
at the end of every year. We diould then have had
under our infpeftion the comparative drength of every
kingdom, as far as it depends on the number of inha¬
bitants, and its increafe or decreafe at different periods.
But fuch accounts are rendered more ufeful, when they
include the ages of the dead, and the dillempers of
which they have died. In this cafe they convey fome
of the mod important indruftioas, by furnifliing us
with the means of afeertaining the law which governs
the wTade of human life, the values of annuities depend¬
ent on the continuance of any lives, or any furvivor-
diips between them, and the favourablenefs and unfa-
vourablenefs of different fituatioas to the duration of
human life. There are but few regiders of this kind ;
4
nor has this fubjeft, though fo intereding to mankind, Mortality,
ever engaged much attention till lately. The fird bills ' v~' J
containing the ages of the dead were thole for the
town of Breflaw in Silefia. It is well known what ufe
has been made of thefe by Dr Halley, and after him
by De Moivre. A table of the probabilities of the
duration of human life at every age, deduced from
them by Dr Halley, has been publidied in the Philo-
fophical Tranfaftions, (fee the Abridgement, vol. iii.
p. 699.) and is the fird table of that fort that has been
ever published. S nee the publication of this table,
fimilar bills have been edablilhed in a few towns of
this kingdom ; and particularly in London, in the year
1728, and at Northampton in 1735-
Two improvements of thefe regiders have been pro-
pofed : the fird is, That the fexes of all that die in
every period of life fhould be fpecified in them, under
the denomination of boys, married men, widowers, and
bachelors ; and of girls, married women, widows, and
virgins. The fecond is, That they fhould fpecify the
number of both fexes dying of every didemper in
every month, and at every age. See the end of the 4th
effay in Dr Price’s Treatife on Reverfionary Payments. .
Regiders of mortality thus improved, when compared
with records of the feafons, and with the circumdances
that diferiminate different fituations, might contribute
greatly to the increafe of medical knowledge ; and
they would afford the neceffary data for determining
the difference between the duration of human life
among males and females; for fuch a difference there
certainly is much in favour of females, as will appear
from the following fafts.
At Northampton, though more males are born than
females, and nearly the fame number die ; yet the
number of living females appeared, by an account tak¬
en in 1746, to be greater than the number of males,
in the proportion of 2301 to 177°* or 39 to 3°-
At Berlin it appeared, from an accurate account
which was taken of the inhabitants in 1747, that the
number of female citizens exceeded the number of male
citizens in the proportion of 459 to 391- And yet
out of this fmaller number of males, more had died for
20 years preceding 1751, in the proportion of 19
to 17.
At Edinburgh, in 1743, the number of females
wras to the number of males as 4 to 3. (See Mait¬
land’s Hiftory of Edinburgh, p. 220.) But the fe¬
males that died annually from 1749 to 1758, were to
the males in no higher proportion than 3-j- to 3.
He that wall take the pains to examine the accounts
in Phil. Tranf. Abr. vol. vii. part iv. p. 46, &c. will
find, that though in the towns there enumerated, the
proportion of males and females born is no higher than
19 to 18, yet the proportion of boys and girls that
die is 8 to 7 ; and that, in particular, the ifill-born
and chryfom males are to the ftill-born and chryfom
females as 3 to 2.
In 39 parifhes of the difirift of Vaud in Switzer¬
land, the number of males that died during ten years
before 1766 was 8170; of females 8167; of whom
the numbers that died under one year of age were 1817
males and 1305 females; and under ten years of age,
3099 males and 2598 females. In the beginning of
life, therefore, and before any emigrations can take
place, the rate of mortality among males appears to
M O R [ 425 ] M O R
Mortality, be greater than among females. And this is rendered
* vr“— yet more certain by the following accounts. At Ve-
vey, in the diilrici ol Vaud jufl mentioned, there died
in the courfe of -20 years, ending at 1764, in the fird.
month after birth, of males 135 to 89 females ; and in
the iird year 225 to 162. To the lame etfecd it ap¬
pears from a table given by Sivfmilch, in his Gottliche
Ordnung, vol. ii. p. 317, that in Berlin 203 males die
in the firlt month, and but 168 females 5 and in the
firit year, 489 to 395 ; and alio, from a table of
Struyck’s, that in Holland 396 males die in the firft
year to 306 females.
The authorities for the facts here mentioned, and
much more on this fubjeft, may be found in the 4th
eflay in Dr Price’s Treatife on Reverfionary Pay¬
ments, and in the fupplement at the end of that
treatife.
We fhall here only add the following table, taken
from a memoir of Mr Wargentin’s, publifhed in the
collection of the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Stockholm, printed at Paris in 1772.
In ail Sweden for nine years, ending in 1763, the
proportion of females to males that died out of a given
number living, was
Under the age of one year,
From 1 to 3 years oi age,
5—to —
JC—15 —
15— 20 —
20—25 “
25—3° , —
30—35 —
35—4° —
40—45 —
45—5° —
50—55 —
55_60 —
60—65 —
65—70 —
70—80 —
80—90 —
Above 90 —
1000 to 1099
1000 — 1022
1042
io74
1080
1097
' 1283,
1161
993
”59
!”5
134°
J339
1292
1115
io8o
1022
1046
1044
Regifters of mortality on the improved plan before
mentioned, were eftablilhed in 1772 at Chefter, and
alfo in ,1773 at Warrington in Lancafliire 5 and they
are fo comprehenfive and corredt, that there is reafon
to expedf they will afford much inftruftion on the fub-
jedl of human mortality, and the values of lives.
But the country moft diifinguilhed in this refpeft
is Sweden : for in that kingdom exadt accounts are
taken of the births, marriages, and burials, and of the
numbers of both fexes that die at all ages in every
town and diftridf, and alfo at the end of every period
of five years, of the numbers living at every age :
and at Stockholm a fociety is eilablifhed, whole bnfi-
nefs it is to fuperintend anti regulate the enumerations,
and to colledt from the different parts of the king¬
dom the regifters, in order to digeft them into tables
of obfervation, Thefe regulations were begun in
Sweden in 1755 ; and tables, containing the refult of
them from 1755 to 1763, have been publiihed in Mr
Wargentin’s memoir juft referred to j and the moft
Vol. XIV. Part II.
material parts of them may be found in an effay by Mort
Hr Price on the Difference between the Duration of
Human Life in Towns and in Country Parifhes,
printed in the 65th volume of the Philofoph. Tranf.
Part II.
In the fourth effay in Dr Price’s Treatife on Re-
yerfionary Payments and Life Annuities, the follow¬
ing account is given of the principles on which tables
of obfervation are formed from regifters of mortality j
and of the proper method of forming them, fo as to
render them juft reprefentations of the number of in¬
habitants, and the probabilities of the duration of hu¬
man life in a town or country.
In every place which juft fupports itfelf in the num¬
ber of its inhabitants, without any recruits from other
places , or where, for a courfe of years, there has
been no increaie or decreafe ; the number of perfons
dying every year at any particular age, and above it,
mull be equal to the number of the living at that
age. 1 he number, for example, dying every year at
all ages from the beginning to the utmoft extremity
of life, rnuft, in fuch a fituation, be juft equal to the
whole number bom every year. And for the fame
reafon, the number dying every year at one year of
age and upwards, at two years of age and upwards,
at three and upwards, and fo on, muft be equal to
the numbers that attain to thofe ages every year ; or,
which is the fame, to the numbers of the living at
thofe ages. It is obvious, that junlefs this happens,
the number of inhabitants cannot remain the fame. If
the former number is greater than the latter, the inha-,
bitants muft decteafe $ if lefs, they muft increafe.
brom this obfervation it follows, that in a town or
country where there is no increafe or decreafe, bills of
mortality which give the ages at which all die, will
fhow the exadft number of inhabitants, and alfo the ex-
aft law according to which human life waftes in that'
town or country.
In order to find the number of inhabitants, the mean
numbers dying annually at every particular age and up¬
wards muft be taken as given by the bills, and placed
under one another in the order of the fecond column of
the following tables. Thefe numbers will, it has ap¬
peared, be the numbers of the living at 1, 2, 3, &c.
years of age ; and confequently the fum diminifhed by
half the number born annually will be the whole num¬
ber of inhabitants.
This fubtraftion is neceflary, for the following rea¬
son. In a table formed in the manner here directed,
it is fuppofed that the numbers in the fecond column
are all living together at the beginning of every year.
"I bus the number in the fecond column oppofite to
o in the firft column, the table fuppofes to be all juftr
born together on the firft day of the year. The num¬
ber, likewife, oppofite to x, it fuppofes to attain to
one year of age juft at the fame time that the former
number is born. And the like is true of every num¬
ber in the fecond column. During the courfe ^of the
yeqr, as many will die at all ages as were born at the
beginning of the year, and confequently, there will
be an excefs of the number alive at the beginning of
the year above the number alive at the end of the
year, equal to the whole number of the annual births j
and the true number conftantly alive together, is the
arithmetical mean between thefe two numbers; or a-
3 H - greeably
Vortallty.
M O ft [ 4-26 ] M O ft
greeably to the rule here given, the Turn of the num¬
bers in the fecond column of the table leffened by half
the number of annual births.
In fuch a feries of numbers, the excefs of each num¬
ber above that which immediately follows it will be the
number dying every year out of the particular number
alive at the beginning of the year •, and thefe exceffes
fet down regularly as in the third column of the table
to which we have referred, will (how the different rates
at which human life wades through all its different pe¬
riods, and the different probabilities of life at all par¬
ticular ages.
It mud be remembered, that what has been now
faid goes on the fuppofition, that the place whofe
bills of mortality are given, fupports itfelf, by pro¬
creation only, in the number of its inhabitants. In
towns this very feldom happens, on account of the lux¬
ury and debauchery which generally prevail in them.
They are, therefore, commonly kept up by a conftant
acceffion of drangers, who remove to them from coun¬
try pariflres and villages. In thefe circutndances, in
order to find the true number of inhabitants, and pro¬
babilities of life, from bills of mortality containing an
account of the ages at which all die, it is necelfary
that the proportion of the annual births to the annual
fettlers thould he known, and alro the period of hie
at which the latter remove. Both thefe particulars
may be difeovered in the following method.
If for a courfe of years there have been no fenfible
increafe or decreafe in a place, the number of annual
fettlers will be equal to the excefs of the annual bu¬
rials above the annual births. If there be an increafe,
it will be greater than this excefs. If there be a de¬
creafe, it will be lefs.
The period of life at which thefe fettlers remove,
will appear in the bills by an increale in the number
of deaths at that period and beyond it. I bus in the
London bills the number of deaths between 20 and
30 is generally above double •, and between 30 and
40 near triple the number of deaths between 10 and
20; and the true account of this is, that from the
age of I 3 or 20 to 3 5 or 50, there is an afflux of people
every year to London from the country, which occa-
fions a great increafe in the number of inhabitants at
thefe ages ; and confequently raifes the deaths for all
ages above 20 confiderably above their due proportion
when compared with the number of deatns before 20.
This is obfervable in all the bills of mortality for towns
with which we are acquainted, not even excepting the
Breflaw bills. Dr Halley takes notice', that thefe bills
gave the number of deaths between 10 and 20 too
{mail. This he confidered as an irregularity in them
owing to chance : and, therefore, in forming his table
of obfervations, he took the liberty fo far to corredl it,
as to render the proportion of thofe who die to the liv¬
ing in this divifion of life nearly the fame with the pro¬
portion which, he fays, he had been informed die annu¬
ally of the young lads in Chrift Church hofpital. But
the truth is, that this irregularity in the bills was deri¬
ved from the caufe we have iuft afligned. During the
five years for which the Brtflavv bills are given by Dr
Halley, the births did indeed a little exceed the bu¬
rials ; but it appears that this was the effedf of fome
peculiar caufes that happened to operate juft at that
time ; for during a complete century, from 1633 to
3 -
1734, the annual medium of births was 1089, and of Mortality,
burials 1256. This town, therefore, muft have been
all along kept up by a number of yearly recruits from
other places, equal to about a feventh part of the yearly
births.
It appears from the account in the Philofophical
Tranfadtions (Abridgement, vol. vii. N* 382, p. 46,
&c.), that from 1717 to 1725, the annual medium of
births at Breflaw was 1252, of burials 1507 ; and alfo
that much the greateft part of the births died under
jo years of age. From a table in Sufmilch’s works,
vol. i. p. 38. it appears that in reality the greater
part of all that die in this town are children under five
years of age.
What has been nowr obferved concerning the period
of life at which people remove from the country to fet¬
tle in towns, would appear fufficiently probable were
there no luch evidence for it as has been mentioned ; for
it might well be reckoned that theie people in general
muft be Angle perfons in the beginning of mature life,
who not having yet obtained iettlements in the places
where they were born, migrate to towns in oueft of em^
ployments.
Having premifed thefe obfervations, it will be pro¬
per next to endeavour to explain diflindlly the effect
which thefe acceffions to towns muft have on tables
of obfervation formed from their bills of mortality.
This is a fubject proper to be infilled on, becaufe
miftakes have been committed about it ; and becaufe
alfo the difeuflion of it is neceilary to (how how near
to truth the value of lives comes as deduced from fuch
tables.
The following general rule may be given on this
fubjeft. If a place has for a courfe of years been
maintained in a Hate nearly ftationary, as to number
of inhabitants, by recruits coming in every year, to
prevent the decreafe that would arife from the ex¬
cefs of burials above the births, a table formed on the
principle, “ that the number dying annually after
every particular age, is equal to the number living
at that age,” will give the number of inhabitants,
and the probabilities of life, too great, for all ages
preceding that at which the recruits ceafe : and af¬
ter this it will give them right. If the acceffions are
fo great as to caufe an increafe in the place, fuch a
table will give the number of inhabitants and the
probabilities of life too little alter the age at which
the scceffions ceafe ; and too great if there is a decreafe.
Before that age it will in both cafes give them too
great ; but mofl confiderably io in the former cafe, or
when there is an increafe.
Agreeably to thefe obfervations, if a place increafes
not in confequence ol acceffions from other places,
but of a conftant excefs of the births above the deaths,
a table conftruffed on the principle that has been
mentioned will give the probabilities of life too low
through the whole extent of life 5 becaufe in fuch
circumftances the number of deaths in the firft ftages
of life muft be too great in comparifon of the number
of deaths in the latter ftages and more or lefs fo as
the increafe is more or lefs rapid. The contrary in all
refpefls takes place where there is a decreafe arifing
from the exceff of the deaths above the buths.
For example : Let us fuppofe that 244 of thofe
born in a town attain annually to 20 years of age,
and
M O Pv [ 427 ] M O R
Mortality, and that 250 more, all likewife 20 years of age, come
—v into it annually from other places, in confequence of
which it has for a courfe of y«ars been juft maintained
in the number of its inhabitants, without any fenfible
increafe or decreafe : in thefe circumfiances, the num¬
ber of the living in the town of the age of 20 will
be always 244 natives, and 250 fettlers, or 494 in all ;
and fince thefe are fuppofed all to die in the town,
and no more recruits are fuppofed to come in, 494
will be likewife the number dying annually at 20
and upwards. In the fame manner it will appear, on
thefe fuppofitions, that the number of the living at e-
very age fubfequent to 20 will be equal to the number
dying annually at that age and above it ; and con-
fequently that the number of inhabitants and the de¬
crements of life, for every fuch age, will be given ex-
a£fly by the table. But for all ages before 20, they
will be given much too great. For let 280 of all born
in the town reach 10; in this cafe, 280 will be the
true number of the living in the town at the age of 10 j
and the recruits not coming in till 20, the number
given by the bills as dying between 10 and 20 will be
the true number dying annually of the living in this
divifton of life. Let this number be 36 ; and it will
follow that the table ought to make the numbers or the
living at the ages between 10 and 20, a feriesof decrea-
fing means between 280 and (280 diminithed by 36, or)
244. But in forming the table on the principle juft
mentioned, 250 (the number above 20 dying annually
in the town who were not born in it) will be added to
each number in this feries ; and therefore the table will
give the numbers of the living, and the probabilities of
life in this divilion of life, almoft twice as great as they
really are. This obfervation, it is mantfeft, may be ap¬
plied to all the ages under 20.
It is neceffary to add, that fuch a table will give the
number of inhabitants and the probabilities of life
equally wrong before 20, whether the recruits all come
in at 20, agreeably to the fuppofition juft made, or only
begin then to come in. In this laft cafe, the table will
give the number of inhabitants and probabilities of
life too great throughout the whole extent of life, if the
recruits come in at all ages above 20. But if they
ceafe at any particular age, it will give them right only
from that age ; and before, it will err all along on the
fide of excefs 5 but lefs conliderably between 20 and
that age than before 20. For example : if, of the 230
fuppofed to come in at 20, only 150 then come in,
and the reft at 30 5 the number of the living will be
given 100 too high at every age between 20 and 30 j
but, as juft fhown, they will be given 25o too high at
every age before 20. In general, therefore, the num¬
ber of the living at any particular age muft be given by
the fuppofed table as many too great as there are annual
fettlers after that age ; and if thefe fettlers come in at
all ages indifcriminately, during any certain interval of
life, the number of inhabitants and the probabilities of
life will be continually growing lefs and lefs wrong, the
nearer any age is to the end of that interval. Thefe
cbfervations prove, that tables of obfervation formed in
the common way, from bills of mortality for places
where there is an excefs of the burials above the births,
muft be erroneous for a great part of the duration of
life, in proportion to the degree of that excefs. They
{bow likewife at what parts of life the errors in fuch Mortality
tables are molt confiderable, and how they may be in a '
great meafure correfted.
All this (hall be exemplified in the particular cafe of
London.
The number of deaths between the ages of 10 and
20 is always ib fmall in the London bills, that it feems
certain few recruits come to London under 20, or
at leaf! not fo many as before this age are fent out for
education to fchools and univeffities. After 20 great
numbers come in till 30, and fume perhaps till 40 or
50 : but at every age after 50, it is probable that more
retire from London than come to it. The London
tables of obfervation, therefore, being formed on the
principle already mentioned, cannot give the probabili¬
ties of life right till 40. Between 30 and 40 they muft
be a little too high j but more fo between 20 and 30,
and moft of all fo before 20. It follows alfo that thefe
tables muft give the number of inhabitants in London
much too great.
The fir ft of the following tables is formed in the
manner here explained, from the London bills for 10
years, from 1759 to 1768, and adapted to 1000 born
as a radix. The fum of the numbers in the fecond
column, diminiftied by half the number born, is 25.757.
According to this table, then, for every 1000 deaths in
London there are 25^ as many inhabitants; or, in
other words, the expectation of a child juft bom is
254 ; and the inhabitants are to the annual burials as
25^ to 1. But it has appeared, that the numbers in
the fecond column, being given on the fuppofition that
all thofe who die in London were born there, muft be
too great ; and we have from hence a demonftration,
that the probabilities of life are given in the common
tables of London obfervations too high for at lead the
firft 30 years of life j and alfo, that the number of in¬
habitants in London muft be lefs than 25^ multiplied
by the annual burials. The common tables, therefore,
of London obfervations undoubtedly need correction, as
Mr Simpfon fuggefted, and in fome meafure performed;
though too imperfeCtly, and without going upon any
fixed principles, or {bowing particularly how tables of
obfervation ought to be formed, and how far in difFer-
’ent circumftances, and in different age«, they are to be
depended on. The way of doing this, and in general the
right method of forming genuine tables of obfervation
for towns, may be learned from the following rule :
“ From the fum of all that die annually, after any
given age, fubtiact the number of annual fettlers after
that age ; and the remainder will be the number of the
living at the given time.”
This rule can want no explication or proof after :
what has been already faid.
If, therefore, the number of annual fettlers in a
town at every age could be afeertained, a perfeCI table
of obfervations might be formed for that town from
bills of mortality, containing an account of the ages
at which all die in it. But no more can be learned
in this inftance from any bills, than the whole num¬
ber of annual fettlers, and the general divifion of life
in which they enter. This, however, may be fuffi-
cient to enable us to form tables that {hall be tolerably
exaCL For inflance : Suppofe the annual deaths in
a town which has not increafed or dec re a fed, to have
3 H 3 „ been .
%
M OR [ 42B ] M O R
Mortality, been for many years in the proportion of 4 to 3 to
the annual births. It will hence follow, that ^ of
the perfons who die in fuch a town are fettlers, or
emigrants from other places, and not natives ; and the
hidden increafe in the deaths alter 20 will alfo (how,
agreeably to what was before obferved, that they enter
after this age. In forming, therefore, a table for
fuch a town, a quarter of all that die at all ages
throughout the whole extent of life mull be deduc¬
ed from the fum of all that die after'every given age
before 20 } and the remainder will be the true num¬
ber living at that given age. And if at 20, and
every age above it, the dedudion is omitted, or the
number of the living at every fuch age is taken the
fame with the fum of all that die after it, the refult
will be (fuppofing moft of the fettlers to come in be¬
fore 30, and all before 40) a table exadt till 20 ; too
high between 20 and 305 but nearly right for fome
years before 40 ; and after 40 exad again. Such a
table, it is evident, will be the fame with the table
laft defcribed at all ages above 20, and different from it
only under 20. It is evident alfo, that on account of
its giving the probabilities of life too great for fome
years after 20, the number of inhabitants deduced
from it may be depended on as fomewhat greater than
the truth j and more or lefs fo, as the annual recruits
enter in general later or fooner after 20.
Let us now confider what the refult of thefe re¬
marks will be, when applied particularly to the London
bills.
It muft be here firft obferved, that at leaft one quar¬
ter of all that die in London are fupplies or fettlers from
the country, and not natives. The medium of annual
burials for 10 years, from 1739 t0 *768, was 22,956 •,
of births 15,710. The excels is 7246, or near a third
of the burials. The fame excefs during 10 years before
1750 was 10,500, or near half the burials. London
was then decreafing. For the laft 12 or 15 years it
has been increaling. This excefs, therefore, agree¬
ably to the foregoing obfervations, was then greater
than the number of annual fettlers, and it is now lefs.
It is however here fuppofed, that the number of an¬
nual fettlers is now no more than a quarter of the an-^
nual burials, in order to allow* for more omiftions in
the births than the burials j and alfo, in order to be
more fore of obtaining refolts that Ihall not exceed the
4ruth.
Of every 1000 then who die in London only 750
are natives, and 250 are recruits who come to it after
18 or 20 years of age *, and, confequently, in order to
obtain from the bills a more corre£l table than the firft
of the following tables, 250 muft be fobtra&ed from
every one of the numbers in the fecond column till 20 j
‘ and the numbers in the third column muft be kept the
fame, the bills always giving thefe right. After 20,
the table is to be continued unaltered $ and the refult
will be, a table which will give the numbers of the
living at all ages in London much nearer the truth
but ftill fomewhat too high. Such is the fecond of
the following tables. The fom of all the numbers in
the fecond column of this table, diminilhed by 500, is
20,75°. For every 1000 deaths, therefore, in London,
there are, according to this table, 20,750 living perfons
in ft j or for every fingle death 2o^ inhabitants. It
was before Ihown, that the number of inhabitants in Mortal."ty.
London could not be fo great as 25 ^ times the deaths. v— ■*
It now appears (fince the numbers in the fecond co¬
lumn of this table are too high) that the number of in¬
habitants of London cannot be fo great as even 20 |-
tim^s the deaths. And this is a conclufion which every
one, w’ho will beftow due attention on what has been
faid, will find himfelf forced to receive. It will not be
amifs, however, to confirm it by the following faff, the
knowledge of which is derived from the particular in¬
quiry and information of Mr Harris, the late ingenious
matter of the royal mathematical fchool in Chrift-
Church hofpital. The average of lads in this fchool
has, for 30 years paft, been 831. They are admitted
at all ages between 7 and I 1 } and few flay beyond
16 : they are therefore in general, lads between the
age of 8 and 1 6. They have better accommodations
than it can be fuppofed children commonly have ; and
about 300 of them have the' particular advantage of
being educated in the country. In fuch circumftances,
it may be well reckoned, that the proportion of chil¬
dren dying annually muft be lefs than the general pro¬
portion of children dying annually at the fame ages in
London. The fa& is, that for the laft 30 years 1
have died annually, or one in 70-3-.
According to Table II. one in 73 dies between 10
and 20, and one in 70 between 8 and 16. That table,
therefore, probably gives the decrements of life in Lon¬
don, at thefe ages, too little, and the numbers of the
living too great : and if this is true of thefe ages, it
muft be true of all other ages under 20 j and it fol-
low'S demonftrably, in conformity to what was before
ftiowm, that more people fettle in London after 20
than the fourth above foppofed y and that from 20 to
at leaft 30 or 35, the numbers of the living are given
too great, in proportion to the decrements of life.
In this table the numbers in the fecond column are
doubled at 20, agreeably to what really happens in
London $ and the fum of the numbers in this column
diminiftied by half the whole number of deaths, gives
the expe&ation of life, not of a child juft born, as in
other tables, but of all the inhabitants of London at
the time they enter it, whether that be at birth or
at 20 years of age. The expe&ations, therefore, and
the values of London lives under 20, cannot be calcu¬
lated from this table. But it may be very eafily fitted
for this purpofe, by finding the number of births which,
according to the given decrements of life, will leave
494 alive at 20 5 and then adapting the intermediate
numbers in foch a manner to this radix, as to preferve
all along the number of the living in the fame pro¬
portion to the numbers of the dead. This is done in
the third of the following tables j and this table may
be recommended as better adapted to the prefent ftate
of London than any other table. The values of lives,
however, deduced from it, are in general nearly the
fame wfith thofe deduced by Mr Simplon from the
London bills as they flood forty years ago y the main
difference-is, that after 52, and in old age, this table
gives them fomewhat lower than Mr Simpfon’s table.
The fourth and fifth of th - following tables, compared
with the two laft, will give a diftinft and full view of
the difference between the rate of human mortality in
great towns and in country parifties and villages.
TABLE
Mortality.
M O R
TABLE I.
[ 429 1
M O R
TABLE III.
Mortality.
Showing the Probabilities of Life in London, on the Showing the true Probabilities of Life in London foj1
fuppclition that all who die in London were bom
there. Formed from the Bills for ic years, from
1759 to 1768.
all ages. Formed from the Bills for 10 years, from
1759 to 1768.
4ges.
Perfons
iving.
Deer.
ofLifc
IOOO
760
66l
619
59°
569
558
548
541
535
53°
526
5I5
512
5°9
506
5°3
499
494
487
479
471
463
455
447
439
431
422
4J3
Perfons
living.
Deer,
of Life
Ages.
Perfons Deer,
living, of Life
Ages.
Perfons
living.
Deer,
of Life
i5i8
1022
832
747
688
646
623
603
589
577
567
558
549
541
534
528
522
515
508
5°i
494
487
479
471
463
455
447
439
431
422
4I3
Ages.
Perfons
living1.
4°4
395
386
377
368
359
350
341
332
322
312
302
292
282
272
262
252
242
233
224
215
206
198
190
183
176
169
162
I55
J47
!39
Ages
Perfons
living.
Deer,
of Life
132
i25
1x8
in
104
97
90
83
76
70
64
58
53
48
43
38
33
29
25
22
. *9
16
TABLE II.
Showing the true Probabilities of Life in London till
the age of 19.
Ages.
Perfons
living.
DeVr.
of Life
75°
510
4X1
369
340
3J9
308
298
291
Perfons
living.
Deer,
of Life
Ages
&C.
Perfons
living.
Deer.
ofLife
253
249
494
487
&c.
The numbers in the
fecond column to be
continued as in the
laft table.
All the bills, from which the following tables are
formed, give the numbers dying under 1 as well as un¬
der 2 years j and in the numbers dying under 1 are in¬
cluded, in the country parifh in Brandenburg and at
Berlin, all the ftillborns. All the bills alfo !
numbers dying in every period of five years.
give
the
TABLE
M O R
M O R
[ 43= ]
Mortal'ty.
TABLE IV.
TABLE V
Mortality
^ 1
Sltoaving the Probabilities of Life in the Dili riel of Showing the Probabilities of Life in a Country Pan la
P „ . , , r 1 r __ .1- ^ Jn Brandenburg, formed from the Bills ror 1 ears,
from 1710 to 1759, as given by Mr Sufmiich, in his
Gottliche Ordnung.
Vaud, Switzerland, formed from the RegUters of 43
Parilhes, given by Mr Muret, in the Eirft Part of
the Bern Memoirs for the Year 1766.
Age.
10
11
12
J5
16
17
18
J9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Living
IOOO
8ll
765
735
7i5
Deer.
189
46
3°
20
I4
701
688
677
667
659
6S3
648
643
639
635
631
626
622
618
614
610
606
602
597
592
587
582
27 ! 577
28 572
29 5^7
563
l3
11
10
8
6
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
Age. Living. Deer
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
558
553
548
544
539
533
527
520
5I3
506
coo
494
488
482
476
469
461
451
441
431
422
414
406
397
388
377
364
348 s
331 j
3X4 I
299 l
7
8
10
10
10
J3
16
17
17
15
13
Age.
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
Living. Deer
286
274
262
250
236
220
202
184
168
l53
140
129
H9
109
98
85
71
58
46
36
29
24
20
85
86
87
88
89
*7
11
9
7
90
12
12
12
I4
16
18
18
16
T5
*3
11
10
10
13
14
!3
12
10
7
5
4
3
TABLE
M O 11
[ 43i ]
M O R
Mortality-
Mortality
!!
Mortar.
TABLE YI.
Showing the Probabilities of Life at Vienna, form¬
ed from the Bills for Eight Years, as given by-
Mr Sufmilch, in his Gottliche Ordnung, page 32,
Tables.
TABLE VII.
Showing the Probabilities of Life at Berlin, formed
Brief q/'MORTANCESTRY, in Scots Law ; an¬
ciently the ground of an action at the inftance of an
heir,- in the fpecial cafe where he had been excluded
from the poffeffion of his anceftor’s ellate by the fupe-
rior, or other perfon pretending right.
MORTAR, a preparation of lime and fand mixed
v/ith water, which ferves as a cement, and is ufed by
mafons and bricklayers in building walls of done and
brick. See Lime, Chemistry Index.
Mortar, a chemical utenfil, very ufeful for the di-
vifion of bodies, partly by percuflion and partly by
grinding. Mortars have the form of an inverted bell.
The matter intended to be pounded is to be put into
them, and there it is to be (truck and bruifed by a
long initrument called a pefile. The motion given to
the peftle ought to vary according to the nature of the
fubftances to be pounded. Thole which are eafily bro¬
ken, or which are apt to fly out of the mortar, or
which are hardened by the (troke of the peitle, require
that this initrument (hould be moved circularly, rather
by grinding or bruifing than by (triking. Thofe fub¬
ftances which are foftened by the heat occafioned by
rubbing
M O R [ 432 ] M O R
Mortar, rubbing and percuflion, require to be pounded very
“‘"r v*flowly. Laftly, Thofe which are very hard, and which
are not capable of being foftened, are eafily pounded
by repeated ftrokes of the peftle. They require no
bruifing but when they are brought to a certain degree
of finenefs. But thefe things are better learned by ha*
bit and pradtice than by any diredfions.
As mortars are inftruments which are conftantly
ufed in chemiflry, they ought to be kept of all fizes and
materials $ as of marble, copper, glafs, iron, gritftone,
and agate. The nature of the fubftance to be pounded
determines the choice of the kind of mortar. The
hardnefs and diffolving power of that fubftance are par¬
ticularly to be attended to. As copper is a metal,
which is folubfcp by almoft all menftrua, and hurtful to
health, this metal is rarely or never employed for the
purpofe of making mortars.
One of the principal inconveniences of pulveriza¬
tion in a mortar proceeds from the fine powder which
rifes abundantly from fome fubftances during the ope¬
ration. If thefe fubftances be precious, the lofs will
be confiderable 5 and if they be injurious to health,
they may hurt the operator. Thefe inconveniences
may be remedied, either by covering the mortar with
a fk.in, in the middle of which is a hole, through which
the peftle pafles j or by moiftening the matter w ith a
little water when this addition does not injure it j or,
laftly, by covering the mouth and nofe of the operator
with a fine cloth, to exclude this pow’der. Some fub¬
ftances, as corrofive fublimate, arfenic, calces of lead, Mort;
cantharides, euphorbium, &c. are fo noxious, that all ——y
thefe precautions ought to be ufed, particularly when
a large quantity is pounded.
Large mortars ought to be fixed upon a block of
wood, fo high, that the mortar ftiall be level with the
middle of the operator. When the peftle is large and
heavy, it ought to be fufpended by a cord or chain
fixed to a moveable pole placed horizontally above the
mortar: this pole confiderabiy relieves the operator,
becaufe itselafticity ailifts the railing of the peftle.
MORTAR-PIECE, in the military art, a fhort piece
of ordnance, thick and wide, proper for throwing bombs,
carcafes, ftielis, ftones, bags filled with grape-Ihot, &c.
See Gunnery, N° 50.
Land Mortars, are thofe ufed in fieges, and of late
in battles, mounted on beds made of folid timber, con-
fifting generally of four pieces, thofe of the loyal and
cohorn excepted, which are but one fingle block y
and both mortar and bed are transported on block-
carriages. There is likewife a kind of land mortars,
mounted on travelling carriages, invented by Count
Buckeburg, which may be elevated to any degree •,
w'hereas ours are fixed to an angle of 45 degrees, and
firmly laftied with ropes. The following table fhows
the weight of land mortars and Ihells ; together with
the quantity of powder the chambers hold when full j
the weight of the {hells, and powder for loading them.
Sea Mortars, are thofe wdiich are fixed in bomb longer and much heavier than the land mortars. The
veffels for bombarding places by fea : and as they are following table exhibits the weight of the fea mortars
generally fired at a much greater diftance than that and (hells, and alfo of their full charges,
whiph is required by land, they are made fomewhat f
l
Nature of the mortar.
10-inch howitzer.
13-inch mortar.
10-inch mortar.
Powder con¬
tained in the
chamber
when full.
lb. oz.
IZ O
30 O
I 2 O
Weight of
the mortar.
C. qr. lb.
31 2 26
8lZ I
34 2 II
Weight of
the fliell
when fixed.
lb.
93
Weight of
powder con¬
tained in
tine fliell.
lb. oz.
7 °
To Charge or Load a Mortar, the proper quantity
of gunpowder is put into the chamber, and if there be
any vacant fpace they fill it up with hay ; fome choofe
a wooden plug : over this they lay a turf, fome a wood¬
en tompion fitted to the bore of the piece; and laftly
2,
the bomb \ taking care that the fufe be in the axis
thereof, and the orifice be turned from the muzzle of
the piece : what Space remains is to be filled up ■with
hay, ftravv, turf, &c. fo as the load may not be explod¬
ed without the utmoft violence.
The
M O R
[ 433 ]
MGR
Mortar. The quantity of gunpowder to be ufed is found by
•"“'V"" ■' dividing the weight of the bomb by 30 ; though this
rule is not always to be ftri&ly obferved.
When the proper quantity of powder neceffary to
charge a fea mortar is put into the chamber, it is co¬
vered with a wad w’ell beat down with the rammer.
After this the fixed (hell is placed upon the wad, as
near the middle of the mortar as poffible, with the
fufe hole uppermofi, and another wad prefled down
clofe upon it, fo as to keep the (hell firm in its pofi-
tion. The officer then points the mortar according to
the propofed inclination.—When the mortar is thus
fixed, the fufe is opened; the priming iron is alfo
thrult into the touch-hole of the mortar to clear it,
after which it is primed with the fined pow’der. This
done, tw7o of the matrofles or failors, taking each one of
the matches, the firfl lights the fufe, and the other fires
the mortar. The bomb, thrown out by the explofion
of the powder, is carried to the place intended : and
the fufe, which ought to be exhaufled at the inflaut of
the ffiell’s falling, inflames the powder contained in it, and
burfls the Ihell in fplinters j which, flying off circularly,
occafion incredible mifchief wherefoever they reach.
If the fervice of mortars flrould render it neceffary
to ufe pound fliots, 200 of them with a wrooden bot¬
tom are to be put into the 13 inch mortar, and a quan¬
tity of pow’der not exceeding 5 pounds ; and 100 of
the above ffiot with pounds of powder, for the 10
inch mortar, or three pounds at mod.
To Elevate the Mortar fo as its axis may make any
given angle wflth the horizon, they apply the artillery
level or gunner’s quadrant. An elevation of 70 or 80
degrees is what is commonly chofen for rendering mor¬
tars mod ferviceable in cafling flrells into towms, forts,
&.c. though the greated range be at 45 degrees.
All the Englidi mortars are fixed to an angle of 45
degrees, and laflred drongly with ropes at that eleva¬
tion. Although in a fiege there is only one cafe in
which flrells fliould be thrown with an angle of 45 de¬
grees j that is, when the battery is fo far off that they
cannot otherwife reach the works; for when ihells
are thrown out of the trenches into the works of a
fortification, or from the town into the trenches, they
fliould have as little elevation as poffible, in order to
roll along, and not bury themfelves; whereby the da¬
mage they do, and the terror they occafion, are much
greater than if they fink into the ground. On the con¬
trary, w7hen fliells are thrown upon magazines or any
other buildings, with an intention to dedroy them, the
mortars fliould be elevated as high as poffible, that the
fliells may acquire a greater force in their fall, and con-
fequently do greater execution.
If all mortar pieces were, as they ought to be, ex-
aftly fimilar, and their requifites of powder as the
cubes of the diameters of their feveral bores, and if
their fliells, bombs, carcaffes, &c. were alio fimilar }
then, comparing like with like, their ranges on the
plane of the horizon, under the fame degree of eleva¬
tion, would be equal 5 and confequently one piece be¬
ing well proved, i. e. the range of the grenado, bomb,
carcafs, &c. being found to any degree of elevation, the
whole work of the mortar piece would become very
eafy and exadl.
But fince mortars are not thus fimilar, it is required,
V01.. XIV. Part II.
that the range of the piece, at fome known degree of
elevation, be accurately found by meafuring j and from
hence all the other ranges may be determined.
Thus, to find the range of the piece at any other
elevation required j fay, As the fine of double the angle
under which the experiment was made, is to the fine of
double the angle propofed, fo is the range known to the
range required.
Suppole, for inflance, it be found, that the range of
a piece, elevated to 3c0, is 2000 yards : to find the
range of the fame piece with the fame charge when
elevated to 450 j take the fine of 6o°, the double of 30°,
and make it the firfl term of the rule of three 5 the
fecond term muft be the fine of 90°, the double of 450,
and the third the given range. 2000 ; the fourth term
will be 2310, the range of the piece at 450. If the
elevation be greater than 450, inftead of doubling it,
take the fine of double its complement to 90°. As
fuppofe the elevation of a piece be 50°, take the fine of
8o°, the double of 40°. Again, If a determinate di-
ftance to which a Ihot is to be call, be given, and the
angle of elevation to produce that effeft be required •,
the range known muft be the firft term in the rule ot
three, which fuppofe 2000 yards ; the range propofed,
which we fuppofe 1600 yards, the fecond term 5 and
the fine of 60 double of the elevation for the range of
2COO yards, the third term. The fourth term will
be found the fine of 430 52', whofe half 21® 56' is the
angle of elevation the piece muft have to produce the
defired efi’edl. And if 21° 56' be taken from 90°, you
will have 68° 4' for the other elevation of the piece,
with which the fame effeft will likewife be produced.
Note, To avoid the trouble of finding fines of double
the angles of the propofed elevations, Galileo and Torri¬
celli give us the following table, wherein the fines of
the angles fought are had by infpedlion.
Morta
D; grees.
90
89
88
87
86
85
84
83
82
81
8 j
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
71
70
69
68
67
Degrees.
o
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1 x
] 2
x3
*4
15
16
17
18
20
21
22
23
Ranges. ' Degrees, fDegrees. | Ranges.
349
698
io45
1392
!736
2709
24x9
2556
3090
3420
3746
4067
4384
4695
5000
5299
5592
5870
6157
6428
6691
6947
7'93
o
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5°
49
48
47
46
45
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
7431
7660
7880
8090
8290
8480
8660
8829
8988
9135
9272
9397
95x1
96i3
9703
9781
9841
9903
9945
9976
9994
10000
3 1
The
M O H [ 434 ] M O R
Mortgage. The ufe of the table is obvious; Suppofe, for in-
y-. fiance, it be known by experiment, that a mortar ele¬
vated 150, charged with three pounds ot powder, will
throw a bomb to the diftance of 350 fathoms j and it
be required, with th6 fame charge, to throw a bomb
too fathoms farther j feek in the table the number an.
fwering to 15 degrees, and you will find it 5000. Then
as 330 is to 450, fo is 5000 to a fourth number, which
is 6428. Find this number, or the neareft to it, in the
table, and againft it you will find 20° or 70° j the pro¬
sper angles of elevation.
MORTGAGE, in Law, (tnortuum vadium, or dead
pledge), is where a man borrows of another a fpecific
lum (e. g. 200I.), and grants him an eftate in fee, on
condition that if he, the mortgager, {hall pay the mort¬
gagee the faid fum of 200I. on a certain day mentioned
in the deed, that then the mortgager may re-enter on
the eftate fo granted in pledge ; or, as is now the more
ufual way, that the mortgagee {hall re-convey the eftate
to the mortgager : in this cafe the land which is fo put
in pledge, is by law, in cafe of nonpayment, at the
time limited, For ever dead and gone from the mortga¬
ger j and the mortgagee’s eftate in the lands, is then
no longer conditional, but abfolute. But fo long as it
continues conditional, that is, between the time of
lending the money and the time allotted for payment,
the mortgagee is called tenant in mortgage. But as it
was formerly a doubt, whether, by taking fuch eftate
in fee, it did not become liable to the wife’s dower, and
other encumbrances of the mortgage (though that doubt
lias been long ago overruled by our courts of equity),
it therefore became ufual to grant only a long term of
years, by way of mortgage *, with condition to be void
on repayment of the mortgage money : which courfe
has been fince continued, principally becaufe on the
death of the mortgagee fuch term becomes veiled in his
perfonal reprefentatives, who only are entitled in equi¬
ty to receive the money lent, of whatever nature the
mortgage may happen to be.
As foon as the eftate is created, the mortgagee may
immediately enter on the lands *, but is liable to be dif-
poffeffed, upon performance of the condition by pay¬
ment of the mortgage money at the day limited. And
therefore the ufual way is to agree that the mortgager
lhali hold the land till the day afligned for payment :
when, in cafe of failure, whereby the efiate becomes
abfolute, the mortgagee may enter upon it, and take
poffeftion, without any poflihility at law of being af¬
terwards evifted by the mortgager, to whom the land
is now for ever dead. But here again the courts of
equity interpofe *, and though a mortgage be thus for¬
feited, and the eftate abfolutely vefted in the mortga¬
gee at the common law, yet they will confider the real
value of the tenements compared with the fum borrow¬
ed. And if the eftate be of greater value than the fum
lent thereon, they will allow the mortgager at any rea-
fonable time to recal or redeem his eftate ; paying to
the mortgagee his principal, intereft, and expences:
for otherwife, in ftriflnefs of law, an eftate worth 1000I.
might be forfeited for non-payment of look or a lefs
fum. This reafonable advantage, allowed to mortga¬
gers, is called the equity of redemption; and this en¬
ables a mortgager to call on the mortgagee, who has
poffeftion of his eftate. to deliver it back, and account
tor the rents and profits received on payment of his
whole debt and intereft, thereby turning the mortaum MortTer
into a kind of vhum vadium; (fee Vadium). But, ^ t
on the other hand, the mortgagee may either compel ~v v f
the i’ale of the eftate, in order to get the whole of his
money immediately ; or elfe call upon the mortgager to
redeem his eftate prefently, or, in default thereof, to
be for ever foveclofed from redeeming the fame ; that
is, to lofe his equity of redemption without poftibility of
recal. And alfo, in fome cafes of fraudulent mortga¬
ges, the fraudulent mortgager forfeits all equity of re¬
demption w'hati'oever. It is not, however, ufual for
mortgagees to take poffeflion of the mortgaged eftate,
unlefs where the fecurity is precarious, or {mall; or
where the mortgager negledls even the payment of in¬
tereft : when the mortgagee is frequently obliged to
bring an eje&ment, and take the land into his own
hands, in the nature of a pledge, or the pignus of the
Roman law : whereas, while it remains in the hands of
the mortgager, it more refembles their hypotheca,
which was where the pofleflion of the thing pledged re¬
mained with the debtor. But by ftatute 7 Geo. II.
c. 20. after payment or tender by the mortgager of
principal, intereft, and cofts, the mortgagee can main¬
tain no eje&ment ; but may be compelled to re-afiign
his fecurities. In Glanvil’s time, when the univerfal
method of conveyance was by livery of feifin or corpo¬
ral tradition of the lands, no gage or pledge of lands
was good unlefs poffeflion was alfo delivered to the cre¬
ditor •, ft non fequatur ipftus vadii tradit 10, curia demini
regis hujufmodi prhatas conventiones tuen non folet: for
which the reafon given is, to prevent fubfequent and
fraudulent pledges of the fame land; cum in tali cafu
pojftt eadetn res pluribus aliis crednoribus turn prius turn
poferius invadiari. And the frauds which have arifen,
flnee the exchange of thefe public and notorious convey¬
ances for more private and fecret bargains, have well
evinced the wifdom of our ancient law.
MORTIER, an enfign of dignity, which was borne
by the chancellor and grand preftdents of the parliament
of France. That borne by the chancellor was a piece *
of cloth of gold, edged and turned up with ermine ;
and that of the firft prefident w-as a piece of black vel¬
vet edged with a double row of gold lace.
MORTIFICATION, or Gangrene. See Medi¬
cine and Surgery Index.
Mortification, in religion, any fevere penance ob-
ferved on a religious account. See Fast.
MORTISE, or Mortoise, in carpentry, &c. a
kind of joint wherein a hole of a certain d»pth is made
in a piece of timber, which is to receive another piece
called a tenon.
MORTMAIN, or Alienation in Mortmain {in
mortua tnanti), is an alienation of lands or tenements to
any corporation, foie or aggregate, ecclefiaftical or tem¬
poral * : but thefe purchafes having been chiefly made * See Cfa.
by religious houfes, in confequence whereof the \zs\Asporation.
became perpetually inherent in one dead hand, this
hath occafioned the general appellation of mortmain to
be applied to fuch alienations, and the religious houfes
themfelves to be principally conlidered in forming the
ftatutes of mortmain : in deducing the hiftory of which
fiatutes, it will be matter of curiofity to obferve the
great addrefs and fubtle contrivance of the ecclefiaftics,
in eluding from time to time the laws in being, and the
zeal with which fucceflive parliaments have purfued
3 them
M O It [ 43S ] M O R
Mortmain, them through all their fineffes: how new remedies were
'-■-'■v--"' {till the parents of new evalions j till the legiflature at
laft, though with difficuky, hath obtained a decifive
viftory.
By the common law any man might difpofe of his
lands to any other private man at his own difcretion,
efpecially when the feodal reilraints of alienation were
worn away. Yet in confequence of thefe it was al¬
ways, and is kill neceflary, for corporations to have a
licenfe of mortmain from the crown, to enable them to
Slackjl. purchafe lands : for as the king is the ultimate lord of
Comment, every fee, he ought not, unlefs by his own confent, to
lofe his privilege of efcheats and other feodal profits,
by the vetting of lands in tenants that can never be at¬
tainted or die. And fuch licenfes of mortmain feem to
have been necelfary among the Saxons above 60 years
before the Norman conqueft. But, befides this gene¬
ral licenfe from the king as lord paramount of the king¬
dom, it was alfo requifite, whenever there was a mefne
or intermediate lord between the king and the alienor,
to obtain his licenfe alfo (upon the fame feodal princi¬
ples) for the alienation of the fpecific land. And if no
fuch licenfe was obtained, the king or other lord might
refpedlively enter on the lands fo alienated in mortmain,
as a forfeiture. The neceffity of this licenfe from the
crown was acknowledged by the Conftitutions of Cla¬
rendon, in refpedf of advowfons, w hich the monks al¬
ways greatly coveted, as being the groundwork of fub-
fequent appropriations. Yet fuch were the influence
and ingenuity of the clergy, that (notwithftanding this
fundamental principle) we find that the largeit and
moft confiderable ddnaiions of religious houfes happen¬
ed within lefs than two centuries after the Conqueft.
And ( when a licenfe could not be obtained) their con¬
trivance feems to have been this: That as the forfei¬
ture for fuch alienations accrued in the firft place to the
immediate lord of the fee, the tenant who meant to
alienate firft conveyed his lands to the religious houfe,
■and inftantly took them back again to hold as tenant
to the monaftery \ which kind of inflantaneous feilin
was probably held not to occafion any forfeiture : and
then, by pretext of feme other forfeiture, furrender, er
efeheat, the ioclety entered into thofe lands in right of
fuch their newly acquired figriiory, as immediate lords
of the fee. But when thefe donations began to grow
numerous, it was ohferved that the feodal fervices, or¬
dained for the defence of the kingdom, were every day
vifibly withdrawn •, that the circulation of landed pro¬
perty from man to man began to ftagnate ; and that the
lords were curtailed of the fruits of their figniories, their
efcheats, wardfhirs, reliefs, and the like: and there-
foie, in order to prevent this, it was ordained by the
feeond of King Henry’s IIl.’s great charters, and af¬
terwards by that printed in our common ftatufe books,
that all fuch attempts thould be void, and the land for¬
feited to the lord of the fee.
But as this prohibition extended only to religious
houles, billrops and other foie corporations were not in¬
cluded therein •, and the aggregate ecclefiaftical bodies
(wire, Sir Edward Coke obferves, in this were to be
commended, that they ever had of their counfel the heft
learned men that they could get) found many means
to creep out of this ftatute, by buying in lands that
were bona fide holden of therofelves as lords of the fee,
and thereby evading the forfeiture ; or by taking long
leafes for years, which firfi: introduced thofe extenfive
terms, for a thoufand or more years, which are now fo
frequent in conveyances. This produced the ftatute
de re/igiofis, 7 Edvv. I.; which provided, that no per-
fon, religious or other whatfoever, fhould buy, or felij
or receive under pretence of a gift, or term of years, or
any other title whatfoever, nor fliould by any art or in¬
genuity appropriate to himfelf, any lands or tenements
in mortmain ; upon pain that the immediate lord of the
fee, or, on his default for one year, the lords para¬
mount, and in default of all of them, the king, might
enter thereon as a forfeiture.
This feemed to be a fufficient fecurity againlt all
alienations in mortmain : but as thefe llatutes extend¬
ed only to gifts and conveyances between the parties,
the religious houfes now began to fet up a fitlitious
title to the land, which it was intended they fiiould
have, and to bring an aflion to recover it againtt the
tenant *, who, by fraud and collufion, made no defence,
and thereby judgement wTas given for the religious
houfe, which then recovered the land by a fentence of
law upon a fuppofed prior title. And thus they had the
honour of inventing thofe fictitious adjudications of
right, which are fince become the great affurance of
the kingdom, under the name of common recoveries.
But upon this the ftatute of Weftmintler the fecond,
13 Edw. I, c. 32. ena61ed, that in fuch cafes a jury
{hall try the true right of the demandants or plaintiffs
to the land ; and if the religious houfe or corporation
be found to have it, they (hall dill recover leifin ; other-
wife it fhall be forfeited to the immediate lord of the
fee, or elfe to the next lord, and finally to the king,
upon the immediate or other lord’s default. And the
like provifion was made by the fucceeding chapter, in
cafe the tenants fet up croffes upon their lands (the
badges of knights templars and hofpitallers) in order to
protetft them from the feudal demands of their lords,
by virtue of the privileges of thofe religious and mili¬
tary orders. And ie careful was this provident prince
to prevent any future evafions, that when the ftatute
of quia emptores, 18 Edw. I. abolifhed all fub-infeuda-
tions, and gave liberty for all men to alienate their
lands to be holden of their next immediate lord, a pro-
vifo was inferted that this fhould not extend to autho¬
rize any kind of alienation in mortmain. And when
afterwards the method of obtaining the king’s licenfe by
writ of ad quod damnum was marked out by the ftatute
27 Ed ward 1. ft. 2. it w^as farther provided by ftatute
34 Edward I. ft. 3. that no fuch licenfe fhould be ef-
fecfual without the confent of the mefne or intermediate
lords.
Yet ftill it was found difficult to fet bounds to ec¬
clefiaftical ingenuity : for when, they were driven out
of all their former holds, they devifed a new method
of conveyance, by which the lands were granted, not
to them'elves directly, but to nominal feoffees to the
ufe of the religious houfes j thus diftinguifhing be¬
tween th^ poffefiion and the ufe, and receiving the ac¬
tual profits, while the feifin of the land remained in
the nominal feoffee $ who was held by the courts
of'equity (then under the direffion of the clergy) to
be bound in conicience to account to bis cefiuy que
vfie for the rents and emoluments of the eftate And
it is to thefe inventions that our praflifers are indebt¬
ed for the introduction of ufes and trulls, the fourtda-
3 I 2 tion
Mortmain.
M O R [ 436 ] M O R
• tion of modern conveyancing. But, unfortunately for
the inventors themfelves, they did not long enjoy the
advantage of their new device ; for the ftatute 15 Rich¬
ard II. c. 5. enatls, that the lands which had been fo
purchafed to ufes fhould be admortifed by licenfe from
the crown, or elfe be fold to private perfons -7 and that,
for the future, ufes fhall be fubjeft to the ftatutes of
mortmain, and forfeitable like the lands themfelves.
And whereas the Ifatutes had been eluded by purcha-
fing large trafts of land adjoining to churches, and con-
fecrating them by the name of churclnjards, fuch lub-
tile imagination is alfo declared to be within the com-
pafs of the ftatutes of mortmain. And civil or lay cor¬
porations, as well as ecclefiaftical, are alfo declared to
be within the mifchief, and of courfe within the remedy
provided by thofe falutary laws. And laftly, As during
the times of popery lands were frequently given to fu-
perflitious ufes, though not to any corporate bodies j
or were made liable in the hands of heirs and devifees
to the charge of obits, chauntries, and the like, which
were equally pernicious in a well-governed date as ac¬
tual alienations in mortmain •, therefore at the dawn of
the Reformation, the llatute 23 Hen. VIII. c. 10. de¬
clares, that all future grants of lands for any of the
purpofes aforefaid, if granted for any longer term than
20 years, lhall be void.
But, during all this time, it was in the power of the
crown, by granting a licenfe of mortmain, to remit
the forfeiture, fo far as related to its own rights j and
to enable any fpiritual or other corporation to purchafe
and hold any lands or tenements in perpetuity ; which
prerogative is declared and confirmed by the ftatute
18 Edw. III. ft. 3. c. 3. But as doubts were conceived
at the time of the Revolution how far fuch licenfe was
valid, fince the king had no power to difpenfe with the
ftatutes of mortmain by a claufe of non ob/lante, which
was the ufual courfe, though it feems to have been un-
neceffary ; and as, by the gradual declenfion of mefne
figniories through the long operation of the ftatute of
quia cmptores, the rights of intermediate lords were re¬
duced to a very fmall compafs ; it was therefore pro¬
vided by the ftatute 7 & 8 W. III. c. 37. that the
crown for the future at its own dircretion may grant li-
cenfcs to alienate or take in mortmain, of whomfoever
the tenements may be holden.
After the dilfolution of monafteries under Hen. VIIL
though the policy of the next popifti fucceffor affedted
to grant a fecurity to the pofl'effors of abbey lands,
yet, in order to regain fo much of them as either the
zeal or timidity of their owners might induce them to
part with, the ftatutes of mortmain were fufpended for
20 years by the ftatute 1 & 2 P. & M. c. 8. and dur¬
ing that time any lands or tenements were allowed
to be granted to any fpiritual corporation without any
licenfe whatfoever. And long afterwards, for a much
better purpofe, the augmentation of poor livings, it
was enabled by the ftatute 17 Car. 11. c. 3. that ap-
propriators may annex the great tithes to the vicarages,
and that all benefices under tool, per annum may be
augmented by the purchafe of lands, without licenfe
of mortmain in either cafe 5 and the like provifion hath
been fince made in favour of the governors of Queen
Anne’s bounty. It hath alfo been held, that the fta¬
tute 13 Hen. VIII. before-mentioned, did not extend
to any thing but fuperftitious ufes 5 and that therefore
a man may give lands for the maintenance of a fchool, Mortmain.
an hofpital, or any other charitable ufes. But as it  -v—-J
was apprehended from recent experience, that perfons
on their deathbeds might make large and improvident
diipofitions even for thefe good purpofes, and defeat
the political ends of the ftatutes of mortmain ; it is
therefore enabled by the ftatute 9 Geo. II. c. 36. that
no lands or tenements, or money to be laid out thereon,
fhall be given for or charged with any charitable ufes
whatfoever, unlefs by deed indented, executed in the
prefence of two witnelfes 12 knlender months before the
death of the donor, and enrolled in the court of chan¬
cery within fix months after its execution (except
flocks in the public funds, which may be transferred
within fix months previous to the donor’s death), and
unlefs fuch gift be made to take effe<5t immediately,
and be without power of revocation ; and that all other
gifts lhall be void. The two univerfities, their colleges,
and their fcholars upon the foundation of the colleges
of Eton, Winchefter, and Weftminfter, are excepted
out of this a£t ; but fuch exemption was granted with
this provifo, that no college (hall be at liberty to pur¬
chafe more advowfons than are equal in number to one
moiety of the fellows or ftudents upon the refpe&ive
foundations.
MORTUARY, in Law, is a fort of ecclefiaftical he-
riot*, being a cultomary gift claimed by and due to* See
the minifter in very many pariihes on the death of his Heriat*
parilhioners. They feem originally to have been only
a voluntary bequeft to the church j being intended, as
Lyndewode informs us from a conftitution of Archbi-
fliop Langham, as a kind of expiation and amends to
the clergy for the perfonal tithes, and other ecclefiaf¬
tical duties, which the laity in their life time might
have negledfted or forgotten to pay. For this purpofe,
after the lord’s heriot or beft good was taken out, the
fecond beft chattel was referved to the church as a
mortuary. And therefore in the laws of King Canute,
this mortuary is called foul-foot, ox fymbolum animw.
And, in purfuance of the fame principle, by the laws,
of Venice, where no perfonal tithes have been paid du¬
ring the life of the party, they are paid at his death
out of his merchandife, jewels, and other moveables.
So alfo, by a fimilar policy in France, every man that
died without bequeathing a part of his eftate to the
church, which was called dying without confejjion, was
formerly deprived of Chriftian burial ; or, if he died
inteftate, the relations of the deceaied, jointly with the
bilhop, named proper arbitrators to determine what he
ought to have given to the church, in cafe he had
made a will. But the parliament, in 1409, redreffed
this grievance.
It was anciently ufual in England to bring the mor¬
tuary to church along with the corpfe when it came
to be buried; and thence it is fometimes called a corpfe*
prefent: a term which befpeaks it to have been once
a voluntary donation. However, in Bra&on’s time, fo
early as Henry III. we find it rivetted into an efta-
bliihed cuftom j infomuch that the bequefts of heriots
and mortuaries were held to be neceffary ingredients in
every teftament of chattels. Imprimis autem debet qul
libet, qui tef amentum fecerit, dominum fumn de meliorl
re quam habuent recognofcere ; et pofea ecclefiam de aha
meliore: the lord muft have the beft good left him as
a heriot} and the church the fecond beft as a mor.-.
tuaryv
M O n [ 457 ] M O S
Mortuary, tuary. But yet this cuftom was different in different
v places : in quibufdam locis habet ecclejia melius animal
de confuetudine; in quibufdam: fecundum, vel tertium
melius; et in quibufdam nihil: et idea confderanda ejl
confuetudo loci. This cuitom ffill varies in different
places, not only as to the mortuary to be paid, but the
perfon to whom it is payable. In Wales a mortuary or
corfe-prefent was due upon the death of every clergy¬
man to the bilhop of the diocefe •, till abolifhed, upon
a recompenfe given to the bilhop, by the ftatute, 12
Ann. ft. 2. c. 6. And in the archdeaconry of Che-
fter a cuftom alfo prevailed, that the biihop, who is
alfo archdeacon, ftiould have, at the death of every
clergyman dying therein, his belt horfe or mare, bridle,
faddie, and fpurs j his belt gown or cloak, hat, upper-
garment under his gown, and tippet, and alfo his beft
fignet or ring. But by ftatute 28 Geo. II. c. 6. this
mortuary is directed to ceafe, and the aft has fettled
upon the biftiop an equivalent in its room. The king’s
claim to many goods, on the death of all prelates in
England, feems to be of the fame nature} though Sir
Edward Coke apprehends, that this is a duty upon
death, and not a mortuary : a diftinftion which feems
to be without a difference. For not only the king’s
eccieliaftical charafter, as fupreme ordinary, but alfo
the fpecies of the good claimed, which bear fo near a
refemblance to thofe in the archdeaconry of Chefter,
which was an acknowledged mortuary, puts the matter
out of difpute. The king, according to the record
vouched by Sir Edward Coke, is entitled to fix things j
the bilhop’s beft horfe or palfrey, with his furniture 5
his cloak or gown, and tippet \ his cup and coyer; his
bafon and ewer ; his gold ring ; and laftly, his muta
canum, his mew or kennel of Founds,
This variety of cuftoms wdth regard to mortuaries,
giving frequently a handle to exactions on the one fide,
and frauds or expenfive litigations on the other, it
was thought proper by ftatute 21 Henry VIII. c. 6.
to reduce them to fome kind of certainty. For this
purpofe it is enabled, that all mortuaries, or corfe-
prefents to parfons of any parilh, ftrall be taken in the
following manner, unlefs where by cuftom lefs or none
at all is due ; viz. for every perfon who does not leave
goods to the value of ten marks, nothing ; for every
perfon who leaves goods to the value of ten marks and
under 30 pounds, 3s. qd. ; if above 30 pounds, and un¬
der 40 pounds, 6s. 8d.; if above 40 pounds, of what
value foever they may be, 10s. and no more. And no
mortuary ftiall throughout the kingdom be paid for
the death of any feme-covert; nor for any child ; nor
for any one of full age, that is not a houfekeeper ; nor Morua
for any wayfaring man ; but fuch wayfaring man’s mor- ^ J! .
tuary fhall be paid in the pavith to which he belongs.
And upon this ftatute ftands the law of mortuaries to
this day.
MOR US, the MULBERRY TREE, a genus of plants
belonging to the monoecia clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 53d order, Scabridee. See Bo¬
tany Index.
MOSA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Belgica,
rifing in Mount Vogefus on the borders of the Lingo-
nes, and which, after receiving a part of the Rhine
called Vahalis, forms the illand of the Batavi, and pafles
off into the fea, at the diftance of 80 miles. Now call¬
ed the Maefe, or Meufe; rifing in Champagne, on the
borders of the county of Burgundy, or Franche
Compte, at a village called Meufe, whence the appella¬
tion ; and running north through Lorrain and Cham¬
pagne into the Netherlands: it aftemards dire£ls its
courfe north-eaft and then weft; and joining the Waal,
runs to Dort, and falls into the German fea, a little be¬
low the Briel.
MOSiE Pons, in Ancient Geography, fuppofed to be
Maeftricht, fituated on the Maefe. E. Long. 5. 40.
N. Lat. 50. 55.
MOSAIC Law, or the Law of Moses, is the moft wilfor.’s
ancient that we know of in the world, and is of three Archxol.
kinds ; the moral larv, the ceremonial law, and the
judicial lawn The difierent manner in which each of
thefe was delivered, may perhaps fuggeft to us a right
idea of their different natures. The moral law, or
ten commandments, for inftance, was delivered on the
top of the mountain, in the face of the whole world,
as being of univerfal influence, and obligatory on all
mankind. The ceremonial was received by Mofes in
private in the tabernacle, as being of peculiar concern,
belonging to the Jew& only, and deftined to ceafe
when the tabernacle was down, and the vail of the temple
rent. As to the judicial law, it was neither fo public¬
ly nor fo audibly given as the moral law, nor yet fo
privately as the ceremonial; this kind of law being of
an indifferent nature, to be obferved or not obferved,
as its rites fuit with the place and government under
which we live. The five books of Mofes called the
Pentateuch, are frequently ftyled, by way of emphafis
the Law. This was held by the Jews in fuch vene¬
ration, that they would not allow it to be laid upon the
bed of any fick perfon, left it fliould be polluted by
touching the dead.
A TABLE or EIARMONY of the MOSAIC LAW, digefted into proper Heads, with
References to the feveral Parts of the Pentateuch where the refpective Laws occur.
Class I. The Moral Law written on the two Tables, containing
the Ten Commandments.
The frjl table, which includes
The firft commandment
'The fecond commandment,
The third commandment,
Exod.
chap.
Levitic.
chap.
Numb.
chap.
Deut.
chap.
20. 23.
20.23.34.
20. 23.
19. 20. 26,
1
5- 6. 13.
4.5.6.7.8.
ro. 11.12,.
I3-
5-
The
M O S [ 438 ]
M O S
Mofaic
Law.
The fourth commandment, -
The fecond table includes
The fifth commandment,
The fixth commandment,
The feventh commandment,
The eighth commandment,
The ninth commandment,
The tenth commandment,
The fum of both tables,
Class II. The Ceremonial Law may be fitly reduced to the
following heads, viz.
Of the holy place, - “ -
Of the matter and ftru&ure of the tabernacle.
Of the inftruments of the fame, viz.
The laver of brafs,
The altar of burnt offering,
The altar of incenfe, -
The candleftick of pure gold,
The table of fhew-bread,
Of the priefts and their veftments for glory and beauty,
Of the choofing of the Levites,
Of the priefts office in general,
Of their office in teaching,
Of their office in bleffing,
Of their office in offering; which fun&ion largely fpreading itfelf,
is divided into thefe heads, viz.
What the facrifice ought to be,
Of the continual fire,
Of the manner of the burnt offerings,
    — the peace offerings,
Of the manner of the facrifices according to their feveral kinds, viz.
Tor fin committed through ignorance of the law,
For fin committed through ignorance of the fa<ff,
For fin committed wittingly, yet not through impiety,
The fpecial law of facrifices for fin,
Of things belonging to the facrifices,
Of the ffiew-bread, - - -
Of the lamps, - ■*
Of the fweet incenfe,
Of the ufe of ordinary oblations, whereof there were feveral kinds
obferved by the priefls,
Of the confecration of the high priefls and other priells,
Of the confecration and office of the Levites,
Of the d welling of the Levites,
Of the anointing the altar, and all the inftruments of the ta¬
bernacle,
Of the continual daily facrifices,
Of the continual Sabbath day’s facrifices,
Of the folemn facrifice for feaft days, which were diverfe, and had
peculiar rites, diftinguifhed into thefe, viz.
Of trumpets, -
Of beginning of months,
Of the three nioft folemn feafts in general,
Of the feaft of paffover,
Of the feaft: of pentecoft,
Of the feaft of tabernacles, ^ -
Of the feaft of blowing the trumpets,
1
{
Exod.
chap.
20.
34-
20.
20.
20.
20.
20.
20.
20.
27.
3°-
27.
3°-
25-
25-
28.
23-31
35-
22.
23-
23-
26.
35-
26.
27,
3°*
29. 30.
3°-
Levitic.
chap.
Numb.
chap.
19. 23. 26,
19.
19.
18. 19.
19.
19.
19.
I7*
9.10.
22.
6.
67.
3- 7*
15-7*
6.
6.7.
2.6. 7.
24.
24.
6.8.
•34-
.13.25
34-
,24.
-34-
23-
23*
;8. 3.
3.18.
6.
8.
I5*
8.
35-
28.
28.
xo.
28.
9. 28.
28.
29.
29.
Deut.
chap.
23*
12.
31-
15- J7
16.
16.
16.
16.
Mofaic
Law.
Of
M O S [ 439 3
Of the feaft of expiation, - / -
Of the firft fruits,
Of tythes, - -
Of fruits growing and not eaten of,
Of the firit born.
Of the fabbatical year,
Of the year of jubilee,
Of vows in general, \ -
What perfons ought not to make vows,
What things cannot be vowed,
Of redemption of vows,
Of the vows of the Nazarites,
Of the laws proper for the priefts, viz.
Of pollutions, - -
Of the high prieft’s mourning, -
Of his marriage,
Of the mourning ©f the ordinary priefts,
Of their marriage,
Of their being forbidden the ufe of wine, &c.
Of fan£Hfied meats, -
Of the office of the Levites, viz.
Teaching,
Offering,
Other promifcuous ceremonial law’s, viz.
Of uncleannefs in general,
Of uncleannefs in meats, viz.
Of blood, - . 4. Gen. ix.
Of fat, ....
Of dead carcafes, ...
Other meats, and diverfe living creatures,
Of uncleannefs in the iffue of feed and blood,
In the dead bodies of men, - ...
In the leprofy, - ...
Of circumciOon, ... Gen. xvii.
Of the w’ater of expiation, ...
Of the mourning of the Israelites,
Of mixtures, - ...
Of their garments, and writing the law privately,
O' young birds not to be taken with the dam,
Of their paddle ftaves, - - .
Class III. The Political Law.
N. B. The Magiftrate is the keeper of the precepts of both
Tables, and to have refpe6l to human fociety 5—.therefore
the Political Laws of the Ifraelites are referred to both the
Tables, and are to be reduced to the feveral precepts of the
Moral Law’.
Laws referred to the firft table, namely,
tft, To the firft and fecond commandments, viz.
Of idolaters and apoftates, . . .
Of abolilhing idolatry, ...
Of diviners and falfe prophets,
Of covenants with other gods,
2d, To the third commandment, viz.
Of blafphemies. - 1 .
3d, To the fourth commandment, viz.
Of breaking the Sabbath, - . .
Political laws referred to the fecond table, «
M O S
Exod.
chap.
30.
22. 23. 34
I3*22, 34
23*
22.
23.24
22.
23. 24
31-35
Levitic.
chap.
16. 13.
2.
21.
I9.
25-
2 S'
27-
27.
27-
22.
21.
21.
21.
21.
IO.
6. 17. 19.
20.
15. 19.
7.17.19.
3-7-
l7-
11.20.
15.12.
J3-14
12.
19.
I9-
20.
19.20
24»
Numb.
chap.
29.
IS¬
IS.
30.
3°-
6.
3. 4. 18.
S'
19.
S'
19.
I5-
33
I5-
I5-
Dent.
chap.
26.
I 2. 14. 20.
I5-
I3-
23-
12.15.18.
17. 27.31.
10.
12.
14.
M-
23-
14.
14.
6, 11. 22.
22.
23-
(3-17-
7. 12.
18.
7-
ift, To
M O S
[ 440 ]
M O S
Mofaic
Law.
ill, To die fifth commandment, viz.
Of magillrates and their authority, - - *
Of the power of fathers, - - -
2d, To the fixth commandment, viz.
Of capital punilhments, - -
Of wilful murder, - - -
Of manflaughter unwittingly committed, and of the cities of re* 7
fuge, . - - J
Of heinous injury, - - -
Of punifliments not capital, - - *
Of the law of war, * * -
3d, To the feventh commandment, viz.
Of unlawful marriages, - *• -
Of fornication, - _ . -
Of whoredom, - -
Of adultery and jealoufy, - - -
Of copulation againft nature, - - *
Of divorcements, “ - ' -
Other matrimonial laws, _ - .
4th, To the eighth commandment, viz.
Of the punilhment of thefts,
Of facrilege,
Of not injuring ftrangers, - -
Of not defrauding hirelings, - - -
Of juft weights, - - - -
Of removing the land-mark, -
Of loft goods, - - -
Of ftrayed cattle, - - - -
Of corrupted judgements, *
Of fire breaking out by chance,
Of manftealing, ...
Of the fugitive fervant, _ - _
Of gathering fruits, _ - .
Of contrails, viz. 5
Borrowing, „ _ - -
Of the pledge, - - - -
Of ufury, -
Of felling, -
Of the thing lent, - - -
Of a thing committed to be kept, - - -
Of heirs, -
, 5th, To the ninth commandment, viz.
Of witnefifes, - - -
The eftablilhing the political law,
The eftabliflung the divine law in general,
From the dignity of the lawgiver, - - -
From the excellency of the laws, - c
From the promifes, - - - -
From the threatenings, - - -
18.30
21.
21.
21.
Fxod.
chap.
22.
22.
21.
22.
2 2. 23.
22.
22. 23
23*
22.
22.
22.
21.
22.
Levitic.
chap.
24.
24.
18.20
19.
21.
19.20
18.20.
18.20.
JP*
19.
19.
19.
19. 23.
25-
25*
15.19.23.
24.
23*
Numb.
chap.
Deut.
chap.
19.20.22.
18. 26
26.
11.
35-
35-
{
-{
1. 13. 17
23*
21. 24.
19.
19.21.22.
25-
25-
25-
7. 21.
23*
22.
24.
21.22.24.
2J-
10.
26. 25.
2S"
I9*
22.
16. 24
24.
23-
23. 24
I5*
24.
23-
I5-
Mofaic
Law.
MOSAIC, or Mosaic WORK, an affemblage of of ftucco, in fuch a manner as to imitate the colours
little pieces of glafs, marble, precious ftones, &c. of and gradations of painting.^ I he critics are divided
various colours, cut fquare, and cemented on a ground as to the origin and reafon of the name. Some derive
T It
M O S [ 441 ] M O S
Mofaic. it from tnofaicum, a corruption of mufaicum, as that is
1—v ' of mujivum, as it was called among the Romans.
Scaliger derives it from the Greek pvToc., and imagines
the name wras given to this fort of works as being very-
fine and ingenious. Nebricenfis is of opinion it was
fo called, becaufe ex Mis piftuns ornabantur mufea.
x. Method of performing mofaic work of glafs is
this: They provide little pieces of glafs, of as many
different colours and iizes as poflible.
Now, in order to apply thele feveral pieces, and out
of them to form a picture, they in the firit place pro¬
cure a cartoon or defign to be drawn ; this is tranf-
ferred to the ground or plafter by chalking as in paint¬
ing in frefco. See Fresco.
As this plafter is to be laid thick on the w^all, and
therefore will continue frefli and foft a confiderable
time, fo there may be enough prepared at once to
ferve for as much work as will take up three or four
days.
This plafter is compofed of lime made of hard
ftone, with brick duft very fine, gum tragacanth, and
whites of eggs ; wdien this plafter has been thus pre¬
pared and laid on the wall, and made the defign of
w’hat is to be reprefented, they take out the little pieces
of glafs with a pair of plyers, and x-ange them one after
another, ftill keeping ftriftly to the light, fliadow, dif¬
ferent taints, and colours reprefented in the defign be¬
fore ; prefling or Hatting them down with a rulej*,
which ferves both to fink them within the ground and
to render the furface even.
Thus, in a long time, and with a great deal of la¬
bour, they finifti the wTork, which is ftill the more
beautiful, as the pieces of glafs are more uniform, and
ranged at an even height.
Some of thefe pieces of mofaic wmrk are performed
with that exaiftnefs, that they appear as fmooth as a
table of marble, and as finifhed and mafterly as a paint¬
ing in frefco ; with this advantage, that they have a
fine luftre, and will laft ages.
The fineft works of this kind that have remained till
our time, and thofe by whom the moderns have retriev¬
ed the art, which w7as in a manner loft, are thofe in the
church of St Agnes, formerly the temple of Bacchus,
at Rome j and fome at Pifa, Florence, and other cities
of Italy. The moft efteemed among the works of the
moderns are thofe of Jofeph Pine and the Chevalier
Lanfranc, in the church of St Peter at Rome : there are
alfo very good ones at Venice.
2. The method of performing mofaic work of marble
is this : The ground of mofaic works, wholly marble,
is ufually a tnaftive marble, either white or black. On
this ground the defign is cut with a chifel, after it has
been firft chalked. After it has been cut of a .confidar-
able depth, i. e. an inch or more, the cavities are filled
up with marble of a proper colour, firft fafhioned ac¬
cording to the defign, and reduced to the thicknefs of
the indentures with various inftruments. To make the
piece thus infected into the indentures cleave faft, whofe
feveral colours are to imitate thofe of the defign, they
ufe a ftucco, compofed of lime and marble duft ; or a
kind of maftich, which is prepared by each workman,
after a different manner peculiar to himfelf. The fi¬
gures being marked out, the painter or fculptor him¬
felf draws with a pencil the colours of the figures not
determined by the ground, axid in the fame manner
Vol. XIV. Pert II.
makes ftrokes or hatchings in the place where fhadows
are to be : and after he has engraven with the chifel
all the ftrokes thus drawn, he fills them up with a black
maftich, compofed partly of Burgundy pitch poured on
hot; taking oft' afterwards what is luperfluous with a
piece of foft ftone or brick, which, together with water
and beaten cement, takes away the maftich, polifhes the
marble, and renders the whole fo even that one would
imagine it only confifted of one piece. This is the kind
of mofaic work that is feen in the pompous church of
the invalids at Paris, and the fine chapel at Verfailles,
with which fome entire apartments of that palace are in-
cruftated.
3. As for mofaic work of precious ftones, other and
finer inftruments are x-equired than thofe ufed in marblej
as drills, wheels, &c. ufed by lapidaries and engravers
on ftone. As none but the richeft marbles and ftones
enter this work, to make them go the farther, they
are fawn into the thinneft leaves imaginable, fcarcely
exceeding half a line in thicknefs ; the block to be fawn
is faftened firmly with cords on the bench, and only
raifed a little on a piece of wood, one or two inches
high. Two iron pins, which are on one fide the block,
and which ferve to fallen it, are put into a vice con¬
trived for the purpoie ; and with a kind of faw or boxv,
made of fine brars wire, bent on a piece of fpongy
wood, together with emery fteeped in water, the leaf
is gradually fafhioned by following the ftroke of the
defign made on paper, and glued on the piece. When
there are pieces enough faftened to form an entire flower,
or fome other part of the defign, they are applied to
the ground.
T he ground which fupports this mofaic work is
ufually of freeftone. The matter with which the
ftones are joined together is a maftich, or kind of
ftucco, laid very thin on the leaves as they are faftxion-
ed ; and this being done, the leaves are applied with
plyers.
II any contour, or fide of a leaf, be not either fquared
or rounded fufticiently, fo as to fit the place exadfly
into which it is to be inferted, w'hen it is too large, it is
to be brought down with a brafs file or rafp ; and if it
be too little, it is managed with a drill and other inftru¬
ments ufed by lapidaries.
Mofaic wmrk of marble is ufed in large wmrks, as in
pavements of churches, bafilics, and palaces ; and in
the incruftation and vaneering of the walls of the fame
edifices.
As for that of precious ftones, it is only ufed in fmall
wmrks, as ornaments for altar pieces, tables for rich
cabinets, precious ftones being fo very dear.
4. Manner of performing mofaic wmrk of gypfum.
Of this ftone calcined in a kiln, beaten in a mortar, and
lifted, the French workmen make a fort of artificial
marbles, imitating precious ftones ; and of thefe they
compofe a kind of mofaic wmik, which does not come
far Ihort either of the durablenefs or the vivacity of the
natural ftones; and which befides has this advantage,
that it admits of continued pieces or paintings of entire
compartments without any vifible joining.
Some make the ground of plafter of Paris, others of
freeftone. If it be of plafter of Paris, they fpread it
in a xvooden frame, of the length and breadth of the
work intended, and in thicknefs about an inch and a
half. This frame is fo contrived, that the tenons being
3 K only
MofaC.
*
M O S L 442 ] M O S
t
&
. Mofaic.
only joined to the mortifes by fingle pins, they may be
taken afunder, and the frame be difmounted when the
plafter is dry. The frame is covered on one fide with
A ftrong linen cloth, nailed all round ; which being
placed horizontally with the linen at the bottom, is filled
with plafter palled through a wide fieve. When the
plafter is half dry, the frame is fet up perpendicularly,
and left till it is quite dry ; then it is taken out, by
taking the frame to pieces.
In this mofaic, the ground is the moft important
part. Nowr in order to the preparation of this lifted
gypfum, which is to be applied on this ground, it is
dilfolved and boiled in the beft Englifh glue, and mixed
with the colour that it is to be of; then the whole is
worked up together into the ufual confiftence of plafter,
and then is taken and fpread on the ground five or fix
inches thick. If the work be fuch, as that mouldings
are required, they are formed with gouges and other
inftruments.
It is on this plafter, thus coloured like marble or
>precious ftone, and which is to ferve as a ground to a
work, either of lapis, agate, alabafter, or the like,
that the defign to be reprefented is drawn : having
been firft pounced or chalked. To hollow or imprefs
the defign, they ufe the fame inftruments that fculptors
do ; the ground wdiereon they are to work not being
much lefs hard than the marble itfelf. The cavities
being thus made in the ground, are filled with the
fame gypfum boiled in glue, only differently coloured,
and thus are the different colours of the original repre-
fented. In order that the neceffary colours and teints
may be ready at hand, the quantities of the gypfum
are tempered with the feveral colours in pots. After
the defign has been thus filled and rendered vifible, by
half polilhing it with brick and foft ftone, they go over
it again, cutting fuch plates as are either to be weaker
or more fhadowed, and filling them with gypfum y
which work they repeat till all the colours being added
one after the other, reprefent the original to the life.
When the work is finifhed, they fcour it with foft ftone,
fand, and water ; after that with a pumice ftone ; and
in the laft place polifli it with a wooden mullet and
emery. Laftly, They give it a luftre, by fmearing it
over with oil, and rubbing it a long time with the palm
of the hand, which gives it a luftre nowife inferior to
that <?f natural marble.
5. In Clavigero’s hiftory of Mexico is deferibed a
curious kind of mofaic work, made by the ancient
Mexicans of the moft delicate and beautiful feathers of
birds. They raifed for this purpofe various fpecies of
birds of fine plumage with which that country abounds,
not only in the palaces of the king, where there were
all forts of animals, but likewife in private baufes ;
and at certain feafons they carried oft' their feathers
tp make ufe of them on this kind of work, or to
fell them at market. They fet a high value on the
feathers of thofe wonderful little birds which they
call Huitxit'zilin, and the Spaniards Ficafores, on ac¬
count of the fmalinefs, the finenefc, and the various
colours of them. In thefe and other beautiful birds,
nature fupplied them with all the colours which art
can produce, and alfo fome which art cannot imitate.
At the undertaking of every mofaic work feveral ar-
tifts affembled : After having agreed upon a defign,
and taken their meafures and proportions, each artiil
charged himfelf with the execution of a certain part
of the image, and exerted himfelf fo diligently in it,
with fuch patience and application, that he frequently
fpent a whole day in adjufting a feather ; firft trying
one, then another, viewing it fometimes one way, then
another, until he found one which gave his part that
ideal perfection propofed to be attained. When the
part which each artift undertook was done, they af¬
fembled again to form the entire image from them.—
If any part was accidentally the leall deranged, it was
wrought again until it was perfe£tly finifhed. They
laid hold of the feathers with fmall pinchers, that they
might not do them the leaft injury, and palted them
on the cloth with t%auhtli, or fbme other glutinous
matter \ then they united all the parts upon a little
table, or a plate of copper, and flattened them foftly
until they left the furface of the image fo equal and
fmooth that it appeared to be the work of a pencil.
Thefe were the images fo much celebrated by the
Spaniards and other European nations. Whoever be¬
held them was at a lofs whether he ought to have
praifed moft; the life and beauty of the natural colours,
or the dexterity of the artift and the ingenious difpo-
fition of art. “ Thefe images (fays Acofta) are defer-
vedly admired ; for it is wonderful how it was poflible,
with the feathers of birds, to execute works fo fine and
fo equal, that they appear the performance of the pen¬
cil ; and, what neither the pencil nor the colours in
painting can efftft, they have, when viewed froitr a
fide, an appearance fo beautiful, fo lively, and animat¬
ed, that they give delight to the fight. Some Indians,
who are able artifts, copy whatever is painted with a
pencil fo perfe&ly with plumage, that they rival the
beft painters of Spain.” Thefe works of feathers v/ere
even fo highly efteemed by the Mexicans as to be va¬
lued more than gold. Cortes, Bernal Diaz, Gomara,
Torquemada, and all the other hiftorianswho law them,
were at a lofs for exprefiions Efficient to praife their
perfeclion. Several works of this kind, our author
fays, are ftill preferved in the mufeums of Europe,
and many in Mexico ; but few, he apprehends, belong
to the fixteenth century, and ftill fewer, if any, are
of thofe made before the conqueft. The mofaic
works alfo which the Mexicans made of broken fhells
were extremely curious: this art is ftill praflifed in Gua-
timala.
Mofaic,
r> * ofam-
L>i(]ue.
MOSAMBIQUE, a kingdom of Africa, lying
fouth of Quiloa, and taking its name from the chief
town, which is fituated on an ifland, at the mouth of
a river of the fame name, in 15 deg. S. Lat. The
ifland is 30 miles in circumference, and very populous,
though the air is faid to be very hot, and the foil in
general dry, fandy, and barren $ yet they have moft:
of the tropical fruits, with black cattle, bogs, and
ftieep. There is a kind of fowl here, both the feathers
and flefli of which are black, infomuch that, when they
are boiled, the broth looks like ink 5 and yet their
flefn is very delicate and good food. The town of
Mofambique is regularly fortified, and has a good har¬
bour, defended by a citadel, with feveral churches and
monafteries. The Portuguefe (hipping to and from
India touch here for refreihments. As the ifland a-
bcunds in cattle, the Portuguefe {laughter and fait up
a great deal of beef, which they afterwards fend to
the Brazils, or fell to the European (hipping. They
alfo
M O S
[ 443 ]
M O S
Mofcow.
Blcfchion alfo barter European poods with the natives for gold,
II elephants teeth, and Haves. There is another town,
called Mongale, fituated alfo on an ifland, and garri-
foned by the Portuguefe, being their chief magazine
for European goods. The gold they receive from
the natives is found near the furface of the earth, or in
the fands of rivers j no gold mines, or at leal! very few,
being at prefent wrought in Africa.
MOSCHION, a name common to four different
writers, whofe compofitions, charadfcr, and native
place, are unknown. Some fragments of their workings,
remain, fome few verfes, and a treatife De muherum
ajfefiibus.
MOSCHUS, a Grecian poet of antiquity, ufually
c; uoled with Bion •, and they were both of them co¬
temporaries with Theocritus. In the time of the latter
Grecians, all the ancient idylliums were colledted
and attributed to Theocritus j but the claims of Mof-
chus and Bion have been admitted to fome few little
pieces; and this is fufficient to make us inquifitive
about their charadfers and ftory •, yet all that can be
known about them muft be colledfed from their own
remains. Mofchus, by compofing his delicate elegy
on 'Bion, has given the befl memorials of Bion’s life.
See Bion. Mofchus and Theocritus have by fome
critics been fuppofed the fame perfon 5 but there are
irrefragable evidences againft it: others will have him
as well as Bion to have lived later than Iheoeritus,
upon the authority of Suidas : while others again fup-
pofe him to have been the fcholar of Bion, and pro¬
bably his fucceffbr in governing the poetic fchool j
which, from the elegy of Mofchus, does not feem un¬
likely. Their remains are to be found in all the edi¬
tions of the Poetce Minores.
Moschus, a genus of quadrupeds of the order of
pecora, having no horns. See Mammalia Index.
MOSCOW, the chief province of the empire of
Ruflia, deriving its name from the river Mufcova, or
Mcfkva, on which the capital is fituated. It was from
this duchy that the czars of old took the title of dukes
of Mufcovy. The province is bounded on the north
by the duchies of Twere, Roflow, Suldal, and Wo-
lodimer; on the fouth by Rezan, from which it is fe-
parated by the river Occa ; on the eaft by the princi¬
pality of Cachine, and the fame river Occa parting it
from Nifi-Novogorod ; and on the well by the duchies
of Rzeva, Bielar and Smolenlko. It extends about 200
miles in length, and about ICO in breadth ; and is
watered by the Mofkva, Occa, and Clefma/which fall
into the Wolga : neverthelefs, the foil is not very fer¬
tile. The air, however, though {harp, is falubrious ;
and this confideration, with the advantage of its be¬
ing fituated in the midft of the beil provinces in the
empire, induced the czars to make it their chief refi-
dence. In the weftern part of Mofcow is a large fo-
reft, from whence flows the celebrated river Dnieper, or
Boryfthenes, which, traverfing the duchy of Smoienfko,
winds in a ferpentine courfe to Ukraine, Lithuania, and
Poland.
Moscow, the capital of the above province, and till
the beginning of the prefent century the metropolis of
all Ruffia, is fituated in a fpacicus plain on the banks
of the river Mofkva. E. Long. 37. 31. N. Lat. 55. 45.
The Ruffian antiquaries differ confiderabb* in their opi¬
nions concerning the firft foundation of Mofcow7; the
following relation, Mr Coxe fays, is generally efteem
ed by the bell authors the moll probable account.
Kiof wTas the metropolis, when George fon of Vla¬
dimir Monomaka afeended in 1154 the Ruffian throne.
That monarch, being infulted in a progrefs through
his dominions by a rich and powerful nobleman named
Stephen Kutchko, put him to death, and con fi tea ted
his domains, which confided of the lands now occu¬
pied by the city of Mofcow and the adjacent terri¬
tory. Pleafed with the fituation of the ground lying
at the conflux of the Mofkva and Neglina, he laid the
foundation of a new towrn, wdiich he called Mofkva
from the river of that name. Upon the demife of
George, the new towrn wras not negledled by his fon
Andrew, who transferred the feat of empire from
Kiof to Vladimir j but it fell into fuch decay under
his immediate fucceffors, that when Daniel, fon of
Alexander Nevfki, received, in the divifion of the em¬
pire, the duchy of Mufcovy as his portion, and fixed
his refidence upon the conflux of the Moikva and Ne¬
glina, he may be faid to have new founded the town.
The fpot now occupied by the Kremlin was at that
time overfpread wuth a thick w;ood and a morafs, in
the midft whereof was a fmall ifland containing a tingle
wooden hut. Upon this part Daniel conftrucled
churches and monafteries, and various buildings, and
enclofed it wdth wooden fortifications : he firft affumed
the title of duke of Mofcow ; and was fo attached to
this fituation, that when in 13°4 fucceeded his
brother Andrew Alexandrovich in the great duchy of
Vladimir, he did not remove his court to Vladimir,
but continued his refidence at Mofcow7, which then be¬
came the capital of the Ruffian dominions. His fuc¬
ceffors followed his example "y among whom his fon
Ivan confiderably enlarged the new metropolis, and in
1367 his grandfon Demetrius Ivanovitch Donlki fur-
rounded the Kremlin with a brick w7all. Thefe new
fortifications, however, were not ftrong enough to pre¬
vent Tamerlane in 1382, from taking the town after a
ffiort liege. Being foon evacuated by that defultory
conqueror, it again came into the poffeffion of the
Ruffians-, but w-as frequently invaded and occupied
by the Tartars, who in the 14th and 15th centuries
overran the greateft part of Ruffia, and who even
maintained a garrifon in Mofcow until they were finally
expelled by Ivan Vaffilievitch I. To him Mofcow is
indebted for its principal fplendour, and under him it
became the principal and moft confiderable city of the
Ruffian empire.
Mofcow continued the metropolis of Ruffia until the
beginning of the 18th century, when, to the great dif-
fatisfadlion of the nobility, but with great advantage
probably to the ftate, the feat of empire was transferred
to Peterfburgh.
Notwithftanding the predileftion which Peter con¬
ceived for Peterffiurgh, in which all the fucceeding
fovereigns excepting Peter the II. have fixed their re¬
fidence, Mefcow, according to Mr Coxe, is ftill the
moft populous city of the Ruffian empire. Here the
chief nobles who do not belong to the court refide:
they here fupport a larger number of retainers; they
love to gratify their tafte for a ruder and more expen-
five magnificence in the ancient ftyle of feudal grandeur j
and are not, as at Peterfburgh, eclipfed by the fuperior
fplendour of the court.
3 K 2 Mofcow
Mofcow.
M O S / [ 444 ] M O S
Mofcow. Mofcow is reprefented as the large ft' town in Eu-
——v—— r0pe . ]ts circumference within the rampart, which
enclofes the fuijmrbs, being exabtiy 39 verfts or 26
miles; but it is built in fo draggling and disjointed a
manner, that its population in no degree correfponds
to its extent. Some Ruffian authors date its inhabi¬
tants at 500,000 fouls, a number evidently exagger¬
ated. Accoiding to a computation, which Mr Coxe
i fays may be depended upon, Mofcow contains within
the ramparts 250,000 fouls, and in the adjacent vil¬
lages 50,000. The dreets of Mofcow are in gene¬
ral exceedingly long and broad j fome of them are
paved ; others, particularly thofe in the fuburbs, are
formed with trunks of trees, or are boarded with
planks like the door of a room ; wretched hovels are
blended with large palaces j cottages of one dory
Hand next to the mod fuperb and dately mandons.
Many brick ftructures are covered with wooden tops $
fome of the wooden houfes are painted ; others have
irons doors and roofs. Numerous churches prefent
themfelves in every quarter, built in a peculiar dyle of
erchitedure ; fome with domes of copper, others of
tin, gilt or painted green, and many roofed with wood.
In a word, fome parts of this vad city have the look
of a fequedered defert, other quarters of a populous
town ; fome of a contemptible village, others of a great
capital.
Mofcow may be confidered as a town built upon the
Afiatic model, but gradually becoming more and more
European, and exhibiting in its prefent date a motley
mixture of difcordant architefture. It is didributed
into the following divifions. 1. The Kremlin. This
Hands in the central and highed part of the city ; is of
a triangular form, and about two miles in circumfe¬
rence } and is furrounded by high walls of done and
brick j which were c-ondnuded in the year 1491, un¬
der the reign of Ivan Vaffilievitch I. It contains the
ancient palace of the czars, feveral churches, two
convents, the patriarchal palace, the arfenal now in
ruins, and one private houfe, which belonged to Boris
Godunof before he was railed to the throne. 2. Khi-
taigorod, or the Chinefe town, is enclofed on one bde
by that wall of the Kremlin wffiich runs from the
Molkva to the Neglina j and on the other bde by a
brick wall of inferior height. It is much larger than
the Kremlin, and contains the univerdty, the printing-
houfe and many other public buildings, and all the
t-radefmen’s Ihops. The edifices are modly duccoed or
white wTadied, and it has the only dreet in Mofcoiv in
which the houfjs band clofe to one another without
any intervals between them. 3. The Bielgorod, or
White T own, which runs quite round the two pre¬
ceding divifions, is fuppoled to derive its name from
a white w'all with wffiich it was formerly encloied, and
of which fome remains are dill to be feen. 4. Sem-
lainogorod, which environs all the three other quarters,
takes its denomination from a circular rampart of earth
with which it is encompaffed. Thefe twro lad mention¬
ed dividons exhibit a grotefque groupe of churches, con¬
vents, palaces, brick and wooden houfes, and mean ho¬
vels, in no degree fuperior to peafants cottages. 5- The
Sioboda, or fuburbs, form a vad exterior circle round all
the parts already defcribed, and are inveded with a low
Timpart and ditch. Thefe fuburbs contain, befide build¬
ings of all kinds and denominations, corn fields, much
open padure, and fome ftnall lakes, which give rife to the
Neglina. '1 he river Mojlva, from which the city takes
its name, flows through it in a winding channel j but
excepting in Spring is only navigable for rafts. It receives
the Yauia in the Semlainogorod, and the Neglina at the
weflern extremity of the Kremlin; the beds of both thefe
lad mentioned rivulets are in fuminer little better than
dry channels.
The places of divine wordiip at Mofcow are exceed-
ingly numerous; including chapels, they amount to above
loco : there are 484 public churches, of which 199 are
of brick ; and the others of v\ood ; the former are com¬
monly fluccoed or white-wafhed, the latter painted of a
red colour. The mod ancient churches of Mofeow are
generally fquare buildings, with a cupola and four fmall
domes, fome whereof are of copper or iron gilt ; others
of tin, either plain or painted green. Thefe cupolas
and domes are for the mod part ornamented with croiTes
entwined with thin chains or wires. The church of the
Holy Trinity, fometimes called the church of Jerufalem,
which bands in the Khitaigorod, clofe to the gate leading
into the Kremlin, has a kind of high deeple and nine or
ten domes ; it was built in the reign of Ivan Vaffilie¬
vitch II. The indde of the churches is modly com-
pofed of three parts; that called by the Greeks u^oyuo?,
by the Ruffians trapeza ; the body ; and the faniftuary
or dirine. Over the door of each church is the portrait
of the faint to whom it is dedicated, to which the corri'-
mon people pay their homage as they pafs along, by tak¬
ing off their hats, eroding themfelves, and occafionally
touching the ground with their heads. The bells, which
form no inconfiderable part of public worfhip in this coun¬
try, as the length or fiiortnefs of their peals afeertains the
greater or Idler fanffity of the day, are hung in belfrys
detached from the church : they do not fwing like our
bells ; but are fixed immcveably to the beams, and are
rung by a rope tied to the clapper and pulled fidewife.
Some of thefe bells are of a dupendous fize ; one in the
tower of St Ivan’s church weighs 3551 Ruffian poods,
or 127,836 Englifh pounds. It has always been edeem-
ed a meritorious a£l of religion to prefent a church with
bells ; and the piety of the donor has been meafured by
their magnitude. According to this mode of edimation,
Boris Godunof, who gave a bell of 288,000 pounds to
the cathedral of Mofcow, was the mod pious fovereign
of Ruffia, until he was furpaffed by the emprefs Anne,
at whofe expence a bell was cad weighing 432,000
pounds, and which exceeded in bignefs every bell in the
known world. The height of this enormous bell is 19
feet, its circumference at the bottom 21 yards x 1 inches ;
its greated thicknefs 23 inches. The beam to which this
vad machine was fadened being accidentally burnt, the
bell fell down, and a fragment was broken oft' towards
the bottom, which left an aperture large enough to ad¬
mit two perfons abread without dooping.
The palace, inhabited by the ancient czars, dands at
the extremity of the Kremlin. Part of this palace is old,
and remains in the fame date in which it was built un¬
der Ivan Vaffilievitch I. The remainder has been fuc-
ceffively added at different intervals, without any plan,
and in various dyles of architecture, which has produced
a motley pile of building, remarkable for nothing but
the incongruity of the feveral druClures. The top is
thickly fet with numerous little gilded fpires and globes;
and a large portion of the front is decorated with the arms
of
Mtfcoir.
M O S [ 445 ] MGS
Mofccw.
of all the provinces which compofe the RutTian empire.
The apartments are in general exceedingly fmall, ex¬
cepting one llngle room called the council chamber, in
which the ancient czars ufed to give audience to foreign
ambaffadors, and which has been repeatedly defcribtd
by feveral Engl'dh travellers who vifited Mofcow before
the imperial refidence wms transferred to Peterihurgh,
The room is large and vaulted, and has in the centre an
enormous pillar of flone which fupports the ceiling.- In
this palace Peter the Great came into the world, in the
year 1672. In that part called the treafury are depofited
the crown, jewels, and royal robes, ufed at the corona¬
tion of the fovereign, belldes feveral curiofities relative
to the hi dory of the country. Of the great number of
churches contained in this city, tvro in particular, name¬
ly, that of St Michael and that of the Affumption of the
Virgin Mary, are remarkable ; the one for being the
place where the fovereigns of Ruffia were formerly in¬
terred, and the other where they are crowned. Thefe
edifices, which are fituated in the Kremlin, are both in
the fame ilyle of archite&ure ; and their exterior form,
though modelled according to the ancient flyle of the
country, is not abfolutely inelegant. In the cathedral of
St Michael, wdiich contains the tombs of the Ruffian fo¬
vereigns, the bodies are not, as with us, depofited in vaults,
or beneath the pavement, but are entombed in raifed fe-
pulchres, mollly of brick, in the drape of a coffin, and
about two feet in height. When Mr Coxe vifited the
cathedral, the moft ancient were covered with palls of
red cloth, others of red velvet, and that of Peter II. with
gold tiffue, bordered with filver fringe and ermine. Each
tomb has at its lower extremity a fmall filver plate, upon
which is engraved the name of the deceafed fovereign,
and the era of his death.
The cathedral of the Affumption of the Virgin Mary,
which has long been appropriated to the coronation of
the Ruffian fovereigns, is the moft fplendid and magni¬
ficent in Mofcow7. The fereen is in many parts covered
with plates of folid filver and gold richly worked. From
the centre of the roof hangs an enormous chandelier of
maffy filver, weighing 2940 pounds : it was made in
England, and was a prefent from Morofof, prime mini-
fter and favourite of Alexey Michaelovitch. The facred
utenfils and epifcopal vefiments are extraordinarily rich,
but the tafte of the wmrkmanfhip is in general rude, and
by no means equal to the materials. Many of the
paintings which cover the infide w7alls are of a coloffal
fize : fome are very ancient, and w7ere executed fo early
as in the latter end of the 15th century. It contains,
amongfi: the reft a head of the Virgin, fuppofed to have
been delineated by St Luke, and greatly celebrated in
this country for its fanffity and the power of W'orking
miracles. Its face is almoft black j its head is orna¬
mented with a glory of precious ftones, and its hands
and body are gilded, which gives it a moft grotefque
appearance. It is placed in the fkreen, and enclofed
within a large filver covering, which is only taken off
on great feftivals, or for the curiofity of ftrangers. In
this cathedral are depofited the remains of the Ruffian
patriarchs.
The place in the Khitaigorod, where the public ar¬
chives are depofited, is a ftrong brick building, contain¬
ing fevcral vaulted apartments with iron floors. Thefe
archives, confiding of a numerous colleftion of ftate pa¬
pers, were crowded into boxes and thrown aide like com¬
mon lumber, until the emprefs Catharine ordered them Mofcow.
to be revifed and arranged. In conformity to this man- —
date, Mr Muller has difpofed them in chronological or¬
der with fuch perfect regularity, that any fingle docu¬
ment may be infpefted with little trouble. They are
enclofed in feparate cabinets with glafs doors : thofe re¬
lative to Ruffia are all claffed according to the feveral
provinces which they concern 5 and over each cabinet is
inferibed the name of the province to which it is appro¬
priated. In the lame manner the manuferipts relative to
foreign kingdoms are placed in feparate divifions under
the refpedlive titles of Poland, Sweden, England, Francs',
Germany, Sec.
The univerfity of Mofcow7, sll fituated in the Khitai¬
gorod, was founded, at the iufiance of Count Shuvalof,
by the emprefs Elizabeth, for 600 ftudents j who are
clothed, boarded, and inftrufted, at the expence of
the crown. Befides this inftitution, there are two
gymnafia or feminaries for the education of youth, en-
dow'ed alfo by Elizabeth j in which are taught, by
tw7enty-three profefiors, divinity, claiffics, philofophy,
the Greek, Latin, Ruffian, German, French, Italian,
and Tartar languages •, hiftory, geography, mathema¬
tics, architecture, fortification, aitillery, algebra, draw¬
ing and painting, mufic, fencing, dancing, reading and
writing.
Mofbow is the centre of the inland commerce of
Ruffia, and particularly connefls the trade between
Europe and Siberia. The only navigation to this city
is formed by the Molkva, which falling into the Occa
near Columna, communicates by means of that river
with the Volga. But as the Mofkva is only navigable
in fpring upon the melting of the fnows, the principal
merchandife is conveyed to and from Mofcow upon
fledges in winter. The whole of the retail trade is car¬
ried on in the Khitaigorod •, where, according to a cuf-
tom common in Rufiia, as well as in moft kingdoms of
the Eaft, all the thops are colleCled together in one fpot.
The place is like a kind of fair, confiding of many rowe
of low brick buildings ; the interval between them re-
fembling alleys. Thefe (hops or booths occupy a con-
fiderable fpace *, they do not, as with us, make pait of
the houfes inhabited by the tradefmen, but are quite de¬
tached from their dwellings, w'hich for the moft part are
at fome dftlance in another quarter of the town. The
tradefman comes to his {hop in the morning, remains
there all day, and returns home to his family in the af¬
ternoon. Every trade has its feparate department; and
they who fell the fame goods have booths adjoining to
each other. Furs and fkins form the moft confiderable
article of commerce in Mofcow 5 and the {hops which
vend tho-fe commodities occupy feveral ftreets.
Amongft the curiofities of Mofcow, the market for v
the fale of houfe-s is not the leaft remarkable. It is
held in a large open fpace in one of the fuburbs ; and
exhibits a great variety of ready made houfes, thickly
ftrewed upon the ground. The purchafer who wants
a dwelling, repairs to this fpot, mentions the number
of rooms he requires, examines the different timbers,
which are regularly numbered, and bargains for that
which fuits him. The houfe is fometimes paid for -
on the fpot, and taken away by the purchafer ; or
fometimes the vender contrafls to tranfport and ereft it
upon the place where it is defigned to ftand. It may
appear incredible to affert, that a dwelling may be thus
bought v
\
M OS [ 446 ] M O S
Mofcow. bcuglit, removed, raifed and inhabited, within the fpace
v——1 0f a Week ; but we fhali conceive it practicable by con-
fidering that thefe ready made houfes are in geneial
merely collections of trunks of trees tenoned and mor-
tifed at each extremity into one another, fo that nothing
more is required than the labour of tranfporting and ad-
jufting them. But this fummary mode of building is
not always peculiar to the meaner hovels ; as wooden
Itructures of very large dimenfions and handfome appear¬
ance are occafionally formed in Ruffia with an expedi¬
tion alraoft inconceivable to the inhabitants of other
Countries. A remarkable inftance of this defpatch was
difplayed the lr«ft time the emprefs came to Mofcow.
Her majefly propoled to refide in the manfion of Prince
Galitzin, which is efieemed the completed: edifice in this
city ; but as it was not fufficiently fpacioufr for her re¬
ception, a temporary addition of wood, larger than the
original houfe, and containing a magnificent fuite of a-
partments, was begun and finifhed within the fpace of
fix weeks. This meteor-like fabric was fo handfome
and commodious, that the materials which were taken
down at her majefty’s departure, were to be re-conftruc-
ted as a kind of imperial villa upon an eminence near
the city. Mr Coxe mentions an admirable police in
this city for preventing riots, or for flopping the con-
courfe of people in cafe of fires, which are very frequent
and violent in thofe parts, where the houfes are moflly
of w'ood, and the flreets are laid with timber. At
the entrance of each ftreet there is a chevaux-de-frize
gate, one end whereof turns upon a pivot, and the other
rolls upon a wheel ; near it is a centry box in which a
man is occafionally ffationed. In times of riot or fire
the centinel fliuts the gate, and all puffage is immediate¬
ly flopped.
Among the public inflitutions of Mofcow, the mod
remarkable is the Foundling Hofpital, endowed in 1764
by the emprefs Catharine, and fupparted 'by voluntary
contributions and legacies, and other charitable gifts.
In order to encourage donations, her majedy granted to
all benefactors fome valuable privileges, and a certain
degree of rank in proportion to the extent of their libe¬
rality. Among the principal contributors mud be men¬
tioned a private merchant named Dimictof a perfon of
great wealth, who has expended in favour of this chari¬
ty-abovre xco,oool. The hofpital, which is fituated in
a very airy part of the town upon a gentle afcent near
the river Mofkva, is an itnmenfe pile of building of a
quadrangular fhape, part of which was only finifhed
when Mr Coxe (whofe account we are tranfcribing) wTas
at Mofcowu It contained, at that time, three thoufand
foundlings *, and, when the whole is completed, will re¬
ceive eight thoufand. The children are brought to the
porter’s lodge, and admitted without any recommenda¬
tion. The rooms are lofty and large •, the dormitories,
which are feparate from the work rooms, are very airy,
and the beds are not crowded : each foundling, even
each infant, has a feparate bed. The children remain
two years in the nurfery, when they are admitted into
the lowefl clafs ; the boys and girls continue together
until they are feven years of age, at which time they are
feparated. They all learn to read, write, and call ac¬
counts. The boys are taught to knit •, they occafionally
card hemp, flax, and wool, and work in the different
manufadlures. The girls learn to knit, Ret, and all
kinds of needle work j they foin end weave lace they
• 2
are employed in cookery, baking, and houfe woik of all Mofelle,'
forts. At the age of fourteen the foundlings enter into Mo^es‘
the firfl clals; when they have the liberty of choofing v "
any particular branch of trade 5 and for this purpofe
there are different fpecies of manufactures eflablifhed
in the hofpital, of which the principal are embroidery,
filk (lockings, ribbands, lace, gloves, buttons, and cabi¬
net work. A feparate room is appropriated to each trade.
Some boys and girls are inftrudled in the French ami
German languages, and a few boys in the Latin tongue 5
others learn mufic, drawfing, and dancing.
MOSELLE, a river of Germany, which rifes in the
mountains of Vofges in Lorraine, and falls into the
Rhine at Coblentz.
Moselle is alfo the name of a department of France,
which includes part of the late province of Lorraine.
MOSES, the fon of Amram and Jochebed, was
born in the year 1571 before Chrift. Pharaoh king
of Egypt, perceiving that the Hebrews were become
a formidable nation, iffued forth an edidt commanding
all the male children to be put to death. To avoid
this cruel edidl, Jochebed, the mother of Mofes, having
concealed her fon for three months, at length made an
ark or balket of bulruflies, daubed it with pitch, laid
the child in it, and expofed him on the banks of the
Nile. Thermuthis the king’s daughter, who happen¬
ed to be walking by the river’s fide, perceived the
floating cradle, commanded it to be brought to her,
and (truck with the beauty of the child, determined
to preferve his life. In three years afterwards the
princefs adopted him for her own (bn, called his name
Mofes, and caufed him be diligently inltrudled in all
the learning of the Egyptians. But his father and
mother, to whom he was reftored by a fortunate acci¬
dent, were at Kill greater pains to teach him the hi-
(lory and religion of his fathers. Many things are
related by hiftorians concerning the firft period pf Mo-
fes’s life, which are not to be found in the Old Te-
ftament. According to Jofephus and Eufebius, he
made war on the Ethiopians, and completely defeated
them. They add, that the city Saba, in which the
enemy had been forced to take refuge, was betrayed
into his hands by the king’s daughter, who became
deeply enamoured of him, when (he beheld from the
top of the walls his valorous exploits at the head of
the Egyptian army. But as the truth of this expedi¬
tion is more than doubtful, we (hall therefore confine
ourfelves to the narrative of facred writ, which com¬
mences at the fortieth year of Mofes’s life. He then
left the court of Pharaoh, and went to vifit his coun¬
trymen the Hebrews, who groaned under the ill ufage
and oppreflion of their unfeeling mailers. Having
perceived an Egyptian fmiting a Hebrew, he flew
the Egyptian, and buried him in the fand. But he
was obliged, in confequence of this murder, to fly into
the land of Midian, where he married Zipporah, daugh¬
ter of the pried Jethro, by whom he had two fons,
Gerfhom and Eliezar. Here he lived 40 years 5 dur¬
ing which time his employment was to tend the
flocks of his father-in-law. Having one day led his
flock towards Mount Horeb, God appeared to him
in the midd of a bufh which burned with fire but was
not confumed, and commanded him to go and deliver
his brethren from their bondage. Mofes at fird re-
fufed to go $ but was at length prevailed on by two mi-
„ racks
M O vS [ 447 J M O S
racles which the Almighty wrought for his convic¬
tion. Upon his return to Egypt, he, together with
his brother Aaron, went to the court of Pharaoh, and
told him that God commanded him to let the He¬
brews go to offer facrifice# in the defert of Arabia.
But the impious monarch difregarded this command,
and caufed the labour of the Tfraelites to be doubled.
The meffengers of the Almighty again returned to
the king, and wrought a miracle in his fight, that they
might move his heart, and induce him to let the people
depart. Aaron having call; down his miraculous rod,
it was immediately converted into a ferpent: but the
fame thing being performed by the magicians, the
king’s heart was hardened more and more ; and his
©bftinacy at laft drew down the judgements of the Al¬
mighty on his kingdom, which was afflidted with ten
dreadful plagues. The firfl was the changing of the
waters of the Nile and of all the' rivers into blood, fo
that the Egyptians died of thirft. In confequemce of
the fecond plague, the land was covered with innumer¬
able fwarms of frogs, which entered even into Pha¬
raoh’s palace. By the third plague, the dufl was con¬
verted into lice, which cruelly tormented both man
and bead. The fourth plague was a multitude of de-
ftrudlive flies which fpread throughout Egypt, £hd in-
fefted the whole country. The fifth was a fudden pe-
ftilence, which deflroyed all the cattle of the Egypti¬
ans, without injuring thofe of the Ifraelites. The fixth
produced numberlefs ulcers and fiery boils upon man
and upon bead. The feventh was a dreadful dorm of
hail, accompanied with thunder and lightning, which
dedroyed every thing that was in the field, whether
man or bead, and (pared only the land of Gofhen,
where the children of Ifrael dwelt. By the eighth
plague fwarms of locuds were brought into the country,
which devoured every green herb, the fruit of the trees
and the produce of the harved. By the ninth plague
thick darknefs covered all the land of Egypt, except
the dwellings of the children of Ifrael. The tenth and
lad plague was the death of the firdborn in Egypt,
who w'ere all in one night cut off by the dedroying an¬
gel, from the firdborn of the king to the firdborn of
the Haves and of the cattle. This dreadful calamity
moved the heart of the hardened Pharaoh, and he at
length confented to allow the people of Ifrael to depart
from his kingdom.
Profane authors who have fpoken of Mofes, feem
to have been in part acquainted with thefe mighty
wonders. That he performed miracles, mud have been
allowed by many, by whom he was confidered as a fa¬
mous magician ; and he could fcarcely appear in any
other light to men who did not acknowledge him for
the meffenger of the Almighty. Bsth Diodorus and
HerodotOs mention the didreffed date to which Egypt
was reduced by thefe terrible calamities. The Hebrews,
amounting to the number of 600,000 men, without
reckoning women and children, left Egypt on the 15th
day of the month Nifan, which, in memory of this de¬
liverance, was thenceforth reckoned the fird month of
their year. Scarcely had they reached the drore of the
Red fea when Pharaoh with a powerful army fct out in
purfuit of them. On this occafion Mofes dretched
forth his rod upon the fea ; and the waters thereof be¬
ing divided, remained fufpended on both fides till the
Hebrews paffed through dry-footed,--The Egyptians
determined to follow the fame courfe ; but God caufed Mofes.
a violent wind to blow, which brought back the wa- ¥~“"
ters to their bed, and the whole army of Pharaoh pe-
riihed in the waves.
After the miraculous paffage of the Red fea, the
army proceeded towards Mount Sinai, and arrived at
Marah, where the waters were bitter; but Mofes, by
cading a tree into them, rendered them fit for drinking.
Their tenth encampment was at Rephidim ; where Mo¬
fes drew water from the rock in Horeb, by fruiting it
wnth his rod. Here likewife Amalek attacked Il'rael.
While Jodiua fought againd the Amalekites, Mofes
dood on the top of a hill, and lifted up his hands ; in
confequence of which the Ifraeiites prevailed, and cut
their enemies in pieces. They at length arrived at the-
foot of Mount Sinai on the third day of the ninth
month after their departure from Egypt. Mofes hav¬
ing afcended feveral times into the mount, received the
law from the hand of God himfelf in the midd of thun¬
ders and lightnings, and concluded the famous cove¬
nant betwixt the Lord and the children of Ifrael.
When he defcended from Sinai, he found that the peo¬
ple had fallen into the idolatrous wordiip of the golden
calf. ( The meffenger of God, diocked at fuch ingrati¬
tude, broke in pieces the tables of the law winch he
carried in his hands, and put 23,000 of the tranfgref-
fors to the (word. He afterwards reafcended into the
mountain, and there obtained new tables of done on
which the law was infcribed. When Mofes defcended,
his face drone fo that the Ifraelites dared not to come
nigh unto him, and he was obliged to cover it with a
veil. The Ifraelites were here employed in condru&ing
the tabernacle according to a pattern diown them by
God. It was erefted and confecrated at the foot of the
Mount Sinai on the fird day of the fird month of the
fecond year after their departure from Egypt ^ and it
ferved the Ifraelites indead of a temple till the time of
Solomon, who built a houfe for the God of his fathers
after a model diown him by David.
Mofes having dedicated the tabernacle, he confecrat¬
ed Aaron and his fons to be its miniders, and appoint¬
ed the Levites to its fervice. He likewife gave various
commandments concerning the wordiip of God and
the political government of the Jews. This was a
theocracy in the full extent of the word. God him¬
felf governed them immediately by means of his fer-
vant Mofes, whom he had chofen to be the interpret¬
er of his will to the people ; and he required all the
honours belonging to their king to be paid unto himfelf.
He dwelt in his tabernacle, which was fituated in the
middle of the camp, like a monarch in his palace. He
gave anfwers to thofe who confulted him, and himfelf
denounced punidiments againd the tranfgreffors of his
laws. This properly was the time of the theocracy, taken
in its full extent \ for God was not only conddered as
the divinity who was the object of their religious
wordiip, but as the fovereign to whom the honours of
fupreme majedy were paid.., The cafe was nearly the
fame under Jodiua j who, being filled with the fpirit
of Mofes, undertook nothing without confulting God.
Every meafure, both of the leader and of the people,
was regulated by the direftion of the Almighty, who
rewarded their fidelity and obedience by a feries of
miracles, vidories, and fucceffes. After Mofes had
regulated every thing regarding the civil adminiflva-
M O S [ 44S ] M O S
•Mofe.s
•J'loflieim.
tion, and the marching of the troops, he led the Ifrael-
ites to the confines of Canaan, to the foot of Mount
Nebo. Here the Lord commanded him to afcend
into the mountain •, whence he {bowed him the pro-
mifed land, whereinto he was not permitted to enter.
He immediately after yielded up the ghoft, without
Jicknefs or pain, in the 120th year of his age, and
I/}51 years before Jefus Chriif.
Mofes is inconteflably the author of the firft five
books of the Old Teftament, which go by the name
of the Pentateuch ; and which are acknowledged to be
infpired, by the Jew's and by ChriIlians of every per-
fuafion. Some, however, have denied that Mofes was
the author of thefe books •, and have founded their opi¬
nion on this, that he always fpeaks of himfelf in the
third perfon. But this manner of writing is by no
means peculiar to Mofes: it occurs alfo in feveral ancient
hiftorians; fuch as Xenophon, Caefar, Jofepbus, &c. who
poffeffed of more modefty or good fenfe than fome mo¬
dern hiftorians, whofe egotifm is altogether difgufting,
have not like them left to pofterity a fpedlacle of ridicu¬
lous vanity and felf-conceit. Alter all, it is proper to ob-
ierve, that profane authors have related many falfehoods
and abfurdities concerning Mofes, and concerning the
origin and the religion of the Jew^s, with which they w’ere
hut little acquainted. Plutarch, in his book concerning
Ills and Ofiris, fays that Judaeus and Hierofolytnus
were brothers, and defeended from Typhon ; and that
the former gave his name to the country and its inha¬
bitants, and the latter to the capital city. Others fay
that they came from Mount Ida in Phrygia. Strabo is
the only author who fpeaks any thing like reafon and
truth concerning them •, though he too fays that they
were defeended from the Egyptians, and confiders Mo¬
fes their legifiator as an Egyptian prieft. He acknowT-
ledges, how’ever, that they were a people firidlly juft
and fincerely religious. Other authors by whom they
are mentioned, feem not to have had the fmalleft ac¬
quaintance either with their law^s or their worfhip.
They frequently confound them with the Chriftians, as
is the cafe with Juvenal, Tacitus, and Quintilian,
MOSHEIM, John Laurence, an illuftrious Ger¬
man divine, wras born in 1695, a n°hle family, which
might feem to open to his ambition a fair path to civil
promotion ; but his zeal for the interefis of religion, his
thirft after knowledge, and particularly his tafte for fa-
cred literature, induced him to confecrate his taleats to
the fervice of the church. The German univerfities
loaded him with literary honours; the king of Den¬
mark invited him to fettle at Copenhagen ; the duke of
Brunfwuck called him thence to Helmftadt, where he
filled the academical chair of divinity j was honoured
with the chara&er of ecclefiaftical counfellor to the
court *, and prefided over the feminaries of learning in
the duchy of Wolfenhuttle and the principality of
Blackenburgh. When a defign w7as formed of giving
an uncommon degree of luftre to the univerfities of Got¬
tingen, by filling it with men of the firft rank in let¬
ters, Dr Moftieim was deemed wTorthy to appear at the
head of it, in quality of chancellor ; and here he died,
in 1755, univerfally lamented. In depth of judgement,
in extent of learning, in purity of tafte, in the powers
of eloquence, and in a laborious application to all the
various branches of erudition and philofophy, he had
certainly very few fuperiors. His Latin tranflation of
3
Cudworth’s Intelle&ual Syftem, enriched with large Mofkito,
annotations, difeovered a profound acquaintance with Mofque.
ancient learning and philofophy. His illuftrations of v
the Scriptures, his labours in defence of Chriftianhy,
and the light he caft upon religion and philofophy, ap¬
pear in many volumes of facred and profane literature;
and the Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, from the birth of Chrift
to the beginning of the 18th century, is unqueftionahly
the heft that is extant. This w^ork, written in Latin,
has been tranflated into Englifh, and accompanied until
notes and chronological tables by Archibald Mac¬
laine, D. D. and from this tranflator’s preface to the
fecond edition, 1758, in 5 vols. 8vo, this fliort account
is taken.
MOSKITO, or Mosquito country, is fituated in
North America, betwreen 85 and 88 degrees of weft
longitude, and between 13 and 15 degrees of north la¬
titude ; having the north fea on the north and eaft,
Nicaragua on the fouth, and Honduras on the weft ;
and indeed the Spaniards efteera it a part of the princi¬
pality of Honduras, though they have no colonies in
the Molkito country. When the Spaniards firft invad¬
ed this part oL-Mexico, they maflacred the greateft part
of the natives, which gave thofe that efcaped into the
inacceftible part of the country an infuperable averfion
to them ; and they have always appeared ready to join
any Europeans that come upon their coafts againft the
Spaniards, and particularly the Englifh, who fre¬
quently come hither ;.and the Mofkito men being ex¬
cellent markfmen, the Englifh employ them in ftriking
the manati fifh, &c. and many of the Mofkito In¬
dians come to Jamaica, and fail with the Englifh in
their voyages.
Thefe people are fo fituated between morafles and
inacceflible mountains, and a coaft full of rocks and
fhoals, that no attempts againft them by the Spa¬
niards, whom they mortally hate, could ever fucceed.
Neverthelefs, they are a mild inoffenfive people, of
great morality and virtue, and will never truft a man
who has once deceived them. They have fo great a
veneration towards the Englifh, that they have fpon-
taneoufly put themfelves and their lands under the
prote&ion and dominion of the crown of England.
This was firft done when the duke of Albermarle was
governor of Jamaica, and the king of the Mofkitos re¬
ceived a commiftion from his grace, under the feal of
that illand ; and fince this time they have been fteady
in their alliance wdth the Englifh. But in the year
1786, this country wras ceded to Spain, and confequent-
1} became a Spanifli province.
MOSQUE, a temple or place of religious worfhip
among the Mahometans.
All mofques are fquare buildings, generally conftruc-
ted of ftone. Before the chief gate there is a fquare
court paved with white marble *, and low galleries
round it,? whofe roof is fupported by marble pillars.
In thefe galleries the Turks wafh themfelves before
they go into the mofque. In each mofque there is a
great number of lamps ; and between thefe hang many
cryftal rings, oftriches eggs, and other curiofities, which,
when the lamps are lighted, make a fine fiiow. As it
is not lawful to enter the mofque with ftockings or fhoes
on, the pavements are covered with pieces of fluff few-
ed together, each being wide enough to hold a row of
men kneeling, fitting, or proftrate. The women are
\
M OS [ 449 ] M O S
Mofs. not allowed to enter the mofque, but Ray in the porches
v.ilhout. About every molque there are Rx high
towers, called minarets, each of which has three little
open galleries, one above another : thefe towers, as well
as the mofques, are covered with lead, and adorned
with gilding and other ornaments ; and from thence,
inRead of a bell, the people are called to prayers by
certain oRicers appointed for that purpofe. MoR of the
mofques have a kind of hofpital belonging to them, in
which travellers of what religion foever, are entertained
three days. Each mofque has alfo a place called tarbe,
which is the burying-place of its founders; within which
is a tomb fix or ieven feet long, covered with green
velvet or fatin \ at the ends of which are two tapers,
and round it feveral feats for thofe who read the Koran
and pray for the fouls of the decealed.
MOSS, or Mosses. See Musci, Botany Index.
Moss on Trees, in gardening. The growth of large
quantities of mofs on any kind of tree is a dillemper of
very bad confequence to it* increafe, and much damages
the fruit of the trees of our orchards.
The prefent remedy is the feraping it off from the
body and large branches by means ot a kind of wood¬
en knife that will not hurt the bark, or with a piece
of rough hair cloth, which does very wTell after a foak-
ing rain. But the mofi effeflual cure is the taking
away the caufe. This is to be done by draining off
all the fuperfluous moiRure from about the roots of
the trees, and may be greatly guarded againff in the
firfi planting of the trees, by not fetting them too
deep.
If trees Rand too thick in a cold ground, they will
always be covered with mofs ; and the beR way to
remedy the fault is to thin them. When the young
branches of trees are covered wutb a long and lhaggy
mofs, it wrill utterly ruin them j and there is no way
to prevent it but to cut off the branches near the
trunk, and even to take off the head of the tree if ne-
ceffary ; for it will fprout again ; and if the caufe be
in the mean time removed by thinning the plantation,
or draining the land and flirring the ground well, the
young ffroots will continue clear after this.
If the trees be covered with mofs in confequence
of the ground’s being too dry, as this wull happen from
either extreme in the foil, then the proper remedy is
the laying mud from the bottom of a pond or river
pretty thick about the root, opening the ground to
fome diRance and depth to let it in 5 this wall not only
cool it, and prevent its giving growth to any great
quantity of mofs, but it will alfo prevent the other
great mifehief which fruit-trees are liable to in dry
grounds, which is the falling off of the fruit too
early.
The moffes which cover the trunks of trees, as they
always are freRieR and moR vigorous on the fide which
points to the north, if only produced on that, ferve to
preferve the trunk of the tree from the feverity of the
north winds, and direct the traveller in his way, by al¬
ways plainly pointing out that part of the compafs.
Moss is alfo a name given to boggy ground in
many parts of England, otherwife called a fen and bog.
In many of tbefe grounds, as well in England and
Ireland as in other parts of the world, there are found
vaff numbers of trees Randing with their flumps ere<R,
and their roots piercing the ground in a natural po-
Vol. XIV. Part II.
Rure as when growing. Many of thofe trees are bro¬
ken or cut ofl' near the roots,- and lie along, and this
ufually in a north-eaft diredbon. People who have
been willing to account for this, have ufually refolyed
it into the effect of the deluge in the days of Noah ;
but this is a very wild conjedure, and is proved falfe
by many unanfwerabie arguments. t he waters of this
deluge might indeed have wafhed together a great
number of trees, and buried them under loads ot
earth j but then they would have lain irregularly and
at random ; whereas they all lie lengthwife from iouth-
weft to north-eafl, and the roots all Raid in their na¬
tural perpendicular poflure, as clofe as the roots of
trees in a forefl.
Bdides, thefe trees are not all in their natural Rate,
but many of them have the evident marks of human
workmanftnp upon them, fome being cut down with
an axe, fome fplit, and the wedges Rill remaining in
them; fome burnt in different parts, and fome bored
through with holes. Thefe things are alfo proved to
be of a later date than the deluge, by other matters
found among them, Rich as utenfils of ancient people,
and coins of the Roman emperors.
It appears from the whole, that all the trees which
we find in this fotlde Rate, originally grew in the very
places where we now find them, and have only been
thrown down and buried there, not brought from elfe-
where. It may appear indeed an obje£lion to this opi¬
nion, that moR of thefe fofliie trees are of the fir kind j
and that Caffar fays exprefsly, that no firs grew in Bri¬
tain in his time } but this is eafily anfwered, by obfer-
ving, that thefe trees, though of the fir kind, yet are
not the fpecies ufually called the fir, but pitch-tree j
and Caffar has no where faid that pitch-trees did not
grow in England. Norway and Sweden yet abound
with thefe trees; and there are at this time whole fo~
refis of them in many parts of Scotland, and a large
number of them wild upon a hill at Wareton in Staf-
fordfhire to this day.
In Hatfield marfli, where Rich vafl numbers of the
fofliie trees are now found, there has evidently once
been a whole foreR of them growing. The lafl of
thefe was found alive, and growing in that place
within 70 years lafl pufl, and cut down for fome com¬
mon ufe.
It is alfo objected by fome to the fyflem of the firs
growing where they are found fofliie, that thefe coun¬
tries are all bogs and moors, whereas thefe forts of
trees grow only in mountainous places. But this is
founded on an error} for though in Norway and Swe¬
den, and fome other cold countries, the fir kinds all
grow upon barren and dry rocky mountains, yet in
warmer places they are found to thrive as well on wet
plains. Such are found plentifully in Pomerania, Li¬
vonia, and Courland, Stc. and in the wefl parts of New
England there are vafl numbers of fine Rately trees of
them in low grounds. The whole truth feems to be,
that thefe trees love a fandy foil \ and fuch as is found
at the bottoms of all the moffes where thefe trees are
found fofliie. The roots of the fir kind are always
found fixed in. thefe •, and thofe of oaks, where they
are found fofliie in this manner, are ufually found fixed
in clay ; fo that each kind of tree is always found root¬
ed in the places where they ftand in their proper foil ;
and there is no doubt to be made but that they ori-
3 L ginally
M 0 S [ 45& ] M O S
ginally grew there. When we have thus found that
all the foffile trees we meet with once grew in the places
tv lie re they arc now buried, it is plain that in thei'e
places there were once noble forefts, which have 'been
dtftroyed at fomc time ; and the queftion only remains
how and by whom they were deihroyed. This we have
Teafon to believe, by the Roman coins found among
them, was ddne by the people of that empire, and that
at the time when they were ellablifned or eltabhtlimg
themfelves here.
Their own hiftorian tells us, that when their armies
pnrfued. the wild Britons, thefe people always fhelter-
ed themfelves in the miry woods and low watery fo-
rcfls. Csefar exprefsly fays this; and obferves, that
Caffibelanus and his Britons, after their defeat, palled
the Thames, and lied into' fuch low morafles and
woods, that there was no purfuing them : and we find
that the Silures fecured themfelves in the fame man¬
ner when attacked by Ofto'rius and Agricola. The
fame thing is recorded of Venutius king of the Bri-
gantes, who fled to feeure himfelf into the boggy fo-
retls of the midland part of this kingdom : and Hero
dian exprefsly fays, that in the time of the Romans
pufhing their conquefts in thefe illands, it was the cu-
llom of the Britons to fecure themfelves in the thick
forefts which grew in their boggy and wet places, and
when opportunity offered, to iffue out thence and fall
upon the Remans. The confequence of all this was
the deftroying all thefe forefts \ the Romans finding
themfelves fo plagued with parties of the natives iffuing
out upon them at times from thefe forefts, that they
gave orders for the cutting down and deftroying all
the forefts in Britain which grew on boggy and wet
grounds. Thefe orders were 'ptmdlually executed ;
and to this it is owing that at this day vve can hardly
be brought to believe that fuch forefts ever grew with
us as are now found buried.
The Roman hiftorians all agree, that when Sue¬
tonius Paulinus conquered Anglefea, he ordered all
the woods to be cut down there, in the manner of
the Roman generals in England : and Galen tells us,
that the Romans, after their conqueft in Britain, kept
their foldiers conftantly employed in cutting down fo¬
refts, draining of marthes, and paving of bogs. Not
only the Roman foldiers were employed in this man¬
ner, but all the native Britons made captives in the
wars were obliged to aftift in it : and Dion CalFius tells
us, that the empercr Severus loft no lefs than 50,000
men in a few years time in cutting down the woods and
draining the bogs of this ifland. It is not to be won¬
dered at, that fuch numbers executed the immenfe de-
ftruftion which we find in thefe buried forefts. One of
the greateft fubterranean treafures of wood is that near
Hatfield •, and it is eai’y to prove, that thefe people, to
whom this havcck is thus attributed, were upon the
fpot where thefe trees now lie buried. The common
rcaB of the Romans out of the fouth into the north,
was formerly from Lindum (Lincoln), to Segelochum
(Little Burrow upon Trent), and from thence to
Darium (Doncatler), where they kept a Handing gar-
rifen of Crifpinian horfe. A little off on the call, and
north-eaft of their road, between the two laft named
towns, lay the borders of the greateft foreft, which
fwarmed with wild Britons, who were continually mak¬
ing their Tallies out, and their retreats into it again, in¬
tercepting their provifions, taking and deftreyirig their Mob.
carriages, killing their allies and paffengers, and dif- ' v—
turbing their garrifons. This at length to exafperated
the Romans, that they were determined to deitroy it ;
and to do this fafely and effectually, they marched
againft it with a great army, and encamped on a great
moor not far from Finaingly : this is evident from their
fortificaticns yet remaining.
There is a fmall town in the neighbourhood called
GJlerfieidi and as the termination field teems to have
been given only in remembrance of battles fought near
the towns vvhofe names ended with it, it is not impro¬
bable that a battle w'as fought here between all the Bri¬
tons who inhabited this foreft and the Roman troops
under Oftoiius. The Romans flew many of the ba¬
tons, and drove the reft back into this foreft, which at
that time overf read all this low country. On this the
conquerors taking advantage of a ftrong fouth-weft:
wind, fet fire to the pitch-trees, of which this foreft
was principally com poled ; and when the greater part
of the trees were thus deftroyed, the Roman foldiers
and captive Briticns cut down the remainder, except a
few large ones which they left Handing as remembran¬
ces of the deftruflion of the reft. . Thefe Angle trees',
however, could not Hand long againft the winds, and
thefe falling into the rivers which ran through the coun¬
try, interrupted their currents } and the wxiter then
overfpreading the level country, made one great lake,
and gave origin to the moffes or moory bogs, which
were afterwards formed there, by the workings of the
waters, the precipitation of earthy matter from them,
and the putrefaction of rotten boughs and branches of
trees, and the vaft increafe of water-mofs and other
fuch plants which grow in prodigious abundance in all
thefe forts of places. Thus were thefe burnt and felled
trees buried under a new-formed fpongy and xvatery
earth, and afterwards found on the draining and dig¬
ging through this earth again.
Hence it is not ftrange that Roman weapons and
Roman coins are found among thefe buried trees ; and
hence it is that among the buried trees fome are found
burnt, fome chopped and hewn 5 and hence it is that
the bodies of the trees all lie by their proper roots, and
with their tops lying north-eaft, that B, in that di¬
rection in which a fouth-weft xvind would have blown
them down : hence alfo it is, that fome of the trees
are found with their roots lying flat, thefe being not
cut or burned down, but blown up by the roots after¬
wards when left Angle •, and it is not wonderful, that
fuch trees as thefe ftiould have continued to grow even
after their fall, and (hoot up branches from their fides
which might eafily grow into high trees. Phil. Tranfi.
N° 275....
By this fyftem it is alfo eafily explained why the
moor foil in the country is in fome places two or three
yards thicker than in others, or higher than it was for¬
merly, fince the growing up of peat-earth or bog-
ground is well known, and the foil added by overflow¬
ing of waters is not a little.
As the Romans were the deftroyers of this great
and noble foreft, fo they w^ere probably alfo of the fe-
veral other ancient forefts \ the ruins of which fur-
nifh us with the bog-wood of Staffordfhire, Lanca-
(hire, York lift re, and other counties. But as the Ro¬
mans were not much in Wales, in the Ifle of Man, or
in
M O S [ 45* ] M O T
in Ireland, it is not to be fuppofed that forefts cut down
by thefe people gave origin to the fofiil wood found
there j but though they did not cut down thefe fo¬
refts, others did ; and the origin of the bog-wood is
the fame with them and with us. Holingfhead informs
us, that Edward I. being not able to get at the Wellh
becaufe of their hiding themfelves in boggy woods,
gave orders at length that they (hould all be deftroyed
by fire and by the axe ; and doubtlefs the roots and bo¬
dies of trees found in Pembrokelhire under ground, are
the remains of the execution of this order. The foflile
wood in the bogs of the iiland of Man is doubtlels of
the fame origin, though we have not any accounts ex¬
tant of the time or occafion of the forefts there being
deftroyed ; but as to the fqftile trees of the bogs of Ire¬
land, we are exprefsly told, that Henry II. when he
conquered that country, ordered all the wmods to be
cut down that grew' in the low parts of it, to fecure his
conquefts, by cutting away the places of refort of re¬
bels. For a fuller detail of the natural hiftery of mof-
fes, fee Elfays on this fubjedl by the Rev. Mr Rennie
of Kilfyth.
MoVIng-MOSS. We have an account in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaftions of a moving mofs near Church-
town in Lancaftiire, which greatly alarmed the neigh¬
bourhood as miraculous. The mofs was obferved to
rife to a furprifing height, and foon after funk as
much below the level, and moved flowly towards the
fouth.
A very furprifing inftance of a moving mofs is that
of Solway in Scotland, which happened in the year
iyyi, after fevere rains which had produced terrible
inundations of the rivers in many places. For the
better underftanding of this event, w'e fliall give the
following defcription of the fpot of ground where it
happened. Along the fide of the river Elk there is a
vale, about a mile broad, lefs or more in different
places. It is bounded on the fouth-eaft by the river
Elk, and on the north-weft by a fteep bank 30 feet
in height above the level of the vale. From the-top
of the bank the ground rifes in an eafy afcent for
about a quarter of a mile, where it is terminated by the
mofs ; which extends about two miles north and fouth,
and about a mile and a half eaft and weft, and is
bounded on the north-weft by the river Sark. It is
probable that the folid ground from the top of the
bank above the vale was continued in the fame direc¬
tion under the mofs, before its eruption, for aconfider-
able fpace ; for the mofs at the place where the erup¬
tion happened, was inclined towards the Hoping
ground. From the edge of the mofs there was a
gully or hollow, called by the country people the gap,
and laid to be 30 yards deep where it entered the vale;
down which ran a fmall rill of w£ter, which was often
dry in furnmer, having no iupply but what filtered from
the mofs. The eruption happened at the head of this
gap, on Saturday November 16. 1771, about ten or
eleven at night, when all the neighbouring rivers and
brooks were prodigioully fwelled by the rains. A large
body of the mofs was forced, partly by the great fall of
rain, and partly by fome fprings below it, into a fmall
beck or burn, whioh runs within a few yards of its bor¬
der to the fouth-eaft. By the united preflure of the wa¬
ter behind it, and of this beck, which was then very
high, it was carried down a narrow glen between two
banks about 300 feet high, into a wide and ipacious Mof*
plain, over part of which it fpread with great rapidity. ^ 5
The mofs continued for fome time to fend olT confider- '
able quantities ; which, being borne along by the tor¬
rent on the back of the firft great body, kept it for
many hours in perpetual motion, and drove it ftill far¬
ther on. This night at leal! 400 acres of fine arable
land were covered with mofs from 3 to 12 or 15 feet
deep. Several houfes were deftroyed, a good deal of
corn loft, &c. but all the inhabitants efcaped. When
the waters fubfided, the mofs alfq cealed to tlow ; but
two pretty confiderable ftreams continued to run from
the heart of it, and carried off fome pieces of moffy
matter to the place where it burft. There they joined
the beck already mentioned ; which, with this addition,
refumed its former channel ; and, wfith a little aftiftance
from the people of the neighbourhood, made its way
to the Elk, through the midft of that great body of
mofs which obftiudled its courfe. Thus, in a great
meafure drained, the new mofs fell feveral feet, when
the lair weather came in the end of November, and
fettled in a firmer and more folid body on the lands it
had overrun. By this inundation about 800 acres of
arable ground were oveiflow'ed before the mofs Hopped,
and the habitations of 27 families deftroyed. Tradition
has preferved the memory of a fimilar inundation in
Monteith in Scotland. A mofs there altered its courfe
in one night, and covered a great extent of ground.
Mans Troopers, a rebellious fort of people in the
north of England, who lived by robbery and rapine,
not unlike the tories in Ireland, the bucaniers in Ja¬
maica, or banditti of Italy. The counties of Northum¬
berland and Cumberland were formerly charged with a
yearly fum, and a command of men, to be appointed
by juilices of the peace, to apprehend and fupprefs
them.
MOSTRA, in the Italian mufic, a mark at the end
of a line or fpace, to {how that the firft note of the
next'line is in that place: and if this note be accom¬
panied with a lharp or Hat, it is proper to place thefe
charafters along wdth the moftra.
MOSUL, or MOUSUL. See Mousul.
MOTACILLA, the Wagtail and Warbler ;
a genus of birds of the order of paileres. See Orni¬
thology Index.
MOTE, in law books, fignifies court or convention ;
as ward mote, burgh mote, fwain mote, &c.
Mote was alfo ufed for a fortrefs or caftle ; as mota
de IVindfor, &c.
Mote alfo denoted a Handing water to keep filh in ;
and fometimes a large ditch encompafling a cattle or
dw'elling houle.
Mot E-Bell, or Mot-Bell, the bell fo called, which
was ufed by the Englifh Saxons to call people together
to the court. See Folkmote.
MOTH. See PhaLtENa, Entomology Index.
MOTHER, a term of relation, denoting a woman
who hath born a child.
Mothee-o/-Pearl. See Mytilus, Conchology
Index. {
MOTION is now generally confidered as incapable Motion,
of definition, being a fimple idea or notion received by
the fenfes. The ancients, however, thought different¬
ly. Some of them defined it to be a paffage out of
owejlate into another ; which conveys no idea to him
3 L 2 who
MOT [ 45
Mot:o». vvbo is ignorant of the nature of motion.—The Peripa-
tetic definition has been mentioned elfewhere and fhown
to be wholly unintelligible, as well as their celebrated
divihon of motion into four clalfes, belonging to the
2 three categories, quality, quantity, and whore; (fee
Several de-Metaphysics, N° 188, 189, 190.). The Cavtefi-
fimtions of. ans, too, among the moderns, pretend to define mo¬
tion, by calling it a pafiage or removal of one part of
matter, out of the neighbourhood of thofe parts to
which it is immediately contiguous, into the neighbour¬
hood of others. Borelli defines motion to be the fuc-
ceffive paffage of a body from place to place. Others
fay that it is the application of a body to different parts
* See Ah of infinite and immoveable fpace 5 and a late writer * of
uncommon acutenefs has given as a definition of mo-
^°n—clian?c °f place.
chanifm of ^ave elfewhere offered our opinion of every pof-
Nature, by hble attempt to define motion : but as the author of
Robert the lad quoted definition has endeavoured to obviate
loraig. fuch object ions as ours, candour requires that -he be
heard for himfelf. “ It is faid (he obferves) by fome,
that change implies motion, and therefore cannot be a
part of its definition, being the very thing defined. To
this I anfwer, We are fpeaking of the ftnfible idea of
motion, as it appears to our fight •, now changes do ap¬
pear to our view, and to all our fenfes, which give us
no idea of motion. Changes in heat or cold 3 in co¬
lour, flavour, fmell, found, hardnefs, foftnefs, pain,
pleafure ; in thefe, and many other ideas, changes do
not produce ideas like that produced by a ball rolling
or a flone falling. We may perhaps ultimately trace
them to motion, but to infenfible motions *, to motions
which arife only in refleftion, and conditute no part
of the adfual idea of change. We can therefore con¬
ceive of change, without conceiving at the fame time of
motion.—Change is a generic idea, including many
fpecies ; motion, as a fenfible idea, is a f’pecies of that
genus. Change is therefore a neceffary part of the de¬
finition of motion ) it marks the genus of the thing de¬
fined. Motion is a change •, but as there are many
fpecies of change, which of thofe fpecies is motion ?
The anfwer is, It is a change of place. This marks
the fpecies j and didinguifhes it from change of colour,
of temperament and figure.”
This is the abled defence of an attempt to define mo¬
tion that we have ever feen *, and at firft view the defi¬
nition itfelf appears to be perfedf. Ariftotle, the prince
of definers, “ confiders a definition f as a fpeech declar¬
ing what a thing is. Every thing elfential to the thing
defined, and nothing more, muft be contained in the
definition. Now the effence of a thing confifts of
thefe two parts : fird, what is common to it with other
things of the fame kind ; and fecondly, what dijlin-
gnifloes it from other things of the fame kind. The
fird is called the genus of the thing ; the fecond, its
fpecijic difference. The definition, therefore, confids of
thefe two parts.”
In obedience to this rule, the definition under con-
fideration feems to confid of the genus, fignified by the
word change; and of the fpccijic difference, denoted by
the words of place. But does the fpeech change of place
really declare what motion is ? We cannot admit that
it does •, as, in our apprehenfion, a change of place is
the effcB of motion, and not motion itfelf. Suppofe a
lover of dialeflic undertaking to define the droke by
]
M O T
f See Dr
Reid’s ac¬
count of
Ariftotle’s
logic, in
Lord
Karnes's
Sketches
of Man.
Shown not
to declare
what the
thing is;
and there¬
fore to be
no defini¬
tion.
which he faw his neighbour wounded with a bludgeon j Motion,
what fiiould we think of his art were he to call it a v~—J
contufion on the head ? He might fay that contufio-n is
a general term, as contufions may be produced on the
arms, on the legs, and on various parts of the ho ly j
and as there are many fpecies of contufion, it he were
allied which of thofe fpecies was the ftroke to be de¬
fined, he might anfwer, “ a contufion on the head.”
Here would be apparently the genus and fpecific differ¬
ence ; the former denoted by contufion, and the latter
by the words on the head. But would this be a defini¬
tion of a flroke ? No, furely : a contufion on the head
may be the effeci of a firoke ; but it can no more be
the frohe itfelf, than a blow can be a bludgeon, or a
fleih wound the point of a fword. Equally evident it
is, that a change of place cannot be motion j be-
caufe every body muft have been adtually moved be¬
fore we can difeern, or even conceive, a change of its
place.
The alf of changing the place would perhaps come
nearer to a definition of motion j but fo far would it be
from “ a fpeech declaring what motion is,” that we are
confident a man who had never by any of his fenfes
perceived a body in actual motion, would acquire no
ideas whatever from the words “ a£t of changing
place.” He might have experienced changes in heat,
cold, fmell, and found but he could not poflibly com¬
bine the ideas of fuch changes with the fignification of
the word place, were he even capable of underftanding
that word, which to us appears to be more than doubt¬
ful. (See Metaphysics, N° 40, 41.)
The diftindlions of motion into different kinds have j^ine
been no lefs various, and no lefs infignificant, than the tions of mo-
feveral definitions of it. The moderns who reject the tion into
Peripatetic divifion of motion into four clsffes, yet con-t1!®rrent
fider it themfelves as either ahfolute or relative. Thus
we are told, that “ ahfolute motion is the change o^ ab-
ioXote place, and that its celerity muft be meafured by
the quantity of ahfolute fpace which the moving body
runs through in a given time.” “ Relative motion, on
the other hand, is a mutation of the relative or vulgar
place of the moving body, and has its celerity eftimated
by the quantity of relative [pace run through.”
Now it is obvious, that this diftinetion conveys no
ideas without a farther explanation of the terms by
which it is expreffed \ but that explanation is impoffi-
ble to be given. Thus, before we can underfhnd what
ahfolute motion is, we muft underftand what is meant by
ahfolule place. But abfolute place is a contradiflion ;
for all place is relative, and confitis in the pofitions of
different bodies with regard to one another. Were a
globe in the regions of empty fpace to be put in mo¬
tion by Almighty Power, and all the reft of the corpo¬
real world to be foon afterwards annihilated, the mo¬
tion would undoubtedly continue unchanged 5 and yet,
according to this diftinftion, it would be at firft rela¬
tive, and afterwards ahfolute. That the beginning of
fuch a motion would be perceptible, and the remainder
of it imperceptible, is readily granted ^ but on this ac-,j,j e ^ .
count to confider it as of two kinds, is as abfurd as to n[0^s°,!j'
fuppofe the motion of the minute hand of a clock to be the Carte-
affefted by our looking at it. jt- fians and of
Leaving therefore thefe unintelligible diftinftions,
we now come to confider a queftion ftill of a very ab- thc fource
ftrufe nature, but much agitated among philofophers, 0f inotion.
viz.
M O T
[ 453 1
M O T
Motion viz. What is the original fource of motion in the crea-
‘ ^  tion : Is it natural to matter r or are vve to afcribe it
to the immediate and continual agency of home imma¬
terial being ? The former has been ftrenuoufly argued
by the Cartefians, and the latter by the Newtonians.
The arguments of the former, founded upon the chime¬
rical hypothelis of vortices and the original conflrnc-
tion of matter, were evidently inconclufive 5 and the
hypothelis of Sir Ifaac Newton, who afferted that it
was naturally incapable of motion, appeared more pro¬
bable. To account for the quantity of motion in the
univerfe, therefore, it became neceffary to have recourfe
either to the Deity, or to fome fubordinate fpiritual
agent •, and this became the more neceffary, as the doc¬
trine of an abfolute vacuum in the celellial fpaces, that
is, throughout the incomparably greateft part of the
creation, was one of the fundamental maxims of the
fyftem. As it was abfolutely denied that matter exiff-
ed in thefe fpaces, and it was plain that the celcfbal
bodies affedled one another at immenfe didances, the
powers of attradlion and repuliion were naturally called
in as the fources of motion by their impulfe upon inert
and fluggith matter. Thefe being admitted, a fpecu-
lation enfued concerning their nature. Spiritual, it
xvas conleffed, they were j but whether they were to
be accounted the immediate aclion of the divine Spirit
himfelf, or that of fome fubordinate and inferior fpirit,
was a matter of no little dilpute. Sir Ifaac Newton,
towards the latter part of his life, began to relax fome-
what of the rigidity of his former doftrine ; and allow¬
ed that a very fubtile medium, which he called either,
might be the caufe of attradlion and repuifion, and
thus of the whole phenomena of nature. Since his
time the multitude of difeoveries in eledlricity, the fi-
milarity of that fluid to fire and light, with the vaft
influence it has on every part of the creation with
which wre are acquainted, have rendered it very pro¬
bable that the aether mentioned by Sir Ifaac is no other
than the element of fire, “ the moll fubtile f and ela-
flic of all bodies, which feems to pervade and expand
itfelf throughout the whole univerfe. Eledlrical ex¬
periments {how that this mighty agent is everywhere
prefent, ready to break forth into aflion if not re-
flrained and governed with the greateft wifdom. Be¬
ing always reftlefs and in motion, it actuates and en¬
livens the whole viable mafs ; is equally fitted to pro¬
duce and to deftroy *, diftinguifties the various ftages
of nature, and keeps up the perpetual round of gene¬
rations and corruptions, pregnant with forms which
it conftantly fends forth and reforhs. So quick in its
motions, fo fubtle and penetrating in its nature, fo ex-
tenfive in its effedls, it feemeth no other than the vege¬
tative foul or vital fpirit of the world.
“ The animal fpirit in man is the inftrument both
nrons of the of fenfe and motion. To fuppofe fenfe in the corpo-
tbw'f'r rea* vvor*d 'vould be grofs and unwarranted j but loco-
J 'motive faculties are evident in all its parts. The Py¬
thagoreans, Platonifts, and Stoics-, held the w’orld to
be an animal *, though fome of them have chofen to
confider it as a vegetable. However, the phenomena
do plainly {howr, that there is a fpirit that moves, and
a mind or providence that prefides. This providence,
Plutarch faith, was thought to be in regard to the
world what the foul is in regard to man. The order
and courfe of things, and the experiments we daily
6
A fubtle
sether the
probable
caufe of
attraction
ar.: repui¬
fion.
f Sin's,
153,
&c.
7 .
The opi-
make, (how that there is a mind w'hich governs and Motion,
actuates this mundane fyftem as the proper and real ' ^
agent and caufe 5 and that the inferior inftrumental
caufe is pure aether, fire, or the fubftance of light,
which is applied and determined by an infinite mind
in the macrocofm • or univerfe, with unlimited power,
and according to ftated rules, as it is in the microcofm
with limited power and fkill by the human mind. We
have no proof either from experiment or reafon of any
other agent or efficient caufe than the mind or fpirit.
When, therefore, we fpeak of corporeal agents, or cor¬
poreal caufes, this is to be underftood in a different,
fubordinate, and improper fenfe and fuch an agent
we know light or elementary fire to be.” 8
That this elementary fire, abforbed and fixed in all Experi-
bodies, may be the caufe of the univerfal principle of me,!ts.Pia"
gravity, is made fufficiently evident by numberlefs ex-^’^g a,_
periments. Homberg having calcined in the foegs ofther may
a burning glafs fome regulus of antimony, found that be the un«
it had gained one-tenth in weight, though the regu-mediate
1 ) • ii.- r In f- r . caufe of the
lus, during the whole time of the operation, lent uPpiHnet;ary
a thick fmoke, and thereby loft a coniiderable part ofmot;ons>,
its own fubftance. It is vain to allege that any he-See.
terogeneous matter floating in the air, or that the air
itfelf, may have been hurried into the mafs by the ac¬
tion of the fire, and that by this additional matter the
weight was increafed j for it is known experimentally,
that if a quantity of metal be even hermetically fecur-
ed within a veffel of glafs to keep off the air and all
foreign matter, and the veffel be placed for fome time
in a ftrong fire, it wall exhibit the fame effeft. “ I have
feen the operation performed (fays Mr Jouesf) on tvvof E/fay on'
ounces of pewter filing?, hermetically fealed up in
Florence flafk, which in trvo hours gained 5 5 grains, 0f Natural
that is nearly one 17th. Had it remained longer in Philofophy,
the fire, it might probably have gained fo met lung
more •, as, in one of Mr Boyle’s experiments, fteel filings
were found to have gained a fourth.
“ Of accounting for thefe effedls there are but two
poflible ways : 1. If the quantity of matter be the
fame, or, in the cafe of calcination, be fomewhat lefs,
after being expofed to the aflion of the fire, while
the gravity of the whole is become greater j then
does it follow, that gravity is not according to the5*
quantity of matter, and of courfe is not one of its
properties. 2. If there be an increafe of the mafs,
it can be imputed to nothing but the matter of light
or fire entangled in its paffage through the fubftance,
and fo fixed in its pores, or combined with its folid
parts, as to gravitate together with it. Yet it is cer¬
tain, from the phenomenon of light darting from the
fun, that this elementary fire does not gravitate till it
is fixed in metal, or fome other folid fubftance.—-Here
then vve have a fluid which gravitates, if it gravitate at
all, in fome cafes and not in others. So that which
way foever the experiment be interpreted, we are forced
to conclude that elementary or folar fire may be the
caufe of the law of gravitation.”
That it is likewife in many cafes the caufe of repui¬
fion, is known to every one who has feen it fufe metals,
and convert water and mercury into elaftic vapour.
But there is a faft recorded by Mr Jones, which feems
to evince that the fame fluid, which as it ifllies from
the fun exhibits itfelf in the form of light'and heat,
is in other circinuftances converted into a very fine air.
Motion.
MOT r 454 ]
or cold aether, which rallies very forcibly towards the material
body of that luminary. “ As a fequel to what has
been obferved (fays he) concerning the impregnation
of folid fubllances with the particles of fire, give me
leave to fubjoin an experiment of M. de Stair. He tells
us, that upon heating red lead in a glafs, whence the
air was exhaufted by the rays of the fun colle£led in
a burning glafs, the vefl'el in which the faid red lead
was contained burft in pieces with a great noife. Now,
as all explofions in general mull be afcribed either to
an admiffion of the air into a rarefied fpace, or to what
is called the generation of it} and as air wTas not admit¬
ted upon this occafion, it muft have been generated
from the calx within the veffel; and certainly was fo,
becaufe Dr Hales has made it appear that this fub-
flance, like crude tartar and many others, will yield
a confiderable quantity of air in diflillation. What
went into the metal therefore as jire, came out of it
again as air; which in a manner forces upon us con-
clufions of inellimable value in natural philofophy, and
fuch as may carry us very far into the mofl lublime
part of it.”
One of the conclufions which the ingenious author
thinks thus forced upon us, is, that the motion of the
planets round the fun, as well as round their own axes, is
to be attributed to the continual agency of this fluid,
under its two forms of elementary fire and pure air. As
fire and light, we know that it ruihes with inconceiv¬
able rapidity from the body of the fun, and penetrates
every corporeal fubftance, exerting itfelf fometimes with
fuch force as nothing wdth vrhich we are acquainted is
able to refift. If it be indeed a faft, that this ele¬
mentary fire, or principle of light and heat, afterwards
cools, and becomes pure air, there cannot be a doubt,
but that under fuch a form it will return with great
force,- though furely in a fomewhat different direction,
towards the fun, forming a vortex, in which the planets
are included, and by wdiich they muft of courfe be car¬
ried round the centre. Mr Jones does not fuppofe
that the air into which the principle of light and heat
is converted, is of fo grofs a nature as our atmofphere.
He rather confiders it as cool aether, juft as he repre-
ients light to be aether heated : but he maintains, that
this aether, in its aerial form, though not fit for human
refpiration, is a better pabulum of fire than the air
which we breathe.
This theory is exceedingly plaufible 5 and the au¬
thor fupports it by many experiments. He has not,
indeed, convinced us that the folar light is converted
or convertible into pure air ; but he has, by juft reafon-
ing from undoubted fadfs, proved that the vvhole ex-
panfe of heaven, as far as comets wander, is filled not
only with light, which is indeed obvious to the fenfes,
but alfo with a fluid, which, whatever it may be called,
lupplies the place of the air in feeding the fire of thefe
ignited bodies.
That the motion of the heavenly bodies fhould re-
enae of fuch fult from the perpetual agency of fuch a medium, ap-
an aether, pears us a much more rational hypothefis, than that
does'not * which makes them adf upon each other at immfenfe di-
completely fiances through empty fpace. But the hypothefis is
folve the by no means fo complete a folution of the phenomena
phenome- £S foirie of its fond admirers pretend to think it. This
fluid, whether called aether, heat, light, or air, is ftill
9
The exift-
MOT
and the queftion returns upon him who Motion,
imagines that it is fuiiicient to account for gravitation, y
repulfion, magnetifm, and cohefion, &c. “ What
moves the fluid itfelf, or makes the parts of which it
is compofed cohere together ?” However widely it
may be extended, it is incapable of pofitive infinity; <
and therefore may be divided into parts feparated from
each other ; fo that it muft be held together by a fo¬
reign force, as well as a ball of lead, or a piece of wax.
As matter is not effentially adlive, the motion of this
ffither, under both its forms, muft likewife be confidered
as an effeft, for which we do not think that any pro¬
pelling power in the body of the fun can be admitted
as a fufficient caufe. For hour comes the fun to poficfs
that power, and what makes the fluid return to the
fun ? We have no notion of power, in the proper fenfe
of the word, but as intelligence and volition ; and, by
the pious and excellent author of the EiTay on the Firlt
Principles of Natural Philofophy, we are certain that
the fun was never fuppofed to be intelligent.
Biftiop Berkeley, who admits of light or aether asIt;s^ere-
the inftrumental caufe of all corporeal motion, getsridforeby
of this difficulty, by fuppofing, hwith the ancients, that1'ome ft'?-
this powerful agent is animated. “ According to thepofecl to be
Pythagoreans and Piatonifts (fays his Lordihip *),“^y^ed'
there is a life infufed throughout all things; the ttvo N° 277.
mgsv, wp Tixnx.cv, an intellectual and artificial fire, an
inward principle, animal fpirit, or natural life, produ¬
cing and forming within, as art doth without 5 regulat¬
ing, moderating, and reconciling the various motions,
qualities, and parts of this mundane fyftem. By virtue
of this life, the great maffes are held together in their
ordinary courfes, as well as the minuteft particles go¬
verned in their natural motions, according to the feveral
laws of attradlion, gravity, electricity, magnetifm, and
the reft, ft is this gives inftinds, teaches the fpider her
web, and the bee her honey. This it is that directs the
roots of plants to draw forth juices from the earth, and
the leaves and cortical veffeis to feparatc and attract
fuch particles of air and elementary fire as fuit their
refpedlive natures.”
This life or animal fpirit feems to be the fame thing
which Cudworth calls plaftic nature, and which has
been confidered elfewhere. (See Mktaphysics, N°
200, and Plastic Nature). We fhall thereforeMiimifs
it at prefent, with juft admitting the truth of the bi-
ftiop’s pofition, “ that if nature be fuppofed the life
of the world, animated by one foul, compacted into
one frame, and directed or governed in all its parts by
one fupreme and diftimt intelligence, this fyltem can¬
not be accufed of atheifm, though perhaps it may of
mlftake or impropriety.”
A theory of motion fomewhat fimilar to that of A new tj,e.
Berkeley, though in feveral refpefts different from it,ory oi mo-
was not many years ago Hated with great clearnefs,d°n>
and fupported with much ingenuity, in An Effay on the
Powers and Mechanifm of Nature, intended to improve,
and more firmly eftablifh, the grand fuperftructure of
the Newtonian fyftem. Mr Young, the author of the
effay, admits with moft other philofophers of the prefent
age, that body is compofed of atoms which are impene¬
trable to each oriter, and may be denominated folid.
Thefe atoms, however, he does not confider as primary
and Ample elements, incapable of refolution into prin¬
ciples ;
4
M O T
[ 455 ]
M O T
Motion.
by fuppof-
ing that a
fubftanee
effentiaily
acftive per¬
vades the
univerfe-
13
Proofs of
the exift-
ence of fuchtt chan^
a iubftance. -
cipies; but thinks that they are formed by certain mo¬
tions of the parts of a fubftance immaterial and effen¬
tiaily aflive.
As this notion is uncommon, and the offspring of
a vigorous mind, we (hall confider it more attentively
under the article Plastic Nature. It is mentioned at
prefent as a neceffary introduction to the author’s theory
of motion, of which he attributes both the origin and the
continuance to the agency of this elementary fubflance
pervading the moll folid atoms of the denfeft bodies.
Of every body and every atom he holds the conilituent
principles to be effentiaily active : but thofe principles
a£1 in fuch a manner as to counterbalance each other j
fo that the atom or bc^ly confidered as a whole is inert,
unlefs in fo far as it refills the compreifion or fepara-
tion of its parts. No body or atom can of itfelf begin
to move, or continue in motion for a fingle inftant :
but being pervious to the adlive fubllance, and coalef-
cing with it, that fubftance, when it enters any body,
it carries it along with it, till, meeting feme other body
in the way, either the whole of the aflive fubftance
lodged in the former body paffes into the obftacle, in
which cafe the impelling body inftantly ceafes to
move : or elfe part of that fubftance pafi'es into the ob¬
ftacle, and part remains in the impelling body ; and in
this cafe'both bodies are moved with a velocity in pro¬
portion to the quantity of matter which each contains,
combined with the quantity of aClive fubftance by
which they are refpeclively penetrated.
In order to pave the way for his proof of the exift-
ence of one uniform aflive fubftance, he obferves, that
e being an effentially conftituent part of m<3-
tion, and change implying aflion, it follows that all
motion implies ait ion, and depends on an affiive caufe.
Every motion (he continues*) has a beginning, a mid¬
dle, and an end. The beginning is a change from reft
to motion ; the middle is a continuance in motion ;
the end is a change from motion to reft.” He then
proceeds to fttow', that the beginning of motion is by
an aflion begun ; the continuance of motion by an
aflion continued 5 and the end of motion by a ceffation
of a£lion.
“ The firft of thefe pofitions is admitted by every
body. That the continuance of motion is by an a£Hon
continued, will be proved, if it fhall be Ihown that the
continuance of a motion is nothing different from its
beginning, in regard to any point of time affumed in
the continued motion. Now the beginning of mo¬
tion (he fays) confifts in the beginning of change of
place. But if any given portions of time and of fpace
are affumed, a body beginning to move in the com¬
mencement of that time, and in the firft; portion of
the fpace affumed, then and there begins that parti¬
cular motion : and whether before the body began to
move in that fpace it was moving in other fpaces and
times, has no relation to the motion in queftion ; for
this being in a fpace and time altogether diftinfl, is a
diftinfft motion from any which might have preceded
it immediately, as much as from a motion which pre¬
ceded it a thoufand years before. It is therefore a new
motion begun ; and fo it may be faid of every affumable
point in the continued motion. The term continued
ferves only to conneft any two diftinft motions, the end
of one with the beginning of the other ; but does not
d.eftroy their ciftindnefs,” ->■
He then proceeds to combat, which he does very Motion-
fuccefsfully, the arguments by which the more rigid w‘~v '
Newtonians endeavour to prove that a body in mo¬
tion will continue to be moved by its own inertia, till
ftopt by feme oppofite force. Having done this, he
eftablilhes the contrary conclufion by the following
fyilogiims :
“ I. Whatever requires an aclive force to ftop its
motion, is difpofed to move.
Every body in motion requires an adlive force to
ftop its motion :
Therefore every body in motion is difpofed to
move.
“ IE Whatever is difpofed to motion is poffeffed of
adlion.
But a body in motion is difpofed to continue in
motion :
Therefore a body in motion is poffeffed of adlion.
Thus it appears, that the middle part of any motion is
action equally with the beginning.
“ The laft part of motion is its termination. It is
admitted that all motion is terminated by an a£lion
Contrary to the direction of the motion. _ It is ad¬
mitted, too, that the moving body aBs at the time its
motion is deftroyed. Thus the beginnirig and the end oi
any uniform motion are confefied to be actions; but
all the intermediate continuation which connects the be¬
ginning with the end is denied to be aftion. What can
be more unaccountable than this denial ? Is it not
more conlonant to reafon and analogy, to aferibe to
the whole continued motion one uninterrupted aftion ?
Such a conclufion true philofophy, we think, requires
us to make.
“ To move or a£l, is an attribute which cannot be
conceived to exift without a fubftance. The aclion of
a body in motion is indeed the attribute of the body,
and the body relatively to its owm motion is truly a
fubftance, having the attribute or quality of motion.
But the body being a name fignifying a combination
of certain ideas, which ideas are found to arife from
aclion (fee Plastic Nature), that adlion which is pro-
duclive of thofe ideas whofe combination we denomi¬
nate body, is of the nature of an attribute fo long as it
is confidered as conftituted of adtion.—To this attribute
we muft neceffarily afiign its fubftance. The adlions
which conftitute body muft be aftions of fomething, or
there muft be fomething which a£ls. What then is
this ACTIVE SOMETHING from whofe agency we get the
idea of body, or whofe aftions conftitute body ? Is it not
fufficient that it is fomething aftive ? A name might be
furely given it, but a name would not render the idea
more clear. Its defeript/on may be found in every fen-
fation ; it is colour to the eye, flavour to the palate,
odour to the nofe, found to the ear, and feeling to the
touch ; for ail our fenfations are but fo many ways in
which this active something is manifefted to us. A
fubftratum of folidity philofophers have imagined to
exift, and have in vain fought to find. Our active
substance is the fubftratum fo long fought for, and
With fo little fuccefs. We give it a quality by which
it may be perceived ; it acts. One modification of
achon produces matter, another generates motion.
Thefe modifications of adftion are modes of the adive
fubftance, whofe prefence is adion : matter and motion
conftitute-
MOT
[ 456 ]
MOT
.'4 .
"Which is
unintelli¬
gent,
Motim. conftir.ute the whole of nature. There is therefore
~ V “* THROUGHOUT nature an active substance, the
CONSTITUENT ESSENCE OF MATTER, AND IMMEDIATE
NATURAL AGENT IN ALL EFf ECTS.”
By an argument which we do not think very con-
cluhve, our author determines this a£bve fubfiance
to be unintelligent. li In our feniations individually,
not discovering (fays he) the traces, not feeing the
chara61ers of intelligence, but finding only a£lion pre-
fent and neceffitry, our inferences go no farther than
our obfervations warrant us to do j and we conclude
in all thefe things an a&ion only, and that adlion un¬
intelligent.1’ Having given our opinion of real agency
elfewherfi (fee Metaphysics, IN 118.), we lliall
not here flop to examine this reafoning.—We may
however alk, Whether all our fenfations individually
be not excited for a certain end? If they be, accord¬
ing to our author’s mode of arguing in another place,
the exciting agent fliould be an intelligent being. By
this we are far from meaning to deny the reality of
h fecondary or inftrumental caufe ol fenfation which
is deilitute of intelligence. We are ftrongly inclined
to think that there is fuch a caufe, though our per-
fuafion refults not from this argument of our author’s.
In our opinion, he reafons better when he fays, “ that
a fubordinate agent conftrufted as the matter crea¬
tion, inveftedwith perpetual laws, and producing agree¬
ably to thofe laws all the forms of being, through the
varieties of which inferior intelligences can, by pro-
greflive fteps, arrive ultimately at the fupreme con¬
triver, is more agreeable to our ideas of dignity,
and tends to imprefs us with more exalted fenti-
ments, than viewing the Deity diredlly in all the in¬
dividual impreffions we receive, divided in the infi¬
nity of particular events, and unawful, by his conti¬
nual prefence in operations to our view imignificant and
15 mean.”
and nei- xhis aftive fubftance, or fecondary caufe, our au-
nor^nind^ th°r concludes to be neither matter nor mind. Mat¬
ter (fays he) is a being, as a whole quiefeent and in-
adlive, but conftituted of adlive parts, which refill fe-
paration, or cohere, giving what is ufually denomi¬
nated folidity to the mafs. Mind is a fubftance which
thinks. A being which (hould anfwer to neither of
thefe definitions, would be neither matter not mind ;
but an immaterial, and, if I may fo fay, an immental
fubftance.” Such is the aaive fubftance of Mr Young,
which, confidered as the caufe or motion, Teems not 1.0
differ greatly from the plajhc nature, hylarchical prin¬
ciple, or vis genitnx, of others. Ihe manner in which
v it operates is indeed much more minutely detailed by
our author than by any other philoiopher, ancient, or
modern, with vvhofe writings we have any acquaint¬
ance, ^ 1
“ Every thing (he fays) muft be in its own nature
either dift'ofed to reft or motion confequently the
active substance muft be confidered as a being na¬
turally either quiefeent or motive. But it cannot be
naturally quiefeent •, for then it could not be active, be-
j6 caufe affivity, which is a tendency to motion, cannot
The man- originate in a tendency to reft. Therefore the active
ner in SUBSTANCE is by nature motive, that is, tending to mo-
whieh it is tjon> ACTIVE SUBSTANCE is not folid, and does
fuppofed j-gfift penetration. It is therefore incapable of
O opera e. or 0£ fufta!ning impulfc. Whence it follows,
2
that as it tends to move, and is incapable of having its
motion impeded by impuife, it muft aflually and conti¬
nually move : in other words, motion is essential
TO THE ACTIVE SUBSTANCE.
“ In order that this fubftance may feme other
thing upon wdiicli it may produce a change is necel-
fary ; for whatever fuffers an action, receives fome
change. The active fubftance, in a cling on fome other
thing, muft impart and unite itfelf thereto tor its
aBion is communicating its acliviiy. But it cannot
communicate its activity without imparting its fub¬
ftance : becaufe it is the fubftance alone which poilcffes
activity, and the quality cannot be feparated from the
fubftance. THEREFORE THE ACTIVE SUBSTANCE ACTS
BY UNITING ITSELF WITH THE SUBSTANCE ON WHICH
IT acts. The union ot this fubftance with bodies, is
not to be conceived of as a junction of fmall parts in¬
timately blended together and attached at their fur-
faces •, but as sn entire diffufion and incorporation of
one fubftance with another in perfeft coaiefcence. As
bodies are not naturally a61ive, whenever they become
fo, as they always do in motion, it muft be by the ac-
ceffion of fome part of the aftive fubftance. The
aclive fubftance being imparted to a body, penetrates
the molt folid or refilling parts, and does not refide
in the pores without, and at the furfaces of the felid
parts. For the activity is imparted to the body itlelfj
and not to its pores, which are no parts of the body :
therefore if the a&ive fubftance remained within the
pores, the caufe would not be prefent with its effe£t j
but the caufe would be in one place and the effefl in
another, which is impoffible.
“ Bodies by their impuife on others lofe their a£fi-
vity in proportion to the impuife. 1 his is matter ot
obfervation. Bodies which fuffer impube acquire ac¬
tivity in proporDon to the impuife. 1 his alio is mat¬
ter of obfervation. In impulie, therefore, the aclive
fubfiance paffes out of the impelling body into the
body impelled. For fince bodies in motion are a&ive,
and adlivity confifts in the prefence of the adlive fub¬
ftance, and by impuife bodies lofe their adlivity, there¬
fore they lofe their adlivd fubftance, and the lofs.is
proportional to the impuife. Bodies impelled acquire
adlivity ; therefore acquire adlive fubftance, and the
acijiiifition is proportioned to the impuife. But tne
adlive fubftance loft by the impelling body ought to
be concluded to be that found in the other ■, becaufe
there is no other receptacle than the impelled body to
which the fubftance parted from can be traced, nor
any other fource than the adlive body whence that
which is found can be derived. Therefore, in impulie,
the adlive fubftance ought to be concluded to pafs from
the impelling body to the body impelled. The flow¬
ing of fuch a fubftance is a fufficient caufe of the com¬
munication of adlivity, and no other rational caufe can
be affigned.
“ The continued motion of a body depends not
upon its inertia, but upon the continuance or the ac¬
tive fubftance within the body. The motion of a
body "is produced by the motion of the active fub¬
ftance in union with the body. It being evident, that
fince the aclive fubftance itfelf does always move, what¬
ever it is united to will be moved along with it, if no
obftacle prevent. In mere motion, the body moved
is the patient, and the adlive lubftance the agent. In
impuife.
Motion.
Motion.
produces
impulfe,
iS
aud caufes
the motion
of the hea¬
venly bo¬
dies.
MOT [
impulfe, the body in motion may be confidered as an
agent, as it is made adlive by its adiive fubftance.—
While the adlive fubftance is flowing out of the adfive
body into the obftacie or impelled body, the adtive
body will prefs or impel the obftacie. For while the
adlive fubftance is yet within the body, although flow¬
ing through it, it does not ceafe to impart to the body
its own nature, nor can the body ceafe to be adlive
oecaufe not yet deprived of the active fubftance. There¬
fore during its paflmg out of the body, fuch portion of
the adlive fubftance as is yet within, is urging and dif-
poftng the body to move, in like manner as if the adlive
fubftance were continuing in the body ; and the body
being thus urged to move, but impeded from moving,
prefies or impels the obftacie.
“ We fee here (fays our author) an obvious explana¬
tion of impulfe ; it conflfts in the flowing of the motive
fubftance from a fource into a receptacle and he
thinks, that although the exiftence of fuch a fubftance
had not been eftablifhed on any previous grounds, the
communication of motion by impulfe does alone afford
a fufhcient proof of its reality.
He employs the agency of the fame fubftance to ac¬
count for many other apparent adlivities in bodies,
fuch as thofe offire, cleBricity, attraBion, repuljion, elaf-
ticity, &c. All the apparent origins of corporeal ac¬
tivity ferve, he fays, to impart the adlive fubftance to
bodies; “ and where adlivity is without any manfiejl
origin, the adfive fubftance is derived from an invifible
fource.”
Our limits will not permit us to attend him in his fo-
lution of all the apparent adlivities in bodies 5 but the or¬
bicular motions of the planets have been accounted for
in fo many different ways by philofophers ancient and
modern, and each account has been fo little fatisfadlory
to him who can think, and wiflies to trace effedts from
adequate caufes, that we confider it as our duty to fur-
niflr our readers with the account of this phenomenon
which is given by Mr Young.
The queftion which has been fo long agitated,
“ Whence is the origin of motion ?” our author com
fiders as implying an abfurdity. “ It fuppofes (fays
he) that reft was the primitive ftate of matter, and
that motion was produced by a fubfequent adl. But
this fuppofition muft ever be rejedled, as it is giving
precedency to the inferior, and inverting the order of
nature.” The fubftance which he holds to be the
balls of matter is effentially adlive ; and its adlion is
motion. This motion, however, in the original ele¬
ment, was power without diredlion, agency without
order, adlivity to no end. To this power it was ne-
ceffary that a Law fticuld be fuperadded ; that its
agency fliould lie guided to fome regular purpose, and
its motion confpire to the produdlion of fome uniform
effedls. Our author (hows, or endeavours to fhow,
by a procefs of reafoning which {hall be examined elfe-
where, that the primary atoms of matter are produced
by the circular motion of the parts of this fubftance
round a centre $ and that a flrnilar motion of a num¬
ber of thefe atoms around another centre common to
them all, produces what in common language is called
a folid body; a cannon ball, for inflance, the terreftrial
globe, and the body of the fun, &c. In a word, he
labours to prove, and with no fmall fucccfs, that a prin-
Vol. XIV. Part If.
457 ] MOT
ciple of union is implied in the revolving or circulating ^
movements of the adlive fubftance.
“ But we may alfo affume (he fays) a prion, that a
principle of union is a general law of nature becaufe
we fee in fadl all the component parts of the univerle
are united fyftems, which fucceflively combine into
larger unions, and ultimately form one whole.” . Let
us then fuppofe the fun with all his- planets, primary
and fecondary, to be already formed for the nurpoie of
making one fyftem, and the orbits of all of them, as
well as thefe great bodies themfelves, to be pervaded
by the adlive fubftance, which neceffarily exifts in a
ftate of motion, and is the caufe of the motion of every
thing corporeal. ‘£ If to this motion a principle ot
union be added, the effedt of fuch a principle would be
a determination of all the parts of the adlive fubftance,
and of courfe all the bodies to which it is united, to¬
wards a common centre, which would be at reft, and
void of any tendency in any diredlion. But this determi¬
nation of all the parts of the fyftem towards a common
centre, tends to the deftrudtion both of the motion of
the adlive fubftance and of the fyftem j for thould all
the parts continually approximate from a circumference
towards a centre, the fun and planets would at laft
meet, and form one folid and quiefcent mafs. But to
preferve exiftence, and confequently motion, is the firft
law of the adlive fubftance, as of all being > and it
cannot be doubted, that to preferve diftindl the feverai
parts of the folar fyftem, is the firft law given to the
fubftance adluating that fyftem. The union of the fy¬
ftem is a fubfequent law.
“ When the direB tendency of any inferior law is
obviated by a higher law, t^e inferior law will operate
indireBly in the manner the neared to its diredl ten¬
dency that the fuperipr law will permit. If a body in
motion be obliquely obftrudled, it will move on in a
diredlion oblique to its firft motion. Now the law of
union, which pervades the folar fyftem, being conti¬
nually obftrudled by the law of felf-prefervation, the
motion of the adlive fubftance, and of the bodies to
which it is united, can be no other than a revolving
motion about the common centre of approach, towards
which all the parts have a determination. But when
this revolution has adlually taken place, it gives birth
to a new tendency, which fuperfedes the operation of
the law of felf-prefervation. It has been ftiown, that
the motion effential to the adlive fubllance, required to
be governed by fome law to give being to an orderly-
date of things. Now, there are motions Ample and
motions complex ; the more.Ample is in all things Aril
in order, and out of the more Ample the more complex
arifes in order pofterior. The mod Ample motion is
rectilineal > therefore a redtilineal motion is to be con-
Adered as that which is the original and natural ftate
of things, and confequently that to which all things
tend. It will follow fr m hence, that when any por¬
tion of adlive fubftance in which the law of union ope¬
rates, has in the manner above explained been com¬
pelled to affume a revolving motion, that is, a motion
in fome curve ; a tendency to a redlilineal motion will
continually exift in every part of the revolving por¬
tion, and in every point of the curve which it deferibes
during its revolution. And this redlilineal tendency
will be a tendency to recede from the centre in every
.3 M point
Motion.
Mo*'on.
M
revolvin'
o
T
r
45
Cbjeclions
to this
theory.
^ point of the revolving orbit, and to proceed in a tan-
^ gent to the orbit at each point. Thefe f.vo tenden¬
cies, if not originally equal, rauft neceffarily in all cafes
arrive at an equality. For the tendency towards the
centre, calied the cenii-betal tendency, that is, the law
of union, operating firit, if we fuppofe the motion ap¬
proaches the centre, the tendency to recede from it,
called the centrifugal tendency, will have its propor¬
tion to the centripetal continually increafed as the orbit
of revolution grows lefs, fo as ultimately to equal the
centripetal tendency, and refirain the motion from its
central courfe, at which point it will no longer feek
the centre but revolve round it.”
As our author holds that every atom of matter is
formed by the motion of parts of the aefive fubftance,
and every body formed by the motion of atoms; fo he
maintains, not only that the fun, moon, earth, planets,
and ftars, are penetrated by the fame fubftance, but
that each is the centre of a vortex of that fubftance,
and that of thefe vortices fome are included within
others. “ The fubtle revolving fluid, the centre of
whofe vortex the earth occupies, not only furrounds
but pervades the earth, and other vortices their earths,
to their centres •, and the earth and planets are by its re¬
volutions carried around on their own axes. The earth
is an inaffive mafs, and all its component maffes are fe-
verally as well as colledtively inactive ; but the earth
and all its parts have various coliedtive and feparate
movements, imparted from the fluid which furrounds,
pervades, and conftitutes it. Being immeried together
With its proper furrounding fphere or vortex in the
larger fphere or vortex of the fun, it is carried thereby
in a larger orbit about the fun, at the fame time that
by the revolution of its proper fphere it rotates on its
own axis.”
Such is the moft complete view which our limits
will permit us to give of Mr Young’s theory of mo¬
tion. To the philofopher who confiders experiment
as the only teft of truth, and who in alb his inquiries
employs his hands more than his head, we are fully
aware that it will appear in no better light than as
“ the bafelefs fabric of a Villon.” Even to the intel-
leflual philofopher who is not frightened at the word
metaphyfics, we are afraid that fuch an aclive fubftance
as the author contends for, will appear as inadequate
to the production of the phenomena of gravitation and
repul non as the material aether of Mr Jones and his
followers. A being void of intelligence, whether it
be material or immaterial, quiefeent or motive, cannot
be the fubjeft of law, in the proper fenfe of the wmrd.
The laws of which Mr Young fpeaks as neceffary to
regulate the motions of the active fubftance, muft be
xnere forces, applied by fome extrinfic and fuperior
power. And lince “ motion, as it is effential to the
active fubftance, is power without direction, agency
without order, activity to no end; fince it is of fuch a
nature, that from its unguided agitations there could
refult neither connexion, order, nor harmony it fol¬
lows that thofe extrinfic forces muft be perpetually
applied, becaufe what is ejfential to any fubftar.ee can
never be deftroyed or changed fo long as the fubftance
itfelf remains.
Forces producing order out of confufion, can be ap¬
plied only by a being poffefled of intelligence ; and if
the immediate and perpetual agency oi an intelligent
s ] M o T
being be neceffary to regulate the motions of the ac- Motion.
live fubftance,' that fubftance itfelf may be thought  
fuperfluous, and its very exiftence be denied. Entla
tion finl niultiplicaneJa ahfque ncceffitate, is a rule of phi-
lofophizing which every man of fcience acknowledges
to be juft. And it will hardly he denied, that the
immediate and perpetual agency of an intelligent being
upon Mr Jones’s etherial fluid, or even upon the mat¬
ter of folid bodies themfelves, would be capable of
producing every kind of motion -without the inftru-
mentality of a fubftance which is neither mind nor
matter.
Such, we conceive, are the objedlions which our
metaphyfical readers may make to this theory. Part
of their force, however, will perhaps be removed by
the ingenious manner in which our author analyzes
matter into an immaterial principle. But fo much of it
remains, that the writer of this article is inclined to
believe that no mechanical account can be given of the
motions of the heavenly bodies, the growth of plants,
and various other phenomena which are ufually folved
by attrabfion and repulfion. In the prefent age, phi-Other theo-
lofophers in general are ftrangely averfe from admitting ries more
on any occafion the agency of mind ; yet as every ef- anc‘ent and
feel muft have a caufe, it is furely not irrational to at_ratl0nal-
tribute luch effeffs as mechanifm cannot produce to
the operation either of intelligence or inttinft. To
fuppofe the Deity the immediate agent in the great
motions of the univerfe, has been deemed impious ;
and it muft be confeffed that very impious conclufions
have been deduced from that principle. But there is
furely no impiety in fuppofmg, with the excellent bi-
fhop of Cloyne, that the fluid which is known to
pervade the folar fyftem, and to operate with refiftlefs
force, may be animated by a powerful mind, which
a<fts inftinctively for ends of which itfelf knows no¬
thing. For the exiftence of fuch a mind, no other
evidence, indeed, can be brought than what is afford¬
ed by a very ancient and very general tradition, and
by the impoffibility of accounting for the phenomena
upon principles of mere mechanifm. Perhaps fome of
our more pious readers may be inclined to think that
the Supreme Being has committed the immediate go¬
vernment of the various planetary fyftems to powerful
intelligences, or angels, who, as his minifters, direft
their motions with wifdom and forefight. Such an
opinion is certainly not abfurd in itfelf; and it feems
to be countenanced by an ancient writer*, who, though * Tjal civ,
not known by the name of a philofopher, knew as
much of the matter as any founder of the moft cele¬
brated fchool.
To objeft to either of thefe hypothefes, as has been
fometimes done, that it reprefents the government of
the world as a perpetual miracle, betrays the groffeft
ignorance ; for we might as well call the movements
of the bodies of men and brutes, which are certainly
produced by minds, miraculous. We do not affirm
that either hypothefis is certainly true ; but they are
both as probable and as fatisfadlory as the hypothefis
which attributes agency to attradlion and repulfion to
a fubtle aether, or to a fubftance which is neither mind
nor matter. Were the immediate agency of intelledl
to be admitted, there would be no room for many of
thofe difputes which have been agitated among philo-
fephers, about the increaie or diminution of motion
ai
The quef-
the world
remains urr
impaired ?
anfwered
ty
and Me-
chanifm,
fee.
M O T
Motion, in the univerfe ; becaufe an intelligent agent
could begin motion as well as carry it on, might in-
creafe or diminiih it as he Ihould judge proper. If in-
ftinftive agency, or fomething fimilar to it, be adopt¬
ed, there is the fame room for inveftigation as upon
the principles of mechanifm •, becaufe inftinft works
blindly, according to fteady laws impofed by a fuperior
jnind, which may be difeovered by obfervation of their
effects. As we confider this as by much the moft pro¬
bable hypothecs of the two, we find ourfelves involved
in the following queftion : “ If a certain quantity of
tion, Whe- motjon was originally communicated to the matter of
erMnal univerfe, how co.mes it to pafs that the original
quantity of quantity ftill remains ?” Confidering the many op-
motlon in pofite and contradiclory motions which fince the crea¬
tion have taken place in the univerfe, and which have
undoubtedly deftroyed a great part oi the original
quantity, by what means has that quantity been re-
ftored ?
If this queftion can be folved by natural means, it
muft be upon the principles of Newton; for, “ in every
*Toung's cafe * where quantities and relations of quantities are
EJfay on reqUJred? it is the province of mathematics to fupply
the Powers^ information fought; “ and all philosophers agree
that Sir Ifaac’s doftrine of the compofition and refo-
lution of motion, though in what refpefts the heaven¬
ly bodies it may have no phyfical reality, is io mathe¬
matically juft, as to be the only principle from which
the quantity of motion, or the force of powers, can
in any cafe be computed. If we choofe to anlwer the
queftion, by faying that the motion left is reftored by
the interpofition of the Deity, then we might as well
have had recourfe to him at firft, and fay that he alone
is the true principle of motion throughout the crea¬
tion.
Before we are reduced to this dilemma, however,
tefians, and it is neceffary, in the firft place, to inquire whether
there is or can be any real diminution of the quantity
of motion throughout the univerfe ? In this queftion
the Cartefians take the negative fide ; and maintain,
that the Creator at the beginning impreffed a certain
quantity of motion on bodies, and that under fuch
laws as’ that no part of it (hould be loft, but the fame
portion of motion {hould be conftantly preferved in
matter : and hence they conclude, that if any moving
body ftrike on any other body, the former lofes no
more of its motion than it communicates to the latter.
23 Sir Ifaac Newton takes the contrary fide, and argues
iyNewton.in the following manner: “ From the various cotn-
pofitions of two motions, it is manifeft there is not al¬
ways the fame quantity of motion in the world ; for if
two balls, joined together by a {lender wire, revolve
with an uniform motion about their common centre
of gravity, and at the fame time that centre be carried
uniformly in a right line drawn in the plane ot their
circular motion, the fum of the motions of the two
balls, as often as they are in a right line, drawn
their common centre of gravity, will be greater
the fum of their motions when they are in a line
pendicular to that other. Whence it appears,
motion may be both generated and loft. But, by rea-
fon of the tenacity of fluid bodies, and the fri&ion of
their parts, with the weaknefs of the elaftic power in
fulid bodies, nature feems to incline much rather to
the deftru&ion than the production of motion ; and
22
The Car-
[.459 1. . M 0 T 
which in reality, motion becomes continually left and lefs.—- Motion. ^
For bodies which are either fo perfectly hard or fo v
foft as to have no elaftic power, will not rebound from
each other ; their impenetrability will only flop their
motion. And if two fuch bodies equal to one ano¬
ther be carried with equal but oppofite motions, lo
as to meet in a void fpace, by the laws of motion they
muft ftop in the very place ot concourfe, lofe all their
motion, and be at reft for ever, unlefs they have an elal-
tic power to give them a new motion. If they have
elafticity enough to make them rebound with one-fourth,
one-half, or three-fourths, of the force they meet with,
they will lofe three-fourths, one-half, or one-fourth, of
their motion. And this is confirmed by experiments:
for if two equal pendulums be let fall from equal heights,
fo as to ftrike full upon each other ; if thole pendulums
be of lead or foft clay, they will lofe all, or almoft all,
their motion ; and if they be of any elaftic matter, they
will only retain fo much motion as they receive from
their elaftic power.”
Motion, therefore, being thus, in the opinion of our
celebrated author, lo/l, or abfohitehj defrayed, it is ne¬
ceffary to find fome caufe by which it may be renewed.
Such renovation Sir Ifaac attributes to aBive princi¬
ples ; for inftance, “ the caufe of gravity, whereby the
planets and comets preferve their motions in their or¬
bits, and all bodies acquire a great degree of motion
in falling ; and the caufe of fermentation, whereby the
heart and blood of animals preferve a perpetual warmth
and motion, the inner parts of the earth are kept per¬
petually warmed ; many bodies burn and fliine, and
the fun himfelf burns and {bines, and with Ills light
warms and cheers all things.”
Elafticity is another caufe of the renovation of mo¬
tion mentioned by Sir Ifaac. “ We find but little mo¬
tion in the world (fays he), except what plainly flows
either from thefe a6tive principles, or from the com¬
mand of the wilier.” ^ 24
With regard to the deJlruBion or pofitive /ofs of F°wer
motion, however, we muft obferve, that notwithftand-°v™^nor
ing the authority of Sir Ifaac Newton, it is altogetherdeftroyed,
impoflible that any fuch tiling can happen. All mov¬
ing bodies which come under the cognizance of our
fenfes are merely paffive, and afted upon by fome¬
thing which we call powers or funds, and which are
to us totally inviiible. Motion, therefore, cannot be
loft without a deftru&ion or diminution of one of
thefe powers, which we have no reafon to think can
ever happen. When two pendulums rufti againft each
other, the motion is the mere effeft of the a&ion of
gravity ; and that a£tion, which in this cafe is the
power, continues to be the very fame whether the pen¬
dulum moves or moves not. Could motion, therefore,
be exhaufted in this cafe, we muft fuppofe, that by fe-
parating two pendulums to the fame diftance from each
other, and then letting them come together for a great
number of times, they would at laft meet with lefs
force than before. But there is certainly not the ieafl:
foundation for this fuppofition ; aftd no rational perfon
will take it into his head, that fuppofing the whole
human race had employed themfelves in nothing elfe
from the creation to the prefent day, but feparating
pendulums and letting them ftop each other’s motion,
they would now come together with lefs force than
they did at firft. Power, therefore, which is the caufe
3 M 2 of
from
than
per-
that
mot [ 460 ] MOT
Motion, of motion, is abfolutely indeftrufHble. Powers may
indeed counteract one another, or they may be made
to counteract themfelves j but the moment that the
obftacle is removed, they fhovv themfelves in their prif-
tine vigour, without the lead fymptom of abatement
or decay. ^
Whether, therefore, we reckon the ultimate fource
of motion to be fpiritual or material, it is plain that it
muit be to our conceptions infinite; neither will the
phenomena of nature allow us to give any other ex¬
planation than we have done : for no power whatever
can lofe more than its own quantity ‘y and it feems ab-
furd to think that the Deity would create the world
in fuch a manner that it would ultimately become im¬
moveable, and then have recourfe to unknown prin¬
ciples to remedy the fuppofed defeCt. On the prin¬
ciple we have now juft laid down, however, the mat¬
ter becomes exceedingly plain and obvious. The Crea¬
tor at firft formed two oppofite powers, the aCtion of
which is varied according to the circumftances of the
bodies upon which they aft ; and thefe circumftances
are again varied by the aftion of the powers themfelves
in innumerable ways upon one another, and the ap¬
proach of one body to another, or their receding to
a greater diftance. Where thefe powers happen to
oppofe each other direftiy, the body on which they
aft is at reft ; when they aft obliquely, it moves in
the diagonal ; or if the force afting upon one fide is
by any means leffened, the body certainly muft move
towards that fide, as is evident from the cafe of the
atmofphere, the preffure of which, when removed from
one fide of a body, will make it move very violently
towards that fide , and if we could continually keep
off the preffure in this manner, the motion would af-
furedly be perpetual. We muft not imagine that mo¬
tion is defrayed becaufe it is counteracted; for it is im-
poflible to deftroy motion by any means but removing
the caufe ; counterafting the efteft is only a tempo¬
rary obftac’e, and muft ceafe whenever- the obftacle is
removed. Nature, therefore, having in itfelf an infi¬
nite quantity of motion, produces greater or leffer mo¬
tions, according to the various aftion of the moving
powers upon different bodies or upon one another,,
without a poflibility of the general ftock being either
augmented or diminiftied, unlefs one of the moving
powers was to be withdrawn by the Creator ; in which
cafe, the other would deftroy the whole fyftem in an
The nature in^anC As to the nature of thefe great original
of the mov-powers, we muft confefs ourfelves totally ignorant j
ing powers nor do we perceive any data from which the nature4*'
unknown. Q£ t]iem can inveftigated. The elements of light,
air, &c. are the agents j but in what manner they aft,
or in what manner they received their aftion, can be
known only to the Creator.
Perpetual Motion, in Mechanics, a motion which is
lupplied and renerved from itfelf, without the interven¬
tion of any external caufe j or it is an uninterrupted
communication of the fame degree of motion from one
part of matter to another, in a circle or other curve
returning into itiell, fo that the fame momentum ftill
returns undiminilhed upon the firft mover.
The celebrated problem of a perpetual motion con-
fifts in the inventing a machine, which has tl e prin¬
ciple of its motion within itfelf., M. de la Hire has dc-
monftrated the impofiibility of any fuch machine, and
finds that it amounts to this, viz. to find a body which
is both heavier and lighter at the fame time, or to find
a body which is heavier than itfelf.
Animal Motion, that which is performed by animals
at the command of the mind or will.
Though ah the motions of animals, whether volun¬
tary or involuntary, are performed by means of the
mufcles and nerves, yet neither thefe nor the fubtile
fluid which refides in them are to be accounted the
ultimate fources of animal motion. They depend en¬
tirely upon the mind for thofe motions which are pro¬
perly to be accounted animal. All the involuntary mo¬
tions, fucb as thole of the blood, the heart, mufcles,
organs fubfervient to refpiration and digeftion, &c. are
to be claffed with thofe of vegetables ; for though no
vegetables have them in fuch perfeftion as animals,
there are yet traces of them to be found evidently
among vegetables, and that fo remarkably, that fome
have imagined the animal and vegetable kingdoms to
approach each other fo nearly that they could fcarce
be diftinguilhed by a philofophic eye. See Muscle.
Though the motions of animals, however, depend
on the aftion of the mind or of the will, external ob-
jefts feem originally to have the command of the mind
itfelf j for unlefs an animal perceive fomething, it will
not be inclined to aft. By means of the ideas once re¬
ceived, indeed, and retained in the memory, it acquires
a felf-moving power, independent of any objeft prefent
at the time, which is not the cafe with vegetables ;
for however they may aft from a prefent impulfe, their
motions never appear to be derived from any fource
wdiich may not be accounted ftriftly mechanical.
According to fome, motion is the caufe of fenfation
itfelf; and indeed it feems very probable that the mo¬
tions of that fubtle fluid, called light or eleBricity, in
our bodies always accompany our fenfations 5 but
whether thefe be the caufe, or only the medium, of
fenfe, cannot be difcovered.
Though all animals are endowed with a power of vo¬
luntary motion, yet there is a very great variety in the
degrees of that power ; to determine which no certain
rules can be afiigned ; neither can we, from the fitu-
ation and manner of life of animals, derive any probable
reafon why the motion of one Ihould differ fo very much
from that of another. This difference does not arife
from their fize, their ferocity, their timidity, nor any
other property that we can imagine. The elephant,
though the ftrongeft land animal, is by no means the
floweft in its motions ; the horfe is much fwifter than
the bull, though there is not much difference in their
fize ; a greyhound is much fwifter than a cat, though
the former be much larger, and though both live in the
fame manner, viz. by hunting. Among infefts the
fame unaccountable diverfity is obfervable. The loufe
and flea are both vermine, are both nearly of the fame
fize, and both feed on the bodies of animals; yet there
is no comparifon between the fwiftnefs of their motions :
while the bug, which is much larger than either, feems
to have a kind of medium fwiftnefs between both.—.
This very remarkable circumftance feems not even to
depend on the range which animals are obliged to take
in order to prccute food for themfelves : the motion
of a fnail is flower than that of an earth worm 5 while
that
Motion.
‘M O T [ 461 ] MO T
Motion, that of many caterpillars is much quicker than either j
m~~r though we can fcarce determine which of the three has
the greateft or the leafl extenfive range for its food.
Of all animals the ihell fifla move the flowelf, info-
much that fome have fuppofed them to be entirely de-
ftitute of loco-motive powers; and mufcles particular¬
ly are denied to have any faculty of this kind. Every
one knows that thefe animals can open and ihut their
fhells at pleafure; and it cannot efcape obfervation, that
in every mufcle there is a flefhy protuberance of a much
tredder colour than the reft. This has been thought-
to be a tongue or probofcis, by which the animal takes
in its food ; but is in reality the inftrument of its mo¬
tion from place to place. This protuberance is divided
into two lobes, which perform the office of feet. When
the river mufcle is inclined to remove from its ftation,
it opens its (hell, thrufts out this protuberance, and
digs a furrow in the fand ; and into this furrow, by the
action of the fame protuberance, the (hell is made to
fall in a vertical pofition. It is recovered out of this
into the former horizontal one, by pulhing back the
fand with the fame tentacula, lengthening the furrow,
and thus the animal continues its journey by a conti¬
nual turning topfy-turvy.— Marine mufcles perform
their motions in the fame manner, and by fimilar in-
ftruments. In general they are firmly attached to rocks
or fmall ftones by threads about two inches long, which
are fpun from a glutinous fubftance in the protuberances .
already mentioned.
Other animals which inhabit bivalved ftiells, per- -
form their motions by a kind of leg or foot 5 which,
however, they can alter into almoft any figure they
pleafe. By means of this leg they can not only fink
into the mud, or rife out of it at pleafure, but can
even leap from the place where they are ; and this can
be done by the limpit, which people are apt to ima¬
gine one of the moft fluggifti animals in nature.—When
this creature is about to make a fpring, it fets its fliell
on edge, as if to diminilh friflion 5 then, ftretching
out the leg as far as poftible, it makes it embrace a
portion of the (hell, and by a fudden movement, fimi¬
lar to that of a fpring let loofe, it ftrikes the earth
with its leg, and actually leaps to a confiderable di-
ftance.
d he fpout, or razor-filh, is faid to be incapable of
moving forward horizontally on the furface; but it
digs a hole fometimes two feet deep in the fand, in
which it can afcend or defcend at pleafure. The leg,
by which it performs all it’s movements, is fiefhy, cy¬
lindrical, and pretty long \ and the animal can at plea-
fure make it affume the form of a ball. When lying
on the furface of the fand, and about to fink into it,
the leg is extended from the inferior end of the (hell,
and makes the extremity of it take on the form of a
(hovel, (harp on each fide, and terminating in a point.
With this inftrument the animal makes a hole in the
fand ; after which it advances the leg (till farther into
it, makes it aflume the form of a hook, and with this,
as a fulcrum, it obliges the (hell to defcend into the
hole. This operation is continued until the whole
(hell be covered ; and when the animal wnfhes to re¬
gain the furface, it makes the extremity of the leg to
aflame the form of a ball, and makes an effort to ex¬
tend it. The ball, howrever, prevents any farther de¬
cent, and the readion of the mufcular effort raifes up
the whole (hell, which operation is continued until Motion.
it reaches the furface ; and it is furprifing with what ' v 
facility thefe motions are accomplifhed by an animal
feemingly fo little qualified to move at all. Another
paiticularity in this fifh is, that though it lives among
fait water, it abhors fait fo much, that when a little
is thrown into its hole it inftantly leaves it. But it
is ftill more remarkable, that if you once take hold of
the fpout fifh, and then allow it to retire into its hole,
it cannot then be driven opt by fait ; though unlefs it
be taken hold of by the hand, the application of fait
will make it come to the furface as often as you pleafe.
All other (hell filh, even thofe apparently the mod
fluggilh and deftitute of any apparatus for motion, are
found to he furnifhed with fuch inftruments as enable
them to perform all thofe movements for which they “
htfve any occafion. Thus the fcallop, a well-known
animal inhabiting a bivalved (hell, can both fwim up¬
on the furface of water and move upon land. When
it happens to be deferted by the tide, it opens its (hell
to the full extent, and (hutting it again with a fudden
jerk, the reaction of the ground gives fuch an impulfe
to the whole, that it fometimes fprings five or fix
inches from the ground ; and by- a continued repeti¬
tion of this adlion, it gradually tumbles forward until
it regains the water. Its method of failing is fliU
more curious. Having attained the furface of the
water by means unknown to us, it opens the (hell,
and puts one half above water, the other with the body
of the animal in it remaining below. Great numbers
of them are thus frequently feen failing in company
with their fhells flicking up above -water when the
weather is fine, and the wfind afting upon them as fails;
but on the lead alarm they inftantly (hut their ftiells,
and all (ink to the bottom together.
The oyfter has generally been fuppofed one of the
moft ftuggifh animals in nature, and totally incapable
of voluntary motion ; but from the re(earches of the
Abbe Dicquemarre, this opinion feems to be errone¬
ous. The oyfter, like many other bivalved (hell-fifti,
has a power of fquirting water out from its body ;
and this property may eafily be obferved by putting
fome of them into a plate with as much fea water as
will cover them. The water is ejefted with fo much
force, as not only to repel the approach of ordinary
enemies, but to move the whole animal backwards or
fide wife, in a diredion contrary to that in which the
water was ejeded. It has been alfo fuppofed, that
oyfters are deftitute of fenfation ; but M. Dicquemarre
has (liown, that they not only poffefs fenfation, but
that they are capable of deriving knowledge from ex¬
perience. When removed from fuch places as are en¬
tirely covered with the fea, when deftitute of expe¬
rience, they open their fliells and die in a few days ;
but if they happen to efcape this danger, and the wa¬
ter covers them again, they will not open their (hells
again, but keep them (hut, as if warned by experience
to avoid a danger fimilar to what they formerly under¬
went.
I he motions of the fea-urchin are perhaps more cu¬
rious and complicated than thofe of any other animal.
It inhabits a beautiful multivalved (hell, divided into
triangular compartments, and covered with great num¬
bers of prickles; from which laft circumftance it re¬
ceives the name of fea urchin or fea hedgehog. Ths:
triangle!
M O T [ 462 ] MOT
triangles are . feparated from one another by regular
belts, and perforated by a great number of holes, from
every one of which iilues a tlefliy horn iimilar to that
of a fnail, and capable of moving in a fimilar manner.
The principal ure of thcfe horns.feems to be to fix the
animal to rocks or hones, though it likewife makes
ure of them in its progreifive motion. By means of
tbefe horns and prickles, it is a bled to walk either
on its back or ks belly j but it moll commonly makes
ufe of thofe which are near the mouth. Occafionaliy
it has a pfogreflive motion by turning round like a
wheel.
'i'he animals called fea-nettlcs or rneclufe, though ex¬
tremely (low; in their motions, are neverthelefs evidently
capable of moving at pleafure from place to place. The
variety of their figure is fuch, that it is difficult to affign
them any determinate figure whatever. In general,
however, they refemble a truncated cone, the bale ot
which is applied to the rock to which they adhere.
Their colours are various, whitilh, brown, red or green-
iih : the mouth is very large ; and when opened appears
furrounded with filaments refembling the horns of fnails,
which being difpofed in three rows around it, give
the animal the appearance of a flower } and through
every one of thefe the animal has the power of fquirting
the fea water. The fcrndfure of thele animals is ex¬
tremely lingular •, they confiding all of one organ, viz,
a ftomach. When fearching for food, they extend
their filaments, and quickly entangle any fmall ani¬
mals that come within their reach. The prey is inflant-
ly fwallowed, and the mouth {hut clofe upon it like a
purfe •, in which date it remains for many days before
the nutritive parts are extrafted. The animal, though
fbarcely an inch or an inch and a half in diameter, is
neverthelefs fo dilatable, that it can fwallow large
whelks and mufcles, the (hells of which are thrown cut
by the mouth after the nutritive parts have been ex-
hauded. Sometimes the d\ell is too large to be voided
this way; in which cale the body of the animal fplits,
and the fhell is voided through the opening, which in a
fhort time heals up again. The progred'ive motion of
this creature is fo flow7, that it refembles that of the
hour hand of a clock, and is performed by means of in¬
numerable mufcles placed on the outfide of the body.
All thefe are tubular, and filled vyith a duid, which
makes them projeft like prickles. On occafion it can
likewife loofen the bafe of the cone from the rock, and
inverting its body, move by means of the filaments
already mentioned, which furround the mouth •, but
even the motion performed in this manner is almod as
flow7 as the other.
Some animals are capable of moving backwards, ap¬
parently with the fame facility that they do forwards,
and that by means of the fame indruments which move
them forward. The common houfe dy exhibits an
intrance of this, and frequently employs this retrograde
motion in its ordinary courfes; though we cannot
know the reafon of its employing fuch an extraordi¬
nary method. Another remarkable indance is given
by Mr Smeilie in the mafon bee. This is one of the
iolitary fpecies, and has its name from the mode of
confiru£iing its ned with mud or mortar. Externally
this ned has no regular appearance, but at fird fight
is taken for a quantity of dirt adhering to the wall ;
though the internal part be furnifhed with cells in the
3
fame regular manner with the neds of other infeffs of Motien.
the bee kind. When this bee leaves its ned, another ““
frequently takes poffeffion of it ; in which cafe a battle
never fails to enfue on the return of the real proprie¬
tor. The difpute is decided in the air; and each
party endeavours to get above the other, as birds of
prey are wont to do in order to give a downward
blow. The undermod one, to avoid the droke, m-
dead of flying forward or laterally, always flies back¬
ward. The encounter is fo violent, that when they
ftrike, both parties fall to the ground.
Vegetable Motion. Though vegetables have not the
power of moving from one place to another like animals,
they are neverthelefs capable of moving their different
parts in fuch a manner as would lead us to fufpeft that
they are actuated by a fort of inflimff. Hence many
have been induced to fuppoie, that the animal and ve¬
getable kingdoms are in a manner indiftingui{liable from
one another ; and that the highed degree of vegetable
life can hardly be knowm from the lowed degree of ani¬
mal life. The effenthd and infuperable didindfion, how-
evsr, between the two, is the faculty of fenfation, and
loco-motion in confequence of it. Were it not, indeed,
for the*manifedation of fenfe by moving from one place
to another, w7e ihould not be able to tell wdiether vege¬
tables were pofleffed of fenfation or not ) but whatever
motions they may be poffeiled of, it is certain that no
vegetable has the faculty of moving from one place to
another. Some have endeavoured to didinguifh the tw7o
kingdoms by the digedion of food ; alleging that plants
have no proper organs, fuch as a domach, &c. for tak¬
ing in and digeding their aliment. But to this it has
been replied, that the w'hole body of a vegetable is a
domach, and abforos its food at every pore. This,
how’ever, feems not to be a fufficient anfw7er. All ani¬
mals take in their food at intervals, and there is not a
iingle inilance of one which eats perpetually. Idle
food is alfo taken into the body of the animal, and
application of the parts made by means of the internal
organization of the vifcus; but in vegetables, their
whole bodies are immerfed in their food, and a’oforb
it by the furface, as animal bodies will fometimes ab-
forb liquids when put into them. The roots of a tree
indeed will change their direftion when they meet with
a done, and will turn from barren into fertile ground j
but this is evidently mere mechanifm, wdthout any
proof of will or fenfation 5 for the nourifhment of the
root comes not from the done, but from the earth
around it 5 and the increafe in fize is not owing
to any expanlion of the matter wdiich the root already
contains, but to the appofition of new matter ; wffience
the increafe of fize mud always take place in the di-
redlion from whence the nourifhment proceeds. On
this principle alfo may we explain the reafon why the
roots of a tree, after having arrived at the edge of a
ditch, indead of {hooting out into the air, will creep
down the one fide, along the bottom, and up the
other.
In their other movements the vegetables difcover no¬
thing like fenfation or defign. They will indeed uni¬
formly bend towards light, or towards water j but in
the one cafe we mud attribute the phenomenon to the
aflion of the elements of light and air upon them j
and in the latter, the property feems to be the fame
with what in other cafes we call attraflion. Thus, if
a
MOT [ 463 ] M O T
Motion, a root bo uncovered, and a wet fponge placed near it
-v— jn a ti|re<ftion difterent from that in which the root
was proceeding, it will foon alter its pofition, and
turn towards the fponge 5 and thus we may vary the
direction of the root as often as wre pleafe. The ef¬
forts of a plant to turn from darknefs or (hade into
funfhine are very remarkable; as in order to accomplith
this, not only the leaves will be inclined, but even the
hems and branches twilled. When a wet fponge is
held under the leaves of a tree, they bend down in
order to touch it. If a veffel of water be put within
fix inches of a growing cucumber, in lefe than 24
hours the latter will alter its diredlion $ the branches
will bend towards the water, and never alter their
courfe until they come in contadl with it. The moll
remarkable inhance of this kind of motion, however,
is, that when a pole is brought near a vine, the latter
will turn towards it, and never ceafe extending its
blanches till it lays hold of the fupporf.
The motions of the fenfitive plant, and others of
the fame kind, have been confidered as very wonder¬
ful ; but it is doubtful if any of them be really more
fo than that of the vine jult mentioned. None of
thefe lhowT any kind of propenfity to move without an
aflual touch. A very flight one, indeed, makes the
fenfitive plant contract, and the whole branch, toge¬
ther with the leaves, bend down towards the earth.—
Thefe phenomena are by fome aferibed to electricity.
Even the motions of the hedyfarum gyrans, which at
firll fight feem fo much more furprifing than thofe of
the fenfitive plant, may it is fuppofed admit of ex¬
planation upon the fame principle. The American
plant called dioruza mufcipula, or Venus's fly-trap, is
another example of very wonderful mechanilm in ve¬
getables, though even this does not argue any degree
of fenfation in this plant more than in others. The
leaves of the dioncea are jointed, and furnilhed with
tw’o rows of prickles. A number of final! glands upon
the furface fecrete a fweet juice which entices flies to
come and fettle upon it 5 but the moment thefe infe£ls
touch the fatal fpot, the leaves fold up, and fqueeze
them to death between the prickles. The leaves fold
up in the fame manner when the plant is touched with
a ft raw or pin. The drofera rotundifolia and longifo-
lia, round and long-leafed fundew, plants of @ur own
country, not uncommon in boggy ground, pofiefs a
fimilar ftruffure, and perform fimilar funftions.
The folding up of the leaves of certain plants in the
abfence of the fun’s light, called their fleep, affords
another very curious inftance of vegetable motion.—
Almoft all vegetables, indeed, undergo fuch a remark¬
able change in the night, that it is difficult to know
exactly how many kinds do really deep. 7'hey fold up
their leaves in many different ways ; but all agree in
difpofing of them in fuch a manner as to afford the beft
proteiftion to the young ftems, flower buds or fruit.
The leaves of the tamarind tree contract round the
young fru:t in order to protect it from noflurnal cold ;
and thofe of fenna, glycina, and many other papiliona¬
ceous plants, difpofe of their leaves in the fame man¬
ner. The leaves of the duckweed, afclepias atriplex,
&c. are dif >ofed in oppofite pairs. In the night time they
rife perpendicularly, and join fo clofe at the top that
the flowers are concealed by them. In like manner do
the leaves prctedl the flowers of the fida or althaea theo-
phrafti, oenothera, folanum, and the Egyptian vetch.
All thefe are ere&ed during the night; but thofe of the
white lupine, in time of fleep, hang down.
The flowers of plants alfo have motions peculiar to
themfelves. Many of them during the night are en-
clofed in their calyxes. Some, particularly thofe of
the German fpurge, geranium ftriatum, and common
whitlow grafs, when alleep, bend towards the earth j
by which means the noxious effects of rain or dew are
prevented. All thefe motions have been commonly
aferibed to the fun’s rays ; and Mr Smellie informs us
that in fome of the examples above mentioned the ef-
fe&s were evidently to be aferibed to heat : but plants
kept in a hot-houfe, where the temperature of the
day and night are alike, contract their leaves, and fleep
in the fame manner as if they were expofed to the open
air; “whence it appears (fays he), that the fleep of
plants, is owing rather to a peculiar law, than to a
quicker or flower motion of the juices.” He fufpe&s,
therefore, that as the fleep of plants is not owing to
the mere abfence of heat, it may be occafioned by the
want of light ; and to afeertain this he propofes an
experiment of throwing upon them a ftrong artificial
light. If notwithftanding this light (lays he), the
plants are not roufed, but continue to lleep as ufual,
then it may be prefumed that their organs, like thofe
of animals, are not only irritable, but require the re¬
paration of fome invigorating influence which they
have loft while awake, by the agitations of the air and
of the fun’s rays, by the a£t of growing, or by fome
other latent caufe.” On this, however, we muft re¬
mark, that the throwing of artificial light upon plants
cannot be attended with the fame confeqtiences as that
of the light of the fun, unlefs the former were as
ftrong as the latter, which is impofflble ; and even
granting that we could-procure an artificial light as
ftrong as that of the fun, a difference might be occa¬
fioned by the different direflions of the rays, thofe of
the fun being very nearly parallel, while the rays of
all artificial light diverge very greatly. If therefore,
we are to make an experiment of this kind, the rays
fliould be rendered parallel by means of a burning
mirror. Here again we would be involved in a diffi¬
culty ? for the rays of the fun proceed all in one di-
reftion ; but as of neceffity we muff employ different
mirrors in our experiment, the light muft fall upon the
plant in different dire&ions, fo that we could not rea-
fonably expect the fame refult as when the plants are
diredfly expofed to the rays of the fun.
The motion of plants, not being deducible from
fenfation, as in animals, muft be aferibed to that pro¬
perty called irritability; and this property is poffeffed
infenflhly by the parts of animals in a greater degree '
than even by the moft irritable vegetable. The rnuf-
cular fibres will contract on the application of any fti-
mulating fubftance, even after they are detached from
the body to which they belonged. The heart of a fros*
will continue to beat when pricked with a pin for feve-
ral hours after it is taken out of the body. The heart
of a viper, or of a turtle, beats diftin<5tly from 20 to
30 hours after the death of thefe animals. When the
inteftines of a dog, or any other quadruped, are fud-
denly cut into different portions, all of them crawl a-
bout like worms, and contracl upon the flighteft touch.
The heart, inteflines, and diaphragm, are the moft
irritable .e
MOT [ 464 ] MOT
irritable parts of animal bodies ; and to diicover whe¬
ther this quality refides in all plants, experiments {hould
be made chiefly on leaves, flowers, buds, and the ten¬
der fibres of the roots.
The motions of plants are univerfally afcribed by
our author to irritability, to which alfo we have afcribed
them under the article Animal. The term, however,
requires an explanation ; and to give this in ah intelli¬
gible manner requires fome attention. The mofl: ob¬
vious comparifon is that of an ele6!rified thread ; which
on the approach of any uneledlrified lubftance, (hows a
variety of motions, equally furprifing with thofe of the
parts of plants or the mufcular fibres cut out of the
body. Could we fuppofe that the eledlricity of a thread
might be preferved after it was cut olf from the eledlri-
fying fubftance, it would fliow as much irritability as
even the mufcular fibres, or portions of the inteflines of
animals. We know, from the hifiory of the torpedo,
ele&rical eel, &c. that there are animals in which the
ele&ric fluid acts in fuch a manner as to produce a much
mere powerful effeft than that of giving motion to the
leaves of plants. The readinefs, therefore, with which
this fluid is thrown into agitations when any fubftance
in which it a£ts is touched, is without doubt the irrita¬
bility in queftion •, but tve have from thence no more
reafon to afcribe fenfation to thefe irritable bodies, than
to an ele&rified bottle when it difcharges itfelf, or
makes a cork ball play around it.
In a paper read before the Academy of Sciences at
Paris, by M. Brouffonet, the author inclines to con¬
found irritability and fenfibility together. “ The dif¬
ferent parts of plants (fays he) enjoy the faculty of
motion j but the motions of a vegetable are very diffe¬
rent in their nature from thofe of an animal: the moft
fenfible, thofe that are produced with moft rapidity in
plants, are always influenced by fome ftimulating caufe.
Irritability, which is nothing but fenjibihty made ma-
nifeft by motion, is a general law' to which nature has
fubjedfed all living beings *, and it is this that conti¬
nually watches over their prefervation. Being more
powerful in animals than in plants, it may be often
confounded in thefe laft with phenomena that depend
on a quite different caufe. In the vegetable it is only
the organ which is expofed to the adlion of the ftimu¬
lating po'.ver that moves. Irritation in particular pla¬
ces never produces that prompt combination of fenia-
tions which we obferve in animals j in confequence of
which certain parts are put in motion without being
direclly affefted, and which otherwife might have been
pafiive.
“ The more perfect the organization in the differ¬
ent parts of animals is, the more apparent are the figns
of irritability. The parts that come neareft to thofe
of vegetables, and in which of confequence the organi¬
zation is moft imperfeft, are the leaft irritable. The
fame law holds with regard to plants •, but the refult
is oppofite : the figns of irritability are moft fenfible in
proportion to the analogy of the parts with thofe of
animals j and they are imperceptible in thofe that are
diflimilar. This aflertion is proved by what w’e oblerve
in the organs deftined in vegetables to perpetuate the
fpecies. Thofe parts alone feem fenfible to ftimuli ;
the bark, leaves, ftalks, and roots ftiowing no figns of
irritability.
“ The motions effentially vital, which have in plants
1
the greateft affinity with thofe of animals, are the courfe
of the fap, the paffage of the air in the trachea, the '
different pofitions which the flow’ers of certain plants
take at certain hours of the day, &c. But if we attend
to the manner in which all thefe motions in plants are
performed, W'e (hall find that they prefent a greater
number of modifications than the analogous motions
that take place in animals. The temperature of the
atmofphere, its agitation, light, &c. have great influ¬
ence on the motions of plants, by accelerating or re¬
tarding the courfe of their fluids \ and, as they can¬
not change their place, thefe variations produce in
them changes more obvious and more uniform than in
animals.”
Our author now proceeds to inform us, that fome of
the motions of plants are occafioned by the rarity of
the juices in plants, and others by their abundance.
Of the former kind are thofe by wffiich the capfules of
fome plants fuddenly burft with a fpring, and throw
their feeds to fome diftance. Of the other kind are
the adtion of the ftamina in the parietaria, the inflec¬
tion of the peduncles of flowers, and of the piftilla.
“ Thofe motions (fays he) which are particularly ob-
ferved in the organs deftined to the reproduction of
the individual, not appearing except in circumltances
that render them abfolutely neceffary, feem in fome
meafure to be the effedt of a particular combination :
they are, however, merely mechanical *, for they are
always produced in the fame way and in the fame cir-
cumftances. Thus the rofe of Jericho, and the dry fruit
of feveral fpecies of mefembryanthemum, do not open but
when their veffels are full of wTater.
“ The fudden difengagement of fluids produces a
kind of motion. To this caufe we mult attribute a
great number of phenomena obfervable in the leaves
of feveral plants, and which do not depend on irrita¬
bility. The fmall glands in each leaf of the dioncra
are no fooner puadlured by an infedt, than it inftantly
folds up and feizes the animal: the pundture feems to
operate a difengagement of the fluid which kept the*
leaf expanded by filling its veffels. This explanation
is the more probable, that in the early ftate of the
vegetation of this plant, when the fmall glands are
hardly evolved, and when probably the juices do not
run in fufficient abundance,, the leaves are folded up
exadlly as they appear when nundturfd by an infedl at
a more advanced period. W'e obferve a phenomenon
fimilar to this in both fpecies of the drofera (fun-dew),
mentioned above. The mechanifm here is very eaftly
obfervable : the leaves are at firft folded up ; the juices
are not yet propelled into the fine hairs with which
they are covered $ but after they are expanded, the
prefence of the fluid is tnanifeft by a drop feen at the
extremity of each hair : it is by abforbing this fluid that
an infedt empties the veffels of the leaf, which then folds
up, and refumes its firft ftate : the promptitude of the
adtion is proportioned to the number of hairs touched
by the infedt. This motion in fome degree reiem les
that which takes place in the limb of an animal kept
in a ftate of flexion by a tumor in the joint •, when the
matter'which obftrudted the motion is dilcharged, the
limb inftantly refumes Its former pofition. I.e phe¬
nomena that depend on the abundance of fluids are
particularly evident in plants which grow in wet iods •,
the drofera and dicneea are of this kiui : and it is,known
MOT r 465 ] MOT
Motion by tbe experiments of Meff. Du Fay and Du Hamel,
II that«fenfitive plants are particularly fenfible when the
Motouali". pun js o^fcured by clouds and the air w'arm and moift.
The influence of external caufes fometimes fo modifies
s the vital motions in plants, that we would be tempted
to afcribe them to volition, like thofe that depend en¬
tirely on that faculty in animals. If we fet a pole in the
ground near a twining plant, it always lays hold of the
pole for fupport, in whatever place we put it. The
lame thing occurs in the tendrils of the vine •, which
always attach themfelves to the fupport prefented them,
on whatever fide it may be placed, provided they can
reach it : but thefe motions are entirely vital : the
twining plants and the tendrils direcd themlelves to
every quarter, and consequently cannot fail of meet¬
ing with the bodies within their reach. Thefe mo¬
tions are performed as long as the parts continue to
grow ; but when they ceafe to elongate, if they have
not been able to reach any body on which they can fix,
they bend back upon themfelves. This and other ob¬
servations fhow how far the vital motions in plants may
be modified by external caufes, and how effentially
they differ from thofe that are the effeft of volition in
animals.
“ Some plants appear endowed with no fort of mo¬
tion : fame have leaves that can move in different di-
reffions: their motions ai'e generally modified by dif¬
ferent caufes 3 but none appear (o eminently poffeffed
of this quality as the hedyfarum gyrans of Linpaeus.—»
No part of this plant {hows any figns of irritability upon
application of ftimuli : and the motion of its foliola
ceafes when the leafets are agitated by the wind.—
When the fun is rvarm, the little leaves of the hedy¬
farum are alfo immoveable ; but when the weather is
warm and moift, or when it rains, they move very
freely. This motion feems indifpenfably neceffary to
the plant; for it begins as foon a? tbe firft leaves un¬
fold, and continues even during the night ; but in
time it grows rveaker. In our ftoves it is moft con-
fiderable during the firft year •, in the fecond, it is not
very fenfible : in its native place all the leaves have a
motion never obferved here. The moving leafets are
moft: agitated while the plants are in full flower, and
the procefs of fructification goes on. The ofcillatory
motion is fo natural to it, that it not only remains for
three or four days in the leafets of a branch that has
been cut off and put in water, but is even continued
though the branch be expofed to the air. The leaves
Jeem to perform the office of the heart in vegetables.
When a plant is ftripped of its leaves, the progrefs of
vegetation is arrefted 5 and fuch vegetables refemble
thofe animals which have a periodica! lleep, induced by
a diminution of the aftion of the heart. Many plants
hardly fhouT any figns of motion-, many feem alfo wdiolly
cataleptic ; which is rarely if ever found in animals.
The footftalks of the flowers of dracocephalum, a Vir¬
ginian plant, ^referve themfelves in whatever pofition
they arcplnced.
Mvfcular Motion See Muscle.
MOTIVE, is fometimes applied to that faculty of
the human mind, by which we purfue good and avoid
evil. Thus Hobbes diftinguifhes the faculties of the
mind into two forts, the cognitive and motive.
MOTOUALIS, a fmall nation of Syria, inhabiting
to the eaft of the country of the DRUSES, in the valley
Vol. XIV. Part II.
which feparates their mountains from thofe of Damaf- Motoualis.
cus -, of which the following account is given by Vol-
ney in his Travels, vol. ii.
The charafteriflic diftimftion between them and the
other inhabitants of Syria (fays our author) is, that
they, like the Perfians, are of the fed! of Ali, while
all the Turks follow that of Omar or Moaouia. This
diftin&ion, occafioned by the fchifm wffiich in the
36th year of the Hegira arofe among the Arabs, re-
fpeding the fucceffors of Mahomet, is the caufe of an
irreconcilable hatred between the two parties. The
fedaries of Omar, who confider themfelves as the only
orthodox, affume the title of Sonnites, which has that
fignification, and term their adverfaries Shiites, that is
“ fedaries of Ali.” The word Motouali has the fame
meaning in the dialed of Syria. The followers of
Ali, diffatisfied with this name, fubflitute that of Adlia,
which means “ affertors of julfice,” literally “ Jufti-
ciarians a denomination which they have affumed
in confequence of a dodrinal point they advance in
oppofition to the Sonnite faith. A fmall Arabic trea-
tife, entitled Theological Fragments concerning the
Seds and Religions of the World, has the following
pafiage :
“ Thefe fedaries who pretend that God ads only
on principles of juftice, conformable to human reafon,
are called Adlia or JuJficiarians. God cannot (fay
they) command an impradicable worihip, nor ordain
impoffible adions, nor enjoin men to perform what is
beyond their ability ; but wherever he requires obedi¬
ence, will beftow the power to obey. He removes the
caufe of evil, he allows us to reafon, and impofes only
what is eafy, not what is difficult $ he makes no man
refponfible for the adions of another, nor puniffies
him for that in which he has no part 3 he imputes not
as a crime what himfelf was created in man 3 nor does
he require him to avoid what deftiny has decreed.—
This would be injuftice and tyranny, of which God
is incapable, from the perfedion of his being.” To
this dodrine, which diametrically oppofes the fyftetn
of the Sonnites, the Motoualis add certain ceremonies
which increafe their mutual averfion. They curfe
Omar and Moaouia as rebels and ufurpers 5 and cele¬
brate Ali and Hofain as faints and martyrs. They
begin their ablutions at the elbow, inftead of the end
of the finger, as is cuftomary with the Turks 3 they
think themfelves defiled by the touch of ftrangers 3 and,
contrary to the general pradice of the Eaft, neither $at
nor drink out of a veffel which has been ufed by a per-
fon not of their fed, nor will they even fit with fuch at
the fame table.
Thefe dodrines arfd cuftoms, by feparating the Mo¬
toualis from their neighbours, have rendered them a
diftind fociety. It is faid they have long exifted as
a nation in this country, though their name has never
been mentioned by any European writer before the
18th century 3 it is not even to be found in the maps
of D’Anville : La Roque, who left their country not
a hundred years ago, gives them the name of Ame-
diens. Be this as it may, in later times their wars,
robberies, fucceffes, and various changes of fortune,
have rendered them of confequence in Syria. Till about
the middle of this century, they only pofleffed Balbec
their capital, and a few places in the valley, and Anti-
Lebanon, which feems to have been their original
3 N country.
M
At that
O T
[
Motouali?, country. At that period we find them under a like
, Motto- government with the Druzes, that is to fay, under
a number of Shaiks, with one principal chief of the
family of Harfoufh. After the year 1750 they efta-
bliihed themfelves among the heights of Bekaa, and
got footing in Lebanon, where they obtained lands
belonging to the Maronites, almofi: as far as Befharrai,
They even incommoded them fo much by their ravages,
as to oblige the emir Youfef to attack them with open
force and expel them • but on the other fide, they
advanced along the river even to the neighbourhood
of Sour (Tyre). In this fituation, Shaik Daher had
the addrefs, in 1760, to attach them to his party.—
The pachas of Saide and Damafcus- claimed tributes,
which they had negledted paying, and complained of
feveral robberies committed on their fubjefts by the
Motoualis j they were defirous of chaftifing them j
but this vengeance was neither certain nor cafy. Da¬
her interpofed ; and by becoming fecurity for the tri¬
bute, and promifing to prevent any depredations,
acquired allies who were able, as it is faid, to arm
10,000 horfemen, all refc’ute and formidable troops.
Shortly after they took poffeflion of Sour, and made
this village their principal fea port. In 1771 they
were of great fervice to Ali Bey and Daher againft
the Ottomans. But Emir Youfef having in their ab-
fence armed the Druzes, ravaged their country. He
was befieging the cable of Djezin, when the Motoualis,
returning from Damafcus, received intelligence of
this invalion. At the relation of the barbarities com¬
mitted by the Druzes, an advanced corps, of only
500 men, were fo enraged, that they immediately
ruthed forward againft the enemy, determined to perilh
in taking vengeance. But the furprife and confufion
they occafioned, and the dilcord which reigned be¬
tween the two fadftions of Manfour and Youfef, fo
much favoured this defperate attack, that the whole
army, conlifting of 25,000 men, was completely over¬
thrown.
In the following year, the affairs of Daher taking
a favourable turn, the zeal of the Motoualis cooled to¬
wards him, and they finally abandoned him in the ca-
taftrophe in which he loft his life. But they have
fuffered for their imprudence under the adminiftration
of the pacha who fucceeded him. Since the year
1777, Djezzar, mailer of Acre and Saide, has incef-
fantly laboured to deftroy them. His perfecution for¬
ced them in 1784 to a reconciliation with the Druzes,
and to enter into an alliance with the emir Youfef.
Though reduced to lefs than >700 armed men, they
did more in that campaign than 15,000 or 20,000
Druzes and Maronites affembled at Dair-el-Kamar.
They alone took the ftrong fortrefs of ManDjebaa,
and put to the fwmrd 50 or 60 Epirots who defended
it. But the mifunderllanding which prevailed among
the chiefs of the Druzes having rendered abortive all
their operations, the pacha has obtained poffeffion of
the whole valley, and the city of Balbec itfelf. At
this period not more that 500 families of the Motoualis
remained, who took refuge in Anti-Lebanon, and
the Lebanon of the Maronites •, and, driven as they
now are from their native foil, it is probable they will
be totally annihilated, and even their very name become
^xtinfl.
,MQI TO, in armoury, a fhort fen'.ince crphrafe,
466 ] M O U
carried in a fcroll, generally under, but fometimes over, Moveable
the arms : fometiines alluding to the bearing, fome- I!
times to the name of the bearer, and fometimes con- ,
taining whatever pleafes the fancy of the devifer. v ”
MOVEABLE, in general, denotes any thing ca¬
pable of being moved.
Moveable Fea/ls, are fuch as are not alwrays held
on the lame day of the year or month j though they be
on the fame day of the week. See Feasts.
Thus, Eafter is a moveable feaft, being always held
on the Sunday which falls upon or next after the firft
full moon following the 21ft of March.
All the other moveable feafts follow Eafter, i.e. they
keep their diftance from it : fo that they are fixed with
refpedl thereto.
Such are Septuagefima, Sexagefima, Afti Wednef-
day, Afcenfion day, Pentecoft, Trinity Sunday, &c.
which fee under their proper articles, Septuagesi-
MA, &C.
Moveable SubjeB, in Law, any thing that moves it-
felf, or can be moved in contradiftindHon to immove¬
able or-heritable fubjedls, as lands, houfes, &c.
MOVEMENT, motion, a term frequently ufed in
the fame fenfe with automaton.
The moft ufual movements for keeping time are
watches and clocks : the firft are fuch as (how the parts
of time, and are portable in the pocket; the fecond,
fuch as publifh it-by founds, and are fixed as furniture.
See Horology.
Movement, in its popular ufe among us, fignifies
all the inner works of a w-atch, clock, or other engine,
w'hich move, and by that motion carry on the defign of
the inftrument.
The movement of a clock or watch is the infide, or
that part which meafures the time, ftrikes, &c. exdu-
five of the frame, cafe, dial plate, &c.
The parts common to both of thefe movements are,
the main-fpring, with its appurtenances j lying in the
fpring box, and in the middle thereof lapping about
the fpring-arbor, to which one end of it is faftened,
A-top of the fpring-arbor is the endlefs ferew and its
wEeel} but in fpring clocks, this is a ratchet-w'heel with
its click, that Hops it. That which the main-fpring
draws, and round which the chain or firing is wrapped,
is called the fufy; this is ordinarily taper; in large
works, going with weights, it is cylindrical, and called
the barrel. The fmail teeth at the bottom of the fufy
or barrel, which flop it in winding up, is called the
ratchet; and that which flops it when wound up, and
is for that end driven up by the fpring, the gara’A-gat.
The wheels are various : the parts of a wheel are, the
hoop or rim, the teeth, the crofs, and the collet or
piece of brafs foldered on the arbor or fpindle whereon
the wheel is rivetted. The little wheels playing in the
teeth of the larger are called pinions; and their teeth,
which are 4, 5, 6, 8, &c. are called leves ; the ends of
the fpindle are called pivots ; and the guttered wheel,
with iron fpikes at bottom, wherein the line of ordi¬
nary clocks runs, the pulley. We need not fay any
thing of the hand, ferews, wedges, flops, &c. See
Wheel, Fusy, &c.
Perpetual Movement. See Perpetual Motion,
MOUFET, Thomas, a celebrated Engliih phyfi-
cian, was born at London, and praclifed medicine
with great reputation. Towards the latter end of his
life
M O U [ 467 ] M O U
Moug-den, life he retired to the country, and died about the year
Moulds. 1600. This phylician is known by a work which was
begun by Edward Wotton, and printed at London in
1634, folio, with the title of Theatrum InfeBorutn. A
tranflation of it into Englilh was publifhed at London
in 16158, folio. Martin Lifter gives a very unfavour¬
able opinion of this book : “ As Moufet (fays he)
made ufe of Wotton, Gefner, &c. an excellent work
might have been expelled from him ; and yet his Thea¬
trum is full of confufion, and he has made a very bad
ufe of the materials with which thefe authors have fur-
nilhed him. He is ignorant of the fubjeft of which he
treats, and his manner of expreflion is altogether bar¬
barous. Befides this, he is extremely arrogant, to fay
no worfe •, for though he has copied Aldrovandus in in¬
numerable places, he never once mentions his name.”
But Ray thinks that Lifter, by exprefting himfelf in this
manner, has not done juftice to Moufet j and he main¬
tains that the latter has rendered an eflential fervice to
the republic of letters.
MOUG-DEN, or Chen-yang*, a city of Chinefe
Tartary, and capital of the country of the Mantchews
or Ealiern Tartars. Thefe people have been at great
pains to ornament it with leveral public edifices, and
to provide it with magazines of arms and ftorehoufes.
They confider it as the principal place of their nation ;
and fince China has been under their dominion, they
have eftablifhed the fame tribunals here as at Peking,
excepting that called Lii-pou : thefe tribunals are com-
pofed of Tartars only; their determination is final;
and in all their afts they ufe the Tartar characters and
language. The city is built on an eminence ; a num¬
ber of rivers add much to the fertility of the furround¬
ing country. - It may be confidered as a double city,
of which one is enclofed within the other : the interior
contains the emperor’s palace, hotels of the principal
mandarins, fovereign courts, and the different tribu¬
nals ; the exterior is inhabited by the coi^mon people,
tradefmen, and all thofe who by their employments
or profeffions are not obliged to lodge in the interior.
The latter is almoft a league in circumference ; and the
walls which enclofe both are more than three leagues
round: thefe walls were entirely rebuilt in 1631, and
repaired feveral times under the reign of Kang-hi.
MOULD, or Mold, in the mechanic arts, &c. a
cavity artificially cut, with a defign to give its form or
impreflion to fome fofter matter applied therein. Moulds
are implements of great ufe in fculpture, foundery, &c.
The workmen employed in melting the mineral or
metallic ore dug out of mines, have their feveral moulds
to receive the melted metal as it comes out of the fur¬
nace ; but thefe are different according to the diverfity
of metals and works. In gold mines, they have moulds
for ingots ; in filver mines, for bars; in copper and
lead mines, for pigs or falmons; in tin mines, for pigs
and ingots; and in iron mines, for fows, chimney backs,
anvils, caldrons, pots, and other large utenfils and mer-
chandifes of iron ; which are here caft, as it were, at
firft hand.
Moulds of founders of large works, as ftatues, bells,
guns, and other brazen works, are of wax, fupported
within-fide by what we call a core, and covered with-
out-fide with a cape or cafe. It is in the fpace which
the wax took up, which is afterwards melted away to
leave it free, that the liquid metal runs, and the work
is formed ; being carried thither through a great num- Moulds,
ber of little canals, which cover the whole mould. See
Foundery.
Moulds of moneyers are frames full of fand, where¬
in the plates of metal are caft that are to ferve for the
ftriking of fpecies of gold and filver. See Coining.
A fort of concave moulds made of clay, having
within them the figures and inferiptions of ancient
Roman coins, are found in many parts of England, and
fuppofed to have been ufed for the calling of money.
Mr Baker having been favoured wdth a fight of fome
of thefe moulds found in Shropftiire, bearing the fame
types and inferiptions with fome of the Roman coins,
gave an account of them to the Royal Society. They
w’ere found in digging of fand, at a place called Ryton
in Shroplhire, about a mile from the great Watling-
ftreet'road. They are all of the fize of the Roman de¬
narius, and of little more than the thicknefs of oor
halfpenny. They are made of a fmooth pot or brick
clay, which feems to have been firft well cleanfed from
dirt and fand, and well beaten or kneaded, to render it
fit for taking a fair impreffion. There were a great
many of them found together, and there are of them
npt unfrequently found in Yorklhire; but they do not
feem to have been met wdth in any other kingdom, ex¬
cept that fome have been faid to be once found at
Lyons. They have been fometimes found in great
numbers joined together fide by fide, on one flat piece
of clay, as if intended for the calling of a great num¬
ber of coins at once ; and both thefe, and all the others
that have been found, feem to have been of the empe¬
ror Severus. They are fometimes found impreffed on
both fides, and fome have the head of Severus on one
fide and fome well known reverfe of his on the other.
They feem plainly to have been intended for the coin¬
age of money, though it is not eafy to fay in what
manner they can have been employed for that purpofe,
efpecially thofe which have impreflions on both fides,
unlefs it may be fuppofed that they coined two pieces
at the fame time by the help of three moulds, of which
this was to be the middle one. If by difpofing thefe
into fome fort of iron frame or cafe, as our letter-
founders do the brafs moulds for calling their types, the
melted metal could be eafily poured into them, it would
certainly be a very eafy method of coining, as fuch
moulds require little time or expence to make, arid
therefore might be fupplied with new ones as often as
they happen to break.
Thefe moulds feem to have been burnt or baked
fufficiently to make them hard ; but not fo as to ren¬
der them porous like our bricks, whereby they would
have loft their fmooth and even furface, which in thefe
is plainly fo clofe, that whatever metal Ihould be form¬
ed in them would have no appearance like the fand-
holes by which counterfeit coins and metals are ufually
detefted.
Moulds of founders of fmall works are like the
frames of coiners : it is in the'e frames, which are
likewife filled* with fand, that their feveral works are
falhioned ; into w'hich, when the two frames of which
the mould is compofed, are rejoined, the melted brafs is
run.
Moulds of letter founders are partly of fteel and
partly of wood. The wood, properly fpeaking, ferves
only to covet the real mould which is within, and to
3 N 2 prevent
M O U t46B] M O U
Moulds.
prevent the workman, who holds it in his hand, from
being incommoded by the heat of the melted metal.
Only one letter or type can be formed at once in each
mould. See Letter Foundery.
Moulds, in the manufatlure of paper, are little
frames compofed of feveral brafs or iron wires, faflen-
ed together by another wire flill finer. Each mould is
of the bignefs of the fheet of paper to be made, and has
a rim or ledge of wood to which the wires are faftened.
Thefe moulds are more ufually called frames or forms.
See Pafkr-Making.
Moulds, with furnace and crucible makers, are made
of wood, of the fame form with the crucibles j that is, in
form of a truncated cone : they have handles of wood
to hold and turn them with, when, being covered with
the earth, the workman has a mind to round or flatten
his veflfel.
Moulds for leaden bullets are little iron pincers,
each of whofe branches terminates in a hemifpherical
concave, which when {hut form an entire fphere. In
the lips or fides where the branches meet, is a little jet
or hole, through which the melted lead is conveyed.
Laboratory Moulds -are made of w'ood, for filling
and driving all forts of rockets and cartridges, &c.
Glaciers Moulds. The glaziers have two kinds of
moulds, both ferving to caff their lead : in the one they
cafl: the lead into long rods or canes fit to be drawn
through the vice, and the grooves formed therein 5 this
they fometimes call ingot-mould. In the other, they
mould thofe little pieces of* lead a line thick and tw7o
lines broad, faftened to the iron bars. Thefe may be
alfo caft in the vice.
Goldfmiths Moulds. The goldfmiths ufe the bones
of the cuttle fifti to make moulds for their fmall works;
which they do by prefling the pattern between two
bones, and leaving a jet or hole to convey the metal
through, after the pattern has been taken out.
Mould, among mafons, is a piece of hard wood or
iron, hollowed within fide, anfwerable to the contours
of the mouldings or cornices, &c. to be formed. This
is othervvife called caliber.
Moulds, among plumbers, are the tables on which
they caft ftieets of lead. Thefe they fometimes call
{imply tables. Befides which they have other real
moulds, wherewith they caft pipes without foldering.
See each defcribed under Plumbery.
Moulds, among the glafs grinders, are wooden
frames, whereon they make the tubes wherewith they
fit their perfpedlives, telefcopes, and other optic ma¬
chines. Thefe moulds are cylinders, of a length and
diameter according to the ufe they are to be applied
to, but always thicker at one end than the other, to
facilitate the Aiding. The tubes made on thefe moulds
are of two kinds j the one Amply of pafteboard and
paper ; the other of thin leaves of wood joined to the
pafteboard. To make thefe tubes to draw out, only
the laft or innermoft is formed on the mould j each
tube made afterwards ferving as a mould to that which
is to go over it, but without taking out the mould from
the firft. See Grinding.
Moulds ufed in bafket-making are very Ample, con¬
fiding ordinarily of a willow or ofier turned or bent in¬
to an oval, circle, fquare, or other figure, according to
the balkets, panniers, hampers, and other utenfils in¬
tended. Ou khefe moulds they make, or more properly
meafure, all their wrork j and accordingly they have Mould
them of all fizes, fhapes, &c. li
Mould, in Ihip-building, a thin flexible piece of ^0Ulinet,l
timber, uftd by ihipwrights as a pattern whereby to ”~V
form the different curves of the timbers, and other com-
pafting pieces in a {flip’s frame. There are two forts of
thefe, viz, the bend mould and hollow mould ; the form¬
er of thefe determines the convexity ot the timbers, and
the latter their concavity on the outfide, where they ap¬
proach the heel, particularly towards the extremities of
the veffel. The figure given to the timbers by this
pattern is called their bevelling.
Moulds, among tallow chandlers, are of twTo kinds:
the firft for the common dipped candles, being the vef¬
fel wherein the melted tallow is difpofed, and the wick
dipped. This is of wood, of a triangular form, and
fupported on one of its angles; fo that it has an open¬
ing of near a foot a-top : the other, ufed in the fabric
of mould candles, is of brafs, pewter, or tin.—Here
each candle has its feveral mould. See Candle.
Mould, among gol^-beatersT1 a certain number of
leaves of vellum or pieces of gut, cut fquare, of a cer¬
tain fize, and laid over one another, between which
they put the leaves of gold and filver which they beat
on the marble with the hammer, See Gold leaf.
They have four kinds of moulds j two whereof are
of vellum and two of gut : the fmallelt of thofe of
vellum confifts of 40 or 50 leaves j the largelt contains
100 : for the others, each contains 500 leaves. The
moulds have all their feveral cafes, confiding of two
pieces of parchment, ferving to keep the leaves of the
mould in their place, and prevent their being diforder-
ed in beating.
Mould, in Agriculture, a general name for the foft
earthy fubftance with which the dry land is generally
covered, and in which all kinds of vegetables take root
and grown It is far from being an homogeneous fub¬
ftance 5 being compofed of decayed animal and vege¬
table matters, along with calcareous, argillaceous, and
filiceous earths, mixed together in various proportions,
and with the different degrees of moiftme, conftituting
every variety of soil.
MOULDINESS, is a white down or lanugo, which
is produced on the furface of animal or vegetable mat¬
ters in a ftate of putrefaction 5 and which viewed
th rough a microfcope appears like a kind of meadow,
out of wdiich ariie herbs and flowers. See Mucor,
Botany Index.
MOULDING, any thing caft in a mould, or that
feems to have been fo, though in reality it were cut
with a chifel or the axe.
Mouldings, in ArchiteBure, projectures beyond
the naked wall, column, wainfcot, &c. the affemblage
of which forms corniches, door cafes, and other deco¬
rations of Architecture. See that article.
MOULINET is ufed, in Mechanics, to fignify a
roller, which, being ctoPfed with two levers, is ufually
applied to cranes, capftans, and other forts of engines
of the like nature, to draw ropes, heave up ftones,
&c.
Moulinet is alfo a kind of turnftile, or wooden
crofs, w hich turns horizontally upon a flake fixed in
the ground •, ufually placed in paffages to keep out
horfes, and to oblige paffengers to go and come one by
ojie. Thtfe moulinets are often fet near the outworks
of
M O U [ 469 ] M O U
Monlins of fortified places at the fides of the barriers, through
which people pafs on foot.
•Mountain. MQULINS, a town of France, in the department
of Allier, and containing about 16,000 inhabitants.
The houfes of the Chartreux, and that of the Viiita-
tion, are magnificent. It has a confiderable trade in
cutlery ware, and is feated on the river Allier, in a
pleafant fertile plain, almoft in the middle of France,
30 miles fouth of Nevers, and 55 north of Clermont.
E. Long. 3. 25. N. Lat. 46. 34.
MOULTON, North, a town of Devonlhire, on
the river Moul.
Moulton, South, on the fame flream, 182 miles
from London. This, as well as the former, was
anciently royal demefne. It fent members to parlia¬
ment in the reign of Edward I. confills of a mayor, 18
capital burgeffes, a recorder, town clerk, and 2 fer-
jeants at mace. Its chief manufa£lures are ferges,
lhalloons, and felts j and a confiderable market for
wool.
MOULTING, or Molting, the falling off or
change of hair, feathers, Ikins, horns, or other parts
of animals, happening in feme annually, in others only
at certain ftages of life.
The generality of animals moult in the fpring. The
moulhng of a hawk is called mewing. The moulting
cf a deer is the quitting of his horns in February or
March. The moulting of a ferpent is the putting off
his lkin. See Exuviae.
MOUND, a term ufed for a bank or rampart, or
other fence, particularly that of earth.
Mound, in Heraldry, a ball or globe with a crofs
upon it, fuch as our kings ai-e ufually drawn with,
holding it in their left hand, as they do the feeptre in
the right.
MOUNT, an elevation of earth, called alfo moun¬
tain. See Mountain.
Mount Edgecumbe, a prodigious high peak, at the
entrance of Cook’s ftrait, in New Zealand, on the weft
fide. Its height is fuppofed not to be much inferior to
that of the Peak of Teneriffe.
Mount Sorrel, a town in Leicefterftiire, fo named
from a high mount or folid rock adjoining to the town,
of a duiky red or forrel-coloured ftone, extremely hard.
Of rough ftones hewn out of this rock the town is-
built.. It has a market on Mondays. It was noted
formerly for its caftle, and is feated on the river Stour,
over which there is a bridge. It is 20 miles fouth-eaft
by fouth of Derby, and 10 ^ north-weft by north of
London. W. Long. 1.9. N. Lat. 52. 45,.
Mounts of Piety, certain funds or eftablifhments in
Italy, where money is lent out on fome fmall fecurity.
There were alfo mounts of piety in England, railed by
contribution for the benefit of people ruined by the ex¬
tortions of the Jews.
MOUNTAIN (Mans'), a confiderable eminence of
land, elevated above the furrounding country : It is
commonly full of inequalities, cavities more or lefs ex-
pofed, and ftrata uncovered. For the natural hiftory
of mountains, fee Mountain, Geology Index.
AtlraBion of Mountains. This is a late difeovery, Mouataim
and a very confiderable confirmation of Sir Ifaac New-
ton’s theory of univerfal gravity. According to the
Newtonian fyftem, an attraflive power is not only
exerted between thofe large maffes of matter wdfich
conilitute the fun and planets, but likewife between
all comparatively fmaller bodies, and even between the
fmalleft particles of which they are compofed. A-
greeably to this hypothefis, a heavy body, which ought
to gravitate or tend toward the centre of the earth, in
a direfeion perpendicular to its furface, fuppofing the
faid furface to be perfeiftly even and fpherical, ought
likewife, though in a lefs degree, to be attracted and
tend towards a mountain placed on the earth’s fur¬
face ; fo that a plumb line, for inftance, of a quadrant,,
hanging in the neighbourhood of fuch a mountain,
ought to be drawn from a perpendicular fituation, in
confequence of the attraflive power of the quantity of
matter of which it is compofed afting in a dire£liou dif¬
ferent from that exerted by the whole mafs of matter in
the earth, and with a proportionably inferior degree of
force.
Though Sir Ifaac Newton had long ago hinted at an
experiment of this kind, and had remarked, that “ a
mountain of an hemifpherical figure, three miles high
and fix broad, would not, by its attradlion, draw the
plumb line two minutes out of the perpendicular ^e)
yet no attempt to afeertain this matter by aftual experi¬
ment was made till about the year 1738 ; when the
French academicians, particularly Meffrs Bouguer and
Condamine, who were fent to Peru to meafure a de¬
gree under the equator, attempted to difeover the at-
traflive power of Chimboraco, a mountain in the pro¬
vince of Quito. According to their obfervations, which
were however made under circumftances by no means
favourable to an accurate folution of fo nice and dif¬
ficult a problem, the mountain Chimboraco exerted an
attra&ion equal to eight feconds. Though this experi¬
ment was not perhaps fufficient to prove fatisfadlorily
even the reality of an attraction, much lefs'the precife
quantity of it 5 yet it does not appear that any fteps had-
been fince taken to repeat it-
Through the munificence of his Britannic majefty^.
the Royal Society were enabled to undertake the exe¬
cution of this delicate and important experiment 5 the
aftronomer royal was chofen to conduCl it. After va¬
rious inquiries, the mountain Schehallien, fituated near¬
ly in the centre of Scotland, was pitched upon as the
moft proper for the purpofe that could be found in this
ifiand. The obfervations were made by taking the me-
ridi an zenith diftances of different fixed ftars, near the
zenith, by means of a zenith feftor of ten feet radius $
firft on the fouth, and afterwards on the north fide of
the hill, the greateft length of which extended in an.
eaft and weft direction.
It is evident, that if the mafs of matter in the hill
exerted any fenfible attraction, it would caufe the
plumb-line of the feCtor, through which an ob’erver
viewed a liar in the meridian, to deviate from its per¬
pendicular fituation, and would attraCt it contrariwife at
the*
(e) By a very eafy calculation it is found that fuch a mountain would attraCt the plumb line i' 18" from the
perpendicular..
M O U [ 470 ] M O U
Motintains. tlie two ftations, thereby doubling the effeft. On the
v ftmth fide the plummet would be drawn to the north¬
ward, by the attraflive power of the hill placed to the
northward of it : and on the north fide, a contrary and
equal defleftion of the plumb line would tak* place in
ccnfcquence of the attraftion of the hill now to the
fouthward of it. The apparent zenith dillances of
the ftars would be affe&cd contrariwife •, tbofe being
increafed at the one fiation which were diminilhed at
the other : and the correfpondent quantities of the
defleflion of the plumb line would give the obferver
the fum of the contrary attraflious of Ehe hill, a fling
on the plummet at the two (rations $ the half ot whicn
will of courfe indicate the attradiive power of the
bin.
’I'he various operations requifite for this experiment
laded about four months j and from them it appears
that the fum of the two contrary attraflions of the
mountain Schehallien, in the two temporary obferva-
tions ■which were (uccefhvely fixed half way up the hill
(where the effecl of its attraflion would be greateft),
was equal to ii".6.—From a rough computation,
founded on the known law of gravitation, and on an
affumption that the denfity of the hill is equal to the
mean denfity of the earth, it appears that the attiacbon
of the hill (houlq amount to about the. double of this
quantity. From thence it was inferred that the denfity
of the hill is only about half the mean denfity of the
earth. It does not appear, however, that the moun¬
tain Schehallien has ever been a volcano, or is hollow,
*s it is extremely folid and denfe, and feemingly com-
pofed of an entire rock.
The inferences drawn from thefe experiments may
be reduced to the following :
“ 1. It appears, that the mountain Schehallien ex¬
erts a fenfible attraflion ; therefore, from the rules of
philofophizing, we are to conclude, that every moun¬
tain, and indeed every particle of the earth, is endued
wdth the fame property, in proportion to its quantity of
matter.
“ 2. The law of the variation of this force, in the
inverfe ratio of the fquares of the diftances, as laid
down by Sir Ifaac Newton, is alfo confirmed by this
experiment. For if the force of attraflion of the hill
had been only to that of the earth, as the matter in the
hill to that of the earth, and had not been greatly in¬
creafed by the near approach to its centre, the attrac¬
tion thereof muff have been wholly infenfible. But
now, by only fuppofing the mean denfity of the earth
to be double to that of.the hill, which feems very pro¬
bable from other confiderations, the attraftion of the
_ hill will be reconciled to the general law sf the varia¬
tion of attraflion in the inverfe duplicate ratio of the
didances, as deduced by Sir Ifaac Newton from the
comparifon of the motion of the heavenly bodies with
the force of gravity at the furface of the earth 5 and
the analogy of nature will be preferved.
“ 3. We may now, therefore, be allowed to admit
this law, and to acknowledge, that the mean denfity
of the earth is at lead double of that at the furface j
and confequently that the denfity of the internal parts
of the earth is much greater than near the furface.
Hence alfo, the whole quantity of matter in the earth
will be at lead as great again, as if it had been all com-
pofed of matter of the fame denfity with that at the
3
furface j or will be about four or five times as great as Mountains,
if it were all compofed of water.— ibis conclufion, Mr *"~v w
Malkelyne adds, is totally contrary to the hypothefis
of ibme naturalids, ‘ who luppofe the earth to be only
a great hollow ihcil or matter } 'upportmg itfell from
the property of an arch, with an immenfe vacuity in the
midd of it.’ But, weie that the cafe, the attraction of
mountains, and even fmaller inequalities in the earth’s
fui-face, would be very great, contrary to experiment,
and would affeCt the mealures of the degrees of the me¬
ridian much more than we find they do $ and the vari¬
ation of gravity, in different latitudes, in going from
the equator to the poles, as found by pendulums, would
not be near fo regular as it has been found by experi¬
ment to be.
“ 4. As mountains are by thefe experiments found
capable of producing fenfible deflections of the plumb
lines of aflronomical inflruments ; it becomes a matter
of great importance, in the menfuration of degrees m
the meridian, either to choofe places where the irregu¬
lar attraction of the elevated parts may be fmall 5 or
where, by their fituation, they may compenfate or
counteract the effeCts of each other.”
For meafuring the heights of mountains, fee Baro¬
meter.
Burning Mountains. See ./Etna, Hecla, Vesu¬
vius \ fee alfo VOLCANO, Geology Index.
Marble Mountains. Of thefe there are great num¬
bers in Egypt, from which, though immenfe quantities
have been carried off for the multitude of great works
ereCled by the ancient Egyptians: yet in the opinion
of Mr Bruce, who paffed by them in his journey to A-
byffmia, there is dill a fufficient fupply to build Rome,
Athens, Corinth, Syracufe, Memphis, Alexandria, and
half a dozen more of fuch cities.
The fird mountain of this kind mentioned by Mr
Bruce is one oppofite to Terfowey, confiding partly of
green marble, partly of granite, with a red bluff upon
a gray ground, and fquare oblong fpots. Here he faw
a mondrous obelifk of marble very nearly fquare, bro¬
ken at the end, and nearly 30 feet long and 19 feet in
the face. Throughout the plain there were fcattered
fmall pieces of jafper, with green, white, and red fpots,
called in Italy diafpro fanguineo ; and all the moun¬
tains upon that fide feemed to confid of the fame mate¬
rials. From Mr Bruce’s defeription of thefe moun¬
tains, it would appear that they are compofed of ferpen-
tine, and not of calcareous marble.
Written Mountain, Mountain of Inferiptioni, or Ji-
bel-al-Mokatteb, a fuppofed mountain, or chain of moun¬
tains, in the wildernefs of Sinai $ on which, for a
great extent of fpace, the marble of which the moun¬
tain confids is inferibed with innumerable characters,
reaching from the ground fometimes to the height of
12 or 14 feet. Thefe were mentioned by a Greek au¬
thor in the third century, and fome of them have been
copied by Pococke arid other late travellers ; but, after
all, there is dill a very great uncertainty even of the
exiftence of fuch mountain or mountains. The vaft
number of thefe inferiptions, the delert place in which
they are found, and the length of time requifite for ex¬
ecuting the talk, have induced a notion by no means
unnatural, that they are the work of the Ifraelites dur¬
ing their forty years wandering in the wildernefs. Ci¬
thers are of opinion that they contain nothing of any
importance^
M O U [ 471 ] M O U
Mountains, importance, but confift merely of the names of tiavel-
' Y~— lers and the dates of their journeys.
M. Niebuhr, who vifited this country during his
travels in the eaft, made every attempt in his power,
though without fuccefs, to obtain a light of this cele¬
brated mountain. On applying to fome Greeks at Suez,
they all declared that they knew nothing of the written
mountain : they, however, directed him to an Arabian
flieik, who had paffed all his lifetime in travelling be¬
tween Suez and Mount Sinai ; but he knew no more
of it than the former. Underfianding, however, that
a confiderable reward would be given to any perfon
who would conduct them thither, this Arab directed
them to another •, who pretended not only to know
that mountain, but all others upon which there were
any infcriptions throughout the defert. On inquiring
particularly, however, our travellers found that he was
not to be depended upon •, fo that they were obliged to
have rccourfe to a fourth (heik, who by his converfa-
tion convinced them that he had feen mountains with
infcriptions in unknown charadlers upon them. It does
not appear, however, that this perfon was very capable,
more than the reft, of leading them to the place they
fo much wilhed for; though he conducted them to
fome rocks upon which there were infcriptions in un¬
known characters. They are moft numerous in a nar¬
row pafs between two mountains named Om-er-ridjlein ;
and, fays M. Niebuhr, “ the pretended Jibel-el-Mo-
katteb may poffibly be in its neighbourhood.” Somg
of thefe infcriptions were copied by our author ; but he
does not look upon them to be of any confequence.
“ They feem (fays he) to have been executed at idle
hours by travellers, who were fatisfied with cutting the
unpolifhed rock with any pointed inftrument, adding to
their names and the date of their jourheys fome rude
figures, which befpeak the hand of a people but little
fkilled in the arts. When fuch infcriptions are execu¬
ted with the defign of tranfmitting to pofterity the me¬
mory of fuch events as might afford inftruClive leffons,
greater care is generally taken in the preparation of
the ftones, and the infcriptions are engraven with more
regularity.”
When M. Niebuhr arrived at laft at the mountain
to which the Iheik had promifed to condufl him, he
did not find any infcriptions; but on climbing up to
the top, he found out an Egyptian cemetery, the ftones
of which were covered with hieroglyphics. The tomb
ftones are from five to feven feet "n length, fome Hand¬
ing on end and others lying flat 5 and “ the more care¬
fully they are examined (fays he), the more certainly
do they appear to be fepulchral ftones, having epitaphs
inferibed on them. In the middle of thefe ftones is a
building, of which only the walls now remain •, and
within it are likewife a great many of the fepulchral
ftones. At one end of the building feems to have been
a fmall chamber, of which the roof ftill remains. It
is fupported upon fquare pillars; and thefe, as well as
the walls of the chamber, are covered with hierogly¬
phic infcriptions. Through the whole building are va¬
rious bufts executed in the manner of the ancient E-
gyptians. The fepulchral ftones and the bufts are of
hard and fine grained fand ftone.” M. Niebuhr is of
opinion that this cemetery was not the work of the E-
gyptians themfelves, but of fome colony which came
from Egypt, and had adopted the manners and cuftoms
of the people. He fuppofes that it might have been Mountain^.
built by the Arabs, who had conquered Egypt under "
the (hepherd kings, and adopted the Egyptian manners
during their refidence there. As it muft have belong¬
ed to an opulent city, however, he owns that there is
a great difficulty in accounting for the exiftenceof fuch
a city in the midi! of a defert.
The tranflator of Volney’s travels aferibes thefe in¬
fcriptions to the pilgrims who vilit Mount Sinai. But
to this, as well as to every other conje£fure, there is
this obje£tion, that whether the infcriptions be well
executed or not, whether they contain matters of im¬
portance or not, they ought to have been written in a
language which fomebochj could underftand ; but from
the copies that have been taken of them by Dr Po-
cocke and others, it does not appear that they could be
explained either by him or any other perfon.
When Dr Clayton, bilhop of Clogher, vifited this
part of the world about the year 1723, he expreffed
the greateft defire to have the matter concerning this
written mountain or mountains afeertained, and even
made an offer of cool, tlerling to any literary perfon
who would undertake the journey and endeavour to de¬
cypher the infcriptions ; but no fuch perfon has appear¬
ed, and the exiftence of the mountains is teftified only
by the fuperior of a convent at Cairo, who gave that
mentioned in the beginning of this article. Until that
part of the world, therefore, become more acceffible to
travellers, there is but little hope that we can come to
any certainty in the matter. M. Niebuhr plainly,
from his own accounts, had not influence enough
with the Arabs to (how him almoft any thing, as they
refufed to condufl him even to the fummit of Mount
Sinai.
White Mountains. See New Hampshire.
Mountains of the Moon, a chain of mountains in
Africa, extending between Abyffinia and Monomotapa,
and fo called from their great height.
Mountains of the Lions, alfo in Africa, divide Ni- -
gritia from Guinea, and extend as far as Ethiopia.
They were ftyled by the ancients the mountains of God,
on account of their being greatly fubject to thunder
and lightning.
Mountain of Forty Days ; a mountain of Judea, fi-
tuated in the plain of Jericho to the north of that city.
According to the abbe Mariti’s defeription, the fummit
of it is covered neither with (hrubs, turf, nor earth ; it
confifts of a folid mafs of white marble, the furface of
which is become yellow by the injuries of the air..
“ The path by which you afeend to it (fays our author)
fills one with terror, as it rifes with a winding courfe
between two abyffes, which the eye dares fcarcely be¬
hold. This path is at firft pretty broad, but it at
length becomes fo confined, that one cab with difficulty
place both feet upon it at the fame time. When we ■
had afeended a little higher, vve found an Arab ftreteb-
ed out on the path, who made us pay a certain toll for
our paflage. Here the traveller requires courage. One
of the parapets of the path being broke, we clung to
the part which remained until we bad reached a fmall
grotto, fituated very commodioufiy, as it gave us an op¬
portunity of recovering our breath. When we had
relied ourfelves a little, we purfued our courfe, which
became ftill more dangerous. Sufpended almoft from
the rock, and having before our eyes all the horror of '
the
M O U
[ 47
-Mourning, the precipice, we could advance only by dragging one
foot after the other ; fo that had the fmalleft fragment
given way under us, we fliould have been hurried to
the bottom of this frightful abyfs.
“ This mountain is one of the higheft in the province,
and one of its moft facred places. It takes its name
from the rigorous fall which Chrift obferved here after
having triumphed over the vanities of the wror!d and
the power of hell. In remembrance of this miracle, a
chapel was formerly conftrudled On the fummit of the
mountain. It may be feen from the plain, but we
could not approach it, as the path was alyiott entirely
deftroyed. It, however, may be acceffible on the
other fide of the mountain, which we did not vifit. A
great many fcattered grottos are feen here ; in one of
w'hich, according to Quarefmius, were depofited the
bodies of feveral anchorets, which are flill entire. I
have heard the fame thing afi'erted in the country, but
I could never meet with any perfon who had feen them.
Here we enjoyed the molt beautiful profpeft imagina¬
ble. This part of the mountain of Forty Days over¬
looks the mountains of Arabia, the country of Gilead,
the country of the Ammonites, the plains of Moab,
the plain of Jericho, the river Jordan, and the whole
extent of the Dead fea. It was here that the devil faid
to the Son of God, ‘ All thefe kingdoms will I give
thee, if thou wilt fall down and w'orlhip me.”
MOURNING, a particular drefs or habit worn to
fignify grief on fome melancholy occafion, particularly
the death of friends or of great public charadlers
The modes of mourning are various in various coun¬
tries ) as alfo are the colours that obtain for that end.
In Europe, the ordinary colour for mourning is black-,
in China, it is white •, in Turkey, blue or violet ; in
Egypt, yellow ; in Ethiopia, brown. White obtained
formerly in Cafiile on the death of their princes. Her¬
rera obferves, that the laft time it was ufed was in 1498,
at the death of Prince John. Each people pretend to
have their reafons for the particular colour of their
mourning : white is fuppofed to denote purity ; yellow,
that death is the end of human hopes, in regard that
leaves when they fall, and flowers when they fade, be¬
come yellow7 : brown denotes the earth, whither the
dead return $ black, the privation of life, as being the
privation of light : blue expreffes the happinefs which
it is hoped the deceafed does enjoy and purple or vio¬
let, forrow on the one fide, and hope on the other, as
being a mixture of black and blue.
Mourning, among the ancients, was expreffed va¬
rious ways.
Amongft the Jexvs, on the death of their relations
or intimate friends, grief or mourning was fignified
by weeping, tearing their clothes, fmiting their breafts,
or tearing them w7ith their nails, pulling or cutting off
their hair and beards, walking foftly, i. e. barefoot,
lying upon the ground, fading, or eating upon the
ground. They kept themfelves clofe fnut up in their
houfes, covered their faces, and abftained from all
work, even reading the law7, and faying their ufual
prayers. They neither dreffed themfelves, nor made
their beds, nor ftiaved themfelves, nor cut their nails,
nor went into the bath, nor faluted any body : fo that
fulkinefs feems to have been an indication of forrow7 5
and dirtinefs, of diftrefs. The time of mourning a-
'•mong the Jews was generally feven days: though this
2 ] m o u
wTas lengthened or (hortened according to -circumflan- Mourning,
ces -, but 30 days were thought fufficient upon the fe- v ~ ,{
vereft occafions. The different periods of the time of
mourning required different degrees ol grief, and dif¬
ferent tokens of it.
The Greeks, on the death of friends, fliowed their
forrovv by fecluding themfelves from all gaiety, en¬
tertainments, games, public folemnities, the enjoy¬
ment of wine, and the delights of mufic. They fat
in gloomy and folitary places, flripped themfelves of
all external ornaments, put on a coarfe black fluff by
way of mourning, tore their hair, flraved their heads,
rolled themfelves in the dull and mire, fprinkled allies
on their heads, fmote their breafts with their palms,
tore their faces, and frequently cried out with a la¬
mentable voice and drawling tone, reiterating the in-
terjeftion e, e, 8, e ; hence funeral lamentations were call¬
ed EAeyoi. If they appeared in public during the time
of mourning, they had a veil thrown over their faces
and heads. During the funeral proceflion, certain per-
fons called marched before, and fung me¬
lancholy ftrains called oyoipv^oi lette/uoi, Aivot and AtMvoi.
Thefe vocal mourners fung thrice during the procel-
fion round the pile and round the grave. I* lutes
wrere alfo ufed to heighten the folemnity. At the fune¬
rals of foldiers, their fellow foldiers who attended, as a
teftimony of their afflicfion, held their (hields, their
fpears, and the reft of their armour, inverted.
The tokens of private grief among the Romans were
the fame as thofe already obferved as cuftomary among
the Greeks. Black or dark biown were the colours of
the mourning habits worn by the men 5 they wrere alfo
common to the women. The mourning of the emperors
at firft was black. In the time of Auguftus, the women
wore white veils, and the reft of their drefs black. From
the time of Domitian they wore nothing but white ha^
bits, without any ornaments of gold, jew7elc, or pearls.
The men let their hair^and beards grow, and wore no
wreaths of flowers on their heads while the days of
mourning continued. The longeft time of mourning
w7as ten months : this was Numa’s eftablifhment, and
took in his whole year. For a widow to marry during
this time was infamous. Mourning was not ufed for
children who died under three years of age. From this
age to^ten they mourned as many months as the child
was years old. A remarkable vitftory, or other happy
event, occafioned the fhortening of the time of mourn¬
ing : The birth of a child, or the attainment of any
remarkable honour in the family, certain feafts in ho¬
nour of the gods, or the confecration of a temple, had
the fame effetft. After the battle of Cannae, the com¬
monwealth decreed that mourning fhould not be worn
for more than 3© days, that the lots might be forgotten
as foon as poflible. When public magiftrates died, or
perfons of great note, alfo when any remarkable cala¬
mity happened,. all public meetings were intermitted,
the fchools of exercile, baths, {hops, temples, and all
places of concourfe wrere fhut up, and the whole city put
on a face of forrow 5 the fenators laid afide the la tic lave,
and the confuls fat in a lower feat than ordinary. This
was the cuftom of Athens alfo, and w7as obferved upon
the death of Socrates not long after he had been Sen¬
tenced to death by their judges.
Pra’Jiccc, or mourning wo nen, (by the Greeks called
went about the ftreets; this was cufto¬
mary
t
M O U
[ 473 ]
M O U
Moufe
II
Mouful.
mary among the Jews as w'ell as the Greeks and Romans,
(Jerem. is* 17O
MOUSE. See Mus, Mammalia Index.
Mov$E-Ear. See Hieracium, 7 -d t j
MousE-TaiL See Myosurus, j BoTAKT
Dor-MousE. See Myoxus, 7 r i
S/trezv-Movss. See Sorex! | Mammal,a Mtx-
?/IOUSELLE, the name of an Eaft Indian tree,
with white tubular flowers, which fall off every day in
great plenty. They are of a fweet agreeable fmell,
and the Gentoos are very fond of wearing them,
ftringing and hanging them about their necks and
arms. The fruit is a pale red cherry, of the fhape and
lize of our white heart cherry, but the footflalk is not
quite fo long. This fruit h^s a Hone in it, containing
a bitter oily kernel. The Indians rub with this oil
any part flung by a fcorpion or bitten by a centipede,
which it foon cures. The crows are very fond of the
fruit.
MOUSUL, or Mosul, a large city of Turkey in
Afia, and capital of a beglerbegate, {lands on the v/eft
bank of the Tigris, in the latitude, according to Mr
Ives’s obfervation, of 36° 30' north. It is furrounded
with {lone walls, but has many of its flreets lying wafte.
Tavernier fpeaks of it as a ruined place, with only
two blind markets and a forry callle ; yet, he fays,
that it is mqch frequented by merchants, and that its
baflia comrJiands 3000 men. There is a bridge of boats
over the Tigris; and the city is a thoroughfare from
Perfia to Syria, which makes it a place of trade, and
which is more augmented by a conftant traffic from
this place to Bagdad. The country on this fide the
river is fandy and barren ; but on the oppofite fide
it is exceedingly fruitful, yielding good crops of corn
and fruit in abundance. Mr Ives fays it was the bell
built city he had feen in Turkey •, bu? had nothing in
it to attradl the notice of an European. It was be-
fieged for near fix months by Nadir Shah without fuc-
cefs. Breaches were frequently made in the walls,
and affaults continued for three days fucceffivdy ; but
the affailants were conftantly repulfed, and the breaches
made in the day time repaired during the night. The
befieged had unanimoufly refolved to die rather than
to fubmit. The Turks declared, that fhould the place
be forced to furrender, they were determined to put
to death all their wives and daughters firft, that they
might not fall into the vile hands of the abhorred Per-
fians. The place was therefore defended with uncom¬
mon bravery ; even the women and children exerted
th emfelves with the greateft alacrity. The Chriftians
behaved in fuch a manner as to gain the efteem and ad¬
miration of the other inhabitants ; and fome of their
churches being demolilhed, they were afterwards repair¬
ed at the expence of government.
In this city there are a great many mofques, the
larged and mod dately of which is ornamented on the
top with green tiles. At the doors of thefe houfes
there are ufually inferiptions in gilt letters, declaring
the awfulnefs of the building, as being the houfe of
God. One of them has a minaret which bends like
thofe of Bagdad. Some of the mod bigotted Turks
fay, that Mahomet faluted this minaret as he paffed ;
on which it bent its head in reverence to the prophet,
and ever after continued in that fituatton. The ma-
Vol. XIV. Part II.
nufailure of this city is t?iuJJ'o/en (muflin), which is made
very fliong and pretty fine. In the year 1757 this, ~ li' ,
city and the country adjacent were vifited by a dread¬
ful famine, owing to the preceding hard winter, and
innumerable multitudes of locuds, by which the fruits
of the earth were dedroyed. When Mr Ives was
there in 1758, the country was comparatively depopu¬
lated. Almod all the brute creation had been de¬
droyed for the fubfidence of man. During the famine^
the people had eaten dogs, and every kind of animal
which is held in abhorrence at any other time, not
fparing even their own children ; and the dead bodies
lay in the fireets for want of people to bury them.
Their fruit trees were alfo dedroyed by the {rod j fo
that when our author was there fcarcely any fruit could
be had. The neighbouring mountains afford filver
mines; and they would yield much quickfilrer if the
Turks had either the drill or inclination to work them
to advantage. Lanza fays, that fome time ago an
Englishman who travelled through this country got
two or three bottles of it, which he prefented to the
badia as a fpecimen of what might be done in that
way : but no farther attempt was made. Here alio
are feme lead mines, which fupply as much of that
metal as furnilhes them with bullets and iome neceffary
utenfils.
MOU-TAN, or PEONY SHRUB of China : alfo call¬
ed hoa-ouang, or “ the king of dowers,” and pe/eang-
hin, “ an hundred ounces of gold,” in allufion to the
exceffive price given formerly by lome of the virtuofi
for certain fpecies of this plant. The mou~tan feems
to claim pre-eminence, not only on account of the
fplendour and number of its flowers, and of the fweet
odour which they diffufe around, but alfo on account
of the multitude of leaves which compofe them, and
of the beautiful golden fpots with which they are in-
terfperfed. This plant, which is of a {hrubby nature,
fhoots forth a number of branches, which form a top
almoft as large as thofe of the fined: orange trees.
MOU TH, in Anatomyy a part of the face, confid¬
ing of the lips, the gums, the infides of the cheeks,
the palate, the falival glands, the os hyoides, the uvula,
and the tonfils 5 which fee under the article Ana¬
tomy.
Mr Derham obferves, that the mouth in the feveral
fpecies of animals is nicely adapted to the ufes of fuch
a part, and well fized and draped for the formation of
fpeech, the gathering and receiving of food, the catch¬
ing of prey, &c. In fome creatures it is wide and
large, in others little and narrow : in fome it is formed
with a deep incifure into the head, for the better catch¬
ing and holding of prey, and more eafy comminution of
hard, large, and troublefome food ; and in others with
a diorter incifure, for the gathering and holding of her¬
baceous food. In birds it is neatly (haped for piercing
the air ; hard and horny, to fupply the want of teeth ;
hooked, in the rapacious kind, to catch and hold their
prey j long and {lender in thofe that have their food to
grope for in moorifh pihees; and broad and long in thofe
that fearch for it in the mud. Nor is the mouth lefs re¬
markable in infects ; in fome it is forcipated, to catch,
hold, and tear the prey \ in others aculeated, to pierce
and wound animals, and fuck their blood 5 in others,
ftrongly rigid, with jaws and teeth, to gnaw and ferape
3 O out
/
M U F [ 474 ] M U L
Mowee out their food, carry burdens, perforate the earth, nay
the hardeft wood, and even ftones themfelves, for houfes
^ and nefts for their young.
MOWEE, one of the Sandwich iflands, difcoverc(f
by Captain Cook, is 162 miles in circumference. A
low iithmus divides it into two circular peninfulas,
of which the eaftern is double the fize of the weftern.
The mountains in both rife to a great height, and may be
feen at the diilance of more than 30 leagues. The
northern Ihores, like thofe of Owhyhee, afford no found¬
ings, and the country prefents the fame appearance of
verdure and fertility. The number of inhabitants is
computed at about 65,000. W. Long. 175. 56. N. Lat.
20. 53-
MOXA, or ajugwort of China, is a foft lanugi-
nous fubftance, prepared in Japan from the young leaves
of a fpecies of Artemisia, by beating them together
when thoroughly dried, and rubbing them betwixt the
liands till only the fine fibres are left. The down on
the leaves of mullein, cotton, hemp, &c. anfwers the
fame purpofe.
In the Eaflern countries it is ufed by burning it on
the fkin : a little cone of the moxa is laid upon the
part, previoufly moiftened, and fet on fire at the top ;
it burns down with a temperate glowing heat, and
produces a dark coloured fpot, the exulceration of
which is promoted by applying a little garlic; the ulcer
is left to difcharge, or is foon healed, according to the
intention in ufing the moxa.
MOYRA. See Moira.
MUCILAGE, in Phartnacyt is in general any vifcid
or glutinous liquor.
Mucilage alfo imports the liquor which princi¬
pally ferves to moiflen the ligaments and cartilages of
the articulations, and is fupplied by the mucilaginous
glands.
MUCOR, in Botany, a genus of the order of fungi,
belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants. See Bo¬
tany Index.
MUCUS, a mucilaginous liquor fecreted by certain
glands, and ferving to lubricate many of the internal
cavities of the body. In its natural flate it is generally
limpid and colourlefs ^ but, from certain caufes, affumes
a thick confidence and a whitifh colour like pus. For
the diftJnguifhing charadlers between pus and mucus,
fee Chemistry, N° 2769.
MUCK, or running A muck, is a practice that
has prevailed time immemorial in Batavia. To run
a muck, in the original fenfe of the word, is to get
intoxicated with opium, and then rufh into the flreet
with a drawn weapon, and kill any one that comes in
the way, till the party is himfelf either killed or taken
prifoner. If the officer take one of thefe atnocks or
mohawks (as they have been called by an eafy corrup¬
tion) alive, he has a confiderable reward j.and the un¬
happy "wretch is always broken alive on the wheel:
but fuch is the fury of their defperation, that three
out of four are neeeffarily deftroyed in attempting to
fecure them.
MUD-iguana. See Murjena, Ichthyology
Index.
MUFFLE, in Chernijiry, a veffel employed in fome
metallurgic operations. In figure it reprefents an ob¬
long arch or vault, the hinder part of which is clofed
by a femicircular plane, and the lower part or floor of
which is a re£langular plane. It is a little oven that is Mufti
placed horizontally in affay and enamelling furnaces, „ II
fo that its open fide correfpoiids with the door of the fire- ‘ ~ L ~ ’
place of the furnace. Under this arched oven finall
cupels or crucibles are placed j and the Jubilances con¬
tained are thus expofed to intenfe heat without contadl
of fuel, fmoke, or afhes.
MUFTI, the chief of the ecclefiaflical order, or
primate of the Muffulman religion. The authority of
the mufti is very great in the Ottoman empire •, for
even the fultan himfelf, if he w'ould preferve any ap¬
pearance of religion, cannot, without hearing his opi¬
nion, put any perfon to death, or fo much as intlidl
any corporal punilhment. In all a&ions, efpecially
criminal ones, his opinion is required, by giving him
a writing in wdiich the cafe is Hated under feigned
names; which he fubfcribes with the words, He Jhall,
or /hall not, he punifljed. Such outward honour is paid
to the mufti, that the grand fignior himfelf rifes up to
him, and advances feven Heps to meet him when he
comes into his prefence. He alone has the honour of
kiffmg the fultan’s left Ihoulder, whilfl the prime vizier
kiffes only the hem of his garment. When the grand
fignior addrtffes any writing to the mufti, he gives him
the following titles: To the Efad, the wifejl of the wife,
injlrucled in all knowledge, the mqft excellent of excel-
lents, ahjlaining from things unlawful, the fpring of vir¬
tue and of true fcience, heir of the prophetic doBrines,
refolver of the problems of faith, revealer of the ortho¬
dox articles, key of the treafures of truth, the light to
the doubtful allegories, frengthened with the grace of
the fupreme Legifator of mankind, may the Mofl High
G&dperpetuate thy virtues ! The election of the mufti
is folely in the grand fignior, who prefents him with a
veil of rich fables, &c. If he is convidled of treafon
or any great crime, he is put into a mortar kept for
that purpofe in the Seven To wTers at Conftantinople, and
pounded to death.
MUGGLETONIANS, a religious fe£l which arofs
in England about the year 1657 ; fo denominated from
their leader Lodowdck Muggleton, a journeyman taylor,
who, with his affociate Reeves, fet up for great prophets,
pretending, as it is faid, to have an abfolilte power of
laving and damning wdiom they pleafed ; and giving
out that they were the two laft witneffes ef God that
Ihould appear before the end of the world.
MUGIL, the mullet, a genus of fifties belonging
to the order of abdorninales. See Ichthyology Index.
MUG WORT, a fpecies of Artemisia j which fee,
Botany Index.
MUID, a large meafure in ufe among the French,
for things dry. The muid is no real veffel ufed as a
meafure, but an eftimation of feveral other meafures j
as the feptier, mine, minot, bufhel, &.c.
Muid, is alfo one of the nine calks, or regular vef-
fels ufed in France, to put wine and other liquors in.
The muid of wine is divided into two demi-muids, four
quarter-muids, and eight half-quarter muids, containing
36 feptiers.
MULATTO, a name given in the Indies to thofe wdio
are begotten by a negro man on an Indian or white wo¬
man, or by an Indian or white man on a negro woman.
MULBERRY. See Morus, Botany Index.
Mul berrx-Cyder, a name given by the people of
Devonlhire, and fome other parts of England, to a
fort..
Mulct
I!
Mulier.
perfon *.
a woman,
mulier.
if
M U L [ 475 1
fort of cyder rendered very palatable by an admixture heir of tbe father
of mulberry juice in the making ; they choofe for this
purpofe the ripelt and blacked mulberries, and pref-
fing out their juice, and mixing it with a full bodied
cyder at the time of the grinding and preffing, give juft
fo much of it as adds a perceptible flavour. It is
very worthy the attention of people who live in other
countries, where ftrong and good cyder is made, that
this renders it a fort of wine much more agreeable than
any other Englilh liquor, and might be brought into
general ufe, to the great advantage of the dealer. The
colour of this liquor refembles that of the brighteft red
wine, and the flavour of the mulberry never goes off.
Phil. Tranf. N° 133.
MULCT, a fine of money laid upon a man who has
committed fome fault or mifdemeanour.
MULE, a mongrel kind of quadruped, ufually ge¬
nerated between an afs and a mare, and fometimes
between a horfe and a Ihe afs; but the fignification of
the word is commonly extended to every kind of ani¬
mal produced by a mixture of two different fpecies.
See Mammalia Index.
Mules, among gardeners, denote a fort of vege¬
table monfters produced by putting the farina fcecun-
dans of one fpecies of plant into the piftil or utricle of
another.
The carnation and fweet-william being fomewhat
alike in their parts, particularly their flowers, the farina
of the one will impregnate the other, and the feed fo
enlivened will produce a plant differing from either.
An inftance of this we firft had in Mr Fairchild’s gar¬
den at Hoxton 5 where a plant is feen neither fweet-
william nor carnation, but refembling both equally :
this was raifed from the feed of a carnation that had
been impregnated by the farina of the fweet-william.
Thefe couplings being not unlike thofe of the mare
with the afs, which produce the mule, the fame name is
given them 5 and they are, like the others, incapable of
multiplying their fpecies.
This furnifhes a hint for altering the property and
tafte of any fruit, by impregnating one tree with the
farina of another of the fame clafs j e. gr. a codlin with
a pear-main, which will occafion the codlin fo impreg¬
nated to laft a longer time than ufual, and to be of a
(harper tafte.
MULHAUSEN, an imperial and Hanfeatic town
of Germany, in Upper Saxony, and in Thuringia, un¬
der the protedfion of the eledtor of Saxony; feated in
a fertile country, on the river Unftrutht, 15 miles north-
eaft of Eifenach, and 45 eaft by fouth of Caffel. E.
Long. 10. 49. N. Lat. 51. 13.
Mulhausen, a confiderable town of Germany, in
Alface, and capital of a republic in alliance wTith the
Sw’ifs. It is populous, wTell built, and adorned wdth
handfome public ftrufiuresy feated in a pleafant fertile
country, on an ifland formed by the river 111, 15 miles
north-weft of Bafle, and 20 eaft of Befort. E. Long.
7. 24. N. Lat. 47. 48.
MULIER, in Law, fignifies the lawful iffue born
in wedlock, though begotten before. 1 he mulier is
preferred to an older brother born out of matrimony *,
as for inftance, if a man has a fon by a woman before
marriage, which iflue is a baftard, and afterw'ards*mar-
ries the mother of the baftard, and they have another
fon, this fecond fon is mulier and lawful, and (hall be
m u l
but the other can be heir to no Muli
By the civil law,
after that he marries
rhere a man has iffue by Mul|nga
her, the rilue is ■
* See the
MULL, one of the Weftern iflands of Scotland, about article
is m ge-
25 miles long, and as much in breadth. It _
neral rocky and barren, not producing a fuflicient
quantity of corn for the inhabitants j but a great num¬
ber of cattle are annually exported, w'hich with the fiftr-
ings and a confiderable quantity of kelp are the only
articles of commerce. It is deeply indented with bays
and creeks, forming in feveral parts good natural har¬
bours. There are no villages except Tobermorey, near
the northern point of the ifland, where a filhing ftation
has been eredled. The ifland was originally part oi
the dominions of the Lords of the Ifles j but in after¬
times it became a part of the poffeflions of the ancient
family of Macleans, who ftill retain a confiderable part.
The duke of Argyll is alfo a confiderable proprietor.
The ruins of feveral ancient caftles are feen on this
ifland. The population of Mull, in 1795, amounted t©
about 8000 perfons.
Mvll of Cantyre. See Cantyre.
Mull of Galloway. See Galloway.
MULLEIN. See Verbascum, Botany Index.
MULLER, or Regiomontanus, John, a cele¬
brated aftronomer of the 15th century, w^as born at
Koninglhoven in Franconia in 143^’ an<^ acquired
great reputation by publilhing an abridgement of Pto¬
lemy’s Almageft, which had been begun by Purback.
He went to Rome to perfedl himfelf in the Greek
tongue, and to fee the Cardinal Baffarion } but find¬
ing fome faults in the Latin tranflation of George
de Trebizond, that tranflator’s fon affaflinated him
in a fecond journey he made to Rome in 1476, where
Pope Sixtus IV. had provided for him the arch-
bilhopric of Ratifbon, and had fent for him to reform
the calendar. Others fay that he died of the plague.
Muller, or Mu/lar, denotes a ftone flat and even at
bottom, but round atop j ufed for grinding of matters
on a marble,—The apothecaries ufe mullers to prepare
many of their teftaceous powders ; and painters for their
colours, either dry or in oil.
Muller is an inftrument ufed by the glafs grinders;
being a piece of wood, to one end whereof is cement¬
ed the glafs to be ground, whether convex in a ba-
fon, or convave in a fphere or bowl.—The mailer is
ordinarily about fix inches long, turned round : the
cement they ufe is compofed of allies and pitch. See
Grinding.
MULL ERAS, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Upper Saxony, and rnarquifate of Brandenburg,
feated 38 miles fouth of Berlin, upon a canal which
joins the Oder and the Spree. This canal is 15 miles
in length, 10 yards in breadth, and feven feet in depth.
It was eight years in making •, and fince that time
Baflari.
the cities of Hamburg
and
E.
Breflaw have carried on
Long. 14. 50. N. Lat.
great trade by water.
52. 21.
MULLET. See Mugil, Ichthyology Index.
Mullet, or Mullet, in Heraldry, a bearing in form
of the rowTel of a fpur, which it originally repre-
fented.
MULLINGAF , the county town of Weftmeath,
and province of Leinfter, in Ireland, 38 miles from
3 O 2 Dublin.
Mull us
ii
Mum.
M
N. Lat.
U M
[ 47
Vv ithin a
6 ]
M U M
Dablln. N. Lat. 53. 30. W. L«ong. 7.50
few miles of it are the ruins of a church, and alfo thofe
; of a caflle. It is fituatecl on the river i'eyle. It holds
a great wool fair, and is a place of good trade. In
12 27, the priory of St Mary, formerly known by the
name of The Hottfe of God of Mullingar, was founded
here by Ra!ph de Petyt biihop of Meath, for regular
canons of the order of St Augudin. A Dominican
friary was alfo founded here in 1237 by the family of
Nugent; fome ruins of which {till remain. In 1622,
the friars of Multlfarnham began to ere6t a houfe there
for friars of the order of St Francis, but it was never
completed.
MULLUS, the Surmullet, a genus of filhes be¬
longing to the order of thoracici. See Ichthyology
Index.
MULTIPLE, in Arithmetic, a number which com¬
prehends fome other feveral times; thus 6 is a multiple
of 2, and 1 2 is a multiple of 6, 4, and 3 ; comprehend¬
ing the firft twice, the fecond thrice, Sec.
Actio*} of MULTIPLEPOINDING, in Scots
Law. See Law, N° clxxxhi. 24.
MULTIPLICAND, in Arithmetic, the number to
be multiplied by another. See Arithmetic.
MULTIPLICATION, in general, the a£l of in-
creafing the number of any thing.
Multiplication, in Arithmetic, is a rule by which
any given number may be fpeedily increaled, accord¬
ing to any propofed number of times. See Arith¬
metic.
Multiplication, in Algebra. See Algebra.
MULTIPLICATOR, or Multiplier, in Arith¬
metic, the number by which any other is multiplied, or
the number of times it is fuppofed to be taken.
MULTIPLICATUS Flos, a luxuriant flower,
whofe petals are multiplied fo as to exclude a part or
the whole of the ftamina.
MULTIPLYING glass, in Optics, a glafs where¬
with ohjeSls appear increafed in number. See Optics.
MULTURE, in Scots Daw, a certain ftipulated
quantity of meal given as payment tb the proprietor
or tackfman of a mill for grinding the corn : and all
corn ground on farms thirled to the mill is obliged to
pay multure whether the corn be ground at that mill or
elfewhere.
MULVIA, a river of Barbary in Africa, which
rifes in the mountains of Atlas, and divides the em¬
pire of Morocco from that of Algiers, and then falls
into the Mediterranean, to the welt ward of Marfal-
quiver.
MUM, a k,ind of malt liquor much drunk in Ger¬
many, an(I chiefly brought from Bmnfwick, which is
the place of moll note for making it. The procefs of
brewing mum, as recorded in the townhoufe of that
city, is as follows : Take 63 gallons of w-ater that has
been boiled till one third part is confumed, and brew
it with feven bufhels of wheaten malt, one bufhel of
oat meal, and one bufhel of ground beans. When it
is tunned, the hoglhead muft pot be filled too full at
firfl: : as foon as it begins to wmrk, put into it three
pounds of the inner rind of fir, one pound of the tops
of fir and beech, three handfuls of carduus benediffus,
a handful or twro of the flower of rofa foils : add bur-
net, betony, marjdram, avens, pennyroyal, and wild
thyme, of each a handful and a half; of elder flowers,
two handfuls or more ; feeds of cardamom bruif- Mumnltus
ed, 30 ounces ; barberries bruifed, one ounce : when ii
the liquor has worked a while, put the herbs and feeds Mu^Riy-j
into the veflel; and, after they are added, let it work
over as little as poffible ; then fill it up ; laftly, when
it is flopped, put into the hogfhead ten new-laid eggs
unbroken ; flop it up clofe, and ufe it at two years
end. The Englhh brewers, inflead of the inner rind
of fir, ufe cardamom, ginger, and faflafras ; and alfo
add elecampane, madder, and red fanders.
MUMMIUS, L. a Roman conful lent againfl the
Achaeans, whom he conquered B. C. 1*7. He de-
ftroyed Corinth, Thebes, and Chalcis, by order of
the fenate, and obtained the furname of Achaicus from
his victories. He Aid not enrich himlelf with the
fpoils of the enemy, but returned home without any
increafe of fortune. He was fo little acquainted with
the value of the paintings and works of the moft
celebrated artifts of Greece which were found in the
plunder of Corinth, that he faid to thofe who conveyed
them to Rome, that if they lofl or injured them, they
ftiould make others in their ftead.
MUMMY, a body embalmed or dried, in the man¬
ner ufed by the ancient Egyptians ; or the compofition
with which it is embalmed. There are two kinds of
bodies denominated mummies. The firfl are only car-
cafes dried by the heat of the fun, and by that means
kept from putrefadlion : thefe are frequently foutid ia
the fands of Libya. Some imagine, that thefe are
the bodies of deceafed people buried there on purpofe
to keep them entire without embalming ; others think,
they are the carcafes of travellers who have been over¬
whelmed by the clouds of fand raifed by the hurri¬
canes frequent in thofe deferts. The fecond kind of
mummies are bodies taken out of the catacombs near
Cairo, in which the Egyptians depofited their dead af¬
ter embalming. See Embalming.
We b ave. two different fubflances preferved for me¬
dicinal ufe under the name of mummy, though both in
fome degree of the fame origin. The one is the dried
and preferved flefh of human bodies, embalmed with
myrrh and fpices; the other is the liquor running
from fnch mummies, when newly prepared, or when
aft'e&ed by great heat or damps. The latter is fome-
times in a liquid, fometimes of a foil’d form, as it is
preferved in vials ivell flopped, or fufifered to dry and
harden in the air. The firfl kind of mummy is brought
to us in large pieces, of a lax and friable texture,,
light and fpongy, of a blackifh brown colour, and of¬
ten damp and clammy on the furface : it is of a flrong
but difagreeable fmell. The fecond kind of mummy,
in its liquid ftate, is a thick, opaque, and vifeous
fluid, of a blackifh colour, but not difagreeable fmell.
In its indurated ftate, it is a dry folid fubftanee, of
a fine finning black colour, and clofe texture, eafily
broken, and of a good fmell; very inflammable, and
yielding a feent of myrrh and aromatic ingredients
while burning. This, if we cannot be content with¬
out medicines from our own bodies, ought to be the
mummy ufed in the (hops; but it is very fcarce and
dear ; while the other is fo cheap, that it will always
be moft in ufe.-
All thefe kinds of mummies are brought from E-
gypt. But we are not to imagine, that any body
breaks up the real Egyptian mummies, to fell them in
pieces
;
V
Mummy
1!
Munch.
M U N [ 477 ] M U N
pieces to the druggtfts, as they make a much better
market of them in Europe whole, when they can con¬
trive to get them. What our druggifts are (applied
with, is the fleth of executed criminals, or of any
other bodies the Jews can get, who fill them with the
common bitumen, fo plentiful in that part of the
world ; and adding a little aloes, and two or three
other cheap ingredients, fend them to be baked in an
oven, till the juices are exhaled, and the embalming
matter has penetrated fo thoroughly that the fielh will
keep and bear tranfporting into Europe. Mummy has
been elleemed refolvent and baliamic : but whatever
virtues have been attributed to it, feem to be fuch as
depend more upon the ingredients ufed in preparing
the flefh than in the fielh itfelf; and it would furely
be better to give thofe ingredients without fo (hocking
an addition.
There are found in Poland a kind of natural mum¬
mies, or human bodies preferved without the adidance
of art. Thefe lie in confiderable numbers in fome of
the vaft caverns in that country. They are dried with
the fiefih and (kin fhrunk up almoil clofe to the bones,
and are of a blackith colour. In the wars which fe-
veral ages ago laid wafte that country, it was com¬
mon for parties of the weaker fide to retire into thefe
caves, where their enemies, if they found them out, fuf-
focated them by burning draw, &c. at the mouth of
the cavern, and then left the bodies j which, being
out of the way of injuries from common accidents, have
lain there ever fince.
Mummy, among gardeners, a kind of wax ufed in
grafting and planting the roots of trees, made in the
following manner : Take one pound of black pitch,
and a quarter of a pound of turpentine ; put them to¬
gether into an earthen pot, and fet them on fire in the
open air, holding fomething in your hand to cover
and quench the mixture in time, which is to be alter¬
nately lighted and quenched till all the nitrous and vo¬
latile parts be evaporated. To this a little common
wax is to be added ; and the compofition is then to
be fet by for ufe.
MUMPS. See Medicine Index.
MUNDA, an ancient town of Spain, in the king¬
dom of Granada, feated on the declivity of a hill, at
the bottom of which runs a river. W. Long. 4. 13.
N. Lat. 48. 15.
This city was anciently famous for a vidlory gained
by Csefar over the two fons of Pomney, who-had col¬
lected an army in Spain after the defeat of their father
at Pharfalia. See {Hiftory of) Rome.
The Porapeys ported their army advantageoufly on
a rifmg ground, whereof one fide was defended by the
city of Munda, and the other ♦ a fmall river which
watered the plain, and by a marih : fo that the enemy
could not attack them but in front. Csefar likewife
drew up his troops with great art, and having advan¬
ced a little way from his camp, ordered them to
halt, expedling the enemy would abandon their advan¬
tageous port, and come to meet him. But as they did
not ftir, Cmfar made as if he intended to fortify him-
felf in that port; which induced the young general, who
looked upon this as a fign of fear, to advance into the
plain, and attack the enemy before they could fecure
themfelves with any works. Pompey’s army was by
far the molt numerous: for it confided of 13 legions,
6000 horfe, and an incredible number of auxiliaries,
among whom were all the forces of Bacchus king of
Mauritania, commanded by his two fon«, both youths
of great valour and bravery. Coefar had 80 cohorts,
three legions, to wit, the third, the fifth, and the
tenth, and a body of 8o®0 horfe. As the enemy-
drew near, Csefar betrayed a great deal of uneafinefs
and concern, as if he were doubtful of the fuccefs,
knowing he was to engage men no way inferior in va¬
lour and experience to his own, and commanded by
officers who had on many occaiions given iignal proofs
of their bravery and conduft. Cneius, the elder of
the two brothers, was generally looked upon as an
able commander •, and Labienus, who had revoked,
efteemed fcarce inferior to himfelf.
However, the ditdator, defirous to put an end to
the civil war, either by his own death or that of his
rivals, gave the (ignal for the battle, and fell upon the
enemy with his ufual vigour and refolution. At the
find onfi t, which was dreadful, the auxiliaries on both
fides betook themfelves to flight, leaving the Romans
to decide their quarrel by themfelves. Then the le¬
gionaries engaged with a fury hardly to be expreffed ;
Caefar’s men being encouraged by the hopes of putting
an end to all their labours by t1,*j battle, and thofe of
Pompey exerting themfelves out of nec * :ty and def-
pair, fince moft of them expected no quarter, as hav¬
ing been formerly pardoned. Never was victory more
obrtinately difnuted. Caefar’s men, who had been al¬
ways ufed to conquer, found themfelves fo vigoroufly
charged by the enemy’s legionaries, that they began
to give ground ; and though they did not turn their
backs, yet it was manifeft that (hame alone kept them
in their ports. All authors agree, that Crefar had never
been in fo great danger; and he himfelf, when he came
back to his camp, told his friends, that he had often
fought for viftory, but this was the firft time he had ever
fought for life. Thinking hirnfelf abandoned by tor-
tune, which had hitherto favoured him, he had fome
thoughts of dabbing himfelf with his own fword, and
by a voluntary death preventing the difgrace of a de¬
feat : but returning foon to himfelf, and concluding it
would be more to his reputation to fall by the enemy’s
hand at the head of his troops, than, in a fit of deip ir,
by his own, he difmounted from his horfe, and (hatch¬
ing a buckler from one of his legionaries, he threw him¬
felf like a man in defpair into the mi dll of the enemy ;
crying out to his men. Are you not afhamed to deliver
your general into the hands of boys ? At thefe words,
the foldiers of the tenth legion, animated by the ex¬
ample of their general, fell upon the enemy with freih
vigour, and made a dreadful havock of them. But in
fpite of their utmoft efforts, Pompey’s men tlill kept
their ground, and, though greatly fatigued, return¬
ed to the charge with equal vigour. Then the Cre-
farians began to defpair of viflory ; and the dictator,
running through the ranks of his difheartened legion¬
aries, had much ado to keep them together. The
battle had already lafted from the rifing to the fetting
of the fun, without any confiderable advantage on either
fide.
At length a mere accident decided the difpute in
favour of the diftator. Bogud, a petty king of Mau¬
ritania, had joined Cartar foon after his arrival in Spain,
with fome fquadrons of Numidian horfe ; but, in the
very
M U N [ 478 ] M U N
MunJic very beginning of the battle, being terrified at the
il fhouting of the foldiers, intermingled with groans, and
Mumc t. ciafhing 0f ^eir arms, he had abandoned his poll,
and retired with the auxiliaries under his command to
a rifing ground at a fmall diftance from the enemy’s
camp. There he continued the whole day an idle
fpedlator of the battle that was fought in the plain.
Jlut towards the evening, partly out of fhame and
partly out of compaffion for his friend Caefar, he re-
folved to fall upon Pompey’s camp 5 and accordingly
flew thither with all the forces he had with him. La-
bienus, apprifed of his defign, haftened after him to
the defence of the camp *, which Csefar obferving, cried
to his legionaries, Courage, fellow foldiers ! the viBory
at length is ours ; Labietius fies. This artifice had the
defired effeft : Caefar’s men, believing that Labienus
was truly fled, made a lafl: effort, and charged the
wing he commanded fo brifkly, that after a moft ob-
flinate difpute they put them to flight.
Though the enemy’s left wing was thus entirely
defeated, the right wing, where the elder Pompey
commanded, ftill kept their ground for fome time.
Pompey difmounting from his horfe, fought on foot
like a private man in the firfl: line, till molt of his le¬
gionaries being killed, he was forced to fave himfelf
by flight fri-M falling into the enemy’s hands. Part
of his troops fled back to their camp, and part took
fhelter in the city of Munda. The camp was imme¬
diately attacked, and taken fword in hand j and as
for the city, Caffar, without lofs of time, drew a line
cf circumvallation round it. This victory was gained
on the 16th of the kalends of April, i. e. according to
our way of counting, on the i^th day of March, when
the Dionyfian feftival, or the Liberalia, were celebrated
at Rome; the very day, as Plutarch obferves, in which
Pompey the Great, four years before, had fet out for
the war. In this aftion Pompey loft 30,000 men •,
among whom were the famous Labienus, Attius Va¬
rus, and 3000 Roman knights. Seventeen officers of
diftin&ion were taken, and all the enemy’s eagles and
enfigns, together with Pompey’s fafces, which he had
affumed as governor of Spain. On Caefar’s fide, pnly
1000 men were killed and 500 wounded.
MUND1C, or Marcasite, an old name for py¬
rites of copper or iron. See Ores of Copper and Iron,
Mineralogy Index.
MUNDINGOES, the name of a people who live
on the fides of the river Gambia in Africa, and who
are of a jet black colour, ftrong, and well made. They
have a prieft fent over every year from one of the
Cape de Verd iflands to chriften and marry.
MUNDUS patens, the open world, in Roman
antiquity, a folemnity performed in a imall temple, of
a round form like the world, dedicated to Dis and the
reft of the infernal gods. This temple was opened but
three times in the year, viz. the 24th of Auguft, the
4th of Oflober, and the 7th of November. During
thefe days, the Romans believed hell was open ; on
thefe days therefore they never offered battle, lifted fol¬
diers, put to fea, or married.
MUNICH, a town of Germany, capital of the
whole duchy of Bavaria, and the refidence of the elec¬
tor. It Hands on the Ifer, 70 miles fouth of Ratii-
bon and 214 weft of Vienna, being one of the moft
pleafant and populous cities of Germany for its big-
4
nefs. The number of the inhabitants is faid to be
about 40,000. Having been built at firft on a fpot
of ground belonging to a convent, it had from thence ;
in German the name of Munchen, i. e. Monk's town,
and a monk for its arms. The eledtor’s palace here is
a very grand ftrudture, confifting of feveral courts,
furniflied and adorned in the moft magnificent manner,
with tapeftry, gilding, fculpture, ftatues, and paintings.
It contains an amazing colledlion of jewels, antiquities,
and curiofities. The great hall isn8 feet long and
52 broad 5 and the ftaircafe leading to it, from top to
bottom, of marble and gold. In the hall of antiquities
are 354 bufts and ftatues of jafper and porphyry, brafs
and marble. In this palace is a library, containing a vaft
colledtion of books, and many valuable manufcnpts, in
moft languages, ancient and modern; and a chamber of
rarities, among which is the pldlure of a bravo or affaf-
fin, who is faid to have committed 345 murders with
his own hand, and to have been accomplice in, or
privy to, 400 more. The treafury in the chapel con¬
tains alfo a vaft number of pictures, precious ftones,
medals, veffels of gold and filver, &c. Among other
curiofities, here is a cherry ftone with 140 heads dif-
tinflly engraved upon it. The gardens of the palace
are alfo very fine, and it is faid a fecret paffage leads
from it to all the churches and convents in the town.
There is a gteat number of other fine buildings in this
city, public and private, particularly the riding houfe,
town houfe, opera room, the Jefuits college, the large
edifice for tournaments, the churches, convents, foun¬
tains, &c. Its manufadtures are thofe of filk, particu¬
larly velvet, woollen cloths, and tapeftry ; and it has
two annual fairs, at which great quantities of fait, wine,
&c. are fold. The ftreets are broad and regular j and
moft of the houfes well built, and painted on the out-
fide. The market place is extremely beautiful. Not
far from Munich are four other palaces, with fine gar¬
dens, belonging to the eledlor, viz. thofe of Sleiffieim,
Nymphenburg, Dauchau, and Starenberg. The firft
and laft are about three leagues from the capital; the
fecond about half a league *, and the third about two,
at a market town of the fame name. It was unfuecefs-
fully attacked by the French in 1796.
Munich, Count de, was the favourite of the cza¬
rina Ann, and w*as concerned in all the events of her
reign. Being appointed general of her armies, he
gained great advantages over the Grim Tartars, beat
the Turks, A. D. 1739, in an engagement near Choc-
zim, and took that city together with Jaffi the capital
of Moldavia. He was afterwards prime minifter to
the czar Iwan VI. but in a fliort time after he wras
accufed of employing the powrer which his office con¬
ferred on him to gratify his own ambition and private
refentment. The emprefs Elizabeth brought him to
trial, and he wos condemned to lofe his life, A. D.
1742. This fentence w’as mitigated to baniffiment
into Siberia, w’hither many of the victims of his powrer
had been exiled. He wTas recalled by Peter HI. A. D.
1762, and declared field marffial. Upon the death of
this prince, the emprefs Catharine II. appointed him
direftor general of the ports of the Baltic. He died
on the 8th of October 1767, at the age of 84.
MUNICIPAL, in the Roman civil law, an epi¬
thet which fignifies invefted with the rights and privi¬
leges of Roman citizens. See Municifium.
Municipal,
Munich
Municipes
Munlter.
the
M U N t 479 ]
Municipal, among us, is applied to the laws that quarries of ilone.
obtain in any particular city or province. And thofe
are called municipal officers who are elefted to defend
the interefts of cities, to maintain their rights and pri¬
vileges, and to preferve order and harmony among the
citizens \ fuch as mayors, fheriffs, confuls, &c.
MUNICIPES, an appellation given by the Romans
to the inhabitants of the municipia or municipal cities.
See Municipium.
MUNICIPIUM, in Roman antiquity, a corporation
borough, or enfranchifed city or town, where the inha¬
bitants enjoyed their own laws and cuftoms, and at the
fame time were honoured with the privileges of Roman
citizens j but then this privilege generally reached no
further than the bare title. Some indeed, by parti¬
cular merit, obtained the liberty of votes, which occa-
fioned that diftin&ion of municipium Jine fuffragio, and
municipium cumfiffragio.—The inhabitants of the mu¬
nicipium fine j’uffragio were called barely Romani, but
thofe of the municipium cum fuffragio were called cives
Romani.
The difference between proper citizens of Rome
and the inhabitants of the municipium may be thus ex-
preffed. The proper citizens of Rome were, I. Re-
giftered in the cenfus j 2. Had the right of fuffrage
and of bearing honours; 3. Were affeffed in the poll-
tax \ 4. Served in the legions } 5. Ufed the Roman
laws and religion ; 6. Were called fuiretes and po-
pulus Romanus : Whereas the municipes enjoyed the
three firfl of thefe privileges, but were denied the three
lad.
MUNITION, the provifions with which a place is
furnilhed in order for defence j or that which follows
a camp for its fubfiltence.
Munition Ships, are thofe that have ftores on board
in order to fupply a fleet of men of war at fea. In an
engagement, all the munition {hips and victuallers at¬
tending the fleet take their ftation in the rear of all
the reft *, they are not to engage in the fight, but to
attend to fuch directions as are fent them by the ad¬
miral.
Munster, in Latin Monomia, and in Irifh Moun,
the molt foutherly province of Ireland j bounded on
the north by Leinfter and Connaught, and on the eaft,
weft, and fouth, by the ocean. It contains the coun¬
ties of Cork, Clare, Kerry, Limerick, Tipperary, and
Waterford ; and 3,289,932 Irilh plantation acres, 740
parifhes, 63 baronies, and 26 boroughs. It is about
125 miles long and 120 broad 5 and its principal town
is Cork. Its ancient name was Mumhan ; and in lat¬
ter ages it was divided into Dcfmond or South Munfter,
Ormond or Eaft Munfter, and Thomond or North Mun¬
fter. It lies between 51. 15. and 53. o. N. Lat. and
7. 10. and 10. 40. W. Long.
Munster, a territory of Germany in the circle of
Weftphalia ; bounded on the north by Embden and
Oldenburg, on the fouth by the county of Mark and
duchy of Weftphalia, on the w'eft by the county of
Bentheim and the United Provinces, and on the eaft
by the bilhoprics of Ofnaburg and Paderborn together
with the county of Ravenlberg. It is the largeft of
all the Weftphalian biftroprics, being in length about
80 miles, and in breadth from 20 to 60. It is divided
into 13 bailiwicks : and though in general but a bar¬
ren country, has fame fruitful plains, with wroods, and
MUR
The inhabitants, excepting a few of Munfter
nobility and gentry, are all Roman Catholics} jyj-Jlena
though Lutheranifm had once a confiderable footing t   ‘
here. The biftiop, w’ho is generally alfo eleClor of
Cologne, has a revenue from hence of about 70,000
pounds, and can maintain 8000 men. In confequence.
of an unjuft cuftom, unknown in the reft of the em¬
pire, he is heir to all ftrangers who die in the country
without children. In the matricula he is rated at 30
foot and 118 horfe ; or 832 florins monthly in lieu of
them. His chapter conlifts of 40 canons, who are all
noble.
Munster, a city of Germany, capital of a bifliopric
of the fame name and of all Weftphalia, Hands at the
conflux of the river Aa with the Ems, in E. Long. 7.
49. N. Lat. 52. o. It is of a circular form, large, and
well fortified both by nature and art. It has a fine
citadel called the Rrille, eredled by a biftiop named
Bernard van Galen in order to awTe the burghers. The
dean and chapter now ele£t the biftiop j but till the be¬
ginning of the 13th century he was nominated by the
emperor. This city has been rendered famous by three
remarkable tranfaQions. 1. By the peace concluded
here in 1648, which put an end to a w7ar of 30 years j
occafioned by the perfecuting fpirit of bigotted Papifts,..
who chofe rather to plunge their country into all the
calamities of war than allow liberty of confcience to the
Proteftants. By this peace, however, they confented,
much againft their inclinations, to grant them a tolera¬
tion. 2. By the diforders and difturbances occafioned
here in 1553, by a parcel of enthufiafts, headed by a
taylor, called ffolin of Leyden from the place of his
birth, wTo turned out the magiftrates, and took pof-
feflion of the city, where they perpetrated the moft hor¬
rid villanies and cruelties. 3. For the noble, though
unfuccefsful, efforts it made in defence of its liberties-
againft the tyranny and oppreflion of the above men¬
tioned turbulent and bloody-minded biftiopr Bernard
van Galen. In this city are a great number of con¬
vents and other religious houfes, many of them ftately
piles, and furrounded with beautiful gardens.
MUNYCHIA, or Munichius Portus, in Ancient
Geography, a village and port of Athens, nearer to the
city, fortified in the fame manner as the Piraeus, to the
eaft of wdrich it lay, or between it and the promontory
Sunium, at the mouth of the Iliffus. Strabo fays it was
an eminence in form of a peninfula, at the foot of
which flood three harbours, anciently encompaffed with
a wall, taking within its extent the Piraeus and other
harbours, full of docks,. with the temple of Diana Mu-
nychia ; taking its name from Mynichus, the founder of
the temple.
Munychia, an anniverfary folemnity obferved at
Athens, in honour of Diana, on the 16th of the month
Munychion. Cakes were offered on the occafion, called
MUNYCHION, the tenth month of the Athenian
year, containing 29 days, and anfwering to the latter
part of our March and the beginning of April. It
was fo called from the feftival Munychia, which was
obferved in this month. See Month and Muny¬
chia. 1
MU PH IT. See Mufti.
MURiENA, or Eel } a genus of fifties, belong¬
ing to the order of anodes, See Ichthyology Index,
MURAL',..
MUR
r 480 i
MUR
•Mural MURAL, fomething belonging to a wall, which
H . the Latins call mums.
,"JUrm' , Mural Crown, among the ancient Romans. See
Crown.
Mural arch,\ is a wall, or walled arch, placed ex-
aftly in the plane of the meridian, i. e. upon the meri¬
dian line, for the fixing of a large quadrant, fextant,
or other inifrument, to obferve the meridian altitudes,
S:c. of the heavenly bodies.
Tycho Brahe was the firft who ufed a mural arch
in his obfervations } after him Hevelius, Mr Flam-
ftead, De la Hire, &c. ufed the fame means. See A-
STRONOMY.
MURANUM, in Ancient Geography, a town on
the confines of Lucania. Now Morano ; a citadel in
Calabria Citra, at the fprings of the Sybaris, midway
between the Sinus Tarentinus to the eafi, and the luf-
can fea to the weft. Suppofed to have arifen from
the ruins of Syphaeum, a town of the Bruttii mentioned
by Livy.
MUR AT OR I, Lewis Anthony, a learned and
celebrated Italian writer, born at Vignolcs, in the ter¬
ritory of Bologna, in 1672. He early difeovertd an
extreme fondnefs for the learned languages and fciences;
and this was fee ended by an excellent education.
After having completed his firft ftudies, he embraced
the date of an eccltftaftic •, and applied himfelf to
polite literature, philofophy, theology, civil law, an¬
tiquities, and other fciences ; by which means he be¬
came in a manner univerfally learned. He was fearcely
22 years of age when he was made librarian of the
Ambrofian library at Milan. In 1700 the duke of
Modena, his fovereign, recalled him, and made him
bis librarian, and keeper of the archives of his duchy.
Muratori difeharged this double employment during
the reft of his life, and had no other benefice than the
provoftftiip of Santa Maria del Pompofa. T he princi¬
pal of his works are,— 1. Anecdota, or a colledlion of
pieces taken from the Ambrofian library, 2 vols. 4to,
with learned notes and differtations. 2. A treatife on
the perfection of the Italian poetry, 2 vois. qto.
3. Anecdota Grwca, 3 vols. 4to. 4. A genealogical
hiftory of the houfe of Modena, 2 vols. folio. 5. An
excellent collection of the writers of the Italian hiftory,
27 vols. folio, with learned notes. 6. Another collec¬
tion, under the title of Antiquitates Italicce. 7. A
collection of ancient inferiptions, under the title of
Novus Thefaurus, 6 vols. folio. S. The annals of Italy,
i 2 vols. 410, in Italian, &c. 9. Letters, dillertations,
Italian poems, &c.
MURCIA, the Pagan goddefs of idlenefs. The
name is taken from murcus or murcidus, an obfolete
wTord, ftgnifying a dull, flothful, or lazy perfon.—
The ftatues of this goddefs rvere always covered with
duft and mofs, to exprefs her idlenefs and negligence.
She had a temple in Rome, at the foot of the Aven-
tine mount.
Murcia, a kingdom in Spain, bounded on the
north by New Caftile, on the eaft by the kingdom of
Valencia, 'on the weft by Andalufta and Granada, and
on the fouth by the Mediterranean fea. It is about
62 miles in length, and 58 in breadth ; and its prin¬
cipal river is the Segura. The foil is dry, becaufe it fel-
dora rains, and therefore it produces little corn or
wine ; but there is plenty of oranges, citrons, lemons,
3
Murder.
olives, almonds, mulberries, rice, pulfe, and fugar. It Murcia
has alfo a great deal of fi!k. It wra£ taken from the
Moors in 1265. The air is very healthful. u
Murcia, a large, handfome, and populous town of
Spain, capital of a kingdom of the fame name. It is
a bifhop’s fee, and contains fix parifties. The cathe¬
dral is a moft fuperb edifice, with the flairs of the
fteeple fo contrived that a man may ride up to the
top, either on horfeback or in a coach. It is fituated
in a pleafant plain, which abounds in fine gardens about
the city, and in which are the belt fruits in Spain. It
is feated on the river Segura, in W. Long. 8. 36. N.
Lit. 37. 48.
MURDER, or Murther, the aft of killing ano¬
ther with violence and injuftice. The word comes
from the Saxon morth “ death which fome will have
to fignify a violent death ; whence the barbarous La¬
tin murdrum and modrum.
Among the number of popular errors, is the notion
which has obtained, that the dead body would bleed
in the prefence or upon the touch of the murderer.
The crime of murder is puniftied with death in al-
moft all nations.
Murder, or Murther, in law, is thus defined, or
rather deferibed, by Sir Edward Coke : “ When a
perfon, of found memory and diferetion, unlawfully
killeth any reafenable creature in being, and under the
king’» peace, with malice aforethought, either exprefs
or implied.” The beft way of examining the nature
of this crime will be by confidering the feveral branches
of this definition.
1. It rnuft be committed by a perfon of found me-
morif and difcretion : for lunatics or infants are inca¬
pable of committing any crime ; unlefs in fuch cafes
where they ftiow a confcioufnefs of doing wmong, and
of courfe a difcretion or difeernment between good and
evil.
2. Next, it happens when a perfon of fuch found
difcretion unlawfully killeth. The unlawfulnefs arifes
from the killing without warrant or excufe : and there
muft alfo be an actual killing to conftitute murder j
for a bare affault, with intent to kill, is only a great
mifdemeanor, though formerly it was held to be murder.
The killing may be by poifoning, ftriking, ftarving,
drowning, and a thoufand other forms of death, by
wdiich human nature may be overcome. Ot thefe the
moft deteftable of all is poifon 5 becaufe it can of all
others be the leaft prevented, either by manhood or
forethought. And therefore, by the flat. 22 Hen. VIII,
c. 9. it was made treafon, and a more grievous and
lingering kind of death was inflicted on it than the com¬
mon law allowed ; namely, boiling to death : but this
aft did ret live long, being repealed by 1 Edw. VI. c.
12. There was alio, by the ancient common law, one
fpecies of killing held to be murder, which may be du¬
bious at this day, as there hath not been an inftance
wherein it has been held to be murder for many ages
paft, viz. bearing falfe witnefs againlx another, with an
exprefs premeditated defign to take away his life, lo as
'the innocent perfon be condemned and executed. The
Gothic laws puniftied in this cafe both the judge, the
witneffes, and the profecutor } and, among the Romans,
the lex Cornelia de f earns, puniftied the falfe witneffes
with death, as being guilty of a fpecies of affafiination.
And there is no doubt but this is equally murder in form
confcientice
MUR [ 481 1 MUR
Murder, confcientice as killing with a fword j though the modern
]aw ^to avoid the danger of deterring witneffes from
giving evidence upon capital profecutions, if it mufl: be
at the peril of their own lives) has not yet punilhed it
as fuch. If a man, however, do fuch an aft, of which
the probable confequence may be, and eventually is,
death \ fuch killing may be murder, although no broke
be flruck by himfelf, and no killing may be primarily
intended : as was the cafe of the unnatural fon who ex-
pofed his fick father to the air againft his will, by
reafon whereof he died j and of the harlot, who laid
her child under leaves in an orchard, w’here a kite
bruck and killed it. So too, if a man have a beaft
that is ufed to do mifchief; and he, knowing it,
fujfers it to go abroad, and it kills a man ; even this
is manflaughter in the owner ; but if he have purpofely
turned it loofe, though barely to frighten people, and
make what is called /port, it is with us (as in the
Jewifh law) as much murder as if he had incited a
bear or dog to worry them. If a phyfician or fur-
geon give his patient a potion or plafter to cute him,
which, contrary to expeftation, kills him, this is nei¬
ther murder nor manflaughter, but mifadventure ; and
he {hall not be puniflied criminally, however liable he
might formerly have been to a civil aftion for negleft
or ignorance ; but it hath been holden, that if it be
not a regular phyfician or furgeon who adminifters the
medicine, or performs the operation, it is manflaughter
at the leaft. Yet Sir Matthew Hale very jufily que-
bions the law of this determination j fince phyfic and
falves were in ufe before licenfed phyficians and fur-
geons: wherefore he treats this doftrine as apocry¬
phal, and fitted only to gratify and flatter licentiates
and doftors in phyfic 5 though it may be of ufe to make
people cautious and wary how they meddle too much in
fo dangerous an employment. In order alfo to make
the killing murder, it is requifite that the party die with¬
in a year and a day after the broke received, or caufe
of death adminibered ; in the computation of which the
whole day upon which the hurt was done {hall be reck¬
oned the firfl.
3. Farther : The perfon killed mub be “ a reafon-
able creature in being, and under the Ling'’s peace f at
the time of the killing. Therefore to kill an alien, a
Jew, or an outlaw, wTho are all under the king’s peace
or proteftion, is as much murder as to kill the mob
regular-born Englhhman ; except he be an alien-enemv,
in the time of war. To kill a child in its mother’s
womb, is now no murder, but a great mifprifion ; but if
the child be born alive, and dieth by reafon of the po¬
tion or bruifes it received in the womb, it feems, by the
better opinion, to be murder in fuch as adminiftered or
gave them. As to the murder of baflard children, fee
Bastard.
4. Laflly, The killing mub be committed “ with
malice aforethoughtf to make it the crime of murder.
This is the grand criterion which now diflinguibies
murder from other killing : and this malice prtpenfe,
tnalitia prcecogitata, is not fo properly fpite or malevo¬
lence to the deceaied in particular, as any evil defign
in general ; the dictate of a wicked, depraved, and ma¬
lignant heart ; vn difpoftion d fairc une trial chofe : and
it may be either exprefs, or implied, in law. Exprefs
malice is when one, with a fedate deliberate mind and
formed defipm, doth kill another, which formed de-
Vol. XIV. Part II.
fign is evidenced by external circumflanccs difcovering
that inward intention j as lying in wait, antecedent
menaces, former grudges, and concerted fchemes to
do him fome bodily harm. This takes in the cafe of
deliberate duelling, where both parties meet avowedly
with an intent to murder : thinking it their duty, as
gentlemen, and claiming it as their right, to wanton
wdth their own lives and thofeof their fellow' creatures;
without any warrant or authority from any pow’er ei¬
ther divine or human, but in direft contradiftion to
the laws both of God and man ; and therefore the law
has jubly fixed the crime and punifliment of murder on
them, and on their feconds alfo. Yet it requires fuch
a degree of paflive valour to combat the dread of even
undeferved contempt, arifing from the falfe notions of
honour too generally received in Europe, that the
firongeb prohibitions and penalties of the law will ne¬
ver be entirely efteftual to eradicate this unhappy cu-
flom, till a method be found out of compelling the
original aggreflbr to make fome other fatisfaftion to
the affronted party, which the world brail ebeem
equally reputable as that which is now given at the
hazard of the life and fortune, as well of the perfon
infulted, as of him who hath given the infult. Alfo,
if even upon a bidden provocation one beats another,
in a cruel and unufual manner, fo that he dies, though
he did not intend his death, yet he is guilty of murdef
by exprefs malice ; i. e. by an exprefs evil defign, the
genuine fenfe of malitia : As wdren a park-keeper tied
a boy that was bealing wood to a horfe’s tail, and
dragged him along the park ; when a maber correfted
his fervant with an iron bar, and a fchoolmaber damp¬
ed on his fcholar’s belly, fo that each of the fufferers
died ; thefe were jubly held to be murders, becaufe
the correftion being exceflive, and fuch as could not
proceed but from a bad heart, it was equivalent to a
deliberate aft of {laughter. Neither {hall he be guilty
of a lefs crime wrho kills another in confequence of
fuch a wilful aft as {how's him to be ail enemy to all
mankind in general ; as going deliberately, and with
an intent to do mifchief, upon a horfe ufed to flrike,
or coolly difcharging a gun among a multitude of
people. So if a man refolves to kill the next man he
meets, and does kill him, it is murder, although he
knew him not ; for this is univerfal malice. And if
two or more c6me together to do an unlawful aft
againb the king’s peace, of which the probable con¬
fequence might be bloodffied ; as to beat a man, to
commit a riot, or to rob a park, and one of them kills
a man ; it is murder in them all, becaufe of the un¬
lawful aft, the malitia pratcogvata, or evil intended be¬
forehand.
Alfo in many cafes where no malice is expreffed, the
law will imply it: as, where a man wilfully poifons
another, in fuch a deliberate aft the law prefumes ma¬
lice, though no particular enmity can be proved. And
if a man kills another fuddenly, without any, or with¬
out a confiderable provocation, the law implies malice ;
for no perfon, unlefs of an abandoned heart, would be
guilty of fuch an aft upon a flight or no apparent caufe.
No affront, by words or geffures only, is a fufficient
provocation, fo as to excufe or extenuate fuch afts of
violence as manifeflly endanger the life of another.
But if the perfon fo provoked had unfortunately killed
the other, by beating him in fuch a manner as {bowed
3 P only
Murder.
MUR [ 4&
Murder, -only an intent to chaftife and not to kill him, the law
■—""v~ fo far confiders the provocation of contumelious beha¬
viour, as to adjudge it only manflaughter, and not mur¬
der. In like manner, if one kills an officer of juftice,
either civil or criminal, in the execution of his duty, or
any of his affiftants endeavouring to conferve the peace,
ox any private perfon endeavouring to fupprefs an affray
or apprehend a felon, knowing his authority or the in¬
tention with which he interpofes, the law will imply
malice, and the killer ffiall be guilty of murder. And
if one intends to do another felony, and undefignedly
kills a man, this is alfo murder. Thus if one ffioots at
A, and miffes him, but kills B, this is murder becaufe
of the previous felonious intent, which the law transfers
from one to the other. The fame is the cafe, wffiere
one lays poifon for A, and B, againft whom the pri-
foner had no malicious intent, takes it, and it kills him,
this is likewife murder. So alfo, if one give a woman
with child a medicine to procure abortion, and it oper¬
ates fo violently as to kill the woman, this is murder
in the perfon who gave it. It were endlefs to go
through all the cafes of homicide, which have been ad¬
judged, either exprefsly or impliedly, malicious: thefe
therefore may fuffice as a fpecimen j and we may take
it for a general rule, that all homicide is malicious, and
of courfe amounts to murder, unlefs where juftified by.
the command or permiffion of the law ; excufed on a
principle of accident or felf-prefervation *, or alleviated
into manflaughter, by being either the involuntary con-
fequence of fome a6t, not ftri&ly lawful, or (if volun¬
tary) occafioned by fome hidden and fufficiently violent
provocation. And all thefe circumftances of juftifica-
tion, excufe, or alleviation, it is incumbent upon the
prifoner to make out, to the fatisfadlion of the court
and jury, the latter of whom are to decide whether the
circumftances alleged are proved to have a&ually ex-
ifted 5 the former, how far they extend to take away
or mitigate the guilt. For all homicide is prefumed
to be malicious, until the contrary appeareth upon evi¬
dence.
The puniftiment of murder, and that of man-flaugh-
ter, were formerly one and the fame 5 both having the
benefit of clergy ; fo that none but unlearned perfons,
who leatt knew the guilt of it, were put to death for
this enormous crime. But now, by feveral ftatutes,
the benefit of clergy is taken away from murderers,
through malice prepenfe, their abettors, procurers,
and counfellors. In atrocious cafes it was frequently
ufual for the court to direct the murderer, after exe¬
cution, to be hung upon a gibbet in chains near the
place where the faft was committed $ but this was na
part of the legal judgement j and the like is ftill fome-
times praftifed in the cafe of notorious thieves. This,
being quite contrary to the exprefs command of the
Mofaical law, feems to have been borrowed from the
civil law j which, befides the terror of the example,
gives alfo another reafon for this practice, viz. that it
is a comfortable fight to the relations and friends of
the deceafed. But now, in England, it is enabled
by ftatute 25 Geo. II. c. 37. that the judges, before
whom any perfon is found guilty of wilful murder,,
{hall pronounce fentence immediately after conviftion,
unlefs he fees caufe to poftpone it •, and (hall in paf-
fmg fentence direft him to be executed on the next
day but one (unlcfs the fame (hall be Sunday, and
2 ] .MUR
then on the Monday following), and that his body Murderers
be delivered to the furgeons to be differed and anato- H
mized ; and that the judge may diredft his body to be fVluri^ ine%
afterwards hung in chains, but in nowife to be buried
without diffedlion. And, during the ftiort but awful
interval between fentence and execution, the prifoner
ffiall be kept alone, and fuftained with only bread and
water. But a power is allowed to the judge, upon
good and fufficient caufe, to refpite the execution, and
relax the other reftraints of this adt. See farther,
Parricide, and Petit Treafon.
Murderers, or Murdering Pieces, in a ffiip, are
fmall pieces of ordnance, either of brafs or iron, which-..
have chambers put in at their breeches. They are
ufed at the bulk-heads of the fore-caftle, half-deck, or
fteerage, in order to clear the deck, on the ffiip’s be¬
ing boarded by an enemy.
MURENA. See Murjena, Ichthyology /«--
dex.
MURENGERS, two officers of great antiquity i»-
the city of Chefter, annually chofen out of the aider-
men, to fee that the walls are kept in repair, and t©
receive a certain toll and cuftom for the maintenance
thereof.
MUREX, a genus of animals belonging to the
order of vermes teftacea. See Concholooy Index.
Murex, a caltrap or iron inftrument, with ffiarp
points projecting in every direction, ufed by the Romans -
as a defence againft: the enemy’s horfe. It was fo call¬
ed, probably, becaufe the points bore fome refemblance
to the fpines and tubercles with which the ffiell of the
fiffi murex is furrounded.
MURGI, or Murgis, in Ancient Geography, the
laft town of Baetica, next the Tarraconenfis : the Urce-
of Ptolemy. Now Muxara, a port-town of Granada,
on the Mediterranean. W. Long. i° 50'. N. Lat. 370 6'..
MURIA, the Latin name of common fait. See
Soda, Muriate of. Chemistry Index.
MURINA, or Murines, a delicious fweet wine, •
medicated with fpices, and the ufual drink of the ladies
of antiquity.
MURRAIN, or Gargle, a contagious difeafe
among cattle. See Farriery Index.
MURRAY, or Moray, the name of a diftridf in
the north of Scotland, which, in a former divifion of the
kingdom, was denominated a province. This diftridl-
includes the counties of Banff, Elgin and Nairn. The
county of Elgin, the middle divifion of this diftridt, is
ftill known by the name of Morayffiire.
MURRHINE, Murrhinus, Meggw?, in antiqui¬
ty, an appellation given to a delicate fort of ware
brought from the eaft, whereof cups and vafes were
made, which added not a little to the fplendour of the
Roman banquets.
Critics are divided concerning the matter of the po-
cula or vafa murrhina, murrina, or murrea. Some will
have them to have been the fame with our porcelain or
china ware.
The generality held them to have been made of fome
precious kind of ftone, which was found chiefly, as
Pliny tells us, in Parthia, but more efpecially in Car-
mania. Arrian tells us, that there was a great quantity
of them made at Diofpolis in Egypt. This he calls
another fort of murrhina work j and it is evident, from
all accounts, that the murrhina of Diofpolis was a fort
of,
M U S [ 483 3 M U S
Murrtune of glafs ware, made in imitation of tlie porcelain or
11 murrha of India. There is fome difference in the ac-
Mnfeus. counts given by Pliny and Martial of the murrhina vafa.
v The firfl; author fays, that they would not bear hot li¬
quors, but that only cold ones were drank out of them.
The latter, on the other hand, tells us, that they bore
hot liquors very well. If we credit Pliny’s account,
their porcelain was much inferior to our’s in this parti¬
cular. Some conjefture them to have been of agate,
others of onyx, others of coral. Baronius, doubtlefs,
was fartheft out of the way, when he took them to be
made of myrrh, congealed and hardened. Some have
fuppofed thefe veffels to be made of cryftal, but this is
contrary to the account of all the ancients. The Greeks
had the words for cryftal, and e-pv^i for
myrrh, very common among them } and therefore, if
thefe veflels" had been made of either of thefe fubftances,
they would in fome places have called them fymrna or
cnftalline. On the contrary, the moft correft among
them call them murrhina or morrina. The cups made
of cryftal, which were alfo in ufe at thofe times were
called cryftallina, and thefe murrhina or murrhaea, by
way of keeping up the diftinftion j and Martial tells us,
that the ftone they were made of was fpotted or varie¬
gated, calling them pocula maculofae murrae. And
Statius mentions the cryftalline and murrhine cups in
the fame fentence, but as different things, not the fame.
Arrian mentions alfo the po^tet} which his inter¬
preters cenfure as an error of the copies, and would alter
into myrrha, the name of the gum myrrh.
Pompey is recorded as the firft who brought thefe
murrhine veffels out of the eaft, which he exhibited
in his triumph, and dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus.
But private perfons were not long without them. So
fond, in effea, did the Roman gentry grow of them,
that a cup which held three fextaries was fold for 70
talents. T. Petronius, before bis death, to fpite Nero
(or as Pliny expreffes it, ul tnenfam ejus exhceredaret,
to difinherit his table), broke a bafon, trul/a murrhina,
valued at 300 talents, on w'hich that emperor had fet
his heart.
MUS, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the order
of Glires. See Mammalia Index.
MUSA, the PLANTAIN-TREE 5 a genus of plants be¬
longing to the polyandna clafs j and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the eighth order, Scitaminea:. See
Botany Index.
MUS^US, an ancient Greek poet, was, according
to Plato and Diodorus Siculus, an Athenian, the fon of
Orpheus, and chief of the Eleufinian myfteries inftitut-
ed at Athens in honour of Ceres : or, according to
others, he was only the difciple of Orpheus : but from
the great refemblance which there was between his
charaaer and talents and thofe of his mafter, by giving
a ftronger outline to the figure he w^as called Visfon, as
thofe were ftyled the children of Apollo who cultivated
the arts of which he wras the tutelar god.
Mufeus is allowed to have been one of the firft poets
who verftfied the oracles. He is placed in the Arun-
delian marbles, epoch 15. 1426 B. C. at which time
his hymns are there laid to have been received in the
celebration of the Eleufinian myfteries. Laertius tells
us, that Mufeus not only compofed a theogony, but
formed a fphere for the ufe of his companions •, yet as
this honour is generally given to Chiron, it is mote na¬
tural to fuppofe, with Sir Ifaac Newton, that he enlar- Mufeus
ged it with the addition of feveral conftellations after
the conqueft of the golden fleece. The fphere itfelf
ftiows that it was delineated after the Argonautic expe- v 
dition, which is deferibed in the afterifms, together Byrney’s^
with feveral other more ancient hiftories of the Greeks,
and without any thing later ; for the (hip Argo was the "i -
firft long veffel which they had built : hitherto they
had ufed round fhips of burthen, and kept within fight
of the fhore ; but now, by the diftates of the oracle,
and confent of the princes of Greece, the flower of that
country fail rapidly through the deep, and guide their
fliip by the ftars.
Mufeus is celebrated by Virgil in the charaffer ot
hierophant, or prieft of Ceres, at the head of the moll:
illuftrious mortals who have merited a place in Elyfium.
Here he is made the conduftor of iEneas to the recefs
where he meets the ftiade of his father Anchifes.
A hill near the citadel of Athens was called Mu~
feeum, according to Paufanias, from Mufeus, who ufed
to retire thither to meditate and compote his religious
hymns ; at which place he was afterwards buried. 1 he
works which went under his name, like thofe of Or¬
pheus, were by many attributed to Onomacritus. No¬
thing remains of this poet now, nor were any of his
writings extant in the time of Paufanias, except a
hymn to Ceres, which he made for the Lycomides.
And as thefe hymns were likewife fet to mutic, and
fung in the myfteries by Mufeus himfelf in the cha-
radler of prieft, he thence perhaps acquired from fu¬
ture times the title of mujician, as well as of poet ; the
performance of facred mufic being probably at firft con¬
fined to the priefthood in thefe celebrations, as it had
been before in Egypt, whence they originated. . How¬
ever, he is not enumerated among ancient muficians by
Plutarch j nor does it appear that he merited the title
offon and fuccejfor to Orpheus for his mufical abilities,
fo much as for his poetry, piety, and profound knowr-
ledge in religious myfteries.
MUSCA, the FLY ; a genus of infers belonging to
the order of diptera. See Entomology Index.
Musca, a name given to fuch perfons among the
Romans as officioufly thruft themfelves into the compa¬
ny of their fuperiors and thofe who defpifed them, by
finding means of getting admittance to entertainments
without invitation, and without a welcome : So that
mufece were the fame as parafites, who were frequently
by the Greeks termed tAvim. See Parasite.
MUSCADINE, a rich wine, of the growth of
Provence, Languedoc, Cividad, &c.—The word is
fuppofed to be derived from mitfk ; the wine being fup¬
pofed to have a little of the fmell of that perfume 5
others from mufea, “ a fly,” becaufe the flies are ex¬
tremely fond of its grapes j as the Latins had their vi-
num apianum, fo called ab apibus, from the bees which
fed on it.
The procefs for making mufeadine at Frontignac, is
the follow'ing : The mufeadine grapes are allowed half
dried on the vine ; and as foon as they are gathered,
they are trod and preffed, and the liquor is tunned,
without letting it ftand to ferment in the fat j the lee
which remains is fuppofed to produce the peculiar fla¬
vour of this wine.
MUSCHENBROECK, Peter de, a very diftin-
guifljed natural philofopher and mathematician, was
^ P 2 bom
Mafci
M U S [ 484 ] M U, S
born at Utrecht a little before 1700. He was firft pro-
feflbr in his own univerfity, and afterwards invited to
the chair at Leyden, where he died full of reputation
and honours in 1761. He was a member of feveral
academies ; particularly the Academy of Sciences at
Paris. He was the author of feveral works in Latin,
which are frequently referred to, and all of which dif-
cover great penetration and exa£lnefs of the fufcjecfs of
which he treats. He was alio confummate in the know¬
ledge of law.
MUSCI, Mosses, one of the orders of the clafs
cryptogamia*, which fee, Botany Index.—The ancients
took the mofs of trees to be the effccl of a diforder or
difcompofure of the texture of the bark ; or at moft a
kind of little filaments arifing from the bark : but the
moderns find, by more accurate obfervation, that mof-
fes are real diftindt plants, whofe feed, being extremely
fmall, is enclofed in little capfules; which burfting of
themfelves, the feed is carried off by the winds ; till,
falling into the inequalities of the bark of trees, it is
there flopped, takes root, and feeds at the expence of
the tree, as mouidinefs does on bread, &c.
PvdUSCLE, or Mussel. See Mytulus, Concho-
logy Index.
MUSCOVY. See Russia.
Mvscovr G/afs, or Glimmer. See Mica, Mine¬
ralogy Index.
MUSCULUS, a military machine, made ufe of by
the Romans to cover and protedl the foldiers wdrile
they approached and undermined the walls of befieged
places, or filled the ditches. It feems to have refem-
bled the tefludo in form, but was fmaller in fize. See
Testudo.
MUSEIA, were Grecian feftivals in honour of the
Mufes, celebrated with games every fifth year, parti¬
cularly by the Thefpians. The Macedonians alfo ob-
lerved a feftival of the fame name in honour of Jupi¬
ter and the Mufes, wdrich lafled for nine days, and
was celebrated with flage plays, fongs, and poetical
compofitions.
MUSES, certain fabulous deities among the Pa¬
gans, fuppofed to prefide over the arts and fciences :
for this reafon it is ufual for the poets, at the be¬
ginning of a poem, to invoke thefe goddefles to their
aid.
The Mufes were originally only fingers and muficians
in the fervice of Ofiris, or the great Egyptian Bacchus,
under the inftrudlion and guidance of his fon Orus 5
but in fucceeding times they were called the daughters
of Jupiter and Mnemofyne or Memory,
Thefe are the only pagan divinities whofe worfhip
has been continued through all fucceeding changes in
the religion and fentiments of mankind. Profelfors of
every liberal art in all the countries of Europe flill revere
them •, particularly the poets, who feldom undertake
the flighteft work without invoking their aid.
Sir liaac Newton tells us, that the finging wmmen
of Oiiris w7ere celebrated in Thrace by the name of
the Mufes ; and that the daughters of Pierius, a Thra¬
cian, imitating them, were celebrated by the fame Mufes.
name. -y—
Diodorus Siculus informs us, that Aleman of Mef-
fene, a lyric poet who flouriihed in the 27th Olympiad,
670 years B. C. makes them the daughters of Uranus
and lerra. It has been afferted by fome ancient writ¬
ers, that at firft they were only three in number ; but
Homer, Ilefiod, and other profound mythologills, ad¬
mit of nine (a).
In his hymn to Apollo, Homer fays,
 By turns the nine delight to fing.
And Hefiod, in his Theogony, names them all.—They
are faid feveraliy to prefide over fome art or fcience, as
mufic, poetry, dancing, aftronomy. By fome they are
called virgins, becaufe the virtues of education appear
unalterable : they are called mufes from a Greek word Burney's
which fignifies to explain myfteries, becaufe they have
taught things the moft cuiious and important to know,
and which ate above the comprehenfion of vulgar
minds. Each of their names is faid to include fome
particular allegory ; Clio, for infiance, has been thus
called, becaufe thofe who are praifed in verfe acquire
immortal fame; Euterpe, on account of the pleafure
accruing to thofe who hear learned poetry j Thalia im¬
plies for ever fiourifhing j Melpomene, that her melody
infinuates itfelf into the inmofi receffes of the foul;
Terpjichore marks the pleafure which thofe receive who
are verfed in the liberal arts 5 Erato feems to indicate,
that the learned command the efleem and friendfhip of
all mankind ; Polyhymnia, that many poets are become
immortal by the number of hymns which they have ad-
dreifed to the gods j Urania, that thofe whom ihe in-
ftru&s elevate their contemplations and celebrity to the
heavens and the liars ; and laftly, the exquifite voice of
Calliope has acquired her that appellation, as the inven-
trefs and guardian of eloquence and rhetoric.
An epigram of Callimachus gives the attributes of
the Mufes in as many lines.
Calliope the deeds of heroes fings j
Great Clio fweeps to hiftory the firings ;
Euterpe teaches mimes their filent fhow 5
Melpomene prefides o’er feenes of wo 5
Terpjichore the flute’s foft pow’r difplays ;
And Erato gives hymns the gods to praife $
PolymniaPs Ikill infpires melodious drains :
Urania wife, the ftarry courfe explains ;
And gay Thalia's glafs points out where folly reigns.
This epigram does not, however, exaftly correfpond
with the ideas of other poets, or of the ancient painters,
in characterizing the attributes of the Mufes. The an¬
cients had numberlefs ingenious and fanciful ideas con¬
cerning the Mufes, which we have not room to recite.
—“ It feems (fays the abbe Barthelemi f) as if the firft f. Travels
poets, enchanted with the beauties of nature, occafion-o/Ater?-
ally were led to invoke the nymphs of the woods, hills,
and fountains ; and that yielding to the prevailing taftevol‘
for allegory, they gave them names relative to the in-P' 2
fluence
(a) It has been faid, that when the citizens of Sicyon direfted three fkilful ftatuaries to make each of them
natues ot the three Mufes, they were all fo well executed, that they did not know which to choofe, but erefted
all the nine, and that Hefiod and Homer only gave them names.
M U S [4!
Mufeum. fluence they might be fuppofed to have over the pra-
—— elusions of the mind. At firft three Mufes only were
admitted, Melete, Mneme, and Acede : that is to fay,
the meditation or reflection neceffary to ftudy; memo¬
ry, which records illultrious deeds j and fong, which
accompanies their recital. In proportion 's improve¬
ment was made in the art of verfification, its characters
and effeCts were perfonified, the number of the Mufes
increafed, and the names they now received referred to
the charms of poetry, its celeftial origin, the beauty of
its language, the pleafure and gaiety it infpires, the
fong and dance which add to it new charms, and the
olory with which it is crowned. Afterwards were af-
fociated with them the Graces, whole employment it is
to embellifh poetry, and Love who is fo frequently its
objeft. Thefe ideas took birth in a barbarous country,
in Thrace, wrhere Orpheus, Linus, and their difciples,
fuddenly appeared in the midfl of ignorance. The
Mufes were honoured there on the Pierian mount ; and
extending their dominion, fucceflively took their ffa-
tions on Pindus, Parnaffus, Helicon, and all thofe fo-
litary places where the painters of nature, furrounded
by the moft pleafing images, experience the divine
glow of infpiration.”
Pythagoras, and afterwards Plato, make the Mufes
the foul of the planets in our fyftem ; from whence the
imaginary mufic of the fpheres.
MUSEUM, a name which originally fignified a
part of the palace of Alexandria, which took up at
lead one-fourth of the city. This quarter was called
the mufeum, on account of its being fet apart for the
Mufes and the tludy of the fciences. Here were
lodged and entertained the men of learning ; who were
M U
Definition. r'F'HE art of combining founds in a manner agree-
able to the ear. This combination may be either
fimultaneous or fucceflive : in the firft cafe, it conlli-
tutes harmony ; in the laft, melody. But though the
fame founds, or intervals of found, wdiich give plea¬
fure when heard in fucceflion, wall not always produce
the fame eflfedt in harmony ; yet the principles which
conftitute the Ampler and more perfect kinds ®f har¬
mony, are almoft, if not entirely, the fame with thofe
of melody. By perfefl harmony, wm do not here mean
that plenitude, thofe complex modifications of harmo¬
nic found, which are admired in praftice ; but that har¬
mony which is called perfect by theoricians and artiils;
that harmony which refults from the coalefcence of fi-
multaneous founds produced by vibrations in the pro¬
portions of thirds, fifths, and obtaves, or their dupli¬
cates.
The principles upon which thefe various combina¬
tions of found are founded, and by which they are re¬
gulated, conftitute a fcience, wLich is not only exten-
fhe but profound, when we would inveftigate the prin¬
ciples from whence thefe happy modifications of found
refuit, and by which they are determined ; or when rve
would explore the fenfations, whether mental or cor¬
poreal, with which they affebl us. The ancient defini¬
tions of mufic are not proportioned in their extent
5 ] M U S
divided into many companies or colleges, according to
the fciences of which they were the profeffors ; and to
each of thefe houfes or colleges was allotted a handfome
revenue. The foundation of this eftablifhment is attri¬
buted to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who here placed his
library. Hence the word mufeum is now applied to
any place fet apart as a repofitory for things that have
an immediate relation to the arts.
The mufeum at Oxford, called the Afhmolean mu¬
feum, is a noble pile of building, erebled at the expente
of the univerfity, at the weft end of the theatre, at
which fide it has a magnificent portal, fuftained by pil¬
lars of the Corinthian order. The front, which is to
the ftreet, extends about 60 feet, where there is this
infeription over the entrance in gilt charablers, Mufeum
Ajhmoleanum, fchola naturalis hiforiev, qfficina chymi-
cha. It was begun in 1679, and finifhed in 1683,
when a valuable colleblion of curiofities was prefented
to the univerfity by Elias Afhmole, Efq. which were
the fame day repofited there : feveral acceflions have
been fince made to the mufeum ; among which are hie-
roglyphics, and other Egyptian antiquities, an entire
mummy, Roman antiquities, altars, medals, lamps, &c.
and a variety of natural curiofities.
For an account of the Britilh mufeum, fee London",
N° 146.
MUSHROOM. See Fungi, Botany Index.
To try the quality of mufhrooms :—Take an onion,
and ft rip the outer fldn, and boil it with your mulh-
rooms : if the onion become blue or black, there are
certainly dangerous ones amongft them J U it remain
white, they are good.
I C;
•
to our prefent ideas of that art ; but M. Rouffeau be¬
trays a temerity highly inconfiftent with the philofo-
phical character, when from thence he infers, that their
ideas were vague and undetermined. Every foul fuf-
ceptible of refinement and delicacy in tafte or lenti-
ment, muft be confcious that there is a mufic in abtion
as well as in found ; and that the ideas of beauty and
decorum, of harmony and fymmetry, are, il we may
ufe the expreflion, equally conftituent of viiible as of
audible mufic. Thofe illuftrious minds, whofe com-
prehenfive profpebts in every fcience where tafte and
propriety prevail took in nature at a fingle glance,
would behold with contempt and ridicule thofe narrow
and microfcopic views of which alone their fucceffors
in philofophy have dilcovered themfelves capacious.
With thefe definitions, however, wTe are lefs concerned,
as they bear no proportion to the ideas which are now
entertained of mufic. Nor can we follow M. Rouffcau,
from whatever venerable fources his authority may be
derived, in adopting his Egyptian etymology for the
word mujic. The eftablithed derivation from Mufa
could only be queftioned by a paradoxical genius.
That mufic had been praftifed in Egypt before it wTas
known as an art in Greece, is indeed a fa& which can¬
not be queftioned ; but it does not thence follow that
the Greeks had borrowed the name as well as the art
from i
486
See Com-
pojitisn.
M U
from Egypt. If tne art of rnufic be fo natural to man
that vocal melody is pradtifed wherever articulate
founds are ufed, there can be little reafon for deducing
the idea of muiic from the whittling of winds through
the reeds that grew on the river Nile. And indeed,
when we refiedi with howr eafy a tranfition we may pafs
from the accents of fpeaking to diatonic founds ; when
we obferve how early children adapt the language of
their amufements to meafure and melody, however rude j
when we confider how early and univerfally thefe prac¬
tices take place—there is no avoiding the conclufion,
that the idea of mufic is connatural to man, and im¬
plied in the original principles of his conftitution. We
have already faid, that the principles on which it is
founded, and the rules by which it is condudled, con-
ftitute a fcience. The fame maxims when applied to
pradlice form an art : hence its firft and raoft capital
divifion is 'into fjbeculative and prattical mufie.
Speculative mufic is, if wre may be permitted to ufe
the expreflion, the knowledge of the nature and ufe of
thofe materials which compofe it ; or, in other words,
of all the different relations between the high and low,
between the harfh and the fweet, between the fwift and
the flow, between the ftrong and the weak, of which
founds are fufceptible : relations which, comprehend¬
ing all the poflible combinations of mufio and founds,
feem likewife to comprehend all the caufes of the im-
preflions which their fucceffion can make upon the ear
and upon the foul.
PraBical mufic is the art of applying and reducing
to praftice thofe principles which refult from the theory
of agreeable founds, whether fimultaneous or fuccef-
five $ or, in other words, to conduft and arrange founds
according to the proportions refulting from confonance,
from duration and fucceflion, in fuch a manner as to
produce upon the ear the effedl which the compofer
intends. This is the art which we call cofapojition *.
With refpecl to the adlual produftion of founds by
voices or inftruments, which is called execution, this
department is merely mechanical and operative : which,
only prefuppofing the powers of founding the intervals
true, of exadlly proportioning their degrees of dura¬
tion, of elevating or depreflfmg founds according to
thofe gradations which are preicribed by the tone, and
to the value required by the time, demands no other
knowledge but a familiar acquaintance with the charac¬
ters ufed in mufic, and a habit of exprefling them with
promptitude and facility.
Speculative mufic is likewife divided into two depart¬
ments ; viz. the knowledge of the proportions of founds
or their intervals, and that of their relative durations 5
that is to fay, of meafure and of time.
The firft is wdiat among the ancients feems to have
been called harmonical mufic. It (hows in what the
nature of air or melody confifts ; and difcovers what
is confonant or difcordant, agreeable or difagreeable, in
the modulation. It difcovers, in a word, the effe&s
which founds produce on the ear by their nature, by
their force, and by their intervals ; wThich is equally
applicable to their confonance and their fucceflion.
The fecond has been called rhythmical, becaufe it
treats of founds with regard to their time and quantity.
It contains the explication of their continuance, of their
proportions, of their meafures, whether long or ftiort,
quick or flow, of the different modes of time and the
S I c.
parts into which they are divided, that to thefe the fuc-
ceflion of founds may be conformed.
PraBical mufic is likewife divided into two depart¬
ments, which correfpond to the two preceding.
I hat which anfwers to harmonical mufic, and which
the ancients called melopee, tbaches the rules for com¬
bining and varying the intervals, whether confonant or
diflbnant, in an agreeable and harmonious manner.
The fecond, which anfwers to the rhythmical mufie,
and which they called rhythmopee, contains the rules
for applying the different modes of time, for under-
ftanding the feet by which verfes were fcanned, and the
diverfities of meafure ; in a word, for the pra&ice of
the rhythmus.
Mufic is at prefent divided more {Imply into melody
and harmony ; for fince the introduction of harmony, the
proportion between the length and fhortnefs of founds,
or even that between the dittance of returning cadences,
are of lefs confequence amongft us. For it often hap¬
pens in modern languages, that the verfes affume their
meafures from the mufical air, and almoft entirely lofe
the fmall fhare of proportion and quantity which in
themfelves they poffefs.
By melody the fucceflions of found are regulated in
fuch a manner as to produce pleafing airs. See Me¬
lody.
Harmony confifts in uniting to each of the founds,
in a regular fucceflion, two or more different founds,
which fimultaneoufly ftriking the ear foothe it by their
concurrence. See Harmony.
Mufic, according to Roufleau, may be, and perhaps
likewife ought to be, divided into the physical and the
imitative. The firft is limited to the mere mechanifm of
founds, and reaches no farther than the external fenfes,
without carrying its impxeflions to the heart, and can
produce nothing but corporeal fenfations more or lefs
agreeable. Such is the mufic of fongs, of hymns, of
all the airs which only confift in combinations of melo¬
dious founds, and in general all mufic which is merely
harmonious.
It may, howrever, be queftioned, whether every found,
even to the mofl: fimple, is not either by nature or by
early and confirmed affociation, imitative. If we may
truft our owm feelings, there is no fuch thing in nature
as mufic wThich gives mechanical pleafure alone. For
if fo, it muft give fuch pleafure as we receive from
taftes, from odours, or from other grateful titillations j
but we abfolutely deny that there are any mufical fen¬
fations or pleafures in the fmalleft degree analogous to
thefe. Let any piece of mufic be refolved into its ele¬
mentary parts and their proportions, it will then eafily
appear from this analyfis, that fenfe is no more than
the vehicle of fuch perceptions, and that mind alone
can be fufceptible of them. It may indeed happen,
from the number of the performers and the complica¬
tion of the harmony, that meaning and fentiment may
be loft in the multiplicity of founds; but this, though
it may be harmony, lofes the name of mufic.
The fecond department of this divifion, by lively and
accentuated inflexions, and by founds which may be
faid to fpeak, exprefles all the paffions, paints every
poflible pidlure, refleXs every objeX, fubjeXs the
whole of nature to its ikilful imitations, and imprefles
even on the heart and foul of man fentiments proper to
affeX them in the moft fenfible manner. This, conti¬
nues
M U S
nues he, which is the genuine lyric and theatrical mu-
fic, was what gave double charms and energy to ancient
poetry *, this is what, in our days, we exert ouri'elves in
applying to the drama, and what our fingers execute
on the ftage. It is in this mufic alone, and not in har¬
monics or the refonance of nature, that we muft expedl:
to find accounts of thofe prodigious effe&s which it for¬
merly produced.
But, with M. Roufi'eau’s permiflion, all mufic which
is not in fome degree chara&erifed by thele pathetic
and imitative powers, deferves no better name than that
of a mufical jargon> and can only be effefluated by fuch
a complication and intricacy of harmony, as may con¬
found, but cannot entertain the audience. This cha-
rafter, therefore, ought to be added as elTential to the
definition of mufic ; and it muit 6e attributed to our
negleft of this alone, whilft our whole attention is be¬
llowed on harmony and execution, that the bell per¬
formances of our artiltS and compofers are heard with
lilflefs indifference and ofcitation, nor ever can conci¬
liate any admirers, but luch as are induced, by pedan¬
try and affeftation, to pretend what they do not feel.
Still may the curie of indifference and inattention pur-
fue and harrow up the fouls of every compofer or per¬
former, who pretends to regale our ears with this mu-
fical legerdemain, till the grin of fcorn, or the hifs of
infamy, teach them to correft this depravity of taftey
and entertain us with the voice of nature ! '
Whilft moral effefts are fought in the natural effefts
of found alone, the fcrutiny will be vain, and difputes
will be maintained without being underftood : but
founds, as reprefentatives of objefts, whether by nature
or affociation, introduce new fcenes to the fancy and
new feelings to the heart; not from their mechanical
powers, but from the conneftion eftablifhed by the Au¬
thor of our frame between founds and the objeft which
either by natural refemblance or unavoidable affociation
they are made to reprefent.
It would feem that mufic was one of thofe arts
which were firft difeovered : and that vocal was prior
to inftrumental mufic, if in the earlieft ages there
was any mufic which could be faid to be purely inftru¬
mental. For it is more than probable, that mufic was
originally formed to be the vehicle of poetry j and of
confequence, though the voice might be fupported and
accompanied by inftruments, yet mufic was never in¬
tended for inftruments alone.
We are told by ancient authors, that all the laws,
whether human or divine, exhortations to virtue, the
knowledge of the charafters and aftions of gods and
heroes, the lives, and atchievements of illuftrious men,
were written in verfe, and fung publicly by a quire to
the found of inftruments j and it appears from the
Soriptures, that fuch from the earlieft times was the
cuftom among the Ifraelites. Nor was it poftible to
find means more efficacious for impreffing on the mind
of man the principles of morals, and infpiring the
love of virtue. Perhaps, however, this was not the re-
fult of a premeditated plan ; but infpired by fublime
fentiments and elevation of thought, which in accents
that were fuited and proportioned to their celeftial na¬
ture endeavoured to find a language worthy of them-
felves and expreffive of their grandeur.
It merits attention, that the ancients were duly fen-
ftble of the value and importance of this divine art,
I c.
not only as a fymbol of that univerfal order and fym-
metry which prevails through the whole frame of ma¬
terial and intelligent nature, but as produftive of the
moft momentous effefts both in moral and political
life. Plato and Ariftotle, .who difagreed almoft in
every other maxim of politics, are unanimous in their
approbation of mufic, as an efficacious inftrument in
the formation of the public charafter and in conduft-
ing the ftate } and it was the general opinion, tuat
whilft the gymnaftic exercifes rendered the conftitution
robuft and hardy, mufic humanifed the charafter, and
foftened thofe habits of roughnefs and ferocity by
which men might otherwife have degenerated into la¬
vages. The gradations by which voices were exerted
and tuned, by which the invention of one inftrument
fucceeded to another, or by which the principles of
mufic w7ere collefted and methodifed in fuch a manner
as to give it the form of an art and the dignity of a
fcience, are topics fo fruitful of conjefture and fo void
of certainty, that we muft leave them to employ minds
more fpeculative and inventions more prolific than
ours, or transfer them to the Uifiory of Mufic as a more
proper place for fuch difquifitions. For the amule-
ment of the curious, Rouffeau in his Mujical Dictionary^
Plates C and N, has tranferibed fome fragments of
Grecian, Perfian, American, Chinefe, and Swifs muficy
with wffiich performers may entertain themfelves at
leifure.- When they have tried the pieces, it is imagin¬
ed they will be lefs fanguinely fond than that author of
aferibing the power of mufic to its affinity with the na¬
tional accents where it is compofed. fthis may doubt-
lefs have its influence ; but there are other caufes more
permanent and lefs arbitrary to which it owes its moft
powerful and univerfal charms.
The mufic now moft generally celebrated and prac-
tifed is that of the Italians, or their fuccefsful imita¬
tors. The Engliffi, from the invafion of the Saxons,
to that more late though lucid era in which they im¬
bibed the art and copied the manner of the Italians,
had a mufic which neither pleafed the foul nor charm¬
ed the ear. The primitive mufic of the French de¬
ferves no higher panegyric. Of all the barbarous na¬
tions, the Scots and Iriffi feem to have poffeffed the
moft affefting original mufic. The firft confifts of a
melody charafterifed by tendernefs : It melts the foul
to a pleafing penfive languor. The other is the na¬
tive expreffion of grief and melancholy. Taffoni in¬
forms us, that in his time a prince from Scotland had
imported into Italy a lamentable kind of mufic from
his own country ; and that he himfelf had compofed
pieces in the fame fpirit. From this expreffive though
laconic defeription, we learn, that the charafter of our
national mufic was even then eftablithed j yet fo grofs
is our ignorance and credulity, that wre aferibe the
beft and moft impaffioned airs which are. extant among
us to David Rizzio 3 as if an Italian lutanift, who
had lived fo ftiort a time in Scotland, could at once, as
it rvere by infpiration, have imbibed a fpirit and com¬
pofed in a manner fo different from his own. It is
yet more furprifing that Geminiani fhould have enter¬
tained and publiffied the fame prejudice, upon the mi-
ferable authority of popular tradition alone 3 for the
faft is authenticated by no better credentials. The pri¬
mitive mufic of the Scots may be divided into the mar¬
tial) the paf. oral) and the fefiive. T he firfi confifts.
either
483
r
M U S
either in marches, which were played before the chief¬
tains, in imitation of the battles which they fought,
or in lamentations for the cataftrophes of war and the
extinflion of families. Thefe wild effufions of natural
melody preferve feveral of the rules preferibed for cora-
pofition. The {trains, though rude and untutored, are
frequently terrible or mournful in a very high degree.
The port or march is fometimes in common, fometimes
in treble time ; regular in its meafures, and exafl in
the diftance between its returning cadences 5 molt fre¬
quently, though not always, loud and brilk. The pi¬
broch, or imitation of battles, is wild, and abrupt in
its tranfitions from interval to interval and from key to
key $ various and defultory in its movements j fre¬
quently irregular in the return of its cadences ; and
in (hort, through the whole, feems infpired with fuch
fury and enthuliafm, that the hearer is irreliftibly in-
fefted with all the rage of precipitate courage, not-
withftanding the rudenefs of the accents by which it is
kindled. To this the pajloral forms a Unking contrail.
Its accents are plaintive, yet foothing j its harmony
generally flat j its modulations natural and agreeable}
its rhytbmus Ample and regular; its returning caden¬
ces at equal d.illance \ its tranfitions from one concin-
nous interval to another, at leaft for the moll part $
its movements flow, and may be either in common or
treble time. It fcarcely admits of any other harmony
than that of a Ample bafs. A greater number of parts
would cover the air and dellroy the melody. To this
we lhall add what has been faid upon the fame fub-
je£l by Dr Franklin. Writing to Lord K ,
he proceeds thus:
0 Give me leave, on this occafion, to extend a little
the fenfe of your pofition, ‘ That melody and harmony
are feparately agreeable, and in union delightful
and to give it as my opinion, that the reafon why the
Scotch tunes have lived fo long, and will probably live
for ever (if they efcape being llifled in modern affe6l-
ed ornament), is merely this, that they are really com-
pofitions of melody and harmony united, or rather
that their melody is harmony. I mean, the Ample
tunes fung by a Angle voice. As this will appear pa¬
radoxical, I muft explain my meaning. In common
acceptation, indeed, only an agreeable fucce(fion of
founds is called melody; and only the coexijlence of
agreeable founds, harmony. But fince the memory is
capable of retaining for feme moments a perfeft idea
of the pitch of a pall found, fo as to compare it with
the pitch of a fucceeding found, and judge truly of
their agreement or difagreement, there may and does
ariie from thence a fenfe of a harmony between the pre-
fent and pall founds, equally pleafing with that be¬
tween twro prefent founds. Now the conllrufticn of
the old Scotch tunes is this, that almoft every fuc¬
ceeding emphatical note is a third, a fifth, an oflave,
or in Ihort fome note that is in concord with the pre¬
ceding note. Thirds are chiefly ufed, which are very
pleafing concords. I ufe the word emphatical, to di-
fiinguifh thofe notes which have a llrefs laid on them
in finging the tune, from the lighter connefling notes
that ferve merely, like grammar-articles in common
fpeech, to tack the whole together.
“ That wTe have a molt perfeft idea of a found juft
pall, I might appeal to all acquainted with mufic, who
know how eafy it is to repeat a found in the fame
4
I c.
pitch with one juft heard. In tuning an inftrument, a
good ear can as ealily determine that two firings are
in unifon by founding them feparately, as by founding
them together 5 their difagreement is alfo as eafily, I
believe I may fay more eafily and better dillinguilhed
when founded feparately 5 for when founded together,
thoughjyou know by the beating that one is higher
than the other, you cannot tell which it is. I have
aferibed to memory the ability of comparing the pitch
of a prefent tone with that of one pall. But if there
ftiould be, as poftibly there may be, fomething in the
ear fimilar to what we find in the eye, that ability
would not be entirely owing to memory. Poffibly the
vibrations given to the auditory nerves by a particular
found may aflually continue for fome time after the
caufe of thefe vibrations is pall, and the agreement or
difagreement of a fubfequent found become by compari-
fon with them more difcernible. For the impreflion
made on the vifual nerves by aluminous objedt will con¬
tinue for 20 or 30 feconds.”
4 After fome experiments to prove the permanency of
vifible impreflions, he continues thus :
“ Farther, when we conlider by whom thefe ancient
tunes were compofed, and how they wrere firll per¬
formed, we fhall fee that fuch harmonical fucceflion
of founds was natural and even neceflary in their con-
ftrudlion. They were compofed by the minftrels of
thofe days, to be played on the harp accompanied by
the voice. The harp was llrung with wire, which
gives a found of long continuance 5 and had no con¬
trivance like that of the modern harpfichord, by
which the found of the preceding note can be llopt
the moment a fucceeding note begins. To avoid
adlual difeord, it was therefore neceffary that the fuc¬
ceeding emphatic note Ihould be a chord with the pre¬
ceding, as their founds muft exift at the fame time.
Hence arofe that beauty in thofe tunes that has fo
long pleafed, and will pleafe for ever, though men
fcarce know why. That they were originally com¬
pofed for the harp, and of the moll Ample kind, I
mean a harp without any half-notes but thofe in the
natural fcale, and with no more than two odlaves of
firings, from C to C, I conjefture from another cir-
cumltance 5 which is, that not one of thele tunes really
ancient, has a Angle artificial half-note in it •, and that
in tunes where it is moil convenient for the voice to ufe
the middle notes of the harp, and place the key in F,
there the B, which if ufed fhould be a B flat, is al¬
ways omitted, by palling over it with a third. The
connoiffeurs in modern mufic will fay I have no tafte :
but I cannot help adding, that I believe our anceftors,
in having a good fong, diftindtly articulated, lung to
one of thofe tunes, and accompanied by the harp, felt
more real pleafure than is communicated by the gene¬
rality of modern operas, exclufive of that arifing from
the feenery and dancing. Moll tunes of late compo-
fition, not having this natural harmony united with
their melody, have recourfe to the artificial harmony
of a bafs, and other accompanying parts. This fup-
port, in my opinion, the old tunes do not need, and
are rather confufed than aided by it. Whoever has
heard yames Ofveald play them on his violinceilo, will
be lefs inclined to difpute this with me. I have more
than once feen tears of pleafure in the eyes of his
auditors: and yet I think, even his playing thofe tunes
would
>
1
489
Hiftory. M U
would pleafe more If he gave them lefs modern orna¬
ment.”
As thefe obfervations are for the mod part true, and
always Ingenious, we need no other apology for quot¬
ing them at length. It is only proper to remark, that
the tranfition in Scots mufic by confonant intervals,
does not fcem, as Dr Franklin imagines, to arife from
the nature of the inftruments upon which they played.
It is more than probable, that the ancient Britiih harp
was not ftrung with wire, but with the fame materials
as the Webb harps at prefent. Thefe firings have not
the fame permanency of tone as metal ; fo that the
found of a preceding emphatic 'note muff have expired
before the fubfequent accented note could be introdu¬
ced. Befides, they who are acquainted with the ma¬
noeuvre of the Irifh harp, know wTell that there is a
method of difcontinuing founds no lefs eafy and effec¬
tual than upon the harpfichord. When the performer
SIC.
finds it proper to interrupt a note, he has no more to do
but return his finger gently upon the firing immediately
(truck, which effectually flops its vibration.
That fpecies of Scots mufic which we have diftin-
guifhed by the name feems now7 limited to reels
and country-dances. Thefe may be either in common
or treble time. They moft frequently confifl of two
ftrains : each of thefe contains eight or twelve bars.
They are truly rhythmical •, but the mirth which they
excite feems rather t© be infpired by the vivacity of the
movement, than either by the force or variety of the
melody. They poflefs a manoeuvre and expreffion pecu¬
liar to themfelves, which it is impoflible to defcribe, and
which can only be exhibited by good performers,.
Having thus far purfued the general idea of mufic,
we fhall, after the hiftory, give a more particular detail
of the fcience.
HISTORY of MUSIC.
No accu-' MUSIC is capable of fo infinite a variety, fo greatly
rate ac- does the moft fimple differ from the moft complex, and
the'ftaufof mu^P^"le^ are t^e degrees between thefe two ex-
mufic in tremes, that in no age could the incidents refpeCting
the earlier that fafcinating art have been few or unintereff ing.
ages of the But, that accounts of thefe incidents fhould have been
world. handed dowm to us, fcanty and imperfqft, is no matter
of furprife, when w7e recollect that the hiftory of mufic
is the hiftory only of founds, of which writing is a very
inadequate medium j and that men would long employ
themfelves in the pleafing exercife of cultivating' mufic
before they poffefied either the ability or the inclination
to record their exertions.
No accurate traces, therefore, of the aflual ftate of
mufic, in the earlier ages of the world, can be difcern-
ed. Our ideas on the fubjedt have no foundation firm¬
er than conjedlure and analogy.
It is probable, that among all barbarous nations
fome degree of fimilarity is difcernible in the ftyle of
their mufic. Neither will much difference appear du¬
ring the firft dawnings of civilization. But in the
more advanced periods of fociety, wffien the powxrs
of the human mind are permitted without obftacle to
exert their native adlivity and tendency to invention,
and are at the fame time affedted by the infinite variety
of circumftances and fituations wdiich before had no ex-
iffence, and wdiich in one cafe accelerate, and in ano¬
ther retard ; then that fimilarity, once fo diftinguifhable,
gives place to the endlefs diverfity of which the fubjedt
is capable.
Mufic not Pra(ffice of mufic being univerfal in all ages and
the inven- all nations, it w7ould be abfurd to attribute the invention
tion of asy 0f the art to any one man. It muff have fuffere'd a re-
®ne man. gUlar progreflion, through infancy, childhood, and
youth, before it could arrive at maturity. The firft
attempts muff have been rude and artlefs. Perhaps the
firft flute was a reed of the lake.
No nation has been able to produce proofs of an¬
tiquity fb indifputable as the Egyptians. It wrould be
vain, therefore, to attempt tracing mufic higher than
Egyptian the hiftor-y of ^P^
mufic. By comparng the accounts of Diodorus Siculus
Vol. XIV. Part II.
and of Plato, there is reafon to fuppofe, that in very
ancient times the ftudy of mufic in Egypt w7as con¬
fined to the priefthood, w7ho ufed it only on religious
and folemn occafions j that, as w7ell as fculpture, it
was cxrcumfcribed by law7; that it was efteemed fa-
cred, and forbidden to be employed on light or com¬
mon occafions *, and that innovation in it was prohi¬
bited : But what the ffyle or relative excellence of
this very ancient mufic ’was, there are no traces by
w7hich w7e can form an accurate judgement. After the
reigns of the Pharaohs, the Egyptians fell by turns
under the dominion of the Ethiopians, the Perfians,
the Greeks, and the Romans. By fuch revolutions,
the manners and amufements of the people, as well as
their form of government, mUft have been changed.
In the age of the Ptolemies, the mufical games and
contefis inflituted by thofe monarchs were of Greek
origin, and the muficians who performed were chiefly
Greek.
The moft ancient monuments of human art and in-
duftry, at prefent extant at Rome, are the obelifks
brought thither from Egypt, tw7o of which are faid to
have been eredled by Sefoftris at Heliopolis, about 400
years before the fiege of Troy. Thefe were by the or¬
der of Auguftus brought to Rome after the conquefl
of Egypt. One of them called gt/gha rotta, or the
broken pillar, which during the facking of the city in
1527 was throwm dowm and broken, ftill lies in the
Campus Martius. On it is feen the figure of a mu¬
fical inftrument of tw7o firings, and w7ith a neck. It tian nuificaf
refembles much the calafcione ftill ufed in the kingdom
of Naples.
This curious relick of antiquity is mentioned, be-
caufe it affords better evidence than, on the fubjecl
of ancient mufic, is ufually to be met with, that the
Egyptians, at fo very early a period of their hiftory,
had advanced to a confiderable degree of excellence
in the cultivation of the arts. By means of its neck,
this inftrument w7as capable, with only two firings,
of producing a great • number of notes. Thefe two
firings, if tuned fourths to each other, would furnifh
that feries of founds called by the ancients heptachord,
3 Q. which.
49°
M U S I C.
The Egyp¬
tian Her¬
mes the in¬
ventor of
the 1 vre.
The (ingle
fiute of the
Egyptians.
which confifts of a conjunfl tetrachord as B, C, D,
E ; E, F, G, A ; if tuned fifths, they would pro¬
duce an o(Slave, or two disjunft tetrachords. J he
calafcionc is tuned in this lail manner. 1 he annals
cf no nation other than Egypt, for many ages after
the period of the obelilk at Heliopolis, exhibit the
veflige of any contrivance to (horten firings during
performance by a neck or finger board. Father Mont-
faucon obferves, that after examining $oo ancient lyres,
harps, and citharas, he could difeover no fuch thing.
Egypt indeed feems to have been the fource of hu¬
man intelligence, and the favourite refidence of genius
and invention. From that celebrated country did the
Greeks derive their knowledge of the firft elements of
thofe arts and fciences in which they afterwards fo emi¬
nently excelled. Irom Greece again did the Romans
borrow their attainments in the fame purfuits. And
from the records of thofe different nations have the
moderns been enabled to accomplifli lo wonderful an
improvement in literature.
The Hermes or Mercury of the Egyptians, firnamed
Trifmegijhis, or thrice illujlrious, who was, according
to Sir ifaac Newton, the fecretary of Ofiris, is cele¬
brated as the inventor of mufic. It has already been
obferved, that no one perfon ought ilri&ly to be call¬
ed the inventor of an art which Items to be natural to,
and coeval with, the human fpecies ; but the Egyptian
Mercury is without doubt entitled to the praife of ha¬
ving made ftriking improvements in mufic, as well as
of having advanced in various refpedls the civilization
of the people, whofe government was chiefly committed
to his charge. The account given by Apollodorus of
the manner in which he accidentally invented the lyre,
is at once entertaining and probable. “ The Nile
(fays Apollodorus), after having overflowed the whole
country of Egypt, when it returned within its natural
bounds, left on tbe ftiore a great number of dead ani¬
mals of various kinds, and among the reft a tortoife ;
the flefli of which being dried and wafted by the fun,
nothing remained within the (hell but nerves and car¬
tilages, and thefe being braced and contra fled by the
drying heat became fonorous. Mercury, walking along
the banks of the Nile, happened to ftrike his foot a-
gainft this ftiell j and was fo pleafed with the found pro¬
duced, that the idea of a lyre ftarted into his imagina¬
tion. He conftrufted the inftrument in the form of a
tortoife, and lining it with the dried finews of dead
animal;.”
Flow beautiful to conceive the energetic powers of
the human mind in the early ages of the world, ex¬
ploring the yet undifeovered capabilities of nature, and
direfled to the inexhauftible ftore by the finger of God
in the form of accident !
The monaulos, or fingle flute, called by the Egyp¬
tians photinx, was probably one of the moft ancient
inftrumer.ts ufed either by them or any other nation.
From various remains of ancient fculpture, it appears
to have been flraped like a bull’s horn, and was at firft,
it may be fuppofed, no other than the horn itfelf.—
Before the invention of flutes, as no other inftrument
except thofe of percuffion were known, mufic muft
have been little more than metrical. When the art of
refining and lengthening founds was firft difeovered,
the power of mufic over mankind, from the agreeable
furprife occafioned by foft and extended notes, was
Hiftoiy.
probably irrefiftible. At a time when all the reft of
the world was involved in favage ignorance, the Egyp¬
tians were poffefled of mufical inftruments capable of
much variety and expreffion.—Of this the aftoniihing
remains of the city Thebes ftill fublifting afford ample
evidence. In a letter from Mr Bruce, ingroffed in Dr
Burney’s hiftory of Mufic, there is given a particular
defeription of the Theban harp, an inftrument of ex-^
tenfive compafs, and exquifite elegance of form. It is^anjiarp 0f
accompanied with a drawing taken from the ruins of an figjpt.
ancient fepulchre at Thebes, fnppofed by Mr Bruce to
be that of the father of Sefoftris.
On the fuhjeft of this harp, Mr Bruce makes the
following ftriking obfervation. “ It overturns all the
accounts of the earlieft (late of ancient mufic and in-
flruments in Egypt, and is altogether, in its form, or¬
naments, and compafs, an inconteftable proof, ftronger
than a thoufand Greek quotations, that geometry,
drawing, mechanics, and mufic, were at the greateft
perfetfion when this harp was made ; and that what
we think in Egypt was the invention of arts was only
the beginning of the aera of their reftoration.”
Indeed, when the beauty and powers of this harp,
along with the very great antiquity of the painting
which reprefents it, are confidered, fuch an opinion as
that which Mr Bruce hints at, does not feem to be de¬
void of probability.
It cannot be doubted that during the reigns of the
Ptolemies, who were voluptuous princes, mufic muft:
have been much cultivated and encouraged. T he fa¬
ther of Cleopatra, who was the laid of that race of
kings, derived his title of auletes, or flute player, from
his exceflive attachment to the flute. Like Nero, he
ufed to array himfelt in the drefs of a tibicen, and exhi¬
bit his performance in the public mufical contefts.
Some authors, particularly Am. Marcellinus and M.
Pau, refufe to the Egyptians, at any period of their
hiftory, any mufical genius, or any excellence in the
art •, but the arguments ufed to fupport this opinion feexu
to be inconclufive, and the evidences of the oppofite de-
cifion appear to be inconteftable.
The facred Scriptures afford almoft the only mate- Hebrew
rials from which any knowledge of Hebrew mufic can mufie
be drawn. In the rapid iketch, therefore, of ancient
mufic which v.-e mean to exhibit, a very tew oblerva-
tions are all which can properly be given to that de¬
partment of our fubject.
Mofes, who led the Ifraeliles out of Egypt, was
educated by Pharaoh’s daughter in all the literature
and elegant arts cultivated in that country. It is pro¬
bable, therefore, that the tafte and ftyle of Egyptian
mufic would be infufed in fome degree into that of the
Hebrews. Mufic appears to have been interwoven
through the whole tiffue of religious ceremony in Pa-
leftine. The priefthood feem to have been muficians
hereditarily and by office. The prophets appear to
have accompanied their infp’red effufions with mufic ;
and every prophet, like the prefent improvifatori of
Italy, feems to have been accompanied by a mufical in¬
ftrument.
Mufic, vocal and inftrumental, conftituted a great
part of the funeral ceremonies of the Jews. I he pomp
and expence ufed on thefe occafions advanced by de¬
grees to an exceffive extent. The number of flute-
players in the proceffions amounted fometimes to ieveral
hundreds.
Hiftory. M U .£
hundreds, and the attendance of the guefts continued
* frequently for 30 days *.
hb. in. c. 9. 'jr[je Hebrew language abounds with confonants,
and has (b few vowels, that in the original alphabet
they had no charafters. It muft, therefore, have been
harth and unfavourable to muiic. Their inllruments
of rnufic were chiefly thofe of percuflion j fo that,
both on account of the language and the inflruments,
coarfe and tjle mujiC muft have been coarfe and noify. The vaft
numbers of performers too, whom it was the tatfe of
the Hebrews to colleft together, could with fuch a lan¬
guage and fuch inllruments produce nothing but cla¬
mour and jargon. According to Jolephus, there were
200,000 mulicians at the dedication of Solomon’s
temple. Such are the circumftances from which only
an idea of Hebrew mafic can be formed 5 for the Jews,
neither ancient nor modern, have ever had any charac¬
ters peculiar to mufic ; and the melodies ufed in their
religious ceremonies have at all times been entirely tra¬
ditional.
Grecian Cadmus, with the Phoenician colony which he led
mufic.j into Greece, imported at the fame time various arts
into that country. By the affiftance of his Phoenician
artificers, that chief difeovered gold in Thrace and
copper at Thebes. At Thebes that metal is {till term¬
ed cadmia. Of thefe materials, and of iron, they
formed to themfelves armour and inftrunaents of war.
Thefe they ilruck againft each other during their
dances at facrifices, by which they firft obtained the
idea of mufic. Such is the account given of the ori¬
gin of that fpecies of mufic in Greece produced by
inflruments of psreuflion. The invention of wind in¬
llruments in Greece is attributed to Minerva ; and to
the Grecian Mercury is afiigned, by the poets and
hiftorians of that country, the honour of many difeo-
veries probably due to the Egyptian Hermes, particu¬
larly the invention of feringed inllruments, The lyre
of the Egyptian Mercury had only three ftrings ; that
of the Grecian feven : The laft was perhaps no more
than an improvement on the other. When the Greeks
deified a prince or hero of their own country, they
ufually alhgned him an Egyptian name, and with the
name bellowed on their new divinity all the adlions,
attributes, and rites of the original.
The Grecian lyre, although faid to have been in¬
vented by Mercury, was cultivated principally by
Apollo, who firll played upon it with method, and
accompanied it with the voice. The celebrated con-
tell between him and Marfyas is mentioned by various
authors *, in which, by conjoining the voice with his
lyre (a combination never before attempted), his mufic
was declared fuperior to the flute of Marfyas. ihe
progrefs of the lyre, according to Diodorus Siculus,
Proffrefs of is the following. “ The mufes added to the Grecian
the Grecian lyre the firing called mefe; Linus that of lichanos $
and Orpheus and Thamyras thofe ftrings which are
named hypate and parhypate.” It has been already
mentioned, that the lyre invented by the Egyptian
Mercury had but three ftrings. By putting thefe cir-
; 1 c. 491
cumftances together, wc may perhaps acquire forac
knowledge of the progrefs of mufic, or at leaft of the
extenfion of its fcale in the highell antiquity. Mefe,
in the Greek mufic, is the fourth found of the fecond
tetrachord of the great fyftem, and firft tetrachord in¬
vented by the ancients, anfwering to our A, on the
fifth line in the bafe. If this found then was added to
the former three, it proves that the moft ancient te¬
trachord was that from E in the bafe to A j ana that
the three original ftrings in the Mercurian and Apol¬
lonian lyre were tuned E, F, G, which the Greeks call
hypate niefon, parhypate mejon, and mefon diatonos: Ihe
addition, therefore, of mefe to thefe, completed the firft
and moft ancient tetrachord E, F, G, A. rlhe firing
lichanos again being added to tbefe, and anfweving to
our D on the third line in the bafe, extended the com-
pafs downwards, and gave the ancient lyre a regular
feries of five founds. The two ftrings hypate and par¬
hypate, correfponding with our B and C in the bafe,
completed the heptachord or leven founds b, c, d, e, f,
g, a 5 a compafs which received no addition till after
the days of Pindar.
It might perhaps be expefled, that in a hiftory of
Greek mufic fomething ought to be faid concerning
the mufes, Apollo, Bacchus, and the other gods and
demi-gods, who in the mythology of that country ap-
pear to have promoted and improved the art. But
luch a difeuflion would be too diftutive, and involve too
much foreign matter for the plan we have chofen to
adopt. We cannot avoid, however, making a few
obfervations on the poems of Homer, in fo far as con-
nefted with our fubjefl. It has been imagined, with
much appearance of probability, that the occupation
of the firft poets and muficians of Greece refembled Occupation
that of the Celtic and German bards and the icalds °f the fiijt
of Iceland and Scandinavia. They fung their poems
in the ftreets of cities and m the palaces or princes. in Greece.
They were treated with high refpedl, and regarded as
infpired perfons. Such was the employment of Ho¬
mer. His poems, fo juftly celebrated, exhibit the
moft authentic picture that can be found in the annals
of antiquity, although perhaps fomewhat highly co¬
loured, of the times of which he wrote and in which
he lived. Mufic is always named throughout the Iliad •
and Odyfley with rapture } but as in thefe poems no
mention is made of inftrumental mufic unaccompanied
with poetry and finging, a confiderable fliare no doubt
of the poet’s praifes is to be attributed to the poetry.
The inflruments moft frequently named are the lyre,
the flute, and the fyrinx. The trumpet appears not
to have been known at the fiege of Troy, although
it had come to be in ufe in the days of Homer him-
felf. From the time of Homer till that of Sappho,
there is almoft a total blank in literature. Only a few
fragments remain of the works of thofe poets and mu¬
ficians whofe names are preferved as having flourifhed
between thofe periods (a). During the century which
elapfed between the days of Sappho and thofe of Ana¬
creon, no literary produdlions are preferved entire.—
3 £) 2 From
(a) Hefiod lived fo near to Homer, that it has been difputed which of them is the moft ancient. It is now,
we believe, univerfally admitted, that the palm of antiquity is due to Homer j but we confider them as having
both flouriihed in the fame era.
49 2
The inven¬
tion of mu-
firai eha-
iidters.
Vociferous
mafic of
the. Greeks.
M U
From Anacreon to Pindar there is another chafm of
near a century. Subfequent to this time, the works
fiill extant of the three great tragic poets, iEfchylus,
Sophocles, and Euripides, together with thole of Plato,
Arhlotle, Ariiloxenus, Euclid, Theocritus, Callima¬
chus, Polybius, and many others, produced all within
a ipace lei’s than 300 years, diftinguilh this illuftrious
and uncommon period as that in which the whole
powers of genius feem to have been exerted to illumi¬
nate and inPirudl mankind in future ages. Then it
was that eloquence, poetry, miific, architedfure, hiitory,
painting, fculpture, like the fpontaneous bloiToms of na¬
ture, flourilhed without the appearance of labour or of
art.
The poets, as well epic as lyric and elegiac, were all
like wile muficians •, fo ftriclly connedled were mulic and
poetry for many ages. It would afford amufement
to colledt the biographical anecdotes of tbeie favourites
of genius, and to affign to each the refpedlive improve¬
ments made by him in muffc and poetry ; but our limits
clo not admit of fo extenfive a difquifrtion •, for which,
therefore, reference muff be made to the editors and
commentators of thefe authors, and to the voluminous
hiffories of mufic lately publifhed.
The invention of notation and mufical characters
marked a diffinguithed aera in the progrefs of mufic.
There are a diverfity of accounts relpedting the perfon
to whom the honour of that invention is due ; but the
evidences feem to preponderate in favour of Terpan-
der, a celebrated poet and mufician, to whofe genius
mufic is much indebted. He flourithed about the 27th
Olympiad, or 671 years before Chriff.
Before that valuable difeovery, mufic being entire¬
ly traditional, muff have depended much on the me¬
mory and taffe of the performer.
There is an incident mentioned in the accounts
handed down to us of the Olympic games, which may
ierve in fome degree to mark the character of mufic
at the time in which it happened. Lucian relates
that a young flute-player named Harmonides, at his
firft public appearance in thele games, began a lolo
with fo violent a blaft, on purpofe to Jurprife and ele¬
vate the audience, that he breathed his lajl breath im0
his flute, and died on the fpot. When to this anec¬
dote, w'onderful to us, and almoft incredible, is added
the circumftance, that the trumpet-players at thefe
public exhibitions exprelled an excefs of joy when they
found their exertions had neither rent their cheeks nor
burft their blood-veffels, fome idea may be formed
of the noify and vociferous llyle of mufic which then
pleafed ; and from fuch faiffs only can any opinion be
obtained of the actual Rate of ancient mufic.
In whatever wanner the flute was played on, there
is no doubt that it was long in Greece an infhument
of high favour, and that the flute-players were held
in much eftimation. The flute ufed by Ifmenias, a
celebrated Theban mufician, colt at Corinth three ta¬
lents, or 58 il. 5s. If, fays Xenophon, a bad flute-
player would pafs for a good one, he muft, like the
great flute-players, expend large fums on rich furniture,
and appear in public with a great retinue of fervanls.
S I C. Hiitory,
The ancients, it appears, were not lefs extravagant kxtrava-
in gratifying the miniffers of their pleafmes than our- gance °/
felves. Amoebaeus, a harper, was paid an Attic talent,
or 193I. 15s. per day for his performance (b). fpt(q tG
It is proper to add, that the celebrated muficians mufic.
of Greece who performed in public were of both fexes j
and that the beautiful Lamia, who wms taken captive
by Demetrius, in the fea engagement in which he van-
quilhed Ptolemy Soter, and who herfelf captivated her
conqueror, was a public performer, as wrell as were
many other elevated female fpirits, who are recorded
by ancient authors in terms of admiration, and of whom,
did our limits here admit of biography, w-e would treat
with pleafure. The philofophers of Greece, whofe capa¬
cious minds grafped every other objedt of human in¬
telligence, were not inattentive to the theory of mufic,
or the philofpphy of found. This department of fei-
ence became the fource of various fedts, and of much
diverfity of opinion.—The founders of the molt diliin-
guilhed fedts were Pythagoras and Ariffoxenus.
Like every other people, the Romans, from their Roman
firff origin as a nation, wrere poffeffed of a fpecies ofmu®e-
mufic which might be diffinguiihed as their own. It
appears to have been rude and coarfe, and probably
was a variation of the mufic in ufe among the Etruf-
cans and other tribes around them in Italy ; but as
foon as they began to open a communication with
Greece, from that country, with their arts and philo-
fophy, they borrowed alfo their mufic and mufical in-
flruments. No account, therefore, of Roman mufic
is to be expected that wTouli not be a repetition
of wLat has been faid on the fubjedt of the mufic of
Greece.
The exceflive vanity of Nero with refpedt to mufic, Vanity of
difpLyed in his public contentions for fuperiority with Nero with
the molt celebrated proteffors of the art in Greece10
and Rome, is known to every one converfant in the™111""
hiffory of Rome. The foliciiude with which that
deteliable tyrant attended to his voice is curious, and
will throw fome light on the pradtices of - fingers in
ancient times. He was in ufe to lie on his back, with
a thin plate of lead on his ftomach. He took frequent
emetics and cathartics, abftained from all kinds of
fruits and fuch meats as were held to be prejudicial to
finging. Apprehenfive of injuring, his voice, he at
length defifted from haranguing the foldiery and the
fenate and after his return from Greece eftabliffied
an officer (Phonafcus) to regulate his tones in fpeak-
ing.
Moff nations have confented in introducing muficSacPej
into their religious ceremonies. That art was early mufic
admitted into the rites of the Egyptians and Hebrews j
and that it conftituted a confiderable part of the Gre¬
cian and Roman [religious fervice, appears from the
writings of many ancient authors. The fame pleafing
art foon obtained an introdudtion into the Chriflian
church, as the Adis of the Apoftles difeover in many
paffages. There remain no fpecimens of the mufic
employed in the worlhip of the primitive Chriftians j
but probably it was at firft the fame, with that ufed in
the Pagan rites of the Greeks and Romans. The
pradlice
(b) Rofcius gained 500 fdkrtia, or 4036k 9s. 2d. fterling.
49S
Hiftory. M U
practice of chanting the pfalms was introduced into
the weOern churches by St Atnbrofe, about 350 years
after Chriit. In the year 600, the method of chant¬
ing was improved by St Gregory the Great. The
Ambrofian chant contained four modes. In the Gre¬
gorian the number was doubled. So early as the age
of Conftantine the Great, prior to either of the pe¬
riods laft mentioned, when the ChriRian religion firft
obtained the countenance of power, inftrumental mu-
fic came to be introduced into the fervice of the church,
introduced In England, according to Ihlhop Stillingfleet, mufic
into the was employed in the church fervice, firft by St Auguf-
•chur^h! 5;‘ne, anc^ afterwards much improved by St Dunftan,
1U'e who was himfelf an eminent mufician, and who is faid
to have firft furnilhed the Engliih churches and con¬
vents with the organ. 1 he organ, the moft majeftic
of all inftruments, feems to have been an improvement
of the hydraulican or water organ of the Greeks.—
The firft” organ feen in France was fent from Conftan-
tinople in 757, as a prefent to King Pepin from the
emperor Conftantine Copronymus VI. In Italy, Ger¬
many, and England, that inftrument became frequent
during the 10th century.
During the dark ages no work of genius or tafte in
any department of Icience feems to have been produ¬
ced in any part of Europe \ and except in Italy,
where the cultivation of mufic was rather more the
objedf of attention, that art was negledled equally with
all others. There has always been obferved a corre-
fpondence in every country between the progrefs of
mufic and the cultivation of other arts and fciences.
In the middle ages, therefore, when the moft fertile
provinces of Europe were occupied by the Goths,
Huns, Vandals, and other barbarous tribes, whole
language was as harfti as their manners were favage,
little perfedlion and no improvement of mufic is to
be looked for. Literature, arts, and refinements,
The great were encouraged more early at the courts of the Ro-
improve- man pontiffs than in any other country ; and owing to
ments in that circumftance it is, that the fcale, tne counter-
mufic had p0;nt) t}ie beq melodies, the dramas religious and fe-
their origin cuiar, ^ cl-ief graces and elegancies of modern mu¬
fic, have derived their origin from Italy. In modern
times, Italy has been to the reft of Europe what an¬
cient Greece was to Rome. The Italians have aided
the civilization of their conquerors, and enlightened
the minds of thofe whofe fuperior prowefs had enflaved
them.
Having mentioned counterpoint, it would be im¬
proper not to make one or two obfervations on an in¬
vention which is fuppofed to have been the fource of
great innovation in the pracfice of mufic. Counter¬
point, or mufic in parts, leems to be an invention
purely modern. The term harmony meant in the
language of antiquity what is now underitood by me¬
lody. Guido, a monk of Arezzo in Tufcany, is, in
Counter- ^ genera] opinion, fuppofed to have entertained the
firft idea of counterpoint about the year 1022 : an art
wdiicb, fince his time, has experienced gradual and im¬
perceptible improvements, far exceeding the. powers
or comprehenfion of any one individual. The term
counterpoint, or contra punftutn, denotes its own ety¬
mology and import. Mufical notation was at one time
performed by fmall points j and the prefent mode is
point-
S I c.
only an improvement of that praftice. Counterpoint,
therefore, denotes the notation of harmony or mufic
in parts, by points oppofite to each other. The im¬
provements of this important acquifition to the art of
mufic kept pace at firft with thofe of the organ •, an in¬
ftrument admirably adapted to harmony : And both
the one and the other were till the 13th century em¬
ployed chiefly in facred mufic. It was at this period
that facred mufic began to be cultivated.
Before the invention of characters for time, mufic
in parts mult have confifled entirely of fimplc counter¬
point, or note againft note, ss is ftill praClifed in pfal-
mody. But the happy difcovery of a time-table ex¬
tended infinitely the powers of combined founds. The
ancients had no other resource to denote time and
movement in mufic except two charadters (—
equivalent to a long and a fhort fyllable. But time
is of fuch importance in mufic, that it can impart
meaning and energy to the repetition of the fame
found. Without it variety of tones has no effedl with
refpect to gravity and acutenefs. The invention of fhe ;Kren-
the time-table is attributed by almoft all the writers tion of the
on mufic of the laft and prefent century to John de t'me"tab^e*
Muris, who floumhed about the year 1330. But in
a manufcript of John de Muris himfelf, bequeathed
to the Vatican library by the Queen of Sweden, that
honour feems to be yielded to Magifter Franco, who
appears to have been alive as late at leaft as 1083.
John de Muris, however, who there is iome caule to
believe was an Englilhman, though not the inventor
of the cantus menfurabilis, did certainly by his nume¬
rous writings greatly improve it. His trad! on the
Jlrt of Counterpoint is the moft clear and ufeful efl'ay
on the fubjedt of which thofe times can boaft.
In the nth century, during the firft crufade, Eu¬
rope began to emerge from the barbarous ftupidity
and ignorance which had long overwhelmed it. While
its inhabitants were exercifing in Afia every fpecies of
rapine and pious cruelty, art, ingenuity, and reafon,
infenfibly civilized and foftened their minds. Then it
was that the poets and ibngfters, known by the name
of Troubadours, who firft appeared in Provence, inftitu-Troubau.
ted a new profeflion ; which obtained the patronage clours..
of the count of Poidtou, and many other princes and
barons, who had themfclves cultivated muiic and po¬
etry with fuccefs. At the courts of their munificent
patrons the troubadours were treated with refpedl.
The ladies, whafe charms they celebrated, gave them
the moft generous and flattering reception. The fuc¬
cefs of Tome infpired others with hopes, and excited
exertions in the exercife of their art ; impelling them
towards perfedlion with a rapidity which the united
force alone of emulation and emolument could occa-
fion. Tbefe founders of modern verfification, con-
ftrudfing their fongs on plans of their own, claflical au¬
thority, either through ignorance or defign, was en¬
tirely difregarded. It does not appear, however, du¬
ring the cultivation and favour of Provencal literature,
that any one troubadour fo far outflrjpped the reft as
to become a model of imitation. The progrefs of tafle
muft ever be impeded by the ignorance and caprice of
thofe who cultivate aa art without fcience or prin¬
ciples.
During almcft two centuries after the arrangement:
off:
494
The harp
the favour¬
ite inftru-
ment of
the Trou¬
badours.
The viol
;or violin.
M U
of the fcale attributed to Guido* arid the invention of
the time-table afcribed to Franco, no remains of fecu-
lar munc can be difcovered, except thofe of the trou¬
badours or Provencal poets. In the fimp.le tunes of
thefe bards no time indeed is marked, and but little
variety of notation appears : It is not difficult, how¬
ever, to difcover in them the germs of the future me¬
lodies, as well as the poetry of France and Italy. Had
the poetry and mufic of the troubadours been treated
of in an agreeable manner by the writers who have cho-
fen that fubjedf, it would have been difcovered to be
worthy of attention *, the poetry, as interefting to li¬
terature ; the melody to which it was fung, as curious
to the mufical hillorian.
Almoft every fpecies of Italian poetry is derived
from the Provencals. Air, the moll captivating part
of fecular vocal mufic, feems to have had the fame ori¬
gin. The moll ancient drains that have been fpared
by time, are fuch as were fet to the fongs of the trouba¬
dours. The Provencal language began to be in favour
with poets about the end of the loth century. In the
12th it became the general vehicle, not only of poetry,
but of profe, to all who were ignorant of Latin. And
thefe were not the laity only. At this period violars,
or performers on the vielle or viol, juglars or flute-
players, tnvfars or players on other inllruments, and
comics or comedians, abounded all over Europe. This
fwarm of poet-muficians, who were formerly compre¬
hended in France under the general title of jongleurs,
travelled from province to pi-ovince, linging their verfes
at tire courts of princes. They were rewarded with
clothes, horfes, arms, and money. Jongleurs or mufi-
cians were employed often to fing the verfes of trouba¬
dours, who themfelves happened to be deficient in voice
or ignorant or mufic. The term troubadour, therefore,
implies poetry as well as mufic. The jongleurs, mene-
triers, ftrollers, or minftrels, were frequently muficians,
without any pretenfions to poetry. Thefe laft have
been common at all times j but the troubadour or bard
has difiinguiffied a particular profeffion, either in ancient
.or modern times, only during the early dawnings of li¬
terature.
In the 13th century the fongs were on various fub-
je£ts 5 moral, merry, amorous : and at that time me¬
lody feems to have been little more than plain fong or
chanting. The notes were fquare, and written on
four lines only like thofe of the Romiffi church in the
cliff C, and without any marks for time. The move¬
ment and embelliffiments of the air depended on the
abilities of the finger. Since that time, by the culti¬
vation of the voice modern mufic has been much ex¬
tended, for it was not till towards the end of St Lewis’s
reign that the fifth line began to be added to the
Have. The finger always accompanied himfelf with an
jnftrument in unifon.
As the lyre is the favourite infirument in Grecian
■ poetry, fo the harp held the fame place in the elfima-
tion of the poets who flouriffied in the period of which
we at prefent fpeak A poet of the 14th century,
Machau, wrote a poem on the fubieiff of the harp
alone ; in which he affigns to each of its 2? firings an
allegorical name 5 calling one liberality, another wealth,
&c.
The infirument which frequently accompanied, and
indeed difputed the pre-eminenc'e with the harp, was
2
S I C. Hiftory.
the viol. Till the 16th century this infirument was
furniffied with frets j after that period it was reduced
to four firings : and ftill under the denomination of
violin holds the firft place among treble inftruments.
The viol was played with a bow, and differed entirely
from the vielle, the tones of which were produced by
the friction of a wheel : The wheel performed the part
of a bow.
Britiffi harpers were famous long before the con-
queft. The bounty of William of Normandy to his
joculator or bard is recorded in the Doomfday book.
The harp feems to have been the favourite inftrument
in Britain for many ages, under the Britilh, Saxon,
Danilh, and Norman kings. The fiddle, however, is
mentioned fo early as 1200 in the legendary life of
St Chriftopher. The ancient privileges of the min¬
ftrels at the fairs of Chefter are well known in the hi-
ftcry of England.
The extirpation of the bards of Wales by Edward I.
is likewife too familiar an incident to be particularly
mentioned here. His perfecuting fpirit, however, feems
to have been limited to that principality ; for we learn,
that at the ceremony of knighting his fon, a multitude
ofiminfirels attended.
In 1315, during the reign of Edward II. fuch ex-
tenfive privileges were claimed by the minftrels, and
fo many diffolute perfons affumed that chara&er, that
it became neceffary to reftrain them by exprefs laws.
The father of our genuine poetry, who in the 14th
century enlarged our vocabulary, poliffied our num¬
bers, and with acquifitisns from France and Italy aug¬
mented our ftore of knowledge (Chaucer), entitles one
of his poems The Hiftory of St Cecilia ; and the ce~gt cecu:a
lebrated patronefs of mufic muft no doubt be men¬
tioned in a hiftory of the art. Neither in Chau¬
cer, however, nor in any of the hiftories or legendary
accounts of this faint, does any thing appear to au¬
thorize the religious veneration paid to her by the vo¬
taries of mufic j nor is it eafy to difcover whence it has
arifen.
As an incident relative to the period of which we
fpeak, it may be mentioned, that, according to Spel-
mann, the appellation of Doblor was not among the de- Origin of’
grees granted to graduates in England fooner than thf degree
the reign of King John, about 1207; although, in E**
Wood’s hiftory of Oxford, that degree is faid to have
been conferred, even in mufic, in the reign of Hen¬
ry II. It is known that the title was created on the
continent in the 12th century j and as, during the
middle ages, .mufic was always ranked among the
feven liberal arts, it. is likely that the degree was ex¬
tended to it.
After the invention of printing, an art which has
tended to diffeminate knowledge with wonderful ra¬
pidity among mankind, rrufic, and particularly coun¬
terpoint, became an objeft of high importance. The
names of the moil eminent compofers who fiourifhed
in England, froir that time to the Refoimation, were,
Fairfax, Wiliiain of Newark, Sheryngham, Turges,
Banifter, Tudor, Taverner, Tye, Johnfon, Parfons j
to whom may be added John Marbeck, who fet the
whole Englifh cathedral fervice to muiic.
Before this period Scoitiffi rnufic had advanced toSeottifti
a high degree of perfection. James I. was a great muflc*
compofer of airs to his own verfes; and may be confi-
dered
Hiftory. M U !
dered as the father of that plaintive melody which in
Scotch tunes is fo pleaiing to a tarte not vitiated by
modern affedhation. Eefides the teftimony of Fordun
and Major, who may be fufpedfed of being under the
influence of national prejudice, we have that of Alef-
fandro Tefiani, to the muiical fidll of that accompliih-
ed prince. “ Among us moderns (fays this foreigner)
We may reckon James king of Scotland, who not only
compofed many facred pieces of vocal mafic, but alio
of himfelf invented a new kind of mufc, plaintive and
melancholy, different from ail others ; in -which he has
been imitated by Carlo Gelueldo prince of Venoia, who
in our age has improved muuc with new and admirable
inventions.”
Under fuch a genius in poetry and mufic as King
James I. it cannot be doubted that the national mufic
muif have been greatly improved. We have feen that
he compofed feveral anthems, or vocal pieces of fa¬
cred mufc, which (hows that his knowledge of the fei-
ence mulf have been very coniiderable. It is likewife
known, that organs were by him introduced into the
cathedrals and abbeys of Scotland, and choir-fervice
brought to fiich a degree of perfection, as to fall little
fhort of that edablilhed in any country of Europe.—
^ j, t By an able and ingenious antiquary f the great
ler's Dif- era mtdic, as of poetry, in Scotland, is fuppofed to
fertatio/i have been from the beginning of the reign of James I.
on the down to the end of the reign of James V. During
vW ^hat period flourilhed Gavin Douglas bifhop of Dun-
the Tranf. held, Ballenden archdeacon of Murray, Dunbar, Hen-
aftions of ryfon, Scott, Montgomery, Sir David Lindfey, and many
the Society others, whofe fine poems have been preferved in Ba-
ot Anticjua-natyne’s Collection, and of which feveral have been
laiid'' ^ UL publilhed by Allan R.amfay in his Evergreen.
Before the Reformation, as there was but one reli¬
gion, there was but one kind of facred mufic in Eu¬
rope, plain chant, and the defcant built upon it,—
That mufic likewife was applied to one language only,
the Latin. On that account, the compolitions of Italy,
France, Spain, Germany, Flanders, and England,
kept pace in a great degree with each other in ityle
and excellence. All the arts feem to have been the
companions, if not the produce, of fuccefsful commerce:
they appeared firft in Italy, then in the Hanfeatic
towns, next in the Netherlands; and during the 16th
century, when commerce became general, in every
part of Europe.
I*i ti c iC'h t^ie century mufic was an indifpenfable part
century °f polite education : All the princes of Europe were
rrufic an inftru&ed in that art. There is a colleflion preferved
ir.difpen- ]n manufeript called Queen Eli^abetDs Virginal Book.
cf educa *" ^ her majefty was able to execute any of the pieces in
ticc. book, ihe mulf have been a great player; a month’s
praftice would not be fufficient for any mailer now in
Europe to enable him to play one of them to the end.
Tallis, Angularly profound in mufical conipofition, and
Bird his admirable fcholar, were two of the authors of
this famous colleffion.
During the reign of Elizabeth, the genius and learn¬
ing of the Britifh muficians w*ere not inferior to any
on the continent; art obfervation fcarcely applicable at
any other period of the hiftory of this country. Sa¬
cred mufic was the principal object to ftudy all over
Europe.
The moft eminent mufical theorifts of Italy, who
i I C. 495
flourilhed in the 16th century, were, Franchinus Ga-Eminent
fierius, or Gaftbrio of Lode, Pietro Aaron of Flo-pu^jans
rence, Lodovico Fogliano, Giov. Spatro, Giov. Ma-
ria da Terentio Lanfranco, Steffano Uanneo, Anton, j^th‘cen-
Francifco Done, Luigi Dentice, Nicolo Vicentino,tury.
and GiofefFo Zarlino, the moft general, voluminous,
and celebrated theorift of that period, Vincentio Gali¬
lei, a Florentine nobleman, and father of the great Ga¬
lileo Galilei, Maria Artufe of Bologna, Orafeo Te-
grini, Pietro Pontio, and Lodovico Zacconi.
The principal Roman authors were, Giovanni An-
muccia, Giovanni Pierluigi da Paleftrma, juftly cele¬
brated, Ruggiero Giovanelli, Luca Marenzio, who
brought to perfection madrigals, the moft cheerful
fpecies of fecular mufic.
Of the Venetians, Adrian Willaeri is allowed to be
at the head.
At the head of the Neapolitans is defervedly placed
Rocco Rodio.
At Naples, too, the illuftrious dilettante, Don Carlo
Gefualdo prince of Venofa, is highly celebrated. Pie
feerns, however, to have owTed much of his fame to his
high rank.
Lombardy might alfo furnifli an ample lift of eminent
muficians during the 16th century, of whom, however,
our limits will not admit of a particular enumeration :—
The chief of them wrere, Ccnftanzo Porta, Gaftoldi,
Biffi, Cima, Vocchi, and Monteverde.
At Bologna, befides Artufi already mentioned, An¬
drea Rota of the fame city appears to have been an ad¬
mirable contrapunctift.
Francifco Corteccia, a celebrated organift and com-
pofer, and Aieffandro Strigglio, a lutanift and volu¬
minous compofer, were the moft eminent Florentines.
The inhabitants of the extenfive empire of Germany In Germa-
bave long made mufic a part of general education.— nI*
They hold the place, next to Italy, among the moft
fuccefsful cultivators of the art. During the i6th cen¬
tury, their moft eminent compofers of mufic and wri¬
ters on the fubjedt were, Geo. Reifchius, Michael Rof-
wick, Andreas * Ornithorparchus, Paul Hofhaimer,
Lufpeinius, Henry Loris or Lorit, Faber, Fink, Hol¬
man, and many others whom it would be tedious to
mention ; and for a particular account of whole trea-
tifes and compofitions we muft refer to more volumi¬
nous hiftories of mufic.
In France, during, the 16th century, no art except jn pj.ance>
the art of war made much progrefs in improvement.—
Ronfard, Baif, Goudimel, Claud le Jeune, Caurroy,
and Maudit, are the chief French muficians of that
period.
In Spain, mufic was early received into the circle of Spain.
fciences in the univerfities. The mulical profeflbrlhip
at Salamanca was founded and endowed by Alfonzo the
Wile, king of Caftile.
One of the moft celebrated of the Spanifh muficians
wTas Francis Salinas, who had been blind from his in¬
fancy. He was a native of Burgos.
D. Criftofero Morales, and Tomafo Lodovico da
Vittorio, deferve likewife to be mentioned ; and to
mention them is all we can attempt ; the purpofe of *
which is, to excite more minute inquiry by thofe who
may choofe to invelligate the fubjedb particularly.
The Netherlands, likewife, during the period of which The Ne-
we have been fpeaking, produced eminent compofers •, therlands.
of
40
Mufical
compofevs
in England
during the
17th cen¬
tury.
Mean ft ate
of the opera
in the be¬
ginning of
the 18 th
century.
State of
raufic ia
France in
the 17 th
dgntury.
M U
of whom we may mention Verletot, Gombert, Arka-
delt, Berchem, Richefort ®r Ricciafort, Crequilon Le
Cock or Le Coq, Canis, Jacob Clemens Non Papa,
Pierre Manchicourt, Bafton, Kerl, Rore, Orlandi di
Lafl’o, and his Tons Ferdinand and Rodolph.
In the 17th century, the mufical writers and com-
pofers who acquired fame in England, were, Dr Na¬
thanael Giles, Thomas Tomkins, and his fon of the
fame name ; Elway Bevin, Orlando Gibbons, Dr Wil¬
liam Child, Adrian Batten, Martin Pierfon, William
Lawes, Plenry Lawes, Dr John Wrilfon, John Hil¬
ton, John Playfovd, Captain Henry Cook, Pelham
Humphrey, John Blow, WTilliam Turner, Dr Chri-
flopher Gibbons, Benjamin Rogers, and Henry Pur¬
cell. Of thefe, Orlando Gibbons, Pelham Humphrey,
and Henry Purcell, far excelled the reft.
About the end of the reign of James I. a mufic-lec-
ture or profefforfhlp was founded in the univerfity of
Oxford by Dr William Hychin.
In the reign of Charles I. a charter was granted to
the muficians of Weftminfter, incorporating them, as
the king’s muficians, into a body politic, with powers
to profecute and fine all who, except themfelves,
fhould “ attempt to make any benefit or advantage of
mufic in England or Whies j” powers which in the
fubfequent reign were put in execution.
About the end of the reign of Charles II. a paf-
fion feems to have been excited in England for the
■violin, and fcr pieces exprefsly compofed for it, in
the Italian manner (b). Prior to 1600, there was
little other mufic except maffes and madrigals, the two
principal divifions of facred and fecular mufic j but from
that time to the prefent, dramatic mufic becomes the
chief obie£t of attention. The mufic of the church
and of the chamber continued indeed to be culti¬
vated in Italy with diligence, and in a learned and
•elaborate fiyle, till near the middle of the century j
yet a revolution in favour of melody and expreflion
was preparing, even in facred mufic, by the fuccefs
of dramatic compofition, confifting of recitation and
•melodies for a fingle voice. Such melodies began
now to be preferred to mufic of many parts ; in which
canons, fugues, and full harmony, had been the pro-
dudlions which chiefly employed the mailer’s ftudy
and the hearer’s attention.
So late as the beginning of the 18th century, ac¬
cording to Riccoboni, the performers in the operas
of Germany, particularly at Hamburg, “ were all
tradefmen or handicrafts. Your fhoemaker (fays he)
was often the firft performer on the ftage ; and you
might have bought fruit and fweetmeats of the fame
girls, whom the night before you had feen in the cha-
radlers of Armida or Semiramis. Soon, however, the
German opera arofe to a more refpedlable fituation •, and
even during the 17th century many eminent compofers
flourifhed in that country.
The lift of great muficians which France produced
during the early part of the fame century is not nu-
S I C. Hiftory.
merous. Mufic feems to have been but little culti¬
vated in that country, till the operas of Lulli, under
the powerful patronage of Louis XIV. excited public
attention.
The favourite finging-mafter and compofer of France,
about the middle of the 17th century, was Michael
Lambert. John Baptift Lulli, foon after this time,
rofeffrom the rank of a menial fervantto fame, opulence,
and nobility, by his fk 11 in mufical compofiticns. The
celebrated finger La Rochois was taught finging and \
afting by Lulli.
La Maupin the fucceffor of La Rochois, on ac-Curious
count of her extraordinary character and romantic ad-anecdotes
ventures, deferves to be mentioned. She eloped from a ^rcnc^
her hufhand wdth a fencing-mafter, of whom {he learnt in^e ‘
the fmall fword. She became an excellent fencer. At
Marfeilles fhe entertained a ftrange attachment to a young
lady, who was feized with a whimfical fondnefs in re¬
turn, on account of wftnch the latter was confined in a
convent. I^a Maupin obtained admiffion into the fame
convent as a novice. She fet fire to the building, and
in the confufion carried off her favourite. At Paris
when fire appeared on the ftage in 1695, Dumeni a
finger having affronted her, flie put on men’s clothes,
and infilled on his drawing his fword and fighting her.
When he refufed, fhe caned him, and took from him
his watch and fnuff-box as trophies of her vidlory. At
a ball given by Monfieur brother of Louis XIV. fhe
again put on men’s cloathes 5 and having behaved im¬
pertinently to a lady, three of the lady’s friends, fuppo-
fing La Maupin to be a man, called her out. She
killed them all; and returning coolly to the hall, told
the ftory to Monfieur, who obtained her pardon. She
became afterwards miftrefs to the eledlor of Bavaria.
This prince quitting her for the countefs of Arcos,
fent her by the count, hufhand of that lady, a purfe of
40,000 livres. She threw it at the count’s head, tell¬
ing him, it was a recompenfe worthy of fuch meannefs
as he difplayed. At laft, feized w-ith a fit of devotion,
file recalled her hufband, and fpent the remainder of
her life in piety. She died in 1707 at the age only of
34-
The Englifh mufician whom we laft mentioned was C{lief conj_
the celebrated Purcell. After his time the chief com-pofen for
pofers for the church were Clarke, Dr Holden, Dr the church
Creyghton, Tucker, Aldrich, Golwin, Weldon, Drln EnSlaIi(3,
Crofts, Dr Greene, Boyce, and Nares.; to whom may
be added John Stanley, who attained high proficiency
in mufic, although from two years old totally deprived
of fight.
The annals of modern mufic have hitherto furnifh-
ed no event fo important to the progrefs of the art as
the invention of recitative or dramatic melody ; a ftyle
of mufic which refembles the manner of the ancient
rhapfodills.
The Orfeo of Politian was the firft attempt at niu-Firfl. mufi_
fical drama. It was afterwards perfected by Metafta-Cal drama,
fio. No mufical dramas fimilar to thofe afterwards
known
(b) The moft celebrated violin players of Italy, from the 16th century to the prefent time, have been Fa¬
rina, M. Angelo Roffi, Baffani the violin-mafter of Corelli, the admirable Angelico Corelli himfelf, d oreiii,
Alberti, Albenoni, Teffarini, Vivaldi, Geminiani one of the moft diftinguifhed of Corelli’s fcholars, Tartini,
Veracini, Barbella, Locate!!:, Ferrari, Martini, Boccherini, and Giardini.
3
\
Hiftoiy.
M U
known by the names of opei'A and oratorio, had exift-
ence in Italy before the beginning of the 17th cen¬
tury. It was above the 1600, or a little before that
time, that eunuchs were firlt employed for finging in
Italy*
Firft fing- There feein to have been no Jinging eunuchs in an-
ing eu- cient times, unlefs the galli or archigalli, prielfs of
nuchs. Cybele, were fuclw Caflration has, however, at all
times been praftifed in eatfern countries, for the pur-
pofe of furniftiing to tyrannic jealoufy guards of fe¬
male chadity ; but never, fo far as modern writers on
the fubjeft have difcovered, merely to preferve the
voice, till about the end of the 16th century.
At Rome, the firft public theatre opened for the ex¬
hibition of mulical dramas, in modern times, was tl
Torre da Nona, where in 1671 Giafone was perform¬
ed. In 1679, the opera of Dou e Amore, fet by the
famous organift Bernardo Pafquini, wras reprefented
at Ni/la Sa/a de Signori Capranica ; a theatre which dill
fubfids. In the year 1680, VOneJla negl' Amore w&s
exhibited *, the fird dramatic compodtion of the ele¬
gant, profound, and original Aleflandro Scarlatti.
The inhabitants of Venice have cultivated and en¬
couraged the mudcal drama with more zeal and di¬
ligence than the red of Italy, during the end of the
lad and beginning of the prefent century •, yet the
opera was not edablidied in Venice before the year
1637. In that year the fird regular drama wras per¬
formed. It was Andromeda.
Opera of In 1680 the opera of Berenice was exhibited at
■Berenice. pa(]ua vvjth fuch adonithing fplendour as to merit
notice. There were chorufes of 100 virgins, 100
foldiers, 100 horfemen in iron armour, 40 cornets of
horfe, 6 trumpeters on horfeback, 6 drummers, 6 en-
figns, 6 fackbuts, 6 great dutes, 6 mindrels playing
on Turkifh indruments, 6 others on o&ave fiutes, 6
pages, 3 fergeants, 6 cymbalids. There w’ere l 2
huntfmen, 12 grooms, 6 coachmen for the triumph,
6 others for the procefiion, 2 lions led by two Turks, 2
elephants by two others, Berenice’s triumphal car drawn
by 4 horfes, 6 other cars with prifoners and fpoils
drawn by 12 horfes, 6 coaches. Among the fcenes
and reprefentations in the fird acl w^ere, a vad plain
with twm triumphal arches, another plain with pavilions
and tents, and a fored for the chafe. In a£t third,
the royal drefiing room completely fumifhed, dables
with 100 live horfes, portico adorned with tapeflry,
and a dupendous palace in perfpedtive. At the end
of the fird aft were reprefentations of every kind of
chafe, wild boar, dag, deer, bears. At the end of
the third aft, an enormous globe, defcending as from
the fky, divided itfelf into other globes fufpended in
the air, and ornamented wdth emblematical figures of
time, fame, honour, &c.
Early in the lad century, machinery and decoration
ufurped the importance due to poetry and mufic in fuch
exhibitions.
Few indances occur of mufical dramas at Naples
till the beginning of the prefent century. Before the
time of the elder Scarlatti, it feems as if Naples had
been lefs fertile in great contrapuntids, and lefs di¬
ligent in the cultivation of dramatic mufic, than any
other date of Italy. Since that time all the red of
Europe has been furnifhed with compofers and perfor¬
mers from that city.
VOL. XIV. Part II.
SIC. - 497
The word opera feems to have been familiar to French
Englilh poets from the beginning of the lad century
Stilo recitativo, a recent innovation even in Italy, islU '
mentioned by Ben Johnfon fo early as 1617. From
this time it was ufed in mafques, occafionally in plays,
and in cantatas, before a regular drama wholly let to
mufic was attempted. By the united abilities of Qui-
nault and Lulli, the opera in France had arifen to
high favour. This circumdance afforded encourage¬
ment to feveral attempts at dramatic? mufic in Eng¬
land by Sir William D’Avenant and others, before
the mufic, language, or performers of Italy were em¬
ployed on our dage. Pieces, dyled dramatic operas,
preceded the Italian opera on the dage of England.
Thefe were v/ritten in Englilh, and exhibited witn a
profufe decoration of fcenery and habits, and with
the bed fingers and dancers that could be procured :
Pfyche and Circe are entertainments of this kind :
The Temped and Macbeth were afted with the fame
accompaniments.
During the 17th century, whatever attempts w-ere
made in mufical drama, the language fuiig wTas al¬
ways Englilh. About the end of that century, how¬
ever, Italian finging began to be encouraged, and vocal
as well as indrumental muficians from that country be¬
gan to appear in London.
The fird mufical drama, performed wholly after
the Italian manner in recitative for the dialogue or
narrative parts, and meafured melody for the airs, was
Arfinoe Queen of Cyprus, trandated from an Italian
opera of the fame name, written by Stanzani of Bo¬
logna. The Englilh verfion of this opera was fet
to mufic by Thomas Clayton, one of the royal band,
in the reign of William and Mary. The fingers were
all EnglirtrJ Meffrs Hughes, Leveredge, add Cook j
Mrs Tofts, Mrs Crofs, and Mrs Lyndfey. The tranf-
lation of Arfinoe, and the mufic to which it is fet, are
execrable 5 yet fuch is the charm of novelty, that this
miferable performance, deferving neither the name of
a drama by its poetry, nor of an opera by its mufic,
fudained 24 reprefentations, and the fecond year 11.
Operas, notwithdanding their deficiencies in poetry,
mufic and performance (no foreign compoler or emi¬
nent finger having yet arrived), became fo formidable
to our aftors at the theatres, that it appears from the
Daily Courant, 14th January 1707, a lubfcription was
opened “ for the encouragement of the comedians act¬
ing in the Haymarket, and to enable them to keep
the diverfion of plays under a feparate intered -from
operas.”
Mr Addifon’s opera of Rofamond appeared about
this time $ but the mufic fet by Clayton is fo contemp¬
tible, that the merit of the poetry, however great,
could not of itfelf long fupport the piece. The choice
of fo mean a compofer as Clayton, and Mr Addifon’s
partiality to his abilities, betray a want of mufical tade
in that elegant author.
The fird truly great finger who appeared on the
dage of Britain was Cavalier Nicolino Grimaldi, com¬
monly known by the name of Nicolini. He was a
Neapolitan j and though a beautiful finger indeed,
was dill more eminent as an aftor. In the Tatler,
N° 115. the elegance and propriety of his aftion arcf-Seealfo
particularly defcribed f. Recently before his appear speElator,
ence, Palentini Urbani, and a female finger called The v°b i- N0
3 B- Baronefs,
498 ... M U
Baronefs, arrived. Margarita de I’Epini, who afterwards
married Dr Pepufch, had been in this country fome
time before.
The firft opera performed wholly in Italian, and by
Italian Jingcrs, was Almalnde. As at prefent, fo at
that time, operas were generally performed twice a
week.
Arrival of The year 1710 is diftinguilhed in the annals of mu-
Handel in ^ avr;val in Britain of George Frederick Han-
Eagiand. 7 Hanclei had been in the fervice of the ele&or of
Hanover, and came fir ft to England on a vifit of cu- .
riofity. The fame of this great mufician had pene¬
trated into this country before he himielf arrived in it ;
and Aaron Hill, then in the direftion of the Haymar-
ket theatre, inftantly applied to him to compofe an
opera. It was Rinaldo •, the admirable mufic of which
he produced entirely in a fortnight. Soon after this
period appeared, for the firft time as an opera finger,
the celebrated Mrs Anaftafia Robinfon. Mrs Robin-
fon, who was the daugher of a portrait painter, made
her firft public exhibitions in the concerts at York-
buildings ; and acquired fo much the public favour,
that her father was encouraged to take a home in Gol¬
den Square, for the purpofc of eftablilhing weekly
concerts and aflemblies, in the manner of Converfa-
%iom, which becanu? the refort of the moft polite audi¬
ences.
Soon after Mrs Robinfon accepted an engagement
at the Opera, wdiere her falary is faid to have been
1000I. and her other emoluments equal to that fum.
She quitted the ftage in confequence of her marriage
with the gallant earl of Peterborough, the friend of
Pope and Swift. The eminent virtues and accomplilh-
ments of this lady, who died at the age of 88, entitled
her to be mentioned even in a compend too fhort for
biography.
The conducing the opera having been found to be
more expenfive than profitable, it was entirely fufpend-
ed from 1717 till 17 20, when a fund of 50,000!. for
fupporting and carrying it on was fubfcnbed by the
Pro refs of perfonages of the kingdom. The fubfcribers, of
the^opera whom King George I. was one for 1000I. were for-
under bis med into a fociety, and named The Royal Academy
manage- ^ Mujtc. Handel was commiftioned to engage the
uient. performers: For that purpofe he went to Drefden,
where Italian operas were at that time performed in
the moft fplendid manner at the court of Auguftus
eleflor of Saxony, than king of Poland. Here Han¬
del engaged Senefino-Berenftadt, Bofchi, and the Du-
ranftanti.
In the J723, the celebrated Francefca Cuzzoni ap¬
peared as a firft-rate finger : and two years afterwards
arrived her diftinguiflied rival Signora Fauftina Bor-
doni.
In a cantabile air, though the notes Cuzzoni added
were few, ftie never loft an opportunity of enriching
the cantilena w'ith the moft beautiful embellifhments.
Her (hake was perfect. She noffeiTed a creative fancy ;
and (he enjoyed the power of occafionally accelerating
and retarding the meafure in the moft artificial and
able manner, by what is in Italy called tempo rubato.
Her high notes wrere unrivalled in clearnefs and fvveet-
nefs. Her intonations were fo juft and fo fixed, that
it feemed as if (he had not the power to ling cut of
tune.
SIC. Hiftory.
Fauftina Bordoni, wife of the celebrated^ Saxon
compofer HaiTe, invented a new kind of finging, by
running diviiions, with a neatnefs and volocity winch
aitonifhed all who heard her. By taking her breath
imperceptibly, (lie had the art of fuftaining a note ap¬
parently longer than any other finger. Her beats and
trills were ttrong and rapid } her intonation perfeci.
Her profefiional perfedions were enhanced by a beau¬
tiful face, fine fynimetry of figure, and a countenance
and gefture on the ftage which indicated an enliie intel¬
ligence and poffeffion of the feveral parts allotted to
her.
Thefe two angelic performers excited fo fignally the
attention of the public, that a party fpirit between the
abettors of the one and of the other wTas iormed, as vio¬
lent and as inveterate almoft as any of thofe that had
ever occurred relative to matters- either theological or
political j yet fo diftir.a were their ftyles of finging, fo
different their talents, that the praife of the one vvas no
reproach to the other.
In lefs than feven years, the whole 50,000!. fubicri*
bed by the Royal Academy, befides the produce of ad-
miffion to non-fubferibers, ivas expended, and the go¬
vernor and directors of the fociety relinquiftied the
idea of continuing their engagements j coniequently,
at the clofe of the feafon I727> t^ie whole band of
fingers difperfed. rl he next year we find Senefino, Fau¬
ftina, Balde, Cuzzoni, Nicolini, Farinelli, and Bofche,
at Venice.
Handel, however, at his own rifk, after a fufpen-
fion of about a twelvemonth, determined to recom¬
mence the Opera 5 and accordingly engaged a band of
performers entirely new. iheCe were Signior Bernac-
chi, Signora Merighi, Signora Strada, Signer Anibaie
Pio Fabri, his wife, Signora Bertoldi, and John Godi-
frid Reimlchneider.
The facred mufical drama, or oratorio, was invent-Invention
ed early in the 14th century. Every nation in Europe
feems firft to have had recourfe m religious fubjefts for hs in,tro_
dramatic exhibitions. The oratorios had been common duiftion in-
in Italy during the laft century. They had never been to England
publicly introduced in England, till Plandel, ftimulated
by the rivaHhip of other adventurers, exhibited in 1732
his oratorios of Either, and of Acis and Galatea, the
laft of which he had compofed twelve years before for
the duke of Chandos’s chapel at Cannons. T he. moft:
formidable oppofition which Handel met with in his
conduct of the Italian opera was a new theatre for
exhibiting thefe operas, opened by fubfeription in Lin-
coln’s-inn Fields, under tfie conduit of Nicola Porpora,
a refpe(liable compofer. A difference having occurred
between Handel and Senefino j Senefino had for (ome
time deferted the Haymavket, where Handel managed,
and was now engaged at the rival theatre of Lincoln s-
inn Fields. To fupply the place of Senefino, Handel
brought over Giovanni Carejlini, a finger of the moft
extenfive powers. His voice was at firft a power.ul
and clear foprano: Afterwards it changed into the
fulleft, fined, deepeft counter-tenor that has perhaps
ever been heard. Careftini’s perfon was tall, beautitul,
and majeftic. He rendered every thing he fung inte-
refting by energy, tafte, and judicious embellifnment.
In the execution of difficult divifions from the cheft,
his manner was articulate and admirable. It was tne
opinion of Haffe, as well as other eminent profeffors,
that
499
Hiftory
Opera in
England
given up.
Revived.
M U
that Whoever had not Heard Careflini, was unacquaint¬
ed with the mod perfect ftyle of tinging. The opera
under the direftion of Porpora was removed to the
Haymarket, which Handel had left. Handel occu¬
pied the theatre of Lincoln’s-inn Fields ; but his rivals
tiow acquired a vaft advantage of attraction, by the
accefiion of Carlo Brofchi detto Farinelli to their
part, who at this time arrived. This renowmed finger
feems to have tranfcended the limits of all ante¬
rior vocal excellence. No vocal performer of the pre-
fent century has been fo unanimouily allowed to poffels
an uncommon power, Iweetnefs, extent, and agility
of voice, as Farinelli. Nicolini, Senefino, and Ca-
reftini, gratified the eye as much by the dignity, grace,
and propriety of their a£lion and deportment, as the
ear, by the judicious ufe of a few notes within the li¬
mits of a fmall compafs of voice; but Farinelli, with¬
out the affiftance of fignificant gefiures or graceful at¬
titudes, enchanted and aitonilhed his hearers, by the
force, extent, and mellifluous tones of the mere organ,
when he had nothing to execute, articulate, or exprefs.
Though during the time of finging he was as molion-
lefs as a ftatue, his voice was fo aflive that no inter¬
vals were too clofe, too wide, or too rapid, for his exe¬
cution.
Handel having loft a great part of his fortune by the
opera, was under the neceflity of trying the public gra¬
titude in a benefit, which was not dilgraced by the event.
T1 re theatre, for the honour of the nation, was fo crowd¬
ed, that he is faid to have cleared 8ool.
After a fruitlefs attempt by Heidegger, the coad¬
jutor of Handel in the condudt of the opera, and pa¬
tentee of the King’s Theatre in Haymarket, to procure
a fubfcription for continuing it, it was found neceffary
to give up the undertaking.
It w'as about this time that the ftatue of Handel was
eredted in Vauxhall, at the expence of Mr Tyers, pro¬
prietor of thofe gardens.
The next year (1739) Handel carried on oratorios
at the Haymarket, as the opera there was fufpended.
The earl of Middlefex now undertook the troublefome
office of mprefario of the Italian opera. He engaged
the King’s theatre, with a band of fingers from the
continent almoft entirely new. Calluppi was his com-
pofer. Handel, almoft ruined, retired at this time to
Ireland, where he remained a confiderable time. In
1744 he again attempted oratorios at the King’s thea¬
tre, which was then, and till 1746, unoccupied by the
opera, on account of the rebellion.
The arrival of Giardini in London this year forms
a memorable aera in the hiftory of inftrumental mufic of
England. His powers on the violin w7ere unequalled.
The fame year Dr Croza, then manager of the opera,
eloped, leaving the performers, and innumerable trades
people, his creditors. This incident put an end to ope¬
ras of all kinds for fome time.
This year a comic opera, called 11 Tilofofo di Cam-
pagna, compofed by Caluppi, was exhibited, which
furpafled in mufical merit all the comic operas per¬
formed in England till the Bicona Tigliula. Signora
Paganini acquired fuch fame by the airs allotted to
her in that piece, that the crowds at her benefit were
beyond example. Caps were loft, gowns tom in pieces,
and ladies in full drefs, without fervants or carriages.
S I c.
were obliged to walk home, arnidft the meairnent of
the fpeiftators on the ftreets.
At this period the arrival of Giovanni Manzoli mark- an
ed a fplended era in the annals of mufical drama, by Janzolk
conferring on ferious opera a degree of importance to
which it had feldom yet arifen fince its eftablifhment in
England. Manzoli’s voice was the moft powerful and ‘
voluminous foprano that had been heard fince the time
of Farinelli : His manner of finging was grand, and
full of tafte and dignity.
At this time Tenducci, who had been in England Tenducci.
fome time before, and was now returned much im¬
proved, performed in the ftation of feccnd man to
Manzoli.
Gaetano Guadagni made a great figure at this time.
He had been in this country early in life (1748), as
ferious man in a burletta troop of fingers. H;s voice
was then a full and well-toned counter tenor j but he
fung wildly and carelefsly. The excellence of his voice,
however, attracted the notice of Handel, who aflign-
ed him the parts in his oratorios, the Mefliah and Sam-
fon, w'hich had been originally compofed for Mrs Cib¬
ber. He quitted London for the firil time about 1753*
The highelt expectations of his abilities were raifed by
fame before his fecond arrival, at the time of which
we treat. As an after he feems to have had no equal
on any ftage in Europe. His figure was uncommonly
elegant and noble*, his countenance replete with beau¬
ty, intelligence, and dignity*, his attitudes, were full
of grace and propriety. Thofe who remember his
voice when formerly in England were now difappoint-
ed : It was comparatively thin and feeble : He had now
changed it to a foprano, and extended its compafs from
fix or feven notes to fourteen or fifteen. '1 he mufic
he fung was the moft fimple imaginable ; a few notes
with frequent paufes, and opportunities of being libe¬
rated from the compofer and the band, were all he re¬
quired. In thefe effufions, feemingly extemporaneous,
he difplayed the native power of melody unaided by
harmony or even by unifonous accompaniment: The
pleafure he communicated proceeded principally from
his artful manner of diminifhing the tones of his voice,
like the dying notes of the ALolian harp. Moft other
fingers affeft a fwell, or mejfa de voce; but Guadagni,
after beginning a note with force, attenuated it fo deli¬
cately that it pofleffed all the effeft of extreme diftance.
During the feafon 1770 and 1771, Tenducci was the
immediate fucceffor of Guadagni. This performer,
who appeared in England firft only as a finger of the
fecond or third clafs, was during his refidence in Scot¬
land and Ireland fo much improved as to be well re¬
ceived as firft man, not only on the ftage of London,
but in all the great theatres of Italy.
It was during this period that dancing feemed firft:
to gain the afeendant over mufic by the fuperior talents
of Mademoifelle Heinel, whofe grace and execution
were fo perfedl as to eclipfe all other excellence.
In the firft opera performed this feafon (Lucco Vero) 1773.
appeared Mifs Cecilia Davies, known in Italy by the Dar
name of L’Inglefina. Mifs Davies had the honour oP125*
being the firft Engliflr woman who had ever been
thought worthy of finging on any ftage in Italy. She
even performed with eclat the principal female charac¬
ters on many of the great theatres of that country.
2 R 3 Gabrielli
500
0
\
C?terina
Gabiielli.
Agujari at
the Pan¬
theon.
Anna
Pozzi.
tSeorgi.
M U
Gabrielli only on the Continent was faid to furpals her.
Her voice, though not of great volume, was clear and
perfe&ly in tune; her fliake was open and dillin&, with¬
out the iluggilhnefs of the French cadence. The flexi¬
bility of her throat rendered her execution equal to the
moft rapid divifions.
Next feafon introduced Venanzio Ravygini, a beauti¬
ful and animated young man ; a compofer as well as a
finger.—His voice was fweet, clear, flexible; in compafs
more than two odfaves.
The feafon 1775 and 1776 was rendered memorable
by the arrival of the celebrated Caterina Gabriel/i, fiyled
early in life La Cuochetina, being the daughter of a
cardinal’s cook at Rome. She had, however, in her
countenance and deportment no indications of low birth.
Her manner and appearance depidted dignity and grace.
So great was her reputation before her arrival in Eng¬
land for finging and for caprice, that the public, ex-
pedling perhaps in both too much, were unwilling to al¬
low her due praife for her performance, and were apt to
afcribe every thing (he did to pride and infolence. Tier
voice, though exquifite, was not very powerful. Her
chief excellence having been the neatnefs and rapidity
of her execution, the furprife of the public mult have
been much diminifhed on hearing her after Mifs Davies,
who fung many of the fame fongs in the fame flyle, and
with a neatnefs fo nearly equal, that common hearers
could diftinguifh no difference. The difcriminating cri¬
tic, however, might have difcovered a fuperior fweetnefs
in the natural tone of Gabrielli’s voice, an elegance in
the finifhing of her mufical periods or paffages, an accent
and precifion in her divifions, fuperior not only to Mifs
Davies, but to every other finger of her time. In flow
movements her pathetic powers, like thofe in general of
performers molt renowned for agility, were not exqui-
fitely touching.
About the time of which we have been treating, the
proprietors of the Pantheon ventured to engage Agujari
at the enormous falary of tool, per night, for finging
two fongs only ! LucrerJa Agujari was a truly wonder¬
ful performer. The lower part of her voice was full,
round, and of excellent quality ; its compafs amazing.
She had two odlaves of fair natural voice, from A on
the fifth line in the bafe to A on the fixth line in the
treble, and beyond that in alt (Ire had in early youth
more than another odlave. She has been heard to afcend
to Bb in altijjitno. Her (hake was open and perfeft ; her
intonation true ; her execution marked and rapid ; the
ffyle of her finging, in the natural compafs of her voice,
grand and majeftic.
In 1776 arrived Anna Pozzi, as fuccefforto Gabriel¬
li. She poffeffed a voice clear, fweet, and powerful ;
but her Inexperience, both as an adtrefs and as a finger,
produced a contrail very unfavourable to her when com¬
pared with fo celebrated a performer as Gabrielli. Af¬
ter that time, however, Pozzi, with more ftudy and
knowledge, became one of the beft and moft admired
female fingers in Italy.
After the departure of Agujari for the fecond and
laft time, the managers of the Pantheon engaged Georgi
as her fucceffor. Her voice was exquifitely fine, but
totally uncultivated. She was thereafter employed as
the firft woman in the operas of the principal cities of
Italy.
SIC. Hifloiy.
During the feafons 1777 and 1778, the principalRoncagfia
fingers at the opera in London were Franceico Ron-anc^
caglia and Francefca Danze, afterwards Madame Le
Brun.
Roncaglia poffeffed a fweet toned voice ; but of the
three great requifites of a complete ftage finger, pathos,
grace, and execution, which the Italians call cantabi/e,
graz-iofa, and bravura, he could lay claim only to the
fecond. His voice, a voce de camera, when confined to
the graziofa in a room, left nothing to wifh for.
Danze had a voice well in tune, a good {hake, great
execution, prodigious compafs, wdth great knowledge
of mufic ; yet the pleafure her performance imparted
was not equal to thefe accompliftiments. But her ob-
jedh was not fo much pathos and grace, as to furprife
by the imitation of the tone and difficulties of inftru-
ments.
This year Gafparo Pachierotti appeared in London, Pacchib-
whither his high reputation had penetrated long before.10tt1'
The natural tone of his voice was interefting, fweet and,
pathetic. His compafs downwards was great, with an
afcent up to B b, and fometimes to C in alt. He pof¬
feffed an unbounded fancy, and the power not only of
executing the moft difficult and refined paffages, but of
inventing embelliihment entirely new. Ferdmando Ber-
toni, a well knowm compofer, came along with Pacchie- *
rotti to Britain.
About this time dancing became an important branch Dancing
of the amufements of the opera houfe. Mademoifelle &*ins
Heinel, M. Veftris le Jeune, Mademoifelle Baccelli, had, ovemnufic
during fome years, delighted the audience at the opera ; at the ope-
but on the arrival of M. Veftris PAine, pleafure was ra houfe.
exchanged for eeftafy. In the year 1781, Pacchierotti
had by this time been fo frequently heard, that his fing¬
ing was no impediment to converfation ; but while the
elder Veftris was on the ftage, not a breathing was to
be heard. Thofe lovers of mufic who talked the loudeft
while Pacchierotti fung, were in agonies of terror left
the graceful movements of Veftris, le dieu de la danse,
Ihould be difturbed by audible approbation. After that
time, the moft: mute and refpedtful attention was paid
to the manly grace of Le Picq, and the light fantaftic
toe of the younger Veftris ; to the Roffis, the Theo¬
dores, the Coulons, the Hillingftmrgs; while the flight¬
ed fingers were difturbed, not by the violence of applaufe,
but the clamour of inattention.
The year 1784 was rendered a memorable era in the
annals of mufic by the fplendid and magnificent man-Comme-
ner in which the birth and genius of Handel were moration of
celebrated in Weftminfter Abbey and the Pantheon, by ^n^el. *n
five performances of pieces feledled from his own works,
and executed by a band of more than 500 voices and
inllruments, in the prefence and under the immediate
aufpices of their majefties and the firft perfonages of
the kingdom. The commemoration of Handel has
been fince eftablifhed as an annual mufical feftival for
charitable purpofes; in which the number of per¬
formers and the perfeftion of the performances have
continued to increale. In 1785 the-band, vocal and
inftrumental, amounted to 616 : in 1786 to 741 ; in
1787 to 8c6 ; and in fubfequent years to {fill greater
numbers.
Dr Burney publiflred An Account of the Mufical
Performances in Commemoration of Handel, lor the
benefit.
Hiftory. M U S I C.
benefit of the Mufical Fund. The members and guar¬
dians of that fund are now incorporated under the title
of Royal Society of Mujicians. See Handel.
This year Pacchierotti and his friend Bertoni left
England. About the fame time our country was de¬
prived of the eminent compofer Sacchini, and Giar-
dini the greateft performer on the violin now in Eu¬
rope.
Excellence As a compenfation for thefe Ioffes, this memorable
of Madame year is diftlnguifhed by the arrival of Madame Mara,
Mara. wbofe performance in the commemoration of Handel
in Weftminfter Abbey infpired an audience of 3000 of
f the firft people of the kingdom, not only with pleaiure
but with ecllacy and rapture,
Puibinelli. In 1786 arrived Giovanni Rubtnelh. His voice was
a true and full contr’alto from C in the middle of the
fcale to the oaave above. His ftyle was grand j his
execution neat and diftindt; his tafte and embellifhments
new, feledf, and malterly.
Anew In 1788 a new dance, compofed by the celebrated
dance by M. Noverre, called Cupid and Rfijche, was exhibited
N. No- along with the opera La Locandiera, which produced
verre. eflFeA^ f0 uncommon as to deferve notice. So great
was the pleafure it afforded to the fpedffators, that
Noverre was unanimoufly brought on the ftage and
crowned with laurel by the principal performers, ihis,
though common in France, was a new mark, of appro¬
bation in England.
Marchefi. This year arrived Signior Luige Marchefi, a finger
whofe talents have been the fubjedl of praife and ad¬
miration on every great theatre of Europe. Marchefi’s
ftyle of fmging was not only elegant and refined . in. an
uncommon degree,_ but often grand and full of dignity,
particularly in his recitative and occafional low notes.
His variety of embellithment and facility of running ex¬
tempore divifions w7ere wonderful. Many of his graces
were elegant and of his own invention.
. . The three greateft Italian fingers of thefe times were
rated cha- certainly Pacchierotti, Rubinelii, and Marchefi. In
rafters of difcriminating the feveral excellencies of thefe great
Pacchie- performers, a very refpeftable judge, Hr Burney, has^
rotti, Rubi- particularly praifed the fweet and touching voice of
Marchefi. Pacchierotti j his fine lhake, his exquifite tafte, his
great fancy, and his divine expreffion in pathetic fongs:
Of Rubinelli’s voice, the fulnefs, fteadinefs,. and ma-
jefty, the accuracy of his intonations, his judicious
graces: Of Marchefi’s voice, the elegance and flexibi*
litv, his grandeur in recitative, and his boundlefs fancy
and’ embellilhments.—Having mentioned Hr Burney,
we are in juftice bound to acknowledge the aid w'e have
derived from his hiftory } a work which wTe greatly
prefer to every other modern produtffion on the fubjeft.
During the latter part of the 18th century many
eminent compofers flouriftied on the continent j fuch as
Jomelli, the family of the Bachs, Gluck, Haydn, and
ixrany others, whofe different ftyles and excellencies
would well deferve to be particularized, would our
Sovereign limits permit. W ith the fame regard to brevity, we can
princes di- (jt) no more t\)an juft mention the late king of Pruffia,
lettanti. the jate e]eftor 0f Bavaria,, and Princ© Lobkowitz, as
eminent dilettanti of modern times.
Singers on Befides the opera fingers whom we have mentioned,
theatresi our theatres and public gardens have exhibited fingers
andinpub-of confiderable merit. In 1730 Mifs Rafter, after-
ic war{js the celebrated Mrs Clive, firft appeared on the
501
ftage at Drury-lane as a finger, Ifhe fame year in¬
troduced Mils Cecilia Young, afterwards the wife of
Dr Arne. Her ftyle of finging was infinitely fuperior
to that of any other Engliftr woman of her time.
Our favourite muficians at this time were, Dubourg, Favourite
Clegg, Clarke, and Felling, on the violin j Kytchraul'K1£rtlsv
on the hautboy ; Jack Felling on the German llute ;
Ballon on the common ilute •, Karba on the baffoon >
Valentine Snow on the trumpet : and on the organ,.
Rofeingrave, Green, Robinfon, Magnus, Jack James,
and the blind Stanley who feems to have been pre¬
ferred. The favourite playhoufe finger was Salway $
and at concerts Mountier of Chichefter.
« As compofers for our national theatre, Pepuich and
Galliard feerti to have been unrivalled till 1732; whea
two competitors appeared, who were long in poffeflion
of the public favour : We allude to John trederick
Lampe and Thomas Auguftus Arne.
In 1736 Mrs Cibber, who had captivated every
hearer of fenfibility by her native fweetnefs of voice
and powers- of expreffion as a finger, made her firft:
attempt as a tragic adlrefs. The fame year Beard be¬
came a favourite finger at Covent-garden. At this
time Mifs Young, afterwards Mrs Arne, and her two
filters Ifabella and Efther, were the favourite Englilh
female fingers. '
In 1738 was inftituted the fund for the fupport ofFundfor
decayed muficians and their families. decayed
It was in 1745 that Mr Tyers, proprietor of Vaux-mu iuan'''
hall gardens, firlt added vocal mufic to the other enter¬
tainments of that place. A Ihort time before Ranelagh
had become a place of public amufement.
In 1749 arrived Giardini, whole great tafte, hand, Arrival of
and ftyle in playing on the violin, procured him uni- Giardini.
verfal admiration. A few years ^fter his arrival he
formed a morning academia or concert at his houfe,
compofed chiefly of his fcholars.
About this time San Martini and Charles Avifon
were eminent compofers;
Of near 150 mufical pieces brought on our national
theatres within 40 years, 38 of them at lealt were^^ of-
fet by Arne. The ftyle of this compofer, if ana-'Arnei
lyzed, would perhaps appear to be neither Italian
not Englilh j but an agreeable mixture of both and of
Scotch. .
The late earl of Kelly, who died fome years ago, ^“^eancr
deferves particular notice, as poffeffed of a very eminent
degree of mufical fcience, far fuperior to other dilettanti,
and perhaps not inferior to any profeffor of his time.
There was no part of theoretical or practical mufic in
which he was not thoroughly verfed : He poffeffed a
ftrength of hand on the violin, and a genius for compo-
fition, with which few profeffors are gifted.
Charles Frederic Abel was an admirable mufician : Abel*
His performance on the viol da gamba was in every
particular complete and perfeft. He had a hand which
no difficulties could embarrafs ; a tafte the molt re¬
fined and delicate *, a judgement fo corre£t and certain
as never to permit a Angle note to efcape him with¬
out meaning. His compolitions were eafy and ele¬
gantly Ample. In writing and playing an adagio he
was fuperior to all praile } the molt pleafing yet learn¬
ed modulation, the ricbeft harmony, the molt elegant
and polilhed melody, were all expreffed with the molt
exquilite feeling, tafte, and fcience. His manner or
502
Mrs Bil-
lington.
The catch-
club and
the concert
of ancient
mufic.
Madame
Graffini.
Madame
Catalan!.
M U
playing an adagio Toon btcame the model of imitation
for all our young performers on bowed inftruments.
Barthokmon Cervetto, Cramer, and Crofdil, were in
this refpeft to be ranked as of his fchool. All lovers
of mufic mull have lamented that Abel in youth had
not attached himfelf to an inftrument more worthy of
his genius, taite, and learning, than the viol da gamba,
that rpmnunt of the old cheft of viols which duriag
the 17th century was a neceffary appendage of a noble¬
man’s or gentleman’s family throughout Europe, pre¬
vious to the admiflion of violins, tenors, and bafes, in
private houfes or public concerts. Since the death of
the late eletlor of Bavaria, (who was next to Abel
the bed performer on the viol da gamba in Europe) :
the indrument feems quite laid afide. It was ufed
longer in Germany than elfewhere j but the place of
gambid feems now as much fuppreded in the chapels
of German princes as that of lutanid. The cele¬
brated performer on the violin, Lolle, came to Eng¬
land in Such was his caprice, that he was fel-
dom heard 5 and fo eccent-ric was his dyle and com-
pofition, that by many he was regarded as a madman.
He was, however, during his lucid intervals a very
great and expreffive performer in the ferious dyle.
Mrs Bhlingtcn, after didinguifhing herfelf in child¬
hood as a neat and expretlive performer on the piano¬
forte, appeared all at once in 1786 as a fweet and cap¬
tivating linger. In emulation of Mara and other great
bravura fingers, fire at fird too frequently attempted
paffages of difficulty ; afterward, however, fo greatly
was die improved, that no fong feemed too high or too
rapid for her execution. Now, at the didance of 20
years, die retains her high reputation. The natural
tone of her voice is fo exquifitely fweet, her know¬
ledge of mufic fo confiderable, her drake fo true, her
clofes and embelliffiments fo various, her expreffions fo
grateful, that envy only or apathy could hear her with¬
out delight.
The prefent compofers, and performers of the fird
clafs, are fo well known to the lovers of the art, that
it would be needlefs and improper to mention them
particularly.
The Catch-club at the Thatched Houfe, indituted
in 1762 by the earl of Eglinton, the prefent duke of
Queenfberry, and others ; and the concert of ancient
mufic, fuggeded by the earl of Sandwich in 1776,
have had a beneficial effedl in improving the art.
Two female performers have lately appeared of di-
ftinguidied eminence.
Madame Graffini had exhibited her vocal powers in
Paris with extraordinary applaufe, and arrived in Lon¬
don in 1805, where die excited uncommon admira¬
tion. She appeared in Zaira, wffiere the difplay of her
powers not only pleafed, but die adonifhed, when it
was confidered that the compafs of her voice did not
exceed eight or ten notes.
Ihe year following Madame Catalani divided the
public attention with Graffini.—This eminent perform¬
er is a native of Sinigaglia in Italy, where her father
was a finger of the comic order.
She was educated in a convent. The virtuous im-
S I C. Hiftory.
preffions die there received, have continued ever fince
invariably to iniluence her conduct.
Her father foon difeovered the excellence and the
value of her vocal powers, which were fird exiiibited
on the provincial theatres of Italy.—He loon carried
her to Spain, where die attained very high celebrity.
It was there her bulband, IVX. de Valabregue, fil'd paid
his addredes to her j and it was not till after a perieve-
rance of feven months that he at lad obtained her con-
fent, to unite her fortunes with his. Her heliiation
proceeded from the reluftance of her father, at once to
btt deprived of his daughter, and of the very great
emolument which die brought him. M. de Vala¬
bregue had been an officer in the French army under
General Moreau.
From Spain Madame Catalani (for die has retained
her father’s name), proceeded to Portugal, where die
accepted an engagement to come to London. She tra¬
velled through France, and at Paris appeared at an oc-
cafional concert, where her fame was lo great, that the
ufual price of admiffion was trebled. She particularly
attradled the attention of the lingular man who now
holds the imperial feeptre of the continent of Europe.
Fie ordered her a penfion (its value is about 30I. per
annum) ; and it was with much difficulty, and only
through the interference of the Britidi ambailador (the
earl of Lauderdale) then at Paris, that Ihe was per¬
mitted to leave that capital, and proceed on her jour¬
ney.
In the dramatic mufic of the opera, this finger is far
fuperior to any performer ever heard in this country.
Her merit in Semiramide, in particular, prefents ai¬
med the idea of perfection, tier voice is equal to the
mod difficult execution, while her countenance is inte-
reding, her gedures graceful, and her perlon elegant.
It has been reported that die does not ling in tune j
but it is an undeniable faCl, vouched by the fird mufi-
cians, that die poffedes a mod accurate ear. Every vo¬
cal performer occadcnally emits a falfe found in conle-
quence of fome temporary organic caufe.
Catalani’s eafy and clear articulation are particularly
driking. Her tones are full and liquid. Her caden¬
zas are appropriate and maderly. She has a praClice
of rapidly defeending in half notes, which has excited
admiration chiefly by its entire novelty. The clearnefs
and rapidity difplayed by her in chromatic palfages ex¬
cite afloniihment ; and ihe combines mellownefs with
didinClnefs, a high qualification which Mara fird
taught us to appreciate. In the courfe of fummer
1807, Madame Catalani vifited the provincial theatres
of England, and appeared likewfife in Dublin, Edin¬
burgh, and Glafgow. Her total receipts for that year
are faid to have exceeded 15,000!.
We have been fome what particular in our account
of mufical affairs in our owm country during the 18th
century, as what would be mod inteieding to general
readers, and of which a well-informed gentleman w'ould
not w’iili to be ignorant. The profeffor and connoiffeur
will have recourfe to difquifitions much more minute
than thofe of which our limits can be fuppofed to
admit.
ELEMENTS
3
Element®.
MUSIC.
So?
ELEMENTS of MUSIC,
Theoretical and Practical (c).
PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.
Mufic con- MUSIC may be confidered, either as an art, which
fideredin has for its objeft one of the greateft pleafures of which
a double our fenfes (d) are fufceptible ; or as a fcience, by which
view. that art is reduced to principles. This is the double
view in which we mean to treat of mufic in this work.
Progrefs It has been the cafe with mufic as with all the other
ofimific like arts jnvented by man : feme fa£Is were at firft difeover-
th'r arts* e<^ accident 5 foon afterwards reflexion and obferva-
andftien- tion invefligated others : and from thefe fadfs, proper-
tss- ly difpofed and united, philofophers were not fiow in
forming a body of fcience, which afterwards increafed
by degrees.
The firft theories of mufic were perhaps as ancient
as the earlieft age which we know to have been diftin-
guiftied by philofophy, even as the age of Pythagoras ;
nor does hiftory leave us any room to doubt, that from
the period when that philofopher taught, the ancients
cultivated mufic, both as an art and as a fcience, with
great affiduity. But there remains to us much uncer¬
tainty concerning the degree of perfedlion to which
they brought it. Almoft every queftion which has
been propofed with refpeft to the mufic of the ancients
has divided the learned ; and probably may ftill conti¬
nue to divide them, for want of monuments fufficient in
their number, and inconteftable in their nature, from
whence we might be enabled to exhibit teftimonies and
difeoveries inftead of fuppofitions and conjeftures. In
the preceding hiftory we have ftated a few fafls refpedT
ing the nature of ancient mufic, and the inventors of
the feveral mufical inftruments 5 but it were to be wifh-
ed, that, in order to elucidate, as much as poflible, a
point fo momentous in the hirtory of the fciences, fome
perfon of learning, equally fkilled in the Greek lan¬
guage and in mufic, (hould exert hirnfelf to unite and The hi-
difeufs in the lame work the moft'probable opinions ft°ry
eftablilhed or propofed by the learned, upon a
fo difficult and curious. This philofophical hiftory ofjniitera.
ancient mufic is a woik which might highly embellilh ture.
the literature of our times.
In the mean time, till an author can be found fuffi-
ciently inftruded in the arts and in hiftory to under¬
take fuch a labour with fuccefs, we fnall content our-
felves with confidering the prefent ftate of mufic, and
limit our endeavours to the explication of-thofe accef-
fions which have accrued to the theory of mufic in
thefe latter times.
There are two departments in tjnufic, melody * and * ^ee
harmony f. Melody is the art of arranging feveral
founds in fucceflion one to another in a manner agree- mcny,
able to the ear •, harmony is the art of pleafing that or¬
gan by the union of feveral founds which are heard at
one and the fame time. Melody has been known and
felt through all ages : perhaps the fame cannot be af¬
firmed of harmony (e) ; we know not whether the an¬
cients made any ufe of it or not, nor at what period it
began to be pradlifed.
Not but that the ancients certainly employed in their
mufic
(c) To deliver the elementary principles of mufic, theoretical and practical, in a manner which may prove at
once entertaining and inftruftive, without protra&ing this article much beyond the limits preferibed in .our plan,
appears to us no eafy talk. We therefore hefitated for fome time whether to try our own ftrength, or to follow
fome eminent author on the fame fubjeft. Of thefe the laid feemed preferable. Amongft thefe authors, none ap¬
peared to us to have written any thing fo fit for our purpofe as M. d’Alembert, whole treatife on mufic is the •
moft methodical, perfpicuous, concife, and elegant differtation on that fubjeft with which we are acquainted. As ■
it was unknown to meft Englifh readers before a former edition of this work, it ought to have all the merit of an
original. We have given a tranflation of it ; and in the notes, we have added, from the works of fuccecding au¬
thors, and from our own obfervation, fuch explanations as appeareu neceuary, to adapt the work to the pre¬
fent day.
(d) In this paffage, and m the definitions of melody and harmony, our author feems to have acop^ed the vul¬
gar error, that the pleafures of mufic terminate in corporeal fenie. He would have pronounced it abfurd to af¬
fect the fame thing of painting. Yet if the former be no more than a mere pleafure of corporeal fenfe, the lat¬
ter muft likewife be ranked in the fame predicament. We acknowledge that corporeal fenfe is the vehicle of
found ; but it is plain from our immediate feelings, that the refults of found arranged according to the princi¬
ples of melody, or combined and difpofed according to the laws of harmony, are the objedts of a reflex or inter¬
nal fenfe.
For a more fatisfattory difeuflion of this matter, the reader may confult that elegant and judicious treatife on
Mufical Expreflion by Mr Avifon. In the mean time it may be necefiary to add, that, iif order to ftnm the ap¬
pearance of affe&ation, we fhall ufe the ordinary terms by which mufical fenfations, or the mediums by which
they are conveyed, are generally denominated.
(e) Though no certainty can be obtained what the ancients underftood of harmony, nor in what manner and
in what period they pradlifed it ; yet it is not without probability, that, both in fpeculation and pra&ice, they
W'ere in poffeffion of what we denominate counterpoint. Without fuppofing this, there are fome paflages in the
Greek authors which can admit of no fatisfa&ory interpretation. See the Origin andProgrefs of Language, vol.ii.
BefidsSj.
Difcourfe.
llifi origin
of arts of¬
ten acci-
rfual.
504 M U
Preliminary mufie tliofe chords wliicli Were moft perfect and fimple j
fucli as the oftave, the- fifth, and the third ; but it
feems doubtful whether they knew any of the other con-
fonances or not, or even whether in practice they could
deduce the fame advantages from the fimple chords
which were known to them, that have afterwards ac¬
crued from experience and combinations.
If that harmony which we now pradlife owes its ori¬
gin to the experience and refledlion of the moderns,
there is the highelt probability that the firft effays of
this art, as of all the others, wrere feeble, and the pro-
grefs of its efforts almofl imperceptible •, and.that, in
the eourfe of time, improving by fmall gradations,
the fucceffive labours of feveral geniufes have elevated
it to that degree df perfeflion in which at prefent we
find it.
The firfl inventor of harmony efcapes our invefliga-
tion, from the fame caufes which leave us ignorant of
^ jthofe who firft invented each particular fcience ; be-
their*pro- caiI^e t^le orl'ginal inventors could only advance one ftep,
greis gra- a fucceeding difcoverer afterwards made a more fenfible
improvement, and the firft imperfeft elfays in every kind
were loft in the more extenfive and ftriking view’s to
which they led. Thus the arts which we now enpy,
are for the moft part far from being due to any particu¬
lar man, or to any nation exclufively : they are produ¬
ced by the united and fucceflive endeavours of man¬
kind ; they are the refolts of fuch continued and united
refledtions, as have been formed by all men at all pe¬
riods and in all nations.
It might, however, be wifhed, that after having af-
certained, with as much accuracy as poftible, the ftate
of ancient muftc by the fmall number of Greek authors
which remain to us, the fame application w’ere imme¬
diately direfted to ftiveftigate the firft inconteftable
traces of harmony wrhich appear in the fucceeding ages,
and to purfuc thofe traces from period to period. The
produfls of thefe refearches would doubtlefs be very im-
perfedf, becaufe the books and monuments of the mid¬
dle ages are by far too few to enlighten that gloomy
and barbarous era ; yet thefe difcoveries would ftill be
precious to a philofopher, who delights to obferve the
human mind in the gradual evolution of its powers,
and the progrefs of its attainments.
The firft compofitions upon the laws of harmony
tions of the yvhich we know, are of no higher antiquity than two
jaws of bar-ages prjor to our own . an(j t^ey were f0ll0we(J by ma¬
ny others. Tut none of thefe efifays was capable of fa-
tisfying the mind concerning the principles of harmo¬
ny : they confined themfelves almofl: entirely to the
Angle occupation of colledling rules, without endeavour¬
ing to account for them ; neither had their analogies
one with another, nor their common fourcc, been per¬
ceived ; a blind and unenlightened experience was the
only compafs by which the artift could dire£f and regu¬
late his courfe.
s i a
Elements.
Delinea-
mony re¬
cent and
iinperfecft.
M. Rameau was the firfl: who began to tfnnsfufe light Preliminary
and order through this chaos. In the different tones ■fiiicourf'e.^
produced by the fame fonorous body, he found the rts precepts
moft probable origin of harmony, and the caufe of that,not dedu-
pleafure which we receive from it. His principle lieced from
unfolded, and ihowed how the different phenomena °fany
mufic were produced by it: he reduced all the confo-^3^^ *
nances to a fmall number of fimple and fundamental meau.
chords, of which the others are only combinations or
various arrangements. He has, in ftiort, been able to
difcover, and render fenfible to others, the mutual de¬
pendence between melody and harmony.
Though thefe different topics may be contained inTheau-
thc writings of this celebrated artift, and in thefe writ-,!'‘or 5 mo"
ings may be underftood by philolophers who are like-11^5-*01^
wdfe adepts in the art of mufic 5 ftill, how'ever, fuch theJe^c-
muficians as were not philofophers, and fuch philofo-meats,
phers as wTere not muficians, have long delired to fee
thefe objects brought more wdthin the reach of their
capacity. Such is the intention of the prefent treatife j
ia which we claim rio other merit than that of having de¬
veloped, elucidated, and perhaps in feme refpe&s im¬
proved, the ideas of another (f).
The firfl: edition of this eflay, publiflied 1752, hav-Improve*
ing been favourably received, w’e have endeavoured to^ntsof
render this more perfe£l. The detail which is meant to1!1186^-
be given of my labour, will prefent the reader with a ge- A0cc'ount 0f
neral idea of the principle of M. Rameau, of the confe-the workia
quences deduced from it, of the manner in which I general,
have difpofed this principle and its confequences j in
ftiort, of what is ftill wanting, and might be advanta¬
geous to the theory of this delightful art j of what flill
remains for the learned to contribute towards the per¬
fection of this theory ; of the rocks and quickfands
which they ought to avoid in this refearch, and
W'hich could ferve no other purpofe than to retard their
progrefs.
Every fonorous body, befides its principal found,Rameau’s
likewife exhibits to the ear the 12th and 17th major “nolnof
of that found. This multiplicity of different yet con- arm0R-v*
cordant founds, knowm for a confiderable time, confti-
tutes the bafis of the whole theory of M. Rameau, and
the foundation upon which he builds the whole fuper-
ftruClure of a mufical fyftem *. In thefe our elements* ^ce
may be feen, how from this experiment one may de-jse’,,
duce, by an eafy operation of reafon, the chief points Cion/,
of melody and harmony; the perfeft f chord, as well--See TV-
major as minor ; the tw'o $ tetrachords employed in an-t^ac^or^‘
cient mufic ; the formation of our diatonic |j fcale ; the \^jc
different values § which the fame found may have in fsee Fa*
that fcale, according to the turn which is given to the^*
bafs ; the alterations * which we obferve in that 0See
fcale, and the reafon w’hy they are totally impercepti-
ble to the ear ; the rules peculiar to the mode f major ;fsee Mode.
the difficulty in ^ intonation of forming three tones || in 1 See Inta-
fucceflion ; the reafon why two perfeCf chords are pro- nation.
feribed ifSee Tonc'
Befides, w’e can difcover fome veftiges of harmony, how'ever rude and imperfed, in the hiftory of the Gothic
ages, and amongft the moft barbarous people. This they could not have derived fron more cultivated countries,
becaufe it appears to be incorporated with their national mufic. The moft rational account, therefore, which can
be given, feems to be, that it wras conveyed in a mechanical or traditionary manner through the Roman provinces
from a more remote period of antiquity.
(f) See M. Rameau’s letter upon this fubjeft, Merc, de Mai, 17
%
Elements.
M U
Preliminary fcribed in immediate fucceflion in the diatonic order j
.Pilcourfe. orjg;n 0f xninor mode, its fiibordination to the
$ See Dif- m°de tnajor, and its variations j the ufe of difcord J ;
cord. the caufes of fuch effefts as are produced by ditferent
* See Ciro-kinds of mulic, whether diatonic, chromatic*, or en-
matic. harmonic f ; the principles and laws of temperament
Jiarmonic ^^cour^e we can on^y po'nt out thofe ditfer-
■\ See Tetn- ent objedts, the fubfequent eflay being deligned to ex-
ferament. plain them with the minutenefs and precifion which
they require.
One end which wre have propofed in this treatife,
was not only to elucidate, but to limplify the difcove-
ries of M. Rameau.—For inftance, befides the funda¬
mental experiment mentioned above, that celebrated
mulician, to facilitate the explication of certain phe¬
nomena, had recourfe to another experiment 5 that
which (hows that a fonorous body llruck and put in
vibration, forces its 12th and 17th major in defcend-
ing to divide themfelves and produce a tremulous found.
The chief ufe which M. Rameau made of this fecond
experiment was to inveiHgate the origin of the minor
mode, and to account for fome other rules eftablifhed
in harmony $ but we have found means to deduce from
the firft experiment alone the formation of the minor
mode, and, befides, to difengage that formation from
all queftions foreign to it.
In fome other points alfo, (as, the origin of the
* See Sub- chord of the fub-dominant *, and the explication of the
dominant. feVenth in certain cafes) it is imagined that we have
limplified, and perhaps in fome meafure extended, the
principles of the celebrated artiit.
We have like wife bamfhed every confideration of
geometrica", arithmetical, and harmonical proportions
and progrefTions, which have been fought in the mix¬
ture a id protia&ion of tones produced by a fonorous
body} perfuaded as we are, that M Rameau was under
no neceflity of paying ;he lead regard to thefe propor¬
tions, which we believe to he not cnlj ufelefs, but even,
if vve may venture to fay fo, fallacious when applied to
the theory of mulie. In mort, though the relations
produced by t *e ohlave, the tifth. and the third, &c.
were quite different 'rom what they aie ; though in
thefe chords vve thouid neither remark any progrelfion
nor any law ; thou-h they Ihould be incommenfurable
one with another; the protra 'ted tone of a fono¬
rous body, and the multipli. d founds which refult
from it, are a fufficient foun ration for the whole har¬
monic fyftem.
Theoretical pjut though this work is intended to explain the
muficians tileory 0f muliCj and to reduce it to, a ‘ Hem more
with regard complete and more luminous than has hitherto been
to the ad- done, we ought to caution our readers again ft mifappre-
miffion of henfion either of the nature of our fubjeft or of the
matbe;nati- purpofe of our endeavours.
cal or me
taphyfical
principles
in mufic.
We muft not here look for that ftriking evidence which
is peculiar to geometrical difeoveries alone, and which
can be fo rarely obtained in thefe mixed difquilitions,
where natural philofophy is likewife concerned. Into
the theory of mufical phenomena there muft always en¬
ter a particular kind of metaphyfics, which thefe phe¬
nomena implicitly take for granted, and which brings
along with it its natural obfeurity. In this fubjeff,
therefore, it would be vain to expeft what is called de-
monfiration : it is much to have reduced the principal
fafts to a confiftent and conne&ed fyftem j to have de-
Vol. XIV. Part II.
S I C. 505
duced them from one Ample experiment j and to have Preliminary
eftablifhed upon this foundation the moft common and -DUcourfe'.
eflential rules of the mufical art. But if the intimate v "
and unalterable convi&ion which can only be produced
by the ftrongeft evidence is not here to be required,
we muft alfo doubt whether a clearer elucidation of
our fubjett be poflible.
After this declaration, it will not excite furprife,
that, amongft the fadls deduced from our fundamental
experiment, fome ftiould immediately appear to depend
upon that experiment, and others to refult from it in a
way more remote and lefs direct. In difquifitions of
natural philofophy, where we are fcarcely allowed to
ufe any other arguments than thofe which arife from
analogy or congruity, it is natural that the analogy
fhould be fometimes more and fometimes lefs fenfible j
and we will venture to pronounce that mind very un-
philofophical, which cannot recognife and diftinguilh
this gradation and the different circumftances on
which it proceeds. It is not even furprifing, that, in a
fubjedl where analogy alone can take place, this conduc-
treis fhould defert us all at once in our attempts to ac¬
count for certain phenomena. This likewife happens „
in the fubjedt which we now treat ; nor do we conceal
the fadt, however mortifying, that there are certain
points (though their number be but fmall) which ap¬
pear ftiil in fome degree unaccountable from our prin¬
ciple. Such, for inftance, is the procedure of the dia¬
tonic fcale of the minor mode in defeending, the for¬
mation of the chord commonly termed the Jixt/i re¬
dundant j- or fuperjluous, and fome other fadts of lefsf See
importance, for which as yet we can fcarcely offer any dundant.
fatisfadlory account except from experience alone.
Thus, though the greateft number of the pheno¬
mena of mufic appear to be deducible in a Ample and
eafy manner from the protradled tone of fonorous bo¬
dies, it ought not perhaps with too much temerity to
be affirmed as yet, that this mixed and protradled tone
is demonjiratively the only original principle of harmo¬
ny. But in the mean time it would not be lefs unjuft^■^rneau’3
to rejedl this principle, becaufe certain phenomena ap-^nrn<iry
pear to be deduced from it with lefs fuccefs than others.has not as
It is only neceffary to conclude from this, either thatyetac-
by future ferutinies means may be found for reducing coulltecl for
thefe phenomena to this principle ; or that harmony
has perhaps fome other unknown principle, more ge-mufic.
neral than that which refults from the protradled and Perhaps
compounded tone of fonorous bodies, and of which thistorne other
is only a branch ; or, laftly, that we ought not perhapsmay bc ne"
to attempt the redudlion of the whole fcience of muficCt^a'y*
to one and the fame principle ; which, however, is
the natural effedt of an impatience fo frequent even
among phiiofophevs themfelves, which induces them to
take a part for the whole, and to judge of objedfs in
their full extent by the greateft number of their appear¬
ances.
In thofe fciences which are called phyfico-mathemati-
cal (and amongft this number perhaps the fcience of
founds may be placed), there are fome phenomena
which depend only upon one fingle principle and one
fingle experiment : there are others which neceffarily
fuppofe a greater number both of experiments and
principles, whole combination is indifpenfable in form¬
ing an exadt and complete fyftem j and mufic perhaps
is in this laft cafe. It is for this reafon, that whilft
3 S we
$o6- ^
Preliminary we beflow on M. Rameau all due praife, we fhould
.Difcoiirfe. not at fame time negleft to ftimulate the learned
' 'n t^eJr endeavours to carry them fHll to higher de¬
grees of perfe£Hon, by adding, if it is poffiole, fuch
improvements as may be wanting to comummate the
fcience.
Whatever the refult of their efforts may be, the re¬
putation of this intelligent artift has nothing to fear :
he will fHll have the- advantage of being the firft who
rendered mufic a fcience worthy of philofophical atten¬
tion ; of having made the praftice of it more fimple
and eafy } and of having taught muficians to employ in
this fubjedl the light of reafon and analogy.
We would the more willingly perfuade thofe who
are fkilled in theory afid eminent in praftice to extend
and improve the views of him who before them pur-
fued and pointed out the career, becaufe many amongft
them have already made laudable attempts, and have
even been in fome meafure fuccefsful in diffufing new
■fartini’s light through the theory of this enchanting art. It
ejiperi' was with this view that the celebrated Tartini has pre-
“a€nt* fented us in 1754 with a treatife of harmony, founded
on a principle different from that of M. Rameau. This
principle is the refult of a moft beautiful experi¬
ment (g). If at once two different founds are produ¬
ced from two inftruments of the fame kind, thefe two
<3-1 C. Elements.
founds generate * a third different from both the Preliminary
others. We have inferted in the Encyclopedic, under Dllc^urfe-<
the article Fundamental, a detail of this experiment ac- Gene,
cording to M. Martini j and we owe to the public an rate,
information, of which in compofing this article we were j{-s difco_
ignorant; M. Romieu, a member of the Royal Socie-very origi-
ty at Montpelier, had prefented to that fociety in the n;dly due
year 1753, before the work of M. Tartini had appear-t0 Komieu*
ed, a memorial printed the fame year, and where may
be found the fame experiment difplayed at full length.
In relating this faft, which it was neceffary for us to
do, it is by no means our intention to detraft in any
degree from the reputation of M. Tartini 5 we are
perfuaded that he owes this difeovery to his own re-
fearches alone • but we think ourlelves obliged in ho¬
nour to give public teifimony in favour of him who
was the firft in exhibiting this difeovery.
But whatever be the cafe, it is in this experiment
that M. Tartini attempts to find the origin of har¬
mony : his book, however, is written in a manner fo
obfeure, that it is impoflible for us to form any judge¬
ment of it ; and we are told that others diftinguifhed
for their knowledge of the fcience are of the fame opi¬
nion. It were to be wifhed that the author would
engage fome man of letters, equally pradifed in mufic
and fkilled in the art of writing, to unfold thefe ideas
which
Had the utility of the preliminary difeourfe in which we are now engaged been lefs important and ob-
vious than it really is, we Ihould not have given ourfelves the trouble of traniiatmg or our readers that of
Wmg it. But it mull be evident to every one, that the cautions here g.ven and the advices offered, are na
Lf applicable to (Indents than to authors. The firft queftion here deemed „, Whether pure mathematics can be
fuccefsMly applied to the theory of mufic > The author is juftly of a contrary opinion It may cer amly be
doubted with great juftice, whether the fo'.id contents of fonorous bodies, and their degrees of cohefion or
elaftidty can be afeertained with fufficient accuracy to render them the fubiefts of mu,.cal (peculation and to
dete mine their effeds with fuch precifion as may render the conclufions deduced from them geometrically true.
It isTdmitted thatfoundisa fecondary quality of matter, and that fecondary qualities have no obvious con-
nexion* which ie can trace with the (enfatious produced by them. Experience therefore and not (.peculation
£ the grand criterion of mufical phenomena. For the eftefis of geometry illuliratmg the theory of mufic (tf
any win ftm be fo credulous as to pay them much attention), the Englifh reader may confult Smith’s Harmonics,
Malcolm’s Differtation on Mufic, and Pleydel’s Treatife on the fame fubjeft mfertedin a former editicfi of this
work Our author next treats of the famous difeovery made by Signor lartmi, of which the reader may accept
^^fiwoToun^br produced at the fame time properly tuned and with due force, from their conjunaion a
third found is generated, fo much more diftindly to be perceived by delicate ears as the relation between the
venerating founds'i^^imre fimple ; yet from this rule we muft except the unifon and oflave. From the fifth
reproducer! abound unifon wfth fts Wft generator , from the fourth, one which »s an o^ave ower than the_
liipheft of its generators : from the third major, one which is an oftave bwer than its lowett , and rom the
fxth minor (whofe hbhk note forms an odave with the loweft in the third formerly men mned) will be pro¬
duced a found lower by a double oftave than the higheft of the leffer fixth • from the third minor, one which
■ A W.X rftZire of a Preater third from its loweft j but from the fixth major (whofe higheft.note makes
is double the diftanc g produced a found only lower by double the quantity of a
“ 0“d “h'ingh^ .;“rLond a found lower by a d.ub.e^ve .W .he Wft i
from a fecond minor, a found lower by triple the quantity of a third major than the higheft Horn the^ t
of a diatonic or greater femitone, a found lower by a triple oftave than
chromatic femitone, a found lower by the quantity of a fifth four times multiplied than the lo^
But that thefe mufical phenomena may be tried by experiments proper to afeertain them '"J
with fcrupulous exaftnefs muft be procured, whilfhthe muficians are placed at the ^ m be
from the other, and the hearers in the middle. The violin will hkewife give the fame cWs bu they will be
lefs diftindly perceived, and the experiment more fallacious, becaufe the vibrations of ot it g y P
?° Ifd ou^EnglT^reader Ihould be curious to examine thefe experiments and the deduaions made from ti^tn in
the theory of mufic, he will find them clearly explained and illuftrated in a treaufe called Pnnaples and Povxr
qf Harmony, printed, at London in the year 1771.
Elements.
M U S
Preliminary which he has not communicated with fufficient perfpicui-
Difcourfe. ty, and from whence the art might perhaps derive con-
fiderable advantage if they were placed in a proper
light. Of this we are fo much the more perfuaded, that
even though this experiment (hould not be regarded by
others in the fame view with M. Tartini as the foun¬
dation of the mufical art, it is neverthelefs extremely
probable that one might ufe it with the greateft ad¬
vantage to enlighten and facilitate the pra&ice of har¬
mony.
In exhorting philofophers and artifts to make new at¬
tempts for the advancement of the theory of mufic, we
ought at the fame time to caution them againft miftak-
ing the real end of their refearches. Experience is the
only foundation upon which they can proceed } it is
alone by the obfervation of fafts, by bringing them to¬
gether in one view, by (howing their dependency upon
one, if poffible, or at lead; upon a very fmall number of
primary fa£fs, that they can reach the end to which
they fo ardently afpire, the important end of eftablilh-
ing a theory of mufic, at once great, complete and lu¬
minous. The enlightened philofopher will not attempt
the explanation of fafts, becaufe he knows how little
Mechanical fuch explanations are to be relied op. . To eftimate
conclufions them according to their proper value, it is only necef-
inadequate fary. t0 configgr the attempts of natural philofophers
-“who have difcovered the greateft fkill in their fcience,
fical pheno- to explain, for inftance, the multiplicity of tones pro-
mena. duced by fonorous bodies. Some having remarked
(what is by no means difficult to conclude) that the
univerfal vibration of a mufical firing is a mixture of
feveral partial vibrations, infer, that a fonorous body
ought to produce a multiplicity of tones, as it really
does. But why {hould this multiplied found only ap¬
pear to contain three, and why thefe three preferable
to others ? Others pretend that there are. particles in
the air, which, by their different degrees of tenfion, be¬
ing naturally fufceptible of different ofcillations, pro¬
duce the multiplicity of found in queftion. But what
do we know of all this ? And though it ffiould even be
granted, that there is fuch a diverfity of tenfion in
thefe aerial particles, how ffiould this diverfity prevent
them from being all of them confounded in their vibra¬
tions by the motions of a fonorous body ? What then
ffiould be the refult, when the vibrations arrive at our
* See In- ears, but a confufed and inappretiable * noife, where
&ppreti- one could not diftinguiffi any particular found ?
Kble.t
I C. 5°7
If philofophical muficians ought not to loie their Prelimniary
time in fearching for mechanical explications of the 1 v °U1 c
phenomena in mufic, explications which will ^always be Metaphyfi-
found vague and unfatisfa&ory •, much lefs is it their Cal oonclu-
province to exhaufl their powers in vain attempts to lions lefs
rife above their fphere into a region ftill more remote adequate,
from the profpe£l of their faculties, and to lofe them-
felves in a labyrinth of metaphyfical fpeculations upon
the caufes of that pleafure which we feel from harmo¬
ny. In vain would they accumulate hypothefis on hy-
pothefis, to find a reafon why fome chords ffiould pleaie
us more than others. The futility of thefe fuppofiti-
tious accounts muft be obvious to every one who has
the leafl penetration. Let us judge of the reft by the
moft probable which has till now been invented for
that purpofe. Some afcribe the different degrees of
pleafure which we feel from chords, to the more or
lefs frequent coincidence of vibrations j others to the
relations which thefe vibrations have among themfelvei
as they are more or lefs Ample. But why ffiould this
coincidence of vibrations, that is to fay, their fimul-
taneous impulfe on the fame organs of fenfation, and
the accident of beginning frequently at the fame time,
prove fo great a fource of pleafure ? Upon what is
this gratuitous fuppofition founded ? And though it
ffiould be granted, would it not follow, that the fame
chord ffiould fucceffively and rapidly affe& us with
contrary fenfations, fince the vibrations are alternate¬
ly coincident and difcrepant ? On the other hand,
how ffiould the ear be fo fenftble to the fimplicity
of relations, whilft for the moft part thefe relations
are entirely unknswn to him whofe organs are not-
withftanding fenfibly affe&ed with the charms of a-
greeable mufic ? We may conceive without difficulty
how the eye judges of relations j but how does the ear
form fimilar judgements ? Befides, why ffiould, certain
chords which are extremely pleafing in themfelves,
fuch as the fifth, lofe almoft nothing of the pleafure
which they give us, when they are altered, and of
confequence when the fimplicity of their relations are
deftroyed •, whilft other chords, which are likewife ex¬
tremely agreeable, fuch as the third, become harffi al¬
moft by the fmalleft alteration ; nay, whilft the moft;
’perfefl and the moft agreeable of all chords, the
o&ave, cannot fuffer the moft inconfiderable change ?
Let us in fincerity confefs our ignorance concerning
the genuine caufes of thefe effedls (h). I he me-
3 S 2 taphyfical
fH>) We have as great an averfion as our author to the explication of mufical phenomena from mechanical
principles ; yet we fear the following obfervations, deduced from irrefiftible and umverfal exper.ence evidently
ffiow that the latter neceffarily depend on the former. It is, for inftance, umverfally allowed, t.iat diffonances
orate and concords pleafe a mufical ear : It is likewife no lefs unanimoufly agreed, that in proportion as a
chord is perfeft, the pleafure is increafed •, now the perfection, of a chord confifts in the regularity and re-
quency of coincident ofcillations between two fonorous bodies impelled to vibrate : thus the thira is a chord
lefs perfeft than the fifth, and the fifth than the odtave. Of all thefe confonances, there.ore, the octave is moft
pleafing to the ear ; the fifth next, and the third laft. In abfolute difcords, the vibrations are never coin¬
cident and of confequence a perpetual pulfation or jarring isrecognifed between the protrailed founds, which
exceedingly hurts the ear •, but in proportion as the vibrations coincide, thole pulfations are fupcrfeded, and
a kindred formed betwixt the two continued founds, which delights even the corporeal Jenfe : that 1 elation,
therefore without recognizing the aptitudes which produce it, muft be the obvious caufe of the pleaiure which
chords give to the ear. What we mean by coincident vibrations is, that while one fonorous body performs
a o-iven number of vibrations, another performs a different number in the fame time •, i.o that the vibrations
of&the quickeft muft fometimes be fimultaneous with thofe of the floweft, as will plainly appear fr'^n t ie
SIC. Elements.
mony may be deduced from ©ne Angle experiment ; 1 .eliminary
for which, if we may fpeak fo, preceding artiits have Dilcourle.
been under a ncceflity of groping in the dark. ~ v *
With an intention to render this work as generally
ufeful as poflible, w7e have endeavoured to adapt it to the
capacity even of thofe who are abfolutely uninftrudled
in mufic. To accomplilh this defign, it appeared ne-
ceffary to purfue the following plan.
To begin with a fhort introdudlion, in which are plan of the
defined the technical terms mofl: frequently ufed in thistreatife.
art) fuch as chord, harmony, hey, third, fifth, oEiave, &c.
Afterwards to enter into the theory, of harmony,
which is explained according to M. Rameau, with all
poffible perfpicuity. 'I his is the fubjedi of the Firfl
Part; which, as well as the introdudfion, prefuppofes
no other knowledge of mufic than that of the names of
the notes, C, D, E, F, G, A, B, which all the world
knows (i).
The theory of harmony requires fome arithmetical
calculations, neceffary for comparing founds one with
another. Thefe calculations are Ihort, Ample, and may
be comprehended by every one •, they demand no
operation but what is explained, and which every
fchool-boy may perform. Yet, that even the trouble of
this may be fpared to fuch as are not difpofed to take it,
thefe calculations are not inferted in the text, but in the
notes, which the reader may omit, if he can take for
granted the propofitions contained in the text which
will be found proved in the notes.
Thefe calculations we have not endeavoured to mul¬
tiply , we could even have wilhed to fupprefs them, if it
had been pofiible : fo much did it appear to us to be
apprehended that our readers might be mifled upon
this fubjedl, and might either believe, or fufpeft us of
believing,
following deduftion : Between the extremes of a third, the vibrations of the higheft are as 5 to 4 of the
loweft thofe of the fifth as 3 to 2 j thofe of the odtave as 2 to x. Thus it is obvious, that in proportion to
the frequent coincidence of periodical vibrations, the compound fenfation is more agreeable to the ear. Now,
to inquire wrhy that organ fliould be rather pleafed wbth thefe than with the pulfation and tremulous motion
of encountering vibrations which can never coalefce, would be to afk why the touch is rather pleafed with
polilhed than rough furfaces ? or, why the eye is rather pleafed with the waving line of Hogarth than with
fharp angles and abrupt or irregular prominences ? No alteration of which any chord is fulceptible will hurt
the ear unlefs it ftiould violate or deftroy the regular and periodical coincidence of vibrations. When altera¬
tions can be made without this difagreeable effeft, they form a pleafing diverfity ; but ftill this fad corro¬
borates our argument, that in proportion as any chord is perfeft, it is impatient of the fmalleft alteration j
for this reafon, even in temperament, the odave endures no alteration at all, and the fifth as little as
poflible.
(1) In our former editions, the French fyllabic names of the notes ut,re, mi,fa,fol, la,f, were retained, as being
thought to convey the idea of the relative founds more diftindly than the feven letters ufed in Britain. It is no
doubt true, that by conftantly ufing the fyllables, and confidering each as reprefenting one certain found in the
fcale, a finger will in time affociate the idea of each found with its proper fyllable, fo that he will habitually
give ut the found of the firft or fundamental note, re that of a fecond, mi ad a third, &c. but this requires a long
time, and much application : and is, befides, ufelefs in modulation or changes of the key, and in all inftrumental
mufic. Teachers of fol-fa'ing as it is called, or finging by the fyllables, in Britain, have long difcarded, (if they
ever ufed) the fyllables ut, re, and f: and the prevalent, and we think, the founder opinion is now, that a fcholar
will, by attending to the founds themfelves rather than to their names, foon learn their diftindl charaflers and
relations to the key, and to each other, and be able of courfe to aflign to each its proper degree in the fcale w'hich
he employs fijr the time, by whatever name the note reprefenting that degree may be generally known. See
Holden's E/Jhy towards a Rational St/fem ofMufc, Part I. chap. i. § 32, 33.
We have therefore, in our pre'ent edition, preferred to the French fyllables the Britilh nomenclature by thq
letters C, D, E, F, G, A, B, as being more Ample, more familiar to Britilh muficians, and equally applicable
io inilrumental as to vocal mufie.
508 M U
preliminarytaphyfical conie&ures concerning the acouftic organs
Dxfcourfe. k'l’ r "Lir
, are probaoly in the lame predicament with thofe
which are formed concerning the organs of vifion,
if one may fpeak fo, in which philofophers have
even till now made fuch inconfiderable progrefs, and
in all likelihood will not be furpaiTed by their fuc-
ceffbrs.
Since the theory of mufic, even to thofe who con¬
fine themfelves within its limits, implies queftions from
which every wife mufician will abftain $ with much
greater reafon ihould they avoid idle excurfions beyond
the boundaries of that theory, and endeavours to in-
veftigate between mufic and the other fciences chime¬
rical relations which have no foundation in nature.
The Angular opinions advanced upon this fubjedl by
fome even of the moft celebrated muficians, deferve
not to be refcued from oblivion, nor refuted ; and
ought only to be regarded as a new proof how far men
of genius may err, when they engage in fubjeds of
which they are ignorant.
The rules which we have attempted to efiablilh con¬
cerning the track to be followed in the theory of the
mufical art, may fuffice to fhorv our readers the end
which we have propofed, and which we have endea¬
voured to attain in this Work. We have here (we
repeat it), nothing to do with the mechanical prin¬
ciples of protraded and harmonic tones produced by
fonorous bodies j principles which have hitherto been and
perhaps may yet be long explored in vain : we have lefs
to do with the metaphyfical caufes of the fenfations im-
preffed on the mind by harmony ; caufes wdiich are Aill
lefs difcovered, and which, according to all appearances,
will remain latent in perpetual obfcurity. We are
alone concerned to fliow how the principal laws of har-
/
Elements.
M U S
Preliminary
Difconrie.
tical con-
dufions r ot
tidi'fcferabie
to fenlible
ebjetits
without
i^ution.
* See Com-
Jjofition.
believing, all this arithmetic neceffary to form an artilt.
Calculations may indeed facilitate the underilanding of
certain points in the theory, as of the relations between
the different notes in the gammut and of the tempera¬
ment •, but the calculations neceffary for treating of
thefc points are fo fimple, and of fo little importance,
that nothing can require a lefs oftentatious difplay.
Let us not imitate thofe muficians, who, believing them-
fr ves geometers, or thofe geometers who, believing
themf* Ives muficians, fill their writings with figures
upon figures •, imagining, perhaps, that this apparatus
is receffnry ro the art. The propenfity of adorning
their works with a falfe air offcience, can only impofe
upon ignorance, and render their treatifes more obfcure
and lefs in(lru<ffive.
This abufe of geometry in mafic may be condemned
with fo much more reafon, that- in this iubjedl: the
foundations of thofe calculations are in form' manner
hypothetical, and can never arife to a degree of cer¬
tainty above hypothefis. The relation of the oftave as
I to 2, that of the fifth as 2 to 3, that of the third
major as 4 to 5, &c. are not perhaps the genuine
relations eflablifhed in nature ; but only relations which
approach them, and fuch as experience can difcover.
For are the refults of experience any thing more but
mere approaches to truth ?
But happily thefe approximated relations are fuffi
cient, though they fhould not be exaffly agreeable to
truth, for giving a fatisfaftory account of thofe phe¬
nomena which depend on the relations of found ; as
in the difference between the notes in the gamraut, of
the alterations neceffary in the fifth and third, of the
different manner in which inftruments are tuned, and
other fads of the fame kind. If the relations of the
odave, of the fifth, and of the third, are not exadly
fuch as we have fuppofed them, at leaf! no experiments
can prove that they are not fo j and finoe thefe rela¬
tions are fignified by a fimple expreflion, fince they are
befides fufficient for all the purpofes of theory, it would
be ufelefs, and contrary to found philofophy, to invent
other relations in order to form the bafis of any fyftem
of mufic lefs eafy and fimple than that which we have
delineated in this treatife.
The fecondpart contains the moil: effential rules of
compofition *, or in ocher words the pradice of har¬
mony. Thefe rules are founded on the principles laid
down in thefirjl part ; yet thofe who wiih to underfiand
no more than is neceffary for pradice, without explor¬
ing the reafons why fuch pradical rules are neceffary,
may limit the objeds of their ftudy to the introd'i&ion
End the fecond part. They who have read the frj} part ^
will find at every rule contained in the fecond, a refer
ence to that paffage in the JirJl where the reafons for
eftablifliing that rule are given.
That we may not prefent at once too great a num-
1 c. 509
ber of objeds and precepts, we have transferred to the Preliminary
notes in the fecond part feveral rules and obfervations
which are lefs frequently put in pradice, which per- Se)rne ru]es
haps it may be proper to omit till the treatile is read on account
a fecond time, when the reader is well acquainted with of their
the effential and fundamental rules explained in it. transf^rrel
This fecond part prefuppofes no more than the t0thenotes.
any habit of finging, nor even any knowledge of mufic }
it only requires that one fiiould know, not even the in¬
tonation, but merely the pofition of the notes in the
cleff F on the fourth line, and that of G upon the fe¬
cond : and even this knowledge may be acquired from
the w'ork itfelf*, for in the beginning of the fecond part
wre explain the pofition of the cleffs and of the notes.
Nothing is neceffary but to render it a little familiar,
and any difficulty in it will difappear.
It would be wrong to exped here all the rules of All the
compofition, and efpecially thofe which dired the rules of
compofition of mufic in feveral parts, and which, being comP°fi-
lefs fevere and indifpenfable, may be chiefly acquired
by pradice, by Undying the molt approved models, in un ele-
by the aifiltance of a proper mafter, but above all by mentary
the cultivation of the ear and of the talle. This trea-6^’
tife is properly nothing elie, if the expreffion may be
allowed, but the rudiments of mufic, intended for
explaining to beginners the fundamental principles,
not the pradical detail of compofition. Thofe who
wiffi to enter more deeply into this detail, will either
find it in M. Rameau’s treatife of harmony, or in the
code of munc which he publilhed more lately (k), or
lalfly in the explication of the theory and pradice of
mufic by M Bethizi (l) ; this laft book appears to us
clear and methodical (m).
Is it neceffary to add, that, in order to compofe ;\Tahire ^
malic in a proper tafte, it is by no means enough toefle. tial
have familiarized with much application the principles
explained in this treatife? Here can only be learned 'u 1 V
the mechamlm of the art4 it is the province ot naturetlon< ,
alone to accomplifh the reft. Without her afiiftance, it
is no more poffibie to compofe agreeable mufic by ha¬
ving read thefe elements, than to write verfes in a pro¬
per manner with the Didionary of Richelet. In one
word, it is the elements of mufic alone, and not the
principles of genius, that the reader may exped to find
in this treatife.
DEFINITIONS.
I. What is mean* by Melody, by Chord, by Harmony, by
Interval.
1. Melody is a ferics of founds which fucceed one to Melody,
another in a manner agreeable to the ear." what. *
2. A Chord is a combination of feveral founds heard Chord and -
together; and Harmony is properly a feries of chords'ia,mony»
of which the fucceffion pleafes the ear. A fingle chord w^at*
is
(k) From my general recommendation of this code, I except the refiedions on the principle of found which
are at the end, and which I fhould not advife ary one to read.
(l.) Printed at Paris by Lambert in the year 1754.
(m) In addition to the works mentioned in the text, we recommend to our readers, Holden’s Effay, Glafgow
1770, Edin. 1805 ; Kollmann’s Effiy on Mufical Harmony, 1796; his Eflay on Mufical Compofition, fol. 1799?
Shield’s Introdudion, 1800} and Dr Callcott’s Mufical Grammar, 1806.
See In¬
terval.
,510 M U
Definitions. Is llkewife fometimes called harmony, to fignify the coa-
lefcence of the founds which form the chord, and the
fenfation produced in the ear by that coalefcence-. We
ftiall occafionally ufe the word hat'mony in this laft
fenfe, but in fuch a manner as never to leave our mean¬
ing ambiguous.
3. An Interval, in melody and harmony, is the di-
ftance, or difference in pitch, between one found, and
another higher or lower than it.
4. That we may learn to diftinguifh the intervals,
and the manner of perceiving jjthem, let us take the
ordinary fcale C, D, E, F, G, A, B, c, which every
perfon whofe ear or voice is not extremely falfe natural¬
ly modulates. The following obfervations will occur
*to us in finging this fcale.
Account of The found D is higher or (harper than the found
the Ample C, the found E higher than the found D, the found
intervals, jr higher than the (bund E, &c. and fo through the
whole o£tave; fo that the interval, or the diftance
from the found C to the found D, is lefs than the
interval or diftance between the found C and the
found E, the interval from C to F is lefs than that
between C and F, &c. and in (hort that the interval
ifrom the firft to the fecond C is the greateft of all.—
S I C. Elements.
To diftinguKh the firft from the fecond C, we have mark- Definitieas.
ed the laft with a fmall letter (n). 1 v—
5. In .general, the interval between two founds isThetli-
proportionably greater, as one of thefe founds is high-ftin<aion
er or lower with relation to the other: but it is neCef-ftroneeand
fary to obferve, that two founds may be equally highfajntSor
or low, though unequal in their force. The firing of acute and
a violin touched with a bow produces always a found grave,
equally high, whether ftrongly or faintly (truck ; the
found will only have a greater or leffer degree of
ftrength. It is the fame with vocal modulation j let
any one form a found by gradually fwelling the voice,
the found may be perceived to increafe in force, whilft
it continues always equally low or equally high.
6. We muft likewife obferve concerning the ^cale>Between
that the intervals between C and D, between D and tonic and
E, between F and G, between G and A, between A femitonic
and B, are equal, or at lead nearly equal; and thatintervals*
the intervals between E and F, and between B and C,
are likewife equal among themfelves, but confift almoft
only of half the former. This faft is known and re-
cognifed by every one : the reafon for it (hall be given
in the fequel j in the mean time every one may afcer-
tain its reality by the afliftance of an experiment (o).
7. It
(n) We (hall afterwards find that three different feries of the feven letters are ufed, which we have diftinguifhed by
capitals, fmall Roman, and Italic charafters. When the notes reprefented by fmall Roman chara&ers occur in
this treatife we (hall, merely to diftinguifh them from the typography of the text, place them in inverted commas,
thus ‘c’, ‘d’, &c.
(o) This experiment may be eafily tried. Let any ontffing the fcale C, D, E, F, G, A, B, ‘c’, it will be
immediately obferved without difficulty, that the laft four notes of the oftave G, A, B, ‘c’, are quite fimilar to
the firft C, D, E, F; infomuch, that if, after having fung this fcale, one would choofe to repeat it, beginning with
C in the fame tone which was occupied by G in the former fcale, the note D of the laft fcale would have the
fame found with the note A in the firft, the E with the B, and the F with the ‘c\
Whence it follows, that the interval between C and D, is the fame as between G and A ; between D and F,
as between A and B, and E and F, as between B and ‘c\
From D to E, from F to G, there is the fame interval as from C to D. To be convinced of this, we need
only ling the fcale once more 5 then ling it again, beginning with C, in this laft fcale, in the fame tone which
was given to D in the firft $ and it will be perceived, that the D in the fecond fcale will have the fame found,
at lead as far as the ear can difcover, with the E in the former fcale j whence it follows, that the difference be¬
tween D and E is, at lead as far as the ear can perceive, equal to that between C and D. It will alfo be
found, that the interval between F and G is, fo far as our fenfe can determine, the fame with that between C
and D.
This experiment may perhaps be tried with fome difficulty by thofe who are not inured to form the notes
and change the key 5 but fuch may very eafily perform it by the afliftance of a harpfichord, by means of which
the performer will be faved the trouble of retaining the founds in one intonation whilft he performs another. In
touching upon this harpfichord the keys G, A, B, ‘f’, and in performing with the voice at the fame time
C, D, E, F, in fuch a manner that the fame found may be given to C in the voice with that of the key G
in the harpfichord, it will be found that D in the vocal intonation (hall be the fame with A upon the harpfi¬
chord, &c.
It will be found likewife by the fame harpfichord, that if one (liould fing the fcale beginning with C in the
fame tone with E on the inftrument, the D, which ought to have followed C, will be higher by an extremely
perceptible degree than the F which follows E : thus it may be concluded, that the interval between E and
F is lefs than between C and D j and if one would rife from F to another found which is at the fame diftance
from F, as F from E, he would find, in the fame manner, that the interval from E to this new found is almoft the
fame as that between C and D. The interval then from E to F is nearly half of that between C and D.
Since then, in the (bale thus divided, S!’ 5’ Yl
’ ’ G, A, B, ‘c ,
the firft divifion is perfedlly like the laft •, and fince the intervals between C and D, between D and E, and be¬
tween F and G, are equal •, it follows, that the intervals between G and A, and between A and B, are likewife
equal to every one of the three intervals between C and D, between D and E, and between F and G ; and that
the intervals between E and F and between B and ‘c’ are alfo equal, but that they only conftitute one half oft^je
others.
Elements. M U
Definitions. 7- ^ is for this reafon that they have called the inter-
V— ' val from E to F, and from B to C, a femitone ; where¬
as thofe between C and D, D and E, F and G, G and
A, A and B, are tones.
cc" XXIII tone likewife called a fecond major*, and the
fig- i. femitone a fecond minor f.
i See Inter- 8. To defcend or rife diatonically, is to defcend or
vat. rife from one found to another by the interval of a
tone or of a femitone, or in general by feconds, whether
major or minor 5 as from I) to C, or from C to D,
from F to E, or from E to F.
Third mi¬
nor, what.
Third ma¬
jor, what.
Fourth,
what.
Triton,
what.
Fifth, what.
Sixth mi¬
nor, what.
Skth ma¬
jor, what.
Seventh mi¬
nor, what.
Seventh
major,
what.
0(flave,
what.
Unifon,
'♦hat.
II. T/ie Terms by which the different Intervals of the
Scale are denominated.
9. An interval compofed of a tone and a femitone,
as from E to G, from A to C, or from D to F, is
called a third minor.
An interval compofed of two full tones, as from C
to E, from F to A, or from G to B, is called a third
major.
An interval compofed of two tones and a femitone,
as from C to F, or from G to C, is called * fourth.
An interval confiding of three full tones, as from F
to B, is called a tritone or fourth redundant.
An interval confiding of three tones and a femitone,
as from C to G, from F to C, from D to A, or from
E to B, &c. is called a fifth.
An interval compofed of three tones and two femi-
tones, as from E to C, is called a fixth minor.
An interval compofed of four tones and a femitone,
as from C to A, is called a fixth major.
An interval confiding of four tones and two femi-
tones, as from D to C, is called a feventh minor.
An interval compofed of five tones and a femitone,
as from C to B, is called a feventh major.
And in fiiort, an interval confifting of five tones and
two femitones, as from C to ‘c’ is called an oBave.
Several of the intervals now mentioned, are diftinguifh-
ed by other names, as may be feen in the beginning of
the fecond part; but thofe now given are the moft com¬
mon, and the only terms which our prefent purpofe de¬
mands.
10. Two founds equally high, or equally low, how-
S I d. 511
ever unequal in their force, are faid to be in unifon one Definitions,
with the other. —y——>
11. If two founds form between them any interval,
whatever it be, we fay, that the higheft when amend¬
ing is in that interval with relation to the loweft ^ and
when defcending, we pronounce the lowed in the fame
interval w'ith relation to the higheft. Thus in the third
minor, E, G, where E is the loweft and G the higheft
found, G is a third minor from E afcendiug, and E is-
third minor from G in defcending.
12. In the fame manner, if, fpeaking of two fono-
rous bodies, wre fttould fay, that the one is a fifth above
the other in afcending ; this infers that the found given
by the one is at the diftance of a fifth afcending from
the found given by the other.
III. Of Intervals greater than the OBave.
13. If, after having fung the fcale C, D, E, F, G,Fig. 2,
A, B, c, one wmuld carry this fcale ftill farther in
afcent, it w’ould be difcovered w'ithout difficulty that
a new fcale would be formed, ‘c, d, e, f’, &c. entirely
fimilar to the former, and of which the founds will be
an oflave afcending, each to its correfpondent note in
the former fcale \ thus ‘d’, the fecond note of the fecond
fcale, will be an o61ave in alcent to the D of the firft
fcale } in the fame manner ‘e’ ihall be the oftave to E,
&c. and fo of the reft.
14. As there are nine notes from the firft C to the Ninth,-
feeond ‘d’, the interval between thele two founds is call-
ed a ninth, and this ninth is compofed of fix full tones
and two femitones. For the fame reafon the interval
from C to ‘f’ is called an eleventh, and the interval be¬
tween C and ‘g’ a twelfth, &c.
It is plain that the ninth is the oftave of the Elevsntfi
the eleventh of the fourth, and the twelfth of thean<* twelfth
fifth, &c. whaU
The o6tave above the odlavfc of any found is called a
double oBave * j the odtave of the double odlave is call- * §ee /w_
ed a triple oBave, and fo of the reft. tefval ancL-
The double o£lave is likewife called a fifteenth : and Double
for the fame reafon the double odlave of the third iS°^ave’
called a feventeenth, the double o&ave of the fifth a
nineteenth, &c. (p).
IV.
(p) Let us fuppofe two vocal firings formed of the fame matter, of the fame thicknefs, and equal in their ten-
fion, but unequal in their length *, it will be found by experience,
ifi. That if the ftiorteft is equal to half the longeft, the found which it will produce muft be an o£!ave above
the found produced by the longeft.
idly. That if the ftiorteft conftitutes a third part of the longeft, the found which it produces muft be a twelfth ■
above the found produced by the longeft.
^dly. That if it conftitutes the fifth part, its found will be a feventeenth above.
Befides, it is a truth demonftrated and generally admitted, that in proportion as one mufical firing is lefs than
another, the vibrations of the leaft will be more frequent (that is to fay, its departures and returns through the
fame fpace) in the fame time ; for inftance, in an hour, a minute, a fecond, &c. in fuch a manner that one firing
which conftitutes a third part of another, forms three vibrations, whilft the largeft has only accompliftied one.
In the fame manner, a firing which is one half lefs than another, performs two vibrations, whilft the other only-*
completes one ; and a firing which is only the fifth part of another, will perform five vibrations in the fame time
which is occupied by the other in one.
From thence it follows, that the found of a firing is proportionally higher or lower, as the number of its vi¬
brations is greater or fmaller in a given time } for inftance, in a fecond.
It is for that reafon, that if we reprefeni-any found whatever by 1, one may reprefent the odlave above by 2,
that is to fay, by the number of vibrations formed by the firing which produces the oftave, whilft the longeft
firing only vibrates once $ in the fame manner we may reprefent the twelfth above the found I by 3, the feven¬
teenth
r
5I2 M U
Definitions.
'"'“"v IV. IVhat is meant by Sharps and Flats.
Sharps and j It is plain that one may imagine the five tones
enter into the fcale, as divided each into two
7®/. n e> femitones; thus one may advance from C to D, form¬
ing in his progrefs an intermediate found, which fhall
be higher by a femitone than C, and lower in tne fame
degree than D. A found in the fcale is called
when it is raifed by a fermtone 5 and it is marked with
this charafler : thus C % fignifies C Jharp, that is to
fay, C raifed by a femitone above its pitch in rhe natu¬
ral fcale. A found in the fcale depreffed by a femitone
is called fiat, and is marked thus, \): thus A b fignifies
A fiat, or A depreffed by a femitone.
V. IV/iat is meant by Confonances and Difibnances.
Confo- 16. A chord compofed of founds whofe union or
nance, coalefcence pleafes the ear is called a confonance $ and
'see Chord t^ie ^oun^s which form this chord are faid to be conlb-
S I C. Elements.
nant one with relation to the other. The reafon of this Definitions,
denomination is, that a chord is found more perfe&, as v ' ^
the founds which form it coalefce more clofely among
themfelves.
17. The odlave of a found is the moft perfedl: of
confonances of which that found is fufceptible 5 then
the fifth, afterwards the third, &c. This is a fadl
founded on experiment.
18. A number of founds fimultaneoufly produced Diffonance,
whofe union is difpleafing to the ear is called a ^^o-what.
nance, and the founds which form it are faid to be dif-
fonant one with relation to the other. The fecond,
the tritone, and the feventh of a found, are diffonants See
with relation to it. Thus the founds CD, C E, orcorA'
F B, &c. fimultaneoufly heard, form a diffonance.
The reafon which renders diffonance difagreeable, is,
that the founds which compote it, feem by no means
coalefcent to the ear, and are beard each of them by
itfelf as diftindt founds, though produced at the fame
time.
Part I. THEORY of HARMONY. *
Ch AP. I. Preliminary and Fundamental Experi¬
ments.
Experiment I.
19. WHEN a fonorous body is ftruck till it gives
a found, the ear, befides the principal found and its
odtave, perceives two other founds very high, of which
one is the twelfth above the principal found, that is to
fay, the o&ave to the fifth of that found j and the other
is the feventeenth major about the fame found, that is to
fay, the double octave of its third major.
20. This experiment is peculiarly fenfible upon the
thick firings of the violoncello, of which the found
being extremely low, gives to an ear, though not very
much pradlifed, an opportunity of diftinguifhing with
iudv lent eafe and clearnefs the twelfth and feventeenth
now in quefiion (Q_)k
21.
teenth maior above 5, &c. But it is very neceflWy to remark, that by thefe numerical expreffions, we do not
pretend to compare founds as fuch ; for founds in th-m rlves are notbing but mere 'enfations, and it cannot be faid
of any fenfation that it is double or triple ro another 1 thus the expreffions I, 2. 3, &c. employed to denominate a
found, its oftave above, its twelfth above, &c. f.gnif, only, that it a flnng performs a certain number of vibra¬
tions, for inftance, in a fecond, the firing which is in the octave above llrall double the number in the fame time,
the firing which is in the twelfth above fhall triple it, &c, , r
Thus to compare founds among themfelves is nothing elfe than to compare among themfelves the numbers ot
vibrations which are formed in a given time by tht firings that produce thefe founds. , . r ,
(0) Since the o&ave above the found I is 2, the jftave below that fame found fhall be ; that is to ay, that
the firing which produces this oaave fhall have performed half its vibration, vvh.lft the firing which produces the
found 1 fhall have completed one. To obtain therefore the o&ave above any found, the opeiator inu.t urn tip y
the quantity which expreffes the found by 2; and to obtain the odave below, he muft on the contrary divide the
feme quantity by 2. „ . „ . j
It is for that reafon that if any found whatever, for infiance C, is denominated
Its odlave above will be
Its double odave above
Its triple odave above _ -
In the fame manner its odave below will be
Its double odave below
Its triple odave below
And fo of the reft.
Its twelfth above
Its twelfth below
Its 17th major above * " " _
The fifth then above the found 1 being the odave beneath the twelfth, (hall be, as we have immediately ^ob-
3
Part T.
Theory of
Haimony.
* See Ge¬
nerator.
Generator,
■what.
§ See Har¬
monic.
M U
21. The principal found is called generator * \
and the two other founds which it produces, and with
which it is accompanied, are, incluilve of its oftave,
called its harmonics
Experiment II.
22. There is no perfon infenlible of the refemblance
which fublills between any found and its oftave, whe¬
ther above or belown Thefe two founds, when heard
together, almoft entirely coalefce in the organ of fen-
fation. We may betides be convinced (by two fafts
which are extremely fimple) of the facility with which
one of thefe founds may be taken for the other.
Let it be luppofed that any perfon has an inclina¬
tion to fing a tune, and having at firil berun this air
Voe. XIV. Part II.
SIC. 513
upon a pitch too high or too low for his voice, fo that Theory of
he is obliged, left he Ihould ftrain himfelf too much, Harmony..
to fing the tune in queftion on a key higher or lower
than the firft j he will naturally, without being initiated
in the art of mufic, take his new key in the odave be¬
low or the o£tave above the firft *, and in order to take
this key in any other interval except the octave, he will
find it neceflary to exert a fenfible degree of attention.
This is a fa<ft of which we may eafily be perfuaded by
experience.
Another fa£t. Let any perfon fing a tune in our
prefence, and let it be fung in a tone too high or too
low for our voice j if we wifti to join in finging this
air, we naturally take the oftave below or above, and
frequently, in taking this o61ave, we imagine it to be
the unifon (Q_*).
3 T Chap. II.
ferved, | ; which fignifies that this firing performs 4 vibrations; that is to fay, one vibration and a half during a
fingle vibration of the firing which gives the found I.
To obtain the fourth above the found I, we muft take the twelfth below that found, and the double o£fave
above that twelfth. In effeft, the twelfth below C, for inftance, is F, of which the double o£lave f is the fourth
above c. Since then the twelfth below i is j, it follows that the double oftave above this twelfth, that is to fay,
the fourth from the found I in afeending, will be 4 multiplied by 4, or 4.
In fhort, the third major being nothing elfe but the double oftave beneath the feventeenth, it follows, that the
third major above the found I will be 5 divided by 4, or in other words
The third major of a found, for inftance the third major E, from the found C, and its fifth G, form between
them a third minor E, G ; now E is 4, and G by what has been immediately demonftrated: from whence it
follows, that the third minor, or the interval between E and G, (hall be expreffed by the relation of the fraflion 4
to the fraction 4-
To determine this relation, it is neceffary to remark, that 4 are the fame thing with and that 4 are the
lame thing with y3 : fo that 4 ftiall be to | in the fame relation as y to y1 ; that is to fay, in the fame rela¬
tion as 10 to 12, or as 5 to 6. If, then, two founds form between themfelves a third minor, and that the firft is
reprefented by 5, the fecond (hall be expreffed by 6 j or, what is the fame thing, if the firft is reprefented by 1,
the lecond fhall be expreffed by 4*
Thus the third minor, an harmonic found which is even found in the protra&ed and coalefcent tones of a
lonorous body between the found E and G, an harmonic of the principal found, may be expreffed by the
fradlion
N. B. One may fee by this example, that in order to compare two founds one with another which are expreffed
by fra<5h’ons, it is neceffary firft to multiply the numerator of the fraftion which expreffes the firft by the denomi¬
nator of .the fradlion which exprefl'es the fecond, which will give a primary number 5 as here the numerator 5 of
the fradlion 4, multiplied by 2 of the fradlion 4> has given 10. Afterwards may be multiplied the numerator of
the fecond fradion by the denominator of the firft, which will give a fecondary number, as here 12 is the produdl
oi 4 multiplied by 3 j and the relation between thefe two numbers (which in the preceding example are 10 and
J 2), will exprefs the relation between thefe founds, or, what is the fame thing, the interval which there is be¬
tween the one and the other ; in fuch a manner, that the farther the relation between thefe founds departs from
unity, the greater the interval will be.
Such is the manner in which we may compare two founds one with another whofe numerical value is known.
We {hall now fhow the manner how the numerical expreflion of a found may be obtained, when the relation
which it ought to have wuth another found is known whofe numerical expreflion is given.
Let us fuppofe, for example, that the third major of the fifth 4 is fought. That third major ought to be, by
what has been fhowm above, the 4 of the fifth *, for the third major of any found whatever is the 4 of that found.
We muft then look for a fradlion which expreffes the 4 °f 4 > which is done by multiplying the numerators and
denominators of both fradlions one by the other, from whence refults the new fradion Ls. It will likewife be
found that the fifth of the fifth is |, becaufe the fifth of the fifth is the 4 of 4.
I bus far we have only treated of fifths, fourths, thirds major and minor, in afeending $ now it is extremely eafy
to find by the fame rules the fifths, fourths, thirds major and minor in defeending. For fuppofe C equal to 1,
we have feen that its fifth, its fourth, its third, its major and minor in afeending, are 4» 4* r* To find its
fifth, its fomth, its third, its major and minor in defeending, nothing more is neceffary than to reverfe thelc
fradlions, w'hich will give 4, fj 4*
(O*) ^’s not t^lcn imagined that we change the value of a found in multiplying or dividing it by 2, by 4, or
by 8, &c. the number which exprefies thefe founds, fince by thefe operations w’e do nothing but take the fimple
double, or triple odlave, See. of the found in queftion, and that a found coalefces with its odtave.
M U
Harmony
reduced to
chords,
fifths, and
odlaves.
514 MU
Theory of
, Hannony. II. 'The Origin of the Modes Major and
Minor i of the tnof natural Modulation} and the
mofl perfeEt Harmony.
mental"and 23' ren^er our ideas ftill more precife and per-
harmonics manent, we iliall call the tone produced by the fono-
\vhat. rous body C : it is evident, by the firft experiment,
that this found is always attended by its 12th and 17th
major j that is to fay, with the oftave of G, and the
double odlave of E.
24. This o£tave of G then, and this double oftave
of E, produce the moft perfeft chord which can be
joined with C, lince that chord is the work and choice
of nature (r).
25. For the fame reafon, the modulation formed by
C with the o6tave of G, and the double oftave of E,
fung one after the other, would likewife be the moft
fimple and natural of all modulations which do not de-
fcend or afcend diredlly in the diatonic order, if our
voices had fufficient compafs to form intervals fo great
without difficulty: but the eafe and freedom with
which we can fubftitute its o&ave to any found, when
it is more convenient for the voice, afford us the means
of reprefenting this modulation.
26. It is on this account that, after having fung the
tone C, we naturally modulate the third E, and the fifth
G, inftead of the double odlave of E, and the oftave
of G j from whence we form, by joining the oftave of
the found G, this modulation, C, E, G, ‘c’, which in
effe£l is the fimplfft and eafiefl of them all j aad which
likewife has its origin even in the protracted and com¬
pounded tones produced by a fonorous body.
27. The modulation C, E, G, ‘c’, in which the chord
C, E, is a third major, conftitutes that kind of harmony
or melody which we call the tticde major ; from whence
it follows, that this mode refults from the immediate
operation of nature.
28. In the modulation C, E, G, of which we have
now been treating, the founds E and G are fo propor-
Mode ma¬
jor, what.
See Mode.
See likewife
Interval.
Mode mi¬
nor, what.
S I C. Part I.
tioned one to the other, that the principal found C Theory ox
(art. 19.) caufes both of them to refound j but the fe- Harmony^
cond tone E does not caufe G to refound, which only
forms the interval of a third minor.
29. Let us then imagine, that, inftead of this found
E, one ftiould fubftitute between the founds C and G,
another note which (as well as the found C) has the
power of caufing G to refound, and which is, however,
different from the found C j the found which we explore
ought to be fuch, by art. 19. that it may have for its
17th major G, or one of the oCfaves of G $ of confe-
quence the found which we feek ought to be a 17th
major below G, or, what is the fame thing, a third
major below the fame G. Now the found E being a
third minor beneath G, and the third major being
(art. 9.) greater by a femitone than the thitd minor, it
follows, that the found of which we are in fearch fhall
be a femitone beneath the natural E, and of confequence
E &• .
30. This new arrangement, C, E b, G, in which
the founds C and E jj have both the power of caufing
G to refound, though C does not caufe E fp to refound,
is not indeed equally perfeft wdth the firft arrangement
C, E, G j becaufe in this the two founds E and G are
both the one and the other generated by the principal
found C j whereas, in the other, the found E |?, is
not generated by the found C ; but this arrangement
C, E b, G, is likewife diClated by nature (art. 19.),
though lefs immediately than the former ; and accor¬
dingly experience evinces that the ear accommodates it-
felf almoft as well to the latter as to the former.
31. In this modulation or chord C, E f, G, C, Origin of
it is evident that the third from C to E jj is minor j m°de mi-
and fuch is the origin of that mode which we ca^5ee"ytforff
minor (s). See alfo
32. The moft perfe£l chords then are, 1. All chords
related one to another, as C, E, G, ‘c’, confifting of perfeifl
any found, of its third major, of its fifth, and of its chords,
oftave. 2. All chords related one to another, as Cwhat,
E b, G, ‘c’, confifting of any found, of its third
minor,
(r) The chord formed with the twelfth and feventeenth major united with the principal found, being exactly
conformed to that which is produced by nature, is likewife for that reafon the moft agreeable of all ; efpecially
when the compofer can proportion the voices and inftruments together in a proper manner to give this chord its
full effeft. M. Rameau has executed this with the greateft fuccefs in the opera of Pygmalion, page 34. where
Pygmalion lings with the chorus Id amour triomphe, &c.: in this paffage of the chorus, the two parts oi the vocal
and inftrumental baffes give the principal found and its o&ave ; the firft part above, or treble, and that of the
Counter-tenor, produce the feventeenth major, and its odlave, in defcending j and the fecond part, or tenor abo
gives the twelfth.
See fig. 3. (s) The origin which we have here given of the mode minor, is the moft fimple and natural that can poflibly
be given. M. Rameau deduces it, more artificially, from the following experiment.—If you put in vibration a
mufical firing HI, and if there are at the fame time contiguous to this two other firings KN, RW, of which
the firft (hall be a twelfth, and the fecond a feventeenth major below the firing HI, the firings KN, RW will
vibrate without being ftiuck as foon as the firing HI {hall give a found, and divide themfelves by a kind of un¬
dulation, the firft into three, the lafl into five equal parts •, in fuch a manner, that, in the vibration of the firing
KN, you may eafily diftinguilli two points at reft LM, and in the tremulous motion of the firing RW, four qui-
efrent points S, T, U, V, all placed at equal diftances from each other, and dividing the firings into three or
five equal parts. In this experiment, fays M. Rameau, if we reprefent by the note C the tone of the firing HI,
the tv.o other firings will reprefent the founds F and A j and from thence M. Rameau deduces the modulation
F, A t?, C, and of confequence the mode minor. The origin which we have affigned to the minor mode, ap¬
pears more direft and more fimple, becaufe it prefuppofes no other experiment than that ef art. 19. and becaufe
alf< ‘be fundamental found C is ftill retained in both the modes, without being obliged, as M. Rameau found
himfelf, to change it into F*
Funda¬
mental bafs,
what.
Parti. M U S
Theory of minor, of its fifth, find of its o&ave. In effeft, thefe
Harmony. two 0f chords are exhibited by nature ; but the
v - more immediately than the fecond. The firft are
called perfect chords major, the fecond perfect chords
minor.
Chap. III. Of the Succejfton by Fifths^ and of the
Laws which it obferves.
33. Since the found C caufes the found G to be
heard, and is itfelf heard in the found F, which founds
G and F are its twro twelfths, we may imagine a modu¬
lation compofed of that found C and its two twelfths,
or, which is the fame thing (art. 22.), of its two fifths,
F and G, the one below, the other above ; which gives
the modulation or feries of fifths F, C, G, wdiich we call
the fundamental bafs of C by fifths.
We fhall find in the fequel (Chap. XVIII.), that
there may be fome fundamental bafes by thirds, de¬
duced from the two feventeenths, of which the one is
an attendant of the principal found, and of which the
other includes that found. But we muft advance ftep
by ftep, and fatisfy ourfelves at prefent to confider im¬
mediately the fundamental bafes by fifths.
34. Thus, from the found C, one may make a tranf-
ition indifferently to the found G, or to the found F.
35. One may, for the fame reafon, continue this
kind of fifths in afcending, and in defcending, from C,
in this manner :
Ej>, Bb, F, C, G, D, A, &c.
And from this feries of fifths one may pafs to any
found which immediately precedes or follows it.
36. But it is not allowed in the fame manner to pafs
from one found to another which is not immediately
contiguous to it j for inftance, from C to D, or from
D to C : for this very fimple reafon, that the found D
is not contained in the found C, nor the found C in
that of D *, and thus thefe founds have not any alliance
the one with the other, which may authorife the tranfi-
tion from one to the other.
37. And as thefe founds C and D, by the firft ex¬
periment, naturally bring along with them the perfeft
chords confifting of greater intervals C, E, G, ‘c’, and
"D, F$, A, ‘d’ j hence may be deduced this rule, That
two perfect chords, efpecially if they are major (x),
cannot fucceed one another diatonically in a funda¬
mental bafs 5 we mean, that in a fundamental bafs two
founds cannot be diatonically placed in fucceflion, each
of which, with its harmonics, forms a perfedl chord,
efpecially if this perfe61: chord be major in both.
Chap. IV. Of Modes in general.
38. A mode, in mufic, is, the order of founds pre-
fcribed, as well in harmony as melody, by the feries of
E*ception
to the rule.
Two per¬
fect chords
in fuccef-
fion profcri
bed.
Mode in
general,
what.
I C. 51S
fifths. Thus the three founds F, C, G, and the bar- Theory of
monies of each of thefe three founds, that is to fay, Haimon-'-.
their thirds major and their fifths, compofe all the major
modes which are proper to C.
39. The feries of fifths then, or the fundamental bafs Modes,
F, C, G, of which C holds the middle fpace, may be j.^JjePie’
regarded as reprefenting the mode of C. One may ^ feriej0f
likewife take the feries of fifths, or fundamental bafs, fifths.
C, G, D, as reprefenting the mode of G j in the fame
manner B b, F, C, will reprefent the mode of F.
Thus the mode of G, or rather the fundamental bafs
of that mode, has two founds in common with the fun¬
damental bafs of the mode of C. It is the fame with
the fundamental bafs of the mode F.
40. The mode of C (F, C, G) is called the principalPv'mci^X
mode with refpedl to the modes of thefe two fifths, which mode, and
are called its two adjunRs. what^*
41. It is then, in fome meafure, indifterent to theSee
ear wdiether a tranlition be made to the one or to \S\tjunEl.
other of thefe adjundls, fince each of them has equally Modes re-
two founds in common wdth the principal mode. Yetltfl|ec^^
the mode of G feems a little more eligible : for G is their ^
heard amongft the harmonics of C, and of confequence founds are
is implied and fignified by C j whereas C does notcommon.
caufe F to be heard, though C is included in the fame
found F. It is hence that the ear, affefted by the
mode of C, is a little more prepoffeffed for the mode
of G than for that of F. Nothing likewife is more
frequent, nor more natural, than to pafs from the mode
of C to that of G. Dominant
42. It is for this reafon, as well as to diftinguifh
the two fifths one from the other, that wTe call G the wjiat> ’
fifth above the generator dominant [onnd, and the See Do-
fifth F, below the generator, the fubdominant. minant.
43. As in the feries of fifths, we may indifferently ^ran^on
pafs from one found to that which is contiguous: f°» o^founck"
having paffed from the mode of C to that of G, one how to be’
may from thence proceed to the mode of D. And on managed,
the other hand, having paffed from the mode of C to
that of F we may then pafs to the mode of Bb. But it
is neceffary, however, to obferve, that the ear, which
has been immediately affefled with the principal mode,
feels always a ftrong propenfity to return to it. Thus
the further the mode to which we make a tranlition is re¬
moved from the principal mode, the lefs time we ought
to dwell upon it 5 or rather, to fpeak in the terms of
the art, the lefs ought the phrafe (u) of that mode to
be protrafted.
Chap. V. Of the Formation of the Diatonic Scale
as ufed by the Greeks.
44. From this rule, that two founds which are con¬
tiguous may be placed in immediate fucceflion in the
feries of fifths, F, C, G, it folknvs, that one may
3 T 2 form
(x) We fay efpeciallif if they are major; for in the major chord D, F$!, A,‘d’, befides that the founds C and D
have no common harmonica! relation, and are even diffonant between themfelves (art. 13.), it will likewife be
found, that F$ forms a diffonance wdth C. The minor chord D, F, A, ‘d’, wmuld be more tolerable, becaufe the
natural F, which occurs in this chord carries along with it its fifth C, or rather the o&ave of that fifth : It has
likewife been fometimes the praftice of compofers, though rather by a licence indulged them than ftriflly agree¬
able to their art, to place a minor in diatonic fucceflion to a major chord.
(u) As the mere Englilh reader, unacquainted with the technical phrafeology of mufic, may be furprifed at
the
5*6
Theory of
Harmony.
See fig. 4.
Formation
of the
Greek dia¬
tonic fcale
by the fun¬
damental
bafs.
Se, fi
g- 4-
M U
form this modulation, or this fundamental bafs, by
fifths, G, C, G, C, F, C, F.
45. Each of the founds which forms this modula¬
tion brings neceffarily along with itfelf its third major,
its fifth, and its oftave 5 infomuch that he who, for
inftance, fings the note G, may be reckoned to fing at
the fame time the notes G, B, ‘d, g’ : in the fame
manner the found C in the fundamental bafs brings
along writh it this modulation, C, E, G, C : and, in
fhort, the found F brings along writh it F, A, C, ‘f\
This modulation then, or this fundamental bajp,
G, C, G, C, F, C, F,
gives the following diatonic fenes,
B, ‘c, d, e, f, g, a’•,
which is precifely the diatonic fcale of the Greeks. We
are ignorant upon what principles they had formed this
fcale $ but it may be fenfibly perceived, that that feries
arifes from the bafs G, C, G, C, F, C, F j and that
of confequence this bals is juflly called fundamental, as
being the real primitive modulation, that which conducts
the ear, and which it feels to be implied in the diatonic
modulation, B, ‘c, d, e, f, g, a’ (x).
46. We (hall be ftill more convinced of this truth
by the following remarks.
Sic. Parti.
In the modulation B, ‘c, d, e, f, g, a’, the founds ‘d’ Theory of
and ‘f’ form between themfelves a third minor, which is Harmony,
not fo perfectly true as that between ‘e’ and ‘g’ (y). v
Neverthelefs, this alteration in the third minor between
‘d1 and ‘f’ gives the ear no pain, becaufe that ‘d’ and that
‘f’ which do not form between themfelves a true third
minor, form, each in particular, confonances perfectly
juft with the founds in the fundamental bafs which cor-
refpond with them : for ‘d’ in the fcale is the true fifth
of G, which anfwers to it in the fundamental bafs j and
‘f’ in the fcale is the true oflave ofF, which anfwers to
it in the fame bafs.
47. If, therefore, thefe founds in the fcale form con-A‘tered i*-
fonances perfeftly true with the notes which correfpond ter.^s’110
to them in the fundamental bafs, the ear gives itfelf
little trouble to inveftigate the alterations wdiich there
may be in the intervals which thefe founds in the fcaie
form between themfelves. This is a new proof that
the fundamental bafs is the genuine guide of the ear,
and the true origin of the diatonic fcale.
48. Moreover, this diatonic fcale includes only feven Reafons
founds, and goes no higher than ‘b’, which would ^y this
be the o£tave of the firft : a new Angularity, for which
a reafon may be given by the principles above eilablilh- fever.
ed. founds.
the ufe of the word phrafe when transferred from language to that art, we have though proper to infert the defini¬
tion of Roufleau.
A phrafe, according to him, is in melody a feries of modulations, or in harmony a fucceftion of chords, which
form without interruption a fenfe more or lefs complete, and which terminate in a repofe by a cadence more or
lefs perfeft.
(x) Nothing is eafier than to find in this fcale the value or proportions of each found with relation to the found
C, which we call 1 j for the two founds G and F in the bafs are 4 and y j from whence it follows,
1. That ‘c1 in the fcale is the o&ave of C in the bafs •, that is to fay, 2.
2. That ‘b’ is the third major of G j that is to fay 4 x (note oj, and of confequence .
3. That ‘d’ is the fifth of G j that is to fay 4- of and of confequence •£•
4. That ‘e’ is the third major of the oftave of C, and of confequence the double of | j that is to fay,
5. That ‘f’ is the double o&ave of F of the bafs, and confequently y»
6. That ‘g’ of the fcale is the o61ave of G of the bafs, and confequently 3.
7. That ‘a’ in the fcale is the third major of ‘f ’ of the fcale 5 that is to fay, | of y, or
Hence then will refult the following table, in which each found has its numerical value above or below it.
, Diatonic T Vs 2 £ | 4 3 'y0
Scale. B, c, d, e, f, g, a.
Fundamental V G, C, G, C, F, C, F.
Bafs. 1 4 I, 4: 1 y I y
And if, for the conveniency of calculation, wTe choofe to call the found C of the fcale 1 ; in this cafe
wre have only to divide each of the numbers by 2, which reprefent the diatonic fcale, and we ftiail
have
T 5 T 0 S 4 l s
t-j i t ^ t ir f
B, c, d, e, f, g, a.
(y) In order to compare ‘d’ with ‘f’, we need only compare 4 with 4; . the relation between thefe fraflicns wdll
be, (note c) that of 9 times 3 to 8 times 4 ; that is to fay, of 27 to 32 : the third minor, then, from ‘d’ to ‘f’,is
not true 5 becaufe the proportion of 27 to 32 is not the fame with that of 5 to 6, thefe two proportions being
between themfelves as 27 times 6 is to 32 times 5, that is to fay, as 162 to 160, or as the halves of thefe two
numbers, that is to fay, as 81 to 80.
M. Rameau, when he publiftied, in 1726, his New theoretical andpraciical Syflcm of Mufc, had not as yet
found the true reafon of the alteration in the confonance wdiich is between ‘d’ and ‘f’, and of the little attention
which the ear pays to it. For he pretends, in the work now quoted, that there are two thirds minor, one in the
proportion of 5 to 6, the other in the proportion of 27 to 32. But the opinion wdiich he has afterwards adopted,
feems much preferable. In reality, the genuine third minor, is that which is produced by nature between ‘e’ and
‘g’, in the continued tone of thofe Ibnorous bodies of which ‘e’ and ‘g’ are the two harmonics : and that third minor,
which is in the proportion of 5 to 6, is likewife that which takes place in the minor mode, and not that third
minor which is falfe and different, being in the proportion of 27 to 3 2.
Part I.
MUSIC.
Them , of ed. In reality, in order that the found ‘b’ may fucceed
Harmony, immediately in the fcale to the found ‘a’, it is neceflary
v_ that the note ‘g’, which is the only one from whence
‘b’ as a harmonic may be deduced, (hoivld immediately
fucceed to the found ‘fin the fundamental bafs, which
is the only one from whence ‘a’ can be harmonically de¬
duced. Now, the diatonic fucceffion from F to G
cannot be admitted in the fundamental bafs, according
to what we have remarked (art. 36.). The founds ‘a’
and ‘b’, then, cannot immediately fucceed one another
in the fcale ; we (hall fee in the fequel why this is not
the cafe in the feries ‘ c, d, e, f, g, a, b’, c, wThich
begins upon C $ whereas the fcale in queftion here be¬
gins upon B.
49. The Greeks likewife, to form an entire o£lave,
added below the firft B the note A, which they di-
ftinguilhed and feparated from the reft of the fcale,
which for that reafon they called prqflambanomene, that
is to fay, a firing or note fubadded to the fcale, and
put before B to form the entire oflave.
50. The diatonic fcale B, ‘c, d, e, f, g, a’, is compofed
oftwofimi t'vo tetrac^or^s> is to fay, of two diatonic fcales,
far conjunc-each confiding of four founds, B, ‘c, d, e, and ‘e, f’,
tive tetra- g, a’. Thefe two tetrachords are exactly fimilar ; for
chords. from ‘e’ to ‘f’ there is the fame interval as from B
to ‘c,’ from ‘f’ to ‘g’ the fame as from ‘c’ to
‘d,’ from ‘g’ to ‘a’ the fame as from ‘d’ to ‘e’
(z) : this is the reafon why the Greeks diftinguifhed
thefe two tetrachords j yet they joined them by the
note ‘a’ which is common to both, and which gave
them the name of conjunBlve tetrachords.
Intervals in 51. Moreover, the intervals between any two founds,
both tetra- taken in each tetrachord in particular, are precifely
chords e- true . ;n tetrachord, the intervals of C ‘e’,
and B ‘d’, are thirds, the one major and the other mi¬
nor, exactly true, as well as the fourth B ‘e’ (aa); it is
the fame thing with the tetrachord ‘e, f, g, a’, fince this
tetrachord is exactly like the former.
Intervals 52. But the cafe is not the fame when we compare
betweenthe j-wo founds taken each from a different tetrachord j for
different vve ^ave a’ready feen, that the note *d’ in the firft tetra-
tetrachords chord forms with the note ‘f’ in the fecond a third mi-
diffmilar. nor, which is not true. In like manner it will be
517
Theory of
Harmony.
Comple¬
tion oi the
Greek oc¬
tave.
See Pro-
/lambano-
mene.
The fcale
found, that the fifth from ‘d’ to ‘a’ is not exactly true,
which is evident; for the third major from ‘f ’ to ‘a’ is
true, and the third minor from ‘d’ to ‘f ’ is not fo : now,
in order to form a true fifth, a third major and a
third minor, which are both exactly true, are necef-
fa ry.
53. From thence it follows, that every confonance
is abfolutely perfect in each tetrachord taken by it-
felf; but that there is fome alteration in paffing from
one tetrachord to the other. This is a new rea-
fon^ for diftinguiihing the fcale into thefe tw'o tetra¬
chords.
54. It may be afcertained by calculation, that in the
tetrachord B, ‘c, d, e’, the interval, or the tone from ‘d’
to ‘e’, is a little lefs than the interval or tone from ‘c’ to
‘d’ (bb). In the fame manner, in the fecond tetrachord
‘e, f, g, a’, which is, as we have proved, perfedtly limi-
lar to the firft, the note from ‘g’ to ‘a’ is a little lefs than
the note from ‘t’ to ‘g1. It is for this reafon that they
diltinguifh two kinds of tones j the greater tone *, as
from ‘c’ to ‘d’, from ‘f’ to ‘g’, &c. j and the leffer f,
from ‘d’ to ‘e’, from ‘g’ to ‘a’, &c.
Chap. VI. ‘The formation of the Diatonic Scale among
the Modernst or the ordinary Gammut.
55. We have juft ftiown in the preceding chapter, T'ie m0'
hov the fcale of the Greeks is formed, B, ‘c, d, e, g, a’,
by means of a fundamental bafs compofed of three e[j
founds only, F, C, G j but to form the fcale ‘c, d, e, f,
g, a, b,’ c, which we ufe at prelent, we rnuft neceffini-
ly add to the fundamental bafs the note D, and form,
with thefe four founds F, C, G, D, the following fun¬
damental bafs :
C, G, C, F, C, G, D, G, C ; See fig. 5.
from wrhence we deduce the modulation or fcale See Scale.
‘c, d, e, f, g, a, b,’ c.
In effect (cc), ‘c’ in the fcale belongs to the harmony,
of C which correfponds with it in the bafs j ‘d’, which
is the fecond note in the gammut, is included in the
harmony of G, the fecond note of the bafs ; ‘e’, the
third note of the gammut, is a natural harmonic of C,
which is the third found in the bats, &c.
56. From
Another
reafon for
diftinguifh-
ing the
fcale into
two tetra-
e herds.
The fource
of tones
major and
minor inve-
Itigatcd.
Greater
tone. * See
Interval.
Leffer tone,
f See Inter’’
vat.
(z) The proportion of B to ‘c’ is as Ty to G that is to fay as 15 to 16 ; that between ‘e’ and /f’ is as | to 4,
that is to fay (note £>), as 3 times 3 to 4 times 4, or as 15 to 16: thefe two proportions then are equal. In the
fame manner, the proportion of ‘c’ to ‘d’ is as 1 to or as 8 to 9 j that between ‘f ’ and ‘g’ is as 4 4 > that is to
fay (note qJ, as 8 to 9. The proportion of ‘e’ to ‘c’ is as 4 to 1, or as 5 to 4 j that between ‘f ’ and ‘a’ is as 4
to 4? nr as 5 to 4 : the proportions here then are likewife equal.
(aa) The proportion of ‘e’ to ‘c’ is as 4 to 1, or as 5 to 4, which is a true third major j that from ‘d’ to ‘b’ is
as 4 to 44 *> that is to fay, as 9 times 16 to 15 times 8, or as 9 times 2 to 15, or as 6 to 5. In like manner we
(hall find, that the proportion of ‘c’ to ‘b’ is as 4 to 44 5 that is to fay, as 5 times 16 to 15 times 4, or as 4 to 3,
which is a true fourth.
(eb) The proportion of ‘d’ to ‘c’ is as f to 1, or as 9 to 8 ; that of ‘e’ to ‘d’ is as 4 to that is to fay, as 40
to 36, or as 10 to 9 : noiv ^ is lefs removed from unity than 4 } the interval then from ‘d’ to ‘e’ is a little lefs
than that from ‘c’ to ‘d\
If any one would with to know the proportion which bear to he will find (note qJ that it is as 8 times
10 to 9 times 9, that is to fay, as 80 to 8r. Thus the proportion of a leffbr to a greater tone is as 80 to 81 \ this
difference between the greater and leffer tone is what the Greeks called a comma.
We may remark, that this difference of a comma is found between the third minor when true and harmoni-
cal, and the fame chord when it fuffers alteration ‘d’, ‘fof which w7e have taken notice in the fcale (note v) 5 for
we have feen, that this third minor thus altered is in the proportion of 80 to Si with the true third minor.
(cc) The values or efiimates of the notes thall be the fame in this as in the former fcale, excepting only the
, . tone
pier tii an
ours, and
why.
518 M U
Theory of ^5. Hence it follows, that llie diatonic fcale of the
.hhinuonv. jSj at ]eaft in fome refpefts, more Ample than
The Greek 0lirs > hnce the fcale of the Greeks (chap, v.) may
diatonic be formed alone from the mode proper to C j whereas
fcule fnn- ours is originally and primitively formed, not only irom
the mode of C (F, C, G), but likevvife from the mode
of G, (C, G, D).
It will likevvife appear, that this lafl fcale conftfts of
two parts; of which the one, ‘c, d, e, f, g,’ is in the
PI o note niode of C ; and the other, ‘g, a, b,’ c, in that of G.
(<■' twice 57* ^or t^1’s rea^on note ‘g’ ,s twice repeated in
"repeated in immediate fuccefhon in this fcale •, once as the fifth of
the diatonic C, which correfponds with it in the fundamental bafs j
fcale from anc] again, as the o£tave of G, which immediately fol-
lows G in the fame bafs. Thefe two confecutive ‘g’s
tions to "the are otherwife in perfect unifon. For this reafon we
fundamen- fing only one of them when we modulate the fcale ‘c,
d, e, f, g, a, b,’ c; but this does not prevent us from
employing a paufe or repofe, exprefied or underflood,
after the found ‘f\ There is no perfon who does not
perceive this whilft he himfelf fings the fcale.
58. The fcale of the moderns, then, may be confi-
dered as confifting of two tetrachords, disjundtive in¬
deed, but perfedlly fimilar one to the other, ‘c, d, e, f’,
junftive te-and ‘g, a, b, c’, one in the mode of C, the other in that
trachords 0f G. We fhall fee in the fequel, by what artifice one
may caufe the fcale ‘c, d, e, f, g, a, b, o’, to be regarded
as belonging to the mode of C alone. For this pur-
pofe it is necefiary to make fome changes in the funda¬
mental bafs, which we have already afligned : but this
{hall be explained at large in chap. xiii.
cq. The introdudlion of the mode proper to G in
the fundamental bafs has this happy effedl, that the
the*funda-' notes ‘f, g, a, b’, may immediately fucceed each other in
mental bafs afcending the fcale, which cannot take place (art. 48.)
produdtive in the diatonic feries of the Greeks, becaufe that feries
ofcenve- js forraetj from the mode of C alone. Whence it
mences. r
follows :
tal bafs.
The mo¬
dern fcale.
compofed
of two dif-
of different
inodes.
The mode
of G in¬
troduced in
S I C. Parti.
1. That we change the mode at every time when Theory of
we modulate three whole tones in fucceflion. Harmony.^
2. That if thefe three tones are fung in fucceflion in ~v~
the fcale ‘c, d, e, f, g, a, b’, c, this cannot be done but
by the afliftance of a paufe expreffed or underftood af¬
ter the note ‘f’} infomuch, that the three tones ‘f g’, ‘g a*,
‘a b’, are fuppofed to belong to two different tetra¬
chords.
60. It ought not then any longer to furprife us, Change°f
that we feel fome difficulty whilft we afcend the fcale of t! “
in finging three tones in fucceflion, becaufe this
impradticable without changing the mode j and if one finging
paufes in the fame mode, the fourth found above thethreecon-
firfl note will never be higher than a femitone above fecug1^
that which immediately precedes it *, as may be feen by c°^ng"
‘c, d, e, f’, and by ‘g, a, b’, c, where there is no more
than a femitone between ‘e’ and ‘f’, and between ‘b’
and c.
6r. We may likewife obferve in the fcale ‘c, d, e, f’, Intervals,
that the third minor from ‘d’ to ‘f’, is not true, for the Jhough a^
reafons w'hich have been already given (art. 49.). It themfelves
is the fame cafe with the third minor from ‘a’ to.c, and form true
with the third major from ‘f ’ to ‘a’; but each of thele confonances
founds forms otherwife confonances perfedlly true, the
with their correfpondent founds in the fundamental ^
bafs.
62. The thirds ‘a’c, ‘fa’, which were true in the former
fcale, are falfe in this 5 becaufe in the former fcale ‘a’
was the third of ‘f’, and here it is the fifth of D, which
correfponds with it in the fundamental bafs.
63. Thus it appears, that the fcale of the Greeks ^ewer a*“
contains fewer confonances that are altered thanf^ancesitt
ours (dd) ; and this likewife happens from the intro-the
dudlion of the mode of G into the fundamental fcale than
bafs ( ee). incurs.
We fee likewife that the value of ‘a’ in the diatonic
fcale, a value which authors have been divided in afcer-
taining, folely depends upon the fundamental bafs, and
that
tone ‘a’; for ‘d’ being reprefented by -f-, its fifth will be expreffed by ^ j fo that the fcale will be numerically fig-
nified thus :
TP»4S*7i5o
c, d, e, f, g, a, b, c,
Where you may fee, that the note ‘a’ of this fcale is different from that in the fcale of the Greeks; and that the ‘a’
in the modern feries fiands in proportion to that of the Greeks as to t> *s t0 ^ay> as 81 to 80 ; thefe two
*a’s then likevvife differ by a comma.
(dd) In the fcale of the Greeks, the note ‘a’ being a third from ‘f’, there is an altered fifth between ‘a’ and ‘d’:
but in ours, ‘a’ being a fifth to ‘d’, produces two altered thirds, ‘f a’ and ‘a’ c ; and likewife a fifth altered, ‘a’ e, as
we (hall fee in the following chapter. Thus there are in our fcale two intervals more than in the fcale of the
Greeks which fuffer alteration.
(ee) But here it may be with fome colour obje&ed: The fcale of the Greeks, it may be faid, has a fundamen¬
tal bafs more Ample than ours ; and befides, in it there are fewer chords which will not be found exaftly true :
why then, notwithftanding this, does ours appear more eafy to be fung than that of the Greeks ? The Grecian
fcale begins with a femitone, whereas the intonation prompted by nature feems to impel us to rife by a full tone
at once. This obje&ion may be thus anfwered. The fcale of the Greeks is indeed better difpofed than ours for
the fimplicity of the bafs, but the arrangement of ours is more fuitable to natural intonation. Our fcale commen¬
ces by the fundamental found c, and it is in reality from that found that we ought to begin ; it is from this that
all the others naturally arife, and upon this that they depend ; nay, if we may fpeak fo, in this they are included :
on the contrary, neither the fcale of the Greeks, nor its fundamental bafs, commences with C; but it is from
this C that we mufi: depart, in order to regulate our intonation, whether in rifing or defcending ; now, in af¬
cending from ‘c’, the intonation, even of the Greek fcale, gives the feries ‘c, d, e, f, g, a’; and fo true is it that
the fundamental found C is here the genuine guide of the ear, that if, before we modulate the found ‘c’, we
3 (hould
Part I.
M U
Theory of that it muft be different according as the note ‘a’ has
Harmony. <£» or <(£5 for jts gee ^ note ^cc).
Chap. VII. Of Temperament.
Tempera- The alterations which we have obferved in the
neceffary/ intervais between particular founds of the diatonic fcale,
naturally lead us to fpeak of temperament. To give a
clear idea of this, and to render the neceflity of it pal¬
pable, let us fuppofe that we have before us an inilru-
ment with keys, a harpfichord, for inftance, confifting
of feveral oftaves or fcales, of which each includes its
twelve femitones.
See fig. 6. Let us choofe in that harpfichord one of the llrings
which will found the note C, and let us tune the firing
G to a perfect fifth with C in afcending j let us after¬
wards tune to a perfeft fifth with this G the ‘d’ which is
above it \ we fiiall evidently perceive that this ‘d’will
be in the fcale above that from which we fet out : but
it is alfo evident that this ‘d’ muft have in the fcale a D
which correfponds with it, and which muft be tuned a
true o&ave below ‘d’ j and between ‘d’ and G there
sic. 5i9
fiiould be the interval of a fifth ; fo that the I) in the Theory of
firft fcale will be a true fourth below the G of the fame Harmony,
fcale. We may afterwards tune the note A of the firfl:
fcale to a juft fifth with this laft D j then the note ‘e’
in the higheft fcale to a true fifth with this new A, and
of confequence the E. in the firft fcale to a true fourth
beneath this fame A : Having finilhed this operation,
it will be found that the laft E, thus tuned, will by no
means form a juft third major from the found C (FF) :
that is to fay, that it is impoffible for E to conftitute
at the fame time the third major of C and the true fifth
of A; or, what is the fame thing, the true fourth of
A in defcending.
65. If, after having fucceflively and alternately tuned
the firings C, G, ‘d’, A,, E, in perfedl fifths and fourths
one from the other, we continue to tune fucceflively by
true filths and fourths the firings E, B, F$, C^, G$(,
‘d^1, E$, ; we fhall find, that, though B^, being
a femitone higher than the natural note, fhould be equi¬
valent to ‘c’ natural, it will by no means form a juft oc¬
tave to the firft C in the fcale, but be confiderably
higher (gg) $ yet this upon the harpfichord ought
not
fhould attempt to rife to it by that note in the fcale which is moft immediately contiguous, wTe cannot reach
it but by the note B, and by the femitone from B to ‘c\ NW to make a tranfition from B to ‘c’, by this fe¬
mitone, the ear muft of neceffity be predifpofed for that modulation, and confequently preoccupied with the
mode of C : if this were not the cafe, we ftiould naturally rife from B to ‘c$’, and by this operation pafs into an¬
other mode.
(ff) The A confidered as the fifth of D is 4^, and the fourth beneath this A will conftitute ^ of 4-7, that is to
fay, t^len ^ha^ he the value of E, confidered as a true fomth from A in defcending : now E, confidered
as the third major of the found C, is or •’ thefe two E’s then are between themfelves in the proportion of
81 to 80 *, thus it is impoffible that E ftiould be at the fame time a perfesft third major from C, and a true fouith
beneath A.
(gg) In effedft, if you thus alternately tune the fifth above, and the fourth below7, in the fame oflave, you may
here fee wffiat w'ill be the procefs of your operation.
C, G, a fifth ; D a fourth j A a fifth j E a fourth ; B a fifth j a fourth ; C$ a fifth j Gi^ a fourth j ‘d^.’ a
fifth j A $ a fourth ; ‘e^’ or ‘ft]’ a fifth ; BigC a fourth : now it will be found, by a very eafy computation, that
the firft C being reprefented by 1, G fhall be D f, A 4"4> L 44>-&-c* and fo of the reft, till you arrive at
B$, which will be found This fraction is evidently greater than the number 2, which expreffes the
perfect octave c to its correfpondent C; and the o£tave below Bi^ would be one half of the fame fraction, that
is to fay xirt-rs-* which is evidently greater than C reprefented by unity. This laft fraction x^44gx's compo-
fed of two numbers ; the numerator of the fraftion is nothing elfe but the number 3 multiplied 11 times in fuc-
ceffion by itfelf, and the denominator is the number 2 multiplied 18 times in fucceflion by itfelf. Now it is evi¬
dent, that this fraction, which expreffes the value of B$, is not equal to the unity which expreffes the value of
the found C, though, upon the harpfichord, B$ and C are identical. This fraction rifes above unity by
that is to fay, by about ^ j and this difference w7as called the comma of Pythagoras. It is palpable
that this comma is much more confiderable than that which we have already mentioned (note bb), and which is
<>nly -ro-
We have already proved that the feries of fifths produces a ‘c’ different from B$, the feries of thirds major gives
another ftill more different. For, let us fuppofe this feries of thirds, C, E, GB$, we fhall have E equal
to -j, G$ to if, and B to l-$-p, whofe o&ave below is 444 5 fr°m whence it appears, that this laft B is lefs than
unity (that is to fay than C), by Ta-g-* or by or near it: A new comma, much greater than the preceding,
and which the Greeks have called apotome major.
It may be obferved, that this B$, deduced from the feries of thirds, is to the Bj^ deduced from the feries of
fifths, as 444’s to 444444? that is to fay, in multiplying by 524288, as 125 multiplied by 4096 is to J31441,
or as 51200 to 531441, that is to fay, nearly as 26 is to 27 : from whence it may be feen, that thefe two B’s^
are very confiderably different one from the other, and even fufficiently different to make the ear fenfible of
it 5 becaufe the difference confifts almott of a minor femitone, whofe value, as will afterwards be feen (art. 139.),
is 44*
Moreover, if, after having found the G^: equal to 44, we then tune by fifths and by fourths, G$, ‘d^’
0% as we have done with refpedft to the firft feries of fifths, we find that the Bj& muft be 4444 ? its differ¬
ence, then, from unity, or, in other words, from C, is t44f> that is to fay, about j a comma (till lefs than
any of the preceding, and which the Greeks have called apotome minor;
In
520
Theory of
Harmony.
MUSI C.
Part I.
not to be different from the oflave above C } for every
and every‘c’ is the fame found, fince the oftave or
the Icale only confirts of twelve femitones.
66. From thence it neceffarily follows, I. That it is
impoffible that all the o&aves and all the fifths Ihould
be jaft at the fame time, particularly in inflruments
which have keys, where no intervals lefs than a femi-
tone are admitted. 2. That, of confequence, if the
fifths are juftly tuned, fome alteration muft be made in
the o6faves j now the fympathy or found which fub-
fifls between any note and its o6tave, does not permit
us to make fuch an alteration : this perfect coalefcence
of found is the caufe why the oftave fhould fervc as. li¬
mits to the other intervals, and that all the notes which
rife above or fall below the ordinary fcale, are no more
than replications, i. e. repetitions, of all that have gone
before them. For this reafon, if the o6fave tvere al¬
tered, there could be no longer any fixed point either
in harmony or melody. It is then abfolutely neceffary to
tune the ‘c’ or BjgC in a juft o&ave with the firft ; from
whence it follows, that, in the progreftion of fifths, or,
what is the fame thing, in the alternate feries of fifths
and fourths, C, G, D, A, E, B, F$, C$, G$, ‘d^’,
A$, ‘e$’, B;$, it is neceffary that all the fifths fliould
be altered, or at leaft feme of them. Now, fince there
is no reafon why one fhould rather be altered than an¬
other, it follows, that we ought to alter them all equal¬
ly. By thefe means, as the alteration is made to in¬
fluence all the fifths, it will be in each of them almoft
imperceptible j and thus the fifth, which, after the oc- Theory of
tave, is the moft perfect of all confonances, and which Harmony.
w7e are under the neceflity of altering, muft only be al- v
tered in the leaft degree poflible.
67. It is true, that the thirds will be a little harfh :
but as the interval of founds which conftitutes the
third, produces a lefs perfect coalefcence than that of
the filth, it is neceffary, fays M. Rameau, to facrifice
the juilice of that chord to the perfedlion of the fifth j
for the more perfedl a chord is in its own nature, the
more difpleafing to the ear is any alteration which can
be made in it. In the odftave the leaft alteration is in-
fupportable.
68. This change in the intervals of inftruments Its defini-
which have, or even which have not, keys, is that which tion.
we call temperament. 1
69. It refults then from all that we have now faid, Principle
that the theory of temperament may be reduced tow“enceis
this queilion.—The alternate fucceflion of fifths and he^duced
fourths having been given, (art. 66.), in which B$
or C is not the true otlave of the firft C ; it is propo-
fed to alter all the fifths equally, in fuch a manner that
the two C’s may be in a perfect odta ’* the one to the
other.
70. For a folution of this queftion, we muft begin Pra&iral
with tuning the two C’s in a perfect odlave the one to directions
the other ; in confequence of which, we will render alltor teraPe-
the femitones which compofe the odfave as equal asr
poflible. By this means (hh) the alteration made in
each
In a word, if, after having found E equal to in the progreflion of thirds, we then tune by fifths and fourths
E B, F$, OK,’ &.c. we fhall arrive at a new B$, which (hall be and whic^ wiI1 not differ from unity
but by about which is the laft and fmalleft of all the commas •, but it muft be obferved, that, in this cafe,
the thirds major from E to G$, from G% to B£< or C, &c. are extremely falfe, and greatly altered.
(hh) All the femitones being equal in the temperament propofed by M. Rameau, it follows, that the twelve fe¬
mitones C, c$:, D, D$;, E, E$, &c. fhall form a continued geometrical progreflion ; that is to fay, a feries in
which C {hall be to in the fame proportion as to D, as D to D$, &c. and .fo of the reft.
Thefe twelve femitones are formed by a feries of thirteen founds, of which C and its oftave ‘c’ are the firft and
laft. Thus to find by computation the value of each found in the temperament, which is the prefent objeft of
our" fpeculations, our ferutiny is limited to the inveftigation of eleven other numbers between I and 2 which may
form with the 1 and the 2 a continued geometrical progreflion.
However little any one is praftifed in calculation, he will eafily find each of thefe numbers, or at leaft a num¬
ber approaching to its value. Thefe are the chara&ers by which they may be expreffed, which mathematicians
will eafily underftand, and which others may neglett.
C D D& E F F$ G G*
11 II IX IX IX IX II II
I C/2 V2* -\/2J V2* v/2* V*6 v'*7 v/28
A A$ B ‘o’
* 2
V?9
x/” V'
It is obvious, that in this temperament all the fifths are equally altered. One may likewife prove, that the al
ration of each in particular is very inconfiderable ; for it will be found, for
tcration ot each m parucuiar is very lueumiueiauic , *«. vyii± uv xwu.jw, inftance, that the fifth from C to G,
which fticuld be 4, ought to be diminifhed by about ttt of TJT; that is to fay, by a quantity almoft incon¬
ceivably fmall. # < r r* c
It is true, that the thirds major will be a little more altered } for the third major from C to E, for inftance,
(hall be increafed in its interval by about ^ : but it is better, according to M. Rameau, that the alteration
fhould fall upon the third than upon the fifth, which after the o6lave is the moft perfeft chord, and from the per-
feflion of which we ought never to degenerate but as little as poflible.
Befides. it has appeared from the feries of thirds major C, E, G$, Bj&, that this lad B#C is very different from
confequence of the difference which we find between the degrees of perfe£tion in thefe intervals j a difference with
which, if we may fpeak fo, the temperament propofed conforms itlelf. T. bus this diverfity of alteration is rather
advantageous than inconvenient. 2
Part I. ' MU
Theory of each fifth will be very confiderable, but equal in all of
Haimony. tlicm*
Rameau’s 71* In this, then, the theory of temperament con-
method of lifts : but as it would be difficult in praflice to tune a
tempera- harpfichord or organ by thus o rdering all the femi-
ment pro- tones equal, M. Rameau, m his Generation Harmoniqite,
pofed. • y,as fundfhed us with the following method, to alter all
the fifths as equally as poffible.
72. Take any key of the harpfichord which you
pleaft ; but let it be towards the middle of the inftru-
ment j for inftance, C : then tune the note G a fifth
above it, at firft with as much accuracy as polhble ;
this you may imperceptibly diminilh : tune afterwards
the fifth to this with equal accuracy, and dlminifh it in
the fame manner j and thus proceed from one fifth to
another in afcent: and as the ear does not appreciate fo
exaflly founds that are extremely fharp, it is neceffary,
when by fifths you have rifen to notes extremely high,
that you diould tune in the mod perfeft manner the oc¬
tave below the lad fifth which you had immediately
Vol. XIV. Part II.
S I C. 5211
formed j then you may continue always in the fame Theory of
manner •, till in this procefs you arrive at the lad fifth .Ha,mon\,„
from E$ to B$, which diould of themfelves be in
tune that is to fay, they ought to be iq fuch a date,
that B$:, the highed note of the two which compofe
the fifth, may be identical with the found C, with
which you began, or at lead the o£lave of that found
perfectly jud : it will be neceffary then to try if this
C, or its oftave, forms a jud fifth with the lad
found E$ or F, which has been already tuned. If
this be the cafe, w^e may be certain that the harpfi¬
chord is properly tuned. But if this lad fifth be
not true, in this cafe it will be too diarp, and it is
an indication that the other fifths have been too
much diminifhed, or at lead fome of them $ or it will
be too dat, and confequently difcover that they have
not been fufficiently diminifhed. We mud then be¬
gin and proceed as formerly, till we find the lad fifth
in tune of itfelf, and without our immediate interpofi-
tion (11).
2 U By
(11) We have only to acknowledge, with M. Rameau, that this temperament is far remote fiom that
which is now’ in practice : it may here be feen in what this lad temperament confids as applied to the oigan 01 harp¬
fichord. They begin with C in the middle of the keys, and they flatten the four fird fitths G, D, A, E, till
they form a true third major from E to C ; afterwards, fetting out from this E, they tune the fifths B, I C$,
G$, but flattening them dill lefs than the former, fo that G^ may almod form a true third major with E.
When they have arrived at G$, they dop j they refumc the fird C, and tune to it the fifth 1* in defcending,
then the fifth Bfr, &c. and they heighten a little all the fifths till they have arrived at Ab, which ought to be the
fame with the G$C already tuned.
if, in the temperament commonly pra&ifed, fome thirds are found to be lefs altered than in tnat preicribed by
M. Rameau, in return, the fifths in the fird temperament are much more falle, and many thirds are likewife fo;
infomuch, that upon a harpfichord tuned according to the temperament in common ufe, there are five or fix modes
which the ear cannot endure, and in which it is impoffible to execute any thing. On the contrary, in the tem¬
perament fuggeded by M. Rameau, all the modes are equally perfedl ; which is a new argument in its favour,
fmce the temperament is peculiarly neceffary in paffing from one mode to another, without (hocking the ear $
for indance, from the mode of C to that of G, from the mode of G to that of D, Sec. It is tiue, that this uni¬
formity of modulation will to the greated number of muficians appear a defeft : for they imagine, that, by tuning
the femitones of the fcale unequal, they give each of the modes a peculiar chara&er; fo that, acfoiding to them,
the fcale of C,
C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C,
is not perfedflly fimiiar to the gammut or diatonic fcale of the mode of E,
E, F$, G$:, A$, B,c$, d$, e,.
which, in their judgement, renders the modes of C and E proper for different manners of expreffion. But af¬
ter all that we have faid in this treatife on the formation of diatonic intervals, every one flrould be convinced,
that, according to the intention of natur-e, the diatonic fcale ought to be perfefty the fame in all its modes:
The contrary opinion, fays M. Rameau, is a mere prejudice of muficians. The charaider of an air arifes chiefly
from the intermixture of the modes 5 from the greater or leffer degrees of vivacity in the movement j from the
tones, more or lefs grave, or more or lefs acute, which are affigned to the generator of the mode ; and from the
chords more or lefs beautiful, as they are more or lefs deep, more or lefs flat, more or lefs (harp, which are
found in it.
In (liort, the lad advantage of this temperament is, that it will be found conformed with, or at lead very little
different from that which is pradtifed upon indruments without keys ; as the bafs-viol, the violin, in which true
fifths and fourths are preferred to thirds and fixths tuned with equal accuracy ; a temperament which appears in¬
compatible with that commonly ufed in tuning the harpfichord.
Yet M. Rameau, in his New System of Mufc, printed in 1726, adopted the ordinary temperament. In that
work, (as may be feen chap, xxiv.), he pretends that the alteration of the fifths is much more fupportable
than that of the thirds major ; and that this lad interval can hardly fuflfer a greater alteration than the o£lave,
which, as we know, cannot fuffer the flighted alteration. He fays, that if three drings are tuned, one by an oc¬
tave, the other by a fifth, and the next by a third major to a fourth dring, and if a found be produced from the
lad, the drings tuned by a fifth will vibrate, though a little lefs true than it ought to have been ; but that the
o£!ave and the third major, if altered in the lead degree, will not vibrate : and he adds, that the temperament
which is now pra&ifed, is founded upon that principle. M. Rameau goes dill farther j and as, in the ordinary
temperament,
I c.
522
M U S
Alterations
by either
method
hardly dif-
arreeabie.
iheoryof By this method all the twelve founds which compofe
one 0f fca]es all be tuned : nothing is neceffary
but to tune with the greateft poflible exadlnefs their
pflaves in the other fcales, and the harpfichord Uiall be
well tuned.
We have given this rule for temperament from M.
Rameau j and it belongs only to difinterefted artifts to
judge of it. However this queftion be determined, and
whatever kind of temperament may be received, the
alteration which it produces in harmony will be but
very fmall, or not perceptible to the ear, whole attention
is entirely engrofi'ed in attuning itself with the funda¬
mental bafs, and which fuft'ers, without uneafinefs, tbefe
alterations, or rather takes no notice of them, becaufe
it fupplies from itfelf what may be wanting to the truth
and perfeftion of the intervals.
Simple and daily experiments confirm what we now
advance. Liften to a voice which is accompanied, in
finging, by different inftruments; though the tempera¬
ment of the voice, and the temperament of each of the
inftruments, are all different one from another, yet you
will not be iti the lead affefled with the kind ef caco¬
phony which ought to refult from thefe diverfities, be¬
caufe the ear fuppofes thefe intervals true, of wrhich it
does not appreciate differences.
We may give another experiment. Let the three
keys E, G, B be flruck upon an organ, and the minor
perfecf chord only will be heard ; though E, by the con-
llrudfion of that inflrument, muft caufe G$ likewife
to be heard; though G fhould have the fame effect
upon D, and B upon F$ } infomuch that the ear is
at once affedted with all thefe founds, D, E, F$, G,
G$:, B: how many diffonances perceived at the fame
time, and what a jarring multitude of difcordant fen-
fations, would refult from thence to the ear, if the
perfedt chord with which it is preoccupied had not
power entirely to abftradt its attention from fuch
founds as might offend !
Chap. VIII. Of Repcfes or Cadences (kk)
Part L
Theory of
Harmony.
73. In a fundamental bafs whofe procedure is by pe-fe# and
fifths, there always is, always may be, a repofe, or imperfect,
crifis, in which the nnnd acquiefces in its tranfition w^at antl-
from one found to another : but a repofe may be morev'^’*
or lefs diiiindily fignified, and of coniequence more or
lefs perfedl. If one fhould rife by fifths •, if, for Repofe
ffance, we pafs from C to G 5 it is the generator which01 Cadence‘
paffes to one of thefe fifths, and this fifth was already
pre-exiflent in its generator : but the generator exiits
no longer in this fifth \ and the ear, as this generator
is the principle of all harmony and of all melody, feels
a defire to return to it. Thus the tranfition from a
found to its fifth in afeent, is termed an itnperfeB re¬
pofe, or imperfcB cadence; but the tranfition from any
found to its fifth in defeent, is denominated a perfect
cadence, or an abfolute repofe: it is the offspring w'hich
returns to its generator, and as it were recovers its ex-
iflence once more in that generator itfelf, with which
wdien founding it refounds (chap, i.)
74. Amongfl abfolute repofes, there are fome, if Perfect ca*-
wi may be allowed the expreflion, more abfolute, thatc*ences
is to fay, more perfedt, than others. Thus in the fun-
damental bafs and why.
C, G, C, F, C, G, D, G, C.
which forms, as we have feen, the diatonic fcale of the
moderns, there is an abfolute repofe from D to G, as
from G to C ; yet this laff abfolute repofe is more per¬
fedt than the preceding, becaufe the ear, prepoffelfed
with the mode of C by the multiplied impreffion of the
found C which it has already heard thrice before, feels
a defire to return to the generator C ; and it according¬
ly does fo by the abfolute repofe G C.
75. We may {till add, that what is commonly called Cadence in
cadence in melody, ought not to be confounded with melody dif-
what we name cadence in harmony. lerent from
T what it is
in harmony..
temperament, there is a neceffity for altering the laft thirds major, and to make them a little more (harp, that
they may naturally return to the odlave of the principal found, he pretends that this alteration is tolerable, not
only becaufe it is almoft infenfible, but becaufe it is found in modulations not much in ufe, unlefs the compofer
Ihould choofe it on purpofe to render the expreffion ifronger. “ For it is proper to remark (lays he), that we re¬
ceive different impreffions from the intervals in proportion to their different alterations: for inllance, the third
major, which naturally elevates us to joy, in proportion as we feel it, heightens our feelings even to a kind of
fury, when it is tuned too {harp ; and the third minor, which naturally inlpires us with tendernefs and ferenity,
depreffes us to melancholy when it is -too flat.” All this is very different from what this celebrated mufician after¬
wards exhibited in his Generation Harmonique, and in the performances which followed it. From this we can only
conclude, that the reafons which, after him, we have urged for the new temperament, muft without doubt have ap¬
peared to him very ftrong, becaufe in his mind they had fuperfeded thofe which he had formerly adduced in fa¬
vour of the ordinary temperament.
We do not pretend to give any decifion for either the one or the other of thefe methods of temperament, each
of which appears to us to have its particular advantages. We (hall only remark, that the choice of the one or
the other muft be left abfolutely to the tafte and inclination of the reader ; without, however, admitting this choice
to have any influence upon the principles of the fyftem of mufic, which we have followed even till this period,
and which muft always fubfift, whatever temperament we adopt.
(kk) That the reader may have a clear idea of the term before he enters upon the fubjeft of this chapter, it
may be neceffary to caution kirn againft a miftake into which he may be too eafily led by the ordinary fignifica- "
tion of the word repofe. In mufic, therefore, it is far from being fynonymous with the word ref. It is, on the
contrary, the termination of a mufical phrafe which ends in a cadence more or lefs emphatic, as the fentiment im¬
plied in the phrafe is more or lefs complete. Thus a repofe in mufic anfwers the fame purpofe as punctuation in
language. See Repos, in Rcuffeau’s Mufi.cal Dictionary.
Part I.
Theory of
Harmony.
Cadences in
the funda¬
mental hafs
neceflary in
the diatonic
fcale, and
which the
moft per-
fedh
Definition
and ufe of a
fen fib le
note.
See Senfible
Note.
M U
In the firft cafe, this word only figniiies an agree¬
able and rapid alteration between two contiguous
founds, called likewife a trill or Jhake ; in the fecond,
it fignifies a repofe or clofe. It is however true, that
this fnake implies, or at leail frequently enough pre-
fages, a repofe, either prefent or impending, in the fun¬
damental bafs (ll).
76. Since there is a repofe in palling from one found
to another in the fundamental bafs, there is alfo a
repofe in pafling from one note to another in the dia¬
tonic fcale, which is formed from it, and which this
bafs reprefents: and as the abfolute repofe G C is
of all others the moft perfect in the fundamental bafs,
the repofe from B to ‘c’, which anfwers to it in the
fcale, and which is likewife terminated by the genera¬
tor, is for that reafon the molt perfect of all others in
the diatonic fcale afcending.
77. It is then a law dictated by nature itfelf that if
you would afcend diatonically to the generator of a
mode, you can only do this by means of the third ma¬
jor from the fifth of that very generator. This third
major, which with the generator forms a femitone, has for
that reafon been called the fenjible note or leading note,
as introducing the generator, and preparing us for the
mort perfeft repofe.
We have already proved, that the fundamental bafs
is the principle of melody. We fhall befides make it
appear in the fequel, that the effe£t of a repofe in me¬
lody arifes folely from the fundamental bafs.
Chap. IX. Of the Minor Mode and its Diatonic
Series.
The diato- 7^* the fecond chapter, we have explained (art.
nic feries of 20. 30. 3 I. and 32.) by what means, and upen what
the minor principle, the minor chord C, E[j, G, ‘c’, may be for-
med, which is the charadleriftical chord of the minor
mode. Now what we have there faid, taking C for
the principal and fundamental found, we might likewife
have faid of any other note in the fcale, affumed in the
fame manner as the principal and fundamental found :
but as in the miner chord, C, Efr, G, ‘c’, there occurs
an Efr which is not found in the ordinary diatonic fcale,
•we fhall immediately fubftitute, for greater eafe and
conveniency, another chord, which is likewife minor and
exaClly fimilar to the former, of which all the notes are
found in the fcale.
79. The fcale affords us three chords of this kind, viz.
D, F, A,‘d’; A,‘c, e, a’j and E, G, B,‘e\ Among
thefe three we {hall choofe A, ‘c, e, a’; becaufe this
chord, without including any {harp or flat, has two
founds in common with the major chord C, E G, ‘c’ 5
and befides, one of thefe two founds is the very fame ‘c’:
fo that this chord appears to have the mofl: immediate,
and at the fame time the mofl: fimple, relation with the
chord C, E, G, ‘c\ Concerning this we need only add,
that this preference of the chord A, ‘c, e, a’, to every
other minor chord, is by no means in itfelf necelfary
for what we have to fay in this chapter upon the dia-
tained by
differert
■examples,
s I G. 523
tonic fcale of the minor mode. We might in the fame Theory af
manner have chofen any other minor chord j and it is Hatmony.,
only, as we have faid, for greater eafe and conveniency
that we fix upon this.
80. In every mode, whether major or minor, the^'om.c°r
found which implies the perfefl chord, whe-k ^ in ar”
ther major or minor, is called the tonic note ox hey; thuswijat#’
C is the key in its proper mode, A in the mode of A, See PrincU
&c. Having laid down this principle, Pal‘
81. We have fliown how the three founds, F, C,
G, w-hich conftitute (art. 38.) the mode of C, of which tl-on 0fthe
the firft, F, and the laft, G, are the two fifths of C, one fcaie pur-
defcending, the other riling, produce the Icale, B, ‘c, d,fued.
e, f, g, a’, of the major mode, by means of the fun-Seefi2,4*
damental bafs G, C, G, C, F, C, F j let us in the
fame manner take the three founds D, A, E, which
conflitute the mode of A, for the fame reafon that the
founds F, C, G, conftitute the mode of C ; and of them
let us form this fundamental bafs, perfedlly like the pre¬
ceding E, A, F, A, D, A, D ; let us afterwards place See fig. 7.
below each of thefe founds one of their harmonics, as
we have done (chap, v.), for the firft fcale of the major
mode 3 with this difference, that we muft fuppofe D and
A as implying their thirds minor in the fundamental
bafs to charadlerize the minor mode j and we {hall have
the diatonic fcale of that mode,
G$, A, B,‘c, d, e, f\
82. The G$, which correfponds with E in the fun¬
damental bafs, forms a third major with that E, though
the mode be minor 3 for the fame reafon that a third
from the fifth of the fundamental found ought to be ma¬
jor (art. 77.) when that third rifes to the fundamental
found A.
83. It is true, that, in caufing E to imply its third See
minor G, one might alfo rife to A by a diatonic pro-or Carry.
grefs. But that manner of rifing to A would be lefs
perfedl than the preceding 3 for this reafon (art. 76.),
that the abfolute repofe or perfeft cadence E, A, in the
fundamental bafs, ought to be reprefented in the moft
perfeft manner in the two notes of the diatonic fcale
which anfwer to it, efpecially wdien one of thefe two
notes is A, the key itfelf upon which the repofe is made.
From wEence it follows, that the preceding note G
ought rather to be {harp than natural 3 becaufe G$C,
being included in E (art. 19.), much more perfe&ly
reprefents the note E in the bafs, than the natural G
could do, wdiich is not included in E.
84. We may remark this firft difference between Diverfities
the fcale
G% A, B,‘c, d,e, f\
and the fcale which correfponds with it in the major
mode
B, ‘c, d, e, f, g, a ,
that from ‘e1 to ‘f’, wdrich are the two laft notes of the
former fcale, there is only a femitone 3 whereas from ‘g’
to ‘a’, which are the two laft founds of the latter feries,
there is the interval of a complete tone ; but this is not
the only difcrimination which may be found between
the fcales of the two modes.
3 U 2 85. To
in the fcales
of the ma¬
jor and mi¬
nor mode.
(ll) M. Rouffeau, in his letter on French mafic, has called this alternate undulation of different founds a trill,
from the Italian word trillo, wrhich fignifies the fame thing 3 and fame French muficians already appear to have
adopted this expreflion.
524 ^ ^ M U
Theory of §5. To inveftigate thefe differences, and to difcover
Harmony, reafon for which they happen, we 'hill begin by
x „~{vv forming a new diatonic fcale of the minor mode, finii-
rion •f thefe tar to the fecond fcale of the major mode,
clhVerences
stud their
reafons.
See fig. 5.
Ste fig. 8.
‘c, d, e, f, g, g, a, b\ c.
That lad feries, as wye have feen, was formed by
means of the fundamental bafs F, C, G, D, dilpofed
in this manner,
C, G, C, F, C, G, D, G, C.
Let us take in the fame manner the fundamental
bafs D, A, E, B, and arrange it in the following order,
A, E, A, D, A, E, B, E, A,
and it will produce the fcale immediately fubjoined,
A, B,‘c, d, e, e, f$, g$, a\
in which *c’ forms a third minor with A, which in the
fundamental bafs correfponds with it, which denomi¬
nates the minor mode; and, on the contrary, ‘g^.’
forms a third major with E in the fundamental bafs, be-
caufe ‘g^.’ rifes towards ‘a’ (art. 82. 83.)
86. We fee beiides an which does not occur in
the former,
A, B,‘c, d, e, f’,
where ‘f’ is natural. It is becaufe, in the firfl fcale, ‘f’
is a third minor from D in the bafs ; and in the fecond,
ff^’ is the fifth from B in the bafs (mm).
Difference S?- Thus the two hales of the minor mode are Hill
between in this refpeft more different one from the other than
the two^ t]le two fcales of the major mode ; for we do not re-
ttwminor mar^ this difference of a femitone between the two
mode great-taales of the major mode. We have only obferved
er than (art. 63.) fome difference in the value of A as it Hands
thofe of the jn each of thefe fcales, but this amounts to much lefs
major. t|ian a femitone.
‘f» and ‘g’ 88. From thence it may be ,feen why ‘f’ and ‘g’ are
(harp in the {harp when afcending in the minor mode ; befides the
"“'b01 the ‘f’ is only natural in the firft fcale G^(, A, B, ‘c,
why5’ ^ e» becaufe this ‘f’ cannot rife to ‘g$’, (art. 48.)
The cafe 89. It is not the fame cafe in defcending. For E,
different in the fifth of the generator, ought not to imply the third
defcending, maj0r ‘g$’, but in the cafe when that E defcends to
and why. ^ generator A tp form a perfeft repofe (art. 77. and
83.) ; and in this cafe the third major ‘g$’ rifes to the
generator ‘a’: but the fundamental bafs AE may, in
defcending, give the fcale ‘a, g’, natural, provided ‘g’
does not rife again to ‘a’.
90. It is much more difficult to explain how the ‘f’
which ought to follow this ‘g’ in defcending, is natural
and not iharp ; for the fundamental bafs
A, E, B, E, A, D, A, E, A,
mode from produces in defcending,
a funda- ‘a, g, e, e, d, c’, B, .A.
mental bafs And it is plain that the £f’ cannot be otherwife than
difficult.
Explication
of the de¬
fcending
fcale in the
S I c.
Part T.
fharp, fince ‘f$’ is the fifth of the note B of the fun- Theory of
damental bafs. Experience, however, evinces that the Harmony,i
‘f’ is natural in deicending in the diatonic fcale of the
major mode of A, efpecially when the preceding ‘g, is
natural : and it mult be acknowledged, that here the
fundamental bafs appears defective.
M. Rameau has attempted the following folution of^arn.eau,s
this difficulty. In the diatonic fcale of the minor mode1'('utlcd,’
ie defcending, (‘a, g, f, e, d, c,’ B, A,) ‘g’ may be re- onTy one, 2
garded fimply as a note of paffage, merely added to yet unfatij-
give fweetnefs to the modulation, and as a diatonic factory,
gradation by which we may defeend to ‘f’ natural.
'This is eafiily perceived, according to M. Rameau, by
the fundamental bafs,
A, D, A, D, A, E, A,
which produces
‘a, f, e, d, c’, B, A;
which may be regarded, as he fays, as the real fcale of
the minor mode in defcending; to which is added‘g1 na¬
tural between ‘a’ and ‘f’, to preferve the diatonic order.
This appears the only poflible anfwer to the difficulty
above propofed : but we know not whether it will fully
fatisfy the reader ; whether he will not fee wuth regret,
that the fundamental bafs does not produce, to fpeak
properly, the diatonic fcale of the minor mode in def-
cent, when at the fame time this fame bafs fo happily
produces the diatonic fcale of that identical mode in af¬
cending, and the diatonic fcale of the major mode
whether in rifing or defcending (nn)-
Chap. X. 0/"Relative Modes.
91. Two modes of fuch a nature that we can pafs
from the one to the other, are called relative modes. Modes re-
Thus the major mode of C is relative to the major l&tive,
mode of F and to that of G. It has alfo been feen^at^^
how many Intimate connexions there are between the
major mode of C, and the minor mode of A. For,
1. The perfeft chords, one major, C, E, G, ‘c’, the other
minor, A, ‘c, e, a’, which charafterize each of thofe two
kinds of modulation * or harmony, have two founds in * See Mo-
common, ‘c’ and £e’. 2. The fcale of the minor mode oidulation.
A in deicent, abfolutely contains the fame founds wdth
the fcale of the major mode of C.
Hence the tranfition is fo natural and eafy from the
major mode of C to the minor mode of A, or from the
the minor mode of A to the major mode of C, as ex¬
perience proves.
92. In the minor mode of E, the minor perfect
chord E, G, B, ‘e7, which characterizes it, has likewife
two founds, E, G, in common with the perfeft chord
major C, E, G, £c7, which characterizes the major mode
of
(mm) Befides, without appealing to the proof of the fundamental bafs, £f$7 obvioufly prefents itfelf as the fixth
note of this fcale ; becaufe the feventh note being neceffarily ‘g^1 (art. 77.) if the fixth were not £f$7, but ‘ftj7,
there would be an interval of three femitones between the fixth and the feventh, confequently the fcale would not
be diatonic, (art. 8.)
(Nn) When £g7 is faid to be natural in defcending the diatonic feale of the minor mode of A, it is only meant
that this ‘g' is not neceffarily (harp in defcending as it is in rifing ; for it may be (harp, as may be proved by
numberlefs examples, of which all mufical compofitions are full. It is true, that when ‘g’ is found fharp in def¬
cending to the minor mode of A, wTe are not fure that the mode is minor till the ‘f’ or £c’ natural is found ; both
of which imprefs a peculiar charaCIev on the minor mode, viz. £c7 natural, in rifing and in defcending, and, the.,
4 natural in defcending.
Part I.
M U
Theory of of C. But the minor mode of E Is not fo clofely re-
>Harmony. nor allied to the major mode of C as the minor
r mode of A ; becaufe the diatonic fcale of the minor
mode of E in defcent, has not, like the feries of the
minor mode of A, all thefe founds in .common with the
fcale of C. In reality, this fcale is ‘e, d, c’, B, A, G, F$,
E, where there occurs an‘f’ (harp which is not in the fcaie
of C. Though the minor mode of E is thus lefs rela¬
tive to the major mode of C than that of A ; yet the
artifl does not hefitate fometinaes to pafs immediately
from the one to the other.
When we pafs from one mode to another by the in¬
terval of a third, whether in defcending or riling, as
from C to A, or from A to C, from C to E, or from
E to C, the major mode becomes minor, or the minor
mode becomes major.
93. There is Hill another minor mode, into which
an immediate tranlition may be made in ilTuing from
the major mode of C. It is the minor mode of C
itfelf in which the perfect minor chord C, E[j, G, ‘c’,
has two founds, C and G, in common with the per-
feft major chord C, E, G, ‘c’. Nor is there any thing
more common than a tranfition from the major mode
of C to the minor mode, or from the minor to the
major (00).
Chap. XL Of Dijpmance.
Cafes ift
which the
mode is un¬
certain.
Hew we
may invef-
tigate the
generator
and its
fifths, and
by that
means de¬
termine the
mode.
94. We have already obferved, that the mode of C
(F, C, G,) has two founds in common with the mode
of G (C, G, D); and two founds in common with the
mode of F (Bb, F, C) ; of confequence, this procedure
of the bafs C G may belong to the mode of C, or to
the mode of G, as the procedure of the bafs F C, or
C F, may belong to the mode of C or the mode of F.
When one therefore paffes from C to F or to G in a
fundamental bafs, he is Hill ignorant what mode he is
in. It would be, however, advantageous to know it,
and to be able by fome means to biilinguilh the gene¬
rator from its fifths.
95. This advantage may be obtained by uniting at
the fame time the founds G and F in the fame har¬
mony, that is to fay, by joining to the harmony G, B,
‘d’ of the fifth G, the other fifth F in this manner,
G, B, ‘d, f ’ 5 this ‘f’ which is added, forms a diffonance
with G (art. 18.) Hence the chord G, B, ‘d, f’, is
called a difbnetit chord, or a chord of the feventh. It
ferves to diftinguilh the fifth G from the generator C,
which always implies, without mixture or alteration,
SIC. 525
the perfedt chord C, E, G, sc’, refulting from nature it- Theory of
felf (art. 32.) By this we may fee, that when we pafs Harmony.^
from C to G, one pafl’es at the fame time from C to F,
becaufe ‘f’ is found to be comprehended in the chord
of G ; and the mode of C by thefe means plainly ap¬
pears to be determined, becaufe there is none but that
mode to which the founds F and G at once belong.
96. Let us now fee what may be added to the har-Manner of '
mony F, A, C, of the fifth F below the generator, to treatinR
diftinguifh this harmony frem that of the generator.
It feems probable at firft, that we Ihould add to it tbo'“1 *- •
other fifth G, fo that the generator C, in palling to
F, may at the fame time pafs to G, and that by this
the mode Ihould be detetmined : but this introdudlion
of G, in the chord F, A, C, w-ould produce twro fe-
conds in fucceflion F G, G A, that is to fay, twm
dilTonances whofe union wrould prove extremely harlh
to the ear \ an inconvenience to be avoided. For if,
to diftinguilh the mode, we Ihould alter the harmony
of the fifth F in the fundamental bafs, it muft only be
altered in the leaft degree poffible.
97. For this reafon, inftead of G, we lhall take its Chord of
fifth ‘d’, the found that approaches it the neareft ; andt5ie Sreat
we lhall have, inftead of the fifth F, the chord F, A,
‘c, d’j which is called a chord of the great fxth.
One may here remark the analogy there is obferved
between the harmony of the fifth G and that of the
fifth F.
98. The fifth G, in rifing above the generator, gives The fubjedl
a chord entirely confifting of thirds afeending from G, °*f tll^onan-
C, B,‘d, f’; now the fifth. F being below the gene-
rator C in defcending, wre lhall find, as we go lower by
thirds from ‘c’ towards E, the fame founds ‘c’, A, F,
D, which form the chord F, A» ‘c, d’, given to the .
fifth F.
99. It appears befides, that the alteration of the har¬
mony in the two fifths confifts only in the third minor
D, F, which was reciprocally added to the harmony of
thefe two fifths.
Chap. XII. Of the Double Ufe or Employment of
Diffonance.
100. It is evident by the refemblance of founds to Account of
their o&aves, that the chord F, A, ‘c, d’, is in eftedlthe double,
the fame as the chord D, F, A, ‘c’, taken inverfely f,
that the inverfe of the chord C, A, F, D, has been fsee’/*. •
found (art. 98.) in defcending by thirds, from the ge- verted,
nerator C (pp).
1 or. The ..
(00) There are likewife other minor modes, into which we may pafs in our egrefs from the mode maior of C ;
as that of F minor, in which the perfect minor chord F, A\), lc\ includes the found ‘c\ and whofe fcale^in afeent
F, G, At?, Bfr, ‘c, d, e, fonly includes the two founds At>, B1;, which do not occur in the fcale of C. This tranli¬
tion, however, is not frequent.
The minor mode ef D has only in its fcale .afeending D, E, F, G, A, B,d’, one ‘cVlharpwhich is not
found in the fcale of C. For this reafon a tranfition may likewife be made, without grating the ear, from the
mode of C major to the mode of D minor ; but this paffage is lefs immediate than the former, becaufe the chords
C, E, G, c , and D, F, A, d , not having, a lingle found in common, one cannot (art. 37') P^fs immediately
from the one to the other.
(pp) M. Rameau, in feveral paffages of his works (for inftanee, In p. no, nr, 112, and 113, of the Ge¬
neration Harnionique'), appears to confider the chord D, F, A, C, as the primary chord and generator of the chord
E, A, ‘c, d\ which is that chord reverfed; in other paffages (particularly in p. 116. of the fame performance),
he feems to confider the firft of thefe chords as nothing elfe but the, reverfe of the fecond. It would feem that
this .
526
Theory of
Harmony.
Difference
between
dominant
and tonic
dominant.
y See I)o-
jnmant.
Seeming
contradic¬
tions recon¬
ciled.
MUSIC. Parti.
ioi. The chord D, F, A,‘c’, is a chord of the
feventh like the chord G, B, ‘d, f’j with this only differ¬
ence, that the latter in the third G, B, is major: where¬
as in the former, the third D, F, is minor. If the F
were fharp, the chord D. F$, A, ‘c’, would be a ge¬
nuine chord of the dominant, like the chord G, B, D, ‘f ’ j
and as the dominant G may defcend to C in the fun¬
damental bafs, the dominant D implying or carrying
with it the third major F$: might in the fame manner
defcend to G.
10 2. Now if the F$ fhould be changed into F natu¬
ral, D, the fundamental tone of this chord D, F, A, ‘c’,
might Hill defcend to G ; for the change from F$ to
F natural will have no other effeft, than to preferve
the impreflion of the mode of C, inftead of that of the
mode of G, which the F$ would have here introdu¬
ced. The note D will, however, preferve its cha-
rafter as a dominant, on account of the mode of
C, which forms a feventh. Thus in the chord of which
we treat, (D, F, A, ‘c1), D may be confidered as an im-
perfeB dominant: we call it imperfeB, becaufe it carries
with it the third minor F, inftead of the third major
F>^. It is for this reafon that in the fequel we (hall call
it (imply the dominant, to diftinguifti it from the dominant
G, which (hall be named the tonic dominant f.
103. Thus the founds F and G, which cannot fuc*
ceed each other (art. 36.) in a diatonic bafs, when
they only carry with them the perfeft chords FAC,
G B d, may fucceed one another, if ‘d’ be added to
the harmony of the firft, and ‘f’ to the harmony of
the fecond ; and if the firft chord be inverted, that is
to fay, if the two chords take this form, D, F, A, C,
G, B,d,a. v
104. Befides, the chord F, A,‘c, d’, being allowed
to fucceed the perfeft chord C, E, G, ‘c’, it follows for
' the fame reafons, that the chord C, E, G, C may be fuc-
ceeded by D, F, A, ‘c’ ; which is not contradictory to
what we have above (aid (art. 37.), that the founds C
and D cannot fucceed one another in the fundamental
bafs : for in the paffage quoted, we had fuppofed that
both C and D carried with them a perfect chord ma¬
jor ; whereas, in the prefent cafe, D carries the third
minor E, and likewife the found ‘c’, by which the
chord DF A‘c’ is connected with that which precedes it
C E G ‘c’ 5 and in which the found ‘c’ is found. Be¬
fides, this chord, D F A ‘c’, is properly nothing elfe but
the chord F A ‘c d’ inverted, and if we may (peak fo,
dilguife'd.
105. This manner of prefenting the chord of the
fubdominant under two different forms, and of employ- Theory of
ing it under thefe two different forms, has been called harmony,
by M. Rameau its double office or employment f. This Qou|^e
is the fource of one of the fineft varieties in harmony ; ployment,
and we (hall fee in the following chapter the advantages what, and
which refult from it. why fo
We may add, that as this double employment is
kind of licenfe, it ought not to be pradlifed without \le Employ,-
fome precaution. We have lately feen that the chords D meat.1
F A ‘c’, confidered as the inverfe of F A ‘c d’, may fuc-
cesd to C E G ‘c’, but this liberty is not reciprocal: and
though the chord F A ‘c d’, may be followed by the
chord C E G ‘c’, we have no right to conclude from
thence that the chord D A ‘c’, confidered as the in¬
verfe of F A ‘c d’, may be followed by the chord C E G
‘c\ For this the reafon (hall be given in chap. xvi.
Chap. XIII. Concerning the Ufe of this Double Em¬
ployment, and its Rules.
106. We have (hown (chap, xvi.) how the diatonic the
fcale, or ordinary gammut, may be formed from the u^c
fundamental bafs F, C, G, P, by twice repeating the above-men-
note G in that feries ; fo that this gammut is primitive-tinned
ly compofed of two fimilar tetrachords, one in the chord, the
mode of C, the other in that of G. Now it is poflible, ™P^e^lon
by means of this double employment, to preferve the may be c
impreflion of the mode of C through the whole extent preierved.
of the fcale, without twice repeating the note C, or
even without fuppofing this repetition. For this effefl
ive form the following fundamental bafs,
C, G. C, F, C, D, G, C :
in which C is underftood to carry with it the perfeft
chord C E G ‘c’; G, the chord G B ‘d f ’ j F the chord
F A‘c d’j and D, the chord DFA‘c’. It is plain
from what has been faid in the preceding chapter, that in
this cafe C may afeend to D in the fundamental bafs,
and D defcend to G, and that the impreflion of the
mode of C is preferved by the ‘f’ natural, which forms
the third minor ‘d f’, inftead of the third major which
D ought naturally to imply.
107. This fundamental bafs will give, as it is evi¬
dent, the ordinary diatonic fcale,
‘c, d, e, f, g, a, b\ c,
which of confequence will be in the mode of C alone;
and if one (hould choofe to have the fecond tetrachord
in the mode of G, it will be neceflary to (ubftitute
‘f^’ inftead of ‘ft]1 in the harmony of D (Q_Q_).
108. Thus the generator C may be followed accord¬
ing
this great artift has neither expreffed himfelf upon thisfubjeft with fo much uniformity nor with fo much precifion
as is required. We think that there is fome foundation for confidering the chord F, A, ‘c, d’, as pri¬
mitive : 1. Becaufe in this chord, the fundamental and principal note is the fubdominant F, which ought in effeft
to be the fundamental and principal found in the chord of the fub-dominant. 2. Becaufe that without having
recourfe, with M. Rameau, to harmonical and arithmetical progrefllons, of which the confuleration appears to us
quite foreign to the queftion, we have found a probable and even a fatisfa£tory reafon for adding the note ‘d’ to
the harmony of the fifth F (art. 96. and 97.) The origin thus affigned for the chord of the fub-dominant ap¬
pears to us the moft natural, though M. Rameau does not appear to have felt its full value ; for (carcely has it
been (lightly infinuated by him.
(R£L) It obvious that this fundamental bafs C, G, C, F, C, D, G, C, which formed the afeending fcale
sc, d, e, f, g, a, b’, c, cannot by inverting it, and taking it inverfely in this manner, C, G, D, C, F, C, G, C,
form the diatonic fcale c,‘b, a, g, f, e, d,c’, in defeent. In reality, from the chord G, B,‘d, (’, we cannot
oafs to the chord D, F, A, ‘c’, nor from thence to C, E, G ‘c\ For this reafon, in order to have the fundamental
a bafs
Part I. M U
Theory of Ing to pleafure in afcending diatonically either by a
i—armony. tonjc (]ominant (D F^< A C), or by a Cmple dominant
v (DFAC).
109. In the minor mode of A, the tonic dominant
E ought always to imply its third, major E G$, when
this dominant E defcends to the generator A (art. 83.);
and the chord of this dominant {hall be E G'^B ‘d’, en¬
tirely fimilar to G B ‘d f \ With refpeft to the fub-do-
minant D, it will immediately imply the third minor
F, to denominate the minor mode ; and we may add
B above its chord D F A, in this manner D F a"b, a
cnord fimilar to that of F A‘c d’ j and as we have de¬
duced from the chord F A ‘c d’ that of D F A ‘c’, we may
in the fame manner deduce from the chord D F A B ‘a’
a new chord of the feventh B ‘d f a’, which will exhi¬
bit the double employment of dijjbnances in the minor
mode.
no. One may employ this chord B‘d f a’, to pre-
ferve the impreffion of the mode of A in the diatonic
fcale of the minor mode, and to prevent the neceffity
of twice repeating the found E j but in this cafe, the
F muft be rendered (harp, and the chord changed to B
‘d f^ a’, the fifth of B being ‘f as we have feen above.
This chord is then the inverfe of D F$ A B, the fub-
dominant implying the third major, wdrich ought not
to furprife us ; for in the minor mode of A, the fecond
tetrachord E F$; G$; A is exadlly the fame as it wmuld
be in the major mode of A : Now, in the major mode
of A the fubdominant D ought to imply the third ma¬
jor F^-
Diverfities in. Hence the minor mode is fufceptible of a much
ror mode" &reater number of varieties than the major : the major
more nu-' *s founded in nature alone ; whereas the minor is
merous f°me meafure the produfl; of art. But, in return,
than in the the major mode has received from nature, to which it
major.
Inveftiga-
tion whe¬
ther art,
in confe-
quence of
fome fuc-
tefsful ad¬
vances,
may not be
carried far¬
ther.
Different
chords of
the fe-
owes its immediate formation, a force and energy which
the minor cannot boaft.
Chap. XIV. Of the different Kinds of Chords of the
Seventh.
ill. The diflbnance added to th« chord of the do¬
minant and of the fubdominant, though in fome mea¬
fure fuggefted by nature (chap, xi.), is neverthelefs a
work of art; but as it produces great beauties in har¬
mony by the variety which it introduces into it,, let us
si C. 527
difcover whether, in confcqucrice of this iirfi; advance, Theory of
art may not Hill be carried farther. Harmony.
113. We have already three different kinds of chords ~ ^ *
of the feventh, viz.
1. The chord G B ‘d f’, compofcd of a third major
followed by two thirds minor.
2. The chord D F A ‘c’, or B ‘d f$ a’, a third major
between two minors.
3. The chord B ‘d fa’, two thirds minor followed by
a major.
114. There are ftill two other kinds of chords of the
feventh which are employed in harmony 5 one is com- '
pofed of a third minor between two thirds major, C E G
B, or F A ‘c e’ $ the other is wholly compofed of thirds
minor G$ B ‘d f’. Thefe two chords, which at firfl ap¬
pear as if they ought not to enter into harmony if we
rigoroufiy keep to the preceding rules, are neverthelefs
frequently pradlifed with fuccefs in the fundamental bafs.
The reafon is this :
115. According to what has been faid above, if we 7!lc ,cJjorc‘J
would add a feventh to the chord C E G, to make adn.iffi-'
a dominant of C, one can add nothing but ; andble, and
in this cafe C E G Bi? would be the chord of the tonic why.
dominant in the mode of F, as G B ‘d f’ is the chord
of the tonic dominant in the mode of C ; but if we
would preferve the impreflion of the mode of C in the
harmony, we change this B into B natural, and the
chord C E G B|? becomes C E G B. It is the fame cafe
with the chord F A ‘c e’, which is nothing elfe but the
chord F A ‘c ; in which one may fubftitute for ‘elf,
V natural, to preferve the impreflion of the mode of
C, or of that of F.
Befides, in fuch chords as C E G B, F A ‘c e’, the
founds B and ‘e’, though they form a difibnance with
C in the firll cafe, and with F in the fecond, are never¬
thelefs fupportable to the ear, becaufe thefe founds B
and ‘e’ (art. 19.) are already contained and underftood,
the firfl; in the note E of the chord C E G B, as hke-
wife in the note G of the fame chord j the iecond in the
note A of the chord F A ‘c e’, as likewife in the note ‘c’
of the fame chord. All together then feem to allow the
artifl to introduce the note B and ‘e’ into thefe two
chords (rr).
116. With refpeft to the chord of the feventh G$ Chordscf
B ‘d f’, wholly compofed of thirds minor, it may be re-*^^™^
garded as formed from the union of the two chords ofandTx-6
the plnined.
venth.
bafs of the fcale, c, ‘b, a, g, f, e, d, c’, in defcent, we muft either determine to invert the fundamental bafs men-
tioned in art. 55. in this manner, C, G, D, G, C, F, C, G, C, in which the fecond G and the fecond C anfwer to
the G alone in the fcale •, or otherwife we muft form the fundamental bafs C, G, D, G, C, G, C, in which all the
notes imply perfect chords major, except the fecond G, which implies the choid of the ieventh G, B ‘d f’ and
which anfwers to the two notes of the fcale G, F, both comprehended in the chord G, B, ‘d, f’. > *
\\ hichever of thefe two bafles wre (hall choofe, it is obvious that neither the one nor the other {hall be wholly
in tne mode of C, but in the mode of C and in that of G. Whence it follows, that the double employ-
merit v hich gives to the fcale a fundamental bafs all in the fame mode when afcending, cannot do the fame
in defending ; and that the fundamental bafs of the fcale in defending will be neceffarily in two difterent modes
(RR) On the contrary, a chord fuch as C E[? G B, in which E would be flat, could not be admitted in harmony*
became in this chord the B is not included and underftood in E[j. It is the fame cafe with feveral other cho-ds5
fuch as B D FA*, B D* F A &c. It is true, that in the lait of thefe chords, A is included in F, but it is not
contained in D* ; and this D* hkewife forms with F and with A a double diffonance, which, joined with the dif-
ionance B F, would neceffarily render this chord not very pleafing to the ear j we {hall yet, however, fee in the
iecond part, that this chord is lometimes ufed.
528 M U
Tht. ry ef tie dominant and of the fab-dominant in the minor
i '' riJ10!i- ‘ mode. In eft eft, in the minor mode of A, forinftance,
thefe two chords are E B, hi’, and D E A B, whole
union produces E G $, B, M, f, a’. Now, if we Ihould
. luffer this chord to remain thus, it would be difagree-
able to the ear, by its multiplicity of diffonances, D E,
E E, F G$, A B, D G$, (art. iS.)j lb that, to avoid
this inconveniency, the generator A is immediately ex¬
punged, which, (art. 19.) is as it were underftood in
D, and the fifth or dominant E, whofe place the fenfible
note G$: is fuppofed to hold : thus there remains only
the chord G$ B ‘d f’, wholly compofed of thirds mi¬
nor, and in which the dominant E is confidered as un-
derftcod *, in fuch a manner that the chord G$B ‘d f’ re-
prefents the chord of the tonic dominant EG$B‘d’, to
which we have joined the chord of the fub-dominant
D FA B, but in which the dominant E is always rec¬
koned the principal note (ss).
117. Since, then, from the chord EGi^B ‘d’, vve may
pafs to the perfefl A C ‘e a’, and vice verfa, we may
in like manner pafs from the chord G$B 4d f’ to the
chord A C ‘e a’, «nd from this laft to the chord
G^BMf’: this remark will be very ufeful to us in
the fequel.
Chap. XV. Of the Preparation of Difcords.
Diifonance, ,118. In every chord of the feventh, the higheft
what. note, that is to fay, the feventh above the fundamen¬
tal, is.called a diffonance or difeord; thus ‘f’ is the diffo-
nance of the chord G‘Bdf’j ‘c’ in the chord D F,
A (c’, &c.
Manner of up. When the chord G B‘d f’ follows the chord
preparing C E G ‘c’, as often happens, it is obvious that we do not
tnveftigat-5 t^e diffonance ‘f’ in the preceding chord C E G ‘c’.
ed. Nor ought it indeed to be found in that chord ; for this
diffonance is nothing elfe but the fub-dominant added to
the harmony of the dominant to determine the mode :
now, the fub-dominant is not found in the harmony of
the generator.
120. For the fame reafon, when the chord of the fub-
dominant F A ‘c d’ follows the chord C E G ‘c’, the
note ‘d’, which forms a diffonance with ‘c’, is not found
in the preceding chord.
It is not fe when the chord D F A ‘c’ follows the
chord C E G ‘c’; for ‘c’, which forms a diffonance
in the fecond chord, Hands as a confonance in the pre¬
ceding.
Difibnance 121. In general, difforiance being the produflion of
is only to- art (chap. xi.), efpecially in fuch chords as are not of
thTeart0 t^e ton*c dominant nor fub-dominant, the only means
when foundto prevent its difpleafing the ear by appearing too hete-
in preced- rogeneous to the chord, is, that it may be, if w’e may
io.g chords, fpeak fo, announced to the ear by being found in the
s 1 c.
Part I.
preceding chord, and by that means conne& the two Theory of
chords. Hence follows this rule : Harmony. ^
122. In every chord of the feventh, which is not Preparation
the chord of the tonic dominant, that is to fay, (art.0f diffonan-
102.) which is not compofed of a third major followed ces how
by two thirds minor, the diffonance w hich this chord Per^orrnech
forms ought to Hand as a confonance in the chord
which precedes it.
This is what we call a prepared diffonance. See Prepa*
123. Hence, in order to prepare a diffonance, xht ration.
fundamental bafs muft neceffarily afeend by the interval
of a fecond, as
C EG‘c’, DFA‘c’j
or defeend by a third, as
C E G ‘c\ A C E G j
or defeend by a fifth, as
CEG‘c’, F ACE:
in every other cafe the diffonance cannot be prepared.
This may be eafily afeertained. If, for inltance, the fun¬
damental bafs rifes by a third, as C E G ‘c’, E G B ‘d’,
the diffonance ‘d’ is not found in the chord C EG^’.
The fame might be faid of C E G ‘c’, G B ‘d £’, and C E G
‘c’, B D ‘fa’, in which the fundamental bafs rifes by a
fifth or defeends by a fecond.
124. When a tonic, that is to fay, a note which car¬
ries with it a perfeft chord, is followed by a dominant
in the interval of a fifth or third, this fucceflion may be
regarded as a procefs from that fame tonic to another,
which has been rendered a dominant by the addition of
the diffonance.
Moreover, we have feen (art. J19. and 120.) that a
diffonance does not require preparation in the chords of
the tonic dominant and of the fub-dominant : whence
it follows, that every tonic carrying with it a perfetl
chord, may be changed into a tonic dominant (if the
perfeft chord be major), or into a fub-dominant (whe¬
ther the chord be major or minor) by adding the diffo¬
nance all at once.
Chap. XVI. Of the Rules for refolving Dijfo-
nances.
125. We have feen (chap. v. and vi.) how theDifibnaE-
diatonic fcale, fo natural to the voice, is formed by the ces to be
harmonies of fundamental founds $ from whence it fol-
lows, that the molt natural fucceftion of harmonical
founds is to be diatonic. To give a diffonance then, and made
in feme meafure, as much the charafler of an harmo-to appear
nic found as may be poflible, it is neceffary that this ^a“
diffonance, in that part of the modulation where it is ^?rtnnn;r^
found, ftiould defeend or rife diatomcally upon another
note, which may be one of the confonances of the fub-
fequent chord.
1 26. Now in the chord of the tonic dominant it In the
ought chord of
the tonic
the diflb-
(ss) We have feen (art. 109.) that the chord B ‘d f a’, in the minor mode of A, may be regarded as the in-nance
verfe of the chord D F A B ; it would likewfife feem, that, in certain cafes, this chord B d f a may be confidered as H>ould ra-
compofed of the two chords G B ‘d fF A ‘c d’ of the dominant and of the fub-dominant of the major mode of C \
which chords may be joined together after having excluded from them, 1. The dominant G, reprefented by its fcen^ ^
third major B, which is prefumed to retain its place. 2. The note C which is underftood in F, which will form why.
this chord B ‘d f a\ The nhord B ‘d f a’, confidered in this point of view, may be underftood as belonging to the
major mode of C upon certain occafions.
3
Part I.
Theory of
Haimony.
M U
ought rather to defcend than to life for this reafon.
Let us take, for inftance, the chord G B ‘d P followed
by the chord C E G ‘c1 ; the part which formed the dif-
fonance ‘f ’ ought to defcend to ‘e’ rather than rife to ‘g%
though both the founds E and G are found in the fub-
fequent chord C E G ‘c’ j becaufe it is more natural and
more conformed to the connexion which ought to be
found in every part of the mufic, that G (hould bfe found
in the fame part where G has already been founded, whilit
the other part was founding ‘P, as may be here feen
(Parts Firfl and Fourth).
S I C. 5*9
to any other chord except that of the tonic, to which it Theory of
naturally leads. Harmon}.
Firft part,
Second,
Third,
Fourth,
Fundamental bafs,
‘P
B>’
G
G
G
C
Ctonfequen-
ces of the
former
rule.
Another
confe-
quence.
But is de¬
duced from
the former
propofi-
rions.
Diflonance
relblved,
what.
See Rejoin,
tion.
127. So, in the chord of the Ample dominant D F A
‘c’, followed by G B d ‘P, the diflbnance ‘c’ ought ra¬
ther to defcend to B than rife to ‘d’.
1 28. And, for the fame reafon, in the chord of the
fub-dominant FA ‘c d’, the diflbnance ‘d’ ought to rife
to ‘e’ of the following chord C E G ‘c’, rather than
defcend to ‘c1 } whence may be deduced the following
rules.
129. i°, In every chord of the dominant, whether
tonic or Ample, the note which conftitutes the feventh,
that is to fay the diflbnance, ought diatonically to de¬
fcend upon one of the notes which form a confonance in
the fubfequent chord.
2° In every chord of the fub-dominant, the diflb¬
nance ought to rife diatonically upon the third of the
fubfequent chord.
130. A diflbnance which defcends or nfes diatoni¬
cally according to tbefe two rules, is called a dijjonciticc
refohed. . , . .
From thefe rules it is a neteffary refult, that the
chord of the feventh D F A ‘c\ though it (hould even
be confidered as the inverfe of F A ‘c d\ cannot be fuc-
ceeded by the chord C E G ‘c\ fince there is not in this
lafl chord the note B, upon which the diflbnance ‘c’ of
the chord D F A ‘c1 can defcend.
One may befides find another reafon for this rule,
in examining the nature of the double employment of
diflbhances. In eheft, in order to pafs from D F A c ,
to C E G ‘c’, it is neceffary that D F A ‘c’ ftiould in this
cafe be underftood as the inverfe of F A ‘c d’. Now the
chord D F A ‘c’ can only be conceived as the inverfe of
F A ‘c d’, when this chord D F A ‘c’ precedes or imme-
tliately follows the C E G ‘c’ *, in every other cafe the
chord D F A ‘c’ is a primitive chord, formed from the
perfea minor chord D F A, to which the diflbnance ‘c’
was added, to take from D the charafter of a tonic.
Thus the chord D F A ‘c’, could not be followed by the
chord C E G ‘c\ but after having been preceded by the
fame chord. Now, in this cafe, the double employment
would be entirely a futile expedient, without producing
agreeable eM : becaufe, inftead of this fucceflion
of chords, CFG ‘c’, D F A ‘c’, C E G ‘c\ it would be
much more eafy and natural to fubftitute this other, which
furnilhes this natural fucceflion C E G ‘c’, F A ‘c d’,
C E G V. The proper ufe of the double employment is,
that, by means of inverting the chord of the fub-domi¬
nant, it may be able to pafs from that chord thus inverted
" Vol. XIV. Part IL
Chap. XVII. Of the Broken or Interrupted
Cadence.
131. In a fundamental bafs which moves by fifths,0f
there is always, as we have formerly obferved (chap, perfection
viii.), a repofe more or lefs perfeft from one found to in cadences
another j and of confequence there muft likewife be
repofe more or lefs perfect from one found to another damentaj
in the diatonic fcale, which reiults from that bafs.—bafs.
It rnay be demonftrated by a very Ample experiment,
that the caufe of a repofe in melody is folely in the
fundamental bafs exprefled or underflood. Let any
perfon Ang thefe three notes ‘c d g’, performing on the
‘d’ a fnake, which is commonly called a cadence ; the mo¬
dulation will appear to him to be Aniflied after the fe-
cond ‘c’, in fuch a manner that the ear will neither ex-
pefl nor wilh any thing to follow. The cafe will be
the fame if we accompany this modulation with its
natural fundamental bafs C G C : but if, inftead of
this bafs, we {hould give it the following, C G A:
in this cafe the modulation ‘c d c’ would not ap¬
pear to be finiftied, and the ear would ftill expeft and
defire fomething more. This experiment may eafily
be made.
132. This paffage GA, when the dominant G diato-Broken da-
nically afeends upon the note A inftead of defeending fences,
by a fifth upon the generator C, as it ought naturally to w|‘at’ ancl
do, is called a broken cadence; becaufe the perfect ca-
dence G C, which the ear expe&ed after the dominant dence.
G, is, if we may fpeak fo, broken and fufpended by the
tranfitian from G to A.
133. Hence it follows, that if the modulation ‘c d c’
appeared finifhed when we fuppofed no bafs to it at all,
it is becaufe its natural fundamental bafs C G C is im¬
plied 5 for the ear defires fomething to follow this modu¬
lation, as foon as it is reduced to the neceflity of hearing
another bafs.
134. The broken cadence may be confidcred as hav- Origin of
ing its origin in the double employment of dijfonances ; broken
fince this cadence, like the double employment, only ^
confifts in a diatonic procedure of the bafs afeending
(chap, xii.) In effe£t, nothing hinders us to defcend ^ent of
from the chord G B ‘d f ’ to the chord C E G A by con-dkTonan-
verting the tonic C into a fub-dominant, that is to fay,Ce5-
by pafling all at once from the mode of C to the mode
of G : now to defcend from G B ‘d f’ to C E G A is
the fame thing as to rife from the chord G B ‘d f ’ to
the chord A ‘c e g% in changing the chord of the
fub-dominant C E G A for the imperfeft chord of the
dominant, according to the laws of the double employ¬
ment.
135. In this kind of cadence, the diflbnance of the Manner of
firfl: chord is refolved by defeending diatonically upon performing
the fifth of the fubfecjicnt chord. For inflance, in^sca"
the broken cadence G B ‘d f’, A ‘c e g’, the diflbnance e' ce’
‘f’ is refolved by defeending diatonically upon the
fifth ‘e\
136. There is another kind of cadence, called an f«-Interrupted
terrupted cadence, where the dominant defcends by a cadence,
third to another dominant, inftead of defeending by a
fifth upon the tonic, as in this fucceflion of the bafs d
3 X GB‘df\ ‘ *
530 ' M U S
Iheory of G B (d f’, E G B ‘d’ j in the cafe of an interrupted ca-
'Jiaimony. dence, the diffonance of the former chord is refolved by
defending diatonically upon the oftave of the funda¬
mental note of the fubfequent chord, as may be here
feen, where ‘f’ is refolved upon the oftave of E.
Origin of 137. This kind of interrupted cadence has likewife
this kind oi Its origin in the double employment of diffonances. For
like wife* in lls ^uPP°^e thefe two chords in fucceiTion, G B ‘d P,
the double G B ‘d e’, where G is fucceffively a tonic dominant and
employ- fub-dominant j that is to fay, in which we pafs from
inept. the mode of C to the mode of X) ; if we (hould change
the fecond of thefe chords into the chord of the domi¬
nant, according to the laws of the double employment,
we (hall have the interrupted cadence G B ‘d fEG
B‘d’.
Chap. XVIII. Of the Chromatic Species.
Fundamen- I3^* feries or fundamental bafs by fifths pro-
taibafs duces the diatonic fpecies in common ufe (chap, vi.) 5
may be now the third major being one of the harmonics of a
^ fundamental found as well as the fifth, it follows,
join S ma" that we may form fundamental baffes by thirds ma¬
jor, as we have already formed fundamental bafles by
fifths.
A chroma- 139' If then we (hould form this bafs C, E, G^,
tic interval the two firft founds carrying each along tvith it their
or minor thirds major and fifths, it is evident that C will give
how^ound G, and that E will give G$ : now the femitone which
Seefig.ro. ’s between this G and this G$n is an interval much
lefs than the femitone which is found in the diatonic
fcale between E and F, or between B and ‘c’. This
may be afeertained by calculation (tt) ; and for this
reafpn the femitone from E to F is called r^ajor^ and
the other minor (uu).
140. If the fundamental bafs (hould proceed by
thirds minor in this manner, C, E[j, a fucceffion
which is allowed when we have inveftigated the origin
of the minor mode (chap, ix.), we (hall find this mo-
I c.
Part I.
dulation G, G[?, w’hich would likewife give a minor Theory of
femitone (xx). Harmony.
141. The minor femitone is hit by young pradfi-
tioners in intonation with more difficulty than the fe-tion minor
mitone major. For which this reafon may be affign-femitone
ed : i lie femitone major which is found in the diato-^dw.11^ td
nic fcale, as from E to F, refults from a fundamen-t,e, hlt»and
tal bafs by fifths C F, that is to fay, by a fucceffion
which is moft natural, and for this reafon the eafieft
to the ear. On the contrary, the minor femitone arifes
from a fucceffion by thirds, which is (fill lefs natural
than the former. Hence, that fcholars may truly hit
the minor femitone, the following artifice is employ¬
ed. Let us iuppofe, for inftance, that they intend to
rife from G to G^ j they rife at firft from G to A,
then defeend from A to G$ by the interval of a fe¬
mitone major : for this G (harp, which is a femitone
major below A, proves a (emitone minor above G. [See
the notes (tt) and (uu).]
142. Every procedure of the fundamental bafs by >yjinor fe
thirds, whether major or minor, rifing or defeending, mitone to
gives the minor femitone. This wTe have already feen be found in
from the fucceffion of thirds in afeending. The feries ev^ry Pro-
of thirds minor in defeending, C A, gives, C, C$ ^
(yy) ; and the feries of thirds major in defeending, C, mental
A\), gives C, Cfj, (zz). bafs by
143. The minor femitone conftitutes the fpecies, t'lircis-.
called chromatic ; and with the fpecies which moves by
diatonic intervals, refulting from the fucceffion of ^-hen pre¬
fifths (chap. v. and vi.), it comprehends the whole of valent,
melody. conftitutes
Chap. XIX. Of the Enharmonic- Species.
chromatic
mufic.
144. The two extremes, or higheft and lowed notes, Ty..r
C G$, of the fundamental bafs by thirds major CEG$;, enha^o
give this modulation ‘c’B^ ; and thefe two founds ‘c’ nic interl
B$:, differ between themfelves by a fmall interval which val, whaf,
is called the diefs. or enharmonic fourth * of a tone (3 a), and ^ow
'f. , formed,
winch * See
     Fourth of a
Tone.
(tt) In reality, C being fuppofed I, as we have always fuppofed it, E is and : now G being G$Fl§' l1-
then (hall be to G as ■£§ to \ $ that is to fay, as 25 times 2 to 3 times 16 : the proportion then of G$ to G is
as 25 to 24, an interval much lefs than that of 16 to 15, which conftitutes the femitone from ‘c’ to B, or from
F to E (note z).
(uu) A minor joined to a major femitone will form a minor tone 5 that is to fay, if one rifes, for inftance, from
E to F, by the interval of a femitone major, and afterwards from F to by the interval of a minor femitone, the
interval from E to F$ will be a minor tone. For let us fuppofe E to be 1, F will be -fr, and F$ will be -J4
4y 1 ^at is to fay, 25 times 16 divided by 24 times 15, or A° 5 E then is to F'$ as 1 is to I^>, the interval which
conftitutes the minor tone (note BB).
With refpeef to the tone major, it cannot be exadlly formed by two femitones ; for, 1. Two major femitones in
immediate lucceffion would produce more than a tone major. In effedl, 4f- multiplied by Tf gives 44J-> which is
greater than 4, the interval which conftitutes (note be) the major tone. 2. A femitone minor and a femitone major
would give lefs than a major tone, fince they amount only to a true minor. 3. And, a fortiori, two minor femi¬
tones would ftill give lefs.
(xx) In effedl, E|j being Gl; will be ® of £ •, that is to fay, (note qJ 44 : now the proportion of 4 to 4r
(note q) is that of 3 times 25 to 2 times 36 *, that is to fay, as 25 to 24.
(yy ) A being 4, is 4 of 4 j that is to fay 44, and C is 1 : the proportion then between C and C$ is that
of 1 to 4i, or of 24 to 25.
(zz) A[? being the third major below C, will be £ (note Q,) : Cb, then, is 4 of £ J that is to fay 4r- The pro¬
portion, then, between C and Cb, is as 25 to 24.
(3 a) G$: being 44 an<I being 4 of 44, we (hall have B$ equal (note cf) to , and its odtave below
(hall be 4V > an iuterval lefs than unity by about T47 or ^XT. It is plain then from this fradlion, that the B$>. itv
queftion muft be conliderably lower than C.
Part I. ' MU
Theory of which is the difference between a femitone major and a
Harmony, femitone minor (3 b). This quarter tone is inappre-
tiable by the ear, and impra&icable upon feveral of our
inftruments. Yet have means been found to put it in
praftice in the following manner, or rather to perform
what will have the fame effeft upon the ear.
Manner of 145* We have explained (art. 116.) in what man-
feemingly ner the chord G$ B‘d f ’ may be introduced into the
introducing minor mode, entirely confifting of thirds minor perfeft-
this inter- true^ or a|. fuppofed fuch. This chord fupply-
inftruments ,ng P^ace chord of the dominant (art. 116.)
of fixed from thence we may pafs to that of the tonic or gene-
fcales. rator A (art. But we muff remark,
1. That this chord G$ B ‘d f’, entirely confifting of
thirds minor, may be inverted or modified according
to the three following arrangements, B ‘d f g$>’, D
F G$B, FG^B ‘d’ ; and that in all thefe three dif¬
ferent ftates, it will ftill remain compofed of thirds mi¬
nor ; or at leaft there will only be wanting the enhar-
p monic fourth of a tone to render the third minor be¬
tween F and G$: entirely juft ; for a true third minor,
as that from E to G in the diatonic fcale, is compofed
of a femitone and a tone both major. Now from F to G
there is a tone major, and from G to G$ there is only a
minor femitone. There is then wanting (art. 144.) the
enharmonic fourth of a tone, to render the third FG$
exaftly true.
2. But as this divifion of a tone cannot be found in
the gradations of any fcale practicable upon moft of our
S I c.
inftruments, nor be appretiated
takes the different chords.
B ‘d’ ‘f’
D F G$
F Gi& B
which are abfolutely the fame,
by the
ear,
the
531
ear Theory of
Harmony.
‘gr
B
‘d’,
for chords compofed
every one of thirds minor exadtly juft.
Now the chord G$B‘df’, belonging to the minor
mode of A, where G$ is the fenfible note ; the chord
B ‘d f g$\ or B ‘d f ah’, will, for the fame reafon, be¬
long to the minor mode of C, where B is the fenfible
note. In like manner, the chord D F G$ B, or
DFAh ‘cb\ will belong to the minor mode of Eh,
and the chord F G$B ‘d’, or F Ah ‘ch eS?b’t to the mi¬
nor mode of Gh.
After having paffed then by the mode of A to the
chord Gi^B ‘df’ (art. 117.), one may by means of this
laft chord, and by merely fatisfying ourfelves to invert
it, afterwards pafs all at once to the modes of C minor,
of Eh minor, or of Gh minor 5 that is to fay, into the
modes which have nothing, or almoft nothing, in com¬
mon with the minor mode of A, and which are entire¬
ly foreign to it (3 c).
146. It muft, however, be acknowledged, that aThealtera-
tranfition fo abrupt, and fo little expeCted, cannot de-tlon> h°w-
ceive nor elude the ear ; it is ftruck with a fenfation ^ichTr is
fo unlooked-for, without being able to account for the effr<£luated
paffage to itfelf. And this account has its foundation abrupt and
in the enharmonic fourth of a tone j which is overlook-fenfible.
3X2 ed
This interval has been called t/ie fourth of a tone, and this denomination is founded on reafon. In effeCI, we
jnay diftinguifti in mufic four kinds of quarter tones.
1. The fourth of a tone major : now, a tone major being f, and its difference from unity being the differ¬
ence of this quarter tone from unity will be almoft the fourth of ^ ; that is to fay,
2. The fourth of a tone minor ; and as a tone minor, which is '-g, differs from unity by -J-, the fourth of a mi¬
nor tone will differ from unity about y^.
3. One half of a femitone major 5 and as this femitone differs from unity by y'y, one half of it will differ from
unity about y1^. _ .
4. Finally, one half of a femitone minor, which differs from unity by : its half then will be yT?.
The interval, then, which forms the enharmonic fourth of a tone, as it does not differ from unity but by yy,
may juftly be called the fourth of a tone, fince it is lefs different from unity than the largeit interval of a quarter
tone, and more than the leaft.
We (hall add, that fince the enharmonic fourth of a tone is the difference between a femitone major and a fe¬
mitone minor ; and fince the tone minor is formed (note uu) of two femitones, one major and the other minor ;
it follows, that two femitones major in fuccefiion form an interval larger than that of a tone by the enharmonic
fourth of a tone ; and that two minor femitones in fucceflion form an interval lefs than a tone by the fame fourth
of a tone. . . . . \
(3 b) That is to fay, that if you rife from E to F, for inftance, by the interval of a femitone major, and after¬
wards, returning to E, you ftiould rife by the interval of a femitone minor to another found which is not in the
fcale 'and which I ftiall mark thus, F-f, the two founds F-f- and F will form the enharmonic fourth of a tone :
for E being 1, F will be •, and F-{-4y : the proportion then between F-f- and F is that of to if (note Q_) ;
that is to fay, as 25 times 15 to 16 times 24; or otherwife, as 25 times 5 to 16 times 8, or as 125 to 128.
Now this proportion is the fame which is found, in the beginning of the preceding note, to exprefs the enharmo¬
nic fourth of a tone.
(3 c) As this method for obtaining or fupplying enharmonic gradations cannot be pra&ifed on every occafion
when the compofer or pra&itioner would wifti to find them, efpecially upon inftruments where the fcale is fixed
and invariable, except by a total alteration of their economy, and re-tuning the firings, Dr Smith in his Harmo¬
nics has propofed an expedient for redrefting or qualifying this defedf, by the addition of a greater number of keys
or firings, which may divide the tone or femitone into as many appreciable or fenfible intervals as may be necef-
fary. For this, as well as for the other advantageous improvements which he propofes in the ftrufture of inftru¬
ments, we cannot with too much warmth recommend the perufal of his learned and ingenious book to fuch of our
readers as afpire to the charafter of genuine adepts in the theory of mufic.
S32 M U S
Theory of ed as nothing, becaufe it is inappretiable by the ear ;
Harmony, 0£ though its value is not afcertained, the
whole harfhnefs is fenfibly perceived. The inflant of
mrprife, however, immediately vaniflies j and that aflo-
nilhment is turned into admiration, when one feels him-
ielf tranfported as it were all at once, and almoil imper¬
ceptibly, from one mode to another, which is by no
means relative to it, and to which he never could have
immediately palfed by the ordinary feries of fundamen¬
tal note?.
Chap. XX. Of the Diatonic Enharmonic Species.
347. If we form a fundamental bafs, which rifes al¬
ternately by fifths and thirds, as F, C, E, B, this bafs
S>e %. 12. will give the following modulation, ‘f, e, e, d$’; in
which the femitones from ‘f ’ to ‘e’, and from ‘e’ to ‘d$C’,
are equal and major (3 d).
This fpecies of modulation or of harmony, in which
See all the femitones are major, is called the enharmonic
monk. diatonic fpecies. The major femitones peculiar to this
fpecies give it the name of diatonic, hecaufe major fe¬
mitones belong to the diatonic fpecies \ and the tones
which are greater than major by the excefs of a fourth,
refulting from a fucceflion of major femitones, give it
the name of enharmonic (note 3 a).
Chap. XXL Of the Chromatic Enharmonic Species.
148. If we pafs alternately from a third minor in
defcending to a third major in rifing, as C, C, A, C$,
C$, we (hall form this modulation it\), e^ e, e e^’, in
which all the femitones are minor (3 e).
This fpecies is called the chromatic enharmonic fpe¬
cies : the minor femitones peculiar to this kind give it
the name of chromatic, becaufe minor femitones belong
to the chromatic fpecies 5 and the femitones which are
leffer by the diminution of a fourth refulting from a fuc-
ceffion of minor femitones, give it the name of enhar¬
monic (note 3 f).
149. Thefe new fpecies confirm what we have all
along faid, that the whole effedls of harmony and me¬
lody refide in the fundamental bafs.
Diatonic 150. The diatonic fpecies is the mod; agreeable, be-
fpecies moft caufe the fundamental bafs which produces it is form-
agreeable, eci from a fucceffion of fifths alone, which is the moft
auclwhy* natural of all others.
The chro- I5I- chromatic being formed from a fucceflion
matic next. thirds, is the moft natural after the preceding.
Laftly, the IS2‘ Finally, the enharmonic is the leaft agreeable
enharmo- of all> becaufe the fundamental bafs which gives it is
aic.
Chromatic
enharmo¬
nic inter¬
vals, how
formed.
See fig. 13.
From this
fpeeies, the
effefls of
harmony
and melo¬
dy appear
to be in the
fundamen¬
tal btifs.
2 Part I.1
not immediately indicated by nature. T. he fourth of Theory of
a tone which conftitutes this fpecies, and which is it- Harmony.
felf inappretiable to the ear, neither produces nor can' 
produce its eftecl, but in proportion as imagination
fuggefts the fundamental bafs from whence it refults }
a bafs whole procedure is not agreeable to nature, fince
it is formed of two founds which are not contiguous one
to the other in the feries of thirds (art. 144.).
Chap. XXII. Showing that Melody is the Offspring
of Harmony.
I53* All that we have hitherto faid, as it feems to The efFe&s
me, is more than fufficient to convince us, that melody of me‘ot^y
has its original principle in harmony 5 and that it is inbe in.vef'
harmony, expreffed or underftood,'that we ought to En™
look for the effefts of melody. ° e“flM
154. If this (hould ftill appear doubtful, nothing more or urider-
is neceffary than to pay due attention to the firft expe-ftood'
riment (art.19.), where it may be feen that the prin-*
cipal found is always the loweft, and that the (harper
founds which it generates are with relation to it what
the treble of an air is to its bafs.
I55* Yet more, we have proved, in treating of the
broken cadence (chap, xvii.), that the diverfification of
gaffes produces effects totally different in a modulation
which, in other refpe&s, remains the fame.
_ *56- Can it be ftill neceffary to adduce more con¬
vincing proofs ? We have but to examine the different
baffes which may be given to this very fimple modula¬
tion GC. It will be found fufceptible of many, and
each will give a different chara&er to the modula¬
tion GC, though in itfelf it remains always the fame.
We may thus change the whole nature and effe&s of a
modulation, without any other alteration than that of
its fundamental bafs.
M. Rameau has ftiown, in his New System of Mafic,
printed at Paris 1726, p. 44. that this modulation
G, C, is fufceptible of 20 different fundamental baffes.
Now the fame fundamental bafs, as may be feen in our
fecond part, will aftbrd feveral continued or thorough
baffes. How many means, of confequence, may be prac-
tifed to vary the expreflion of the fame modulation ?
I57* From thele different obfervations it may be ^on^e3lieI1“
concluded, 1. That an agreeable melody, naturally im-ces de<Suci-
plies a bafs extremely fweet and adapted for finging
and that reciprocally, as muficians exprefs it, a bafs ofcipIerm*
this kind generally prognoflicates an agreeable me-
lody (3 f).
2. That the character of a juft harmony is only to
form in feme meafure one fyftem with the modulation
fo
(3 D) It is obvious, that if F in the bafs be fuppofed 1, ‘P of the fcale will be 2, C of the bafs \ and ‘e’ of
the fcale | of that is, V 5 the proportion of ‘P to ‘e’ is as 2 to \s, ®r as 1 to 44. Now E of the" bafs being
likewife 4 of 4, or V j B of the bafs is 4 of V5, and its third major 4 of 4 of V, or y : of y • this third
major, approximated as much as poflible to ‘e’ in the fcale by means of o&aves, will be 44 of y : ‘e’ then of the
Icale will be to d $ which follows it, as -f is to 44 V> that is to fay, as 1 to 44* The femitones then from
‘P to ‘e’, and from ‘e’ to ‘d’^, are both major.
(3 k) It is evident that, e is -5- (note Q_), and that ie^ is -J • thefe two ‘e’s, then, are between themfelves as 4
to ■%, that is to fay, as 6 times 4 to 3 times y, or as 24 to 25, the interval which conftitutes the minor femitone.
Moreover, the A of the bafs is 4, and 4 of 4, or 44 : ‘e’^ then is 4 of 44, the ‘e’ in the fcale is likewife to
the ‘e'$ which follows it, as 24 to 25. All the femitones therefore in this fcale are minor.
{3 * J Many compofers begin with determining and writing the bafs j a method, however, which appears in
general
Part II.
MUSIC.
Principles fo that from the whole taken together, the ear may only
Compofi-reCeive if we may lueak io, one fimple and indivifible
tion, ■ <r y 7 r
i impretiion.
3. That the character of the fame modulation may
be diverfified, according to the character of the bafs
which is joined with it.
But notwithftanding the dependency of melody up¬
on harmony, and the fenfible influence which the lat¬
ter may exert upon the former ; we mult not however
conclude, with fome celebrated muficians, that the
effefts of harmony are preferable to thofe of melo¬
dy. Experience proves the contrary. [See, on this
account, what is written on the licenfe of mufic, print¬
ed in tom. iv. of D’Alembert’s Melanges de Literature,
p. 448.3
General Remark.
The diatonic fcale or gammut being compofed ©f.
twelve femitones, it is clear that each of thefe femi-
tones taken by itfelf may be the generator of a-mode ;
and that thus there mult be twenty-four modes in all,
twelve major and twelve minor. We have affumed the
major mode of C, to reprefent all the major modes in
general, and the minor mode of A to reprefent the
modes minor, to avoid the difficulties arifing from (harps
and flats, of which we muft have encountered either a
greater or leffer number in the other modes. But the
rules we have given for each mode are general, what¬
ever note of the gammut be taken far the generator-
of a mode.
533
Principles
of Gompolu
tion.
Part II. Principles and Rules of COMPOSITION.
158. COMPOSITION, called alfo is
not only the art of compofing an agreeable air, but al-
fo that of compofing feveral airs in fuch a manner that
when heard at the fame time, they may unite in produ¬
cing an effect agreeable and delightful to the ear j this
is what we call cornfiojing mufic in feveral parts.
The higheft of thefe parts is called the treble, the
lowed is termed the bafs ; the other parts, when there
are any, are termed middle parts ; and each in particu¬
lar is figniffed by a different name.
Chap. I. Of the Different Names given to the fame
Interval.
Particular 159. In the introduction (art. 9.), we have feen a
intervals detail of the moft common names given to the different
deferent ^ But particular intervals have obtained dif-
names and ferent names, according to circumftances ; which it is
why. proper to explain.
Second re I^°’ '^Ln *nterva^ cornP°fed of a tone and a femi-
dundant tone> which is commonly called a third minor, is like-
what. wife fometimes called a fecond redundant; fuch is the
interval from C to D$ in afeending, or that of A to
G\) defeending.
Why fo 1 his interval is fo termed, because one of the founds
called. which form it is always either (harp or flat, and that,
if that (harp or flat be taken away, the interval will be
that of a fecond (30).
Falfe fifth, 161. An interval compofed of two tones and two
what. femitones, as that from B to ‘f’, is called a falfe fifth.
This interval is the fame with the tritone (art. 9.), fince
Compofi-
tion in har¬
mony,
what.
See Compo-
Jition.
two tones and two femitones are equivalent to three
tones. There are, however, reafons for diffinguiftiing
them, as will appear below.
162. As the interval from C to D$ in afeending Fifth re-
has been called a fecond redundant, we likevvife call dimdant,
the interval from C to G$ in afeending, z fifth redun- wliat<
dant, or from B to Ej? in defeending, each of which in¬
tervals are compofed of four tones (3 II).
This interval is, in the main, the fame with that of Diftin-
the fixth minor (art. 6.) : but in the fifth reduudant g’-fi-died
there is always a (harp or a flat; infomuch, that^f this
(harp or flat were removed, the interval would become nor<
a true fifth.
163. For the fame reafon, an interval compofed of Seventh di-
three tones and three femitones, as from G$ to ‘f’ jn mmiflied,
afeending, is called a feventh diminifihed; becaufe, ifwhat*
we remove the (harp from G, the interval from G to
‘f’ will become that of an ordinary feventh. The in¬
terval of a feventh diminiflied is in other refpe&s the
fame with that of the fixth major (art. 9.) (3 1).
164. The major feventh is likewife fometimes called Seventh
a feventh redundant (3 k). major and
redundant
Chap. II. Comparfon of the Different Intervals. C01nClCieilt'
165. If we fing‘c’B in defeending by a fecond, Notes in
and afterwards^ C B in afeending by a feventh, thefediffeient
two B’s (hall be o&aves one to the otherg or, as we ocC*:aves or
commonly exprefs it, they will be replications one oflca-es repll"
.1 .1 ' f r cations each
the other. of the
166. On account then of the refemblance between other.-
every
general more proper to produce a learned and harmouioue mufle, than a drain prompted by genius and animated
by enthufiafm.
(3 G) ^or the fame reafon, this interval is frequently termed by Engliffi mufleians an extremefiharpfecond.
(3 h) This interval is ufually'termed by Engliffi theorifts a [harp fifth.
(3 1) The material difference between the diminiffiecT feventh and the major fixth is, that the former always--
implies a divifion of the interval into three minor thirds, whereas a divifion into a fourth and third major, or into
a (econd and major and minor third, is ufually fuppofed in the latter.
(3 k) The chief ufe of thefe different denominations is therefore to diftinguiih chords: for inflance, the
chord of the redundant fifth and that of the diminiflied feventh are different from the chord of the fixth ; the
chord of the fevetith redundant, from that of the feventh major. This will be explained in the following
chapters. .
534
Principles
of Compofi
tion.
Hence to
defcend to
one replica¬
tion, and
rife to ano¬
ther, has
the fame
effedt
Detail of
replica¬
tions.
Examples
of this.
M U
every found and its oftave (art. 22.), it follows, that
to rife by a/eventh, or defcend by a fecond, amount to
the fame thing.
167. In like manner, it is evident that the lixth def-
cending is nothing but a replication of the third afeend-
ing, nor the fourth defeending but a replication of the
fifth afeending.
168. The following expreflions either are or ought
to be regarded as fynonymous.
To rife by a fecond.—To defeend by a feventh.
To defcend by a fecond.—To rife by a feventh.
To rife by a third.—To defcend by a fixth.
To defcend by a third.—To rife by a fixth.
To rife by a fourth.—To defcend by a fifth.
To defcend by a fourth.—To rife by a fifth.
S I C. Part II.
169. Thus, therefore, we fliall empky them indif- Principles
ferently the one for the other; fo that when we fay,0*
for inflance, to rife by a third, it may be faid with ^ - >
equal propriety to defcend by a fxth, &c.
Chap. III. Of the Cleffs ; of the Value or fhianti-
ty »* °f the Rhythm ; and of Syncopation.
170. There are three cleffs * in mufic ; the F cleff * see Ciejp
; the C cleff ; and the G cleff ^ . whft’
The F cleff is placed on the fourth line (3 Lj or on and bow
the third ; and the line on which this cleff is placed gives placed,
the name of F to all the notes on that line. CCCLV
The C cleff is placed on the fourth, the third, the Fig. y.r.
fecond, or the firft line: and in thefe different pofitions Fig. 7.2.
all
(3 l) Our author has treated this part of his fubjeft with fomewhat lefs perfpicuity than ufual. He has nei¬
ther deferibed the ftaffs or fyftems of lines on which the cleffs are placed, nor explained their relation to each
other. We have therefore attempted to fupply the deficiency.
Mufical founds, like language, are reprefented by written charaflers, by which their gravenefs or acutenefs,
their duration, and the other qualities intended to be affigned to them, are accurately diftinguifhed.
The characters which denote the gravenefs or acutenefs, or, as it is termed, the pitch of founds, are intended to
reprefent the ordinary limits of the human voice, in the exercife of which, or the employment of inftruments of
nearly the fame compafs with it, all practical mufic confifts.
From the loweft diftina note, without {training, of the mafeuline voice, to the higheft note generally produced
by the female voice, there is an interval of three oCtaves, or twenty-two diatonic notes.
Thefe notes are reprefented by charaaers deferibed alternately on eleven parallel lines, and the fpaces between
them, forming what we fhall here term \\\e generalfystem. . .
The charaaers reprefenting the notes are differently formed according to their duration, but with this we have at
prefent no concern. Wb fhall employ the limpleft, a fmall circle or ellipfe.
The whole extent of the human voice, then, if deferibed upon xhe generalfystem, would be reprefented as at Plate
T Y |
The mafeuline voice, rifmg from the loweft note of the general fyftem, will, generally fpeaking, reach the
note on the central line ; and an ordinary female voice will reach the fame note, defeending from the higheft.
Male voices more acute, and female voices graver than ufual, will confequently execute this note with greater
This central note then, being producible by every fpecies of voice, has been affumed as a fundamental or key
note, by which all the others are regulated (art. 4.). And to it is affigned the name of C, by which, in the theo.
ry of harmony, (as we have feen), the fundamental found of the diatonic fcale is diftinguifhed.
The other notes take their denominations accordingly. The note below it is B, that above it ‘d’, &c. ; and
to diftinguifh this central C from its oftaves, it is called the middle or tenor C.
As no human voice can execute the whole twenty-two notes, the general fyftem is divided into portions of five
lines, each portion reprefenting the compafs of an ordinary voice ; and different portions are made ufe of, according
to the gravenefs or acutenefs of different voices. .
The five lines in this ftate form what is called a faff. Each ftaff is fubdivided into lines and paces. On
the lines and in the fpaces, the heads of the notes are placed. The lines and fpaces are counted upvyards, from
the loweft to the higheft ; the loweft line is termed the fif line; the fpace between it and the fecond line is deno¬
minated the frf fpace, and fo on. Both lines and fpaces have the common name of degrees ; the ftaff thus con¬
tains nine degrees, viz. five lines and four fpaces. . ... • 1 j
To afeertain what part of the general fyftem is formed by *faff, one of the cleffs mentioned m the text is placed
at the beginning of the ftaff, on one or other of the lines of it. ... rp;
The C or tenor cleff always denotes the line on which it is placed to be that which carries tae tenor C. I he
G or treble cleff diftinguifhes the line carrying ‘g’, the perfed fifth above the tenor C. And the F or bafs cleft
afeertains the line which reprefents F the perfeft fifth below the tenor C. # r-x j i, •
The figures of the cleffs, (which are chara&ers gradually corrupted from the Gothic C, G, and F), and their
places in the general fyftem, appear on Plate CCCLV. Fig. 2. rr • c a
By this difpofition of the cleffs, we fee that the ftaff, which includes the line bearing the treble cleff, is formed
by the five higheft lines of the general fyftem ; and that the ftaff which comprehends the bafs cleff confifts of
the five loweft. _ r t> n
The central line, which carries the tenor C, belongs neither to the treble nor the bafs ftaves. But as that note
frequently occurs in compofition written on thefe ftaves, a fmall portion of the tenor line is occafionally introduced
below the treble cleff and above that of the bafs (fig. 3.)
4 • AS
Part II. M U S
all the notes on the fame line with the cleff take the
name of C.
The G cleff is placed on the fecond or firft line;
and all the notes on the line of the cleff take the name
ox G.
171. As the notes are placed on the lines, and in
the foaces between the lines, the name of any note may
be dilcovered from the pofition of the cleff. Thus, in
the F cleff, the note on the lowed line is G ;-the note
on the fpace between the two firft lines A ; the note oh
fecond line B, &c.
172. A note before which there is a iharp (marked .
thus $) muft be raifed by a femitone ; and if there be
a flat (marked fo) betore it, it muft be depreffed by a
femitone.
Fig- 7- 3-
Names of
the notes to
be invefti-
gated from
the poS-
tion of the
clefls.
Marks and
power of
fharps, flats,
and natu¬
rals.
1 C. 555
The natural (marked thus ||) reftores to its natural Principles
value a note which had been raifed or depreffed by a°^ Cumpofi-
f ■ v j tion.
lemitone.  ^
,73* When a (harp or a flat is placed at the cleff, pig. s.
all the notes upon the line or fpr.ce on which this
{harp or flat is marked, are (harp or fia:. For inftance,
if in the cleff of G a {harp be placed on the higheft
line, which is the place of ‘T*, all the notes on that
line will be —to reftore them to their original va¬
lue of '‘fr natural, a |j rnuft be placed before them. pjg ^
In the fame manner, if a flat be marked at the cleff,
all the notes on the fame line or fpace wrh the flat will
be flatto reftore them to their natural ftate, a lj muft
be placed before them (3 m). and
174. Every piece of mufic is divided into different
equal ‘ * *
As notes ftill more remote from the ftaff in ufe are fometimes introduced, fmall portions of the lines to which
thefe lines belong are employed in the fame manner. Thus, if in writing in the bafs ftaff we w-ant the note properly
placed on the loweft line of the treble ftaff, we draw two Ihort lines above the bafs ftaff, one reprefenting the tenor line,
and the other the loweft line of the treble ftaff, and on this laft fhort line we place the note in queftion, (fig. 4.)
On the other hand, if, in writing on the treble ftaff, we would employ a note properly belonging to the bafs ftaff,
we place it below the treble ftaff, and infert the requifite thort lines, reprefenting the correfponding lines of the general
iyftem (fig. 5.)
The occafional {hort lines thus employed are termed /eger lines.
The fame expedient is ufed to reprefent notes beyond the limits of the general fyftetn. Thus, we write the F
which is one degree lower than the loweft G of the bafs ftaff, on the fpace below that G ; the E immediately
lower, or on a leger line below the bafs ftaff, and fo on. Notes in this pofition are termed double; thus, the F
juft mentioned is double F, or FF; the E, double E, or EE, &c.
Again, the ‘a’ above the higheft ^g' of the treble ftaff is placed on a leger line above that ftaff. The is
placed on the fpace above the leger line : The next note ‘c’ is fet on a fecond leger line, and fo on. Thefe high
notes are, in compofitions for feme inftruments, carried more than an o£tave above the general fyftem. Thofe in
the firft o&ave are laid to be in alt; thofe beyond it, to be in altiffimo.
The tenor or C cleff is employed to form different intermediate ftaves between the treble and bafs, according to
the compafs of the voice or inftrument for which the ftaff is wanted.
Compofitions for the gravett mafeuline voices and inftruments are written on the bafs cleff, and thofe for fe¬
male voices and inftruments higheft in tone, on the treble ftaff*.
For mafeuline voices next in depth to the bafs and for the higher oftave of the violoncello and baffoon,
a ftaff, called the tenor Jlaff, is formed by adding to the tenor line the three higheft lines of the bafs ftaff and the:
loweft line of the treble (fig. 6. 1.)
For the higheft mafculine voices, which are called counter tenor,, and for the tenor violin, a ftaff is formed by
the tenor line, the two higheft lines of the bafs, and the two loweft of the treble ftaff (fig. 6. 2.).
For the graveft female voices, which are called mevsKo foprano, the tenor line and four loweft lines of the treble
form a ftaff (fig. 6. 3.).
The relation of all the ftaves to the general fyftem, and to each other, will appear from fig. 6.
The bafs cleff on the third line, the tenor cleff on the fecond, and the treble cleff on the firft, rarely occur, ex¬
cept in old French mufic.
The tenor cleff, and the ftaves diftinguifhed by it, are now lefs frequently ufed than the treble and bafs cleffs.
Thofe who cultivate mufic only as an amufement find it irkfome to learn fo many modes of notation. The teno?
ftaves are accordingly banilhed from compofitions for keyed inftruments. Secular coropofitions for voices are like-
wife now written in the treble and bafs ftaves only y although in this there is fome inaccuracy, as the tenor parts*
now written in the treble ftaff, muft often be fung an o&ave below that in which they appear. The chief ufe of
the tenor cleff is in choral mufic and compofitions for the baffoon and tenor violin; and its principal advantage^
the facility of reading ancient mufic, which is almoft exclufively written in this cleff^ has feldom been deemed an
mfufficient recompenfe for the labour of acquiring it.
(3 m) The difpofition of {harps or flats at the cleff, which is termed Jignature, depends upon the mode, or
tone affumed in the compofition as a fundamental or key note, and will be afterwards explained.
The {harps or flats of the fignature affeft not only the notes placed on the fame degree with themfelves, as men¬
tioned in the text, but alfo all the notes of the fame letter, in every o<3ave throughout the movement.
The {harps or flats of the fignature determine the fcale in which the movement is compofed, and are therefore faid.
to be ejfential; thofe which occur in the courfe of the piece on an occafional change of the fcale, are termed accidental.
* Compofitions for French horns are written in the treble ftaff, although the tone of the inftrument be very grave; bat this is becaufe
the horn U borrowed from and has the Lame natural intervals with the Trumpet, which is an acute inftnunenU
.^6 M U
Principles equal times, called intafures \ and each meafure is like-
of Compoli- vvjfe divided into different times.
, t^on‘ . There are properly two kinds of meafures or modes of
See Time, tneaf'-11® of two times, or common time, mark¬
ed by the figure 2 at the beginning of the time (fig. 10.) *,
and the meafure of three times, or triple time, marked by
the figure 3 placed in the fame manner (fig. II.).
1'he different meafures are diftinguiftied by perpendi¬
cular lines (3 n), called bars.
In a meafures, we diftinguiffi between the Jfrong and
the weak time : the Jirong time is that which is beat;
the weak, that in which the hand or foot is ra'ifed. A
meafure confifting of four times ought to be confider-
ed as compounded of two meafures, each confifting of
two times : thus there are in this meafure two ,/irong
and two weak times. In general by 4he words Jirong
S I C. Part 1L
and weak even the parts of the fame time are diftin- Principles
guiftied •, thus, the firft note of each time is confideredof ^VmiK)£'"
as Jirong and the others as weak.    .
175. The longeft of all notes is a femibreve. A mi- The value
nim is half its value 5 that is to fay, two minims are to of notes ia
to be performed in the time occupied by one femibreve. duration.
A minim in the fame manner is equivalent to two*1®'u'
crotchets, the crotchet to two quavers (3 o). Syncopa-
176. A note which is divided into two parts by a tion, what.
bar, that is, which begins at the end of a meafure, and ‘
terminates in the meafure following, is called a fijnco- See Synco~
pated note (3 ?)• •* pat ion.
179. A note followed by a point or dot is increafed Val^e 0 a
half its value. Thus a dotted femibreve is equivalent n0te>
to a femibreve and a minim, a dotted minim, to a mi-
mim and a crotchet, &c. (Fig. 17.) (3 qJ.
Chap.
(3 n) All the notes, therefore, contained between two bars conftitute one meafure; although in common lan¬
guage the word bar is improperly ufed for meafure.
(3 o) The notes, in their figure, confift of a head and a Jlem, except the femibreve, which has a head only.
The place of the note in the ftaff is determined by the head, which muft be placed on the line, or in the fpace,
affigned to the note. The Jletn may be turned either up or down.
Tlpe quaver is equivalent to two femiquavers, and the femiquaver to two demi-femiquavers. In modern mufic
the demi-femiquaver is alfo fubdivided.
The quaver and the notes of Ihorter duration may be grouped together, tjy two, three, or four, &c. and joined
by as many black lines acrofs the ends of the ftem as there are hooks in the fingle note (fig. 12.) This arrange¬
ment is convenient in writing, and affifts the eye in performance.
When quavers, or the fhorter notes, are to be repeated in the fame degree for a time equal to the duration of
a longer note, the iterations are, by a fort of mufical (hort-hand, reprefented by writing the long note only, and
placing over or under it, as many fhort lines as the ftiort note has hooks (fig. 13.) And the repetition of
a feries of fhort notes is reprefented by merely waiting for each repetition as many fhort lines as there are hooks to
the fhort notes of which the feries is compofed (fig. 14.)
(3 p) A note in the middle of a meafure is alfo faid to be fyncopafed when it begins on * Jirong, and ends on a
weak part of the meafure, (fee fig. 15.) where D, C, and B are each of them fyncopated.
A note which of itfelf occupies one, two, or more meafures, is not faid to be fyncopated, but continued or pro-
traEled. See fig. 16.
(3 Q.) Notes have fometimes in modern mufic a double dot after them, wdiich makes them longer by three-
fourths. Thus a minim twice dotted is equal to three crotchets and a half, or feven quavers. &c.
Our author, in this chapter, has omitted the explanation of rejls, and of the particular modifications of time.
Rejls are chara&ers indicating the temporary fufpenfion of mufical founds. There are as many different refts as
there are notes. Thus the femibreve reft indicates a paufe of the duration of a femibreve *, the minim reft, of a
minim, &c. (fig. 18.)
The femibreve reft alfo denotes the filence of one entire meafure, in triple as well as common time. The
filence of feveral meafures is marked as in fig. 18. \ but where the filence exceeds three bars, the number is ufually
marked over the refts.
Common time is either of a femibreve, or of a minim to the meafure.
Common time of a femibreve is indicated by the letter C at the cleff, fig. 1. of Plate CCCLVI. When it is
meant to be fomewhat quicker than ufual, a perpendicular line is drawn through the C, (fig. 2.)
Common time of a minim to the meafure, which is called half time, is indicated by the fra&ion \, that is, twm-
fourths of a femibreve, or two crotchets equal to a minim, (fig. 3.)
In triple time the meafure confift of three minims, three crotchets or three quavers, fix crotchets or fix qua¬
vers, nine quavers or twelve quavers.
Triple time of three minims is marked at the cleff that is, three halves of a femibreve, (fig. 4.)
Triple time of three crotchets is indicated by the fra&ion -J, (three-fourths of a femibreve) (fig. 5.) and that of
'three quavers by •§- (three-eighths of a femibreve,) (fig. 6.)
In the laft three examples the meafure is divided into three times, of which the firft: is ftrong, and the twro others
weak.
The meafure of fix crotchets is marked •£, (fig. 7.) •, and that of fix quavers, (fig. 8.) In both there are two
times, of which the firft is ftrong, and the fecond weak.
The meafure of nine quavers is marked (fig. 9 )$ and is divided into one ftrong and two weak times. That of
twelve quavers is marked (fig. 10.) ; and is accented as if it were two meafures of fix quavers.
The meafures of and 4-$ rarely occur.
Three notes are often performed in the time of two of the fame name, and are then termed triplets, (fig. 11.)
2 where
Part II.
Principles
of Compofi-
tion.
Perfedl
chords,
what.
Chord of
the feventh
what, and
how to be
pradlifed.
Thofe of
different
kinds.
Of the
greater,
fixth.
Plate
ccclvii.
Tonic,
what, and
its chords,
how figur¬
ed.
Dominant,
what, and
how figur¬
ed.
M U
Chap. IV. Definition cfithe principal Chords.
178. (3 R) The chord compofed of a third, a fifth,
and an octave, as C, E, G, C, is called a perfeB chord
(art. 3 2.). _
If the third be major, as in C, E, G, C, the perfect,
chord is denominated major; if the third be minor, as
in A, C, E, A, the perfect chord is minor. The per-
fedt chord major conftitutes the major mode; and
the perfedt chord minor, the minor mode (art. 31.).
179. A chord compofed of a third, a fifth, and a
feventh, as G, B, D, F, or D, F, A, C, &c. is called a
chord of thefeventh. Such a chord is wholly compofed
ot thirds in afcending. ^
All chords of the feventh are praflifed in harmony,
fave that which might carry the third minor and the
feventh major, as C Ejj G B j and that which might
carry a falfe fifth and a feventh major, B D FA*,
(chap. xiv. Part I.)
180. As thirds are either major or minor, and as
they may be differently arranged, it is clear that there
are different kinds of chords of the feventh j there is
even one, B D F A, which is compofed of a third, a
falfe fifth, and a feventh.
181. A chord compofed of a third, a fifth, and a
fixth, as F A C D, D F A B, is called a chord of the
greater fixth.
182. Every note which carries a perfefl chord is
called a tonic; and a perfeft chord is marked by an
8, by a 3, or by a 5, which is written above the note ;
but frequently thefe numbers are fuppreffed. Thus in
the example I. the two C’s equally carry a perfeft
chord.
183. Every note which carries a chord of the feventh
is called a dominant (art. 102.) ; and this chord is
marked by a 7 written above the note. Thus in the
example n. D carries the chord D F A C, and G the
chord G B D F.
It is neceffary to remark, that among the chords
Vol. XIV. Part II.
s I c. 537
of the feventh we do not reckon the chord of the Principles
feventh diminifhed, which is-only improperly called aot GornP61l‘
chord of the feventh ; and of which we (hall fay more   1
below.
184. Every note which carries the chord of the Sub>-domi-
great fixth, is called a fubdorninant, (art. 97. and 42.) na^t^r^at*
and is marked with a 6. Thus in the example ill. p™irej
F carries the chord of F A C D. The fixth Ihould 0
always be major, (art. 97. and 109.).
185. In every chord, whether perfeft, or a chord Fnndamen-
of the feventh, or of the great fixth, the note which ta| note» *
carries this chord, and which is the flatteft or loweft,wiat‘
is called the fundamental note. Thus C in the ex-^ee ^unia^
ample 1. D and C in the example II. and F in the ex-
ample in. are fundamental notes.
186. In every chord of the feventh, and of the great Difibnance
fixth, tne note which forms the feventh or fixth above of a chord,
the fundamental, that is to fay, the higheff note of thewhat*
chord, is called a diffonance. Thus in the chords of
the feventh GBDF, DFAC, F and C are the
diffonances, viz. F with relation to G in the firft chord,
and C with relation to D in the fecond. In the chord
of the great fixth F A C D, D is the diffonance (art.
120.) ; but that D is only, properly fpeaking, a diffon-
ance with relation to C from which it is a fecond, and
not with refpedl to F from which it is a fixtk major (art.
17, and 18.)
187. When a chord of the feventh is compofed ofTon’c an<*
a third major followed by two thirds .minor, the fun-
damental note of this chord is called the tonic domi- what. ’
nant. In every other chord of the feventh the funda¬
mental is called the fimple dominant (art. 102.) Thus
in the chord GBDF, the fundamental G is the tonic
dominant; but in the other chords of the feventh, as
C F. G B, DFAC, &c. the fundamentals C and D
are fimple dominants.
188. In every chord, whether pcrfeft, or of the Major
feventh, or of the fixth, if it is meant that the third chords»
above th? fundamental note (hould be major though^edmT
it be naturally minor, a lliarp muff be placed above the norland
3 V fundamental vice verfa.
where the groups of quavers in the fecond meafure are triplets, and each triplet occupies the time of two quavers
only. Triplets alfo occur in triple time, fig. 12. ^
Certain other charadfers will be with propriety explained here.
The Paufe fignifies that the regular time is to be delayed, and the note marked with the paufe protrafted. See
fig. 13. where the paufe is on the laft note of the fecond meafure. ■*
The Krpeat, a charadler refembling an S, denotes, that the following part of the movement muff be repeated.
See fig. 14. r
The DireB (fig. 15.) is placed at the end of the ftaff, to Ihew upon what degree the firft note of the following
naff is placed. °
W hen the inner fades of two bars are dotted, the meafures between them are to be repeated (fig. 16.) The
word bis is timetimes placed over fuch paffages. V V
The double bar diftinguilhes the end of a movement or ftrain, (fig. 17.) If the double bar be dotted on one
or both fides, the ftrain is to be repeated, (fig. 18.) The double bar does not affeft the time ; fo that when the
Aram terminates before the end of a meafure, as is often the cafe, the double bar only marks the conclufion of the
Itrain, but the time is kept exadtly as if it were not inferted. See fig. 19.
The graces of exertion and expreffion, fuch as the appogiature, the (hake, the flur, the crefcendo, the diminuen-
do, &c. are not neceffary to the confideration of the theory of mufic or principles of compofition, but belong to
the performer only* See Shake, &c. °
(3 R) In this part of our fubjeft, we (hall, in mentioning the harmonics of the chords, make ufe of the capita!
letters only, as the general names of the notes, without diftinguifhing odaves by minufcular or Italic letters The
harmonics may be arranged _ m different oftaves. Their different pofitions will be moft eafily feen and beff
underitooo from the examples m the plates.
538 M U
Principles fundamental note. For example, if we would n:ark the
oi Compofi- perfe(5t major chord D A D, as the third F above
. t^n’ D is naturally minor, we place above D a (harp, as in
Example IV. In the fame manner, the chord of the
feventh D A C, and the chord of the great fixth
D F$ A B, is marked with a ^ above D, and above
the $ a 7 or a 6 (fee v. and Vi.).
On the contrary, when the third is naturally major,
and if we would render it minor, we place above the
fundamental note a ]). Thus the examples vil. VIII.
IX. Ihow the chords G Bi? D G G Bfr D F, G B[? D E
(3 s)-
Chap. V. Of the Fundamental Bafs.
Fnncl amen¬
ta! bafs,
how form¬
ed.
See Funda¬
mental
lajs. ,
189. Let a modulation be invented at pleafure $ and
under this modulation let there be fet a bafs compofed
of different notes, of which fome may carry a perfect
chord, others that of the ferenth, and others that of
the great fixth, in fuch a manner that each note of
the modulation which anfwers to each of the bafs, may
be one of thofe which enters, into the chord of that
note in the bafs 5 this bafs being compofed according
to the rules which {hall be immediately given, will be
the. fundamental bafs of the modulation propofed. See
Part 1. where the nature and principles of the fundamen¬
tal bafs are explained,
Thus (Exam, xvi.) it will be found that this modula¬
tion, C1)EFGABC, has or may admit for its fun¬
damental bafs, C G C F C D G C.
In reality, the firft note C in the upper part is
found in the chord of the firft note C in the bafs,
which chord is G E G C; the fecond note D in the
treble is found in the chord G B D G, which is the
chord of the fecond note in the ba(s, &c. and the bafs
is compofed only of notes which carry a perfeft chord,
S 1 C. Part II.
or that of the feventh, or that of the great fixth. Pru.cip'es
Moreover, it is formed according to the rules which0* Cumpofi-
we arc now about to give. . tl^‘u .
Chap. VI. Rules for the Fundamental Bafs.
190. All the notes of the fundamental bafs being Rules for
only capable of carrying a perfedl chord, or the chord t!ie fonna-
of the feventh, or that of the great fixth, are either ^5 01115
tonics, or dominants, or fub-dominants; and the do¬
minants may be either fimple or tonic.
The fundamental bafs ought always to begin wuth
a tonic, as much as it is practicable. And now follow
the rules for all the fucceeding chords; rules which
are evidently derived from the principles eftablifhed in
the Firf Part of this treatife. To be convinced of
this, we Ihall find it only neceffary to review the articles
34, 91, 122, 124, 126, 127.
Rule I.
191. In every chord of the tonic, or of the tonic
dominant, it is neceffary that at leaft one of the notes
which form that chord Ihould be found in the chord
that precedes it.
Rule II.
192. In every chord of the fimple dominant, it Is
neceflary that the note which conilitutes the feventh,
or diffonance, ftiould likewife be found in the preceding
chord.
Rule III.
193. In every chord of the fub-dominant, at leaft
one of its confonances muft be found in the preceding
chord. Thus, in the chord of the lub-dominant FA
C D, it is neceffary that F, A, or C, which are the
confonances
(3 s) We may only add, that there is no occafion for marking thefe {harps or flats when they are originally
placed at the cleff. For inftance, if the fliarp be upon F w’hich indicates the key of G (fee Exam, x.) it is fuf-
ficient to write D, without a {harp, to mark the perfect chord major of D, D F$ A D. In the fame manner, ir»
the Example xi. where the flat is at the cleff upon B, which denotes the key of F, it is fufticient to write G,
to mark the perfeff chord minor of G Bb D G.
But where there is a Iharp or a flat at the cleff, if wre would render the chord minor which is major, or
vice verfa, we muft place above the fundamental note a 1] or natural. Thus the Example XII. marks the
minor chord D F A D, and Example xm. the major chord G B D G.—Sometimes, in lieu of a natural, a flat
is ufed to flgnify the minor chord, and a {harp to fignify the major. Thus Example XIV. in the key of G, marks
the minor chord D F A D, and Example xv. in F, the major chord G B D G.
When in a chord of the great fixth, the diffonance, that is to fay, the fixth, ought to be {harp, and when the
(harp is not found at the cleff, we write before or after the 6 a ^ ; and if this fixth ffiould be flat according to
the cleff, we write a \\.
In the fame manner, if in a chord of the feventh of the tonic dominant, the diffonance, that is to fay, the
feventh, ought to be flat or natural, we write by the fide of the feventh a\) or a l]. Many muficians, when a
feventh from the fimole dominant ought to be altered by a {harp or a natural, have likewife written by the fide of
the feventh a $ or a ; but M. Rameau fuppreffes thefe charaflers. The reafon ftiall be given below, when we
fpeak of chords by fuppofition.
If there be one {harp at the cleff, and if we would mark the chord G B D Ft), or the chord ACE Ft), we
ought to place before the feventh or the fixth a f) or a h-
In the fame manner, if there be one flat at the cleff, and if we would mark the chord C E G Bt|, we ought
to place before the feventh a $ or a tf; and fo of the reft.
All thefe intricate combinations of figuring fhew the fuperior convenience of the modern method of writing the
notes themfelves inftead of the figures, which has the farther advantage of exhibiting the proper arrangement cf
the chord} fee Example 11.
Part TI. M U
Principles confonances of the chord, (hould be found in the chord
•f Compofi- preceding-. The diffonance D may either be found in
tier*. r a
« . ^ it or not.
Rule IV.
194. Every fimple or tonic dominant ought to de-
feend by a fifth. In the firft cafe, that is to fay,,
when the dominant is fimple, the note which follows
can only be a dominant j in the fecond it may be any
one 5 or, in other words, it may either be a tonic, a
tonic dominant, a fimple dominant, or a fub-dominant.
It is neceflary, however, that the conditions preferibed
in the fecond rule ihould be obferved, if it be a fimple
dominant.
This laft refle&ion is noceffary, as will prefently be
feen. For, let us affume the fucceffion of the two
chords A C$EG, D F A C (fee Exam. XVII.), this fuc¬
ceffion is by no means legitimate, though in it the firfl: do¬
minant defeends by a fifth ; becaufe the C which forms
the diflbnance in the fecond chord, and which belongs to
a fimple dominant, is not in the preceding chord. But
the fucceflion will be admiffible, if, without meddling
with the fecond chord, we take away the (harp carried
by the C in the firft ; or if, without meddling v*ith the
firft chord, we render C and F (harp in the fecond (3T);
or, if we fimply render the D of the fecond chord a tonic
dominant, in caufing it to carry F$ inftead of Ft] (119*
and 122.).
I* is bkewife by the fame rule that we ought to
reieft the fucceffion of the two following chords,
DFAC. GEDF^j
(fee Exam. xvin).
Rule V.
1-95. Every fub-dominant ought to rife by a fifth ■
and the note which follows it may, at pleafure, be either
a tonic, a tonic dominant, or a fub-dominant.
Remark.
Other rules Of the five fundamental rules which have nowT been
fubftituted. given, inftead of the three firft, one may fubftitute
the three following, which are confequences from
them.
Rule I.
If a note of the fundamental bafs be a tonic, and
Fife by a fifth or a third to another note, that fecond
SIC. 539
note may be either a tonic (34. St 91.)* fee Examples Principles
xix. and XX. (3c); a tome dominant (124.), fee01 t^p0‘1*
xxi. and xxii. •, ora fub-dominant (124,), fee xxiii. , ^ 1
and xxiv j or, to exprefs the rule more limply, that
fecond note may be any one, except 2. fimple domi¬
nant.
Rule II.
If a note of the fundamental bafs be a tonic, and
defeend by a fifth or a third upon another note, this
fecond note may be either a tonic (34. &. 91.) fee
Exam. xxv. and xxvi.; or a tonic dominant, or a
fimple dominant, yet in fuch a manner that the rule of
art. 192. may be obferved (124.), fee xxvn. xxvill.
XXIX. and XXX. 5 or a fub-dominant (124.), fee XXXI.
and xxxii.
The fucceflion of the bafs C Ejj G C, F A C E,
is excluded by art. 192.
Rule III.
If a note in the fundamental bafs be a tonic, and
rife by a fecond to another note, that note ought to be
a tonic dominant, or a fimple dominant (101. & 102.).
See xxxiv. and xxxv. (3 x).
We muft here advertife our readers, that the exam¬
ples xxxvi. xxxvii. xxxviii. xxxix. belong to the
fourth rule above, art. 194.; and the examples XL.
xli. xlii. to the fifth rule above, art. 195. See the
articles 34, 35, 121, 123, 124.
Remark I.
196. The trahfition from a tonic dominant to aperfe&an<!
tonic is called an abfolute repofe, or a perfect cadence imperfedt
(73.)-, and the tranfition from a fub-dominant to
tonic is called an imperfect or irregular cadence (73-)j^)Wem-
the tonic falls upon the accented part of the bar. Seepioyed.
XLIII. XLIV. XLV. XLVI.
Remark II.
197. We muft avoid, as much as we can, fyncopa-Syncopa¬
tions in the fundamental bafs j that the ear may accu-tion only
rately diftinguifti the primarily accented part of a mea-
fure, by means^of a harmony different from that which it|£meent“"
had before perceived in the laft unaccented part of the p,afs by H,
preceding meafure, Neverthelefs, fyncopation may becenfe.
fometimes admitted in the fundamental bafs, but it is
by a licenfe (3 y).
3 Y 2 Chap.
(3 t) In this chord it is neceffary that the C and P (hould be (harp at the fame time j for the chord D F A C$j
in which C would be (harp without the F, is excluded by art. 179. # .
(3 ^0 When the bafs rifes or defeends from one tonic to another by the interval of ^ third, the mode is
commonly changed; that is to fay, from a major it becomes a minor. Por inftance, if we afeend from the
tonic C to the tonic E, the major mode of C, C E G C, will be changed into the minor mode of E,
E G B E. We muft never afeend from one tonic to another, when there is no found common to both their modes;
for example, wre cannot rife from the mode of C, C E G C, to the minor mode of E|}, Ejj Bj; Ej? (91.).
(3 x) Thus all the intervals, vk. the third, the fifth, and fecond, may be admitted in the fundamental bafs, ex¬
cept that of a fecond in defeending. The rules now given for the fundamental bafs are not, however, without
exception, as approved compoutions in mufic will certainly discover; but thefe exceptions being in reality licences,
and for the moft part in oppofition to the great principle of connexion, which preferibes that there (hould be at
leaft one note in common between a preceding and a fubfequent chord, it does not feem neceffary to enter into a
minute detail of thefe licences in an elementary work, where the firft and moft effential rules of the art alone
ought to be expe&ed. _ . ...
(2 y) Theje are notes which may be found feveral times in the fundamental bals in fucceffion with a dir-
* ferent
540 ^ MU
Principles
°f ^tion^0^* Chap. VII. Of the Rules which ought to be obferved
* ^~ in the 'Treble with relation to the Fundamental Bafs.
definition
of treble. 198. The treble is nothing elfe but a modulation
above the fundamental bafs, and whofe notes are found
in the chords of that bafs which eorrefponds with it
(189.) Thus in Ex. xvi. the fcale CDEFGABC,
is a treble with refpeft to the fundamental bafs C G C
FCDG C.
One note 199. We are about to give the rules for the treble $
m the trc- but we think it neceflary to make the two follow-
ble or bafs . , ^
may anfwermg remarks* . , , , ,
to its cor- 1. It is obvious, that many notes of the treble may
refpondent anfwer to one and the fame note in the fundamental
parts, and hafs, when thefe notes belong to the chord of the
vv fame note in the fundamental bafs. For example, this'
modulation C E G E C, may have for its fundamental
bafs the note C alone, becaufe the chord of that note
comprehends the founds C, E, G, which are found in
the treble.
2. In like manner, a fingle note in the treble may,
for the fame reafon, anfwer to feveral notes in the bafs.
For inftance, G alone may anfwer to thefe three notes
io the bafs, C G C (3 z).
Rule I. For the Treble.
200. If the note which forms the feventh in a chord
5 I C. Part IT.
of the Jimple dominant^ is found in the treble, the note Principles
which precedes it muft be the very fame. This is whatof ComP^S-
we call a difcorjprepared (122). For inilance, let us tK*n- ,
fiippofe that the note of the fundamental bafs (hall be v "
D, bearing the chord of the fimple dominant D F A C j
and that this C, which (art. 18. and 118.) is the dif-
fonance, Ihould be found in the treble j it is neceifary
that the note which goes before it in the treble Ihould
likewife be a C.
201. According to the rules which w7e have given
for the fundamental bafs, C will always be found in the
chord of that note in the fundamental bafs which pre¬
cedes the fimple dominant D. See xlviii. xlix.
L. In the firft 'example the diflbnance is C, in the
fecond G, and in the third E; and thefe notes are
already in the preceding chord (4 a).
Rule II.
202. If a note of the fundamental bafs be a tonic
dominant, or a fimple dominant, and if the difibnance
be found in the treble, this diffonance in the fame
treble ought to defcend diatonically. But if the note
of the bafs be a fub-dominant, it ought to rife diatoni¬
cally. This diffonance, which rifes or defcends diatoni¬
cally, is what we have cabled a diffbnance faved or re-
folved (129, 130.) See Lll. Lin. nv.
203. According to the rules for the fundamental bafs
which we have given, the note upon which the diffon¬
ance
ferertt harmony. For inftance, the tonic C, after having carried the chord C E G C, may be followed by ano¬
ther C which carries the chord of the feventh, provided that this chord be the chord of the tonic dominant C E G B [;.
In the fame manner, the tonic C may be followed by the fame tonic C, which may be rendered a fub-domi-.
nanty by caufing it to carry the chord C E G A.
A dominant, whether tonic or fimple, fometiraes defcends or rifes to another by the interval of a
tritone or falfe fifth. For example, ^he dominant F carrying the chord FACE, may be followed by another
dominant B carrying the chord B D F A. This is a licence in which the mufician indulges himfelf, that he may
not be obliged to depart from the fcale in which he is ; for inftance, from the fcale of C to which F and B be¬
long. If one ftiould defcend from F to Bj? by the interval of a juft fifth, he would then depart from that fcale,
becaufe B is no part of it.
(3 z) There are often in the treble feveral notes which may, if we’choofe, carry no chord, and be regarded
merely as notes of paffage, ferving only to conned!: between then felves the notes that do carry chords, and to
form a more agreeable modulation. Thefe notes of paffage are commonly quavers. See Example xlvii.
(Plate CCCLVIII). in which this modulation C D E F G, maybe regarded as equivalent to this other, C E G, as
1) and F are no more than notes of paffage. So that the bafs of this modulation may be fimply C G.
When the notes are of equal duration, and arranged in a diatonic order, the notes which are accented ought
each of them to carry chords. Thofe which are unaccented, are mere notes of paffage. Sometimes, however,
the unaccented note may be made to carry harmony •, but the duration of this note is then commonly increafed
by a point placed after it, which proportionably diminilhes the continuance of the accented note, and makes it
pafs more fwiftly.
When the notes do not move diatonically, they ought generally all of them to enter into the chord wdiich is
placed in the lower part correfpondent with thefe notes.
(4 a) There is, however, one cafe in which the feventh of a fimple dominant may be found in a modulation
without being prepared. It is when, having already employed that dominant in the fundamental bafs, its feventh
is afterwards heard in the modulation, while the dominant is ftill retained. For inftance, let us imagine this
modulation,
CIDCBCID;
and this fundamental bafs, C } D GC G j
(fee example Li.) j the D of the fundamental bafs anfwers to the two notes D C of the treble. The diffonance C
has no need of preparation, becaufe the note D of the fundamental bafs having already been employed for the D
which precedes C, the diflbnance C is afterwards prefented, below which the chord D may be preferved, oit
D F A C.
Part II. M U S
Principles ance ought to defcend or rife will always be found in
of Corttyofi the fubfequent chord (4 b).
" w Chap. VIII. Of the Continued Bafs, and its Rules.
JSee Conti- 204. The continued % bafs, is a fundamental bafs
nuedHafs. whofe chords are inverted. We invert a chord when
Continued we change the order of the notes which compofe it.
bafs, what For exam pie, if, inftead of the chord GBDF, we Ihould
Chords in- fay £ D F G or D F G B, &c. the chord is inverted. ,
how. * The ways in which a Perfect Chord maybe Inverted.
205. The perfe6t chord C E G C may be inverted in
two different ways.
1. E G C E, which we call a chord of the fxtht
compofed of a third, a fixth, and an odlave ; and in this
cafe the bafs note E is marked with a 6. (See lvi.)
2. G C E G, which we call a chord of the fxth and
fourth, compofed of a fourth, a fixth, and an octave j
and it is marked with a (See LVH.)
The perfect minor chord is inverted in the fame
manner.
The ways in which the Chord of the Seventh may be
Inverted.
206. In the chord of the tonic dominant, as GBDF,
the third major B above the fundamental note G is
called a fenfble note (77.) j and the inverted chord B
D F G compofed of a third, a falfe fifth and fixth, is
called the chord of the falfe fifth, and is marked as in
examples LVIH. and lix.
The chord D F G B, compofed of a third, a fourth,
and a fixth, is called the chord of the fenfible fixth, and
marked as in Example LX. (4 c). In this chord, the
third is minor, and the fixth major.
The chord F G B D, compofed of a fecond, a tritone,
1 C . ,54r
and a fixth, is called the chord of the tritone, and is Principles
marked as in Example LXI. (4 d). c7mP0&*
207. In the chord of the Ample dominant D F'A C, ■. tl^n' .
we find,
1. F A C D, a chord of the great fixth, which is
compofed of a third, a fifth, and a fixth, and which is
figured with a f. See lxii. (4 e).
2. A 0 D F, a chord of the leffer fixth, which is figur¬
ed with a 6. See lxiii. (4 f).
3. CDF A, a chord of the fecond, compofed of a
fecond, a fourth, and a fixth, and which is marked with
a 2. See lxiv. (4 g).
The ways in which the Chord of the fub-DOMiNANT may
be Inverted.
208. The chord of the fub-dominant, as F A C D,
may be inverted in three different manners j but the
method of inverting it which is moft in pra<3ice is the
chord of the leffer fixth A CDF (lxiii.), and the
chord of the feventh D F A C. See lxv.
Rules for the Continued Bass.
209. The continued bafs is a fundamental bafs,
whofe chords are only inverted in order to render it
more in the tafte of finging, and fuitable to the voice.
See LXVI. in which the fundamental bafs which in it-
felf is monotonic and little fuited for finging, C G C G C
G C, produces, by inverting its chords, this continued
bafs highly proper to be fung, CB CD £ FE, &c. (4 H.)
The continued bafs then is properly a treble with
refpefl to the fundamental bafs. Its rules immediately
follow, which are properly thofe already given for the
treble.
Rule I.
210. Every note which carries the chord of the falfe
fifth,
(4 b) When the treble fyncopates in defcending diatonically, it is common enough to make the fecond part of
the fyncope carry a difcord, and the firft a concord. See Example LV. where the firft part of the fyncopated note
G, is in concord with the notes C E G C, which anfwers to it in the fundamental bafs, and where the fecond
part is a diffonance in the fubfequent chord A C E G. In the fame manner, the firfl part of the fyncopated note
F is in concord with the notes D F A C, which anfwer to it} and the fecond part is a diffonance in the fubfequent
chord GBDF, w’hich anfwer to it, &c.
(4 c) This chord is called by Englifh muficians, the chord of the third and fourth, and generally figured
(4 d) This chord is in England called the chord of the fecond and fourth, and is figured %.
(4 e) We are obliged to mark likewife, in the continued bafs, the chord of the fub-dominant with a f which
in the fundamental bafs is figured with a 6 alone \ and this to diftinguifh it from the chords of the fixth and of the
leffer fixth. (See examples LVI. and LXIII.) The chord of the great fixth in the fundamental bafs carries always
the fixth major, whereas in the continued bafs it may carry the fixth minor. For inftance, the chord of the
feventh C E G B, gives the chord of the great fixth E G B C, thus improperly called, fince the fixth from E to
C is minor.
(4 f) M. Rameau has juftly obferved, that we ought rather to figure this leffer fixth with a to diftinguifh it
from the fenfible fixth which arifes from the chord of the tonic dominant, and from the fixth which arifes from
the perfe& chord. In the mean time he figures in his works with a 6 alone, the leffer fixths which do not arife
from the tonic dominant ; that Is to fay, he figures them as thofe which arife from the perfect chord ; and wa
have followed him in that notation, though we thought with him, that it would be better to mark this chord by
a particular figure.
(40) The chord of the feventh B D F A gives, when inverted, the chord F A B D, compofed of a third, a
tritone, and a fixth. The chord is commonly marked with a 6, as if the tritone were a juft fourth. It is his
bufinefs who performs the accompaniment, to know whether the fourth above F be a tritone or a fourth redundant.
Gne may figure this chord thus, 4*.
(4 a) The continued bafs is proponionably adapted to finging, as the founds which form it more fcrupuloufty
obferve:
542
Principles fifth, and which of confequence tnuft be what we have
et Compon- Called a fenjible note,- ought (77.) to rife diatonically
« ' J" . upon the note which follows it. Thus in example
lxiv. the note B, carrying the chord of the falfe fifth,
rifes diatonically upon C (4 1).
MUSI C.
Part II.
ing, becaufe thefe notes are difionafices which ought Principles
to be prepared and refolved (20c. 302.) See tbe ex-°f Compofl-
ample Lxvu. where the fecond C, which is fyncopa-
ted, and which defcends afterwards upon B> carries the
chord of the fecond (4K).
tion,
Rule II.
211. Every note carrying the chord of the tritone
Ihould defcend diatonically upon the fubfequent note.
Thus in the fame example lxvi. F, which carries the
chord of the tritone figured with a 4+, deicends diato¬
nically upon E (art. 202.)
Rule III.
212. The chord of the fecond is commonly put in
pradlice upon notes which are fyncopated in dei'cend-
Chap. IX. Of fame Licenfes ajfumed in the Funda¬
mental Bafs.
§ 1. Of Brokkn and Interrupted Cadences.
213. The broken cadence is executed by means of a Broken ca-
dominant which rifes diatonically upon another, or upon dence, how
a tonic by a licenfe. See, in the example lxxiv. G A,exccutec*-
(132, and 134).
214. The interrupted cadence is formed by a do-InterniPte<*
. .cadence,
minant> how form,
ed.
obferve the diatonic order, becaufe this order is tbe moft agreeable of all. We mull therefore endeavour to pre-
ferve it as much as poflible. It is for this reafon that the continued bafs in Example LXV. is much more in the
tafte of finging, and more agreeable, than the fundamental bafs which anfwers to it.
(4 1) The continued bafs being a kind of treble with relation to the fundamental bafs, it ought to obferve the
fame rules with refpeft to that bafs as tbe treble. Thus a note, for inftance D, carrying a chord of the feventh
D F A C, to which the chord of the fub-dominant F A C D correfponds in the fundamental bafs, ought to rife
diatonically upon E, (art. 129. N° 1. and art. 202.)
(4 k) When there is a rcbofe in the treble, the note of the continued bafs ought to be tbe fame with that of the
fundamental bafs, (fee Example lxviii.) In the clofes which are found in the treble at D and C (meafures fecond
and fourth), the notes in the fundamental and continued bafs are tbe fame, viz. G for the firlt cadence, and C
for the fecond. This rule ought above all to be obferved in cadences which terminate a piece or a modu¬
lation.
It is neceffary, as much as poffible, to prevent coincidences of the fame notes in the treble and continued bafs,
unlefs tbe motion of the continued bafs ftiould be contrary to that of the treble. For example, in the firft note of
the fecond meafure in Example LXIX. D is found at the fame time in the continued bafs and in the treble j but the
treble rifes from C to D, and from D to E, wFilft the bafs defcends from E to D, and from D to C.
Two oflaves, or two fifths, in iuccelTion, inuft likewife be avoided. For inftance, in the treble founds G E,
the bafs muft be prevented from founding G E, C A, or D B 5 becaule in the firft cafe there are two odtaves in
fucceflion, E againft E, and G againft G $ and becauie in tbe fecond cafe there are two fifths in fucceffion, C
againft E, and A againft G, or D againft G, and B againtl E. This rule, as well as the preceding, is found¬
ed upon this principle, that the continued bafs ought not to be a copy of tbe treble, but to form a different
melody.
Every time that feveral notes of the continued bafs anfwer to one note alone of tbe fundamental, the compofer
fatisfies himfelf with figuring the firft of them. Nay he does not even figure it if it be a tonic ; and he draws
above the others a line, continued from the note upon which the chord is formed. See Example LXX. (Plate
CCCLIX). where the fundamental bafs C gives the continued bafs C E G E ; the two E’s ought in this bafs to
carry the chord 6, and G the chord ® : but as tbefe chords are comprehended in the perfect chord C E G G,
which is the firft; of the continued bafs, we place nothing above C, only we draw a line over C E G E.
In like manner, in tbe fecond meafure of tbe fame example, the notes F and D of the continued bafs, arifing
from the note G alone of the fundamental bafs which carries the chord G B D F, we think it fufficient to figure F
only, and to draw a line above F and D becaufe the fame harmony is ufed with both.
* It fhould be remarked, that this F ought naturally to defcend to E ; but this note is confidered as fubfifting fo
long as tbe chord fubfifts j and when the chord changes, we ought neceffarily to find the E, as may be feen by
that example.
In general, whilft tbe fame chord fubfifts in palling through different notes, the chord is reckoned the fame as
if the firft note of the chord had fubfifted 5 in fuch a manner, that, if the firft note of the chord is, for inftance,
the fenfible note, we ought to find the tonic when the chord changes. See Example lxxi. where this continued
bafs, C B D B G C, is reckoned the fame wuth this C, B C. (Example lxxii.)
If a finglc note of the continued bafs anfwers to feveral notes of the fundamental bafs, it is figured with the dif¬
ferent chords which agree to it. For example, the note G in a continued bafs may anfwer to this fundamental
bafs C G C, (fee Example lxxiii.) j in this cafe, wre may regard the note G as divided into three parts, of which
the firft carries the chord 1, the fecond the chord 7, and the third the chord 4.
We {hall repeat here, with refpefl to the rules of the continued bafs, what we have formerly faid concerning
the rules of the fundamental bafs in the note upon the third rule, art. 193. The rules of the continued bafs have
exceptions, which pra&ice and the perufal of good authors will teach. There are likewife feveral other rules
which might require a ccnfiderable detail, and which will be found in the Trcatife of Hqrmomj, by M. Rameau,
3 anc*
Part II. MU
Principles minanE which defcends by a third upon another (136.).
of Compofi- Seej jn example LXXV. G E (4 l).
y tl°n' Thefe cadences ought to be permitted but rarely and
and with precaution.
2. Of Supposition.
Chord by 2i5. When a dominant is preceded by a tonic in
fuppofitiGn the fundamental bafs, we add fometimes, in the con-
wbat. tinued bafs to the chord of that dominant, a new note
which is a third or a fifth below j and the chord which
refults from it in this continued bafs is called a chord by
fuppofition.
See Suppo ;por example, let us fuppofe, that in the fundamental
f'tiQn' bafs we have a dominant G carrying the chord of the
feventh G B D F; let us add to this chord the note
C, which is a fifth below this dominant, and we lhall
have the total chord C G B D F, or C I) F G, which
is called a chord by fuppofition (4 m).
s I c. 543
Principle^
Of the different hinds of Chords by Sufipoftion. of
216. Chords by fuppofition are of different kinds. " v
For inftance, the chord of the tonic dominant G B D F
gives,
1. By adding fhe fifth C, the chord C G B D F, Thefe diffe*
called a chord of the feventh redundant, and compofedwnt chords
of a fifth, feventh, ninth, and eleventh. It is figured
■with a $7 j fee LXXVI. (4 n). This chord is not^wfasur'*
praftifed but upon the tonic. They fometimes leave
out the fenfible note, for reafons which we lhall give
in the note (4 o), upon the art. 219 j it is then reduced
to C F G D, and marked with jj. or
2. By adding the third E, we lhall have the chord
E G B D F, called a chord of the ninth, and eompofed
of a third, fifth, leveuth, and ninth. And it is figured
with a 9. 1 his third may be added to every third of
the dominant. See LXXVII.
3- H
and elfewhere. Thefe rules, which are proper for a complete differtation, did not appear indifpenfably no
ceffary in an elementary ejfay on mufc, fuch as the prefent. The books which we have quoted at the end of our
preliminary difeourfe will more particularly inftruft the reader concerning this pradtical detail.
(4 l) One may fometimes, but very rarely, caufe feveral tonics in fucceffion to follow one another in afeend-
ing or defeending diatonically, as C E G C, D F A D, Bb D F B[; ; but, befides that this fucceffion is harfh, .
it is neceffary, in order to render it pradlicable, that the fifth below the firft tonic fliould be found in the chord
of the tonic following, as here F, a fifth below the firft tonic C, is found in the chord D F A D, and in the
chord Bb D F Bb (37. and note t).
(4 m) Though fuppofition be a kind of licenfe, yet it is in fome meafure founded on the experiment related in
the note (s), where you may fee that every principal or fundamental found caufes its twelfth and feventeenth ma¬
jor in defeending to vibrate, whilft the twelfth and the feventeenth major afeending refound : which feems to au¬
thorize us in certain cafes to join with the fundamental harmony this twelfth and feventeenth in defeending $ or,
which is the fame thing, the fifth or the third beneath the fundamental found.
Even without having recourfe to this experiment, we may remark, that the note added beneath the fundamen¬
tal found, caufes that very fundamental found to be heard. For inftance, C added beneath G, caufes G to re¬
found. Thus G is found in fome meafure to be implied at C.
If the third added beneath the fundamental found be minor, for example, if to the chord G B D F, we add
the third E, the fuppofition is then no longer founded an the experiment, wThich only gives the feventeenth major,
or, what is the fame thing, the third major beneath the fundamental found. In tins cafe the addition of the third
minor muft be confidered as an extenfion of the rule, which in reality has no foundation in the chords emitted by
a fonorous body, but is authorized by the fandtibn of the ear and by pradical experiment.
(4 n) Many muficians figure this chord with a M: Rameau fuppreffes this 2, and merely marks it to
he the feventh redundant by a 7$ or ^7. But it may be laid, how (hall we diftinguifh this chord from the
feventh major, which, as it would feem, ought to be marked with 37$? M. Rameau anfweis, that there is no
danger of miftake, becaufe in the feventh major, as the feventh ought to be prepared, it is xound in the prece¬
ding chord $ and thus the fharp fubfifting already in the preceding chord, it would be uielefs to repeat it.
%
Thus I>G, according to M. Rameau, would indicate DF^AC, G B D F$. If we would change F$ of
the fecond chord into F(j, it would then be neceffary to write D G. In notes fuch as C, whofe natural
feventh is major, the figure 7 preceded or followed by a fharp will fufficientlv ferve to diftinguifh the chord of the
feventh redundant C G B D F, from the fimple chord of the feventh C E G Bf which is marked with a 7 alone.
All this appears juft and well founded.
(40) Suppofition introduces into a chord diffo itnces which were not in it before. For inftance, if to the
chord E G B D, we (hould add the note of fuppofition C defeending by a third, it is plain that, beiides the dif- -
fonance between E and D which was in the original chord, we have two new diffonances, C B, and C D ; that
is to fay, the feventh and the ninth. Thefe diffonances, like the others, ought to be prepared and refoived.
They are prepared by being fyncopated, and refoived by defeending diatonically upon one of the confonances of
the fubfequent chord. The fenfible note alone can be refoived in afeending *, hut it is even neceffary that this •
fenfible note fhould be in the chord of the tonic dominant. As to the diffonances 'which are found in the primi*
iivc chord, they fhould always follow the common rules. (See art. 202.)
544
Principles
of Compofi-
tion.
Occafforss
when re¬
trench¬
ments of
chords are
proper.
M U
3. If to a chore! of the fimple dommant, asD F A C,
we fliould sdd the fifth G, we w7ould have the chord G
B F A C, called a chord of the eleventh, and which is
figured with a £ or (See lxxviii.)
Observe.
217. When the dominant is not a tonic dominant,
we often tak away fome notes from the chord. For
example, let us fuppole that there is in the fundamen¬
tal bafs this fimple dominant E, carrying the chord E
G B D : if there (hould be added the third C beneath,
we fliall have this chord of the continued bafs C E G
B D; but we fupprefs the feventh B, forreafons which
{hall be explained in the note upon art. 210. In
this ftate the chord is fimply compofed of a third,
fifth, and ninth, and is marked with a 9. See exxix.
(4 p)*
218. In the chord of the fimple dominant, as B F
A C, when the fifth G is added, we frequently obli¬
terate the founds F and A, that too great a num¬
ber of diffonances may be avoided, which reduces the
chord to G C B. This lafi: is compofed only of the
fourth and the fifth. It is called a chord of the fourth,
and it is figured with a 4 (4 q) (See lxxX.)
219. Sometimes we only remove the note A, and
then the chord ought to be figured with 2 or ^ (4R).
220. Finally, in the minor mode, for example, in
that of A, where the chord of the tonic dominant (109),
is EG^BB ; if w^e addjtp this chord the third C be¬
low, we (hall haver'EG$BB, called the chord of the
ffth redundant, and compofed of a third, a fifth redun¬
dant, a feventh, and a ninth. It is figured as in lxxxi.
(4 s)
$ 3. 0/' the Chord of the Biminished Seventh.
Chord of 221. In the minor mode, for infiance, in that of A,
^at u6" •k a from A is the tonic dominant (109), and
andhow p!’carries tf16 chord E G$B B, in which G is the fenfible
„gured.
Chord of
the fifth re
dundant
what, and
how figu¬
red.
SIC. Part H.
note. For this chord wre fometimes fubfiitute GP>$BF, Principles
(116), all compofed of minor thirds j and which Hasot
for its fundamental found the fenfible note G'$. This , tl°n* f
chord is called a chord of the flat or diininifked feventh,
and is figured wdth a gf in the fundamental bafs, (fee
exxxiv.); but it is always confidered as reprelenting the
chord of the tonic dominant.
222. This chord by inverfion produces in the conti-9^orjS. i,r.0‘
nued bafs the following chords : cSnued
1. ri he chord B B F G$:, compofed of a third, falfebafsbj this
fifth, and fixth major. They call it the chord of the and
flxth fenflble and fa/fe fifth; and it is figured as in h?w “S111*
Exam, lxxxv. (Plate CCCLX). ed"
2. The chord B F G$B, compofed of a third,* tri¬
tone, and a fixth. It is called the chord of the tritone
and third minor ; and marked as in lxxxvi.
3. 'Ihe chord F G$B B, compofed of a fecond re¬
dundant, a tritone, and a fixth. It is called the
of the fecond redundant, and figured as in Lxxxvil.
(4T).
223. Befides, fince the chord G$: B B F reprefents AIteratl0ns
the chord EG^BB, it follows, that if we operate by Uorf1 chorda
fuppofition upon the firft of thefe chords, it muft be which they
performed as one would perform it upon EG^BD 5 produce,
that is to fay, that it will be neceflary to add to the what’.an^
chord G^BBF, the notes C or A, which are the gjW iigur*
third or fifth below E, and which will produce,
1. By adding C, the chord CG^BDF, compofed
of a fifth redundant, a feventh, a ninth, and eleventh,
which is the o&ave of the fourth. It is called a chord
of the fifth redundant and fourth, and marked as in
LXXXVIII. t
2. Bv adding A, we {hall have the chord A G $:B
B F, compofed of a feventh redundant, a ninth, an
eleventh, and a thirteenth minor, which is the oflave
of the fixth minor. It is called the chord of the
feventh redundant and flxth minor, and marked as in
LXXXIX. It is of all chords the molt harfii, and the
moft rarely praftifed (411).
Chap.
(4 p) Several muficians call this laft chord the chord of the ninth ; and that which, with M. Rameau, we
have fimply called a chord of the ninth, they term a chord of the ninth and feventh. This laft chord they mark
with a ^ j but the denomination and figure ufed by M. Rameau are more fimple, and can lead to no error;
becaufe the chord of the ninth always includes the feventh, except in the cafes of which we have already
fpoken «
(4 qj) In England it is figured £.
(4 r) We often remove fome difibnances from chords of fuppofition, either to foften the harfhnefs of the chord,
or to remove difeords which can neither be prepared nor refolved. For inftance, let us fuppofe, that in the con¬
tinued bafs the note C is preceded by the fenfible note B carrying the chord of the falfe fifth, and that we fhould
choofe to form upon this note C the chord C E G B B, we muft obliterate the feventh B, becaufe in retaining it
we {hould deftroy the effebt of the fenfible note B, which ought to rife to C.
In the fame manner, if to the harmony of a tonic dominant G B D F, one ftiould add the note by fuppofition C,
it is ufual to retrench from this chord the fenfible note B 5 becaufe, as the B ought to defcend'diatonicallv to C,
and the B to rife to it, the effeft of the one w’ould deftroy that of the other. This above all takes place in the fuf-
penjion, concerning which we {hall prefently treat.
(4 s) Svppofltion produces w’hat we call fufpenflon ; and which is almoft the fame thing. Sufpenfion confifts in
retaining as many as poffible of the founds in a preceding chord, that they may be heard in the chord which fuc-
ceeds. For inftance, in Example LXXXII. the C bearing $7 is a fuppofition j but in Example LXXXill. it is a
fulpenfion, becaufe it fufpends or retards the perfeft chord C E G C which the ear expedts after the tonic domi¬
nant G B B F.
(4 t) i he chord of the diminifhed feventh, and the three derived from it, are termed chords of fubflitution.
They are in general harfti, and proper for imitating melancholy objects.
(4 u) As the chord of the diminUhed feventh G$B I) F, and the chord of the tonic dominant E G'$B B, only
differ
Part II. M U
Principles
of Gimpofi- CHAPt X. Of fame licenfes ufed in the 'Treble and
■ < Continued Bafs.
Licenfe ill. 2 24. SOMETIMES in a treble, the diflbnance which
ought to have been refolved by defcending diatonically
upon the fucceeding note, inftead of defcending, on the
contrary rifes diatonically : but in that cafe, the note
Upon which it ought to have defcended muft be found
in fome of the other parts. This licenfe ought to be
rarely pra&ifed.
In like manner, in a continued bafs, the diffonance
in a chord of the fub-dominant inverted, as A in the
ch@rd A C E G, inverted from C E G A, may fome-
times defcend diatonically inftead of riling as it ought
to do, art. 1 29. N° 2. ; but in that cafe the note ought
to be repeated in another part, that the diffonance may
be there refolved in afcending.
Licenfe 2d. 225. Sometimes likewife, to render a continued bafs
more agreeable by caufing it to proceed diatonically,
we place between two founds of that bafs a note which
belongs to the chord of neither. See Example xcn. in
which the fundamental bafs GC produces the continued
bafs G A B G C, where A is added on account of the
diatonic modulation. This A has a line drawn above
it, to Ihow its refolution bv palling under the chord
G B D F.
In the fame manner, (fee xcm.) this fundamental
bafs C F may produce the continued bafs C D E C F,
Vol. XIV. Part II.
S I c.
where the note D, which is
chord C E G C.
Chap. XI. Containing the
Fundamental Bafs when
figured.
added, paffes under
_ 545
the Principles
of Corupofi-
tion.
Method of finding the
the continued Bafs is
226. As the continued bafs alone appears in pradlical How to find
compofitions, it becomes neceffary to know how to findtlie fun(la-
the fundamental bafs when the continued bafs is figur- Ivhen^he^
ed. This problem may be eafily folved by the follow- continued
ing rules. is figured.
227. 1. Every note which has no figure in the con¬
tinued bafs, ought to be the fame, and without a figure
in the fundamental bafs; it is either a tonic, or reckoned
fuch (4 x).
2. Every note which in the continued bafs carries a
6, ought in the fundamental bafs to give its third be¬
low not figured *, or its fifth below marked with a 7. * See
We lhall diftinguilh thefe two cafes below. See LVl.gured. ‘‘
and the note (4 Y ).
3\ Every note carrying | gives in the fundamental
bals its fifth below not figured. See Lvir.
4. Every note figured with a 7, or a is the fame
in both baffes, and with the fame figure (4 y).
5. Every note figured with a 2 gives in the funda¬
mental bafs the diatonic note above figured with a 7.
See lxiv. (4Z). /
6. Every note marked with a 4 gives in the funda-
3 ^ mental
differ one from the other by the notes E and F j one may form a diatonic modulation of thefe two notes, and then
the fundamental bafs does nothing but pafs from the tonic dominant to the fenfible note, and from that note to the
tonic dominant, till it arrives at the tonic. (See xc.)
For the fame reafon, as the chord of the diminilhed feventh G^B D F, and the chord B D F A, which carries
the fifth B of the tonic dominant E, only differs by the fenfible note G$, and the tonic A ; one may fometimes
while the treble modulates G$A G$A G$ A, afcend in the fundamental bafs, from the bafs note to the third above*
provided one defcend at laft from thence to the tonic dominant, and from thence to the tonic j (fee xci.) This
and the preceding examples are licenfes.
(4X) We fay atonic, or reckoned fuch, becaufe it may perhaps be a dominant from which the diffonance has been
removed. But in that cafe one may know that it is a real dominant by the note which precedes it. For inftance
if the note G, carrying a perfeft chord, is preceded by D a fimple dominant, carrying the chord D F A C that
note G is not a real tonic ; becaufe, in order to this, it.would have been neceffary that 1) ihould have been a*tonic
dominant, and Ihould have carried the chord D F^A Cj and that a fimple dominant, as D, carrying the chord
D F A C, (hould only naturally defcend to a dominant, (art. 194.)
(4 Y ) Sometimes a note which carries a 7 in the continued bafs, gives in the fundamental bafs its third above
figured with a 6. For example, this continued bafs ABC gives this fundamental bafs C G C ; but in this cafe
it is neceffary that the note figured with a 6 ihould rife by a fifth, as we fee here C rife to G.
(42) A note figured with a 2, gives likewife fometimes in the fundamental bafs its fourth above, figured
with a 6 ; but it is neceffary in that cafe that the note figured with a 6, may even here rife to a fifth. (See
note 4 y.) ^
Thefe variations in the fundamental bafs, as well in the chord concerning which we now treat, as in the chord
figured with a 7, and in two others which fhall afterwards be mentioned (art. 228 and 229), are caufed by a de¬
ficiency in the figns proper for the chord of the fub-dominant, and for the different arrangements bv which it is
inverted.
^ M. 1’Abbe Ron filer, to redrefs this deficiency, had invented a new manner of figuring the continued bafs.
His method is mofi fimple for thofe who know the fundamental bafs. It confifts in expreffing each chord bv
only fignifying the fundamental found with that letter of the fcale by which it is denominated, to which is joined
a 7 or $f, or a 6, in order to mark all the difcords. Thus the fundamental chord of the feventb 13 F A Cis expreff-
ed by a D j and the fame chord, when it is inverted from that of the fub-dominant FACE, is charafterized by
F; the chord of the fecond C D F A, inverted from the dominant D F A C, is likewife reprefented by
J3 ; and the fame chord C D F A, inverted from that of the fub-dominant F A C D, is fignified by F; the cafe is
the
546
MUSIC.
Part II.
Principles mental b&fs the diatonic note above, figured with a 7.
or Compofi- (See LXI.).
. 7. Every note figured with a g gives its third below
figured with a 7. (See LVlii.)
8. Every note marked with a $ gives the fifth be¬
low marked with a 7 ; (fee LX.) and it is plain by
art. 187. that in the chord of the feventh, of which we
treat in thefe three laft articles, the third ought to be
major, and the feventh minor, this chord of the feventh
being the chord of the tonic dominant. (See art. 102.).
9. Every note marked with a 9 gives its third above
figured with a 7. (See lxxvii. and LXXIX.)
10. Every note marked with a f gives the fifth a-
bove figured with a 7. (See lxxviii).
11. Every note marked with a $5, or with a -}-5>
7
gives the third above figured with a $. (See lxxxi.)
12. Every note marked with a $7 gives a fifth above
7
figured with a 7, or with a $. (See lxxvi.) It is
the fame cafe with the notes marked
5, or 4
which
18. Every note marked with a
ss the feventh
t>6 §lves
redundant above, figured with a (See lxxxix.)
(5 a).
Remark.
A difficulty 228. We have omitted two cafes, which may caufe
in finding fome uncertainty,
the funda¬
mental
bafs.
The firft is that where the note of the continued bafs Principles
is figured with a 6. Ws now prefent the reafon of theof ComP®^*
difficulty. ,
Suppofe we (hould have the dominant D in the fun¬
damental bafs, the note which anfwers to it in the con¬
tinued bafs may be A carrying the figure 6 (fee
lxiv.) } that is to fay, the chord A CDF: now
6
if we fhould have the fubdominant F in the fundamen¬
tal bafs, this fubdominant might produce in the conti¬
nued bafs the fame note A figured with a 6. When
therefore we find in the continued bafs a note marked
with a 6, it appears at firft uncertain whether we
Ihould place in the fundamental bafs the fifth below
marked with a 7, or the third below marked with
a 6.
229. The fecond cafe is that in which the conti-Another;
nued bafs is figured with a f-. For inftance, if there
{hows a retrenchment, either in the complete chord of
the eleventh, or in that of the feventh redundant.
13. Every note marked with a 4 gives a fifth above
7
figured with 37, or a (See Lxxx.)
14. Every note marked with a $6 gives the third
minor below, figured with a (See lxxxv.)
4
15. Every note maiked with a t> gives the tritone a-
bove figured with ?. (See lxxxvi.)
16. Every note marked with a $2 gives the fecond
redundant above, figured with a jf. (See lxxxvii.)
17. Every note marked with a gives the fifth
redundant above, figured with a (See lxxxviii.)
ftiould be found F in the continued bafs, we may be
ignorant whether we ought to infert in the funda¬
mental bafs F marked with a 6, or D figured with
3 ?•
230. This difficulty may be removed by leaving for Solution,
an inftant this uncertain note in fufpenfe, and in exa¬
mining the fucceeding note of the fundamental bafs j
for if that note be in the prefent cafe a fifth above F,
that is to fay, if it be C, in this cafe, and in this alone, we
6
may place F in the fundamental bafs. It is a confe-
quence of this rule, that in the fundamental bafs every
fub-dominant ought to rife by a filth (195).
Chap. XII. What is meant by being in a Mode or
Tone.
231. In the firft part of this treatife (chap, vi.) we Method of
have explained, how by the means of the note C, and determin-
of its two-fifths G and F, one in afeending, which is
called a tonic dominant, the other in defeending, which which we
is called a fub-dominant, the fcale C D E F A B C may are.
be found : the different founds which form this fcale
compofe
the fame when the chords are differently inverted. By this means it would be impoffible to miftake either with re-
fpeft to the fundamental bafs of a chord, or with refpedt to the note which forms its diffonance, or with refpeft to
the nature and fpecies of that difeord.
(5 a) We may only add, that here, and in the preceding articles of the text, we fuppofe, that the continued
bafs is figured in the manner of M. Rameau. For it is proper to obferve, that there are not, perhaps, two mu-
ficians who charaflerize their chords with the fame figures $ which produces a great inconveniency to the perfon
who plays the accompaniments : but here we do not treat of accompaniments. We prefer the continued baffes
of M. Rameau to all the others, as by them the fundamental bafs will be moft eafily difeovered.
M. Rameau only marks the leffer fixth by a 6 without a line, when this leffer fixth does not refult from the
ohord of the tonic dominant ; in fuch a manner that the 6 renders it uncertain whether in the fundamental bafs
we ought to cboofe the third or the fifth below j but it will be eafy to fee whether the third or the fifth is fignified
by that figure. This may be diftinguithed, 1. In obferving which of the two notes is excluded by the rules of the
fundamental bafs. 2. If the two notes may with equal propriety be placed in the fundamental bafs, the preference
muft be determined by the tone or mode of the treble in that particular paffage. In the following chapter we
{hall give rules for determining the mode (note 3 z).
There is a chord of which we have not fpoken in this enumeration, and which is called the chord of the Jixth
redundant. This chord is compofed of a note, of its third major, of its redundant fourth or tritone, and its re¬
dundant fixth, as FAB D$. It is marked with a 6$. It appears difficult to find a fundamental bafs for this
chord j nor is it indeed much in ufe amongft us. (See the note upon the art. 115.)
I his chord is called in England the chord of the extreme [harp Jixth. When accompanied by the third only
it is called the Italian fixth. When the fifth is fubftituted for the tritone, it has been called the German Jixth, ^
Part II. M U S
Principles compofe the major mode of C, becaufe the third E
of Compofi- aij0ve C is major. If therefore we w-ould have a mo-
, tl^n’ dulation in the major mode of C, no other founds muft
v enter into it than thofe which compofe this fcale j in
fuch a manner that if, for inftance, we fhould find
in this modulation, this difcovers to us that we are
not in the mode of C, or at leaft that, if we have been
in it, we are no longer fo.
23 2. In the fame manner, if we form this fcale in af-
cending A B D E G$A, which is exatfly fi-
milar to the fcale CDEFGABCof the major mode
of C, this fcale, in which the third from A to is
major, lhall be in the major mode of A ; and if we in¬
cline to be in the minor mode of A, we have only to
fubftitute for C (harp C natural ; fo that the major
third A 0$ may become minor A C : we fhall have
then
A B C D E F$ G$ A,
which is (85.) the fcale of the minor mode of A in af-
cending; and the fcale of the minor mode of A in de-
fcending {hall be (90.),
, AGFECDBA,
in which the G and F are no longer (harp. For it is
a fingularity peculiar to the minor mode, that its fcale
is not the fame in rifing as in defcending (89.).
Henceitap- 233. This is the reafon why, when we wifti to be-
pears what g|n a piece in the major mode of A, wTe place three
?arPoanH lharps at the cleflf upon F, C, and G ; and on the con-
be^nUced trary, in the minor mode of A, we place none, becaule
at the cleft' the minor mode of A# in defcending, has neither fharps
in the ma nor flats.
jormodeof the fcale contains twelve founds, each di-
ftant from the other by the interval of a lemitone, it is
omitted in obvious that each of thefe founds can produce both a
the minor major and a minor mode, which conftitute 24 modes
mode in de-Up0n the wh0le. Of thefe we (hall immediately give a
{tending. tab1^ may be very ufefui t0 difcover the mode
in which we are.
Modes 24
in the
whole.
Maj. Mode
of C;
of Gj
A TABLE of the Different Modes.
Major Modes.
C, D, E, F, G, A, B, c.
G, A, B, c, d, e, f$, g.
I c.
of D } D, E, F^, G, A, B, c^, d:
of A } A, B, c d, e, g^, a.
of E j E, Fi^, G^, ABc^,d^, e.
of B : B, c&, e, f$,g$, a«, b.
Of Fi^. F$, G'^, A^, B, d$, e^, f'^ (5 b),
0f^']-Dtj, E[j, F, Gb, Ab, Bb, c, db.
or Db ; $
Of G% 1 A[? c> dt?} gj ai;.
or Ab *, S
0f^’ | Eb, F, G, A\>, Bb, c, d, eb,
of j Bb, C, D. El?, F, G, A, Bl).
or Bb j 3
B!?, c, d, e, f.
or cf- }C» D’ E’ F’ G’ A’ B,C‘
(See Ex. xciv.)
Minor Modes.
Of A.
In defcending. A G F E D C B A.
In rifing. A B C D E F'^ G^ A.
Of E.
In defcending. e d c B A G F'$ E.
In rifing. E F$ G A B c^ d^ e.
Of B.
In defcending. BAG E D C^B
In rifing. B D E T $ G^ Ai^ B.
Of F*c.
In defcending. f^e d c$B A G^E'^.
In rifing. F$ G'^ A B d'$ e^ f^.
Of C%
In defcending. B AG$: E D$ C^i.
In rifing. D$ E G^ A^ C^.
Of G« or Ab.
In defcending. gi$> c$ B A^ G^.
In rifing. Ab Bb Cb db eb fgsb*
Of D^; or Eb.
In defcending. eb db cb Bb Ab Gb F Eb«
In rifing. Eb F Gb Ab Bb c d eb.
Of A:^: or Bb-
In defcending. Bb Ab, Gb F Eb Db C Bb*
In rifing. Db C Db Eb F G A Bb.
3 Z 2 Of
547
Principles
of Compofi-
tion.
' , »
fe The major mode of F^, of C^, and of G^, are not much praaifed. ^ .
When a piece begins upon C^:, there ought to be feven (harps placed at the cleff: but it is more convenient
only to place five flats, and to fuppofe the key Db, which is almoft the fame thing with C$. For this reafon we
fubftitute here the mode of Db, for that of r , r , c c • j r
It is ftill much more neceffary to fubftitute the mode of Ab for that of G'$ } for the fcale of the major mode of
G$is, G$, A$, B$, C$, d$,e$, g, g$, >
in which it appears that there are at the fame time both a ‘g!)’ and a ‘g$’ : it would then be neceilary, even at
the fame time, that upon G there fhould and (hould not be a fharp at the cleflf j which is inconfiftent. It is true
that this inconvenience may be avoided by placing a (harp upon G at the cleff, and by marking the note G with
a natural through the courfe of the mufic wherever it ought to be natural; but this would become troublefome,
above all if there (hould be occafion to tranfpofe. In the article 236. we (hall give an account of tranfpofition.
\Vt might likewife in this feries, inftead of G natural, which is the note immediately before the lait, fubftitute
F$$, that is to fay, F twice (harp : which, however, is not abfolutely the fame lound with G natural, efpecial-
lv upon inftruments whofe fcales are fixed, or whofe intervals arc invariable. But in that cafe two (harps muft be
placed at the cleff upon F, which would produce another inconvenience. But by fubftituting Ab for G$, the
trouble is eluded. „ . . , , r r-v v • r 1
The double fharp, however, is incidentally ufed, when in a compofition in the key of Fy, there is an occaiional
modulation into the dominant of that key, and it is diftinguiftied by the charafter X or
5+8
Principles
of Compofi-
tion.
In defcending.
In riling.
In defcending.
In riling.
In defcending.
In riling.
In defcending.
In riling.
M U
Of E$ or Fii.
f F e[? d[? c B[? At) GF.
F G At? .Bb c d e f.
Of c.
c Bb Ab G F Eb D C.
CDEb FG ABc.
Of G.
gfebdCBb AG.
G ABb cdef$ g.
Of D.
d c Bb A G F E D.
D E F G A B c$ d (5 c). .
Modes 235. Thefe then are all the modes, as well major as
crowded minor. Thofe which are crowded with lharps and
^ndflatT1*8 ^atS are Pra<^^e^> as Being extremely difficult in
little prac- execution,
lifed,
S I C. Part II.
236. Hence It follows, Principles
1. That when there are neither lharps nor flats at the of Compofi-
cleff, the piece begins in the major mode of C, or in , tl°n* p
the minor mode of A. Refults.
2. That when there is one lharp, it will always be
placed upon F, and that the piece begins in the major
mode of G, or the minor of E, in fuch a manner that
it may be fung as if there were no lharp, by linging B
inlfead of F$, and in finging the tune as if it had been
in another cleff. For inllance, let there be a tharp up¬
on F in the cleff of G upon the firft line $ one may then
ling the tune as if there were no lharp; and as if, in-
ftead of the cleff of G upon the firft line, it were the
cleff of C ; for the F$, when changed into B, will re¬
quire that the cleff of G Ihould be changed to the cleff
of C, as may be eafily feen. This is what we call
tranfpojition (5 d). Sec Tranf-
237. It is evident, that when F$ is changed into/’?A^07Z*
(5 c) We have already feen, that in each mode, the principal note is called a tonic; that the fifth above that
note is called a tonic dominant, or the dominant of the mode, or limply a dominant; that the fifth below the tonic,
or, what is the fame thing, the fourth above that tonic, is called a fub-dommant; and in Ihort, that the note
which forms a'femitone below the tonic, and which is a third major from the dominant, is called •d.fenfble note.
The other notes have likewife in every mode particular names which it is advantageous to know'. 1 hus a note
which is a tone immediately above the tonic, as D in the mode of C, and B in that of A is termed ■a.fuper-tonic ;
the following note, which is a third major or minor from the tonic, according as the chord is major or minor,
fuch as E in the major mode of C, and C in the minor mode of A, is called a mediant; and the note
which is a tone above the dominant, fuch as A, in the mode of C, and F$ in that of A, is called %.fuper-
dominant.
(5 d) Though our author’s account of this delicate operation in mufic will be found extremely juft and com¬
pendious j though it proceeds upon limple principles, and comprehends every poflible contingency j yet as the
manner of thinking upon which it depends may be lefs familiar to Englilh readers, if not profoundly Ikilled in
mufic, it has been thought proper to give a more familiar, though lefs comprehenfive, explanation of the manner
in which tranfpoftion may be executed.
It will eafily occur to every reader, that if each of the intervals through the whole diatonic feries were equal,
in a mathematical fenfe, it would be abfolutely indifferent upon what note any air wTere begun, if within the com-
pafs of the gammut; becaufe the fame equal intervals muft always have the fame effedts. But fince, befides the
natural femitones, there is another diftinftion of diatonic intervals into greater and leffer tones ; and fince thefe
vary their pofitions in the feries of an o£tave, according as the note from whence you begin is placed, that note is
confequently the beft key for any tune whofe natural feries is moft exactly correfpondent with the intervals which
that melody or harmony requires. But in inftruments whofe feales are fixed, notwithftanding the temperament
and other expedients of the fame kind, fuch a feries is far from being eafily found, and is indeed in common prac¬
tice almoft totally negle&ed. All that can frequently be done is, to take care that the ear may not be fenfibly
fhocked. This, however, would be the cafe, if, in tranfpofing any tune, the fituation of the femitones, whether
natural or artificial, were not exactly correfpondent in the feries to which your air muft be tranfpofed, with their
pofitions in the fcale from which you tranfpofe it. Suppofe, for inftance, your air ftrould begin upon C, requiring
the natural diatonic feries through the whole gammut, in which the diftance between E and F, as alfo that be¬
tween B and C, is only a femitone. Again, fuppofe it neceffary for your voice, or the inftrument on which you
play, that the fame air ftiould be tranfpofed to G, a fifth above its former key j then becaufe in the firft feries the
intervals between the third and the fourth, feventh and eighth notes, are no more than femitones, the fame inter¬
vals muft take the fame place in the odlave to which you tranfpofe. Now, from G, the note with which you pro-
pofe to begin, the three tones immediately fucceeding are full; but the fourth C is only a femitone •, it may there¬
fore be kept in its place. But from F, the feventh note above, to G, the eighth, the interval is a full tone,
which muft confequently be redreffed by raifing the F a femitone higher. Thus the fituations of the femitonic in¬
tervals in both o£laves will be correfpondent j and thus, by conforming the pofitions of the femitones in the oc¬
tave to which you tranfpofe, with thofe in the oftave in which the original key of the tune is contained, you will
perform your operation with as much fuccefs as the nature of fixed feales can admit.
The order to be obferved in thefe alterations of the intervals, is deduced from the relation which the fifth af-
cending and defcending bear to the fundamental (art. 34. 35.) j and therefore the farther we depart from the na¬
tural fundamental C by a feries of fifths afeending or defcending, the alterations, and confequently the number of
iharps or flats indicating them, will be the greater.
Thus if G, which is the perfeft fifth afeending from , therefore the note nioft nearly allied to C (art. 39, 40.),
be
S I c.
Part II. M U
Principles B, G muft be changed into C, and E into A. Thus,
of Compofi- by tranfpolition, the air has the fame melody as if it
1 mn' , were in the major mode of C, or in the minor mode of
All the -A-* major mode then of G, and the minor of E,
modes re- are by tranfpolition reduced to thofe of C major, and
ducible to 0f A minor. It is the fame cafe with all the other
the major modes(rE).
of C and 'J
the minor
of A.
549
Principles
Chap. XIII. To find the Fundamental Bafs of a ofCompoti-
given Modulation. ■ f- •
238. As we have reduced to a very fmall number Method of
the rules of the fundamental bafs, and thofe which in^n(,jnSa
the treble ought to be obferved with relation to this tni'bafs'to a
bafs, given air
not diffi-
    .  cult, and
why.
be taken for a fundamental, F, which is the feventh of the fcale of G, muft be made ftiarp, that it may be a
whole tone from the fixth E, and only a femitone from the key note G, according to the laws of the diatonic
fcale (art. 77.). See Ex. xciv. x. 2.
Again, if D, the perfect fifth afcending from G, and the fecond in the feries of progreftive fifths afcending
from C, be ufed as a fundamental, C, which is the feventh of the fcale of D, muft, to render it the fenfible or
leading note (art. 77.), be made fharp in addition to F j fo that in the fcale of D, there are two fharps, F and C,
See Ex. xciv. (3.). / .
If A, the perfeft fifth above D, and the third in the feries of fifths afcending from C, be the fundamental, the
feventh G muft, in addition to F and C, be made fharp, for the fame reaion (4.) ; and fo on, in the fcale of E,
which is next in order, F, C, G, and D, muft be fharp (5.) : in that of B, the fharps muft be F, C, G,
D and A (6.).
The perfect fifth above B is F$, and in that fcale F, C, G, D, A, and E, muft be ftiarp (7.). And in the--
next fcale all the notes of the fyftem are fharp (8.).
This, for the reafons mentioned in the note (5 b), is the laft fcale to which we can properly go by the progref-
fions of fifths afcending.
Returning to the natural fcale of C, if, inftead of affuming G, the perfeft fifth above, for a fundamental, we
take F, the perfedft fifth below 5 B, which is the fourth note above F, and forms a tritone or fharp fourth
to it, muft, to become a perfect fourth, according to the laws of the diatonic fcale, (art. 60.) be made
flat (12.).
Proceeding with the feries of fifths defcending, if Bfr, which is the perfeft fifth below F, be taken for a funda¬
mental •, E, which, in its natural ftate, is the tritone or fharp fourth to Bfr, muft, to become the diatonic fourth
(art. 60.), alfo be rendered flat (11.)
If E[}, which is the perfedt fifth below Bfj, and the third in the feries of fifths defcending'from C, be made the
fundamental, A, the fharp fourth, muft, to become the diatonic''fourth, be made flat, and the flats marked at the
cleflf are B, E and A (10.).
To form the next fcale in the feries of fifths defcending, which is that of A flat, D muft be flattened4 and B,
E, A, and D, are marked flat at the cleft (9.).
The next fcale, that of I) flat, is formed by flattening G, and adding its flat to the others at the cleft (8.).
This is the fcale recommended to be ufed rather than that of C$. (See note 3 b).
We do not proceed farther with the feries of fifths defcending, fince the next fcale, that of G\), would juft or
very nearly exhibit the founds already reprefented by the fcale of F$ This fcale is, however, fometimes
written in the key of G flat, and we even meet with the fcale of its fifth below', C flat, and, with an occafional
modulation from that key into its fifth below, F flat, where B being neceffarily twice flattened, is diftinguiftied by
this chara£ler or (?[;, called a double flat.
We have thus feen, ift, That each of the notes of the diatonic fcale of C, and each of thefemitones into wdrich
the whole tones of that fcale are divided, may be taken for the fundamental note of a diatonic fcale, called
the fcale of that note. 2dly, That the notes of the natural fcale are more or lefs altered, as the note aflumed for a
fundamental is more or lefs diftant from C, in a progreffion of fifths afcending or delcending. 3dly, That in the
progreflion by fifths afcending, the notes are altered by {harps, and in the progreflion by fifths defcending, the
alterations are by flats. 4thly, That in the alteration by (harps, the laft Pnarp is always on the feventh or Jenfible
note of the fcale *, and where there are more than one, is always on the fifth above the (harp immediately preced¬
ing j and in the alteration by flats, the laft flat is always on the fourth of the fcale 5 and where there are more
than one, is always on the fifth below the fiat immediately preceding.
The fignatures of fharps and flats at the clefts, belonging to the twelve major feales, are alfo ufed for their re¬
lative minor feales. The occafional elevation and depreflion of the fixths and fevenths of the minor feales, are de¬
noted by occafional (harps or flats placed before thefe notes.
(5 e) Many muficians, and amongft others the ancient muficians of France, as Lulli, Campra, &c. place
one flat lefs in the minor mode : fo that in the minor mode of D, they place neither (harp nor flat at the cleft} in
the minor mode of G, one flat only \ in the minor mode of C, two flats, &c.
This praftice in itfelf is fufticiently indifferent, and fcarcely merits the trouble of a difpute. Yet the method
which we have here deferibed, according to M. Rameau, has the advantage of reducing all the modes to two ;
and befides it is founded upon this Ample and very general rule, That in the major mode, we muft place as many
(harps or flats at the cleft', as are contained in the diatonic fcale of that mode in afcending j and in the. minorr
mode, as many as are contained in that fame fcale in defeeading,.
.55°
Principles
o* Compofi-
M V
baf', it fhould no longer be iiakult to find the funda¬
mental bafs of a given modulation, nay, frequently to
i-n,—y—find feveral ; for every fundamental bafs will be legiti¬
mate, when it is formed according to the rules which
we have given (chap, vi.) ; and that, befides this, the
difionances which the modulation may form with this
bafs, will both be prepared, if it is necefiary that they
Ihould be fo, and always refolved (5 f).
Difficulty of 239. It is of the greatell utility in fearching for the
general^ fundamental bafs, to know what is the tone or mode
rules for l^e melody to which that bafs Ihould correfpond.—
afcertaining But it is difficult in this matter to affign general rules,
the mode otantj as are abfolutely without exception, in wdiich
whofe fun riot^‘ng may be left that appears indifferent or dilcre-
tionary ; becaufe fometimes we feem to have the free
choice of referring a particular melody either to one
mode or another. For example, this melody G C may
belong to all the modes, as well major as minor, in
which G and C are found together ; and each of thefe
two founds may even be conlidered as belonging to a
different mode.
240. We may fometimes, as it Ihould feem, operate
without the knowdedge of the mode, for two reafons:
1. Becaufe, fince the fame founds belong to feveral
different modes, the mode is fometimes confiderably
of the C( fee uncleterm'ned 5 above all, in the middle of a piece, and
mode, and during the time of one or two bars. 2. Without giving
ourfelves much trouble about the mode, it is often fuf-
ficient to preferve us from deviating in compofition, if
we obferve in the fimpleff manner the rules above pre-
feribed (chap, vi.) for the procedure of the fundamental
bafs.
241. In the mean time, it is above all things ne-
Knowledge ceffary to know in what mode wre operate at the bo¬
ot the mode ginning of the piece, becaufe it is indifpenfable that
rdn^f^iece t^e lunc!amental ba^s fhould begin in the fame mode,
indffpen- anc^ ^lat treble and bafs Ihould likewife end in it ;
nay, that they fhould even terminate in its fundamental
note, w hich in the mode of C is C, and A in that of
A, &c. Befides, in thefe paffages of the modulation
where there is a cadence, it is generally neceffary that
the mode of the fundamental bafs fhould be the fame
with that of the part to which it correfponds.
242. To know upon what mode or in wdiat key a
piece commences, our inquiry may be entirely reduced
to diftinguifh the major mode of C from the minor of A.
For wre have already feen (art. 236. .and 237.), that all
the modes may be reduced to thefe twTo, at leait in the
damer.tal
bali is
fought.
Reafons
why we
may pro¬
ceed with
out the
how we
may be
preferved
from devi¬
ating in
compoft-
tion.
fable, and
-why.
Ir.veftiga-
tion of the
mode con-{
tinued.
S I C. Part II.
beginning of the piece. We fhall now therefore give a brine .pies
detail of the different means by which thefe twro modes01 ^omP°fi"
may be diffinguifhed. . a<^n‘ f
1. From the principal and charadteriflical founds of Means by
the mode, which are C E G in the one, and A C E in which the
the other j fo that if a piece ftiould, for inftance, begin niodes ma?
thus, A C E A, it may be almoff conftantly conciu-^er'
ded, that the tone or mode is in A minor, although the
notes AGE belong to the mode of C.
2. From the fenfible note, which is B in the one,
and G$ in the other j fo that if G^ appears in the
firft bars of a piece, we may be certain that we are in
the mode of A.
3. From the adjundls of the mode, that is to fay,
the modes of its two-fifths, which for C are F and G,
and D and E for A. For example, if after having be¬
gun a melody by fome of the notes which are common
to the modes of C and of A (as E D £ F E JD C B
C), we fhould afterwards find the mode of G, w’hich we
afeertain by the F$, or that of F which we afeertain
by the B|? or Cij, we may conclude that we have begun
in the mode of C j but if we find the mode of D, or
that of E, which we afeertain by B[j, C^, or &c.
we conclude from thence that we have begun in the
mode of A.
4. A mode is not ufually changed, efpecially In
the beginning of a piece, unlefs in order to pafs into
one or other of the modes moft relative to it, which
are the mode of its fifth above, and that of its third
below, if the original mode be major, or of its third
above if it be minor. Thus, for inftance, the modes
which are moll intimately relative to the major mode
of C, are the major mode of G, and that of A minor.
From the mode of C we commonly pafs either into
the one or the other of thefe modes 5 fe that we may
fometimes judge of the principal mode in w'hich we
are, by the relative mode which follows it, or which
goes before it, when thefe relative modes are decifive-
ly marked. Befides thefe two relative modes, there
are likewife two others into which the principal mode
may pafs, but lefs frequently, viz. the mode of its fifth,
below, and that of its third above, as F and E for the
mode of C (5 g).
5. The modes may ftill be likewife dillinguilhed by
the cadences of the melody. Thefe cadences ought to
occur at the end of every two, or at moft of every four
bars, as in the fundamental bafs: now the note of
the fundamental bafs which is moll fuitable to thefe
clofes,
(5 f) We often fay, t/iat we are upon a particular hey or fcale, inftead of faying that we are in a particular
mode. I he following expreflions therefore are fynonymous; fuch a piece is in C major, or in the mode of C ma¬
jor , or in the hey of C major, or in the fcale of C major.
(i G) ^ ^ certain that the minor mode of E has an extremely natural connexion with the mode of C, as has
been proven (art. 92.) both by arguments and by examples. It has likewife appeared in the note upon the art. 93.
tnat the minor mode of D may be joined to the major mode of C : and thus in a particular fenfe, this mode may
be confidered as relative to the mode of C, but it is ftill lefs fo than the major modes of G and F, or than thofe
of A and E minor 5 becaufe we cannot immediately, and without licence, pafs ?fi a fundamental bafs from the
perfect minor chord of C to the perfect minor chord of D ; and if you pafs immediately from the major mode of
C to the minor mode of D in a fundamental bafs, it is by paffing, for inftance, from the tonic C, or from E G C,
to the tonic dominant of D, carrying the chord A C$C E G, in which there are twro founds, E G, which are
found in the preceding chord, (Ex, xcv.) or otherwife irom C E G C to G B[? D E, a chord of the fub-domi-
nant in the minor mode of D, w'hich chord has likewife two founds, G and E, in common with that which went
immediately before it. See Ex. xcvi.
3
Partll. M U
Principles clofes *, is always eafy to be found. For the founds
of Compofi- wh;ch
occur in the treble, M. Rameau may be con-
. t‘^n‘ . fulted, p. 54. of his Nouveau Syjieme de Mufique theo-
* See Ca- rique et pratique (5 h).
dence. When the mode is afcertained, by the different
Having af- jneans which we have pointed out, the fundamental bafs
will coft little pains. For in each mode there are three
the mode, /• * i r i
the funda. fundamental iounds.
mental bafs 1. The tonic of the mode, or its principal found,
not diffi- which carries always the perfeft chord major or minor,
€u according as the mode itfelf is major or minor.
Major mode of C, CFG ‘c’.
Minor mode of A, A C E A.
2. The tonic dominant, which is a fifth above the
tonic, and which, whether in the major or minor mode,
always carries a chord of the feventh, compofed of a
third major followed by two thirds minor.
Tonic dominant.
Major mode of C, G B D ‘f\
Tonic dominant.
Minor mode of A, E G$ B ‘d^
3. The fub-dominant, which is a fifth below the
tonic, and which carries a chord compofed of a third,
fifth, and fixth major, the third being either greater
or leffer, according as the mode is major or minor.
Sub-dominant.
Major mode of C, FAC <d\
Minor mode of A, D F A B.
Thefe three founds, the tonic, the tonic dominant,
and the fub-dominant, contain in their chords all the
notes which enter into the fcale of the mode j fo that
when a melody is given, it may almoft always be
found which of thefe three founds (hould be placed in
the fundamental bafs, under any particular note of the
upper part. Yet it fometimes happens that not one
of thefe notes can be ufed. For example, let it be
fuppofed that we are in the mode of C, and that we
find in the melody thefe two notes A B in fucceffion j
if we confine ourfelves to place in the fundamental
bafs one of the three founds C G F, w'e (hall find
nothing for the founds A and B but this fundamental
bafs F G} now fuch a fucceffion as F to G is pro¬
hibited by the fifth rule for the fundamental bafs accord¬
ing to which every fub-dominant, as F, (hould rife by a
s 1 C. e
fifth j fo that F can only be followed by C in the 0f Compofi-
fundamental bafs, and not by G. ■ l.tl°1“ »
To remedy this, the chord of the fub-dominant F
A C ‘d’ muft be inverted into a fundamental chord of
the feventh, in this manner, D F A ‘c’, which has been
called the double emplmjment (art. 105.) becaufe it is a
fecondary manner of employing the chord of the fub-
dominant. By thefe means we give to the modulation
■7 7
A B this fundamental bafs D G \ which procedure is
agreeable to rules. See Ex. xcvn.
Here then are four chords, C E G ‘c’, G B D ‘f’,
FAC ‘d’, D F A ‘c’, which may be employed in the
major mode of C. We fhall find in lik* manner, for
the minor mode of A, four chords.
A C ‘e a’, E G$ B ‘d%
D F A B, B D ‘f a’.
And in this mode w^e fometimes change the laft of
thefe chords into B D ‘1$ a’, fubftituting the ‘f^;’ for
‘{tf. For inftance, if we have this melody in the minor
mode of A, E F^ G$: A, wre would caufe the firft
note E to carry the perfedl chord A C E A; the fecond
note F$: to carry the chord of the feventh B D F$: A;
the third note G$, the chord of the tonic dominant E
G$ B D, and the lalt the perfe6l chord A C E A.
See Ex. xcviil.
On the contrary, if this melody is given always irt -
the minor mode, A A G$ A, the fecond A being
fyncopated, it might have the fame bafs as the modula¬
tion E F$ G$ A, with this difference alone, that Ftj
might be fubftituted for F$ in the chord B D F^: A,
the better to mark out the minor mode. See Exam,
xcix.
Befides thefe chords which wre have juft mentioned,
and which may be regarded as the principal chords of
the mode, there are ftill a great many others $ for ex¬
ample, the feries of dominants,
CADGCF BEADGC,
which are terminated equally in the tonic C, either
entirely belong, or at leaft may be reckoned as be¬
longing (51) to the mode of C j becaufe none of thefe ■
dominants are tonic dominants, except G, which is
the tonic dominant of the mode of C ; and befides, be¬
caufe the chord of each of thefe dominants forms no
other ■
(5 h) \\\ thefe different manners of diftinguilhing the modes ought, if we may fpeak fo, to give mutual light
and afliftance one to the other. But it often happens, that one of thefe figns alone is not fufficient to determine
the mode, and may even lead to error. For example, if a piece of mufic begins ufith thefe three notes, E C G,
we muft not with too much precipitation conclude from thence that we are in the major mode of C, although
thefe three founds, E C G, be the principal and chara&eriftical founds in the major-mode of G: we-may be in
the minor mode of E, efpecially if the note E ftiould be long.
(5 1) I have faid, that they may be reckoned as belonging to.this mode, for two reafons : 1. Becaufe, properly
fpeaking, there are only three chords which effentially and primitively belong to the mode of C, viz. C car¬
rying the perfeft chord, F carrying that of the fub-dominant, and G that of the tonic dominant, to which we.
may join the chord of the feventh, D F A C (art. 105.) : but we here regard as extended the feries of dominants
in queftion, as belonging to the mode of C, becaufe it preferves in the ear the impreflion of that mode. 2. In a
feries of dominants, there are a great many of them which likewife belong to other -modes ; for inftance, the
finrm’e dominant A belongs naturally to the mode of G, the fimple dominant B to that of A, &c. Thus-it is
only improperly, and by way of extenlion, as I have already faid, that we regard here thefe dorairfants as belong
ing to the mode of C.
552 M U S
Principles other founds than fuch as belong to the fcale of C. See
of Compofi- jrx>
Eut if we were to form this fundamental bafs,
7 7 7 7t)
C A D G C,
confidering the laft C as a tonic dominant in this man¬
ner, C E G Bb the mode ■would then be changed at
the fecond C, and we Ihould enter into the mode of
F, becaufe the chord C E G Bb indicates the tonic
dominant of the mode of F •, befides, it is evident that
the mode is changed, becaufe Bb does not belong to the
fcale of C. See Ex. ci.
In the fame manner, were we to form this fundamen¬
tal bafs
A rule for
difcover-
ing the
changes of
,inode.
T T T 6"
C A D G C,
confidering the laft C as a fub-dominant in this man¬
ner, C E G A •, this laft C would indicate the mode of
G, of which C is the fub-domtnant. See Ex. Oil.
In like manner, ftill, if in the firft feries of domi¬
nants, we caufed the firft D to carry the third major, in
this manner, D F'$ A ‘c’ ; this D having become a to¬
nic dominant, wmuld fignify to us the major mode of G,
7
and the G which ftiould follow it, carrying the chord
B D ‘f’, would relapfe into the mode of C, from whence
w'e had departed. See Ex. cm.
Finally, in the fame manner, if in this feries of do¬
minants, wre ftiould caufe B to carry F$ in this man¬
ner, B D F$ A, this F would fliow that we had de¬
parted from the mode C, to enter into that of G. See
Ex. civ.
Hence it is eafy to form this rule for difeovering the
changes of mode in the fundamental bafs.
I. When we find a tonic in the fundamental bafs,
we are in the mode of that tonic ; and the mode is ma¬
jor or minor, according as the perfect chord is major or
minor.
I C. Part II.
2. When ive find a fub-dominant, we arc in the Principles!
mode of the fifth above that fub-dominant; and theComp°fi-
mode is major or minor, according as the third in the . .
chord of the fub-dominant is major or minor.
3. When we find a tonic dominant, we are in the
mode of the fifth below that tonic dominant. As the to¬
nic dominant carries always the third major, it cannot be
afeertained from this dominant alone, whether the mode
be major or minor : but it is only neceffary to examine
the following note, which mull be the tonic of the
mode in which he is; by the third of this tonic it will
be difeovered whether the mode be major or minor.
243. Every change of the mode fuppofes a cadence ;
and when the mode changes in the fundamental bafs,
it is almoft always either after the tonic of the mode
in udiich we have been, or sifter the tonic dominant of
that mode, confidered then as a tonic by favour of a
clofe which ought neceffatily to be found in that place:
Whence it happens that cadences in a melody for the
moft part prefage a change of mode which ought to
follow them.
244. All thefe rules, joined with the table of modes
which we have given (art. 234.), will ferve to difeover
in what mode we are in the middle of a piece, efpeci-
ally in the moft effential paffages, as cadences (5 k).
Chap. XIV. Of the Chromatic and Enharmonic.
245. We call that melody chromatic which is com-Chromatic,
pofed of feveral notes in fucceftion, whether rifing orwliat*
defeending by femitones. See CV. and cvi.
246. When an air is chromatic in defeending, the To an air
moft natural and ordinary fundamental bafs is a con-defc611 ding
catenated feries of tonic dominants; all of which fol-^^?^
low one another in defeending by a fifth, or which tervajs‘
is the fame thing, in rifing by a fourth. See Ex. CV.fundamen-
(cl). talbafs,
247.what>
(5 k) Two modes are fo much more intimately relative, as they contain a greater number of founds common
to both ; for example, the minor mode of C and the major of G, or the major mode of C and the minor of A :
on the contrary, twro modes are lefs intimately relative as the number of founds which they contain as common to
both is fmaller; for inftance, the major mode of C and the minor of B, &c.
When the compofer, led away by the current of the modulation, that is to fay, by the manner in w'hicli
the fundamental bafs is conftituted, into a mode remote from that in w'hich the piece was begun, he ought to con¬
tinue in it but for a ftiort time, becaufe the ear is always impatient to return to the former mode.
( 5 l) We may likewife give to a chromatic melody in defeending, a fundamental bafs, into which may enter
chords of the feventh and of the diminiftied feventh, wrhich may fucceed one another by the intervals ol a falte
fifth and a fifth redundant: thus in the Example evil, w’here the continued bafs defeends chromatically, it may
eafily be feen that the fundamental bafs carries fucceftively the chords of the feventh and of the leventh diminifli
ed, and that in this bafs there is a falfe fifth from D to G'$, and a fifth redundant from G'$ to C.
The reafon of this licence is, at it appears to us, becaufe the chord of the diminiftied feventh may be con¬
fidered as reprefenting (art. 221.) the chord of the tonic dominant; in fuch a manner that this fundamental
bafs _ ^
1 i 77 7 $
A D G& C F$ B E A
(fee Example cvm.) may be confidered as reprefenting (art. 116.) that which is written below,
7^ 7 7 7 ^
A D E C F^ B E A.
Now this laft fundamental bafs is formed according to the common rules, unlels that there is a broken ca-
7
% %
dence from D to E, and uninterrupted cadence from E to C, which are licenfes (art. 213 and 214-/
4
Music.
Plate CCCLIV.
s
\s ^
\j ^ i1J \l ^J ^ y
C D EF G A Be
d e f g a b r
G C F C D G C
36*1.2.Q D EF G A B
(J^xx/e Jl&xtfr' ) \ 2 ' ^
gr a \>c ^ ef S  a
f£C&7ZA
) ^vf/e t y/t/ fr/
^3. K
M
S T U
: 2 9/u,f<///£//{??ur' ^ //u' (/A
_fB?defSa
^.#.|^G_c vG C F C F
fcdefggabr
^a.s\ :
tdxz/e
£7
yC.6. C, C#, D,D|, E, Ef, F, Fjf, G, G#, A, Ajf, B, BL c, c#, d, d#, e, el
j s^vf/f t y^y
rAt/e r^/eccmt/
\
Music.
Plate CCCLV.
Kicr. 1.
-e-°-
Tenor Lint- - r^ O Teitof-fcioer
Treble Cleff (
' Tenor Cleff^
Bass Cleff £^*.
i
a
Flg-'3-
Fig-. <5.
Fig.^.
f c
3
-O-Tenor C
Fig. 4.
-O-
F
Semibreve . Minims . Crotchets .
Fig. 13.
Quavers.
Semiquavers
Fig. 14.
Demisemiquavers.
equal, to.
m
i
equal toprp^p
1
* *
Fig. 13.
i
4
Fig. l^.
equivalent to
Fig. 17.
p^l
Fig. 18. Rests.
Rests of several Bars.
- II r II . || ■ II - HHHt—II
Semibreve
or Bar Rest J
Min.Rest Crot.Rest Quav.Rest Semiq.Rest Demis.Rest 2 Bar Rest 3 Bar Rest 4 Bar Rest 3 Bar Rest
Music.
Plate CCCLYI.
Pig. i.
Fi>.
H
Q~^tJ—S
*. zydza
Fir. 3
Fig. 4.
ChryO
F i?. i5.
O-r
Fig. 6:
firrriTiiy»i
P
JOR
«=¥
Dl
V-
Fig.;
F,g.8.
g~# ^^□nt
Fig.^. Fig. lO.
Fig. 11. # Fig. 1^.
j1 mji uj iiiJiiIt^lu1
Figr. \3. Pause^.
M- - - °
Fig. 14.
'<jg Repeat.
> i>-irT~g
'^. nFig-L5-
Direct.
pm§£
Fig. l^.
Fig 1/
■
y-i:- k
z:
Fief. 18.
«F'g—
hi
i. J r S 3^11J t^r
5s
Music.
Plate CCCLVII.
*
Music. Plate ccclvui.
I
Music.
Plate CCCLIX.
LXXIX. LXXX. LXXXI. LXXXII. LXXXIII. LXXXIV.
*
Music. Pla)
e CCCLX.
XCIV. Major Scales.
Music. Plate ccclxi.
„ )
c- CI.
cii. cur. crv.
*
CX. Canon in the Fourth.
J j-k1-
■ q r"p~'~~~w
l8} & 2^ Paits. I /
4—^ T'tr '
-tUbe:-
=1
3^ & 4^ Parts.
6
TTT
i
- j j E
#
Fund. Bass.
M,
Part II.
Principles
of Compo-
fition.
Aft ending,
what.
Enharmo¬
nic little
pradlifed.
See Lrfign%
Defign,
what.
See Imi¬
tation.
Imitation,
what.
See Air,
Canon,
Tugtie.
M U
247. When the air is chromatic in afcending, one
may form a fundamental bafs by a feries of tonics and
of tonic dominants, which fucceed one another alter¬
nately by the interval of a third in defcending, and of
a fourth in afcending, (fee Ex. Cvi.) There are many
other ways of forming a chromatic air, whether in
riling or defcendine \ but thefe details in an elemen¬
tary effay are by no means neceffary.
248. The enharmonic is very rarely put in praflice ;
and we have explained its formation in the firft book,
to which we refer our readers.
Chap. XV. Of Defign, Imitation, and Fugue.
249. In mufic, the name of deftgn, or fubjeB, is ge¬
nerally given to a particular air or melody, which the
compofer intends ihould prevail through the piece *,
whether it is intended to exprefs the meaning of words
to which it may be fet, or merely inlpired by the im-
pulfe of tafte and fancy. In this laft cafe, defign is
diftinguifhed into imitation and fugue.
250. Imitation confilts in cauling to be repeated the
melody of one or of feveral meafures in one lingle part,
or in the whole harmony, and in any of the various
modes that may be cholen. When all the parts abfo-
lutely repeat the fame air * or melody, and beginning
one after the other, this is called a canon (5 m). .
Fugue confifts in alternately repeating that air in the
treble, and in the bafs, or even in all the parts, if there
are more than two.
Vol. XIV. Part II.
3 I C. 553
251. Imitation and fugue are fometimes conducted Principles
by rules merely deducible from talk, which may be
feen in the 332d and following pages of M. Rameau’s   v—j
Treatife on Harmony ; where will likewife be found a Principal
detail of the rules for compofition in feveral parts, rules for
The chief rules for ccmpofition in feverai parts are, ^mp^fing
that the difcords Ihould be found, as much as P°®hic, parts>
prepared and refolved in the fame part } that a dif-
cord fhould not be heard at the fame time in feveial
parts, becaufe its harfhnefs would ddguft the ear j
and that in no particular part there fhould be found
two oftaves or two fifths in fucceffion (5 N) with re-
fpe£t to the bafs. Muficians, however, do not hefitate
fometimes to violate this precept, when tafle or occa-
fion require. In mufic, as in all the other fine arts, it
is the bufinefs of the artift to aflign and to obferve rules j
and province of men of tafte and genius to find the ex¬
ceptions.
APPENDIX.
The treatife of D’Alembert is well entitled to the me¬
rit of accuracy ; but perhaps a perfon who has not par¬
ticularly ifudied the fubjeft, may find difficulty in fol¬
lowing the fcientific dedu&ions of that author.—We
fubjoin, therefore, a few general obfervations on the
philofophy of mufical found, commonly called harmo¬
nics, which may perhaps convey the full portion of
knowledge of the theory of mufic, with which one in
4 A fearch
(5 m) Compofitions in ftrift canon, where one part begins with a certain fubjecl, and the other parts are
bound to repeat the very fame fubjedf, or the reply, as it is called, in the unifon, fifth, fourth, or o<Slavet
depend on the following rules, which are nothing more than a fummary of the fyltem explained by our au-
j. Xhe chords to be employed are the tonic, and its two adjundls j the fubdominant, fuiceptible of an s&ded
fixtb, and the dominant, fufceptible of an added feventh. .
2. The fubjeft muft begin in the harmony of the tonic, and as the fundamental progreffion from the domi¬
nant to the fubdominant is not permitted (art. 33. 36.), the fubdominant muft follow the tonic, and the dominant
the fubdominant, thus,
61 6 1
C, F, G, C, F G. C, &.C.
3. As the diatonic fcale confilts of tw'o tetrachords, of which the firffis alfo the fecond tetrachord of the
mode of the Tub-dominant, and the fecond the firft tetrachord of the dominant j io, in canon, when the icply is
meant to be in the mode of the dominant, the fubjea muft be in the firft tetrachord of the tonic, by which means
the correfponding firft tetrachord of the dominant being the fecond tetrachord of the tonic, the whole piece is
truely in that mode. On the other hand, if the reply is to be in the mode of the fub-d_omiaant, the fubjegt muft
be in the fecond tetrachord of the tonic, the correfponding tetrachord of the fub-dominant being the firft tetr.a-
chord of the tonic, and the mode of the tonic being thus preferved. _ .
. jror tbe fame reafon, where the reply is in the dominant, the fubje£l is on.y allowed to modulate into
the mode of the fub-dominant, and the reply of courfe into that of the tonic. And wnere tne reply is in the
dominant, the fubjea is to modulate only into the mode of the fub-dominant, the reply following of courfe
into that of the tonic. Were the contrary modulation permitted, the reply would depart too far from the mode of
^Laft hi. When the reply is to be in the mode of the dominant it muft comrilence in the meafure bearing that
harmony •, and in the fame way, the reply in the fub-dominant muft begin in the meafure which bears the har¬
mony of the fub-dominant. . ..
If thefe rules be ebferved, and due attention paid to the preparation and reiolution of dillonances, compoiition
in ftritft canon, in any number of parts, will be found to be by no means difficult. See Ex. CIX. and CX.
(5 n) Yet there may be two fifths in fucceflion, provided the parts move in contrary directions, or, in other
words, if the progiefs of one part be afcending, and the other defcending; but in this cafe they are not properly
two fifths, they are a fifth and a twelfth : for example, if one of the parts in defcending Ihould found I D, and
the other’k a’ in rifing, C is the fifth of F, and ‘a’ the twelfth of B.
554
General
Obferva-
tions cm
Harmonies.
M U
fearch only of general information, and not a profeffed
ftudent of this particular fcience, would choole to reft
fatished.
The theory of mufical found, which only in the be¬
ginning of the prefent century was ultimately eftabliih-
ed by mathematical demonftration, is no other than
that which diftinguiftied the ancient mufical fe£! who
followed the opinions of Pythagoras on that iubjeft.
No part of natural philofophy has been more fruit¬
ful of hypothefis than that of which mufical found is
the object. The mufical fpeculators of Greece arran¬
ged themfelves into a great number of feifts, the chief
of whom were the Pythagoreans and the Ariftoxenians.
Pythagoras fuppofed the air to be the vehicle of
found ; and the agitation of that element, occafioned
by a fimilar agitation in the parts of the founding body,
to be the caufe of it. The vibrations of a firing or
other fonorous body, being communicated to the air,
affeiled the auditory nerves with the fenfation of found j
and this found, he argued, was acute or grave in pro¬
portion as the vibrations were quick or flow.—He dif-
covered by experiment, that of two firings equal in
every thing but length, the fhorter made the quicker
vibrations, and emitted the acuter found:—in other
words, that the number of vibrations made in the fame
time, by two firings of different lengths, was inverfely
as thofe lengths; that is, the greater the length the
fmaller the number of vibrations in any given time.
Thus found, confidered in the vibrations that caufe it,
and the dimenfions of the vibrating body, came to be
reduced to quantity, and as fuch was the fubjedl of cal¬
culation, and expreflible by numbers.—For inftance,
the two founds that form an odlave could be expreffed
by the numbers I and 2, which would reprefent either
the number of vibrations in a given time, or the length
of the firings j and would mean, that the acuter found
vibrates twice, while the graver vibrates once $ or that
the firing producing the lower found is twice the
length of that which gives the higher. If the vibra¬
tions weiie confiderecj, the higher found was as 2, the
lower as l j the reverfe, if the length was alluded to.
In the fame manner, in the fame fenfe, the 5th would
be expreffed by the ratio of 2 to 3, and the 4th by that
of 3 t.0 4- . . .
Ariftoxenes, in oppofition to the calculations of Py ¬
thagoras, held the ear to be the foie ftandard of mufi¬
cal proportions. That fenfe he accounted fufficiently
accurate for raufical, though not for mathematical, pur-
pofes; and it was in his opinion abfurd to aim at an
artificial accuracy in gratifying the ear beyond its own
power of diflindlion. He, therefore, rejedled the velo-
S I c.
Appendix.
cities, vibrations, and proportions of Pythagoras, as General
foreign to the fubje£l, in fo far as they fubflituted 0Ker^a‘
abflraEi caufes in the room of experience, and made Harmonies,
mufic the obje£l of intelleB rather than of fenfe. ——v ■■
Of late, however, as has been already mentioned^
the opinions of Pythagoras have been confirmed by ab-
folute demonftration \ and the following propolitions,
in relation to mufical found, have paffed from conjec¬
ture to certainty.
Sound is generated by the vibrations of elallic bodies,
which communicate the like vibrations to the air, and
thefe again the like to our organs of hearing. This is
evident, becaufe founding bodies communicate tremors
to other bodies at a difiance from them. The vibrating
motion, for inflance, of a mufical ftring, excites motion
in others, whofe tenfion and quantity of matter difpofe
their vibrations to keep time with the undulations of air
propagated from it (the firing firft fet in motion.J
If the vibrations be ifochronous, and the found mufi¬
cal, continuing at the fame pitch, it is faid to be acuter,
lharper, or higher, than any other found whofe vibra¬
tions are flower \ and graver, flatter, or lower, than
any other whofe vibrations are quicker.—For while a
mufical ftring vibrates, its vibrations become quicker
by increafing its tenfion or diminiftiing its length ; its
found at the fame time will be more acute : and, on
the contrary, by diminifhing its tenfion or increafing
its length, the vibrations will become flower and the
found graver. The like alteration of the pitch of the
found will follow, by applying, by means of a weight,
an equal degree of tenfion to a thicker or heavier and
to a fmaller or lighter ftring, both of the fame length,
as in the fmaller ftring the mafs of matter to be moved
by the fame force is lefs.
If feveral firings, however, different in length, denfity,
and tenfion, vibrate altogether in equal times, their founds
will have all one and the fame pitch, however they may
differ in loudnefs or other qualities.—They are called
unifons. The vibrations of unifons are ifochronous.
The vibrations of a mufical ftring, whether wider or
or narrower, are nearly ifochronous. Otherwife, while
the vibrations decreafe in breadth till they ceafe, the
pitch of the found could not continue the fame (which
we perceive by experience it does), unlefs where the
firft vibrations are made very violently ; in which cafe,
the found is a little acuter at the beginning than af¬
terwards.
Laftly, The word vibration is underfiood to mean
the time which paffes between the departure of the
vibrating body from any afligned place and its return
to the fame.
M U S
Mufic, Glqfs-Mvstc. See Harmonica.
Mufmon.^ MUSIMON, in Natural Hifory, the name of an
animal efteemed a fpecies of fheep, defcribed by the
ancients as common in Corfica, Sardinia, Barbary,
and the north-eaft parts of Afia. It has been doubted
whether the animal defcribed under this name is now
any where to be found in the world 5 and whether it
wac not, probably, a fpurious breed between two ani¬
mals of different fpecies, perhaps the fheep and goat,
M U S
which, like the mule, not being able to propagate its Mufimon.
fpecies, the produdlion of them may have been difcon-
tinued.
Buffon fuppofes it to be the fheep in a wild flate;
and it is defcribed as fuch by Mr Pennant. Thefe
animals live in the mountaints, and run with great
fwdftnefs among the rocks. Thofe of Kamtfchatka
are fo ftrong, that 10 men can fcarce hold one and
the horns are fo large as fometiipes to weigh 30 pounds,
and .
Muft
Mufivum
H
Muffulman
M U S [ Si
and fo capacious that young foxes often flielter them-
felves in tlie hollow of fuch as by accident fall off in the
defects.
MUSIVUM AURUM. See Chemistry, N° 1806.
MUSK, a very ftrong fcented fubftance, found in a
bag under the belly of a fpecies of mofchus. See
Moschus, Mammalia Index. And for an account of
the nature and properties of mufk, fee MATERIA Me-
DICA Index.
Musk Animal. See Moschus,!
Musk 'Ox. See Bos, V Mammalia Index.
Musk Rat. See Castor, J
MUSKET, or MusquET, properly a fire-arm borne
on the fhoulder, and ufed in war 5 to be fired by the
application of a lighted mach.
The length of the barrel is fixed to three feet eight
inches from the muzzle to the touch-pan, and its bore
is to be fuch as may receive a bullet of 14 in a pound,
and its diameter differs not above one 50th part from
that of the bullet.
Mufkets wrere anciently borne in the field by the
infantry, and were ufed in England fo lately as the be¬
ginning of the civil wars. At preient they are little
ufed, except in the defence of places j fufees or fire-locks
having taken their place and name.
MUSKETOON, a kind of fhort thick mufket,
whofe bore is the $8th part of its length ; it carries
five ounces of iron, or feven and a half of lead, with an
equal quantity of powder. This is the fhorteft kind
of blunderbuffes.
MUSLIN, a fine fort of cotton cloth, which bears
a downy knot on its furface. There are feveral forts of
muffins brought from the Eaft Indies, and more parti¬
cularly from Bengal j fuch as doreas, betelles, mulmuls,
tanjecbs, &c. Muflin is now manufaftured in Britain,
and brought to very great perfediion.
MUSQUETOE. See Culex, Entomology Index.
MUSSULMAN, or Musylman, a title by which
the Mahometans diftinguifh themfelvesj fignifying, in
the Turkith language, “ true believer, or orthodox.”
See Mahometanism.
In Arabic, the word is written Mojlem, Mojleman,
or Mofolman. The appellation was firft given to the
Saracens, as is obferved by Leunclavius.—There are
tw’o kinds of Muffulmans, very averfe to each other ;
the one called Sonnites, and the other Shiites,— I he
Sonnites follow the interpretation of the Alcoran
given by Omar; the Shiites are the followers of Ali.
The fubjedls of the king of Perfia are Shiites 5 and
thofe of the grand fignior, Sonnites. See SoNNA, and
Alcoran.
According to fome authors the word Muffulman fig-
nifies faved, that is, predeftinated *, and hence the Ma¬
hometans give themfelves the appellation, as believ¬
ing they are all predeftinated to laivation.—Marti-
nius is more particular as to the origin of the name j
which he derives from the Arabic obora mufalem,
“ faved, fnatched out of danger the Mahometans,
he obferves, eftablifhing their religion by fire and
fwmrd, maffacfed all thofe who would not embrace it,
and granted life to all that did, calling them Mujful-
tnans, q. d. erepti e periculo; whence the word, in
courfe of time, became the diftinguifhing title of all
thofe of that fe6f, who have affixed to it the fignifica-
tion of true believers.
5 ] M u T
MUST, Ml'STUM, fvveet wine newdy preffed from
the grape-, or the new liquor preffed from the fruit be- Mll,‘'ation>
fore it is fermented. See WlNE. 1 y---'
MUSTARD. See Sinapi, Botany Index.
Mustard Seed. For an account of its medical qua¬
lities, fee Materia Medica Index.
MUSTELA, the Otter and Weasel-, a genus
of quadrupeds of the order of ferae. See Mammalia
Index.
MUSTER, in a military fenfe, a review of troops
under arms, to fee if they be complete and in good
order 5 to take an account of their numbers, the con¬
dition they are in, viewing their arms and accounte-
ments, &c.
Mus TER-MaJler-general) or Commiffary-general of the
Musters ; one wdio takes account of every regiment,
their number, horfes, arms, &c. reviews them, fees the
horfes be w7ell mounted, and all the men well armed
and accoutred, &c.
Muster-RoIIs, lifts of foldiers in each company,
troop, or regiment, by which they are paid, and the
ftrength of the army is known.
MUTABILITY is oppofed to immutability. See
Immutability.
MUTATION, the aft of changing, or fometimes
the change itfelf.
Mutation, in the ancient mufic, is applied to the
changes or alterations that happen in the order of the
founds which compofe the melody.
MUTATIONES, among the Romans, poll ftages,
or places where the public couriers were fupplied with
frefti horfes.—The mutationes were wholly deiigned for
the ufe of thefe couriers, or meffengers of ftate j in
which refpett they differ from manfones.
MUTCHKIN, a liquid meafure ufed in Scotland -,
it contains four gills, and is the fourth part of a Scotch
pint.
MUTE, is a general fenfe, fignifies a perfon that
cannot fpeak, or has not the ufe ot fpeech.
Mute, in Law, a perfon that ftands dumb or fpeech-
lefs when he ought to anfwer, or to plead. See Ar¬
raignment.
Mute, in Grammar, a letter which yields no found
without the addition of a vowel. The fimple confo-
nants are diftinguilhed into mutes and liquids, or
femi-vowels. See the articles Consonant, Lij^uid,
&c*
The mutes in the Greek alphabet are nine, three of
which, viz. tt, k, t, are termed tenues; three /3, y,
termed media?; and three <p, 6, termed afpiratce. See
the article Aspirate, &c.
The mutes of the Latin alphabet are alfo nine, viz.
B, C, D, G, I, K, P, Q,T.
MUTILATION, the retrenching or cutting away
any member of the body.
This word is alfo extended to ftatues and buildings,
where any part is wanting, or the projecture of any
member, as a cornice or an impoft, is broken off. It
is fometimes alfo ufed in a more immediate manner
for caftration : (See Castration and Eunuch.) The
praffice of this fort of mutilation is of various kinds:
the Hottentots are faid to cut away one tefticle from
their children, upon fuppofition that they are thereby
made lighter and more adlive for running. In other
countries, poor people completely mutilate their boys,
4 A 2 to
M U T
Mutilation to prevent the milery and want which would attend
t. their offspring. Thole who have nothing in view but
,• ' ~lt,? the improvement of a vain talent, or the formation of
a voice which disfigures nature, as was the cafe for
merly in Italy, are contented with cutting away tr.e
tefticles. But in feme countries of Alia, efpecially
among the Turks, and in a part of Africa, thole whom
tealouiy infpires with diftrulf would not think their wives
fafe in the cuftody of fuch eunuchs: ihey employ no
flaves in their feraglios who have not been deprived or
_all the external parts of generation.
Amputation is not the only means of accoraplifhing
this end. Formerly, the growth of the teftieles was
prevented, and their organization deftroyed by fimple
rubbing, while the child was put into a warm bath
made of a decoftion of plants. Some pretend that by
this ipecies ef caftration the life is in no danger. Am¬
putation of the tefticles is not attended with much
danger j but complete amputation of the external parts
of generation is often fatal. This operation can only
be performed on children from feven to ten years of
age. Eunuchs of this kind, owing to the danger at¬
tending the operation, coft in Turkey five or fix times
more than others. Chardin relates, that this operation
is fo painful and dangerous after I 5 years of age, that
hardly a fourth part of thofe by whom it is undergone
efcape with life. Pietro della Valle, on the contrary,
informs us, that in Perfia thofe who fuffer this cruel and
dangerous operation as a pumfhment for rapes and other
crimes of this kind, are eafily cured though far ad¬
vanced in life j and that nothing but afties is applied to
the wound.
There are eunuchs at Conftantinople, throughout
all Turkey, and in Perfia, of a gray complexion : they
come for the moft part bom the kingdom of Gol-
conda, the peninlula on this fide the Ganges, the king¬
doms of Allan, Aracan, Pegu, and Malabar. Phcfe
from the gulf of Bengal are of an olive colour. There
are fame white eunuchs who come from Georgia and
Circaflia, but their number is final]. The black eu¬
nuchs come from Africa, and efpecially from Ethiopia.
Thefe, in proportion to their horrible appearance, are
the more eiteemed and coll dearer. It appears toat
a very confiderable trade is carried on in this fpecies of
men \ for Tavernier informs us, that when he was in
the kingdom of Golconda, in the year 22,000
eunuchs were made in it. In that country they are
fold at the fairs.
The objeft of improving the voice by means of this
fpecies of mutilation, it is faid, often fails} for of 2000
viffims to the luxury and extravagant caprices of the
art, hardly three are found who unite good talents with
good organs. The other languifhing and inaffive
wretches are, in fome meafure, outcatfs from both (exes,
and paralytic members in the community. B it let us
pay the tribute which is due to that virtuous pontiff
Pope Clement VIII. who, liftening to the voice of
modefty and humanity, proferibed and abolifhed this
deteftable and infamous praftice. Mutilation, he
declared was the moft abominable and difgraceful of
crimes.
MUTILLA, a genus of infers belonging to the or¬
der of hymenoptera. See Entomology Index,
MU TIN A, in /d’dent Grographj, a noble city of the
Cifpadana,made a Roman colony in the fame year.with
M U T
Parma, fituated between the rivers Gabellus and Scul- Mutiny,
team, on the Via ABmilia. Fie re D. Brutus, being be- Mutius.
lieged by Antony, was relieved by the confuls Hirtius v " " “
and Paula. The Greeks called it Mutine ; except Po¬
lybius, in whom it is Moline; and in Ptolemy Mu tin a,
after the Roman manner.—Now Modena, a city of
Lombardy, and capital of a cognomina! duchy. E.
Long. 11. 20. N. Lat. 44. 45.
MU TINY, in a military ienfe, to rife againft autho¬
rity.—“ Any officer or foldier who ftiall prefume to ufe
traiterous or difrefpeftful words againft the facred per-
fon of his majefty, or any of the royal family, is guilty
of mutiny.
“ Any officer or foidier who lhall behave himfelf
with contempt or difrefpeef towards the general or
other commander in chief of our forces, or lhall fpeak
words tending to their hurt or diftionour, is guilty of
mutiny.
“ Any officer or foldier who {hall begin, excite, caufe,
or join in, any mutiny or fedition, in the troop, com¬
pany, or regiment, to which he belongs, or in any other
troop or company in our fervice, or in any party, poll,
detachment, or guard, on any pretence whatfoever, is
guilty of mutiny.
“ Any officer or foldier who, being prefent at any
mutiny or fedition, does not ufe his utmoft endeavours
to fupprefs the iame, or coming to the knowledge of
any mutiny, or intended mutiny, does not without de¬
lay give information to his commanding officer, is guilty
of mutiny.
“ Any officer or foldier, who ffiall ftrike his fuperior
officer, or draw, or offer to drawT, or (hall lift up any
weapon, or offer any violence againft him, being in the
execution on his office, on any pretence whatfoever, or
fhall difobey any lawful command of his fuperior officer,
is guilty of mutiny.”
M utint Acl. See Military State.
MU l iUS, Caius, furnamed Codrut, and aftenvards
Sccevola, was one of the illuftrious Roman family of the
Mutii, and rendered his name famous in the war bet¬
ween Porfenna king of Tufcany and the Romans.
That prince refolving to reftore the family of Tarquin
the Proud, went to befiege Rome 507 B. C. Mutius
reiolved to facrifice himfelf for the faiety of his coun¬
try \ and boldly entering the enemy’s camp, killed
Porfenna’s fecretary, whom he took for Porfenna him- /
felf. Being ftized and brought before Porfenna, he
told him boldly, that 300 young men like bimfelt had
fworn to murder him ; but Jince this hand has mijfed
thee, continued he, it mujl be punijhed; then putting
his right hand on the burning coals, he let it bum
with fuch conftancy as aftonilhed the beholders. The
king, amazed at the intrepidity of this young Roman,
ordered that he (hould have his freedom and return to
Rome, and foon after concluded a peace with the
Romans. From this action Mutius obtained the fur-
name Sccevola, “ or left-handed,” which was enjoyed
by his family.
Mutius Sccevola, furnamed the Augur, was an
excellent civilian, and inftrudted Cicero in the laws.
He was made praetor in Alia ; was afterwards conful,
and performed very important fervices for the re¬
public.
He ought not to be confounded with Quintus Mu¬
tius Sccevolai another excellent civilian, who was prae¬
tor .
r 556 ]
M Y C [ 55
tor in Alia, tribune of the people, and at length con-
ful. 9 ^ B. C. He governed Afia with fuch prudence
and equity, that his example was propoled to the go¬
vernors who were fent into the provinces. Cicero fays,
“ that he was the molt eloquent orator of all the ci¬
vilians, and the mofl able civilian of all the orators.”
He was alriffinated in the temple of VeP/’, during the
wars of Marius and Sylla, 82 B. C.
MUTTON, the common name of the flefh of a
fheep after the animal has been killed. Mutton has
been commonly preferred to all the flefhes of quadru¬
peds. And indeed, befides its being more perfeft, it
has the advantage over them of being more generally
fuited to different climates : rvhereas beef, e. g. re¬
quires a very nice intermediate Rate, which it feems
to enjoy chiefly in England j for although Scotland
fupphes what are reckoned the belt cattle, it is in the
rich Englifh ga(lures that they are brought to per-
feflion. Now the fheep can be brought almoft to
the fame perfedtion in this bleak northern region as in
the foutbern countries.
MUTUAL, a relative term, denoting fomething
that is reciprocal between two or more perfons.
This we fay, mutual affjlance, mutual averfion, &X.
There «te mutual or reciprocal duties, offices, &c. be¬
tween fuperiers and inferiors} as the king and his fub-
jedls, the mailer and his fervants, &c.
Vaugelas makes a diftindtion between mutualre¬
ciprocal: mutual, according to him, is underflood of
what is betvceen two only ; and reciprocal, of what is
between more than tw7o : but this' uiflindlion is little
regarded in common ufe.
MUTULE, in ArchiteBure, a kind of fquare mo-
dillion fet under the cornice of the Doric order.
MUTUNUS, or Mutinus, in Fabulous fUJlory, a
deity among the Romans, fimilar to the Priapus of the
Greeks.
MUZZLE of a Gun or Mortar, the extremity at
which the powder and ball is,put in •, and hence the
muzzle ring is the metaliine circle or moulding that
furrounds the mouth of the piece.
MY A, the GAPER ; a genus of ffiell fiffi. See CoN-
CHOLOGY Index.
MYAGRUM, GOLD of pleasure, a genus of
plants, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs ; and in the
natural method ranking under .the 39th order, Siltquo-
fcc. See Botany Index.
MYCALE, a city and mountain of Caria ; alfo a
promontory of Afia oppofite Samos, celebrated for a
battle which was fought there between the Greeks and
Perfians about the year of Rome 275* Perfians
were about 100,000 men, who had juft returned from
the unfuccefsful expedition of Xerxes in Greece.—
They had drawn their (hips to the (hare, and fortified
themfelves flrongly, as if determined to fupport a fiege.
They fuffered the Greeks to difembark from their fleet
without the leaf! rnoleflation, and were foon obliged to
give way before the cool and refolute intrepidity ot an
inferior number of mem. The Greeks obtained a com¬
plete viftcry, flaughtered fome thoufands of the enemy,
burned their camp, and failed back to Samos wflth an
immenfe bootv, in which were 79 chetls of money.
MYCENAE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ar-
golis, in Pelooonnefus. The kingdom of the Argives
was divided into two portions by Acrifius and his bro-
]
M Y G
ther Prcetus. Argos and Mycenae were their capitals. Myccrat
—Theft, as belonging to the fame family, and diitant jy^gir(ja,
only about 50 fladia or fix miles and a quarter from   
each other, had one tutelary deity, Juno, and were
jointly proprietors of her temple, the Heraeum, which
was near Mycenae. It was here that Agamemnon
reigned. He enlarged his dominions by his valour and
good fortune, and poffeffed, befides Mycenae, the re¬
gion about Corinth and Sicyon, and that called after¬
wards Achaea. On his return from Troy, he was flam
with his companions at a banquet. Mycenae then de¬
clined j and under the Heiaclidae was made lubjedl to
Argos. (See Argos and Argeia.) The Mycenaeans
fending 80 men, partook with the Lacedaemonians in
the glory acquired at Thermopylae. I he jealoufy of
the Argives produced the deflrudlion of their city,
which was abandoned after a fiege, and laid wafle in
the firfl year of the 78th Olympiad, or 466 years be¬
fore Chrift. Some part of the wall remainined in the
fecond century, with a gate, on which were lions, a
fountain, the fubterraneous edifices where Atreus and'
his Tons had depofited their treaiures, and, among other
fepulchral monuments, one of Agamemnon, and one
of his fellow foldiers and fufferers.
MY CONE, an ifland of the Archipelago, fituated
in E. Long. 25. 53. N. Lat. 37. 28. It is about 36
miles in circuit, and has a town of the lame name,
containing about 30CO inhabitants. The people of
this ifland are faid to be the belt bailors in the Archi¬
pelago, and have about 150 vefi'els of different fizes.
The ifland yields a fufficient quantity of barley for the
inhabitants, and produces abundance of figs, and fome
olives •, but there is a fcarcity of water, efpecially in
fummer, there being but one well in the" ifland.—* »
There are a great number of churches and chapels,
with fome monafleries.
MYCONUS, in Ancient Geography, one of the
iflands called Cyclades, near Delos, under which the
laft of the Centaurs llain by Hercules are feigned to lie
buried. Hence the proverb, Omnia fub unam Myconutn
congerere, applied to an injudicious or unnatural far¬
rago. Myconii, the people, noted for baldnefs. ITence
M yconius, a bald perfon. According to Strabo, the
inhabitants became bald at rite age of 20 or 25 ; and
Pliny fays that the children were always bom without
hair. The ifland was poor, and the inhabitants very
avaricious ; whence Archilochus reproached a certain
Pericles, that he came to a leafl like a Myconian •, that
is without previous invitation. Now called My cone, .
which fee.
MYCTERIA, the Jabiru,
longing to the order of grallse.
Index.
MYGDONIA, in Ancient Geography, a diftri£l of
Macedonia, to the north of the Sinus Thermaicus, and
call of the river Axius, which feparates it from Bot-
tads, and weft of the river Strymon, (Pliny). Alfo a
diftriht of Mefopotamia, which took its name from that
of Macedonia, running along the Euphrates, from.
Zeugma down to Thapfacus, extending a great way
call, becaufe Nifibis was reckoned to it.
MYGINDA, a genus of plants belonging to the
tetrandria clafs } and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index,
genus of birds be-
See Ornithology
MYIAGRUS
M Y L [5
^Tyiagms MYIAGRUS deus, in the heathen mythology,
•Mylafa. 3 name 8*ven fometimes to Jupiter, and fometimes to
——v—— Hercules, on occahon of their being facrificed to for
the driving away the valt numbers of flies which in-
fefled the facrifices on certain public occafions. The
W'ord is ufually fpelt Mijagrus; but this muft be an
error, as this w7ord does not exprefs the Jly-deJlronjer,
but the moufe-dejh'oyer ; and we have it fufficiently tef-
tified by the ancients, that flies were the only crea¬
tures againfl: whom this deity was invoked. Pliny
calls this deity alfo Myiodes ; and tells us, that the flies
which ufed to pefter the Olympic rites went away in
whole clouds on the facrificing a bull to this god. We
find in Athenaeus alfo, that this facrificing to the god
of flies at -the Olympic games was a conftant cuflom.
Some diftinguifli thefe two deities, and tell us that the
latter or Myiodes, ufed to vifit the nations in ven¬
geance, with a vail multitude of flies; and that, on
paying him the due honours of a facrifice, they all
went away again j and this feems to agree with what
Pliny tells us in fome places.
At the time of the Olympic games, Jupiter was
worlhipped under the name of Apomyos or Myiagrus
Deus, to fupplicate the deftruftion of thofe troublefome
creatures. This happened only once in many years,
when the facrifices were performed there ; but the
Elians wrorlhipped him continually under this name, to
deprecate the vengeance of heaven, which ufually fent,
as they expreffed it, an army of flies and other infefts,
toward the latter end of the fummer, that infefted the
whole country with -ficknefs and peflilence.
MYIODES deus, in the heathen mythology, a
name fometimes given to Hercules, but more frequent¬
ly to Jupiter, to whom a bull was facrificed, in order
to make him propitious in driving away the flies that
‘infefted the Olympic games.
MYLtE, in Ancient Geography, a Greek city fitua-
ted on an ifthmus of a cognominal peninfula, on the
, north-eaft fide of the ifland. Mylaei, or Mylenfes, the
people. A town built by thole of Zancle (Strabo).
Mylaeus, the epithet, as Mylaeus Campus, mentioned
by Polybius. Now called Milaxsio, a port town of
Sicily, in the Val di Demona. E. Long. 15. y. Lat.
38. 36.
MYLASA, or Mylassa, in Ancient Geography, a
noble city ot Cana in Alia Minor, fituated about three
leagues from the Sinus Ceramicus. It was the capital
of Hecatomnus king of Caria, andjatber of Maufolus.
•Pliny fpeaks of Menander king of Caria, and fays that
the REodians preferved wfith the greateft care his por¬
trait painted by Apelles : but it was not in honour of
this Menander that a Corinthian pillar wTas erefted at
Mylafa, wftiich ftill exifts, and on which is to be feen
the following inlcription : “ The people erefted this
pillar in honour of Menander, the fon of Uliades, and
grandfon of Euthydemus, the benefaftor of his country,
and w’hofe anceftors rendered it great fervices alfo.”
Euthydemus, tne grandfather of this Menander, lived
in the time of Julius Caefar and Auguftus. Caria was
taken by Mithridates, and afterwards by Labienus,
whofe father had been one of Caefar’s generals. Hv-
bfias, whofe eloquence and valour defervedly entitled
him to a diftinguilhed rank among his countrymen, in
vain encouraged them to make a moft obftinate defence
58 ] M Y O
while it was befieged by the latter. He himfelf was Mylafa
obliged to yield to neceftity, and to take refuge at . fl
Rhodes : but fcarcely had the conqueror quitted the Myor^anty:
city, when Hybrias returned, and reftortd liberty to
his country.—Not content with rendering it this fer-
vice, he alio deftroyed the powTer of a dangerous citi¬
zen, whofe riches and talents rendered him a neceflary
evil. Euthydemus, often banifhed, and as often re¬
called, always too powerful in a ftate the independence
of which he threatened, faw his ambition checked by
the zeal and a&ivity of Hybrias. The Romans left to
Mylafa that liberty of which it rendered itfclf fo worthy,
by the great efforts it made to preferve it. Pliny calls
it Mylafa libera. Strabo informs as, that it was one
of the moft magnificent cities of antiquity, and one of
thofe, the temples, porticoes, and other public monu¬
ments of which were highly admired. A quarry of
white marble in the neighbourhood furnifhed it writh
abundance of materials for ere&ing thefe edifices. 
The Mylafians had two temples dedicated to Jupiter,
one fituated in the city, which was named Ofogo, and
another built on a mountain, at the diftance of 60
leagues. The latter w’as dedicated to Jupiter Stratius,
Jupiter the Warrior. His ftatue, which was very an¬
cient, infpired great veneration ; people came from all
quarters to implore his proteftion ; and for the greater
accommodation of his votaries a paved w7ay was con-
ftrufled, which reached from Mylafa to this venerable
fabric. This city is now called Melajfo, and, according
to Dr Chandler, is ftill a large place.—The houfes are
numerous, but chiefly of plafter, and mean, with trees
interfperfed. The air is accounted bad ; and fcorpions
abound as anciently, entering often at the doors and
windows, and lurking in the rooms. The plain is fur-
rounded by lofty mountains, and cultivated. Round
the town are ranges of broken columns, the remnants of
porticoes, now with rubbilh bounding the vineyards.
A large portion of the plain is covered with fcattered
fragments, and with piers of ordinary aquedu&s ; befides
inferiptions, moftly ruined and illegible. Some altars
dedicated to Hecatomnus have been difeovered. Of
all the ancient temples which formerly ornamented this
city, one only efcaped the power of time, the blind
zeal of the early Chriftians, and the barbarous fuperfti-
tion of the Mahometans. This monument was dedica¬
ted to Auguftus and the divinity of Rome. When Po-
cocke vifited Melaffo, it was perfeft and entire 5 but at
prefent no traces of it remain, except a few fragments,
which have been employed to conftrutft a Turkifh
mofque.
MYLOGLOSSUM, in Anatomy. JSee Anatomy,
Table of the Mufcles.
MYLOHYOID/BUS. Ibid.
MYOLOGY, (formed of “a mufcle,” and
>v*y«s, “ difeourfe”), in anatomy, a defeription of the
mufcles ; or the knowledge of what relates to the
mufcles of the human body. Ibid.
MYOMANCY, a kind of divination, or method of
foretelling future events by means of mice.
Some authors hold myomancy to be one of the moft
ancient kinds of divination } and think it is on this
account that Ifaiah, Ixvi. 17. reckons mice among the
abominable things of the Idolaters. But, befide that,
it is not certain that the Hebrew word T33S ufed by
the
2
M Y R [ 559 ] M Y R
Myopia the prophet fignifies a moufe, it is evident it is not the
II _ divination by that animal, be it what it will, that is
Mynftica. fp0j4en 0f? p,ut the eating it.
^ MYOPIA, Short-sightedness 5 a fpecies of vi-
fion wherein objefts are feen only at fmall diftances.
See Medicine, N° 361.
MYOSOTIS, Scorpion-grass 5 a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 41ft order, Afperifolia:. See
Botany Index.
MYOSURUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 26th order, Multijiliquce. See Botany In¬
dex.
MYOXUS, the Dormouse, a genus of quadrupeds
belonging to the order of glires. See Mammalia In¬
dex.
MYRIAD, a term fometimes ufed to denote ten
thoufand.
MYRICA, Gale, or Sweet-willovt, a genus of
plants belonging to the dioecia clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 5th order, Amentacece. See
Botany Index.
MYRIOPHYLLUM, a genus of plants belonging
to the monoecia clafs, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 15th order, Inundatce. See Botany
Index.
MYRISTICA, the Nutmeg-tree, in Botany, a
genus of plants belonging to the clafs dioecia, and or¬
der fyngenefia, and of the natural order, Laun. The
defeription of this genus having been omitted in its pro¬
per place under Botany, we fhall here introduce a
Ihort account of it.—The male calyx is monophyllous,
ftrong, and parted into three lacinice of an oval lhape,
and ending in a point: it has no corolla. In the mid¬
dle of the receptacle rifes a column of the height of the
calyx j to the upper part of which the antherae are at¬
tached. They vary in number from three to twelve
or thirteen.—The female calyx and corolla as in the
male, on a didindl tree. The germen of an oval
fliape •, the flyle (hort, with a bifid ftigma, the laci-
nii of which are oval and fpreading.—The fruit is of
that fort called drupa. It is fleflry, roundilh, fome¬
times unilocular, fometimes bivalved, and burfts when
ripe at the fide. The feed is enveloped with a flelhy
and fatty membranous fubftance which divides into
filaments (this, in one of the fpecies, is the mace of
the (hops). The feed or nutmeg is round or oval
ftiaped, unilocular, and contains a fmall kernel, varie¬
gated on the furface by the fibres running in the form
of a ferew.
Species.—There are five fpecies of this genus ac¬
cording to fome authors •, but feveral of thefe being
only varieties, may be reduced to three, viz.
1. Myriftica fatua, or wild nutmeg : this growTs in
Tobago, and rifes to the height of an apple-tree ; has
oblong, lanceolated, downy leaves, and hairy fruit:—
the nutmeg of which is aromatic, but urhen given in¬
wardly is narcotic, and occafions drunkennefs, deli¬
rium, and madnefs, for a time.
2. The myriftica febifera, (Virola Sebifera Aublet,
page 904. tab. 345.) a tree frequent in Guiana, rifing
to 40 or even to 60 feet high j on wounding the trunk
of which, a thick, acrid, red juice runs out. Aublet
fays nothing of the nutmegs being aromatic 3 he only
obferves, that a yellow fat is obtained from them, w'hich Myriftica.
ferves many economical and medical purpofes, and that
the natives make candles of it.
3. The myriftica mofehata, or nutmeg, rifes to the
height of 30 feet, producing numerous branches 3 the
bark of the trunk is of a reddifti brown, but that of the
young branches is of a bright green colour : the leaves
are nearly elliptical, pointed, undulated, obliquely
nerved, on the upper fide of a bright green, on the un¬
der whitilh, and ftand alternately upon footftalks : the
flowers are fmall, and hang upon (lender peduncles,
proceeding from the axillae of the leaves: they are both
male and female upon feparate trees.
M. Schwartz, who has carefully examined this as
wTell as the two firft fpecies, preferved in fpirits, places
them among the monadelphia.
The nutmeg has been fuppofed to be the comacum
of Theophraltus, but there feems little foundation for
this opinion 3 nor can it with more probability be
thought to be the chryfobalanos of Galen. Our firft
knowledge of it was evidently derived from the Ara¬
bians 3 by Avicenna it was called jiaujiban, or jauju
band, which fignifies nut of Banda. Rumphius both
figured and deferibed this tree 3 but the figure given ^
by him is fo imperfect, and the defeription lo confufed,
that Linnaeus, who gave it the generic name myrijlica,
was unable to aftign its proper characters. M. Lamarck
informs us, that he received feveral branches of the my¬
riftica, both in (lower and fruit, from the ille of France,
where a nutmeg-tree, which was introduced by Mon-
fieur Poivre in 1770, is now very large, and continu¬
ally producing flowers and fruit. From thefe branches,
which were fent from Monf. Cere, direCtor of the king’s
garden in that ifland, Lamarck has been enabled to
deferibe and figure this and pther fpecies of the myrif¬
tica. See Plate CXXIV. Botany.
Fig. a. A fprig with fruClification. The drupa of
the natural fize, and burfting open. Fig. b. the full-
grown fruit cut lengthways. Fig. c. Another feClion
of the fame. Fig. d. The nutmeg enveloped with its
covering, the mace. Fig. e. The fatty membrane or
mace fpread out. Fig.-jf. The nutmeg of its natural
fize. Fig. g. The fame with its external tegument re¬
moved at one end. Fig. h. The fame with its outer
tegument entirely removed. Fig. z’. A tranfverfe fec-
tion of the nutmeg.
The feeds or kernels called nutmegs are well known,
as they have been long ufed both for culinary and me¬
dical purpofes. Dittilled with water, they yield a
large quantity of effential oil, refembling^ in flavour
the fpice itfelf 3 after the diftillation an infipid (eba-
ceous matter is found fwimming on the water 3 the
decoCIion infpiflfated, gives an extraCl of an un&uous,
very lightly bitterifti tafte, and with little or no aftrin-
gency. ReClified fpirit extrafts the whole virtue -of
nutmegs by infufion, and elevates very little of it in
diftillation 3 hence the fpirituous extraft pofleffes the
flavour of the fpice in an eminent degree.
Nutmegs, when heated, yield to the prefs a confider-
able quantity of limpid yellow oil, which on cooling
concretes into a febaceous confidence. In the (hops
we meet with three forts of un&uous fubftances, called
oil of mace, though really exprefled from the nutmeg.
The beft is brought from tlie Eaft Indies in (lone
jars 3 this is of a thick confidence, of the colour of
mace, ,
M Y H [ 560 ] M Y U
^ica. tnnc?, sr,d has an agreeable fragrant fmell ; the fe-
cond fort, which is paler coloured, and much inferior
in quality, comes from Holland in folid mafi’es, gene¬
rally flat, and of a fquave figure : tire third, which is
the won't of all, and ufoally called common oil of mace,
is an artificial compofition of fevum,-palm oil, and the
like, flavoured with a little genuine oil of nutmeg.
Method of gathering and preparing Nutmeg.—When
the fruit is ripe the natives afcend the trees, and ga¬
ther it by pulling the branches to them with long hooks.
Some are employed in opening them immediately, and
in taking off the green (hell or firft rind, which is laid
together in a heap in the woods, where in time in pu-'
trefies. As foon as the putrefadlion has taken place,
there fpring up a kind of mufhroorns called bo/eti mof
chatyni, of a blackilh colour, and much valued by the
natives, who conlider them as delicate eating. When
the nuts are dripped of their firft rind, they are carried
home, and the macc is carefully taken off with a fmall
knife. The mace, which is of a beautiful red, but af¬
terwards affumes a darkifti or reddilh colour, is laid to
dry in the fun for the fpace of a day, and is then re¬
moved to a place lefs expofed to bis rays, where it re¬
mains for eight days, that it may foften a little. They
afterwards moiften it with fea water, to prevent it from
drying too much, or from loftng its oil. They are
careful, however, not to employ too much water, left it
fhouid become putrid, and be devoured by the worms.
It is laft of all put into fmall bags, and fqueezed very
clofe.
The nuts which are ftill covered with their ligne¬
ous ftiell, are for three days expofed to thq fun, and
afterwards dried before a fire till they emit a found
when they are ftraken ; they then beat them with
fmall fticks in order to remove their (hell, which flies
off in pieces. Thefe nuts are diftributed into three
parcels •, the firft of which contains the largeft and mofi:
beautiful, which are deftined to be brought to Eu¬
rope 5 the fecond contains fuch as rfce referved for the
ufe of the inhabitants; and the third contains the fmall-
eft, which are irregular or unripe. Thefe are burnt 5
and part of the reft is employed for procuring oil by
preffure. A pound of them commonly gives three
dunces of oil, which has the confidence of tallow, and
has entirely the tafte of nutmeg. Both the nut and
mace, when diftilled, afford aft effential, tranfparent,
and volatile oil, of an excellent flavour.
The nutmegs which have been thus feledled would
foon corrupt if they were not watered, or rather
pickled, with lime-water made from calcined ftiell fifti,
which they dilute with fait water till it attain the
confidence of fluid pap. Into this mixture they
plunge the nutmegs, contained in fmall bafkets, two
or three times, till they are completely covered over
with the liquor. They are afterwards laid in a heap,
where they heat, and lofe their fuperfluous moifture
by evaporation. When they have fweated fufficient-
ly, they are then properly prepared, and fit for a fea
voyage.
In the iiland of Banda, the fruit of the nutmeg tree
is preferved entire in the following manner : When it
is almoft ripe, but previous to its opening, it is boiled
in water and pierced with a needle. They next lay
it in water to foak for ten days, till it has loft its four
and fliarp tafte. They then boil it gently in a {yrup Myriftica.
of fugar, to which, if they with ir to be hard, br.de -'-v—^
lime is added. This operation is repeated for eight
days, and each time the fyrup is renewed. The fruit
wheb thus preferved is put for the laft time into a
pretty thick fyrup, and is kept in earidu , pots clofely
(hut.
Thefe nuts are likewife pickled with brine or with
vinegar ; and when they intend to eat them, they
firft fteep them in frefli water, and afterwards boil them
in fyrup of fugar, &c.
Nfes.—Nutmegs preferved entire are prefented as def-
ferts, and the inhabitants of India fometimes eat them
when they drink tea. Some of them ufe nothing but the
pulp ; others likewife chew' the mace •, but they gene¬
rally throw away the kernel, which is really the nut¬
meg. Many who perform fea voyages to the north
chew' this fruit every morning.
The medicinal qualities of nutmeg are fuppofed to
be aromatic, anodyne, ftomachic, and reftringent ; and
with a view to the laft mentioned effe£ls, it has been
much ufed in diarrhoeas and dyfenteries.
Remarks on the Trade of Nutmegs.—Nutmeg trees
grow in feveral iflands in the ealtern ocean. The wmod
pigeon of the Moluccas is unintentionally a great plan¬
ter of thefe trees, and diffeminates them in places where
a nation, powerful by its commerce, thinks it for its in-
tereft that they (hould be rooted out and deftroyed.
The Dutch, whofe unwearied patience can furmount
the greateft obftacles, formerly appropriated to thern-
felves the crop of nutmeg, well as that of cloves and
cinnamon, groudng in the iilands of Ternate, Ceylon,
&c. either by right of conqueft or by paying fublidies to
the iflanders, who find thefe much more profitable than
the former produce of their trees. It is neverthelefs
true, that they have prevailed upon or compelled the
inhabitants of the Moluccas to cut down and root out
all the clove trees, w'hich they have preferved only in
the iflands of Amboyna and Ternate, which are in a
great meafure fubjedd to them. We know for certain,
that the Dutch pay x 8,000 rixdollars yearly to the
king of Ternate, by way of tribute or gift, in order
to recompenfe him for the lofs of his clove trees in
the other Pvlolucca iflands ; and that they are moreover
bound by treaty to take at 3d:d. a pound, all the cloves
brought by the natives of Amboyna to their maga¬
zines. •
The Dutch had formerly immenfe and very rich ma¬
gazines of thefe precious aromatics, both in India and
Europe. It is faid, that they had actually by them the
produce cf x6 years, and never lupplied their neighbours
with the laft, but alw’ays with the oldeft: crop : in 1760
they fold wBat w'as laid up in 1744 ; and when they
had too great a quantity of cloves, nutmeg, &c. in
their magazines, they threw them into the fea, or de¬
ftroyed them by burning. On the 10th of June 1760,
M. Bomare faw at Amfterdam, near the Admiralty, a
fire, the fuel of which was valued at 8,000,coo of
livres ; and as much was to be burned on the day fol¬
lowing. The feet of the Ipeclators were bathed in the
effential oil of tbefe fubftanccs ; but no nerfon was al¬
lowed to gather any of it, much lefs to take any of the
fpices which were in the fire. Some years before,
upon a fimilar occafion, and at the fame place, a poor
man
3
M Y R [ 561 ] M Y S*
Myrmeco- man vfao had taken up fome nutmegs which had rolled
phaga out of the fire, was, as M. Bomarewas informed, feized
M and condemned to immediate execution.
■ . Y--!' . But after all, although the fpice trade is lefs exclu-
fively limited to the Dutch of late years, it does not
appear that the price of Bail Indian fpiceries is in any
degree reduced to the confumer.
MYRMECOPHAGA, or Ant-bear, a genus of
quadrupeds, belonging to the order of bruta. See Mam¬
malia Index.
MYRMELEON, or Ant-lion, a genus of infe&s
of the neuroptera order. See ENTOMOLOGY Index.
MYRMIDONS, Myrmidones, in antiquity 5 a
people on the fouthern borders of Theffaly, who ac¬
companied Achilles to the Trojan war. They re¬
ceived their name from Myrmidon, a fon of Jupiter
and Eurymedufa, who married one of the daughters
of iEolus, fon of Helen. His fon Adlor married
iEgina the daughter of AEfopus. He gave his name
to his fubjefts, wdio dwelt near the river Peneus in
Theffaly. According to fome, the Myrmidons re¬
ceived their name from their having arifen from ants
or pifmires, upon a prayer put up for that purpofe by
King ^$iacus to Jupiter, after his kingdom had been
dilpeopled by a fevere peftilence. According to Strabo,
they received it from their induftry, becaufe they imi¬
tated the diligence of the ants, and like them were in¬
defatigable, and were continually employed in cultivat¬
ing the earth.
MYRMILLONES were gladiators of a certain
kind at Rome, wTho fought againft the Retiarii. Their
arms were a fword, head-piece, and ihield. On the
top of the head-piece they wore a filh emboffed, called
Moguvgog, whence their name is by fome fuppofed to be
derived. The Retiarii, in their engagements, made ufe
of a net, in which they endeavoured to entangle their
adverfaries 3 and fung during the fight, “ Non te peto,
pifcem peto ; quid me fugis, Galle “ I aim not at
thee, but I aim at thy filh $ why doft thou Ihun me, O
Gaul r” The Myrmillones were called Galli, becaufe
they wore Gallic armour. They w’ere alfo named Se-
cutores. This kind of gladiators wTas fuppreffed by Ca¬
ligula. See Gladiators, Retiarii, &c.
MYROBALANS, a kind of medicinal fruit brought
from the Indies, of which there are five kinds. 1. The
citrine, of a yellowilh red colour, hard, oblong, and the
fize of an olive. 2. The black or Indian myrobalan,
of the bignefs of an acorn, wrinkled, and without a
ftone. 3. Chebulic myrobalans, which are of the fize
of a date, pointed at the end, and of a yellowilh brown.
4. Emblic, which are round, rough, the fize of gall,
and of a dark brown. 5. Balleric, which are hard,
round, of the fize of an ordinary prune, lefs angular
than the reft, and yellow. They are all {lightly pur¬
gative and aftringent. The word comes from the
Greek “ ointment,” and (icthoiv»s, “ acorn,” as
being in the form of acorns, and ufed in medicine.
MYRON, an excellent Grecian ftatuary, flourilhed
444 B. C. The cow he reprefented in brafs was an
admirable piece of workmanlhip, and was the occafion
of many fine epigrams in Greek.
MYROXYLON, a genus of plants belonging to
the decandria clafs. See Botany Index.
MYRRH, a gummy-refinous concrete juice, which
Vol. XIV. Part II.
is brought from the Eaft Indies or from Abylfinia. See Mjrrhine
Materia Medica Index. II
It is affirmed by fome, that the myrrh we have at ■_/ y
prefent is not" equal in quality to that of the ancients,
and has not that exquifite fmell which all authors a-
cribe to the latter. They aromatized their molt deli¬
cious wines with it; and it was prefented as a very va¬
luable perfume to our Lord while he lay in the manger.
It was this gum alfo which was mingled with the
wine given him to drink at his paflion, to deaden his
pains, and produce a ftupor. (See Mark xv. 32..). The
gall mentioned on the fame occafion by St Matthew is
probably the fame with myrrh •, for any thing bitter
was ufually diftinguiffied by the name of gall. The
Hebrews were accuftomed to give thofe that werQ exe¬
cuted fome ftupefying draught. The difficulty which
arifes from the feeming difference betwikt the two evaiv
gelifts, by fome is folved by faying, that St Matthew,
writing in Syriac, made ufe of the word tnarra, which
fignifies “ myrrh, bitternefs, or gall j” but the Greek
tranflator has taken it for gall, and St Mark for myrrh.
Others think that our Saviour’s drink was mingled
with myrrh as a ftupefying drug ; but fuppofe that the
foldiers out of wanton cruelty and inhumanity, infufed
gall j which was the reafon, fay they, why, when he
had tailed, he refufed to drink.
MYRRHINE, or Murrine. See Murrine.
MYRSINE, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the 18th order, Bicornes. See Botany Index.
MYRTIFORM, in Anatomy, an appellation given
to feveral parts, from their refembling myrtle berries.
MYRTLE. See Myrtus, Botany Index.
MYRTOUM MARE, a part of the y^Egean fea, ly¬
ing between Euboea, Peloponnefus, and Attica. It
receives this name from Myrto a woman, or from
Myrtos a fmall ifland in the neighbourhood, or from
Myrtilus the fon of Mercury who was drowned there,
&c.
MYRTUS, in Ancient Geography, a fmall iiland
near Caryftus in Euboea, which gave name to the Mar&
Myrtoum. Others, according to Paufanias, derive the
appellation from Myrto, the name of a woman. Strabo
extends this fea between Crete, Argia, and Attica.
Paufanias beginning it at Euboea, joins it at Helena,
a defert ifland, with the /Egean fea. Ptolemy carries
it to the coaft of Caria. Pliny fays, that the Cyclades
and Sporades are bounded on the weft by the Myrtoan
coaft of Attica.
Myrtus, the Myrtle, a genus of plants belonging
to the icofandria clafs j and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 19th order, Hefperidecc. See Botany
Index.
MYSIA, a country of Afia Minor, generally di¬
vided into Major and Minor. Myfia Minor was bound¬
ed on the north and weft by the Propontis and Bithy-
nia, and Phrygia on the fouthern and eaftern borders.
Mvfia Major had TEolia on the fouth, the JEgean fea
on the weft, and Phrygia on the north and eaft. Its
chief cities'were Cyzicum, Lampfacus, &c. The inha¬
bitants were once very warlike ; but they greatly dege¬
nerated, and the words Myforum ultimus were emphati¬
cally ufed to fignify a perfon of no merit. * The an¬
cients generally hired them to attend their funerals as
4 B mourners,
My for.
M Y S t 562 ] M Y S
mourners, becaufe they were naturally melancholy and
inclined to (lied tears. They were once governed by
monarch*. They are fuppofed to be defcended from
the Myfians of Europe, a nation who inhabited that
part of Thrace wdrich was fituated bettveen Mount
Htemus and the Danube.
MYSON, a native of Sparta, one of the feven wife
men of Greece. When Anacharfis conlulted the ora¬
cle of Apollo, to know which was the wifefl: man in
Greece, he received for anfwer, he who is now plough¬
ing his fields. This was Myfon.
MYS9RE, or Mysorean Dominions, a kingdom
of Afia, in the Eait Indies, including the territories
ufurped or fubdued by Hyder Ali, and tranfmitted to
his fon Tippoo Saib, but now fubjeft to the Britifh go¬
vernment. For an account of the conqueil of which,
fee India.
Myfore.
MYSTERIES.
dual fntro P ELIGION, in its original form, was fimple and
dudhon of J’V intelligible. It was intended for the inftmftion
myfteries and edification of all ranks of men j and of confequence
Into reli- its do&rines w'ere on a level with vulgar capacities. The
S,on* Jewilh difpenfation was openly pradlifed : nothing was
performed in fecret •, every article w?as plain, open, and
acceffible. The divine Author of the Chriftian econo¬
my commanded his difciples to preach his dodtrine in
the moft public manner: “ What ye have heard in fe¬
cret (fays he) preach openly 5 and what I have taught
you in private teach ye publicly, and proclaim it on the
houfe tops.” Such are the charms of truth, and luch
the charadfer of that religion which came down from
heaven, that they, as it wxre, “ delight, and lift up
their voice in the ftreets, and cry in the chief places of
concourfe.”
But fuch is the depravity of the nature of man, that
the nobleit inftitutions degenerate in his hands. Reli¬
gion itfelf, originally pure, fimple, and amiable, under
his management has often been transformed into pollu¬
tion, perplexity, and deformity. The minifters of re¬
ligion, whofe province it was to guard the facred de-
pofite, and to fecure it from foreign and fpurious in¬
termixtures, have generally been the firft innovators,
and the firfl: and moft induftrious agents in corrupting
its integrity and tarnifhing its beauty. Avarice and
ambition prompted that clafs of men to deviate from
the original plainnefs and fimplicity of religious infti¬
tutions, and to introduce articles, rites, and ufages,
which might furnifh them with opportunities of grati¬
fying thefe unhallowrd and infatiable paffions. Hence
diftin£Hons unknown to pure and undefiled religion
were fabricated ; and that heavenly inftitution, hereto¬
fore one, fimple, indivifible, w7as divided into twro par¬
titions : the one popular and public ; the other dark,
fecret, and myfterious. The latter of thefe we intend as
2 the fubjetl of this article.
Etymology I he Englilh word mystery is derived from the Greek
oftheterm Fv.<rTVIZt6V ’ anc* ^ts modei;n acceptation imports fome-
thing above human intelligence, fomething awfully ob-
fcure and enigmatical-, any thing artfully made difficult;
the fecret of any bufinefs or profeffion. The word is
often uied by the founder ©f the Chriftian religion, and
more frequently by his apoftles, efpecially St Paul. In
thefe cafes, it generally fignifies thofe do6frines of
Chriftianity which the Jews, prior to the advent of the
Meffiah,. either did net or could not underftand. The
Trinity in Unity, ^and the Unity in Trinity ; the in¬
carnation of the Son of God ; the union of two na¬
tures in one and the fame psrfon, &c. we generally
call myjleries, becaufe they are infinitely above human
comprehenfion. All thefe fignifications are out of the 3
queftion at prefent. Our intention in this article is Objedt of
to lay before our readers the fulleft and faireft accountthis articIe*
we have been able to colleft, of thofe or fecret
rites, of the Pagan fuperftition, which were carefully
concealed from the knowledge of the vulgar, and '. Inch
are univerfally known under the denomination of mu-
fl ‘ t J
Jtenes.
The word f^v^tov is evidently deduced from pwrng;
but the origin of this laft term is not altogether ib ob¬
vious. The etymologies of it exhibited by the learned
are various; fome of them abfurd and inconfiftent,
others foolilh and futile. Inftead of fatiguing our
readers with a detail of thefe, which would be equally
unentertaining and unintereffing, we ffiall only produce
one, which to us appears to come neareft the truth.
The myfteries under confideration at prefent were cer¬
tainly imported into Greece from the eaft. In thofe
regions, then, we ought of courfe to look for the etymo-
logy of the word. Mi/ior, ov mi/tur, in Hebrew, fignifies
“ any place or thing hidden or concealed.” As
this word implies a kind of definition of the nature
of the thing intended, and as it is one of the excel¬
lencies of original languages to apply vocables with
this propriety, we find ourlelves ftrongly inclined to
affign the word mijlur as the root of the term
myster.
_ We have already obferved, that the avarice and am-Motives ta
bition of the Pagan prieftbood probably gave birth tothe»,’tro-
the inftitution of the myfteries. To this obfervation ^u<^‘on
\ye may now add, that the minifters of that fuperfti-^ myfte~
tion might poffibly imagine, that fome articles of their
ritual were too profound to be comprehended by the
vulgar ; others, too facred to be communicated to a
defeription of men, whom the inftitutions of civil focie-
ty had placed in a fituation not only fubordinate but
even contemptible. It was imagined, that things fa¬
cred and venerable would have contrafted a taint and
pollution by an intercourfe with fordid and untutored
fouls. Thefe appear to us the moft probable motives
for making that odious and pernicious diftinftion be¬
tween the popular religion and that contained in the
facred and myfterious ritual.
The learned Biftiop Warburton is pofitive, that the
myfteries of the Pagan religion were the invention of
legiflators * and other great perfonages, whom fortune * Tliwh.
or their own merit had placed at the head of thofe civil
focieties which were formed in the earlieft ages in dif¬
ferent parts of the world. It Js with reludtance, and
indeed
Tlie hypo-
thefis of
WarVmrton
ill founded.
6
Myfteries
of Eleufis
faid to be
revealed
publicly in
Crete.
* Lib. v.
MYSTERIES.
5G3
indeed with diffidence, that we prefume to differ in our
fentiments from fuch refpe&able authority. What¬
ever hypothefis this prelate had once adopted, fo ex-
tenfive was his reading, and fo exuberant his intellectual
refources, that he found little difficulty in defending
it by an appearance of plaufibility, if not of rational
argumentation. The large quotations he has adduced
from Plato and Cicero, do indeed prove that the fages
and legiflators of antiquity fometimes availed them-
felves of*the influence derived from the do&rines of
the myfteries, and from the authority they acquired
by the opinion of their having been initiated in them ;
but that thofe men were the inventors and fabricators
of them is a pofition for which his quotations do not
furnilh the moft flender preemption. At the fame
time, we think it not altogether certain, that the
doCtrine of a divine Providence, and a future ftate of
rewards and puniffiments, were revealed in the myfte¬
ries with all the clearnefs and cogency which is pre¬
tended by his Lordffiip.
But granting that the fabric was raifed by the hands
of fages and legiflators, we imagine it would be rather
difficult to difcover what emolument that defcription
of men could propofe to derive from the enterprife.—
The inftitution was evidently, and indeed confeffedly,
devifed to conceal from the million thofe very doc¬
trines and maxims, which had they known and em¬
braced them, would have contributed moft effectually
to dilpofe them to fubmit to thofe wife regulations
which their governors and legiflators wiffied moft ar¬
dently to eftabliffi. Experience has taught, that no¬
thing has a more commanding influence on the minds
of the vulgar, than thofe very dogmas, which, accord¬
ing to the Biffiop, were communicated to the initi¬
ated. A conviftion of the unity of the Deity, of
his wifdom, power, goodnefs, omniprefence, &c. the
fteady belief of the immortality of the human foul,
and of a future ftate of rewards and punifhments, have
in all ages, and in all countries, proved the firmeft
fupports of legal authority. The very fame doCtrines,
in the dawn of Chriftianity, contributed, of all other
methods, the moft effectually to tame and civilize the
favage(A) inhabitants of the northern regions of Eu¬
rope. Suppoling thofe principles to have been incul¬
cated bv the myfteries, the moft prudent plan legifla¬
tors could have adopted, would have been to publifti
them to all mankind. They ought to have fent forth
apoftles to preach them to the favages whom they had
undertaken to civilize. According to the learned
prelate, they purfued the oppolite courfe, and deprived
themfelves of thofe very arms by which they might
have encountered and overthrown all the armies of fa-
vagifm.
Of all the legiflators of antiquity, the Cretan alone
was prudent enough to fee and adopt this rational
plan. Diodorus the Sicilian informs us *, that the my¬
fteries of Eleufis, Samothracia, &c. which were elfe-
where buried in profound darknefs, were among the
Cretans taught publicly, and communicated to all
the world. Minos, however, was a fuccefsful legifk-
tor; and his intercourfe with Jupiter Idaeus extended
his influence and eftabliffied his authority. He was
not under the neceffity of calling in the myfteries to
his afliftance : on the contrary, it is highly probable
that the univerfal knowledge of the doCtrines of rthe
myfteries among his countrymen contributed in a con-
fiderable degree to facilitate his labour, and enfure his
fuccefs.
The divine Author of the Chriftian economy, view¬
ed in the light of a human legiflator, faw the proprie¬
ty of this procedure. Nothing was concealed in his
inftitutions ; nothing was veiled with myftery, or bu¬
ried in darknefs. The fuccefs was anfwerable to the
wifdom of the plan. The million flocked to the evan¬
gelical ftandard : the gofpel was preached to the poor,
to the illiterate and the vulgar j and the meaneft of
mankind eagerly embraced its maxims. Wherever it
prevailed, it produced civilization, morality, fobriety,
loyalty, and every other private and focial virtue.—
Upon the fuppofition that the myfteries had contained
and inculcated the principles and praClices which the
prelate fuppofes they did, the civilizers of mankind,
legiflators, magiftrates, and princes, ought to have com¬
bined to make them public for the fake of their own
tranquillity, and the more effectual fupport of their au¬
thority and influence. 6
Upon the whole, we are inclined to believe that the Myfteries
myfteries were the offspring of Egyptian prieftcraft. j:hV ft'of
They were inftituted with a view to aggrandize that E”yetian
order of men, to extend their influence, and enlarge prieftcraft;
their revenues. To accomplilh thofe felfilh projects, but
they applied every engine towards befotting the mul¬
titude with fuperftition and enthufiafm. They taught
them to believe, that themfelves were the diftinguiftied
favourites of heaven ; and that celeftial doctrines had
been revealed to them, too holy to be communicated
to the profane rabble, and too fublime to be compre¬
hended by vulgar capacities. It is, we confefs, ex¬
ceedingly probable, that after the myfteries were in¬
ftituted, and had acquired an exalted reputation in the
world, legiflators, magiftrates, judges, and potentates,
joined in the impofture, with the fame views and from S
the fame principles. Princes and legiflators, who adopted by
found their advantage in overawing and humbling the ^ ator5*r
multitude, readily adopted a plan which they found fo
artfully fabricated to anfwer thefe very purpofes. They
had intereft enough with the facerdotal (b) myfta-
gogues, to induce them to allow them to participate in
thofe venerable rites which had already eftabliffied the
authority of that defcription of men in whofe hands
they were depofited. The views of both parties were
exaftly congenial. The refpeft, the admiration, and
dependance on the million, were the ultimate objects
of their ambition refpe&ively.—Priefts and princes
were actuated by the very fame fpirit. The combina¬
tion was advantageous, and of confequence harmoni¬
ous. For thefe reafons we have taken the liberty of
differing from his Lordffiip of Gloucefter with refpeft
4 B 2 to
(a) The Germans, Ruffians, and Scandinavians, who were never thoroughly civilized till the gofpel was preach¬
ed among them.
(b) The myftagogues were the minifters who acted the chief part in celebrating the myfteries.
564
M Y S T E R I E S.
dogma of philofophy, was xrtrapt up in a veil of alle-
to tlieperfbns who'fiift inftitutei tlje fecret myftencs of
the Pagan religion,
Hypothefis Another writer, of confiderable reputation in the
of Alo- republic of letters, is of opinion, that the myfleries
fli.iai were entirely commemorative ; that they were inftitut-
ed with a view to preferve the remembrance of heroes
and great men, who had been deified in confideration
of their martial exploits, ufeful inventions, public vir¬
tues, and efpecially in confequence of the benefits by
them conferred on their'eontemporaries.—According to
him, the (c) myfteries of Mithras were efiabliftied for
this very purpofe. It would be no difficult matter
to prove that the Perfian deity of that name was the
fun, and that his name and infignia jointly afeertain
the truth of this affertion. The fame writer extends
this obfervation to the myfteries of the Egyptians,
Phoenicians, Greeks, Hetrufcans j and in a word, to
10 all the inftitutions of that fpecies throughout the world.
Angular In oppofition to this lingular opinion, it may be argued,
we with fonie Ihow of reafon, that the method
n> e' of preferving the memory of great and illuftrious men
generally adopted, -was the eftablilhing feftivals, cele¬
brating games, offering facrifices, finging hymns,
dances, &.c. We can recolleft no fecret myfteries in-
ftituted For that purpofe at leaft: in their original in¬
tention. If any ufage of the commemorative kind was
admitted, it was fuperinduced at fome period pofterior
to the primary inftitution. At the fame time, upon the
fuppofiticn that the orgia of Bacchus were the fame with
thofe of the Egyptian Ofiris, and that the myfteries of
Ceres exhibited at Eleufis were copied from thofe of the
Egyptian Ifis, and allowing that the former was the
fun, and the latter the moon •, it will be difficult to
find out the human perfons whofe exploits, adventures,
inventions, &c. were intended to be immortalized by
thofe inftitutions. Upon the whole, the myfteries were
performed in fecret ; they were intended to be com¬
municated Only to a few •, of courfe, had they been in-
ftituted with a view to immortalize the memory of
heroes and great men, the authors would have a£ted
the moft fooliffi and inconfiftent part imaginable.—In-
ftead of tranfmitting the fame of their heroes with eclat
to pofterity, they would by this procedure have con-
jj figned it to eternal oblivion.
Our firft We muft then recur to our fir ft pofition. The my-
jsofition fteries were the offspring of bigotry and prieftcraft 5
b^the*cha-^y 0“ginated ^ Egypt, the native land of idola-
rafter of try* ^at country the priefthood ruled predomi-
the priefts riant. The kings were engrafted into their body be-
ot Egypt, fore they could afeend the throne. They were pof-
* Diodor, felled of a third part * of all the land of Egypt. The
Sicul. lib. i, facerdotal funftion was confined to one tribe, and w'as
tranfmitted unalienably from father to fon. All the
orientals, but more efpecially the Egyptians, delight¬
ed in myfterious and allegorical dofirines. Every
maxim of morality, every tenet of theology, every
gory and myfticifm. Tnis propenfity, no doubt, con-
fpired with avarice and ambition to difpofe them to a
dark and myfterious fyfttm of religion, Befides, the
Egyptians were a gloomy j* race of men j they de-1 Hvtarch.
lighted in darknefs and folitude. Their facred rites
vvere generally celebrated with melancholy airs, weep¬
ing, and lamentation. This gloomy and unfocial bias
of mind muft have ftimulated them to a congenial
mode of worlhip. In Egypt then we are to iearch
for the origin of the myfteries. Both the nature of
the inftitution and the genius of the people confirm
this pofition j and hiftorians, both ancient and modern,
are agreed in admitting the certainty of the fa£t. 12
The Ofiris of Egypt, every body knows, was the The Ofiris-
original Bacchus; as the Ifis of the fame country was ^
the Ceres of the Greeks. The rites of Ofiris were Bacchus&
performed with loud ffirieks and lamentations when and Ceres
he was put into the coffin ; and with the moft: extra- of Greece,
vagant mirth, when he was in a manner raifed from
the dead, or fuppofed to be found again. Their hymns
were upon the whole always compofed in melancholy
affedfting ftrains; and confifted of lamentations for the
lafs of Ofiris, the myftic flight of Bacchus, the wan¬
derings of Ifis, and the fufferings J of the gods. The t Pint- If.
Canaanites, who were a kindred tribe of the Mizraira et °fir’
or Egyptians, imitated them in their facred rites. At
Byblus, Berytus, Sidon, and afterwards at Tyre, they § E<x>ek.
ufed particularly mournful dirges for the death of Ado- vi'i*
nis or Tammuz $, who was the fame with the Egyp- n^fQnyT
tian Ofiris, i. e. the fun.
The Egyptians, then, naturally inclined to gloom Peath of
and fecrecy, inftituted a mode of worflu’p congenial ofins aml
with their natural difpofition of mind. The recefs of^a^rings
the fun towards the fouthern hemifphere, was the
death * of Ofiris; the wanderings of Ifis in fearch ^Saturn ^
her hulband and brother, allegorically imported the
longing of the earth f for the return of the fruflifying f Pint. If.'
influences of the folar heat. Ofir.
When that luminary returned towards the fummer
folftice, and grain, trees, fruits, herbs, and flowers
adorned the face of nature, another feftival was cele¬
brated of a very different complexion from that of the
former. In this feafon all Egypt was diffolved in the
moft extravagant mirth and jollity. During the cele¬
bration of thofe feftivals, the priefts formed allegorical
reprefentations of the fun and the earth (d). They
perfonified the one and the other, and allegorized their
motions, afpefts, relations, fympathies, acceffes, re-
ceffes, &c. into real adventures, peregrinations, fuffer¬
ings, contefts, battles, vi&ories, defeats, and fo forth.
Thefe, in procefs of time, were held up to the vulgar
as real occurrences ; and thefe in a few ages became
the moft effential articles of the popular creed. From
this fource were derived the conquefts of Dionyfus or
Bacchus, fo beautifully exhibited by Nonnus in his
Dionyfiacs;
(c) Principio hoc ego quidem controverfia vacare, arbitror, myfteria quae vocantur, ritus fuiffe idcirco inftitutos
ne memoria petiret veterum beneficiorum, inventorum, fatorum rerum geftarum quibus primi populorum condi-
tores, aut alii praeclari homines, decus nomen, et famam, inter fuos fibi comparaverant. Neque haec cuiquam.
fiejitentia mirabilis videri poterit. Cud. Syji. IntelleB. ed. Mojkemii, p. 329.
(d) Ifis, among the Egyptians, foroetimes fignified the moon, and fometimes the earth,.
M Y S T
Dionyfiacs ; tlie wanderings of lo, wonderfully adorned
by TE'chylus ; and the labours of Hercules, afterwards
14 ufurped by the Greeks.
TheEgyp- Whether the Egyptians deified mortal men in the
Sdepart-earlieft ages ^as befn niuch controverted. Jablonfki f
td heroes. bas tahen much pains to prove the negative. Diodo-
+ Panth. rus i ?• fibres us, that they pa;d their raonarchs a kind
EgyP*-. of divine adoration, even in their lifetime. Plutarch
j y teils us plainly j, that fome were of opinion that Ifis,
Ofiris, Horus, Anubis, d'yphon, were once mortal
perfons, who were exalted into demons after their death.
The Sicilian, in his hiftory of Ifis and Ofiris, Pan, Her¬
mes, &c. plainly reprefents them as human perfonages 5
and informs us, that the Egyptians imagined, that after
their deceafe they tranfmigrated into particular liars.
From thefe authorities, we are inclined to believe that
the Egyptians, as well as the other Pagans, did actual¬
ly deify perfons who had dillinguilhed themfelves in
in their days of nature by prowefs, vvifdom, ufeful aits,
and inventions. This was a conftant pradtice among
the Greeks, who probably learned it from the people in
queftion.
Secrets re- The exploits of thefe heroes had been difguifed by
fpefting allegorical traditions and hieroglyphical reprefentations.
the objects They had been magnified beyond all dimeniions, in or-
r eve a Jed in ^er to. a^on^1 anfi intimidate the vulgar. They had
the myfte- been interlarded with the moft extravagant fables, in
ries. order to gratify their propenfity towards the marvel¬
lous. All thefe fecrets were developed in the myfteries.
The catechumens (e) were informed of every particular
relating to the birth, the life, the exploits, the adven¬
tures, the misfortunes, and deceafe of thofe heroic per¬
fonages, and when, and by what means, they had at¬
tained to the high rank of divinities. At the fame
time we think it highly probable, that thofe demi-gods
were reprefented in their date of exaltation and heaven¬
ly fplendour. The magicians of Egypt were abundant¬
ly qualified for exhibiting ange/j in machines. The
fouls of virtuous men, who had not been eminent enough
to merit the honour of deification, were fhown in all
the perfedion of Elyfian felicity ; and perhaps the fouls
of tyrants, and of the children of (e) Typhon, were
fhown in Tartarus, fuffenng all the extremes of infernal
punilhment. From thefe exhibitions the myftagogues
might naturally enough take occafion to read their pu¬
pils fuitable lectures on the happy tendency of a virtu¬
ous condudf, and the dilhonour and mifery confequent
upon a contrary courfe. They might fet before them
l5 immortal renown, deification, and Elyfium, on the one
Chief ad- band, and eternal infamy and mifery on the other. This
vantage of will probably be deemed the chief advantage accruing
the myfte- from this inftitution.
Befides the communications above mentioned, the
catechumens were taught many fecrets of phyfiology,
or the nature of the phenomena of the world. This
* I>e Nat. Pharnutus * everywhere affirms, efpecially in his laft
Beormn. book towards the end. Plutarch too informs us, that
E R I E S. 565
many of the Greek philofophers were of opinion, that
moft of the Egyptian fables were allegorical details of
phyfical operations. Eufebius acquaints us f, that+£~
the phyfiology, not only of the Greeks, but likewife njan&e]/t'
of the barbarians, was nothing elfe but a kind of
fcience of nature, a concealed and dark theology, in¬
volved in fable and fiction, wliofe hidden myflerics
were fo veiled over with enigmas and allegories, that
the ignorant million were as little capable of compre¬
hending what was faid as w’hat was fupprefled in fi-
lence. This, fays he, is apparent from the poems of
Orpheus and the fables of the Phrygians and Egyp¬
tians. Dionyfius oi Halicarnafius likewife obferves j, t Antiq.
that the fables of the Greeks detail the operations oiEom.
nature by allegories. Proclus § makes the fame ob- § An tim.
fervation concerning the people in qlieftion. The E-
gyptians, fays he, taught the latent operations of nature
by fables.
fihefe phyfiological fecrets wrere no doubt expound-Phyfiologi-
ed to the initiated 5 and that the Egyptian priefts were cal lecr^t*
deeply {killed in phyfiological fcience, can fcarce be
queftioned, if we believe that Jannes and Jambres ri-fteriesof
vailed Mofes with their enchantments. The preceding Egypt,
detail comprehends all that w7as revealed to the Epop-
tse in the original Egyptian myfteries. What articles
might have been introduced afterwards w?e cannot pre¬
tend to determine.
Be that as it may, one thing is certain, namely,
that the vulgar were excluded from all thofe choice fe¬
crets, which were carefully referved for the nobility and
facerdotal tribes. To them it was given to know the
myfteries of the kingdom of darknefs j but to thofe
who w7ere without, all was myflery and parable. While
the laity fed on huflcs, the clergy and the quality
feafied on royal dainties. The pnefls who had de-
vifed thefe allegories underflood their original import,
and bequeathed it as an inellimable legacy to their
children. Here then w7e have the primary objeifl of
the myfleries, namely, to develope to the initiated the
original and rational import of thofe allegorical and
myftical doftrines which were tendered to the uniniti¬
ated, wrapt up in impenetrable allegory and obfeurity.
To the former, thefe were communicated and explain¬
ed : The latter were obliged to Hand at an awful ci-
flance, and retire as the Procu/, 0 procul ejie profani,
thundered in their ears.
Thefe allegorical traditions originated in Egypt, (See
Mythology.) It was the general bias of the orien¬
tal genius. The Egyptians, how7ever, according to the
moft authentic accounts (g), w'ere the greatelt profi¬
cients in that fcience. The original fubjedt of thefe
inflitutions were, we imagine, the articles w7e have fpe-
cified above : but in procefs of time, according to the
natural courfe of things, numerous improvements w'ere -
made, and many new rites, ceremonies, ufages, and even
doctrines, were fuperinduced, which w^ere utterly un¬
known to the original hierophants (h). Simplicity is,
for
(e) Catechumens w7ere pupils who w7ere learning the elements of any fcience.
(f) Typhon was the evil genius, or devil, of the Egyptians.
(g) * As early as the age of Jofeph, the Egyptians wrere fkilled in the interpretations of dreams, divinations^
&c. and in the age of Mofes they were become wife men, magicians, &c.
(h) Hierophant imports a priefl employed in explaining the doifirines, rites, &c. communicated to the initiated.
MYSTERIES.
566
for the moft part, one of the diftinguhhing charadlers of
a new inftitution $ but fucceeding archite&s generally
imagine that fomething is hill wanting to complete the
beauty, the regularity, the uniformity, the magnifi¬
cence, and perhaps the conveniency of the ftructure.
Hence, at length, it comes to be fo overloaded with ad¬
ventitious drapery, that its primary elegance and fym-
metry are altogether defaced. This was the cafe with
the earlieft Egyptian myfteries. Their fub]e6t was at
firlt fimple and eafy to be comprehended } in time it
jg became complex, intricate, and unintelligible.
Temples In order to celebrate thofe myfteries with the greater
where the fecrecy, their temples were fo conftrufted as to favour
myfteries ^ arti£ce Gf the priefts. The fanes, in which they
brated. ufec^ t0 execute their facred fundtions, and to perform
the rites and ceremonies of their religion, were fub-
terraneous apartments, conftrudfed wdth fuch wonder¬
ful fkill and dexterity, that every thing that appeared
in them breathed an air of folemn fecrecy. Their
walls were covered with hieroglyphic paintings and
fculpture, and the altar wTas fituated in the centre of
t Nor den, the apartment. Modern J travellers have of late years
Po- difeovered fome veftiges of them, and bear witnefs to
xo^ke, &c. a]-,ove defeription of thofe dark abodes (1). In
thofe fubterrancous manfions, which the priefts of that
ingenious nation had planned "with the moft confum-
mate fkill, the kings, princes, and great men of the
ftate, encountered the dangers and hardthips contrived
to prove their prudence, fortitude, patience, abftinence,
fk.c. Tfiefe were appointed to try their merit •, and by
thefe the hierophants were enabled to decide whether or
not they were duly qualified for receiving that benefit.
Upon thefe cccafions, we may believe, abundance of
^ thofe magical tricks were exhibited, fer which the ma¬
gicians of Egypt wTere fo much celebrated among the
ancients. The ftrange and aftoniftiing fights, the al¬
ternate fucceflions of light and darknefs, the hideous
fpeftres expofed to view, the frightful bowlings re¬
echoed by thefe infernal domes, the feenes of Tartarus
and Elyfium, exhibited alternately and in quick fuccef-
fion, muft have made a deep and lafting impreflion on
the mind of the affrighted votary (k). Thefe feenes
we (hall deferibe more fully in the fequel.
The Gre- From the feenes exhibited in celebrating the Egyp¬
tian infer- t;an rnyfteries, efpecially thofe of His and Ofiris, the
nal regions Qreeks feem to have copied their ideas of the infernal
from the regi°nsj ancl the fubterraneous manfions of departed
Egyptian fouls. Many colonies of Egyptians fettled in Greece,
myiteries. From thefe the (l), or moft early bards of
Greece, learned them imperfeftly. Of courfe, we
find Homer’s account of the infernal regions, and of
the ftate of departed fouls, lame and incoherent. Suc¬
ceeding bards obtained more full and more diftinfl in.
formation. Euripides and Ariftophanes feem to have
paved the way for the prince of Roman poets. Plato-fi Phxdi*
and fome of the other philofophfers have fhown by their
deferiptions or allufions, that the whole apparatus of
Tartarus and Eiyfium had become a hackneyed topic
fome centuries before Virgil was born. 'Inis incom¬
parable poet borrowed his ideas from Homer, Arifto¬
phanes, Euripides, Plato, &c. Thefe, under his plaf-
tic hand, in the fixth Aineid, grew into a fyftem beau¬
tiful, regular, uniform, and confiftent. The materials
he has employed were created to his hand j he had
only to collect, polifti, arrange, and conned! them.—
The fentiments collected from the Platonic philofophy,
and the inimitable epifode copied from the annals of
Rome, by the mafterly fkill which he has difplayed in
the application ot them, form the chief excellencies of
the piece. For the reft, he could well difpenfe with
going to Eleufis (mJ : every old woman in Athens and
Rome could repeat them. 23
Egypt was then the native land of myfteries as wellMyftcries
as of idolatry. Every god and goddefs refpedfively J?rou£iilt
had their myfteries j but as thofe of Ifis and Ofiris.
were the moft celebrated, they of courfe became prin-and Greece,
cipal objedls of purfuit as well as of imitation to the
neighbouring nations. Thefe, as is generally believed,
were carried into Perfia by Zoroaftres, or Zerdufht,
by w’hom they were conlecrated to Mithras. On thefe
we fhall make fome obfervations in the fequel.—Or¬
pheus imported them into Thrace ; Cadmus brought
them into Boeotia, where they were facred to Bacchus.
Inachus eftablifhed them at Argos in honour of Juno,
the fame with Ifis (n) ; Cyniras in Cyprus, where they
were dedicated to Venus. In Phrygia they were facred
to Cybele, the mother of the gods.
Our learned readers, who will probably refleft
that the Egyptians were in ancient times inhofpitable
to ftrangers, will perhaps be furprifed that this fafti-
dious and jealous people were fo ready to communicate
the arcana of their religion to foreigners.—-But they
will pleafe recoiled!, that a great part of Greece was
planted with colonies from Egypt, Phoenicia, Paleftine,
&c. This we could eafily prove, did the bounds pre-
feribed us admit fuch a digreflion. Orpheus, if not an
Egyptian, w;\s at leal! of oriental extradlion. Inachus,
Cadmus, and Melampus, are univerfally allowed to
have been Egyptians. Erechtheus, in whofe reign the
Eleufinian myfteries were eftabliftied, was an Egyptian
by birth, or at leaf! fprung from Egyptian anceftors.
The Egyptians, then, in thofe early ages, did not view
the Greeks in the light of aliens, but as a people
nearly related either to themfelves or the Phoenicians,
who were their brethren. Upon this connexion we
imagine it was, that in later times moft of the fages of
Greece,
(1) See an excellent defeription of thefe fubterraneous abodes, and of the procefs of probation carried on
there, in a French romance, entitled The Life of Sethos.
(k) Perfons who had defeended into Trophonius’s vault were faid to have been fo terrified with fhocking fights,
that they never laughed during the remainder of their lives.
(l) Thefe were ftrolling poets like our minftrels, who frequented the houfes of the great men of Greece, and
entertained the company upon public occafions with finging and tales of other times.
(m) Bifhop Warburton has, with much ingenuity, and a vaft profufion of reading, endeavoured to prove that
Virgil borrowed the whole feenery of the fixth iEneid from the fources mentioned in the text.
(n) Ifis was the moon, and the original Juno was the fame planet.
4
5^7
MYSTERIES.
Greece, efpeciaJIy of Athens, found fo hofpitable a
reception among that people. They probably viewed
them in the light of propagandi ; apoftles able and
willing to difleminate their idolatrous rites. This ob-
fervation, which might be fupported by numberlefs au¬
thorities, did the nature of the prefent inquiry permit,
will, we think, go a great way towards obviating the
21 obje&ion.
Myfteries Although, as has been obferved, every particular
of Mithras, deity had his own peculiar myflerious facred rites, yet
S-hus, of all others thofe of Mithras, Bacchus (o), and Ce-
the moft '’ res’ were ^eemed the moft auguft, and were moft uni-
auguft. verially and mold religioufly celebrated. To thefe,
therefore, we fhall in a good meafure confine ourfelves
upon this occafion. If our readers fhall become inti¬
mately acquainted with thefe, they may readily dif-
penfe with the knowledge of the reft, •which are, in¬
deed, no more than ftreams and emanations from thefe
fources. We (hall then, in the firft place, prefent to
our readers a brief fketch of the myfteries of Mithras.
Mithras, or, according to the Perfian, Mi hr, was
one of the great gods of the Afiatics. His worfhip
was for many ages confined to Perfia. Afterwards,
however, it was propagated fo far and wide, that fome
have imagined they had difcovered vefdiges of it even
f Rclig. in Gaul. Mihr, according to Dr Hyde f, fignifies
vet. Perfa- love, and likewife the fun. If we might prefume to
rum' differ from fo refpeftable an authority, we (liould con-
jefture that it is a cognate of the Hebrew word nmthir,
“ excellentia, praddantia.” That there was an analogy
between the Hebrew and old Perfian, is generally ad¬
mitted by the learned. Be that as it may, Mithras
22 was the fun (p) among the Perfians; and in honour
Account ©f of that luminary this infditution was eftablifhed. Mi-
the thras, according to Plutarch (o_)j was the middle god
thra^ ~ between Oramaz and Ariman, the two fupreme divi¬
nities of Perfia. But the facd is, the folar planet was
the vifible emblem of Oramaz, the good genius of the
Perfian tribes, and the fame with the Ofiris of the
Egyptians. From thefe people, fome have imagined
that Zoroaftres (r), or Zerdulht, borrowed bis my-
fderies of Mithras. To this opinion we cannot give
our affent, becaufe the probationary trials to be under¬
gone by the candidates among the former were much
more favage and fanguinary than among the latter.—
Both, however, were inldituted in honour of the fame
deity j and probably the fcenes exhibited, and the in¬
formation communicated in both, were analogous ; a
circumldance which perhaps gave birth to the opinion
above mentioned.
The grand feftival of Mithras was celebrated fix
days, in the middle of the month Mihr (s). Upon
thefe days, it was lawful for the kings of Perfia to get
drunk and dance. On this feftival, we imagine, the
candidates for initiation, having duly proved their vo¬
cation, were folemnly admitted to the participation of
the myfteries.
Zoroaftres (t) worflfipped Mithras, or the Sun, in a
certain natural cave, which he formed into a temple,
and filled up in a manner exactly mathematical. There
Mithras was reprefemed as prending over the lower
world with all the pomp of royal magnificence. In
it too were feen the fymboif of Mithras and of the
world, philofophically and mathematically exhibited,
to be contemplated and worlhipped. This deity was
fometimes reprefented as mounted on a bull, which he
is breaking, and which he kills with a fword. On
fome has reliefs Hill exifting, he appears as a young
man with his tiara turned upward, after the manner of
the Perfian kings. He is clothed with a ihort tunic
and breeches, after the Perfian faftiion. Sometimes he
wears a fmall cloak. By his fides are feen other hu¬
man figures, with tiaras of the fame faihion on their
heads, but without cloaks. One of thefe figures com¬
monly holds in his one hand a torch lifted up ; in the
other, one turned downward. Sometimes over the cave
are feen the chariots of the fun and moon, and divers
conffellations, fuch as cancer, fcorpio, &c.
In one of thofe caves the ceremonies of initiation Probation*
were performed j but before the candidate could be ary exer-
admitted, he was forced to undergo a courfe of pro-c!les Pre“
bationary exercifes, fo numerous and fo rigorous, that — “ l-°
rij jr-, i”,’, initiation,
very tew had courage and fortitude enough to go through
them. He was obliged to live a life of virtue and
abftinence for the fpace of feven years previous to the
period of his initiation. Some months before it, he was
obliged to fubmit to a long and aultere faft, which
continued fifty days. He was to retire faveral days
to a deep and dark dungeon, where he was fucceffively
expofed to all the extremes of heat and cold. Mean¬
time he frequently underwent the baftinado, which
the priefts applied without mercy. Some fay this fu¬
rtigation continued two whole days, and v^as repeated
no lefs than i j; times. In the courfe of thefe proba¬
tionary exerciles, the candidate was generally reduced
to a Ikeleton : and we are told, that there have been
feveral inftances of peribns who have perilhed in the
attempt.
Upon the eve of the initiation, the afpirant wras
obliged to f brace on his armour, in order to encoun- f Jul. Fir-
ter micus.
(o) Bacchus was the Ofiris of the Egyptians, and Ceres was the Ifis of the fame people.
(p) Molheim, in his notes on Cudworth’s Intelle&ual Syftem, page 330. has taken much pains to prove that
Mithras was a deified mortal ; but we cannot agree with that learned man in this point.
(Q.) Iris and Ofiris* Page 369. 1. 20. from the bottom. This philofopher makes Zoroafter, according to
fome, 5000 years prior to the Trojan war. This date is certainly extravagant. We cannot, however, agree,
with fome moderns, who make him contemporary with Darius Hyftafpes, the immediate fucceffor of Cambyfes'
becaufe it contradi&s all antiquity.
(r) M. Silohwette, Differ, v. page 17. afferts that Zoroaftres was initiated among the Egyptians.
(s) The month Mehr began September 30. and ended Oftober 30.
(t) See Dr Hyde de Rel. yet,.Perf. pages 16, 17. Mr Bryant’s Anal, vol i. page 232. Porphyr. de Antro
Nymph, page 254’ This philofopher often mentions the cave of Mithras, and always attributes the inftitution of’
his- rites to Zoroafter..
£68
M Y S T
ter giants and favage monfters. In thofe fpacious
fubterraneous manfions a mock bunting was exhibited.
The priefls and all the fubordinate officers of the
temple, transformed into lions, tygers, leopards, boars,
wolves, and other favage creatures, aiTailed him with
loud bowlings, roaring, and yelling, and every inftance
of ferine fury. In thofe mock combats, the hero was
often in danger of being really W’orried, and always came
oif with bruifes and wounds. Lampridius informs us,
that when the emperor Commodus was initiated, he ac¬
tually carried the joke too far, and butchered one of the
prieits who attacked him in the figure of a wild beaft.
The Perfians worlhippeT Mithras or the Sun by a per¬
petual fire : hence the votary w?as obliged to undergo a
fiery trial; that is, to pals feven times through the
facred fire, and each time to plunge himfelf into cold
w'ater. Some have made thefe probationary penances
amount to So : others have thought that they w’ere in
all only 8. As we find no good authority for either
of thefe numbers, we think ourfelves at liberty to ha¬
zard the following conjefture : The number feven was
deemed facred over all the call. The Mithriac pe¬
nances wre imagine were either feven, or if they ex¬
ceeded it, wrere regulated by feven repetitions of that
number. The candidate having undergone all thefe
torturing trials with becoming patience and fortitude,
was declared a proper fubjefl for initiation. But be¬
fore his admiffion he was obliged to bind himfelf by
the molt folemn oath, with horrible imprecations an¬
nexed, never to divulge any fingle article of all that
fiiould be communicated to him in the courfe of his
initiation.
What or ineffable fecrets were imparted to
in the my- t]ie initiated, it is impoffible at this diftance of time to
Mit-hra^ dilcover with any tolerable degree of certainty. We
may, however, reft affured, that the moft authentic
tradition concerning the origin of the univerfe *, the na¬
ture, attributes, perfeftions, and operations, of Oro-
mafd j the baleful influences of Ariman ; and the be¬
nign effefts of the government of Mithras, were un¬
folded and inculcated. The fecret phenomena of na¬
ture, as far as they had been difcovcred by the Magi,
were likewife exhibited 5 and the application of their
effeifts, to aftonifh and delude the vulgar, were taught
both in theory and practice. The exercife of public
and private virtues wTas warmly recommended } and
vice reprefented in the moft odious and frightful co¬
lours. Both thefe injunflions were, wTe may fuppofe,
enforced by a difplay of the pleafures of Elyfium and
the pains of Tartarus, as has been obferved above in de-
fcribing the myfleries of the Egyptians.
Thofe initiations are mentioned by Lampridius in
\ T)mI. cum One life of Ccmmodus, and likewife by Juftin-}-and
Tryphone. Tertuliian t, who both flourilhed in the fecond centu-
| Be pre¬
fer ipt. a el¬
ver. lice- _
ret.
Oath of
fecrecy.
25 .
Revelations
E R I E S.
ry. The laft of thefe two fpeaks of a kind of baptifm,
which w’aftied from the fouls of the initiated all the
ftains which they had contradled during the courfe of
their lives prior to their initiation. He at the fame
time mentions a particular mark which was imprinted
upon them (u), of an offering of bread, and an emblem
of the refurredion •, which particulars, however, he
does not deferibe in detail. In that offering, which
was accompanied with a certain form of prayer, a vef-
fel of w'ater -was offered up with the bread. The fame
father elfewhere informs us, that there was prefented to
the initiated a crown fufpended on the point of a fword j
but that they were taught to fay, Mithras is my
crown. By this anfwer was intimated, that they look¬
ed upon the fervice of that deity as their chief honour
and ornament.
After that the Teletae (x) were finiflied, the pupil
was brought out of the cave or temple, and with great
folemnity proclaimed a lion of Mithras (Y) j a title
which imported ftrength and intrepid courage in the
fervice of the deity. They were now confecrated to
the god, and were fuppofed to be under his immediate
protedion •, an idea w'hich of courfe animated them to
the moft daring and dangerous enterpriies.
The worftiip of Mithras was introduced into the Ro¬
man empire towards the end of the republic, where it
made very rapid progrefs. When Chriftianity began
to make a figure in the empire, the champions for pa-
ganifm thought of propofing to men the worftrip of this
power of benevolence, in order to counterbalance or an¬
nihilate that w'orfhip. which the Chriftians paid to Jefus
Chrift the true Sun of righteoufnefs. But this mode
was foon abolifhed, together with the other rites of pa-
ganifm. The Perfian grandees often affeded names
compounded with Mithras 3 hence Mithridates, Mi-
throbarzanes, &c. Hence, too, the precious ftone
called Mithridat f, which by the refledion of the fun f Sulitmt,
fparkled with a variety of colours. There is likewife C»P-I0-
a certain pearl of many different colours, which they
call Mithras. It is found among the mountains near
the Red fea •, and when expofed to the fun, it fparkles
with a variety of dyes. We find likewife a king of
Egypt of that, name, who reigned at Heliopolis j who
being commanded in a dream to ereft an obelilk to the
folar deity, reared a moft prodigious one in the neigh¬
bourhood of that city. 26
The votaries of Mithras pretended that he was fprung Mithras
from a rock, and that therefore the place where the haTJfi
myfterious ceremonies were communicated to the ini'from ^
tiated was always a cave. Many different reafons haverock
been aftigned for the origin of this rock-born deity,
moft of which appear to us unfat’sfadory. If our
readers will be obliging enough to atcept of a Ample
and obvious conjedure, they may take the following :
(u) In alluiion to this pradice of imprinting a facred mark, probably on the forehead of the initiated, we find
the injundion to the angel, Ezek. chap. ix. ver. 4. and the Revelation pajjim.
(x) The myfterics rvere called Te/etec, which imports, “ the rites which confer perfedion.”
(y) Tertull. adv. Marc. p. 55. The priefts oi Mithras were called the hons of Mithras, and his priefteffes
lionejfes; fome fay hycenas. The other inferior minifters were called eagles, hawks, ravens, 8ac. and on their fe-
ftivals they wore mafks correfponding to their titles, after the Egyptian manner, where the priefts appeared at the
ceremonies with malks refembling the heads of lions, apes, dogs, &c. a circumftance which furnifties a prefump-
tiorv that the myfteries of Mithras were of Egyptian original.
3
M Y S T E R I E S. 569
A rock is the fymbol of ftrengtli and flability (z) j the
dominion of Mithras, in the opinion of his votaries,
*vas firm as a rock, and ftable as the everlafting hills.
If our readers fliould not admit the probability of this
conjecture, we would beg leave to remit them to the
learned Mr Bryant’s Analysis of Mythology, where they
will find this point difcuffed with deep refearch and
wonderful ingenuity. Whatever may have been the
origin of this opinion with relation to the birth of Mi¬
thras, it is certain that fome reverence to rocks and
caves was kept up a long time even after the eftablilh-
menr of Chriilianity. Hence the prohibition given to
fome of the profelytes to that religion, that they ihould
no more prefume to offer up their prayers ad petras, at
the rocks (a).
We (hall conclude our account of the myfteries of
Mithras, with a paffage from M. Anquetil, to whom
we are fo much indebted for what knowledge we have
of the Perfian theology, and in which the funftions of
that deity are briefly and comprehenfively delineated.
“ The peculiar fundions of Mithras are to fight conti¬
nually againfl: Ahriman and the impure army of evil
genii, whofe conftant employment is to fcatter terror
and defolation over the univerfe ; to protect the frame
of nature from the demons and their productions. For
this purpofe he is furnifhed with a thoufand ears and a
thcufand eyes, and traverfes the fpace between heaven
and earth : his hands armed with a club or mace. Mi¬
thras gives to the earth light and fun : he traces a
courfe for the waters : he gives to men corn, paftures,
and children ; to the world virtuous kings and war¬
riors ; maintains harmony upon earth, watches over the
law,” &c. As the hiftory of Mithras, and the nature
of his myfteries, are not generally known, we imagined
it would be agreeable to many of our readers to have
the moft important articles relating to that fubjeCt laid
before them as it were in detail.
Myfteries We now proceed to the orgia or myfteries of Bac-
of Bacchus, chus, which we (hall introduce with a brief hiftory of
that deity. The original Dionyfus or Bacchus was the
Ofiris of the Egyptians, w’hich laft was the Sun (b).
Whether there w7as an Egyptian monarch of that name,
5 Lib. i. as Diodorus Siculus affirms §, has no manner of con¬
nexion with the prefent difquifition. The Greek
name of that deity is plainly oriental, being compound-
ed of di, “ bright,” and najla or nafa, in the iEolic
JSacchusthe nufa, “ a prince.” This name was imported
fame with from the eaft by Orpheus, Cadmus, or by whoever elfe
Ofiris. communicated the worftiip of Ofiris to the Greeks.
That the Dionyfus of the Greeks was the fame wdth
the Ofiris of the Egyptians, is univerfally allowed.
* I-ib. ii. Herodotus tells us exprefsly *, that Ofris is Dionysus
Cj*Thett' t^le ^'ree^: Enguag6 ■ Martianus Capellus, quoted
Zgyp * above, ex'prelfes the very fame idea f. The original
lib." ii. Ofiris was then the fun j but the Dionyfus or Bacchus
cap. 1. VOL. XIV. Part II.
of the Greeks was the fame with the Ofiris of the E-
gyptians; therefore the Bacchus or Dionyfus of the
Greeks w7as likewife the fame luminary.
The name O/iris has much embarrafled critics and
etymologifts. The learned Jablonlki inltead of de¬
lineating the charafter, attributes, operations, adven-1 Paotb.
tures, exploits, and peculiar department affigned this %.)'/’•
deity by his votaries, has fpent much of his pains on
trying to inveftigate the etymology of his name. If
it be granted, which is highly probable, that the He¬
brew and Egyptian torSgues are cognate dialedls, we
fhould imagine that it is adlually the Chojher or OJhir
of the former language, which imports, “ to make rich,
to become rich.” Indeed the words O/iris and IJis
were not the vulgar names of the fun and moon among
the Egyptians, but only epithets importing their quali¬
ties. The name of the fun among that people was Phri
or Phry, and that of moon loh, whence the Greek lo.
The term O/iris was applied both to the fun and to the
river Nile ; both which by their influence contributed
refpeflively to enrich and fertilize the land of Egypt.
It was a general cuftom among the orientals to de¬
nominate their princes and great men from their gods,
demigods, heroes, &c. When the former were ad¬
vanced to divine honours, they were in procefs of time
confounded with their archetypes. The original di¬
vinities were forgotten, and thefe upftart deities ufurp-
ed their place and prerogatives. In the earlieft pe¬
riods of the Egyptian monarchy, there appeared two
illuftrious perfonages, Ofiris and Ills. Thefe were the
children of Cronus *, and being brother and After, they
were joined in matrimony, according to the cuftom of
the Egyptians. As the brother and hufband had af-
fumed the name of the Sun, fo the After and confort
took that o{I/is, that is, “ the woman §,” a name which ^jj0rap0n0^
the Egyptians applied both to the moon and to the Cap. 3.
earth, in confequence of the fimilarity of their na¬
ture, their mutual fympathy, and congenial fecundity.
Ofiris having left his confort Ifis regent of the king- 29
dom, with Hermes as her prime minifter, and Hercu-01
les as general of her armies, quitted Egypt with a nu¬
merous body of troops, attended by companies of
fauns (c), fatyrs, finging women, muiicians, &c. and
traverfed all Afia to the eaftern ocean. He then return¬
ed homeward through the Upper Afia, Thrace, Pon-
tus, Afia Minor, Syria, and Paleftine. Wherever he
marched he conferred numberlefs benefits on the fa-
vage inhabitants. He taught the art of cultivating
the ground, preferving the fruits of the earth, and di-
ftinguilhing the wholefome and nutritive from the un-
wholtfome and poifonous. He inftru&ed them in the
culture of the vine j and where vines could not be pro¬
duced, he communicated to them the method of pro¬
ducing a fermented liquor from barley, very little in¬
ferior to wine ilfelf. He built many cities in different
4 C parts
(z) Our Saviour probably alludes to this emblem, when he talks of building his church on a rock; and adds,
that the gates of hell fhould not prevail again/} it.
(a) The Caledonian druids feem to have regarded certain ftones with a fuperftitious veneration, in which the
Catholics imitated them. There are in feveral places of Scotland large ftones, which the vulgar call lecre ftones,
i. e. we imagine, lellure.
(e) See Macrob. lib. i. cap. 21. p. 247. bottom. Diogenes Laert. in prooemio, par. 10. Martian. Capel.lib.il.
Jablonlki, vcl. i. lib. ii. 415. par. 3. Plut. Ifis er Odr.pa/Jim.
(c) Men and women dreffed in the habits of thole rural deities.
MYSTERIES.
parts of the globe, planted numerous colonies (d), and
wherever he dire&ed his courfe inftituted juif and
wholefome laws, and eftablilhed the rites and ceremo¬
nies of religion, and left priells and catechifts of his
train to teach and inculcate the obfervance of them.
In Ihort, he left everywhere lading monuments of his
progrefs, and at the fame time of his generofity and
beneficence. Where he found the people docile and
fubmiflive, he treated them with kindnefs and huma¬
nity : if any (howed themfelves obflinate, he compel¬
led them to fubmit to his inditutions by force of
arms.
At the end of three years, he returned to Egypt,
where his brother Typhon, a wicked unnatural mon-
,0 der, had been forming a confpiracy againd his life.
His death. This traiterous defign he foon after accomplidied in
the following manner : He invited Ofiris, with fome
other perfons whom he had gained over, to an enter¬
tainment. When the repad was finiihed, he produced
a beautiful coffer, highly finifhed, and adorned with
duds of gold 5 promifing to bedovv it on the perlon
whom it (hould fit bed. Ofiris was tempted to make
the experiment. The confpirators nailed down the
cover upon him, and threw the coffer into the river.
This coffer, which was now become the coffin of Ofi¬
ris, was, they tell us, wafted by the winds and waves
to the neighbourhood of Byblus, a city of Phoenicia,
where it was caff on fhore, and left by the waves at the
foot of a tamarind tree.
Ifis in the mean time, difconfolate and forlorn, at-
^ .tended by Anubis, was ranfacking every quarter in
Winder- fearch of her beloved Ofiris. At length being inform¬
ings of Ms ed by her faithful attendant and guardian, that his bo-
in fesrch ^ jy was ioc|gecl fomewbere in the neighbourhood of By-
of his body, td^ ft^e repaired to that city. There, they fay, die
was introduced to the queen, and after (e) a variety of
adventures die recovered the corpfe of her hufhand,
which, of courfe, (he carried,back with her to Egypt :
but the mifchievous Typhon, ever on the watch, found
her on the banks of the Nile j and having robbed her
of her charge, cut the body into 14 parts, and fcatter-
ed them up and down. Now, once more, according
to the fable, Ifis fet out in qued of thofe parts, all of
which, only one excepted, (he found, and interred in
the place where (lie found them •, and hence the many
tombs of Ofiris in that country. Thefe tombs were de¬
nominated tapofins by the natives. Many other fabu¬
lous adventures were afcribed to thole two perfonages,
which it is not our province to enumerate at prefent.
If our readers fhould wi(h to be more minutely inform¬
ed on this fubjeft, they may have recourfe to the au¬
thors mentioned in the lad quoted author, or to the
learned Mr Bryant’s Analyfis of Ancient Mythology,
and M. Cour de Gebelin, where they will find mattef
enough to gratify their curiofity.
To commemorate thofe adventures, the myderies of The myfte-
Ifis and Ofiris were inftituted; and from them both ries of His
thofe of Bacchus and Ceres, among the Greeks, were
derived. Of the Egyptian folemnity, we have an ex- ;n com^(,
aft epitome in one of the fathers of the church to the moration of
following purpofe : “ Here follows (fays he) an epi- thofe ad-
tome of the myfteries of Ifis and Ofiris. They deplore ventureJ-
annually, with deep lamentations and lhaved heads, the
catadrophe of Ofiris over a buried ftatue of that mo¬
narch. They beat their breads, mangle their arms,
tear open the fears of their former wounds ; that by an¬
nual lamentations the cataftrophe of his miferable and
fatal death may be revived in their minds. When they
have praflifed thefe things a certain number of days,
then they pretend that they have found the remains of
his mangled body ; and having found them, their for-
rows are lulled alleep, and they break out into immo¬
derate joy.” What maxims of morality, fecrets of pby-
fiology, or phenomena of aftronomy, were couched un¬
der this allegorical procefs, is not our bufinefs to invef-
tigate in this place. WT (hall only obferve, that, in
all probability, Ofiris and Ifis were fovereigns of Egypt
at a very early period ; that they had conferred many
fignal benefits on their fubje&s, who, influenced by a
fenfe of gratitude, paid them divine honours after their
deceafe ; that in procefs of time they were confounded
with the fun and the moon ; and that their adventures
were at length magnified beyond all credibility, inter¬
larded with fables and allegories, and employed in the
myfteries as channels to convey a variety.of inftrudtions
to the initiated.
Be that as it may, it is certain that the very fame -pranlfer-
mode of worftiip, was edabliftied at Byblus, and in af-rcd t0 ^y_
ter ages transferred to Tyre. The Mizraim and Cha-b!usand
naanim were nearly connedled by blood, and their re- Tyre>
ligious ceremonies were derived from the very fame ^ ^
fource. By what medium the worfliip of Ofiris at cail€d
Abydus and Tyre was connefted, we drall leave to//?.?and.#«<:-
others to explain; we (hall only oblerve, that among
the Phoenicians this deity obtained the names Adonis
and Bacchus. The former is rather an (f) epithet
than a name : the latter is evidently an allufion to
the weeping and lamentation (g) with which the rites
were performed. Wb find another name of that divi¬
nity mentioned in Scripture (h) ; but that term is
plainly of Egyptian original: we (hall now proceed to
the myfferies of Ofiris as they were celebrated among
the Greeks and Thracians, under the name of the Or-
gia of Dionysus or Bacchus f. ^ | T>iod. Si-
Orpheus, the celebrated Thracian philofopher, had Cui. Vqfjius
travelled into Egypt in queft of knowledge ; and from de Idol.
that
(d) Many have thought this expedition fabulous; but the numberlefs monuments of Egyptian architecture,
fculpture, and ftatuary, lately difeovered in the eaft, confirm it.
(e) For the conquefts and adventures of Ofiris and Ifis, we mud fend our learned readers to Diod. Sic.
Bibl. 1. i. and Plut. Ifis et Ofiris, p. 256. et feq. which we have been obliged to abridge, in confequence of the
narrow limits preferibed us.
(f) Adonis is evidently the Hebrew Adoni, u my lord,” and imports the fovereignty of the deity.
(g) Bacchus is derived from the Phoenician word bahah, “ to weep.” This was the name embraced by the
Romans.
(h) Ezek. chap, viii. ver. 14^. Tammuz, is the name of one of the months of the Egyptian year.
57*
M Y S T E R I E S.
that country, according to the moft authentic accounts,
he imported the Bacchanalian rites and infUtutions.
Some have affirmed that this fame Orpheus being inti¬
mately acquainted with the family of Cadmus, commu¬
nicated thefe rites to them, and endeavoured to transfer
them to the grandfon of that hero, which grandfon be¬
came afterwards the Grecian Bacchus. It is, however,
,4 we think much more probable, that thofe rites were
and thence imported from Egypt or Phoenicia, by (i) Cadmus
imported hnnfelf, who was a native of the former country, and
by Cadmus is thought to have fpent fomC time in the latter, before
tia.° em’grated in queft of a fettlement m Boeotia. It is
faid that Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, and the
mother ef the Grecian Bacchus, was flruck with light¬
ning at the very inftant of his birth. The child was,
in all probability, denominated Bacchus (k), from the
forrow and lamentation this melancholy accident had
otcafioned in the family. Cadmus, in order to conceal
the diffionour of his daughter, might, w e imagine, con¬
vey away his infant grandfon to fome of his relations in
Phoenicia or Egypt. There he was educated and in-
Prufted in all the myfteries of Ifis and Oliris, and at
the fame time initiated in all the magical or juggling
tricks of the Egyptian priefts and hierophants. Thus
accompliffied, when he arrived at manhood, he^returned
to Thebes with the traditional retinue of the original
deity of the fame name j and claimed divine honours
accordingly. This claim, however, was not admitted
without much oppofition j Pentheus, another grandfon
of Cadmus, was torn to pieces by the frantic Baccha¬
nalians upon Mount Citheron, becaufe be attempted to
interrupt them in celebrating the orgia. Some have
thought that Cadmus loll his kingdom for the fame
reafon j but this we think is by no means probable ;
we ftiould rather imagine that the old prince was privy
to the whole procefs, and that it was originally planned
by him, with a view to attraft the veneration of his
new fubje&s, by making them believe that there was a
^ divinity in his family.
The actions t*lat as n may» vain-glorious Greeks attribu-
of Ofnis ted all the a&ions of the Egyptian hero to their new
attributed Bacchus*; and according to their laudable prafHce, en-
cian Bac-(l) * * * * 6” *n numberlefs adventures in which his proto-
chus. tyP6 no ^iare' Moft of thofe are futile and unen¬
tertaining (l) The Greeks commonly adopted fome
oriental perfonage as the hero of their mythological
rhapfodies. Him they naturalized and adopted into
fome Grecian family, and fo he became their own. To
him they afcribed all the adventures and exploits of the
oriental archetype from whom he was copied. Confe-
quently in the orgia (m), every thing w’as colledled
that had been imported from the eaft relating to Oliris;
and to that farragd was joined all that the Grecian
rhapfodifls had thought fit to invent, in order to amule
the credulous multitude. This, however, was not the
wffiole of the misfortune : The adventures of Ofiris wTere
defcribed by the Egyptian hierophants, veiled with al¬
legorical and hieroglyphical myfteries. Thefe the per-
fons wffio imported them into Greece did not thorough¬
ly comprehend, or if they did, they were not inclined
to communicate them found and unfophifticated. Be-
fides, many oriental terms were retained, the import of
which was in procefs of time loft or diftorted. Hence
the religious ceremonies of the Greeks became a med¬
ley of inconfiftencies. The myfteries of Bacchus, in
particular, were deeply tindtured with this meretricious
colouring ; the adventures of the Theban pretender
were grafted upon thofe of the Egyptian archetype,
and out of this combination was formed a tiffue of ad¬
ventures difgraceful to human'nature, abfurd, and in-
confiftent. Indeed the younger or Theban Bacchus
feems to have been a monfter of debauchery ; where¬
as the Egyptian is reorefented as a perfon of an op-
pofite charadter. Of courfe the myfteries of the
former wrere attended wfith the moft fhocking abomina-
tions. ^
Thefe myfteries, as has been obferved above, were jyryfterjes
firft celebrated at Thebes the capital of Boeotia, under of Bacchus
the aufpices of the family of Cadmus. From thisfprea<l int0
country they gradually found their way into Greece,
and all the neighbouring parts of Europe. They were
celebrated once every three years (n), becaufe at the
end of three years Ofiris returned from his Indian ex¬
pedition. As the Greeks had impudently transferred
the adHons of the Egyptian hero to their upftart divi¬
nity, the fame period of time wras obferved for the cele¬
bration of thofe rites in Greece that had been ordained
for the fame purpofe in Egypt.
When the day appointed for the celebration of thep ^7 f
orgia (o) approached, the priefts iffued a proclama- ^ei^cele.
tion, enjoining all the initiated to equip themfelves bration.
according to the ritual, and attend the proceffion on
4 C 2 the
(l) Cadmus and Melampus, who w’ere both Egyptians, introduced the Bacchanalia into Greece. The Egyp¬
tian or oriental name of Bacchus was Dinuji, that is, “ the prince of light.” Cadmus had learned the name Bac¬
chus from the Phoenicians.
(k) We have omitted the immenfe farrago of fable relating to the connexion between Jupiter and Semele as of
little importance to our readers.
(L) Nonnus, an Egyptian of Pentapolis, has colledted all the fabulous adventures of Bacchus, and exhibited
them in a beautiful but irregular poem : To this we muft refer our learned readers. Of the Dionyfiacs we have
a moft judicious flcetch, Geblin. Calend. p. 553. et feq.
(m) Ihe orgia belonged to all the Mydones, but to thofe of Bacchus in a peculiar manner.
(n) Hence thefe orgia were called Triterla.
. C°) According to Clem. Alexand. Cohort, page 12. Pott, the word orgia is derived from orge, which fig-
nifies “ anger,” and originated from the refentment of Ceres againft Jupiter, in confequence of a moft outra¬
geous infult he had offered her with fuccpfs. We ftiould rather imagine it derived from the Hebrew word
argo*, Signifying a “ cheft or coffer,” alluding to the caflcet which contained the facred fyml^ls of the god.—
1 he Egyptians or Phoenicians might write and pronounce, argoz, orgoz, or in fome manner nearly refembling
orgia.
572
M Y S T
the day appointed. The votaries were to drefs thera-
iclves in coats of deer-fkins, to loofe the fillets of their
hair,- to cover their legs with the fame fluff with their
coats, and to arm themfelves with thyrfi, which were
a kind of fpears wholly of wood entwined with leaves
and twigs of the vine or ivy. It is faid that the Ba-
c hunalians, especially the Thracians, ufed often to
quarrel and commit murder in their drunken revels ;
and that in order to prevent thofe unlucky accidents,
a law was enafted, that the votaries, inffead of real
fpears, fhould arm themfelves with thofe fiiam weapons
which were comparatively inoffenfive. The flatue of
the deity, which was always covered with vine or ivy
leaves, was now taken down from its pedeftal, and
elevated on the (boulders of the priefls. T he ca¬
valcade then proceeded nearly in the following man¬
ner :
Firft of all, hymns were chanted in honour of Bac¬
chus, who xvas called the Power of dances, /miles, and
jejls ; while at the fame time he was deemed equally
qualified for the exploits of war and heroilm. Horace,
in fome of his dithyrambic odes, has concilely pointed
out the fubjedls of thofe Bacchanalian fongs. In the
coliedfion of hymns fabuloufly attributed to Orpheus,
we find feveral addreffed to this deity (p), each under
a different title, derived from the different appellations
of the god. All thefe names are of oriental original,
and might eafily be explained, did the bounds prelcrib-
ed us admit of etymological difquifitions.
The hymn being finifhed, the firff divifion of the vo¬
taries proceeded, carrying a pitcher of wine, with a
bunch of the vine. Then followed the he-goat ; an
animal odious to Bacchus, becaufe he ravages the vines.
The chanting the hymns, the facrificing the he-goat,
and the revels, games, and diverfions, with which the
celebration of thofe rites was attended, gave birth to
the dramatic poetry of the Greeks ; as the perfons ha¬
bited in the drefs of Fauns, Sylvans, and Satyrs (q_),
furnilhed the name of another fpecies of poetry of a
coarfer and more forbidding afpedt.
The my- Then appeared the myfterious coffer or bafket, con-
Iterious taining the fecret fymbols of the deity. Thefe were the
coffer, with phallus fit), fome grains of fefama, heads of poppies,
Us contents. p0megranates^ dry ftems, cakes baked of the meal of
different kinds of corn, fait, carded wool, rolls of ho-
E R I E S.
ney, and cheefe ; a child, a ferpent (s), and a van (t).
Such was the furniture of the facred coffer carried in
the (oleum Bacchanalian proceflion. The inventory gi¬
ven by fome of the fathers J of the church is fomewhat + Clew.
different. They mention the dye, the ball, the top, Alexand.
the wheel, the apples, the looking-glafs, and the fleece.
The articles firft mentioned feem to have been of E-
gyptian original; the laft were certainly fuperinduced
by the Greeks, in allufion to his being murdered and
torn in pieces wdien he was a child by the machinations
of Juno, who prevailed with the Titans to commit the
horrid deed. Thefe laft feem to have been memorials
of his boyifii playthings •, for, fays Maternus, “ the
Cretans in celebrating the rites of the child Bacchus, ■
added every thing that the dying boy cither faid, or did,p..0y-
or fuffered. They likevvife (fays he) tore a live bull
in pieces with their teeth, in order to commemorate the
difmembering of the boy.” For our part, wre think, that
if fuch a bealtly rite w7as pradifed, it was done in com¬
memoration of the favage manner of life which had pre¬
vailed among men prior to the more humane diet in¬
vented and introduced by Ifis and Ofiris. Be that as
it may, we learn from Porphyry *, that in the ifland ofrr-£r(ls
Chios they ufed to facrifice a man to Bacchus, and that * Dr Abjl^
they ufed to mangle and tear him limb from limb, nenticu
This was no doubt pra&ifed in commemoration of the
cataftrophe mentioned above.
The orgia of this Pagan god were originally fimple
enough ; but this unfophifticated mode was of no long
continuance, for riches foon introduced luxury, which
quickly infedled even the ceremonies of religion. On
the day fet apart for this folemnity, men and women
crowned with ivy, their hair dilhevelled, and their bo¬
dies almoft naked, ran about the ftreets, roaring aloud
Evoke (u) Bacche. In this rout were to be feen peo¬
ple intoxicated at once with wine and enthufiaim,
dreffed like Satyrs, Fauns, and Sileni, in fuch fcanda-
lous poftures and attitudes, with fo little regard to mo- Total con-
defty and even common decency, that we are perfuaded tempt of
our readers will readily enough forgive our omitting to deceocy.
deferibe them. Next followed a company mounted up¬
on affes, attended by Fauns, Bacchanals, Thyades, Mi- ,
mallonides, Naiads, Tityri, &c. who made the adja¬
cent places echo to their frantic (hrieks and bowlings.
After this tumultuous herd were carried the ftatues of
Viftor^
(p) Thefe (land between the 41 and 52 5 one to Lenaeus, or the preffer 5 one to Libnites, or the winnower j
one to Beffareus, or the vintager j one to Sabazius the god of reft ; to Myfes, or the Mediator, &c.
(q_) Dacier, Cafaubon, and other French critics, have puzzled and perplexed themfelves to little purpofe
about the origin of this word, without confidering that it was coeval to dramatic poetry.
(r) The phallus was highly refpedted by the Egyptians, and was ufed as the emblem of the fecundity of the
human race.
(s) That reptile was in high veneration among the Egyptians. See Eufeb. Prsep. Evang. lib. i. pag. 26.
Steph. where we have a minute detail of the fymbolical properties ot that creature, according to Taautos the
great legiflator of that people.
(t) Servius in Georg. I. Virg. ver. 166. Myftica vannus lacchi. The van, fays he, is an emblem of that
purifying influence of the myfteries, by which the initiated were cleanfed from all their former pollutions, and
qualified for commencing a holy courfe of life.
(u) Clem. Alexand. Cohort, pag. 11. Pott, derives this word from Chevek, the mother of mankind, who, firft
opened the gate to that and every other error j but we are rather inclined to believe that it comes from the orien¬
tal word Heve, which fignifies a “ ferpent j” which among the Egyptians was facred to the fun, and was like-
wife the emblem of life and immortality. It then imported a prayer to Bacchus for life, vigour, health, and
every other l}lefling.
573
M Y S T E R I E S.
§ Ovid.
'Met.
4i
Dodtnues
inculcated
in the or-
gia.
Viclory and altars in form of vine-fets, crowned with
ivy, fmoking with incenfe aiid other aromatics. Then
appeared feveral chariots loaded with thyrfi, arms, gar¬
lands, calks, pitchers, and other vafes, tripods, and
vans. The chariots were followed by young virgins of
quality, who carried the balkets and little boxes, which
in general contained the myilerious articles above enu¬
merated. Thefe, from their office, were called cifto-
phorte. The phallophori (x) followed them, with a
chorus of itophallophori habited like Fauns, counter¬
feiting drunk perfons, finging in honour of Bacchus
fongs and catches luited to the occafion. The procef-
fion was clofed by a troop of Bacchanalians crowned
with ivy, interwoven with branches of yew and with
ferpents§. Upon fome occalions, at thofe fcandalous
feftivals, naked women whipped themfelves, and tore
their Ikin in a moll barbarous manner. The procefiion
terminated on Mount Citheron, when it fet out from
Thebes j and in other places, in fome diflant unfre¬
quented defert, where the votaries praflifed every fpe-
cies of debauchery with fecrecy and impunity. Or¬
pheus faw the degeneracy of thofe ceremonies •, and in
endeavouring to reform them he probably loft his life.
Pentheus fuffered in the like attempt, being torn in
pieces by the Bacchanalians on Mount Citheron, a-
mong whom were his own mother and his aunts. The
Greeks, who w7ere an airy jovial people, feem to have
paid little regard to the plaintive part of the orgia ; or
rather, we believe, they a£led with howling and frantic
exclamations, often enhanced by a combination of
drunkennefs, ecftacy, and enthufiaftic fury.
What fecrets, religious, moral, political, or phyfi-
cal, were communicated to the votaries, it is impof-
fible to determine with any degree of certainty.—
One thing we may admit, namely, that the doctrines
difcovered and inculcated in the orgia, were originally
the very fame which the apoftles of the fedl had im¬
bibed in Egypt and Phoenicia ; and of which v,'e have
given a brief account near the beginning of this article.
It is, however, probable, that the fpurious or Theban
Bacchus had fuperadded a great deal of his own inven¬
tion, which, we may believe, was not altogether fo
found and falubrious as the original doflrine. How¬
ever that may be, the initiated were made to believe
that they were to derive wonderful advantages from the
participation of thofe rites, both in this life and that
which is to come. Of this, however, we (hall talk more
at length by and bye, in our account of the Eleufinian
myfteries.
To detail the etymology of the names of this Pagan
deity, the fables relating to his birth, his education,
his transformations, his wars, peregrinations, adven¬
tures, the various and multiform rites with which he
was worlhipped, would fwell this article to a moft im¬
moderate fize. If any of our readers ihould wilh to
be more minutely and more accurately acquainted with
this fubjefl, we muft beg leave to remit them to Diod.
Sic. Apollod. Bibl. Euripid. Bacchee, Ariftophanis Ra-
nae, Nonn. Dionyf. j and among the moderns, to Ban.
Mythol. Voffi. oe Orig. Idol. Monf. Fourmont, Re¬
flexions fur Porigine des anciens peuples, Mr Bryant’s
Analyf. and efpecially to Monf. Cour de Gebelin, Ca-
lendrits ou Almanach. That prince of etymologifts,.
in his account of the feftival of Bacchus, has given a
rnoft acute and ingenious explication of the names and
epithets of that deity. For our part, we have endeavour¬
ed to colledf and exhibit fuch as we judged moft impor¬
tant, moft entertaining, gnd moft initrudlive, to the lefs
enlightened claffes of our readers.
We now proceed to the Eleufinian myfteries, which, Eleufinian,
among the ancient Greeks and Romans, were treated myfteries
with a iuperior degree of awe and veneration. Thefe jnf*;]tute<*'n
were inftituted in honour of Ceres, the goddefs
corn y who, according to the moft: authentic accounts,
was the Ifis of the Egyptians. The nryfteries of Ofi-
ris and Ifis have been hinted at in the preceding part
ot this article. They were originally inftituted in ho-
nouf of the fun and moon, and afterwards confecrated
to an Egyptian prince, and princefs j who, in confe-
quence of their merits, had been deified by that people.
We know of no more exafl and brilliant defcription of
the ceremonies of that goddefs, in the moft polilhedages
of the Egyptian fuperftition, than what we meet with in
the witty and florid Apuleius f, to which we muft take gib. ix,
the liberty to refer our more curious readers. Our bufi-
nefs at prefent (hall be to try to inveftigate by what
means, and upon what occafion, thofe myfteries were in¬
troduced into Attica, and eftablilhed at Eieufis. A paf
fage from Diodorus Siculus §, which we (hall here tranf- ^ Lib. b
late, will, we think, throw no inconfiderable light on that
abftrufe part of the fubjecl.
“ In like manner with him (Cecrops), fays that ju¬
dicious hiftorian, they tell us, that Ereftheus, a prince
of Egyptian extraftion, once reigned at Athens. Of 4 ,
this fail they produce tbs following evidence : A fcorch- On w hat
ing drought, during the reign of this prince, prevailed pccafion
over almoft all the habitable world, except Egypt ?
which, in confequence of the humidity of its foil, was
not aft'e&cd by that calamity. The fruits of the earth
were burnt up ; and at the fame time multitudes of peo¬
ple perilhed by famine. Ereflheus, upon this occafion,
as he was conne&ed with Egypt, imported a vaft quan-
tity of grain from that country to Athens. The peo¬
ple, who had been relieved by his munificence, unani-
moufly defied him king. Being inverted with the go¬
vernment, he taught his fubjefls the myfteries of Ceres
at Eieufis, and the mode of celebrating the facred cere¬
monies, having transferred from Egypt the ritual for
that purpofe. In thofe times the goddefs is faid to have
made her appearance at Athens three feveral times ; be-
caufe, according to tradition, the fruits of the earth
which bear her name were then imported into Attica.
On this account the feeds and fruits of the earth were
find to be the invention of that deity. Now the Athe¬
nians themfelves acknowledge, that, in the reign of
Ereftheus, the fruits of the earth having perifhed for
want of rain, the arrival of Ceres in their country did
aflually happen, and that along with her the bleffmg of
com
(x) The phallus was the fymbol of the fruflifying power of Nature. The itophallus was the type of that-
power in afl.
574
M Y S T
corn was refiored to the earth. They tell us at the fame
time, that the teletse and the myfteries of that goddefs
were then received and inftituted at Eleufis.”
Here then we have the whole myftery of the arrival
of Ceres in Attica, and the inftitution of her myfteries
at Eleufis, unveiled. The whole is evidently an orien¬
tal allegory. The fruits of the earth had been deftroy-
ed by a long courfe of drought: Egypt, by its peculiar
fituation, had been preferved from that dreadful cala¬
mi y. Ere&heus, in confequence of his relation to the
Egyptians, imported from their country a quantity of
grain, not only fufficient for the confumption of his own
fubjects, but alfo a great overplus to export to other
parts of Greece, Sicily, Italy, Spain, &c. Triptolemus,
another Egyptian, was appointed by Eredheus to export
this fuperfluous ftore. That hero, according to Phere-
cydes, was the fon of Oceanus and Tellus, that is, of
the fea and the earth ; becaufe his parents were not
knowm, and becaufe he came to Eleufis by fea. The
fhip in which he failed, when he diftributed his corn
to the weftern parts of the W'orld, W'fts decorated with
the figure of a winged dragon : therefore, in the alle¬
gorical ftyle of his country, he was faid to be wTafted
through the air in a chariot drawn by dragons. Thofe
creatures, every body knows, W’ere held faCred by the
Egyptians.
Wherever Triptolemus difpofed of his corn, thither
were extended the wanderings of Ceres. In order to
elucidate this point, we muft oblerve, that along w’ith
the grain imported from Egypt, Eredheus, or Trip¬
tolemus, or both, tranfported into Attica a cargo of
priefts and prieftefles from the temples of Bufiris, a
* Herod, city which lay in the * centre of the Delta, where the
Jib. i. goddefs Ifis had a number of chapels ereded for her
worfhip. The prefidents of thefe ceremonies, like all
other bigots, gladly laid hold on this opportunity of
propagating their religious rites, and difleminating
the worfhip of the deities of their country. That the
Egyptian priefts were zealous in propagating the dog¬
mas of their fuperftition, is abundantly evident from
the extenfive fpreading of their rites and ceremonies
over almoft all Afia and a confiderable part of Europe.
The Greek and Roman idolatry is known to have ori¬
ginated from them 5 and numberlefs monuments of their
-j Afiatic impious worfhip are ftill extant in Perfia J, India, Ja-
Refearches^-m, Tartary, &c. Our inference then is, that the
yol. i. and Worfhip of Ifis was introduced into every country wdrere
u’ Triptolemus fold or difpofed of his commodities.—
Hence the wanderings of Ceres in fearch of her daugh¬
ter Proferpine who is generally called Core. The
ERIE S.
famine occafioned by the drought deftroying the fruits,
of the ground, imports the lofs of Proferpine. The
reftoration of the corn in various parts of the earth, by
frefh fupplies from Egypt from time to time, imports
the wanderings of Ceres in queft of Proferpine. The
whole procefs is an oriental allegory. The difappear-
ing of the fruits of the earth, of which Proferpine, or
Perfephone f, or Perefephone (y), is the emblem, isf piutaYch,
the allegorical rape of that goddefs. She was feized Ifu et O/ir.
and carried off by Pluto, fovereign of the infernal re¬
gions. The feed committed to the earth in that dry fea-
fon appeared no more, and w7as, confequently, faid to
dwell under ground with Pluto. It wTas then that Ceres,
that is, corn imported from Egypt, fet out in queft of her
daughter. Again, When the earth recovered her prif-
tine fertility, the Core, or maid, was found by her mother
Ceres, that is, the earth j for Ifis, among the Egyptians,
frequently fignified the earth. The wanderings of Ifis
in fearch of Ofiris furniftied the model for the peregri¬
nations of Ceres. ^
Ceres, the Roman name of the goddefs of corn, was Different
unknown! to the modern Greeks. They always deno-names
minated her Damater (z), which is rather an epithet^eres‘
than a proper name. The Greeks, who always affeft-
ed to pafs for originals, w?e think, fuppreffed the Egyp¬
tian name on purpofe, to conceal the country of that
deity. As a proof of the probability of this conjec¬
ture, it may be obferved, that they metamorphofed the
wanderings of Ifis in fearch of Ofiris into the peregri¬
nations of Ceres in queft of Proferpine. The Romans
who were lefs ambitious of the charafler of originality,
retained one of her oriental names (A A.) Ceres, fays Dio¬
dorus, appeared thrice in Attica during the reign of
Ereftheus $ wduch feems to import, that fleets loaded
with corn had thrice at rived in that country from Egypt
during that period.
Cecrops, the firft king of Attica, had eftablifhed the
worfliip of the Saitic Athena or Minerva in that region,
and confecrated his capital to that deity. Ereftheus,
in his turn, introduced the worlhip of Ifis, or Damater,
who in all appearance was the tutelar deity of Bufiris ^
his native city. The fubjecls of Cecrops wrere a colony Contentions
of Saites, and readily embraced the worfliip of Miner-at Athens
va : but the aborigines of that diftrift being accuf-r.e/pc<^mS
tomed to a maritime, perhaps to a piratical, courfe ofan(j
life, were more inclined to confecrate their city to tune, the
Neptune the god of the fea, and to confhtute him their immediate
guardian and protestor. Cecrops by a ftratagem fe- caufe of
cured the preference to Minerva his favourite divinity.
Ere&heus, in order to give equal importance to his at Ejeufis.
patronefs,
(y) This word feems to be formed of two Hebrew terms, pheri “ fruit,” and t‘zophoni or t-zephon, “abfeondit,
recondidit.”
(z) Damater is compounded of the Chaldaic particle da “ the,” and mater “ mother.” As Ifis often fignified
the earth, the Greeks naturally adopted that title ; becaufe, according to them, that element is the mother of all
living. In the very fame manner they difearded the word ^itno, an original title of the moon, and fubftituted He¬
ra, w’hich intimates “ miftrefs or lady.”
(aa) According to fome of the Latin etymologifts, Ceres, or rather Geres, is derived from gero “ to bear,
to carry,” becaufe the earth bears all things ■, or becaufe that element is the general fruit-bearer. But as this term
came to Italy immediately from the eafl, and not by the medium of Greece, we would rather incline to adopt an
oriental etymology. The Hebrew word chores fignifies arare “ to plow j” a name naturally applicable to the
goddefs of hufbandry.
2
575
M Y S T E R I E S.
f Ap oiled.
Biil. lib. iii.
cap. 13.
46
Circum-
ftances at¬
tending the
fuft appear¬
ance of Ce¬
res in At¬
tica.
47
Ceres and
Bacchus,
who they
were.
patronefs, liad tlie addrefs to inftitute the Eleufinian
mylleries; and to accomplifh his defign laid hold on
the opportunity above mentioned.
This appears to us the moft probable account of the
origin and inftitution of the Eleufinian myfteries j for
which the Sicilian hiftorian has indeed furnished the clue.
We (hall now proceed to detail fome other circumftances
which attended the original inllitution of thefe far-famed
ceremonies.
The archprieflefs who perfonated the newly import¬
ed deity was entertained by one Celeus f, wEo was
either viceroy of that petty diflridit of which Eleufis
was the capital, or fome confiderable perfonage in that
city or its neighbourhood. Upon her immediate ar¬
rival, according to the fabulous relations of the Greeks,
a farce was afted not altogether fuitable to the cha-
rafter of a goddefs whofe mylleries were one day to
be deemed fo facred and auftere. Thefe coarfe recep¬
tions, and other indecencies attending the firft ap¬
pearance of the goddefs, that is, the -Egyptiaiv dame
who affirmed her charafter, were copied from the like
unhallotved modes of behaviour praiflifed on occa-
fion of the folemn proceffions of her native country.
Thefe fcommata, or coarfe jokes, had an allegorical
fignification in Egypt ; and among the mod ancient
Greeks the very fame fpirit wTas univerfally dift'ufed by
the oriental colonifts who from time to time arrived
and fettled among them. In procefs of time they aban¬
doned the figurative and allegorical ftyle, in confequence
of their acquaintance with philofophy and abftraft
reafoning. In the ceremonies of religion, however,
the fame allegorical and typical reprefentations W’hich
had been imported from the call were retained ; but
the Grecian hierophants in a fiiort time loft every idea
of their latent import, and religious, moral, or phyfi-
cal interpretation. Accordingly, this (hameful ren¬
counter between Ceres and Banbo (bb), or Jambe, was
retained in the myfteries, though we think it was co¬
pied from Egypt, as w'as faid above, where even that
obfeene a£lion was probably an allegorical reprefenta-
tion of foraething very different from what appeared to
the Greeks.
At the fame time that Ceres arrived in Attica,
Bacchus likewufe made his appearance in that country.
He was entertained by one Icarus * whom, as a re¬
ward for his hofpitality, he inftruiffed in the art of cul¬
tivating the vine, and the method of manufa&uring
wine. Thus it appears that both agriculture and the
art of managing the vintage were introduced into A-
thens much about the fame time. Ceres was no other
than a prieftefs of Ifis 5 Bacchus was no doubt a priefi:
of Oiiris. The arrival of thofe two perfonages from
Egypt, with a number of inferior prlefts in their train,
produced a memorable revolution in Athens, both with
refpeft to life, manners, and religion. The facred rites
of Ifis, afterwards fo famous under the name of the
Eleufinian myfteries, date their inftitution from this pe¬
riod.
When this company of propagandi arrived at Eleu¬
fis, they were entertained by fome of the moft refpe^T:-
able perfons who then inhabited that diftridl. Their
names, according to Clem. Alexand. were Banbo,
Dyfaulis, Triptolemus, Eumolpus, and Enbulus. From
Eumolpus u'ere defeended a race of priefts called Eu-
molpidm, who figured at Athens many ages after.
Triptolemus was an ox herd, Eumolpus a fhepherd,
and Eubulus a fwine herd. Thefe were the firft apoftles
of the Eleufinian myfteries. They were inftfufted by
the Egyptian miflionaries; and they, in thei# turn m-
ftmeted their fucceffors. Erechtheus, or, as forae fay,
Pandion, countenanced the feminary, and built a fmall
temple for its accommodation in EleuGs, a city of At¬
tica, a few miles weft: from Athens, and originally one
of the twelve diftri6ts into which that territory was di¬
vided. Here then we have arrived at the feene of thofe
renowned myfteries, which for the fpace of neat 2000
years were the pride of Athens and the wonder of the
world.
The myfteries were divided into the greater and lef-Eleufiwau
fer. The latter wTere celebrated at Agiae, a fmall town myfteries
on the river Ilyffus : the former were celebrated in the^^e{^in"
month which the Athenians called Boedrcmion (cc) ; the ^nd iclTe^
latter in the month Anthefterion (dd). The leffer myf¬
teries, according to the fabulous legends of the Greeks*
were inftituted in favour of the celebrated Hercules.
That hero being commanded by Euryftheus to bring up
Cerberus from the infernal regions, was defirous of be¬
ing initiated in the Eleufinian myfteries befoie he en¬
gaged in that perilous undertaking. He addreffed him-
felf to Eumolpus the hierophant for that purpofe. There
was a law among the Eleufinians prohibiting the initia¬
tion of foreigners. The prieft not daring to refufe the
benefit to Hercules, who was both a friend and bene-
fa£for to the Athenians, advifed the hero to get him-
felf adopted by a native of the place, and fo to elude
the force of the law. He was accordingly adopted by
one Pyolius, and fo was initiated in the lefl'er myfteries, .
which were inftituted for the firft time upon that occa-
fion. This account has all the air of a fable. The leffer
myfteries were inftituted by way of preparation for the
§rea,ter* .... 49
The perfon who was to be initiated in the leffer Aufterities
myfteries, as well as in the greater, was obliged to an<i !‘tes
pra&ife the virtue of chaftity a confiderable time be- P1bvl°u'’ to
fore his admiftlon. Befides, he was to bind himfelf fc)y ir“'iat1011
the moft folemn vows not to divulge any part of the
myfteries. At the fame time, he was, according to the
original inftitution, to be a perfon of unblemiftied mo¬
ral charadler. Thefe were preliminaries indifpenfably
neceffary in order to his admiflion. A bull was facri-
ficed to Jupiter, and the hide of that animal, called
by a peculiar name (A<«; was carefully pfe-
ferved and carried to Eleufis, where it was fpread un¬
der the feet of the initiated. The candidate was then
purified by bathing in the river Ilyffus, by afperfions
with fait water or fait, with laurel, barley, and palling
through
(bb) Apollod. Bib. ubi fupra. Clem. Alexand. Cohort, page 17. where the ftory is told with very little re-
le:rve.
(cc) The third month of the Athenian year, anfwering to our September.
(dd) The eighth month? anfwering to our February 5 but Meurfius makes it November.,
576 M Y S T
through the fire : all which rites were attended with
incantations and other ufages equally infignificant and
ridiculous. Lafl; of all, a young fow was facrificed to
Ceres ; and this animal, according to the ritual, be¬
hoved to be with pigs 5 and before it was killed it was
to be walhed in Cantharus, one of the three naroours
go which formed the Piraeus.
into the All thefe ceremonies duly performed, the candidate
leffer my- was carried into the hall appointed for the purpofe of
which’ G* ^n‘t’ation* There he was taught the firft elements of
thofe arcana which were afterwards to be more fully
and more clearly revealed in the more auguft myderies
of Eleufis. The pupils at Agrae were called My fix.
which may intimate probationers j whereas thole of
Eleufis were denominated Epoptce, importing that they
faw as they w’ere feen.
therehvere The leffer myfteries w'ere divided into feveral ftages,
feveral and candidates were admitted to them according to
itages, with qliaiij;y an(J capacity refpedlively. Thofe who
vals be-61"” were initiated in the lowed were obliged to wait five
tween years before they were admitted to the greater. Thole
them. who had partaken of the fecond kind underwent a no¬
viciate of three years ; thole who had been admitted
to the third, one of two years j and thofe who had
-gone through the fourth were admitted to the greater
.at the end of one year $ which was the fhorted period
of probation a candidate for that honour could legally
-undergo. Such was the procefs generally obferved in
adminidering the lefler myfteries.
None but With refpedt to the greater myfteries, it is probable
natives of that originally none but the natives of Attica were ad-
Athens ori-m;tte(j to partake of them. In procefs of time, how-
ginaily ad- everj t]ie paje was extended fo far and wide as to com-
thtTgreater prehend all who fpoke the Greek language. All fo-
mylteries. reigners were debarred from thofe facred rites. 1 hey
tell us, however, that Hercules, Bacchus, Caftor ^ and
Pollux, ./Efculapius, and Hippocrates, were initiated
in an extraordinary manner, from a regard to their
high charafler and heroic exploits. AH barbarians,
too, were excluded j yet Anacharfis the Scythian was
indulged that privilege, in confequence of his reputa¬
tion for fcience and philofophy. All perfons guilty
of manflaughter, though even accidentally ©r invo¬
luntarily, all magicians, enchanters j in a word, all
impious and profane perlons, were exprefsly prohibited
the benefit of this Pagan facrament. At laft, however,
the gate became wider, and crowds of people,.of all
nations, kindreds, and languages, provided their cha¬
racter was fair and irreproachable, ruftied in by it.
In procefs of time the Athenians initiated even their
infants; but this, we imagine, muft have been a kind
of luftration or purification, from which it was fuppofed
that they derived a kind of moral ablution from vice,
and were thought to be under the peculiar protection
of the goddefs.
Celebration The celebration of the myfteries began on the 15th
lafted nine day of the month Boedromion; and, according to
days; but mod ancient authors, lafted nine days. Meurfius
has enumerated the tranfaCtions of each day, whicn
are much too numerous to fall within the compafs of
this article $ we muft therefore refer our curious reader
to the author juft mentioned. Some days before the
commencement of the feftival, the praecones, or public
criers, invited all the initiated, and all the pretenders
to that honour, to attend the feftival, with clean
E R I E S.
hands and a pure heart, and the knowledge ot the
Greek language. _ 54
On the evening of the 15th day of the month call-was par¬
ed the initiations commenced. Our read-on¬
ers will obferve, that all the moft facred and iblemnu|‘. ■'’j
rites of the Pagan fuperftition were performed during fc
the night : they were indeed generally works of dark-
nefs. On this day there was a folemn cavalcade of
Athenian matrons from Athens to Eleufis, in carriages
drawn by oxen. In this proceftion the ladies ufed to
rally one another in pretty loofe terms, in imitation,
we fuppofe, of the Ifiac proceftion deferibed by He- ^
rodotus, which has been mentioned above. The moft The Mun-
remarkable objedl in this proceflion was the MunduS nus cereris.
Cereris, contained in a fmall coffer or baiket. This
was carried by a fele£t company ot Athenian matrons,
who, from their office, were ftyled Camphora:. In this
coffer wrere lodged the comb of Ceres, her mirror, a
ferpentine figure, fome wheat and barley, the pudenda
of the two fexes, and perhaps fome other articles which
we have not been able to difeover. Uhe proceflion
ended at the temple, where this facred charge was de-
pofited with the greateft folemnity.
We h ave no defeription of the temple of Eleufis
upon record. Paufanias intended to have deferibed
it j but fays he was diverted from his defign by a
dream f. Strabo informs us that the myftic fandtua- f Lib. ix.
ry was as large as a theatre, and that it was built by
I&inus J. In the porch, or outer part of this temple, J See Eleu-
the candidates were crowned wdth garlands of flow’ers,/^
which they called himera, or “ the defirable.” They
were at the fame time dreffed in new garments, which the Cjmdi_
they continued to wear till they were quite worn out. dates.
They then w’alhed their hands in a laver filled with
holy water} a ceremony which intimated the purity of ^
their hearts and hands. Before the doors were locked, Care to
one of the officers of the temple proclaimed with a keep the
loud voice a ftern mandate, enjoining all the unini-
tiated to keep at a diftance from the temple, and de- fl:ance>
nouncing the moft terrible menaces if any ffiould dare
to difturb or pry into the holy myfteries. Nor were
thefe menaces without effeft : for if any perfon was
found to have crowded into the fan&uary even through
ignorance, he was put to death without mercy. Every
precaution having been taken to fecure fecrecy, the
initiatory ceremonies now began. But before vve de-
feribe thefe, we muft lay before our readers a brief ac¬
count of the minifters and retainers of thefe fecrets of
paganifm. # eg
The chief minifter of thefe far-famed myfteries The hiero-
was the hierophant. He was ftyled King, and enjoy- phant.
ed that dignity during life, and was always by birth
an Athenian. He prefided in the folemnity, as is evi¬
dent from his title. This perfonage, as we learn from
Eufebius, reprefented the Demiurgus, or Creator of
the world. “ Now in the myfteries of Eleufis (fays
that father) the hierophant is dreffed out in the figure
of the deraiurgus.” What this demiurgus was, we
learn from the fame waiter. As this whole infti-
tution wras copied from the Egyptians, we may reft
affured that the figure of the Eleufinian Demiurgus
was borrowed from the fame quarter. “ As for the
fymbols of the Egyptians (fays he, quoting from Por-
phyry |), they are of the following complexion. lhe§ Prop.
Demiurgus, whom the Egyptians call Cneph, is figured Mi'
M Y S T
as a man of an azure colour, (haded with black, hold¬
ing in his right hand a fceptre and in his left a girdle,
and having on his head a royal wing or feather wreath¬
ed round.” Such, we imagine, was the equipment of
the Eleufinian hierophant. This perfon was likewife
ftyled Prophet. He was to be of the family of the
Eumolpidse 5 was obliged to make a vow of perpetual
chaftity ; and even his voice, hair, and attitude, were
adj Lifted to the ritual.
Thedadu- next was ^ie daduchus, or torch-
elms. bearer 5 who, according to the father above quoted,
was attired like the fun. This minifter refembled the
fun, becaufe that luminary was deemed the vifible type
of the fupreme Demiurgus, and his vicegerent in go-
60 verning and arranging the affairs of this lower world.
The priefts. The third was "the perfon who officiated at the altar.
Pie was habited like the moon. His office was to im¬
plore the favour of the gods for all the initiated. We
ihould rather imagine, that the perfon at the altar, as
he refembled the moon, was intended to reprefent the
goddefs herfelf: for the Egyptian Ifis, who was the
archetype of Ceres, Was fometimes the moon and
61 fometimes the earth.
The herald. The facred herald was another principal aftor in
this folemn exhibition. His province was to recite
every thing that, according to the ritual, wras to be
communicated to the novices •, and he probably repre-
fented Thyoth or Thoth, that is liermes or Mercury,
the interpreter of the gods.
The cura- Befides thefe, there were five epimeletse or curators,
tors, &c. 0f whom the king was one, who jointly direfted the
whole ceremonial. Laftly, There were ten priefts to
offer the facrifices. There were no doubt many officers
of inferior note employed upon thefe occafions} but
thefe were only infignificant appendages, whofe depart¬
ments have not been tranfmitted to pofterity.
After this detail of the minifters of this folemn fer-
vice, we return to the ?nyjlce, or candidates for initia-
f Juftin. tion. Some of the fathers of the church f mention
Enfeb. a hymn compofed by the celebrated Orpheus, which
Clcm‘ Alex' was fung by the rnyftagogue or king upon that occa-
fion. This hymn appears to us one of thofe fptrrious
compofitions wffiich abounded in the firft. ages of
Chriftianity, and which the pious apologifts often
adopted without fufficient examination. That fome
facred hymn was chanted upon that occafion, we
think highly probable •, but that the one in queftion
was either compofed by Orpheus, or ufed at the open¬
ing of thefe ceremonies, to us appears fomewhat pro¬
blematical.
Before the ceremony opened, a book was produced,
which contained every thing relating to the teletae.
This was read over in the ears of the myftte ; who
were ordered to write out a copy of it for themfelves.
This book was kept at Eleufis in a facred repofitory,
6 formed by two ftones exaftly fitted to each other, and
The petro- of a very'large fize. This repofitory was called petroma.
ma. At the annual celebration of the greater myileries,
thefe ftones were taken afunder, and the book taken
out ; which, after being read to the myftae, was repla-
64 ced in the fame cafement.
Commence- 'pjie initiations began with a reprefentation of the
mentot thewan<jer;n^s of- Ceres? an(j per bitter and loud lamen-
imtiations. tat;ons for tbe i0fs 0f her beloved daughter. Upon
this occafion, no doubt, a figure of that deity was
Vol. XIV. Part II.
E R I E S. 577
difplayed to the myftse, while loud lamentations echoed
from every corner of the fandtuary. One of the com¬
pany having kindled a firebrand at the altar, and
fprung to a certain place in the temple, waving
the torch with the utmoft fury, a fecond fnatched
it from him, roaring and waving it in the lame
frantic manner 5 then a third, fourth, &c. in the moft
rapid fucceffion, This was done to imitate Ceres, wno
was faid to have perluftrated the globe of the earth
with a flaming pine in her hand, which ffie had lighted
at Mount Etna.
When the pageant of the goddefs was fuppofed to
arrive at Eleufis, a folemn paufe enfued, aud a few 5^
trifling queftions were put to the myfta: : What there Queftions
queftions wrere, is evident from the anfwers. “ I havePut tothe
faffed •, I have drunk the liquor; I have taken the con-™-’ 35'
tents out of the coffer j and having performed the cere¬
mony, have put them into the hamper : I have taken
them out of the hamper, and put them again in the
coffer.” The meaning of thefe anfwers, we conjedlure,
was this : “ I have faffed, as Ceres failed while in
fearch of her daughter ; I have drunk off the wort as
lire drank when given her by Banbo •, I have perform¬
ed what Ceres taught her firft difciples to perform,
when Ihe committed to them the facred hamper and
coffer.” After thefe interrogatories, and the fuitable
refponfes, the mundus Cereris was difplayed before the
eyes of the myftEe, and the myQagogue or hierophant,
or perhaps the facred herald by his command, read a
lefture on the allegorical import of thofe facred iym-
bols. This was heard with the moft profound atten¬
tion 5 and a folemn filence prevailed throughout the
fane. Such was the firft a<ff of this religious farce,
which perhaps confifted originally of nothing more, <55
After the expofition of the mundus Cereris, and the Traditions
import of her wanderings, many traditions were com-
municated to the myftae concerning the origin of the^^1^
univerfe and the nature of things. The dodlrines deli-verfe) &c-
vered in the greater myfteries, fays Clem. Alex. “ re¬
late to the nature of the univerfe. Here all inftru&ion
ends. Things are feen as they are ; and nature, and
the things of nature, are given to be comprehended.”
To the fame purpofe Cicero : “ Which points being
explained and reduced to the ftandard of reafon, the
nature of things, rather than that of the gods, is difeo-
vered.” The Father of the univerfe, or the fupreme
demiurgus, wTas reprefented as forming the chaotic mafs
into the four elements, and producing animals, vege¬
tables, and all kinds of organized beings, out of thofe
materials. They fay that they were informed of the
fecrets of the anomalies of the moon, and the eclipfes of
the fun and moon $ and, according to Virgil,
Unde hominum genus, et pecudes, unde imher et ignes,.
What fyftem of cofmogony thofe hierophants adopted,
is evident from the paflage above quoted from Eufebius^
and, from the account immediately preceding, it was
that of the moft ancient Egyptians, and of the orientals
in general. This cofmogony is beautifully and energe¬
tically exhibited in Plato’s Timams, and in the genuine
fpirit of poetry by Ovid in the beginning of his Meta-
morphofes. 67
The next feene exhibited upon the ftage, on this Exploits of
folemn occafion, confifted of the exploits and adventures^S01^'
of the gods, demigods, and heroes, who had from time
4 D to
578 ^ M Y
to time, been advanced to divine honours,
were diiplayed as paffing before the myilse in pageants
fabricated for that important purpofe. This was the
original mode among the Egyptians, and was no doubt
followed by their Eleuiinian pupils. Thefe adventures
were probably demonftrated to have been allegorical,
fymbolical, hieroglyphical, &c. at leaft they were exhi¬
bited in fuch a favourable point of view as td difpel
thofe abfurdities and inconfiftencies with which they
68 were fophifticated by the poets and the vulgar,
their ori- With refpeft to the origin of thofe factitious deities,
gin- it was difcovered that they had been originally men
who had been exalted to the rank of divinity, in con-
fequence of their heroic exploits, their ufeful inventions,
their beneficent actions, &c. This is fo clear from the
two paffages quoted from Cicero, by Bifbop Warbur-
4 Dili. Lc^.^-on t> that the faft cannot be contradifted. But that
c prelate has not informed us fo precifely, whether the
mvftagogues reprefented them as nothing more than
dead men, in their prefent ftate, or as beings who were
aClually exifting in a deified Hate, and executing the
functions affigned them in the rubric of Paganifrn. Ano¬
ther query naturally occurs j that is, to what purpofe
did the myftagogues apply this communication ? That
the hierophants did aCtually reprefent thofe deified mor¬
tals in the latter predicament, is obvious from another
paffage quoted from Cicero by the fame prelate, which
we lhall tranferibe as tranflated by him : “ What
think you of thofe who aflert that valiant, or famous,
or powerful men, have obtained divine honours after
death ; and that thefe are the very gods now become
the objeCls of our worfhip, our prayers, and adoration ?
Euhemerus tells us, when thefe gods died, and where
they lie buried. I forbear to fpeak of the facred and
augufl: rites of Eleulis. I pals by Samothrace and the
royfteries of Lemnos, w’hofe hidden rites are celebrated
in darknefs, and amidfl. the thick (hades of groves and
forefts.” If, then, thofe deified mortals were become
the objeCfs of worfhip and prayers, there can be no
doubt of the belief of their deified exillence. The allu-
fion to the Eleufinian and other Pagan myfteries to¬
wards the clofe of the quotation, places the queftion
beyond the reach of controverfy. But though, accor¬
ding to this account, “ there were gods many and lords
many yet it is evident from the paffage quoted from
Eufebius in the preceding part of this article, that the
unity of the Supreme Being was maintained, exhibited,
Unlty^of and inculcated. This was the original doCfrine of the
the fupreme hierophants of Egypt: It was maintained by Thales
Being and all the retainers of the Ionian fchool. It was the
maintained doCtrine of Pythagoras, who probably gleaned it up in
m - e nm counjry juq; rnentioned, in connexion with many
other dogmas which he had the affurance to claim as
his own.
But howTever the unity, and perhaps fome of the molt
obvious attributes, of the Supreme Author of nature,
might be illuftrated and inculcated, the tribute of ho¬
mage and veneration due to the fubordinate divinities
was by no means negle£fed. The initiated were taught
to look to the dii majorum gentium with a fuperior de¬
gree of awe and veneration, as beings endowed with an
ineffable meafure of power, wufdom, purity, goodnefs,
Offices of ^c* Thefe were, if we may ufe the expreffion, the
the other prime favourites of the Monarch of the univerfe, who
weie admitted into his immediate prefence, and who
in the myf¬
teries.
S T E R I E S.
Thefe received his behefts from his own mouth, and commu¬
nicated them to his fubordinate officers, prefe&s, lieu¬
tenants, &c. Thefe they were exhorted to adore j to
them they were to offer facrifices, prayers, and every
other a<£t of devotion, both on account of the excellency
of their nature and the high rank they bore at the
court of heaven. They were inftru&ed to look up to
hero gods and demigods, as being exalted to the high
rank of governors of different parts of nature, as the
immediate guardians and prote&ors of the human race ;
in fhort, as gods near at hand, as prompters to a virtu¬
ous courfe, and afliftants in it ; as ready upon all occa-
i'ons to confer bleffings upon the virtuous and deferving.
Such w-ere the do&rines taught in the teletae with re-
fpeft to the nature of the Pagan divinities, and the
worffiip and devotion enjoined to be offered them by
the myfteries. _ 71
As the twro principal ends propofed by thefe ini-Excellent
tiations were the exercife of heroic virtues in men, P'an ^c'1
and the prattice of fincere and uniform piety by the j^the
candidates for immortal happmefs, the hierophants en(is pro-
had adopted a plan of operations excellently accom-pofed inths
modated to both thefe purpofes. The virtuous con-rn)'fl;er-es*'
du£! and heroic exploits of the great men and demi¬
gods of early antiquity, wrere magnified by the molt
pompous eulogiums, enforced with iuitable exhorta¬
tions to animate the votaries to imitate fo noble and
alluring an example. But this w’as not all : the he¬
roes and demigods themfelves were difplayed in pa¬
geants, or vehicles of celeftial light. Their honours,
offices, habitations, attendants, and other appendages,
in the capacity of demons, were exhibited with all
the pomp and fplendour that the facerdotal college were
able to devife. The hidden glare of mimic light, the
melting mufic dealing upon the ear, the artificial
thunders reverberated from the roof and walls ot the
temple, the appearance of fire and ethereal radiance,
the vehicles of flame, the effigies of heroes and de¬
mons adorned wuth crowns of laurel emitting rays
from every fprig, the fragrant odours and aromatic
gales which breathed from every quarter, all dexter-
oully counterfeited by facerdotal mechanifm, mull
have filled the imagination of the afloniffied votaries
with piiffures at once tremendous and tranfporting :
Add to this, that every thing wTas tranfafled in the
dead of night amidfl a difmal gloom ; whence the
moft bright effulgence inftantaneoully burft upon the
fight. By this arrangement the aipirants to initia¬
tion were wonderfully animated to the praftice of
virtue while they lived, and infpired with the hope
of a bleffed immortality wffien they died. At the
fame time, their awe and veneration for the gods of
their country were wonderfully enhanced by refle£Hng
on the appearances above deferibed. Accordingly
Strabo very judicioufly obferves, “ that the myftical
fecrecy of the facred rites preferves the majefty of the
Deity, imitating its nature, which efcapes our appre-
henfion. For thefe reafons, in celebrating the teletae,
the demons were introduced in their deified or glorified
ftate.
But as alt the candidates for initiation might not
afpire to the rank of heroes and demigods, a more
eafy and a more attainable mode of conduft, in order
to arrive at the palace of happinefs, behoved to be
opened. Private virtues were inculcated, and thefe
too
579
MYSTERIES.
72 too were to meet a condign reward. But alas! this
Private vir- prefent life is too often a chequered fcene, where vir-
tu.es ircut-e tue js jepreflfe^ an(l trodden under foot, and vice lifts
myfteries1, e«P its head and rides triumphant. It is a didlate of
by the doc- common fenfe, that virtue Ihould fooner or later emerge,
trine of a an(j vice finlc into contempt and mifery. Here then
future ftate. tjle conc}u^ors Qf the myfteries, properly and natural¬
ly, adopted the doftrine of a future ftate of rewards
and punifhments. The dogma of the immortality of
the human foul was elucidated, and carefully and pa¬
thetically inculcated. This do6trine was likewife im-
* Lib. ii. ported from Egypt ; for Herodotus * informs us,
“ that the Egyptians were the firft people who main¬
tained the immortality of the human foul.” The
Egyptian immortality, however, according to him, was
only the metempfychofts or tranfmigration of louls.
This was not the fyftem of the ancient Egyptians, nor
indeed of the teletae. In thefe, a metempfychofis was
admitted ; but that was carried forward to a very di-
ftant period, to wit, to the grand Egyptian period of
36,000 years.
Emblems of -^s myftag°8ues weB knew that the human mind
Elyfium is more powerfully affefted by objedls prelented to the
and Tarta- eyes than by the moft engaging inftrudlions conveyed
*.rus. ear> they made the emblems of Elyfium and
Tartarus pafs in review7 before the eyes of their no¬
vices. There the Elyfian fcenes, fo nobly defcribed
by the Roman poet, appeared in mimic fplendour; and,
on the other hand, the gloom of Tartarus, Charon’s
boat, the dog of hell, the Furies with treffes of fnakes,
the tribunal of Minos and Rhadamanthus, &x. vvere
difplayed in all their terrific ftate. Tantalus, Ixion,
Sifyphus, the daughters of Danaus, &c. were repre-
fented in pageants before their eyes. Thefe exhibitions
were accompanied with moft horrible cries and bowl¬
ings, thunders, lightning, and other objects of terror
which we (hall mention in their proper place.
No contrivance could be better accommodated to
animate the pupils to the practice of virtue on the one
hand, or to deter them from indulging vicious paftions
on the other. It refembled opening heaven and hell
to a hardened finner. The practices inculcated in ce¬
lebrating the myfteries are too numerous to be detail-
-4 ed in this imperfect Iketch. The worfhip of the gods
The three was ftriftly enjoined, as has been (hown above. The
laws of three laws generally afcribed to Triptolemus were in-
Tnptole- cuicateci5 1. To honour their parents-, 2. To honour
the gods with the firft fiVits of the earth j 3. Not to
treat brute animals with cruelty. Thefe laws were
imported from Egypt, and were communicated to the
Eleufinians by the original miflionaries. Cicero makes
the civilization of' mankind one of the moft beneficial
effefts of the Eleufinian inftitutions : “ Nullum mihi,
cum multo eximia divinaque videntur Athenae tuae pe-
periffe -, turn nihil melius illis myfteriis, quibus ex
sjgrefti immanique vita, exculti ad humanitateno, et mi-
tigati fumus *, initiaque, ut appellantur, ita revera prin-
cipia vitae cognovimus ; neque folum cum le&itia vi-
vendi rationem accepimus, fed etiam cum fpe meliore
moriendi.” Hence it is evident that the precepts of
humanity and morality were warmly recommended in
thefe inftitutions. The virtue of humanity rvas ex¬
tended, one may fay, even to the brute creation, as
appears from the laft of Triptolemus’s laws above
quoted. Some articles wTere enjoined in the teletae
which may appear to us of iefs importance, which,
however, in the fymbolical flyle of the Egyptians, w7er7
abundantly fignificant. The initiated were “ command¬
ed to abftain from the flelh of certain birds and fifhes ;
from beans, from pomegranates and apples, which
were deemed equally polluting. It was taught, that
to touch the plant of afparagus was as dangerous as
the moft deadly poifon. Now, fays Porphyry, who¬
ever is verfed in the hiftory of the vifions, knows for
wrhat reafon they were commanded to abftain from the
tlefh of birds.” ^ 75
The initiated then bound themfelves by dreadful oaths'The initia-
to obferve moft confcientioufly and to pradtife every ted bound .
precept tendered to them in the courfe of the teletae 1 b/oaths m
and at the fame time never to divulge one article of0bferve the
all that had been beard or feen by them upon that oc-precepts of
cafion. In this they were fo exceedingly jealous, that the
iEfchylus the tragedian was in danger of capital pu-neS‘
nilhment, for having only alluded to one of the Eleu¬
finian arcana in a tragedy of his; and one of the ar¬
ticles of indiclment againft Diagcras the Melian was,
his having fpoken difrcfpeclfully of the myfteries, and
diffuaded people from partaking of them. It muft
then be allowed, that the inftitution of the myfteries
was of infinite advantage to the Pagan world. They
were indeed a kind of facraments, by which the initiat¬
ed bound themfelves by a folemn vow to pra&ife piety
towards the gods, juftice and humanity towards their
fellow men, and gentlenefs and tendernefs towards the
inoffenfive part of the brute creation. The Pagans
themfelves were fo thoroughly convinced of this faft,
that in their difputes with the apologifts for Chriftiani-
ty, they often appealed to the teletse, and contrafted
their maxims with the moft fublime doftrines of that
heavenly inftitution.
In order to imprefs thefe maxims the more deeply
upon the minds of the novices, and to fix their atten¬
tion more ftedfaftly upon the le&ures which w7ere de¬
livered them by the myftagogue or the facred herald,
a mechanical operation was played oft at proper inter¬
vals during the courfe of the celebration. “ Towards
the end of the celebration (fays Stobaeus), the whole
fcene is terrible ; all is trembling, fnuddering, fweat,
and aftonilhment. Many horrible fpe&res are feen,Hon?ble
and ftrange cries and bowlings uttered. Light fuc-fpeares and
ceeds darknefs ; and again the blackeft darknefs the pieafmg
moft glaring light. Now appear open plains, flowery fc^saJ^-
meads, and waving groves j where are feen dances and e ll~
chorufes j and various holy phantaftes enchant the fight.
Melodious notes are heard from far, with all the fub¬
lime fymphony of the facred hymns. The pupil now
is completely perfect, is initiated, becomes free, re¬
leafed, and walks about with a crown on his head,
and is admitted to bear a part in the facred rites.” A-
riftides de Myft. Eleuf. calls Eleufis “ a kind of temple
of the whole earth, and of all that man beholds done
in the moft dreadful and the moft exhilerating manner*
In what other place have the records of fable fung of
things more marvellous ? or in what region upon earth
have the obi’efts prefented to the eye borne a more ex-
a£t refemblance to the founds which ftrike the ear ?
What objeft of fight have the numberlefs generations
of men and women beheld comparable to thefe exhi¬
bited in the ineffable myfteries ?” To the fame pur-
pofe, Pletho, in the oracles of Zoroaftres, informs us,
4 D 2 . “ that
58o m y s t ;
“ that frightful and (hocking apparitions, in a variety
of forms, ufed to be difplayed to the myftae in the
courfe of their initiation.” And a little after, he adds,
“ that thunder and lightning and fire, and every thing
terrible which might be held fymbolical of the divine
prefence, were introduced.” Claudian, in his poem
De Rapta Proferpina, gives an elegant, though brief,
defcription of this phenomenon, which throws fome
light on the paffages above quoted.
yam mihi cernantur trepidis delubra woven
Sedibus et clarum dis pergere culmina /ucetn,
Adventum teflata Dea, jam magnus ab imis
Audiiur fremitus terris, templumque remugit
Cecropidum.
The fight of thofe appearances wTas called the Antopjia,
or “ the real prefence :” hence thofe rites were fome-
times called Epoptica. The Epoptce -were aftually ini¬
tiated, and were admitted into the SanBum SanElorum,
and bore a part in the ceremonial : whereas the mijjice,
who had only been initiated in the leffer myfteries at
77 Agrae, were obliged to take their ftation in the porch
A kind of Qf t]le temple. The candidates for initiation bathed
aMution in thenifelves in holy water, and put on new clothes, all
themyfte- linen5 which they continued to wTear till they were
ries. ' quite torn, and then they were confecrated to Ceres
and Proferpine. From the ceremony of bathing they
wTere denominated Hydrant ; and this again was a kind
of baptifmal ablution. Whether the phrafes of wajb-
ing away Jin, putting on the Lord Jefus Chrift, putting
off the old man with his deeds, putting on a robe of right-
eoufnefs, being buried in baptifm, the words mystery, per¬
fect, perfeBion, which occur fo frequently in the New
Teftament, efpecially in the writings of the apoftle St
Paul, are borrowed from the Pagan myficries, or from
ufages current among the Jews, wTe leave to our more
learned readers to determine.
The Epoptae having fuftained all thofe fiery trials,
heard and feen every thing requifite, taken upon them
the vow's and engagements above narrated, and, in a
7g word, having (howm themfelves good foldiers of Ceres
The initi- and Proferpine, were now declared perfeB men. They
ated deck- might, like Cebes’s virtuous man, travel wherever they
red perfedt c|10[e . w}ld beads (the human paffions) which
men' tyrannize over the reft of mankind, and often deftroy
them, had no longer dominion over them. They were
now not only perfeB but regenerated men. They were
now crowned with laurel, as wTas faid above, and dif-
miffed with two barbarous words Key|, ap.vot.\, Konx
ompax, of v/hich perhaps the hierophants themfelves
did not comprehend the import. They had been in¬
troduced by the firft Egyptian miflionaries, and re¬
tained in the facra after their fignification was loft.
This wTas a common pra&ice among the Greeks. In
the adminiftration ©f their religious ceremonies, they
retained many names of perfons, places, things, cu-
ftoms, &c. which had been introduced by the Phoeni¬
cians and Egyptians, from wdiom they borrowed their
fyftem of idolatry. Thefe terms conftituted the lan¬
guage of the gods, fo often mentioned by the prince
: R I E s.
of poets. To us the words in queftion appear to be
Syriac, and to fignify, Be vigilant, be innocent.
Numerous and important were the advantages fup-
pofed to redound to the initiated, from their being ad¬
mitted to partake of the myfteries, both in this life
and that which is to come. Firft, They w’ere highly
honoured, and even revered, by their contemporaries.
Indeed, they were looked up to as a kind of (acred
perfons : they were, in reality, confecrated to Ceres
and Proferpine. Secondly, They were obliged by their
oath to practice every virtue, religious, moral, political,
public, and private. Thirdly, They imagined, that
found advice and happy meafures of conduct were fug-
gefted to the initiated by the Eleufinian goddefles.
Accordingly, fays Pericles the celebrated Athenian
ftatefman, “ I am convinced, that the deities of Eleu-
fis infpired me wnth this fentiment, and that this ftra-
tagem was fuggefted by the principle of the myftic
rites.” There is a beautiful paffage in Ariftophanes’s * * A' :
comedy of the Ranas to the very fame purpofe, of
which we (hall fubjoin the following periphraiis. It is
fung by the chorus of the initiated.
Let us to floWr’y meads repair,
With deathlefs rofes blooming,
Whofe balmy fweets impregn the air,
Both hills and dales perfuming.
Since fate benign our choir has join’d, ^
We’ll trip in myftic meafure ;
In fweeteft harmony combin’d
We’ll quaff full draughts of pleafure.
For us alone the pow’r of day
A milder light difpenfes ;
And (beds benign a mellow’d ray
To cheer our ravifh’d fenfes :
For we beheld the myftic (how, '
And brav’d Eleufis’ dangers.
We do and know the deeds we owre
To neighbours, friends, and ftrangers.
Euripides, in his Bacchae (e), introduces the cho¬
rus extolling the happinefs of thofe who had been ac¬
quainted with God, by participating in the holy my¬
fteries, and whofe minds had been enlightened by the
myftical rites. They boaft, “ that they had led a holy
and unblemifhed life, from the time that they had been
initiated in the facred rites of Jupiter Idaeus, and from
the time that they had inquiihed celebrating the
nodfurnal rites of Bacchus, and the banquets of raw
flefti torn off living animals.” To this fan&ity of life
they had no doubt engaged themfelves, when they
were initiated in the myfteries of that god. The Eleu¬
finian Epoptae derived the fame advantages from tb^ir
facramental engagements. Fourthly, The initiated
were imagined to be the peculiar wards of the Eleu¬
finian goddeffes. Thefe deities were fuppofed to
wratch over them, and often to avert impending dan¬
ger, and to refcue them when befet with troubles.—
Our readers will not imagine that the initiated reaped
much benefit from the protection of his Eleufinian
tutelary deities j but it was fufficient that they believ-
(e) ACf I. near the beginning, and in many other places.
79 ,
Interefted-
nefs of the
prielts.
f Phcedo.
M Y S T
ed the fad, and aftually depended upon their inter-
pofition. Fifthly, The happy influences of the te-
let®, were fuppofed to adminifter confolation to the
Epopt-a; in the hour of diflblution ; for, fays Ifocrates,
“ Ceres beftowed upon the Athenians two gifts of the
greateft importance j the fruits of the earth, which
were the caufe of our no longer leading a favage courfe
of life ; and the teletce, for they who partake of thefe
entertain more pleafant hopes both at the end of life,
^ Ariflides, and eternity afterwards.” Another author * tells us,
de Myfi. u that the initiated were not only often refcued from
^leuS‘ many hardfhips in their lifetime, but at death enter¬
tained hopes that they (liould be raifed to a more hap¬
py condition.” Sixthly, After death, in the Elyfian
fields, they were to enjoy fuperior dq^rees of felici¬
ty, and were to balk in eternal funlhine, to quaft nec¬
tar, and feaft upon ambrofia, &c.
The prlefts were not altogether difinterefted in this
falutary procefs. They made their difciples believe,
that the fouls of the uninitiated, when they arrived in
the infernal regions, fhould roll in mire and dirt, and
with very great difficulty arrive at their deftined man-
fion. Hence Plato introduces Socrates f obferving,
“ that the fages who introduced the teletae had pofi-
tively affirmed, that whatever foul Ihould arrive in the
infernal manfions unhoufelPd and unanneal'ld, ffiould lie
there immerfed in mire and filth.” And as to a future
ftate (fays Ariftides), “ the initiated (hall not roll in
mire and grope in darknefs •, a fate which aw7aits the
unholy and uninitiated.” It is not hard to conceive
with what a commanding influenco fuch doftrines as
thefe muft have operated on the generality of man-
8o kind.
Remarks of When the Athenians advifed Diogenes to get him-
Dioseres felf initiated, and enforced their arguments with the
above confiderations, “ It will be pretty enough (re¬
plied the philofopher) to fee Agefilaus and Epami-
nondas w?allowing in the mire, while the moft: con¬
temptible rafcals who have been initiated are ftrutting
in the iflands of blifs.”
When Antifthenes v.'as to be initiated in the Or¬
phic myfteries, and the prieft was boafting of the many
aftonilhing benefits which the initiated ffiould enjoy
in a future ftate t, “ Why, forfooth, (fays Antif¬
thenes), ’ids wonder your reverence don’t e’en hang
yourfelf in order to come at them the fooner.”
When fuch benefits were expedfed to be derived
from the myfteries, no wonder if all the world crowd¬
ed to the Eleufinian ftandard. After the Macedonian
conquefts, the hierophants abated much of their ori¬
ginal ftridfnefs. By the age of Cicero, Eleufis was a
temple wffiither all nations reforted to partake of the
benefits of that inftitution. We find that almoft: all
the great men of Rome were initiated. The hiero¬
phants, however, would not admit Nero on account of
the profligacy of his character. Few others were r«,
fufed that honour ) even the children of the Athe¬
nians wTere admitted. But this, w'e think, was rather
a luftration or confecration, than an initiation. Per¬
haps it paved the way for the more auguft ceremony,
as the Chriftian baptifm does among us for the other
facrament.
That this inftitution gradually degenerated, can
hardly be queftioned ; but how much, and in what
points, w?e have not been able to inveftigate. The fa-
and Antif-
thenes.
t Diog.
Laert.
All the
world
crowd to
Eleufis.
82
Degenera¬
cy of the
inyfteries.
E R I E S. 581
thers of the church, from whom that charge is chiefly
to be collefted, are not always to be trufted, efpe-
cially when they fet themfelves to arraign the inftitu-
tions of Paganifm. There were indeed feveral an¬
cient authors, fuch as Melanthius, Menander, So-
tades, &c. who wrote purpofejy on the fubjeft in
queftion •, but their works are long fince irrecoverably
loft. For this reafon, modern writers, who have pro-
feffedly handled it, have not always been fuccefsful in
their refearches. The two who have laboured moft;
indefatigably, and perhaps moft fuccefsfully, in this
field, are Meurfius and Warburton. The former, in
his Liber Singularis, has collected every thing that can
be gleaned from antiquity relating to the ceremonial
of thefe inftitutions, without, however, pointing out
their original, or elucidating the end and import of
their eftabliftiment. The latter has drawn them into
the vortex of a fyftem which has in many inftances
led him to afcribe to them a higher degree of merit
than we think they deferve. Thefe inftances we would
willingly have noticed in our progrefs, had the limits
prefcribed us admitted fuch a difcuffion.
. If we may^ believe Diodorus the Sicilian, thefe
myfteries, which were celebrated with fuch wonderful
fecrecy at Eleufis, were comifiunicated to all mankind
among the Cretans. This, however, we think, is ra¬
ther problematical. We imagine that excellent hifto-
rian has confounded the myfteries of Cybele with thofe
of the Eleufinian Ceres. Thefe two deities were un¬
doubtedly one and the fame, that is, the moon or the
earth. Hence it is probable, that there was a lin¬
king refemblance between the facred myfteries of tire
Cretans and Eleufinian*.
This inftilution continued in high reputation te
the age of St Jerome, as appears from the following
pafiage : “ Hierophantse quoque Athenienfium legant
ufque hodie cicutse forbitione caftrari.” The em¬
peror Valentinianus intended to have fuppreffed them ;
but Zozimus *, informs us, that he was diverted from * Adverf.
his defign by the proconful of Greece. At length
Theodofius the elder, by an imperial edi£I, prohibited Ayj0f;'fiie(j
the celebration of thefe as well as of all the other fa- by the em-
cra of Paganifm. Thefe myfteries, inftituted in the perar Theo-
reign of Eredlheus, maintained their ground to the^0fluSj
period juft mentioned, that is, near 2000 years j dur¬
ing which fpace, the celebration of them never had
been interrupted but once. When Alexander the
Great maffacred the Thebans and razed their city,
the Athenians were fo much affefted with this melan¬
choly event, that they neglefted the celebration of that
feftival. _ _ 84
There were almoft numberlefs other myfterious in-Other imf-
llitutions among the ancient Pagans, of which thefe Te!'ksa-
Iketched above were the moft celebrated. The
mothracian myfteries, inftituted in honour of the Ca- ieff ceiebn-
biri, were likewife of confiderable celebrity, and were ty.
fuppofed to confer much the fame blelfings with the
Eleufinian, but were not of equal celebrity. The
Cabiri were Phoenician and likewife Egyptian * dei- * Sanchoni-*
ties. The learned Bochart has explained their ori- athon and
gin, number, names, and fome part of their worfhip. Herodotus.
The Orphic myfteries were likewife famous among
the Thracians. Orpheus learned them in Egypt, and
they were nearly the fame with the facra Bacchanalia
of the Greeks, - There were likewife the myfteries
o£~
582
M Y S T
of Jupiter Idajus in great requefl among tlie Cretans,
tbofe of the Magna Mater or Cybele, celebrated in
Phrygia, To enumerate and detail all thefe would
require a complete %,olume. We hope our readers
will be fjllv fatisfied with the fpecimen exhibited above.
We are convinced many things have been omitted which
M Y S
Myftical, MYSTICAL, fomething myfterious or allegorical.
My (tics, gome of the commentators on the facred writings, be-
”“~v' hdes a literal find alfo a myftical meaning. The fenfe
of Scripture, fay they, is either that immediately fig-
nified by the words and expreffions in the common ufe
of language ; or it is mediate, fublime, typical, and
myflical. The literal fenfe they again divide into pro¬
per literal, which is contained in the words taken
fimply and properly } and metaphorical literal, where
the words are to be taken in a figurative and meta¬
phorical fenfe. The myflical fenfe of Scripture they
divide into three kinds: the firfl cnrrefponding to
faith, and called allegorical; the fecond to hope,
called anagngical; and the third to charity, called the
tropological fenfe. And fometimes they take the fame
word in Scripture in all the four fenfes : thus the word
ferufalem literally fignifies the capital of Judea : al¬
legorically, the church militant j tropologically, a be¬
liever : and anagogically, heaven. So, that paffage in
Genefis, let there be light, and there was light, literally
fignifies corporeal light •, by an allegory, the Mefliah •,
in the tropological fenfe, grace 5 and anagogically,
beatitude, or the light of glory.
MYSTICS, myjlici, a kind of religious fed!, diftin-
guifhed by their profeffing pure, fublime, and perfedl
devotion, with an entire difinterefled love of God, free
from all felfifh confiderations.
The myflics, to excufe their fanatic ecftafies and
amorous extravagancies, allege that paffage of St
Paul, The Spirit prays in us by Jighs and groans that are
unutterable. Now, if the Spirit, fay they, pray in us,
we mull refign ourfelves to its motions, and be fwayed
and guided by its impulfe, by remaining in a flate of
mere inadlion.
Paffive contemplation is that flate of perfedlion to
which the myflics all afpire.
The authors of this myflic fcience, which fprung
up towards the clofe of the third Century, are not
known *, but the principles from which it was formed
are manifefl. Its firft promoters proceeded from the
known dodlrine of the Platonic fchool, which rvas al¬
fo adopted by Origen and his difciples, that the di¬
vine nature was diffufed through all human fouls, or
that the faculty of reafon, from which proceed the
health and vigour of the miud, was an emanation from
God into the human foul, and comprehended in it the
principles and elements of all truth, human and divine.
They denied that men could by labour or ftudy excite
this celeflial flame in their breads 5 and therefore they
difapproved highly of the attempts of thofe, who by
definitions, abflraft theorems, and profound fpecula-
tions, endeavoured to form diflincl notions of truth,
and to difcover its hidden nature. On the contrary,
they maintained that filence, tranquillity, repofe, and
folitudej accompanied with fuch gfts as might tend to
$
: r 1 £ s.
might have been inferted, but we have colledled the mofl
curious and the mofl important.—Every one of the po¬
liticos might have been authenticated by ‘ quotations
from authors of the mofl undoubted credibility, but that
procefs would have fwelled the article beyond all pro¬
portion.
M Y T
extenuate and exhauft the body, were the means by Myfties
which the hidden and internal word was excited to II
produce its latent virtues, and to inflruft men in the ,'VT}t(~''enc'
knowledge of divine things. For thus they reafoned ;
thofe who behold with a noble contempt all human af¬
fairs, who turn away their eyes from terreflrial vani¬
ties, and fliut all the avenues of the outward fenfes
againfl the contagious influences of a material world,
mufl neceflarily return to God, when the fpirit is thus
difengaged from the impediments that prevented that
happy union. And in this bleffed frame they not on¬
ly enjoy ir.exprefiible raptures from their communion
with the Supreme Being, but alfo are invefted with
the ineflimable privilege of contemplating truth undif-
guifed and uncovrupted in its native purity, while others
behold it in a vitiated and delufive form.
The number of the myflics increafed in the fourth
century, under the influence of the Grecian fanatic,
who gave himfelf out for Dionyfius the Areopagite,
difciple of St Paul, and probably lived about this pe¬
riod ; and by pretending to higher degrees of perfec¬
tion than other Chriflians, and pradlifing greater au-
flerity, their cauie gained ground, efpecially in the
eaflern provinces, in the fifth century. A copy of the
pretended works of Dionyfius was fent by Balbus to
Lewis the Meek, in the year 824, which kindled the
holy flame of myflicifm in the wettern provinces, and
filled the Latins with the moft enthufiaftic admiration,
of this new religiqn.
In the twelfth century, thefe myflics took the lead
in their method of expounding Scripture; and by
fearching for myfleries and hidden meaning in the
plained exprefTions, forced the word of God into a
conformity with their vifionary dodlrines, their enthu-
fiaflic feelings, and the fyflem of difcipline which they
had drawn from the excurfions of their irregular fan¬
cies. In the thirteenth century, they were the mofl
formidable antagonifls of the fchoolmen \ and towards
the clofe of the fourteenth, many of them refided and
propagated their tenets almofl in every part of Europe.
They had, in the fifteenth century, many perfons of
diftinguifhed merit in their number: and in the fix-
teenth century, previous to the Reformation, if any
fparks of real piety fubfifted under the defpotic em¬
pire of fuperflition, they were only to be found among
the myflics.
The principles of this fe£t were adopted by thofe
called ^uietifts in the feventeenth century, and, under
different modifications, by the Quakers and Methodifls.
MYSTRUM, a liquid meafure among the ancients,
containing the fourth part of the cyathus, and weigh¬
ing two drachms and a half of oil, or two drachms
two fcruples of water or wine. It nearly anfwers to
our fpoonful.
MYTELENE. See Metylene.
MYTHOLOGY
[ 583 ]
MYTHOLOGY
Definition. TS a term compounded of two Greek words, and in
its original import it lignifies any kind of fabu¬
lous do&rine : In its more appropriated fenfe, it means
thofe fabulous details concerning the objefts of worfhip
which were invented and propagated by men who lived
in ;the early ages of the world, and by them tranf-
mitted to fucceeding generations, either by written re¬
cords or by oral tradition.
As the theology and mythology of the ancients are
almoft infeparably connected, it will be impoffible
for us to develope the latter, without often introducing
fome obfervations relating to the former. We muft
therefore entreat the indulgence of our readers, if up¬
on many occafions we would hazard a few ftridlures
on the names, characters, adventures, and furntions of
fuch Pagan divinities as may have furniflied materials
for thofe fabulous narrations which the nature of the
2 fubjedl may lead us to difcufs.
Origin of With refpefl to fabley it may be obferved in gene-
fable. ral, that it is a creature of the human imagination,
and derives its birth from that love of the marvellous
which is in a manner congenial to the foul of man.—
The appearances of nature which every day occur, ob-
jedls, actions, and events, W'hich fucceed each other,
by a kind of routine, are too familiar, too obvious, and
uninterefting, either to gratify curiofity or to excite
admiration. On the other hand, when the mod com¬
mon phenomena in nature or life are new modelled by
the plaltic power of a warm imagination j when they
are diverfified, compounded, embellifhed, or even ar¬
ranged and moulded into forms which feldom or per¬
haps never occur in the ordinary courfe of things ;—
novelty generates admiration, a paffion always attended
with delightful fenfations. Here then we imagine we
have difcovered the very fource of fi&ion and fable.—
They originated from that powerful propenfity in our
nature towards the new and furprifing, animated by the
delight with which the contemplation of them is ge¬
nerally attended.
Many circumftances contributed to extend and efta-
blhh the empire of fable. The legiflator laid hold on
this bias of human nature, and of courfe employed
fable and fiSlion as the molt effectual means to civilize
a rude, unpolifhed world. The pbilofopher, the theo-
logift, the poet, the mufician, each in his turn, made
ufe of this vehicle to convey his maxims and inflruc-
tions to the favage tribes. They knew that truth, iim-
ple and unadorned, is not poffcffed of charms power¬
ful enough to captivate the heart of man in his pre-
fent corrupt and degenerate Hate. This conlideration,
which did indeed refult from the charadler of their au¬
dience, naturally led them to employ hiflion and alle¬
gory. From this was derived the allegorical Hate of the
ancients, and efpecially of the primary fages of the eaft.
Though almoll every nation on the face of the globe,
however rembte from the centre of population, how-
EoWiiefs of ever favage an(i averfe from Cultivation, has fabricated
the orient J and adopted its own fytlem of mythology; the O-
mythology. rientals, however, have djllinguilhed themfelves in a
peculiar manner, by the boldnefs, the ineonfifteney,
and the extravagance of their mythology. The genial
warmth of thofe happy climes, the fertility of the foil,
w'hich afforded every necelfary, every conveniency,
and often every luxury of life, without depreffing their
fpirits by laborious exertions ; the face of nature per¬
petually blooming around them, the Ikies foiling with
uninterrupted ferenity ; all contributed to infpire the „
Orientals with a glow of fancy and a vigour of ima¬
gination rarely to be met wdth in leis happy regions.
Hence every objedl w’as fwelled beyond its natural di-
menfions. Nothing was great or little in moderation,
but every fentiment was heightened writh incredible
hyperbole. The magnificent, the fublime, the vail,
the enormous, the marvellous, firtl fprung up, and w'ere
brought to maturity, in thofe native regions of fable
and fairy land. As nature, in the ordinary courfe of
her operations, exhibited neither obje&s nor effefts
adequate to the extent of their romantic imaginations,
they naturally deviated into the fields of fidtion and
fable. Of confequence, the cuftom of detailing fabu¬
lous adventures originated in the eaft, and was from
thence tranfplanted into the weltern countries.
As the allegorical take of the eaftern nations had
fprung from their propenfity to fable, and as that *
propenfity had in its turn originated from the love of
the marvellous ; fo did allegory in procefs of time con¬
tribute its influence towards multiplying fables and
fiftion almoft in infinitum. The latent import of the
allegorical do&rines being in a few ages loft and obli¬
terated, what was originally a moral or theological te¬
net, affirmed the air and habit of a perfonal adventure. ^
The propenfity towards perfonification, almoft uni-Propenfity
verfal among the orientals, was another fruitful fourcet0
of fable and allegory. That the people of the eaft
were ftrongly inclined to perfonify inanimate obje£tseafteni
and abftraft ideas, wTe imagine will be readily granted, thology.
when it is confidered, that in the formation of language
they have generally annexed the afle&ion of fex to
thofe obje£ls. Hence the diftinftion of grammatical
genders, which is known to have originated in the
eaflern parts of the world. The pra&ice of perfoni-
fying virtues, vices, religious and moral affe£lions,
w'as neceffary to fupport that allegorical ftyle which
univerfally prevailed in thofe countries. This mode
of writing was in high reputation even in Furope
fome centuries ago ; and to it wTe are indebted for fome
of the moil noble poetical compofttions now extant in
our own language. Thofe productions, however, are
but faint imitations of the original mode of writing
Hill current among the eaftern nations. The Euro¬
peans derived this fpecies of compofition from the
Mooriih inhabitants of Spain, w’ho imported it from
Arabia, their original country.
The general ufe of hieroglyphics in the eaft, muft The effects
have contributed largely towards extending the em-of.^er°g1y“
pire of mythology. As the import of the figures Hlnc wrl‘r
employed in this method of delineating the figns
ideas was in a great meaiure arbitrary, miftakes muft: b
have
584
mythology.
liave been frequently committed in afcertaining the
notions which they were at the firft intended to re-
preient. When the developement of thefe arbitrary
figns happened to be attended with uncommon diffi¬
culty, the expounders wrere obliged to hgve recourfe
to conjecture. Thofe conjeftural expofitions were for
the moft part tinflured with that bias towards the
marvellous which univerfally prevailed among the pri¬
mitive men. ’This w*e find is the cafe even at this
day, when moderns attempt to develope the purport
of emblematical figures, preferved on ancient medals,
entaglions, &c.
The wife men of the eafl delighted in obfcure enig¬
matical fentences. They feem to have difdained every
fentiment obvious to vulgar apprehenfion. I he wrords
of the wife, and their dark fayings, often occur in the
moft ancient records both facred and profane. The
fages of antiquity ufed to vie with each order for the
prize of fuperior wifdom, by propounding riddles,
and dark and myfterious queftions, as fubjecls of in-
veftigation. The conteft between Solomon and Hi¬
ram, and that between Amafis king of Egypt and
Po'vcrates tyrant of Samos, are univerfally known.—**
As the import of thofe enigmatical propofitions was
often abfohitelv loft, in ages when the art of wTriting
was little known, and ftiii lets pradiled, nothing re¬
in med but fancy and conjecture, which always verged
tow: ’ ^ 'he regions of fable. this then, we think,
Mas anoUK-r Source of mythology.
The Pagan priefts, especially in Egypt, were pro-,
bably the firft who reduced mythology to a kind of
fyftem. The facerdotal tribe, among that people,
w'ere the grand depofitories of learning as well as of
religion. That order of men monopolized all the
arts and fciences* They feem to have formed a con-
fpiracy among themielves, to preclude the laity from
all the avenues of intellectual improvement. This
plan was adopted with a view to keep the laity in fub-
jeffion, and to enhance their own importance. To
accomplifh this end, they contrived to perform all the
miniftrations of their religion in an unknown tongue,
and to cover them with a thick veil of fable and alle¬
gory. The language of Ethiopia became their facred
dialed:, and hieroglyphics their facred charader.—
Egypt, of courfe, became a kind of fairy land, where
all wras jugglery, magic, and enchantment. The ini¬
tiated alone were admitted to the knowledge of the
occult myftical exhibitions, which, in their hands, con-
ftituted the effence of their religion. From thefe the
•vulgar and profane were prohibited by the moft rigo¬
rous penalties (fee Mysteries). The Egyptians, and
indeed all the ancients without exception, deemed the
myftei'ies of religion too facred and folemn to be com¬
municated to the herd of mankind, naked and unreferv-
ed ; a mode by which they imagined thofe facred and
fublime oracles would have been defiled and degrad¬
ed. <e Procul, 6 procul efte profani—Odi profanuni
vulgus et arceo.” Egypt was the land of graven
images $ allegory and mythology were the veil which
7 concealed religion from the eyes of the vulgar 5 fable
Ta fine ear- ^as groundwork of that impenetrable covering.
fint*Lworld° earlieft and moft unpolilhed ftage of fociety
mythology we cannot fuppofe fable to have exifted among men.
bad no ex- Fables are always tales of other times, but at this period
i (fence. other times did not reach far enough backward to af-
Mytholagy
reduced to
a kind of
fyftem in
£gypt-
ford thofe fruits of the imagination fufficlent t.irie to
arrive at maturity'. Fable requires a confiderable fpace
of time to acquire credibility, and to rife into repu¬
tation. Accordingly, w^e find that both the Chinele
and Egyptians, the two moft ancient nations vvhofe
annals have reached our times, were altogether unac¬
quainted with fabulous details in the moft early and
leaf! improved periods of their refpeflive monarchies.
It has been ftiown almoft to a demonftration, by a va¬
riety of learned men, that both the one and the other
people, during fome centuries after the general de¬
luge, retained and praftifed the -primitive Noachic re¬
ligion, in which fable and fancy could find no place ;
all was genuine unfophifticated truth.
As foon as the authentic tradition concerning the
origin of the univerfe was either in a good meafure
loft, or at leaft adulterated by the inventions of men,
fable and fiflion began to prevail. The Egyptian g
Thoth or Thyoth, or Mercury Trifmegiftus, and Mof-Fabulous
chits the Phoenician, undertook to account for the for-
mation and arrangement of the univerfe, upon prin- n^ythb_
ciples purely mechanical. Here fable began to ufurp i0gicai de-
the place of genuine hiftorical truth. Accordingly, tails,
we find that all the hiftorians of antiquity, who have
undertaken to give a general detail of the affairs of
the world, have ulhered in their narration with a fabu¬
lous cofmogony. Here imagination ranged unconfined
over the boundlefs extent of the primary chaos. To be
convinced of the truth of this affertion, we need only
look into Sanchoniathon’s Cofmogony, Eufeb. Prrep.
Evang. 1. I. fub init. and Diodorus Sic. 1. 1. From
this we fuppofe it will follow, that the firft race of
fables owed their birth to the erroneous opinions of
the formation of the univerfe.
Having now endeavoured to point out the origin of
mythology, or fabulous traditions, we fhall proceed to
lay before our readers a brief detail of the mythology
of the moft refpe&able nations of antiquity, following
the natural order of their fituation. 9
The Chinefe, if any credit be due to their own an- Chinefe
nals, or to the miflionaries of the church of Rome, who mythology,
pretend to have copied from them, were the frjl of the
nations. Their fabulous records reach upwards many
myriads of years before the Mofaic era of the creation.
The events during that period of time, if any had
been recorded, muft have been fabulous as the period
itfelf. Thefe, however, are buried in eternal oblivion.
The miftionaries, who are the only fources of our infor¬
mation wuth relation to the earlieft periods of the Chinele
hiftory, reprefent thofe people as having retained the
religion of Noah many centuries after the foundation
of their empire. Upon this fuppofition, their colmo-
gony muft have been found and genuine, without the
leaft tincture of thofe fabulous ingredients which have
both difgaifed and difgraced the cofmogonies of moft
other nations. , 10
According to the moft authentic accounts, Yohe Ei.-th and
or Yohi laid the foundation of that empire about inventions
4000 years ago. This emperor, according to the Chi-0 0 Us
nefe, was conceived in a miraculous manner. His mo¬
ther, fay they, one day as {he was walking in a delert
place, was furrounded by a rainbow j and, being im¬
pregnated by this meteor, was in due time delivered "
of that celebrated legillator. T his perfonage, like the
Athenian Cecrops, was half a man and half a ferpent.
His
585
MYTHOLOGY.
His intelleflual powers were truly hyperbolical. In
one day he difcovered 50 different fpecies of poifonous
herbs. He taught his countrymen the whole art of
agriculture in the fpace of a very few years. He in-
Itrufted them how to fow five different forts of grain.
He invented boats, and nets for fifliing, the art of fabri¬
cating porcelain, the management of filk worms, the
manufacturing of filk, &c. In a word, that wonder¬
ful perfonage was infpired by Heaven with knowledge,
which qualified him for compofing that incomparable
body of laws which are even at this day the wonder of
the world. Our readers will admit, that this whole
detail is fabulous and chimerical. The mo ft learned
part of them will readily obferve, that the Chinefe, in
afcribing the invention of all the ufeful arts to their
Fohi, are perfectly agreed with almoft all the other na¬
tions of antiquity. The Indians afcribe every inven¬
tion to Budha, or Vifinou, or Foe; the Perfians to Zer-
dujht or Zoroq/ler; the Chaldeans to their man of the
fea, whom they call ; the Egyptians to Thoth
or Thyofh ; the Phoenicians to Mellcerta ; the Greeks
to the family of the Titans : and the Scandinavians to
Odin, &c.
Miraculous About 51; 1 years before the Chviftian era, appeared
birth of the famous Chinefe philofopher Con-fu-tfe or Confucius.
Confucius. Concerning the birth of this prince of philofophers, the
Chinefe have propagated the following legendary tale.
His mother, walking in a folitary place, ivas impregnated
by the vivifying influence of the heavens. The babe,
thus produced, fpake and reafoned as foon as it was
born. Confucius, however, wrought no miracles, per¬
formed no romantic exploits, but lived an aufiere afcetic
life, taught and inculcated the dobtrines of pure mora¬
lity, and died, remarkable only for faperior wifdom, re-
I2 ligious, moral, and political.
Lao-kiun About the year of Chrift 601, flourifhed the fec-
and his \zry Lao-kiun. His mother carried him 30 years in
dodtrines. wom^} an(j was at ]aft delivered of him under a
plum-tree. This philofopher w^as the Epicurus of
the Chinefe. His difciples, who w'ere denominated
Fao-JJie, i. e. heavenly do&ors, were the firfl: who cor¬
rupted the religion of the Chinefe. They w^ere ad-
di<ffed to magic, and introduced the Tvorfhip of good
and bad demons. Their doftrine was embraced by a
long fucceflion of emperors. One of tbefe princes,
called Ybu-ti, had been deprived by death of a fa¬
vourite miiirefs, whom he loved wuth the moft extra¬
vagant paffion. The emperor, by the magical fkill of
one of thefe doftors, obtained an interview with his
deceafed miftrefs, a circumftance which rivetted the
whole order in the affe£lion and efteem of the deluded
prince. Here our readers will obferve the exaiT coun¬
terpart of the fable of Eurydice, fo famous in the my¬
thology of the Greeks and Romans. That fuch a fy-
ftem of religious principles muff have abounded with
mythological adventures is highly probable j but as the
miffionaries, to whom wre are chiefly indebted for our
information relation to the religion of the Chinefe,
Introduc- have not taken the pains to record them, we find it
tion of the impoffible to gratify the curiofity of our readers on
worfhip of t|lat jiead_
die doc-01 The worfhip of the idol Fo, or Foe, was tranf-
trineofthe planted from India into China about the 56th year of
metempfy- the Chriftxan era, upon the following occalion. One
chofis into 0£ the dcxffors of the Fao-ffe had promifed a prince of
Uuna. V()Lj xiy> part IL
the family of Tcliou, and brother of the emperor
Ming-ti, to make him enter into communion with the
fpirits. At this folicitation an ambaffador was defpatch-
ed into India, in order to inquire where the true reli¬
gion was to be found. There had been a tradition,
fay the miffionaries, ever fince the age of Confucius,
that the true religion wTas to be found in the weft.—
The ambaffador ftopt ftrort in India j and finding that
the god Foe u’as in high reputation in that country,
he colle&ed feveral images of that deity painted on
chintz, and with it 42 chapters of the canonical books
of the Hindoos, which, together with the images, he
laid on a white elephant, and tranfported into his na¬
tive country. At the fame time he imported from the
fame quarter the doiftrine of the tranfmigration of
fouls, which is firmly believed in China to this day.
The dodtrine and worftrip of Foe, thus introduced,
made a moft rapid progrefs all over China, Japan,
Siam, &c. The priefts of Foe are called among the
Siamefe, Talopoins; by the Tartars, Lamas ; by the
Chinefe, Ha-cluing ; and by the people of Japan, Bon-
"zes. By this laft appellation they are generally known
in Europe.
An infinitude of fables wras invented and propagated The wor-
by the difciples of Foe, concerning the life and adven-^’-'PPers°f
tures of their mafter. If the earlier ages of the Chi-
nefe hiftory are barren of mythological incidents, the gifts,
later periods, after the introdudlion of the worfliip of
Foe, furnifh an inexhauftible ftore of miracles, mon-
fters, fables,vintrigues, exploits, and adventures, of
the moft villanous complexion. Indeed, moft of them
are fo abfurd, fo ridiculous, and at the fame time fo
impious and profane, that we are convinced our readers
will eafily difpenfe with a detail from which they could
reap neither entertainment nor inftruftion. Such as may
find themfelves difpofed to rake into this abominable
puddle, we muft refer to the reverend fathers Du Halde,
Couplet, Amiot, Kircher, and other members of the
propaganda, in whofe writings they will find where¬
withal to fatisfy, and even to forfeit, their appetite. 15
The Hindoos, like the other nations of the eaft, forHindoo
a long time retained the worfhip of the true God. nvytholo-
Icngth, however, idolatry broke in, and, like an im-
petuous torrent, overwhelmed the country. Firft of
all, the genuine hiftory of the origin of the univerfe
w^as either utterly loft, or difguifed under a variety of
fiftions and allegories. We are told that Brimha, the
fupreme divinity of the Hindoos, after three feveral
efforts, at laft fucceeded in creating four perfons, whom
he appointed to rule over all the inferior creatures.—
Afterwards Brimha joined his efficient pow’er with Bi-
flion and Rulder 3 and by their united exertions they
produced ten men, whofe general appellation is Mu- .
«z£\r, that is, the infpired. The fame being, accord¬
ing to another mythology, produced four other per¬
fons, as imaginary as the former 3 one from his breaft,
one from his back, one from his lip, and one from his
heart. Thefe children were denominated Sznzyj'; the
import of which word we cannot pretend to deter¬
mine. According to another tradition, Brimha pro¬
duced the Bramins from his mouth, to pray, to read,
to inftruft 3 the Chiltern from his arms, to draw the
bow, to fight, to govern ; the Bice from his belly or
thighs, to nourifh, to provide the neceffaries of life by
agriculture and commerce 3 the Soder from his feet, for
4 E fubje&ion,
586
i6
Hindoo
traditions
relating to
the deluge,
&c.
M Y T H CLOG Y.
fuhjectlon, to ferve, to labour, to travel. The reader
will lie at once, in thcfe allegorical perfons, the four
calls or fepts into which the Hindoo nations have, time
immemorial, been divided. Thefe are fome of their
mod celebrated mythological traditions with relation to
the origin of the univcrfe.
The Hindoos have likewife fome mythological opi¬
nions which feem to relate to the general deluge. They
tell us, that deliring the prefervation of herds and of
brahmans, of genii and of virtuous men, of vedas of
law, and of precious things, the Lord of the univerfe
affumes many bodily fhapes ; but though he pervades,
like the air, a variety of beings, yet he is himfelf
unvaried, fince he has no quality in him fubjedl to
change. At the clofe of the laft calpa, there was a
general dellrudlion, occafioned by the deep of Brah-
me, whence his creature* in different worlds were
drowned in a vaft ocean. Brahme being inclined to
Humber after a lapfe of fo many ages, the ftrong de¬
mon Hyagri-va, came near him, and Hole the vedas
which had flowed from his lips. When Hen, the pre-
ferver of the univerfe, difeovered this deed of the
prince of Dainavas, he took the fhape of a minute filh
called Sap-hari. After various transformations, and an
enormous increafe of fize in each of them, the Lord of
the univerfe loving the righteous man (a), who had
flill adhered to him under all thefe various fhapes, and
intending to preferve him from the fea of deftrudtion
caufed by the depravity of the age, thus told him how
he was to aft : “ In feven days from the prefent time,
O thou tamer of enemies ! the three worlds will be
plunged in an ocean of death *, but in the midit of the
deflroying waves a large veffel fent by me for thy ufe
ihall Hand before thee.” The remaining part of the
mythology fo nearly refembles the Mofaic hiflory of
Noah and the general deluge, that the former may be
a flrong confirmation of the truth of the latter. 7 0
dry up the waters of the deluge, the power of the
Deity defeends in the form of a boar, the fymbol of
Strength, to draw up and fupport on his tulks the
whole earth, which had been funk beneath the ocean.
Again, The fame power is reprefented as a tortoife fuf-
taining the globe, which had been convulfed by the
violent affaults of demons, while the gods charmed the
fea with the mountain Mandar, and forced it to dif-
gorge the facred things and animals, together with the
water of life which it had fwallowed. All thefe flories,
we think, relate to the fame event, Ihadowed by a mo¬
ral, a metaphyfical, and an aftroncmical allegory ; and
all three feem connefted with the hieroglyphical fculp-
tures of the old Egyptians.
The Hindoos divide the duration of the world into
four yugs ox jugs, or joguep, each confifting of a prodi¬
gious number of years. In each of thofe periods, the
age and ftature of the human race have been gradually
diminifhed ; and in each of them mankind has gradual¬
ly declined in virtue and piety, as well as in age and
ftature. The prefent period they call the Collce, i. e.
the corrupt jogue, which they fay is to laft 400,000
years, of which near 5000 years are already paft. In the
laft part of the preceding jogue, which they call the dir a
paar, the age of man was contracted into 100c years, as
in the prefent it is confined to 100. From this propor¬
tional diminution of the length of the human life, our
readers will probably infer, that the two lad jogues bear
a pretty near refemblance to the Prlofaic hiftory of the
age of the antediluvian and polfdiluvian patriarchs j and
that the two firft are imaginary periods prior to the crea¬
tion of the world, like thofe of the Chinefe, Chaldeans,
and Egyptians. ^ 17
According to the mythology of the Hindoos, the f he. world
fyftem of the world is fubject to various diffolutions
and refufeitations. At the conclufion of the Collaef0iuti0ns
jogue, fay they, a grand revolution will take place, and refufci-
vvhen the folar fyftem will be conlumed by fire, andtations.
all the elements reduced to their original conftituent
atoms. Upon the back of thefe revolutions, Brimha,
the fupreme deity of the Hindoos, is fometimes repre¬
fented as a new born infant, with his toe in his mouth,
floating on a camala or water flower, fometimes only
on a leaf of that plant, on the furface of the vaft abyfs.
At other times he is figured as coming forth of a
winding (hell : and again as blowing up the mundane
foam with a pipe at his mouth. Some of thefe emble¬
matical figures and attitudes, our learned readers will
probably obferve, nearly referable thofe of the ancient
Egyptians.
But the vulgar religion of the ancient Hindoos was
of a very different complexion, and opens a large field
of mythological adventures. We have obferved above,
that the Fo or Foe of the Chinefe was imported from
India ; and now we fhall give a brief detail of the my- jg
thological origin of that divinity. We have no certain Birth, &e-
account of the birth-place of this imaginary deity.— offtie god
His followers relate, that he was born in one of the*0'
kingdoms of India near the line, and that his father
was one of that country. His mother brought him
into the world by the left fide, and expired foon after
her delivery. At the time of her conception, the
dreamed that (he had fwallowed a white elephant; a
circumftance which is fuppofed to have given birth to
the veneration which the kings ol India have always
fliown for a white animal of that fpecies. As foon as
he was born, he had ftrength enough to Hand ereft with¬
out aftiftance. He walked abroad at feven, and, point¬
ing with one hand to the heavens, and with the other
to the earth, he cried out, “ In the heavens, and on
the earth, there is no one but me who deferves to be
honoured.” At the age of 30, he felt himfelf all on
a hidden filled with the divinity and now he was me-
tamorphofed into Fo or Paged, according to the ex-
preflion of the Hindoos. He had no fooner declared
himfelf a divinity, than he thought of propagating his
doftrine, and proving his divine miffion by miracles.
The number of his difciples was imrnenie ; and they foon
fpread his dogmas over all India, and even to the higher
extremities of Afia. _ 19
One of the principal doftrines which Fo and his Doftrines
difciples propagated, was the metempfyehofis or tranf-^^^11^
migration of fouls. This doftrine, fome imagine, hasE
given
(a) He was Sovereign of the world. His name was Mana, or Statgavrataj his patronymic name was Vaipoata,
or Child of the Sun.
587
MYTHOLOGY.
given rife to the multitude of idols reverenced in every
country where the uror(hip of Fo is eftabliihed. Qua¬
drupeds, birds, reptiles, and the vileit animals, had
temples erected for them •, becaufe, fay they, the foul
of the god, in his numerous tranfmigrations, may have
at one time or other inhabited their bodies.'
Both the doflrine of tranfmigration and of the
worthip of animals items, however, to have been im¬
ported from Egypt into India. If the intercourfe be¬
tween thefe two countries was begun at fo early a pe¬
riod as fome very late writers have endeavoured to
prove, fuch a fuppofition is by no means improbable.
The dodlrine of the tranfmigraUon of fouls was ear¬
ly eftablifhed among the Egyptians. It was, indeed,
the only idea they formed of the foul’s immortality.
The worfhip of animals among them feems to have
been Hill more ancient. If fuch an intercourfe did ac¬
tually exiff, we may naturally fuppofe that colonies of
Egyptian priefts found their way into India, as they
did^ afterwards into Afia Minor, Italy, and Greece.
That colonies of Egyptians did actually penetrate in¬
to that country, and fettle there, many centuries be¬
fore the Nativity, is a fadt that cannot be called in
queflion, for reafons which the bounds prefcribed us
in this article will not allow us to enumerate. We
{hall only obferve, that from the hieroglyphical repre-
fentations of the Egyptian deities feem to have origi¬
nated thofe tnonftrous idols which from time immemo¬
rial have been worflnpped" in India, China, Japan,
Siam, and even in the remoteft parts of Afiatic Tar-
70 tary.
The incar- jroe is often called Budha, or Budda, and fometimes
nations, of Vijknou; perhaps, indeed, he may be diftxnguiihed by
i..u 0.1. many other names, according to the variety of dialedls
of the different nations among which his worffiip was
eftabliffied. An infinitude of fables was propagated
by his difciples concerning him after his death. They
pretended that their matter was ftill alive •, that he had
been already born 8003 times, and that he had fuccef-
fively appeared under the figure of an ape, a lion, a
dragon, an elephant, a boar, &c. Thefe were called
the incarnations of Vittmou. At length he was con¬
founded with the fupretne God •, and all the titles, at¬
tributes, operations, perfe&ions, and enfigns of the
Moft High were afcribed to him. Sometimes he is
called Amida, and reprefented with the head of a dog,
and worttiipped as the guardian of mankind. He fome¬
times appears as a princely perfonage, iffuing from the
mouth of a fittr. At other times, he wears a lunette on
his head, in which are feen cities, mountains, towers,
trees, in (hort, all that the world contains. Thefe
transformations are evidently the children of allego¬
rical or hieroglyphical emblems, and form an exafl
counterpart to the fymbolical worftrip of the Egyp¬
tians.
The enormous mafs of mythological traditions which
have in a manner deluged the vaft continent of India,
would fill many volumes : We have felefted the pre
ceding articles as a fpecimen only, by which our read¬
ers may be qualified to judge of the reft. If they find
themfelves difpofed to indulge their curiofity at greater
length, we muft remit them to Thevenot’s and Hamil¬
ton’s Travels, to Monf. Anquetil in his Zond Avefta,
Halbed’s Introdu&ion to his Tranflation of the Code
of Gentoo Laws, Col. Dow’s Hiftory of Hindoftan,
Grofe’s Voyage to the Eaft Indies, Afiatic Refearches,
vol. i. and ii. ... 21
The mythology of the Perfians is, if pofiible, ftill Perfian
more extravagant than that of the Hindoos. It fup-mythology,
poles the wmrld to have been repeatedly deftroyed, and
repeopled by creatures of different formation, who
were fucceflively annihilated or baniihed for their dif-
obedience to the fupreme Being. The monftrous.
griffin Sinergh tells the hero CGherman that ftre had
already lived to fee the earth leven times filled with
creatures and feven times a perfedl void : that be¬
fore the creation of Adam, this globe was inhabited 2i
by a race of beings called Bari and Dives, whofe cha- Peri and
rafters formed a perfeft contrail. The Peri are de-
feribed as beautiful and benevolent , the Dives as de¬
formed, malevolent, and milchievous, differing from
infernal demons only in this, that they are not as yet
confined to the pit of hell. They are for ever ranging
over the world, to fcatter difeord and mifery among
the Tons of men. The Peri nearly refemble the fairies
of Europe ; and perhaps the Dives gave birth to the
giants and magicians of the middle ages. I he Peri
and Dives wage inceflant wrars ; and when the Dives
make any of the Peri prifoners, they ftmt them up in
iron cages, and hang them on the higheft trees, to
expofe them to public view’, and to the fury of every
chilling blaft.
When the Peri are in danger of being overpow’ered
by their foes, they folicit the affiftance of fome mor¬
tal hero ; which produces a feries of mythological ad¬
ventures, highly ornamental to the ftrains of the Per-
fian bards, and which, at the fame time, furniffies an
inexhauftible fund of the moft diverfified machinery.
One of the moft celebrated adventurers in the my¬
thology of Perfia is Tahmuras, one of their moft an¬
cient monarchs. This prince performs a variety ot ex¬
ploits, while he endeavours to recover the fairy Mer-
jan. He attacks the Dive Demruftr in his own cave ;
where, having vanquished the giant or demon, he finds
vaft piles of hoarded wealth : thefe he carries off with
the fair captive. The battles, labours, and adventures
of Roftan, another Perfran worthy, who lived many
ages after the former, are celebrated by the Perfian
bards with the fame extravagance of hyperbole with
which the labours of Hercules have been fung by the
poets of Greece and Rome. 2-
The adventures of the Perfian heroes breathe all Perfia the
the wildnefs of achievement recorded of the knights birth place
of Gothic romance. The doftrine of enchantments, “j^hivah-y
transformations, &c. exhibited in both, is a charafterif-mance>
tic fymptom of one common original. Perfia is the
genuine claffic ground of eaftern mythology, and the
fource of the ideas of chivalry and romance •, from which
they w’ere propagated to the regions of Scandinavia,
and indeed to the remoteft corners of Europe towards
the w’eft.
Perhaps our readers may be of our opinion, when we
offer it as a conjefture, that the tales of the war of the
Peri and Dives originated from a vague tradition con¬
cerning good and bad angels : nor is it, in our opinjon,
improbable, that the fable of the wars between the gods
and giants, fo famous in the mythology of Greece and
Italy, was imported into the former of thefe countries
from the fame quarter. For a more particular account
of the Perfian mythology, our readers may confult Dr
4'E 2 • Hyde
<88 MYTHOLOG Y.
Hyde Relig. vet. Perf. Medor. &c. D’Herbelot’s Eibl.
Orient, and Mr Richardfon’s introduction to his Perfian
■24 and Arabic Dictionary.
Chaldean The mythology of the Chaldeans, like that of the
mytbt'Iogy. 0ther nations of the eaft, commences at a period my¬
riads of years prior to the era of the Mofaic creation,
'[’heir cofmogony, exhibited by Berofus, who was a
prieft of Belus, and deeply verfed in the antiquities of
his country, is a piece of mythology of the mod extra¬
vagant nature. It has been copied by Eufebtus (Chron.
lib. i. p. 5.); it is likewife to be found in Syncellus, co¬
pied from Alexander Polyhiftor. According to this
hiitorian, there were at Babylon written records pre-
ferved with the greateft care, comprehending a period
of fifteen myriads of years. Thofe writings likewife
contained a hiflory of the heavens and the fea, of the
earth, and of the origin of mankind. “ In the begin¬
ning (fays Berofus, copying from Oannes, of whom we
fhall give a brief account below) there was nothing but
darknefs and an abyfs of w’ater, wherein refided mod
hideous beings produced from a twofold principle.
Men appeared with two wings; fome with two and
fume with four faces. They had one body, but two
heads ; the one of a man, the other of a woman. Other
human figures were to be feen, furnifhed with the legs
and horns of goats. Some had the feet of horfes be¬
hind, but before were faihioned like men, refembling
hippocentaurs.” The remaining part of this mythology
is much of the fame complexion; indeed fo extravagant,
that we imagine our readers will readily enough dif-
penfe with our tranflating the fequel. “ Of all thefe
(fays the author) were preferved delineations in the
temple of Belus at Babylon. The perfon who was
fuppofed to prefide over them was called Omorea.
This word, in the Chaldean language, is Thalath,
which the Greeks call @x?>%?crx, but it more properly
imports the moon. Matters being in this fituation, their
god (fays Eufebius), the god (fays Syncellus) came
and cut the woman afunder ; and out of one half of her
he formed the earth, and out of the other he made the
heavens ; and, at the fame time, he deftroyed the mon-
fiers of the abyfs.” This wEole mythology is an alle¬
gorical hiftory copied from hieroglyphical reprefenta-
tions, the real purport of which could not be decypher-
ed by the author. Such, in general, were the confe-
2 quences of the hieroglyphical ilyle of writing.
Oannes the Oannes, the great civilizer and legiflator of the Chal-
legifl itor of deans, according to Apollodorus, who copied from Be-
the Chal- jofus, vras an amphibious animal of a heterogeneous ap¬
pearance. He was endowed with reafon and a very
uncommon acutenefs of parts. His whole body re-
fembled a filh. Under the head of a fifh he had alfo
another head, and feet below fimilar to thofe of a man,
which were fubjoined to the tail of the fifh. His voice
and language were articulate and perfectly intelligible,
and there was a figure of him ftill extant in the days of
Berofus. He made his appearance in the Erythrean
or Red fea, where it borders upon Babylonia. This
monflrous being converfed with men by day ; but at
night he plunged into the fea, and remained concealed
in the water till next morning. He taught the Baby¬
lonians the ufe of letters, and the knowledge of all the
arts and faiences. He inftru&ed them in the method
of building houfes, cdnftrmfling temples, and all other
edifices. He taught them to compile laws and religious
ceremonies, and explained to them the principles of ma¬
thematics, geometry, and aftronomy. In a word he
communicated to them every thing necelTary, ufeful,
and ornamental : and fo univerfal were his inilruftions,
that not one fingle article had ever been added to them
fince the time they were firft communicated. Hella-
dius is of opinion that this flrange perfonage, whoever
he was, came to be reprefented under the figure of a
filh, not becaufe he was aftually believed to be fuch,
but becaufe he was clothed with the fkin of a feal.
By this account our readers will fee that the Babylonian
Oannes is the exaft counterpart of the Fohi of the Chi-
nefe, and the Thyoth or the Mercury Trifmegiftus of
the Egyptians. It is likewife apparent, that the idea
of the monfler compounded of the man and the fiih has
originated from fome hieroglyphic of that form grafted
upon the appearance of man. Some modern mytbo-
logifts have been of opinion, that Oannes was a£lually
Noah the great preacher of righteoufnefs; who, as
fome think, fettled in Shinar or Chaldea after the de¬
luge, and who, in confequence of his connexion with
that event, might be properly reprefented under the
emblem of the Man of the Sea. 2<;
The nativity of Venus, the goddefs of beauty and The nati-
love, is another piece of mythology famous among vlt>,ot
the Babylonians and AlTyrians. An egg, fay they, ot
a prodigious fize, dropt from heaven into the river }ove>
Euphrates. Some doves fettled upon this egg, after
that the fidies had rolled it to the bank. In a fhort
time this egg produced Venus, who was afterwards
called Dea Syria, the Syrian goddefs. In confe¬
quence of this tradition (fays Hyginus), pigeons and
fiflies became facred to this goddeis among the Syrians,
who always abftained from eating the one or the other.
Or this imaginary being we have a very exa£t and en¬
tertaining hiftory in the treatife De Dea Syria, gene¬
rally aferibed to Lucian.
In this mythological tradition our readers will proba¬
bly difeover an allufion to the celebrated Mundane egg ;
and at the fame time the ftory of the fifties will lead them
to anticipate the connexion between the fea and the
moon. This fame deity was the Atargatis of Afcalon,
deferibed by Diodorus the Sicilian ; the one halt of her
body a woman and the other a fifti. This was no
doubt a hieroglyphic figure of the moon, importing
the influence of that planet upon the fea and the fex.
The oriental name of this deity evidently points to the
moon ; for it is compounded of two Hebrew words (b),
which import “ the queen of the hoft of heaven.” 27
The fable of Semiramis is nearly connected with ra’^e
the preceding one. Diodorus Siculus has preferved
the mythological hiftory of this deity, which he and
all the writers of antiquity have confounded with the
Babylonian princefs of the fame name. That hifto-
rian informs us, that the word Semiramis, in the Sy¬
rian dialed!, fignifies “ a wild pigeon ; “ but we ap¬
prehend that this term was a name or epithet of the
moon
(b) Adetr or Hadar, “ magnificusand Gad, “ exercitus turmiA
589
28
Xsittle
known of
Arabian
mythology.
29
Egyptian
mythology.
M Y T H O L O G Y.
moon, as it is compounded of two words (c) of art
import naturally applicable to the lunar planet. It
was a general pradfice among the Orientals to denomi¬
nate their facred animals from that deity to which they
were confecrated. Hence the moon being called Semi-
rarnis, and the pigeon being facred to her divinity, the
latter was called by the name of the former.
As the bounds prefcribed this article render it im-
pollibie for us to do juftice to this interefting piece of
mythology, we muft beg leave to refer our readers for
farther information to Died. Sic. lib. ii. Hyginus Poet.
Aflron. Fab. 197. Pharnutus be Nat. Deor. Ovid. Me-
tam. lib. iv. A then, in Apol. Izetzes, Chil. ix.cap. 275.
Seld. de Diis Syr. Syrit. ii. p. 183.
We fhouid now proceed tb the mythology of the
Arabians, the far greateft part of which is however,
buried in the abyfs of ages; though, when, we refledl on
the genius and character of that people, u'e muft be con¬
vinced that they too, as well as the other nations of the
eaft, abounded in fabulous relations and romantic com-
politions. The natives of that country have always been
enthufiaftically addidled to poetry, of which fable is the
offence. Wherever the Mufes have eredled their throne,
fables and miracles have always appeared in their train.
In the Koran we meet with frequent allufions to well-
known traditionary fables, ft hefe had been tranfmit-
ted from generation to generation by the bards and
ihapfodifts for the entertainment of the vulgar. In
Arabia, from the earlieft ages, it has always been one
of the favourite entertainments of the common people,
to affemble in the ferene evenings around their tents,
or on the platforms with which their houfes are gene¬
rally covered, or in large halls eredled for the purpofe,
in order to amufe themfelves with traditional narrations
of the moft diftinguifhed actions of their moft remote
anceftors. Oriental imagery always ernbelliftied their
romantic details, ft'he glow of fancy, the love of the
the marvellous, the propenfity towards the hyperbo¬
lical and the vsft, which conftitute the effence of ori¬
ental defeription, muft ever have drawn the relation
afide into the devious regions of fiftion and fairy land.
The religion of Mahomet beat down the original fa¬
bric of idolatry and mythology together. ftTse Ara¬
bian fables current in modern times are borrowed or
imitated from Perfian compofitions; Perlia being Hill
the grand nurfery of romance in the eaft.
In Egypt we find idolatry, theology, and mytho¬
logy, almoft infeparably blended together, ft'he inha¬
bitants of this region, too, as well as of others in the
vicinity of the centre of population, adhered for feve-
ral centuries to the worftiip of the true God. At
laft, however, confcious of their own ignorance, im¬
purity, imperfeftion, and total unfitnefs to approach
an infinitely perfeft Being, diftant, as they imagined,
and invifible, they began to caft about for fome beings
more exalted, and more perfehft than themfelves, by
whofe mediation they might prefer their prayers to
the fupreme Majefty of heaven. The luminaries of
heaven, which they imagined were animated bodies,
naturally prefented themfelves. ftTefe were fplendid
and glorious beings. They were thought to partake
of the divine nature : they u7ere revered as the fatraps,
prefers, and reprefentatives of the fupreme Lord of the
univerfe. ft'hey were vifible, they wrere beneficent •,
they dwelt neater to the gods, they were near at hand
and always accefiible. ft'hefe were, of courfe, em¬
ployed as mediators and interceffors between the fu¬
preme Divinity and his humble fubjedls of this lower
world. Thus employed, they might claim a fubordi-
nate fttare of worftiip, which w'as accordingly aftigned
them. In procefs of time, however, that worfhip,
which was originally add reffed to the fupreme Creator
by the mediation of the heavenly bodies, w'as in a
great meafure forgotten, and the adoration ot man¬
kind ultimately terminated on thole iiluftrious crea-
tures. ft o this circumidance, we think, we may aferibe Origin of
the origin of that fpecies of idolatry called Zabiifm, Zabiifni..
or the worftiip of the holt of heaven, which overfpread
the world early and almoft univerfally. In Egypt
this mode of wortlnp was adopted in all its molt a’o-
furd and moft enthufiaftic forms j and at the fame
time the moft heterogeneous mythology appeared in
its train. The mythology of the ancient Egyptians
was fo various and multiform, fo complicated and fo
rayfterious, that it would require many volumes even
to give a fuperficial account of its origin and progrefs,
not only in its mother country, but even in many
other parts of the eaftern and we item world. Belides,
the idolatry and mythology of that wonderful country
are fo clofely conne&ed and fo infeparably blended to¬
gether, that it is impoftible to deferibe the latter with¬
out at the fame time developing the former. We hope,
therefore, our readers will not be difappointed, if, in a
work of this nature, we touch only upon fome of the
leading or moft interefting articles of this complicated
fubjeft. 31
The Egyptians confounded the revolutions of the Reign of
heavenly bodies with the reigns of their meft early gotJs
monarchs. Hence the incredible number of years
eluded in the reign of their eight fuperior gods, who, gyiJt>
according to them, filled the Egyptian throne fuccef-"'
lively in the moft early periods of time. ft'o thefe,
according to their fyftem, iucceeded twelve demigods,
who likewife reigned an amazing number of years.
Thefe imaginary reigns were no other than the perio¬
dical revolutions of the heavenly bodies preferved in
their almanacks, which might be carried back, and
adlually were carried back, at pleafure. Hence the
fabulous antiquity of that kingdom. The imaginary-
exploits and adventures of thefe gods and demigods
furnilhed an inexhauftible fund of mythological ro¬
mances. To the demigods fucceeded the kings of
the cynic cycle, perfonages equally chimerical with
the former, ft'he import of this epithet has greatly
perplexed critics and etymologifts. We apprehend it
is an oriental word importing rcnjal dignity, elevation
of rank. ft'his appellation intimated, that the mo¬
narchs of that cycle, admitting that they aftually ex-
ifted, were more powerful, and more highly revered
than their fucceffbrs. After the princes of the cynic
cycle comes another race, denominated Nehyes, a title
likewife implying royal, fplendid, glorious. ft'hefe
cycles
(c) Shem or Sem, “ a fign,” and ramah, “ high.”
59°
M Y T II O li O G Y.
cycles figure high in the mythological annals of the
Egyptians, and have furniihed materials for a variety
plo ts’and ' °i ieHrned and ingenious difquiiitions. The wars and
transforma-adventures of Onris, Otis, Typhon, and other alle-
tionofthe gorical perfonages who figure in the Egyptian rubric }
gods. t]le vvanderings of Ifis, the filler and wife of Ofiris ;
the transformation of the gods into divers kinds of
animals ■, their birth, education, peregrinations, and
exploits ;—compofe a body of mythological nftions fo
various, lo complicated, fo ridiculous, and often fo
apparently abfurd, that all attempts to develope and
explain them have hitherto proved unfuccefsful. All,
or the greateft part, of thofe extravagant fables, are
the offspring of hieroglyphical or allegorical emblems
devifed by the priefts and fages of that nation, with a
view to conceal the myfleries of their religion from that
clafs of men whom they fligmatized with the name of
3 > the uninitiated rabble.
Worfhip of The worfhip of brute animals and of certain vege-
.mal'T&c* ta^es» univer^al among the Egyptians, was another ex-
0’ ' uberant fource of mythological adventures. The E-
gyptian priells, many of whom were likewdfe profound
philofophers, obferved, or pretended to obferve, a kind
of analogy between the qualities of certain animals and
vegetables, and thofe of fome of their fubordinate di¬
vinities. Such animals and vegetables they adopted,
and confecrated to the deities to whom they were fup-
pofed to bear this analogical refemblance } and in pro-
cefs of time they confidered them as the vifible emblems
of thofe divinities to which they were confecrated. By
thefe the vulgar addreffed their archetypes: in the fame
manner, as in other countries, pidfures and ftatues were
employed for the very fame purpofe. The mob, in
procels of time, forgetting the emblematical charadder
of thofe brutes and vegetables, addreffed their devotion
immediately to them *, and of courfe thefe became the
ultimate objefts of vulgar adoration.
After that thefe obje6!s, animate or inanimate, were
confecrated as the vifible fymbols of the detties, it foon
became falhionable to make ufe of their figures to re-
prefent thofe deities to which they were confecrated.
This praftice was the natural confequence of the hie-
roglyphical ftyle which univerfally prevailed among the
ancient Egyptians. Hence Jupiter Ammon was re-
prefented under the figure of a ram, Apis under that
of a cowq Ofiris of a bull, Pan of a goat, Thoth or
Mercury of an ibis, Bubaftis or Diana of a cat, &c.
It was likewife a common prasdice among thofe deluded
people to dignify thefe objecds, by giving them the
names of thofe deities which they reprefented. By this
mode of dignifying thefe facred emblems, the venera¬
tion of the rabble was confiderably enhanced, and the
ardour of their devotion inflamed in proportion. From
thefe two fources, we think, are derived the fabulous
34
Mercury
Trifrue^if-
tusthe au¬
thor of the
Egyptian
mythology.
transformations of the gods, fo generally celebrated in
the Egyptian mythology, and from it imported into
Greece and Italy. In confequence of this pradf ice, their
mythological fyftem wras rendered at once enormous and
unintelligible.
Their Thoth, or Mercury Trifmegiidus, was, in our
opinion, the inventor of this unhappy fyftem. This
perfonage, according to the Egyptians, was the origi¬
nal author of letters, geometry, aftronomy, mufic, ar-
chiteflure ; in a word, of r ll the elegant and ufeful
arts, and of all the branches of fcience and philofophy.
*
He it was who firft difcovered the analogy between
the divine affe&ions, influences, appearances, opera¬
tions, and the correfponding properties, qualities, and
inttiiifts of certain animals, and the propriety of dedi¬
cating particular kinds of vegetables to the fervice of
particular deities.
The priefts, whofe province it was to expound the
mylteries of that allegorical bieroglyphical religion,
(fee Mysteriks), gradually loft all knowledge of the
primary import of the fymbolical charafters. To fun-
ply this deredl, and at the fame time to veil their own
ignorance, the facerdotal inftruftors had recourfe to
fable and fiefion. They heaped fable upon fable, till
their religion became an accumulated chaos of mytho¬
logical abfurdities.
Two of the mod: learned and moft acute of the an¬
cient philofophers have attempted a rational explica¬
tion of the latent import of the Egyptian mythology *,
but both have failed in the attempt; nor have the
moderns, who have laboured in the fame department,
performed their part with much better fuccefs. In-
ftead, therefore, of profecuting this inexplicable fub-
jeft, which would fwell this article beyond all propor¬
tion, we mu ft beg leave to refer thofe who are defirous
of further information to the following authors, where
they will find enough to gratify their curiofity, if not
to inform their judgement: Herodotus, lib. ii. Diodo¬
rus Siculus, lib. i. Plut. Ifis et Oliris ; Jambiichus de
Myft. Egypt. Horapollo Hieroglyp. Egypt. Macrob.
Sat, cap. 23. among the ancients ; and among the mo¬
derns, Kircher’s Oedip. Voff. de Orig. et Prog. Idol.
Mr Bryant’s Analyfis of Anc. Mythol. Monf. Gi belin
Monde Prim. ; and above all, to the learned Jablonfki’s
Panth. Egyptiorum.
The elements of Phoenician mythology have been ppccniciau
preierved by Eufebius, Praep. Evang. (ub. init. In mythology,
the large extract which that learned father hath copied
from Philo Biblius’s tranflation of Sanchoniathon’s
Hiftory of Phoenicia, we are furnifhed with feveral ar¬
ticles of mythology. Some of thefe throw coniider-
able light on feveral paflfages of the facred hiftory ; and
all of them are ftridtly connefled with the mythology
of the Greeks and Romans. There we have preferved
a brief but entertaining detail of the fabulous adven¬
tures of Uranus, Cronus, Dagon, Thyoth or Mercury,
probably the fame with the Egyptian hero of that
name. Here we find Muth or Pluto, Aiphceftus or
Vulcan, iEfculapius, Nereus, Pofcedon or Neptune, &c.
Aftarte, or Venus Urania, makes a confpicuous figure
in the catalogue of Phoenician worthies; Pallas or Mi¬
nerva is planted on the territory of Attica ", in a word,
all the branches of the family of the Titans, who in
after ages figured in the rubric of the Greeks, are
brought upon the ftage, and their exploits and adven¬
tures briefly detailed. ^4
By comparing this fragment with the mythology of Grecian
the Atlantidse and that of the Cretans preferved by mythology
Diodorus the Sicilian, lib. v. we think there is go°d|J^^
reafon to conclude, that the family of the Titans, thean(j pj1^e_
feveral branches of which feem to have been both thenicia:
authors and obje&s of a great part of the Grecian ido¬
latry, originally emigrated from Phoenicia. This con¬
jecture will receive additional ftrength, when it is con¬
fidered, that almoft all their names recorded in the fa¬
bulous records of Greece, may be eafily traced up to a
Phoenician
M Y T H O L O G Y. 591
Phoenician original. We agree v.ith Herodotus, that
a confiderable part of the idolatry of Greece may have
been borrowed from the Egyptians •, at the fame time,
we imagine it highly probable, that the idolatry of the
Egyptians and Phoenicians was, in its original con-
ilitution, nearly the fame. Both fyftems were Sabiifm,
or the worfhip of the holt of heaven. The Pelafgi,
according to Herodotus, learned the names of the gods
from the Egyptians •, but in this conje&ure he is cer¬
tainly warped by his partiality for that people. Had
thole names been imported from Egypt, they would
no doubt have bewrayed their Egyptian original •,
whereas, every etymologifl will be convinced that every
one is of Phoenician extradlion.
The adventures of Jupiter, Juno, Mercury, Apollo,
Diana, Mars, Minerva or Pallas, Venus, Bacchus, Ce¬
res, Proferpine, Pluto, Neptune, and the other defeen-
clants and coadjutors of the ambitious family of the
Titans, furnilh by far the greateft part of the mytho¬
logy of Greece. They left Phoenicia, we think, about
the age ol Mofes; they fettled in Crete, a large and
fertile ifland *, from this region they made their way
into Greece, which, according to the molt authentic ac¬
counts, was at that time inhabited by a race of fava-
ges. The arts and inventions which they communi¬
cated to the natives; the mylteries of religion which
they inculcated ; the law’s, cuitoms, polity, and good
order, which they ellabliflied ; in fhort, the bleflings of
humanity and civilization, which they everywhere dif-
feminated, in procefs of time infpired the unpolilhed
inhabitants with a kind of divine admiration. Thofe
ambitious mortals improved this admiration into divine
homage and adoration. The greater part of that wor¬
fhip, which had been formerly addreffed to the lumina¬
ries of heaven, was now transferred to thofe illuftrious
perfonages. They claimed and obtained divine honours
from the deluded rabble of enthuliaftic Greeks. Hence
fprung an inexhauliible fund of the molt inconlident
and irreconcilable fi&ions.
Kenc3e7the ^ ^olWes ancl t^e deified mortals were
in confident tranfmitted to polferity, incorporated as it w’ere with
fidtions of the pompous attributes of fupreme divinity. Hence
the Greek the heterogeneous mixture of the mighty and the
poets. mean W’hich checquers the charadlers of the heroes of
the Iliad and Odyfiey. The Greeks adopted the ori¬
ental fables ; the import of which they did not under-
itand. Thefe they accommodated to heroes and illu-
ffrious perfonages, who had figured in their own coun¬
try in the earlieft periods. The labours of Hercules
originated in Egypt, and evidently relate to the annual
progrefs of the fun in the zodiac, though the vain-glo¬
rious Greeks accommodated them to a hero of their
own, the reputed fon of Jupiter and Alcmena. The ex¬
pedition of Ofiris they borrow’ed from the Egyptians,
and transferred to their Bacchus, the fon of Jupiter
and Semele the daughter of Cadmus. The transfor¬
mation and wanderings of lo are evidently tranferibed
from the Egyptian romance of the travels of Ifis in
queft of the body of Ofiris, or of the Phoenician
Aftarte, drawn from Sanchoniathon. lo or loh is in
reality the Egyptian name of the moon, and Aftarte
was the name of tire fame planet among the Phoeni¬
cians. Both thefe fables are allegorical reprefentations
of the anomalies of the lunar planet, or perhaps of the
progrefs of the worfhip of that planet in different parts
of the world. The fable of the conflagration occa-
fioned by Phaeton is clearly of oriental extraction,
and alludes to an exceffxve drought which in the early
periods of time fcorched Ethiopia and the adjacent
countries. The fabulous adventures of Perfeus are faid
to have happened in the fame regions, and are allego¬
rical reprefentations of the influence of the folar lumi¬
nary ; for the original Perfeus was the fun. The rape
of Proftrpine and the wanderings of Ceres : the Eleu-
finian myfieries; the orgia or facred rites of Bacchus;
the rites and worfhip of the Cabiri—were imported
from Egypt and Phoenicia ; but ftrangely garbled and
disfigured by the hierophants of Greece. The gigan-
tomachia, or war between the gods and the giants,
and alt the fabulous events and varieties of that war,
form an exaft counterpart to the battles of the Peri
and Dives, celebrated in the romantic annals of Per-
fia. ■ 38
A confiderable part of the mythology of the Greeks The Greeks-
fprung from their ignorance of the oriental languages. 1Snor^t
They dif’dained to apply themfelves to the fiudy
languages fpoken by people whom, in the pride of & a
their heart, they fiigmatized with the epithet of bar¬
barians. This averlion to every foreign dialed was
highly detrimental to their progrefs in the i’ciences.
The fame negleCt or averfion has, we imagine, proved
an irreparable injury to the republic of letters in all
fucceeding ages. The aoids or drolling bards laid
hold on thofe oriental legends, which they fophiili-
cated with their own additions and improvements,
in order to accommodate them to the popular tafte.
Thefe wonderful tales figured in their rhapfodical
compofitions, and were greedily fwallowed down by
the credulous vulgar. Thofe fidions, as they rolled
down, were conftantly augmented with frefh materials,
till in procefs of time their original import was either
forgotten or buried in impenetrable darknefs. A mul¬
titude of thefe Hefiod has colleded in his Theogonia,
or Generation of the Gods, which unhappily became
the religious creed of the illiterate part of the Greeks.
Indeed, fable was fo clofely interwoven with the reli¬
gion of that airy volatile people, that it feems to have
contaminated not only their religious and moral, but
even their political tenets. 39!
The far-famed oracle of Dodona was copied from Oracle of
that of Ammon at Thebes in Egypt: The oracle 0fOodonai-
Apollo at Delphos was an emanation from the fame
fource : The celebrated Apollo Pythius of the Greeks
was no other than Ob or jiub of the Egyptians, who
denominated the bafililk or royal fnake Ov Cai, became
it was held facred to the fun. Ob or j4ub is (till re¬
tained in the Coptic dialed, and is one of the many
names or epithets of that luminary. In fliort, the *
ground-work of the Grecian mythology is to be tra¬
ced in the eaft. Only a fmall part of it was fabricated
in the country ; and what was imported pure and ge¬
nuine was miferably fophillicated by the hands through
which it paffed, in order to give it a Grecian air, and
to accommodate its ftyle to the Grecian tafte. To
enlarge upon this topic would be altogether fuperflu-
ous, as our learned readers muft be well acquainted with 4Cr
it already, and the unlearned may without much trouble Roman
or expence furnifti themfelves with books upon that mJt^oio.2y
lubjed. from
The Roican mythology was borrowed from theGrcere^.
Greeks,-
592
41
Mythology
of the
northern
nations.
4*
Or! in or
Woden.
43
The hell
and devil
of the
Scandina¬
vians.
M Y T H O L O G Y.
Greeks. That people had addicted themfelves for
many centuries to the arts of war and civil polity.
Science and philofophy were either neglefted or un¬
known. At laft they conquered Greece, the native
land of fcisnce, and then “ Graecia capta ferum vifto-
rem cepit arte et intulit agrefti Latio.” 1 his being
the cafe, their mythology was, upon the whole, a tran-
fcript from that of Greece. They had indeed gleaned
a few fables from the Pelafgi and Hetrufcans, which,
however, are of fo little con Sequence, that they are
fcarce worth the trouble of tranfcribing.
The mythology of the Celtic nations is in a good
meafure loft. There may poflibly ftill remain fome
velliges of the Druidical fuperftition in the remoteft
parts of the Highlands and iflands of Scotland ■, and
perhaps in the uncivilized places of Ireland. Thefe
we prefume, would afford our readers but little enter¬
tainment, and ftill lefs inftruftion. Inftead therefore
of giving a detail of thofe uninterefting articles, we
fhali beg leave to refer our readers to Oflian’s Poems,
and Cob Valency’s Colleftions of Irilh Antiquities, for
fatisfa&ion on that fubjeft.
The mythology of the northern nations, i. e. of the
Norwegians, Danes, Swedes, Icelanders, &e. are un¬
commonly curious and entertaining. The Edda and
Volufpa contain a complete colle&ion of fables which
have not the fmalleft affinity with thofe of the Greeks
and Romans. They are wholly of an oriental com¬
plexion, and feem almoft congenial with the tales of
the Perfians above defcribed. The Edda was com-
pilecT in Iceland in the 13th century. It is a kind of
fyftem of the Scandinavian mythology : and has been
reckoned, and we believe juftly, a commentary on the
Volufpa, which was the Bible of the northern nations.
Odin or Othin, or Woden or Waden, was the fupreme
divinity of thofe people. His exploits and adventures
furniffi the far greateft part of their mythological creed.
That hero is fuppofed to have emigrated from the eaft ;
but from what country or at what period is not cer¬
tainly known. His achievements are magnified be¬
yond all credibility. He is reprefented as the god of
battles, a;id as llaughtering thoufands at a blown His
palace is called Vallial: it is fituated in the city of
Midgard, where, according to the fable, the fouls of
heroes who had bravely fallen in battle enjoy fupreme
felicity. They fpend the day in mimic hunting
matches, or imaginary combats. At night they af-
femble in the palace of Valhalla, where they feaft on
the moft delicious viands, dreffed and ferved up by the
Valkyrie?, virgins adorned with celeftial charmv and
ftufhed with the bloom of everlafting youth. They
folace themfelves with drinking mead out of the fkulls
of enemies whom they killed in their days of nature.
Mead, it feems, was the nedfar of the Scandinavian
heroes.
Sleepner, the horfe of Odin, is celebrated along
with his mafter, Hela, the hell of the Scandinavi¬
ans, affords a variety of fables equally (hocking and
heterogeneous. Loke, the evil genius or devil of the
northern people, nearly refembles the Typhon of the
Egyptians. Signa or Sinna is the confort of Loke ;
from this name the Englifii word Jin is derived. The
giants Weymur, Ferbanter, Belupher, and Hellunda,
perform a variety of exploits, and are exhibited in the
inoft frightful attitudes. One would be tempted to
3
imagine, that they perform the exadl counterpart of
the giants of the Greek and Roman mythoiogids. In¬
ftead of glancing at thefe ridiculous and uninterefting
fables, which is all that the limits preferibed us would
permit, wre (hall take the liberty to lay before our read¬
ers a brief account of the contents of the Volufpa,
which is indeed the text of the Scandinavian mytho-
loS7- - * . 44
The world Volufpa imports, “ the prophecy of Vo!a The Voluf-
or Lola.” This was perhaps a general name for thePa>
prophetic ladies of the north, as Sibyl was appropriated
to women endowed with the like faculty in the fouth.
Certain it is, that the ancients generally connedted mad-
nefs with the prophetic faculty. Of this we have two
celebrated examples : the one in Lycophron’s Alex¬
andra, and the other in the Sibyl of the Roman poet.
The word vo/a fignifies “ mad or fooliih j” whence the
Engliffi words fool, fooli/h, folly. .S’/)#, the latter part
of the compolition, fignifies “ to prophecy,” and is ftill
current among the common people in Scotland, in the
word Spae, which has nearly the fame fignification.
The Volufpa confifts of between 200 and 300 lines.
The prophetefs having impofed filence on all intelli¬
gent beings, declares that (lie is about to reveal the
works of the Father of nature, the adlions and opera¬
tions of the gods, which no mortal ever knew before
herfelf. She then begins with a defeription of the
chaos ; and then proceeds to the formation of the
world, the creation of the different fpecies of its inha¬
bitants, giants, men, and dwarfs. She then explains
the employments of the fairies or deftinies, whom the
northern people call nornies ; the ftmdtions of the dei¬
ties, their moft memorable adventures, their difputes
with Loke, and the vengeance that enfued. She at
laft concludes with a long and indeed animated deferip¬
tion of the final ftate of the univerfe, and its diffolution
by a general conflagration.
In this cataftvophe, Odin and all the rabble of the
Pagan divinities, are to be confounded in the general
ruin, no more to appear on the ftage of the univerfe.
Out of the ruins of the former world, according to
the Volufpa, a new one (hall fpring up, arrayed in all
the bloom of celeftial beauty.
Such is the doflrine exhibited in the fabulous Vo¬
lufpa. So congenial are fome of the details therein
delivered, efpecially thofe relating to the final diffolu¬
tion of the prefent fyftem, and the fucceffion of a new
heaven and a new earth, that we find ourfelves ftrong-
ly inclined to fufpefl, that the original fabricator of
the work was a femipagan writer, much of the fame
complexion with the authors of the Sibylline oracles,
and of fome other apocryphal pieces which appeared
in the world during the firft ages of Chriftianity.
In America, the only mythological countries muft Mythology
be Mexico and Peru. The other parts of that large of Mexico
continent were originally inhabited by favages, moftanaL ^eru'
of them as remote from religion as from civilization.
The two vaft empires of Mexico and Peru had exifted
about 400 years only before the Spanifh invafion. In
neither of them was the ufe of letters underftood : and
of courfe the ancient opinions of the natives relating
to the origin of the univerfe, the changes which fuc-
ceeded, and every other monument of antiquity, were
obliterated and loft. Clavigero has indeed enumerated
a vaft canaille of fanguinary gods worffiipped by the
Mexicans j,
r
593
MYTHOLOGY.
Mexicans •, but produces nothing either entertaining
or interefting with refpedt to their mythology. The
information to be derived from any other quarter is
little to be depended upon. It paffes through the
hands of bigotted midionaries or other eccleliaftics,
who were fo deeply tin&ured with fanaticifxn, that
they viewed every action, every fentiment, every cu-
itom, every religious opinion and ceremony of thofe
half-civilized people, through a falfe medium. They
often imagined they difcovered refemblances and ana¬
logies between the rites of thofe favages and the dogmas
of Chriftianity, which nowhere exifted but in their own
heated imagination.
The only remarkable piece of mythology in the an¬
nals of the Peruvians, is the pretended extradition of
Manco Capec the iirft Inca of Peru, and of Mama
Ocolla his confort. Thefe two illuftrious perfonages
appeared firlt on the banks of the lake Titiaca. They
were perfons of a majeftic ftature, and clothed in de¬
cent garments. They declared themfelves to be the
children of the Sun, fent by their beneficent parent,
who beheld with pity the miferies of the human race,
to inftruft and to reclaim them. Thus we find thefe
two legiflators availed themfelves of a pretence which
had often been employed in more civilized regions to
the very fame purpofes. The idolatry of Peru was
gentle and beneficent, that of Mexico gloomy and fan-
guinary. Hence wre may fee, that every mode of fu-
perftition, where a divine revelation is not concerned,
borrows its complexion from the charadlers of its pro-
feffors.
In the courfe of this article, our readers will ob-
ferve, that we have not much enlarged upon the my¬
thology of the Greeks and Romans j that fubjeft we
imagine to be fo univerfally known by the learned,
and fo little valued by the vulgar, that a minute dif-
cuffion of it would be altogether fuperfluous. Be-
fides, we hope it will be remembered, that the nar-
rownefs of the limits prefcribed us wTould fcarce admit
of a more copious detail. We would flatter ourfelves,
that in the courfe of our difquifition, wre have thrown
out a few refledlions and obfervations, W’hich may per¬
haps prove more acceptable to both defcriptions of
readers,.
f
M Y U
Mytilus MYTILUS, ^he Mussel, a genus of animals, be-
li longing to the order of verrnes teftacea. See Concho-
_Myils' logy Index.
MYTTOTON, a coarfe kind of food, ufed by the
labouring people among the Greeks, and fometimes
among the Romans. It was made of garlic, onions,
eggs, cbeefe, oil, and vinegar, and reckoned very whole-
feme.
MYUS, in Ancient Geography, one of the twelve towns
of Ionia 5. feated on the Meander, at the diftance of 30
Hadia from the fea. In Strabo’s time it was incorpor-
M Y X
ated with the Milefians, on account of the paucity o^
inhabitants, from its being formerly overwhelmed with
water : for which reafon the lonians configned its fuf-
frage and religious ceremonies to the people of Mile¬
tus. Artaxerxes allotted this town to Themiftocles, in
order to furnifh his table wdth meat : Magnefia was
to fupport him in bread, and Lampfacus in wi^K The
town now lies in ruins.
MYXINE, the hag ; a genus of animals belonging
to the order of vermes inteftina. See Helminthology
Index,
Myxine,
N.
N.
■\T A liquid confonant, and the 13th letter of the
' 5 Greek, Latin, Englifh, &c. alphabets.
The n is a nafal confonant : its found is that of a d,
paffed through the nofe •, fo that when the nole is flop¬
ped by a cold, or the like, it is ufual to pronounce d
for n. M. Abbe de Dangeau obferves, that in the
French, the n is frequently a mere nafal vowel, with¬
out any thing of the confonant in it. He calls it the
Sclavonic vowel. The Hebrews call their n nun,
which fignifies child, as being fuppofed the offspring
of m ; partly on account of the refemblance of found,
and partly on that of the figure. Thus from the m,
by omitting the laft column, is formed n; and thus
from the capital N, by omitting the firft column, is
Vol, XIV. Part II.
formed the Greek minufcle ». Hence for hiennies, &c.
the Latins frequently ufe bimus, &c. and the fame
people convert the Greek v, at the end of a word, into
an m, as q>yg[Acc>t6v, pharmacum, &c. See M.
N before />, b, and m, the Latins change into m,
and frequently into / and r; as in in-ludo, illudo ; in-
rigo, irrigo, &c.: in which they agree with the He¬
brews, who, in lieu of nun, frequently double the fol¬
lowing confonants: and the Greeks do the fam?; as
when for Manlius, they w'rite MasAPuaj, &c. The
Greeks alfo, before x., y, v, changed the » into y :
in w'hich they were followed by the ancient Romans :
who, for Angulus, wrote Aggulus ; for anceps, agceps,&.c.
The Latins retrench the njrom Greek nouns end-
4 F
NAB [ 594 ] NAB
ing in o>\; as Aswv, Leo ; Draco ; on the con¬
trary, the Greeks add it to the Latin ones ending in
o ; as K«r<yv, Nsg&iy, Calo, Nero.
N, among the ancients, was a numeral letter, figni-
fyiirg 900 j according to the verfe in Baronius,
N, qvoque no agent os nutnero dejignat habendos.
And when a line was ftruck over it, N, nine thoufand.
Axrnong the ancient lawyers, N. L. flood for non li¬
quet, i. e. the caufe is not clear enough to pafs fen-
tence upon. N, or N°, in commerce, &c. is ufed as
an abbreviation of numcro, number.
NAARDA, Near DA, Neerda, or Nehardea, in
Ancient Geography, a town fituated on the confines of
Mefopotamia and Babylonia •, populous, and with a
rich and extenfive territory, not eafily to be attacked by
an enemy, being furrounded on all hdes by the Euphra¬
tes and flron'g walls (Jofi phus). In the lower age the
Jews'had a celebrated fchool there.
NA AS, a borough town of Ireland, in the county
of Kildare and province of Leinfter. It is the fhire
town of that county, and alternately with Athy the
affizes town. It is diflant above 15 miles fouth-weft
from Dublin, in N. Lat. 53. jo. W. Long. 6. 50. It
gives title of vlfcount to the family of Burke. I his
place was anciently the refidence of the kings ol
Leinfter: the name fignifics “ the place of elders,”
for here the ftates of that province affembled during
the 6th, ^th, and 8th centuries, after the Naafteighan
of Carmen had been anathematized by the Chriftian
clergy. On the arrival of the Englifh it was fortified j
many caftles were erected, the ruins of which are part¬
ly vtfible •, and parliaments were held there. At the
foot of the mount or rath are the ruins of a houfe
founded in 1484, for eremites of the order of St Au-
guftin. In the 12th century the baron of Naas found¬
ed a priory dedicated to St John the Baptift, for Au-
guftinian regular canons. In the centre of this town
the family of Euftace erefled a monaftery for Domi¬
nican friars, dedicated to St Euftachius ; and it appears
that their pofleflions in Naas were granted them in the
vear 1355* This place w7as a ftrong hold during the
civil wars.
NABATENE, or Recio Nabataiorum, accord¬
ing to Jerome, comprifed all the country lying be¬
tween the Euphrates and the Red fea, and thus con¬
tained Arabia Deferta, with a part of the Petrsea :
fo called from Nabaioth, the firft born of Ifmael. Ac¬
cording to Diodorus, it was fituated between Syria
and Egypt. The people Nabatsei (I Maccabees, Dio¬
dorus Siculus) : inhabiting a defert and barrep coun¬
try : they lived by plundering their neighbours accord¬
ing to Diodorus. Nabathaeus the epithet.
NABIS, tyrant of Sparta, reigned about 204 B. C.}
and is reported to have exceeded all other tyrants fo
far, that, upon comparifon, he left the epithets of
gracious and merciful to Dionyfius and Phalaris. He
is faid to have contrived an inftrument of torture in
the form of a ftatue of a beautiful woman, whofe rich
drefs concealed a number of iron fpikes in her bofom
and arms. When any one therefore oppofed his de¬
mands, he would fay, “ If I have not talents enough
to prevail with you, perhaps my woman Apega may
perfuade you.” The ftatue then appeared •, which
Nabis taking by the hand, led up tp the perfon, who,
being embraced by it, w-as thus tortured into ccm- Nablcus
pliance. To render his tyranny lefs unpopular, Nabis ^ 11^ ^
made an alliance with Elarr.inius the Roman general, ‘ j "
and purfued with the moft inveterate enmity the war < ..  
which he had undertaken again!! the Achaeans. He
befieged Gythium, and defeated Philopcemen in a naval
battle. His triumph was ftiort, the general of the
Achaeans foon repaired his Ioffes, and Nabis was de¬
feated in an engagement, and killed as he attempted
to fave his life by flight, about 194 years before the
Chriftian era.
NABLOUS, a province of Syria, anciently cele¬
brated under the name of the kingdom of Samaria. Its
capital, likewife called Nab/ous, is fituated near to
Sichem on the ruins of the Niepolis of the Greeks,
and is the refidence of a ftieik, who is fubordinate to
the pacha of Damafcus, from whom he farms the tri¬
bute of the province.
NABLUM, in Hebrew, Nebel, was an inftrument
of mufic among the Jew's. It had ftrings like the harp,
and wras played upon by both bands. Its form was
that of a Greek A. In the Septuagint and Vulgate, it
is called noblum, pfalterion, lyra ; and fometimes cithara.
NABO, or Nebo, in mythology, a deity of the
Babylonians, who poffeffed the next rank to Bel. It
is mentioned by Ifaiah, chap, xlviii. Vofitus ap¬
prehends that Nabo was the moon, and Bel the fun :
but Grotius fuppofes that Nabo was fome celebrated
prophet of the country ; which opinion is confirmed
by the etymology of the name, fignifying, according
to Jerome, “ one that prefides over prophecy.”
NABOB, properly Navab, the plural of Naib, a
deputy. As ufed in Bengal, it is the fame as Nazim.
It is a title alfo given to the wives and daughters of
princes, as well as to the princes themfelves.
NABONAS3AR, firft king of the Chaldeans or
Babylonians •, memorable for the Jewifh era which
bears his name, which is generally fixed in 3257, be¬
ginning on Wednefday, February 26th, in the 3967th
of the Julian period, 747 years before Chrift. The
Babylonians revolting from the Medes, who had over¬
thrown the Affyrian monarchy, did, under Nabonaffar,
found a dominion, which was much increafed under
Nebuchadnezzar. It is probable, that this Nabonaflar
is that Baladan in the fecond of Kings, xx. I 2. father
of Merodach, who fent ambaffadors to Hezekiah. See
2 Chron. xxxii.
NABOPOLASSAR, king of Babylon : he joined
with Aftyages the Mede, to deftroy the empire of Af-
fyria} which having accomplifhed, they founded the
two empires of the Medes under Aftyages, and the
Chaldeans under Nabopolaffar, 627 B. C.
NABUCHADNEZZAR, or Nabuchodonosor
II. king of Affyria, fon of Nabopolaflar, and ftyled
the Great, was affociated by his father in the empire,
607 B. C. and the following year he took Jehoiakim
king of Judah prifoner, and propofed to carry him
and his fubjefts in captivity into Babylon ; but upon
his fuhmiflion, and promifing to hold his kingdom un¬
der Nabuchodonofor, he %vas permitted to remain at
Jerufalem. In 603 B. C. Jehoiakim attempted to
{hake off the Affyiian yoke, but without fuccefs 5 and
this revolt brought on the general captivity. Nabu-
chadnezzar having fubdued the Ethiopians, Arabians,
Idumaeans, Philiftines, Syrians, Perfians, Medes, Af-
fyrians,
N A E [ 595 ] N A I
fyrian?, and almofl all Alla j being puffed up with
pride, caufed a golden ftatue to be fet up, and com¬
manded all to worfhip it j which Daniel’s companions
refufing to do, they were call into the fiery furnace.
But as he was admiring his own magnificence, by di¬
vine fentence he wras driven from men, and in the Scrip¬
ture ftyle is faki to have eaten grafs as oxen : i. e. he was
feifced with the dileafe called by the Greeks lycon-
thropy, wdiich is a kind of madnefs that caufes perfons
to run into the fields and ftreets in the night, and
fometimes to fuppofe themfelves to have the heads of
oxen, or to be made of glafs. At the end of feven
years his reafon returned to him, and he was reftored
to his throne and glory. He died 562 B. C. in the
43d year of his reign j in the 5th of which happened
that eclipfe of the fun mentioned by Ptolemy, which
is the fureit foundation of the chronology of his reign.
NADIR, in j4Jlronomy, that point of the heavens
which is diametrically oppofite to the zenith or point
directly over our heads.
NiENIA, the goddefs of funerals at Rome. Her
temple was without the gates of the city. The fongs
which were fung at funerals were alfo called ruenia.
They were generally filled with the praifes of the de-
ceafed ; but fometimes thfey were fo unmeaning and
improper, that the word became proverbial to fignify
nonfenfe.
NAERDEN, a ftrong town of Holland, feated at
the head of the canals of the province. The foun¬
dations of it were laid by William of Bavaria, in
1350. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1572, and
by the French in 1672 j but it was retaken by the
prince of Orange the next year. It (lands at the fouth
end of the Zuyder Zee, in E. Long. 5. 3. N. Lat.
51. 22.'
NiEVIUS, Cneius, a famous poet of Campania,
was bred a foldier ; but quitted the profeffion of arms,
in order to apply himfelf to poetry, which he profe-
cuted with great diligence. He compofed a hiftory in
verfe, and a great number of comedies : But it is faid,
that his firft performance of this laft kind fo difpleaf-
ed Metellus on account of the fatirical flrokes it con¬
tained, that he procured his being banilhed from the
city : on which he retired to Utica in Africa, where
he at length died, 202 B. C. We have only fome
fragments left of his works.
T here was another N^evius, a famous augur in the
reign of Tarquin, who, to convince the king and the
Romans of his preternatural power, cut a flint with a
razor, and turned the ridicule of the populace to ad¬
miration. Tarquin rewarded his merit by erecting
him a flatue in the comitium, which was ftill in be¬
ing in the age of Auguftus. The razor and flint were
buried near it under an altar, and it was ufual among
the Romans to make witneffes in civil caufes fwear
near it. This miraculous event of cutting a flint with
a razor, though believed by fome writers, is treated
as fabulous and improbable by Cicero, who himfelf
had been augur.
NrTlVUS, a mole on the Ikin, generally called a
mother's mark; alfo the tumour known by the name
of a wen.
All preternatural tumours on the fkin, in the form
of a wart or tubercle, are called excrefcences; by the
Greeks they are called acrothymia; and when they are
born with a perfon, they are called navi materni] or Nugent
marks from the mother. See Tumours, Surgery , II.,
Index. , , Natl; _
NAGERA, or Nagara, a town of Spain, in Old
Caftile, and the territory of Rioja, with the title of a
duchy and fortrefs j famous for a battle fought in its
neighbourhood in 1369. It is fituated in a fertile
country, on a brook called Naferil/a. W. Long. 2. 20,
N. Lat. 42. 45.
NAGRACUT, a town of India, the capital of a
kingdom of the fame name in the dominions of the
Great Mogul, with a rich temple to which the Indians
go in pilgrimage. It is feated on the river Ravi. E.
Long. 78. 10. N. Lat. 33. 12.
NAHUM, or the Prophecy o/Nakvm, a canonical
book of the Old Teflament.
Nahum, the feventh of the 12 leffer prophets, was
a native of Elkoftiai, a little village of Galilee. The
fubjeft of his prophecy is the deftru&ion of Nineveh,
which he defcribes in the moft lively and pathetic man¬
ner j his flyle is bold and figurative, and cannot be ex¬
ceeded by the moft perfect mafters of oratory. This
prophecy was verified at the fiege of that city by Afty-
ages, in the year of the world 3378, 622 years before
Chrift.
NAIADES, in fabulous hiftory, certain inferior
deities who prefided over rivers, fprings, w7ells, and
fountains. The Naiades generally inhabited the coun¬
try, and reforted to the woods or meadows near the
ftream over wdiich they prefided. They are reprefent-
ed as young and beautiful virgins, often leaning upon
an urn, from which flows a ftream of w^ater. iEgle
was the faireft of the Naiades, according to Virgil.
Their name feems to be derived from “ to flow7.”
They w7ere held in great veneration among the an¬
cients ; and often facrifices of goats and lambs were of¬
fered to them, w7ith libations of wine, honey, and oil.
Sometimes they received only offerings of milk, fruit,
and flowers.
NAIANT, in Heraldry, a term ufed in blazoning
fifties, when borne in a horizontal pofture, as if fwim-
ming.
NAIAS, a genus of plants belonging to the dioecia
clafs ; and in the natural method ranking with thofe of
which the order is doubtful. See Botany Index.
NAID, the interior of the great defert of Arabia,
inhabited by a few fcattered tribes of feeble and
wretched Arabs. See Arabia.
NAIL, unguis, in Anatomy, which fee.
Nails, in building, &c. fmall fpikes of iron, brkfs,
See. which being driven into wood, ferve to bind fe-
veral pieces together, or to faften fomething upon
them.
Nails were made life of by the ancient Hebrews for
cancelling bonds : and the ceremony was performed by
ftriking them through the writing. This feems to be
alluded to in Scripture, where God is faid by our cru¬
cified Saviour to have “ blotted out the hand-writing
of ordinances that was againft us, and to have, taken it
out of the way, nailing it to his crofs,” Col. ii. 14.
For the caufe and ceremony of driving the annual nail,
or c/avus annalis, among the Romans, fee Annalis
Claws.
Nail, is alfo a meafure of length, containing the -
16th part of a yard.
4F2
Nailing
N A I
[ 596 ]
N A I
Nailing of
Cannon
II
Nairn.
Kjiliko of Cannon. When circumflances make it
neceffary to abandon cannon, or when the enemy’s ar¬
tillery are feized, and it is not however polllble to take
them away, it is proper to nail them up, in order to
render them ufelefs ; which is done by driving a large
nail or iron fpike into the vent of a piece of artillery,
to render it unferviceable. There are various conni¬
vances to force the nail out, as alfo fundry machines
invented for that purpofe, but they have never been
found of general ufe ; fo that the beif method is to
drill a new vent.
One Gafper VimercaJus was the fir ft who invented
the nailing of cannon. He was a native of Bremen,
and made ufe of his invention firft in nailing up the ar¬
tillery of Sigifmund Malatefta.
NAIN, Lewis Sebastian de, a French critic and
hiftorian, was the fon of a matter of the recjuefts, and
was born at Paris in 1637. At ten years old he went
to fchool at Port Royal, and became one of the bell;
writers of that inftitution. Sacy, his intimate friend
and counfellor, prevailed wdth him in "1676 to receive
the priefthood 5 which, it feems, his great humility
would not before fuffer him to afpire to. This virtue
he feems to have poffdl'ed in the extreme j fo that
Boffuet feeing one of his letters to Father Dami, with
whom he had fome little difpute, befought him mer¬
rily “ npt to be always upon his knees before his ad-
verfary, but caife himfelf up now and then.” He
was folicited to pulb himfelf forward in the church,
and Buzanval, bilhop of Beauvois, wilhed to have him
for his fucceflbr j but Nain, regardlefs of dignities,
wiftied for nothing but retirement, fo that he might in¬
dulge in the mortifications of a religious life and the in¬
defatigable cultivation of letters. He died in 1698, aged
61. His principal works are, 1. Memoirs on the ec-
clefiaftical hiftory of the fix firft ages of the church,
16 vols. 4to. 2. The hiftory of the emperors, 6 vols.
4to. Thefe works are deduced from original fources,
and compofed with the utmoft fidelity and accuracy.
Nain, or Naim, fituated at the bottom of Mount
Kermon on the north fide, was anciently a city of the
tribe of Iffachar, in the province of Galilee. It was
near the gates of this city that our Saviour reftored
to life the only fon of a widow, and wdrere he infpired
Mary Magdalen to come and mourn for her fins at
his feet. Thefe circumftances alone make this place
worthy of notice 5 for at prefent Nain is only a hamlet
inhabited by Chriftiaus, Mahometans, and Hebrews,
where there is not a fingle monument to attraft the cu-
riofity of the traveller.
NAIRES, Nahers, or Nayers, in modern hiftory,
a name which is given by the Malabarians to the mili¬
tary of their country, who form a very numerous clafs
or tribe, out of which the fovereigns of Malabar choofe
their body guard.
NAIRN, a county of Scotland, comprehending the
weftern part of the province of Murray. It is bounded
on the north by the Murray frith, on the weft and
fouth by Invernefs, and on the eaft by Elgin. The
length is about 18 miles, and the breadth about 14.
The air is temperate and falubrious, and the winters
are remarkably mild. The face of the country is rough
and mountainous; yet there are fome fruitful valleys,
which produce good crops of oats and bailey j but in
general the country is much better adapted for paftu-
rage. Here are alfo large woods of fir, and other
trees, that afford flielter to the game, of which there is
great plenty. The moft remarkable ilraths or valleys
in this county, are Strathnairn, on the river of that
name, in the fouth-weft part of the fliire and on the
fouth-eaft fide, Stratherin, on both Tides of Findhorn
river. Nairn is well, watered with ftreams, rivulets,
and lakes abounding with fifh. In the fouthern part
ti.ere is a fmall lake, called Jl'Toy* X he greater part
of the fliire is peopled by the Frafers, a warlike High¬
land clan, wliofe chief, the lord Lovat, loft his life
on tne fcaffcld for having been concerned in the rebel¬
lion of 1745. Here arc a great number of villages;
but no towns of note except Nairn, fuppofed to be the
Tuajis of Ptolemy, fituated at the mouth of the river
which bears the fam,e name ; a royal borough, which
gave the title of lord to an ancient family, forfeited in
the rebellion of 1715. The harbour, which opened in
the Murray frith, is now choked up with fand ; and
the commerce of the town is too inconfide-rable to de-
ferve notice. About four miles from Nairn Hands the
cattle of Calder, on the river of that name, belonging
to a branch of the family of Campbell; and fix miles
to the north-weft of Naim, Hands Fort George, built
by order of the government, at a place called Arderjter^
a fmall ifthmus upon the Murray frith.
The following is the population of the parifties of
this county, according the Statiftical Hiftory of Scot¬
land.
PariJJoes.
Ardclach
Auldearn
Calder
Nairn
Population in
* 'ISS-
1165
I95l
882
1698
Population in
1790—1798.
Il86
1406
IC62
2400
5%4
Increafe
6°54
5694
360
Population in 1801, including part of fome other
Parifhes.
Ardclach
Auldearn - -
Calder ...
Croy (Nairn divifion)
Moy do.
Nairn town
Urquhart (do.) -
1256
1401
1179
562
34
2215
1610
8257
NAISSANT, in Heraldry, is applied to any animal
iffuing out of the midft of fome ordinary, and Ihowing
only his head,' {boulders, fore feet, and legs, with the
tip of his tail ; the reft of his body being hid in the
Ihield, or fume charge upon it : in which it differs from
i/Juant, which denotes a living creature arifing out of
the bottom of any ordinary or charge.
NAISSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Dar-
dania, a diftridt of Moefia Superior, faid to be the
birthplace of Conftantine the Great, which feems pro¬
bable from bis often refiding at that place. Naifitani,
the
NAM [ 597 ] N A M
the people (Coin). Now called N[//ei7 a city of Ser-
via. E. Long. 23. N. Lat. 43.
j NAKED ski£Ds, in Botany, thofe that are not en-
clofed in any pod or cafe.
NAKIB, ia the oriental dignities, the name of an
officer who is a deputy to the cadilifkier, or, as he may
be called, the lord high chancellor of Egypt, appoint¬
ed by the grand fignior. His office is to carry the
flandard of Mahomet.
NAKOUS, an Egyptian mufical inftrument, made
l.ke two plates of brafs, and of all fizes, from two inches
to a foot in diameter ; they hold them by firings faft-
ened to their middles, and ilrike them together fo as to
oeat time, i'hey are uied in the Coptic churches and
in the Mahometan proceffions.
NAMA, a genus of plants belonging to the pen-
tandria clafs, and order digynia} and, in the natural
method, ranking under the 13th order, Succu/enta.
See Botany Index.
NAME, denotes a word whereby men have agreed
to exprefs foine idea; or which ferves u> denote or lig-
nify a thing or fubjedl fpoken of. See Word.
This the grammarians ufually call a noun, nomen,
though their noun is not of quite fo much extent as our
name. See Noun.
Seneca, lib. ii. de Beneficiis, obferves, that there are
a great number of things which have no name; and
which, therefore, we are forced to call by other bor-
rowed names. Ingens ejl (lays he) rerum copia /ine no¬
mine, quas cum propriis appellationibus Jignare non pof-
fumus, alienis acc&mmodatis utimur ; which may (how
why, in the courfe of this diftionary, we frequently give
divers, lenfes to the fame wTord.
Names are dillinguiffied into proper and appellative.
Proper Names, are thofe which reprefent fome indi¬
vidual thing or perfon, fo as to diftinguilh it from all
fcther things of the fame fpecies; as, Socrates, which
reprefents a certain philofopher.
Appellative or General Names, are thofe which fig-
nify common ideas ; or which are common to fevera.1
individuals of the fame fpecies ; as, liorfe, animal, man,
oak, &c.
_ Proper names are either called Chriflian, as being
given at baptifm ; or furnames : The firll impofed for
diftindlion of perfons, anfwering to the Roman prasno-
tnen; the feccnd, for the diftin£tion of families, an¬
fwering to the nomen of the Romans, and the patrony-
micum of the Greeks.
Originally every perfon had but one name ; as among
the Jew's, Adam, &c. among the Egyptians, Bujiris;
among the Chaldees, Ninus; the Medes, AJlyages;
the Greeks, Diomedes; the Romans, Romulus; the
Gauls, DiviUacus ; the Germans, Ariovijlus ; the Bri¬
tons, CaJJilelan ; the Engliih, UengiJ}, &c. And thus
of other nations, except the favages of Mount Atlas,
whom Pliny and Marcellinus reprefent as anonymi,
“ nameJefs.”
The Jews gave the name at the circumcifion, viz.
eight days after the birth : the Romans, to females the
fame day, to males the ninth ; at which time they held
a feall, called nominalia.
Since Chriftianity has obtained, moll nations have
iollowed the Jews, baptizing and giving the name on
the eighth day after the birth j except our English an-
cedors, who, till of late, baptized and gave the name
on the birth day.
The fird im polk ion of names was founded on differ¬
ent view's, among different people ; the mol? common
was to mark the good wilhes of the parents, or to en¬
title the children to the good fortune a happy name
feemed to promife. Hence, Vidior, Cajlor, Fag/lus,
Statorius, Probus, &c.
Accordingly, we find fuch names, by Cicero called
bona nomma, and by Tacitus faujla nomina, were
fird enrolled and ranged in the Roman muiters ; firll
called to ferve at the facrifices, in the foundation of
colonies, &c.—And, on the contrary, Livy calls Atrius
Umber, abominandi omnis nomen: and Plautus, on oc-
cafion of a perfon named Lyco, i. e. “ greedy wolf,?*'
fays ;
Vofmet nunc facite conjeElnram c<eterum'
dlyiid idJit hominis, cut Lyco nomen Jiet.
Hence, Plato recommends it to men to be careful in
giving happy names ; and the Pythagoreans taught ex-
prefsly, that the minds, a<5lions, and fucceffes of men,
were according to their names, genius, and fate. Thus
Panorraitan, ex bono nomine oritur bona preefumptio ;
and the common proverb, Bonum nomen bonum omen ;
and hence the foundation of the onomomantia. See
Onomomanita.
It is an obi’ervation deferving attention, fays the
abbe Barthelemi, that the greater part of names found
in Homer are marks of dibinCfion. They were given
in honour of the qualities mod edeemed in the heroic
ages. From the word polemos, which lignifies war,
have been formed Tlepolemus and Archepolemus, the
names of two heroes mentioned in the Iliad. The for¬
mer name fignifies able to fupport, and the latter, able
to dir eel, the labours of war. By adding to the word
mache, or battle, certain prepofitions and different parts
of fpeech, which modify the feufe in a manner always
honourable, are compofed the names Amphimachus,
Antimachus, Promachus, Telemachus. Proceeding in
the fame w'ay, with the word honorea, “ drength or
intrepidity,” they formed the names Agapenor, “ he
who edeems valour Agenor, “ he who diredls it.”
From thoes, “ Iwiijt,” are derived, Alcathoes, Panthoes,
Perithoes, Sec. From nous, “mind or intelligence,’*
come AJlynoes, Ar/inoes, Autenoes, Sec. From medes,
“ counfel,” Agamcdes, Eumedes, Lycomedes, Thrafy-
medes; and from clios, “ glory,” Amphicles, Agacles,
Iphicles, Patroclus, C/eobulus, with many others.
Hence Camden takes it for granted, that the names,
in all nations and languages, are fignificative, and not
fimple founds for mere diftinclion’s fake. This holds
not only among the Jews, Greeks, Latins, Sec. but even
the Turks ; among whom, Abdala fignifies God's fer-
vant, Soliman, peaceable; Mahomet, glorified, Sec.
And the favages of Hifpaniola, and throughout Ame¬
rica, who, in^ their languages, name their children,
G/fiering Light, Sun, Bright, Fine Gold, Sec.; and
they of Congo, by the names of precious ftones, flow¬
ers, Sec.
lo fuppofe names given without any meaning,
however by the alteration of languages their lignifica-
tion may be lofl, that learned author thinks is to re¬
proach our auceflors; and that centrary to the fenfe
of
NAM [ 598 ]
of all ancient writers. Porphyry notes, that the bar- guftas, w
N A M
barous names, as he calls them, were very emphatical,
and very concife : and accordingly it was efteemed a
duty to be or fui nominis homines: as Seve-
rus, Probus, and Aurelius, are called Jm nominis impe-
ratores.
It was the ufual way of giving names, to wifh the
children might difcharge their names. Thus when
Gunthrain king of France named Clotharius at the
font, he faid, Crefcat puer, et hujus fit nominis execu¬
tor.
The ancient Britons, Camden fays, generally took
their names from colours, becaufe they painted them-
felves j which names are now loft, or remain hid among
the WeHh. When they were fubdued by the Romans,
they took Roman names, feme of which ftiil remain
corrupted \ though the greateft part became extindl
upon the admiffion of the Engliih Saxons, who intro¬
duced the German names, as Cridda, Penda, Ofivald,
Edward, &c.—The Danes, too, brought with them
their names ) as Suayne, Harold, Knule, &c. The
Norm: ns, at the Conqueft, brought in other German
names, as originally ufing the German tongue \ fuch
as Robert, William, Richard, Henry, Hugh, &c. after
the fame manner as the Greek names Idfpafius, Boe¬
thius, Syrmnachus, &.c. were introduced into Italy upon
the divifion of the empire. After the Conqueft, our
nation, which had ever been averfe to foreign names,
as deeming .them unlucky, began to take Hebrew
names : as Matthew, David, Sampfon, Sue. The va¬
rious names anciently or at prefent obtaining among us,
from what language or people foever borrowed, are ex¬
plained by Camden in his Remains. As to the period
when names began to be multiplied, and furnames in¬
troduced, &c. fee Surname.
Of late years it has obtained among us to give fur-
names for Chriitian nameswhich fome diftike, on ac¬
count of the confufion it may introduce. Camden re¬
lates it as an opinion, that the praflice firft began in
the reign of Edward VI. by fuch as would be godfa¬
thers, when they w'ere more than half fathers. Upon
which fome were perfuaded to change their names at
confirmation ; which, it feems, is ufual in other coun¬
tries.—Thus, two fons of Henry II. of France, chrift-
ened Alexander and Hercules, changed them at confir¬
mation into Henry and Francis. In monafteries, the
religious afiume new names at their admittance, to
fhow they are about to lead a new life, and have re¬
nounced the world, their family, and even their name :
v. g. filler Mary of the Incarnation, brother Henry of
the Holy Sacrament, &cc. The popes alfo changed
their names at their exaltation to the pontificate j a cu-
ftom firft introduced by Pope Sergius, whofe name till
then, as Platini informs us, was Swine"'s-fnout. But
Onuphrius refers it to John XII. or XIII. and at the
fame time adds a different reafon for it from that of
Platina, viz. that it was done in imitation of St Peter
and St Paul, who wTeve fit ft called Simon and Saul.
Among the ancients, thofe deified by the Heathen
confecrations had newr names given them ; as Romulus
wras called ^uirinus ; Melicertes, Portunus or Portum-
nus, &c.
New names were alfo given in adoptions, and fome-
times by teftament: thus L. Aimilius, adopted by Sci-
pio, took the name of Scipio Africanus ; and thus Au-
ho was at firft called C. 0 Ravi us Tfiurinus,
being adopted by the teftament of Julius Ctefar into his
name and family, took the name of Genus Julius Cafar
OclQvianus.
Names were alfo changed at enfranchifements into
new cities. Thus Lucumo, at his firft being made free
of Rome, took the name Lucius Tarquinius Prifcus,
&c. •, and ilaves wThen made free, ufually affumed their
mafters names. Thofe called to the equeftrian order,
if they had bale names, were always new named, no¬
mine ingenuorum veterumque Romanorum. And among
the primitive Chriftians, it was the pradlice to change
the names of the catechumens : Thus the renegado Lu-
cianus, till his baptifm, was called Lucitls.
Toward the middle of the 15th century, it w’p.s the
fancy of the wits and learned men of the age, particu¬
larly in Italy, to change their haptifmal names for claf-
fical ones. As Sannazarius, for inftance, who altered
his own plain name Jacopo to ARius Syncerus. Num¬
bers did the fame, and among the reft Platina the hif-
torian at Rome, wdio, not without a folemn ceremonial,
took the name of Callimachus inftead of Philip, Pope
Paul II. who reigned about that time, unluckily chan¬
ced to be fufpicious, illiterate, and heavy of compre-
henfion. He had no idea that perfons could wifti to
alter their names unlefs they had fome bad defign, and
actually fcrupled not to employ imprifonment and other
violent methods to difeover the fancied myftery. Pla¬
tina W’as moft cruelly tortured on this frivolous account:
he had nothing to confefs. fo the pope, after endea¬
vouring in vain to convift him of herely, fedition, &c.
releafed him after a long imprifonment.
NAMPTWICH, or Nantwich, a town of Che-
fhire in England, fituated on the river Weever, 14
miles S. E. from Chefter, and 162 miles from I^qndon.
It lies in the Vale Royal, and is one of the largeft and
beft built towns in the county, the ftreets being very
regular, and adorned with many gentlemen’s houfes.
The inhabitants trade in corn, cattle, cheefe, fin®
white fait, and fhoes. It is governed by a conftable,
&c. who are guardians of the fait fprings. It is divid¬
ed into two equal parts by the Weever, which is navi¬
gable to Winsford bridge. The Chefter canal, termi¬
nates in a large bafon near this place. In this towTn
were feveral religious foundations, now no more. Fhe
church is a handfome pile of building in. the form of a
crofs, with an octangular tower in the middle.
NAMUR, a province of the Netherlands, lying be¬
tween the rivers Sambre and Made *, bounded on the
north by Brabant, on the eaft and fouth by the biihop-
ric of Liege, and on the weft by Hainault. It is pret¬
ty fertile-, has feveral forefts, marble quarries, and
mines of iron, lead, and pit coal j and is about 3 3
miles loner and 20 broad. Namur is the capital
O
town. _
Namur, a large, rich, and very ftrong town or tue
Netherlands, capital of the county of Namur, with a
rtreng caftle, feveral forts, and a biftiop’s fee. The
moft'confiderable forts are, Fort William, Fort .M,efe,
Fort Coquelet, and Fort Efpmor. The caftle is ouilt
in the middle of the town, on a craggy rock. . It was
befieged by King William in 1695, who took it in the
fight of an army of 100,000 French, though there were
16,000 men in the garrifon. It was ceded to the houfe
of Auftria in 1713, but taken by the French in 1 746 *,
and
N ' A N [ 599 ] NAN
Nan- and reftored by the treaty of Aix-la-Cbap#He. It was
tchang-fou agaln taken by the French in 1792, who evacuated it
Nan kin a the following year, and retook it in 1794. It is fi-
. J v~ tuated between two mountains, at the continence of the
rivers Maefe and Sambre, in E. Long. 4. 57. N. Lat.
5°' 2S-
NAN-tchakg-FOU, the capital of Ktang-fi, a pro¬
vince of China. This city has no trade but that of
porcelain, which is made in the neighbourhood of Jao-
tcheou. It is the refidence of a viceroy, and compre¬
hends in its ditlridl eight cities ; feven of which are of
the third clafs, and only one of the fecond. So much
of the country is cultivated, that the paftures left are
fcarcely fufficient for the flocks.
NANCI, a town of France, in the department of
Meurthe, fituated on the river Meufe, in the centre of
the province. It is divided into the Old and New
Towns. The firft, though irregularly built, is very
populous, and contains the ducal palace : the flreets of
the New Town are as ftraight as a line, adorned with
handfome buildings, and a very fine fquare. The pri-
matial church is a magnificent ftru&ure, and in that of
the Cordeliers are the tombs of the ancient dukes.
The two towns are feparated by a canal ; and the new
town was very well fortified, but the king of France
demolifhed the fortifications. It has been taken and
retaken feveral times ; particularly by the French, to
whom it was ceded in 1736, to enjoy it after the death
of Staniflaus. E. Long. 6. 17. N. Lat. 48. 41.
NANCOWRY, or SOWRY, one of the Nicobar
iflands, lying at the entrance of the bay of Bengal. See
Nicobar.
NANI, John Baptist, ivas born in 1616. His
father was procurator of St Mark, and atnbafFador from
Venice to Rome. He was educated with attention,
and made confiderable improvement. Urban VIII. a
juft valuer of merit, foon perceived that of young
Nani. He was admitted into the college of fenators in
1641, and was fhortly after nominated ambaffador in
France, where he fignalized himfelf by his compliant
manners. He procuied confiderable fuccours for the
war of Candia againft the Turks j and became, after
his return to Venice, fuperintendant of the %var office
and of finances. He was afterwards ambafiador to the
empire ; where he rendered thofe fervices to this coun¬
try which, as a zealous and intelligent citizen, he was
well qualified to difcharge. He was again fent into
France in 1660 to folicit frelh fuccours for Candia;
and on his return was appointed procurator of St Mark.
He died November 5. 1768, at the age of 63, much
regretted'by his countrymen. The fenate had appoint¬
ed him to write the Hiftory of the Republic ; which he
executed to the fatisfadftion of the Venetians, although
the w7ork was lefs admired by foreigners, who were not
proper judges of the accuracy ivith which he ftated the
fa<51s, of the purity of his diftion, nor of the fimplicity
of his flyle ; although it muft be acknowdedged that
his narrative is much interrupted by too frequent paren-
tbefes. In writing his hiftory of Venice he has given
an univerfal hiftory of his times, efpecially with refpefl
to the affairs of the French in Italy. This hiftory,
which is continued from 1613 to 1671, was printed at
Venice in 2 vols 4to, in the years 1662 and i679.
NAN-king, a city of China, and capital of the pro¬
vince of Kjang-nan, is faid to have been formerly one
of the moft beautiful and flourifhing cities in the Nun-
world. When the Chinefe fpeak of its extent, they
fay, if two horfemen fliould go cut by the fame gate,
and ride round it on full fpeed, taking different direc¬
tions, they would not meet before night. This account
is evidently exaggerated ; but it is certain, that Nan¬
king furpaffes in extent all the other cities of China.
We are affured that its walls are five leagues and a half
in circumference.
This city is fituated at the diftance of a league from
the river Yang-tfe-kiang : it is cf an irregular figure;
the mountains which are within its circumference hav¬
ing prevented its being built on a regular plan. It was
formerly the imperial city ; for this reafon it was called
Nan-King, which fignifies, “ the Southern Court
but lince the fix grand tribunals have been transferred
from hence to Peking, it is called Kiang-ning in all the
public a£Is.
Nan-king has loft much of its ancient fplendour : it
had formerly a magnificent palace, no veftige of which
is now to be feen ; an obfervatory at plefent negle<fted,
temples, tombs of the emperors, and other fuperb mo¬
numents, of which nothing remains but the remem¬
brance. A third of the city is deferted, but the reft is
well inhabited. Some quarters of it are extremely po¬
pulous and full of bufinefs ; particularly the manufac¬
ture of a fpecies of cotton cloth, of which great quan¬
tities are imported into Europe under the name of Nan¬
kin. The ftreets are not fo broad as thofe of Peking ;
they are, however, very beautiful, well paved, and
bordered with rich (hops.
In this city refides one of thofe great mandarins
called Tfong-gtou, who takes cognizance of all import¬
ant affairs, not only of both the governments of the
province, but alfo of thofe of the province of Kiang-fi.
The Tartars have a numerous garrifon here, command¬
ed by a general of their own nation; and they occupy
a quarter of the city, leparated from the reft by a plain
wall.
The palaces of the mandarins, whether Chinefe or
Tartars, are in this city neither larger nor better built
than thofe in the capital cities of other provinces. Here
are no public edifices correfponding to the reputation
of fo celebrated a city, excepting its gates, which are
very beautiful, and fome temples, among which is the
famous porcelain tower. It is 200 feet high, and di¬
vided into nine ftories by plain boards within, and
without by cornices and fmall projeflions covered with
green varniffied tiles. There is an afeent of 40 fteps
to the firft ftory ; between each of the others there
are 21.
The breadth and depth of the river Yang-tfe-kiang
formerly rendered the port of Nan-king very commo¬
dious ; but at prefent large barks, or rather Chinefe
junks, never enter it; wffiether it be that it is (hut up
by fand banks, or that the entrance of it has been for¬
bid, in order that navigators may infenftbly lofe all
knowledge of it.
In the months of April and May a great number of
excellent fifti are caught in this river near the city,,
which are fent to court; they are covered with ice,
and tranfported in that manner by barks kept entirely
on purpofe. Although this city is more than 20c
leagues from Peking, thefe boats make fuch expedition,
that they arrive there in eight or nine days. This city,;
though
NAP [ 600 ] NAP
Nanfio though the capital of the province, has under its par-
^ 'h^ ticular jurifdiihion only eight cities of the third clafs.
jThe number of its inhabitants is faid to be 1,000,000,
without comprehending the garrifon of 40,000 men.
E. Long. 119. 25. N. Lat. 32. 46.
NANoIO, an ifland of the Archipelago, a little to
the north of the illand of Sanlorino, 16 miles in cir¬
cumference ; but has no harbour. The mountains are
nothing but bare rocks, and there are not fprings fuffi-
cient to water the fields. There is a vaft number of
partridges, whofe eggs they deftroy every year to pre-
ferve the corn, and yet vart numbers of them are always
produced. The ruins of the temple of Apollo are yet
to be feen, and confift chiefly of marble columns.
E. Long. 26. 20. N. Lat. 36. 15.
NANTES, an ancient, rich, and very confiderable
town of Fiance, in the department of Lower Loire,
with a bifliop’s fee, an univerfity, and a mint. It is
one of the moft confiderable places in the kingdom j
contains the richeft merchants *, and was formerly the
refidence of the dukes of Bretagne, where they built a
very ftrong caflle on the fide of the river, and which is
firongly fortified. There are feveral pariflies, and a
great many religious houfes $ and the cathedral con¬
tains the tombs of the ancient dukes. There are feve¬
ral fine bridges over the river Loire, which is naviga¬
ble. The fuburbs are fo large, on account of the num¬
ber of people that come from all parts to fettle here,
that they exceed the city. The Spaniards trade here
in wine, fine wool, iron, filk, oil, oranges, and le¬
mons ; and they carry back cloth, fluft's, corn, and
bard ware. The Dutch fend fait filh, and all forts of
fpices ; and in return have wine and brandy. The
Sw’edes bring copper 5 and the Englilh, lead, tin,
&c. It was in this place that Henry IV. promul¬
gated the famous edi£t in 1598, called the of
Nantes, and wdiich w’as revoked in 1685. Nantes w^as
anciently, like almoft every confiderable city in Eu¬
rope, very firongly fortified. Peter de Dreux, one of
the dukes of Bretagne, furrounded it wuth walls, which
have only been demoliflied within thefe fewT years. The
bridge is an objeft of curiofity. It is near a mile and a
half in length, being continued acrofs all the little
iflands in the Loire, from north to fouth. The terri¬
tory of Nantes lies on both fides the Loire, and feeds a
great number of cattle. Large veffels can come no
higher than Port Launai, which is 12 miles from
Nantes. W. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat. 47. 13.
NANTWICH. See Namptwich.
NAPiEA, a genus of plants belonging to the po-
lyadelphia clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 37th order, Columnifercv. See Botany
Index.
NAPHTHA, an inflammable fubilance of the bi¬
tuminous kind. See Chemistry and Mineralogy.
NAPHTHALI, or Nephthali (Joftn xix.), one
of the tribes of Ifrael $ having Zabulon on the fo&th,
After on the weft, the Jordan on the eaft, and on the
north Antiiibanus.
NAPIER, John, baron of Merchifton in Scot¬
land, inventor of the logarithms, wTas the eldeft fon of
Sir Archibald Napier ol Merchifton, and born in the
year JJJ0* Having given early difcoveries of great
natural parts, his father was careful to have them cul¬
tivated by a liberal education. After going through
4
the ordinary courfes of philofophy at the univerfity of Napier.
St Andrew’s, he made the tour of France, Italy, and y—
Germany. Upon . his return to his native country,
his literature and other fine accomplifirments foon ren¬
dered him confpicuous, and might have raifed him to
the higheft offices in the ftate : but declining all civil
employments, and the buffle of the court, he retired
from the world to purfue literary refearches, in which
he made an uncommon progrefs, fo as to have favour¬
ed mankind with fundry ufeful difcoveries. He ap¬
plied himfelf chiefly to the ftudy of mathematics but
at the fame time did not negledl that of the Holy
Scriptures. In both thefe he hath difcovered the molt
extenfive knowledge and profound penetration. His
efiay upon the book of the Apocalypfe, indicates the
molt acute inveftigation, and an uncommon ftrength
of judgement j though time hath difcovered, that his
calculations concerning particular events hath proceeded
upon fallacious data. This work has been printed
abroad in feveral languages ; particularly in French at
Rochelle in the year 1593, 8vo, announced in the title
as revifed by himfelf. Nothing, fays Lord Buchan,
could be more agreeable to the Rochellers or to the
Huguenots of France at this time, than the author’s
annunciation of the pope as antichrift, which in this
book he has endeavoured to fet forth with much zeal
and erudition.—But what has principally rendered his
name famous, was his great and fortunate difcovery of
logarithms in trigonometry, by which the eafe and ex¬
pedition in calculation have fo wonderfully affifted the
fcience of ailronaroy and the arts of praflical geometry
and navigation. That he had begun about the year
1593 the train of inquiry which led him to that great
achievement in arithmetic, appears from a letter to
Crugerus from Kepler in the year 1624 ; wherein,
mentioning the Canon Mirifcus, he writes thus j “ Nihil
autem fupra Neperianam rationem effe puto : etfi Sco-
tus quidem literis ad Tychonem, anno 1564, fcriptis
jam fpem fecit Canonis illius mirifici which allu-
fion agrees with the idle ftory mentioned by Wood in
his Athence Oxon. and explains it in a way perfeflly
confonant to the rights of Napier as the inventor.
When Napier had communicated to Mr Henry
Briggs, mathematical profeffor in Grefham college,
his wonderful canon for the logarithms, that learned
profeflor fet himfell to apply the rules in his Imitalio
Nepeirea ; and in a letter to Archbilhop Uiher in the
year 1615, he writes thus: “ Napier, baron of Mer-
chifton, hath fet my head and hands at work with his
new and admirable logarithms. I hope to fee him
this fummer, if it plnafe God 5 for I never faw a book
which pleafed me better, and made me more wonder.”
The following paffage from the life of Lilly the aftro-
loger is quoted by Lord Buchan, as giving a pi£!u-
rtfque view of the meeting betwixt Briggs and the in¬
ventor of the logarithms at Merchifton near Edinburgh.
“ I will acquaint you (fays Lilly) with one memorable
ftory related unto me by John Marr, an excellent ma¬
thematician and geometrician, whom I conceive you
remember. He was fervant to King James I. and
Charles I. When Merchifton firft publifhed his lo¬
garithms, Mr Briggs, then reader of the aftronomy lec¬
tures at Grefiiam college in London, was fo much fur-
p ifed with admiratiop of them, that he could have no
quietnefs in himfelf until he had feen that noble perfon
whofe
NAP [ 601 ] NAP
Napier, whofe only invention they were : he acquaints John
' * w Marr therewith, who went into Scotland before Mr
Briggs, purpofely to be there when thefe two fo learned
^ perfons (hould meet. Mr Briggs appoints a certain day
when to meet at Edinburgh j but failing thereof, Mer-
chifton was fearful he would not come. It happened
one day as John Mart and the baron Napier were
fpeakingof Mr Briggs ; ‘ Ah, John (faid Merchifton),
Mr Briggs will not come.’ At the very inllant one
knocks at the gate; John Marr hailed down, and it
proved to be Mr Briggs to his great contentment. He
brings Mr Briggs up to the baron’s chamber, where
almod one quarter of an hour was fpent, each behold¬
ing the other with admiration before one word was
fpoken. At lalt Mr Briggs began ; 4 Sir, I have un¬
dertaken this long journey purpofely to fee your perfon,
and to know by what engine of wit or ingenuity you
came firll to think of this moil excellent help into allro-
nomy, viz. the logarithms ; but, Sir, being by you
found out, I wonder nobody elfe found it out bfefore,
when now being known it appears fo eafy.’ He was
nobly entertained by Baron Napier ; and every fummer
after that, during the laird’s being alive, this venerable
man, Mr Briggs, went purpofely to Scotland to vilit
him.”
Earl of There is a paffage in the life of Tycho Brahe by
Buchan's Gaffendi, which may millead an attentive reader to
Accomit of that Napier’s method had been explored by
the Writ- Herwart at Hoenburg : It is in Gaffendi’s Obferva-
X— tions on a Letter from Tycho to Herwart of the laft
Napier of day of Augull 1599. “ Dixit Hervartus nihil morari
Merchijlon fe folvendi cujufquam trianguli difficultatem 5 folere
fe enigj multiplicationum, ac divifionum vice additiones
folum, fubtra&iones 93 ufurpare (quod ut fieri poffet,
docuit pollmodum fuo logarithmorum Canone Nt pe-
rus).” But Herwart here alludes to this work after¬
wards publilhed in the year 1610, which folves tri¬
angles by prollaphaerelis j a mode totally different from
that of the logarithms.
Kepler dedicated his Ephemerides, to Napier, which
were publilhed in the year 1617 j and it appears from
many palfages in his letter about this time, that be
held Napier to be the greateft man of his age in the
particular department to which he applied his abili¬
ties. “ And indeed (fays our noble biographer), if
we conlider that Napier’s difcovery was not like thofe
of Kepler or of Newton, connected with any analogies
or coincidences which might have led him to it, but
the fruit of unalMed reafon and fcience, we lhall be
vindicating in placing him in one of the higheft niches
in the temple of Fame. Kepler had made many un-
fuccefsful attempts to difcover his canon for the pe¬
riodic motions of the planets, and hit upon it at laid,
as he himfelf candidly owns, on the 15th of May 1618;
and Newton applied the palpable tendency of heavy
-bodies to the earth to the fyllem of the univerfe in ge¬
neral ; but Napier fought cut his admirable rules by a
flow fcientific progrefs, ariling from the gradual evolu¬
tion of truth.”
The laft literary exertion of this eminent perfon Tvas
the publication of his Rabdology and Promptudry in the
year 1617, which he dedicated to the Chancellor Se-
ton ; and foon after died at Merchifton on the 3d of
April O. S. of the fame vear, in the 68th year of h‘s
VOL. XIV. Part II
age and 23d of his happy invention.—The particular Napier,
titles of his works publiflied are : x. A plain difcovery
of the Revelation of St John. 2. Mirijici ipjius canonis
conjlruciio et logaritJunorum, ad naturales ipforum numeros
habitudines. 3. Appendix de alia atque prcejlantiore loga¬
rithmorum fpecie conjlituenda, in quafcilicet unit as logo-
rithmus ejl. 4 Rhabdologice,feu numerationis pervirgulasy
libri duo. 5. Propojtliones qucedam eminentijjimce, ad tri-
angula fphcerica mira facultate refolvenda. To which
may be added, 6. His letter to Anthony Bacon (the
original of which is in the archbilhop’s library at
Lambeth), entitled, “ Secret inventions, profitable and
neceffary in thefe days for the defence of this ifland,
and withftanding ftrangers enemies .to God’s truth and
religion j” which the earl of Buchan has caufed to be
printed in the Appendix to his Account of Napier’s
Writings. This letter is dated June 2. 1596, about
wEich time it appears the author had fet himfelf to
explore his logarithmic canon.
This eminent perfon was twice married. By his
firft wife, who was a daughter of Sir James Stirling of
Keir, he had only one fon named Archibald, who fuc-
ceeded to the eftate. By his fecond wife, a daughter
of Sir James Chilholm of Cromlix, he had a numerous
ilfue.—Archibald Napier, the only fon^of the firft mar¬
riage, was a perfon of fine parts and learning. Having
more a turn to public bufinefs than his father had, he
vras raifed to be a privy counfellor by James VI. under
whofe reign he alfo held the offices of treafurer-depute,
juftice-clerk, and fenator of the college of juflice. By
Charles I. he was raifed to the peerage by the title of
Lord Napier.
Napier's Rods, or Bones, an inftrument invented
by Baron Napier, whereby the multiplication and dL
vifion of large numbers is much facilitated.
As to the ConJlruElion of Napier's Rods: Suppofe the
common table of multiplication to be made upon a
plate of metal, ivory, or pafteboard, and then con¬
ceive the feveral columns ({landing downwards from
the digits on the head) to be cut afunder ; and thefe
are what we call Napier's rods of multiplication. But
then there mud be a good number of each j for as
many times as any figure is in the multiplicand, fo
many rods of that fpecies (/. e. with that figure on the
top of it) mult rve have 5 though fix rods of each fpe¬
cies will be fufficient for any example in common af¬
fairs : there muft be alfo as many rods of o’s.
But before we explain the way of ufing thefe rods,
there is another thing to be known, viz. that the fi¬
gures on every rod are written in an order different
from that in the table. Thus the little fquare fpace
or divifion in which the feveral produfls of every co¬
lumn are written, is divided into two parts by a line
acrofs from the upper angle on the right to the lower
on the left; and if the produft is a digit, it is fet in
the lower divifion ; if it has two places, the firft is fet
in the lower, and the fecond in the upper divifion j but
the fpaces on the top are not divided ; alfo there is a
rod of digits, not divided, which is called the index rod,
and of this we need but one Angle rod. See the figure
of all the different rods, and the index, feparate from "
one another, in Plate CCCLXIX. fig. r.
Multiplication by Napier's Rods. Firft lay down the
index rod ; then on the right of it fet a rod, whofe
4 G top
NAP [ 602
Napier, top is the figure in the higheft place of the multipli-
cand } next to this again, let the rod whefe top is the
next figure of the multiplicand j and fo on in order to
• -the firft figure. Then is your multiplicand tabulated
for all the nine digits ; for in the fame line of fquares
.Handing againft every figure of the index rod, you have
the product of that figure and therefore you have no
more to do but to transfer the produ£ls and fum them.
But in taking out thefe produdils from the rods, the
order in which the figures Hand obliges you to a very
eafy and fmall addition ; thus, begin to take out the
figure in the lower part, or units place, of the fquare
ot the firft rod on the right ; add the figure in the up¬
per part of this rod to that in the lower part of the
next, and fo on j which may be done as fall as you
can lock on them. To make this practice as clear as
poflible, take the following example.
Example : To multiply 4768 by 385. Having fet
the rods together for the number 4768 (fig. 2.) againft
5 in the index, I find this number, by adding accord¬
ing to the rule, - - 238-40
Againft 8, this number - - 38144
Againft 3, this number - - I43°4
NAP
6i23)2i7978S(356
18369..
Naples.
34288
30615
3673S
Total prodmEl _ - - 1835680
To make the ufe of the rods yet more regular and ea¬
fy, they are kept in a flat fquare box, whofe breadth
-is that of ten rods, and the length that of one rod, as
thick as to hold fix (or as many as you pleafe) the ca¬
pacity of the box being divided into ten cells, for the
different fpecies of rods. When the rods are put up
in the box (each fpecies in its own cell dillinguiflied
by the firft figure of the rod fet before it on the face
of the box near the top), as much of every rod Hands
without the box as {hows the firft figure of that rod :
alfo upon one of the flat fides without and near the
edge, upon the left hand, the index rod is fixed ; and
along the foot there is a fmall ledge j fo that the rods
when applied are laid upon this fide, and fupported by
the ledge, which makes the pradlice very eafy ; but in
cafe the multiplicand fhould have more than nine places,
that upper face of the box may be made broader. Some
make the rods with four different faces, and figures on
each for different purpofes.
D tv i/ton by Napier's Rods. Firft tabulate your di-
vifor •, then you have it multiplied by all the digits, out
of which you may chcofe fuch convenient divifors as
will be next lefs to the figures in the dividend, and
write the index anfwering in the quotient, and. fo con¬
tinually till the work is done. Thus 2179788, divided
by 6123, gives in the quotient 356.
Having tabulated the divifor 6123, you fee that
6123, cannot be had in 21793 therefore take five
places, and on the rods find a number that is equal or
next lefs to 21797, which is 18369 3 that is, 3 times
the divifor 3 wherefore fet 3 in the quotient, and fub-
tra£l 18369 from the figures above, and there will re¬
main 3428 3 to which add 8, the next figure of the
dividend, and feek again on the rods for it, or the next
lefs, which you will find to be five times 3 therefore fet
5 in the quotient, and fubtrad! 30615 from 34288, and
there will remain 3673 ; to which add 8, the laft figure
in the dividend, and finding it to be juft fix times the
divifor, fet fix in the quotient.
NAPLES, a kingdom of Italy, comprehending the
ancient countries of Samnium, Campania, Apulia, and
PTagna Grmcia. It is bounded on all fides by the Me¬
diterranean and Adriatic, except on the north-eaft,
where it terminates on the Ecclefiaftical ftate. Its
greateft length from fouth-eaft to north-weft is about
280 Engliftr miles 3 and its breadth from north-eaft to
fouth-weft, from 96 to 120.
The ancient hiftory of this country falls under the
articles Rome and Italy 3 the prefent ftate of it,
as well as of the reft of Italy, is owing to the conquefts
of Charlemagne. When that monarch put an end
to the kingdom of the Lombards,. he obliged the
dukes of Friuli, Spoletto, and Benevento, to acknow¬
ledge him as king of Italy 3 but allowed them to ex-
ercile the fame power and authority which they had
enjoyed before his conqueft. Of thefe three dukedoms x
Benevento was by far the moft powerful and extenfive, Extent of
as it comprehended almoft all the prefent kingdom of duchy
Naples 3 that part of Farther Calabria beyond the ri¬
vers Savuto and Peto, a few maritime cities in Hither
Calabria, with the city of Acripoli, and the promon¬
tory in its neighbourhood called Capo di Lie of a: and
laftly, the dukedoms of Gaeta, Naples, and Amalfi,
which were very inconfiderable, ,and extended along
the ftrore only about 100 miles, and were interrupted
by the Gaftaldate or county of Capua.
This flouriftring and extenfive dukedom was at this Arechis
time governed by Arechis, who had married one of duke ot Be-
the daughters of the laft king of the Lombards, andneverit0 re-
had fubmitted, and taken the oath ©f allegiance to the )!?'ts/rom
of Benevtn-
to.
emperor Charles. However, a few years after, he
renounced his allegiance to the Franks, declared him
felf an independent fovereign, and was acknowledged
as fuch by all the inhabitants of his duchy. To
{Lengthen himfelf againft Pepin king of Italy, who
refided at Ravenna, he enlarged and fortified the
city of Benevento, and likewife built Salerno on
the fea coaft, furrounding it with a very ftrong and
high wall. He engaged in feveral wars with the
Greeks, whom he fometimes obliged to give him
hoftages 3 but having invaded the territories of the
pope, whom Pepin could not aftift, Charlemagne was
prevailed on to return to Italy. Arechis, unable to
oppofe fuch a formidable enemy, fent his eldeft fon,
Romu;-ld, to Rome, with an offer of fubmiflion : but,
at the inftigation of the pope, Charles refufed the
offer, and detained his fon prifoner.; after which he ra¬
vaged the country, and made himfelf mafter of Capua.
Other deputies, however, proved more fuccefsful 3 and,
in the year 787, a peace was concluded on thefe con¬
ditions : That Arechis and the Beneventans fliould re¬
new their allegiance to the Franks 3 that he Ihould pay a
yearly tribute to Pepin 3 deliver up all his treafure 3 and
give
Charle¬
magne.
Naples.
Submits.
4
Revolts a
feeond
time.
Grirnoald
continues
for feme
time faith¬
ful to the
Franks.
NAP [ 603 ] NAP
give his Ton Grimoald and his daughter x\delgifa, with
twelve others, as holtages for his fidelity : however, after
many entreaties, Adelgila was reftored to her father.
Charles had no fooner left Italy, than Arechis for¬
got all his engagements, and began to negotiate with
Irene, emprefs of Conftantinople, and her fon Con-
fiantine, for expelling the Franks out of Italy. For
himfelf, he defired the honour of patriciate, and the
dukedom of Naples with all its dependencies ; and,
in return, promifed to acknowledge the Greek empe¬
ror as his fovereign, and to live after the manner of
the Greeks. He required, however, to be fupported
by a Greek army ; and that his brother-in-law’ Adal-
gifus, fon to Dei'iderius the laid king of the Lombards,
ihouid be fent over into Italy, to raife a party among
his countrymen. Thefe conditions were readily ac¬
cepted, on condition that Prince Romuald fliould be
fent as an hoftage ; ambaflfadors were fent to Naples
with the enfigns of the Patrician order, namely the
mantle of cloth of gold, the fword, the comb, and the
fandals : but before the ceremony could be performed,
Prince Romuald died, and foon after him his father ;
whofe death was fuppofed to have been haftcned by
that of his fon.
After the death of Arechis, the Beneventans fent
a mcft fubmillive embaffy to Charlemagne, entreating
him to fend them Grimoald, the late king’s fon, and
only lawful heir to his crown ; threatening at the fame
time to revolt if their prince was denied them. Charles
readily granted their requeft, and allowed Grimoald
to depart, after he had agreed to the following con¬
ditions, viz. That he fiiould oblige the Lombards to
fbave their beards •, that, in writings, and on money,
the name of the king (liould be put before that of the
prince y and that he fhould caufe the walls of Salerno,
Acerenza, and Confia, to be entirely demolifhed 
The new king was received by his fubjefls with the
utmoft joy ; and for fome time continued faithful to
his engagements, excepting only the lafl: article, which
he either neglefted or eluded. So far, however, was
he from affitHng the Greeks, that he gave notice of
their machinations to Pepin king of Italy ; raifed an
army to oppofe his uncle Adalgifus ; and being join¬
ed by Plildebrand duke of Spoletto, and Vinigife the
general of Pepin, he attacked the Greeks in Calabria
foon after they had landed, entirely defeated and took
his uncle prifoner, and, as is faid, put him to a cruel
death. Yet in a Ihort time Grimoald contrafted an
alliance with the Greek emperor by marrying his
neice Wanzia ; and in the fifth year of his reign a war
broke out between him and Pepin, which continued
for twelve years •, at the end of which time a truce was
concluded. Grimoald furvived this pacification only
three years, and was fucceeded by his treafurer Gri¬
moald II. who fi.ibmitted to Charlemagne after the
death of Pepin ; and from this time the Beneventans
were looked upon as tributaries of the weftern emperors.
As yet, however, the city of Naples did not own alle¬
giance to the dukes of Benevento, but was held by the
eaftern emperors; and frequent wars took place be¬
tween the Beneventans and Neapolitans. This hap¬
pened to be the cafe when Grimoald II. afcended the
throne. He concluded a peace with them •, which
however, was of no long continuance 5 for Theodore,
governor of Naples, having granted prcteftions to
Dauferius a noble Beneventan, who had been con- Naples,
cerned in a confpiracy againft his prince, Grimoald ’ v “
marched againft the city of Naples, and inverted it by
fea and land. Theodore ftill refufed to deliver up
the traitor, and a general engagement both by land
and fea was the confequence ; in which the Neapo¬
litans were defeated with fo great flaughter, that the
fea was ftained with their blood for more than feven
days. Theodore then confented to deliver up Dau¬
ferius, with 8oco crowns for the expences of the war ;
and Grimoald not only pardoned Dauferius, but re¬
ceived him into favour : The traitor, however, rede<ft-
ing on the heinoufnefs of his crime, was feized with
remorfe ; and went a pilgrimage to the holy land,
carrying a large Hone in his mouth, by way of penance,
which he never took out but at his meals. g
In the year 821, Grimoald was murdered by Ra-7smurder-
delchis count of Confia, and Sico Gaftald of Acerenza, cck and fuc-
the latter of whom fucceeded to the dukedom ofTe'‘ !
Benevento. Radelchis being foon after feized with ‘ *
remorfe, became a monk ; while Sico aflbciated his
fon Sicardo with him in the government 5 and both,
being of an ambitious and reftlefs difpolition, fought 7
a pretence for attacking the Neapolitans. This was Naples be-
foon found, and the city was inverted by fea and land.^5oe<l ^7
The walls were furioufly battered j and part of thenA'0’
being beat down, Sico prepared for a general affault.
Stephen, at that time duke of Naples, pretended to
fubmit ; but, that he might prevent the city from be¬
ing pillaged, entreated Sico to put oft' his entry till
the morning, and in the mean time fent out his mo¬
ther and his two children as hoftages. Sico confented
to his requeft j but next morning found the breach
built up, and the Neapolitans prepared for their de¬
fence. Exafperated at their perfidy, he renewed his
attacks with vigour, but without any fuccefs ; the bc-
fieged defending themfelves with the utmoft obftinacy.
At laft, perceiving that they fliould not be able to
hold out much longer, they confented to a peace on
the following conditions, viz. That the Neapolitans
fhould pay an annual tribute to the princes of Bene¬
vento, and confent to the tranfporting of the body of
St Januarius from his church without the walls of
Naples to Benevento. Thefe conditions being ratified,
S>co returned with great honour to Benevento ; but
foon after renewed the war, under pretence that the
Neapolitans had neglefled to pay the ftipulated fum ;
and hoftilrties continued till his death, which happen¬
ed in 833. _ S
Sico was fucceeded in the government of Benevento ami by his
by his fon Sicardo, who had married the daughter offl}cce^0r
Dauferius ; and being influenced by the evil counfels^^Cdrc*°*
of Roffrid’s his wife’s brother, oppreiTed his fubjeds to
fuch a degree that they confpired againft his life. He
befieged Naples with a powerful army, and took pof-
feflion of Acerra and Atella, both of which he forti¬
fied. But Bonus, the Neapolitan duke, defended
himfelf fo vigoroufly, that the Beneventans were obliged
to retire, and even to abandon Acerra and Atella, the.
fortifications of which were immediately demoliflied.
At laft Sicardo agreed to a peace for five years, on
the interceflion of Lothaire, emperor and king of Italy;
but his chief motive was thought to have been the fear
of the Saracens, whom the duke of Naples had called
over from Africa to his afllftance : for no fooner were
4 G 2 they
NAP
Naples.
t 604 1
N A P
tney fent back than Sicardo attempted to delay the je&s of each other ; and promifed to join their forces Naples,
' concltrfion of the treaty $ but the emperor interpofing in order to drive out the Saracens. Soon after this ~ ^
his authority, a peace was concluded in the year 836, pacification, however, both Radelchis and Siconolphus
;[ after the war had continued, with very little intermix
lion, for 16 years.
Soon after the conclufion of this peace, the Saracens
landed at Brindifi j and having made themfelves mailers
of the place, ravaged all the neighbouring country.
Sicardo marched againll them with a numerous army ;
repulfed with great lofs. However, Sicardo, having
reinforced his army, marched again to attack them ;
but the Saracens, defpairing of fuccefs, pillaged and
burnt Brindifi, and then retired with their booty, and
« great many captives, to Sicily. Sicardo, then, with-
died $ the former appointing his fon Radelgarius,
or Radelcar, to fucceed him ; and the latter leaving
an infant fon, Sico, to the care of his godfather,
Peter. I2
The war with the Saracens proved very unfuccefs-Unfuccefs-
 o „ , ful : neither the united efforts of the princes,, nor the fid war
but the Saracens having dug a great number of ditches affiftance of the emperor Lewis himfelf, being able
which they (lightly covered over, found means to draw expel the infidels j and in 854, Adelgife the fecond dracens'
the Beneventans in among them, whereby they were fon of Radelchis, who had now fucceeded, on the
death of his brother Radelcar, to the principality of
Benevento, was obliged to pay them an annual fub-
fidy. Two years after, Lando, count of Capua, re¬
volted from the prince of Salernp, and could not be
reduced. In the mean time, Sico, the lawful prince
cut any apparent provocation, attacked the city of of Salerno, had been poifoned by Count Lando, and
cardo
murdered
by Radel-
chis, which
brings on a
civil war.
Amalfi, levelled its walls with the ground, carried off
all its wealth, and the body of its tutelar faint Tri-
phomen. A great many of the inhabitants were
tranfported to Salerno ; and by promoting alliances
between the inhabitants of both places, he endeavoured
to unite Amalfi to his own principality as firmly as
poflible.
During all thefe ,tranfa£lions, Sicardo had tyran¬
nized over his fubjefts in fuch a manner, that at laft he
became intolerable. Among other a61s of injuftice,
he imprifoned his own brother Siconolphus ) com¬
pelled him to turn prieft j and afterwards fent him
bound to Tarento, where he caufed him to be Ihut up
in an old tower that had been built for a oiftern. By
fuch a£ls of tyranny his nobles were provoked to con-
fpire againft him 5 and in the year 839 he was mur¬
dered in his tent.
On the death of Sicardo, kadelchis, his fecretary
or treafurer, was unanimoufly eledled prince of Bene¬
vento ; but Siconolphus, the laft king’s brother, hav-
ing regained his liberty, formed a great party againft
the new prince. Radelchis did not fail to oppofe
him with a formidable army 5 and a moft ruinous civil
war enfued. Both parties by turns called in the Sara¬
cens $ and thefe treacherous allies afted fometimes
againft one, and fometimes againft the other j or
turned their arms againft both, as feemed moft fuit-
able to their own intereft. Thus the war continued
with the utmoft animolity for 12 years, during which
time the principality was almoft entirely ruined $ till
Tbe prin¬
cipality di¬
vided.
the principality ufurped by Ademarius, the fon of
Peter above mentioned', hut in 861, Ademarius himfelf
was feized and imprifoned by Gauferius, the fon of
Dauferius formerly mentioned. This was occafioned
by his cruelty and rapacioufnefs, which entirely alie¬
nated the hearts of his fubjefts from him, and encour¬
aged Gauferius to become the head of the confpirators.
The Saracens in the mean time committed terrible
ravages throughout the Beneventan territories ; which
at laft obliged Adelgife to enter into an alliance with
Gauferius, and bqth together fent a moft humble em-
baffy to the emperor Lewis, requefting him to take
them under his proteflion. About the fame time an
embaffy arrived from Conftantinople, propofing a junc¬
tion of the forces of the eaftern and weftern empires
againft the infidels; upon which Lewis gave orders for
affembling a formidable army. But in tbe mean time
Adelgife fell off from his alliance, and made peace
with the Saracens $ nay, according to fome, he en¬
couraged them in their incurfions, and it was at his
defire that they invaded the duchy of Capua, and after¬
wards that of Naples, wdrich they ravaged in a moft
barbarous manner. The Neapolitans, in conjun£lion
with the duke of Spoletto and the count of Marfi, en¬
deavoured to oppofe them •, but being defeated, the
Saracens continued their ravages with redoubled fury,
and retired to Bari, which was their capital city, with
an immenfe booty.
In 866, Lewfis arrived at Sora with his army : and
having marched to Capua, was there joined by Lan- #
at laft the emperor Lewis interpofed, and obliged the dulph, the bifhop and count, with a body of Capuans :
competitors to agree to a partition of the principality, but Landulph foon after perfuading his countrymen to
By this treaty, Radelchis promifed to acknowledge defert, Lewis marched againft that city, which he took
Siconolphus and his fucceffors as lawful princes of the after a fiege of three months, and almoft totally de¬
principality of Salerno, which was declared to contain ftroyed. In the end of the year he was joined by
Tarento, Latiano, Caffano, Coffenzo, Laino, Luca- Gauferius with his quota of troops, having ordered the
dia, Confia, Montella, Rota, Salerno, Sarno, Cirate- eyes of Ardemarius to be put out in his abfence. Lewis
rium, Fureulo, Capua, Feano, Sora, and the half of confirmed him in the principality, and marched with
the Gaftaldate of Acerenza, where it joins Latiano his army to Benevento, where Adelgife - received him
and Confia. The boundary betwixt Benevento and with great refpeft. Having reduced fome inconfider-
Capua was fixed at St Angelo ad Cerros •, Alii Pere- able places belonging to the Saracens, Lewis foon after
grini was made the boundary betwixt Benevento and invefted Bari j but as the Saracens received continual
Salerno, and Staffilo betwixt Benevento and Confia. fupplies from their countrymen fettled in Sicily, and
The monafteries of Monte Caflino and St Vincent
were declared to be immediately under the prote&ion
of the emperor: both princes ftipulated that no hofti-
lities (hould be committed by either againft the fub-
befides were protected by the Neapolitans, he could
not reduce the place till the year 871, though he had
received confiderable afliftance from his brother Lotha-
rius, and the Greek emperor had fent him a fleet of
2€>Q
NAP
[
Naples.
13
They are
at la it ex¬
pelled,
hut foon
return.
15-
The pope
beromes
their ttibu
tary.
200 fail. The expullion of the Saracens was complet¬
ed the fame year by the taking of Tarentoj after which
the emperor returned with great ^lory to Benevento,
refolving next to carry his arms into Sicily, and expel
the infidels from thence alfo. But his future fchemes
of conqueft were frullrated by a quarrel between him
and Adelgife. The latter, pretending to have been in-
fulted by the emprefs, and oppreffed by the French,
feized the emperor himfelf, and kept him prlfoner lor
40 days. His imprifonment would probably have been
of much longer continuance, had not a body of Sara¬
cens arrived from Africa, who, being joined by fuch of
their countrymen as had concealed themfelves in Italy,
laid liege to Salerno with an army of 30,000 men, ra-
vaging the neighbouring country at the fame time v,rith
the utmolt barbarity. By this new invafion Adelgife
was fo much alarmed, that he fet the emperor at liber¬
ty, but firll: obliged him to fwear that he would not re¬
venge the infult that had been offered him, and that he
would never return to Benevento. Lewis having then
joined his forces to thofe of the prince of Salerno, foon
obliged the Saracens to raife the fiege of Salerno j
but though they were prevented from taking that
city, they entirely cleftroyed the inhabitants of Cala¬
bria, leaving it, according to the expreffion of one of
the hiftorians of that time, “ as defolate as it was at the
flood.” '
In the year 873, Lewis .being abfolved from his oath
by the pope, went to Benevento, and was reconciled
to Adclgife *, but foon after this reconciliation he died,
and the Saracens continued their ravages to fuch a de¬
gree that the inhabitants of Bari were conflrained to
deliver up their city to the Greeks. At the fame time
the Salernitans, Neapolitans, Cajetans, and Amalfi-
tans, having made peace with the Saracens, were com¬
pelled to agree to their propofal of invading the terri¬
tories of the Roman pontiff. His holinefs exerted
himfelf to the utmoff, both with fpiritual and tempo¬
ral weapons, in order to defend his right ; but was at
laft reduced to the necefiity of becoming a tributary
- to the infidels, and promifing to pay them a large fum
annually.
in the mean time, all Italy was thrown into the
greatefl confufion by the death of Charles the Bald,
who died of poifon at Pavia, as he was coming to the
pope’s aiTiftance. Sergius duke of Naples continued
a firm friend to the infidels ; nor could he be detached
from their interefts even by the thunder of a papal ex-
communication : but unluckily happening to fall into
the hands of his brother Athanafius bifhop of Naples,
the zeal of that prelate prompted him to put out his
eyes, and fend him a clofe prifoner to Rome •, for which
the higheft encomiums were beftowed on him by the
holy father.
In 876, Adelgife was murdered by two of his ne¬
phew's •, one of wdrom, by name Gcnderis, feized the
principality. About the fame time Landulph bifhop
of Capua dying, a civil w-ar enfued among his children,
though their father’s dominions had been divided a-
mong them according to his will. The princes of Sa¬
lerno and Benevento, the duke of Spoletto, and Gre¬
gory the Greek governor of Bari and Otranto, took
different fides in the quarrel, as they thought mofl:
proper; and to complete the confufion, the new biihop
was expelled, and his brother, though a laymen, cho-
605 ] NAP
fen to that office, and even confecrated by the pope, ^
who wmote to Gauferius,'- forbidding him to attack Ca¬
pua under pain of excommunication. But though Gau-
ferius was, in general, obedient to the pope’s com¬
mands, he proved refrattory in this particular, and laid
fiege to Capua for^tvvo years fucceffively.
Thus the Capuan territories were reduced to the
moft miferable fituation j being obliged to maintain at
the fame time the armies of the prince of Benevepto
and the duke of Spoletto. Tne Saracens, in the mean
time, took the opportunity of {Lengthening themfelves
in Italy ; and Athanafius, notwithftanding the great
commendations he had received from the pope for put¬
ting out his brother’s eyes, confepted to enter into an
alliance with them, in conjunction with whom he ra¬
vaged the territories of the pope, as well as thofe of
Benevento and Spoletto, plundering all the churches,
monafteries* towns, and villages, through which they
paffed. At the fame time the prince of Salerno was
obliged to grant them a fettlement in the neighbour¬
hood of his capital ; the duke of Geeta invited them
to his affifiance, being oppreffed by the count of Ca¬
pua } and even the pope himfelf was obliged to make
peace with them, and to grant them a lettlement on
the north fide of the Carigliano, where they fortified
themfelves, and continued for more than 40 years.
To put a flop to the confufion which reigned in
Italy, the pope now thought proper to reftore the bi¬
fhop of Capua, who had been expelled, but allowed his
brother to refide in the city, and govern one half of
the diocefe ; but notwithftanding this partition, the
civil diffenfions continued with the utmoft violence, the
neareft relations murdering or banifhing each other,
according as the fortune of the one or the other pre¬
vailed. "Athanafius, notwithftanding all the pope’s re-
monftrances, continued his alliance with-the Saracens j
in conjunction with whom he ravaged the territory of
Benevento, and fomented the divifions in Capua, in
hopes of being able to make a conqueft of it. At laft
his holinefs thought proper to jffue a fentence of ex-
communication againft him : but this attached him to
the Saracens more than ever : infornuch that he fent
to Suchaim, king of the Saracens in Sicily, defir¬
ing him to come over and command a great body of
his countrymen who had fettled at the foot of Mount
Vefuvius. Suchaim accepted the invitation, and im¬
mediately turned his arms againft Athanafius ; allow¬
ing his troops to live at diferetion in the territory of
Naples, where they raviihed the women, and plunder¬
ed the inhabitants. 7'hefe calamities were, by the fu-
perftitious Neapolitans, imagined to be a confequence
of the fentence of excommunication 5 and therefore
they ufed their utmoft endeavours to perfuade the pre¬
late to conclude a league with fome Chriftian prince,
and renounce all connexion with the infidels. In this
they at laft proved luccefsful, and Athanafius con¬
cluded an alliance with Guaimarius prince of Saler¬
no j in confequence of which the Saracens were obli¬
ged to quit the Neapolitan territories, and retire to
Agropoli. Athanafius then direfied his force againft
Capua, of which he made himfelf mafter in. the year
882. The Saracens, however, ftill continued their in-
curfions, and ravaged feveral provinces in fuch a man¬
ner, that they became entirely defolate.
Thefe confufions continued for a long time y during
• which
Napfe.
Naples.
16
The Sara¬
cens almoft
entirely cut
off.
17
The Nor¬
mans firft
known in
Italy.!
.NAP [ 60
which the Greeks foui'id an opportunity of making
themfelves mafters of Benevento, and well nigh became
matters alfo of Salerno*, but in this they failed through
the treachery of the bithop, and in the year 896 they
were totally expelled by the bithop, four years after
they had become mailers of it. In 915 the Saracens
received fuch an overthrow at Carigliano, that fcarce
one of them remained. However, a new body foon ar¬
rived from Africa, and infefted the fea coalts for fome
time longer. A war alfo enfued between Landulph
and the Greeks; which concluded difadvantageoudy
for the former, who was obliged to fubmit to the empe¬
ror of Confbntinople in 943.
In 961, Otho the Great, king of Germany, invaded
Italy with a powerful army againft Berengarius III.
and, marching to Rome, received the imperial crown
from the hands of the Pope. In 964, he erefted Ca¬
pua into a principality, received homage from the
other princes of Lombardy, and formed a defign of re¬
covering Puglia and Calabria from the Greeks. But
in this Jail fcheme he failed ; and after various hoftili-
tres a treaty was concluded, and the young princefs
Theophania married to Otho’s fon, afterwards em¬
peror.
All this time the Saracens continued their incurfions;
and the Greeks had gained ground fo much, that they
were now7 in poffeflion of two thirds of the prefent
kingdom of Naples *, but in the year 1002 or 1003, the
Normans firll began to be remarkable‘in Italy. They
had, about a century before, embraced Chriftianity, and
become very zealous in all the fuperllitions w'hich wTere
then pra&ifed. They were particularly zealous in vifi-
fiting facred places, efpecially Rome, and the holy fe-
pulchre at Jerufalem ) and being naturally of a very
martial difpofition, they forced through great bodies of
Greeks and Saracens who eppofed their pafiage. A-
bout this time 40, or, as others write, 100, of thefe
Normans, returning from Jerufalem by fea, landed at
Salerno in the habit of pilgrims, where they were ho¬
nourably received by Guaimarius. During* their refi-
dence at Salerno, a great body of Saracens landed, and
invefted the city. Guaimarius, net being in a condi¬
tion to oppofe the invaders by force, wras preparing to
pay them a large fum of money, w'hich they demanded,
when the Normans propofed to attack them 5 and, hav-
ing got arms and horfes from the prince, they engaged
the infidels with fuch fury and bravery, that they en¬
tirely defeated them, and obliged them to fly to their
(hips. By this complete vidfory Guaimarius was filled
with fuch admiration of the valour of thefe flrangers,
that he entreated them to remain in his country ; offer¬
ing them lands, and< the moft honourable employ¬
ments : but net being able to prevail with them to flay
in Italy, or even accept of his prefents ; at their depar¬
ture he fent fome ambaffadors with them to Normandy,
in veffels loaded with exquifite fruits, rich furniture for
horfes, &.c. in order to allure the valiant Normans to
leave their own country. This kind invitation encou¬
raged a Norman chief, named Ofmond Dt ergot, to fettle
in Italy about the year 1015 ; having killed another
lord in a duel, wT.ich obliged him to leave his own
country, in erder to avoid the refentment of his fove-
reign, Robert duke of Normandy. In the mean time,
the city of Bari had revolted from the Greeks, and
chofen one Mello tbr their leader, whole W’ife and
2
6 ] NAP
children happened foon after to fall into the hands of Naples,
their enemies, and were fent prifoners to Confiantinople. ' ''~r
No fooner, therefore, did Mello hear of the arrival of
thefe adventurers, than he engaged them to afliff him ; turn and
and having drawn together a confiderable army, defeat7defeat the
ed the Greeks with great flaughter, and obliged them Greeks,
to abandon their camp. In this engagement the Nor¬
mans diftinguilhed themfelves by their bravery *, and
the news of their fuccefs focn brought from Norman¬
dy an innumerable multitude of their countrymen,
with their wives and children. By this reinforcement,
Mello gained two other victories, took a great many
towns, and obliged the Greeks to abandon a large
territory ) but, in io 19, they were utterly defeated, I9
and every thing recovered by the Greeks. The Greek ^
general, Bajanus, continued to go on with fuch fur-e(;l
prifing fuccefs, that he almoft entirely re-eftabliihed
the affairs of his countrymen in Italy, and made a di-
ftinft province of the weftern part of Puglia, which
he called Capatanata, and which to this day retains the
name of Capitanata. His great progrefs at laft alarm¬
ed the emperors of Germany ; and, in Pandul-
phus prince of Capua made himlelf mailer of Naples ;
but w7as obliged, three years afterwards, to leave it, by
the Normans, who built the city of Avcrfa, which
was now erefled into a county. In confequence of this
piece of good fortune, great numbers of Norman ad¬
venturers migrated into Italy *, among whom were Wil¬
liam, Drogo, and Umbert, three of the Tons of Tancred
duke of Hautville *, from whofe poflerity thofe princes
w7ere defeended, who firfl: conquered the illand of Sicily
from the Saracens, and formed the prelent kingdom of
Naples.
In 1040, the Greek emperor Michael Paleologus,
in order to fecure the affection of his fickle fubje&s,
undertook the conqueft of Italy from the Saracens,
and for that purpofe fent a general named Michael Ala-
riacus into Sicily. This commander, hearing of the
great reputation of the Normans, fent to Guaimariu®,
prince of Salerno, entreating him to grant him fome
of thofe w'arriors. His requellwas moll willingly heark¬
ened to by the prince of Salerno, who, to encourage
the Normans to engage in the expedition, promifed
them fome additional rewards befides the emperor’s pay. 20
William, Drogo, and Umbert, accordir.g’y marched The Nor-
from Salerno with 300 of their countrymen ; and paf-m:,ns.Pals
ling over into Sicily, diftinguilhed themfelves tnoft re-
markably in the conqueff of that illand. Maniacus ac¬
knowledged, that the recovery of Mefiina was chiefly
owing to their valour j and William with his Normans
gained a complete viflory over the Saracens before Sy-
racufe, where he killed the governor of the city m
Angle combat. Maniacus made himfelf mailer of Gy-
racufe, and almoft entirely reduced the whole ifland ;
but being accufed of treafen, was next year carried
prifoner to Conftantinople. His fucceffor Dcceanu?,
being a man of no abilities, quickly loft the whole
ifland except Meffina, and treated his Norman auxi¬
liaries with the utmoft contempt. He would not al¬
low them any fha^e of the booty *, and even caufed one
Ardoin, a noble Lombard, and affociate and interpre¬
ter of the Normans, to be whipped round the camp,
becaufe he refufed to part with the horfe of a Saracen
whom he had (lain in Angle combat. I he confequences
of this tyrannical behaviour were very fatal to the
Greeks.
NAP [ 6<
Naples. Greeks. Ardoin Toon after obtained leave to return ^
-""■-v to Italy under a pretence of a vow, and all the Normans
embarked at night along with him ; but inllead of go-
ing to Rome, Ardoin went immediately to Averfa,
where he perfuaded Count Rainulphus, fovereign of
that province, to join with him in the defign he had
formed of attacking the Greek provinces in Italy,
which he ftiowed him, would be an eafy conqueft, as
the inhabitants fubrmtted with great reluctance to the
Greeks, and the provinces were at that time almoft en¬
tirely defencelefs. Rainulphus approved of the fcheme,
and raifed 3°i:-) foldiers, whom he fent under 12 offi¬
cers to join the other Normans under the fans of Tan-
21 cred ; and made an agreement with Ardoin, that the
Their con- conqueits ffiould be equally divided among the chief
queft.     J ^
leaders. 'Fheir firft enterprife was the redu&ion of
Melphis, one of the ftrongeft cities in Puglia, which
prefently furrendered j and they increafed its fortifica¬
tions fo much, that it thenceforth became impregnable.
Soon after this they made themfelves mailers of Veno-
la, Afcoli, and Layello, with very little oppofition.
Doceanus, alarmed with the rapidity of their con¬
queits, immediately left Sicily, and marched with his
army into Puglia, where he attacked the invaders near
tue river Ohviento $ but after a fierce engagement, he
was obliged to retire with confiierable lofs. The
Greeks were foon after defeated a fecond time at Can-
nse j and in a third engagement, which happened near
the river Ofahto, the army of Doceanus was entirely
routed, and he himfelf obliged to fly to Bari. On
this bad fuccefs Doceanus was ordered to return to
his command in Sicily, and anotsier general was fent
with an army into Puglia. This new commander,
however, had no better fuccefs than his predeceifor \
for his army was entirely defeated in an engagement
with the Normans, and he himfelf taken prifoner. A-
tenulphus, brother to one of the princes of Benevento
on whom the Normans had conferred the chief com¬
mand, fet at liberty the captive general without con-
fulting them, on receiving from him a confiderable
fum of money. With this the Normans were fo much
difpleafed that .they deprived Atenulphus of his com¬
mand, and bellowed it on Argyrus fon to the late
Mello, who had efcaped from Conflantinople, and now
affirmed the title of duke and prince of Italy. Before
this time alio Tvlaniacus, whom we have formerly men¬
tioned, had returned to Italy ; and to ftrike the great¬
er terror into the revolted cities, had executed a mum-
ber of people of all ages and fexes with great inhuma¬
nity. Soon after this Maniacus openly rebelled againft
the Greek emperor Conftantinus, and prevailed upon
his own army to proclaim him emperor, beginning
hoftilitres immediately againft the Greek cities. Ar-
gyius at the lame time took Giovenazzo and belieged
I rani, and foon after befieged Maniacus himfelf in
larento but he, being afraid of falling into the
hands of the Normans, fled to Otranto, and from thence
to Bulgaria, where, being entirely defeated by one of
the emperor’s generals, he was taken prifoner, and had
his head ftruck off.
The Normans having now conquered the greateft
patt of Puglia, proceeded to make a divifion of their
conqueft, in which, after each commander bad got his
proper ftiare, the city of Melfis was left common to all,
and appropriated as a place for affembling to confult
:? ] NAP
about the moft important affairs of the nation. Argyrus Naples.
alone was negle&ed in this divifion j but he, having '  —f
gained the favour of the emperor by expelling the re¬
bel Maniacus from Italy, was by him created duke of
Bari, on purpofe to check the power of the Normans,
with the title of prince and duke of Puglia. The Nor¬
mans, however, were too powerful to be much awed
by Argyrus, and behaved with great infolence to the
neighbouring princes ; but as they could not be expel¬
led by force, and were confirmed in their conquefts by
Henry II. emperor of Germany in 1047, t^!e Greek
emperor attempted to get rid of them, by lending Ar¬
gyrus with large fums of money to bribe them to en¬
ter into his fervice againft the Perfians. But they,
perceiving the fnare, replied that they were refolved
not to leave Italy unlefs they were expelled by force :
upon which Argyrus made ufe of the fame money in 2,,
bribing the Puglians to affaffinate thefe invaders. This Great rum-
brought on a maflacre, in which greater numbers ct^eisoi tfiem
Normans periftied than had fallen in all the late wars.ra?lffacre(i-
Argyrus attempted to take advantage of the confufion
produced by this maffacre, but was defeated ; after
which he had recourfe to Pope Leo, befeeching him
to^ deliver Italy from thefe cruel tyrants : but this
fcheme proved ftill more unfuccefsful than the others
had been ; for the pope himfelf was defeated and ta- 23
ken prifoner j and, in confequence of the relpedl ftiovv- They are
ed him by the Normans, granted them, as a fief of theconfin"ed
holy fee, all the conquefts they had made or ffiould °-pe
make in Calabria and Sicily. m aU *7
boon alter this, the Norman power became extreme¬
ly formidable 5 the famous Robert Guifcard afeended
tne throne in 1056. He made great progrefs in the
conqueft of Calabria, and reduced moft of the cities
which held out for the Greeks in thefe parts. About
th~ fame time the counts of Capua were expelled from
their territory ; and the abbot Defiderius mentions his
having feen the children of Landulphus V. the laft
count, going about as vagabonds, and begging for
their fupport. I he pope alarmed by thefe conquefts,
excommunicated the Normans in vvholefale, pretending
that they had leized lome of the territories belonging
to the church ; but, by the pretended fubnuffion of
Robert, he not only was perfuaded to take off the fen-
tence of excommunication, but to inveft him with the
provinces of Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily. After
this, he continued the war againft the Greeks with
great fuccefs. In 1071, in conjundHon with his bro-Sicilyton-
ther Roger, he conquered the ifland of Sicily, and quered by
gave the inveftiture of the whole illand to him with theRo^ert
title of count, referving to himfelf only the half of Pa- Guifcard»
lermo, Meffino, and the valley of Demona. The like
fuccefs attended his arms againft Salerno in 1074 j but
after this, having unadvifedly taken forae places from
the pope, he again fell under the fentence of excom¬
munication 5 yet he was reconciled to him in 1080, and
received a fecond time the inveftiture of all his domi¬
nions. The next year he undertook an expedition
againft the Greeks 5 and though the emperor was af-
fifted by a Venetian fleet, Robert made himfelf mailer
or the ifland of Corfu, reduced Durazzo, and great
part of Romania ; infomuch that by the fuccefs of his
arms, and his near approach to Conflantinople, he
(truck an univerfal terror 9mong the Greeks. But
while Robert ivas thus extending his conquefts, he was
alarmed 1
NAP [ 608 ] NAP
Naples, alarmed by the news of a formidable rebellion in Italy,
' v and that the emperor Henry had taken the city of
Rome, and clofely ftiut up the pope in the caflle of St
Angelo. Robert, therefore, leaving the command o£
the army to his fon Boemund, returned to Italy, where
he immediately difperfed the rebels, and releafed the
pope, while his fon gained a conliderable vidlory over
the Greeks. After this Robert made great prepara¬
tions for another expedition into Greece, in order to
fecond his fon Boemund. Alexius Comnenus, who
was about this time declared emperor by the Greek ar¬
my, being afliiled by the Venetian fleet, endeavoured
to oppofe his paflage ; but was entirely defeated, with
the lofs of a great many galleys. But a final flop was
now put to his enterprifes by his death, which hap¬
pened in the ifland of Corfu in 1085.
Though the power of the Normans was thus tho¬
roughly eftablilhed in Italy and Sicily, and though
the prince of Benevento was in 1130 invefted by the
pope with the title of king of Sicily j yet by reafon of
the civil diflenfions whicli took place among themfelves,
and the general confufion which reigned in Italy in
thofe ages, they were obliged; notwithftanding all
And by the their valour, to fubmit to the emperor in 1x95. By
emperor of him the Sicilians were treated with fo great cruelty,
Germany, emgrefs Conftantia was induced to confpire
againft him in 1197, took him prifoner, and releafed
him only on condition of his fending off his army im¬
mediately for the Holy Land. This was complied with;
but the emperor did not long revive the reconciliation,
being poifoned, as was fuppofed, by order of the em-
prefs.
In 1254 the pope claimed the kingdom as a fief
devolved on the church in confequence of a fentence of
depofition pronounced againft King Frederick at the
council of Lyons; and, in 1263, the kingdom was,-in
confequence of this right, conferred on Charles count
of Anjou. After much contention and bloodftied, the
26 French thus became mafters of Sicily and Naples.
The French Xheir government wras infupportably tyrannical; and
become at ^ fame t;me the haughtinefs of their king fo pro-
Sicilylnd v°kecl P°Pe» that he refolved to humble him.—
Naples. Charles had refolved on an expedition againft Conftan-
tinopl^; and for this purpofe had fitted out a fleet of
100 galleys, 33 large fhips, 200 tranfports, befides
many other frnaller veflels, on board of which he in¬
tended to embark 10,000 horfe, and a numerous ar¬
my of foot. This formidable armament greatly alarm¬
ed the emperor Michael Paleologus; for which reafon
he entered into a negotiation with John di Procida, a
noble Salernitan, lord of the ifle of Procida in the bay
of Naples, who had formed a fcheme for a general re¬
volt in the ifland of Sicily. John, though a noble¬
man, was alfo a phyfician, and had been counfellor to
two former princes, and even to King Charles himfelf;
but being ftripped of his eftate by the king under pre¬
tence of treafon, and his wife being debauched by the
French, he retired to Conftantia queen of Arragon,
where he was created a baron of the kingdom of Va¬
lencia, by her hulband King Peter, and lord of Luxen,
Benizzanp, and Palma. As he was greatly exafperat-
cd againft the French, he employed many fpies both
in Puglia and Sicily ; and being informed that the Si¬
cilians were totally difaffedLd to the French, he came
to the ifland in difguife, and concerted a plan with the
3
moil: powerful of the malecontents for a revolution in Naples,
favour of Conftantia, though {he derived her right only '
as being the daughter of a former ufurper named Man¬
fred. Procida then^et out for Conftantinople, where
in fome private conferences wdth the emperor, he per-
fuaded him, that the moft probable means of defeating
Charles’s icheme was by afliftin'g the Spaniards and
Sicilian malecontents. Paleologus accordingly grant¬
ed him a large fum of money, and on his departure
lent one of his fecretaries along with him, who, land¬
ing in Sicily, had a conference with the chief conipi-
rators. John, having received letters from thpm, dif-
guifed himfelf in the habit of a Francifcan, and went
to Suriano in the neighbourhood of Rome. As he wrell
knew the enmby which fubfifted between the pope and
King Charles, he difclofed his defign to his holinefs:
who readily entered into his meafures, wrote to Peter
to haften his armament, promifing him the inveiliture
of the ifland as foon as he pad taken poffeflion of it ;
and, by refufing the afliilance he had promifed to
Charles, obliged him for the pvefent to delay his ex¬
pedition. In the beginning of the year 1 280, Procida
returned to Arragon, and by fliowing the letters from
the pope and Sicilian barons, prevailed on Peter to
embark in his defign, by afluring bim of the afliftance
of Paleologus. This king of Arragon accordingly pre¬
pared a formidable fleet under pretence of invading
Africa, and is even faid to have received 20,000 du¬
cats from Charles, in order to aflift him in his prepa¬
rations.
But while John went on thus fuccefsfully with his
fcheme, all his meafures were in danger of being broke
by the death of Pope Nicholas. The new pope, Mar¬
tin IV. was entirely in the intereft of Charles, on whom,
in 1281, he conferred the fenatorial dignity of Rome.
Procida, however, ftill refolved to profecute bis fcheme;
and, leaving Italy, had another conference with the
conf^irators in Sicily ; after which, he again went to
Conftantinople, and obtained from Paleologus 30,000
ounces of gold, with which he immediately returned
to Arragon. The death of Nicholas had damped the
ardour of Peter; but, being urged with great earneft-
nefs by John, he again renewed his preparations;
which alarmed the pope and the king of France. In
confequence of this they feat a meflage to him, defi¬
ring to know againft what Saracens he defigned to
employ his armament. In this particular Peter refu-
fed to fdtisfy them ; upon which they earneftly conn-
felled Charles to guard againft an invafionj but he
negle&ed their advice, being wholly intent on his
eaftern expedition, and encouraged by a revolt which
had happened in Greece; and to facilitate his expedi¬
tion, he prevailed on the pope to excommunicate the
Greeks, on pretence that they had broken fome of the
articles of union concluded at the council of Lyons a
few years before. Peter in the mean time continued
his preparations with great diligence, intending to put
to fea the following fummer. Procida had returned to They "arc
Palermo, to wait for a favourable opportunity of put-maffacred.
ting his defign in execution, which was foon afforded
him by the French. On Eafter Monday, March 30.
1282, the chief confpirators had affembled at Palermo ;
and, after dinner, both the Palermitans and French
went in a grand proceffion to the church of Monreale,
about three miles without the city. While they were
1 fporting
I
NAP [ 609 ] NAP
Naples, fporting in th? fields, a bride happened to pafs by with
r—“ her train, who being obferved by one Drochettus, a
Frenchman, he ran to her, and began to ufe her in a
rude manner, under pretence of fearching for conceal¬
ed arms. A young Sicilian, exafperated at this af¬
front, {tabbed him with his own fword ; and a tumult
enfuing, 200 French were immediately murdered. The
enraged populace then ran to the city, crying out,
“ Let the French die, Let the French die j” and, with¬
out difiindtion of age or fex, (laughtered all of that na¬
tion they could find, even fuch as had fled to the churches.
The confpirators then left Palermo, and excited the in¬
habitants to murder the French all over the ifland, ex¬
cepting in Meflina, which city at firft refufed to be con¬
cerned in the revolt. But, being invited by the Paler¬
mitans to throw off the French yoke, a few weeks after,
the citizens in a tumultuous manner deftroyed fome of
the French j and pulling down the arms of King Charles,
• and eredfing thofe of the city, chofe one Baldwin for
their governor, who faved the remaining French from
the fury of the populace, and allowed them to tranfport
themfelves, with their wuves and children to Italy.
Eight thoufand perfons are faid to have been murdered
on this occafion.
Immediately after this maffacre, the Sicilians offered
their allegiance to the king of Arragon ; who accepted
of the invitation, and landed with his forces at Trapani.
From thence he went to Palermo, wFere he was crown¬
ed king of Sicily with great folemnity, and Charles left
the ifland with precipitation. The day after he landed
his army in Italy, the Arragonian fleet arrived, took
29 of his galleys, and the next day burnt So tranfports
in prefence of his army. Soon after this Charles fent
an embaffy to Peter, accufing him of perfidy, in invading
his dominions in time of peace j and, according to fome,
challenged him at the fame time to decide the matter
by fingle combat. Others fay that the challenge was
given by Peter. Certain it is, however, that a chal¬
lenge was given, and to appearance accepted : but Pe¬
ter determined to employ much more effe£tual means in
fupport of his pretenfions than trufting to a duel; and
therefore pulhed on his operations moff vigoroufly,
while his adverfary trifled away his time : and thus he
at laft became mafter of the contefted kingdom ; which,
however, he did not long enjoy, dying about the end of
the year 1285.
By his will, Peter left the kingdom of Arragon to
his eldefl fon Alphonfus, and Sicily to Don James
his other fon, wdio was alfo to fucceed to the kingdom
of Arragon in cafe Alphonfus fliould die w ithout male
iffue. Accordingly, Don James wTas folemnly crown¬
ed at Palermo the 2d of February 1286. In 1295
however, he deferted them, and tamely refigned up his
right to Charles, fon to him above mentioned, in a
manner perhaps unparalleled. On his refignation the
Sicilians conferred the crown upon his brother Don
Frederic : after which the war continued with great
violence till the year 1303, when a peace was concluded,
and the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily formally dis-
^ joined j Frederic being allowed to keep the latter, under
doiwoft,ue name Trinacria ; and Charles being confirmed
Naples and in t^ie pofleflion of the former, which he quietly enjoy-
Sicilydif- ed till his death in 1309.
joined. Naples continued to be governed bv its own kings
. Vol. XIV. Part II.
till the beginning of the 16th century, when the kings Naples,
of France and Spain contended for the fovereignty of ^
this country. Frederic, at that time king of Naples,
refigned the fovereignty to Louis XII. on Being created
duke of Anjou, and receiving an annual penfion of 20
30,000 ducats. But, in 1504, the French w'ere entire-The Spa.
ly defeated by the Spainards, and obliged to evacuate niards he-
the kingdom', and the following year Louis renoun-
ced all pretenfions to the crown, which from that timeN.|p;"s_
hath remained aimofl conflantly in tiie hands of the
Spaniards.
The government of the Spaniards proved no lefs op-
preflive to the Neapolitans than that of others had been.
The kings of Spain fet no bounds to their exactions,
and of confequence the people w'ere loaded with all
manner of taxes; even the moll indifpenfable necefia-
ries of life not being exempted. In 1647, a new tax
was laid on fruit •, which the people looked upon a;
the molt grievous oppreflton, the chief part of their
fubfiflence, during the fummer months, being fruit,
which in the kingdom of Naples is very plentiful and
delicious. The edicl for colledting the new duty was
no fooner publiflied, than the people began to murmur A general
in a tumultuous manner •, "md w hen the viceroy came revolt,
abroad, they furrounded his coach, bawfling out to
have their grievances redreffed. They were encoura¬
ged in their fedition, by the news that the citizens of
Palermo had atlually revolted on account of {he im-
pofition of new duties. The viceroy, therefore, appre-
henfive of greater diforders, began to think of taking
off the tax ; but thofe who farmed the tax having brib¬
ed fome of his favourites, he wras by their means per-
fuaded not to abolifli it. The indignation of the people,
w’ho had fufpefted his intention, w'as now greatly in-
creafed, efpecially as they were privately excited by fe-
veral malecontents. The farmers of the revenue, and
all thofe concerned in railing the taxes, had incurred
the hatred and deteilation of the people, particularly
of Tommafo Aniello, commonly called MaJJaniello of Acrount of
Amalfi, a fi flier man, whole wife, having been difcovered Maffanie!*
in fmuggling a fmall quantity of meal., w;as imprifoned,^'
and condemned to pay a fine of 100 ducats.
Maffaniello, a few years before, had come to Naples
from Amalfi, where his father had been a filherman.
At this time he was about 24 yeafs of age, and the
father of Jour children. He was of a middle flature,
and an agreeable afpedf ; w7as diftinguifhed for his bold-
nefs, adlivity, and integrity : and had a great influence
with his companions, by wFom he wras beloved and
efteemed. As he was obliged even to fell his furniture
to pay the heavy fine, he had conceived an implacable
hatred againft the farmers of the taxes, and was alfo
moved wdth compaflion for the miferable Hate of the
city and kingdom. He therefore formed a defign,
with fome of his companions, to raife a tumult in the
market place on the feflival-day of the Carmelites,
uiually celebrated about the middle of July, when be¬
tween 500 and 6co youths entertain the people by a
mock fight j one half of them, in the charafter of
Turks, defending a wooden cafile, which is attacked
and flormed by the other half in the charadter of
Chriftians. Maffaniello being appointed captain of
one of thefe parties, and one Pione, who was privy to
his defign, commanding the other, for feveral weeks
, 4 H before
NAP [ 610 ] NAP
Kopies, before the feRival they were very diligent in reviewing
and training their follcw’ers, who were armed with
flicks and feeds : but a fmall and unforefeen accident
tempted them to begin their enterp^ife without waiting
for the feftival.
On the 7vh of'July a difpute happening in the mar¬
ket-place betwixt the tax-gatherers and fume garden¬
ers of Pozzuolo who had brought fome figs into the
city, whether the buyer or feller fliould pay the du¬
ty ; after the tumult had continued feveral hours, Ma(-
faniello, who was prefent rvith his company, excited
the mob to pillage the office built in the market for
receiving the duty, and to drive away the officers
with Hones. The cleft of the people, who, by decid¬
ing again!! the gardeners, had increafcd the tumult,
ran to the palace, and informed the viceroy, who mold
imprudently neglefled all means of putting a flop to
the commotion. Mafianiello, in the mean time, being
joined by great numbers of people, ordered his young
troop to let fire to all the offices for the taxes through
the city; which command being executed with de-
fpatch, he then conducted them direflly to the palace,
where the viceroy, inflead of ordering his Spaniffi and
German guards to difperfe them, encouraged their in-
folence by timidly granting their demands. As they
rufhed into the palace in a furious manner, he efcaped
by a private door, and endeavoured to fave himfelf in
Cqftel del Ovo ; but being overtaken by the rioters in
the flreets, he was trampled upon by them, and pulled
by the hair and whifkers. However, by throwing fome
handfuls of gold among them, he again efcaped, and
took fanfluary in a convent of Minims, v\here, being
joined by the archbiffiop of Naples, Cardinal Filoma-
rini, and feveral nobles, by their advice he figned- a bil¬
let, by which he aboliffied all taxes upon provifions.
As a means to quell the tumult, he likewife defired
the cardinal to offer MafTanieJdo a penfion of 2400
crowns, who generoufly rejefled the bribe ; and declar¬
ed, that if the viceroy would keep his word, he would
find them obedient fubjefls.
It was now expefled that the tumult wrould ceafe ;
but Malfaniello, upon his return to the market-place,
being joined by feveral malecontents, among whom
were Genuino and one Peronne, who had formerly
been a captain of the Sbirri, he was advifed by them
to order the houfes of thofe concerned in railing the
tax to be burned ; which were accordingly in a few days
reduced to affies, with all their rich furniture. Malfa¬
niello being now abfolute mafler of the whole city,
and being joined by great numbers of people of defpe-
rate fortunes, he required the viceroy, who had reti¬
red to the Cajlel Nuovo, to a^olifli all the taxes, and to
deliver up the writ of exemption granted by Charles V.
This new demand greatly embarraffed the viceroy ;
but to appeafe the people, he drew up a falfe deed in
letters of gold, and fent it to them by their favourite
the duke of Matalone, who had before been in con¬
finement. The fraud, however, being difcovered, the
duke was pulled from his horfe and maltreated by the
raob, and at length committed as a prifoner to Peronne.
This accident, to the great joy of the viceroy, enraged
the people againfl the nobility, feveral of whom they
killed, burnt the houfes of others, and threatened to
extirpate them all. Maffanielloj in the me^n time? tat¬
tered and half naked, commanded his followers, who Naples,
were now well armed, and reckoned about ico,ooo' Jn‘"
men, with a mod: abfolute fvvay. He ate and flept
little, gave his orders with great preciflon and judge¬
ment, appeared full' of moderation, without ambition
and interefled views. But the duke of Matalone hav¬
ing procured his liberty by bribing Peronne, the viceroy
imitated his example, and fecretly corrupted Genuino
to betray his chief. A confpiracy was accordingly
formed againft Maffaniello by Matalone and Peronne ;
the duke, who was equally exafperated againfl the vice¬
roy, propofing, that after his death his brother D.
Joleph ffiould head the rebels.
Maffaniello in the mean time, by means of the car¬
dinal archbilhop was negotiating a general peace and
accommodation ; but while both parties were affem-
bling in the convent of the Carmelites, the banditti
hired by Matalone made an unfuccefsful attempt upon
Malfaniello’s life. His followers immediately killed.
150 of them. Peronne and D. Jofeph being dil’covered
to be concerned in the conipiracy, were likewife put
to death, and the duke with great difficulty efcaped.
Mafianiello by this confpiracy was rendered more fuf-
picious and fevere. He began to abufe his power bv
putting feveral perfons to death upon flight pretences ;
and, to force the viceroy to an accommodation, he cut
off all communication with the caftles, which were un¬
provided with provifion and ammunition.—The vice¬
roy likewife being afraid left the French fhould take
advantage of the commotion, earneflly defired to agree
to a treaty ; which was accordingly concluded on the A treaty
fifth day of the infurreflion, by the mediation of the conclu(ftd
archbiffiop. By the treaty it was flipulated, that all^Pf66”
duties impofed fince the time of Charles V. fliould beaii^ tj^1C 0
abolilhed ; that the writ of exemption granted by that viceroy,
emperor fhould be delivered to the people ; that for the
future no new taxes ffiould be impofed 3 that the vote
of the elefl of the people fhould be equal to the votes
of the nobility ; that an aft of oblivion fhould be grant¬
ed for all that was pafl; and that the people fhould
continue in arms under Maffaniello till the ratification
of the treaty by the king.
By this treaty, no lefs than 10,OOO perfons who
fattened upon the blood of the public were ruined.—
The people when it was folemnly publifhed, manifefl-
ed an extreme joy, believing they had now recovered
all their ancient rights and privileges. Maffaniello, at
the defire of the viceroy, went to'the palace to vifit
him, accompanied by the archbiffiop, who was obli¬
ged to threaten him with excommunication, before
he would confent to lay afide his rags and affume a
magnificent drefs. He was received by the duke with
the greatefl demonflraticns of refpefl and friendffiip,
while the duchefs entertained his wife, and prefented
her with a robe of cloth of filver, and fome jewels.—
The viceroy, to preferve fome fhadow of authority,
appointed him captain-general ; and at his departure Maffaniello
made him a prefent of a golden chain of great value, appointed
which with great difficulty he was prevailed upon toca??:aiIJ
accept; but yielded at length to the entreaties of thegen u‘'
cardinal. Next day, in confequence of the commiffion
granted him by the viceroy, he began to exercife all
the funflions of fovereign authority ; and having caufed
a fcaffold to be erefled in one of the flreets, and fe-
veral
<
Naples.
34
Ts a 11; i (fi¬
liated.
35 ,
The people
return to
their alle¬
giance.
. 36
Climate,
produce,
See. of
Naples.
NAP [ 6
veral gibbets, he judged all crimes, whether civil or
military, in the laft refort ; and ordered the guilty to
be immediately put to death, which was the punilhment
he alligned to all offences. Though he negle£led all
forms of law, and even frequently judged by phyfiog-
nomy, yet he is faid not to have overlooked any crimi¬
nal, or punilhed any innocent perfon.
His grandeur and profperity were of very thort con¬
tinuance ; for his mind becoming diftrafted and deliri¬
ous for two or three days, he committed a great many
mad and extravagant adtions ; and on the 18th of July
he was alTalfinated with the cpnfent of the viceroy.
The tumult did not end with the death of Maffa-
niello : on the contrary, the people now expelled the
Spaniards fre 1 mold of the cities throughout the king¬
dom •, and this general infurreddion being the fubjedd
of difeourfe at Rome, the duke of Guile, who happen¬
ed then to be at the pope’s court, took the opportu¬
nity, at the inftigation of his holinefs, to offer his fer-
vice to the Neapolitans againld the Spaniards. The
duke wras prompted by his ambition to engage in this
enterprife, efpecially as he himfelf had fome dildant
pretenfions to the crown. The Spaniards in the mean
time made a vigorous attack on the city ; but were re-
pulfed by the people, who now formally renounced
their allegiance to them. In a Ihort time, however,
their city being furprifed by the new viceroy, the
count d’Oniate, and the duke of Guife himfelf taken
prifoner, the people returned to their allegiance 5 and
thus all the attempts of the French on Naples were
fruldrated. From that time the Spaniards continued in
peaceable poffeffion of the kingdom till the year 1707,
when it w7as taken from them by Prince Eugene. It
was formally ceded to the emperor by the treaty of
Raidadt in 1713 j but was recovered by the Spaniards
in 1734, and the king of Spain’s eldetd fon is now7 king
of Naples and Sicily. For a particular account of thefe
revolutions, fee the articles Spain and Sicily.
The climate of Naples is extremely hot, efpecially
in July, Auguid, and September. In wdnter there is
feldom any ice or fnow, except on the mountains.—
On account of its fertility, it is juflly termed an
earthly paradife 5 for it abounds with all forts of grain,
7 the fineld fruit and garden produddions of every kind,
with rice, flax, oil, and wine, in the greatefd plenty
and perfedlion. It affords alfo faffron, manna, alum,
vitriol, fulphur, rock cryldal, marble, and feveral forts
of minerals, together with fine wool,- and filk. The
horfes of this country are famous, and the docks and
herds very4numerous. Befides thefe produdds, of which
a confiderable part is exported, there are manufaddures
of fnuid", foap, and glafs ware. Waildcoats, caps, (dock¬
ings, and gloves, are alfo made of the hair or fila¬
ments of a fhell fiih, which are warmer than thofe of
wool, and of a beautiful gloffy green. In this king¬
dom likewife is found that called the Phrygian Jlone,
or pietra fungfera, which, being laid in a damp fhady
place, will yield mufhrooms, fometimes of a very large
lize, efpecially if the done is fprinkled with hot water.
See Acaricus.
As to the mountains of this country, the principal
are the Apennines, which traverfe it from fouth to
north ; and Mount Vefuvius, which, as is w7ell known,
is a noted volcano, five Italian miles from Naples. The
fide of this mountain next the fea yields wine, particu-
4
N aples.
37
. &c.
11 ] NAP
larly the two famed wines called Vino Greco and La-
chrytnee Chrifli. One of the greateld inconv^niencies to
which this kingdom is dxpofed is earthquakes, which
the eruptions of Mount Vefuvius contribute, in fome
meafure, to prevent. Another incohveniency, which,
however, is common to it with other hot countries, is
the great number of reptiles and infedds, of which fome
are very poifonous.
With refpedd to religion, it is on a very bad foot-
ing here. The number of convents and monafteries
is aftoniffiing. It is faid, the clergy and convents
poffcfs two thirds of the whole kingdom : nay, fome
maintain, that were the kingdom divided into five
parts, four would be found in the hands of the church.
Notwithldanding this power and influence of the clergy,
they have not been able hitherto to get the inquifition
eftablifhed here. In the year 1731, meafures were
taken for leffening the number of convents ; and lately
the order of Jeluits hath been fuppreffed. The papal
bulls cannot be made public without the king’s per-
miffion j nor are Proteidants compelled to kneel in the
churches, or at meeting the hold ; and in Lent they
can very eafily procure flefh meat. In the year 1740,
the Jews were allowed to fettle in the kingdom during
the term of 50 years, and feveral privileges were grant¬
ed them during that period; at the expiration of which,
the grant was luppofed to be renewed, unlefs they were
exprefsly ordered to quit the country. 3g
The revenue of the kingdom is generally computed Revenue,
at 3,000,000 of crowns: but, as Mr Addifon ob-1"
ferves, there is no country in Europe which pays
greater taxes, and where, at the fame time, the pub¬
lic is lefs the better for them, mold of them going to
the enriching of the private perfons to whom they are
mortgaged.
The military force of this kingdom is faid to con-
fift of about 30,000 men, of which the Swifs regi¬
ments are the beft. As to the marine, it confiffs
only of a few galleys. The only order here is that of
St Januarius, which was inllituted by Don Carlos in
the year 1738.
The king of Naples, or of the two Sicilies, is an
hereditary monarch. The high colleges are, the coun¬
cil, of Idate, the privy council, the treafury, the Sicily
council, the council of war, &c. This kingdom is a
papal fief; and the king, in acknowledgement of the
pope’s feudal right, fends him every year a white pal-
fry, and a purfe of 6000 ducats. The title of the
kill’s eldefd fon is prince of Calabria. The number
both of the high and low nobility in the kingdom of
Naples is very great. “ I am affured (fays Dr Moore *) *
that the king of Naples counts among his fubjeerds Society,
100 perfons with the title of prince, and a ftill greaterItaly.
with that of duke. Six or feven of thefe have eldates
which produce from 10 to 12 or 13,000!. a-year ; a
confiderable number have fortunes of about half that
value ; and the annual revenue of many is not above
1000I. or 2000I. The inferior orders of the nobility
are much poorer. Many counts and marquiffes have
not above 300I. or 400I. a-year of paternal eftate ;
many have ftill lefs ; and not a few enjoy the title with¬
out any eftate whatever. Thefe nobles, however, are
exceftlvely fond of fplendour and (how, which appears
in the brilliancy of their equipages, the number of
their attendants, the richnefs of their drefs, and the
3 H 2 grEyideur »
View of
NAP [ 61
Naples, grandeur of their titles. The fineft carriages are
w painted, gilt, varniflied, and lined, in a richer and
more beautiful manner than has yet become rafhionable
either in England or in France. They are often drawn
by fix and fomelimes by eight horfes. Before the
carriage, it is the mode to have two running footmen,
and behind three or four fervants in the richeft liveries.
The ladies and gentlemen within the coaches glitter in
all the brilliancy ox lace, embroidery, and jewels,—
This'finery is not confined to the perfons within and
without the coaches ; it is extended to the horfes,
whofe heads, manes, and tails, are ornamented with the
iareft plumage, and fet off with ribbons and artificial
flowers.”
We lhall mention a circumfiance from which an
idea may be formed of the grandeur of a Neapolitan
•palace, and the number of domeftics wdiich fome of
the nobility retain. “ I dined (continues our author)
at the prince lacci’s, where we pafl'ed through 12 or
13 large rooms before we arrived at the dining room.
There were 36 perfons at table ferved by the prince’s
domeftics, and each gueft had a footman behind his
chair, while other domeftics belonging to the prince
remained in the adjacent rooms and in the hall. No
eftate in England' could fupport fuch a number of fer¬
vants, paid and fed as Englifti fervants are ; but in
Naples the wages are very moderate indeed, and the
greater number of men fervants, belonging to the firft
families, give their attendance through the day only,
and find beds and provifions for themfelves. It muft
be remembered alfo, that few of the nobles give any
entertainments; and thofe who do not are faid to
live very fparingly $ fo that the whole of their revenue,
whatever it may b'e, is expended on articles of (howT.”
In the kingdom of Naples, the hereditary jurifdic-
tion of the nobles over their vaffals fubfifts in the full
rigour of the feudal government. The peafants there¬
fore are poor ; and it depends entirely on the perfonal
character of the mafter, whether their poverty be not
the leaft of their grievances. As this power is too
often abufed, the importance of the nobility depends
in a great meafure on the favour of the king, who,
under pretence of any offence, can confine them to
their eftates, . or imprifon them at pleafure. Unlefs
this prince were fo very impolitic as to difguft all the
nobility at once, and fo unite the whole body againft
him, he has little to fear from their refentment. Even
in cafe of fuch an union, as the nobles have loft the af-
feflion of their vaffals, what could they do in oppofi-
tion to a Handing army of 30,000 men, entirely devoted
to the crown ? The government of Naples, therefore,
is in fa£t a defpotic monarchy, though fomething like
the form of a feudal conftitution in its ancient purity
is ftill kept up by the biennial fummons of the general
affembly. This convention, which confifts of the no¬
bility and commons, is called together every two years,
to deliberate on the cuflomary free gift to the crown.
The inhabitants of this country have at all times
borne but an indifferent charadler among other nations.
“ From the few hints dropped by the claffic authors,
we collefl that the ancient Neapolitans were a race of
epicures, of a foft indolent turn, averfe from martial ex-
ercifes, pafficnately fond of theatrical amufements and
muftc, expert in all the refined arts that adminifter to
the caprices of luxury, extravagant in their expieftions
2 ] NAP
and geftures, and dupes to various forts of fuperftition. .Nap’es-
If we make allowance for a quantity of northern blood
which has joined the original Grecian ftream, and im¬
parted a roughnefs not yet worn off by the mildnefs or . ,
the climate, we ftiall find the modern Neapolitans very
like the ancient.— Provifions being here plentiful and
cheap, the low’er clafs of people work but little. Their
delight is to balk in the fun, and do nothing. Perfons
of a middle rank frequent places of public refort ; and
very few of any rank attend to their proper bufmefs
with the zeal and aftivity we are wont to meet with in
the profeflional men of colder countries. Gluttony is .
a predominant vice, while inftances of ebriety are com¬
paratively' rare. In the female fex, the paflion for
finery is almoft fuperior to every other ; and, though
chaftity is not the characleriitic virtue of the country, Mr
Swinburne doubts * whether a Neapolitan woman would * Travels
not nine times out of ten prefer a prefent to a lover, in the Two
That furious jealoufy lor which the nation was once fo Si elites.
remarkable, is now greatly abated. The breach of the
conjugal vow fometimes occafions quarrels and aflaftina-
tions among people or an inferior ftation ; and in the
metropolis, affaffinations are often perpetrated from
much lefs cogent motives. Of thefe vices, many are
doubtlefs owing to that flavery and oppreflion under
which they groan, and to a radical defect in the admi-
nlftration of juftice, though the kingdom is divided in¬
to 12 provinces or jurifdiftions.
Such was the former ftate of Naples. But being
feized by the emperor of France, he affirmed, ” the
Neapolitan dynafty has ceafed to reign : its exiftence is
incompatible with the repofe of Europe, and the honour
of our crown.” By virtue of a decree which palled in
the month of March 1806, the emperor Napoleon con¬
ferred the kingdom of Naples on his highnefs Prince
Jofeph, and his legitimate heirs male, referving to that
prince the rights affured to him by the conftitutions of
the empire, in providing always that the crown of
France and that of Naples lhall never be united upon
the fame head. No political changes of any importance
have lince taken place in that country.
Naples, anciently Parthenope, afterwards Neapolis,
the capital of the kingdom of that name in Italy, lies
in the province called Terra di Lavora, which is the
richeft and beft inhabited of the whole kingdom, and
comprehends a part of the ancient Campania Felix
or the Happy. This city is fabled to owe its founda¬
tion to a Syren, and to have received its ancient name
from its fupernatural foundrefs. Whatever be its ori¬
gin, it is the firft for neatnefs, and the fecond for ex¬
tent, of all the cities in Italy. It was formerly a place
of ftrerigth ; but its walls at prefent being of no real
defence, its fafety depends of courfe upon the force
of its armies. It is moft advantageoufly lituated, hav¬
ing a delicious country on one fide, and a noble bay of
the Mediterranean on the other, with an excellent har¬
bour. The circumference, including the fuburbs, is
faid not to be lefs than 18 Italian miles, and the num¬
ber of the inhabitants therein little lefs than 400,000.
The houfes are of ftone, flat roofed, and generally lofty
and uniform ; but many of them have balconies, with
lattice windows. The ftreets are Well paved 5 but they
are not lighted at night, and in the day time are dii-
figured, in many places, by flails, on which provifions
are expofed to fale. Here are a great number of fine
churches.
NAP [6
Naples, churches, convents, fountains, and palaces of the nobi-
v"**— lity, many of whom conftantly refide here. It is ufual
to walk on the tops of the houfes in the evenings, to
breathe the fweet cool air, after a hot Sultry day. The
climate here is fo mild and warm, even in the winter,
that plenty of green peafe, artichokes, afparagus, and
ether vegetables, may be had fo early as the beginning
of the new year, and even all the winter. This city
fwarms with monks and nuns of all forts, to fuch a de¬
gree, that there are no lefs than 19 convents of the
Dominicans alone, 18 of the Irancifcans, 8 of the
Auguftines, and an equal proportion of the relt. lire
magnificence of many of the churches exceeds imagina¬
tion. In a cloifter of the Carthufian monaftery is a cru¬
cifix, faid to be done by Michael Angelo, of inimitable
workmanfhip.
To repel hoftile attempts by fea, which, from its fi-
tuation, maritime powers might be tempted to make,
Naples has, to the weft, the Caftel del Ovo, a con-
fufed pile of ancient buildings, and fome modern bat¬
teries. The rock upon which this fortrefs ftands was
originally called Mcgara, then Luiullanum ; and was
conlidered as a place of ftrength fo early as the
year 475. Along the line of the fhore towards the
eaft are fome batteries on the points of land, the ba-
ftions of the arfenal, and above it the lofty wall of the
Caftel Nuovo. This laft fortrefs has been the ufual
refuge of the fovereigns and viceroys in all civil wars
and tumults; for which reafon they have long fixed
their refidence near its walls. A blockhoufe and
batteries defend the mouth of the harbour, and at the
eaftern extremity of the town is the Torrione de Car¬
mine, better known by the figure it made in Maffani-
ello’s rebellion than by its extent or military ftrength.
The caftle of Saint Elmo commands Naples in every
diredion, and is in reality calculated rather to annoy
and awe the citizens than to defend them from fo¬
reign invaders. The city is indeed far from being (e-
cure againft a bombardment ; for the fea is fo deep,
that a large veffel may come up to the very mole in
defiance of the blockhoufe and batteries, &e. Pic¬
tures, ftatues, and antiquities, are not fo common in
Naples as might be expected in fo great and ancient a
city, many of the moft valuable pieces having been
lent to Spain by the viceroys. The bay is one of the
fineft in the world, being almoft of a round figure,
about 30 miles in diameter, and three parts of it fhel-
tered with a noble circuit of woods and mountains.
The city ftands in the bofom of this bay, in as pleafant
a fituation, perhaps, as is in fhe world. Mr Keyfler fays,
they reckon about 18,000 donne lib ere, or courtezans,
in the city •, and Dr Moore computes the number of
laz’zaroni or blackguards at above 30,000. The
greater part of thefe wretches have no dwelling houfes,
but fleep every night under porticos, piazzas, or any
kind of fhelter they can find. Thofe of them who
have wives and children, live in the fuburbs of Naples
near Peufilippo, in huts, or in caverns or chambers dug
out of that mountain. They are generally reprefented
as a lazy, licentious, and turbulent fet of people, as in¬
deed by far the greater part of the rabble are, who prefer
begging or robbing, or running errands, to any fixed
and permanent employment. Yet there are in Naples
fome flourishing manufadlures, particularly of filk ftock-
ings, foap, fnufF-boxes of tortoife (hells and the lava of
13] N A R
Mount Vefuvius, tables, and ornamental furniture of Naples
marble. The city is fupplied with a vaft quantity of Na).1,)0nne_
water, by means of a very coflly aqucdudl, from the ^ *
foot of Mount Vefuvius. Mr ikddiion fays, it is in¬
credible how great a multitude of retainers to the law
there are in Naples, who find continual employment
from the fiery temper of the inhabitants. There are
five piazzas or fquares in the city, appropriated to the
nobility, viz. thofe called Capuana, Ntdo, Montagna,
Porto, and Porta Nova. Of all the palaces, that of the
king is not only the moft magnificent, but alio in the
beft ftyle of architefture. The cathedral, though
Gothic, is a very grand fplendid edifice. It is here
that the head and blood of St januarius, the tutelary
faint of Naples, are kept, the latter in two glafs or
cryftal vials. The pretended liquefaftion of the dried
blood, as foon as brought near the head of the faint,
is a thing well known •, Mr Addifon fays, it is one of
the moil bungling tricks he ever faw. The harbour
is fpacious, and kept in good repair. It is fortified
with a mole, which runs about a quarter of a mile in¬
to the fea, and at the extremity has a high lanthorn to
dire61 (hips fafely into the harbour. Luxury here is
reftrained by fevere fumptuary laws, and the women
are more clufely confined than in any other city of
Italy. Here is an univerfity and two academies of
wits, the one called G/i Ardenti, and the other Gil
Otiofi. The nunnery for ladies of quality is faid to be
the largeft in the whole world, containing no lefs than
350 nuns, befides fervants. The Pdount of Piety, or
the office for advancing money to the poor, on pledges,
at a low intereft, or without any, has an income of up¬
wards of 50,000 ducats. The arfenal-is faid to contain
arms for 50,000 men. The walls of the city confift of
hard black quarry (tones, called piperno. Inftead of ice
vaft quantities of fnow are ufed for cooling their
liquors, not fo much as water being drank without it y
fo that, it is faid, a fcarcity of it would as foon occa-
fion a mutiny as a dearth of corn or provifions. Certain
perfons, who farm the monopoly of it from the govern¬
ment, fupply the city all the year round from a moun¬
tain about 18 miles off, at fo much the pound. In the
beginning of 1799, it was taken by a body of French
troops under General Championet. The ftreets of this
city were lighted for the firft time on the 16th Decem¬
ber, 1806. Naples (lands no miles fouth-eaft from
Rome, 164 north-eaft from Palermo in Sicily, 217
fouth-eaft from Florence, and 300 from Venice. E.
Long. 14. 20. N. Eat. 40. 55.
NARBO, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Voileee Te6Iofages, called alfo Narbo Martins, from the
Legio Martia, the colony led thither 59 years before
the confulate of Cad'ar, (Velleius) ; increafed with a*
colony of the Decumani or tenth legion by Caefar. An
ancient trading town on the Atax, which dilcharges
itfelf into the fta through the Lacus Rubrefus, or Rub-
renfis. Capital of Gallia Narbonenfis •, furnamed Colo-
nia Julia Paterna, from Julius Caefar, the father of Au-
gufius by adoption. Naw called Narbonne, a city of
Languedoc.
NARBONNE, is a city of France, in the department'
of Aude, with an archbilhop’s fee, and is particularly
famous for its honey. It is feated on a canal cut from
the river Avtde, which being but three miles from the
fea, veflels come up it laden with merchandife, which
renders'
N A R [6
NarcifTus renders it a place of fome trade. But though it pre-
Na’-'clus ten(^s to t^e remote antiquity under the Celtic
kings, in ages anterior evAr to the Roman conquefts,
which under thefe latter mailers gave its name to all
Gallia Narbonenjis, and was a colony of the firlt con-
fideration, it is now dwindled to a wretched folitary
town, containing fcarce 8000 inhabitants, of wThom
three fourths are prielfs and women. The ftreets and
buildings are mean and ruinous 5 it has indeed a com¬
munication with the Mediterranean, from which Nar-
bonne is only about three leagues dillant, by means of
a fmall river which interfedls the place ; but their com¬
merce is very limited, and chiefly confifts in grain which
they export to Cette and Marfeilles. No marks of
Roman magnificence remain, except feveral infcriptions
in different parts of the city. It is divided into the
city and the town, which are joined together by a
bridge, with houfes on each fide, in which the richeft
merchants live. There are feveral churches and con¬
vents ; the metropolitan church has a handfome lleeple.
E. Long. 3. 6. N. Lat. 43. ir.
NARCISSUS, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of the
river Cephiflus and Liriope the daughter of Oceanus,
was a youth of great beauty. Tirefias foretold that
he lhauld live till he faw himfelf. He defpifed all the
nymphs of the country ; and made Echo languish till
the became a mere found, by refufing to return her
pallion : but one day coming weary and fatigued from
the chafe, he flopped on the bank of a fountain to
quench his thirfl: when, feeing his owTn form in the
water, he became fo in love with the fhadowy image,
that he languished till he died. On which the gods,
being moved at his death, changed him into the flower
which bears his name.
Narcissus, a genus of plants belonging to the hex-
andria clafs; and in the natural method ranking under
the 9th order, Spathacea:. See Botany Index.
NARCO LICS, in Medicine, foporiferous drugs,
which bring on a flupefadtion. Among narcotics the
moft eminent are thofe ufually prepared for medicinal
ufes from the poppy, efpecially opium ; as alfo all
thofe prepared from mandragoras, hyofeyamus, flramo-
nium and datura. See Materia Medica Index.
NARDO, a pretty populous town in the kingdom
of Naples, and in the Terra d’Otranto, with the title
of a duchy and a bifhop’s fee. E. Loner. x8. 27- N
Lat. 43. 28. ‘
_ In this little city are 8000 inhabitants. The fleeple
ot ns cathedral is built in a very uncommon but fhowy
flyle of Gothic architefture. Luco Giordano and So-
limeni have adorned the church with fome agreeable
paintings. This place was a part of the Balzo eflate.
f he Aquavivas were the next poffeffors : they are
thought to have come from the Marca di Ancona. In
*401j m confideration of their relationihip to Pope Bo¬
niface IX. Laudiflaus creeled their manor of Atri into
a dukedom, an honour till then feldom granted to any
but princes of the blood royal. Claudius Aquaviva,
a famous general of the Jefuits, who died in 161 c, was
of this family. ^
NARDUS, a genus of plants belonging to the tri-
andria clafs j and in the natural method ranking under
the 4th order, Gramina. See Botany Index.
This plant was highly valued by the ancients, both
an article of luxury and medicine. The unguentum
r4 1 N A II
nardinutn, was uied at baths and feafls as a favourite
perfume. Its value is evident from that palfage of
Sciipture,. where our Saviour’s head was anointed with
a box of it, with which Judas found fault. From a
paiiage in Horace it appears that this ointment was fo
valuable among the Romans, that as much as could
be contained in a fmall box of precious Hone was con-
fidered as a fort of equivalent for a large veffel of wine
and a proper quota for a gueft to contribute at an enter¬
tainment, according to the ancient cuftom :
' —Nardo vina merebere,
Nardi parvus onyx eliciet cadum.
NAREA, the moft foutherly province of the empire
of Abyffinia ; a kingdom ftill governed by its own
princes, who have the title of Beneros. Its territory
was^ formerly more extenfive than at prefent, the Galla
having almoft quite furrounded it, efpecially on the
fouth-eaft and north. The country to the weft is the
moft unknown part of Africa ; the kingdom itfelf
ftands like a fortified place in the middle of a plain,
being a high and mountainous country. A great many
rivers, riling in the fourth and fifth degrees of north
latitude, fpread themfelves over the level part of the
country, and fill it with marfhes all the way from fouth
by eaft to north or north weft.—Thefe marfhes are
bounded by mountains, of which thofe neareft the mar-
ihes are overgrown with coffee trees, the largeft, if not
the only ones, which grow in this country. The king¬
dom of Narea Proper is interfperfed wfith fmall, un-
wholefome, but very fertile valleys. The mountainous
country of Caffa adjoins immediately to Narea, and is
faid to be governed by a feparate prince 5 but the Galla
having fettled themfelves in all the fiat ground to the
very edge of the marlhes, have in a great meafure cut
off the communication with Abyffinia for a long time
part. The Nareans who inhabit the mountainous coun¬
try have the lighted: complexion of any people in Abyf¬
finia £ but thoie who inhabit the borders of the marlhes
are perfeffly black, and have the features and woolly
heads of negroes ; but the mountaineers of Narea, and
much more thofe of Caffa, are fair complexioned, more
fo than even the Neapolitans or Sicilians. It is fald
that fnow has been feen to lie on fome of the moun¬
tains of Caffa ; but Mr Bruce imagines this to be a
miftake, and thinks that it muft have been hail.
Narea abounds with cattle, grain, and all kinds df
provifions, both in the high and low* country. The
medium of commerce is gold, which they fell by
weight 5 but the principal articles of trade are coarle
cotton cloths, antimony, beads, and incenfe, which
are carried from this country to the kingdom of An¬
gola, and the parts of the African continent towards
the Atlantic. I he people are exceedingly brave ; and
though they have been driven out of the low country
by multitudes of Galla, they now bid them defiance,
and drive them from their frontiers whenever they
come too near. The Narean prifoners taken in thefe
fkirmilhes are fold to the Mahometan merchants at
Gondar} and at Conftantinople, Cairo, or in India,
the women are more efteemed than thofe of any other
part of the world. Both fexes have a cheerful kind
difpofition, and attach themfelves inviolably to their
mailers, if properly treated. The people of Narea and
Cafta ipeak a language peculiar to themfelves,
NARRATION,
Narration
NAB. [ 61
NARRATION, in oratory, poetry, End hiliory, a
recital or rehearfal of a faff as it .happened, or as it is
fuppofed to have happened. See Oratory, N° 26.
1 23;
Concerning Narration and Dcfcription we have
the following rules and obfervations in the Elements of
Criticifm.
1. The firfl: rule is, That in hiliory the redefHons
ought to be chafte and folid ; for while the mind is in¬
tent upon truth, it is hltle difpofed to the operation
of the imagination. Strada’s Belgic hiftory is full of
poetical images, which being difcordant with the
lubjcft, are unpleafant; and they have a ftill wrorfe ef¬
fect by giving an air of fi£lion to a genuine hiliory.
Such dowers ought to be fcattered wnth a fparing hand,
even in epic poetry j and at no rate are they proper till
the reader be warmed, and by an enlivened imagination
be prepared to relilh them : in that date of mind, they
are agreeable ; but while w?e are fedate and attentive to
an hidorical chain of fads, we rejed with difdain every
fidion.
2. Vida, following Horace, recommends a modeft
commencement ot an epic poem ; giving for a reafon
that the writer ought to hulband his fire. Befides bold
thoughts and figures are never relifhed till the mind be
heated and thoroughly engaged, which is not the rea¬
der’s cafe at the commencement. Homer introduces not
a fingle finale in the fird book of the Iliad, nor in the
fird book of the Odyfley. On the other hand, Shake-
fpeare begins one of his plays wuth a fentiment too bold
for the mod heated imagination :
Bedford. Hung be the heav’ns with black, yield day
to night !
Comets, importing change of times and dates,
Brandiih your cry dal trefifes in the Iky,
And with them fcourge the bad revolting dars,
That have confented unto Henry’s death !
Henry the Fifth, too famous to live long !
England ne’er lod a king of fo much wrorth.
Firji part Henry VI.
I he paflage with which Strada begins his hidory, is
too poetical for a fubjeft of that kind j and at any rate
too high for the beginning of a grave performance.
3. A third rule or obfervation is, That where the
fubjedl is intended for entertainment folely, not for in-
drudlion, a thing ought to be defcribed as it appears,
not as it is in reality. In running, (for example, the
impulfe upon the ground is proportioned in fome de¬
gree to the celerity of motion ; though in appearance
it is otherwife, for a perfon in fwift motion feems to
£kim the ground, and fcarcely to touch it. Virgil, wfith
great tade, defcribes quick running according to ap¬
pearance ; and raifes an image far more lively than by
adhering fcrupuloudy to truth :
Hos diper advenit Volfca de gente Camilla,
Agmen agens equitum, et florentes aere catervas,
Bellatrix : non ilia colo calathifve Mlnervm
, Foemineas affueta manus j fed praelia virgo
Dura pati curfuque pedum praevertere ventos.
Ilia vel intadlse fegetis per fumma volaret
Gramina, nec teneras curfu laefiffet aridas :
Vel mare per medium, fiu&u fufpenfa tumenti,
Ferret iter, celeres nec tingeret sequore plantas.
IBneid, vii. 803.
] N A R
4. In narration as well as in defcription, objeTs Narration,
ought to be painted fo accurately as to form in the -v’*"-"*
mind of the reader didincl and lively images. Every
ufelefs circumdance ought indeed to be iuppreffed, be-
caufe every Inch circumdance loads the narration ; but
if a circumdance be necedary, however fiight, it can¬
not be defcribed too minutely. The force of language
confids in railing complete images, which have the ef-
fe£l to tranfport the reader as by magic into the very
place of the important addon, and to convert him as
it were into a fpectator, beholding every thing that
pafles. The narrative in an epic poem ought to rival
a pidture in the livelinefs and accuracy of its reprefen-
tations : no circumdance mud be omitted that tends
to make a complete image 5 becaufe an imperfedl image,
as well as any other imperfedt conception, is cold and
unintereding. We dial! illudrate this rule by feveral
examples, giving the fird place to a beautiful padagc
from Virgil :
Qualls populed moerens Philomela fub umbra
Amiflbs queritur foetus, quos durus orator
Obfervans nido implumes detraxit.
Georg, lib. iv. 511.
The poplar, ploughman, and unfledged young, though
not eflential in tire defcription, tend to make a com¬
plete image, and upon that account are an embellilh-
ment.
Again :
Hie viridem Atneas frondenti ex i/ice metam
Conflituit, flgnum nautis. JEneid. v. 129.
Horace addreflmg to Fortune :
Te pauper ambit follicita prece
Ruris colonus : te dominam aequoris,
Quicumque Bithyna laceflit
Carpathium pelagus carina.
Cartn. lib. i. ode 35.
 Ilium ex moenibus hodicis
Matrona bellantis tyranni
Profpiciens, et adulta virgo,
Sufpiret : Eheu, ne rudis agminum
Sponfus lacefTat regius afperum
Tadlu leonem, quern cruenta
Per medias rapit ira credes.
Carm. lib. iii. ode 2.
Shakefpeare fays, “ You may as well go about to turn
the lun to ice by fanning in his face with a peacock's
feather.” The peacock’s feather, not to mention the
beauty of the objedl, completes the image : an accu¬
rate image cannot be formed of that fanciful opera¬
tion, without conceiving a particular feather 4 and
one is at a lofs when this is negledted in the defcrip¬
tion. Again, “ The rogues dighted me into the river
with as little remorfe, as they would have drown’d a
bitch’s blind puppies, fifteen i’ th’ litter.” '
Old Lady. You would not be a queen ?
Anne. No, not for all the riches under heaven.
. Lady. ’Fis drange : a threepence bow’d would
hire me, old as I am, to queen it.
Henry VIII. act. ii. fc. 5.
In the following paflage, the aflion, with all its materi¬
al
N A R [ 616 ] N A R
Narration, al clrcumftances, is reprefented fo much to the life, that
v it would fcarce appear more diftinft to a real fpeftator ;
and it is the manner of defcription that contributes
greatly to the fublimity of the paffage—
He fpake $ and, to confirm his words, out flew
Millions of flaming fwords, drawn from the thighs
Of mighty cherubim j the hidden blaze
Far round illumin’d hell : highly they rag’d
Againft the Higheft, and fierce with grafped arms,
Clafh’d on their founding fhields the din of war,
Hurling defiance toward the vault of heav’n.
Milton, book i.
The following paffage from Shakefpeare falls not
much fhort of that now mentioned in particularity of
defcription :
O you hard hearts ! you cruel men of Rome !
Knew you not Pompey ? Many a time and oft
Have you climb’d up to walls and battlements,
To towers and windows, yea, to chimney tops,
Your infants in your arms j and there have fat
The live-long day with patient expeftation
To fee great Pompey pafs the flreets of Rome j
And when you faw his chariot but appear,
Have you not made an univerfal fhout,
That Tyber trembled underneath his banks,
To hear the replication of your founds,
Pvlade in his concave fhore ?
Julius Ccefar, aft I. fc. I.
The following paffage is fcarcely inferior to either of
thofe mentioned :
“ Far before the reft, the fon of Oflian comes :
bright in the fmiles of youth, fair as the firft beams of
the fun. His long hair waves on his back : his dark
brow is half beneath his helmet. The fword hangs
loofe on the hero’s fide ; and his fpear glitters as he
moves. I fled from his terrible eye, king of high
Temora.” Fingal.
The Henriade of Voltaire errs greatly againft the
foregoing rule : every incident is touched in a fummary
way, without ever defcending to circumftances. This
manner is good in a general hiftcry, the purpofe of
which is to record important tranfaftions: but in a fa¬
ble it is cold and uninterefting ; becaufe it is imprafti-
cable to form diftinft images of perfons or things repre¬
fented in a manner fo fuperficial.
It is obferved above, that every ufelefs circumftance
ought, to be fuppreffed. The crowding fuch circum¬
ftances is, on the one hand, not lefs to be avoided,
than the coneifenefs for which Voltaire is blamed, on
the other. In the iEneid, Rarce, the nurfe of Sichte-
us, whom we never hear of betore nor after, is intro¬
duced for a purpofe not more important than to call
Anna to her -After Dido: and-that it might not be
, thought unjuft in Dido, even in this trivial circum-
^ftance, to prefer her huiband’s nurfe before her own,
the poet takes care to inform his reader, that Dido’s
rurfe was dead. To this may be oppofed a beautiful
paffage in the fame bock, where, after Dido’s laft
fpeech, the poet, without detaining his readers by de-
fcribing the manner of her death, haftens to the lamen¬
tation of her attendants:
Dixerat: atque illam media inter talia ferro
Collapfam afpiciunt comites, enfemque cruore
Spurnantem, fparfafque manuc. It clamor ad alta
Atria ; concuffam bacchatur fama per urbem j
Lamentis gemituque, et foemineo uluiatu
Tefta fremunt, refonat magnis plangoribus aether.
Lib. iv. 663.
As an appendix to the foregoing rule, may be added
the following obfervation, That to make a fudden and
ftrong impreflion, fome fingle circumftance, happily
felefted, has more power than the moft laboured de¬
fcription. Macbeth, mentioning to his lady fome
voices he heard while he was murdering the King,
fays,
There’s one did laugh in’s deep, and one cry’d
Murder !
They wak’d each other; and I flood and heard
them :
But they did fay their prayers, and addrefs them
Again to fteep.
Lady. There are twTo lodg’d together.
Macbeth. One cry’d, God blefs us! and, Amen !
the other;
As they had feen me with thefe hangman’s hands,
Liftening their fear. I could not fay, Amen,
When they did fay, God blefs us.
Lady. Confider it not fo deeply.
Macbeth. But wherefore could not I pronounce
Amen !
I had moft need of blefling, and Amen
Stuck in my throat.
Lady. Thefe deeds muft not be thought
After thefe ways j fo, it will make us mad.
Macbeth. Methought, I heard a voice cry,
Sleep no more !
Macbeth doth murder fleep, &c. Aft ii. fc. 2C
Defcribing Prince Henry :
I faw young Harry, with his beaver on,
His cuiffes on his thighs, gallantly arm’d,
Rife from the ground like feather’d Mercury j
And vaulted with fuch eafe into his feat,
As if an angel dropt down from the clouds,
To turn and wind a fiery Pegafus,
And witch the world with noble horfemanftiip.
Firjl part Henry IV. aft iii. fc. 3-
King Henry. Lord Cardinal, if thou think’ft on
Heaven’s blifs,
Hold up thy hand, make fignal of thy hope.
Pie dies, and makes no fign !
Second part Henry VI. aft iii. fc. 3.
The fame author, fpeaking ludicroufly of an army
debilitated with difeafes, fays,
“ Half of them dare not {hake the fnow from off
their caffocks, left they (hake themfelves to pieces.”
“ I have feen the walls of Balclutha, but they were
defolate. The flames had refounded in the halls: and
the voice of the people is heard no more. The ftreatn
of Clutha wTas removed from its place by the fall of the
walls. The thiftle {hook there its lonely head : the
mofs whiftied to the wind. The fox looked out from
the windows : «<nd the rank grafs of the wall weaved
Narration.
4
Narration.
N A R [6'7] N A R
round his head. Defolate is the dwelling of Morna :
filence is in the houfe of her fathers.” Fingal.
To draw a chara&er is the mafter ftroke of defcrip-
tion. In this Tacitus excels : his portraits are natural
and lively, not a feature wanting or mifplaced. Shake-
fpeare, however, exceeds Tacitus in livelinefs ; fome
chara&eriftical circumftance being generally invented
or laid hold of, which paints more to the life than
many words. The following inftances will explain our
meaning, and at the fame time prove our obfervation
to be juft.
Why (hould a man, whofe blood is warm within,
Sit like his grandfire cut in alabafter i*
Sleep when he wakes, and creep into the jaundice,
By being peevilh ? I tell thee what, Anthonio,
(I love thee, and it is my love that fpeaks),
There are a fort of men, whofe vifages
Do cream and mantle like a Handing pond j
And do a wilful ftiilnefs entertain,
With purpofe to be drefs’d in an opinion
Of wifdom, gravity, profound conceit 5
As who Ihould fay, I am Sir Oracle,
And when I ope my lips, let no dog bark !
O my Anthonio ! I do know of thofe,
That therefore only are reputed wife,
For faying nothing.
Merchant of Venice, adl i. fc. 1.
Again :
“ Gratiano fpeaks an infinite deal of nothing, more
than any man in all Venice : his reafons are two grains
of wheat hid in two bulhels of chaff •, you fhall feek all
day ere you find them ; and when you have them, they
are not worth the fearch.” Ibid.
Sir Sampfon. Dick, b*dy o’ me, Dick has been dead Narration,
thefe two years. I writ you word when you were at i '
Leghorn.
Ben. Mefs, that’s truej marry I had forgot. Dick’s
dead, as you fay. A£t iii. fc. 6.
Falftaff-fpeaking of Ancient Piftol:
“ He’s no fwaggerer, hoftefs 5 a tame cheater i’faith :
you may ftroak him as gently as a puppy greyhound ;
he will not fvvagger wuth a Barbary hen, if her feathers
turn back in any fliow of refiftance.”
Second part Henry IV. aft ii. fc. 4.
Oftian, among his other excellencies, is eminently fuc-
cefsful in drawing charatfersj and he never fails to de¬
light his reader with the beautiful attitudes of his he¬
roes. Take the following inftances ;
“ O Ofcar ! bend the ftrong in arm j but fpare the
feeble hand. Be thou a ftream of many tides againfi:
the foes of thy people ; but like the gale that moves the
grafs to thofe who afk thine aid.—So Trenmor lived ;
fuch Trathal was; and fuch has Fingal been. My arm
was the fupport of the injured ; and the wTeak refted be¬
hind the lightning of my fteel.”
“ We heard the voice of joy on the coaft, and we
thought that the mighty Cathmor came. Cathmor the
friend of ftrangers ! the brother of red-haired Cairbar !
But their fouls were not the fame ; for the light of
heaven was on the bofom of Cathmor. His towers
rofe on the banks of Atha : feven paths led to his halls :
feven chiefs flood on thefe paths, and called the ftranger
to the feaft. But Cathmor dwelt in the wood to avoid
the voice of praife-”
In the following paffage a character is completed by
a Angle ftroke :
Shallow. O the mad days that I have fpent ; and to
fee how many of mine old acquaintance are dead.
Silence. We fhall all follow, coufin.
Shallow. Certain, ’tis certain, very fure, very fure;
Death (as the Pfalmift faith) is certain to all : all fhall
die. How good a yoke of bullocks at Stamford fair ?
Slender. Truly coufin, I was not there.
Shallow. Death is certain. Is old Double of your
town living yet ?
Silence. Dead, Sir.
Shallow. Dead ! fee, fee : he drew a good bow : and
dead. He fhot a fine fhot. How a fcore of ewes now ?
Silence. Thereafter as they be. A fcore of good
erves may be worth ten pounds.
Shallow. And is old Double dead ?
Second part Henry IV. a£I iii. fc. 2.
Defcribing a jealous hufband :
“ Neither prefs, coffer, cheft, trunk, well, vault, but
he hath an abftratt for the remembrance of fuch places,
and goes to them by his note. There is no hiding you
in the houfe.” Merry Wives of Windfor, aft. iv. fc. 3.
Congreve has an inimitable ftroke of this kind in his
comedy of Love for Love:
Ben Legend. Well, father, and how do all at home ?
how does brother Dick, and brother Val.
Vol. XIV. Part II.
“ Dermid and Ofcar were one : they reaped the
battle together. Their friendftnp was ftrong as their
fteel; and death walked between them to the field.
They ruftr on the foe like two rocks falling from the
brow of Ardven. Their fwords are ftained with the
blood of the valiant : warriors faint at their name.
Who is equal to Ofcar but Dermid ? who to Dermid
but Ofcar ?”
“ Son of Comhal, replied the chief, the ftrength of
Morni’s arm has failed : I attempted to draw' the fword
of my youth, but it remains in its place : I throw the
fpear, but it falls (hort of the mark : and I feel the
weight of my fhield. We decay like the grafs of the
mountain, and our ftrength returns no more. I have
a fon, O Fingal! his foul has delighted in the aftions
of Morni’s youth ; but his fword lias not been fitted
againft the foe, neither has his fame begun. I come
with him to battle, to direift his arm. His renown will
be a fun to my foul, in the dark hour of my departure.
O that the name of Morni were forgot among the
people ! that the heroes would only fay, Behold the fa¬
ther of Gaull''
Some writers, through heat of imagination, fall into
con tradition ; fome are guilty of downright abfurdi-
ties; and fome even rave like madmen. Againft fuch
capital errors one cannot be more effeftually warned
than by colle&ing inftances; and the firft fhall be of a
contradiflion, the moft venial of all. Virgil fpeaking
of Neptune,
4 I
Interea
N A R [ 61
JSfarratii«i. Interea magno mifceri murmure pontum,'1
Emiffamque hyemem fenfit Neptunus, et imis
Stagna refufa vadis 5 graviter cornmotus, et alto
Profpiciens, fumma placidum caput extulit unda.
JEneidy i. x 28.
Again :
When firft young Maro, in his boundlefs mind,
A work t’outlaft immortal Rome degn’d.
EJJhij on Criticifrn, 30.
The following examples are of abfurdities.
“ Alii pubis e torment® catenis difcerpti feftique,
dimidiate corpore pugnabant libi fuperftites, ac per-
emptae partis ultores.” Strada, Dec. ii. 2.
8 ] N A R
Jupiter in wrath puffing up both cheeks, is a low and
even ludicrous expreflion, far from fuitable to the gra¬
vity and importance of the fubjeift : every one mutt
feel the difcordance. The following couplet, finking
far below the fubjedl, is no lefs ludicrous :
Not one looks backward, onward ftill he goes,
Yet ne’er looks forward farther than his nofe.
Ej/hy on Man, ep. iv. 223,
Narration.
On the other hand, to raife the expreflion above the
tone of the fubjefl, is a fault than which none is more
common. Take the following inftances :
Orcan le plus fidele a fervir fes deffeins,
Ne fous le ciel brulant des plus noirs Africains.
Bajaxet, adt iii. fc. 8.
II pover huomo, che non fen’ era accorto,
Andava combattendo, ed era morto. Berm.
He fled, but flying, left his life behind.
Iliad, xi. 443.
Full through his neck the weighty falchion fped :
Along the pavement roll’d the mutt’ring head.
Odyjfey, xxii. 365.
The laft article is of raving like one mad. Cleopatra
fpeaking to the afpic,
   Welcome, thou kind deceiver,
Thou belt of thieves 5 who, with an eafy key,
Doft open life, and unperceiv’d by us
Ev’n fteal us from ourfelves j difeharging fo
Death’s dreadful office, better than himfelf;
Touching our limbs fo gently into flumber,
That Death Hands by, deceiv’d by his own image,
And thinks himfelf but fleep.
" Dryden, All for Love, adl v.
Having difeufled what obfervations occurred upon
the thoughts or things expreffed, we proceed to what
more peculiarly concerns the language or verbal drefs.
As words are intimately conne&ed with the ideas they
reprefent, the emotions raifed by the found and by the
fenfe ought to be concordant. An elevated fubjeft re¬
quires an elevated ftyle 5 what is familiar, ought to be
familiarly expreffed : a fubjeft that is ferious and im¬
portant, ought to be clothed in plain nervous language :
a defeription, on the other hand, addreffed to the ima¬
gination, is fufceptible of the higheft ornaments that
founding words, and figurative expreflion can beftow
upon it.
We (hall give a few examples of the foregoing rules.
A poet of any genius is not apt to drefs a high fub-
jeft in low w7ords 5 and yet blemiffies of that kind are
found even in claffical works. Horace, obierving that
men are fatisfied with themfelves, but feldom with
their condition, introduces Jupiter indulging to each
his own choice :
Jam faciam quod vultis $ eris tu, qui modo miles,
Mercator 5 tu, confultus modo, ruflicus: hinc vos,
Vos hinc, mutatis difeedite partibus. eia,
Quid ? ftati^r1 nolint, atqui licet effe beatis.
Quid caufae eff, merito quin iliis Jupiter ambas
Jratus buccas infet, neque fe fore pofthac
Tam facilem dicat, votis ut pnebeat aurem ?
Sat. i. 16.
Les ombres par trois fois ont obfeurei les cieux
Depuis que le fommeil n’efl: entre dans vos yeux j
Et le jour a trois fois chaffe la nuit obfeure
Depuis que votre corps languit fans nourriture.
Phcedra, adl i. fc. 3.
AJJberis. Ce mortel, qui montra tant de zele pour
moi, Vit-il encore ?
Afaph. II voit 1’aftre qui vous eclaire.
EJlher, aft ii. fc. 3,
Oui, c’efl: Agamemnon, e’eft ton roi qui t’eveille >
Viens, reconnois la voix qui frappe ton oreille.
Iphigenie.
No jocund health that Denmark drinks to-day,
But the great cannon to the clouds ffiall tell;
And the king’s rowfe the heav’n Ihali bruit again,
Refpeaking earthly thunder.
Hamlet, aft i. ic. 2.
      In the inner room
I fpy a winking lamp, that weakly ftrikes
The ambient air, fcarce kindling into light.
Southerxe, Fate of Capua, aft iii.
In the Funeral Orations of the biffiop of Meaux, the
following paffages are raifed far above the tone of the
fuftjeft ;
“ L’Ocean etonne de fe voir traverfe tant de fois, en
des appareils fi divers, et pour des caufes fi differentes,
&c.” 6.
“ Grande reine, je fatisfais a vos plus tendres defirs,
quand je celebre ce monarque 3 et Ion cceur qui n'a ja¬
mais vecu que pour lui, s’eveille, tout poudre qu’il eft,
et devient fenfible, meme fous ce drap mortuaire, au
nom d’un epoux fi cher” Pag. 32.
The following paffage, intended, one would imagine,
as a receipt to boil water, is altogether burlefque by
the laboured elevation of the diftion :
A maffy cauldron of ftupendous frame
They brought, and plac’d it o’er the rifing flame :
Then heap the lighted wood 3 the flame divides
Beneath the vafe, and climbs around the fides:
In its wide womb they poxr the ruffling ftream :
The boiling water bubbles to the brim.
Iliad, xviii. 405.
In a paffage at the beginning of the 4th book of
Telemachus, one feels a fudden bound upward without
preparation, which accords not with the fubjeft .
“ Calypfor
4
N A R [ 619
Narration. {; Calypfo, qui avoit ete jurqu’ a ce moment immo-
bile et tranfportee de plaifir en ecoutant les aventures
de TeJ^maque, Pinterrompit pour lui faire prendre
quelque repos. II eft terns, lui dit-elle, que vous alliez
gouter la douceur du fommeil apres tant de travaux.
Vous n’avez rien a craindre ici ; tout vous eft favora¬
ble. Abandonnez vous dorr a la joie. Goutez la
paix, et tous les autres dons des dieux dont vous allez
ctre comble. Demain, quand VAurore avec fes doigts
de rofcs entr'ouvrira les partes dorees de ^Orient, et que
les chevaux du Jolcil,fortant de Ponde ame're, repandront
les jlcwies du jour, pour chaffer devant eux toutes les
etoiles du del, nous reprendrons, mon cher Teiemaque,
Phiftoire de vos malheurs.”
This obvioufly is copied from a fimilar paflage in
the iEneid, which ought not to have been copied, be¬
cause he lies open to the fame cenfure} but the force
of authority is great:
At regina gravi jamdudum faucia cura,
Vulnus alit venis, et caeco carpitur igni.
Multa viri virtus animo, multufque recurfat
Gentis honos : haerent infixi pettore vultus,
Verbaque : nec placidam membris dat cura quietem.
Poflera Phcebea lujlrabat lampade terras,
Humentemque Aurora polo dimoverat umbratn ,•
Cum lie unanimem alloquitur malefana fororerm
. Lib. iv. I.
The language of Homer is fuited to his fubjeifl, not
lefs accurately than the aflions tand fentiments of his
heroes are to their charadlers. Virgil, in that particu¬
lar, falls ftiort of perfe&ion : his language is ftately
throughout j and though he defeends at times to the
fimpleft branches of cookery, roafting and boiling for
example, yet he never relaxes a moment from the high
tone.—In adjufting his language to his fubjeft, no wri¬
ter equals Swift. We can recolleft but one exception,
which at the fame time is far from being grofs : The
Journal of a modern Lady is compofed in a ftyle blend¬
ing fprightlinefs with familiarity, perfe&ly fuited. to
the fubjeft : in one paffage, however, the poet, deviat¬
ing from that ftyle, takes a tone above his fubjett.
The paflage we have in view begins 1. 116. But let
me now a while furvey, isS’c. and ends at 1. 135.
It is proper to be obferved upon this head, that wri¬
ters of inferior rank are continually upon the ftretch
to enliven and enforce their fubjeft by exaggeration
and fuperlatives. This unluckily has an effea contrary
to what is intended the reader, difgufted with lan¬
guage that fwells above the fubjeft, is led by contrail
to think more meanly of the fubjedl than it may pof-
fibly deferve. A man of prudence, befide, wall be no
lefs careful to hufband his ftrength in writing than in
walking •, a writer, too liberal of fuperlatives, exhaufts
his whole ftock upon ordinary incidents, and referves
no (hare to exprefs, with greater energy, matters of im¬
portance.
Many writers of that kind abound fo in epithets, as
if poetry confifted entirely in high founding words.
Take the following inftance :
When black brow’d night her dulky mantle fpread,
And wrapt in folemn gloom the fable Iky j
When foothing fleep her opiate dews had Ihed,
And feal’d in filken flumbers every eye ;
] N A R
My tvaking thought admits no balmy reft,
Nor the fweet blifs of foft oblivion lhare :
But watchful wroe diftradls my aching breaft,
My heart the fubjeft of,corroding care:
From haunts of men with wandering fteps and flow
I folitary fteal, and foothe my penftve woe.
Here every fubftantive is faithfully attended by fome
tumid epithet.
We proceed to a fecond remark, not lefs important
than the former. No perfon of refledlion but mull be
fenfible, that an incident makes a ftronger impreflion ori
an eye witnefs, than when heard at fecond hand. Wri¬
ters of genius, fenfible that the eye is the bell avenue to
the heart,„reprefent every thing as palling in our fight 5
and, from readers or hearers, transform us as it were in¬
to fpe£lators : a Ikilful waiter conceals himfelf, and pre-
fents his perfonages : in a wyord, every thing becomes
dramatic as much as poflible. Plutarch, de gloria A-
thenienjium, obferves, that Thucydides makes his reader
a fpe£lator, and infpires him with the fame paflions as if
he were an eye witnefs.
In the fine arts, it is a rule to put the capital objefls
in the ftrongeft point of view ; and even to prefent them
oftener than once, where it can be done. In hiftory
painting, the principal figure is placed in the front, and
in the bell light: an equellrian ftatue is placed in a cen¬
tre of directs, that it may be feen from many places at
once. In no compofition is there greater opportunity
for this rule than in writing :
 Sequitur pulcherrimus Allur,
Aftur equo fidens et verficoloribus armis.
/E tie id, x. 180.
  Full many a lady
I’ve ey’d with bell regard, and many a time
Th’ harmony of their tongues hath into bondage
Brought my too diligent ear : for feveral virtues
Have I lik’d feveral women : never any
With fo full foul, but fome deleft in her
Did quarrel with the nobleft grace fire ow’d,
And put it to the foil. But you, O you,
So perfeft, and fo peerlefs, are created
jOf every creature’s bell. Tempefi, aft iii. fc. i.
Orlando.
Narr;*tia«
—Whate’er you are
That, in the defert inacceflible,
Under the {hade of melancholy boughs,
Lofe and negleft the creeping hours of time 5
If ever you have look’d on better days j
If ever been where bells have knoll’d to church j
If ever fat at any good man’s feall :
If ever from your eyelids wip’d a tear,
And known what ’tis to pity, and be pity’d j
Let gentlenefs my ftrong enforcement be,
In the which hope I blulh, and hide my fword.
Duke fen. True is it that we have feen better days;
And have with holy bell been knoll’d to church j
And fat at good men’s feafls; and wip’d our eyes
Of drops that facred pity had engender’d :
And therefore fit you down in gentlenefs,
And take upon command what help we have,
That to your wanting may be minill’red.
As you like it*
With thee converfing I forget all time ;
All feafons and their change, all pleafe alike.
4 I 2
Sweet
N A ll [ 620 1 N A R
Sweet is the breath of morn, her rifing fweet,
With charm of earlieft birds j pleafant the fun
When firft on this delightful land he fpreads
His orient beams on herbs, tree, fruit, and flow’r
Glift’ring with dew j fragrant the fertile earth
After foft flbow’rs j and fweet the coming on
Of grateful ev’ning mild, the dent night
With this her folemn bird, and this fair moon,
And thefe the gems of heav’n, her ftarry train :
But neither breath of morn, when {he afcends
With charm of earlieft birds, nor rifing fun
On this delightful land, nor herb, fruit, flow’r,
Glift’ring with dew, nor fragrance after ftiow’rs,
Nor grateful ev’ning mild, nor filent night,
With this her folemn bird, nor walk by moon,
Or glittering ftar light, without thee is fweet.
Paradife Loji, book iv. 1. 634.
44 What mean ye, that ye ufe this proverb, The fa¬
thers have eaten four grapes, and the children’s teeth
are fet on edge ? As I live, faith the Lord God, ye
(hall not have occafion to ufe this proverb in Ifrael. If
a man keep my judgements to deal truly, he is juft, he
{hall furely live. But if he be a robber, a ftiedder of
blood : if he have eaten upon the mountains, and de¬
filed his neighbour’s wife : if he have opprefted the
poor and needy, have {polled by violence, have not re-
ftored the pledge, have lift up his eyes to idols, have
given forth upon ufury, and have taken increafe : fliall
he live ? he {hall not live : he fhall furely die j and his
blood fliall be upon him. Now, lo, if he beget a fon,
that feeth all his father’s fins, and confidereth, and doeth
not fuch like •, that hath not eaten upon the moun¬
tains, hath not lift up his eyes to idols, nor defiled his
neighbour’s wife, hath not oppreffed any, nor with¬
held the pledge, neither hath {polled by violence, but
hath given his bread to the hungry, and covered the
naked with a garment: that hath not received ufury
nor increafe, that hath executed my judgements, and
walked in my ftatutes ; he fliall not die for the iniquity
of his father 5 he fhall furely live. The foul that fin-
aieth, it ftiall die •, the fon {hall not bear the iniquity
of the father, neither fliall the father bear the iniquity
of the fon ; the righteoufnefs of the righteous ftiall be
upon him, and the wickednefs of the wicked ftiall be
upon him. Have I any pleafure that the wicked ftiould
die, faith the Lord God ; and not that he ftiould return
from his ways, and live ?” E%ekiel xvii.
A concife comprehenfive ftyle is a great ornament in
narration j and a fuperfiuity of unneceflary words, not
lefs than of circumftances, a great nuifance. A judi¬
cious feleclion of the ftriking cireumftances, clothed in
a nervous ftyle, is delightful. In this ftyle, Tacitus
excels all writers, ancient and modern. Inftances are
number lefs : take the following fpecimen :
“ Crebra hinc praelia, et faepius in modum latrocinii :
per faltus, per paludes $ ut cuique fors aut virtus: te-
mere, provifo, ob iram, ob prtedam, juflu, et aliquando
ignaris ducibus.” • shmal. lib. xii. § 39.
After Tacitus, Oflian in that refpedft juftly merits
the place of difthnftion. One cannot go wrong for ex¬
amples in any part of the book.
If a concife or nervous ftyle be a beauty, tautology
muft be a blemilhj and yet writers, fettered by verfe,
are not fufficiently careful to avoid this flovenly prac- Narration,
tice : they may be pitied, but they cannot be juftified.
lake for a fpecimen the following inftances, from the
beft poet, for verfification at leaft, that England has to
boaft of:
High on his helm oeleftial lightnings play,
His beamy fliield emits a living ray ;
Th’ unweary’d blaze inceffant ftreams fupplies,
Like the re4 ftar that fires the autumnal {kies.
Iliad. 3.
Strength and omnipotence inveft thy throne.
Ib id. 57 6 .
So filent fountains, from a rock’s tall head,
In fable ftreams foft trickling waters ftied.
Ibid. ix. 19.
His clanging armour rung. Ibid. xii. 94.
Fear on their cheek, and horror in their eye.
Ibid. xv. 4.
The blaze of armour flafti’d againft the day.
Ibid. xvii. 736.
As when the piercing blafts of Boreas blow.
Ibid. xix. 380.
And like the moon, the broad refulgent fhield
Blaz’d with long rays, and gleam’d athwart the field.
Ibid. xix. 402.
No—could our fwiftnefs o’er the winds prevail,
Or beat the pinions of the weftern gale,.
All were in vain  Ibid. xix. 604.
The humid fvveat from every pore defcends.
Ibid, xxiii. 829.
We clofe this article with a curious inquiry. An ob-
je£l, however ugly to the fight, is far from being fo
when reprefented by colours or by wmrds. What is
the caufe of this difference ? With refpeft to painting,
the caufe is obvious : a good pidlure, whatever the
fubjeft be, is agreeable by the pleafure wre take in
imitation j and this pleafure overbalancing the dif-
agreeablenefs of the fubjefl, makes the pifture upon
the whole agreeable. With relpeft to the defcription
of an ugly objeft, the caufe follows. To connedl in¬
dividuals in the focial ftate, no particular contributes
more than language, by the power it poffeffes of an
expeditious communication of thought, and a lively
reprefentation of tranfaflions. But nature hath not
been fatisfied to recommend language by its utility
merely : independent of utility, it is made fufceptible
of many beauties, which are dire£fly felt, whhout any
intervening reflexion. And this unfolds the myftery j
for the pleafure of language is fo great, as in a lively
defcription to overbalance the difagreeablenefs of the
image raifed by it. This, however, is no encourage¬
ment to choofe a difagreeable fubjeff j for the pleafure
is incomparably greater where the fubjedt and the de¬
fcription are both of them agreeable.
The following defcription is upon the whole a-
greeable, though the fubjedl defcribed is in itfelf
difmal:
Nme times the fpace that meafures day and night
To mortal men, he with his horrid crew
Lay
N A R
Narration. Lay vanquifhed, rolling in the fiery gulf,
Confounded though immortal ! but his doom
Referv’d him to more wrath ; for now the thought
Both of loll happinefs and lafting pain
Torments him : round he throws his baleful eyes
That witnefs’d huge affli&ion and difmay.
Mix’d with obdurate pride and ftedfaft hate.
At once as far as angels ken he views
The difmal fituation wafte and wild:
A dungeon horrible, on all fides round
As one great furnace flamed ; yet from thofe flames
No light, but rather darknefs vifible
Serv’d only to difcover fights of wo,
Regions of forrow, doleful (hades, where peace
And reft can never dwell, hope never comes
That comes to all 5 but torture without end
Still urges, and a fiery deluge, fed
With ever-burning fulphur unconfum’d !
Such place eternal juftice had prepar’d
For thofe rebellious. Paradife LoJ}, book i. 50.
An unmanly depreflion of fpirits in time of danger is
not an agreeable fight •, and yet a fine defcription or re-
prefentation of it will be reliftied :
K. Richard. What muft the king do now ? muft
he fubmit ?
The king (hall do it : muft he be depos’d ?
| The king (hall be contented : muft: he lofe
The name of king ? o’ God’s name let it go :
I’ll give my jewels for a fet of beads ;
My gorgeous palace, for a hermitage ;
My gay apparel, for an almfman’s gown;
My figur’d goblets^ for a difh of wood ;
My fceptre, for a palmer’s walking-ftaff j
My fubjefls, for a pair of carved faints ;
And my large kingdom, for a little grave ;
A little, little, grave, an obfcure grave.
Or I’ll be bury’d in the king’s highway ;
Some way of common tread, where fubje£ls feet
May hourly trample on their fovereign’s head ;
For on my heart they tread now, whilft I live j
And, bury’d once, why not upon my head ?
Richard II. aft iii. fc. 6.
Objects that ftrike terror in a fpeftator, have in poe¬
try and painting a fine eflfeft. The picture, by raifing
a flight emotion of terror, agitates the mind ; and in
that condition every beauty makes a deep impreflion.
May not contrail heighten the pleafure, by oppofing our
prefent fecurity to the danger of encountering the objeft
reprefented ?
——    The other Ihape,
If Ihape it might be call’d that (hape had none
Diftinguilhable in member, joint, or limb j
Or fubftance might be call’d that lhadow feem’d,
For each feem’d either 5 black it flood as night,
Fierce as ten furies, terrible as hell,
And ftiook a dreadful dart. Par. Loji^ book ii. 666.
      Now ftorming fury rofe,
And clamour fuch as heard in heaven till now
Was never : arms on armour clafhing bray’d
Horrible difeord, and the madding wheels
Of brazen chariots rage •, dire was the noife
Of conflict} overhead the difmal hifs
N A R
Of fiery darts in flaming volleys flew.
And flying vaulted either hoft with fire.
So under fiery cope together rufh’d
Both battles main, with ruinous affault
And unextinguilhable rage : all heaven
Refounded, and had earth been then, all earth
Had to her centre ftiook. Ibid, book vi. 207.
Ghoft. But that I am forbid
To tell the fecrets of my prifon-houfe,
I could a tale unfold, whofe lighteft wrord
Would harrow up thy foul, freeze thy young blood,
Make thy two eyes, like ftars ftart from their fpheres,
Thy knotty and combined locks to part,
And each particular hair to ftand on end,
Like quills upon the fretful porcupine :
But this eternal blazon muft not be
To ears of flefli and blood. Hamlett aft i. fc. 8.
Gratiano. Poor Defdemona 1 I’m glad thy father’s
dead :
Thy match was mortal to him 5 and pure grief
Shore his old thread in twain. Did he live now,
This fight would make him do a defp’rate turn :
Yea, curfe hss better angel from his fide,
And fall to reprobation. Othello, aft v. fc. 8.
Objefts of horror muft be excepted from the forego¬
ing theory j for no defcription, however lively, is fuffi-
cient to overbalance the difguft raifed even by the idea
of fuch objects. Every thing horrible ought therefore
to be avoided in a defcription.
NARSES, the eunuch who rivalled Belifarius in he-
roifm under the reign of the emperor Juftinian, emerged
from obfeurity A. D. 538. From the domeftic fervice
of the palace, and the adminiftration of the private re¬
venue, he was fuddenly exalted to the head of an army.
He is ranked among the few eunuchs who have refeued
that unhappy name from the contempt and hatred of
mankind. A feeble diminutive body concealed the foul
of a ftatefman and a warrior. His youth had been em¬
ployed in the management of the loom and diftaff, in
the cares of the houfebold, and the fervice of female
luxury ; but, while his hands were bufy, he fecretly ex-
ercifed the faculties of a vigorous and difeerning mind.
A ftranger to the fchools and the camp, he ftudied in
the palace to dilTemble, to flatter, and to perfuade ; and
as foon as he approached the perfon of the emperor,
Juftinian liftened with furprife and pleafure to the man¬
ly counfels of his chamberlain and -private treafurer.
The talents of Narfes were trfed and improved in fre¬
quent embaflies; he led an army into Italy, acquired a
practical knowledge of thewar.?rkl the country, and
prefumed to ftrive with the genius of Belifarius. Twelve
years after his return, the eunuch was chofen to a-
chieve the conqueft which had been left imperfeft
by the firft of the Roman generals. Inftead of being
dazzled by vanity or emulation, he ferioufly declared,
that unlefs he were armed wnth an adequate force, he
would never confent to rilk his own glory and that of
his fovereign. Juftinian granted to the favourite what
he might have denied to the hero : the Gothic w-ar
was rekindled from its alhes, and the preparations
were not unworthy of the ancient majefty of the em¬
pire.
Narfes defeated the Goths, the Franks, and the
Alamanni •
[ 621 ]
Narration
II
Narfes.
N A S r 622 1 N A T
J^arva Alamanni; the Italian cities opened their gates to the
NaU'>ir con^ueror } he entered the capital in triumph $ and
—l 1 > having ellablilhed the feat of his government at Ra¬
venna, continued 15 years to govern Italy under the
title of Exarch.
His virtues, we are told, were ftained with avarice ”,
and in this provincial reign he accumulated a treafure
of gold and filver which furpafled the modefty of a
private fortune. His government was oppreffive or
unpopular ; and the general difcontent was expreffed
with freedom by the deputies of Rome. Before the
throne of Juftinian they boldly declared, that their
Gothic fervitude had been more tolerable than the def-
potifm of a Greek eunuch 5 and that unlefs their ty¬
rant were inflantly removed, they would confult their
own happinefs in the choice of a mailer. Thus was
his difgrace the effect of the people’s difaffedfion; and
his death, though in the extreme period of old age,
was unfeafonable and premature, fince his genius alone
could have repaired the lait and fatal error of his life.
He died about the year 567, and, as fome fayy at the
advanced age of 95 $ but this does not appear very
probable. See Gibbon’s Rom. Hift. vol. iv. 4to edit,
p. 194, 298, &c.
NARVA, a ftrong town of the Ruffian empire, in
Livonia, with a caftle and a harbour. It was taken by
the Mufcovites from the Danes in 1558, by the Swedes
in 1581, and they defeated the Mufcovites near it in
1700 $ but it was retaken by the Ruffians in 1704 by
f florm, and the inhabitants fent to Aftracan. It is feat-
ed on the river Narva, 95 miles fouth-weft of Wiburg,
and 172 north-eaft of Riga. E. Long. 29. o. N. Lat.
59. 8.
NARWAL, a genus of whales. See Monodon,
Cetology Index.
NASSAU-siegen, a fmall principality of Germany
in the Wefterwalde, is in general a mountainous woody
country, with fome arable and pafture ground, and a
good breed of cattle. Its manufaftures are chiefly
thofe of iron and fteel, having an iron mine in the
neighbourhood of Siegen. Count John the Younger,
in 1626, embraced the Roman Catholic religion, and
endeavoured to introduce it into the country ; but the
principality, upon the extinflion of the line of Naffau-
Siegen in 1743, falling to the line of Naffau-Dietz,
and therein to the prince of Orange, hereditary fladt-
holder of the United Provinces, the Proteftants were
delivered from their apprehenfions of Popiffi tyranny
and bigotry. The prince, on account of thefe territo-
i lies, has a feat and voice at the diets of the empire and
circle in the college of princes. His affeffment in the
matricula for Naflau-Siegen is 773 florins monthly;
and towards the maintenance of the chamber judicato¬
ry, 50 rixdollars, fix kruitzers and a half, each term.
The revenue of this principality is eftimated at 100,000
rixdollars.
NjssAv-Dillenbourg, a principality of Germany, fi-
tuated near the former. It has not much arable land,
but plenty of wood, good quarries of ftone, fome fil¬
ver and vitriol, copper and lead, with (tore of iron,
for the working and fmelting of which there are many
forges and founderies in the country ; and by thefe,
and the fale of their iron, the inhabitants chiefly fub-
fifl. Calvinifm is the religion of the principality,
which contains five towns and two boroughs, and be-
2
longs entirely to William V. prince of Orange, and Nate*
hereditary ftadtholder of the United Provinces, whofe /l
father fucceeded to a part of it in 1739 on the death
of Prince Chriftian, and to the reft in 1743 on the
death of Prince William Hyacynth of Siegen. The
prince, on account of this principality alfo and Dietz,
has a feat and voice in the college of princes, at the
diets of the empire and circle. His affeffment in the .
matrieula, for Naffau-Dillenbourg, is 102 florins
monthly j and to the chamber judicatory, 59 rixdol¬
lars fix and a half kruitzers, each term. His revenue
from this principality is computed at above 130,000
florins.
NASSAV-Hadamar, a county of Germany, which,
till the year 1711, had princes of its own j but now be¬
longs wholly to William V. prince of Orange.
Nassau, prince of Orange. See Maurice.
NATES, in Anatomy, a term expreffing thofe two
flelhy exterior parts of the body, vulgarly called the
buttocks. See Anatomy.
Nates Cerebri, are two circular protuberances of
the brain, fituated on the back fide of the medulla ob¬
longata, near the cerebellum.
NATION, a colleftive term, ufed for a confider-
able number of people inhabiting a certain extent of
land, confined within fixed limits, and under the fame
government.
NATIONAL debt : the money owing by govern¬
ment.
Our limits permit us to give but a very general Iketch
of this fubjed : However, as it is of confiderable im¬
portance to every inhabitant of thefe kingdoms, we
Ihall endeavour to give as clear and comprehenfive a
view of it as the bounds neceffarily pvefcribed us will
admit. In order to this, it may not be improper to re¬
fer back to the times that have gone before us, that we
may the better difcover the nature of public revenues,
the manner of their expenditure, and the caufes of pub¬
lic debt.
In that rude ftate of fociety which precedes the ex-
tenfion of commerce and the improvements of manu-
fadures, when thofe expenfive luxuries which com¬
merce and manufadures can alone introduce, are alto¬
gether unknown ; the perfon who pofleffes a large reve¬
nue can fpend or enjoy that revenue in no other way
than by maintaining nearly as many people as it can
maintain. Among our feudal anceftors, the long time Smith's
during which eftates ufed to continue in the fame fami- Wealth of
ly, fufficiently demonftrates the general difpofition of Nations.
people to live within their income. Though the ruftic
hofpitality conftantly exercifed by the great landholders
may not to us in the prefent times feem confiftent with
that order which we are apt to confider as infeparably
conneded with good economy, yet we muft certainly
allow them to have been at leaft fo far frugal as not
commonly to have fpent their whole income. Some
part of this money, perhaps, they fpent in purchafing
the few objeds of vanity and luxury with which the
circumftances of the times could furnifh them : but
fomft part of it they feem commonly to have hoarded.
They could not w-ell indeed do any thing elfe but
hoard whatever money they faved. To trade was dif-
graceful to a gentleman ; and to lend money at inter-
eft, which at that time was conudered as ufury and pro¬
hibited by law, would have been ftill more fo.
The
NAT t 623 ] NAT
Nrfhocal The fame difpofition to fave and to hoard prevailed
, in the fovereign as well as in the fubjefls. Among na¬
tions to whom commerce and manufadtures are little
known, the fovereign is in a fituation which naturally
difpofes him to the parfimony requilite for accumula¬
tion. In that fituatson the expence even of a fove¬
reign cannot be directed by that vanity which delights
In the gaudy finery of a court. The ignorance of the
times affords but few of the trinkets in which that
finery confifts. Standing armies are not then neceffa-
ry ; fo that the expence even of a fovereign, like that
of any other great lord, can be employed in fcarce any
thing but bounty to his tenants and hofpitality to his
retainers. But bounty and hofpitality very feldom lead
to extravagance : though vanity almoft always does.
All the ancient fovereigns of Europe accordingly had
treaiures. Every Tartar chief in the prefent times is
faid to have one.
In a commercial country abounding with every fort
of expenfive luxury, the fovereign, in the fame manner
as almoft all the great proprietors in his dominions, na¬
turally fpends a great part of his revenue in purchafing
thofe luxuries. His own and the neighbouring coun¬
tries fupply him abundantly with all the coftly trinkets
which compofe the fplendid but infignificant pageantry
of a court. His ordinary expence becomes equal to
his ordinary revenue, and it is well if it does not
frequently exceed it. The amaffing of treafure can
no longer be expe&ed : and when extraordinary exi¬
gencies require extraordinary expences, he muft ne-
ceffarily call upon his fubjedfs for an extraordinary aid.
The late king of Pruflla and his father are the only
great princes of Europe who, fince the death of Hen¬
ry IV. of France in 1610, are fuppofed to have amaf-
fed any confiderable treafure. The parfimony which
leads to accumulation has become almoft as rare in re¬
publican as in monarchical governments. The Italian
republics, the United Provinces of the Netherlands,
are all in debt. The canton of Berne is the fingle re¬
public in Europe which has amaffed any confiderable
treafure. The other Swifs republics have not. The
tafte for fome fort of pageantry, for fplendid buildings
at leaft and other public ornaments, frequently prevails
as much in the apparently fober fenate houfe of a little
republic as in the diftipated court of the greateft king.
The want of parfimony in time of peace impofes the
neceftity of contrasting debt in time of war. When
war comes, there is no money in the treafury but what
53 neceffary for carrying on the ordinary expence of
the peace eftabliihment. In wrar an eftablhhment of
three or four times that expence becomes neceffary for
the defence of the ftate, and confequently a revenue
three or four times greater than the peace revenue.
Suppcfing that the fovereign ihould have what he
fcarce ever has, the immediate means of augmenting
his revenue in propoition to the augmentation of his
expence •, yet ftill the produce of the taxes, from which
this increafe of revenue muft be drawn, will not begin
to come into the treafury till perhaps ten or twelve
months after they are impofed. But the moment in
which war begins, or rather the moment in which it
appears likely to begin, the army muft be augmented,
the fleets muff be fitted out, the garrifoned towns muft
be put into a pofture of.defence ; that array, that fleet,
thofe garrifoned towns, muft be furnithed with arms, National
ammunition, and provilions. An immediate and great ,
expence muft be incurred in that moment of imme¬
diate danger, which will not wait for the gradual and
flow returns of the new taxes. In this exigency go¬
vernment can have no other refources but in borrow-
ing.
The fame commercial ftate of fociety which, by the
operation of moral caufes brings government in this
manner into the neceftity of borrowing, produces in
the fubjefts both an ability and an inclination to lend.
If it commonly brings along with it the neceftity of
borrowing, it likewife brings along with it the facility
of doing fo.
A country abounding wdth merchants and manufac¬
turers, neceffarily abounds with a fet of people through
whofe hands not only their own capitals, but the capi¬
tals of all thofe wrho either lend them money or truft
them with goods, pafs as frequently or more frequent¬
ly than the revenue of a private man, who without
trade or bufinefs lives upon his income, pafles through
his hands. The revenue of fuch a man can regularly
pafs through his hands only once in a year. But the
whole amount of the capital and credit of a merchant
who deals in a trade of which the returns are very
quick may fometimes pafs through his hands two,
three, or four times in a year. A country abounding
with merchants and manufadturers, therefore, neceifa-
rily abounds with a fet of people who have it at all
times in their power to advance, if they choofe to do
fo, a very large fum of money to government. Hence
the ability in the fubjedts of a commercial ftate to
lend.
The progrefs of the enormous debts which at pre- Blackjl.
fent opprefs, and will in the long-run probably ruin, Conurunt.
all the great nations of Europe, has been pretty uni¬
form. In England, after the Revolution, when new
connexions with Europe introduced a new fyftem of
foreign politics, the expences of the nation, not only
in fettling the new eftablilhment, but in maintaining
long wars, as principals, on the continent, for the fe-
curity of the Dutch barrier, reducing the French mo¬
narchy, fettling the Spanifh fucceftion, fupporting the
houfe of Auftria, maintaining the liberties of the Ger¬
manic body, and other purpofes, increafed to an un-
ufual degree : infomuch that it was not thought advife-
able to raife all the expences of any one year by taxes
to be levied within that year, left the unaccuftomed
weight of them Ihould create murmurs among the peo¬
ple. It was therefore the policy of the times to antici¬
pate the revenues of their pofterity, by borrowing im-
menfe fums for the current fervice of the ftate, and to
lay no more taxes upon the fubjeef than would fuffice
to pay the annual intereft of the fums fo borrowed ; by
this means converting the principal debt into a new
fpecies of property, transferable from one man to an¬
other at any time and in any quantity. This fyftem in¬
deed feems to have had its original in the ftate of Flo¬
rence, A. D. 1344 j which government then owed a-
bout 60,cool, fterling j and being'unable to pay it,
formed the principal into an aggregate fum, called me¬
taphorically a mount or bank, the (hares whereof we re
transferable like our flocks, with interelt at 5*per cent,
the prices varying according ^o the exigencies of the •
ftsate.
NAT [ 624 ] NAT
ftate. This laid the foundation of what is called the
notional debt; for a few long annuities created in the
reign of Charles II. will hardly deferve that name.
Nations, like private men, have generally begun to
borrow upon what may be called perfonal crediti with¬
out affigning or mortgaging any particular fund for
the payment of the debt ; and when this refource has
failed them, they have gone on to borrow upon affign-
ments or mortgages of particular funds.
What is called the unfunded debt of Great Britain,
is contra£led in the former of thofe two ways. It
confifts partly in a debt which bears, or is fu^pofed to
bear, no intereft, and which refembles the debts that a
private man contrails upon account; and partly in a
debt which bears intereft, and which refembles what a
private man contrails upon his bill or promiflbry note.
The debts which are due either for extraordinary fer-
vices, or for fervices either not provided for or not
paid at the time when they are performed j part of
the extraordinaries of the army, navy, and ordnance,
the arrears of fubfidies to foreign princes, thoie of
feamen’s w^ages, &c. ufually conftitute a debt of the
firft kind. Navy and exchequer bills, which are if-
Cued fometimes in payment of a part of fuch debts,
and fometimes for other purpofea, conftitute a debt of
the fecond kind ; exchequer bills bearing intereft from
the day on which they are iiTued, and navy bills fix
months after they are ilfued. The bank of England,
either by voluntarily difcounting thofe bills at their
current value, or by agreeing with government for cer¬
tain confiderations to circulate exchequer bills, that is,
to receive them at par, paying the intereft which, hap¬
pens to be due upon them, keeps up their value, and
facilitates their circulation, and thereby frequently
enables government to contradl a very large debt of
this kind. During the great recoinage in King Wil¬
liam’s time, when the bank of England thought pro¬
per to put a flop to its ufual tranfaftions, exchequer
bills and tallies are faid to have fold from 25 to 60
per cent, difcount; owing partly, no doubt, to the fup-
pofed inftability of the new government eftablifhed by
the Revolution, but partly too to the want of the fup-
port of the bank of England.
When this refource is exhaufted, and it becomes ne-
ceftary, in order to raife money, to aftign or mortgage
fome particular branch of the public revenue for the
payment of the debt, government has upon different
occafions done this in two different ways. Sometimes
it has made this aflignment or mortgage for a ftiort pe¬
riod of time only, a year or a few years, for example 5
and fometimes for perpetuity. In the one cafe, the
fund was fuppofed fufficient to pay within the limited
vtime both principal and intereft of the money bor¬
rowed : In the other, it was fuppofed fufficient to pay
the intereft only, or a perpetual annuity equivalent to
the intereft ; government being at liberty to redeem
at any time this annuity upon paying back the prin¬
cipal fum borrowed. When money was raifed in the
one w’ay, it was faid to be raifed by anticipation ; when
in the other, by perpetual funding, or, more ihortly, by
funding.
In the reign of King William, when the debt began
to be amaffed, and during a great part of that of
Oueen Anne, before wTe had become fo familiar as we
are now with the pradtice of perpetual funding, the
3
greater part of the new taxes were impofed but for a Nations!
ftiort period of time (for four, five, fix, or feven years, ^ebt'
only), and a great part of the grants of every year
confifted in loans upon anticipation of the produce of
thofe taxes. The produce being frequently infuffi-
cient for paying within the limited term the principal
and intereft of the money borrowed, deficiencies arofe
to make good which it became neceffary to prolong
the term.
On the 31ft of December 1697, the funded and un¬
funded debts amounted to 21,513,742!. 13s. 8^d. \ at
the fame time, in 1714, they were 53,681,076!. 5s.
6TVd. In 1755, before the breaking out of the war,
they amounted to 72,289,673!.; and on the 5th of
January 1763, at the conclufion of the peace, they had
accumulated to 1 22,603,336!. 8s. 2^d. of funded debt,
and of unfunded 13,027,589!. 2s. 2d. more. In 1775,
they were very nearly 130 millions; and the laft Ame¬
rican war added up’wards of 120 millions more to that
enormous fum : to pay the intereft of which, and the
charges of management, amounting annually to nearly
eight millions and a half, the extraordinary revenues
elfewhere enumerated * (excepting only the land-tax * See Re¬
ared annual malt-tax) are in the firft place mortgaged
and made perpetual by parliament. Perpetual we fay;
but ftill redeemable by the fame authority that impofed
them : which, if it at any time can pay off the capital,
will abolilh thofe taxes which are raifed to difcharge
the intereft.
By this means, then, the quantity of property in the
kingdom is greatly increafed in idea compared with
former times ; yet, if wTe coolly confider it, not at all
increafed in reality. We may boaft of large fortunes,
and quantities of money in the funds. But where does
this money exift ? It exifts only in name, in paper, in
public faith, in parliamentary fecurity : and that is
undoubtedly fufficient for the creditors of the public
to rely on. But then what is the pledge wffiich the
public faith has pawned for the fecurity of thefe debts ?
The land, the trade, and the perfonal induftry of the
fubjeft ; from which the money muft arife that fup-
plies the feveral taxes. In thefe, therefore, and thefe
only, the property of the public creditors does really
and intrinfically exift ; and of courfe the land, the
trade, and the perfonal induftry of individuals, are di-
miniffied in their true value juft fo much as they are
pledged to anfwer. If A’s income amounts to tool,
per annum ; and he is fo far indebted to B, that he
pays him 50I. per annum for his intereft ; one half of
the value of A’s property is transferred to B the credi¬
tor. The creditor’s property exifts in the demand
which he has upon the debtor, and nowhere elfe ; and
the debtor is only a truftee to his creditor for one half
of the value of his income. In ffiort, the property of
a creditor of the public confifts in a certain portion of
the national taxes ; by how much therefore he is the
richer, by fo much the nation, which pays thefe taxes,
is the poorer.
The only advantage that can refult to a nation from
public debts, is the increafe of circulation, by multi¬
plying the cafti of the kingdom, and creating a new
fpecies of currency, affignable at any time and in any
quantity ; always therefore ready to be employed in
any beneficial undertaking, by means of this its tranf-
ferable quality ; and yet producing fome profit even
when
MAT [ 625 ] NAT
National when it lies idle and unemployeds ^ A certain proper- of the debt has in fact been adopted, and in confe-
. Debt- tion of debt feems to be highly ufeful to a trading peo- quence eftabliQied, by the legiflature : His three plans
^ " pie ; but what that proportion is, it is not for us to may be found in a pamphlet by William Morgan, en-
determine. This much is indifputably certain, that titled, A Review of Dr Price’s Writings on the Sub¬
tile prefent magnitude of our national encumbrances jeft of the Finances of this Kingdom,
very far exceeds all calculations of commercial bene- NATIVITY, or Natal day, the day of a per-
fit, and is produflive of the greateft inconveniences, fon’s birth. The word nativity is chiefly ufed in fpeak-
For, firfl:, The enormous taxes that are railed upon ing of the faints; as,, the nativity of St John the Bap-
the neceffaries of life for the payment of the intereft tift, &c. But when w’e fay the Nativity, it is un-
o'f this debt, are a hurt both to trade and manufac- derftood of that of Jefus Chrilt, or the feaft of Chrilt-
tures, by railing the price as tvell of the artificer’s mas.
fubfiftence as of the raw material, and of courfe, in a Nativity, nativitas, in ancient law books, fignifies
much greater proportion, the price of the commodity bondage or fervitude.
itfelf. Nay, the very increafe of paper circulation it- Nativity, in AJlroIogy, the theme or figure of the
felf, when extended beyond what is requifite for com- heavens, and particularly of the twelve houfes, at the
merce or foreign exchange, has a natural tendency to moment when a perfon was born ; called alfo the ho-
Increafe the price of provifions as well as of all other rofeope.
merchandife. For as its effedl is to multiply the calh Calling the nativity, or by calculation feeking to
of the kingdom, and this to fuch an extent that much know how long the queen ihould live, &c. was made
mull remain unemployed, that calh (which is the uni- felony, an. 23 Eliz. c. 2.
verfal meafure of the refpedlive values of all other com- NATIVO habendo, in Law, a writ dire&ed to
modities) mull neceflarily fink in its own value, and the fheriif, for a lord who claimed inheritance in any
every thing grow comparatively dearer. Secondly, If villain, when a villain was run away from him, for the
part of this debt be owing to foreigners, either they apprehending and relloring him to the lord,
draw out of the kingdom annually a confiderable quan- NATIX, in Natural Hifiory, a name given by feme
tity of fpecie for the i.itereft ; or elfe it is made an ar- old writers to the nerita.
gument to grant them unreafonable privileges in order NATOLIA, the modern name of the Leffer Afia,
to reduce them to refide here. Thirdly, If the whole being the moft weftcrly part of Turkey in Afia, and
be owing to fubje&s only, it is then charging the a&ive confining of a large peninfula, which extends from the
and induftrious fubjedl, who pays his lhare of the taxes river Euphrates as far as the Archipelago, the fea of
to maintain the indolent and idle creditor wdio receives Marmora, the ftraits of Gallipoli and of Conftantinople,
them. Laftly, and principally, It weakens the inter- which feparate it from Europe on the weft. It is
nal ftrength of a ftate, by anticipating thofe refources bounded on the north by the Black fea, and on the
which ftiould be referved to defend it in cafe of necef- fouth by the Mediterranean.
fity. The intereft we now pay for our debts would un- NATRIX, in Zoology, the name of the common or
doubtedly be fufficient to maintain the moft vigorous water-fnake, called alfo torquata, from the ring about
war that any national motives could poflibly require, its neck. See Ophiology Index.
If indeed our anceftors in King William’s time had an- NATRUM, or Natron, the nitre of the ancients,
nually paid, fo long as their exigencies lafted, a far one of the fixed alkalies. See Soda, Chemistry Index.
lefs fum than we now annually raife upon their accounts, It is found in great abundance in many parts of Afia,
they would not in time of war have borne fo great bur- where the natives fweep it up from the furface of the
dens as they have bequeathed to and fettled upon their ground, and call it foap earth. The earlieft account
pofterity in time of peace ; and might have been eafed we have of it is in the Scriptures, where we find that
the inftant the exigence was over. the fait called nitre in thofe times would ferment with
On the whole, then, the national debt is undoubt- vinegar, and polTefled a deterfive quality, fo that it was
edly a fubjedl of vaft importance, and as fuch it has ufed in baths and in wafhing. Solomon compares the
been always confidered ; for much has been faid and Anging of fongs with a heavy heart, to the contrariety
written upon it, and many fchemes have been propofed of vinegar and nitre ; and Jeremiah fays, that if the fin¬
al various times and by various perfons for gradually re- ner walh himfelf with nitre, his fin is not cleanfed off.
moving it, it being confidered by the moft judicious as Theie are properties that perfe&ly agree with this fait,
a moft pernicious encumbrance to a commercial coun- but not at all with our faltpetre, which is the nitre of
try. Some, we are aware, think it of vaft utility ; but the moderns.
this opinion is too excentric, and in our eftimation too NATTER-jack, a fpecies of Rana, which fee,
feebly fupported, to be convincing. The public debt Erpetology Index.
is indifputably a great grievance ; and every lover of NATURAL, in general, fomething that relates to
his country muft furely wifh to fee it removed : the pe- nature. See Nature,
riod, however, when this blefling ftiall take place, if Natural Children, are thofe born out of lawful wed-
indeed it ever arrive, muft at lealf be very diftant. lock. See Bastard.
We refer fuch as wifh for farther information on this Natural Functions, are thofe aftions whereby the
interefting topic to thofe who have treated of it at full aliments are changed and aflimilated fo as to become a
length, as Smith in his Wealth of Nations, and Sir part of the body.
John Sinclair in his Hiftory of the Revenue. J[ he Natural, in Hei'aldry, is ufed where animals, fruits,
writings of Dr Price like wife deferve confiderable at- flowers, &c. are blazoned with the colours they natu-
ten-tion, efpecially as one of his plans for the reduction rally have, though different from the common colours
Vol. XIV. Part II. 4 K of
Nativity
II
Natural.
«
Natural
Note
il
Natural
Be u:< y.
NAT [ 626 ]
of heraldry : and this is to prevent their armories being tion of nature,
accufed of falfity, xvhen blazoned with the names of
colours unknown in heraldry.
Natural Note, in Mujtc, is ufed in oppofition to
flat and (harp notes, which are called artificial notes.
See Note, Scale, S/c.
Natural is alio ufeu; or fomething coming imme¬
diately out of the hands of nature : in which fenfe it
ftands oppefed to faBitious or artificial, which fignifies
fomething wrought by art. See Artificial.
Bilhop Wilkins obferves, that there appears a world
of difference between natural and artificial things, when
viewed with microfcopes. The firff ever appear adorn¬
ed with all imaginable elegance and beauty ; the latter,
though the mod curious in their kind, infinitely rude
and unhewn : the fined needle appears a rough bar of
and the mod accurate engraving or emboflment,
f Dr Perci
val’s Mo¬
ral and Li¬
as if done with a mattock or a trowel.
Natural Beauty, or the beauty of natural objedls,
is that quality or thofe qualities in the works of nature,
or more properly of God, which are calculated to ex¬
cite pleafing fenfations in the minds of all fuch perfons
of true tade as attentively obferve them. It will not,
we trud, be deemed improper or impertinent, there¬
fore, to introduce a few obfervations on this fubjeft,
previous to our treating of natural hidory.—To many,
it is hoped, it will appear to be a very proper introduc¬
tion to that important article. “ That fenfibility to
beauty, which, when cultivated and improved, we
term tade, is univerfally diffufed through the human
fpecies f ; and it is mod uniform with refpedt to thofe
objefls, which being out of our power, are not liable to
'ferary1 d‘:~ v&riation from accident, caprice, or fadiion. The ver-
fertationi. dant lawn, the fhady grove, the.variegated landfcape,
the boundlefs ocean, and the darry firmament, are con¬
templated with pleafure by every attentive beholder.
But the emotions of different fpeiffators, though fimilar
in kind, differ widely in degree ; and to relidr with full
delight the enchanting feenes of nature, the mind mud
be uncorrupted by avarice, fenfualhy, or ambition j
quick in her fenfibilitics; elevated in her fentiments ;
and devout in her affe£Hons. He who poffeffes fuch
exalted powers of perception and enjoyment, may ai¬
med fay, with the poet,
I care not, Fortune ! what you me deny ;
You cannot rob me <?f free Nature’s grace ;
You cannot fhut the windows of the fky,
Through which Aurora dxows her bright’ning face j
You cannot bar my condant feet to trace
The woods and lawns, by living dream, at eve :
Let health my nerves and finer fibres brace,
And I their toys to the great children leave :
Of fancy, reafon, virtue, nought can me bereave.
“ Perhaps fuch ardent enthufiafm may not be com¬
patible with the necefiary toils and aflive offices which
Providence has affigned to the generality of men. But
there are none to whom fome portion of it may not
prove advantageous: and if it wTere cheriffied by each
individual, in that degree which is confident with the
indifpenfable duties of his dation, the felicity of human
life would be ccnfiderably augmented. From this
fource, the refined and vivid pleafures of the imagina¬
tion are almod entirely derived : and the elegant arts
owe their choiceft beauties to a tade for the contempla-
N A T
Painting and fculpture are exprefs imi- Natural
tations of vilible objects ; and where would be the Beauty,
charms of poetry, if diveded of the imagery and embel-
liffiments which fire borrows from rural feenes ? Paint¬
ers, datuaries, and poets, therefore, are always ambi¬
tious to acknowledge themfelves the pupil of nature j
and as their fkill increafes, they grow more and more
delighted with every view of the animal and vegetable
world. But the pleafure refuking from admiration is
tranfient; and to cultivate tade, without regard to its
influence on the paffions and affedlions, ‘ is to rear a
tree for its bloffoms, which is capable of yielding the
riched and mod valuable fruit.’ Phyfical and moral
beauty bear fo intimate a relation to each other, that
they may be confidered as different gradations in the
fcale of excellence 5 and the knowledge and relifh of
the former ihould be deemed only a dep to the nobler
and more permanent enjoyments of the latter.
“ Whoever has vifited the Leafowes, in Wanvick-
fliire, mud have felt the force and propriety of an in-
feription which meets the eye at the entrance into thofe
delightful grounds.
Would you then tade the tranquil feene ?
Be lure your bofoms be ferene :
Devoid of hate, devoid of ftrife,
Devoid of all that poifons life :
And much it ’vails you, in their place,
To graft the love of human race.
“ Nowr fuch feenes contribute powerfully to infpire
that ferenity which is neceffary to enjoy and to height¬
en their beauties. By a fecret contagion, the foul
catches the harmony which die contemplates; and
the frame within affimilates itfelf to that which is with¬
out. For,
Who can forbear to fmile with Nature ? Can
The flormy paffions in the bofom roll,
. While every gale is peace, and every grove
Is melody ?
“ In this date of fweet compofure, we become fuf-
ceptible of virtuous impreffions, from almod every fur¬
rounding objeft. The patient ox is viewed with gene¬
rous complacency \ the guilelefs ffieep with pity j and
the playful lamb raifes emotions of tendernefs and love.
We rejoice with the horfe, in his liberty and exemption
from toil, while he ranges at large through enamelled
padures ; and the frolics of the colt would afford un¬
mixed delight, did we not recoiled! the bondage which
he is foon to undergo. We are charmed with the fong
of birds, foothed with the buzz of infedls, and pleafed
with the fportive motions of fillies, becaufe thefe are
expreffiens of enjoyment; and wre exult in the felicity
of the whole animated creation. Thus an equal and
extenfive benevolence is called forth into exertion j and
having felt a common intered in the gratifications of
inferior beings, we ftiall be no longer indifferent to
their fufferings, or become wantonly indrumental in
producing them.
“ It feems to be the intention of Providence, that
the lower order of animals ftiould be fubfervient to the
comfort, convenience, and fudenance of man. But
his right of dominion extends no farther j and if this
right be exercifed with mildnefs, humanity, andjuf-
tice, the fubjedts of his power will be no lefs benefit¬
ed
Tfatural
Beauty.
NAT f 627 ] NAT
ed than hirnfelf. For various fpccies of liviftg crea¬
tures are annually multiplied by human art, improved
in their perceptive powers by human culture, and plen¬
tifully fed by human induftry. The relation, there¬
fore, is reciprocal between fuch animals and man ; and
he may fupply his own wants by the ufe of their la¬
bour, the produce of their bodies, and even the facri-
fice of their lives, whilft he co-operates with all-gra¬
cious Heaven in promoting happinefs, the great end of
exiftence.
“ But though it be true, that partial evil, with re-
fpeft to different orders of fenfitive beings, may be
univerfal good ; and that it is a wife and benevolent
inftitution of nature, to make deftruclion itfelf, within
certain limitations, the caufe of an increafe of life and
enjoyment j yet a generous perfon will extend his com-
paflionate regards to every individual that fuffers for his
fake : and whilft he fighs
Even for the kid or lamb that parts its life
Beneath the bloody knife, .
lie will naturally be felicitous to mitigate pain, both in
duration and degree, by the gentleft modes of inflifl-
ing it.
“ We are inclined to believe* however, that this fenfe
of humanity would foon be obliterated, and that the
heart would grow callous to every foft impreftion, were
it not for the benignant influence of the fmiling face of
nature. The count de Lauzun, when imprifoned by
Louis XIV. in the caftle of Pignerol, amufed himfelf
during a long period of time with catching flies, and
delivering them to be devoured by a rapacious fpider.
Such an entertainment was equally Angular and cruel j
and inconflftent, w7e believe, with his former charafler,
and his fubfequent turn of mind. But his cell had no
window, and received only a glimmering light from an
aperture in the roof. In lefs unfavourable circumftan-
ces, may we not prefume, that inftead of fporting with
tnifery, he would have releafed the agonizing flies, and
bid them enjoy that freedom of which he himfelf was
bereaved ?
“ But the tafte for natural beauty is fubfervient to
higher purpofes than thofe which have been enumerat¬
ed ; and the cultivation of it not only refines and hu¬
manizes, but dignifies and exalts the affeftions. It
elevates them to the admiration and love of that Be¬
ing who is the author of all that is fair, fublime, and
good in the creation. Scepticifm and irreligion are
hardly compatible with the fenfibility of heart which
arifes from a juft and lively relifti of the wifdom, har¬
mony, and order fubfifting in > the world around us:
and emotions.of piety muft fpring up fpontaneoully in
the bofom that is in unifon with all animated nature.
Afluated by this divine infpiration, man finds a fane in
every grove •, and, glowing with devout fervour, he
joins his fong to the univerfal chorus, or mufes the
praife of the Almighty, in more exprefiive filence.
Thus they
“ Whom Nature’s works can charm, with God himfelf
Hold conyerfe : grow familiar, day by day,
With his conceptions j aft upon his plan ;
And form to his the relifh of their fouls.”
On the whole then, it certainly appears, that the
advantages refulting from a tafte for natural beauties Natural
are great and important : it is equally certain, that as Reauty; .
it is ufeful, fo it is a continual fource of real enjoy- "
ment ; for a more rational pleafure cannot poffibly oc¬
cupy the attention or captivate the affeftions of man¬
kind, than that which arifes from a due confideratiou
of the works of nature. Pleafure, we know, is a ne-
ceffary ingredient in human life, in order in fome mea-
lure to counterbalance the pains, the evils, and liftlefs-
neffes, which are at times perhaps unavoidable, and in
order to render life tolerable. It is the part then of
the moralift, and it has been frequently his butinefs,
to point out and recommend fuch pleafures as are high¬
ly gratifying, and are yet perfeftly innocent. The
Speftator, whofe w?orks will be admired as long as the
language in which they are written is underftood, re¬
commends ftrongly and elegantly the pleafure of a gar¬
den j and a later wrrit^r-f-, of no common degree of me¬
rit, and of very confiderable fame, has an effay onf®r Knox,
the fame fubjeft, from wdftch we (hall feleft a few ob-
fervations, and fb conclude the article. “ Not he
alone (fays this elegant writer) is to be efteemed a
benefaftor to mankind, wdio makes an ufeful difeovery j
but he alfo wrho can point out and recommend an inno¬
cent pleafure. Of this kind are the pleafures arifing
from the obfervation of nature j and they are highly
agreeable to every tafte uncorrupted by vicious indul¬
gence. Rural feenes of almoft every kind are delight¬
ful to the mind of man. But the misfortune is, that
the greater part are hurried on in the career of life with
too great rapidity to be able to give attention to that
w’hich folicits no paflion. The darkeft habitation in
the dirtieft ftreet of the metropolis, where money can
be earned, has greater charms with many than the
groves of Hagley.
“ The patron of refined pleafure, the elegant Epicu¬
rus, fixed the feat of his enjoyment in a garden. He
was of opinion, that a tranquil fpot, furnilhed with
the united fweets of art and nature, was the beft
adapted to delicate repofe. And even the feverer phi¬
losophers of antiquity were wont to difeourfe in the
fliade of a fpreading tree, in fome cultivated planta¬
tion. It is obvious, on intuition, that nature often
intended folely to pleafe the eye in her vegetable pro-
duftions. She decorates the floweret that Springs be¬
neath our feet in all the perfections of external beauty.
She has clothed the garden with a conftant fucceflion
of various hues. Even the leaves of the tree undergo
a pleafing viciffitude. The frefli verdure which they
exhibit in the fpring, the various {hades which they
affume in Summer, the yellow and ruffet tinge of au¬
tumn, and the nakednefs of winter, afford a conftant
pleafure to a lively imagination. From the fnow'drop
to the mofs rofe, the flower garden difplays an infinite
variety of fliape and colour. The tafte of the florift
has been ridiculed as trifling 5 yet furely without rea-
fon. Did nature bring forth the tulip and the lily,
the rofe and the honeyfuckle, to be neglefted by the
haughty pretender to Superior reafon ? To omit a
Angle Social duty for the cultivation of a polyanthus
w7ere ridiculous as well as criminal ; but to pafs by the
beauties laviftied before us, without obferving them, is ,
no lefs ingratitude than ftupidity. A bad heart finds
little amufement but in a communication with the ac¬
tive world, where Scope is given for the indulgence of
4 K 2 malignant
NAT . [ 628 ] NAT
Natural malignant paffions 5 but an amiable diipolition is com-
Beauty. m0n]y known by a talle for the beauties of the animal
and the vegetable creation.” In fhort, fince the world
was made for our ufe, fince the beauties of nature are
NATURAL
Definition. HPRE objects of nature may be confidered under two
J- points ©f view j 1 ft, With refpedt to their form,
ftrudlure, habits, and individual properties when viewed
in a ftate of inadlivity; 2dly, With refpeft to the mu¬
tual changes which they produce when made to adt on
each other. Hence the ftudy of nature may be divid¬
ed into two parts, Natural History and Natural
Science j the former confidering bodies in compara¬
tively an inadlive ftate, the latter in a ftate of mutual
adlion.
Natural History, then, is that part of natural
knowledge which teaches us to diftinguilh and defcribe
the objedls of nature, to examine their appearance, ftruc-
ture, properties and ufes, and to colledi, preferve, and
arrange them (a).
Immenfity !• When we take a general furvey of the mbjedls
of nature’s with which wTe are furrounded, we are bewildered
works. amidft the number and variety that are every where
prefented to our view7. The air, the woods, the fields,
the waters, teem with myriads of animals j a large pro¬
portion of the earth’s furface is covered with a green
mantle of luxuriant herbage, interfperfed with plants
and flowers of a thoufand varied tints j and tvhen we
fearch below7 this, when we explore the cloud-capt
mountain, the gloomy mine, the fequeftered cavern, or
the rocky cliff, we difcover a great variety ,of mineral
fubftances, either piled into irregular maffes, or lying
in uniform beds or layers, difpofed in veins or feams,
or fcattered at random through the other ftoney mat¬
ters.
To the cafual obferver, the number and variety of
thefe objedls would appear almoft infinite. He wTould
confider it equally impoflible to enumerate them as to
number the ftars, ©r count the fands on the fea fhore.
This idea, however, arifeS from his feeing them in con-
fufion and diforder. The naturalift, by feparating them
into thofe groups or claffes, in which they often natural¬
ly prefent themfelves, has fucceeded not only in di-
ftinguifhing the feveral kinds from each other, but even
in gueffing pretty accurately at the number of fpecies
that have hitherto been difcovered.
There are two objedls which ftiould principally oc-
alike difplayed before all men, and fince they are un- Natural
qtteftionably an inexhauftible fund of innocent amufe- Beauty.
ment 5 that fubjedl muft be of vaft importance which v
enables us to reliih them properly.
HISTORY.
cupy the attention of the naturalift : ift, To claffify
natural fubftances j 2dly, To examine their ftrudlure. ^
The number of natural produdtions being con-Claflifica-
feffedly very great, it is neceffary to find out fometion.
means of diilinguifhing them from each other, and of
recognizing them on feeing them anew7. Thefe means
are the peculiarities, or the affemblages of peculiarities,
that exclufively belong to each body. Now there is
fcarcely any fubftance that has a fimple charadler, that
is, which can be diftinguifhed from every other fub¬
ftance by any one of its properties fingly. It is only
by the combination of feveral of thefe properties that
we can diftinguilh an objedl from others which re¬
ferable it in poffefling fome one or more of thofe very
properties ; and the more numerous the fpecies we com¬
pare, the more neceffary it becomes to bring their pro¬
perties together, in order to affign to each a charadler
that may diftinguilh it from the reft. Hence to diftin¬
guilh a fpecies, confidered independently from all others
that exill in nature, it is neceffary to exprefs in its cha¬
radler almoft the whole of its properties, and the more
of thefe we take into the charadler, the more complete
will be our defcription of the objedt. But no man can
acquire a fufficiently accurate knowdedge of all natural
objedls to enable him to give a complete defcription of
them : human life is too Ihort to admit of the com¬
pletion of fuch a talk. All that can be expedled from
our limited faculties is to acquire a general knowledge
of natural objedls, confining our principal attention to
fuch as poffefs fome ftriking qualities, or appear conver¬
tible to the ufeful purpofes of life. 4
To gain this end, two modes of procedure have been Methods
adopted by naturalifts. According to the firft mode,and
we ehploy charadlers that proceed by degrees from
particulars to generals. We begin by comparing
together a certain number of fpecies that bear the
neareft relation to each other. In drawdng the cha¬
radlers of thefe fpecies, it is requifite to exprefs only
thofe differences, which, ©n a fuppofition that they are
the molt nearly related, form but a fmall part of their
properties; a number of fpecies thus brought together
conftitutes what is called z genus or tribe.
The
(a) Some writers divide natural hiftory into general and particular, which are thus defined by Cuvier. _ General
natural hijlary confiders under a fingle point of view7, all natural bodies, and the common re u t o ^ f lons
in the great whole of nature. It determines the laws of coexiftence of their properties j it eftablilhes the degrees
of refemblance that exift between different bodies, and claffes them according to thefe degrees. The Particular
natural hi/lory of any bodv, to be perfedl, ihould comprehend, ift, The defcription of all the fenfible properties oi
that body, and of all its parts : 2d, The mutual relations of thefe parts, the motions which they produce and the
changes which they undergo while they remain united 5 3d, The aftive and paflive relations of this body with
every other body in the univerfe ; and 4th, The explanation of all thefe phenomena, See Tableau Licmentaire
d'HiJloire Nat’urellc.
NATURAL HISTORY.
Claffifica- The remainder of thefe properties which are common
' tl0n- to all the fpecies of the genus combine to form the
v charafler, or rather the defcription, of the genus, diftin-
guifhir.g it from all thofe which might be formed by
bringing together other fpecies ", but the numbsr of
thefe common properties being fiill very confiderable,
• we repeat the fame means in order to reduce the cha¬
racters of the genera to fmaller terms. We compare
together only thofe genera which moft nearly referable
each other, and the generic charafters now employed
muft only exprefs thofe differences which form but a
fmall part of their common properties. Thofe proper¬
ties, which are common to all the genera, compofe a
character that diftinguifhes this alfemblage or group
from all other groups or genera. Such an affemblage
of genera is called an order.
Repeating the fame operation, and bringing to¬
gether fuch orders as are moft nearly allied, we form
a more general affemblage, called a clafs; and again
uniting a certain number of claffes, we form a higher
divifion, to which naturalifls have given the name of
kingdom : this chain of divilions in which the higher
links comprehend the lower, forms what is called a me¬
thod. The other mode of procedure is to rile gra¬
dually from generals to particulars, beginning wdth the
flighteft and moft obvious differences, thus forming the
firft divifion or kingdom 5 dividing each kingdom into
claffes, each clafs into orders, each order into genera,
each genus into fpecies, and each fpecies into varieties.
This defeending feries conftitutes what is called a
fyjlem, and is that which has been generally adopted
_ by naturalifts.
Uluftration. To illuftrate this fyflematical claffification of natural
obje&s, let us felefft a familiar example. Among the
various creatures that pafs under our obfervation, a
great number are poffeffed of life, of fenfation, and vo¬
luntary motion 5 thefe we call animals, and of thefe
we form the animal kingdom. On examining various
groups of animals, we find that many have four extre¬
mities, and fuckle their young by means of teats 5 thefe
we call quadrupeds or. mammalia. We have thus
formed a clafs of animals. Again wTe find that of the
mammalia fome have hoofed feet and blunt fore-teeth,
and feed almoft entirely on vegetables. Thefe will
conftitute an order of the clafs of mammalia, to which
Linnaeus has given the name of belluce. Of this order
a certain number of animals agree in having fix fore¬
teeth in both jaws, and form a genus or tribe diftinguifli-
ed by this particular from the other animals of the fame
order, and commonly called the horfe tribe. Laftly,
In this tribe wre find one fpecies that has folid hoofs, a
tail briftly at the end, an upright mane, and a black
crofs on the {boulder of the male. This fpecies is the
^ common afs.
Divifion of 1° framing an artificial fyfiem of natural biftory,
nature into moft writers have agreed on the divifion of natural
kingdoms bodies into kingdoms, proceeding on the fuppofiticn
examined. t}jat thofe marks which are to diftinguifh the objedls
of one kingdom from thofe of another are fufficiently
fixed and certain.
Let us examine for a little how far this fuppofition
agrees with nature’s works as we find them.
The divifion of natural objects commonly adopted is
into three kingdoms j the animal, vegetable, and miner¬
al kingdoms. This divilion has been almoft univerfally
629
received, as perfedfly confident with nature j and is by Claffifica-
moft peridns thought to be fo clear and diftincf, that t;°n- ,
they fuppofe it impoflible to^miftake in referring
any particular objeift to its proper kingdom. This
arifes from their having noticed only fuch objecls as
bear evident marks of the divifion to which they be¬
long ; but if we draw their attention to a variety of other
individuals, they will acknowdedge themlelves to be
incompetent to the decifion, or will erroneoully refer
to one divifion, what has, after accurate examination,
been determined to belong to another.
There is one whole clafs of productions, called "zoo¬
phytes by naturalifts, which feem to form the connect¬
ing links between the different kingdoms. They are
animals of the polypus kind, moftly covered with a cal¬
careous cruft, differing little in compofition from the
fhells of lobfters, ihrimps, and other fhell-fiih, and
formed like them from an exudation or fecretion on the
furface of their bodies. Th-efe polypi are conneCled to¬
gether by thoufands, or even millions, and affume a
great variety of appearances according to their arrange¬
ment : the fame fpecies, however, always affuming the
fame, or very nearly the fame appearance. Some are
conneCled together in form of ftem and branches, as the
flufriF,fertularice, corallines and others j many of which
have their offspring in the egg ftate attached to them,
and fo fituated as to bear exaCt refemblance to the feed-
veffels of plants. Thefe are altogether fo like to many
of the fea-plants, as to be generally confounded with
them, under the title of fea-weeds; but the attentive
natufalift may, by examining them in their natural ftate,
perceive the tentacula or feelers of each polypus ex¬
tended in its fearch for food, and haftily retrafting
within its fliell upon the leaft alarm. Many of this de¬
fcription are found attached to oyfters or other fhell-
fifh : and often to ftones and pebbles which are covered
or occafionally wetted by the fea.
Other zoophytes affume let's regular figures, and are
much more firm and folid, refembling the productions
of the mineral kingdom. Madrepores and millepores,
called often brainfones, are of this kind. At firft
fight they look very like ftones and pebbles, or like
pieces of chalk or marble, but on an accurate infpeClion,
any one may perceive marks of an organic ftruCture ;
and when they are in a recent ftate, may deteCl the in¬
habitants of their numerous cells.
The above examples would fuffice to prove, how* in-
fufficient is either a hafly examination or the judging by
fimilarity of appearance, for determining to what king¬
dom of nature any particular objeft belongs. But there
are many other productions to which few perfons could
w'ithout hefitation afiign their places : For inftance,
where wmuld we arrange the green powdery fubftance fo
common on paling ; the fpotted and ftreaked appear¬
ance on ftones j the mould on cheefe, or the green
jelly-like matter that floats on the furface of the ftag-
nant waters ? Naturalifts in general have affigned thefe
productions to the vegetable kingdom ; but Sennebier
and a few others have maintained that fome of them are
animals.
According to fome writers, the moft philofophical
notion wftiich we can form on this fubjeCt is, that the
divifion of natural objeCts into kingdoms is artificial,
and that Nature, acknowledging no fuch bonds, paffes
imperceptibly from the animal to the vegetable, and from
€^0
NATURAL HISTORY.
* Skrim-
Jhire's Ef-
fays on Ka.
tural Hif~
tory, vol. i.
Divilion of
natural bo¬
dies into
organised
and inorga¬
nic.
the vegetable to the mineral world, without defining
where one ceafes or where the next begins.
As the appearances of natural produ£tions are infuf-
ficient, fo are their properties and powers for determin¬
ing which are animals or which vegetables, according
to the received acceptation of the terms. If loco¬
motion is allowed to be the charafteriftic of an animal,
where (ball w7e place the oyfter, or the zoophytes of
which we have juft been fpeaking, or where fome
fpecies of u/va and conferva, plants that fwim about de¬
tached in water ? If feeling or fenfation be the tefl,
who (hall decide, that the lenfitive plant [mimofa pu-
dka'), pofleffes it not ? and who determine that the
leaves of the fly-trap, (Dionaa tnvfcipula), when they
contrail, and catch the fly as foon as it alights, do not
feel the defpoiler that comes to rob it of its honey ? *
Though thefe and fimilar objeftions may certainly
be made to the artificial divifion of nature’s works into
kingdoms, yet it is convenient to have fuch a divifion j
and even the very difficulty of eflabliihing to w-hich
kingdom any objefl belongs, is an additional fpur to
the genius and induftry of the naturalift.
The moft natural divifion of the works of nature is
that which diftinguifhes them into organized and inor¬
ganic bodies •, and on the whole, we have feen no at¬
tempt to eftablifh the differences between thefe fo fuc-
cefsful as that adopted by M. Dumeril in his late fcien-
tific work, Traite Elementaire d'HiJloire Naturelie.
“ Some objefts, lays he, as animals and plants, have for¬
merly conftituted a part of other individuals, fimilar to
themfelves, from which they have been feparated at a
certain period, under the form of eggs, of germs, or of
little living creatures •, and their exiftence is evidently
owing to this generation •, they are born. Others, on
the contrary, as ftones, falts, wrater, may be formed by
certain circumftances, and even by ourlelves at pleafure.
They have not neceffarily made a part of other fimilar
bodies •, their exiftence feems to depend on certain for¬
tuitous circumftances, that have produced the approxi¬
mation of their conftituent principles, and their origin
might be referred to attraction. Thefe bodies are
formed. Vegetables and animals in increafing their fize,
only develope themfelves. Whatever may be their
minutenefs, we (hall, on a careful examination, find them
already formed, with their parts requiring only to be
evolved. Their increafe proceeds from within out¬
wards by intusfufception. Stones, and a great many
other bodies, are augmented only by the fame matter
from which they are produced} their growth takes
place always from without, by a fort of aggregation.
“ As the increafe of the bodies which compote thefe
two great fubdivifions is not alike in both, a duration
very different ought to be the refultof this difiimilarity.
In facl, minerals are fufceptible of indefinite increafe,
and their end is always indeterminate ; it is vague, and
depends on the circumftances under which they are
placed. Plants and animals ought, from the fame cir¬
cumftances which favoured their developement, to ftop
when their extenfion has been carried to the higheft de¬
gree fo that the end or death of thefe bodies is fixed and
neceffary.
“ The maffes in which ftcnes and other fimilar bodies
generally prefent themfelves, are angular, infulated, and
very variable in their fize. The individuals which we
call plants and animals, have always, and neceffarily, a
4
form that is conftant, for the moft part, rounded and Claflifids*
fymmetrical, and their extenfion is limited within cer- t101' ,
tain bounds. v
“ There is this great difference between thefe bodies j
that thofe which increafe by aggregation may be divid¬
ed into molecules, or parts infinitely fmall, bearing a
very near refemblance to the hnafs from which they
were taken j while in thofe tvhich develope themfelves,
no portion can be taken away and exit! by itfelf, at
leaft unlefs it develope new parts, which replace thofe
that are wanting.
“ The bodies which do not develope themfelves, are
in general formed of fluids or folids which remain con-
ftantly in the fame points} they are compofed of very
few elements, which may be feparated and again reunit¬
ed. The bodies which develope themfelves, on the
contrary, are effentially compofed of folids and fluids,
which are always changing, and in a ft ate of renova¬
tion ; they have always, and from necefiity, more or
lefs confiftence, they are penetrated and augmented by
fluids, and after being decompofed they can never be
formed again fuch as they were before * 'Dumeril
For the more convenient ftudy of natural hiftory, the Trait^
whole fubjeft may be divided into five great branches, tom'
viz. Meteorology, Hydrography, Mineralogy, Bota- P 5
ny, and Zoology. * DivifL.of
1. Meteorology includes the deicnption of all natural hif-
thofe phenomena which take place in the atmofpheretory.
that furrounds our globe. In the prefent work it is 9
confidered under the articles METEOROLOGY, Mete- Meteorolo.
orolite, Atmofpheric Electricity, Cloud, MooN,Sy-
Influence of, &c. lo
2. Hydrography comprehends the natural hiftory of Hydroers-
the fea, of rivers, lakes, and other collections of waterphy*
that make up fo large a part of the earth. Much of
this fubjeft will be found treated of under the article
River, and various parts of it have been difcuffed
under Chemistry and Mineralogy. Ir
3. Mineralogy is that part ofthefubjeft which treatsMineralo-
of the folid inorganic bodies that are found on the fur-§7’
face or in the bowels of the earth. It has been con¬
fidered under the articles Geology and Mineralogy. r2
4. Botany comprehends the natural hiftory of vege- Botany,
tables. See Botany.
5. Zoology includes the natural hiftory of all ani-zoology
mated beings, and is fubdivided into many fubordinate
claffes.
Thefe claffes are different in number and denomina¬
tion, according to the different fyftems of naturalift?.
Linne, whom wre have principally followed in this
work, has arranged animals under fix claffes: viz. 1.
Mammalia, or thofe animals which fuckle their young
at mammae or paps j fee Man, Mammalia and Ceto-
logy. 2. Aves, or birds •, fee Ornithology. 3. Am¬
phibia, or thofe animals which can live either on land
or in water ; fee Erpetolgy and Ophiology. 4.
Pifces, or fifties j fee Ichthyology. 5. InfeBa, or infefls j
fee Entomology. And 6. Vermes, or worms 5 fee Hel¬
minthology and Conchology.
Later naturalifts have divided animals into a greater Cuvier’s ar-
number of claffes, and have fubdivided thefe differently, rangement.
Of thefe arrngements, that of M. Cuvier feems the moft
deferving of notice. After confidering man, whom he
very properly diftinguifties from the other mammalia
by alloting to him a feparate book, he divides the reft
of
.15
Of birds,
NATURAL
CLiGifica- of the animal kingdom into nine claffes, viz. Mammife-
Uon- rous animals, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, Mollusca,
v '" 'Worms, Crustaceous animals, Iksects and Zoo¬
phytes.
We have already given an outline of four of thefe
claffes, viz. of the Mammiferous animals, under
Mammalia, and of Mollusca, Worms and Zoo¬
phytes, under Helminthology. To complete our
view of Cuvier’s arrangement, we ihall here add an out¬
line of the remaining five claffes.
Cuvier divides birds into five orders, viz. Ra¬
pacious birds or Accipitres, Passerine birds. Clim¬
bers or Scansores, Gallinaceous birds, Waders
or Grall^e, and ANSERINE birds.
1. The Rapacious birds have Ihort feet, toes-fur-
nifired with itrong claws, and a hooked bill. They are
fubdivided into three fedions j viz, Nudicol/es, having
the head and part of the neck without feathers; contain¬
ing the vulture tribe. Plumicol/es, having the head
covered with feathers and a cere at the Safe of the
bill, containing the falcon tribe ; including Griffons,
Eagles, Sparrow-hawks, Buzzards, Kites and Falcons.
NyBerides, having the head flattened backward from
the front and the eyes dire&ed forward ; containing the
oivl tribe.
2. The Passerine birds are diftinguifhed by having
four toes, three before and one behind, with the exter¬
nal toes wholly or partially united. They are fubdivid¬
ed into feven fedions : viz. Crenirojlres, having the bill
grooved towards the end of the mandible ; containing
the Shrikes, Flycatchers, Thrufhes, Chatterers and
Tanagers. Dentirojlres, having a bill with notched
edges; containing the Plant-clippers, Motmots, and
HornbilK Plenirojires, having the bill ftraight, flrong,
compreffed and without a groove; containing the Grakles,
Crows, Rollers, and Birds of Paradife. Co«z’ro/?7Y\r, having
the bill conical; containing the Orioles, Stare*, Grof-
beaks, Sparrows, and Buntings. Subulirojlres, having the
bill flender like an awl; containing the Titmice, Manakins,
Larks, and Wagtails. Planirojlres, having the bill fliort,
flattened horizontally, and opening very wide; containing
the Swallows and Goat-fuckers. Tenuirojlres, having
the bill flender, elongated and folid ; containing the Nut¬
hatches, Creepers, Humming birds, Hoopoes, Bee-
eaters, King’s fifliers and Todys.
3. The Climbers have two toes before and two
behind. They are fubdivided into two feftions; viz.
Caneirojlres, having a flender bill; containing Jacamars,
Wood-peckers, Wry-necks, and Cuckoos. Levirojlres,
having the bill thick and light; containing the Anis,
Touracoes, Mufophages, Curucuis, Barbets, Toucans
and Parrots.
4. The Gallinaceous birds have the front toes
united at their bafe by a fhort membrane. They are
fubdivided into two feftions, viz. Aledlrides, having
common wings fitted for flying; containing the Pigeons,
Groufe, Peacocks, Pheafants, Pintados, Turkeys, Curaf-
fows, Guans, Buflards. Brevipennes, having wings too
fhort for flight; containing the Oftrich, Caffowary and
Dodo tribes.
5. The Waders have elevated and naked tarfi and
the two outer toes united. They are fubdivided into
five fedtions, viz. Brevirojires, having the bill fhort and
thick; containing the Trumpeters, Screamers, Secretaries,
Boat-bills, and Flamingos. Cu!triroJlresr having the bill
HISTORY. 631
long, flrong, and like a knife ; containing the Heron?, Claffitka-
Jabirus and Ibiffes. Latirq/lres; having the bill long, ,ion-
weak, and flattened horizontally; containing the Spoon-
bills. Longirojlres, having the bill flender, long and
w'eak; containing the Avofets, Plovers, Lapwings,
Pbalaropes, and Woodcocks. PreJJirqftres, having the
bill middle fized and compreffed, containing the Oyfler-
Catchers, Rails, Coots and Jacanas.
6. The Anserine birds have the toes united by
broad membranes. They are fubdivided into four fec-
tions, viz. Petmipedes, having all the four toes united ;
containing the Pelicans, Tropic-birds and Darters.
Macropteres, having the thumb free, the bill not indented,
and very long wings; containing the Terns, Gulls, Skim¬
mers, Petrels and Albatroffes. Sernrojires, having the
thumb free, the bill broad and ferrated, and wings of a
moderate fize ; containing the Ducks and Merganfers.
Brachypteres, having the thumb either free or w’anting,
the bill not ferrated, and the wings very fliort, contaning
the Grebes, Auks and Manchots.
The Amphibia or Reptiles are divided into two Of reptiles,
orders, as follows.
1. Thofe that have a heart with two auricles. This
order is fubdivided into two fe&ions, viz. Chelonia,
having a back fhell and the jaws invefted with horn,
containing the Tortoife tribe, including Turtles and
Tortoifes. Sauria, having a fcaly body and teeth; con¬
taining the Lizard tribe, including the Crocodiles,
Guanas, Dragons, Lizards, Skinks, and fome others.
2. Thole that have a heait with one auricle. This
order is alfo fubdivided into two feftions, viz. Ophidia,
having a fcaly body, no feet, and always without bran-
chise ; containing the tribes of Anguis, Amphifbama,
Ctecilia, Acrocordon, Angaha, Coluber or Snake,
Boa, and Crotalus or Rattle-Snake. Batraclua, having
a naked fkin, feet and branchiae in the young animals;
containing the Frogs, Salamanders, and (according to
Cuvier’s original tables) the Siren.
The filhes are divided into two orders, Cartilagi- Of fifiic?.
nous and Bony fifties.
L Thofe which have a Cartilaginous Ikeleton are
divided into two fe&ions, viz. Chondroptcrygii, with
fixed branchiae ; containing the Lampreys, Hags, Rays,
Dog-fifh and Sea-monfters. Branchiojlegi, with free
branchiae ; containing the tribes Batrachus or American
Toad-fjh, Polyodon, Accipenfer or Sturgeons, Pega-
fus, Syngnathus or Pipe-fifh, Centrilcus or Bellows^-
J\[h, Baliftes or Horned-jijh, Oftracion or Trunk-
fjh, Tetraodon or Sun-Jiff, Oveides, Mola or Moles.
Diodon or Porcupine-Jiff, Lophius or Frogjijh, and
Cyclopterus or Lumpjijh.
2. The fifties with a bony fkeleton are fubdivided
into four fedfions, viz. Apodes, having no ventral fins :
containing the tribes of Muraena or Eels, Gymno-
thorax, Synbranchus, Sphagebranchus, Gymnotus or
Eleclric-eels, Trichiurus, Gymneterus, Ophidium, Am-
modytes, or Sand-eels ; Anarrhichas, or and
Xiphias or Sword Jiff. Jugulares, having the ventral
fins fituated before the pe&oral; containing the Had¬
docks, Blennys, Hunch-back, Dragonets, Sea-dragons,
and Star-gazers. Thoracici, with the ventral fins fitu¬
ated below the pettoral ; containing the Bull-heads,
Scorpions, Gurnards, Gobys, Surmullets, Mackerel,
Stickle-backs, Long-tails, Lonchiurus, Johnes, Scisenes,.
Dorees, Stromateus, Theuthis, Chaetodon, Dorados,
Bodians,,.
NATURAL HISTORY.
Of erufta-
cea.
19
Of infects.
Bodians, Holoccntrus, Lutiens, Perches, Anthias, Epin-
elephus, WralFes, Breams, Scares, Flounders, Sea-fer-
pents, Lepidopus, and Remoras. Abdominales, with
the ventral fins fituated behind the pedtoral •, containing
the Mormyrus, Carps, Mullets, Flying-fifli, Polynemus,
Herrings, Atherines, Argentines, Salmons, Pikes,
Lochcs, Anablapes, Silurus, Platyfomatus, Armed-filh,
Cuirafs-fifir, Amia, Acanthonotus, and Fillularia, or
Tobacco-pipe-fijh.
The Crustacea are divided into two orders, as fol¬
lows :
1. Monoculi, containing the tribes of Limulus, Ca-
lygus, Apus, Cyclops, and Polyphemus.
2. Ecreviffes, or Crabs, containing the tribes of
Cancer, Inachus, Pagurus, Altacus, Palinurus, Scylla-
rus, and Squilla.
The INSECTS are diftributed by Cuvier under two
general orders, viz. Thofe with jaws, and thofe with¬
out jaws.
1. InfeBs with jaws are arranged under five fe&ions,
viz. Gnathaptera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera,
Coleoptera, and Orthoptera. The Gnathaptera
have no wings, and are fubdivided into Palygnathes, hav¬
ing feveral pairs of jaws, containing the tribes of Phyfodes,
Onifcus, and Cymothoa*, Millepedes, with two jaws and
feet at each ring of the body, containing the tribes of Ju-
lus and Scolopendra ; Araneides, having the head joined
to the corfelets, eight feet, and abdomen without feet ;
Sctieaudes, having the head diftindf, fix feet, and abdomen
terminated by filken threads •, Ricinus, with the head
diftindf, fix feet, and the abdomen naked. The Neu¬
roptera have four reticulated wings, and are fubdivided
into Odonates, having the mouth covered with the lip,
and the wings extended during repofe j TeElipcnnes,
with the mouth faillant, and wings hidden below the
body during repofe; Agnathes, with a very fmall
mouth, and no mandibles. The HymENOPTERA have
four veined wings, and of thefe fome have the abdomen
joined to the thorax by a pedicle •, as the Melhtes, ha¬
ving the lip prolonged into a trunk $ the Duplipennes,
having the upper wings folded lengthwife ; the Chry-
Jides, having the antennae bent, and the abdomen hol¬
low below ■, the Anthophiles, with the antennae filiform,
wings not folded, abdomen round, and lips Ihort ; the
TrouiJJeurs, wdth fetaceous antennae, of 12 or 13 joints,
rolling up fpirally ; the Myrmeges, with fetaceous bent
antennae, and a rounded abdomen $ the InfeBirodes,
with bent antennae of 30 joints, and a prominent fling ;
Cynipes, with filiform antennae and a fpiral fling.
Others of this fe&ion have the abdomen feflile as the
Uroceri, with palpae fcarcely apparent, and a very pro¬
minent fling, and the Tenlhredos with very prominent
palpce and a ferrated fling. The Coleoptera have
four wings, the uppermoft of which are hard, and the
lower fold tranfverfely : they have either fix palpae, as
the Carnajfiers, with filiform or fetaceous antennae ; or
four palpae $ and of thefe latter fome have the tarfus five
jointed, as the Lamcllicornes, wdth clavated antennae,
having the club lamellated ; the Clavicornes, with the an¬
tennae either perfoliated or folid •, the Brachclyteres, with
moniliform antennae and (hort elytra 5 the Woodpiercers,
with filiform antennae and hard elytra j and the Apalytres,
with filiform antennae and foft elytra. Others have the
tarfi four or five-jointed 5 as the Lucifuges, with variable
antennae and hard elytra j and the Bli/icring-Jlies, with
1
variable antennae and foft elytra. Others again have the Claflifica-
tarfi four jointed ; as the Rojlricornes, with antennse on i tlon' ,
the beak ; the Wood eaters, with fetitorm antennae 5 the
Teretiforms, with clavated antennre, and a body often
cylindrical, and the club folid j the Planiforms, with
granulated antennae and a flattened body j and the
Rerbhori, with filiform or moniliform antennae and a
fw'ollen body. A few have the tarfi three-jointed, as the
Coccinellee. The Orthoptera have four wings, the up¬
per hard and the lower folded longitudinally. They in¬
clude the Fotficulce, having the arms terminated by a for¬
ceps ; the Blatta, with a flattened body and the head retir¬
ing below' the corfelet ; the Mantis and SpeBres, with a
very long corfelet j and the Reapers, with cylindrical
body and long hinder legs formed for jumping.
2. The Insects w ithout jaws are fubdivided into He-
miptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Aptera. The
Hemiptera Have four wings frequently crofled, and a
jointed beak j and include the Frontirojlres, having the
beak rifing from the fore part of the head ; the Colli-
rojlres, with the beak appearing to grow from the neck ;
and the Planipennes, with the wings not croffed and
fpreading. The Lepidoptera have four wings covered
with fcales and a fpiral trunk ; they include the Butter-
flies, with the antennae terminated by a folid mafs; the
Jflefperice, with the antennae curved at their extremity 5
the Fuflcornes, with the antennae fw'elling towards the
middle, and the Seticornes, with fetaceous antennae. The
Diptera have only two wings; and include the Hydro-
tnies, with filiform or plumofe antennae and a trunk ;
the Sarcoflomes, with a flefhy retra&ile trunk, terminated
by two lips ; tbe Scleroflomes, with very fhort antennae,
a horned projedling fucker, but no trunk ; and the
Gadflies, wdth fhort antennae, and neither fucker nor
trunk. The Aptera have no wings: they include the
Parafltical infefts, or Fleas, Lice, and Mites. 20
It is not furprifing that naturalifts of tafle and genius, The notioi*
from the gradation that feems to take place among the of a chain
wmrks of nature, fliould have been ltd to form the no-ot
tion that there exifts in nature a regular feries or chain examuie
of beings, the links of which, if we could difeover them
all, Would be found to refemble each other fo nearly,
as only to exhibit to the fuperficial obferver a few
fhades of difference. Natura non per faltum tnovet,
has become a fort of axiom in natural hiflory.
The notion of n^chgin of being is alluring, and does
not want arguments in its favour. The Efquimaux
Indian, or the inhabitant of Terra del Fuego, feems
fcarcely fuperior in form, and very little in intelleft, to
the Oran Otan ; the Platypus, the flying Lemur, flying
Squirrels, and, ftill more, the Bats, appear to form the
connecting links between quadrupeds and birds ; w'hile
tbe Seals, the Walruflfes, and tbe whole order of
Cete, conned the former with the fifties. In this latter
clafs, the Flying Fifh, in its capability of fupporting it-
felf in the air, feems to approach the feathered tribes,
wFile fome of thefe, as the Penguins, in their habits
and manner of life, bear fome diftant refemblance to
fifhes. Again, tbe Siren and the Eels fo nearly re¬
femble each other, that it has been difputed whether
the former fiiculd be reckoned among the Amphibia or
the Fifhes', while one fpecies of Lizard, (Lacerta
lumbricoides), is fo like an earth-worm, as apparently
to conned the Amphibia and the Vermes. Farther, the
diminutive Humming-bird CTrochihs exilis), and the
Humble
NATURAL HISTORY
r'alTfiSR- Humble Bee, (dpis tcrreflris), are fo nearly alike,
non. flZe ancj manner of life, as to form no very ex-
ceptionable link* of union between the birds and in¬
fers.
If we compare the vegetable tribes with fome of the
inferior clalfes of animals, we (hall perceive many points
of refemblance, which may feem to indicate a continu¬
ance of the fame chain. Befides the Mimofa pudica and
Disructi mufcipula, already mentioned, the Hedyfarum
gyrans, or moving plant, is a remarkable inltance of
the mobility of vegetables ; the carrion flower (Stape-
lia hirfu!#'), and fome fpecies of fnorel, bear the odour
of putrid animal fubftances j while on the other hand,
the Mantis ficcifolia might be miftaken for a dried
leaf j feveral fpecies of Ptnnatula (fea pens) and Sertu-
/aria, for ferns j the Madrepora fungites (mufhroom
madrepore), for a petrified mufhroom ; and the Tubu-
i’aria magnifica, and AElinicv, when expanded, for the
moft beautiful full-blown flowers.
Laflly, on comparing the mineral kingdom with the
claffes of organized beings, we find feveral fo nearly re-
fembling ftones, as fcarcely, to be diftinguifhed from
them.
Though the view which we have given above, of the
circumftances that have led naturalills to form the idea
of a regular chain of beings, is fpecious j it will not
bear the fcrutiny of a ftridl examination. The refem-
blances which wTe have pointed out, are more apparent
than real'} and anatomy and chemiftry, added to a more
accurate acquaintance with the works of nature, have
proved, that thofe links which, to fuperficial obfervers,
appear mod allied, are yet feparated by confiderable
chafms. In faft, if we were to admit thefe refemblan-
ces as ever fo accurate, they would lead us to form, not
one chain, but many.
It mull be confidered as a very difficult, though a
very curious problem, to afeertain the number of fpe¬
cies at prefent known throughout the feveral fubdivi-
fions of nature. From the different modes in which
different naturalifts have diflributed the objects of their
refearch, and from the additions that are perpetually
made to our knowledge, it may be impoffible to fix the
precife number of known fpecies at any given time}
but we may make a tolerably near approximation to
the truth ; and this w^e ffiall now attempt, going
through the feveral kingdoms, clajfes, afid orders, as
they have been treated of in the former parts of this
w-ork.
Number of
fpecies in
nature.
22
Animals.
* Mam¬
malia.
I. IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
A. Man,
B. Mammalia.
1. Primates,
2. Bruta,
3. Ferae,
4. Glires,
5. Pecora,
Vol. XIV. Part II.
5 fpecies.
100 *
3° *
184*
124 *
82*
6. Belluae,
7. Cete,
C. Birds.
1. Accipitres,
2. Picae,
3. An feres,
4. Grallae,
5. Gallinte,
6. Pafferes,
D. Amphibia.
1. Reptiles,
2. Serpents,
E. Fishes.
1. Apodes,
2. Jugulares,
3. Thoracici,
4. Abdominales,
5. Brancheoftegi,
Chondropterigii,
F. Insects.
1. Coleoptera,
2. Hemiptera,
3. Lepidoptera,
4. Neuroptera,
5. Hymenoptera,
6. Diptera,
7. Aptera,
G. Worws.
1. Inteftina,
2. Mollufca,
3. Teftacea,
4. Zoophyta,
5. Infuforia,
13 *
25 f
259
757
279
346
127
1038
55° lPecics* *SeeiWiz'«-
malia.
t See Ceto~
log?*
2806 J
4°i $
f Turton.
§ See .£*•-
petology.
887
**
** TurVm,-
I4038 ff ff Tttrton.
406 tt
433 tt
2672 *
489 tt
229 tt
It See Hel¬
minthology.
* See <?o/z-
chtlogy.
4229
So that the number of fpecies in this kingdom may
be eftimated at about 22924, or in round numbers about
23000 (b),
II. IN THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
A. Monandria.
23
Vegetable-?.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
B. Diandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,
C. Triandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,
73
10
374
5
52
477
546
32
83 fpecies»
431
— iojtj
D. Tetrandria,
(b) The numbers here given differ in feveral inftances from thofe which we have feen in fome late works on this
fubjeft. Thus, M. La Cepede, in a note to the difeourfe delivered by him at the clofe of his courfe of Natural
Hiftory, Hates the numbers of fome claffes as follows : Mamfnalia, 4!6 fpecies } Bzn/j-, 2534} Reptiles, 1255
Serpents, 180 : Tifhes, 992 ) in all 4247.
D. Tetrandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,
4. Tetragynia,
E. Pentandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia, _
4. Tetragynia,
5. Pentagynia,
6. Decagynia,
7. Polygynia,
F. Hexandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,
4. H exagynia,
5. Polygynia,
G. Heptandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Tetragynia,
4. Heptagynia,
H. Octandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,
4. Tetragynia,
X Enneandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Trigynia,
3. Hexagynia,
K. Decandria,
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,_
4. Pentagynia,
5. Decagynia,
E. Dodecandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,
4. Tetra'gynia,
5. Pentagynia,
6. Dodecagynia,
M. IcOSANDRIA.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,
4. Pentagynia,
5. Polygynia,
N. POLYANDRIA.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
NATURAL
527
14
521
51
*537
65 2
121
8
*73
1
2
699
5
69
2
10
2 5
3
2
1
377
11
95
10
40
8
452
13l
142
205
7
100
6
138
7
6
*4
233
16
4
102
91
259
ix
593 Species.
2494
785
31
493
49
937
271 fpecies.
346
H I S T O R Y.
3. Trigynia,
4. Tetragynia,
5. Pentagynia,
6. Polygynia,
O. Didynamia.
1. Gymnofpermia,
2. Angiofpermia,
P. Tetradynamia.
1. Siliculofse,
2. Siliquofae,
O' Monadelfhia.
1. Triandria,
2. Pentandria,
3. Heptandria,
4. Oclandria,
5. Decandria,
6. Endecandria,
7. Dodecandria,
8. Polyandria,
R. Diadetphia.
1. Pentandria,
2. Hexandria,
3. Oflandria,
4. Decandria,
S. POLYADELPHIA.
1. Pentandria,
2. Dodecandria,
3. Icofandria,
4. Polyandria,
T. Syngenesia.
I. Polygamia Squalls,
Pol. Superfl ua,
Pol. Fruftranea,
Pol. Neceffaria,
Pol. Segregata,
Monoaamia,
V. Gynandria.
1. Diandria,
2. Triandria,
3. Tetrandria,
4. Pentandria,
5. Hexandria,
6. Odlandria,
7. Decandria,
8. Dodecandria,
9. Polyandria,
U. Monoecia.
1. Monandria,
2. Diandria,
3. Triandria,
4. Tetrandria,
5. Pentandria,
6. Hexandria,
7. Heptandria,
8. Polyandria,
9. Monadelphia,
31
20
I 2
23I
441
640
168
258
27
134
120
2
52
4
33
SS1
564 fpecies.
1081
426
692
1
25
42
652 — 710
3
3
4
55
439
44 x
116
97
22
88
2 55
6
1
42
23
1
7
1
50
16
8
99
49
42
4
1
1194
286
52
78
10. Syngene£a,
Glaflifica-
tion.
.
Minerals.
io. Syngenefia,
ix. Gynandria,
W. Dioecia.
1. Monandria,
2. Diandria,
3. Triandria,
4. Tetrandria,
5. Pentandria,
6. Hexandria,
7. Odtandria,
8. Enneandria,
9. Decandria,
10. Dodecandria,
11. Polyandria,
1 2. Monadelphia,
13. Syngenefia,
14. Gynandria,
X. Poly g ami a.
1. Moncecia,
2. Dioecia,
3. Trioecia,
Y. Cryptogamia.
1. Filices,
2. Mufci,
3. Algae,'
4. Fungi,
Z. Palmae,
NATURAL
46
 — 398 fpecies.
36
21
J9
33
7
4
7
H
26
5
9
181
26
16
  223 fpecies.
267
268
467
4^5
  1467
4
Total, 14,807 (c).
III. IN THE MINERAL KINGDOM.
Minerals are divided into four great clalfes, viz.
Earths and Stones, Salts, Combustibles, and
Metallic Ores.
A. Earths and Stones,
1. Diamond genus
2. Zircon,
3. Siliceous,
4. Argillaceous,
5. Magnefian,
6. Calcareous,
7. Barytic,
8. Strontian,
  137 fpecies.
1
2
62
29
J7
22
2
2
B. Salts. v
1. Sulphates, - - 6
2. Nitrates, - - I
3. Muriates, 3
4. Carbonates, - - 2
5. Borates, - - 2
6. Fluates, - 1
— 15
history.
C. Combustibles,
1. Sulphur, - - I
2. Bituminous, - 6
3. Graphite, - - 2
— 9
D. Metallic Ores
are divided into 24 genera,
each metal forming a genus. - 106
631
Objects and
utility of
Natural
Hiftory.
Total, 267 fpecies*. * ^ee ^l~
neralogy.
Hence, taking the whole number of known animals^
at 23,000, that of vegetables at 50,000, and that of
minerals 267, the whole number oi known Ipecies of
natural objects will be 73,267. _ _ 25
II. Though the ckllification of natural bodies is of Hints for
the highetl importance towards making us acquainted
with unknown fpecies, and difiinguifhing them from
thofe which we already know ; this alone is not fuffi-
cient to form a naturalift. His principal objecl fiiould
be to learn the habits, manners, and ufes of the objects
which he is ftudying } and he may perhaps be afiilted
in this objecl by the following obfervatior.s.
1. In Zoology, or the natural hiftory of the animal Zoology;
kingdom, it is neceffary to afcertain both the diftindlive
charadlers of each individual animal, and its peculiar
habits, properties and ufes.
The naturalift firft learns that the fheep, for inftance,
is in the clafs mammalia, being one of thofe animals
that fuckle their young ; in the order pecora, becaufe it
is hoofed, and has no cutting teeth in the upper jaw ;
and that it is diftinguifhed from other animals of the
fame order, by its having feveral blunt wedge-like inci-
five fore-teeth in the lower jaw only, hollow reclined
horns, and no tuiks.
This information would fatisfy many, who call them-
felves naturalifts •, but it is far from being all that is re¬
quired ; the philofophical inveftigator of Nature inquires
into its habits •, as its food, its period of geftation,^ its
feafon of lambing, the weather and climate moft fiuted
to its health and vigour. He endeavours to learn what
produces the difference in its fleece, whether climate,
food, or fome peculiarity in the breed j and is anxious
to afcertain what variety is moft dilpofed to fatten, and
what food effects this fpeedily j with many other very
ufeful particulars.
The information of the firft kind is of confequence
and even neceffary in many cafes ; but that of the latter
is moft ufeful.
If a traveller difcover an animal poffefling any ufeful
property, or producing any ufeful drug, if he have not
the firft kind of information, he gives fo confufed and
inaccurate a defcription of it, that others, miftaking the
animal, dlfcredit the author’s account, and the world
lofes the benefit of his difcovery. 27
2. Botany, or the natural hiftory of the vegetable Botany;
kingdom, in the ufual acceptation of the term, impliesand
4 L 2 only
(<A This number, drawn from the article Botany, compared with the three firft volumes of Wildenow’s edition
of the Species Plantarum, and with Perfoon’s edition of the Syjiema Vegctabilnim, of Lmne, is certainly very far
below the truth. Many years ago, the number of known fpecies was reckoned at above twenty thoufand, and
there is reafon to believe that it exceeds fifty thoufand.
/.
636 NATURAL
^-donly the knowledge of the diftinftive chara6lers of
Natural P^an*s ? aii^ ^le w^° knows the greateft number, and is
Hiftory. mo^ accurate in determining the different fpecies, is
'——Y-—' accounted the beft botanift.
T. his however conflitutes but a fmall part of the
fc.'ence j there is another diftinft department, which
may properly be termed the philofophy of botany,
which is both more interefting and more ufeful. This
includes the knowledge of the ttru&ure, or the anatomy
of plants; and the knowledge of the ufes, or funftions
of their various parts, as of the leaves, the bark, the
pith, the roots, the juices, &c. 5 which is called the
phyfiology of plants. It includes alfo an acquaintance
with the foil and climate adapted to different vegetables,
their mode of propagation, and the various ufes to
which their feveral parts or produdlions may be ap¬
plied.
Botany, in the firfl; fenfe, which may be called prac¬
tical botany, is fubfervient, and abfolutely neceffary to
the fludy of the philofophy of botany j for no one that
is unacquainted with the claffification of plants can
either convey to others his owm information, or himfelf
receive the benefit of that of others, refpe£ting either
the ftru&ure and economy, or the habits and the ufes
of fuch plants, as may have been invefiigated.
If medical virtues are difcovered in any vegetable
produ6tion 5 without the accuracy of the praflical bo¬
tanift, to afcertain and defcribe the particular plant
which affords it, the difcovery is often loft ; or perhaps,
what is worfe, the virtues are attributed to a different
plant, and it is only by repeated failures, and in fome
cafes after much mifchief, that the error is dete&ed.
It is evident that the fame may happen to the agri-
culturift, the dyer, or any other artizan, who has dif¬
covered in the vegetable kingdom the means of improv¬
ing his art, but has not botanical knowledge fufhcient
to .give an accurate character of the plant, to which he
is indebted for his difcoverv.
3. In Mineralogy, or the natural hiftory of the
mineral kingdom, aimoft half the ftudents are of that
clafs, who content themfelves with colle&ing, and
being able to arrange fyftematically the minerals they
meet with. But in this department of natural hiftory,
as well as the other two, w’hich we have confidered,
fomething more than arrangement is required.
It is the man who can analyze, and feparate the
component parts of mineral produ£lions; who know’s
the art of affaying, and who knows a priori the pro¬
bable fite of a quarry, or a mine, and can tell the direc¬
tion of a ftratum of coal, or of marble, that we may call
a mineralogift.
The natural hiftory of the mineral kingdom includes
geology, or the data upon which are founded the dif¬
ferent theories of the formation of the earth. It in¬
cludes the knowledge of thofe fafts, upon which the
art of mining, and the art of feparating and purifying
metals, is founded ; and its objeft is to teach likewife
the properties of thofe metals, as well as of the earths,
and ether mineral productions, when feparated and in
their fimple ftate.
With refpea to the utility^ of the fludy of natural
hi/lory, we have unavoidably given many inftances of it,
in confidering the object of the fcience. We need there¬
fore add but few others.
*8
Mineral-
°gy-
. 29
Utility of
the ftudy.
H 1 S T O R Y.
The grazier knows the advantage of attending to the Objects ani
habits and diftintive marks of our domeftic animals. uulltyof
It is natural hiftory, though not often ftudied feientifi- ^aJural
cally, that teaches him what variety of ftieep to prefer 5 v—^ 1
by what means to obtain a variety of cows, remarkable 30
for their quantity of milk j how to choofe the ftock ^0 t^e
that is beft adapted to his land, and what is the beft^raz^er*
food for them during winter.
Much benefit is likely to accrue from the attention
lately paid to the cultivation of what are termed the au-
tificial graffes. Inftead of fowing his hay feeds indif-
criminately, the grazier may feletl only fuch gralfes as
are, by obfervation, found to be moft liiited to his foil
and cattle.
The fanner’s knowledge of the proper {ucceftfion of To the
crops, the beft times for fowing them, when to ■ weed/armtr-
and with what to manure, as well as howT todeftroy both
weeds and infedfs, is the knowledge of a naturalift ;
and furely he, who is fcientifically acquainted with
the growth of plants, knowing what part the foil
adts in vegetation, and what is the aliment moft re¬
quired by them, will have great advantage over the
mere empirical farmer, who has no better reafon
for what he does, than that his father did the fame
before him.
By ftudying the natural hiftory of infedls, we learn
the habits, of fuch as are noxious and injurious, and
thence derive the means of deftroying them.
.The mineralogift has often enriched individual pro-To the
piietors of land, and benefited his country, by the dif- landed pro-
covery of mines $ he is enabled to dired! the plannersPrietor*
of canals by warning them of obftacles 5 and his know¬
ledge has aided the phyfician in afeertaining the virtues
of minerals, and of mineral waters.
In the arts, a knowledge of natural hiftory prevents In thVarts,
that confufion, and thofe innumerable errors that muft
be committed, when the natural productions which are
employed cannot be accurately diicriminated from
others.
It is to the naturalift that we are many times indebt¬
ed for the introduction of foreign animals and foreign
plants into our own country. Wheat, oats, barley,
and other vegetables, which are now7 become necelfary
to our exiftence, w7ere not originally of Britifti growth.
The potato, now fo general and fo ufeful, was firft in¬
troduced into this country by Gerard, a noted botanift,
and was for fome time cultivated in his garden as a ra¬
rity. The fugar-cane, the bread-fruit tree, the farina¬
ceous palms, the flax and hemp, have all been tranf-
ported by naturalifts of the prefent day, to regions
where they never grew before.
Befides the above, and many fimilar inftances of ad¬
vantage to be derived from ftudying the different
branches of natural hiftory, thefe two incalculable be¬
nefits neceffarily arife to the ftudent himfelf, from at¬
tending to the whole, or any part of the fcience $
namely, a power of abftrafting the mind, and rcafon-
ing methodically ; and a habit of contemplating the
Creator in his works
Our limits do not permit us to enter further into thejhi/JT'
fertile topic of the utility and advantages of natural hi- EJayu
ftory. Its utility, in a moral and religious point of
view, has been ably illuftrated by Mr Ray, in his
t£ Wifdom. of God 3” by Mr Bangley; in the introduc¬
tion
2
NATURAL
Mode of tiorr to his “ Animal Biography and, in particular,
prtferving by Dr Paley, in his “ Natural Theology j” and to
fjjecimens. tbepe worbs we muft refer our readers.
34 XIL We have ftated it to be one of the principal
Art of pre- objects of natural hiftory, to teach the mode of pre-
fervmgfpe- ferving fpecimens. This art, called by the French
cimens. Taxidcrmie, is exceedingly curious, and would well de-
ferve a much fuller conlideration than we can here al¬
lot to it. We (hall confine our attention on this fub-
je& entirely to the animal kingdom, and even here we
mud be very brief.
The art of preparing and mounting the fkins of ani¬
mals appears to be pretty old j but it made no great
progrefs before the 17th century, when Reaumur made
fome attempts to preferve the fpecimens from the at¬
tacks of infe&s. In the ’journal de Physique for 1773,
there is a memoir addreffed to the Royal Society of
London, by M. Kuckhan, on the methods of prepar¬
ing birds, which is very curious, but is liable to many
obje&ions. In the fame volume is a memoir by Mau-
duit, principally refpe&ing the means of preferving ani¬
mal fpecimens from the attacks of infedb. His prefer-
vatives are of a poifonous nature ; and, of courfe, their
ufe is dangerous, while they do not appear to have
been attended with the expedled fuccefs. The arfeni-
cal foap of Becceur, much celebrated about the fame
time, is liable to fimilar objedlions.
The lateft, and probably the bed work on this fub-
jefi, is that publidied a fewr years ago by M. Nicolas ;
and from this the following obfervations are derived.
Inftruments ^'^e indruments employed in the preparation of fpe-
empioyed. cimens are much the fame as thofe ufed by anatomids
in their ordinary difle&ions, confiding of fmall knives
or fcalpels, forceps or pincers of various forms, probes,
36 needles, and pins or wires.
Preferva- The prefervatives employed by M. Nicolas to pro-
tives againfttedl the fpecimens from infedts, are principally of two
iafedts. kinds : 1. Sulphur, which he applies to the fldns by
means of fumigation, thus impregnating them with ful-
phurous acid; 2. A liquor for macerating the fkins, an¬
other liquor for rubbing over the hair, and a pomatum
for anointing the infide of the fkin. The JirJl liquor is
prepared by deeping a pound and a half of powdered oak
bark, and four ounces of powdered alum, in twenty Englidv
pints of cold w'ater, for two days, taking care to (hake
the mixture from time to time.—The pomatum is pre¬
pared of a pound of white foap, half a pound of caudic
potafh, four ounces of powdered alum, two Englilh
pints of water, four ounces of oil of petroleum, and the
fame of camphire. The foap, cut into fmall pieces, is
put into an earthen pipkin, over a moderate fire ; the
water poured over it y and when the whole is formed
into a fort of foft pafie, the alum and then the oil are
added j the whole well dirred together, removed from
the fire, and when it is nearly cold the camphire is
added, being before hand rubbed down in a mortar
with a little fpirit of wine. The pomatum, thus pre¬
pared, mud be kept in glafs veffels, well dopt; and,
when ufed, is to be lowered with water to the confid¬
ence of thin cream, and laid on the (kins by means of
a pencil brudi..
The liquor employed for preferving the fur is pre¬
pared by infufing an ounce of white foap (bred very
(mall, two ounces of. camphire broken into very fmall.
HISTORY. 637
pieces, the fame of colocynth or bitter-apple grofsly Mode of
powdered, in two Engliih pints of fpirit of wine, for four Fef?rvln£
or five days, (baking the veffel from time to time, after . ^ '»
which the liquor is to be filtered through blotting-paper.
M. Nicolas has given directions for preparing and7
preferving fpecimens of all the various claffes of ani¬
mals. We (hall, as far as our limits permit, briefly fol¬
low' him through each. 37
In (kinning quadrupeds, he propofes to make an in-®‘rjj^”s
cifion along the middle of the back, from the haunches
to the (boulders, except in thofe animals whofe (kin is 4
very thick and hard, or is fet with fpines, in which the
opening mud be made at the belly in the ufual man¬
ner. In detaching the (kin from the fle(h, we mud
occafionally employ the knife, and as wTe proceed, mud
infert tow between the (kin and flefli, to prevent foiling
the fur. When the whole body is detached, and the
(kin drawn down as far as the ankles, the nofe, and the
tip of the tail, the whole body is to be cut aw-ay except
the head and extremities, which are left to give a bet¬
ter form and fupport to the fpecimen. All the fle(hy
and fatty parts, the brain, and the eyes, however,
mud be cut away, and nothing left but the bones, the
fpaces between which and the (kin mud be duffed with
tow cut fine, and a little foft clay mud be put within
the orbits, in order to fix the artificial eyes.
Before duffing, the (kin is to be deeped for feveral
days, from five to fifteen, according to the fize of the
animal, in the liquor fird deferibed, and after deeping, .
the infide is to be well anointed with the pomatum.
When the legs and head are duffed, the cavity of
the (kull filled with very dry mofs, and the eyes fixed,
wires are to be paffed through the infide of the body,
the extremities, and the head and tail, in the following .
manner. Three iron wires of a moderate fize, well an¬
nealed, at lead twice as long as the animal, are to be
twided together for nearly half their length, and while
one wire is left draight, the other two are to be bent
at each end, fo as to form a crofs. When the (kin is
turned, ready for duffing, thefe wires are to be placed
within it in fuch a manner as that the draight wire
(hall pafs through the head and tail, and the eroding
wires through the extremities, coming out at the ball
of each foot ; and in this way after the cavity is filled
up with tow, and the open part neatly ditched, the
fpecimen may be fixed on a board in its natural pofi- -
tion. Nothing remains now but to impregnate the fur
with the bitter liquor lad deferibed, which is done by
means of a fponge, with which the whole outfide is to
be well waffied, then covered with folds of linen, and
dried in the (hade. _g
The art of preferving birds is perhaps the mod curi-Dire&ions
ous part of the prefent fubjedl, and is that to which thef°r ftuffing
mod attention has been given. M. Nicolas has ex-buds*
plained at fome length the mode recommended by M.
Kuckhan in the journal de Physique; that by Dr Lett-
fom, in the Naturali/Ps and Traveller's Companion;
that of Mauduit, inferted in the fifth number of the En--
cyclopedic Methodique; and that of Dufrefne, adopted
by M. Daudin, and inferted in his Trade d'Ornitholq-
gie ; after which he details his oyvm
He deferibes three methods of preparing birds, ac ¬
cording as we can procure freffi-killed fpecimens, wdiole *
dried fkins brought from abroad, or detached parts cfr
feveral.
638 NATURAL
Mode of feveral individuals of the fame fpecies. We {hall here
prefervmg caugne ourfelves to the firft of thefe, as being bell a-
dapted to the generality of our readers.
When a frelh-killed bird is procured, it is to be
placed upon a table, upon its back, with the tail turn¬
ed towards the operator, who, after having feparated
with his fingers the feathers which cover the belly to¬
wards the right and left, is to make with a fealpd, a
longitudinal incifion through the {kin, from the point
of the breaft-bone to about the middle of the belly.
The edges of the Ikin are now to be raifed with a pair
of Hat pincers, on each fide, carefully feparating the
fiefli as occafion may require, by the knife, and infert-
ing a little cotton from time to time, to prevent ioiljng
the feathers. In this way the {kin is to be detached
from the'{boulders and neck, and as much as pofiible of
the bodv laid bare, after which a pretty ftrong thread is
to be paffird through the noftrils, and tied under the
lower mandible, leaving the ends of the threap when
tied together, at lead twice as long as the neck. Now,
holding the bird by the thread, with the back turned
towards him, the 'operator is to hold together the
feathers on the two edges of the incifion as well as
thofe that cover the bread, and pushing the head of the
bird inwards with his thumb fo as to form the neck in¬
to an arch, is to cut this off near the body, detach
from it the gullet and wind-pipe, and all the flelhy
parts, both of the neck and head, by drawing the {kin
£*s far back as poffibie towards the beak, and cutting
off the neck-bones dole to the head*, he is to empty the
fkull with a little iron inftrument in the form of an ear-
picker, and clean it properly with cotton. Ke is now
to wrap cotton or tow about the head and neck, and to
feparate the reft of the {kin, leaving the pinions and
bones of the wings, and legs, and the tail, as directed
for quadrupeds. After this has been done, the (kin is
to be turned out like a glove, with all its feathers turn¬
ed inwards,- all the natural openings of the bird, as well
as any {hot-holes, &c. made in killing the bird, are to
be ftitched up with a needle and fine thread ; then the
whole {kin as well as the bones, are to be waihed with
a ft rang infufion of tan with a little alum, by means of
n pencil-brulh, and the {kin inclofed in a covered veffel
that it may not dry too haftily.
In ten or twelve hours time we may rvafti the 1km
and bones again with the aftringent liquor. Twice
wafhing in this manner will be fufficient lor very {mall
birds, but thofe of a middling fize will require macera¬
tion in the firft: liquor employed for quadrupeds during
two days, and four or five days for thofe of larger fize.
The*fkins being well impregnated with the aftringent
liquor, are to be fmeared with the foapy pomatum,
have artificial eyes fixed in the orbits by means of wax,
and fluffed and mounted much in the fame manner as
quadrupeds, except that the wires employed for this
purpofe are rather differently bended.
Great nicety is required in fixing the different parts
of a bird in its natural pofition, and in arranging the
feathers fmoothly and evenly. M. Nmolas direfts thin
places of lead, to be placed i'o as to fecure the wings in
the proper pofition till the whole is completely arran¬
ged. ,
To preferve the feet and legs of birds, he anoints
them with linfeed oil mixed with camphrre, and applied
a little warm.
HISTORY.
The laft operation confifts in enveloping the bird Mode of
with bandages of muflin or fine linen, pinned round Preiemng
the neck, breaft, body, and rump, as well to fecure
the feathers in their places during drying, as to allow
.of their being drenched with the bitter liquor to pre¬
ferve them from the attacks of infefls.
The different orders of infefils require different modesinfe<fb.
of preparation. The following is a fummary of our
author’s mode of preferving each kind.
For the cole opt era and hemiptera.—One of thefe in¬
fers, as foon as caught, is to be carefully wrapt in very
fine paper, with the ends of the paper curled round to
prevent the animal from moving ; and this roll of paper
including the infeft, is to be put into a little box of
pafteboard till the infedl-hunter returns home. Each
in ft: 61 is then to be held between the thumb and fore¬
finger of the left hand, the wings to be raifed by means
of a pin, and held open with the middle finger, while
the abdomen of the animal is flit open from the back,
and the entrails abftra&ed by means of an iron wire,
and the cavity as well as the edges of the wound are to
be waihed with the bitter fpirituous liquor deferibed in
N® 36. by means of a very fine pencil. Then a fmall
cotton plug impregnated with oil of petroleum is to be
ffuffed into the cavity, with the point of a wire, till the
cavity is fufficiently full, when the wings are to be fuf-
fered to return to their natural fituation, and the infefl
is ready for mounting. For mounting thefe infefts,
M. Nicolas employs little fquares of card, through the
middle and acrofs which he paffes a fmall iron wire
well annealed, and about the fize of a harpficord firing.
A very fine needle is now to be paffed through the ani¬
mal, as near as poflible to the corfelet; and after ha¬
ving covered the upright iron wire with a light coating
of gum-water, he paffes it through the hole made by the
needle, and fixes the animal in fuch a manner that its
feet may reft upon the card.
For the lepidoptera.—He recommends them to be put,
when*caught, into a triangular piece of paper, and after¬
wards into a pafteboard box of the fame form, opening
with a hinge. For mounting thefe infedfs it is fuffi¬
cient to perforate their bodies with a fine needle, armed
with a double thread impregnated with the bitter fpi¬
rituous liquor, making the needle enter by the head
and come out at the end of the belly, -and then cutting
the thread with feiffars. The infedl thus prepared is
mounted by means of a card, as diredled for the cole-
optera, and a piece of wood about an inch long, feven
or eight lines broad, and a proper thicknefs, is placed
below the wings on each fide very near the body, and
the wings are kept down by means of plates of lead. 40
In the preparation of fpeciinens of fijhes, M. Nicolas Fifties,
prefers the method of Mauduit to that given by Dr
Lettfom in the NaturalifPs and Traveller's Companion ;
but as Mauduit’s methods require much {kill and ad-
drefs, he recommends the following, efpecially for the
flat kinds of fifh.
Fie makes a longitudinal incifion with feiffars along
the belly of the fitk from the anus to the lower mandi¬
ble, and then gradually and carefully feparates the Ikin
from the flefh with the afliftance of the blade and flat
handle of a fcalpel, till he has laid bare one fide of the
animal. Fie then pafl’es to the other fide, proceeding
in the fame manner to detach the {kin from that part,
after which he feparates the head from the body with a
pair
3
4*
Reptiles.
NATURAL
pair of fciiTars, and clears away the flefhy parts attached
to the head. He now detaches the fkin from the back as
far as the anus, and then laying the fifh on the table,
he paffes the flat handle of the fcalpel bekw the fkin
that covers the tail and neighbouring parts, in order to
feparate it completely. This done, he pufhes the tail
inwards, and with the afliftance of the fcalpel and
drawing the fkin very gently, he detaches this as near
as poffible to the end of the tail, which he then fepa-
rates with fciffars, thus leaving the fkin with nothing
attached to it but the head and extremity of the tail.
It only remains now to clear away the ears and eyes,
and properly clean the head.
The fkin is now fteeped for fome days in the tanning
liquor, then laid on a table, and when the head is pro¬
perly arranged, a model of the body of the fl(h made
of foft clay, mixed with fine fand, is placed within the
fkin, which is made to fit neatly over it, is then bound
with little bandages of linen, and fuffered to dry. When
the clay is quite dry and hard, and the fkin has acquir¬
ed fo much firmnefs as to retain its proper form, it is to
be gently beaten all ever to break the clay, fo that it
may be withdrawn through the opening. When this
is done, the whole Lnfide of the fkin and head is to be
fmeared by means of a pencil brufti with the foap po¬
matum. After which it is to be entirely filled with
cut towT, and the opening ftitcbed up as neatly as pof-
fible. Then artificial eyes are to be placed in the or¬
bits by means of foft w-ax, and the whole body is to be
covered with a coat of white varnilh prepared by di¬
verting four ounces of clear turpentine, three ounces of
fandarac, and one ounce of maftich in tears, with eight
ounces of oil of turpentine, and dour ounces of fpirit of
wine, in a bottle placed in a water bath.
In preparing fpecimens of reptiles,—after what has
been faid above, little direction w’ill be required. The
fkin is to be ftript backwards as far as the head, which
is to be cut off and cleaned as in other fpecimens j after
which the fkin is to be macerated, anointed within with
pomatum, fluffed and varniihed as before.
The crujlacea, including crabs, lobfters, ftar-fifh, and
fea-urchins, require but little preparation. In crabs
the fliell, and in lobfters the tail, is to be feparated
fromjhe reft of the body } as much as poflible of the
meat is to be picked out from the body and large
claws ; the whole interior is to be fmeared with the
foap pomatum, and after having united the parts, the
whole is to be fuffered to dry.
The ftar-fifh and urchins, if taken alive, fhould be
killed by plunging them in fpirit of wine, and after¬
wards drying them in the fun or in an oven moderately
heated.
As to worms the only mode of preferving the molluf-
ca, orthofe with naked bodies, is to keep them in fpirits j
and of the tejlacea or (hell-fifh, the only part thought
worth preferving is the. (hell j for the preparation of
which, fee Conchology.
The above is but an imperfect abftrafl of M. Nico¬
las’s “ Methode de preparer et conferver les Animaux
de toutes les clajfesf which is illuftrated by plates, and
is well deferving the attention of colleSors of fpeci¬
mens.
There is alfo an excellent effay on this fubjeft by
Dufrefne, under Taxidermie, in the Nouveau DiBionaire
d'Hi/ioire Nature/le.
HISTORY.
639
It will be expe&ed that in this introdu&ory article Hiftory.
on natural hiftory, we fhould fay fonqething of its rife 7~ '
and progrefs. Much of our obfervations on this fubjett Hiftory of
have been anticipated in preceding articles on the par-natural
ticular branches of natural hiftory, fo that little remains hiftory.
for us to do in this place than to give a general fketch
of the early hiftory of this branch of phyfics. ^
We have reafon to believe that the works of nature Jewifh
have formed the favourite ftudy among the ingenious and writers,
inquifitive from the earlieft ages of the wTorld. From
the continual allufions to the Creator’s works, and the
beaut’rtul metaphors drawn from them, which abound in
the infpired writings of the Jewifh prophets and poets,
efpccially thofe of Job, Ifaiah, Daniel and David, we
know that thefe fages were well acquainted with natu¬
ral hiftory, as far at leaf! as obfervation extended. Solo¬
mon, as we are told, was acquainted with all vegetables,
“ from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyifop that fpring-
eth out of the wall and probably fo wife a man was
well acquainted with the other kingdoms of nature.
Some writers have gone fo far as to affert that Arifiotle
and Theophraftus learned natural hiftory from the
writings of Solomon, though on what data they ground .
this affertion, we are at a iofs to determine.
The principal writers on natural hiftory among the
ancients, whofe writings have come dawn to us are 46
Ariftotle, Theophraftus and Pliny the elder. Of the firft Ariftotlci
wre may remark with Haller, that his writings on this
fubjeft exhibit a cominutd chain of phyfical and ana¬
tomical fa£ls, which for the moft part appear to have
been the refult of accurate obfervation. He relied lefs
than any of the ancient naturaiifts on uncertain and
fabulous report ; he induftrioufly collefted and exam¬
ined natural bodies, and appears to have himfelf diflec-
ted many animals, efpecially fifties, or at leaf! to have
been prefent at their diffe&ion. There are even to be
found in his writings, references by letters to figures
which he employed to illuftrate his obfervations. 47
Theophraftus wrote chiefly on the natural hiftory of Hieophra--
plants and foftils, on winds, and on fire. His works.ftus*
have been edited by Keinfius, but, except in plants, they -
do not contain much that is worthy of our obfervation .
more than what is to be found in the writings of Ari-
flotlc. _ _ ° 8.
The natural hiftory of Pliny is a.valuable repofitory pliny,
of ancient know ledge, which, notwdthftanding,ill us errors
and extravagances, we may venture to call after the
panegyric of his nephew, a comprehenfive and learned
work, little lefs various than nature herfelf. The author
in the dedication of his work to Vefpanan, fenfible of
the defefts with which it abounds, apolpgifes for them,
from the confideration that the path which he took had
been in a great meafure untrodden, and held forth to
the traveller few enticements ; while fome parts of his
funjeft had been fo often handled, that readers were
become cloyed with them : that it was an arduous tafk
to give what is old an appearance of novelty 5 to add
weight and authority to what is new ; to calf a luftre
upon fubje&s that have been obfcured by time j to
render acceptable what is become trite and difgufting j
to obtain credit to doubtful relations j and, in a word, to
reprefent every thing according to nature, and with all
its natural properties. His defign muft be acknowled¬
ged to be grand and noble, and when we confider that
the work was compofed in the midft of important
engagements, •,
Ho NATURAL
Hiftoty. engagements, and chiefly at broken periods ftolen from
l-” v fleep, we (ball not wonder that it was imperfeftly exe-
49 cuted.
Ancients The ancients had no idea of methodical or fyfte-
dcticient in matic As they were acquainted with but
method. pew l;,ocjjes in comparifon w’ith the moderns, and attend¬
ed only to thofe which were ufeful to man ; they di-
ftinguilhed them only by their ufual properties, their
native country, their habitations, and the ufeful pur-
-pofes to which they might be applied. From the few
produflions which they defcribed, they were not led to
perceive the neceflity of fearching among them for di-
ftimflive marks or relations, which may prevent their
being confounded with each other. They doubtlefs
believed that their defcriptions were fufficient, and that
the names which they impofed would defcend with
their cuftoms to pofterity, without being affefted by the
diforders and alterations that have changed the face of
countries and the feat of empires. But the revolutions
that have defolated the faireft regions of the globe, by
infulating or difplacing their inhabitants, or by con¬
founding them with one another, and altering their
language, have frequently almoft extinguiflied the
lamp of icience. After many ages of ignorance and
barbarity, we find in the few works of the ancient na-
turalifts, which have efcaped the ravages of war and
the devaftations of civil difcord, little more than un¬
certainty and obfcurity, with refpeft to thofe fpecies
which they have defcribed. Notwithftanding the labours
of numerous commentators, we do not certainly know
what fpecies of plant is the cicuta employed by the
Greeks for the execution of criminals, and which ter¬
minated the life of Socrates. We cannot be fure that
the animals, which we find belt charafterized in the
ancient writings, bore the names which wre attribute to
them ; nor are we more certain with refpeft to the an-
50 cient nomenclature of minerals.
Rife of me- As long as ftudious men cultivated the fciences only
'tk°lk* through the medium of the waitings of the ancients,
and attempted nothing beyond the interpretation of
thefe, natural hijiory, like every other branch of phyfics,
remained obfcure and confufed, and fiftion or imagina¬
tion took the place of fafls ; but when they perceived
the advantage of ftudying nature herfelf, and interro¬
gating her by obfervation, methods were erefted, and
diftin&ive charafters for the fpecies introduced. This
fortunate revolution took place in the 16th century.
Cgefalpinus firll attempted to reduce vegetables to claf-
fes, and diftinguilh them into tribes according to their
form.—Gefner, befides the fine hints that he firft gave
of the conftant relation between the ftrufture of the
feed and that of the other parts of plants, was the firft
who attempted any fyftematic and methodical arrange¬
ment of animals. In the 17th century, Morifow, Ray,
and Rivinus, improved on the hints of Caefalpinus re-
fpefting the claflification of vegetables j and Aldrovan-
dus, Rhedi, and Swammerdam upon thofe of Gefner
HISTORY.
refpe&ing animalsj and in a fhort time this firft impu’fe Hiftory.
given to the art of arranging and biftinguiflnng naturalv
bodied by conftant characters, was communicated to all
thofe who were employed in the ftudy of nature.
Tournefort, profiting by all the attempts towards method
and lyftetn in the claflification of vegetables that had
been made before him, advanced a confiderable ftep in
botany, by Ins beautiful method of diftinguiftung plants
according to the form of their flowers and.fruits, which
he publilhed towards the end of the r 7th century. S1
The fame year of the 18th century (1707) gave Linne and
birth to two men who have advanced the fcience of^1^011-
natural hiftory far beyond any of their predeceffors.
We need fcarcely mention the names of Linne, and
Buffon. The Swedifli naturalift extended his enlarged
views through every branch of natural hiftory; he ar¬
ranged in his Systema Naiurce and Syrtema Vegetabi-
lium all the productions of nature, and diftinguiflied
them by characters that were precife and Ample j be
created a new language for exprefling with brevity all
thefe characters, and thus prefented to the view, as in
a compendious picture, all the properties of bodies.
Buffon, proceeding in a different road, treated more co-
pioufly the moft important parts of natural hiftory, and
of the animals that are moft nearly allied to man, in a
work which the fire of his genius and the brilliancy of
his ftyle have rendered a univerfal favourite. The rival
of Ariftotle and Pliny, whofe genius he feems to have
combined in the greatnefs of his views and extent of
his plan, and altogether one of the firft writers of his
age, he infpired a paflion for the ftudy of nature in
numbers, who without his works would never have en¬
gaged in fuch a ftudy, and communicated to his country¬
men that tafte which has ever fince furvived him.
After what has been given in the particular treatifes
on natural hiftory in this Encyclopaedia, both as to the
progrefs of the fcience, and the principal works on each
department of it, fince the time of Linne and Buffon j
it is unneceffary for us’to trace its progrefs beyond that
period. The advances made within tbefe few years are
immenfe, our flock of information is prodigioufly in-
creafed, and the modes of ftudy greatly improved and
facilitated. The labours of Cuvier, Geoffrey, Lacepede,
Dumont, Dumeril, Lamarck, Duvernois, Scnnini,
Bloch, Spallanzani, Efper, Juflieu, Wildenow, Werner,
Patrin, St Fond, Brochant, Brongniart, Klaproth,
Fourcroy, Vauquelin, Shaw, Latham, Bancroft, Catef-
hy, Ellis, Smith, Withering, Woodville, Kirwan, Play¬
fair, Thomfon, Jamefon, &c. with the afliftance to be
derived from the Annales de Mufeum National, the Na-
turaliJPs Mifcellany, the Linncean Tranfa&ions, and the
fplendid plates of Merian, Schreber, Curtis, Sow’erby,
Sotheby, &c. afford ample proofs of the induftry and
fuccefs with which this delightful field has been culti¬
vated, and of the rich harveft that has been derived
from the united efforts of fo many men of genius and
talents.
Natural
NAT [ 641 . ] NAT
Natural Natural Tliilofophj^ is commonly defined to be that
Fhilofophy. 0f knowledge which coniiders the powers and
properties of natural bodies, and their mutual aftions
on one another. The province of moral philofophy is
the mind of man ; its inquiries and refearches are into
the intelledtual world. Natural philofophy, on the other
hand, is only concerned with the material part of the
creation. The Moralill’s bufinefs is to inquire into the
nature of virtue, the caufes and effects of vice ; to
propofe remedies for it, and to point out the mode of
attaining happinefs, which only can be the refult of
virtuous condudl. The Naturalift, on the contrary, has
nothing to do with fpirit j his bulinefs is folely about
body or mattery and he ought to have a folid and accu¬
rate knowledge of all material fubftances, together with
their affedtions and properties 5 and if poflible, he is to
invefligate the reafons of fuch and fuch appearances.—
Indeed, the firft and principal part of this fcience is,
to coiled! all the manifeft and fenfible appearances of
things, and reduce them into a body of natural hillory.
Philofophy, it has often been faid, and it is even now very
generally thought, to mean an inquiry into all the caufes
of things ; but experience informs us, that though we
are acquainted with a good number of effedts, we can
trace but few of their caufes j fo that philofophy itfelf
will really be found to be in general but a colledtion
of fadts. Still, however, it differs from natural hi-
ftory in its appropriated fenfe ; the bufinefs of which
is only to obferve the appearances of natural bodies
feparately, and from thefe appearances to clafs them
with other bodies : natural philofophy goes farther,
and recites the adtion of two or more bodies of the
fame or different kinds upon one another 5 and though
it can neither inveftigate nor point out the caufes of
thofe effedts, whatever they are, yet, from mathema¬
tical reafoning combined with experience, it can be de-
monflrated, that in fuch circumflances fuch effedts muft
always take place. There are evidently tivo ways of
making obfervations on the material world : the firft is,
when we view things nearly as they happen to occur,
without any defign or intervention of our own 5 in
which tvay, indeed, no great improvements can be
expedted in the art, becaufe chance having the direc¬
tion, only exhibits occafional or extemporary proper¬
ties. The other method is, when, after a thorough
acquaintance with bodies, we apply them to other bo¬
dies equally known, diligently attending to the refult,
and obferving whether any thing new arifes. Such
feems to be in general the nature of our article ; nor
is it our intention to be much more particular at pre-
fent. We muft therefore refer our readers refpedtive-
ly to thofe parts of the fubjedt, refpedting which they
with for more fatisfadtion and minuter details. The
ancient and modern definitions of the word philofo¬
phy, together with its origin, as well as the manner of
philofopnizing in former times as well as at prefent,
with the gradual improvement of fcience, particularly
natural, we fhall Introduce, we think, more properly un¬
der the words Philosophy and Physics. We need
only add under-the prefent article, what however is
well known, that natural philofophy was till lately di¬
vided only into four parts, commonly called the four
branches, viz. I. Mechanics ; 2. Hydroftatics •, 3. Op¬
tics ; and 4. Aftronomy \ and thefe again are fnbd fid-
ed into various parts. Modern difcoveries have added,
Vol. XIV. Part II.
however, two more parts to the number, viz. Magnetifm Naturalifa-
and Electricity. It is remarkable, that in the Englifh tM0n
univerfities thefe two latter branches are never taken Mature.
notice of in leCturing on natural philofophy, the old di-   -y—J
vifion being ftill retained, without any mention of thefe
two important articles. The reafon may be, that they
are only fubjeft to experiment, and not yet reduced to
mathematical reafoning ; which is the method of teach¬
ing philofophy in one of thofe celebrated feminaries.
Of thefe branches of this extenfive fcience, it is not our
intention to take even a general view in this place. <
We muft therefore refer our readers to each particular
article, where they will find them treated at confiderable
length.
NATURALISATION, in Law, the act of na¬
turalizing an alien, or putting him into the condition
of a natural born fubjeCt, and entitling him to the
rights and privileges thereof. But none can be natu¬
ralized unlefs they have received the facrament within
one month before the bringing in of the bill, and taken
the oaths of allegiance and fupremacy in the prefenca
of the parliament. A perfen who is naturalized may
have lands by defeent, as heir at law, as well as obi in
them by purchafe ; but he is difabled from being a
member of the privy council or parliament ; or from
holding offices, 7 Jac. I. cap. 2. 12 Will. III. cap. 2.
All children born out of the king’s dominions, whofe
fathers were or are fubjefts of this kingdom at the time
of their birth, are adjudged to be natural born fubjects
of this realm, except children of parents attainted of
treafon, or that are in tlie adtual fervice of a foreign
prince at enmity with us, 4 Geo. II. cap. 21. Every
foreign feaman, who in time of war ferves two years on
board an Englilh {hip, is ipfo fa&o naturalized, 13
Geo. II. cap. 3. And all foreign Proteftants and Jews,
upon their refiding feven years in any of the Britifti co¬
lonies, without being abfent above two months at a
time, or ferving two years in a military capacity
there, are upon taking the oaths naturalized to all
intents and purpofes, as if they had been born in this
kingdom \ and therefore are admiffible to all fuch pri¬
vileges, and no other, as Proteftants or Jews born in
this kingdom are entitled to. See Alien and De¬
nizen.
In France before the Revolution, naturalization was
the king’s prerogative j in England it is only done by
aft of parliament. In the former of thofe places, before
their government was overturned, Swifs, Savoyards,
and Scots, did not require naturalization, being reputed
regnicoles, or natives.
NATURALS, among Physicians, whatever natu¬
rally belongs to an animal, in oppofition to non-natu-
raK See Non-naturals.
NATURE, according to Mr Boyle, has eight dif¬
ferent fignifications ; it being ufed, 1. For the author
of nature, whom the fchoolmen call Natura Naturans,
being the fame with God. 2. By the nature of a thing,
we fometimes mean its eflence ; that is, the attributes
which make it what it is, whether the thing be corpo¬
real or not} as when we attempt to define the nature
of a fluid, of a triangle, &c. 3, Sometimes we con¬
found that which a man has by nature with what ac¬
crues to him by birth; as when we fay, that fuch a man
is noble by nature. 4. Sometimes we,take nature for
an internal principle of motion; as when we lay, that
4 M a
N A V [ 642 ] N A V
Nava, a flone by nature falls to the earth. 5. Sometimes we
^fav‘t*' underftand by nature, the eftablifhed courfe of things.
6. Sometimes we take nature for an aggregate of
powers belonging to a body, efpecially a living one } in
which fenfe phyficians fay, that nature is ftrong, weak,
or fpent ; or that, in fuch or fuch difeafes, nature left
to herfelf will perform the cure. 7. Sometimes we ufe
the term nature for the univerfe, or whole fyftem of the
corporeal works of God ; as when it is faid of a phoe¬
nix, or chimera, that there is no fuch thing in nature.
Sometimes too, and that moll commonly, we ex-
prefs by the word nature, a kind of femi-deity, or 0-
ther drange kind of being.
If, fays the fame philofopher, I were to propofe a
notion of nature, lefs ambiguous than thefe already
mentioned, and with regard to which many axioms
relating to that word may be conveniently underftood,
I (hould firft diftinguilh between the univerfal and the
particular nature of things. Univerfal nature I would
define to be the aggregate of the bodies that make up
the world in its prefent date, conddered as a principle,
by virtue whereof they a£t and fuffer, according to the
laws of motion prefcribed by the Author of all things.
And this makes way for the other fubordinate notion ;
fince the particular nature of an individual condds in
the general nature applied to a didimfl portion of the
univerfe ; or, which is the fame thing, it is a particu¬
lar ademblage of the mechanical properties of matter,
as figure, motion, &c.
Kingdoms of Nature. See Kingdoms.
ConduB: or Operations of Nature. See Natural
id if ory.
NAVA, in Ancient Geography, (Tacitus) 5 a river
of Belgica, which runs north-ead into the left or wed
fide of the Rhine. Now the Nahe, rifing at the vil¬
lage Naheweiler, on the borders of the bifhopric of
Triers, running through the Lower Palatinate, the
duchy of Simmeren, by the fmall town of Bing, into
the Rhine.
NAVAL, fomething relating to a fhip •, whence,
Naval ArchiteBure. See Shir-Building.
Naval Camp, in antiquity, a fortification, confid¬
ing of a ditch and parapet on the land fide, or a wall
built in the form of a femicircle, and extended from
one point of the fea to another. This was fometimes
defended with towers, and beautified with gates, through
which they iffued forth to attack their enemies. Ho¬
mer hath left us a remarkable defcription of the Gre¬
cian fortifications of this fort, in the Trojan war, begin¬
ning at ver. 436. Iliad »}.
Then, to fecure the naval camp and powers,
They rais’d embattled walls with lofty towers :
From fpace to fpace were ample gates around,
For palling chariots 5 and a trench profound,
Gf large extent j and deep in earth below
Strong piles infix’d dood adverfe to the foe.
Pope’s Tranf.
Towards the fea, or within it, they fixed great
pales of wood, like thofe in their artificial harbours:
before thefe the veffels of burden were placed in fuch
order, as that they might be indead of a wall, and
give proteftion to thole within ; in which manner Ni-
cias is reported by Thucydides to have encamped
himfelf: but this feems only to have been pra£iifed Naval
when the enemy was thought fuperior in drength, and ^ II
raifed great apprehenfions of danger in them. When  1 ’
their fortifications were thought drong enough to de¬
fend them from the affaults of enemies, it was frequent
to drag their drips to drore, which the Greeks call¬
ed sv^Ajcsoi, the Romans fuhducere. Around the drips
the foldiers difpofed their tents, as appears every-
where in Homer : but this feems only to have been
pra&ifed in winter, when their enemy’s fleet was laid
up and could not aflault them ; or in long fieges, and
when they lay in no danger from their enemies by fea ;
as in the Trojan war, where the defenders of Troy ne¬
ver once attempted to encounter the Grecians in a fea-
fight.
The adjacent places were ufually filled with inns
and dews, well docked with females, that prodituted
themfelves to the mariners, merchants, and artificers
of all forts, who Hocked thither in great numbers ; this,
however, appears to have happened only in times of
peace.
Naval Crown, among the ancient Romans, a crown
adorned with figures of prows of drips, conferred on
perfons who in fea engagements fir It boarded the ene¬
my’s veffel. See Crown.
Naval Engagement. See Tactics, Naval.
Naval Stores, comprehend all thofe particulars
made ufe of, not only in the royal navy, but in every
other kind of navigation j as timber and iron for diip-
ping, pitch, tar, hemp, cordage, fail cloth, gunpowder,
ordnance, and fire arms of every fort, Ihip chandlery
wares, &c.
Naval TaBics, the military opex-ations of fleets.
See Tactics, Naval.
NAVAN, a borough toxvn of Ireland, in the county
of Meath and province of Leinder ; fituated about 23
miles north-wed of Dublin, on' the river Boyne. It
confids of two chief dreets, which interfeft each other
at right angles.—The tholfel, or town houfe, is a
handfome done building. This place was formerly in
great repute, and willed in by Hugh de Lacy. An
abbey for regular canons, dedicated to the Virgin
Mary, was erefted here •, but wdxether antecedent to
the end of the I 2th century is not certain : about that
period, however, it wTas either founded or re-edified by
Joceline de Angulo or Nangle. In the burial ground
are the remains of many ancient tombs. A barrack
for hox'fe is now built on the fite of the abbey.
NAVARRE, a province of Spain, part of the an¬
cient kingdom of Navarre, eredfed foon after the in-
vafion of the Moors j and is otherwife called Upper
Navarre, to didinguidi it from Lowrer Navarre be¬
longing to the Fi-ench. It is bounded on the fouth
and ead by Arragon, on the north by the Pyrenees,
and on the wed by Old Cadile and Bificay 5 extending
from fouth to north about 80 miles, and from ead to
wed about 75. It abounds in fheep and cattle ; game
of all kinds, as boars, dags, and roebucks ; and in
wild fowl, horfes, and honey ; yielding alfo fome
grain, wiife, oil, and a variety of minerals, medicinal
waters, and hot baths. Some of the ancient chiefs
of this country were called Sohrarhores, from the
cudom, as it is fuppofed, which prevailed among
fome of thofe free nations, of choofing and fwearing
their
N A V
[ 64? ]
N A V
Kavarre. their princes under fome particular tree. The name
“““■■v—of the province is fuppofed to be a contraction of
Nava Errea, fignifying, in the language of the Vaf-
cones, its ancient inhabitants, “ & land of valleys.”
—For the particulars of its hiitory, fee the article
Spain.
Navarre, Peter, an officer of eminence in the 16th
century, and particularly celebrated for his dexterity in
the direding and fpringing of mines. He was a na¬
tive of Bifcay, and of low extraction. According to
Paul Jove, who affirms that he had an account of the
matter from his own mouth, he was firft a failor •, but
being diigufted with that employment, he fought his
fortune in Italy, when poverty compelled him to be¬
come footman to the cardinal of Arragon. He after¬
wards inliited himfelf a foldier in the Houftine army }
and having ferved there for fome time, went to fea a-
gain, and diftinguilhed himfelf by his courage. The
reputation of his valour having reached the ears of Gon-
falvo de Cordova, this general employed him in the
war againft Naples, and raifed him to the rank of a
captain. Having contributed greatly to the taking of
that city by very opportunely fpringing a mine, the
emperor rewarded him for this fignal fervice with the
earldom of Alveto, fituated in that kingdom, and gave
him the title of Count of Navarre. Having the com¬
mand of a Qaval expedition againft the Moors in Afri¬
ca, he was at firft very fuccefsful, and took poffeffion of
Oran, Tripoli, and fome other places ; but being after¬
wards ihipwrecked on the ifland of Gerbes, the great
heats and the Mooriffi cavalry deftroyed a part of his
army. Our hero was equally unfortunate in Italy :
He was made prifoner at the famous battle of Raven¬
na in 1512, and languifhed in France for the fpace of
two years. When finding that the king of Spain, who
Lad been prejudiced againft him by his courtiers, wmuld
do nothing towards hisranfom, he went into the fervice
of Francis I. who gave him the command of 20 com¬
panies of infantry, confifting of Gafcons, Bifcayans,
and the inhabitants of the Pyrenean mountains. He di-
ftinguifhed himfelf in feveral fuccefsful expeditions, un¬
til the year 1522, when having been fent to the relief
of the Genoefe, he was taken by the Imperialifts. They
conducted him to Naples, where he remained a pri-
foner for three years in the Caftel del Ovo. From this
confinement he was releafed by the treaty of Madrid,
and afterwards fought at the fiege of Naples under
Laulric in 1528 : but being again made prifoner at
the unfortunate retreat from Averfa, he was conduft-
ed a fecond time to the Caftel del Ovo. Here the
prince of Orange, having, by order of the emperor,
caufed feveral perfons of the Angcvine fadtion to be
beheaded, our hero would undoubtedly have fuffered
the fame fate, if the governor, feeing his diftreffed fitu-
ation, and feeling for the misfortunes of fo great a
man, had not faved him the ffiame of this laft punifh-
ment by allowing him to die a natural death. Others
pretend that he was ftrangled in his bed, having ar¬
rived at a very advanced age. Paul Jove and Philip
Thomafini have written his life. This laft informs us,
that he was of a tall fize, had a fwarthy countenance,
black eyes, beard, and'hair. A duke of Seflfa, in the
laft century, being defirous to honour his memory
and that of the marfhal de Lautree, caufed a monu¬
ment to be ere&ed to each of them in the church of
Saint-Marie-le Neuve at Naples, where they had been
interred without any funeral honours.
Navarre, Martin, furnamed Azpilcucla, becaufe he _
was born in the kingdom which bears that name, fuc-
ceffively profeffor of jurifprudence at Touloufe, Sala¬
manca, and Coimbra, was confulted from all quarters
as the oracle of law. For a part of his knowledge he
was indebted to the fchools of Cahors and I ouloufe, in
which he had ftudied. His friend Barthelemi Ca-
rewza, a Dominican, and archbilhop of loledo,. hav¬
ing been charged with herefy by the court of inqui-
fition at Rome, Navarre fet out at the age of 80 years
to defend him. Pius V. appointed him afleflor to
Cardinal Francis Alciat, vice-penitentiary. Gregory
XIII. never palled his gate without fending for him ;
and fometlmes would converfe with him for an hour
together on the ftreet : he even deigned to vilit him,
accompanied by feveral cardinals. Thefe honours did
not render him more haughty. His character became
fo eminent, that even in his own time the greateft
encomium that could be paid to a man of learning
was to fay that he was a Navarre : this name thus
included the idea of erudition, as that of Rofcius for¬
merly marked an accomphftied comedian. Azpilcmfta
was the oracle of the city of Rome, and of the whole
Chriftian world. For the influence which he had ac¬
quired, he was indebted not only to his knowledge,
but alfo to his probity and virtue. Faithful to the
duties which the church prefcribed, his temperance
and frugality preferved to him a vigorous conftitution 5
and at a very advanced age his genius was equal to tlie
fevereit ftudy. His favings enabled him to give libe¬
ral affiftance to the poor. His charities, indeed, were
fo great, that his mule, it is faid, would flop as foon
as ftie perceived a beggar. He died at Rome in 15861
at the age of 92. His works were colle&ed and
printed in 6 vols. folio at Lyons in 1597’ anc^
nice in 1602. They dilplay morelearning than judge¬
ment, and are now very feldom conlulted. Navarre
was uncle by the mother’s fide to St Francis of Sales.
See Sales.
NAUCRARI, among the Athenians, was the name
given to the chief magiftrates of the A>;««<, “ boroughs
or townthips,” called ; becaufe each was ob¬
liged, befides two horfemen, to furnifh out one (hip for
the public fervice.
NAUCRATES, a Greek poet, who was employed
by Artemifia to write a panegyric upon Maufolus.—An
orator who endeavoured to alienate the cities of Lycia
from the intereft of Brutus.
NAUCRATIS, a city of Egypt on the left fide
of the Canopic mouth of the Nile. It was celebrated
for its commerce, and no (hip was permitted to land
at any other place, but was obliged to fail direftly to
the city, there to depofite its cargo. It gave birth to
Athenseus.
NAUCRATITES Nomos, in Ancient Geography,
(Pliny) •, a divifion of the Delta, fo called from that
town Naucratis; though Ptolemy comprifes it under
the Nomos Saites.
NAUCYDES, a ftatuary who lived about four cen¬
turies before the Chriftian era.
NAVE, in Architecture, the body of a church,
where the people are difpofed, reaching from the bal-
lufter, or rail of the door, to the chief choir. Some
4 M 2 derive
Navarre
Nave.
N A V r
Xavel. derive the word from the Greek vx6s, u a temple
" and others from vuvs, “ a {hip,” by reafon the vault or
roof of a church bears fome refemblance to a (hip.
NAVEL, in Anatomy, the centre of the lower part
of the abdomen j being that part where the umbilical
644 ] N A v
” veffels paffed out of the placenta of the mother. See
Anatomy Index.
NAVEL-Wort. See Cotyledon. Botany Index.
NAVEVV. See Brassica, Botany Index.
Navel-
wort,
Navew.
NAVIGATION,
TS the art of conducing or carrying a (hip from one
port to another.
HISTORY.
The poets refer the invention of the art of naviga¬
tion to Neptune, fome to Bacchus, others to Her¬
cules, others to Jafon, and others to Janus, who is faid
to have made the firft (hip. Hiftorians afcribe it to
the TEginetes, the Phoenicians, Tyrians, and the an¬
cient inhabitants of Britain. Some fuppofe, that the
firlf hint was taken from the flight of the kite •, others,
as Oppian (De Pifcibus, lib. i.), from the fi(h called
nautilus : others afcribe it to accident.— Scripture re¬
fers the origin of fo ufeful an invention to God himfelf,
who gave the firft fpecimen thereof in the ark built by
Noah under his dire&ion. For the raillery which the
good man underwent on account of his enterprife (hows
evidently enough that the world was then ignorant of
any thing like navigation, and that they even thought
it impoflible.
However, profane hiftory reprefents the Phoenicians,
efpeeially thofe of their capital Tyre, as the firft naviga¬
tors *, being urged to feek a foreign commerce by the
narroWnefs and poverty of a flip of ground they pof-
fefled along the coafts 5 as well as by the conveniency
of two or three good ports, and by their natural ge¬
nius for traffic. Accordingly, Lebanon, and the other
neighbouring mountains, furnifning them with excel¬
lent wood for (hip-building, in a (hort time they
were mafters of a numerous fleet ; and conftantly
hazarding new navigations, and fettling new trades,
they foon arrived at an incredible pitch of opulence
and populoufnefs : infomuch as to be in a condition
to fend out colonies, the principal of which was that
of Carthage 5 which, keeping up their Phoenician fpi-
rit of commerce, in time not only equalled Tyre itfelf,
but vaftly furpaffed it ; fending its merchant fleets
through Hercules’s Pillars, now the ftraits of Gibral¬
tar, along the weftern coafts of Africa and Europe ;
and even, if we believe fome authors, to America it¬
felf.
Tyre, whofe immenfe riches and power are repre-
fented in fuch lofty terms both by facred and profane
authors, being deftroyed by Alexander the Great, its
navigation and commerce were transferred by the con¬
queror to Alexandria, a new city, admirably fituated
for thofe purpofes; propofed for the capital of the
empire of Alia, which Alexander then meditated. And
thus arofe the navigation of the Egyptians j which was
afterwards fo much cultivated by the Ptolemies, that
Tyre and Carthage were quite forgotten.
Egypt being reduced into a Roman province after
the battle of A&ium, its trade and navigation fell into
the hands of Auguftus ; in whofe time Alexandria was
only inferior to Rome j and the magazines of the ca¬
pital of the world were wholly fupplied with merchan-
difes from the capital of Egypt.
At length, Alexandria itfelf underwent the fate of
Tyre and Carthage ; being furprifed by the Saracens,
who, in fpite of the emperor Heraclius, overfpread
the northern coafts of Africa, &c. whence the mer¬
chants being driven, Alexandria has ever fince been in
a languifhing (late, though it ftill has a confiderable
part of the commerce of the Chriftian merchants tra¬
ding to the Levant.
The fall of Rome and its empire drew along with
it not only that of learning and the polite arts, but
that of navigation $ the barbarians, into whofe hands
it fell, contenting themfelves with the fpoils of the in-
duftry of their predeceffors.
But no fooner were the more brave among thofe na¬
tions well fettled in their new provinces, fome in Gaul,
as the Franks j others in Spain, as the Goths $ and
others in Italy, as the Lombards; but they began to
learn the advantages of navigation and commerce, and
the methods of managing them, from the people they
fubdued ; and this with fo much fuccefs, that in a
little time fome of them became able to give new lef-
fons, and fet on foot new inftitutions for its advantage.
Thus it is to the Lombards we ufually aferibe the in¬
vention and ufe of banks, book-keeping, exchanges,
rechanges, &c.
It does not appear which of the European peo¬
ple, after the fettlement of their new mafters, firft;
betook themfelves to navigation and commerce. Some
think it began with the French ; though the Italians
feem to have the jufteft title to it; and are accord¬
ingly regarded as the reftorers thereof, as well as of
the polite arts which had been baniftied together from
the time the empire was torn afunefer. It is the peo¬
ple of Italy then, and particularly thofe of Venice
and Genoa, who have the glory of this reftoration j
and it is to their advantageous (ituation for navigation
they in great meafure owe their glory. In the bot¬
tom of the Adriatic were a great number of marfhy
iflands, only feparated by narrow channels, but thofe
well fereened, and almoft inacceflible, the refidence of
fome fifhermen, who here fupported themfelves by a
little trade in fifti and fait, which they found in fome
of thefe iilands. Thither the Veneti, a people inha¬
biting that part of Italy along the coafts of the gulf,
retired, when Alaric king of the Goths, and afterwards
Attila king of the Huns, ravaged Italy.
Thefe new iflanders, little imagining that this was
to be their fixed refidence, did not think of compoling
any body politic j but each of the 7 2 iflands of this
little archipelago continued a long time under its fe-
veral mafters, and each made a diftinft commonwealth.
When their commerce was become confiderable enough
to give jealoufy to their neighbours, they began to
think
^45
Hiflory. N A V I G
^ think of uniting into a body. And it was this union,
firft begun in the fixth century, but not completed till
the eighth, that laid the fure foundation of the future
grandeur of the Hate of Venice. From the time of this
union, their fleets of merchantmen were fent to all the
ports of the Mediterranean ; and at laft to thofe of E-
gypt, particularly Cairo, a new city, built by the Sara¬
cen princes on the paftern banks of the Nile, where
they traded for the fpices and other produdts of the
Indies. Thus they flourithed, increafed their commerce,
their navigation,- and their conquefts on the terra firma,
till the league of Cambray in 1508, wrhen a number of
jealous princes confpired to their ruin j which was the
more eafily efte£!ed by the diminution of their Eafl In¬
dia commerce, of w’hich the Portuguefe had got one
part and the French another. Genoa, which had ap¬
plied itfelf to navigation at the fame.time with Venice,
and that with equal fuccefs, was a long time its danger¬
ous rival, difputed with it the empire of the fca, and
fliared with it the trade of Egypt and other parts both
of the eaft and weft.
Jealoufy foon began to break out j and the two re¬
publics coming to blows, there was almolt continual
war for three centuries before the fuperiority was afeer-
tained ; when, towards the end of the 14th century,
the battle of Chioza ended the ftrife 5 the Genoefe,
who till then had ufually the advantage, having now
loft all ; and the Venetians, almoft become defperate,
at one happy blow, beyond all expe&ation, fecured
to themfelves the empire of the fea, and fuperiority in
commerce.
About the fame time that navigation was retrieved
in the fouthern parts of Europe, a new fociety of mer¬
chants was formed in the north, which not only car¬
ried commerce to the greateft perfection it was capable
of till the difeovery of the Eaft and Weft Indies, but
alfo formed a new fcheme of laws for the regulation
therefore, which ftill obtain under the names of Ufes
and Cuftoms of the Sea. This fociety is that famous
league of the Hanfe towms, commonly fuppofed to have
begun about the year 1164. See Manse Towns.
For the modern ftate of navigation in England, Hol¬
land, France, Spain, Portugal, &c. fee Commerce,
Company, &c.
We (hall only add, that in examining the caufes
of commerce paffing fucceflively from the Venetians,
Genoefe, and Hanfe towns, to the Portuguefe and
Spaniards, and from thefe again to the Englilh and
Dutch, it may be eftabliftied as a maxim, that the re¬
lation between commerce and navigation, or, if we may
be allowed to fay it, their union, is fo intimate, tnat
the fall of the one inevitably draws after it that of the
other-, and that they will always either fleurifh or
dwindle together. Hence fo many laws, ordinances,
ftatutes, See. for its regulation ; and hence particularly
that celebrated aft of navigation, which an eminent
foreign author calls the palladiutn or tutelar deity of the
commerce of England; which is the (landing rule, not
only of the Britil'h among themfelves, but alfo of other
nations with whom they traffic.
The art of navigation has been exceedingly im¬
proved in modern times, both with regard to the
form of the veffels themfelves, and with regard .to the
methods of working them. The ufe of rotvers is now
entirely fuperfeded by the improvements made in the
A T I O N.
formation of the fails, rigging, &c, by which means
(hips can not only fail much fafter than formerly,
but can tack in any direftion with the greateft facility.
It is alfo very probable that the ancients were neither
fo well (killed in finding the latitudes, not in (leering
their veffels in places of difficult navigation, as the
moderns. But the greateft advantage which the mo¬
derns have over the ancients is from the mariner’s
compafs, by which they7 are enabled to find their way
with as great facility in the midft of an immeafurable
ocean, as the ancients could have done by creeping
along the coaft, and never going out of fight of land.
Some people indeed contend, that this is no new in¬
vention, but that the ancients w-ere acquainted with it.
They fay, that it was impoflible for Solomon to have
fent (hips to Ophir, Tarlhifh, and Parvaim, which laft
they will have to be Peru, without this ufeful inftru-
ment. They infill, that it was impoffible for the an¬
cients to be acquainted with the attraftive virtue of the
magnet, and to be ignorant of its polarity. Nay, they,
affirm, that this property of the magnet is plainly men¬
tioned in the book of Job, where the loadftone is men¬
tioned by the name of topaz, or the fone that turns itfelf.
But it is certain, that the Romans, who conquered Ju¬
dea, were ignorant of this inftrument; and it is very
improbable, that fuch an ufeful invention, if once it
had been commonly knowm to any nation, would have
been forgot, or perfeftly concealed from fuch a prudent
people as the ' Romans, who were fo much interefted in
the difeovery of it.
Among thofe who admit that the mariner’s com¬
pafs is a modem invention, it has been much difput¬
ed who was the inventor. Some give the honour of
it to Flavio Gioia of Amalfi in Campania *, who lived * See itfo*
about the beginning of the 14th century ; while others
fay that it came from the eaft, and was earlier known
in Europe. But, at wffiatever time it was invented, it
is certain, that the mariner’s compafs was not com¬
monly ufed in navigation before the year 1420. In
that year the fcience u-as confiderably improved under
the aufpices of Henry duke of Vifco, brother to the
king of Portugal. In the year 1485, Roderick and
Jofeph, phyficians to John II. king of Portugal, toge¬
ther with one Martin de Bohemia, a Portuguefe, na¬
tive of the ifland of Fayal, and fcholar to Regiomon¬
tanus, calculated tables of the fun’s declination for the
ufe of failors, and recommended the aftrolabe for taking
obfervations at fea. Of the inftruftions of Martin, the
celebrated Chriilopher Columbus is faid to have availed
himfelf, and to have improved the Spaniards in the
knowledge of the art; for the farther progrefs of tvhich
a lefture was afterwards founded at Seville by the em¬
peror Charles V.
The difeovery of the variation is claimed by Colum-.
bus, and by Sebartian Cabot. The former certainly
did obferve this variation without having heard of it
from any other perfon, on the 14th of September
1492, and it is very probable that Cabot might do
the fame. At that time it was found that there was
no variation at the Azores, where fome geographers
have thought proper to place the firft meridian j
though it hath fince been obferved that the variation
alters in time.—The ufe of the crofs ftaff now began
to be introduced among failors. This ancient inftru¬
ment is deferibed by John Werner of Nuremberg, in*
his. s
646
NAVIGATION.
Ins annotations on the firft book of Ptolemy’s Geogra¬
phy, printed in 1514. He recommends it for obferving
the didance between the moon and fome ftar, in order
thence to determine the longitude.
At this time the art of navigation was very imper-
feft, on account of the inaccuracies of the plane chart,
which was the only one then known, and which, by
its grofs errors, mult have greatly filled the mariner,
efpecially in voyages far diflan,t from the equator.
Its precepts were probably at firfl: only fet down on
the fea charts, as is the cuftom at this day: but at
length there were two Spanilh treatifes publilhed. in
1545 5 one by Pedro de Medina; the other by Martin
Cortes, which contained a complete fyftem of the art,
as far as it was then known. Thefe feem to have
been the oldeft writers who fully handled the art 5
for Medina, in his dedication to Philip prince of
Spain, laments that multitudes of (hips daily perilhed
at fea, becaufe there were neither teachers of the art,
nor books by which it might be learned ; and Cortes,
in his dedication, boafts to the emperor, that he was
the firft. who had reduced navigation into a com¬
pendium, valuing himfelf much on what he had per¬
formed. Medina defended the plane chart; but he
was oppofed by Cortes, who Ihowed its errors, and
endeavoured to account for the variation of the com-
pafs, by fuppofing the needle to be influenced by a
magnetic pole (which he called the point attraftive),
different from that of the world; which notion hath
been farther profecuted by others. Medina’s book
was foon tranflated into Italian, French, and Flemifh,
and ferved for a long time as a guide to foreign na¬
vigators. However, Cortes was the favourite author
of the Englifh nation, and was tranflated in 1561 ;
while Medina’s work was entirely neglefled, though
tranflated alfo within a fliort time of the other. At
that time the fyftem of navigation confided of the
following particulars, and others fimilar : An account
of the Ptolemaic hypothefis, and the circles of the
fphere ; of the roundnefs of the earth, the longitudes,
latitudes, climates, &c. and echpfes of the luminaries;
a kalendar; the method of finding the prime, epadi,
moon’s age, and tides ; a defcription of the compafs,
an account of its variation, for the difcovering of
which Cortes faid an inftrument might eafily be con¬
trived ; tables of the fun’s declination for four years,
in order to find the latitude from his meridian altitude ;
directions to find the fame by certain flats ; of the
courfe of the fun and moon ; the length of the days ;
of time and its divifions; the method of finding the
hour of the day and night ; and laftly, a defcription of
the fea chart, on which to difcover where the fhip is,
they made ufe of a fmall table, that fhowed, upon an al¬
teration of one degree of the latitude, how many leagues
were run in each rhumb, together with the departure
irom the meridian. Befides, fome inftruments were
defcribed, efpecially by Cortes; fuch as one to find
the place and declination of the fun, with the days,
and place of the moon ; certain dials, the aftrolabe, and
crofs ftaft; with a complex machine to difcover the
hour and latitude at once.
About the fame time were made propofals for
finding the longitude by obfervations of the moon.—
in 1530, Gemma Frifius advifed the keeping of the
time by means of fmali clocks or watches, then, as he
2
Hiftory
fays, newly invented. He alfo contrived a new fort
of crofs ftaff, and an inflrument called the nautical
quadrant; which laft was much praifed by William
Cunningham, in his jdjlronoinical Glafs, printed in the
year 1559.
I537 Pedro Nunez, or Nonius, publifhed a book t
in the Portuguefe language, to explain a difficulty in
navigation propofed to him by the commander Don
Martin Alphonfo de Sufa. In this he expofes the er¬
rors of the plane chart, and likewnfe gives the folution
of feveral curious aflronomical problems ; among it
which is that of determining the latitude from two
obfervations of the fun’s altitude and intermediate
azimuth being given. He obferved, that though the
rhumbs are fpiral lines, yet the dirett courfe of a (Lip
will always be in the arch of a great circle, whereby
the angle with the meridians will continually change :
all that the fleerfman can here do for the preferving
of the original rhumb, is to correft thefe deviations as
foon as they appear fenfible. But thus the fhip will
in reality defcribe a courfe without the rhumb line in¬
tended ; and therefore his calculations for affigning the
latitude, where any rhumb line crolles the feveral me¬
ridians, will be in fome meafure erroneous. Fie in¬
vented a method of dividing a quadrant by means of
concentric circles, which, after being much improved
by Dr Halley, is ufed at prefent, and is called a no¬
nius. , .
In 1577, Mr William Bourne publiffied a treatife,
in which, by confidering the irregularities in the moon’s
motion, he (hows the errors of the failors in finding
her age by the epadt, and alfo in determining the hour
from obferving on what point of the compafs the fun
and moon appeared. He advifes, in failing towards
the high latitudes, to keep the reckoning by the globe,
as there the plane chart is moft erroneous. He defpairs
of our ever being able to find the longitude, unlefs the
variation of the compafs ffiould be occafioned by fome
fuch attractive point as Cortes had imagined; of
which, however, he doubts: but as he had ffiown how
to find the variation at all times, he advifes to keep
an account of the obfervations, as ufeful for finding
the place of the (hip ; which advice was profecuted at
large by Simon Stevin, in a treatife publilhed at Ley¬
den in 1599 ; the fubftance of which was the fame
year printed at London in Engliffi by Mr Edward
Wright, entitled the Haven-finding Art. In this an¬
cient trad alfo is defcribed the way by which our fail¬
ors eftimate the rate of a (hip in her courfe, by an in¬
flrument called the log. This w as fo named from the
piece of wood or log that floats in the water while the
time is reckoned during which the line that is faftened
to it is veering out. The author of this contrivance
is not known ; neither wras it taken notice of till 1607,
in an Eaft India voyage publiffied by Purchas : but
from this time it became famous, and was much taken
notice of by almoft all writers on navigation in every
country ; and it ftill continues to be ufed as at firfl,
though many attempts have been made to improve it,
and contrivances propofed to fupply its place; many
of which have fucceeded in quiet water, but proved
ufelefs in a ftormy fea.
In 1581 Michael Coignet, a native of Antwerp,
publiflied a treatife, in which he animadverted on Me¬
dina. In this he (bowed, that as the rhumbs are fpi-
rals,
647
Hiflory.
N A V I G
^ See
Dipping
Needle.
rals, making endlefs revolv'ions about the poles, nu¬
merous errors muft arife from their being reprefented
by iiraight lines on the fea charts'j but though he
hoped to find a remedy for thefe errors, he was of opi¬
nion that the propofals of Nonius were fcarcely prac¬
ticable, and therefore in a great meafure ufelefs. In
treating of the fun's declination, he took notice of the
gradual decreafe in the obliquity of the ecliptic ; he
alfo defcribed the crofs ftaff with three tranfverfe pieces,
as it is at prefent made, and which he owmed to have
been then in common ufe among the failors. He like-
wife gave fome inflruments of his own invention ; but
ail of them are now laid afide, excepting perhaps his
nocturnal. He conftrufted a fea table to be ufed by
fuch as failed beyond the both degree of latitude ; and
at the end of the book is delivered a method of failing
on a parallel of latitude by means of a ring dial and
a 24 hour glafs. The fame year the difcovery of the
dipping needle was made by Mr Robert Norman *. In
his publication on that art, he maintains, in oppofition
to Cortes, that the variation of the compafs was caufed
by fome point on the furface of the earth, and not in
the heavens : he alfo made confderable improvements
in the conftruftion of compaiTes themfelves j (bowing
efpecially the danger of not fixing, on account of the
variation, the wire direftly under the feurde luce; as
compaffes made in different countries have it placed
differently. To this performance of Norman’s is al¬
ways prefixed a difcourfe on the variation of the mag-
netical needle, by Mr William Burrough, in which he
(hows howr to determine the variation in many different
ways. He alfo points out many etrors in the praftice
of navigation at that time, and fpeaks in very fevere
terms concerning thofe who had publifhed upon it.
All this time the Spaniards continued to publifh trea-
tifes on the art. In 1585 an excellent compendium
w'as publifhed by Roderico Zamorano \ which contri¬
buted greatly towards the improvement of the art, par¬
ticularly in the fea charts. Globes of an improved kind,
and of a much larger fize than thofe formerly ufed,
■were now conffruded, and many improvements were
made in other inftruments ; however, the plane chart
continued (fill to be followed, though its errors were
frequently complained of. Methods of removing thefe
errors had indeed been fought after; and Gerard Mer¬
cator feems to have been the firft who found the true
method of doing this, fo as to anfwer the purples of
feamen. His method was to reprefent the parallels both
of latitude and longitude by parallel ftraight lines, but
gradually to augment the former as they approached
the pole. Thus the rhumbs, which otherw’ife ought
to have been curves, were now alfo extended into
ffraight lines; and thus a ftraight line drawn between
any two places marked upon the chart would’ make
an angle with the meridians, exprefling the rhumb
leading from the one to the other. But though, in
1569, Mercator publifhed an univerfal map conftra&ed
in this manner, it doth not appear that he was acquaint¬
ed with the principles on which this proceeded ; and
it is now generally believed, that the true principles
on which the conftruflion of what is called Mercator',s
chart depends, were firft difeovered by an Englifhman,
Mr Edward Wright.
Mr Wright fuppofes, but, according to the general
opinion,. without fufficient grounds, that this enlarge-
A T I O N.
ment of the degrees of latitude was known and men¬
tioned by Ptolemy, and that the fame thing had alfo
been fpoken of by Cortes. The exprefllons of Pto¬
lemy alluded to, relate indeed to the proportion be¬
tween the diftances of the parallels and meridians; but
inftead of propofing any gradual enlargement of the
parallels of latitude in a general chart, he fpeaks only
of particular maps and advifes not to confine a fyftem
of fuch maps to one and the fame fcale, but to plan
them out by a different meafure, as occafion might re¬
quire : only with this precaution, that the degrees of
longitude in each fhould bear fome proportion to thofe
of latitude ; and this proportion is to be deduced from
that which the magnitude of the refpeftive parallels
bears to a great circle of the fphere. He adds, that
in particular maps, if this proportion be obferved with
regard to the middle parallel, the inconvenience will
not be great though the meridians fhould be ftraight
lines parallel to each other. Here he is faid only to
mean, that the maps ihould in fome meafure reprefent
the figures of the countries for which they are drawn.
In this fenfe Mercator, who drew maps for Ptolemy’s
tables, underftood him ; thinking it, however, an im¬
provement not to regulate the meridians by one paral¬
lel, but by two ; one diftant from the northern, the
other from the fouthern extremity of the map by a
fourth part of the whole depth ; by which means, in
his maps, though the meridians are ftraight lines, yet
they are generally drawn inclining to each other to¬
wards the poles. With regard to Cortes, he fpeaks
only of the number of degrees of latitude, and not of
the extent of them ; nay, he gives exprefs directions
that they ihould all be laid down by equal meafurement
on a fcale of leagues adapted to the map.
For fome time after the appearance of Mercator’s
map, it was not rightly underftood, and it was even
thought to be entirely ufelefs, if not detrimental.—■
However, about the year 1592, its utility began to
be perceived ; and feven years after, Mr Wright print¬
ed his famous treatife entitled, The ConeCHon of cer¬
tain Errors in Navigation, where he fully explained the
reafon of extending the length of the parallels of lati¬
tude, and the ufes of it to navigators. In 1610, a fe-
cond edition of Mr Wright’s book was publifhed with
improvements. An excellent method was propofed of
determining the magnitude of the earth ; at the fame
time it was judicioufly propofed to make our comnkm
meafures in fome proportion to a degree on its furface,,
that they might not depend on the uncertain length of
a barley corn. Some of his other improvements were,
“ The table of latitudes for dividing the meridian com¬
puted to minutes whereas it had been only divided
to every tenth minute. He alfo publifhed a deferip-
tion of an inftrument which he calls the fea rings ; and
by which the variation of the compafs, altitude of the
fun, and time of the day, may be determined readily
at once in any place, provided the latitude is known..
He (bowed alfo how to correft the errors arifing from
the eccentricity of the eye in obferving by the crofs-
ftaff. He made a total amendment in the tables of the
declinations and places of the fun and ftars from his
own obfervations made with a fix foot quadrant in the
years 1594, 95, 96, and 97. A fea quadrant to take
altitudes by a forward or backward obfervation ; and
likewife with a. contrivance for the ready finding the
latitude.
648 NAVI G
latitude by tbe height of the pole ftar, when not up¬
on the meridian. To this edition rvas fubjoined a tranf-
lation of Zamorano’s Compendium above mentioned,
in which he corredted fome mi Hakes in the original j
adding a large table of the variation of the compafs ob-
ferved in very different parts of the world, to flioiv that
it was not occafioned by any magnetical pole.
Thefe improvements foon became known abroad.—
.In 1608, a treatife entitled, Hypomnemata Mathe?jia-
tica, was publilhed by Simon Stevin, for the ufe of
Prince Maurice. In that part relating to navigation,
the author having treated of failing on a great circle,
and fhown how to draw the rhumbs on a globe mecha¬
nically, fets down Wright’s two tables of latitudes and
of rhumbs, in order to deferibe thefe lines more accu¬
rately, pretending even to have difeovered an error in
Wright’s table. But all Stevin’s obje£lions wrere fully
anfwerecl by the author himfelf, who fliowed that they
arofe from the grofs way of calculating made ufe of by
the former.
In 1624, t^ie learned Wellebrordus Snellius, pro-
feffor of mathematics at Leyden, publifhed a treatife
of navigation on Wright’s plan, but fome what obicure-
ly : and as he did not particularly mention all the dif-
coveries of Wright, the latter was thought by fome to
have taken the hint of all his difeoveries from Snellius.
But this fuppolition is long ago refuted : and Wright
enjoys the honour of thofe difeoveries which is juflly his
due.
Mr Wright having fliown how to find the place of
the fhip on his chart, obferved that the fame might be
performed more accurately by calculation : but con-
fidering, as he fays, that the latitudes, and efpecially
the courfes at fea, could not be determined fo precife-
ly, he forbore fetting down particular examples ; as
the mariner may be allowed to fave himfelf this trou¬
ble, and only mark out upon his chart the (hip’s way,
after tbe manner then ufually praftifed. However, in
3614, Mr Raphe Handfon, among his nautical que-
ftions fubjoined to a tranflation of Pitifcus’s trigono¬
metry, folved very diftimfily every cafe of navigation,
by applying arithmetical calculations to Wright’s table
of latitudes, or of meridional parts, as it hath flnce
been called. Though the method difeovered by
Wright for finding the change of longitude by a fhip
failing on a rhumb is the proper way of performing it.
Handfon alfo propofes two ways of approximation to
it without the affiflance of Wright’s divifion of the
meridian line. The frit was computed by the arith¬
metical mean between the cofines of both latitudes 5
the other by the fame mean between the fecants as an
alternative, when Wright’s book was not at hand ;
though this latter is wider from the truth than the firfl.
By the fame calculations alfo he fhowed how much
each of thefe compendiums deviates from the truth, and
alfo how widely the computations on the erroneous
principles of the plane chart differ from them all. The
method, however, commonly ufed by our failors is com¬
monly called the middle latitude; which, though it
errs more than that by the arithmetical mean between
the two cofines, is preferred on account of its being
lefs operofe : yet in high latitudes it is more eligible
to ufe that of the arithmetical mean between the lo¬
garithmic cofines, equivalent to the geometrical mean
between the cofines themfelves 3 a method fince pro-
A T I O N. Hiftmy.
pofed by Mr John Baffat. The computation by the
middle latitude will always fall (hort of the true change
of longitude ; that by the geometrical mean will al¬
ways exceed ; but that by the arithmetical mean falls
fhort in latitudes above 45 degrees, and exceeds in leffer
latitudes. However, none of thefe methods will differ
much from the truth when the change of latitude is
fufficiently finall.
About this time logarithms were invented by John
Napier, baron of Merchifton, in Scotland, and proved
of the utmoft fervice to the art of navigation. From
which Mr Edmund Gunter conftrufted a table of lo¬
garithmic fines and tangents to every minute of rhe
quadrant, which he publiflied in 1620. In this work
he applied to navigation, and other branches of ma¬
thematics, his admirable ruler known by the name of
Gunter’s fcale f ; on which are deferibed lines of loga- j.gee
rithms, of logarithmic fines and tangents, of meridio-^rV Scale.
nal parts, &c. He greatly improved the feftor for the
fame purpofes. He ftiow'ed alfo howT to take a back
obfervation by the crofs llaff, whereby the error arifing
from the eccentricity of the eye is avoided. He de¬
feribed likewlfe another inftrument, of his own inven¬
tion, called the crofs bow, for taking altitudes of the
fun or liars, with fome contrivances for the more ready
colledling the latitude from the obfervation. The dif-
coveries concerning logarithms were carried to France
in 1624 by Mr Edmund Wingate, who publilhed two
fmall trails in that year at Paris. In one of thefe he
taught the ufe of Gunter’s fcale 5 and in the other, of
the tables of artificial fines and tangents, as modelled
according to Napier’s lafl form, erroneoully attributed
by Wingate to Briggs.
Gunter’s rule was projedled into a circular arch by
the Reverend Mr William Oughtred in 1633, and its
ufes fully Ihown in a pamphlet entitled, The Circles of
Proportion, where, in an appendix, are well treated fe-
veral important points in navigation. It has alfo been
made in the form of a Hiding ruler.
The logarithmic tables were firft applied to the
different cafes of failing by Mr Thomas Addifon, in
his treatife entitled, Arithmetical Navigation, printed in
1625. He alfo gives two traverfe tables, with their
ufes; the one to quarter points of the compafs, the
other to degrees. Mr Henry Gellibrand publilhed his
difeovery of the changes of the variation of the com¬
pafs, in a finall quarto pamphlet, entitled, A difeourfe
mathematical on the variation of the magnetical needle,
printed in 1635. This extraordinary phenomenon he
found out by comparing the obfervations made at dif¬
ferent times near the fame place by Mr Burrough, Mr
Gunter, and himfelf, all perfons of great Ikill and ex¬
perience in thefe matters. This difeovery was likewife
foon known abroad j for Father Athanafius Kircher,
in his treatife entitled, Magnes, firft printed at Rome
in 1641, informs us, that he had been told it by Mr
John Greaves j and then gives a letter of the famous
Marinus Merfennus, containing a very diftinft account
of the fame.
As altitudes of the fun are taken on Ihipboard by
obferving his elevation above the vifible horizon ; to
obtain from thence the fun’s true altitude with corre<3>
nefs, Wright obferves it to be neceffary that the dip of
the vifible horizon below the horizontal plane palling
through the obferver’s eye Ihould be brought into the
account,
649
NAVIGATION.
Iliftory,
account, which cannot be calculated without knowing
the magnitude of the earth. Hence he was induced to
propofe different methods for finding this; but com¬
plains that the moft effectual was out of his power to
execute j and therefore contentgd himfelf with a rude
attempt, in fome meafure fufficient for his purpofe : and
the dimenfions of the earth deduced by him correfpond-
ed very' well with the ufual divilions of the log line j
however, as he wrote not an exprefs treatife on naviga¬
tion, but only for the correcting fuch errors as prevailed
in general practice, the log line did not fall under his
notice. IVlr Richard Norwood, however, put in exe¬
cution the method recommended by.Mr Wright as the
moft perfect for meafuring the dimenfions of the earth,
with the true length of the degrees of a great circle
upon it; and, in 1635, he actually meafured the di-
ftance between London and York ; from whence, and
the fummer folftitial altitudes of the fun obferved on the
meridian at both places, he found a degree on a great
circle of the'earth to contain 367,196 Englifh feet,
equal to 57,300 French fathoms or toifes : which is
very exact, as appears from many meafures that have
been made fince that time. Of all this Mr Norwood
gave a full account in this treatife called The Seaman's
Prafiice, publifhed in 1637. He there (hows the rea-
fon why Snellius had failed in his attempt: he points
out alio various ufes of his difcovery, particularly for
correting the grofs errors hitherto committn in the
divifions of the log line. But neceffary amendments
have been little attended to by Tailors, whofe obftinacy
in adhering to eftablifhed errors has been complained of
by the beft writers on navigation. This improvement
has at length, however, made its way into practice, and
few navigators of reputation now make ufe of the old
meafure of 42 feet to a knot. In that treatife alfo Mr
Norwood defcribes his own excellent method of fetting
down and perfecting a fea reckoning, by ufing a traverfe
table ; which method he had followed and taught for
many years. He fhows alfo how to retify the courfe
by the variation of the compafs being confidered ; as
alfo how to difcover currents, and to make proper al¬
lowance on their account. This treatife, and another
on trigonometry, were continually reprinted, as the
principal books for learning fcientifically the art of
navigation. What he had delivered, efpecially in the
latter of them, concerning this fubjecft, was contracted
as a manuel for Tailors, in a very fmall piece called his
t.pitome; which ufeful performance has gone through
a great number of editions. No alterations w^ere ever
made in the Seaman’s Practice till the I2th edition in
1676, when the following paragraph was inferted in a
fmaller character : “ About the year 1672, Monfieur
Picart has publifhed an account in French, concerning
the meafure of the earth, a breviate wdrereof may be
feen in the Philofophical Tranfations, N° 11 2, where¬
in he concludes one degree to contain 365,184 Englifh
feet, nearly agreeing with Mr Norwood’s experiment
and this advertifement is continued through the fubfe-
quent editions as late as the year 1732.
About the year 1645, Mr Bond publiftied in Norwood’s
Epitome a very great improvement in Wright’s method,
by a property in his meridian line, whereby its divifions
are jnore fcientifically afligned than the author himfelf
was able to effecft ; which was from this theorem, that
thefe divifions are analogous to the exceffes of the Iq-
Vol. XIV. Part II.
garithmic tangents of half the refpective latitudes aug¬
mented by 45 degrees above the logarithm of the ra¬
dius. This he afterwards explained more fully in the
third edition of Gunter’s w'orks, printed in 1653 ;
where, after obferving that the logarithmic tangents
from 450 upwards increafe in the fame manner that
the fecants added together do, if every half degree
be accounted as a whole degree of Mercator’s meri¬
dional line. His rule for computing the meridional
parts belonging to any two latitudes, fuppofed on the
fame fide of the equator, is to the following effecft :
“ Take the logarithmic tangent, reje&ing the radius,
of half each latitude, augmented by 45 degrees; di¬
vide the difference of thofe numbers by the logarith¬
mic tangent of 450 go', the radius being likewife re¬
jected ; and the quotient will be the meridional parts
required, expreffed in degrees.” This rule is the imme¬
diate confequence from the general theorem, That the
degrees of latitude bear to one degree (or 60 minutes,
which in Wright’s table ftands for the meridional parts
of one degree), the fame proportion as the logarithmic
tangent of half any latitude augmented by 45 degrees,
and the radius neglecfted, to the like tangent of half a
degree augmented by 45 degrees, with the radius like¬
wife rejected. But here was farther wanting the de-
monftration of this general theorem, which was at
length fupplied by Mr James Gregory of Aberdeen in
his Exercitationes Geometric#) printed at London in
r 668 ; and afterwards more concifely demonftrated,
together with a fcientific determination of the divifor,
by Dr Halley in the Philofophical Tranfacftions for
1695, N° 219. from the confideration of the fpirals into
which the rhumbs are transformed in the ftereographic
projection of the fphere upon the plane of the equi-
nodtial; and which is rendered ftill more Ample by
Mr Roger Cotes, in his Logometria, firft publifhed in
the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 17x4, N® 388. It
is moreover added in Gunter’s book, that if Trsth of
this divifion, which does not fenfibly differ from the
logarithmic tangent of 45° i' 30" (with the radius fub-
trafted from it), be ufed, the quotient will exhibit the
meridional parts expreffed in leagues, and this is the
divifor fet down in Norwood’s Epitome. After the
fame manner the meridional parts will be found in mi¬
nutes, if the like logarithmic tangent of 450 1' 30",
diminifhed by the radius, be taken ; that is, the num¬
ber ufed by others being 12633, w^en the logarithmic
tables confift of eight places of figures befides the in¬
dex.
In an edition of the Seaman’s Kalender, Mr Bond
declared, that he had difcovered the longitude by hav¬
ing found out the true theory of the magnetic varia¬
tion ; and to gain credit to his affertion, he foretold,
that at London in 1657 there wrould be no variation
of the compafs, and from that time it would gradually
increafe the other way ; which happened accordingly.
Again, In the Philofophical Tranfacftions for 1668,
N° 40. he publifhed a table of the variation for 49
years to come. Thus he acquired fuch reputation, that
his treatife, entitled, The Longitude Found, was in 1676
publifhed by the fpecial command of Charles II. and
approved by many celebrated mathematicians. It was
not long, however, before it met with oppofition ; and
in 1678 another treatife, entitled, The Longitude not
Found, made its appearance ; and as Mr Bond’s hy-
4 N pothefis
650
N A V I G
potheiis did not in any manner anfwer its author’s (an¬
guine expectations, the affair was undertaken by Dr
Halley. The refult of his fpeculation was, that the
magnetic needle is influenced by four poles; but this
wonderful phenomenon feems hitherto to ,have eluded
all our refearches. In 1700, however, Dr Halley pub-
lithed a general map, with curve lines exprefling the
paths where the magnetic needle had the fame varia¬
tion ; which was received with univerlal applaufe. But
as the politions of thefe curves vary from time to time,
they fliould frequently be correfted by fkilful perfons •,
as was done in 1644 and 1756, by Mr William Moun-
taine, and Mr James Dodlon, F. R. S. In the Phi-
lofophical TranfaClions for 1690, Dr Halley alfo gave
a diflertation on the monfoons $ containing many very
ufeful obfervations for fuch as fail to places iubjeef to
thefe w’inds.
After the true principles of the art were fettled by
Wright, Bond, and Norwood, the authors on naviga¬
tion became fo numerous, that it would be impoflible
to enumerate them. New improvements were daily
made, and every thing relative to it was fettled with
an accuracy nor only unknown to former ages, but
which would have been reckoned utterly impoflible.
The earth being found to be a fpheroid, and not a per¬
fect fphere, with the thorteft diameter pafling through
the poles, a trad was publifhed in 1741 by the Rev.
Doctor Patrick Murdoch, wherein he accommodated
THEORY OF
THE motion of a (hip in the water is well known to
depend on the aclion of the wind upon its fails, regula¬
ted by the direClion of the helm. As the water is a
reiiiting medium, and the bulk of the ftnp very con-
fiderable, it thence follows that there is always a great
reiiflance on her fore-part •, and when this refiftance
becomes fufneient to balance the moving force of the
wind upon the fails, the (hip attains her utmoft degree
of velocity, and her motion is no longer accelerated.
This velocity is different according to the different
ftrength of the wind •, but the ftronger the wind, the
greater refiflance is made to the (hip’s paffage through
the water : and hence, though the wind ftiould blow
ever fo ftrong, there is alfo a limit to the velocity of the
fhip : for the fails and ropes can bear but a certain force
of air ; and when the refiftance on the fore part becomes
more than equivalent to their ftrength, the velocity can
be no longer increafed, and the nigging gives way.
The dire&ion of a (hip’s motion depends on the po-
fition of her fails with regard to the wind, combined
with the aftion of the rudder. The moft natural di-
re£lion of the fhip is, when (he runs diredfly before the
wind, the fails are then difpofed, fo as to be at right
angles thereto. But this is not always the cafe, both
on account of the variable nature of the winds, and the
fttuation of the intended port, or of intermediate head¬
lands or iflands. When the wind therefore happens
not to be favourable, the fails are placed fo as to make
an oblique angle both with the direflion of the (hip and
with the wind j and the fails, together with the rudder,
jnuft be managed in fuch a manner, that the diredlion
©f the (hip may make an acute angle with that of the
A T I O N. Hiftory.
Wright’s failing to fuch a figure j and Mr Colin Mac*
laurin, the fame year, in ihe Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, N° 461. gave a rule for determining the meri¬
dional parts of a fpheroid ; which fpeculation is farther
treated of in his book of Fluxions, printed at Edin¬
burgh in 1742. #
Among the latter difeoveries in navigation, that of
finding the longitude both by lunar obfervations and
by time-keepers is the principal. It is owing chiefly
to the rewards offered by the Britilh parliament that this
has attained the prefent degree of perfedlion. We are
indebted to Dr Mafkelyne for putting the firft of thefe
methods in praftice, and for other important improve¬
ments in navigation. The time-keepers, conflrudled
by Harrifon for this exprefs purpofe, were found to
anfwer (b well, that he obtained the parliamentary re¬
ward.
The only works that have appeared of late on navi¬
gation are thofe on the longitude and navigation by Dr
Mackay, of which the following account is tranferibed
from the Anti-Jacobin Revie w for September 1804.
“ This publication, (Dr Mackay’s Treatife on Na¬
vigation) and that on the longitude by the fame author,
form the mod correft and praftical fyftem of navigation
and nautical fcience hitherto publilhed in this country ;
they may be confidered not only ot individual utility,
but of national importance.”
NAVIGATION.
\
wind j and the (hip making boards on different tacks,
will by this means arrive at the intended port.
The reafon of the (hip’s motion in this cafe is, that
the w’ater refifls the fide more than the fore-part, and
that in the fame proportion as her length exceeds
her breadth. This proportion is fo confiderable, that
the fhip continually flies off where the refiftance is lead,
and that fometimes with great fwiftnefs. In this way
of failing, however, there is a great limitation : for if
the angle made by the keel with the direftion of the
wind be too acute, the (hip cannot be kept in that
pofition j neither is it poflible for a large fhip to make
a more acute angle with the wind than about 6
points; though fmall (loops, it is faid, may make an
angle of about 5 points with it. In all thefe cafes,
however, the velocity of the (hip is greatly retarded ;
and that not only on account of the obliquity of her mo¬
tion, but by reafon of what is called her lee-way. This
is occafioned by the yielding of the water on the lee-
fide of the (hip, by which means the veffel acquires a
compound motion, partly in the diredlion of the wind,
and partly in that which is neceffary for attaining the
defired port.
It is perhaps impoflible to lay down any mathema¬
tical principles on which the lee-way of a (hip could
be properly calculated *, only we may fee in general
that it depends on the ftrength of the wind, the
roughnefs of the fea, and the velocity of the (hip..
When the wrind is not very ftrong, the refiftance of
the water on the lee-fide bears a very great proportion
to that of the current of air; and therefore it will
yield but very little ; however, fuppofing the (hip to
remain
\
Theory. N A V I G
remain in the fame place, it is evident, that the water
having once begun to yield, will continue to do fo for
fome time, even though no additional force was ap¬
plied to it; but as the wind continually applies the
fame force as at firft, the lee-way of the {hip muft go
on conftantly increafing till the refiftance of the water
on the lee-fide balances the force applied on the other,
when it will become uniform, as doth the motion of a
fhip failing before the wind. If the (hip changes her
place with any degree of velocity, then every time (he
moves her own lenglji, a new quantity of water is to
be put in motion, which hath not yet received any
momentum, and which of confequence will make a
greater refiftance than it can do when the ftiip remains
in the fame place. In proportion to the fwiftnefs of
the Ihip, then, the lee-way will be the lefs: but if the
wind is very ftrong, the velocity of the Ihip bears but
a fmall proportion to that of the current of air $ and
the fame effedls muft follow as though the ftiip moved
flowly, and the wind was gentle; that is, the ftiip
muft make a great deal of lee-way.—The fame thing
happens when the fea rifes high, whether the wind is
ftrong or not; for then the whole w'ater of the ocean,
as far as the fwell reaches, has acquired a motion in
a certain dire6tion, and that to a very confiderable
depth. The mountainous waves wull not fail to carry
the ftiip very much out of her courfe ) and this devia¬
tion w7ill certainly be according to their velocity and
magnitude. In all cafes of a rough fea, therefore, a
great deal of lee way is made.—Another circumftance
alfo makes a variation in the quantity of the lee-way j
namely, the lightnefs or heavinefs of the ftiip; it being
evident, that when the (hip finks deep in the water, a
much greater quantity of that element is to be put in
motion before (he can make any lee-way, than when
fhe fwims on the furface. As therefore it is impoflible
to calculate all thefe things with mathematical exa£i>
nefs, it is plain that the real courfe of a ftiip is exceed¬
ingly difficult to be found, and frequent errors muft
be made, which can only be corre&ed by celeftial ob-
lervations.
In many places of the ocean there are currents, or
places where the w7ater, inftead of remaiqing at reft,
runs with a very confiderable velocity for a great w7ay
in fome particular diredlion, and which will certainly
carry the ftiip greatly out of her courfe. This occa-
fions an error of the fame nature with the lee-way ;
and therefore, whenever a current is perceived, its
dire6tion and velocity ought to be determined, and the
proper allowances made.
Another fource of error in reckoning the courfe of
a ftiip proceeds from the variation of the compafs.
There are few parts of the world where the needle
points exaftly north j and in thofe where the variation
is knowm, it is fubjefl to very confiderable alterations.
By thefe means the courfe of the fliip is miftaken ; for
as the failors have no other ftandard to diredl them
than the compafs, if the needle, inftead of pointing
due north, ftiould point north-eaft, a prodigious error
would be occafioned during the courfe of the voyage,
and the ftiip would not come near the port to which
flie was bound. To avoid errors of this kind, the only
method is, to obferve the fun’s amplitude and azimuth
as frequently as poflible, by wftiich the variation of the
compafs will be perceived, and the proper allowances
A T I O N. 651
can then be made for errors in the coutfe which this
may have occafioned.
Errors will arife in the reckoning of a ftiip, efpe-
cially when ftie fails in high latitudes, from the fphe-
roidal figure of the earth $ for as the polar diameter
of our globe is found to be confiderably Ihorter than
the equatorial one, it thence follows, that the farther
we remove from the equator, the longer are the degrees
of latitude. Of confequence, if a navigator afligns
any certain number of miles for the length ol a degree
of latitude near the equator, he muft vary that mea-
fure as he approaches towards the poles, other wife
he will imagine that he hath not failed fo far as he
actually hath done. It would therefore be neceifary
to have a table containing the length of a degree of
latitude in every different parallel from the equator to
either pole j as without this a troublefome calcula¬
tion muft be made at every time the navigator makes
a reckoning of his courfe. Such a table, however,
hath not yet appeared ; neither indeed does it feem to
be an eafy matter to make it, on account of the diffi¬
culty of meafuring the length even of one or two de¬
grees of latitude in different parts of the world. Sir
Ilaac Newton firft difeovered this fpheroidal figure of
the earth 1 and fhowed, from experiments on pendulums,
that the polar diameter was to the equatorial one as 229
to 230. This proportion, however, hath not been
admitted by fucceeding calculators. 'The French ma¬
thematicians, w7ho meafured a degree on the meridian
in Lapland, made the proportion between the equa¬
torial and polar diameters to be as 1 to 0.9891. Thofe
who meafured a degree at Quito in Peru, made the
proportion 1 to 0.99624, or 266 to 265. M. Bouguer
makes the proportion to be as 179 to 178 j and M.
Buffon, in one part of his theory of the earth, makes
the equatorial diameter exceed the polar one by of
the whole. According to M. du Sejour, this propor¬
tion is as 321 to 320 } and M. de la Place, in his Me¬
moir upon the Figure of Spheroids, has deduced the
fame proportion. From thefe variations it appears that
the point is not exadlly determined, and confequently
that any corrections which can be made with regard to
the fpheroidal figure of the earth muff be very uncertain.
It is of confequence to navigators in a long voyage
to take the neareft way to their port ; but this is fcarce-
ly poffible to be done. The fhorteft diffance between
any two points on the furface of a fphere is meafured
by an arch of a great circle intercepted between them ;
and therefore it is advifeable to direft the fhip along a
great circle of the earth’s furface. But this is a matter
of confiderable difficulty, becaufe there are no fixed
marks by which it can be readily known whether the
ftiip fails in the direction of a great circle or not. For
this reafon the failors commonly choofe to direct their
courfe by the rhumbs, or the bearing of the^ place by
the compafs. Thefe bearings do not poinF out the
fhorteft diftance between places 5 becaufe, on a globe,
the rhumbs are fpirals, and not arches of great circles.
However, when the places lie directly under the equa¬
tor, or exaCtly under the fame meridian, the rhumb then
coincides w7ith the arch of a great circle, and of confe¬
quence fhows the neareft way. The failing on the arch
of a great circle is called great circle failing ; and the
cafes of it depend all on the folution of problems in
fpherical trigonometry.
4 N 2
PRACTICE
652
NAVIGATION.
Pra6Uce.
PRACTICE of NAVIGATION.
BOOK I.
Containing the various Methods of Sailing.
INTRODUCTION.
The art of navigation depends upon aftronomical
and mathematical principles. The places of the fun
and fixed liars are deduced from obfervation and cal¬
culation, and arranged in tables, the ufe of which is
abfolutely neceffary in reducing obfervations taken at
fea, for the purpofe of afcertaining the latitude and
longitude of the (hip, and the variation of the com-
pafs. The problems in the various failings are refolved
either by trigonometrical calculation, or by tables or
rules formed by the affiflance of trigonometry. By
mathematics, the necelfary tables are conftrudted, and
rules inveftigated for performing the more difficult
parts of navigation. For thefe feveral branches of
fcience, and for logarithmic tables, the reader is re¬
ferred to the refpedfive articles in this work. A few
tables are given at the end of this article *, but as the
other tables neceflary for the pradlice of navigation
are to be found in almoft every treatife on that fub-
je£l, it therefore feems unneceffary to infert them in
this place.
Chap. I. Preliminary Principles.
Sect. I. Of the Latitude and Longitude of a Place.
The fituation of a place on the furface of the earth
is eftimated by its distance from two imaginary lines
interfering each other at right angles : The one of
thefe is called the equator, and the other the frf me¬
ridian. The fituation of the equator is fixed, but that
of the firfl: meridian is arbitrary, and therefore diffe¬
rent nations affume different firft meridians. In Bri¬
tain, we efteem that to be the firft meridian which paf-
fes through the royal obfervatory at Greenwich.
The equator divides the earth into two equal parts,
called the northern and fouthern hemifpheres; and the
latitude of a place is its diftance from the equator, rec¬
koned on a meridian in degrees and parts of a degree j
and is either north or foutb, according as it is in the
northern or fouthern hemifphere.
The firft meridian being continued round the globe,
divides it into two equal parts, called the eafern and
’weflcrn hemifpheres; and the longitude of a place is
that portion of the equator contained between the firft
meridian and the meridian of the given place, and is
either eaft or weft j according as it is in the eaftern or
weftern hemifphere, refpe&ively to the firft meridian.
Pros. I. The latitudes of two places being given,
tp find the difference of latitude.
Rule. Subtraft the lefs latitude from the greater,
if the latitudes bfc of the fame name, but add them if
of contrary ; and the remainder or fum will be the
difference of latitude.
Example I. Required the difference of latitude be¬
tween the Lizard, in latitude 490 57' N. and Cape St
Vincent, in latitude 370 2' N ?
Latitude of the Lizard 490 57'N.
Latitude of Cape St Vincent 37 2 N.
Difference of latitude 12 55— 775 mile?.
Ex. 2. What is the difference of latitude between
Funchal, in latitude 3 2° 38' N, and the Cape of Good
Hope, in latitude 340 29' S ?
Latitude of Funchal 3 2° 38'N.
Lat. of Cape of Good Hope 34 29 S.
Difference of latitude 67 q — 4027 miles.
Prob. II. Given the latitude of one place, and the
difference of latitude between it and another place, to
find the latitude of that place.
Rule. If the given latitude and the difference of
latitude be of the fame name, add them ; but if of dif¬
ferent names, fubtraft them, and the fum or remainder
will be the latitude required of the fame name with the
greater.
Ex. 1. A (hip from latitude 390 22' N. failed due
north 560 miles—Required the latitude come to ?
Latitude failed from - - - , 39® 22' N.
Difference of latitude 560' - - — 9 20 N.
Latitude come to - - - - 48 42 N.
Ex. 2. A ffiip from latitude 70 19' N. failed 854
miles fouth—Required the latitude come to ?
Latitude failed from - - - 70 19'N.
Difference of latitude 854' - rr 14 14 S.
Latitude come to - - - - 655S.
Pros. III. The longitudes of two places being gi¬
ven, to find their difference of longitude.
Rule. If the longitudes of the given places are of
the fame name, fubtradl the lefs from the greater, and
the remainder is the difference of longitude : but if
the longitudes are of contrary names, their fum is the
difference of longitude. If this exceeds 180°, fub-
traft it from 360°, and the remainder is the difference
of longitude.
Ex. I. Required the difference of longitude between
Edinburgh and New York, their longitudes being 30
14' W. and 74° io' W. refpe6!ively ?
Longitude of New York - - 74° 10'W«
Longitude of Edinburgh - - 3 W.
Difference of longitude - - - 70 ^6
Ex. 2. What is the difference of longitude between
Malkelyne’s Ifles, in longitude 167° 59' E, and Olindej
in longitude 350 f W ?
Longitude
Pra$ ice.
Latitude Longitude of Mafkelyne’s Ifles
and Longitude of Olinde
Longitude.
y " ' Sum -
Subtraft from *
Dilference of longitude
NAVI
167
35
G
59' E-
5 w.
- 203 4
360 G
I56 56
Prob. IV. Given the longitude of a place, and the
difference of longitude between it and another place,
to find the longitude of that place.
Rule. If the given longitude and the difference of
longitude be of a contraiy name, fubtradl the lefs from
the greater, and the remainder is the longitude requi¬
red of the fame name with the greater quantity ; but
if they are of the fame name, add them, and the fum
is the longitude fought, of the fame name with that
given. If this fum exceeds 180°, fubtrasff it from
360*, the remainder is the required longitude of a con¬
trary name to that given.
1. A (hip from longitude 90 34' E. failed weffer-
ly till the difference of longitude was 230 18'—Re¬
quired the longitude come to ?
Longitude failed from . - - 90 54' E.
Difference of longitude - - - 23 18 W.
Longitude come to - - - 13 24 W.
Ex. 2. The longitude failed from is 250 9'W. and
difference of longitude 180 46'W.—Required the lon¬
gitude come to ?
Longitude left - - - - 25° 9'XV.
Difference of longitude » - - 18 46 W.
Longitude in
43 55 w-
Sect. II. Of the Tides.
9d 15h 31'
33 E-
h 4?,
17W.
The theory of the tides has been explained under
the article Astronomy, and will again be farther il-
luftrated under that of Tides. In this place, there¬
fore, it remains only to explain the method of calculat¬
ing the time of high water at a given place.
As the tides depend upon the joint aflions of the fun
and moon, and therefore upon the diftance of thefe ob-
je£ls from the earth and from each other ; and as, in
the method generally employed to find the time of high
water, whether by the mean time of new moon, or by
the epafls, or tables deduced therefrom, the moon is
fuppofed to be the foie agent, and to have an uniform
motion in the periphery of a circle, whofe centre is that
of the earth ; it is hence obvious that method cannot be
accurate, and by obfervation the error is fometimes
found to exceed two hours. That method is therefore
rejefled, and another given, in which the error will
feldom exceed a few minutes, unlefs the tides are great¬
ly influenced by the winds.
Prob. I. To reduce the times of the moon’s phafes
as given in the Nautical Almanac to the meridian of a
known place.
Rule. To the time of the propofed phafe, as given
in the Nautical Almanac, apply the longitude of the
place in time, by addition or fubtraflion, according as
it is eaft or weff, and it will give the time of the phafe
at the given place.
Ex. 1. Required the time of new moon at Salo-
rffque in May 1793 ^
A T I O N.
Time of new moon per Naut. Aim.
Longitude of Salonique in time
Time of new moon required, in May 917 4
Ex. 2. What is the time of the laft quarter of the
moon at Refolution Bay in October 1793 ^
Time of laft quarter per Naut. Aim. 26d 5
Longitude in time t - -09
Time at Refolution bay of laft quar-      —• -
ter, October - - - 25 20 30, or
26th day at 8h 30' A. M.
Prob. II. To find the time of high water at a
known place.
Rule. In the Nautical Almanac feek in the given
month, or in that immediately preceding or following
it, for the time of that phafe which happens neareft
to the given day : reduce the time of this phafe to the
meridian of the given place by Pr©b. I. and take the
difference between the reduced time and the noon of
the given day.
Find the equation anfwering to this difference in
Table VII. which applied to the time of high water
on the day of new7 or full moon at the given place ac¬
cording as the table diredls, will give the approximate
time of high water in the afternoon.
Now, take the interval between the reduced time
of the phafe and the approximate time of high wa¬
ter j find the correfponding equation, which applied
as before to the fyzigy time of high water, wdll give
the time of the afternoon high water.
If the time of the morning high water is required,
increafe the laft interval by 1 2 hours, if the given day
falls before the phafe, or diminifh it by 12 hours
when after that phafe 5 and the equation to this time,
applied to the fyzigy time, gives the morning time of
high water.
Ex 1. Required the morning and afternoon times of
high water at Leith, nth December 1793 ?
Neareft phafe to nthDec. is ift quart. 9d 20h 29'
Longitude of Leith in time - — o 013
Time at Leith of ift quarter
Given day -
9 20 16
II o o
Difference - - - - I 3 44
Time of H. W. at Leith-pier on fyz* o 2 20
Equat. from Tab. to l11 311 44' - +0 6 32
Approximate time of high water
Reduced time of ift quarter
11 852
9 20 16
Interval - - - - -1 12 36
Time of high water at Leith on fyz. 2 20
Equat. from the Tab. to id I2h 36' 7 o
Time of high wTater at Leith 9 20P.M.
Time of H. W. at Leith at full & change 2 20
Equat. to Id I2h 36'—I2h:=Id Oh 36' 6 22
High water at Leith, Dec. nth, at 8 42 A.M.
The time of high water found by the common me¬
thod is about an hour and a half fooner.
Ex. 2. Required the time of high w7ater at Funchal,
15th November 1793 >
Ths
♦
(554 N A V I G
Tides. The neareft phafe to 15th November is that of full
1 ' v moon, - . - - - i^d 8H467
Longitude of Funchal in time, -018 W.
Time of full moon at Funchal,
Given day, November
*7 7 38
15 o o
Difference, - - - - 2738
Time of high water at Funchal at full
and change, - - - o 12 4
Equation from the Table to 2d 7b 38'
before full moon, - - —o I 35
Approx, time of high water, Nov. 1 <; 10 29
Reduced time of full moon, - 17 7 38
Interval, - - - - 1119
Time of high water at full and change, 12 4
Equation to id lih before full mgyjn, o 56
Time of high water, - - n 8 P.M.
Equation to id nh + I2h=id 23b is ih 15', and
I2h 4'—ih ij'mioh 49'=time of high water in the
forenoon.
Ex. 3. Required the time of high water at Dufkey
Bay, 24th O&ober 1793 ?
The neareft phafe to the 24th Q&ober is the laft quar¬
ter,  26d 5I1 47'
Longitude of Dufkey Bay in time, 11 5 E.
Reduced time of firfl quarter of moon 26 16 52
Given day - - - - 24 o o
Difference, - - - . 21652
Time of high water at full and change, 10 57
Equation to 2d i6h 52' before laft quar¬
ter, - - - - - -f- 2 52
Approximate time of'high water, 1 49
Change of equation to app. time ih 49' 3
Time of high water in the afternoon, 1 52
Change of equation to 12 hours, - 20
Time of high water in the morning, 1 32
Sect. III. Of menfuring a Ships Run in a given Timek
The method commonly ufed at fea to find the dif-
Itance failed in a given time, is by means of a log-line
and half minute-glafs. A defcription of thefe is given
under the articles Log and Log-eine ; which fee.
It has been already obferved, that the interval be¬
tween each knot on the line ought to be 50 feet, in or¬
der to adapt it to a glafs that runs 30 feconds. But
although the line and glafs be at any time perfeftly ad-
jufted to each other, yet as the line flirinks after be¬
ing wet, and as the weather has a confiderable effe£l
upon the glafs, it will therefore be neceffary to examine
them from time to time ; and the diftance given by
them muff be correfted accordingly. The diftance
failed may, therefore, be affedted by an error in the
glafs, or in the line, or in both. The true diftance may,
however, be found as follows.
Prob. I. The diftance failed by the log, and the fe-
4
A T 1 O N. Practice.
conds run by the glafs, being given, to find the true di- Ship’s Run.
fiance, the line being fuppoied right. r " v
Rule.—-Multiply the diftance given by the log by
30, and divide the produdt by the feconds run by the
glafs, the quotient will be the true diftance.
Ex. 1. The hourly rate of failing by the log is nine
knots, and the glafs is found to run out in 35 feconds.
Required the true rate of failing ?
9
3°
35)270(7.7=^116 rate of failing.
Ex. 2. The diftance failed by the log is 73 miles,
and the glafs runs out in 26 feconds. Sought the true
diftance ?
73
30
26)2190(84.2 the true diftance.
ProB. II. Given the diftance failed by the log, and
the meafured interval between two adjacent knots on
the line; to find the true diftance, the glafs running
exactly 30 feconds.
Rule. Multiply twice the diftance failed by the
meafured length of a knot, point off two figures to the
right, and the remainder will be the true diftance.
E.x. 1. The hourly rate of failing by the log is five
knots, and the interval between knot and knot mea-
fures 53 feet. Required the true rate of failing ?
Meafured interval rr 53
Twice hourly rate 0= 10
True rate of failing =r 5-30
Ex. 2. The diftance failed is 64 miles, by a log-line
which meafures 42 feet to a knot. Required the true
diftance ?
Twice given diftance, rz 128
Meafured interval, 42
256
512
True diftance, 53*76
Pros. III. Given the length of a knot, the number
of feconds run by the glafs in half a minute, and the
diftance failed by the log j to find the true diftance.
Rule. Multiply the diftance failed by the log by
fix times the meafured length of a knot, and divide the
produdt by the feconds run by the glafs ; the quotient,
pointing off one figure to the right, will be the true di¬
ftance.
Example. The diftance failed by the log is 159 miles,
the meafured length of a knot is 42 feet, and the glafs
runs 33 feconds in half a minute. Required the true
diftance ?
Diftance by the log, 159
Six times length of a knot=r42X252
Second run by the glafs
true diiiance.
Chap.
318
795
3*8
33)40068(121.4:
Pra&ice. N A V I G
Plane
. Sailing, Chap. II. Of Plane Sailing.
Plane failing is the art of navigating, a fhip upon
principles deduced from the notion of the earth’s being
an extended plane. On this fuppofition the meridians
are efteemed as parallel right lines. The parallels of
latitude are at right angles to the meridians j the lengths
of the degrees on the meridians, equator, and parallels
of latitude, are everywhere equal j and the degrees of
longitude are reckoned on the parallels of latitude as
well as on the equator.— In this failing four things are
principally concerned, namely, the courfe, dflance, dif¬
ference of latitude, and departure.
The courfe is the angle contained between the meri¬
dian and the line defcribed by the flap, and is ufuall-y
expreffed in points of the compafs.
The diflance is the number of miles a fhip has failed
on a direft courfe in a given time.
The difference of latitude is the portion of a meri¬
dian contained between the parallels of latitude failed
from and come to 5 and is reckoned either north or
fouth, according as the courfe is in the northern or
fouthern hemifphere.
The departure is the diflance of the fhip from the
meridian of the place fhe left, reckoned on a parallel
of latitude. In this failing, the departure and differ¬
ence of longitude are efteemed equal.
Plate In order to illuftrate the above, let A (fig. 1.) re-
CCCLX1II. prefent pofition of any given place, and AB the
meridian palling through that place 5 alfo let AC re-
prefent the line defcribed by a fhip, and C the point
arrived at. From C draw CB perpendicular to AB.
Now in the triangle ABC, the angle BAG reprefents
the courfe, the fide AC the diflance, AB the difference
of latitude, and BC the departure.
In conftrufling a figure relating to a fliip’s courfe,
let the upper part of what the figure is to be drawn on
reprefent the north, then the lower part will be fouth,
the right-hand fide eaf, and the left-hand fide wcfl.
A north and fouth line is to be drawn to reprefent
the meridian of the place from which the fhip failed j
and the upper or kuver part of this line, according as
the courfe is foutherly or northerly, is to be marked as
the pofition of that place. From this point as a
centre, with the chord of 6o*, an arch is to be defcrib¬
ed from the meridian towards the right or left, ac¬
cording as the courfe is eafterly or weflerly j and the
courfe, taken from the line of chords if given in de¬
grees, but from the line of rhumbs if expreffed in
points of the compafs, is to be laid upon this arch, be¬
ginning at the meridian. A line drawn through this
point and that failed from, will reprefent the diflance,
which if given muft be laid thereon, beginning at the
point failed from. A line is to be drawn from the ex¬
tremity of the diftance perpendicular to the meridian ;
and hence the difference of latitude and departure will
be obtained.
If the difference of latitude is given, it is to be laid
upon the meridian, beginning at the point reprefenting
A T I O N. 655
the place the fhip left $ and a line drawn from the ex- Plane
tremity of the difference of latitude perpendicular to the Sailing. ^
meridian, till it meets the diftance produced, will limit ' '
the figure.
If the departure is given, it is to be laid off on a pa¬
rallel, and a line drawm through its extremity will li¬
mit the diftance. When either the diflance and differ¬
ence of latitude, diflance and departure, or difference
of latitude and departure, are given, the meafure of
each is to be taken from a fcale of equal parts, and laid
off on its refpeflive line, and the extremities connected.
Hence the figure will be formed.
Pros. 1. Given the courfe and diflance, to find the
difference of latitude and departure.
Example. A fhip from St Helena, in latitude 150
55' S. failed S. W. by S. 158 miles. Required the la¬
titude come to, and departure ?
By Conjirutlion.
Draw the meridian AB (fig. 2.), and with the
chord of 6o° deferibe the arch m n, and make it equal
to the rhumb of 3 points, and through n draw AC
equal to 158 miles j from C, draw CB perpendicular
to AB •, then AB applied to the fcale from which AC
was taken, will be found to meafure 131.4 and BC
87.8.
By Calculation.
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius - - 10.00000
is to the cofine of the courfe 3 points 9.91985
fo is the dillance - 158 - - 2.19866'
to the difference of latitude 1314 - 2.11851
To find the departure.
As radius - 10.00000 *•
is to the fine of the courfe - 3 points - 9.74474
fo is the diflance - - 158 a 2.19866
to the departure - 87.8 § 1.94340
By Infpeclion.
In the traverfe table, the difference of latitude an-
fwering to the courfe 3 points, and diflance 158 miles,
in a dillance column is 131.4, and departure 87.8.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 8 points to 5 points, the comple¬
ment of the courfe on the line of fine rhumbs (marked
SR.) will reach from the diflance 15810 131.4, the
difference of latitude on the line of numbers; and
the extent from 8 points to 3 points on fine rhumbs,,
will reach from 158 to 87.8, the departure on num^
bers (a).
Latitude St Helena 15* 55' S.
Difference of latitude - 2 H S.
Latitude come to £ 18 6 S.
Prob. II. Given the courfe and difference of lati¬
tude, to find the diflance and departure.
Example.
(a) For the method of refolving the various problems in navigation, by the Aiding gunter, the reader is refer¬
red to Dr Mackay’s Treatife on the Defcription and Ufe of that InfLuraento'
NAVIGATION.
Example. A fliip from St George’s, in latitude 38°
45' north, failed SE^S : and the latitude by obferva-
tion was 350 7' N. Required the diftance run, and de
parture ?
Latitude St George’s - 38° 43' N
Latitude come to - 35 7 N
Pra&ice.
By Calculation.
To End the diitance.
As the fine of the courfe 5 points
is to radius -
fo is the departure - - 192
Difference of latitude
3 38=218 miles.
By Conjlruciion.
Draw the portion of the meridian AB (fig. 3.)
equal to 218 m. : from the centre A with the chord of
6o° defcribe the arch m », which make equal to the
rhumb of 3-^ points : through An draw the line AC,
and from B draw BC perpendicular to AB, and let
it be produced till it meets AC in C. Then the di¬
ftance AC being applied to the fcale, will meafure
282m. and the departure BC 179 miles.
By Calculation.
To find the diftance.
As radius . - -
is to the fecant of the courfe
fo is the difference of latitude
to the diftance
3l Points
- 218 m.
282
To find the departure.
As radius - - -
is to the tangent of the courfe 34- points
fo is the difference of latitude 218
to the departure
178.9
10.00000
10.11181
2.33846
2.45027
10.00000
9.91417
2.33846
2.25253
to the diftance - - 230.9
To find the difference of latitude.
As the tangent of the courfe 5 points
is to radius - - -
fo is the departure - - 192
9.91985
10.00000
2.28330
2 *3 63 45
10.17511
10.00000
2.28330
Latitude come to
By Infpeclion.
Find the given difference of latitude 218 m. in a la¬
titude column, under the courfe of 34 points ; oppofite
to which, in a diftance column, is 282 miles ; a de¬
parture column is 178.9 m. the diftance and departure
required.
By Gunter's Scale.
Extend the compafs from 44 points, the complement
of the courfe, to 8 points on fine rhumbs, that extent
will reach from the difference of latitude 218 miles, to
the diftance 28 2 miles in numbers ; and the extent from
4 points to the courfe 34 points on the line of tangent
rhumbs (marked 1'. R.) will reach from 218 miles to
178.9, the departure on numbers.
Prob. III. Given courfe and departure, to find the
diftance and difference of latitude ?
Example. A fliip from Palma, in latitude 28° 37' N.
failed NW. by W. and made 192 miles of departure :
Required the diftance run, and latitude come to ?
By ConJlruElion.
Make the departure BC (fig. 4.) equal to 192 miles,
draw BA perpendicular to BC, and from the centre C,
with the chord of 6o°, defcribe the arch m 77, which
make equal to the rhumb of 3 points, the complement
of the courfe •, draw a line through C 7?, which produce
till it meets BA in A : then the diftance AC being
meafured, will be equal to 231 m. and the difference of
latitude AB will be 128.3 miles.
2
Prob. IV. Given the diftance and difference
titude, to find the courfe and departure.
Example. A ftiip from a place in latitude 430 13' N,
fails between the north and eaft 285 miles $ and is then
by obfervation found to be in latitude 46° 31' N : Re¬
quired the courfe and departure ?
Latitude failed from - - 430 13' N
Latitude by obfervation - - 46 31 N
Difference of latitude
3 18= 198 miles.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the diftance - - 285
is to the difference of latitude 198
fo is the radius -
to the cofine of the ccurfe - 46° o'
2.45484
2.29660
10.00000
9.84176
To
Plane
Sailing.
to the difference of latitude 128.3 2.10819
By Infpe&ion.
Find the departure 192 m. in its proper column a-
bove the given courfe 5 points ; and oppofite thereto is
the diftance 231 miles, and difference of latitude 138.3,
in their refpe&ive columns.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 5 points to 8 points on the line of
fine rhumbs, being laid from the departure 192 oh
numbers, will reach to the diftance 231 on the fame
line ; and the extent from 5 points to 4 points on
the line of tangent rhumbs, will reach from the de¬
parture 192, to the difference of latitude 128.3 on
numbers.
Latitude of Palma _ _ . 28° 37'N
Difference of latitude - - - ' 2 8 N
30 45 N
of la-
By ConJlruBion.
Draw the portion of the meridian AB (fig, 5.) equal
to 198 miles j from B draw BC perpendicular to AB:
then take the diftance 285 miles from the fcale, and
with one foot of the compafs in A defcribe an arch in¬
terfering BC in C, and join AC. With the chord of
60® defcribe the arch 77777, the portion of which, con¬
tained between the diftance and di Terence of latitude,
applied to the line of chords, will meafure 46°, the
courfe ; and the departure BC being meafured on the
line of equal parts, will be found equal to 205 miles.
Pra6Hce. N A V I G
Plane To find the departure.
Sailing. ra(i;uS ... - - 10.00000
K~" v"'" is to the fine of the courfe - 46° o' - 9.85693
fo is the diftance - - 285 - 2.45484
to the departure - - 205 - 2.31177
By InfpeBion.
Find the given diltance in the table in its proper co¬
lumn •, and if the difference of latitude anfwering there¬
to is the fame as that given, namely, 198, then the de¬
parture will be found in its proper column, and the
courfe at the top or bottom of the page, according as
the difference of latitude is found in a column marked
lat. at top or bottom. If the difference of latitude thus
found does not agree with that given, turn over till the
neareft thereto is found to anfwer to the given diftance.
This is in the page marked 46 degrees at the bottom,
which is the courfe, and the correfponding departure is
205 miles.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the diftance 285 to the difference of
latitude 198 on numbers, xvill reach from 90° to 44®,
the complement of the courfe on fines 5 and the extent
from 90° to the courfe 46° on the line of fines being
laid from the diftance 285, will reach to the departure
205 on the line of numbers.
Fig. 6.
Prob. V. Given the diftance and departure, to find
the courfe and difference of latitude.
Example. A fhip from Fort-Royal in the ifland of
Grenada, in latitude 12° 9' N, failed 260 miles be¬
tween the fouth and weft, and made 190 miles of de¬
parture : Required the courfe and latitude come to ?
By Gonjlru&ion.
Draw BC (fig. 6.) perpendicular to AB, and equal
to the given departure 190 miles j then from the centre
G, with the diftance 260 miles, fweep an arch inter-
fe&ing AB in A, and join AC. Now defcribe an
arch from the centre A with the chord of 60°, and the
portion m n oi this arch, contained between the di¬
fiance and difference of latitude, meafured on the line
of chords, will be 47° the courfe •, and the difference
of latitude AB applied to the fcale of equal parts, mea-
fures 1774- miles.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the diftance
is to the departure
fo is radius
260
190
to the fine of the courfe - 46° 57'
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius _ _ _ - .
is to the cofine of the courfe 46° 57'
fo is the diftance - 260
2.41497
2.27875
10.00000
9.86378
10.00000
9.834i9
241497
to the difference of latitude 177-5 - 2.24916
A T I O N. 657
By Gunter's Scale. Sailin'6
The extent of the compafs, from the diftance 260 a‘ t
to the departure 190 on the line of numbers, will reach
from 90° to 470, the courfe on the line of fines : and
the extent from 90° to 430, the complement of the
courfe on fines, will reach from the diftance 260 to the
difference of latitude 177! on the line of numbers.
Latitude Fort-Royal - - - 120 9'N
Difference of latitude - 177 - —:2 57 ^
Latitude in - - - - - 912N
Prob. VI. Given difference of latitude and depar¬
ture, fought courfe and diftance.
Example. A fhip from a port in latitude 70 56' S,
failed between the fouth and eaft, till her departure is
132 miles j and is then by obfervation found to be in
latitude 1 2° 3' S. Required the cdurfe and diftance ?
Latitude failed from - - 70 56' S.
Latitude in by obfervation - 12 3 S.
Difference of latitude - ■ 4 7=:247*
By ConJlruEhon.
Draw the portion of the meridian AB (fig. 7.) equal Fig. 7*
to the difference of latitude 247 miles 5 from B draw
BC perpendicular to AB, and equal to the given de¬
parture 132 miles, and join AC: then with the chord
of 6o° defcribe an arch from the centre A ; and the
portion mn oi this arch being applied to the line of
chords, will meafure about 28° ; and the diftance AC,
meafured on the line of equal parts, will be 280 miles.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the difference of latitude - 247 2.39270
is to the departure - - - 132 2.12057
fo is radius ----- 10.00000
to the tangent of the courfe - 28° 7' 9.72787
To find the diftance.
As radius - - - - - 10.00000
is to the fecant of the courfe 28° 7' - 10.05454
fo is the difference of latitude 247 - 2.39270
to the diftance - - 280 - 2.44724
By Infpeflion.
Seek in the table till the given difference of latitude
and departure, or the neareft: thereto, are found toge¬
ther in their refpeftive columns, which will be under
28°, the required courfe j and the diftance anfivering
thereto is 280 miles.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the given difference of latitude 247
to the departure 13 2 on the line of numbers, will reach
from 450 to 28°, the courfe on the line of tangents j
and the extent from 62°, the complement of the courfe,
to 90° on fines, will reach from the difference of lati¬
tude 247, to the diftance 280 on numbers.
By InfpeElion.
Seek in the traverfe table until the neareft to the gi¬
ven departure is found in the fame line with the given
diftance 260. This is found to be in the page marked
470 at the bottom, which is the courfe ; and the corre¬
fponding difference of latitude is 177.3.
Vol. XIV. Part IT.
Chap. III. Of Traverfe Sailing.
If a fhip fail upon two or more courfes in a given
time, the irregular track fhe deicribes is called tra¬
verfe ; and to refolve a traverfe, is the method of redu¬
cing thefe feveral courfes, and the diftances run, in-
4 0 to
6$$
NAVIGATION.
Trad ice.
Traverfe to a Gngl-e courfe ancl diftance.' The method chiefly *
Sa;llng~ ufed for this purpofe at fea is by mfpe&ion, which
V_™ fliall therefore be principally adhered to; and is as fol¬
lows.
Make a table of a breadth and depth fufficient to
contain the feveral coarfcs, See. This table is to be
divided into fix columns : the courfes are to be put in
the firfi, and the correfponding diftances in the fecond
column $ the third and fourth columns are to contaia
the diflferences of latitude, and the two lafi: the depar¬
tures.
Now, the feveral courfes and their correfponding
diftances being properly arranged in the table, find
the difference of latitude and departure anfwering to
each in the traverfe table *, remembering that the dif¬
ference of latitude is to be put in a north or fouth co¬
lumn, according as the ccurfe is in the northern or
fouthern hemifphere $ and that the departure is to be
put in an eaft column if the courfe is eafterly, but in a
weft column if the couife is tvefterly : Obferving alfo,
that the departure is lefs than the difference of latitude
when the courfe is lefs than 4 points or 450 j otherwife
greater.
Add up the columns of northing, fouthing, eafting,
and welling, and fet down the fum of each at its bot¬
tom 5 then the difference between the fums of the north
and fouth columns will be the difference of latitude
made good, of the fame name with the greater $ and
the difference between the fums of the eaft and weft co¬
lumns, is the departure made goad, of the fame name
with the greater fum.
Now, feek in the traverfe table, till a difference of
latitude and departure are found to agree as nearly as
pofiible with thofe above ; then the diftance will be
found on the fame line, and the courfe at the top or
bottom of the page, according as the difference of lati¬
tude is greater or lefs than the departure.
In order to refolve a traverfe by conftrudlion, de-
feribe a circle with the chord of 6o°, in which draw
two diameters at right angles to each other, at whofe
extremities are to be marked the initials of the cardinal
points, north being uppermoft.
Lay off each courfe on the circumference, reckoned
from its proper meridian j and from the centre to each
point draw lines, which are to be marked with the pro¬
per number of the courfe.
On the firft radius lay off the firft diftance from the
centre ; and through its extremity, and parallel to the
fecond radius, draw the fecond cliftance of its proper
length j through the extremity of the fecond diflance,
and parallel to the third radius, draw the third diftance
of its proper length j and thus proceed until all'the di¬
ftances are drawn.
A line drawn from the extremity of the laft diftance
to the centre of the circle will reprefent the diftance
made good : and a line drawn from the fame point per¬
pendicular to the meridian, produced, if neceffary, will
reprefent the departure ; and the portion of the meri¬
dian intercepted between the centre and departure, will
be the difference of latitude made good.
Examples.
I. A ftnp from Fyal, in lat. 38° 32' N, failed as fol¬
lows : ESE 163 miles, SW i W no miles, 5E ■! S
igo miles, and N by E 68 miles. Required the lati¬
tude come to, the courfe, and diftance made good ?
Bi/ Infpetlioiu
ESE
SWTW
SEi3
Ni'E
S414E
281
Diff of Latitude.
66.7
66.7
62.4
69.8
I44*5
276.7
66.7
Departure.
150.6
IO7.2
271.1
85.0
85.0
85.0
Latitude left
Difference of latitude
Latitude come to
186.1
38° 32' N.
3 21 S.
Traverfe
Sainng.
By ConJIruciio'n.
With the chord of 60® deferibe the circle NE, SW
(fig. 8.), the centre of which reprefents the place the Fig. 8,
ftiip failed from : draw two diameters NS, EW at right
angles to each other j the one reprefenting the meri¬
dian, and the other the parallel of latitude of the place
failed from. Take each courfe from the line of rhumbs,
lay it off on the circumference from its proper meri¬
dian, and number it in order 1, 2, 3, 4. Upon the
firft: rhumb Cl, lay off the firft diftance 163 miles from
C to A ; through it draw the fecond diftance AB pa¬
rallel to C2, and equal to no miles; through B draw
BD equal to 180 miles, and parallel to C3 ; and draw
DE parallel to C4, and equal to 68 miles. Now CE
being joined, will reprefent the diftance made good ;
which applied to the fcale will meafure 281 miles.
The arch S n, which reprefents the courfe, being mea-'
fured on the line of chords, will be found equal to
From E draw EF perpendicular to CS produced ;
then CF will be the difference of latitude, and FE the
departure made good; which applied to the fcale will be
found to meafure 210 and 186 miles refpeclively.
As the method by conftruftion is fcarcely ever prac-
tifed at fea, it, therefore, feems unneceffary to apply it
to the folution of the following examples.
II. A ftiip from latitude i° 38' S. failed as under.
Required her prefent latitude, courfe, and diftance made
good ?
NW£N
WNW
SE£E
WSW‘W
N4E
N 440 W
T39
Diff ot Latitude.
35-8
29.9
84.1
149.8
49.1
Departure.
31*1
18.0
49 1
Latitude left
Latitude come to
xoo.ym0 41'
- 1 38 S.
46.6
12.5
59-
3N.
W
23*9
72.1
59-3
135-3
59*1
96.2
HI.
Practice. N A V I G
Traverfe HI, Yefterday at noon we were in latitude 130 12'N,
SaIIing- and ixnce then have run as follows : SSE 36 miles,
S 12 miles, NW W 28 miles, W 30 miles, SW 42
miles, W£N 39 miles, and N 20 miles. Required our
prefent latitude, departure, and dire£t courfe and di-
Itance ?
Ccurfes.
SSE
S
NW-'W
w
SW
N
S 74° W
Dift.
3
162
28
3°
42
39
20
110
DitT. af Latitude.
N
17.8
7.6
20.0
454
33-3
12.0
29.7
75-o
45-4
Departure.
3-8
13.8
W
21.6
30.0
29.7
38.2
119-5
13.8
Yefterday’s latitude
Prefent latitude
29.6—o°30/ 105.7
13 12N
12 42N
IV. The courfe per compafs from Greigfnefs (b) to the
May is SW ^ S, diftance 58 miles •, from the May to
the Staples SZ>E E, 44 miles ; and from the Staples
to Flamborough Head S/^E, no miles. Required the
courfe per compafs, and diftance from Greigfnefs to
Flamborough Head ?
Courfe s.
SW^S
S£E % E
SZ-E
Dift.
Dift’. of Latitude.
58
44
11
N
S
43'°
4M
107.9
Depaiture.
E W
14.8
21.5
I92-3 36.3 38 9
36-3
38-9
Hence the couffe per compafs is nearly
S l° W, and diftance 192-f miles.
2.6
Chap. IV. Of Parallel Sailing.
The figure of the earth is fpherical, and the meri¬
dians gradually approach each other, and meet at the
poles. The difference of longitude between any two
places is the angle at the pole contained between the
meridians of thofe places 5 or it is the arch of the
A T 1 O N.
equator intercepted between the meridians of the given
places ; and the meridiaa diftance between two places
in the fame parallel, is the arch thereof contained be¬
tween their meridians. It hence follows, that the me¬
ridian didance, anfwering to the fame difference of
longitude, will be variable with the latitude of the
parallel upon which it is reckoned •, and the fame
difference of longitude will not anfwer to a giveii
meridian diftance when reckoned upon different pa¬
rallels. \
Parallel failing is, therefore, the method of finding
the diftance between two places lying in the fame pa¬
rallel whofe longitudes are known ; or, to find the dif¬
ference of longitude anfwering to a given diftance, run
in an eaft or weft direction. This failing is particu¬
larly uleful in making low or fmall iflands.
In order to illuftrate the principles of parallel fail¬
ing, let C A B P (fig. 9.) reprefent a fefHon of oneFi
fourth part of the earth, the arch A B P being part
of a meridian ; C A the equatorial, and C P the polar
femi-axis. Alfo let B be the fituation of any given
place on the earth ; and join BC, which will be equal
to C A or C P (c). The arch A B, or angle A C B,
is the meafure of the latitude of the place B ; and the
arch B P, or angle B C P, is that of its complement.
If B D be drawn from B perpendicular to C P, it will
reprefent the cofine of latitude to the radius B C or
C A.
Now fince circles and fimilar portions of circles are
in the direft ratio of their radii j therefore,
As radius
Is to the cofine of latitude;
So is any given portion of the equator J
To a fimilar portion of the given parallel.
But the difference of longitude is an arch of the
equator; and the diftance between any two places un¬
der the fame parallel, is a fimilar portion of that pa¬
rallel.
Hence R : cofine latitude :: Diff. longitude : Diftance.
And by inverfion,
Cofine latitude : R :: Diftance : Diff. of longitude.
Alfo,
Diff. of longitude : Diftance :: R : cof. latitude.
Prob. I. Given the latitude of a parallel, and the
number of miles contained in a portion of the equator,
to find the miles contained in a fimilar portion of that
parallel.
Ex. 1. Required the number of miles contained in a
degree of longitude in latitude 550 58 ?
By Gotiflrutlion.
Draw the indefinite right line A B (fig. 10.J; make
the angle B A C equal to the given latitude 550 58', &
and A C equal to the number of miles corftairied in a
degree of longitude at the equator, namely 60 : from
C draw CB perpendicular to AB ; and AB being
meafured on the line of equal parts, will be found equal
to 33.5, the miles required.
4 O 2 By
(b) Greigfnefs is about miles diftant from Aberdeen, in nearly a SE6E4E direftion.
. t.) Inis is not ftriffly true, as the figure of the earth is that of an oblate fpheroid ; and therefore the radius
of curvature is vanable with the latitude. The difference between CA and CP, according to Sir Ifaac Newton’s
hypothens, is about 17 miles. °
66o
Parallel
Sailing.
NAVIGATION.
Frafice.
By Calculation.
As radius -
is to the cofine of latitude, - 55*
fo is miles in a deg. of long, at eq.
58'
60
IO.OOOCQ
9-74794
1.77815
to the miles in a deg. in the given par. 33.58 1.52609
Bi/ Inflection.
To 56°, the neareit degree to the given latitude,
and diltance 60 miles, the correfponding difference of
latitude is 33.6, which is the miles required.
between the given latitude and that ufed, r e applied to
the above, the fame refult with that found by calcula¬
tion will be obtained.
Bij Gunter''s Scale.
The extent from 470 8', the comolement of latitude
to 90° on the line of lines, being laid the fame way from
the diftance 342, will reach to the difference of lon¬
gitude 4664 on the line of numbers.
Longitude Cape Finifterre - - 90 17'W
Difference of longitude - - - 7 47 W.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 90° to 340, the complement of the
given latitude on the line of fines, will reach from 60
to 33.6 on the line of numbers.
There are two lines on the other fide of the fcale,
with refpeft to Gunter’s line, adapted to this parti¬
cular purpofe ; one of which is eptitled chords, and
contains the feveral degrees of latitude : The other,
marked M. L. fignifying miles of longitude, is the line
of longitudes, and (hows the number of miles in a degree
of longitude in each parallel. The ufe of thefe lines is
therefore obvious.
’ Ex. 2. Required the diftance between Treguier in
France, in longitude 30 14' W, and Galpey Kay, in
longitude 64° 27' W, the common latitude being 48°
47' N ?
Longitude Treguier - 30 14'W
Longitude Gafpey Bay - 64 27 YV
Difference of longitude 61 13=1:3673'
As radius ----- 10.00000
is to the cofine of latitude, 48° 47^ - 9.81882
fo is the difference of longitude 3673 - 3.56502
to the diftance . - - 2420 - 3*38384
Prob. II. Given the number of miles contained in a
portion of a known parallel, to find the number of
miles in a fimilar portion of the equator.
Example. A (hip from Cape Finifterre, in latitude
420 52' N, and longitude 90 17'W, failed due weft
342 miles. Required the longitude come to ?
By Confruclion.
Tig. 11. Draw the ftraight line AB (fig. II.) equal to the
given diftance 342 miles, and make the angle BAG
equal to 42° 52', the given latitude : from B draw BC
perpendicular to AB, meeting AC in C ; then AC
applied to the fcale will meafure 466-L the difference
of longitude required.
By Calculation.
As radius - 10.00000
is to the fecant of latitude, - 420 52' - 10.13493
fo is the diftance - - 342 - 2.53403
Longitude come to - - - 17 4W
Prob. Ill Given the number of miles contained in
any portion of the equator, and the miles in a fimilar
portion of a parallel ; to find the latitude of that pa¬
rallel.
Example. A drip failed due eaft 358 miles, and was
found by obfervation to have differed her longitude 8°
42'. Required the latitude of the parallel ?
By ConfruBion.
Make the line AB (fig. 12.) equal to the given di-Fig. is.
ftance j to which let BC be drawn perpendicular, with
an extent equal to 522', the difference of longitude 5
defcribe an arch from the centre A, cutting BC in C j
then the angle BAG being meafured by means of the
line of chords, will be found equal to 46°y, the re¬
quired latitude.
By Calculation.
As the diftance - - 358 - 2.5538-8
is to the difference of longitude, 522 - 2.71767
fo is radius ----- lo.ocooo
to the fecant of the latitude, - 46° 42' 10.16379
By InfpeBion.
As the difference of longitude and diftance exceed
the limits of the table, let therefore the half of each
be taken \ thefe are 261 and 179 refpe£Hvely. Now,
by entering the table with theie quantities, the lati¬
tude will be found to be between 46 and 47 degrees.
Therefore, to latitude 46°, and diftance 261 miles, the
correfponding difference of latitude is i8i'.3, which
exceeds the half of the given diftance by 2'.3. Again,
to latitude 470, and diftance 261, the difference of lati¬
tude is i7c'.o, being i'.o lefs than the half of that giv¬
en : therefore the change of diftance anfwering to a
change of 1° of latitude is
Now, as 3'.3 : 2'.3 :: i° : 42'.
Hence the latitude required is 46° 42'.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 522 to 358 on the line of num¬
bers, will reach from 90° to about 43°y, the comple¬
ment of which q6y is the latitude required ?
to the difference of longitude - 466.6 2.66896
" By InfpeBion.
The neareft degree to the given latitude is 430 j
under which, and oppofite to 171, half the given di¬
ftance in a latitude column, is 234, in a diftance co¬
lumn, which doubled gives 468, the difference of lon¬
gitude.
If the proportional part anfwering to the difference
Prob. IV. Given the number of miles contained in
the portion of a known parallel, to find the length of a
fimilar portion of another known parallel.
Example. From two ports in latitude 330 58' N,
diftance 348 miles, two (hips fail direflly north till they
are in latitude 48° 23' N. Required their diftance ?
By ConfruBion.
Draw the lines CB, CJE (fig. 13.), making angles Fig. 1^.
with
Practice. N A V I G
Parallel with CP equal to the complements of the given lati-
Sa.img. tU(]eS) namely, 56° 2' and 410 37' refpe&ively make
v """ * ED equal to the given diflance 348 miles, and per¬
pendicular to CP j now from the centre C, with the
radius CB, defcribe an arch interfering CE in E $
then EF drawn from the point E, perpendicular to
CP, will reprefent the dilhance required ; which being
applied to the fcale, will meafure 2784 miles.
By Calculation.
As the cofme of the latitude left 330 58' 9.91874
is to the cofine of the lat. come to 48 23 9 82226
fo is the given diftance - 348 2.54158
A T I O N.
ence of latitude is lij'.S : hence 11717—IJ 5.8=: 1/.9,
the change anfwering to a difference of j° of latitude.
Therefore, \’.g\ I'.y :: i° : 53'
Hence, the latitude is 43° 53'.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 180 to 23 2 on the line of num¬
bers, being laid in the fame direffion on the line of
fines, from 340, the complement of the latitude failed
from, will reach to 46° ’jrt the complement of the la¬
titude come to.
Chap. V. Of Middle Latitude Sailing.
to the diftance required - 278.6 2.44510
By InfpeBion.
Under 340, and oppofite to 174, half the given di¬
flance in a latitude column is 210 in a diftance column j
being half the difference of longitude anfwering thereto.
Now, find the difference of latitude to diftance 210
miles over 48° of latitude, which is 14o'.5 5 from which
i'.i (the proportional part anfwering to 23 minutes of
latitude) being fubtrafted, gives i39'.4 which doubled
is 278/.8, the diftance required.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 56° 2', the complement of the la¬
titude left, to 410 37', the complement of that come
to, on the line of fines, being laid the fame way from
348, will reach to 278^, the diftance fought on the line
of numbers. ,
ProB. V. Given a certain portion of a known pa¬
rallel, together with a fimilar portion of an unknown
parallel ; to find the latitude of that parallel.
Example. Two (hips, in latitude 56° o' N, diftant
180 miles, fail,due fouth j and having come to the fame
parallel, are now 232 miles diftant. The latitude of
that parallel is required ?
By ConJlruBion.
Make DB (fig. 14.) equal to the firft diftance 180
miles, DM equal to the fecond 232, and the angle
DEC equal to the given latitude 56° $ from the
centre C, with the radius CB, defcribe the arch BE ;
and through M draw ME parallel to CD, interfering
the arch BE in E ; join ^C and draw EF perpendi¬
cular to CD : then the angle FEC will be the lati¬
tude required ; which being meafured, will be found
equal to 430 53'.
By Calculation.
As the diftance on the known parallel 180 2.25527
is to the diftance on that required 232 2.36549
fo is the cofine of the latitude left 56° o' 9.74756
to the cofine of the latitude come to 43 53 9-85 7 78
By InfpeBion.
To latitude 56°, and half the firft diftance 90 in a
latitude column, the correfponding diftance is 161
which is half the difference of longitude. Now i6r'
and 116, half the fecond diftance, are found to agree
between 43 and 44 degrees j therefore, to latitude
430 and diftance 16 r, the correfponding difference of
latitude is uf-lthe excefs of which above 116' is
*'•7 : and t0 latitu.de 440, and diflance 161, the differ-
The earth is a fphere, and the meridians meet at
the poles j and fince a rhumb-line makes equal angles
with every meridian, the line a (hip defcribes is, there¬
fore, that kind of a curve called a fpiral.
Let AB (fig. 15.) be any given diftance failed upon Fig. 15.■
an oblique rhumb, PBN, PAM the extreme meri¬
dians, MN a portion of the equator, and PCK, PEL
two meridians interfering the diftance AB in the
points CE infinitely near each other. If the arches
BS, CD, and AR, be defcribed parallel to the equator,
it is hence evident, that AS is the difference of lati¬
tude, and the arch MN of the equator, the difference
of longitude, anfwering to the given diftance AB and
courfe PAB.
Now, fince CE reprefents a very fmall portion of
the diftance AB, DE will be the correfpondent por¬
tion of a meridian : hence the triangle EDC may be
confidered as re6tilineal. If the diftance be fuppofed
to be divided into an infinite number of parts, each
equal to CE, and upon thefe, triangles be conftructed
whofe fides are portions of a meridian and parallel, it is
evident thefe triangles will be equal and fimilar $ for,
befides the right angle, and hypothenufe which is the
fame in each, the courfe or angle CED is alfo the
fame. Hence, by the 12th of V. Euc. the fum of all
the hypothenufes CE, or the diftance AB, is to the
fum of all the fides DE, or the difference of latitude
AS, as one of the hypothenufes CE is to the corre¬
fponding fide DE. Now, let the triangle GIH (fig.
16.) be conftru&ed fimilar to the triangle CDE, ha-Fig.
ving the angle G equal ta the courfe : then as GH’:
GI :: CE : DC :: AB : AS.
Hence, if GH be made equal to the given diftance
AB, then GI will be the correfponding difference of
latitude.
In like manner, the fum of all the hypothenufes
CE, or the diftance AB, is to the fum of all the fides
CD, as CE is to CD, or as GH to HI, becaufe of the
(imilar triangles.
The feveral parts of the fame re£li!ineal triangle will,
therefore, reprefent the courfe, diflance, difference of
latitude, and departure.
Although the parts HG, GI, and angle G of the
reftilineal triangle GIH, are equal to the correfpond¬
ing parts AB, AS, and angle A, of the triangle ASB
upon the furface of the fphere ; yet HI is not equal to
BS, for HI is the fum of all the arcs CD 5 but CD is
greater than 0£>, and lefs than ZX : therefore HI is
greater than BS, and lefs than AR. Hence the dif¬
ference of longitude MN cannot be inferred from the
departure reckoned either upon the parallel failed from,.
or 0* that come to, but on fome intermediate parallel
66a
NAVIGATION.
Pradice.
Middle TV, fucli tliat the arch TV is exaftly equal to the de-
L .fiiuftc part;Ure ; an<J in this cafe, the difference of longitude
i. ^ would be eafily obtained. For TV is to MN as the
fine PT to the fine PM ; that is, as the cofine of lati¬
tude is to the radius.
The latitude of the parallel TV is not, however,
eafily determined with accuracy j various methods have,
therefore, been taken in order to obtain it nearly, wuth
as little trouble as poflible : firft, by taking the arith¬
metical mean of the two latitudes for that of the
mean paralleL: fecondly, by ufmg the arithmetical
mean of the cofines of the latitudes : thirdly, by ufing
the geometrical mean of the cofines of the latitudes :
and laftly, by employing the parallel deduced from
the paean of the meridional parts of the two latitudes.
The firft of thefe methods is that which is generally
ufed.
In order to illuftrate the computations in middle
Fig' I7* latitude failingj let the triangle ABC (fig. 17.) re-
prefent a figure in plane failing, wherein AB is the
difference of latitude, AC the diftance, BC the de¬
parture, and the angle BAG the courfe. Alfo, let
the triangle DBG be a figure in parallel failing, in
wdiich DC is the difference of longitude, BC the me¬
ridian diftance, and the angle DCB the middle lati¬
tude. In thefe triangles there is, therefore, one fide
BC common to both ; and that triangle is to be firft
refolved in which two parts are given, and then the
unknown parts of the other triangle will be eafily ob¬
tained.
Prob. I. Given the latitudes and longitudes of tw-9
places, to find the courfe and diftance between them.
Example. Required the courfe and diftance from
the ifland of May, in latitude 56® 12' N, and longi¬
tude 2° 37' W, to the Naze of Norway, in latitude
57° 50' N, and longitude 70 27' E ?
Latitude ille of May - 56°I2/N - 56° 12'
Latitude Naze of Norway 57 50 N - 57 50
Difference of latitude - 1. 38=98' - 114. 2
Middle latitude - - - - SI' 1
Longitude ifle of May - - 2 37 W
Longitude Naze of Norway - 7 27 E
chords, will be found equal to 730 24', the required Middle
courfe. Latitude
Sailing.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe (d).
As the difference of latitude - 98' - 1.99123
is to the difference of longitude 604 - 2.7 8104
fo is the cofine of middle latitude 57® 1' - 9-73591
to the tangent of the cofine - 73 24 - 10.52572
To find the diftance.
As radius - - - - io.oooco
is to the fecant of the courfe 73° 24' - IG.54411
fo is the difference of latitude 98' - 1.99123
to the diftance - - 343 - 2.53534
By InfpeElion.
To middle latitude 570, and 151 one-fourth of the
difference of longitude in a diftance column, the cor-
refponding difference of latitude is 82.2.
Now 24.5, one-fourth of the difference of latitude,
and 82.2, taken in a departure column, are found to
agree neareft in table marked points at the bottom,
which is the courfe 5 and the correfponding diftance
85!: multiplied by 4 gives 343 miles, the diftance re¬
quired.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 98 the difference of latitude, to
604 the difference of longitude on numbers, being laid
the fame way from 330, the complement of the middle
latitude on fines, will reach to a certain point beyond
the termination of the line on the fcale. Now the
extent between this point and 90° on fines, will reach
from 450 to 730 24', the courfe on the line of tangents.
And the extent from 73® 24' the courfe, to 330 the
complement of the middle latitude on the line of fines,
being laid the fame way from 604 the difference of
longitude, will reach to 343 the diftance on the line of
numbers.
The true courfe, therefore, from the ifland of May
to the Naze of Noway is N 73° 24' E, ENE^E
nearly ; but as the variation at the May is 2|- points
weft, therefore, the courfe per compafs from the May is
E£S.
Difference of longitude - 10 4=604'
By ConJlruBion.
Fig. iS. DJaw the right line AD (fig. 18.) to reprefent the
meridian of the May ; with the chord of 60® defcribe
the arch mn, upon which lay off the chord of 32° 59,
the complement of the middle latitude from m to n:
from D through n draw the line DC equal to 604', the
difference of longitude, and from C draw CB perpen¬
dicular to AD : make BA equal to 98', the difference
of latitude, and join AC ; which applied to the fcale
will meafure 343 miles, the diftance fought : and the
angle A being meafured by means of the line of
Prob. II. Given one latitude, courfe, and diftance
failed, to find the other latitude and difference of lon¬
gitude.
Example. A fhip from Breft, in latitude 48° 23' N,
and longitude 40 30' W, failed SW^W 238 miles. Re
quired the latitude and longitude come to ?
By ConJlruBion.
With the courfe and diftance conftruft the triangle
ABC (fig. 17.), and the difference of latitude ABFig. *7.
being meafured, will be found equal to 142 miles :
hence the latitude come to is 46° 1' N, and the middle
latitude 47° 12'. Now make the angle DCB equal
to
(d) For R. : cofine mid. lat. :: Diff. of long. : Departure ;
And diff. of lat. : Dep. :: R. : Tangent courfe.
Hence diff. of lat. : cofine mid. lat. :: diff. of long. : tang, courfe j
Or diff. of lat. ; diff. of long. cofine mid. lat. : tang, courfe.
3
Pra&ice.
Middle to 4’/® 12/ j and DC being meafured, will be 281, the
Latitude difference Gf longitude : hence the longitude come to is
Ja’lmg. o° ti, w
By Calculation.
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius ... 10.00000
NAVIGATION.
Fig. 19.
is to the cofine of the courfe, 4-|
fo is the diffance, - 238
to the difference of latitude
Latitude of Bred,
Difference of lat.
48° 23'N
2 22 S
141.8
9-775°3
2.37658
2.15161
48° 23' N
half x 11 S
Lat. come to - 46* i' N. Pv'fid. lat. 47 12
To find the difference of longitude (e).
As the cofine of Mid. Lat. 4.70 1 27 9.83215
is to the fine of the courfe ^ points 9.90483
fo is the difiance 258 - 2.37658
2.44926
4° 30W
4 41 W
to the difference of longitude 281.3
Longitude of Breft - - -
Difference of longitude - -
Longitude come to - - 9 11 W.
By bifyccfion.
To the courfe 4-^ points, and difiance 238 miles,
the difference of latitude is 141.8, and the departure
191.1. Hence the latitude come to is 46° j.'N, and
middle latitude 470 12'. Then to middle latitude
470 12', and departure 191.1 in a latitude column, the
correfponding difiance is 281', which is the difference
of longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 8 points to 3-J points, the com¬
plement of the courfe on fine rhumbs, being laid the
fame way from the diftance 238, will reach to the dif¬
ference of latitude 142 on the line of numbers; and
the extent from 420 48' the complement of the middle
latitude, to 530 26', the courfe on the line of fines, will
reach from the difknee 238 to the difference of longi¬
tude 281 on numbers.
Pros. III. Given both latitudes and courfe, requir¬
ed the diftance and difference of longitude ?
Example. A ftiip from St Antonio, in latitude
17° o' N, and longitude 240 25' W, failed NW, ^ N,
till by obfervation her latitude is found to be 28° 34'N.
Required the diftance failed, and longitude come to ?
Latitude St Antonio I7°oN - I7°oN
Latitude by obfervation 28 34 N - 28 34 N
Difference of lat.
11 34-694111. 45 34
Middle lat. 22 47
By ConJlruBion.
Conftrufl the triangle ABC (fig. 19.), with the
given courfe and difference of latitude, and make the
angle BCD equal to the middle latitude. Now the
difiance AC and difference of longitude DC being
meafured, will be found equal to 864 and 558 refpec*
tively.
By Calculation.
To find the diftance.
As radius, - - - -
Is to the fecant of the courfe 3^ points
So is the difference of lat, 694
66
Middle
Latitude
Sailing.
10.00000
10.09517
2.84136
2-93653
To the diftance - 864
To find the difference of longitude.
As the cofine of middle latitude 22° 47' 9.96472
Is to the tangent of the courfe 3^ points 9.87020
So is the difference of latitude 694 - 2.84136
To the difference of longitude
Longitude of St Antonio
Difference of longitude
Longitude come to
558-3
2.74684
240 25'W
9 18 W
33 43 W
By InfpeBion.
To conrfe 3^ points, and difference of latitude 231.3
one third of that given, the departure is 171.6 and di¬
ftance 288, which multiplied by 3 is 864 miles.
Again to the middle latitude 22° 47', or 230, and
departure 171.6 in a latitude column, the diftance is
186, which multiplied by 3 is 558, the difference of
longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 4! points, the complement of the
courfe, to 8 points on the line of fine rhumbs, will
reach from the difference of latitude 694 to the diftance
864 on numbers; and the extent from the courfe 36° 34'
to 67° 13’, the complement of middle latitude on fines,
will reach from the dittance 864 to the difference of
longitude 558 on numbers.
Prob. IV. Given one latitude, courfe, and departure, .
to find the other latitude, diftance, and difference of
longitude.
Example. A fiJp from latitude 26° 30' N, and lon¬
gitude 450 30' W, failed NE-iN till her departure is
216 miles. Required the diftance run, and latitude and
longitude come to ?
By ConJlruBion.
With the courfe and departure conftruft the triangle
ABC (fig. 20.), and the diftance and difference of la-p-
titude being meafured, will be found equal to 340 and ^
263 refpeciively. Hence the latitude come to is 30° 53',
and middle latitude 28° 42'. Now make the angle
BCD equal to the middle latitude, and the difference
of longitude DC applied to the fcale will meafure 246'.
By Calculation.
To find the diftance.
As the fine of the courfe 3^ points 9.80236
Is to radius - - . 10.00000
So is the departure - 216 2.3344^
To the diftance
O-r
o.
2.53209
To
(fA This proportion is obvious, by confideri.ng the whole figure as an oblique-angled plane triangle.
664
Middle
•Latitude
■ Sailing.
Fig- 21-
NAVIGATION.
To find the difference of latitude.
As the tangent of the courfe 3^ points 9.91417
is to radius - - - 10.00000
fo is the departure - 216 - 2.33445
Practice.
to the difference of lat.
Latitude failed from
Difference of latitude
216
263.2
26° 30'N
4 23 N
To find the difference of longitude.
As the coline oi middle latitude 420 6'
is to the fine of the courfe 50 39
fo is the diftance - - 246
9.87039
9.88834
2.39093
half
2.42028
26° 30' N
2 12 N
Latitude come to 30 53 N. Mid. lat. 28 42
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius
is to the fecant of the mid. lat. 28°
fo is the departure - 216
to the difference of longitude 246.2
Longitude left - - -
Difference of longitude
10.00000
10.05693
2-33445
2.39138
450 30'W
4 6 E
Longitude come to - - - 41 24W
By InfpeHion.
Under the courfe 34 points, and oppofite to 108,
l]alf the departure, the diflance is 170, and difference
of latitude 131^’, which doubled, give 340 and 263
for the diftance and difference of latitude refpedftively.
Again, to middle latitude 28° 42', and departure
108, the diftance is 123 j which doubled is 246 the
difference of longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the courfe 34 points, on fine
rhumbs, to the departure 216 on numbers, will reach
from 8 points on fine rhumbs to about 340, the diftance
on numbers j and the fame extent will reach from 4!
points, the complement of the courfe, to 263, the dif¬
ference of latitude on numbers 5 and the extent from
6i° 18' the complement of the middle latitude, to 90°
on fines, will reach from the departure 216 to the dif¬
ference of longitude 246 on numbers.
Pros. Y. Given both latitudes and diftance 5 to find
the courfe and difference of longitude.
Example. From Cape Sable, in latitude 430 24, N,
and longitude 65° 39' W, a fhip failed 246 miles on a
direfl courfe between the fouth and eaft, and is then
by obfervation in latitude 40° 48' N. Required the
courfe and longitude in ?
Latitude Cape Sable, 430 24;N 430 24'N
Latitude by obfervation, 40 48'N 40 48;N
Difference of latitude, 2 36=156', fum 24 12
Middle latitude 42 6
By Conjlruclion.
Make AB (fig. 21.) equal to 156 miles ; draw BC
perpendicular to AB, and make AC equal to 246
miles. Draw CD, making with CB an angle of 420
6' the middle latitude. Now DC will be found to
meafure 256, and the courfe or angle A will meafure
5°° 39'-
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the diftance - - 246
is to the difference of latitude 156
fo is radius, - - - - -
.to the cofine of the courfe 50° 39'
4
to the difference of longitude
Longitude Cape Sable,
Difference of longitude
Lohgifude come to
256.4
2.40888
65° 39'W
4 j6'E
61 23 W
By InfpeSiion.
The diftance 246, and difference of latitude 156, are
found to conefpond above 4^ points, and the departure
is 190.1. Now, to the middle latitude 420, and de¬
parture 190.1 in a latitude column, the correfponding
diftance is 256, which is the difference ol longitude
required.
By Gunter"'s Scale.
The extent from 246 miles, the diftance, to 156, the
difference of latitude on numbers, will reach from 90°
to about 39°-f, the complement of the courfe on the
line of fines : and the extent from 48°, the complement
of the middle latitude, to 50°^, the courfe on fines,
will reach from the diftance 246m. to the difference of
longitude 256m. on numbers.
Pros. VI. Given both latitudes and departure 5
fought the courfe, diftance, and difference of longi¬
tude.
Example. A {hip from Cape St Vincent, in latitude
370 2^4, longitude 90 2'W, fails between the fouth and
weft; the latitude come to is 180 16'N, and departure
838 miles. Required the courfe and diftance run, and
longitude come to ?
Latitude Cape St Vincent, 370 2'N 370 2'
Latitude come to - 1816N 1816
Difference of latitude
18 46=2126 fum 55
Middle latitude 17
18
39
By Conjlruclion.
Make AB (fig. 22.') equal to the difference of lati-Fig. sz.
tude 1126 miles, and BC equal to the departure 838,
and join AC ; draw CD fo as to make an angle with
CB equal to the middle latitude 270 39'. Then the
courfe being meafured on chords is about 36°^, and
the diftance and difference of longitude, meafured on
the line of equal parts, will be found to be 1403 and
946 refpeftively.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the difference of latitude 11 26
is to the departure - - 838
fo is radius -
to the tangent of the courfe 36° 39'
To find the diftance.
As radius - , . - -
is to the fecant of the courfe 36° 39'
fo is the difference of latitude
2.39093
2.19312
10.©coco
9.80219 to the diftance
1126
»4°3
3-05»54
2 9 23 24
10.000:0
9 87170
I0.000C0
10.09566
3-°5I54
3.14720
Tq
Practice,
NAVIGATION.
Middle
Latitude
Sailing.
To find the difference of longitude
As radius -
is to the fecant of mid. lat. 270 39'
fo is the departure - 838
10.00000
10.05266
2.92324
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius -
is to the fecant of mid. lat. 470 25'
fo is the departure - - 210
10.00000
10.16963
2.32222
665
Middle
Latitude
Sailing,
to the difference of longitude 946
Longitude Cape St Vincent
Difference of longitude
2.97^90 to the difference of longitude 2.49185
90 2'W Longitude of Bourdeaux - - o° SS'W
15 46 W Difference of longitude - - - 5 10 W
Longitude come to - - - 24 48 W
By Ivfpeclion.
One tenth of the difference of latitude 112.6 and
of the departure 83.8, are found to agree under 3J-
points, and the correfponding diftance is 140, which
multiplied by 10 gives I400 miles. And to middle
latitude 27°^, and 209.5 one fourth of the departure
in a latitude column, the diftance is 236.5 •, which mul¬
tiplied by 4 is 946, the difference of longitude.
Bij Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the difference of latitude 1126 to
the departure 838 on numbers, will reach from 450
to 36°^ the courfe on tangents •, and the extent from
53°y the complement of the courfe to 90° on fines,
will reach from 1126 to 1403 the diftance on numbers.
Laftly, the extent from 62°y the complement of the
middle latitude, to 90° on fines, will reach from the
departure 838 to the difference of longitude 946 on
numbers.
Pros. VII. Given one latitude, diftance, and depar¬
ture, to find the other latitude, courfe, and difference
of longitude.
Example. A (hip from Bourdeaux, in latitude 440
50' N, and longitude 0° 35' W, failed between the
north and weft 374 miles, and made 210 miles of weft-
ing. Required the courfe, and the latitude and longi¬
tude come to ?
Fig- 23*
By ConJlruElion.
With the given diftance and departure make the
triangle ABC (fig. 23.). Now the courfe being mea-
fured on the line of chords is about 34%, and the dif¬
ference of latitude on the line of numbers is 309 miles :
hence the latitude come to, is 49° 59' N, and middle
latitude 470 25'. Then make the angle BCD equal
to 470 25', and DC being meafured will be 310 miles,
the difference of longitude.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the diftance - - 374
is to the departure - - 210
fo is radius - - - -
2.57287
2.32222
10.00000
to the fine of the courfe 34® 10' 9'7493 5
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius - - • - - - 10.00000
is to the cofine of the courfe 34° 10' 9-9 1772
fo is the diftance - - 374 2 57287
to the difference of latitude 3°9-4 2'49°59
Latitude of Bourdeaux 440 50' N 44° 50''
Difference of latitude 5 9N half 2 33
Latitude come to 49 59 N Mid. lat. 47 25
Vol. XIV. Part II.
Longitude in - - - - 5 45 W
By Infpeclion.
The half of the diftance 187, and of the departure
105, are found to agree neareft under 340, and the
difference of latitude anfvvering thereto is 155 ; which
doubled is 310 miles.
Again, to middle latitude 47° 25', and departure
105 in a latitude column, the correfponding diftance
is 155 miles, which doubled is 310 miles, the diffe¬
rence of longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the diftance 374 miles to the depar¬
ture 210 miles on the line of numbers, wiil reach from
90° to 340 10', the courfe on the line of fines ; and
the extent from 90° to 550 50', the complement of the
courfe on fines, wiil reach from the diftance 374 to the
difference of latitude 309 miles on numbers.
Again, the extent from 420 35', the complement of
the middle latitude, to 90° on fines, will reach from
the departure 210 to the difference of longitude 310011
numbers.
Pros. VIII. Given one latitude, departure, and dif¬
ference of longitude, to find the other latitude, courfe,
and diftance.
Example. A fiiip from latitude 54° 56' N, longitude
i° 10' W, failed between the north and eaft, til! by
obfervation fhe is found to be in longitude 50 26' E,
and has made 220 miles of eafting. Required the lati¬
tude come to, courfe, and diftance run ?
Longitude left - - - i° io'W
Longitude come to - - 5 26 E
Difference of longitude - - 6 36=396
By ConJlruBion.
Make BC (fig. 24.) equal to the departure 2 20, and Fig.
CD equal to the difference of longitude 396 :—then
the middle latitude BCD being meafured, will be found
equal to 590 15': hence the latitude come to is 570 34',
and difference of latitude 158°. Now make AB equal
to 158, and join AC, which applied to the fcale, will
meafure 271 miles. Alfo the courfe BAC being mea¬
fured on chords will be found equal 54°-j-.
By Calculation.
To find the middle latitude.
As the departure - - 220
is to the d'ff. of longitude - 396
fo is radius -
To the fecant of mid. lat.
Double, mid. lat. - 112 30
Latitude left - - 54 56
Latitude come to - 57 34
Diff. cf latitude
4^
2.34242
2.59769
10.00000
56° 15' 10.25527
2 38=158 miles
To
r*
666
NAVIGATION.
Fig. 25.
To find the courfe.
As the difference of latitude 158
is to the departure - - 220
fo is radius - - _ . .
to the tangent of the courfe 540 19'
To find the diltance.
As radius - - . - .
is to the fecant of the courfe 540 19'
fo is the difference of latitude 158
to the diflance
Pra&ice.
2.19866
2.34242
10.00000
io-M376
10.00000
10.234x0
2.19866
2.43276
270.9
By Infpe&ion.
As the difference of longitude and departure ex¬
ceed the limits of the tables, let, therefore, their halves
be taken 5 thefe are 198 and 110 refpe&ively. Now
Taefe are found to agree exatffly in the page marked 5
points at the bottom. Whence the middle latitude is
56° 15', and difference of latitude 158 miles.
Again, the difference of latitude 158 and depar¬
ture 220 will be found to agree nearly above 54°
the courfe, and the diftance on the fame line is 271
miles.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the difference of longitude 396 to
the departure 220 on numbers, will reach from 90° to
330 45', the complement of the middle latitude on fines j
and hence the difference of latitude is 158 miles. Now
the extent from 158 to 220 on numbers, will reach
from 450 to 54°-f on tangents ; and the extent from the
complement of the courfe 35°y to 90° on fines, will
reach from the difference of latitude 158 to the diftance
271 on numbers.
Prob. IX. Given the courfe and diftance failed, and
difference of longitude ; to find both latitudes.
Example. A (hip from a port in north latitude, failed
SE|S 438 miles, and differed her longitude 70 28'.
Required the latitude failed from, and that come to ?
By ConJlruBion.
With the courfe and diftance conftrusfl the triangle
ABC (fig. 25.), and make DC equal to 448 the gi¬
ven difference of longitude. Now the middle lati¬
tude BCD will meafure 48° 58', and the difference of
latitude AB 324 miles: hence the latitude left is 510
40', and that come to 46° 16'.
By Calculation.
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius - - - - -
is to the cofine of the courfe 3^ pts.
fo is the diftance - - 438
to the difference of latitude 324.5
To find the middle latitude.
As the difference of longitude 448
is to the diftance - - 4^8
fo is the fine of the courfe - 3I pts.
to the cofine of mid. latitude
half difference of latitude
Latitude failed from
Latitude come to
48° 58'
2 42
51 40
46 16
10.00000
9.86979
2.64147
2.51126
2.65128
2.64x47
9.82708
9.81727
By Infpc&ion.
To the courfe 3^ points, and half the diftance 219
miles, the departure is 147.0, and difference of lati¬
tude 162.25 which doubled is 323.4. Again, to half
the difference of longitude 224 in a diftance column,
the difference of latitude is 149.9 above 48°, and
146.9 over 490.
Now, as 30 : 29 : : 60': 58'.
Hence the middle latitude is 48° 58': the latitude failed
from is therefore 510 40', and latitude come to ^60i6'.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 8 points to 4^ points, the comple¬
ment of the courfe on fine rhumbs, will reach from the
diftar.ee 438 miles to the difference of latitude 3245 on
numbers. And the extent from the difference of longi¬
tude 448, to the diftance 438 on numbers, will reach
from the courfe 420 1 x' to the complement of the mid¬
dle latitude 410 2' on fines. Hence the latitude left is
510 40', and that come to 46° 16'.
Prob. X. To determine the difference of longitude
made good upon compound courfes, by middle latitude
failing.
Rule I. With the feveral courfes and diftances find
the difference of latitude and departure made good, and
the fttip’s prefent latitude, as in traverfe failing.
Now enter the traverfe table with the given middle
latitude, and the departure in a latitude column, the
corrtfponding diftance will be the difference of longi¬
tude, of the fame name with the departure.
Example. A fhip from Cape Clear, in latitude 51°
18' N, longitude 90 46' W, failed as follows:—SWAS
34 miles, WAN 63 miles, NNW 48 miles, and NE|E
85 miles. Required the latitude and longitude come to ?
Cou- fes.
Biff.
Diff. of Latitude.
SW£S
W6N
NNW
NE£E
N 340 W
54
63
48
85
79
N
12.3
44.4
53-9
no.6
44.9
Departure.
44.9
65.7
44.9
.... 65-7 = 1 6N
Latitude of Cape Clear 51 18N
65.7
w
3°.°
61.8
18.4
110.2
65-7
44-5
Latitude come to
Sum
Middle latitude
52 24N
103 42
51 51
Now, to middle latitude 510 51' or 5 2°, and de
parture 44.5 in a latitude column, the differ¬
ence of longitude is 72 in a diffance column.
Longitude of Cape Clear - 9 46 W
' Difference of longitude - 1 12 W
Longitude come to
1 o° 58'W
The above method is that always prafbfed to find
the difference of longitude mad<
good in the courfe
of
Middle
Latitude
Sailing.
Practice.
Middle of a day’s run ; and will, no doubt, give die difference
Latitude of longitude tolerably exa£t in any probable run a (hip
Sallin?~ may make in that time, efpecially near the equator.
But in a high latitude, when the diftances are confl-
derable, this method is not to be depended on.—To il-
luftrate this, let a (Lip be fuppofed to fail from latitude
570 N, as follows : E 240 miles, N 240 miles, W 240
miles, and S 240 miles : then, by the above method,
the {hip will be come to the fame place (he left. It
will, however, appear evident from the following
confideration, that this is by no means the cafe; for
let two (hips, from latitude 6x° N, and diftant 240
miles, fail direclly fouth till they are in latitude 570 N;
now their didance being computed by Problem IV.
of Parallel Sailing, will be 269.6 miles ; and, there¬
fore, if the ihip failed as above, die will be 29.6 miles
weft of the place failed from ; and the error in longi-
tude will be equal to 240 X fccant 6i° —iecant 570
= 29.6 X fecant
667
Theorems might be iwveftigated fur computing the Mncam
errors to which the above method is liable. Thele cor- Sa7‘n3‘ ,
regions may, however, be avoided, by ufing the follow¬
ing method.
Rule II. Complete the traverfe table as before, to
which annex five columns: the firft column is to con¬
tain the feveral latitudes the {hip is in at the end of
each courfe and diftance ; the fecond, the iums ofta:h
following pair of latitude ; the third, half the fums, or
middle latitudes; and the fourth and fifth columns are
to contain the differences of longitude.
Now find the difference of longitude anfwering to
each middle latitude and its correfponding departure,
and put them in the eaft or weft difference of longi¬
tude columns, according to the name of the departure^
Then the difference of the fums of the eaft: and weft
columns will be the difference of longitude made good,
of the fame name with the greater.
N A V I G A T I O N.
Example. A ftiip from Halliford in Iceland, in lat. 64° 30' N, long. 270 15' W, failed as follows: SSW 46
miles, SW 61 miles, S6W 59 miles, SE£E 86 miles, S£E^E 76 miles. Required the lat. and long, come to ?
Traverse Table.
Courfes.
im
Diff. of Lat.
N
Departure.
w
Longitude Table.
Succeffive
Latitudes.
Sums.
Diff. of Longitude
SSW
SW
SMV
SE£E
Si'E-i-E
46
61
59
S6
76
42- 5
43- 1
57-9
47.8
72.7
17.6
43-1
n-5
22.0
264.0
By Rule I.
Latitude Halliford
Difference of latitude
93*5
72.2
21.3
72.2
64° 30' N
4 24 S
Latitude in - - - - 60 6
Sum - - - - - 124 36
Middle latitude - - - 62 18
Now, to middle lat. 62 18, and departure
21.3, the difference of long, is 46 E.
Long. Halliford - - 27 15 W
N
Longitude in - - - 16 29
The error of comm, method, in this Ex. is 12'.
64° 30'
63 48
63
62
61
60
5
7
J9
6
128°
126
125
123
121
18'
53
12
26
25
64° 9
63 27
62 36
61 43
60 43
Difference of longitude
Longitude Halliford
Longitude in
I95*9
161.8
161.8
34-1
27.15 W
26.41 W
Chap. VI. Of Mercator's Sailing.
It was obferved in Middle Latitude Sailing, that the
difference of longitude made upon an oblique rhumb
could not be exactly determined by ufing the middle
latitude. In Mercator’s failing, the difference of lon¬
gitude is very eafily found, and the feveral problems of
failing refolved with the utmoft accuracy, by the aflift-
ance of Mercator’s chart or equivalent tables.
In Mercator’s chart, the meridians are flraight lines
parallel to each other; and the degrees’ of latitude,
which at the equator are equal to thofe of longitude,
increafe with the diftance of the parallel from the equa¬
tor. The parts of the meridian thus increafed are call¬
ed meridional parts. A table of thefe parts was firfl:
conftrufled by Mr Edward Wright, by the continual
addition of the fecants of each minute of latitude.
For by parallel failing,
R : cof. of lat. : : partof equat. : fimilar part of parallel.
4 P 2 And
668
Mercator’s
SaiUng.
NAVIGATION.
And becaufe the equator and meridian on the globe
, are equal; therefore,
R : cof. lat. :: part of meridian : fimilar part of parallel.
Or fee. lat. : R :: part of merid.: fimilar part of parallel.
fecant latitude R
Hence —— — ■■■ -    ,, .-7-  —
’ part of meridian, part of parallel.
But in Mercator’s chart the parallels of latitude are
equal, and radius is a conflant quantity. If therefore,
the latitude be affumed fucceflively equal to ‘ i', 2/ 3',’
&c. and the correfponding parts of the enlarged meri¬
dian be reprefented by a, b, c, &c j then,
fecant i' fecant 2' fecant 3'
part of rner. a part of mer. b part of mer. c, &c.
Hence fecant i': part of mer. a :: fecant 2' : part of
mer. b :: fecant 3' : part of mer. c, &c.
Therefore by 12th V. Euclid,
Secant i' : part of mer. a :: fecant i' --j- fecant
cant 3', &c. : parts oi a b mer. c, &c.
That is, the meridional parts of any given latitude are
equal to the fum of the fecants of the minutes in that
latitude (e).
Since CD : LK :: R : fecant LD, fig. 15.
And in the triangle CED,
ED : CD :: R : tangent CED j
Therefore, ED : LK :: R1 : fecant LD x tangent CED
rc ED X fee. X LD X tang. CED
fe-
Hence LK
ED x fee. LD tang
R X ~R
ED x fee. LD
Rl
CED
But
R
meridian anfwering to ED.
ED X fecant LD
is the enlarged portion of the
Now the fum of all the
quantities
R
Plat«*
CCCLXIV.
Fig. 16.
Practice.
proper difference of latitude j that is, if the given la- Mercator’s
titudes be of the fame name, the difference of the cor- Sailing,
refponding meridional parts will bj? the meridional dif- y
fercnce of latitude j but if the latitudes are of a con¬
trary denomination, the fum of thefe parts will be the
meridional difference of latitude.
Prob. I. Given the latitudes and longitudes of two
places, to find- the courfe and diftance between them.
Ex. Required the courfe and diftance between Cape
Finifterre, in latitude 420 52' N, longitude 90 17'W,
and Port Pray a in the ifland of St Jago, in latitude
140 54' N, and longitude 230 29' W ?
Lat. Cape Finifterre 420 52' Mer. parts 2852
Latitude Port Praya 14 54 Mer. parts 904
Difference of lat. rr 27 58 Mer. diff. lat. 1948
1678
Longitude Cape Finifterre
Longitude Port Praya - 23
17'W
29 W
Diff.
longitude - - 14 12=852.
By Con/lru&ion.
correfponding to the fum
of all the ED’s contained in AS, will be the meridional
parts anfwering to the difference of latitude AS ; and
MN is the fum of all the correfponding portions of the
equator LK.
CED
Whence MN == mer. diff. of lat. X tangent - .
That is, the difference of longitude is equal to the
meridional difference of latitude multiplied by the tan¬
gent of the courfe, and divided by the radius.
This equation anfwers to a right-angled re£lilineal
triangle, having an angle equal to the courfe •, the ad¬
jacent fide equal to the meridional difference of latitude,
and the oppofite fide the difference of longitude. This
triangle is, therefore, fimilar to a triangle conftrudfed,
with the courfe and difference of latitude, according to
the principles of plane failing, and the homologous fides
will be proportional. Hence, if, in fig. 26. the angle
A reprefents the courfe, AB the difference of latitude,
and if AD be made equal to the meridional difference
of latitude y then DE, drawn perpendicular to AD,
meeting the diftance produced to E, will be the diffe¬
rence of longitude.
It is fcarcely neceffary to obferve, that the meridional
difference of latitude is found by the fame rules as the
Draw the ftraight line AD (fig. 26.) to reprefent the Fig. 26'.
meridian of Cape Finifterre, upon which lay off AB,
AD equal to 1678, and 1948, the proper and meridi¬
onal differences of latitude ; from D draw DE perpen¬
dicular to AD, and equal to the difference of longitude
852, join AE, and draw BC parallel to DE j then the
difference AC will meafure 1831 miles, and the courfe
BAC 23" 37'
By Calculation.
To find the courle.
As the meridian difference of lat. 1948
is to the difference of longitude - 852
fo is radius -
to the tangent of the courfe 230 37'
To find the diftance.
As radius - - - -
is to the fecant of the courfe, 230 37'
fo is the difference of latitude 1678
to the diftance
3.28959
2.93°44
10.00000
9.64085
10.00000
10.03798
3.22479
1831 - - 3.26277
By InfpcElion.
As the meridian difference of latitude and difference
of longitude are too large to be found in the tables, let
the tenth of each be taken 5 thefe are 194.8 and 85.2
refpeftively. Now thefe are found to agree neareft un¬
der 240} and to 167.8, one-tenth of the proper differ¬
ence of latitude, the diftance is about 183 miles, which
multiplied by 10 is 1830 miles.
By Gunter's Seale.
The extent 1948, the meridional difference of lati¬
tude, to 852, the difference of longitude on the line
of numbers, will reach from 450 to 230 37', the courfe
(e) This is not ftrifUy true y for inftead of taking the fum of the fecants of every minute in the diftance of
the given parallel from the equator, the fum of the fecants of every point of latitude ihould be taken..
Practice. N A V I G
Mercator’s on the line of tangents. And the extent from 66° 23',
Sailing, the complement of the coutfe to 90° on fines, will
v~—~' reach from 1678, the proper difference of latitude, to
1831, the diltance on the line of numbers.
Prop.. II. Given the courfe and diftance, failed from
a place whole fituation is known, to find the latitude
and longitude of the place come to.
Example. A fhip from Cape Hinlopen in Virginia, in
latitude 38° 47' N, longitude 750 4' W, failed 267 miles
NEZ'N. Required the {hip’s prefent place ?
By ConfiruBion.
Fig- 27- With the courfe and difiance failed, conftruft the
triangle ABC (fig. 27.); and the difference of latitude
AB being meafured, is 22 2 miles : hence the latitude
come to is 420 29' N, and the meridional difference of
latitude 293. Make AI}, equal to 293 ; and draw
DE perpendicular to AD, and meeting AC produced
in E : then, the difference of longitude DE being ap¬
plied to the fcale of equal parts will meafure 196 5 the
longitude come to is therefore 710 48' W.
By Calculation.
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius ----- 10.00000
is to the cofine of the courfe, - 3 points - 9.91985
fo is the diftance - - - 267 - - 2.42651
to the difference of latitude - 222 - - - 2.34636
Lat. Cape Hinlopen zr 38° 47' N. Mer. parts 2528
Difference of lat. - 3 42 N.
Latitude come to - 42 29 N. Mer. parts 2821
Meridional difference of latitude 293
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius - - - 10.00000
is to tangent of the courfe, - 3 points - 9.82489
fo is the mer. diff. of latitude - 293 - - 2.46687
to the difference of longitude - 195.8 - - 2.29176
Longitude Cape Hinlopen - - 750 4' W
Difference of longitude - - - 3 16 E
Longitude come to - - - -7148W
By InfpeBion.
To the courfe 3 points, and diftance 267 miles, the
difference of latitude is 222 miles: hence the latitude in
is 420 29', and the meridional difference of latitude
293. Again, to courfe 3 points, and 146.5 half the
mer. difference of latitude, the departure is 97.9, which
doubled is 195.8, the difference of longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 8 points to the complement of the
courfe 5 points, on fine rhumbs, will reach from the
diftance 267 to the difference of latitude 222 on num¬
bers ; and the extent from 4 points to 3 points on
tangent rhumbs, will reach from the meridional differ¬
ence of latitude 293 to the difference of longitude 196
on numbers.
Pros. III. Given the latitudes and bearing of two
places j to find their diftance and difference of longi¬
tude.
A T I O N. 669
Example. A (hip from Port Canfo in Nova Scotia, Mercator’s
in latitude 450 20' N, longitude 6o° 55' W, failed SE Sal!^* .
\ S, and by obfervation is found to be in latitude
410 14' N. Required the diftance failed, and longitude
come to ?
Lat. Port Canfo - 45°20/N - Mer. parts - 3058
Lat. in by obfervation 41 14 N - Mer. parts - 2720
Difference of lat. - 4 6= 246 Mer. diff. lat. - 338
By ConJlruBion.
Make AB (fig. 28.) equal to 246, and AD equal ^
t0 338 > draw AE, making an angle with AD equal
to 3^- points, and draw BC, DE perpendicular to AD.'
Now AC being applied to the fcale, will meafure 332,
and DE 306.
By Calculation.
To find the diftance.
As radius - - - - - io.ooooo?
is to the recant of the courfe, - 3|- points - 10:13021
fo is the difference of latitude - 246 - - 2-39°93
to the diftance - - 332 • - 2.52114
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius ----- 10.00000
is to the tangent of the courfe, - 3^ points - 9.95729
fo is the mer. diff. of latitude - 338 - - 2.52892
to the difference of longitude - 306.3 - - 2.48621
Longitude Port Canfo - - 6o° 55' W
Difference of longitude - - 5 6 E
Longitude in - - - 53 49 W
By InfpeBion.
Under the courfe 3^ points, and oppofite to half
the difference of latitude 123 in a latitude column is
166 in a diftance column, which doubled is 332 the
diftance ; and oppofite to 169, half the meridional difi
ference of latitude in a latitude column, is 153 in a dew
parture column, which doubled is 306, the difference of
longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the complement of the courfe 4*
points to 8 points on fine rhumbs, will reach from the
difference of latitude 246 m. to the diftance 332 on
numbers j and the extent from 4 points, to the courfe
3I- points on tangent rhumbs, will reach from the me--
ridional difference of latitude 338 to the difference of
longitude 306 on numbers.
Pros. IV. Given the latitude and longitude of the'
place failed from, the courfe and departure; to.find
the diftance, and the latitude and longitude of the-
place come to.
Example. A (hip failed from Sallee in latitude4
330 58' N, longitude 6° 20' W, the corrected courfe
was NW^Wf W, and departure 420 miles. Required
the diftance run, and the latitude and longitude come-
By Con/lruBioh.
With the courfe and departure conftruft the triangle Fig. 29, -
ABC (fig. 29.) ; now AC and AB being meafured,
will be found to be equal to 476 and 224 refpeftively :
hence
Lat. of St Mary’s
Lat. come to
Difference of lat.
6yo NAVIGATION.
Mercator’s hence the latitude come to is 3*7° 42'N, and meridional
1 Saill»g- difference of latitude 276. Make AD equal to 276 ;
v""" and draw DE perpendicular thereto, meeting the di-
ftance produced in E ; then DE applied to the fcale
will be found to meafure 516'. The longitude in is,
therefore, 140 56'W.
By Calculation.
To find the diftance.
As radius -
is to the cofecant of the courfe pts
fo is the departure - - 420
36° 5'7'N
49 57 N
J3
Pra&ice.
Mer. parts 3470 Mercator’s
Mer. parts 2389 , i
Mer. diff. lat. 1081
10.00000
IO-°5457
2.62325
to the diftance - - 476.2 - 2.67782
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius ... - - 10.00000
is to the co-tangent of the courfe, 54 pts - 9.72796
fo is the departure - - 420 - ■ 2.62325
to the difference of latitude - 224.5 2.35121
Lat. of Sallee 330 58'N Mer. parts 2169
Diff. of lat. 3 44 N
780
By ConJlruRion.
Make AB (fig. 30.) equal to 780, and AD equal Fig. 30.
to 1081 ; draw EC, DE perpendicular to AD ; make
AC equal to 1162', and through AC draw ACE.
Then the courfe or angle A being meafured, will be
found equal to 470 50', and the difference of longitude
DE will be 1194.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the diftance ... 1162 - 3.06521
is to the difference of latitude, - 780 - 2.89209
fo is radius - - - - 10.00000
Latitude in 37 42 N Mer. parts 2445
Mer. difference of latitude - 276
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius ----- 10.00000
is to the tangent of the courfe pts - 10.27204
fo is the mer. diff. of latitude 276 - - 2.44091
to the difference of longitude 5163 - 2.71295
Longitude of Sallee - - 6° 20' W
Difference of longitude - 8 36 W
Longitude in - * - 14 56 W
By InfpeElion.
Above 54 points the courfe, and oppofite to 210
half the departure, are 238 and 112 j which doubled,
we have 476 and 224, the diftance and difference of
latitude refpeftively. And to the fame courfe, and
oppofite to 138, half the meridional difference of lati¬
tude, in a latitude column, is 258 in a departure co¬
lumn j which being doubled is 516, the difference of
longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 54 points, the courfe on fine
rhumbs, to the departure 420 on numbers will reach
from 8 points on fine rhumbs to the diftance 476 on
numbers 5 and from the complement of the courfe 24
points on fine rhumbs, to the difference pf latitude 224
on numbers.
Again, the extent from difference of latitude 224 to
the meridional difference of latitude 276 on numbers,
will reach from the departure 420 to the difference of
longitude 516 on the fame line.
Pros. V. Given the latitudes of two places, and
their diftance, to find the courfe and difference of lon¬
gitude.
Example. A Ihip from St Mary’s, in latitude
36° 57' N, longitude 250 9' W, failed on a diredt
courfe between the north and eaft 1162 miles, and is
then by obfervation in latitude 490 57' N. Required
the courfe fleered, and longitude come to ?
■Z
to the cofine of the courfe - 470 50' - 9.82688
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius ----- 10.00000
is to the tangent of the courfe, 470 50' - 10.04302
fo is the mer. diff. of latitude 1081 - 3*03383
to the difference of longitude 1194 - 3.07685
Longitude of St Mary’s - 2510 9'W
Difference of longitude - 19 54 E
Longitude in
5 i5 W
By InfpeBion.
Becaufe the diftance and difference of latitude ex¬
ceed the limits of the table, take the tenth of each 5
thefe are 116.2 and 78.0 : Now thefe are found to a-
gree neareft above 44 points, which is therefore the
courfe j and to this courfe, and oppofite to 108.1, one
tenth of the meridional difference of latitude, in a la¬
titude column, is 119.3 in a departure column, which
multiplied by 10 is 1193, the difference of longiiude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the diftance 1162 m. to the diffe¬
rence of latitude 780 m. on numbers, will reach from
90° to 420 10' in the line of fines. And the extent 450,
to the courfe 47°'5o' on the line of tangents, will reach
from the meridional difference of latitude 1081 to the
difference of longitude 1194 on numbers.
Prob. VI. Given the latitudes of two places, and
the departure, to find the courfe, diftance, and difference
of longitude.
Example. From Aberdeen, in latitude 57° 9'N,
longitude 2° 8' W, a fliip failed between the fouth and
eaft till her departure is 146 miles, and latitude come
to 530 32' N. Required the courfe and diftance run,
and longitude come to ?
Latitude Aberdeen 570 9'N Mer. parts 4199
Latitude come to 53 32 N Mer. parts 3817
Difference of latitude 3 37=217' Mer. diff. lat. 382
By Conflvu&ion.
With the difference of latitude 217 m. and departure Fig. 31
146 m. conftruft the triangle ABC (fig. 31.), make
AD
Practice.
Mercator’s AD equal to 382, draw DE parallel to BC, and pro-
Sailing, AC to E : Then the courfe BAG will meafure
33° 36', the diftance AC 261, and the difference of
longitude DE 257.
N A V I G A T ION. 671
longitude DE will meafure 224' : hence the longitude Mercator’s
in is io° 30'E. , SRiiinS- ,
Fig. 12.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the difference of latitude 217
is to the departure - - 146
fo is radius - - - -
to the tangent of the courfe - 330 56'
To find the diftance.
As radius -
is to the fecant of the courfe - 33° 56'
fo is the difference of latitude - 217
to the diftance - - - 261.5
To find the difference of longitude.
As the difference of latitude - 217
is to the nier. diff. of latitude - 382
fo is the departure - - 146 -
2.33646
2.16435
10.00000
9.82789
IO.COCOO
10.08109
2.33646
z-WSS
2.33646
2.58206
2 16435
2.40995
20 8' W
4 17 E
Bi/ Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the diftance - - 252 - 2.40140
is to the departure - 173 * 2.23805
fo is radius - - - ^ 10.00000
to the fine of the courfe - 430 2l' - 9.83665
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius ... - - io.ocooo
is to the cofine of the courfe 430 2i' - 9.86164
fo is the dittance » 252 - 2.40140
to the difference of latitude 183.2 - 2.26304
Latitude of Naples 40° 51'N. Mer. parts 2690
Difference of latitude 3 3 S.
to the difference of longitude 257
Longitude of Aberdeen
Difference of longitude - - -
Longitude come to - - - - 29E
By Infpcchon.
The difference of latitude 217, and departure 146,
are found to agree neareft under 34>,and the corre-
fponding diftance is 262 miles. To the fame conrfe,
and oppofite to 190.7, the neareft to 191, half the me¬
ridional difference of latitude, is x 28.6 in a depar¬
ture column, which doubled is 257, the difference of
longitude.
By Giunter's Scale.
The extent from the difference of latitude 217, to
the departure 146 on numbers, will reach from 450
to about 340, the courfe on the line of tangents 5 and
the fame extent will reach from the meridional diffe¬
rence of latitude 382 to 257, the difference of longi¬
tude on numbers.—Again, the extent from the courfe
340 to 90 on fines, will reach from the departure 146
to the diftance 261 on numbers.
Frob. VII. Given one latitude, diftance, and de¬
parture ; to find the other latitude, courie, and diffe¬
rence of longitude.
Example. A ftiip from Naples, in latitude 40° 51' N,
longitude 140 I47 E, failed 252 miles on a diredt courfe
between the fouth and weft, and made 173 miles of
welling. Required the courfe made good, and the la¬
titude and longitude come to ?
By ConJlruBion.
With the diftance and departure make the triangle
ABC (fig. 32.) as formerly.—Now the courfe BAC
being meafured by means of a line of cords will be
found equal to 430 21', and the difference of latitude
applied to the lca!e of equal parts will meafure 183':
hence the latitude come to is 370 48'N, and meri¬
dional difference of latitude 237.—Make AD equal
to 237, and complete the figure, and the difference of
Latitude come to - 37 48 N. Mer. parts 2453
Meridional difference of latitude - 237
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius - 10.00000
is to the tangent of the courfe 430 21' - 9‘97497
fo is the mer. diff. of latitude - 237 - 2.37475
2.34972
140 14' E
3 44W
1 o 30 E
to the difference of longitude - 223.7
Longitude of Naples - - -
Difference of longitude - - -
Longitude in - - -
By InfpeElion.
Under 430 and oppofite to the diftance 252 m. the
departure is 171.8, and under 440, and oppofite to the
fame diftance, the departure is i75-0‘
Then as 3.2 : 1.2 : : 60' : 22'.
Hence the courfe is 430 22'.
Again, under 430 and oppolite to 118.5, half the
meridional difference of latitude in a latitude column,
is 110.5 in a departure column j alfo under 440 and
eppoftte to 118.5II4'4‘
Then as 3.2 : 1.2 : : 3.9 : 1.5.
And 110.54-1.5=112, which doubled is 224, the
difference of longityide.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the diftance 252 on numbers, to
90° on fines, will reach from the departure 173 on
numbers, to the courfe 43! on fines j and the fame ex¬
tent that will reach from the complement of the courfe
4604 on fines will reach to the difference of latitude
183 on numbers.—Again, the extent from 45°ito 43°4
on tangents will reach from the meridional difference
of latitude 237, to the difference of longitude 224, on
numbers.
Prob. VIII. Given one latitude, .courfe, and diffe¬
rence of longitude : to find the other latitude and di¬
ftance.
Example. A fliip from Tercera, in latitude 38° 45'N,
longitude 27P 6' W, failed on a direft courie, which,
when corrected, was N 320 E, and is found by obfer-
vation to be in longitude 180 24'W. Required the la¬
titude come to, and diftance failed ?
Longitude
672
Fig. 33.
s Longitude of Terccra
Longitude in - -
Difference of longitude
By ConJlruBion.
Make the right-angled triangle ADE (fig. 33,) ha¬
ving the angle A equal to the courfe 32°, and the fide
DE equal to the difference of longitude 522 : then
AD will meafure 835, which added to the meridional
parts of the latitude left, will give thofe of the latitude
come to 48° 46'; hence, the difference of latitude is
601 : make AB equal thereto, to which let BC be
drawn perpendicular; then AC applied to the fcale
will meafure 708 miles.
By Calculation.
To find the meridional difference of latitude.
As radius - ... - 10.00000
is to the co tangent of the courfe 3 2° o' 10.20421
fo is the difference of longitude 5 22 2.71767
to the mer. difference of latitude 8352 2.92188
Latitude of Tercera 38° 41;^ Mer. parts 2526
Mer. diff. of lat.
A T I O N. Pra&ice.
Example. A fhip from port St Julian, in latitude Mercator’s
490 10'S, longitude 68° 44'W, failed as follows; Sailing. ^
  ESE 53 miles, SEZ'S 74 miles, E by N 68 m. SEZ<E4:E v
8 42—522 47 miles, and E 84 miles. Required the fhip’s pre*
fent place ?
N A V I G
270 6'W
18 24 W
Latitude come to - 48 46 N Mer. parts
835
336i
Difference of latitude 10 irr6ox miles.
To find the diftance.
As radius -
is to the fecant of the courfe - 3 2° o' -
fo is the difference of latitude - 601
10.00000
10,07158
2.77887
to the diflance
707.7 - 2.85045
ESE
SEZ>?/S
E%N
SE%E|E
E
S 720 E 197
Latitude left,
3-3
I3'3
Departure.
20.3
61.5
io3*9
13*3
49.0
41.1
66.7
4I-5
84.0
282.3
90.6=
W
49
3
10 S
m.pt. 3397
Latitude come to
50 41 Sm. pt. 3539
Mer. difference of latitude - -• 142
Now to coutfe 7 2°, and oppofite to 71, half the
mer. difference of latitude in a latitude column, is
218.7 in a departure column, which doubled is
437, the difference of longitude.
Longitude of Port St Julian
Difference of longitude
Longitude come to
68° 44'W
7 17 E
61 27 W
By InfptBion.
To courfe 3 2°, and oppofite to 130.5, one fourth of
the given difference of longitude in a departure column,
the difference of latitude is 208.8, which multiplied
By 4 is 835, the meridional difference of latitude j
hence the latitude in is 48° 46' N, and difference of la¬
titude 601.
Again, to the fame courfe, and oppofite to 200, one
third of the difference of latitude, the diflance is 236,
which multiplied by 3 gives 708 miles.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the courfe 3 2°, to 450 on tangents,
will reach from the difference of longitude 522 to the
meridional difference of latitude 835 on numbers.—
And the extent from the complement of the courfe 58°
to 90° on fines, ‘will reach from the difference of lati¬
tude 601, to the diflance 708 miles on numbers.
Pros. IX. To find the difference of longitude made
good upon compound courfes.
Rule. With the feveral courfes and diflances, com¬
plete the Traverfe Table, and find the difference of lati¬
tude, departure, and courfe made good, and the lati¬
tude come to as in Trax^erfe Sailing. Find alfo the
meridional difference of latitude.
Now to the courfe and meridional difference of la¬
titude, in a latitude column, the correfponding depar¬
ture w’ill be the difference of longitude, which applied
to the longitude left will give the fhip’s prefent lon¬
gitude.
Although the above method is that ufually employ¬
ed at fea to find the difference of longitude, yet as it
has been already obferved, it is not to be depended on,
efpecially in high latitudes, long diflances, and a con-
fiderable variation in the courfes, in which cafe the fol¬
lowing method becomes neceffary.
Rule II. Complete the Traverfe Table as before,
to which annex five columns. Now with the latitude
left, and the feveral differences of latitude, find the
fucceffive latitudes, which are to be placed in the firft
of the annexed columns j in the fecond, the meridional
parts correfponding to each latitude is to be put $ and
in the third, the meridional differences of latitude.
Then to each courfe, and correfponding meridional
difference of latitude, find the difference of longitude,
by Pros. IV. which place in the fourth or fifth co¬
lumns, according as the coaft is eafterly or wefterly ,
and the difference between the fums of thefe columns
wall be the difference of longitude made good upon the
whole, of the fame name with the greater.
Remarks.
1. When the courfe is north or fouth, there is no
difference of longitude.
2. When the courfe is call or weft, the difference
of longitude cannot be found by Mercator’s Sailing j
in this cafe the following rule is to be ufed.
To the neareft degree to the given latitude taken
as a courfe, find the diftance anfwering to the depar¬
ture in a latitude column : this diftance will be the dif¬
ference of longituj^.
3
Ex.
Practice. NAVIGATION. t
Mercator’s Ex. I. Four diys ago we took our departure from Faro-head, in latitude 58® 40' N, and longitude 4® 50'
, Saiill1g- W, and lince have failed as follows : NW 32 miles, W 69 miles, WNW 93 miles, W£S 77 miles, SW 58
" "v" ' miles, and W^S 49 miles.—Required our prefent latitude and longitude ?
Traverse Table.
NW
W
WNW
WbS
SW
WiS
W 1° s
343
22.6
35-6
N
58.2
15.O
41.O
1 7-2
63.2
58.2
5.0
Departure.
22.6
69.O
85'9
75-5
41.0
48.5
34M
Longitude Table.
Succeffive
Latitudes.
58® 40'
59 3
59 3
59 38
59 23
58 42
58 35
Merid.
Parts.
4370
4415
44r5
4484
4454
4374
436i
Merid.
DifF. Lat.
45
o
69
30
80
J3
DifF. of Longitude.
Longitude of Faro-head
Difference of longitude
Longitude in - -
W
45-o
134.0
166.5
1 ri.o
80.0
88.0
664.5
4° 5 o' W.
11 4 W.
15 54 W.
Ex. 2. A fhip from latitude 78° 15' N, longitude 28° 14' E, failed the following courfes and diftances. The
latitude come to is required, and the longitude, by both methods : the bearing and diftance of Hacluit’s head¬
land, in latitude 790 55' N, longitude 110 55' E, is alfo required ?
Traverse Table.
Longitude Table.
DifF. of Latitude.
Departure.
w
Succeflive
Latitudes.
Merid.
Parts.
Merid.
DifF. Lat.
DifF. of Longitud°.
w
WNW
SW
NWfW'
N£E
NW|N
SiE^E
589
564
107.9
45-o
67.9
73*4
21.5
26.3
142.3
67.9
68.8
33*4
268.2
I4I*3
I4I*3
47.8
312.4
47.8
Latitude left
DifF. of latitude
126.9
By Rule I.
78° 15' N.
2 7 N.
264.6
Mer. pts. 7817
Lat. come to - 80 22 N. Mer. pts. 8504
Meridional diff. of latitude
As difference of lat.
is to mer. diff. of lat.
fo is the departure
to diff. of longit.
126.9
687
264.6
*43 2
687
2.10346
2.83696
2.42256
3.1:5606
230 52'
28 14
Longitude left
Longitude in - 422
The error of this method, in the
is therefore i° 23'.
W.
E.
E.
prefent example.
78° 15'
79 14
78 6
79 2
80 co
81 35
80 22
7817
8120
7774
8056
8676
8970
8504
303
34$
282
620
294
466
123.6
166.7
290.3
731-7
346.0
343-6
218.0
^39-3
290.3
1349-o
28° 14' E.
22 29 W.
Longitude left
Difference of longitude
Longitude in - - - 5 45 £.
To find the bearing and diftance of Hacluit’s
head-land.
Lat. H. H.=790 55'N. M. P. 8347 Lon.n0 55'E.
Lat. fhip. =80 22 N. M. P. 8504 Lon. 5 45 E.
Diff. lat.
27M.D.L. 157D.L. 6 10
310
. Now to 78.5 half the meridional difference of la¬
titude, and i85.ahalfthe difference of longitude,
the courfe 67°, and oppofite to the difference of lati¬
tude 27, the diftance is 69 miles.—Hence Hacluit’s
head-land bears S 67° E, diftant 69 miles.
Vol. XIV. Part II.
4&
Chap.
C74
Method of
^he Pro- ^'HAP* VII. Containing the Method of refolding the
blems of feveral Problems of Mercator’s Sailing, by the Af-
Mercator’s fijlance of a Table of Logarithmic Tangents.
Sailing.
ProB. I. Given one latitude, diftance, an**differ¬
ence of longitude 5 to find the courfe, and other lati¬
tude.
Rule. To the arithmetical complement of the loga¬
rithm of the diftance, add the logarithm of the differ¬
ence of longitude in minutes, and the log. cofine of
the given latitude, the fum rejediing radius will be the
log. fine of the approximate courfe.
To the given latitude taken as a courfe in the tra-
verfe table, and half the difference of longitude in a
diftance column, the correfponding departure will be
Pra&ice.
the firft corredlion of the courfe, which is fubtradtive Method of
if the given latitude is the leaft of the two) otherwife, ref°lving
additive. blernsof
In Table A, under the complement of the courfe, Mercator’s
and oppofite to the firft correction in the fide CO- Sailing,
lumn, is the fecond correction. In the fame table find v*“—
the number anfwering to the courfe at the top, and dif¬
ference of longitude in the fide column ; and fuch part
of this number being taken as is found in table B op¬
pofite to the given latitude, will be the third correc¬
tions. Now thefe two corrections, fubtraCted from the
courfe corrected by the firft correction, wrill give the
true courfe.
Now the courfe and diftance being known, the dif¬
ference of latitude is found as formerly.
NAVIGATION.
Example From latitude 50° N, a {hip failed 290
miles between the fouth and weft, and diifered her lon¬
gitude 50. Required the courfe, and latitude come to ?
Diftance
Diff. of longitude
Latitude
290. ar. co. log. 7.1:2760
300 log. 2.47712
50° o' co. - 9.80807
Approximate courfe - 4141 fine - 9.82279
To lat. 50®, and half diff. long. 150 in a dift.
col. the firft corn in a dep. col. is 115 - +1 55
Approximate courfe - 41 41
Cor. - - - 1 55
In table A to co. courfe 48° and ill: corn 1
i° 55' the fecond direction is -
To courfe 410 and diff. long. 50, thenum-T
ber is 15, of which (Tab. B) being >—o 3
taken, gives J 
True courfe - - - - S. 4331W
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius - - - 10.000000
is to the cofine of the courfe 430 33' 9.86020
£b is the diftance - - 290 * 2.46240
to the difference of latitude - 210.2 2.32260
Latitude left - - - - - jo0©'N
Difference of latitude - - - - 3 30 S
Latitude come to - - - - 46 30 N
This problem was propofed, and refolved, Mr
Robert Hues in his Treatife on the Globes, printed at
London in the year 1639, p. 181.
It was afterwards propofed by Dr Halley, in the fe¬
cond volume of the Mifcellanea Curiofa, p. 35. in the
following words.
A Jhip fails from a given latitude, and, having run a
certain number of leagues, has altered her longitude by
a given angle ; it is required to fnd the courfe fleered.
And he then adds—The folution hereof would be very
acceptable, if not to the public, at leaf to the author of
this tratt, being likely to open fame further light into the
tnyferies of geometry.
Since that time, this problem has been folved in an
indireCl manner, by feveral writers on navigation, and
others :—As Monfieur Bouguer, in his Nouveau Traite
de Navigation ; Mr Robertfon, in the fecond volume of
his Elements of Navigation ; Mr Emerfon, in his Theo¬
ry of Navigation, which accompanies his Mathematical
Principles of Geography ; Mr Ifrael Lyons, iruthe Nau¬
tical Almanack for 1772 j and Monfieur Bezout, in his
Traite de Navigation ; and lately, Baron Maferes, with
the afliftance of Mr Attwood, has given the firft direCt
folution of this problem. For a comparifon of the va¬
rious folutions which have hitherto been made of this
problem, the reader is referred to tha.t by Dr Mackay,
in the fourth and fixth volumes of Baron Maferes’s^
Scriptores Logarithmici.
It was intended in this place to have given rules, to
make allow’ance for the fpheroidal figure of the earth :
but as the ratio of the polar to the equatorial femi-axis
is not as yet determined with fufficient accuracy,
neither is it known if both hemifpheres be fimilar
figures; therefore thefe rules would be grounded on af-
iumption only, and might probably err more from the
truth
Practice.
NAVIGATION^;
Fig-34-
Ohj qft : truth than thofe adapted to the fpherical hypothefis.
t Sail‘ng- This therefore is fuppofed to be a fuflicient apology for
" v npt inferting them.
Chap. VIII. Of Oblique Sailing.
Oblique failing is the application of oblique angled
plane triangles to the folution of problems at fea. This
failing will be found particularly ufeful in going along
iliore, and in furveying coafts and harbours, &c.
Ex. l. At i i'v A. M. the Girdle Nefs bore WNW,
and at 2h P. M. it bore NW£N : the courfe during
the interval S£W five knots an hour. Required the
diftance of the (hip from the Nefs at each ftation ?
By ConftruBion.
Defcribe the circle NE, SW (fig. 34.), and draw
the diameters NS, EW, at right angles to each other:
from the centre C, which reprefents the firft ftation,
draw the WNW line CF ; and from the fame point
draw CH, SbW, and equal to 15 miles the diftance
failed.—From H draw HF in a NWc'N diredfion, and
the point F will reprefent the Girdle Nefs. Now the
diftances CF, HF will meafure 19.1 and 26.5 miles
refpe&ively.
By Calculation.
In the triangle FCH are given the diftance CH 15
miles, the angle FCH equal to 9 points, the interval
between the S£W and WNW points, and the angle
CHF equal to 4 points, being the fupplement of
the angle contained between the SMV and NW^N
points ; hence CFH is 3 points : to find the diftances
CF, HF.
To find the diftance CF.
As the fine of CFH - 3 points
is to the fine of CHF - 4 points
fo is the diftance CH 15 miles
frig- 35*
9-74474
9.84948
1.17639
1.28083
9-74474
9-99157
1.17609
1.42292
to the diftance CF - I9*°7
To find the diftance FH.
As the fine of CFH - 3 points
is to the fine of FCH - points
fo is the diftance CH - 15 miles
4o the diftance FH - 26.48
Ex. 2. The diftance between the SE point of the
ifland of Jerfey and the ifland of Brehaut is 13 leagues:
and the corrett bearing and diftance of Cape Frehel
from the illand of Brehaut is SE£E 26 miles. It is al-
fo known that the SE point of Jerfey bears NNE from
Cape Frehel: from whence the diftance of thefe two is
required, together with the bearing of the fame point
from the ifland of Brehaut ?
By ConJlruBion.
Defcribe a circle, (fig. 35.) and draw two diameters
at right angles, the extremities of which will reprefent
the cardinal points, north being uppermoft.—Let the
centre B reprefent Brehaut, from which draw the SE£E
line BF equal to 26 miles, and the point F will repre¬
fent Cape Frehel, from which draw the NNE line FI;
make Bl equal to 39 miles: Then FI applied to the
fcale will meafure 344 miles, and the inclination of BI
to the meridian will be found equal to 63°!,
By Calculation.
In the triangle BIF are given BI and BF equal to
39 miles, and 26 miles refpeftively ; and the angle
BFI equal to 7 points: To find the fide FI, and angle
FBI.
To find the angle BIF.
675
Oblique
Sailing.
As the diftance BI
is to the diftance BF
fo is the fine of BFI
to the fine of BIF
Sum - . .
Angle FBI
 EBF
Difference, or EBI
39
26
78° 45'
4° jo
XI9 35
60 25
33 45
26 40
1.59106
1.41497
9 99I57
9.81548
9.99157
9-93934
1.59106
*•53883
Bearing of Jerfey from Brehaut N 63 20 E.
To find the diftance FI.
As the fine of BFI - 78°45/
is to the fine of FBI - 6o 25
fo is the diftance BI - 39 miles
to the diftance FI - - 34.58 - ^.^3003
Ex. 3. At noon Dungenefs bore per compafs N£W ,
diftance 5 leagues j and having run NW£W 7 knots
an hour, at 5 P. M. we were up with Beachyhead.
Required the bearing and diftance of Beachyhead from
Dungenels ?
By ConJlruBion.
Defcribe a circle (fig. 36.) to reprefent the horizon;Fig. 3$.
from the centre C draw the N£W line CD equal to
15 miles; and the NWAV line CB equal to 35 miles;
join DjB, which applied to the fcale will mealure about
26i miles; and the inclination of DB to the meridian
will be found equal to N 79°|W.
By Calculation.
In the triangle DCB are given the diftances CD,
CB equal to 15 and 35 miles refpe£ively; and the an¬
gle BCD equal to 4 points ; to find the angles B and
D, and the diftance BD.
To find the angles.
Diftance CBi=35, fum of the ang. 16 points
CD—15, angle C - 4
Sum - 50, angles B and D 12
Difference 20, half fum - 6 pts. =67° 30
As the fum of the diftances - 50
is to their difference - - 20
fois the tangent of half fum angles 67 30
.69897
- I-3OI°3
- 10.38378
to the tangent of half their diff. 44
AngL
9-98484
: CDB
1 30
68 30
11 15
Supplement*
Angle, NCD
Magnetic bearing - N 79 45W. Or by al¬
lowing 2|; points of wefterly variation, the true bearing
of Beachyhead from Dungenefs will be W4S nearly
4 & 2 7To
676
^,0,j<lue To find the difiance.
. Sailing' ■ As the fine of CDB - in03o'
is to the fine of BCD - 45.0
fo is the difiance BC - 35
NAVIGATION. Pra&ice.
the variation 2^ points being allowed to the left of Oblique
9.96868
9.84948
1.54407
to the diftance BD - - 26.6 1.42487
Ex. 4. Running up Channel E^S per compafs at the
rate of 5 knots an hour. At nh A. M. the Eddiftone
lighthoufe bore NZ'E^E, and the Start point NE^E^E;
and at 4 P. M. the Eddiftone bore NW£N, and the
Start N^E. Required the diftance and bearing of the
Start from the Eddiftone, the variation being 2^ points
W ?
By ConJlruBion.
Fig. 37. Let the point C (fig. 37.) reprefent the firft ftation,
from which draw the N^>E^E line CA, the NEZ»E|E
line CB, and the E^S line CD, which make equal to 25
miles the diftance run in the elapfed time ; then from
D draw the NE^N line DA interfering CA in A,
which reprefents the Eddiftone $ and from the fame
point draw the N^E line DB cutting GB in B, which
therefore reprefents the Start. Now the diftance AB
applied to the fcale will meafure 22.9, and the bearing
per compafs BAF will meafure 73°j.
By Calculation.
In the triangle CAD are given CD equal to 25
miles, the angle CAD equal to 4^ points, the diftance
between N&E^E and NW^N'j and the angle ADC
equal to 4 points, the diftance between the NW£N and
W^N points ; to find the diftance CA.
As the fine of CAD - \\ points - 9 86979
is to the fine of CD A - 4 points - 9.84948
fo is the diftance CD 25 miles - 1.39794
Sum - 56.16 Half
Difference 8.44
As the fum of the diftances 56.16
is to their difference - 8.44
fo is the tangent of half T
fum angles - $
6730
to the tangent of half?
diff. angles
Angle CAB
Angle CAE
1956
87 26
14 4
Bearing per compafs - S 73 22 Ebr ESEiE) and
ESEiE, gives E^N, the true bearing of the Start from Sailing^
the Eddiftone.
To find the diftance.
As the fine of CAB - 87° 26' - 9.99956
is to the fine of ACB - 45 o - 9.84948
fo is the .diftance CB - 32.3 - 1.50922
to the diftance AB - - 22.86 I*359I4
Ex. 5. A (hip from a port in latitude 570 9'' N, lon¬
gitude -2° 9' W, failed 82 miles on a diredl courfe, and
ipoke a ftpp that had run 100 miles from a port in la¬
titude 56° 2iy N, longitude 2° 50' W.—Required the
courfe of each Ihip, and the latitude and longitude come
Lat.
9' N Mer. parts 4199 Lon. 2° 9' W
21 N   41x2 — 2 50 W
to the difiance CA - 23.86 - - I*37763
In the triangle BCD, are given the diftance CD 25
miles, the angle CBD 4^ points the interval between
NE£E£ and N|E, and CDB 7^ points, the diftance
between W£N and N|E $ to find the diftance CD.
As the fine of CBD - 4^ points - 9.88819
is to the fine CDB - 7| points - 9.99947
fo is the diftance CD - 25 miles - 1.39794
to the diftance CB - 32.3 - 1.50922
In the triangle CAB, the diftances CA, CB, are
given, together with the included angle ACB, equal to
4 points, the diftance between N£E^E and NE^E^Ej
to find the angle CAB and diftance AB.
Diftance CB 32.3 An£le ACB =45° o'
Diftance CA 23.86 Sum of CAB and ABC 135 o
67 30
1-74943
0.92634
10.38278
9-55969
Diff. of lat. 48 Mer. diff. lat. 87 Diff.Ion. 41
By ConJlrutHion.
With the meridional difference of latitude, the dif¬
ference of longKude, and difference of latitude, con-
ftrudl the triangles ADE, ABC (fig. 38.) as in Mer- pjg ^
cator’s Sailing ; then A vvill reprefent the northernmoft,
and C the fouthernmoft port. The diftance AC ap¬
plied to the fcale will meafure 53 miles, and the bear¬
ing BCA will be 25°|. From the points A and C,
with diftances equal to 82 and 100 miles refpedtively,
deferibe arches interfering each other in M, which
will therefore be the place of meeting.—Now the angle
ABM, the (hip’s courfe from the fouthernmoft port,
will meafure N 8o°4- E ; and the other (hip’s courfe,
or angle BAM, will be 67°|L, or ESE. From M
draw the parallel MNP, and AN will be the differ¬
ence of latitude made by the one (hip, and CP that by
the other drip : hence either of thefe being meafured
and applied to its correfpondent latitude, will give 56°
38', the latitude in. Make AF equal to 57, the me¬
ridional difference of latitude between the northernmoft
port and latitude in : from F draw FG perpendicular
to AF, and produce AM to G, then FG will be the
difference of longitude, which applied to the fcale will
meafure 139 : hence the longitude in, is 0° 10' E.
By Calculation.
In the triangle ADE, ABC, are given AD equal
to 87, DE equal to 41, and AB equal to 48 j to find
the angle BAG and diftance AC.
To find the bearing of the ports.
As the meridional diff. of lat. 87 - 1.93952
is to the diff. of long. - 41 - 1.61278
fo is radius ----- 10.00000
to the tangent of the bearing 250 14' - 9.67326
To find the diftance of the ports.
As radius ----- 10.00000
is to the fecant of the ? „ . r
bearing - j ^ ^ ‘ ,0-°«5J
fo is the diff. of latitude 48 - 1.68124
to the diftance - 53-o6 - I;72479
In the triangle AMC; the three fides are given to
find the angles.
To
Pra&ice.
NAVIGATION.
AM
' MC
AC
Sum
Half
Difference
To find the angle ACM.
82
677
IOO
53-o6
235.06
II7*53
53-53
27 29
ar. co. log.
ar. co. log.
!og.
log.
8.00000
8.27523
2.07015
1-55059
19.89597
cofine 9-94798
Angle ACM 54 58
Angle BAG 25 14
Southernmoft 7 -vr o t-
Ihip’scourfej N 80 12 E
To find the angle MAC.
As AM - - - 82
is to MC - - _ 100
fo is the fine of ACM' - 54 58
93 3
25 H
1.91381
2.00000
9.91319
9.99938
to the fine of MAC
Angle BAG
Northernmoft (hip’s 1 „ , ^
courfe - 5 S 67 49 E, or ESE.
In the right-angled triangle AMN, given AM, and
the angle MAN, to find the differences of latitude
AN.
As radius 10.00000
is to the cofine of 7 ^ ,
the courfe J 67 49 - - 9-57700
fo is the dirtance 82 - - 1.91381
to the diff. of lat. 30.96
Latitude of nor-7
thernmoft port J 57 9 Mer. parts 4r99
Latitude in - 56 38 Mer. parts 4142
Meridional difference of latitude
To find the difference of longitude FG.
As radius 10.00000
is to the tangent of 7 ^ 0
the courfe - § 07 49 " 10.38960
iff. of lat.
1.49081
57
within fix points of the wind. Required the-courfe WinoWd
and diftance on each tack ? Sailing.
By ConJlruBion.
Draw the SSW line CB (fig. 39.) equal to 48 miles. Fig. 35.
Make the angles ACB, ABC, each equal to 6 points.
Hence the firit courfe will be W, and the fecond SE :
alfo the diftance CA, or AB, applied to the fcale will
meafure 62^ miles, the diftance to be failed on each
board.
By Calculation.
From -A draw AD perpendicular to BC ; then in
the triangle ADC are given CD, equal to 24 miles;
and the angle ACD, equal to 6 points, to find the di¬
ftance AC.
As radius 10.00000
is to the fecant of C - 6 points - 10.41716
fo is CD - - 24 miles - 1.38021
to CA - . - 62.7 - 1.79737
Ex. 2. T. he wind at NW, a fliip bound to a port 64
miles to the windward, propofes to reach it on three
boards j two on the ftarboard, and one on the larboard
tack, and each within 5 points of the wind. Required
the courfe and diftance on each tack >
By ConJlruElion.
Draw the NW line CA (fig. 40.) equal to 64 miles;Fig. 4*
from C draw CB W£S, and from A draw AD paral¬
lel thereto, and in an oppofite dire&ion ; bife<ft AC ip
E, and draw BED parallel to the N^E rhumb, meet-
ing CB, AD in the points B and D : then CBrrAD
applied to the fcale will meafure 36^ miles, and BD—
2.CB=:724- miles.
By Calculation.
From B draw BF perpendicular to AC ; then inr
the triangle BFC are given the angle BCF equal to
5 points, and CF equal to one fourth of CA=ri6 m. to
find CB.
As radius - - - - . 10.00000'
is to the fecant of BCF - 5 points - io.2cc26f
fo is CF - 16 m. - 1.20412
fo is the mer. diff.
to the diff. of long.
Longitude left
Difference of longitude
Longitude in
67° 49'
57
139.8
9'W
2 20 E
Chap. IX. Of Windward Sailing.
Windward failing is, when a fhip by reafon of a
contrary wind is obliged to fail on different tacks in or^
der to gain her intended port; and the objeft of this
failing is to find the proper courfe and diftance to be
run on each tack.
Ex. 1. A (hip is bound to a port 48 miles dire&Jy to
the windward, the wdnd being SSW, which it is in¬
tended to reach on two boards 5 and the ftiip can lie
to CB - . . 36.25 - i-55938
Ex. ^. A fhip which can lie within 5^ points of the
I,755^7 wind, is bound to a port 36 miles to the windward, the
 wind being NE£N, which it is intended to reach on
2.14547 four boards, the firft being on the larboard tack. Re¬
quired the courfe and diftance on each ?
By ConJlruBion.
Draw the NE^N line CA (fig. 41.) equal to 36^' T
miles, and bifed it in B ; from C and B draw lines pa- 4
rallel to the E^S rhumb ; apd from A and B draw lines
parallel to the SSE4E point, meeting the former in the
points D and E. Now the diftances AD, BD, BE,
and CE, are equal; and any one of them applied to
the fcale will meafure 19;! miles. .
By Calculation.
From E draw EF perpendicular to AC ; and in the ■
triangle CFE are given CF=r9 m- and the angle FCE
~-5t points, to find CE.
Aa
678
Windward As radius
t Sailing. j$ t0 t^e fecant of FCE
v fo is CF
to the diftance CE
o me uiiiantc - 19«I m^es 1.28085
Ex. 4. A (hip bound to a port bearing NAV diftant
40 miles, with the wind at NZ^E^E, intends to reach
it on two boards.' Required the courfe and diftance
on each tack, the (hip lying within points of the
wind ?
By ConJlruBion.
Fig. 42. Draw the NZ-W line CA (fig. 42.) equal to 40
miles •, and becaufe the wind is NZ<E^E, and the (hip
can lie within 54 points of the wind, the courfe on the
larboard tack will be EZ<N, and on the (larboard NW.
Therefore, from the centre C draw the EZ»N line CB,
and from it draw the NW line AB, meeting CB in
B; then CB and AB applied to the fcale will meafure
26.7 and 48.1 m. refpe&ively.
By Calculation.
In the triangle ACB, given AC=40 miles, and the
angles A, B, and C, equal to 3, 5, and 8 points refpec-
tively, to find AB and BC.
To find the diftance CB.
As the fine of B - - 5 points 9.91985
is to the fine of A - - 3 points 9-74474
fo is the diftance CA - 4° mlles 1-60206
to the diftance CB - - 26.73 I-42695
To find the diftance AB.
As the fine of B - - 5 P°ints 9*919^5
is to the fine of C - - 8 points 10.00000
fo is the diftance CA - 40 mdes 1.60206
NAVIGATION. Pradlce.
To find CB, the diftance on the larboard tack. Current
As to the fine of B - - 4 points 9.84948 Sailmg-
is to the fine of E - - 9 points 9.99157 v~"
fo is the diftance CE - 27 miles 1.43136
Si P°mts
9 miles
10.00000
10.32661
0.95424
to the diftance BC ^ - - 37*45 I*57345
To find BE half the diftance on the (larboard tack.
As the fine of B - - 4 points 9.84948
is to the fine of C - - 3 points 9.74474
fo is the diftance CE - 27 miles 1.43136
to the diftance BE - - 21.21
Fig. 43.
1.32662
Whole diftance AC - 42.42
Ex. 6. A (hip plying to the windward, with the
wind at NNE, after failing 51 miles on each of two
tacks, is found by obfervation to have made 36 miles
of difference of latitude. How near the wind did fhe
make her way good ?
By ConJlruBion.
Make CA (fig. 44.) equal to 36 miles ; draw ABFig. 44.
perpendicular to CA, and draw the NNE line CB,
meeting AB hi B ; make CD, ED each equal to 51
miles, and thefe being meafured, will be found equal
to 6 points.
By Calculation.
In the triangles CAB, BCD, are given A B equal to
36m. CDzrBDzryi, and the angle ACB equal to 2
points } to find the angle BCD.
As the diftance CD - - 51 I*7°757
is to the diff. of latitude CA - 18 1.25527
fo is the fecant of ACB - 2points 10.63438
to the cofine of BCD
67° 32' 9 58208
to the diftance AB - 48.11 _ 1.68221
Ex. 5. A (hip clofe hauled within 5 points of the
wind, and making one point of leeway, is bound to a
port bearing SSW, diftant 54 miles, the wind being
SZ>E : It is intended to make the port at three_boards,
the fir ft of which muft be on the larboard tack in order
to avoid a reef of rocks. Required the courfe and di¬
ftance on each tack ?
By ConJlruBion.
Draw the SSW line CA (fig. 43.) equal to 54 m.
and as the wind is SZ>E, and the (hip makes her courfe
good within 6 points of the wind, therefore the courfe
on the larboard tack will be SWZW, and on the ftar-
board E£S : hence from C draw the SWZ>W line CB,
and from A draw AD parallel thereto *, bifeft CA in
E, and draw BED parallel to the EZ>S line ; then will
CB and AD be the diftances on the larboard tack,
which applied to the fcale, each will be found to mea¬
fure 37.4-, and the diftance on the ftarboard tack BD
will meafure 42.4 miles.
By Calculation.
The triangles CBE, EAD are equal and fimilar :
hence in the firft of thefe are given CE, equal to 27
miles, half the diftance between the (hip and port .*, the
angles C, B, and E, equal to 3, 4, and 9 points re-
fpeftively, to find CB and BE.
Chap. X. Of Current Sailing.
The computations in the preceding chapters have
been performed upon the affumption that the water has
no motion. This may no doubt anfwer tolerably well
in thofie places where the ebbings and flowings are re-
gular, as then fhe effedl of the tide will be nearly coun¬
terbalanced. But in places where there is a conftant
current or fetting of the fea towards the fame point, an
allowance for the change of the (hip’s place arifing
therefrom muft be made : And the method of refolv-
ing thefe problems, in which the effe& of a current, or
heave of the fea, is taken into confideration, is called
current failing.
In a calm, it is evident a (hip will be carried in the
direftion and with the velocity of the current. Hence,
if a (hip fails in the direftion of the current, her rate
will be augmented by the rate of the current ; but if
failing diredly againft it, the diftance made good will
be equal to the difference between the (hip’s rate as giv¬
en by the log and that of the current. And the abfo-
lute motion of the (hip will be a-head, if her rate ex¬
ceeds that of the current *, but if lefs, the (hip will
make fternway. If the (hip’s courfe be oblique to the
current, the diftance made good in a given time will
be reprefented by the third fide of a triangle, whereof
the diftance given by the log, and the 'drift-of the cur¬
rent in the fame time, are the other fides and the true
courfe will be the angle contained between the meridian
and the line a£lually defcribed by the (hip.
Ex.
Current
Sailing.
Plate
GCCLXV.
rig- 45-
Fra6llce. N A V I G
Ex. I. A ftup failed NNE at the rate of 8 knots an
hour, during 18 hours, in a current fetting NWMV 2j
miles an hour. Required the courfe and diftance made
good ?
By ConflruRion.
Draw the NNE line CA (fig. 45.) equal to 18x8
= 144 miles ; and from A draw AB parallel to the
NWZ»W rhumb, and equal to 18 X 2^—45 miles: now
BC being joined will be the dilfanfe, and NCB the
courfe. The firft of thefe will meafure 159 miles, and
the fecond 6° 23'.
By Calculation.
In the triangle ACB, are given AC=ri44 miles,
AB=45 miles, and the angle CAB~9 points, to find
BAG and BC.
To find the courfe made good.
Dift. AC - 144 Ang. BAC—9 pts =ioi° 15'
Dill. AB -
Fig. 45.
Sum
Diff.
B-f-C
B + C
As the fum of the fides - 189
is to the difference of the fides 99
fo is the tan. of half fum angles 39 22^-
to the tan. of half diff. angles - 23 1
ox
78 45
39 22 ^
2.27646
J-99563
9.91417
9-63334*
Angle ACB
Angle ACN
16 7
22 30
Courfe made good N 6
To. find the diftance.
As the fine of ACB - 160 7'
is to the fine of CAB - 101 15
fo is the diftance AB - 45
23
9-44341
9-99157
1.65321
to the diftance CB - 159 - 2.20137
Ex. 2. A ftiip from a port in latitude 420 52' N,
failed SbW^W 17 miles in 7 hours, in a current fet¬
ting between the north and weft ; and then the fame
port bore ENE, and the (hip’s latitude by obfervation
was 42° 42' N. Required the fetting and drift of the
current ? .
By ConJlruElion.
Draw the S^WfW line CA (fig. 46.) equal to ry
miles, and make CB equal to 10 miles, the difference
of latitude : through B draw the parallel* of latitude
BD, and draw the WSW line CD, interfering BD
in D : AD being joined, will reprefent the drift of the
current, which applied to the fcale will meafure 20.2,
and the angle DAE will be its fetting, and will be
found equal to 7 2°.
By Calculation.
In the triangle CBD, given CB“io miles, and the
angle BCD=6 points j to find the diftance CD.
As radius ■- . . 10.00000
is to the fecant of BCD - 6 points 10.41710
fo is the diff. of lat. CB - 10 fniles 1.00000
to the diftance CD - 26.13 1.41710
Again, In the triangle ACD are given the diftance
AC=i7 miles, CD=r2(5.i3, and the angle ACD 4^
points 3 to find the remaining parts.
A T 1 O N.
To find the fetting of the current.
Diftance DC=26.I3 Angle ACD—44 points.
Diftance ACz=i7. o CAD-J-CDA 11-4
c79
Current
Sailing.
Sum
43-13
CAD-}-CD A
Difference - 9-13
As the fum of the fides
is to the differ, of the fides
fo is tang, half fum angles
to tang, half diff. angles
43-I3
9-I3
64° 4T
24 6
- I-63478
- 096047
- 10.32509
- 9.65078
Angle CAD
Angle CAE—ACB:
Ijpt.
88 47
= 16 52
Setting of the current EAD =71 55
To find the drift of the current.
As the fine of CAD - 88° 47' - 9.99990
is to the fine of ACD - 4-4 points 9.88819
£b is the diftance CD - 26.13 - 1.41710
to the drift of current AD 20.2
I-3°539
20.2
Hence the hourly rate of the current is —~~2.^
knots.
Ex. 3. A drip, from latitude 38° 20' N, failed 24
hours in a current fetting NW£N, and by account is in
latitude 38° 42' N, having made 44 miles of calling 3
but the latitude by obfervation is 38° 58' N. Requir¬
ed the courfe and diftance made good, and the drift of
the current.
By ConJlruRion.
Make CE (fig. 47.) equal to 22 mile*, the difference
of latitude by D, R, and EA0054 miles, the depar¬
ture, and join CA j make CD:=38' miles, the differ¬
ence of latitude by obfervation ; draw the parallel of
latitude DB, and from A draw the NWZ<N line AB,
interfedling DB in B, and AB will be the drift of
the current hi 24 hours: CB being joined, will be the
diftance made good, and the angle DCB the true
courfe. Now, AB and CB applied to the fcale, will
meafure 19.2 and co.c refpedlively ; and the angle
DCB will be 41°^.
By Calculation.
From B draw BE perpendicular to AE, then in the
the triangle AFB are given BFi=:i6 miles, and the
angle ABF=3 points 5 to find AB and AF.
To find the drift of the current AB.V
As radius ----- 10.00000
is to the fecant of ABF - 3 points - 10.08015
fo is BF - - . 16 miles - 1.20412
to the drift of the current AB 19.24
Hence the hourly raters—^—^ — 0.8.
24
To find AF.
As radius -
is to the tangent of ABF - 3 points
fo is BF - - - 16 points
to AF - 10.69
Departure by account EA - 44.
True departure EF=:DB=:33-3i
1.28427
10.00000
9.82489
1.20412
1.02 901
NOW;.
<5So NAVI G
Cunent Now, in the triangle CDB are given the difference
, of latitude and departure j to find the courfe and di-
ilance.
To find the courfe.
As the difference of latitude CD 38. -
is to the departure DB - 33-31 - l'S22Sl
fo is radius 10.00000
to the tangent of the courfe - 410 14' - 9.94279
To find the dillance.
A T I O N. Fra&iee.
fire mufl fleer, and the diflance run by the log at 6Inftiuments
knots an hour to reach her port ? t0 r°lve
Problems
By ConJlruElion. in Sailing
In the pofition of the SE£EiE rhumb, draw DC wiihout
= 21 miles (fig. 49.) ) draw DE NE^E^ L milesCalcu^atl0»;
from E with 6 miles cut DC in F ; draw DB parallel Fig. 49.
to EF, meeting CB drawn parallel to DE : then the
diflance DB applied to the fcale will meafure 19.4, and
the courfe SDB will be SE-' S.
Fig. 48.
As radius - . . - . 10.00000
is to the fecant of the courfe - 410 14' 10.12376'
fo is the difference of latitude - 38 - 1.57978
to the diflance - - - 50.53 I,7°354
Ex. 4. In the Straits of Sunda, at 2 P. M. fleering
SE£S at the rate of 5 knots an hour, I paffed clofe by
the fmall iflands off Hog point. At 6, not having
changed our courfe, came to anchor on the Java fhore.
Upon fetting the faid ifland from this -anchoring place,
I find it bears due north, its diflance by the chart being
22 miles. It follows from hence, that our courfe has
been affefted by a current. Required its velocity and
direflion ?
By ConJlruBion.
From A (fig. 48.) draw the SEZ»S line AB—20,
which will reprefent the fhip’s apparent track through
the water j draw AC equal to 22 miles fouth, and
C will be the flap’s real place ; and BC being joined
will be the current’s drift in four hours ; which ap¬
plied to the fcale will meafure 12.3 •, from A draw
AD parallel to BC, and the angle CAD will be the
direfHon of the current, and will be found to mea¬
fure 64° j-.
By Calculation.
In the triangle ABC, given ABrrzo m. AC=22
m. and the included angle A=3 points; to find the
remaining parts.
To find the fetting of the current.
Diftance ACn2 2 m. Included angle “3 points.
AB=20
B+C=i3
Sum - 42
Difference - 2
As the fum of the fides
is to the diff. of the fides
fo is the tang, of half fum angles
-6ip=73.7|
42 - 1.62325
2 - 0.30103
73°7'i - 10.51806
By Calculation.
In the triangle DBF, given DE=2j miles, EF
= 6 miles, and the angle EDF=6 points-, to find the
angle DFErrCBD.
As the hourly rate of failing - 6m. 0.77815
is to the hourly rate of current 2~m. 0.39794
fo is the fine of EDF=6 points 67° 30' 9.96562
to the fine of DFE - - 22 38 9.58541
Angle - SDCZZ54 points == 61 52
Courfe SDB " * 39 i4o=SE-'-S.
In the triangle DEC, given DC=c2l miles, the
angle BDCrrDFE—22° 38', and the angle DCBrr
DEF—6 points; to find the diflance DB.
As the fine of DBG - 89° 52' - 9 99999
is to the fine of DCB - 67 30 - 9.96562
fo is the true diflance DC 21m. 1.32222
to the diftance by the log DB. 21 m. 1.28785
Chap. XI. Injhruments propofed to folve the various
Problems in Sailing, independent of Calculation.
Various methods, befide thofe already given, have
been propofed to fave the trouble of calculation.—
One of thefe methods is by means of an inftrument
compofed of rulers, fo difpofed as to form a right-
angled triangle, having numbers in a regular pYogref-
fion marked on their fides. Thefe inftruments are
made of different materials, fuch as paper, wmod, brafs,
&c. and are differently conftru&ed, according to the
fancy of the inventor. Among inftruments of this
kind, that by John Cooke, Efq. feems to be the beft.
A number of other inftruments, very differently con-
ftrufted, have been ‘ propofed for the fame purpofe ;
of thefe, how-ever, we fhall only take notice of the
reflangular inftrument, by AJMackay, LL.D. F.R.S.E*
&c.
to tang, of half diff. angles 8.55^ 9.19584
•Setting of the current S 64 12W, orSW£W|W.
To find the drift of the current.
As the fine of ACB 64° 12' - 9-95J40
is to the fine of BAG 33 45 . 9.74474
4.0 is the diftance AB - 20 - 1.30103
1.091
to the velocity of cur. BC 12 34
. 12-34 . ,
anCJ —~——3.1, its hourly rate.
Example 5. A ftiip bound from Dover to Cah
lying 21 miles to the SE£E4E, and the flood tide f
ting NE4E z\ miles an hour. Required the cou
I. Of Cooke’s Triangular Inftrument.
Defcription. The flock abed (fig. 50.) is a pa-p-^
rallelopiped : The length from a to £ is two feet, the ~ 5
breadth from a \.o d twm inches, and the depth is one
inch and a half. The flock is perforated longitudi¬
nally, fo as to be capable of containing within it ef
a cylindrical piece of W’ood one inch diameter; gh is
an aperture on the furface of the ftock about a quar¬
ter of an inch wide, which difclofes one twelfth part
of the furface of the cylinder contained ; the edge dc
is divided into twelve parts, each of thefe is fubdivided
into fix parts, and each of thefe again into ten parts.
The furface of the cylinder is divided longitudinally
into twelve parts, and on each of them is engraved a
portion
Practice. N A V 1 G
Inftrumcr.ts portion of a line of meridional parts 22 feet long,
to fclve contains the meridional parts for every minute
Problems £rom .1^ eqUator as far towards the pole as navigation
'without’ >s pradlicable •, and the fmalleft divifion on it is not lefs
Cakulation. than of an inch. By rolling and Aiding this cy-
 Under, any part of any line on it may be brought into
any pofition which may be required : the box 1 is en-
grooved into the edge of the dock a b, fo that it may
move freely from a Xo b ; a limb from this box extends
to k, which ferves to mark that degree of the perpen¬
dicular il which is parallel to the centre of the femi-
circle m; 1 / is two feet long, and graduated on both
edges as the dock $ it is perpendicular to the dock,
and is fixed in the box by which it may be moved
from a \o b ; 0 p n a femicircle of fix inches radius,
engraved, as appears in the plate, which hides freely
frora c Xo d in a groove in the edge of the dock c d;
mq\s the index moving on the centre wz, the edge of
which marks the courfe on the femicircle; it is two
feet long, and divided into 72 parts; and thefe are
fubdivided in the fame manner as thofe on the dock
and perpendicular, to which they are equal ; r is a ver¬
nier attached to the index to fhow minutes ; 5 is a ver¬
nier compofed of concentric femicircles, which Aides
along the edge q m, to the interfetfion of the perpen¬
dicular and index, where it ferves as a vernier to both ;
below # is a fmall piece of ivory, with a mark on it to
point out the degree of the line dc, which is perpendi-
Fig. 51. cularly under the centre of the femicircle. Fig. 51.
is a view of the back part of the indrument.
life. The method of working every cafe which
occurs in navigation, is to make the indrument dmilar
to that ideal triangle which is compofed of the differ¬
ence of latitude, departure, and didance; or, to that
compofed of the meridional difference of latitude, dif¬
ference of longitude, and enlarged didance ; or, to that
compofed of the difference of longitude, departure,
and fine of the middle latitude •, which is done by
means of the data procured from the cotnpafs, log-line,
and quadrant : whence it follows, from the nature of
fimilar triangles, or from the relation which exids be¬
tween the lides of triangles and the fines of their op-
pofite angles, that the parts of the indrument become
proportional to thofe which they reprefent; and will
ascertain the length of the lines, or the extent of the
angles fought, by its graduations.
In the pradlice of this indrument, a fmall fquare is
neceffary in order to bring the centre of the femicircle
perpendicularly over the meridional degree correfpond-
ing to the latitude.
Plane Sailing.
Pros. I. The courfe and didance failed being given,
to find the difference of latitude and departure.
Example. A diip from latitude 240 18' N, failed
NW£N 168 miles. Required the latitude come to,
and departure ?
Set the centre of the femicircle perpendicularly over
the given latitude 240 18', and the index to the
courfe 3 points ; move the perpendicular until it cut
the index at the given didance 168 ; then at the poiiM:
of interfe£lion on the perpendicular is 93.3 miles, the
departure, and on the bafe, by the edge of the box, is
.2j6° 38', the latitude come to.
Vou XIV. Part II.
A T I O N. 68 r
Prob. II. Both latitudes and courfe given, to find Inftruraents
the didance and departure. t0^Ive
Example. Let the latitude failed from be 430 50' N,
that come to 470 8' N, and the courle NNE. Required without’
the didance and departure ? Calculation.
Move the centre of the femicircle to the latitude left' ‘ v
430 30', and the edge of the box to the latitude come
to 470 8' ; fix the index at the given courfe 2 points ;
then at the point of interfeftion of the index and per¬
pendicular is the didance 214 miles on the index, and
the departure 82 miles on the perpendicular.
Prob. III. Given the courfe and departure, to find
the didance and difference of latitude.
Example. Let the latitude lailed from be 3 2° 38'N,
the courfe SW£S, and the departure 200 miles. Re¬
quired the didance and latitude come to ?
Move the centre of the femicircle to the latitude
left 3 2° 38', fet the. index to the given courfe 3 points,
and move the perpendicular till the given departure
200 cuts the index ; at this point on the index is 360
miles, and the edge of the box will cut the latitude
come to 270 39' N.
Prob. IV. Given the difference of latitude and di¬
dance, to find the courfe and departure.
Example. Let the latitude left be 170 10' N, the
latitude come to 210 40' N, and the didance failed on
a direft courfe between the north and wed 300 miles.
Required the courfe and departure ?
Move the femicircle and box to the given latitudes,
and the index until the didance found thereon meets
the perpendicular; then at the point of contadt on ihe
perpendicular is 130.8, the departure, and on the femi¬
circle by the index is 250 50', the courfe.
Prob. V. The didance and departure given, to find
the courfe and difference of latitude.
Example. The didance failed is 246 miles between
the fouth and ead, the departure is 138 miles, and the
latitude left 510 10' N. Required the courfe and lati¬
tude come to ?
Set the centre of the femicircle to 510 to', the lati¬
tude failed from ; find the didance 246 on the index,
and the departure 138 on the perpendicular ; then
move both till thefe points meet, and the courfe 340 io'
will be found on the femicircle by the index, and the
latitude in 470 47' N, by the edge of the box.
Prob. VI. Both latitudes and departure given, to
find the courfe and didance.
Example. A (hip from latitude 430 io' N, failed
between the north and wed till Ihe is in latitude 470 14'
N, and has made 170 miles of departure. Required
the courfe and didance ?
Move the centre of the femicircle over 43* 10', and
the edge of the box to 470 14'; find the departure
on the perpendicular, and bring the edge of the index
thereto ; now at the point of interfedion is the di¬
dance 297.4 miles on the index, and the courfe 340 52'
on the femicircle.
Traverfc Sailing.
Example. A drip from latitude 46° 48' N, fail¬
ed SSW4W 24 miles, SZ'W 36 miles, and S^E 40
4 R miles.
682
NAVIGATION.
Pradicc.
Inftruments miles. Required the latitude in, together with the di-
p°p^e reft courfe and didance ?
in Sailing* ^et t^e Semicircle to the latitude failed from 46° 48',
without and the index to the courfe SSW-JW } mark the di-
Calculation. dance 24 on the index, and bring the perpendicular to
‘ v meet it; then the index will cut the departure 11.3
on the perpendicular, and the perpendicular will cut
the latitude 46° 27' N on the bafe. For the next courfe
and didance, bring the femicircle to the latitude mark¬
ed by the perpendicular, and lay down the courfe
Si<W : if it be towards the fird meridian, move the lad
marked departure until it meets the index, and the
limb of the box will mark the prefent departure ; but
if the courfe be from the fird meridian, bring the lad
departure 11.3 to the limb of the box, the index will
mark the departure made good 18.3 on the perpendi¬
cular, and the latitude arrived at 40° 52' will be marked
on the bale by the perpendicular : proceed in the fame
manner with all the courfes of which the traverfe con-
dds, then the difference of latitude i° 36' will be in¬
tercepted between the latitude failed from 46° 48', and
the latitude come to 450 x 2' lad marked by the perpen¬
dicular; and alfo the departure made good will be in¬
tercepted between that point on the perpendicular where
the fird departure commenced, and. that where the lad
terminated. Now, with the difference of latitude i° 36'
and the departure, the courfe will be S 8° 30' W, and
diftance 97 miles, by lad problem in Plane Sailing.
Parallel Sailing.
Prob. I. The difference of longitude between two
places in one parallel of latitude given, to find the di¬
dance between them.
Example. Let the common latitude be 490 30' N,
and the difference of longitude 30 30'. Required the
diftance ?
Set the index to 40° 30', the complement of the la¬
titude on the femicircle ; mark the difference of longi¬
tude in miles on the index ; then move the perpen¬
dicular until it meets the termination of the difference
of longitude on the index, and the part of the perpen¬
dicular intercepted between the limb of the box and
the point of interfeftion will bs the diftance 136.4
jniles.
Prob. IT. The didance between two places in one
parallel of latitude given, to find the difference of lon¬
gitude between them.
Example. Let the latitude of the given parallel
be 490 30' N, the diftance failed 136.4 E. Required
the difference of longitude ?
Set the index to the complement of the latitude
40° 30', and mark the didance failed on the perpendi¬
cular; then move it until it meets the index, and the
point of interfeftion will (how the difference of longi¬
tude 210' or 30 30' on the index.
Prob. III. Given the didance failed on a parallel,
and the difference of longitude, to find the latitude of
that parallel.
Example. The difiance failed due eaft is 136.4, and
the difference of longitude 30 30'. Required the lati¬
tude of the parallel ?
Find the difference'of longitude 210 on the index,
and the diftance 136.4 on the perpendicular, and move
both until thefe numbers meet, and the ^complement Inftruments
of the latitude 40 30' will be ftiown by the index on the t0 fo!ve
r ■ • , T J J Problems
femicircle. in Sailing,
Mercator's and Middle Latitude Sailing. Calculation,
Prob. I. The latitudes and longitudes of two places
given, to find the direft courfe and diftance between
them.
Example. Required the courfe and didance be¬
tween two places whofe latitudes and longitudes are
50° 30' N, 19° o' W, and 540 30' N, 150 30'W, re.
fpeftively ?
By Mercator's Sailing*
To find the courfe.
Move the centre of the femicircle perpendicularly
over the meridional degree anfwering to latitude 50°
50' N, then move the box until the edge of the per¬
pendicular cuts the meridional parts of the other lati¬
tude 540 3 o'N, and move the index until it cuts the
difference of longitude 30 30' on the perpendicular, and
the index will mark the courfe 30° IC', or NNE|E
nearly on the femicircle.
To find the diftance.
Screw the index to this courfe, and move the centre
of the femicircle to the latitude 50° 50' N, and the
edge of the perpendicular to the latitude 540 30' N,
then the perpendicular will cut the diftance 254.7 OIi
the index.
By Middle Latitude Sailing,
To find the departure.
Move the centre of the femicircle to the latitude
50° 50', and the edge of the index to the complement
of the middle latitude 370 20' on the femicircle; then
move the box until the edge of the perpendicular inter-
fefts the termination of the difference of longitude 210
miles on the index, which point of interfeftion will mark
the departure x 28 on the perpendicular.
To find the courfe and diftance.
PTove the edge of the perpendicular to the other la¬
titude 540 30', and the index until it cuts the depar¬
ture 128 on the perpendicular ; then will the perpendi¬
cular mark the diftance on the index 254.7 miles, and
the index will mark the courfe on the femicircle 30° 10',
or NNE^E nearly.
Prob. II. Both latitudes and courfe given, to find
the diftance and difference of longitude.
Example. A fiiip from latitude 50° 50' N, longi¬
tude 19® o' W, failed N 30° 10' E, until ftie is in lati¬
tude 540 30' N. Required the diftance and difference
of longitude ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
To find the difference of longitude.
Move the box and femicircle as in the former pro¬
blem to the meridional parts of the given latitudes, then
fet the index to the courfe, and it will mark the differ¬
ence of longitude 30 30' on the perpendicular : Hence
the longitude in is 150 30' W.
To find the diftance.
Move the perpendicular and femicircle to the given
latitudes, and put the index to the given courfe ; then
the perpendicular will cut the diftance 254.7 miles on
the index.
*
France. N A V I G
^tofalveM % Middle Latitude Sailing.
Problems To find the diftance and departure,
in Sailing, Move the femicircle and perpendicular to the given
Calculation ^at*tuc^es» anc* t^e index to the courfe; then the per-
. ^ pendicnlar will fhow the departure 128 miles, and
the index the diftance 254.7 mdes at the point of in¬
ter fe<ft ion.
To find the difference of longitude.
Set the index to the complement of the middle la¬
titude on the femicircle, and move the box until the
termination of the departure on the perpendicular meets
the index, which will mark, the difference of longitude
thereon 210 m. or 30 30'.
Prob. III. Both latitudes and diftance given, to
find the courfe and difference of longitude.
Example. From latitude 50° 50' N, longitude o'
W, a (hip failed 254.7 miles between the north and eaft,
and by obfervation is in latitude 540 30' N. Required
the courfe and difference of longitude ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
To find the courfe.
Move the perpendicular and femicircle to the given
latitudes, and the index until the diftance failed marked
on it meets the perpendicular j then the index will
mark the courfe N 30° 10' E on the femicircle.
To find the difference of longitude.
Screw the index to the courfe, move the perpendi¬
cular and femicircle to the meridional parts of the given
latitudes, and the fpace intercepted between the limb
of the box and the index will be the difference of lon¬
gitude 30 30'.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
To find the departure and courfe.
Move the femicircle and perpendicular to the given
latitudes, and the index until the diftance failed on it
cuts the perpendicular; then the perpendicular will
Ihow the departure 128 mileSj and the femicircle the
courfe N 30° ic/ E.
To find the difference of longitude.
Set the index to 370 20', the complement of the
middle latitude on the femicircle, and move the per¬
pendicular until the termination of the departure on it
cuts the index : then the point of interfe&ion will
mark the difference of longitude 210 miles on the in¬
dex.
Pros. IV. Both latitudes and departure given, to
find the courfe, diftance, and difference of longitude.
Example. Let the latitude and longitude failed from
be 56° 40' S and 28° 55' E refpeftively, the latitude
come to 6i° 20' S, and departure 172 miles. Required
the courfe, diftance, and difference of longitude ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
To find the courfe and diftance.
Move the perpendicular and femicircle to the given
latitude (h) j then move the index till it meets the
extremity of the departure on the perpendicular j the
A T I O N. 68 j
diftance will be marked on the index 329, and the’Inftrument*
courfe S 31° 35' E, or SSEiE nearly, on the femi- p^)b°e^s
circle. _ _ in S silirg,
To find the difference of longitude. without
Move the perpendicular and femicircle to the meri-Calculation.
dional parts of the given latitudes, and the index will ■ _v
cut the difference of longitude on the perpendicular
5° 35'-
By Middle latitude Sailing.
The courle and diftance are found as before.
To find the difference of longitude.
Set the index to 31°, the complement of the middle
latitude on the femicircle, and move the perpendicular
until the departure marked on it cuts the index, and
this point of interfeftion will mark the difference of
longitude on the index 335 na- or 50 35'.
Pros. V. One latitude, courfe, and diftance given,
to find the difference of latitude and difference of lon¬
gitude.
Example. Let the latitude left be 56° 40' S, lon¬
gitude 28° 55' E, the courfe S 310 35' E, and diftance
329 m. Required the latitude and longitude come to ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
To find the latitude come to.
Set the femicircle to the latitude failed from, and
the index to the courfe, and bring the perpendicular
to the diftance, which at the fame time will mark the
latitude come to 610 20' S.
To find the difference of longitude.
Screw the index to the courfe, and move the femi¬
circle and perpendicular to the meridional parts of
both latitudes j then the index will cut the difference
of longitude on the perpendicular 50 35'.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
The latitude arrived at is found as above.
To find the departure.
The femicircle and perpendicular being fet to both
latitudes, and the index to the courfe, it will ftiovv
the departure 172.7 on the perpendicular.
To find the difference of longitude.
Set the index to 310, the complement of the middle
latitude on the femicircle, and move the perpendicular
until the departure marked on it cuts the index, and
the divifion on the index at the point of inteneftion
will be the difference of longitude 335.
Prob. VI. One latitude, courfe, and departure given,
to find the diftance, difference of latitude, and differ¬
ence of longitude.
Example. Let the latitude failed from be 56° 40'
N, longitude 28° 35'W, the courfe N 31° 35' W,
and departure 172.7. Required the diftance, and the
latitude and longitude come to ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
To find the diftance and latitude come to.
Move the femicircle to the latitude left, and the in¬
dex to the courfe ; mark the departure on the perpen-
4 R 2 dicular.
(h) In fouthern latitudes, the end of the cylinder where the numbers begin muft be turned towards the north
pointed out by the femicircle $ and in northern latitudes, it muft be reverfed.
684
to'fcl^1 Q1CU ar’ an? n‘ove ^ until the termination thereof
Problems ^ietts t^e index , then the point of interfedlion will
ip Sailing, uiow the diftance 3 29 miles on the index, and the per-
without pendicular will fliow the latitude arrived at 6i° 20' N
Calculation, on the bafe.
^ ^ - o find the dilrerer.ee of longitude.
Screw the index, and move the perpendicular and
fetntcircle to the meridional parts of both latitudes,
then the index will cut the difference of longitude 50 35'
on the perpendicular.
.Sy Middle Latitude Sailing.
Find the diftance failed and latitude in as above,
and the difference of longitude as in Problem IV. by
middle latitude failing.
NAVIGATION.
Practice.
is evident that any triangle whatever may be formed luftrum-nts-
on it. In applying it to nautical problems, the courfe t0 '--'C-e
is to be found at top, or right-hand fide, in the column p^blfms
o. degrees or points, according as it is expreffed j the ’ vrirhout’
difiance is to he found on the index, the difference of Calculation..
latitude at either fide column, and the departure at the  v—^
head or foot of the inftrument. The numbers in tbefe
columns may reprefent miles, leagues, &c. •, but when
ufed in conjundlion with the enlarged meridional line,
then 10 is to be accounted 100 miles, 20 is to be
elleemed 200 miles, and to on, each number being in-
creafed in a tenfold ratio ; and the intermediate num¬
bers are to be reckoned accordingly.
O ^
Plane Sailing.
Pros. VII. One latitude, the difiance failed, and
departure given, to find the courfe, difference of lati¬
tude, and difference of longitude.
Examble. The latitude failed from is 48° 3c/N,
and longitude 140 40' W; the diftance run is 345 miles
between the fouth and eaft, and the departure 2CO
miles. Required the courfe, and the latitude and Ion-
gitude come to ?
By Mercator"1 s Sailing.
I o find the courie and latitude come to.
_ Move the femicircle to the latitude left, mark the
difiance on the index, and the departure on the perpen¬
dicular, move both unt:l thefe points meet; then will
the index fhow the courfe S 350 26' E on the femicircle,
and the latitude come to 43° 49' on the bafe.
The difierence of longitude is found as in the preced¬
ing problem.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
The courfe and latitude come to are found as above,
and the difference of longitude as in Problem IV. by
middle latitude failing.
II. Of Dr. Mack ay’s Redlangular Lnjlrument.
CCCLXVI. Defcription. Fig. 52. is a reprefentation of this in-
Fig. 52. ftrument, of about one-third of the original fize.-—
The length CA is divided into 100 equal parts, and
the breadth CB into 70 ; but in this plate every fe-
cond divifion only is marked, in order to avoid con-
fufion •, through thefe divifions parallels are drawn, ter¬
minating at the oppofite fides of the inftrument. Upon
the upper and right hand fides are two feales ; the firft
contains the degrees of the quadrant, and the other
the points and quarters of the compafs. M is an in¬
dex moveable about the centre C, and divided in the
lame manner as the fides (1). Fig. 53. is a portion
of the enlarged meridian, fo conftrudled that the firft
degree is equal to three divifions on the inftrument •,
and therefore, in the ufe of this line, each divifion on
the inftrument is to be accounted 20 minutes. The
lize of the plate would not admit of the continuation of
of the line.
Ufe. From a bare infpeftion of this inftrument, it
Prob. I. The courfe and diftance failed given, to
find the difference of latitude and departure.
Example. Let the courfe be NE~N, diftance 44
miles. Required the difference of latitude and depar¬
ture ?
Move the index until the graduated edge be over 3^
points, and find the given diftance 44 miles on the in¬
dex : this diftance will be found to cut the parallel of
34 miles, the difference of latitude in the fide column,
and that of 28 miles, the departure at the top.
Prob. II. Given the courfe and difference of lati¬
tude, to find the diftance and departure.
Example. Required the diftance and departure an-
fvvering to the courfe 28°, and difference of latitude 60
miles ?
Lay the index over the given-courfe 28° ; find the
difference of latitude 60 miles in the fide column ; its
parallel will cut the index at 68 miles, the diftance and
the correfponding departure at the top is 32 miles.
Prob. Ill, I he courfe and departure given, to find
the diftance and difference of latitude.
Example. Let the courfe be SSW and the depar¬
ture 36 miles. Required the diftance and difference of
latitude ?
Lay the index over twTo points j find the departure
at. the top, and its parallel will cut the index at 94
miles the diftance, and the difference of latitude on the
fide column is 87 miles.
Prob. IV. Given the diftance and difference of
titude, to find the courfe and departure.
Example. The diftance is 35 leagues, and the dif¬
ference of latitude 30 leagues. Required the courfe
and departure ?
•^r‘ng 35 kagues on the index to the parallel of 30
leagues in the fide •, then the departure at the top is 18
leagues, and the courfe by the edge of the index on the
line of rhumbs is 2 | points.
Prob. \. Given the diftance and departure, to find
the courfe and difference of latitude.
Example. Let the diftance be 58 miles, and the de¬
parture
(1) In the original inftrument are two flips, divided like the fide and end of the inffrument. One of thefe flips.
is moveable in a diretfion parallel to the fide of the inftrument, and the other parallel to the end.
N A V I G
Required the coune and difference
Practice.
Inftmments parture milcj.
■ to fo^ve of latitude ?
'^Sailin®' M0,176 index until 58 found thereon cuts the pa-
1 without’ rallel of 15 from the top: this will be found to inter-
Calcuiation.feft the parallel of 56 miles, the difference of latitude j
l—-v and the courfe by the edge of the ruler is 150.
Prob. VI. The difference of latitude and departure
being given, to find the courfe and diftance.
'Example. Let the difference of latitude be 30
miles, the departure 28 miles. Required the courie
and difiance.
Bring the index to the interfeftion of the parallels of
30 and 28 5 then the diftance on the index is 4r miles,
and the courfe by its edge is 430.
Traverfe Sailing.
Find the difference of latitude and departure anfwer-
ing to each courfe and diftance by Problen* I. of Plane
Sailing, and from thence find the difference of latitude
and departure made good 5 with which find the courfe
and diftance by the laft problem.
An example is unneceffary.
Parallel Sailing.
Pros. I. Given the difference of longitude between
two places on the fame parallel, to find the diftance
between them.
Example. Let the latitude of a parallel be 48°, and
the difference of longitude between two places on it 30
40'. Required their diftance i*
Put the index to 48°, the given latitude, and find
the difference of longitude 220 on the index, and the
correiponding parallel from the fide will be 147* the
diftance required.
Prob. II. The latitude of a parallel, and the diftance
between two places on that parallel, being given, to
find the difference of longitude between them.
Exa?nple. The latitude of a parallel is 56°, and the
diftance between two places on it 200 miles. Required
their difference of longitude ?
Put the index to the given latitude, and find the
diftance in the fide column, and the interfe&ion of its
parallel with the index will give 358, the difference of
longitude fought.
A T I O N.
68=;
the enlarged meridian, which laid off from C upwardsInniuments
will reach to 500 j now find the difference of longitude p°0^e^s
302 at the top, and bring the divided edge of the in- in Saii;Bgj
dex to the interfettion of the correfponding parallels, without
and the index will fhow the courfe 310 8' on the line of Calculation,
degrees j then find the difference of the latitude 375 on ^ *
the fide column, and its parallel wdll interfed the index
at 438, the diftance.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
Put the index to 410 l8', the complement of the
middle latitude on degrees, and the difference of lon¬
gitude 302 on the index will interfed the parallel of
227, the departure, in the fide column. Now move
the index to the interfedion of the parallels of 375
and 227, the firft being found in the fide column, and
the other at top or bottom ; then the diftance an-
fwering thereto on the index wdll be 438, and the
courfe on the fcale of degrees is 41° io'.
Prob. II. Given one latitude, courfe, and diftance,
to find the other latitude and difference of longitude.
Example. Let the latitude and longitude failed from
be 390 22' N, and 120 8' W refpedively, the courfe
NNWTW, and diftance 500 miles. Required the la¬
titude and longitude come to i
By Mercator1 s Sailing.
Put. the index to the courfe 24- points, and find the
diftance 500 miles thereon j then the correfponding
difference of latitude will be 441 miles, and the depar¬
ture 23 miles, hence the latitude in is 46° 43' N.
Now take the interval between the latitudes of 390 22'
and 46° 43' on the enlarged meridian, which laid off from
C will reach to about 605, the parallel of which will in-
terfe£t the vertical parallel of the difference of longitude
3 23 at the edge of the index : hence the longitude in
is 170 31' W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
Find the difference of latitude and departure as be-
fore, and hence the latitude in is 46° 43' N, and the
middle latitude 430 3'. Now put the index to 430 3!,
and the horizontal parallel of the departure 235L will
interfebl the index at 322, the difference of longitude.
Prob. III. Given the diftance and difference of lon¬
gitude between two places on the fame parallel, to find
the latitude of that parallel.
Example. The number of miles in a degree of lon¬
gitude is 46.5. Required the latitude of the parallel ?
Bring 60 on the index to cut the parallel of 46.5
from the fide, then the edge of the index will give 390
ll', the latitude required.
Middle Latitude and Mercator's Sailing.
Prob. I. The latitudes and longitudes of two places
being given, to find the courfe and diftance between
them.
Example. Required the courfe and diftance between
Genoa, in latitude 440 25' N, longitude 8° 36' E, and
Palermo, in latitude 38° \d N, longitude 130 38, E ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
Take the interval between 38° io' and 440 25' on
Prob. III. Both latitudes and courfe given, to find
the diftance and difference of longitude.
Example. The latitude failed from is 22° 54' S, and
longitude 420 40' W, the courfe is SE by E, and lati¬
tude come to 26° S' S. Required the diftance failed,-
and longitude in ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
Bring the index to 5 points, the given courfe, and
the parallel of 194, the difference of latitude found in
the fide column will interfeft the index at 349, the
diftance 5 and it will cut the vertical parallel of 290,
the departure.
Take the interval between the given latitudes 2 2°
54' and 26° 8' on the enlarged meridian ; lay off that
extent from the centre on the fide column, and it will
reach to 213 : the parallel of this number wall interfeft
the vertical parallel of 319, the difference of longitude.
Hence the longitude in is 370 21' W.
t
635 N A V I G A T I O N. Pradice
Irtfiruments
to folve Qy Middle Latitude Sailing.
Problems With the given courfe and difference of latitude find
m Sailing-, (|,e diftance and departure as before \ then bring the
(aiculati- n ^"1<^es t0 the middle latitude 240 31'; find the departure
v—y—. 290 in the fide column, and its parallel will mterfe£fc
the index at 319, the difference of longitude.
Prob. IV. Ond latitude, courfe, and departure,
given, to find the other latitude, diftance, and difference
of longitude.
Example. The latitude and longitude left are 20°
30' N. and 490 17' W, refpe&ively ; the courfe is
NE^ N, and departure 212 miles. Required the latitude
and longitude come to, and diftance failed ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
Put the index to the given courfe 3^ points, and
the vertical parallel of 212 will cut the index at 356,
the diftance, and the horizontal parallel of 286, the
difference of latitude j the latitude come to is therefore
2 50 161 N.
Now take the interval between the latitudes 20° 30',
and 250 16' on the enlarged meridian, which laid off
from the centre C will reach to 311 ; and this parallel
will interfeft the vertical parallel of the difference of
longitude 230, at the edge of the index. Hence the
longitude in is 450 27' W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
Find the diftance and difference of latitude as direct¬
ed above \ then bring the index to 22s 53', the middle
latitude, and the horizontal parallel of 212, the de¬
parture, will interfeCt the index at 230, the difference
of longitude.
Prob. V. Both latitudes and diftance given, to find
the courfe and difference of longitude.
Example. The diftance failed is 500 miles between
the north and weft •, the latitude and longitude left are
40° 10' N, and 9® 20' W refpeclively, and the latitude
in is 46° 40' N. Required the courfe and longitude in ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
Bring the diftance 500 on the index to interfeft
the horizontal parallel of the difference of latitude
390; then the courfe 38° 44' is found on the line of
degrees by the edge of the index, and the vertical pa¬
rallel of the above point of interfedion is that anfwer-
ing to 313, the departure.
Take the interval between the latitudes 40° xo', and
46° 40', wdiich lay off from the centre C, and its ho¬
rizontal parallel will interfecl the vertical parallel of
431, the difference of longitude, by the edge of the
index, it being in the fame pofition as before. Hence
the longitude in is 16° 31' W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
The ccurfe and departure are found as formerly,
and the middle latitude is 43® 25', to which bring
the edge of the index, and the horizontal parallel of
313, the departure, will interfeft the index at 431 the
difference of longitude.
Prob. VI. Both latitudes and departure given, to
find the courfe, diftance, and difference of longitude.
Example. Let the latitude failed from be 4 2° 52' N,
3
long. 9 jft7' W, the departure 25c miles W, and the Sea-Charts-
latitude^orae to 36° 18' N. Required the courfe and v ~ J
diftance failed, and the longitude come to ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
Find the point of interfedlion of the horizontal
parallel of 394, the difference of latitude, and the ver¬
tical parallel of 250, the departure 5 to this point
bring the index, and the correfponding divifion there¬
on will be 467 miles, and the couife on the fcale of
degrees by the edge of the index will be 3 2° 24'.
Take the interval between the latitudes on the en¬
larged meridian ; which being laid off from the centre
will reach to 512 : now the horizontal parallel of 5x2
will cut the vertical parallel of 325, the difference of
longitude, at the edge of the index. The longitude
come to is therefore 14° 42' W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
The courfe and diftance are to be found in the fame
manner as above. Then bring the index to 390 35',
the middle latitude, and the horizontal parallel of 250
will interfefl the edge of the index at 324-!;, the diffe¬
rence of longitude.
Prob. VII. Given one latitude, diftance, and de¬
parture, to find the other latitude, courfe, and diffe¬
rence of longitude.
Example. A (hip from latitude 32° 38' N, longi¬
tude 17° 6' W, failed 586 miles between the fouth and
weft, and made 336 miles of departure :—Required
the courfe, and the latitude and longitude come to ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
Move the index till the diftance 586 interfe&s the
vertical parallel of the departure 336 ; then the corre¬
fponding horizontal parallel will be 480, the difference
of latitude, and the courfe 35°. Hence the latitude
in is 24P 38' N.
Now take the interval between the latitudes on the
enlarged meridian, which laid off from the centre will
reach to 547, the horizontal parallel of which will cut
the vertical parallel of 383, the difference of longitude.
The longitude in is therefore 23° 29' W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
Find the courfe and difference of latitude as before,
and hence the middle latitude is 28° 38', to which
bring the index, and the horizontal parallel of 336,
the departure, wall interfeft the index at 383, the
difference of longitude.
It feems unneceffary to enlarge any further on the
ufe of this inftrument, as the above will make it fuf-
ficiently underftood.
Chap. XII. 0/S ea-Charis.
The charts ufually employed in the pra&ice of na¬
vigation, are of two kinds, namely, Plane and Mer¬
cator's Charts. The firft of thefe is adapted to repre-
fent a portion of the earth’s iurface near the equator j
and the laff for all portions of the earth’s lurface.
For a particular defeription of thefe, reference has al¬
ready been made from the article Chart, to thofe of
Plane and Mercator : and as thefe charts are par¬
ticularly deferibed under the above articles, it is there¬
fore fufficient in this dace to deferibe their ufe.
Ufa
Praaice. N A V I G
Sea Cn .u -S. ^ Chart.
Prod. I. To find the latitude of a place on the chart.
Rule. Take the leaft diftance between the given
place and the neareft parallel of latitude ; now this
diftance applied the fame way on the graduated me¬
ridian, from the extremity of the parallel, will give the
latitude of the propofed place.
Thus the diftance between Bonavifta and the pa¬
rallel of 15 degrees, being laid from that parallel upon
the graduated meridian, will reach to l6° 5', the lati¬
tude required.
Prob. II. To find the coune and diftance between
two given places on the chart.
Rule. Lay a ruler over the given places, and take
the neareft diftance between the centre of any of the
compaffes on the chart and the edge of the ruler 5 move
this extent along, fo as one point of the compafs may
touch the edge of the rule, and the ftraight line joining
their points may be perpendicular thereto then will
the other point (how the courfe : The interval between
the places, being applied to the fcale, will give the re¬
quired diftance. ,
Thus the courfe from Palma to St Vincent will be
found to be about SSW W, and the diftance 13°:? or
795 m-
Prob. III. The courfe and diftance failed from a
known place being given, to find the ftiip’s place on the
chart.
Rule. Lay a ruler over the place failed from, pa¬
rallel to the rhumb, exprefting the given courfe; take
the diftance from the fcale, and lay it off from the
given place by the edge of the ruler •, and it will give
the point reprefenting the {hip’s prefent place.
Thus, fuppofe a Ihip had failed SWbW 160 miles
from Cape Palmas •, then by proceeding as above, it
will be found that {he is in latitude 2° 57/
The various other problems that may be refolved
by means of this chart require no further explanation,
being only the conftruclion of the remaining problems
in Plane Sailing on the chart.
life of Mercator's Chart.
The method of finding the latitude and longitude of
a place, and the courfe or bearing between two given
places by this chart, is performed exaftly in the man¬
ner as in the Plane Chart, which fee.
Prob. I. To find the diftance between two given
places on the chart.
Case I. When the given places are under the fame
meridian.
Rule. The difference or fum of their latitudes, ac¬
cording as they are on the fame or on oppofite fides of
the equator, will be the diftance required.
Case II. When the given places are under the fame
parallel.
Rule. If that parallel be the equator, the difference
or fum of their longitudes is the diftance } otherwife,
take half the interval between the places, lay it off up¬
wards and downwards on the meridian from the given
parallel, and the intercepted degrees wall be the diftance
between the places.
A T I 0 N. 687
Or, take an equal extent of a few degrees from the
meridian on each fide of the parallel, and the number of t^e LjuL
extents, and parts of an extent, contained between the tude and
places, being multiplied by the length of an extent, will Longitude
give the required diftance. _ < . <lt ^l~a' .
Case III. When the given places differ both in'lati- v '
tude and longitude.
Rule. Find the difference of latitude between the
given places, and take it from the equator or gradu¬
ated parallel; then lay a ruler over the two places, and
move one point of the compafs along the edge of the
ruler until the other point juft touches a parallel $
then the diftance between the place wdiere the point
of the compafs relied by the edge ol the ruler, and
the point of interfeftion of the ruler and parallel, be¬
ing applied to the equator, will give the diftance be¬
tween the places in degrees and parts of a degree,
which multiplied by 60 will reduce it to miles.
Prob. II. Given the latitude and longitude in, to'
find the fhip’s place on the chart.
Rule. Lay a ruler over the given latitude, and
lay off the given longitude from the firft meridian by
the edge of the ruler, and the {hip’s prefent place will
be obtained.
Prob. III. Given the courfe failed from a known
place, and the latitude in, to find the ftiip’s prelent
place on the chart.
Rule. Lay a ruler over the place failed from,, in
the direftion of the given couife, and its interleffion
with the parallel of latitude arrived at will be the Ihip s
prefent place.
Prob. IV. Given the latitude of the place left and
.the courfe and diftance failed, to find the ftiip’s prefent
place on the chart.
Rule. The ruler being laid over the place failed
from, and in the dire&ion of the given courfe, take the
diftance failed from the equator, put one point 0* the
compafs at the interlection of any parallel with the ru¬
ler, and the other point of the compafs will reach to a
certain place by the edge of the ruler.. Now7 this point
remaining in the fame pofition, draw in the other point
of tlie corapafs until it juft touch the above paraLel
when fweeped round : apply this extent to the equates,
and it will give the difference of latitude. Hence the
latitude in will be Known, and the interfeftion ol the
correfponding parallel with the edge of the ruler will
be the ship’s prefent place. |
The other problems of Mercator’s Sailing may be
very eafily refolved by tnis chart} out as they are or
lefs ufe than thofe given, they are, therefore, omitted,
and may ierve as an exercile to the ftudent.
BOOK II.
Containing the method of finding the Latitude and
Longitude of a Ship at Sea, and the Variation
of the Cornpafs.
Chap. I. Of Hadley's Quadrant.
Hadley’s quadrant is the chief inftrument in ufe at
prefent for obferving altitudes at fea. The form ol
this inftrument, according to the prefent mode, of
conftruftion, .
688 N A V I G .
Method conftruftion, is an Diagonal feftor of a circle, and
the latT^ t^erR^ore contains 45 degrees •, but becaufe of the
tude and double reflexion, the limb is divided into 90 degrees.
.Longitude See Astronomy and Quadrant.. Fig. 54. reprefents
at Sea. a quadrant of the common conftru&ion, of which the
* following are the principal parts. -
CCCLXVn 1' ABC. the frame of the quadrant.
Fig. 54. 2. BC, the arch or limb.
3. D, the index j a b, the fubdividing fcale.
4. E, the index-glafs.
5. F, the fere horizon glafs.
6. G, the back horizon-glafs.
7. K, the coloured or dark glafles.
8. HI, the vanes or fights.
Of the Frame of the Quadrant.
The frame of the quadrant confifts of an arch BC,
firmly attached to the two radii AB, AC, which are
bound together by the braces L M, in order to ftrengthen
4t, and prevent it from warping.
Of the Index D.
The index is a flat bar of brafs, and turns on the
centre of the offant: at the lower end of the index
there is ah oblong opening \ to one fide of this open¬
ing the vernier icale is fixed, to fubdivide the divi-
lions of the arch *, at the end of the index there is a
piece of brafs, which bends under the arch, carrying
a fpring to make the fubdividing fcale lie clofe to the
divifions. It is alfo furnilhed with a ferew to fix the
index in any defired pofition. The bell inftruments
kave an adjufting ferew fitted to the index, that it may
be moved more flowly, and wdth greater regularity
and accuracy, than by the hand. It is proper, how¬
ever, to obferve, that the index mull be previoufly
fixed near its right pofition by the above-mentioned
ferew.
Of the Index Glafs E.
Upon the index, and near its axis of motion, is fixed
a plane fpeculum, or mirror of glafs quickfilvered. It
is fet in a brafs frame, and is placed fo that its face is
perpendicular to the plane of the inftrument. . This
mirror being fixed to the index moves along with it,
and has its dire&ion changed by the motion thereof j
and the intention of this glafs is to receive the image
of the fun, or any other objeft, and refleft it upon
either of the two horizon-glaffes, according to the na¬
ture of the obfervation.
The brafs frame with the glafs is fixed to the index
by the ferew c j the other ferew ferve^ to re-place it in
a perpendicular pofition, if by any accident it has been
deranged.
Of the Horizon Glaffes F, G.
On the radius AB of the odtant are two fmall fpe-
culums: the furface of the upper one is parallel to the
index glafs, and that of the lower one perpendicular
thereto, when 0 on the index coincides with 0 on the
limb. Thefe mirrors receive the refle&ed rays, and
tranfmit them to the obferver.
The horizon-glaffes are not entirely quickfilvered 5
the upper one F is only filvered on its lower half, or
that next the plane of the quadrant, the other half be-
jng ieft tranfparent, and the back part of the frame
k T I O N. Practice.
cut away, that nothing may impede the fight through Method
the unfilvered part of the glafs. The edge of the foil finding
of this glafs is nearly parallel to the plane of the in-
ftrument, and ought to be very fharp, and without a Longitude
flaw. The other horizon glafs is filvered at both ends, at Sea.
In the middle there is a tranfparent flit, through which ''■"’““y*—'
the horizon may be feen.
Each of thefe gbffes is fet in a brafs frame, to which
there is an axis pafling through the wood work, and is
fitted to a lever on the under fide of the quadrant, by
which the glafs may be turned a few degrees on its axis,
in order to fet it parallel to the index-glafs. The lever
has a contrivance to turn it flowly, and a button to fix
it. To fet the glaffes perpendicular to the plane of the
inftrument, there are two funk ferews, one before and
one behind each glafs: thefe ferews pafs through the
plate on which the frame is fixed into another plate}
fo that by loofening one and tightening the other of
thefe ferews, the direftion of the frame with its mir¬
ror may be altered, and fet perpendicular to the plane
of the inftrument.
Of the Coloured Glaffes K.
There are ufually three coloured glaffes, two of
which are tinged red and the other green. They are
ufed to prevent the folar rays from hurting the eye at
the time of obfervation. Thefe glaffes are fet in a
frame, which turns on a. centre, fo that they may be
ufed feparately or together as the brightnefs of the
fun may require. The green glafs is particularly ufe-
ful in obfervations of the moon j it may be alfo ufed
in obfervations of the fun, if that objedt be very faint.
In the fore-obfervation, thefe glaffes are fixed as in fig.
54. •, but when the back obfervation is ufed, they are
removed to N.
Of the two Sight Vanes, H, I.
Each of thefe vanes is a perforated piece of brafs,
defigned to diredf the fight parallel to the plane of the
quadrant. That which is fixed at I is ufed for the fore,
and the other for the back, obfervation. The vane I
has two holes, one exaftly at the height of the filvered
part of the horizon glafs, the other a little higher, to
diredt the fight to the middle of the tranfparent part
of the mirror.
Of the divijions on the Limb of the Quadrant.
The limb of the quadrant is divided from right to left
into 90 primary divifions, which are to be confidered as
degrees, and each degree is fubdivided into three equal
parts, which are therefore of 20 minutes each : the in¬
termediate minutes are obtained by means of the fcale
of divifions at the end of the index.
Of the Vernier, or Subdividing Scale.
The dividing fcale contains a fpace equal to 21 di¬
vifions of the limb, and is divided into 20 equal parts.
Hence the difference between a divifion on the dividing
fcale and a divifion on the limb is one twentieth of a
divifion on the limb, or one minute. The degree and
minute pointed out by the dividing fcale may be eafily
found thus.
Obferve what minute on the dividing fcale coincides
with a divifion on the limb ; this divifion being added
to the degree and part of a degree on the limb, imme¬
diately
Pradice. N A V I G
Method diately preceding the firft divifion on the dividing fcale,
the*dati§ t^le ^eSree an^ nainute required,
tude and Thus fuppofe the fourteenth minute on the dividing
Longitude fcale coincided with a divifion on the limb, and that the
at Sea. preceding divifion on the limb te o on the vernier was
56° 40' j hence the divifion fliown by the vernier is
56° 54'. A magnifying glafs will afliit the obferver to
read oft the coinciding divifions with more accuracy.
Adjujhnents of Hadley'1 s Quadrant.
The adjuftments of the quadrant confift in placing
the mirrors perpendicular to the plane of the inftru-
ment. The fore horizon-glafs muft be fet parallel to
the fpeculutn, and the planes of the fpeculum and back
horizon glafs produced muft be perpendicular to each
other when the index is at 0.
Adjustment I. To fet the index-glafs perpendicu¬
lar to the plane of the quadrant.
Method 1. Set the index towards the middle of the
Fig-55*andlimb, and hold the quadrant fo that its plane may be
56, nearly parallel to the horizon : then look into the in¬
dex-glafs 3 and if the portion of the limb feen by re¬
flexion appears in the fame plane with that feen direX-
ly, the fpeculum is perpendicular to the plane of the in-
ftrument. If they do not appear in the fame plane, the
error is to be reXified by altering the pofition of the
fcrews behind the frame of the glafs.
Method 2. This is performed by means of the two
adjufting tools, fig. 55, 56, which are two wooden
frames, having two lines on each, exaXly at the fame
diftance from the bottom.
Place the quadrant in a horizental pofition on a
table 3 put the index about the middle of the arch 3 turn
back the dark glafles ; place one of the above-mention¬
ed tools near one end of the arch, and the other at the
oppofite end, the fide with the lines being towards the
index-glafs 3 then look into the index-glafs, direXing
the fight parallel to the plane of the inftrument, and
one of the tools will be feen by direX vifion, and the
other by refleXion. By moving the index a little, they
may be brought exaXly together. If the lines coin¬
cide, the pofition of the mirror is right ; if not, they
muft be made to coincide by altering the fcrews behind
the frame, as before.
Adjustment II. To fet the fore horizon-glafs per¬
pendicular to the plane of the inftrument.
Set the index to 0 ; hold the plane of the quadrant
parallel to the horizon 5 direX the fight to the hori¬
zon, and if the horizons feen direXly and by reflec¬
tion are apparently in the fame ftraight line, the fore
horizon-glafs is perpendicular to the plane of the in¬
ftrument 3 if not, one of the horizons will appear
higher than the other. Now if the horizon feen by
vefleXion is higher than that feen direXly, releafe the
neareft fcrew in the pedeftal of the glafs, and fcrew up
that on the farther fide, till the direX and refleXed
horizons appear to make one continued ftraight line.
But if the refleXed horizon is lower than that feen di¬
reXly, unfcrew the fartheft, and fcrew up the neareft
fcrew till the coincidence of the horizons is perfeX, ob-
ferving to leave both fcrews equally tight, and the fore
horizon-glafs will be perpendicular to the plane of the
\ quadrant.
Adjustment III. To fet the fore horizon-glafs
parallel to the index-glafs, the index being at 0.
Vol. XIV. Part II.
A T I O N. 689
Set 0 on the index exaXly to 0 on the limb, and fix Method
it in that pofition by the fcrew at the under fide 5 hold
the plane of the quadrant in a vertical pofition, and tu(je anj
direX the fight to a well defined part of the horizon j Longitude
then if the horizon feen in the filvered part coincides at Sea.
with that feen through the tranfparent part, the horizon-
glafs is adjufted 3 but if the horizons do not coincide,
unfcrew the milled fcrew in the middle of the lever on
the other fide of the quadrant, and turn the nut at
the end of the lever until both horizons coincide, and
fix the lever in this pofition by tightening the milled
fcrew.
As the pofition of the glafs is liable to be altered by
fixing the lever, it will therefore be neceffary to re-ex¬
amine it, and if the horizons do not coincide, it will
be neceffary either to repeat the adjuftment, or rather
to find the error of adjuftment, or, as it is ufually called,
the index-error; which may be done thus :
DireX the fight to the horizon, and move the index
until the refleXed horizon coincides with that feen di¬
reXly 3 then the difference between 0 on the limb and
0 on the vernier is the index error 3 which is additive
when the beginning of the vernier is to the right of 0
on the limb, otherwife fubtraXive.
Adjustment IV. To fet the back horizon-glafs per¬
pendicular to the plane of the inftrument.
Put the index to 0 ; hold the plane of the quadrant
parallel to the horizon, and direX the fight to the ho¬
rizon through the back fight vane. Now if the re¬
fleXed horizon is in the fame ftraight line with that feen
through the tranfparent part, the glafs is perpendicular
to the plane of the inftrument. If the horizons do not
unite, turn the funk fcrews in the pedeftal of the glafs
until they are apparently in the fame ftraight line.
Adjustment V. To fet the back horizon-glafs per¬
pendicular to the plane of the index-glafs produced, the
index being at 0.
Let the index be put as much to the right of 0 as
twice the dip of the horizon amounts to 3 hold the
quadrant in a vertical pofition, and apply the eye to the
back vane 3 then if the refleXed horizon coincides with
that feen direXly, the glafs is adjufted ; if they do not
coincide, the fcrew in the middle of the lever on the
other fide of the quadrant muft be releafed, and the
nut at its extremity turned till both horizons coincide.
It may be obferved, that the refleXed horizon will be
inverted 3 that is, the fea will be apparently uppermoft
and the Iky lowermoft.
As this method of adjuftment is efteemed trouble-
fome, and is often found to be very difficult to perform
at fea, various contrivances have therefore been propof-
ed to render this adjuftment more Ample. Some of
thefe are the following.
I. Mr Dollond’s method of adjufting the back hori¬
zon-glafs.
In this method an index is applied to the back hori¬
zon-glafs, by which it may be moved fo as to be paral¬
lel to the index-glafs, when 0 on the vernier coincides
with 0 on the limb. When this is effeXed, the index
of the back horizon-glafs is to be moved exaXly 90°
from its former pofition, which is known by means of a
divided arch for that purpofe; and then the plane of
the back horizon-glafs will be perpendicular to the plane
of the index-glafs produced.
2, Mr
N A V I G
± Mr Blair’s method of adjufting the back hori¬
zon-gl a fs.
All that is required in this method is to polifh the
Vi1 v1"’ ~ lower edge of the index-glafs, and expofe it to view.
The back horizon-glafs is adjufted by means of a re¬
flexion from this polifhed edge, in the very fame me¬
thod as the fore horizon glafs is adjulled by the com¬
mon method.
**%• 57* In order to illudrate this, let R I H E (fig. 57.) re-
prefent a pencil of rays emitted from the objeft R, in¬
cident on the index-glafs I, from which it is reflecfed to
thfc fore horizon-glafs H, and thence to the eye at E.
By this double refieXion, an image of the objeX is
formed at r. RHE reprefents another pencil from the
fame objeX R, coming direXly through the fore ho¬
rizon-glafs to the eye at E ; fb that the doubly refleXed
image r appears coincident with the objeX R itfelf, feen
direXly.
When this coincidence is perfeX, and the objeX R
fo very diflant as to make the angle IRH infenfible, the
pofition ol the fpeculums I and H will differ infenfibly
from parallelifm that is, the quadrant will be adjufted
for the fore obfervation. Now it is from the eafe and
accuracy with which this adjuftment can at any time
be made, that the fore-obfervation derives its fuperiori-
ty over the back-obfervation. But by grinding the
edge of the index glafs perpendicular to its refleXing
furface, and polilhing it, the obfervation is rendered ca¬
pable of an adjuftment equally eafy and accurate as
the fore horizon-glafs: for by a pencil of rays emitted
from the objeX S, incident on the refleXing edge of the
index-glafs D, thence refleXed to the back horizon-
glafs B, and from that to the eye at e, an image will
be formed at r ; which image being made to coincide
with the objeX S itfelf, feen direXly, afcertains the po¬
rtion of the back horizon glafs relative to the index-
glafs, with the fame precifion, and in a manner equally
direX, as the former operation does that of the fore
horizon-glafs.
DireBions for aJjuf ing the Bach Horizon-Glafs.
The method of adjufting the quadrant for the back-
obfervation is this. If it is to be done without making
ufe of the telefcope, place the index at 0, and, ap¬
plying the eye to the hole in the fight vane (k), or
tube for direXing the fight, direX it through the
back horizon-glais to the horizon, if that; is the ob¬
jeX to be ufed for adjufting. The two horizons are
then to be made to coincide, holding the quadrant firft
m a vertical and then in an horizontal pofition 5 by
which means both adjuftments will be effeXed as in the
fore-obfervation.
There will be no difficulty in finding the refieXed
horizon, if the obferver firfi: direXs his eye to that part
of the horizon-glafs where he obferves the image of
the polifhed edge of the index-glafs, which will ap-
A T I 0 N. Pradice,
pear double. When the direX horizon is made to ap- atethod
pear in this cafe, the refleXed one wall be ieen clofe filing
by it, unlefs the inftrument wants a great adjuftment. and
In this cafe, a little motion of the back horizon-glafs Longitude
backw’ards and forwards will prefently bring it in at&Sea.
view. ——y—j
When the horizon, or any obfcure terreftrial ob¬
jeX, is to be made ufe of for adjufting by means of
the refleXing edge, there is a precaution to be taken,
without which the obferver will fometimes meet with
what will appear an unaccountable difficulty 5 for if the
fky, or other objeX behind him, fhould happen to be
pretty bright, he will not be able to difcern the horizon
at all. This arifes from the image of the objeX be¬
hind him, which is refleXed from the filvered furface
of the index-glafs, appearing to coincide with the ho¬
rizon 5 in which cafe, the bright piXure of the for¬
mer, which is formed in the bottom of the eye, pre¬
vents the fainter impreflion of the latter from being
perceived. This will be avoided, either by apply¬
ing a black fcreen over the filvered furface of the
index-glafs, or, without being at this trouble, by
Handing at a door or window, fo that only the dark
objeXs within can be refleXed from the index-glafs :
but if the obfervation is to be made in the open air,
a hat, or any fuch dark obftacle, held before the filver¬
ed furface of the index-glafs, will very effeXually re¬
move this inconvenience.
It may be remarked, that fome obfervers, inftead
of making the principal adjuftment, place the fpeculums
parallel, by moving the index without altering the
pofition of the horizon-glafs : and the difference be¬
tween 0 on the vernier and 0 on the limb is the index
error, which muff be fubtraXed from all angles mea-
fured by the back-obfervation, when 0 on the index,
is to the right of 0 on the limb j and added when to the
left.
3. Mr Wright’s method of adjufting the back hori-
zon-glais of his improved patent quadrant.
Fig. 58. is a reprefentation of the quadrant com-Fig. 58.
plete in all its parts for ufe. A, is the refleXing fur¬
face of the index-glafs, which is made of the ufual
length, and -rg- of an inch broad. The bottom part
is covered in front by the brafs frame, and the reflec¬
ting furface is on the back. B, the fore horizon-
glafs, placed as ufual : O, the back horizon-glafs, now
placed under the fore fight-vane on the firft radius of
the quadrant I : C, the light-vane of the fore horizon-
glafs : D, the fight-vane of the back horizon-glafs :
E, the coloured glafles in a brafs frame, in the proper
place for the fore obfervation : F, a hole in the frame
to receive the coloured glaffes when an obfervation is
to be taken with the back horizon-glafs in the common
w^ay, by turning the back to the fun ; G, a hole in the
frame of the fartheft radius K, to receive the coloured
glaffes wftten an obfervation is to be taken by the new
method ; which is by looking through the low'er hole
in the fight-vane of the back horizon-glafs, direXly
at
69O
Method
of finding
tude and
Longitude
at Sea.
(k) Befides the hole in the fight vane, commonly made, there muff be another nearer to the horizon-glafs, and
fo placed that an eye direXed through it to the centre of the horizon-glafs lhall there perceive the image of the
polifhed edge of the index-glafs. This hole muff not be made fmall like the other, but equal to the ordinary fize
of the pupil of the eye, there being or. feme cccafions no light to fpare.
Fig. 59-
Fig. 6 c.
Practice. NT A V I C
Method at the fun in the line of fight DN ; the horizon from
of finding behind will then be reflefted from the back of the in-
the Lati- ^ ]afs to t]ie horizon-glafs, and from thence to the
Longitude eye. (See fig. 62.). H, a brafs clamp on the upper
at Sea. end of the index, having a milled fcrew underneath,
which fattens the round plate to the index when re¬
quired. (See fig. 59.). IK, the graduated arch of the
quadrant divided into 90 degrees : L, the brafs index
which moves over the graduated arch : M, the vernier
to fubdivide the divifions on the arch into fingle minutes
of a degree.
Fig. 59. (hows the upper part of the index L on a
larger fcale, with part of the brafs frame that fattens
the index-glafs, and the three adjufiing fcrews D to
adjuft its axis vertical to the plane of the quadrant:
B, the centre on which the milled plate O moves over
the index : The dotted line BF is the diftance it is
required to move : K, the adjufting fcrew to flop it in
its proper place for adjutting the back obfervation-
glafs: G, a piece of brafs fattened to the index op-
pofite to the clamp H, to keep the plate O always clofe
to the index L.
Fig. 60. reprefents the parallel pofition of the in¬
dex and horizon glaffes after adjuftment by the fun :
BC, a ray from the fun incident on the index-glafs
C, and from thence refteaed to the fore horizon-glafs
D, and again to the eye at E, in the line DE, where
the eye fees the fun at A by direft vifion, and the
image by refleftion, in one ; the parallel lines AE and
BC being fo near to each other, that no apparent
angle can be obferved in the planes of the index and
horizon-glatt, when adjufted by a diftant object.
In fig. 61. the index-glafs is removed 45 degrees
from the plane of the fore horizon glafs, and fixed in its
proper place for adjufting the back horizon-glafs pa¬
rallel to its plane, in the fame manner as the fore ho¬
rizon-glafs is adjufted.
In fig. 62. the index-glafs (after the adjuftment of
the fore and back horizon-glattes) is carried forward
by the index on the arch 90 degrees, and makes an
angle of 450 with the plane of the fore horizon-glafs,
and is at right angles to the plane of the back iiori-
zon-glafs. The eye at E now fees the fun in the ho¬
rizon at H, reflefted by the index and horizon-glaffes
from the zenith at Z, the image and object being 90
degrees diftant. The back horizon K is now refledted
from the back furface of the index-glafs C to the ho¬
rizon-glafs M, and from thence to the eye at D, in
a right line with the fore horizon F. In order to make
an exadl contadt of the fore and back horizons at F,
the index muft be advanced beyond the 90th degree
on the arch, by a quantity equal to twice the dip of
the horizon.
The quadrant is adjufted for the fore-obfervation as
ufual, having previoufly fixed the index-glafs in its pro¬
per place by the milled fcrew at H, as reprefented in
59-
To adjuj} the Quadrant for the Bach-obfervation.
Fatten the index to 90° on the limb; loofen the fcrew
H (fig- 59.), and turn the plate O by the milled edge
Until the end of the adjufting fcrew K touch the edge
of the clamp M ; and by means of a diftant objedl
obferve if the glafles are then parallel, as at fig 60. : if
♦hey are, faften the fcrew H 5 if not, with a fcrew-dji-
Fig. 61.
Fig. 6a.
A T I O N.
691
ver turn the fcrew K gently to the right or left to make Method
them perfedl, and then faften the fcrew. Now remove
the index back to O on the limb, and the index-glafs tljede ^
will be parallel to the back horizon-glafs E, fig. 61. ; Longitude
If not, make them fo by turning the adjufting fcrew at Sea.
of the glafs E, the eye being at the upper hole in the " ’~J
fight-vane D, and the fight dire&ed to the horizon,
or any diftant objefl in the direftion DN (fig* 5^-)
Now the index remaining in this pofition, the index-
glafs is to be returned, to flop at the pin E, and it will
be parallel to the fore horizon-glafs as at firft : then
the quadrant will be adjufted for both methods of ob-
fervation.
To obferve the Sun's Altitude by the Backrobfervation.
Remove the coloured glaffes to G (fig. 58.), and
look through the lower hole in the fight-vane D, in
the line of direction DN, direftly to the fun, and move
the index forward on the arch exaflly in the lame man¬
ner as in the fore-obfervation : make the contaft of
the fun’s limb and the back horizon exadt, and the
degrees and minutes Ihown by the index on the limb
is the fun’s zenith diftance. It may be obferved, that
the horizon will be inverted. If the fun’s lower limb
be obferved, the femidiameter is to be fubtradled from
the zenith diftanoe 5 but if the upper limb is obferved,
the femidiameter is to be added.
The obfervation may be made in the ufual manner,
by turning the back to the fun. In this cafe the co¬
loured glaffes are to be Ihifted to F, and proceed ac¬
cording to the diredlions formerly given.
Ufe of Hadley's Quadrant.
The altitude of any objedt is determined by the po¬
fition of the index on the limb, when by refledlion that
objedl appears to be in contadt with the horizon.
If the objedl whofe altitude is to be obferved be the
fun, and if fo bright that its image may be feen in the
tranfparent part of the fore horizon-glafs, the eye is
to be applied to the upper hole in the fight-vane %
otherwife, to the lower hole : and in this cafe, the qua¬
drant is to be held fo that the fun may be bifedled by
the line of feparation of the filvered and tranfparent
parts of the glafs. The moon is to be kept as nearly
as poflible in the fame pofition ; and the image of the
ftac is to be obferved in the filvered part of the glafs
adjacent to the line of feparation of the two parts.
There are two different methods of taking obferva-
tions with the quadrant. In the firft of thefe the face
of the obferver is diredled towards that part of the ho¬
rizon immediately under the fun, and is therefore call¬
ed the fore obfervation. In the other method, the ob-
ferver’s back "is to the fun, and it is hence called the
bach-obfervation. This laft method of obfervation is to
be ufed only when the horizon under the fun is ob-
feured, or rendered indiftinft by fog or any other im¬
pediment.
In taking the fun’s altitude, whether by the fore or
back obfervation, the obferver muft turn the quadrant
about upon the axis of vifion, and at the fame time turn
himfelf about upon his heel, fo as to keep the fun al¬
ways in that part of the horizon-glafs which is at the
fame diftance as the eye from the plane of the quadrant.
In this way the rede<fted fun will deferibe an arch of
a parallel circle round the true fun, whole convex fide
4 S 2 will
Longitude
at Sea.
692 N A V I G
Method will be downwards in the ' fore-obfervation and up-
cffinding wart[s Jn ^be back', and confequently, when by moving
tude and t^le *n^ex> loweft point of the arch in the fore-ob¬
fervation, or higheft in the back, is made to touch the
horizon, the quadrant will Hand in a vertical plane,
and the altitude above the vifible horizon will be pro¬
perly obferved. The reafon of thefe operations may
be thus explained : The image of the fun being always
kept in the axis of vifion, the index will always (how
on the quadrant the diftance between the fun and any
ohjedt feen direclly which its image appears to touch ;
therefore, as long as the index remains unmoved, the
image of the fun will defcribe an arch everywhere equi-
dilfant from the fun in the heavens, and confequently
a parallel circle about the fun, as a pole. Such a
trandation of the fun’s image can only be produced by
the quadrant’s being turned about upon a line drawn
from the eye to the fun, as an axis. A motion of rota¬
tion upon this line may be refolved into two, one up¬
on the axis of vifion, and the other upon a line on the
quadrant perpendicular to the axis of vifion 5 and con¬
fequently a proper combination of thefe two motions
will keep the image of the fun conftantly in the axis
of vifion, and caufe both jointly to run over a parallel
circle about the fun in the heavens : but when the qua¬
drant is vertical, a line thereon perpendicular to the
axis of vifion, becomes a vertical axis ; and as a final!
motion of the quadrant is all that is wanted, it will
never differ much in pradtice from a vertical axis. The
obferver is diredled to perform two motions rather
than the fingle one equivalent to them on a line drawn
from the eye to the fun ; becaufe we are not capable,
'while looking towards the horizon, of judging how
to turn the quadrant about upon the elevated line go¬
ing to the fun as an axis, by any other means than by
combining the two motions above mentioned, fo as to
keep the fun’s image always in the proper part of the
horizon-glafs. When the fun is near the horizon, the
line going from the eye to the fun will not be far re¬
moved from the axis of vifion ; and confequently the
principal motion of the quadrant will be performed
on the axis of vifion, and the part of motion made on
the vertical axis will be but fmall. On the contrary,
when the fun is near the zenith, the line going to the
fun is not far removed from a vertical line, and confe¬
quently the principal motion of the quadrant will be
performed on a vertical axis, by the obferver’s turning
himfelf about, and the part of the motion made on the
axis of vifion will be but fmall. In intermediate alti¬
tudes of the fun, the motions of the quadrant on the
axis of vifion, and on the vertical axis, will be more
equally divided.
Obfervations taken with the quadrant are liable to
errors, arifing from the bending and elafticity of the
index, and the refillahce it meets wdth in turning
round its centre : whence the extremity of the index,
on being pulhed along the arch, will fenfibly advance
before the index-glafs begins to move, and may be
feen to recoil when the force afting on it is removed.
Mr Hadley feems to have been apprehenfive that his
infirument would be liable to errors from this caufe j
and in order to avoid them, gives particular direflions
that the index be m?de broad at the end next the cen¬
tre, and that the centre, or axis itfelf, have as eafy a
motion as is confiflent with fteadinefs j that is, an en-
a T 1 o N.
Practice
tire freedom from loofenefs, or Jhakc as the workmen Method
term it. By ftriclly complying with thefe directions of finding
the error in queftion may indeed be greatly diminifhed •, L‘''.j
fo far, perhaps, as to render it nearly infenfible, where Longitude
the index is made llrong, and the proper medium be- at Sea.
tween the two extremes of a (hake at the centre on one v~~/
hand, and too much ftiffnefs there on the other, is nice¬
ly hit •> but it cannot be entirely corredted. For to
more or lefs of bending the index will always be fub-
je6! ; and fome degree of refiflance will remain at the
centre, unlefs the friflion there could be totally remov¬
ed, which is impoffible.
Of the reality of the error to which he is liable
from this caufe, the obferver, if he is provided with a
quadrant furnifhed with a ferew for moving the index
gradually, may thus fatisfy himfelf. After finifhing
the obfeivation, lay the quadrant on a table, and note
the angle ; then cautioufly loofen the ferew which fa¬
llens the index, and it will immediately, if the qua¬
drant is not remarkably well conflrudled, be feen to
Hart from its former fituation, more or lefs according
to the perfection of the joint and the ftrength of the
index, This ftarting, which is owing to the index
recoiling after being releafed from the confined Hate
it was in during the obfervation, will fometimes amount
to feveral minutes •, and its direction will be oppofite
to that in which the index was moved by the ferew
at the time of finilhing the obfervation. But how far
it alfecls the truth of the obfervation, depends on the
manner iu which the index was moved in fetting it to
0, for adjusting the inftrument ; or in finilhing the ob¬
fervations neceffary for finding the index error.
The eafieft and belt rule to avoid thefe errors feems
to be this : In all obfervations made by Hadley’s qua¬
drant, let the obferver take notice conftantly to finilh
his obfervations, by moving the index in the fame di-
reftion which was ufed in fetting it to 0 for adjufting j
or in the obfervations neceflary for finding the index
error. If this rule is obferved, the error arifing Bom
the fpring of the index will be obviated. For as the
index was bent the fame way, and in the fame degree
in adjufting as in obferving, the truth of the obferva¬
tions will not be affected by this bending.
To take Altitudes by the Fore-obfervation.
I. Of the Sun,
Turn down either of the coloured glaiTes before
the horizon-glafs, according to the brightnefs of the
fun ; diredt the fight to that part of the horizon which
is under the fun, and move the index until the colour¬
ed image of the fun appear in the horizon-glafs ; then
give the quadrant a flow vibratory motion about the
axis of vifion j move the index until the lower or up¬
per limb of the fun is in contadl with the horizon,
at the lowefl: part of the arch deferibed by this mo¬
tion ; and the degrees and minutes Ihown by the in¬
dex on the limb will be the altitude of the fun.
II. Of the Moon.
Put the index to 0, turn down the green glafs,
place the eye at the lower hole in the fight-vane, and
obferve the moon in the filvered part of the horizon-
glafs ; move the index gradually, and follow the moon’s
reflefted image until the enlightened limb is in contact
with
PrsMce.
NAVIGATION.
^93
PJethod with the horizon, at the lower part of the arch defcrib-
theLatF the vibratory motion as before, and the index
tude and whl iliow the altitude of the obferved limb of the moon.
Longitude If the dbfervation is made in the day-time, the coloured
at Sea. glafs is unnece.Tary.
III. Of a Star or Vianet.
The index being put to <?, direft the fight to the
ftar through the lower hole in the fight-vane and tranf-
parent part of the horizon-glafs ; move the plane
of the quadrant a very little to the left, and the
image of the ftar will be feen in the filvered part of
the glafs. Now move the index, and the image of
the ftar will appear to defcend ; continue moving the
index gradually until the ftar is in contact with the
horizon at the loweft part of the arch defcribed •, and
the degrees and minutes fhown by the index on the
limb will be the altitude bf the ftar.
To take Altitudes by the Back-obfervation.
I. Of the Sun.
Put the ftem of the coloured glaffes into the perfo¬
ration between the horizon-glaffes, turn down either
according to the brightnefs of the fun, and hold the
quadrant vertically $ then dire6l the fight through
the hole in the back fight-vane, and the tranfparent
flit in the horizon-glafs to that part of the horizon
which is oppofite to the fun ; now move the index
till the fun is in the filvered part of the glafs, and by
giving the quadrant a vibratory motion, the axis of
which is that of vifion, the image of the fun will de-
fcribe an arch whofe convex fide is upwards j bring
the limb of the fun, when in the upper part of this
arch, in contaft wdth the horizon ; and the index will
ftiow the altitude of the other limb of the fun.
II. Of the Moon.
The altitude of the moon is obferved in the fame
manner as that of the fun, wdth this difference only, that
the ufe of the coloured glafs is unneceffary unlefs the
moon is very bright \ and that the enlightened limb,
whether it be the upper or lower, is to be brought in
conta£l with the horizon.
III. Of a Star or Vianet.
Look dire£ily to the ftar through the vane and tranf¬
parent flit in the horizon-glafs, move the index until
the oppofite horizon, with refpefl to the ftar, is feen in
the filvered part of the glafs ; and make the contact
perfe& as formerly. If the altitude of the ftar is known
nearly, the index may be fet to that altitude, the fight
dire&ed to the oppoftte horizon, and the obfervation
made as before.
Sect. II. Of finding the Latitude of a Vlace.
The obfervation neceflary for afcertaining the lati¬
tude of a place, is that of the meridional altitude of a
known celeftial objector two altitudes when the ob-
je£t is out of the meridian. The latitude is deduced
with more certainty and with lefs trouble from the fir/t
of thcfe methods, than from the fecond ; and the fun,
for various reafons, is the objeft moft proper for this
purpofe at fea. It, however, frequently happens, that
by the interpofition of clouds, the fun is obfcured at Method
noon j and by this means the meridian altitude is loft.
In this cafe, therefore, the method by double altitudes tude an^
becomes neceffary. The latitude may be deduced from Longitude
three altitudes of an unknown objedl, or from double at Sea.
altitudes, the apparent times of obfervation being given.-y—"^
The altitude of the limb of an obje£l obferved at fea,
requires four feparate corrections in order to obtain the
true altitude of its centre : thefe are for femidiameter,
dip, refraction, and parallax. (See Astronomy, and
the refpeftive articles). The firft and laft of thefe
corrections vaniftr when the obferved objeCt is a fixed
filar.
When the altitude of the lower limb of any objeCt is
obferved, its femidiameter is to be added thereto in or¬
der to obtain the central altitude ; but if the upper
limb be obferved, the femidiameter is to be fubtraCted.
If the altitude be taken by the back-obfervation, the
contrary rule is to be applied. The dip is to be fub-
trw&ed from, or added to, the obferved altitude, ac¬
cording as the fore or back-obfervation is ufed. The
refraClion is always to be fubtraded from, and the pa¬
rallax added to, the obferved altitude.
Pros. I. To reduce the fun’s declination to any gi¬
ven meridian.
Rule. Find the number in Table IX. anfwering to
the longitude in the table neareft to that given, and to
the neareft day of the month. Now, if the longitude
is weft, and the declination increafing, that is, from
the 20th of March to the 2 2d of June, and from the
22d of September to the 22d of December, the above
number is to be added to the declination : during the
other part of the year, or while the declination is de-
creafing, this number is to be fubtrafted. In eaft lon¬
gitude, the contrary rule is to be applied.
Ex. 1. Required the fun’s declination at noon 16th
April 1810, in longitude 84° W ?
Sun’s declination at noon at Greenwich f*2 N
Number from Table IX. - - 5.0
Reduced declination - . _ 10 4.2
Ex. 2. Required the fun’s declination at noon 22d
March 1793, in longitude 1510 E ?
Sun’s declination at noon at Greenwich o° 53'N
Equation from Tabic X. - — 10
Reduced declination - - o 43 N
Pros. II. Given the fun’s meridian altitude, to find-
the latitude of the place of obfervation.
Rule. The fun’s femidiameter is to be added to, or
fubtradled from, the obferved altitude, according as
the lower or upper limb is obferved j the dip anfwering
to the height from Table V. is to be fubtra&ed if the
fore-obfervation is ufed $ otherwife, it is to be added j
and the refradtion anfwering to the altitude from
Table IV. is to be fubtrafted : hence the true altitude
of the fun’s centre will be obtained. Call the altitude
fouth or north, according as the fun is fouth or north
at the time of obfervation j which fubtradfed from 90°,
will give the zenith diftance of a contrary denomina¬
tion.
Reduce the fun’s declination to the meridian of the
place of obfervation, by Prob. I. j then the fum or dif¬
ference
694
Method
of finding
the Lati¬
tude and
Longitude
at Sea.
NAVIGATION.
fercnce of the zenith diftance and declination, accord¬
ing as they are of the fame or of a contrary denomina¬
tion, will be the latitude of the place of obfervation, of
the fame name with the greater quantity.
Ex. i. October 19. 1810, in longitude 3 2° E, the
meridian altitude of the fun’s lower limb was 48° 53' S,
height of the eye 18 feet. Required the latitude ?
Practice.
the fhip with fufficient exactnefs for this purpofe, efpe- Method
cially when that didance is not greater than fix miles, of finding
which is the greatelf diftance of the vifible horizon th^Lati:
from an obferver on the deck of any fliip. tude and
Ohs. alt. fun's lower limb 48° 53'S Sun’s dec. ijj.OdL noon. 9°5i'S
Semidiameter -J-o 16 Equation Table IX.— 2
Dip and refraction —-o 5
True alt. fun’s centre
—-o 5 Reduced declin. 9 49 S
49 4S Zenith diftance - 40 56N
Latitude 31 7 N
Ex. 2. November 16. 1812, in longitude 15$° W,
the meridian altitude of the fun’s lower limb was 87°
37' N, height of the eye 10 feet. Required the lati¬
tude ?
Obs. alt. fun’slow.limb 8703 7'N. Sun’sdec. noon.i 8048'S
Semidiameter 4-0 16 Equation tab.-f 0 8
Prob. III. Given the meridian altitude of a fixed
flar, to find the latitude of the place of obfervation.
Rule. Correa the altitude of the ftar by dip and
refradion, a»d find the zenith diflance of the liar as
formerly 5 take the declination of the ftar from Ta¬
ble XI. and reduce it to the time of obfervation. Now,
the. fum or difference of the zenith diftance and decli¬
nation of the ftar, according as they are of the fame or
of a contrary name, will be the latitude of the place of
obfervation.
^Ex. 1. December 1. 1810, the meridian altitude of
Sinus was 59° 50' S, height of the eye 14 feet. Re¬
quired the latitude ?
Longitude
at Sea.
Obferved altitude of Sirius
Dip and refradion
59
-o
50'S
4
Dip and refrad, —o 3 Reduced dec. 19 5S True altitude
  Zenith diftance
I rue alt. fun’s centre 87 50 N. Zenith diftance 210S Declination
Latitude 21 6 S Latitude
Ex. 3. December 19. 1811, being nearly under the
meridian of Greenwich, the altitude of the fun’s upper
limb at noon was 40 30' S, height of the eye 20 feet.
Required the latitude ?
Obferved altitude of the fun’s upper limb 40 30' S
Sun’s femidiameter - - o 16
Dip and refradion - „ o I5
True altitude of the fun’s centre
Zenith diftance - - .
Declination - - .
59 46 S
30 14 N
16 28 S
* 13 46 N
Ex. 2. February 17. 1797, the meridian altitude of
Procyon was 71° 15' N, the height of the eye 10 feet.
Required the latitude ?
Obferved altitude of Procyon - 71° 1 5'N
3
86
23
59 s
1 N
25 S
Dip and refradion
True altitude
Zenith diftance
Declination
Latitude
—o 3
71
j8
12 N
48 S
5 43 N
Latitude - ' - - 62 36 N
Ex: 4, Auguft 23. 1812, in longitude I07CLE, the
meridian altitude of the fun’s lower limb by ihe back-
obfervation was 61® 8' N, and the height of the eye 44
feet. Required the latitude ?
Obferved altitude fun’s upper limb
Sun’s femidiameter
Dip -
Refradion - ~ .
6i° 8' N
—o 16
+ ° 3i
—o T
True altitude of fun’s centre
Zenith diftance
Reduced declination
60 55 N
29 5 S
11 26 N
39 S
Latitude
The dip in Table V. anfwers to an entirely open and
unobftruded horizon. It, however, frequently hap¬
pens, that the fun is over the land at the time of obfer-
vati.on, and the fliip nearer to the land than the vifible
horizon would be if unconfined. In this cafe, the dip
will be different from what it would otherwife have
been, and is to be taken from Table VI. in which the
height is expreffed at the top, and the diftance from the
land in the fide column in nautical miles.—Seamen, in
general, can eftimate the diftance of any objed from
13 5 S
Prob. IV. Given the meridian altitude of a planet,
to find the latitude of the place of obfervation.
Rule. Compute the true altitude of the planet as
direded in laft problem (which is fufliciently accurate
for altitudes taken at fea) j take its declination from
the Nautical Almanac, page iv. of the month, and re¬
duce it to the time and meridian of the place of obfer¬
vation $ then the fum or difference of the zenith di¬
ftance and declination of the planet will be the latitude
as before.
Ex. 1. Auguft 7. 1812, the meridian altitude of Sa¬
turn was 68° 42' N, and height of the eye 15 feet.
Required the latitude ?
Obferved altitude of Saturn
Dip and refradion
True altitude -
Zenith diftance
Declination
Latitude * - 44 6 S
Ex. 2. Odober 15. 1812, the meridian ^titade of
Jupiter was 8i° 5' S, height of the eye 18 feet. Re¬
quired the latitude ?
Obferved
68° 42' N
—o 4
68 38 N
21 22 S
22 42 s
Practice.
NAVIGATION.
695
IVietTod
of finding
the Lati¬
tude and
Longitude
at Sea
Obferved altitude of Jupiter
Dip
True altitude
Zenith didance
Declination
8i° j' S
—0 3
8r 2 S
8 58 N
19 4 S
Latitude
10 6 S
Prob. V. Given the meridian altitude of the moon,
to find the latitude of the place of obfervation.
t Dr Mac- Rule. Tak-e the number f anfwering to the (hip’s
kay's Trea- longitude, and daily variation of the moon’s palling the
tije on the meryian . which being applied to the time of paffage
Tab^XX?’ given in the Nautical Almanac, will give the time of
the moon’s paffage over the meridian of the Ihip.
Reduce this time to the meridian of Greenwich ; and
by means of the Nautical Almanac find the moon’s de¬
clination, horizontal parallax, and femidiameter at the
reduced time.
Apply the femidiameter and dip to the obferved alti¬
tude of the limb, and the apparent altitude of the moon’s
centre will be obtained j to which add the correction
anfwering to the apparent altitude and horizontal paral-
% Ditto, lax X, and the fum will be the true altitude of the
Tab. XX. moon’s centre 5 which fubtraCled from 90°, the remain¬
der is the zenith diftance, and the fum or difference of
the zenith diftance and declination, according as they
are of the fame or of a contrary name,, will be the lati¬
tude of the place of obfervation.
Ex. I. December 24. 1792, in longitude 30° W,
the meridian altitude of the moon’s lower limb was
81 13' N, height of the eye 12 feet. Required the
latitude ?
Time of paff. over the mer. of Greenwich = 9h 19'
Equation Table XX. - "f-0 4
Time of paff. over mer. Ihip - 9 23
Longitude in time - - 20
Reduced time - - 11 23
Moon’s dec. at midnight, Table IX. =I4°33,N
Eq. to time from midnight - — 0 4
Reduced declination - 14 49 N
Moon’s hor. par. - - 35, 25"
Moon’s femidiameter - - I5 ^
Augmentation - - -j- Q 14
Aug. femidiameter - - I3 20
Obferved altitude of the moon’s lower limb 8i° 15' N Meffpd
Semidiameter -
Dip - -
Apparent altitude of the moon’s centre
Correction
True altitude of moon’s centre
Zenith diftance
Declination
Latitude
Remark. If the objeCl be on the meridian below the
pole at the time of oblervation, then the fum of the true
altitude and the complement of the declination is the la¬
titude, of the fame name as the declination or altitude.
Ex. 1. July 2. 1812, in longitude 130 W, the alti¬
tude of the fun’s lower limb at midnight was 8° 38',,
height of the eye 18 feet. Required the latitude ?
Obferved altitude fun’s lower limb - 8° 38'
Semidiameter - r . - -f-o 16
Dip and refra&ion - - —o 10
True altitude of fun’s centre - 9 4 N
Compl. declin. reduced to time and place 66 37 N
Latitude - - 76 1 N
+
o 1
o
r of finding
the Lati-
3 tude and
Longitude
8l 27 N at Sea.
-f-O 8 ——v—
81 35 N
8 23 S
14 49 N
6 42 N
Prob. VI. Given the latitude by account, the de¬
clination and two obferved altitudes of the fun, and the
interval of time between them, to find the true latitude.
Rule. To the log. fecant of the latitude by account,
add the log. fecant of the fun’s declination ; the fum,
rejefting 20 from the index, is the logarithm ratio. To
this add the log. of the difference of the natural fines of
the two altitudes, and the log. of the half elapfed time
from its proper column.
Find this fum in column of middle time, and take
®ut the time anfwering thereto 5 the difference between
which and the half elapfed time will be the time from
noon when the greater altitude was obferved.
Take the log. anfwering to this time from column of
rifing, from wffich fubtraCl the log. ratio, the remain¬
der is the logarithm of a natural number •, which being
added to the natural fine of the greater altitude, the
fum is the natural cofine of the meridian zenith diftance *,
from which and the fun’s declination the latitude is ob¬
tained as formerly.
If the latitude thus found differs confidersbly from that
by account, the operation is to be repeated, ufing the
computed latitude in place of that by account (l).
F.x. I-
(l) This method is only an approximation, and ought to be ufed under certain reftriCHons.; namely,
The obfervations muff be taken between nine o’clock in the forenoon and three in the afternoon. If both ob-
fervations be in the forenoon, or both in the afternoon, the interval muft not be lefs than the diftance of the time
of obfervation of the greateft altitude from noon. If one obfervation be in the forenoon and the other in the af¬
ternoon, the interval muff not exceed four hours and a half j and in all cafes, the nearer the greater altitude is to
noon the better.
If the fun’s meridian zenith diftance be lefs than the latitude, the limitations are ftill more contra&ed. If the
latitude be double the meridian zenith diftance, the obfervations murt be taken between half paft nine in the morn¬
ing and half paft two in the afternoon, and the interval muft not exceed three hours and a half. The obferva¬
tions muft be taken ftill nearer to noon, if the latitude exceed the zenith diftance in a greater proportion. See
Malkelyne’s Britilh Mariner’s Guide, Dr Mackay’s Treatifes on the Longitude and Navigation, &c, and Requi-
fite Tables, 2d edit.,
Method
of finding
the Lati¬
tude and
Longitude
at Sea.
NAVIGATION
Example I. July 9. 1811. in latitude by account
270 N, at 1 oh 29' A. M. per watch, the corre£led al¬
titude of the fun was 65° 24/, and at 12I1 31', the alti¬
tude was 740 8'. Required the true latitude ?
Times/‘erwat. Alt. N. Sines. Lat. by acc. 370 o' Secant 0.09765
loh 29' 65° 24' 90924 Declination 22 28 Secant 0.03428
Practice
As the latitude by computation differs i° 27' from Method
that by account, the operation muft be repeated. of finding
12 31 74 8 96190 Logarithm ratio
2 2 Differ. 5266 Logarithm
1 1 Halfelapfed time
21 To" Middle time
©•13193
3.72148
0.57999
4-4334°
Computed latitude
Declination
51
9
I5/
37
Secant
Secant
„ n tlie Lari-
•^-34° tude and
O.O0615 Longitude
 —■ at Sea.
Logarithm ratio - - 0.20963
Difference of nat. fines 14530 Log. 4.16227
Half elapfed time ih 4' 30" Log. 0,55637
Middle time 1 40 20 Log. 4.T.2827
Rihng - o 35 50 Log. 3.08630
29 50 Rifing
Log. ratio
Natural number - - 624
Greateft altitude 740 S' N fine| 96x90
Mer. zenith dill. 14 30 N cofine 96814
Declination 22 28
2.92740
0.13193
*•79547
Natural number - - 753 2.87667
Gr. altitude 28° 43' N. fine 48048
Mer. zen. dift. 60 47 N. cofine 48801
Declination 9 37
Latitude - 36 58 N.
Ex. 2. O&ober 17. 1812, in latitude 430 24'N.
by account, at oh 38'' P. M. the correft altitude of
the fun’s centre was 36° 5', and at 2h 46' P. M. the
altitude was 240 49'. Required the latitude ?
Times7>(?r wat. Alt. N. Sines. Lat. by acc. 430 24' Secant 0.13872
oh 38' 36° 5' 58896 Declination 9 18 Secant 0.00575
2 46 24 49 41972 Logarithm ratio - ©.14447
2 8 Differ. 16924 Log. - - 4.22850
14 - Half elapfed time - - 0.55966
1 41 20" - Middle time - - 4.93263
37 20 Rifing . - - 3.12184
Log. ratio 0.14447
Natural number - - 649 2'97737
Greateft altitude - 36° 5' N. fine 58896
Mer. zen. diftance 53 15 N. cofine 59845
Declination - 9 18
Latitude - - 43 57 N.
Ex. 3. In latitude 490 48' N. by account, the fun’s
declination being 90 37' S. at oh 32' P. M. per watch,
the altitude of the fun’s lower limb was 28° 32', and
at 2h 41' it was 190 25', the height of the eye 12 feet.
Required the true latitude ?
Firft obferved altit. 28° 32' Second altitude 190 25'
Semidiameter -j-o 16 Semidiameter -fo 16
Dip and refra&ion —o 5 Dip and refr. —o 6
True altitude 28 43 True altitude 19 35
Time^erwat. Alt. N. Sines. Lat. by acc 49°4S' Secant. 0.19013
oh 32' 2&0 43'48048 Declination 9 37 Secant. 0.006x5
2 41 19 35 33518 Log. ratio - - 0.09628
2 9 Difference 14530 Log. - - 4.16227
1 4 3°'' - Half elapfed time - o-55637
1 37 0 - Middle time - - 4.91492
32 3° ‘ ~ Rifing - - 3.00x64
Natural number . 639 _ 2.80536
Mer. zen. dift. 6o° 52' N. cofine 4S6S7
Declination 9 37 S.
Latitude 51 15N.
Latitude 51 10 N.
As this latitude differs only 5' from that ufed in the
computation, it may therefore be depended on as the
true latitude.
Pros. VII. Given the latitude by account, the fun’s
declination, two obferved altitudes, the elapfed time,
and the courfe and diftance run between the obferva-
tions; to find the fhip’s latitude at the time of obferva-
tion of the greater altitude.
Rule. Find the angle contained between the fhip’s
courfe and the fun’s bearing at the time of obfervation
of the leaft altitude, with which enter the Traverfe
Table as a courfe, and the difference of latitude an-
fwering to the diflance made good will be the reduftion
of altitude.
Now, if the leaft altitude be obferved in the fore¬
noon, the redudlion of altitude is to be applied there¬
to by addition or fubtraftion, according as the angle
between {he ftiip’s courfe and the fun’s bearing is lefs
or more than eight points. If the leaft altitude be
obferved in the afternoon, the contrary rule is to be
ufed.
The difference of longitude in time between the
obfervations is to be applied to the elapfed time by
addition or fubtradlion, according as it is eaft or weft.
This is, however, in many cafes fo inconfiderable as to
be negle£led.
With the corredled altitudes and interval, the lati¬
tude by account and fun’s declination at the time of ob¬
fervation of the greateft altitude, the computation is to
be performed by the laft problem.
Ex. 1. July 6. 1793, in latitude 58° 14' N by ac¬
count, and longitude 160 E, at loh 54' A. M. per
watch, the altitude of the fun’s lower limb was 530 17',
and at ih 17' P. M. the altitude was 52* 51', and bear¬
ing per compafs SW£W 5 the ftiip’s courfe during the
elapfed time wTas S^W-JW, and the hourly rate of fail¬
ing 8 knots, the height of the eye 16 feet. Required
the true latitude at the time of obfervation of the great¬
er altitude ?
Sun’s bear, at 2d. ob. SW&W. Interval bet.obferv. 2h 23'
Ship’s courfe S^W^W Dift. run=2h 23X8=19x11.
Contained angle 3^ points.
2
Now
«
PradHce.
Method Now to courfe 3 '- points, and cliftance 19 miles, the
of finding difference of latitude is 14.7 or 15 miles,
tud^—d obferved alt. 530 17' Second obferved alt. 5 2° 51'
Longitude Semidiameter -fo 16 Semidiameter -j-o 16
at Sea. Dip and refraft. —o 4 Dip and refra&ion —o 4
N A V I G A T I O K. 697
of an arch ; which added to the greateft altitude will Method
True altitude 53 29 Redudion
-o 15
Reduced altitude 52 48
Time ofob. ofgr. alt. loh 54' A.M. Sun’s dec. 22°39'N.
Longitude in time 1 4 Eq. tor. t.-f- I
Reduced time 9 50 A. M. Red. decl. 22 40 N.
Time psr Wcit. Alt. N. Sines. Lat. by acc. 58° 14' Secant 0.27863
roh 54' t;30 29 80368 Declination 22 40 Secant. 0.03491
23
11 30"
5 .3°
£2 48 79653
Difference 715
Logarithm ratio
Log.
Natural number
Greateft altitude
' — \
Mer. zen. diftance
Declination
Halfelapfed time
Middle time
Riling
Log ratio
2001
530 29' N. fine 80368
o-3‘354
2.85431
0.51294
3.68079
3.61469
o-3i3S4
3,30X15
34 33 N. cofine 82369
22 40 N.
latitude - 57 13 N.
Since the computed latitude differs fo much from
-that by account, it will be neceffary to repeat the
operation.
Computed latitude 57° 13' Secant 0.26643
Declination 22 40 Secant 0.03491
Logarithm ratio
Difference of natural fines
Half elapfed time ih ii'
0.30134
715 Log. 2.85431
30/, Log. 0.51294
Middle time
Riling
Logarithm ratio
Natural number
Greateft altitude
Mer. zen. dift.
Declination
5 20 Log. 3.66859
10
Log. 3.61686
0-3OI34
53® 29' N. fine
2068
80368
5-3lS52
34 29 N. cofine 82436
22 40 N.
Latitude 57 9 N.
As this latitude differs only 4 miles from that ufed
in the computation, it may therefore be depended on
as the true latitude.
Remark. If the fun come very near the zenith,
the fines of the altitude will vary fo little as to make it
uncertain which ought to be taken as that belonging to
the natural fine of the meridian altitude. In this cafe,
the following method will be found preferable.
To the log. riling of the time from noon found as
before, add the log. fecant of half the fum of the ef-
timate meridian altitude, and greateft obferved altitude;
from which fubtraft the log. ratio, its index being in¬
creased by 10, and the remainder will be the log. fine
Vol. XIV. Part II.
give the fun’s meridian altitude. theTab'8’
Ex. 2. December 21ft 1793, in latitude 2 2° 40' S, tucje and
by account, at lib 57' the correft altitude of the fun’s Longitude
centre was 89° to', and at I2h 4' 40", the altitude was at Sea.
88° 50'. Required the true latitude ?
Times/)cr Wat. Alt, N. Sines. Lat. by acc. 22°4o' Sec. 0.03491
nh 57'
J 2 4 40
o 7 10
o 3 50
o o 50
89° 10' 99989 Declination 23 28 Sec. 0.03749
88 50 99979'Leg«.riihm ratio - 0.07240
loj,
Difference 10
Half elapfed time
Middle time
030 Rifing
Comp, of lat. by acc.
Declination
Sum
Eftimate mer. altitude
Greateft altitude
Logarithm ratio -}- 5
Arch
Greateft altitude
Meridian altitude
I.OCOOO
1.77665
2 S49O3
9 93^4
67° 20'
23 28
90 48
89 Jo} 89°11'11.84609
12.77893
5.07240
o 17
89 10
fine 7.70653
89 27 zen. dift.
declination
o° 33' N
23 28 S
latitude 22 55 S
This differing from the affumed latitude, the work
muft be repeated.
Latitude
Declination
22° 557
23 28
Logarithm ratio
Difference of natural fines,
Half elapfed time
Middle time
Rifing
mp. of lat.
Declination
Sum
Mer. alt.
Greateft alt.
Log. ratio -|- 5
Arch
Greateft altitude
Merid. altitude
3' SO"
o 50
fecant
fecant
log.
670 5'
23 28
90 33
89 27
89 10
} 899 18'i
0.03571
0.03749
0.07320
1.00000
1.77663
2.84983
0.93284
fee. 11.91827
o 21
89 10
89 31 zen. dift.
Declination
12.85111
5.07320
7-777-91
o? 29'
23 28
Latitude 22 59 S
If the work be repeated with this laft latitude, the
latter part only may be altered.
4 L
Latitude
6p8
NAVIGATION.
Practice,
Method Latitude
of finding Deciinat;on
the Lati¬
tude and
Longitude EtL mer. alt.
at Sea.
Greatefl; altitude
Sura
Half
Riling
Arch
Gteateft altitude
Meridian altitude
Zenith diftance
Declination
Latitude
22° 59'
23 28
fecant 0.03592
fecant 0.03749
89 31 log. ratio 0.07341
89 10 ar. com.—5 4.92659
fecant
178 41
89 20f
oh 3' o"
O 22
89 10
89 32
o 28
23 28
23 o S.
1.93972
0.93 2S4
fine 7-799‘5
Prob. VIII. Given ihe altitudes of two known fiars,
obferved at the fame or at different times; and if at dif¬
ferent times, the interval between the obfervations ; to
iind the latitude.
Rule. If both altitudes be obferved at the fame
time, call the difference between their right afcenfions
the reduced interval.
But if the altitudes be taken at different times, re¬
duce the interval between the obfervations to fidereal
time, by adding thereto the proportional part anfwer-
ing to the interval, and 3' 56", the daily acceleration
of the fixed liars. Now to the right afcenfion of the firll
obferved liar, add the interval in fidereal time, and the
difference between this fum and the right afcenfion of the
other fiar will be the reduced interval.
To ths logarithm riling of the reduced interval, add
the logarithmic cofiaes of the liars declinations; fubtraft
the natural number anfwering to the fum of thefe loga¬
rithms from the natural cofine of the difterence or fum of
the liars declinations, according as they are of the fame
or of a contrary name, and the remainder will be the na*
tural fine of arch firtl.
To the logarithmic cofine of arch firll add the loga¬
rithmic fecant of declination of the liar having the leaf!
polar dillance, and the logarithm half elapfed time of the
reduced interval, the fum will be the logarithm half
elapfed time of arch fecond.
From the natural cofine of the difference between arch
firll and the altitude of the fiar having the greateft polar
difiance, fubtrafl the natural fine of the altitude of the
other fiar, and find the logarithm of the remainder; to
which add the logarithm fecant of arch firlt, and the lo¬
garithmic fecant of the altitude "of the liar having the
greatell polar dillance, the fum will be the logarithm
rffng of arch third. The difierence between arches fe¬
cond and third is arch fourth.
To the logarithm riling of arch fourth add the loga¬
rithmic cofines of the declination and altitude of the liar
having the greateft polar diftance ; fubtrafl the corre-
iponding natural number from the natural cofine of the
difterence between the altitude and declination, the po¬
lar diftance being lefs than 90° ; otherwife, from their
fum, and the remainder will be the natural fine of the
latitude.
Kn. January xft 1793, the true altitude of Capel-
la was 69° 23', and at the fame inftant the true al- Method
titude of Sirius was 160 19'. Rcquir -d the latitude ? of finding
Right afcenfion of Capelia 5b l' 25"
Right afcenfion of Sirius
Interval
Interval - ih 34/ 36"
Capella’s declin. 450 46' ISf
Sirius’s declin. 16 27 S
6 36
the Lati¬
tude and
Longitude
at Sea
\ 34 36
rifing 3.92270
cofine 9.84360
cofine 9.98185
Sum
62
13 N cofine 46613
5599
3-748L
Arch firft 24
Capella’s declin. 4 9
Interval
Arch fecond
Arch firft
Sitius’s altitude
13 N fine 4101400^9.96000
46 fecant 0.15640
ih 34' 36" H. E. time 0.39670
24
16
11 28 H. E. time 0.51310
13 fecant 0.04000
l9
fecant 0.01785
Difference 7
Capella’s altitude 69
54N. cofine 99051
23 N fine 93596
Arch third
Arch fecond
Arch fourth
Sirius’s declin.
altitude
Sum
Latitude
ih 21' 20"
1 11 28
9 52
16 27
16 19
5455
rifing
rifing
cofine
cofine
3-73679
3-79464
1.96708
9.9S185
9.98215
32 46 N cof. 84088
85 1.93008
57 9 N fine 84003
Chap. II, Containing the Method of finding the
Longitude at Sea by Lunar Obfervations.
Sect. 1. Introduction.
Tee obfervations neceffary to determine the longi¬
tude by this method are, the diftance between the fun
and moon, or the moon and a fixed ftar near the eclip¬
tic, together with the altitude of each. The ftars
ufed in the Nautical Almanack for this purpofe are the
following : namely, ct Arictis, Aldebaran, Pollux, Re-
gulus, Spies Virginis, Antares, a Aquilce, Fomalhaut,
and * Pegafi; and the diftances of the moon’s centre
from the fun, and from one or more of thefe ftars,
are contained in the viii. ix. x. and xi. pages of the
month, at the beginning of every third hour appa¬
rent time, by the meridian of Greenwich. The di¬
ftance between the moon and the fun, or one of thefe
ftars, is obferved with a fextant; and the altitudes of
the obje£ls are taken as ufual with a Hadley’s qua¬
drant. .
In the practice of this method, it will be found
convenient to be provided with three afliftants, two
of thefe are to take the altitudes of the Tun and moon,
or moon and ftar, at the fame time the principal obfer-
ver is taking the diftance between the objedts ; and
the third affftant is to obferve the time, and write
dowa
Practice. N A V I G
of finding down the obfervations. In order to obtain accuracy,
the Longi- jt neceffary to obferve feveral diftances, and
tadei^n^a the correfponding altitudes j the intervals of time be-
Obfervar tween them being as (hort as poflible ; and the fum of
tions. each divided by the number will give the mean di-
dance and mean altitudes •, from which the time of ob-
fervation at Greenwich is to be computed by the rules
to be explained.
If the fun or dar from which the moon’s didance
is obferved be at a proper didance from the meridian,
the time at the lhip may be inferred from the altitude
obferved at the fame time with the didance : in this
cafe, the watch is not neceOTary j but if that objeft be
near the meridian, the watch is abfolutely neceflary,
in order to conneft the obfervations for afcertaining
the apparent time at the (hip and at Greenwich with
each other.
An obferver without any afliftants may very eafily
take all the obfervations, by fird taking the altitudes
of the objefts, then the didance, and again their alti¬
tudes, and reduce the altitudes to the time of obferva-
tion of the didance; or, by a (ingle observation of the
didance, the apparent time being known, the longitude
may be determined.
A fet of obfervations of the didance between the
moon and a dar, and their altitudes, may be t iken
with accuracy during the time of the evening or
morning twilight ; and the obferver, though not much
acquainted with the dars, will not find it difficult to
didinguifh the dar from which the moon’s didance is
to be obferved. For the time of obfervatien nearly, and
the dip’s longitude by account being known, the edi-
mate time at Greenwich may be found ; and by enter¬
ing the Nautical Almanac with the reduced time, the
didance between the moon and given dar will be
found nearly. Now fet the index of the fextant to
this didance, and hold the plane of the indrument fo
as to be nearly at right angles to the line joining the
moon’s cufps," direft the fight to the moon, and by
giving the fextant a flow vibratory motion, the axis
of which being that of vifion, the dar, which is ufu-
ally one of the brighted in that part of the heavens,
will be feen in the tranfparent part of the horizon
glafs.
Sect. II. 0/the Sextant.
This indrument is conflru&ed for the exprefs pur-
pofe of meafuring with accuracy the angular didance
between the fun and moon, or between the moon and
a fixed dar, in order to afcertain the longitude of a
place by lunar obfervations. It is, therefore, made
with more care than the quadrant, and has fome ad¬
ditional appendages That are wanting in that indru¬
ment.
Plate Fig. 63. reprefents the fextant, fo framed as not to be
ccclxviii. liable to bend. The arch AA is divided into 120 de¬
grees j each degree is divided into three parts 5 each of
thefe parts, therefore, contains 20 minutes, which are
again fubdivided by the vernier into every half minute
or 30 feconds. The vernier is numbered at every fifth
of the longer divifions, from the right towards the left,
with 5, 10, 1$, and 20 ; the fird divifion to the right
being the beginning of the fcale.
In order to obferve with accuracy, and make the
images come precifely in contadf, an adjuding fcrew
A T I O N. 699
B is added to the index, which may thereby be rnov- finding
ed with greater accuracy than it can be by hand aTseii
but this fcrew does not a£l until the index is fixed by py Lunar
the finger fcrew C. Care fhould be taken not to force Obferva-
the adjnding fcrew when it arrives at either extremity t’*ons.
of its adjudment. When the index is to be moved
any confiderabde quantity, the fcrew C at the back or
the (extant mud be loofened ; but when the index is
brought nearly to the divilion required, this back fcrew
fhouicl be tightened, and then the index may be mov¬
ed gradually by the adjufting fcrew.
There are four tinged glades D, each of which is fet
in a feparate frame that turns on a centre. They are ufed.
to defend the eye from the brightnefsof the folar image
and the glare of the moon, and may be ufed feparately
or together as occafion requires.
There are three more fuch glaflfes placed behind the
horizon glafs at E, to weaken the rays of the fun or
moon when they are viewed direflly through the ho¬
rizon glafs. The paler glafs is fometimes ufed in ob-
ferving altitudes at fea, to take off the drong glare of
the horizon.
The frame of the index glafs I is firmly fixed by a
drong cock to the centre plate of the index. The
horizon glafs F is fixed in a frame that turns on the
axes or pivots, which move in an exterior frame; the
holes in which the pivots move may be tightened by
four fcrews in the exterior frame. G is a fcrew by
which the horizon glafs may be fet perpendicular to
the plane of the indrument : fi.ould this fcrew become
loofe, or move too eafy, it may be eafily tightened by
turning the capdan headed fcrew H, which is on one
fide of the focket through which the dern of the fin¬
ger fcrew pafies.
The fextant is furnifhed with a plain tube (fig. 64.) Fig. 64.
without any glalfes •, and to render the objects dill
more didinff, it has two telefcopes, one (fig. 65.) re-Fig. 65.
prefenting the objefts ereid, or in their natural pofi-
tion : the longer one (fig. 66.) (hows them inverted ;Fig. 66.
it has a large field of view, and other advantages, and
a little ufe will foon accudom the obferver to the in¬
verted pofition, and the indrument will be as readily
managed by it as by the plain tube alone. By a te-
lefcope the contaft of the images is more perfeftly
didinguifhed ; and by the place of the images in the
field of the telefcope, it is eafy to perceive whether
the fextant is held in the proper place for obfervation.
By Aiding the tube that contains the eye-glaffes in the
infide of the other tube, the objeft is fuited to different
eyes, and made to appear perfeftly didinct and w’ell
defined.
The telefcopes are to be fcrewed into a circular
ring at K ; this ring reds on two points againd an
exterior ring, and is held thereto by two fcrews : by
turning one or other of thefe fcrews, and tightening
the other, the axis of the telefcope may be fet parallel
to the pl^ine of the fextant. The exterior ring is fix¬
ed on a triangular brafs dem that Aides in a focket, and
by means of a fcrew at the back of the quadrant may
be raifed or lowered fo as to move the centre of the
telefcope to point to that part of the horizon glafs
which (hall be judged the mod fit for obfervation.
Fig. 67. is a circular head, with tinged glades to fcrew Fig. 67.
on the eye end of either of the telefcopes or the plain
tube. The gjaffes are contained in a circular plate
4 T 2 which
7°° N A V I G
^n< ^ which has icui* iiol-cs; taree of thefe are fitted with
ta^ tinged glaiTes, the for.rth is open. By prefling the
hy Lunar linger againft the projefang edge of this plate, and
Obferva- turning it round, the open hole, or any of the tinged
v tlons> glaffes, may be brought between the eyc-glafs of the
' telefcope and the eye.
i :g. 63. big. 68. is a magnifying glafs, to aflifl the obferver
to read off the angle with more accuracy : and fig. 6y.
a ferew-driver.
Mr Hoppe of Church-flreet, Minorics, London, has
lately contrived a fextant, with tuTo arches, which is,
therefore, preferable to the common fextant.
AJjuJljrents of the Sextant.
il he adjuflments of a fextant are, to fet the mirrors
perpendicular to its plane and parallel to each other
when the index is at zero, and to fet the axis of the
telefcope parallel to the plane of the inftrument. The
three firft of thefe adjuftments are performed nearly
in the fame manner as directed in the fedion on the
quadrant: as however the fextant is provided with a
let of coloured glafles placed behind the horizon glafs,
the index error may be more accurately determined by
xneafuring the fun’s diameter twice, with the index
placed alternately before and behind the beginning of
the divifions: half the difference of thefe two meafures
will be the index error, which mufl: be added to, or
fubtracled from, all obfervations, according as the dia¬
meter meafured with the index to the left of o is lefs or
greater than the diameter meafured with the index to
the right of the beginning of the divifions..
AdjuJlment IV. To fet the Axis of the Tetefcope parallel
to the Plane of the Injlrument.
Turn the eye end of the telefcope until the two
wires are parallel to the plane of the inftrument j and
’et two diftant objects be feledted, as two ftars of the
firft magnitude, whofe diftance is not lefs than 90® or
100°; make the contadl of thefe objeefs as perfedt
as poflible at the wire neareft the plane of the inftru¬
ment ; fix the index in this pofition j move the fextant
till the objedfs are feen at the other wire, and if the
fame points are in contadt, the axis of the telefcope is
parallel to the plane of the. fextant •, but if the obje&s
are apparently feparated, or do partly cover each other,
corredf half the error by the ferews in the circular part
of the^ fupporter, one of which is above and the other
between the telefcope and fextant : turn the adjufting
ferew at the end of the index till the limbs are in contadt *,
then bring the objedts to the wire next the inftrument;
and if the limbs are in contadt, the axis of the telefcope
is adjufted 5 if not, proceed as at the other wire, and
continue till no error remains.
It is fometimes neceffary to know the angular di¬
ftance between the wires of the telefcope •, to find
which, place the wires perpendicular to the plane of
the fextant, hold the inftrument vertical, diredl the
fight to the horizon, and move the fextant in its own
plane till the horizon and upper wire coincide ; keep
tne fextant in this pofition, and move the index till
the reftedted horizon is covered by the lower wire ;
and the divifion fiiown by the index of the limb, cor-
yedled by the index error, will be the angular diftance
between the wires. Other and better methods will
jeadily occur to the obferver at latid.
A T I O N.
F
radio e.
We of the Sextant. r‘nrUv%
t.;e Longi-
When the diftance between the moon and the funA^A ^
or a ftar is to be obferved, the fextant muft be held fo Gbferva-
thst its plane may pafs through the eye of the obfer- tiens.
ver and both objedts j and the refledted image of the ' y—
moft luminous of the two is to be brought in contadt
tvith the other feen diredtly. To effedt this, therefore,
it is evident, that when the brighteft objedt is to
the right of the other, the face of the fextant muft be
held upwards ; but if to the left, downwards. When
the face of the fextant is held upwards, the inftrument
fhould be fupportfcd with the right hand, and the in¬
dex moved with the left hand. But when the face of
the fextant is from the obferver, it Ihould be held with
the left hand, and the motion of the index regulated
by the right hand.
Sometimes a fitting pofture will be found very con¬
venient for the obferver, particularly when the refledled
objedl is to the right of the diredt one ; in this cafe, the
inftrument is fupported by the right hand, the elbow
may reft on the right knee, the right leg at the fame
time refting on the left knee.
If the fextant is provided with a ball and focket, and
a ftaiT, one of whole ends is attached thereto, and the
other refts in a belt faftened round the body of the ob¬
ferver, the greater part of the weight of the inftrument
will by this means be fupported by his body.
To obferve the Difance between the Moon arid amj Cele-
fial Objecl.
1. Between the Sun and Moon.
Put the telefcope in its place, and the wires paral¬
lel to the plane ot the inftrument 5 and if the fun is
very bright, raife the plate before the filvered part of
the fpeculum ; diredf the telefcope to the tranfparent
part of the horizon glafs, or to the line of feparation
of the filvered and tranfparent parts according to the
brightnefs of the fun, and turn down one of the co¬
loured glaffes ; then hold the fextant fo that its plane
produced may pafs through the fun and moon, having
its face either upwards or downwards according as the
fun is to the right or left of the moon •, direft the fight
through the telefcope to the moon, and move the in¬
dex till the limb of the fun is nearly in contadl with
the enlightened limb of the moon $ now faften the in¬
dex, and by a gentle motion of the inftrument make
the image of the fun move alternately paft the moon -r
and, when in that pofition where the limbs are neareft
each other, make the coincidence of the limbs perfeft
by means of the adjufting ferew : this being effe&ed,
read off the degrees and parts of a degree fhown by
the index on the limb, ufing the magnifying glafs*, and
thus the angular diftance between the neareft limbs of
the fun and moon is obtained.
2. Between the Moon and a Star.
Direft the middle of the field of the telefcope to the
line of feparation of the filvered and tranfparent parts of
the horizon glafs ; if the moon is very bright, turn
down the lighteft coloured glafs ; and hold the fextant
fo that its plane may be parallel to that paffing through
the eye of the obferver and both objefls ; its face being
upwards if the moon is to the right of the ftar, but if to
the left, the face is to be held from the obferver j now
direct the fight through the telefcope to the ftar, and
move
Prance. N A V I G
Of finding move the index till the moon appears by the reflection
the Longi* j^g nearly in conta£l with the liar j faiv.cn the indeXj
tude at Seaand turn tile adjufting fcrew till the coincidence of the
by Lunar ^ anj eiijightened limb of the moon is perfecf : and
( flonT" the degrees and parts of a degree ihown by the index
u—Y—' will be the obferved diilance between the moon’s en¬
lightened limb and the bar.
The contaft of the limbs muft ahvays be obferved in
the middle between the parallel wires.
It is fometimes difficult for thofe not much accuf-
tomed to oblervations of tins kind, to find tne reneti-
ed image in the horizon glafs : it will perhaps in this
cafe be found more convenient to look direftly to the
objeft, and, by moving the index, to make its image
coincide with that feen diredtly.
Sect. III. Of the Circular Inflrument of Reflexion.
This inftrument wras propofed with a view to cor-
re£t the errors to which the fextant is liable ; particu¬
larly the error arifing from the inaccuracy of the divi-
lions on the limb. It confifts of the following parts *
a circular ring or limb, two moveable indices, two mir¬
rors, a telefcope, coloured glaffes, &c.
The limb of this inftrument is a complete circle of
metal, and is conne&ed with a perforated central
plate by fix radii: it is divided into 7 20 degrees ; each
degree is divided into three equal parts; and the divi-
fion is carried to minutes by means of the index fcale
as ufual.
The two indices are moveable about the fame axis,
which paffes exactly through the centre of the inftru¬
ment :—the firft index carries the central mirror, and
the other the telefcope and horizon glafs •, each index
being provided with an adjufting fcrew for regulating
its motion, and a fcale for {bowing the divifions on the
limb.
The central mirror is placed on the firft index im¬
mediately above the centre of the inftrument, and its
plane makes an angle of about 30° with the middle
line of the index. The four fcrews in its pedeftal for
making its plane perpendicular to that of the inftru¬
ment have fquare heads, and are therefore eafily turn¬
ed either way by a key for that purpofe.
The horizon glafs is placed on the fecond index near
the limb, fo that as few as poffible may be intercepted
of the rays proceeding from the refledted objedl when
to the left. The perpendicular pofition of this glafs
is redlified in the fame manner as that of the horizon
glafs of a fextant, to which it is fimilar. It has another
motion, whereby its plane may be diipofed fo as to
make a proper angle wfith the axis of the telefcope, and
a line joining its centre, and that of the central mirror.
The telefcope is attached to the other end of the
index. It is an achromatic aftronomical one, and there¬
fore inverts objefts; it has two parallel wires in the
common focus of the glaffes, whofe angular diftance is
between two and three degrees *, and which, at the time
of obfervation, muft be placed parallel to the plane of
the inftrument. This is eafily done, by making the
mark on the eye-piece coincide with that on the tube.
The telefcope is moveable by two fcrews in a vertical
direftion with regard to the plane of the inftrument, but
is not capable of receiving a lateral motion.
There are two fets of coloured glaffes, each fet con-
A T I O N. _ 7QI
taming four, and differing in (bade from each other.
The glaffes of the larger fet, which belongs to the cen- ^ a°n£a
tral mirror, fhould have each about half the degree ot ^ £unar
ffiade with which the correfpondent glafs of the fet obferva-
belonging to the horizon mirror is tinged. Thefe tions. ^
glaffes are kept tight in their places by fmall preffing '
icrews, and make an angle of about .8 j° with tne plane
of the inftrument} by which means the image irom the
coloured glafs is not reflefled to the teleicope. W Len
the angle to be meafured is between 50 and 34S pne
of the glaffes of the largeft fet is to be placed before
the horizon glafs.
The handle is of wood, and is fcrewed to the oacK.
of the inftrument, immediately under the centre, with
which it is to be held at the time of obfervation.
Fig. 70. is a plan of the inftrument, wherein the krnbHg. 70.
is reprefented by the divided circular plate j A. is the
central mirror a at the places which receive the ftems
a a oi the glafs, fig. 73> j EF, the firft or central index
with its fcale and adjufting fcrew ; MN, the fecond
or horizon index ; GH, the telefcope j IK, the fcrews
for moving it towards or from the plane oi the inftru¬
ment; C, the plane of the coloured glafs, fig. 72. j
and D, its place in certain obfervations,
Fig. 71. is a feftion of the inftrument, wherein the Fig. 71.
feveral parts are referred to by the lame letters as in
fig. 70. : Fig- 7 2. reprefents one of the horizon colour¬
ed glaffes ; and fig. 73. one of the central coloured
glaffes : Fig. 74. is the key for turning the adjufting
fcrews of the mirrors: Fig. 75* handle : big. 76*
a fe61ion of one of the radii towards its middle : Fig.
77. is uled in fome terreftrial obfervations for dimimffi-
ing the light of the diredf objedt, whofe place at the
time of obfervation is D : Fig. 78. is the tool lor ad¬
jufting the central mirror; and for readying the po¬
fition of the telefcope with regard to the plane of the
inftrument, there is another tool exaaiy ol the fame
fize. The height of thefe is nearly equal to that of
the middle of the central mirror.
AdjuflmenU of the Circular Inflrument.
1. To fet the horizon glafs fo that none of the rays from
the central mirror fhall be refelled to the telefcope from
the horizon mirror, without pafling through the coloured
glafs belonging to this laf mirror.—Place the coloured
glais before the horizon mirror j direa the telefcope to
the filvered part of that mirror, and make it nearly pa¬
rallel to the plane of the inftrument} move the firft in¬
dex j and if the rays from the central mirror to the
horizon glafs, and from thence to the teleicope, have
all the lame degree of (hade with that of the coloured
glafs ufed, the horizon glafs is in its proper politico ^
otherwife the pedeftal of the glafs muft be turned until
the uncoloured images difappear.
II. Place the two adjufting tools on the limb, about
350° of the inftrument diftant, one on each fide of the
divifion on the left, anfwering to the plane of the cen¬
tral mirror produced : then the eye being placed at
the upper edge of the neareft tool, move the central
index till one half only of the rslleded image of this
tool is feen in the central mirror towards the left, and
move the other tool till its half to the right is hid by
the fame edge of the mirror; then, if the upper edges
of both tools are apparently in the fame ftraight line,
7^2 NAVI G
°f T,ul‘lf fue Cen<fcr^ mirror is 'perpendicular to tire plane of the
ni'-lNt ie'a^.n^rument > ^ not, bring them into this pohticn by the
by Lunar krews in the pedeital of the mirror.
Obferva- HI. "lofet the horizon mirror perpendicular to the
dons, plane of the injlrunient.—The central mirror being pre-
vioufiy adjufted, dire ft the fight through the telefcope
to any well-defined diftant objedt j then if, by moving
the central index, the refiefted image paiTes exaftly over
the direft object, the mirror is perpendicular ”, if net, its
pofition muft be reftified by means of the ferews in the
pedeftal of the glafs.
A planet, or ftar of the firff magnitude, will be found
a very proper object for this purpofe.
IV. To mahe the line of collimation parallel to the
plane of the infrument.—Lay the inftrument horizon¬
tally on a table j place the two adjufting tools on the
limb, towards the extremities of one of the diameters of
the inftrument ; and at about 15 or 20 feet diftant let a
•well defined mark be placed, fo as to be in the fame
ftraight line with the tops of the tools 5 then raife or
lower the teleicope till the plane, palling through its
axis and the tops of the tools, is parallel to the plane
of the inftrument, and direft it to the fixed objeft \
turn either or both of the ferews of the telefcope till
the mark is apparently in the middle between the wires j
tnen is the telefcope adjufted ; and the difference, if
any, between the divifions pointed out by the indices
of the ferews will be the error of the indices. Hence
this adjuftment may in future be eafily made.
In this procefs the eye tube muft be fo placed as to
obtain diftinft vifion.
V. lofirtd that divifon to which the fecond index being
placed the mirrors will be parallel, the central index be¬
ing at zero.— Having placed the firft: index exaftly to
oy direft the telefcope to the horizon mirror, fo that
its field may be bifefted by the line of feparation of
the filvered and tranfparent parts of that mirror j hold
the inftrument vertically, and move the fecond index
until the direft and refiefted horizons agree 5 and the
divifion ftiown by the index will be that required.
Hus adjuftment may be performed by meafuring the
fun’s diameter in contrary direftions, or by making
the refiefted and direft images of a ftar or planet to
coincide.
Vfe of the Circular Infrument.
'lo obferve the Difance between the Sun and Moon.
I. The fun being to the right of the moon.
Set a proper coloured glafs before the central mir¬
ror, if the diftance between the objefts is lefs than 350 5
but if above that quantity, place a coloured glafs be¬
fore the horizon mirror : qaake the mirrors parallel, the
firft index being at 0, and hold the inftrument fo that
its plane may be direfted to the objefts, with its face
downwards, or from the obferver : direft the fight
through the telefcope to the moon j move the fecond
iridex, according to the order of the divifions on the
limb, til! the neareft limbs of the fun and moon are
almoft in contaft : fallen that index, and make the
coincidence of the limbs perfeft by the adjufting ferew
belonging thereto : then invert the inftnunent, and
move the central index towards the fecond by a quan¬
tity equal to twice the arch paffed over by that index :
direft the plane of the inftrument to the objefts : look
AT. ION. Fra&ice,
direftly to the moon, and the fun will be feen in the Of finding
field of the telefcope : faften the central index, and th9 Longi-
make the contaft of the fame two limbs exaft by means tluIe,at Sea
of the adjufting ferew : Then half the angle fhown by obierval
the central index will be the diftance between the near- tions.
eft limbs of the fun and moon. —_v,—
II. The fun being to the left of the moon.
Hold the inftrument with its face upwards, fo that
its plane may pafs through both objefts j direft the te¬
lefcope to the moon, and make its limb coincide with
the neareft limb of the fun’s reflefted image, by mo¬
ving the fecond index : now put the inftrument in an
oppofite pofition; direft its plane to the objefts, and
the fight to the moon, the central index being previ-
oufly moved towards the fecond by a quantity equal to
twice the meafured diftance j and make the fame two
limbs that were before obferved coincide exaftly, by
turning the adjufting ferew of the firft index : then half
the angle fhown by the firft index will be the angular
diftance between the obferved limbs of the fun and moon.
This inftrument has of late been greatly improved by
Captain Mendoza.
To obferve the Angular Difance between the Moon and
a Fixed Star or Planet.
I. The ftar being to the right of the moon.
In this cafe the ftar is to be confidered as the direft
objeft ”, and the enlightened limb of the moon’s re¬
flefted image is to be brought in contaft with the ftar
or planet, both by a direft and inverted pofition of the
inftrument, exaftly in the fame manner as deferibed in
the laft article. If the moon’s image is very bright,
the lighteft tinged glafs is to be ufed.
II. The ftar being to the left of the moon.
Proceed in the fame manner as direfted for obferv-
ing the diftance between the fun and moon, the fun
being to the right of the moon, uling the lighteft
tinged glafs, if neceffary.
Sect. IV. Of the Method of determining the Longitude
from Obfervation.
Prob. I. To convert degrees or parts of the equator
into time.
Rule. Multiply the degrees and parts of a degree
by 4, beginning at the loweft denomination, and the
produft will be the correfponding time. Obferving that
minutes multiplied by 4 produce feconds of time, and
degrees multiplied by 4 give minutes.
Ex. I. Let 26° 45' be reduced to time.
26° 45'
4
ih 47' o"—time required.
Ex. 2. Reduce 83° 37' to time.
83° 37'
4
Conefponding time=5 34 28
Prob. II. To convert time into degrees.
Rule. Multiply the given time by xo, to which
add the half of the produft. The fum will be the cor-
refponding degrees.
Ex.
Diff .of L at.
NAV ] GAT I ON.
Plate CCCPXn'.
Plate CCCJ^XV.
\
>
/
1
I
NAVIGATION .
Plate CCCJ^XVIl
SiB-Jt &nnJKd\ A^ulptcrfccU.
Plate CCCLXV1U
Practice.
Of finding
the Longi¬
tude at Sea
by Lunar
Obierva-
tions.
N-A V
Ex. I. Let 3I1 4' 2B" be reduced to degrees.
3I1 4' 2 8;'
10
I G
30 44 40
Half =15 22 20
Correfponding deg.=46 7 o
Ex. 2. Reduce 8h 42' 36" to degrees.
8h 42' 36""
87 6
43 33
10
Time at Greenwich, 11 22
Ex. 2. Required the time at Greenwich anfwering
to 5b 46' 39" of May ift, at Canton, vvhofe longitude
is 113° 2' 15" E. ?
Time at Canton, May id, 5I1 46' 39"
Longitude in time, - 7 3 2 9 E
Time at Greenwich, April 30. 22 14 30
Pros. IV. To reduce the time at Greenwich to that
under any given meridian.
Rule. Reckon the given time from the preceding
noon, to which add the longitude in time if eaft, but
fubtradl it if weft 5 and the fum or remainder will be
the correfponding time under the given meridian.
Ex. 1. What is the expedled time of the beginning
of the lunar eclipfe of February 25. 1793, at a (hip in
longitude 1090 48' E. ?
Beg. of eclipfe at Greenwich per. Naut. Aim. 9b 23' 45'
Ship’s longitude in time, - - 7 19 12
Tirre of beginning of eclipfe at (hip, 16 42 57
Ex. 2. At what time may the immerfton of the fi.ft
fatellite of Jupiter be obferved at Port St Julian, in lon¬
gitude 68° 44'W, which by the Nautical Almanack,
happens at Greenwich 24th March 1792, at 17b 53' i'1?
App. time of immerfion at Greenwich, 17b 53' 1"
Longitude of Port St Julian in time, 4 34 56W.
App. time of immer. at Port St Julian, 1318 5
Prob. V. To find the equation of equal altitudes.
Rule. To the cofecant of half the interval of time
in degrees add the tangent of the latitude, and to the
cotangent of half the interval add the tangent of the
declination. Now if the latitude and declination be
of a contrary name, add the correfponding natural
numbers ; but if of the fame name, fubtraft them.—
Then to the ar, co. log. of this fum or difference add
by Lunar
Obferva-
Anfwer 130 39 o
PrOB. III. Given the time under any known meri¬
dian, to find the correfponding time at Greenwich.
Rule. Let the given time be reckoned from the pre¬
ceding noon, to which the longitude of the place in
time is to be applied by addition or fubtraftion, ac¬
cording as it is eaft or weft } and the fum or difference
will be the correfponding time at Greenwich.
Ex. 1. What time at Greemvich anfvvers to 6h 15'
at a thip in longitude 76° 45'W ?
Time at (hip - - 6h 15'
Longitude in time - 5 7W.
A T I O N. 703
the proportional logarithm of one-feurth of the interval Of finding
expreffed in time, and the proportional logarithm of tI\e LA?1"
the daily variation of declination ; the fum will be the tl C‘e aL °ea
proportional logarithm of the equation of equal alti¬
tudes in minutes and feconds, which are to be efteemed
feconds and thirds.
Example. Let the latitude of the place of obfer-
vation be 57® 9'N, the interval of time between the
obfervations of the equal altitudes 5h 1 7', the fun’s de¬
clination 170 48'’S, and the daily change of declina¬
tion 16' 19"^: Required the equation of equal alti¬
tudes ?
Half the interval— 2,h 37'.
i int.r:390 37' coft. 0.19542 cotang. 0.08209
■Lat. 57 9 tan. 0.18997 dec. I 70 48'ta.9.50659
°-38539
2.4288
3S79
9.58868
Sum - - - -
One fourth interval
Daily variation of declination
Equation of equal altitudes
2.8167 ar.co.lo.9.5503
ih 19' 1 c" P.L.0.3 563
. 16' 19'T P.L.1.0424
20" i47/P.L.o.949o
Prob. VI. To find the error of a watch by equal
altitudes of the fun.
Rule. In the morning, when the fun is more than
two hours diftant from the meridian, let a fet of obfer¬
vations be taken, confifting, for the fake of greater
accuracy, of at leaft three altitudes, which, together
with the correfponding times per watch, are to be
wrote regularly, the time of each obfervation being
increafed by 12 houfs. In the afternoon, obferve the
inftants when the fun comes to the fame altitudes, and
write down each oppofite to its refpedlive altitude.—.
Now half the fium of- any two times anfwering to the
fame altitude will be the time of noon per watch un-
correffed. Find the mean of all the times of noon thus
deduced from each correfponding pair of obfervations,
to which the equation of equal altitudes is to be ap¬
plied by addition or fubtra6Kon according-as the fun is
receding from or approaching to the elevated pole, and
the fum or difference will be the time per watch of ap¬
parent noon, the difference between which and noon
will be the error of the watch for apparent time j and
the watch will be fa ft or flow according as the time cf
noon thereby is more or lefs than 12 hours.
Example. January 29. 1786, in lat. 570 9' N, the fol¬
lowing equal altitudes of the fun were obferved : Requir- •
ed the error of the watch ?
Alt.—8°
8
8
8
5'Time 2ih 35'
10 - 36
20 - 38
25 - 39
8" A.M. 2h55'43"P.M,
54 42
52 41.2
5i 38
21 37
37-5
9-37
2
21
53
37
4.2
4I-°5
9-37
Sum
24
Time of noon per watch uncorrefled 12
Equation of equal altitudes - —O
3°
1S
o
50.42
25.2
20.2
Time per watch of apparent neon
Watch faff - - - .
12
15
15
The
704 NAVIGATION
Of H iding The mean time of noon per watch is found by ap-
tiuklea*nS t^ie equation of time with a contrary fine,
bv Lunar practice it will be found convenient to put the
Obferva- index of the quadrant to a certain divifion, and to wait
tions. till either limb of the fun attains that altitude.
Prob. VII. Given the latitude of a place, the alti¬
tude and declination of the fun, to find the apparent
time, and the error of the watch.
Practice.
Rule. If the latitude and declination are of difte- Of finding
rent names, let their fum be taken ; otherwife, their
difterence, From the natural cofine of this fum or
difference fubtraft the natural fine of the corrected al¬
titude, and find the logarithm of the remainder •, to
which add the log. fecants of the latitude and declina-'
tion : the fum will be the log. rifing of the horary
diltance of the objedt from the meridian, and hence the
apparent time will be known.
Ex. i. September 15. 1792, in latitude 330 56' S, and longitude 180 22' E, the mean of the times per watch
was 8h 12' 10" A. M. and that of the altitudes of the fun’s lower limb 240 48'; height of the eye 24 feet. Re¬
quired the error of the watch ?
Sun’s declin. at noon per Nairtical Almanack
Equation to 3I1 48 A. M. - - -
to 18° 22' Eaft - -
Obf. alt. Sun’s lower limb
Semidiameter
Dip
240 48'
+ 16.O
— 4-7
Corredtion
True altitude Sun’s centre
Latitude
Declination
Sum - -
Sun’s altitude
Sun’s meridian diftance
Apparent time
Time per watch
Watch faft
Ex. 2. May 6. 1793, in
tude of the fun’s lower limb
parent time ?
Altitude fun’s lower limb
Semidiameter
Dip
♦
CorredHon
True alt. fun’s centre
Latitude - . -
Declination
Difference -
Sun’s altitude
1.9
24 57-4
33 56
2 45-4
36 41.4
24 57-4
Reduced declination
fecant
fecant
nat. cofine 80188
nat. fine 42193
2° 40'.5 S
+ 3-7
+ 1.2
2 45-4 s
Difference 37995
3h48'51" - rifing
log.
0.08109
0.00050
4-57973
4.66132
8 11 9
8 1210
latitude 56° 4'' N, and longitude 38° 30' W, at 48 37' 4" P. M. per watch the alti-
was 250 6'.i, and height of the eye 18 feet. Required the error of the watch for ap-
■= 250 6'. I
+ I5-9
— 4-1
25 16.0
56 4.0 N.
16 49.5 N.
39 3 4-5
25 16.0
Sun’s declin. per Nautical Almanack
Equation to 4b 37' P. M.
to 386 30'W.
Reduced declination
fecant
fecant
nat. cofine
nat. fine
Difference
Apparent time
Time per watch
Watch flow
4I1 38' 12"
4 37 4
1 8
77448
42683
34765
rifing
16° 44'.3
+ 3-4
-f- i.8
16 49.5
o.253i9
0.01900
4.54114
4-83333
Prob. VIII. Given the latitude of a place, the al¬
titude of a known fixed ftar, and the fun’s right afcen-
fion, to find the apparent time of obfervation and error
of the watch.
Rule. Corredf the obferved altitude of the ftar, and
reduce its right afcenfion and declination to the time
<pf obfervation.
With the latitude of the place, the true altitude and
4
declination of the ftar, compute its horary diftance from
the meridian by laft problem j which being added to,
or fubtradled from, its right afcenfion, according as it
was oblerved in the weftern or eaftern hemifphere, the
fum or remainder will be the right afeenfion of the me¬
ridian.
From the right afcenfion of the meridian fubtradl the
fun’s right afcenfion, as given in the Nautical Alma¬
nack
Practice. N A V I G
Of finding n?.ck tor the noon ot the given day, and the remainder
the Longi- wiH be the approximate time of obfervation $ from
tiule at Sea which fubtraa the pr0p0rtional part of the daily va-
Ohferva- riation of right afcenfion anfvvering thereto, and let
tior.s. the pfoportional part anfwering to the longitude be
u^v—added or fubtraded, according as the longitude is eaft
or weft, and the refult will be the apparent time of
obfervation ; and hence the error of the watch will be
known.
Ex. i. December 12. i/92’ 37° 4^' anc^
longitude 2 i° 15' E, the altitude of Ar&urus eaft of
the meridian w-as 340 6'.4, the height of the eye 10
feet. Required the apparent time of obfervation ?
Obferved alt. of ArSurus 340 6'-4
Dip and refra&ion — 4 ‘4
True altitude
Latitude
Declination
Difference ■*
Altitude of Arfturus
34 2’°
37 46.0 N - fee. 0.10209
20 14.4 N - fee. 0.02778
17 31.6 N. co. 9535S
34 2.0 N. fine 55968
Difference 393904.59539
I
Anffurus’s merid. dift. 4I1 8'ic" - rifing 4.72526
right af.
Right af. of merid.
Sun’s right af.
Approximate time
Eq. to approx, time
Eq. to longitude
14 6 13
9 58 3
17 21 59
1636 4
— 3 3
-|- 16
Ap. time of obf. 1^33 I7
Ex. 2. January 29. 1792, in latitude 530 24' N,
and longitude 250 18' W, by account, at i4h 58' 38",
the altitude of Procyon weft; of the meridian was 190
58^ height of the eye zo feet. Required the error of
the watch ?
A T I O N.
Obf. alt. of Procyon I90 58'
Dip and refraction 7
True altitude 19 51
Latitude - 53 24
Declination - 5 45
7^0
Of tiding
the Longi¬
tude st Sea
by Lunar
Obferva-
fecar.t - C. 2 24 59 tions.
fecant - 0.00219
Difference - 47 39 nat. cof. 67366
Altitude of Proeyon 19 51 nat. fine 33956
Difference 33410 4.52388'
Procyon’s merid. dift. 411 16' 24" rifing 4.75066
right af. - 7 28 24
Right af. of merid. 11 44 48
Sun’s right af. - 20 47 22
Approximate time 14 57 26
Eq. to ap. time —o 2 36
Eq. to long. - — 017"
Apparent time * 14 54 33
Time per watch - 14 58 38
Waich faft - 045
Pros. IX. Given the altitude of the moon, the lati¬
tude of a place, and the apparent time at Greenwich j
t® find the apparent time at the place of obfervation.
Rule. Correct the altitude of the moon’s limb by
Problem V. p. 731, and reduce its right afeenfion and
declination, and the fun’s right afeenfion, to the Green¬
wich time of obfervation. Now with the latitude of
the place, the declination and altitude of the moon,
compute its meridian diftance as before : Which being
applied to its right afeenfion by addition or fubtraftion,
according as it is in the weftern or eaftern hemifpherej
will give the right afeenfion of the meridian. Then
the fun’s right afeenfion fubtrafted from the right af¬
eenfion of the meridian, will give the apparent time of
obfervation.
Example. March 3. 1792, in latitude 510 38' N, at x 1 h 29' 7" P. M. per watch, the altitude of the moon’s
lower limb was 370 3P, the height of the eye being 10 feet, and the time at Greenwich 13 h 43'. Required*
the error of the watch ?
Altitude of the moon’s lower limb
Semidiameter
Dip
Correction
Correfted alt. of moon’s centre
Latitude
Declination
Difference
Moon’s altitude
Moon’s meridian diftance
right afeenfion
Right afeenfion of meridian
Sun’s right afeenfion
Apparent time at fhip
Time per watch
Watch flow
Vol. XIV. Part II.
ro /
+
+_
38
51
17
3l
15
3
42
Moon’s right afeenfion at Green, time
declination
Sun’s right afeenfion
25
38 N
oN
- . fecant
fecant
34 38 Nat. cofme
38 25 Nat. fine
Difference
30 14' 36// rifing'
7 22 54
82381
62138
20143
10
23
37
2
3°
o
11
11
35
29
3°
7
6 23
7h 22' 54"
170 o N
23k 'i! o11
0.20712
0.01940
4.30412
4-53C<4
4 U.
PR9&,
yo6
Of finding
N A V I G
Given the apparent diftance between the
fun or a fixed fiar, to find the true di-
T5p rvp ‘V*
m'e «I>’00n and the
by Lunar ^arice*
Obferva- Rule. To the logarithmic difference anfwering to
, tlons- , the moon’s apparent altitude and horizontal parallax,
y L add the logarithmic fines of half the fum, and half the
A T I O N. Pra$Ice.
diflerence of the apparent diffance and difierence cf Of finding
the apparent altitudes j half the fum will be the loga-tbe
rithmic cofine of an arch : now add the logarithm fines Sca
of the fum and difference of this arch, and°half the dif- obfe™
ference of the true altitudes, and half the fum will be tions.
the logarithmic cofine of half the true diflance.
nple. Let the apparent altitude of the moon’s centre be 4S0 22', that of the fun’s 270 43', the apparent
diftance 8i° 23' 40", and the moon’s horizontal parallax 58' 45''. Required the true diffance ?
Example,
central
Apparent altitude fun’s centre
Corre&ion
Sun’s true altitude
Sun’s apparent altitude
Moon’s apparent altitude
Difference
Apparent diftance
Sum - ■*
Difference
Half difference true altitudes
Arch
Sum -
Difference
2?
43' o'
1 40
27 41 20
27 43
48 22
20 39
81 23 40
102 2 40
60 44 40
10 39 33
51 27 29
Apparent altitude moon’s centre
Correction
Moon’s true altitude
Sun’s true altitude
.Difference
Half
Logarithmic difference
48° 22' o"
+ 38 26
49
27
Half
Half
510
3°
I' 20 '
22 20
Sine
Sine
62
40
7 2
47 5<5
True diftance
40 32 16
2
8l 4 32
ccfine
fine
fine
eofine
o 26
41 20
21 19 6
10 39 33
9.994638
9.890639
9.703820
19.389097
9-794548
9.946417
9.815183
19.761600
9.880800
Pros. XL To find the time at Greenwich an¬
fwering to a given diftance between the moon and
the fun, or one of the ftars, ufed in the Nautical Al¬
manack.
Rule. If the given diftance is found in the Nauti¬
cal Almanack oppofite to the given day of the month,
or to that which immediately precedes or follows it,
the time is found at the top of the page. But if this
diftance is not found exa&Iy in the ephemeris,^ fub-
traft the prop. log. of the difference between the di-
ftances wdiicb immediately precede and follow the given
diftance, from the prop. log. of the difference be¬
tween the given and preceding diftances ; the remain¬
der will be the prop. log. of the excefs of the time
correfpondmg to the given diftance, above that 'anfwer¬
ing to the preceding diftance : And hence the apparent
time at Greenwich is knowm.
Example. September 21. 1792, the true diftance be¬
tween the centres of the fun and moon w-as 68° 13' 8".
Required the apparent time at Greenwich ?
Given diftance * 6S° 13/
Dift. at is. hours 67 33 27
.Dift. at xii hours 69 30 6
Pros. XII. The latitude of a place and its longitude
by account being given, together with the diftance be¬
tween, and the altitude of the moon and the fun, or one
of the ftars in the Nautical Almanack j to find the true
longitude of the place of obfervation.
Rule. Reduce the eftimate time of oblervation to
the meridian of Greenwich by Problem III. and to this
time, take from the Nautical Almanack, page 7. of the
month, the moon’s horizontal parallax and femidiameter.
Increafe the femidiameter by the augmentation anfwering
to the moon’s altitude. 6
Find the apparent and true altitudes of each obje&’s
centre, and the apparent central diftance ; with which
compute the true diftance by Problem X. and find the
apparent time at Greenwich anfwering thereto by the
laft problem.
_ If the fun or ftar be at a proper diftance from the meri¬
dian at the time of obfervation of the diftance, compute
the apparent time at the (hip. If not, the error of the
watch may be found from obfervations taken either be-
foie or after that of the diftance j or the apparent time
may be inferred from the moon’s altitude taken with the
diftance, by Problem IX.
The difference between the apparent times of obferva¬
tion at the (hip and Greenwich, will be the longitude of
the (hip in time ; which is eaft or weft according as the
time at the fhip is later or earlier than the Greenwich
time.
j.n , , , -7- 7-1° 53' N, and longitude by account 270 W, about oh A. M. the
<Mnnce between the neareft l.mbs of the fcn and moon was 6S* 3*the altitude of ihe Cult’s lower limb 33° r S'i
that
Diff—O® ICJ
—i 35
39
P: loj
P. I©£
9613
2701
Escefs • -
Preceding time
36 39 P. log. 6911
App. time at Greenwich
Ex. I. March 17. 1792,
39
9 Jd
in latitude 34'
/
Praftice. N A V I,G A T I O K , ^ 7°7
Of finding that of the moon’s upper limb 3ic 3'j and the height of the eye 12 feet. Required the true longitude of the
the Longi-? _ _ .. . tnde at Sea
. - ph o' A. M.
tude at Sea f|^P '
by Lunar lime at inip
Obferva- Longitude in time
tions.
Reduced time
Altitude moon’s upper limb
. \ 4
Aug. femidiameter
Dip
Apparent altitude
CorretSlion
Moon’s true altitude
1 48
10 48 A. M.
31 3 0
— 16 JO
- 3 18
3° 43 23
+ 49 26
31 32 49
Sun’s apparent altitude - 330 30,48"
Moon’s apparent altitude 30 43 23
Difference. - - 2 47 2 5
Apparent diftance " 68 35 40
Sum - - 71 23 5
Difference - “ 65 48 15
Half difference true altitudes a 58 20
Arch - - 55 54 12
_________
Sum - - 56 52 32
Difference - - 54 55 52
Half true diffance - 34 ' 6 53
2
True diftance - 68 13 46
Diftance at XXI hours - 69 11 20
Diftance at noon - 67 32 38
Proportional part
Preceding time
Apparent time at Greenwich
Latitude - 34° S3' ,0 ^
Declination
Sum
Sun’s altitude
Difference
Time from neon
Apparent time
App. time at Green.
Longitude in time
o 57 .9 S
35 5° -9
33 29 -5
Dift. fun and moon’s neareft limbs
Sun’s femidiameter
Moon’s femidiameter
Augmentation
Apparent central diftance
Altitude fun’s lower limb
Sun’s femidiameter
Dip
Sun’s apparent altitude
Correftion
Sun’s true altitude
Moon’s true altitude
Difference
Half
Logarithmic difference
Half
Half
350 4i'32"l
32 54 7i
Difference
Difference
o057' 34"'
j 38 42
21
1 45 o
o o
Secant
Secant
22 45 o
Nat. cofxne
Nat. fine
81057
55i8i
25876
3h 7' 13"
20 52 47
22 45 o
1 52 i3=2SP3'iW.
Rifing
/ 11 tlKte at Sea
68? 3' J5 by Lunar
-j- 16 6 Obferva-
tions.
+ 16 10 ' v "
+ 0 9
Sine
Sine
68 35 40
33 18
-j- 16 6
— 3 18
33 3° ff8
-o 1 19
33 29 29
31 32 49
1 56 40
o 58 20
9.996336
9.765991
9.734964
19.497291
Cofine 9.748645
Sine 9.922977
Sine 9.912998
I9-835975
Cofine 9.917987
P.log.
P.log.
Per log.
4951
2610
234I
0.08602
0.00006
44 I 29 I
4 U 2
4.49899
Ex. 2,
708
NAVIGATION.
Practice.
the Long,gtlle^^n2; ^ptember 2 1792 m latitude 13® 57' N, and longitude by account 56° E, feveral obfervations ofOi r,vinff
tude at s«at aka*r were taken ; Je mean of the times per watch was i» 18' 59" A. M. that of the diftance be-’1- ^ongi-
ni rUnar Indtbnt f u* h'o"100," S n? r.d} limrb 58° 45' 26"; th^mean of the altitude of the moon’s lower limb 70* 33' Se*
°tion7a' d th t °f a taiF 25 27 -4 5 lle’gh,: of the eye 13 feet. Required the true longitude ? . 7 33 obferva-
V Tirue pcr watch - ih 18'59" A. M. Diftance moon and altair - - - _ cS0 a t:r 26"' tions-
.ongitude m time 3 44 o Augmented femidiameter - - * . _j.0 2g i—y—
Reduced time - 9 34 jp
Altitude moon 70° 33'
Semidiameter and dip—-o 13
Apparent alt. moon
Correction
70 20
-fo 19 40
True altitude moon 70 39 40
Moon’s apparent alt. 70 20
%
Altair’s apparent alt. 25 24
Difference
Apparent diftance
Sum
Difference
44 56
59 1 54
io3 57 54
H 5 54
Half diff. true alt. 22 38 50
Arch - 72 1 57
Sum
Difference
Half true diftance
94 40 47
49 23 7
29 33 48i
2
Apparent central diftance
Altitude of altair
Dip - f _
Apparent altitude altair
RefraClion
True altitude altair
Moon’s true altitude
Difference
Half
Logarithmic difference
Half
Half
510 58' 57"
'7 2 57
Sine
Sine
Cofine
Sine
Sine
Cofine
59 1 54
25 27.4
—0 3 -4
25 24 o
—o 2 o
25 22 p
70 39 40
45 17 40
22 38 50
9.993101
9.896428
9.088919
18.978448
9.489224
9.998548
9.880301
29.878849
9*939424
True diftance - 59 7 37
Diftance at IX hours 58 31 17
’— at XII hours 60 24 34
Proportional part
Preceding time
Apparent time at Greenwich
Latitude
Declination
Difference
Altitude altair
Difference
J3 57 N.
8 19.8 N.
5 37*2
25 22.
Difference
Difference
Nat. cofine
Nat. fine
Altair’s meridian diftance
■   - ■ right afcenfion -
Right afcenfion meridian
Sun’s right afcenfion
4n 23' 14"
19 40 40
0 3 54
10 46 17
o° 16' 20"
1 33 J7
° 31 31
900
9 31 31
Secant
Secant
99519
42841
56678
Rifing
P. log,
P. log.
P. log.
1.0422
0.2855
0.7567
<3.01300
0.00461
4*7534*
4.7710a
Apparent time at Ihip - 13 17 37
Apparent time at Greenwich 9 31 31
Longitude in time - 4 46 6 = 56° 31V Eaft.
For various other methods of determining the longitude of a place, the reader is referred to Dr
Treatife on the Theory and P^ice of finding the Longitude at Sea Land,
MackayV
Ex. g.
3
Practice. N A V I G
Variation
of the Chap. HI. Of the Variation of the Compafs,
Com pa ft.
The variation of the compafs is the deviation of the
points of the mariner’s compafs from the correfpond-
ing points of the horizon •, and is denommated eajl or wefl
variation, according as the north point of the com-
ptifs is to the eaft or weft of the true north point of the
horizon. . . ire
A particular account of the variation, and ot the
feveral inftruments ufed for determining it from ob-
fervation, may be feen under the articles AzlMTJTH,
Compass, and Variation: and for the method of
communicating magnetifm to compafs needles, fee
Magnetism.
A T I O N.
True amplitude - N 67 13 E Cofine 9.58803
Obferved amplitude - N 7 8 45 E
Variation - 11_ 32j which \swejl, be-
caufe the obferved amplitude is more diftant rrom the
north than the true amplitude \ the obiervation being
made in the eaftern hemifphere.
Ex. 2. December 20. i793» ^at'tuc^e
longitude 83° W, the fun was obferved to fet SW# Re-
quired the variation ?
Latitude - 31° 38' Secant - 0.06985
Declination * 23 28 Sine - 9.60012
709
Variation
of the
Cempaft.
True amplitude S62 7 W Cofine * 9,^997
Obferved ampl. S 45 o W
Prob. I. Given the latitude of a place, and the
fun’s magnetic amplitude, to find the variation of the
compafs. , . , ,, ,
Rule. To the log. fecant of the latitude, add the
log. fine of the fun’s declination, the fum will be the
log. cofine of the true amplitude ; to be reckoned from
the north or fouth according as the declination is north
The difference between the true and obferved am¬
plitudes, reckoned from the fame point, and if of the
fame name, is the variation } but if of a different name,
their fum is the variation.
If the obfervation be made in the eaftern herai-
fphere, the variation will be eaft or weft according
as the obferved amplitude is nearer to or more remote
from the north than the true amplitude. . The contrary
rule holds good in obfervations taken in the weftern
hemifphere. . , xT i
Ex. 1. May 15. 1794, in latitude 330 10 N, lon¬
gitude 18' W, about 58 A. M. the fun was obferved to
rife E&N. Required the variation ?
Sun’s dec. May 15. at noon iS^S'N.
Equation to 7b from noon —o 4
  to 18° W +0 1
Reduced declination
Latitude
18 55 Sine 9.51080
33 10 Secant 0.07723
Ttue amplitude - N 67 13 E Cofine 9.58803
Variation - 17 7 i W'hicb is eaf, as the obferv¬
ed amplitude is farther from the north than the true
amplitude, the obfervation being made at funfetting. ^
It may be remarked, that the fun’s amplitude ougnt
to be obferved at the inftant the altitude of its lower
limb is equal to the fum of 15 minutes and the oip o.
the horizon. Thus, if an obferver be elevated 18 feet
above the furface of the fea, the amplitude fhould. be
taken at the inftant the altitude of the fun’s lower limb
is 19 minutes.
Prob. II. Given the magnetic azimuth, the altitude
and declination of the fun, together with the latitude of
the place of obfervation} to find the variation of the
cbmpafs. _ ^ .
Rule. Reduce the fun’s declination to the time and
place of obfervation, and compute the true altitude of
the fuk’s centre.
Find the fum of the fun’s polar diftance and altitude
and the latitude of the place, take the difference be¬
tween the half of this fum and the polar diftance.
To the log. fecant of the altitude add the log. fecant
of the latitude, the log. cofine of the half fum, and the
log. cofine of the difference ; half the fum of thefe
will be the log. fine of half the fun’s true azimuth, to be
reckoned from the fouth in north latitude, but from the
north in fouth latitude.
The difference between the true and obferved azi¬
muths will be the variation as formerly.
Ex 1 November 18. 1793, in latitude 50° 22' N, longitude 240 3°' W, about three quarters paft eight A.M.
±.x. 1. iNovemo 7^. . _ ^ and bearin&g per compafs S, 23® 18' E j height of the eye 20 feet.
the altitude of the fun’s lower limb was 8° 10
Required the variation of the compafs ?
Sun’s declin. 18th Nov. at noon 19 25 S
Equation to 3-jh from noon — 2
 to 240 30' W - + 1
Reduced declination
Polar diftance
Altitude
Latitude
Sum
Half
Difference
Half true azimuth
19 24
109 24
8 16
50 22
168 2
84 1
25 23
32 43
Obferved alt. fun’s lower limb
Semidiameter
Dip and refraftion
True altitude ~
Secant
Secant
Cofine
Cofine
^ine
- 0 1 o'
16
— 10
8 16
0.00454
0.19527
9.01803
9-95591
9.58687
Half
yio
Variation
erf the
Cornpafs.
Half true azimuth
True azimuth
Obferved azimuth
NAVIGATION.
22° 43' - Sine
2
S45 26 E.
S23 18E.
Vaziation
22 8 W.
Pradice*
9.58687 Ship’s
Journal.
Etc. 2. January 3. 1794, in latitude 330 52' N, 530 15' E longitude, about half part three the altitude of
the fun’s lower limb 41p 18', and azimuth S 500 25'W, the height of the eye being 20 feet. Required the
variation ?
Sun’s declination at noon
Equation to time from noon
• to longitude
Reduced declination
Polar diflance
Altitude
Latitude
Sum
Half
Difference
2I024'S.
21 24 S.
111 24
41 28
33 52
186 44
93 22
*7 23
Obferved alt. fun’s lowe:
Sun’s femidiameter
Dip and refraftion
True altitude
Secant
Secant
limb
Cofine
Cofine
Sine
=41° 18'
+ 16
— 6
0.12532
0.08075
8.76883
9-91S5*
18.95048
9-47524
True azimuth
Obferved azimuth
S.34 46 W.
S. 50 25 w.
Variation - - 15 39W.
Chap. IV. Of a Ship’s Journal.
A journal is a regular and exaft regifter of all the
various tranfa£lions that happen aboard a fliip whether
at feaorland, and more particularly that which concerns
a fhip’s way, from whence her place at noon or any other
time may be juftly afeertained.
That part of the account which is kept at fea is cal¬
led fea work ; and the remarks taken down while the
fhip is in port are called harbour work.
At fea, the day begins at noon, and ends at the noon
of the following day : the firft 12 hours, or thofe con¬
tained between noon and midnight, are denoted by
P. M. fignifying after mid day ; and the other 12 hours,
or thofe from midnight to noon, are denoted by A. M.
fignifying before mid day. A day’s work marked
Wednefday March 6. began on Tuefday at noon, and
ended on Wednefday at noon. The days of the week
are ufually reprefented by aftronomical charafters.
Thus © reprefents Sunday ; }) Monday $ $ Tuefday $
5 Wednefday $ % Thurfday $ $ Friday j and h Sa¬
turday.
When a fhip is bound to a port fo fituated that fhe
will be out of fight of land, the bearing and diflance
of the port mull be found. This may be done by Mer¬
cator^ or Middle-latitude Sailing •, but the moft expe¬
ditious method is by a chart. If iflands, capes, or head¬
lands intervene, it will be neceffary to find the feveral
courfes and diftances between each fucceffively. The
true courfe between the places muft be reduced to the.
eourfe per compafs, by allow-ing the variation to the
right or left pf the true courfe, according as it is weft
or eaft.
At the time of leaving the land, the bearing of fome
know-n place is to be obferved, and its diftance is ufually
found by eftimation. As perhaps the diftance thus
found will be liable to fome error, particularly in hazy
or foggy W'eather, or when that diftance is confiderable,
it will therefore be proper to ufe the following method
for this purpofe.
Let the bearing be obferved of the place from winch
the departure is to be taken ; and the ftiip having run
a certain diftance on a direct courfe, the bearing of the
fame place is to be again obferved. Now having one
fide of a plain triangle, namely the diftance failed, and
all the angles, the other diftances may be found by
Prob. I. of Oblique-Sailing.
The method of finding the courfe and diftance failed
in a given time is by the compafs, the log-line, and haif-
minute-glafs. Thefe-have been already deferibed. In
the royal navy, and in {hips in the fervice of the Eaft
India Company, the log is hove once every hour j but
in moft other trading veffels only every two hours.
The feveral courfes and diftances failed in the courfe
of 24 hours, or between noon and noon, and whatever
remarks are thought worthy of notice, are fet down with
chalk on a board painted black, called the log-board,
which is ufually divided into fix columns : the firft co¬
lumn on the left hand contains the hours from noon to
noon ; the fecond and third the knots and parts, of a
knot failed every hour, or every two hours, according
as the log is marked •, the fourth column contains the
courfes fteered j the fifth the winds j and in the fixthjhe
various
Pra&ice. NAVI G
Ship’s various remarks and phenomena are written. The
Journal, log.board is tranfcribed every day at noon into the
 V ” log-book, which is ruled and divided after the fame
manner.
The courfes fleered mufl be corrcfted by the varia¬
tion of the compafs and leeway. If the variation is
weft, it muft be allowed to the left hand of the courfe
fleered ; but if eaft, to the right hand, in order to ob¬
tain the true courfe. The leeway is to be allowed to
the right or left of the courfe fleered according as the
ihip is on the larboard or ftarboard tack. The method
of finding the variation, which Ihould be determined
daily if poflible, is given in the preceding chapter *, and
the leeway may be underflood from what follows.
When a Ihip is clofe hauled, that part of the wind
which acfs upon the hull and rigging, together with a
confiderable part of the force which is exerted on the
fails, tends to drive her to the leeward. But fince the
bow of a (hip expofes lei's furface to the water than her
iide, the refirtance will be lefs in the firfl cafe than in
the fecond ; the velocity in the direction of her head
will therefore in moft cafes be greater than the velocity
in the direction of her fide; and the (hip’s real courfe
will be between the two directions. The angle formed
between the line of her apparent courfe and the line (he
really defcribes through the water is called the angle of
leeway, or limply the leeway.
There are many circumftances which prevent the lay¬
ing down rules for the allowance of leeway. The con-
ftruCtion of diflerent veflels, their trim with regard to
the nature and quantity of their cargo, the pofition and
magnitude of the fail fet, and the velocity of the fliip,
together with the fwell of the fea, are all fufceptible of
* great variation, and very much affbft the leeway. The
following rules, are, however, ufually given for this
purpofe.
1. When a fliip is clofe hauled, has all her fails fet,
the water fmooth, with a light breeze of wTind, fhe is
then fuppofed to make little or no leeway.
2. Allow one point when the top-gallant fails are
« handed.
3. Allow two points when under clofe reefed top-
fails.
4. Allow twro points and a half when one top-fail is
handed.
5. Allow three points and a half when both top-fails
are handed.
6. Allow four points when the fore courfe is handed.
7. Allow five points when under the main-fail only.
8. Allow fix points when under balanced mizen.
9. Allowr feven points when under bare poles.
Thefe allowances may be of fome ufe to work up the
day’s work of a journal which has been negleCled •, but
a prudent navigator will never be guilty of this negleCl.
A very good method of eflimating the leeway is to ob-
ferve the bearing of the (hip’s wake as frequently as
may be judged necefiary ^ which may be conveniently
enough done by drawing a fmall fetnicircle on the taffe-
rel, with its diameter at right angles to the fnip’s length,
and dividing its circumference into points and quarters.
The angle contained between the femidiameter which
points right aft, and that which points in the diredion
of the wake, is the leeway. But the beft and moft ra¬
tional way of bringing the leeway into the day’s log is
to have a compafs or femicircle on the tafferel, as before
A T I O N.
defcribed, with a low crutch or fwivel in its centre j af¬
ter heaving the log, the line tnay be flipped into the
cn^ch juft before it is drawn in, and the angle it makes
on the limb with the line drawn right aft will (how the
leeway very accurately j which as a neceffary article,
ought to be entered into a feparate column againft the
hourly diflance on the log-board.
In hard blowing weather, with a contrary wind and
a high fea, it is impoflible to gain any advantage by
failing. In fuch cafes, therefore, the objedt is to avoid
as much as poflible being driven back. . With this in¬
tention it is ufual to lie to undfer no more fail than is
fufficient to prevent the violent rolling which the veffel
would otherwife acquire, to the endangering her mafts,
and draining her timbers, &c. When a (hip is brought
to, the tiller is put clofe over to the leeward, which
brings her head round to the wind. The wdnd having
then very little power on the fails, the (hip lofes her
way through the water ; which ceafing to a<!ft on the
rudder, her head falls off from the wind, the fail which
(he has fet fills, and gives her frefti way through the wa¬
ter •, which adling on the rudder brings her head again
to the wind. Thus the (hip has a kind of vibratory
motion, coming up to the wind and falling oft from it
again alternately. Now the middle point between thofe
upon which (lie comes up and falls off is taken for her
apparent courfe 3 and the leeway and variation is to be
allowed from thence, to find the true courfe.
The fetting and drift of currents, and the heave of
the fea are to be marked down. Thefe are to be cor-
redled by variation only.
The computation made from the feveral courfes
correfted as above, and their correfponding diftances,
is called a daifs work ; and the {hip’s place, as deduced
therefrom, is called her place by account, or dead rec¬
koning.
It is almoft conftantly found that the latitude by ac¬
count does not agree uith that by obfervation. From
an attentive confideration of the nature and form of the
common log, that its place is alterable by the weight of
the line, by currents, and other caufes, and alfo the er¬
rors to which the courfe is liable, from the very often
wrong pofition of the compafs in the binnacle, the vari¬
ation not being well afcertained, an exadt agreement of
the latitudes cannot be expedled.
When the difference of longitude is to be found by
dead reckoning, if then the latitudes by account and
obfervation difagree, feveral writers on navigation have
propofed to apply a conjedtural corredHon to the depar¬
ture or difference of longitude. Thus, if the courfe be
near the meridian, the error is wholly attributed to the
diftance,and the departure is to be increafed or diminilh-
ed accordingly : if near the parallel, the courfe only is
fuppofed to be erroneous ; and if the courfe is towards
the middle of the quadrant, the courfe and diflance are
both affumed wrong. This laft corredlion will, accord¬
ing to different authors, place the (hip upon oppofite
fides of her meridian by account. As thefe corredtions
are, therefore, no better than guefling, they fliould be
abfolutely rejedted.
If the latitudes £re not found to agree, the navigator
ought to examine his log-line and half-minute-glafs, and
corredl the diftance accordingly. He is then to confi-
der if the variation and leeway have beeti properly af¬
certained j if not, the courfes are to be again corredted,
and
5 J 2 N A V I G
Ship’s and no other alteration whatever is to be made on them.
t He is next to obferve if the ihip’s place has been afteft-
ed by a current or heave of the fea, and to allow for
them according to the bell of his judgement. By ap¬
plying thefe correftions, the latitudes will generally be
found to agree tolerably well $ and the longitude is not
to receive any farther alteration.
It will be proper, however, for the navigator to de¬
termine the longitude of the Ihip from obfervation as
often as poffibie •, and the reckoning is to be carried for¬
ward in the ufual manner from the laft good obferva-
tion 5 yet it will perhaps be- very fatisfa&ory to keep a
feparate account of the longitude by dead reckoning.
General Rules for working a Darfs IVork.
Corre& the feveral courfes for variation and leeway ;
place them, and the correfponding dilfances, in a table
prepared for that purpofe. From whence, by Traverfe
Sailing, find the difference of latitude and departure
made good : hence the correfponding courfe and di-
ffance, and the fhip’s prefent latitude, will be known.
Find the middle latitude at the top or bottom of the
Traverfe Table, and the diftance, anfwering to the de¬
parture found in a latitude column, will be the differ¬
ence of longitude : Or, the departure anfwering to the
courfe made good, and the meridional difference of la-
A T I O N. Pra&ice.
titude in a latitude column, is the difference of longi- Ship’s
tude. The fum, or difference of which, and the longi- Journal,
tude left, according as they are of the fame or of a con- v ' ’
trary name, will be the Ihip’s prefent longitude of the
fame name with the greater.
Compute the difference of latitude between the fhip
and the intended port, or any other place whtffe bearing
and diffance may be required : find alfo the meridional
difference of latitude and the difference of longitude.
Now the courfe anfwering the meridional difference of
latitude found in a latitude column, and the difference
of longitude in a departure column, wnll be the bear¬
ing of the place, and the diftance anfwering to the dif¬
ference of latitude will be the diftance of the Ihip from
the propofed place. If thefe numbers exceed the limits
of the Table, it will be neceffary to take aliquot parts
of them ; and the diftance is to be multiplied by the
number by which the difference of latitude is divided.
It will fometimes be neceffary to keep an account of
the meridian diftance, efpecially in the Baltic or Medi¬
terranean trade, where charts are ufed in which the lon¬
gitude is not marked. The meridian diftance on the
firff day is that day’s departure j and any other day it
is equal to the fum or difference of the preceding day’s
meridian diftance and the day’s departure, according as
they are of the fame or of a contrary denomination.
A Journal
Pra&ice. NAVIGATION,
A Journal of a Voyage from London to Funchal in Madeira, in his Majefly’s Ship the
 Commander, anno 1793.
Ship’s
Journal.
Refolution, A-
M-
Days of month.
Tj Sep. 28.
© Sept. 29.
Winds.
SW
sw
Remarks on board his Majefty’s {hip Refolution, 1793.
Strong gales and heavy rain. At 3 P. M. fent down topgallant yards j at
1 x A. M. the pilot came on board.
Moderate and cloudy, with rain. At 10 A. M. caft loofe from the Iheer hulk at
Deptford ; got up topgallant yards, and made fail down the river. At noon run¬
ning through Blackwall reach.
5 Sept. 30.
S Oflob. 1.
$ Oftob. 2.
If Otfob. 3.
SW
Variable.
SSW
SW
Variable
NZ>E
N££
N
$ Oftob. 4.
N
NNE
The firft part moderate, the latter fqually with rain. At half paft one an¬
chored at the Galleons, and moored (hip with near a whole cable each way in
5 fathoms, a quarter of a mile off fhore. At 3 A. M. ftrong gales : got down
topgallant yards. A. M. the people employed working up junk. Bent the fheet
cable.
Frefh gales and fqually. P. M. received the remainder of the bcatfwain’s and
carpenter’s {lores on board. The clerk of the cheque muftered the {hip’s com¬
pany.
Variable weather with rain. At noon weighed and made fail j at 3 anchored in
Long-reach in 8 fathoms. Received the powder on board. At 6 A. M. weighed
and got down the river. At 10 A. M. pail the Nore ; brought too and hoifted in
the boats : double reefed the topfails, and made fail for the Downs. At noon run¬
ning for the flats of Margate.
Firfl: part ftormy weather j latter moderate and clear. At 4 P. M. got through
Margate Roads. At 5 run through the Downs; and at 6 anchored in Dover
Road, in 10 fathoms muddy ground. Dover Caltle bore north, and the South
Foreland NE^E-E off fhore 1^ miles. Difcharged the pilot. Employed making
points, &c. for the fails. Scaled the guns.
Moderate and fair. Employed working up junk. Received from Deal a cutter
of 17 feet, with materials. A. M. ftrong gales and fqually, with rain 5 got down
topgallant yards.
Hours.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Kn.
Fa.
Courfes. Winds,
WSW
W£N
NNE
NE
Remarks, b C&* 5* I793*
Frelh gales with rain.
Hove ftiort.
Weighed and made fail.
Shortened fail.—Dungenefs light NE£E.
Frefti breezes and cloudy.
Ditto weather.
Got up topgallant yards.
Set ftudding fails.
Ditto weather.
St Alban’s Head NiE.
Vol. XIV. Part II.
4x
A' 'Journal
7H
Ship’s
Journal.
NAVIGATION.
A 'Journal from England towards Madeira.
Practice.
Ship’s
Journal.
Hours. I Kn. Fa.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Courfes.
WZ-N
W£S
Winds.
Remarks, © Oftober 6. 1793.
N£
A freih fleady gale.
Do. weather.
Spoke the Ranger of London, from Carolina.
Took in ft adding fails.
Do. weather.
Eddiftone light NZW.
Do. weather.
Eddiftone light NE.
Do. weather.
Set lower ftudding fails.
Freih breeze and clear weather.
Do. weather.
Courfe.
S. 52°4 W.
Dift. D.L. Dep.
93 ! 57 ! 74
N. Latitude by
Acc.
49 11
Obi.
49° 9'
W. Lon. by
D. Long.; Ac".
114' W. j 6° 18
Obf.
W. Var.
2j ptS.
As there is no land in fight this day at noon, and from the courfe and diftance run fince the laft bearing of the
Eddiftone light was taken, it is not to be fuppofed that any part of England will be feen, the departure is there¬
fore taken from the Eddiftone ; and the diftance of the Ihip from that place is found by refolving an oblique angled
plane triangle, in which all the angles are given, and one fide, namely, the diftance run (16 miles) between the
obfervations. Hence the diftance of the Eddiftone at the time the laft bearing of the light was taken will be
found equal to 18 miles.; and as the bearing of the Eddiftone from the Ihip at that time was NE, the Ihip’s bear¬
ing from the Eddiftone was SE. Now the variation 2-J points W, being allowed to the left of SW, gives
SZW^W, the true courfe. The other courfes are in like manner to be correfted, and inferted in the following
table, together with their refpe&ive diftances, beginning at 10 o’clock A. M. the time when the laft: bearing of
the Eddiftone was taken. The difference of latitude, departure, courfe, and diftance made good, are to be found
by Traverfe Sailing.
Courfes.
SZW^W
W£S£S
SW1W
S 5 24° W 93 _
Latitude of Eddiftone
Dift.
Diff. of Lat.
N.
S.
18
22
58
17.0
5-3
34-6
Departure.
E.
W.
6.1
21.3
46.6
56.9—5701. I 74.0
58 8N.
Latitude by account - 4911N.
Sum - - - - 99 J9
Middle latitude - - 49 4°
Now to middle latitude as a courfe, and the depar¬
ture 74m. in a latitude column, the difference of long,
in a diftance column is 114 = l® 54'W.
Longitude of Eddiftone - 4 24 W.
Longitude in by account
6 18 W,
A Journal
Practice.
Ship’s
Journal.
NAVIGATION.
yl Journalfrotn England towards Madeira
7T5
Hours. Kn. Fa
Courfes.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
wsw
SW£W
sw
Winds.
Remarks, ]) October 7. 1793
NE
N
NW
Var.
Freih breezes.
Sounded 62 j fine fand.
Moderate and cloudy.
Unbent the cables, and coiled them.
Took in ftudding fails.
Do. weather.
Do. weather.
Light breeze.
A fail SZ'E.
Hazy weather.
Do. weather.
Courfe.
S. 38° w.
Dift.
D.L
99 78
Dep.
92
N. Latitude by
Acc.
47°
Obf.
D. Long.
93 W.
W. Long, by
Acc. Obf.
7°
W. Var.
by acc.
2i pts.
Porto Sanfto’s
Bearing. Diftance.
S 23°i: W.
974 m*
Ship’s
Journal.
The courfes being corrected for variation, and the diftances fummed up, the work Mil be as under.
Courfes.
Dift.
SWiS
SSWfW
S£W|W
S 38° w
77
12
11
99
Diff of Lat.
N.
S.
57°
10.3
10.4
77-7
Departure.
E.
W.
51*7
6.2
3-7
61.6
8'
Yefterday’s lat. by obfer. =49 9.N
Latitude by account =47 51 N
Sum - - 97 0
Middle latitude - 48 3° s r •
To middle latitude 48^°, and departure 61.6 m a
latitude column, the correfponding difference of longi¬
tude in a diftance column is 93' = 1 33 Ml*
Yefterday’s longitude - 9 18 W.
Longitude in by account - 7 51 ^’
It is now necelTary to find the bearing and diftance of the intended port, namely, fntuhal 5 but as that place
is on the oppofite fide oftheifland with refpea to the (hip, it is therefore more proper to find the bearing of the eaft
or weft end of Madeira ; the eaft end is, however, preferable. But as the-fmall .ftand o. Porto Sanflo res a 1, tie to
the NE, of the eaft end of Madeira, it therefore feems more eligiole to find the bearing and diftance of that illand.
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto San&o.
470 51'N. Mer. parts 3278 Longitude of (hip f 51'W.
32 c8 N. Mer. parts 2097 Lon. Porto Sando 16 2gJW.
Difference of long.
Latitude of Ship
Lat. of Porto Sanifo
Difference of latitude
The courfe anfwering to tin
14 77=893. M.D. Lat. 1181 Difference of long. 8 34=514.
meridional difference of latitude and difference of longitude is about 23 i, and the
diftance'correfponding to the difference of latitude is 974 miles. Now as Porto Sando lies to the Southward and
weft ward of the (hip, the courfe is therefore S 230iW : and the variation, becaufe W, being allowed to the r-.ht
hand, gives SWfW nearly, the bearing per compafs j and which is the cmirfe mat ought to be 1 cere
716
Ship’s
Journal.
NAVIGATION.
A Journal from England towards Madeira.
Pra&ice.
Kn. ! Fa.
Courfe.
Dift.
S 6i° W
Courfes.
SW
Ship’s head to
' the SW
Ship’s hea4
' from SW to SSE
WSW
W
W^N
Winds.
NW
Variable.
SMV
Remarks^ 5 Oftober 8. 1793.
Little wind and cloudy.
Tried the current, and found none.
Calm.
Calm} a long fwell from the SW.
Light airs and hazy.
Moderate wind and cloudy.
Set top-gallant fails.
By double altitudes of the fun, the latitude
w'as found to be 470 28' N.
I
D.L.Dep.
N. Latitude by j J W. Long, by
 D. Long. 
Obf.
Acc. I 'Obf.
51 25 I 45 47° 28; I 47° 28' 1 67' W. 1 8° 38' j
Porto Sanyo’s
Bearing. I Diftance.
2 points. S 210 W I 932
The feveral courfes correfted will be as under.
Courfes.
SSW
SW
WSW
W£SiS
Dift.
3
23
22
15
Diff. of Latit.
N.
2.8
9.2
8.4
4.4
Departure.
E.
W.
1.1
9.2
20.3
14.4
Yefterday’s latitude 47 5:
Latitude by account 47 26
Sum . - 77
Middle latitude - 47 39
To middle latitude 37y°, and departure 45' in a
latitude column, the difference of longitude in a di-
ftance column is 67' = l° 7'W.
Yefterday’s longitude 7 51W.
Longitude in by account 8 58 W.
Latitude of (hip
Lat. of Porto San£lo
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto San£lo.
470 28 N. Mer. parts 3244 Longitude 8° 58W.
32 58 N. Mer. parts 2097 Longitude 16 25 W.
Difference of latitude 14 30=870 M. D. lat. 1147 D. longitude 7 27=447'.
Hence the bearing of Porto Sanflo is S 21® W, and diftance 932 miles. The courfe per compafs is therefore
SW nearly.
A Journo f
Practice.
Hours.
Kn. Fa.
Couries.
NAVIGATION.
A Journal from England towards Madeira.
W£N
SE^S
up SE^S off ESE
upWSW off WNW
wm
WNW
W^N
Winds.
SWAS
sw
SW/vS
ssw
"Remarks, $ October 9. 1793.
Courfe.
W£N4-N
Dirt.
Squally with rain.
Handed top-gallant fails.
In firft reef topfails.
Dark gloomy weather. Tacked fhip.
In 2d reef topfaiis, and down top-gallant yards.
Stormy weather ; in fore and mizen top-fails and 3d
reef main top-fail. Handed the main top-fail, bent
the main ftay-fail, and brought to with it and the
mizen ; reefed the mainfail 5 at is, wore and lay to
under the mainfail, got down top-gallant njafts j at
12 fet the forefail, and balanced the mizen.
The fea Hove in feveral half ports.
The fwell abates a little.
The fwell abates faft.
Up top-gallant malls.
Set the top-fails.
Clear weather ; good obfervation.
D.L.
Dep.
43 !
N. Latitude by
Acc.
47° 4°'
Obf.
47 39
D. Long.
W. Long, by
Acc. i Obf.
9 59' 1
W. Var.
2 points.
Porto Sandto’s
Bearing. Dillance.
There is no leeway allowed until 2 orclock P. M. when the top-gallant fails are taken in 5 from 2 to 3 one
point is allowed j from 3 to 6, one and a half points are allowed y from 6 to 8, one and three-fourth points are al¬
lowed 5 from 8 to 9, three points j from 9 to 10, four and a half points •, from 10 to 12, five points j from 12 to
10 A. M. three and a half points $ and from thence to noon two points leeway are allowed. Now the feveral
courfes being corredled by variation and leeway wdll be as under 5 but as the corredled courfes from 2 to 3 P. M.
and from 10 to 12 A. M. are the fame, namely, weft ; this, therefore, is inferted in the table, together with the
fum of the diftances, as a Angle courfe and difiance. In like manner the courfes from 12 to 2, and from 5 to 8.
being the fame, are inferted as a Angle courfe and diftance.
Courfes.
W£S
W
Wi-N
E£S^S
E£S£S
E
NE&E
NWbW
NW£W4W
NW4W
W£NiN
W6N4N
Dift.
10
15-5
5-4
10.6
8
3
17.2
11
7-4
43
N.
0.6
7.0
I9-4
7.0
3-1
1.9
7.0
Departure.
E.
10.1
7.8
3-o
0.8
21.7
W.
9.8
I5-5
5-4
I-7
15.2
8.5
7-
63.2
21.7
Yeft. latitude 47 28 N.
Lat. by account 47 40 N.
To middle latitude 370 34', and departure 41
difference of longitude is 61' = i° i'W.
Yefterday’s longitude 8 58 W.
Longitude in by account 9 59 W.
41-5
.5 the
7x8
Sh’p’s
Journal.
Hours.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5 .
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Kn.
J
5
6
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
Fa.
Courfe.
Dift.
S 74° W.
D.L.
108
NAVIGATION.
A ’journalfrom 'England towards Madeira.
Pfa£H
Courfes.
w
wsw
SWOT
Winds.
ssw
SSE
SE£S
Dep.
36
104
N. Latitude by
Acc.
47° 9'
Obf.
Remarks, % O&ober 10. 1793.
Frefh gales with rain.
Do. weather.
Out 3d reef topfails.
Loft a log and line.
Do. weather.
Do. weather.
Moderate and cloudy, out all reefs.
Sprung fore topgallant yard, got up another.
Do, weather.
A fail NE.
Employed working up junk.
A fwell from the NW, which by eftimation has
fet (hip 7 miles in the oppofite direction.
ice.
Ship’s
Journal.
D. Long.
153'w*
W. Long, by
Acc. Obf.
1 2® 31'
W. Var.
2 Points.
Porto Sanfto’s
Bearing. Diftance.
S 1 2a W. I 870 m.
T wo points leeway are allowed on the firft courfe, one on the fecond ; and as the ftiip is 7 points from the
wmd on the third courfe, there is no leeway allowed on it. The oppofite point to NW, that from which the
.well let, with the variation allowed upon it, is the laft courfe in the Traverfe Table.
Latitude of (hip
Lat. Porto San&o
Courfes.
Dift.
Diff. of Lat.
N.
S.
Departure.
E.
W.
W
SWOT
SW£S
LSE
S 74 w
86.2
12.3
24.7
7
108
Yefterday’s latitude
Latitude by account
Sum
Middle latitude
6.8
20.5
1.7
6-3
86.2
10.2
'2-1
47
3°.°
39
6-5
no.1
6*5
1-3.6
47 9
48
, . 47 24
lo middle latitude 47 24, and departure 103.6, the
difference of longitude is I53r 2° 33'W.
Yefterday’s longitude 9 <59 W.
Longitude in
12 32 W.
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto Sanfto.
47 9' Mer. parts - 3216 Longitude
32 58 Mer. parts - 2097 Longitude
I 2e 3 2'W
16 25 w
Difference of latitude 14 11 = 851'M. D. lat. 1119 D. longitude
Hence the bearing of Porto Sandto is S 12° W, and diftance 870 miles; the courfe
«bout SWOT. 4
3 53—233
per compafs is therefore
A journal
Practice.
Hours. Kn
Courfe.
Fa.
Dift.
NAVIGATION.
A ’journal from England to Madeira.
Courfes.
SW6S
D.L
S 12° 45' W.
28 125
Dep,
28
Winds.
ESE
ENE
Remarks, $ October 11. 1793.
Moderate wind and fair weather.
Shortened fail and fet up the topmaft rigging.
Do. weather.
Variation per amplitude 21° W.
A fine fteady breeze.
By an obfervation of the moon’s diftance from
« Pegafi, the {hip’s longitude at half pall 8
was 12° 28' W.
Clear weather.
Do. weather
Set ftudding fails, &c.
One fail in fight.
Do. weather, good obfervation.
N. Latitude by
Acc.
D. Long,
Obf.
44 59
J W. Long, by
Acc* Obf.
41° W. |l30 I3'I2° 59'
W. Var.
Obferved,
Port Sanyo’s
Bearing.
S 12° W.
Diftance.
737 miles.
719
The obferved variation 21° being allowed to the left of SW£S gives S 12° 45'W, the correfted courfe, and
the diftance fummed up is 127.9, or 128 miles. Hence the difference of latitude is 124.8, and the departure 28.2.
The latitude by account is therefore 450 4' N, and the middle latitude 46° 6', to which, and the departure 28.2
in a latitude column, the differ«nce of longitude in a diftance column is 41'W; which being added to 120 32'W,,
the yefterday’s longitude gives 130 13'W, the longitude in by account. But the longitude by obfervation was
12° 28'W at half paft 8 P. M.; fince that time the ftiip has run 96 miles; hence the departure in that interval
is 21.2 m. Now half the difference of latitude 47 m. added to 440 59', the latitude by obfervation at noon, the
fum 450 46' is the middle latitude ; with which and the departure 21.2, the difference of longitude is found to
be 3i'W; which, therefore, added to 12° 28', t|je longitude obferved, the fum is 120 59'W, the longitude by
obfervation reduced to noon.
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto San&o.
Latitude fhip - - 440 59'N. Mer. parts - 3028 Longitude
Lat. Porto Sanflo - 32 58 N. Mer. parts - 2097 Longitude
12° 59'W
16 25 W
Difference of latitude - 12 1=721 M. D. lat. 931 D. longitude
3 26=206'
Hence the bearing of Porto Sandto is S 12° W, and diftance 737 miles. The courfe to be fteered is there¬
fore S 330 W, or SWZ>S nearly.
A journal
NAVIGATION'.
yl "journal from. England to Madeira.
PracHce.
Hours. Kn. Fa.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
io
Courfe.
Dift.
S 130 31'W.
183
Courfe.
SW£S.
E£N
ENE
Dep.
178
43
N. Latitude by
 D.
Acc. Obf.
42° 1'
Long.
59'W.
Remarks, fj O&ober 12. 1993.
Frefh gales, and cloudy.
Do. weather.
Hauled down fiudding fails.
Do. weather.
A fteady gale and fine weather.
Do. weather.
Out fiudding fails alow and aloft.
Variation per azimuth 20° 14' W.
A fail in the SW quarter.
Sailmaker altering a lower fiudding fail.
Fine weather, and cloudy.
W. Lon. by
Acc.
140 12'
Obf.
130 58'
W. Var.
Obf.
20° 14'
Porto San&o’s
Bearing.
S 12° W.
555
The courfe correfled by variation is S 2$® 31'W, and the diftance run is 183 miles j hence the difference of
latitude is 177-9, and the departure 42.8.
Yefterday’s latitude by obfervation 440 59 N. Mer. parts - - - 3028
Difference of latitude - - 2 58 S.
Latitude in by account - 42 1 N. Mer. parts - - - 2783
Meridional difference of latitude - - - - - - - - - - 245
Now to courfe 13^°, and meridional difference of latitude 245 in a latitude column, the difference of longitude
in a departure column is 59' W : hence the longitudes of yefterday by account and obfervation, reduced to the
noon of this day, will be 140 12'W and 130 58' refpeaively.
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto San&o.
Latitude fhip - 420 1' N. Mer. parts - 2783 Longitude - 13° 58 W
Lat. Porto Sanfto 32 58 N. Mer. parts - 2097 Longitude - 16 25 W
Difference of latitude 9 3=543 M. D. latitude 686 D. Longitude 2 27=147.
The meridional difference of latitude and difference of longitude will be. found to agree neareft under 12, the
corre£l bearing of Porto Sandto $ and the variation being allowed to the right hand of S 12° W, gives S 324(>
W, the bearing per compafs j and the diftance anfwering to the difference of latitude 543, under 12 degrees, is
555 miles.
2
A journal
Practice.
Ship’s
Journal.
NAVIGATION.
A 'Journal from England towards Madeira.
Hours.
1
2
.3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Kn. Fa.
Courles.
Winds.
Remarks, © October 13; 1793.
SW£S
ENE
ESE
Courfe.
Dill.
D.L,
184:178
Dep, —
N. Latitude by
Acc.
Obf.
45 : 39° 3/
A Heady gale, and fine weather.
At 34 minutes pall three, the diflance between the
neareft limbs of the fun and moon, together with
the altitude of each, were obferved j from whence
the fhip’s longitude at that time is 140 1' W.
Hauled in the lower ftudding-fails.
At 9h 22', by an obfervation of the moon’s diftance
from « Pegafi, the longitude was 140 20' W.
Frelh gales, and clear.
Do. weather.
Variation per amplitude 190 51'W.
Do. per azimuth 190 28' W. Set ftudding-fails.
Carried away a fore-top-maft.ftudding-fail boom, got
up another.
Frefh gales. Took in ftudding-fails.
W. Long, by p
D. Long.
Sf W.
Acc.
Obf.
15° 11' 14® 52'
W. Var.
by Obf.
lipts.
Porto Sandto’s
Bearing. Diftance,
39 3 N.
Mer. parts
2549
Latitude in by account
PJeridional difference af latitude - ""”----23
Now, to courfe i| points, and meridional difference of latitude 234, the difference of longitude is about cgm •
which, added to the yefterday’s longitude by account 14® I2'W, the fum 15° n'W is the longitude in by account
at noon. The longitudes by obfervation are reduced to noon as follow :
The diftance run between noon and 3h 34' P. M. is 29 miles j to which, and the courfe 1 * points, the difference
of latitude is - - - - 28'
Yefterday’s latitude at noon - . 420 i'N.
Latitude at time of obfervation
Latitude at noon
41 33N.
39 3n.
Mer. parts
Mer. parts
2746
2549
Meridional difference of latitude - - - _
Then, to courfe i£ points, and meridional difference of latitude 19710 a latitude column, the difference of longi7
tude in a departure column is 49'W j which added to 14° i'W, the longitude by obfervation, the fum 14° c0'W
is the longitude reduced to noon. ^ ^
Th,e diftance run between the preceding noon and 9* 22' P. M. is 75 miles : hence the correfponding
difference of latitude is 72.8, or 73 miles; the {hip’s latitude at that time is therefore 40° 48' N. r 5
Latitude at time of obfervation - 40° 48'N Mer. parts.
Latitude at noon - - - 39 3 N* Mer. parts.
Meridional difference of latitude
2686
2549
Now, with the corrected courfe, and meridional difference of latitude, the difference of longitude is 34'
which added to 140 20'W, the fum is 14® 54'W, the reduced longitude. The mean of which and the fo
reduced longitude is 14° 5i'W,.the correft longitude.
Vox. XIV. Part II. * 4 Y
J37
W 5
former
721
Ship’s
Journal.
The mean of the variation is about 1} points W : hence the courfe correfted is SZW^W; with which and the
diftance run 184 miles, the difference of latitude is 178.5, and the departure 44.7.
Yefterday’s latitude - - - 42° i'N. Mer. parts - . .
Difference of latitude - - - 2 58 S. ^
A Journal
722
Ship’s
Journal.
NAVIGATION.
A 'journal from England towards Madeira.
Pra6Uce.
Ship’s
'Journal..
Hours.
Kn.
1
2
3
4
5-
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Courfe.
S 16° W
Fa.
Couries.
Winds.
SW6S
ssw
SW6S
sw
wsw
E£S
Variable
SE£S
SSE
Remarks, J) Oftober 14. 1793-
Frefti gales and hazy, fingle reefed topfails.
Got down topgallant yards.
Do. weather, and a confufed fwell running.
More moderate.
Do. with lightning all round the compafs.
Did.
D.L.
116
Dep.
111
3 2
N. Latitude by
Acc.
Obf.
37° I2' I 37° 8'
D. Long.
Squally, with rain.
Moderate weather j out reefs, and up top¬
gallant yards.
At 11 h lo'A. M. the latitude from double alti¬
tudes of the fun was 370 io'. Clear weather.
\V. Long, by
Acc. Obi.
41 W. |i50 jz'jiy0 33^ It pts«
W. Var.
Porto Sanfto’s
Bearing. Diftance.
S I0°W. 254 m. |
As the {hip is clofe hauled from 2 o’clock A. M. i£ points leeway are allowed upon that courfe and a point on
the two following courfesr
Courfes.
SMV^VV
S^W
SSWlW
SW^S
SW^W^W
S 16° W
Did.
30
54
19
8.5
9-5
116
Did. o^' Lat. Departure.
N.
S.
29.1
53*9
i-6-S
6.8
4.9
in.5:
W.
7-3
2.7
9.0
5-i
8.1
=ri05l/ 32.2
Yederday’s latitude 39 _ 3 \ M> jat< „ go ,
Latitude in by account \2JX ' ' 0 7
To middle latitude 38°, and departure 32.2 in a la¬
titude column, the difference of longitude in a didance
column is 41'.
Yefferday’s Ion. by account 150 i i,W.byob.i4°52,W.
Difference of longitude 41 W. 41 W.
Longitude in
15 22
15 33 W
The latitude by obfervation at 11 h io' A. M. is 370 10', and from that time till noon the fhip has run about
4 miles. Hence the correfponding difference of latitude is 2 miles, which fubtra&ed from the latitude obferved,
gives 370 8% the latitude reduced to noon.
Latitude of Ihip
Latitude Porto S.an£lo
Difference of latittfcde
To find the'bearing and didance of Porto Sanclo.
37P 8'N. - Mer. parts. 2403 - Longitude
32 i;8 N. - Mer. parts. 2097 - Longitude
M. D. lat.
jL/merence ui 4 10— 2J° »  — ~r ,07 : . ■J ..
Hence the beajing of Pofto Sanao is S io° W, or SSW|W nearly, per compafs, and the didance is 254 miles.
3 A Journal
;o6
Diff. longitude
150 33'W.
16 25 W.
52
Pra&ice.
Hours. Kn
Fa. j Courfes.
NAVIGATION.
A ’journal from England towards Madeira.
723
Courfe.
S 68° W
Dift
56
W^S
W£N
W
WNVV
NWZ'W
S^E
D.LJDep.
21 1 52
Winds.
Remarks, $ October 15. 1793.
S£W
SW^S
Variable,
SWAV
N. Lat. by
Acc.
3^°47>
Obf.
D. Long.
65-W
Moderate and clear weather.
Employed working points and rope-bands.
Ditto weather.
Fine clear weather.
Ditto weather.
Variation per mean of feveral azimuths 180 o'W.
Ditto weather. Tacked (hip.
Sail-makers making wind-fails.
A fine fteady breeze. Cloudy.
W. Long, by W.Var.
Account. Obferv. by Obf.
i6057'
16° 38'
Porto Sancto’s
Bearing. Diftance.
S4-E
229
Half apirint of leeway is allowed on each courfe ; but as the variation is expreffed in degrees, it will be more
convenient and accurate to reduce the feveral courfes into one, leeway only being allowed upon them. The courfe
thus found is then to be correfited for variation, with which and the diftance made good the difference of latitude
and departure are to be found.
Courfes.
WTS
W6N4N
W|N
NWAViW
NW~W
S6E4E
Dift,
S 86° W. 56 3.9
Var. 18 W.
Tr.cQur.S68 W. to which and the diftance
of latitude is 21 m. and the departure 51.9
Diff. of Latitude, j Departure.
N
7.8
0.7
0.9
7.6
20.9
17.0
5.8
5-8
W
17.9
25.8
7.0
1.8
9-3
61.8
5.8
56.0
56 m. the difference
^ ^ m. Hence the la¬
titude in at noon is 36° 47' W, and middle latitude 36° 58', to
which and the departure 51.9 in a latitude column, the dif¬
ference of longitude in diftance column is 63° W.
Yederday’s long, by acc. 150 52'W. By obf. T5° 33' W.
Difference of longitude 1 5 W. 1 5 W.
Longitude in
16 57
16 38 W.
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto Sanfto. ,
Latitude (hip - 36°47'N. Mer. pts 2376 Longitude
Lat. of Porto Sanfto 32 58 N. Mer. pts 2097 Longitude
Dift. of latitude - 3 49=229 M. D. Lat. 279 D. Longitude
Hence the courfe is S^E, diftance 229 miles) and the couxfe per compafs is SAVfW nearly.
4- Y 2 .
160 38'w:
16 25 w.-
o 13
A Journal
NAVIGATION.
A ’journal from England towards Madeira.
Pradlce^
Hours.) Kn. Fa.
Courfes.
Winds.
Remarks, 5 O&ober 16. 1793*
S^E.
S.
S£W.
s^w^w.
swm.
w.
NW.
N.
NEJE.
Frefh gales.
Do. and cloudy.
A fteady frelh gale.
D. weather.
D. weather.
Variation per amplitude i-i- points W.
People employed oceafionally.
D®. weather. Obferved fun’s meridian altitude.
Courfe.
Dift,
D.L
Dep.
N. Latit. by
Acc. Obf.
D. Long,
W. Long, by
Acc. Obf.
W. Var.
Obf.
Porto Sandfo’s
Bearing. Diftance,
S 8° E 186 185 26 33042, 33°46' 31'E. i6°26' i6°7' pts. Si7°W. 50 miles.
Half a point of leeway is allowed on the firft courfe j which, and the others, are corredled for variation as ufual.
Courfes.
SEbS
S^E^E.
S4rE
S.
S8°E.
Dift.
12.4
43-
65
68.5
18.6
Diff. of latit.
N.
S.
10.3
41.2
64.7
68.5
l84-7
Departure.
E. W.
6.9
12.5
6.4
25.8
3 5
Yefterday’s latitude 36 47 N.
Latitude by account - 33 42 N.
Sum - - - 70 29
Middle latitude - - 35 15
To the middle latitude and the departure, the diffe¬
rence of longitude in a diftance column is 31' E.
Yefterday’s long, by acc. 160 57'W. by obf. i6°38'W.
Difference of long. o 31 E. - o 31 E.
Longitude in
16 26 W.
16 7 W
Latitude {hip
Lat. Potto Sanfto
Difference of latitude
To find the bearing and diftance of Port® Sandlo.
33°46/N. Mer. parts - 2155 Longitude
32 58 N. Mer. parts - 2097 Longitude
16° 7'W.
16 25 W.
48 ivier. um. lat.
Hence the bearing of Porto Santto is S 170 W. djftance 50 miles
Mer. diff. lat
58
Diff. long.
4
A journal
Practice.
Ship’s
Journal.
Hours.
I
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
NAVIGATION.
A "journalfrom London towards Madeira.
725
Ship’s
Journal.
Kn.
Fa.
Courfes.
SSW.
S.
SWAV
SWAV
SSW.
Various.
NNW.
NW£N.
Winds.
NE6E.
Remarks, "y. October 17. 1793.
Moderate wind and clear.
Saw the ifland of Porto Sanflo, SW£S.
Hauled up to round the eaft end of Porto San&o.
Bent the cables.
Squally weather.
Porto Sanfto SW£S.
Ditto with rain. Porto San&o NE.
The Deferters SW£S.
The Deferters WSW. 3 or 4 leagues.
Hauled up round the eaft end of the Deferters.
Violent fqualls ; clewed up all at times.
Running into Funchal Roads.
Anchored in Funchal Road, with the bell; bower in 30
fathoms black fand and mud. Brazen head E^SyS,
Loo Rock NW, the Grea* Church NNE, and the
fouthermoft Deferter SE^S , off Ihore two-thirds of a
mile. Saluted the fort with 13 guns j returned by dit¬
to. Found here his majefty’s fhip Venus, and 7 Englilh
merchant (hips.
This journal is performed by infpeflion agreeable to
the precepts given. Other methods might have been
ufed for the fame purpofe j for which the two inftru-
ments already defcribed and explained feem well adap¬
ted. We cannot, however, omit recommending the
fliding gunter, which will be found very expeditious,
not only in performing a day’s work, but alfo in re-
folving moft other nautical problems. See Sliding-
Gunter.
It will be found very fatisfa&ory to lay down the
fhip’s place on a chart at the noon of each day, and
her fituation with refpeft to the place bound to, and
the neareft land will be obvious. The bearing and di-
ftance of the intended or any other port, and other
requifites, may be ealily found by the chart as already
explained ; and indeed, every day’s work may be per¬
formed on the chart j and thus the ufe of tables fuper-
feded.
EXPLANATION or the TABLES.
Table I. To reduce points of the compafs to degrees,
and converfely.
The two firft and two laft columns of this table con¬
tain the feveral points and quarter-points of the com¬
pafs ; the third column contains the correfponding num¬
ber of points and quarters ; and the fourth, the degrees
&c. anfwering thereto. The manner of uiing this table
is obvious.
Table II. The miles ami parts of a mile in a degree of
longitude at every degree of latitude.
The firft column contains degrees of latitude, and
the fecond the correfponding miles in a degree of lon¬
gitude ; the other columns are a continuation of the
firft and fecond. If the given latitude confifts of de¬
grees and minutes, a proportional part of the diffe¬
rence between the miles anfwering to the given and
following degrees of latitude is to be fubtrafted from
the miles anfwering to the given degree.
Example. Required the number of miles in a degree
of longitude, in latitude 570 9'?
The difference between the miles anfwrering to the
latitudes of 570 and 58° is 0.89 ?
Then as 60' : 9' : : 0.89 : 0.13
Miles anfwering to 570 32.68
Miles anfwering to 570 9' 3 2.55
This table may be ufed in Parallel and Middle Lati¬
tude Sailing.
Table III. Of the Sun's Semidiameter.
This table contains the angle fubtended by the fun’s
femidiameter at the earth, for every fixth day of the
year. The months and days are contained in the firft
column, and the femidiameter expreffed in minutes and
feconds in the fecond column. It is ufeful in corre£t-
ing altitudes of the fun’s limb, and diftances between
the lun’s limb and the moon.
*
. Table
629
Expitua-
tion of the
Tables.
Table IV. Of the RefraEtion in Altitude.
j The refra&ion is neceffary for correfling altitudes
and diftances obferved at fea; it is always to be fub-
trafted from the obferved altitude, or added to the
zenith diftance. This table is adapted to a mean Hate
of the atmofphere in Britain, namely, to 29.6 inches
of the barometer, and 50° of the thermometer. If the
height of the mercury in thefe inftruments be different
from the mean, a correction is neceffary to reduce the
tabular to tire true refraftion. See Refraction.
Tables V. VI. Of the Dip of the Horizon.
The firft of thefe tables contain the dip anfwering
to a free or unobftruCted horizon $ and the numbers
therein, as well as in the other table, are to be fub-
trafted from the obferved altitude, when the fore-ob-
lervation is ufed j but added, in the back-obfervation.
When the fun is over the land, and the fliip nearer
it than the vilible horizon when unconfined : in this
cafe, the fun’s limb is to be brought in contafl with
the line of reparation of the fea and land 5 the diftance
of that place from the fhip is to be found by eftima-
tion or otherwife ; and the dip anfwering thereto, and
the height of the eye, is to be taken from Table VI.
Table VII. Of the CorreBion to be applied to the time
of high water at full and change of the moon, to find
the time of high water on any other day of the moon.
The ufe of this table is fully explained at SeClion II.
Chap I. Book I. of this article.
Tables VIII. IX. X. Of the Sun's Declination, &c.
The firft of thefe tables contains the fun’s declina¬
tion, expreffed in degrees, minutes, and tenths of a
minute, for four fucceffive years, namely, 1793, 1794,
1795, and 1796 : and by means of Table X. may eafily
be reduced to a future period $ obferving that, after the
28th of February 1800, the declination anfwering to
the day preceding that given is to be taken.
Ex. I. Required the fun’s declination May 1. 1816 ?
May 1.1812 is four years after the fame day in 1812.
NAVIGATION, Practice.
Ex. II. Required the fun’s declination Auguft 20. Explana-
1805 ? tion of the
The given year is 12 years after 1793, and the time
is after the end of February 1800.
Now, Sun’s dec. Auguft 19. 1793 - i2°34/.6
Equation from Table X. to 12 year* —.-o 1 .9
Tables,
Sun’s declination May 1. 1812
Equation from Table X.
Swn’s declination May 1. 1799
150 6'. 7 N
-}-o 0.6
15 7.3 N
San’s declination Auguft 20.1805 - 12 32.7
The declination in Table VIII . is adapted to the me¬
ridian of Greenwich, and Table IX. is intended to re¬
duce it to any other meridian, and to any given time
of the day under that meridian. The titles at the top
and bottom of this table direft when the reduction is
to be added or fubtradled.
Table XI. Of the Right Afcenfions and Declinations of
Fixed Stars.
This table contains the right afcenfions and declina¬
tions of 60 principal fixed ftars, adapted to the beginning
of the year 1793* Columns fourth and fixth contain the
annual variation arifing from the preceflion of the equi¬
noxes, and the proper motion of the ftars •, which ferves to
reduce the place of a ftar to a period a few years after
the epoch of the table with fufficient accuracy. When
the place of a ftar is wanted, after the beginning of
1793, ^ variation in right afcenfion is additive j and
that in declination is to be applied according to its
fign. The contrary rule is to be ufed when the given
time is before 1793.
Example. Required the right afcenfion and declina¬
tion of Bellatrix, May 1. 1798.
Right afcenfion January 1. 1793 zz 5b 14' g"
Variation — 3,'.2IX5tT* = +© o 17
Right Afcenfion, May 1.1798 514 20
Declination 6° 8' 53"N
Variation = 4"X5iy* = -fo o 21
Declination May 1. 1798 = 6 9 14 N
The various other tables neceffary in the pra&ice of
navigation are to be found in moft treatifes on that
fubjeft. Thofe ufed in this article are in Mackay’s
Treatifes on the Longitude and Navigation.
Table
Pra&ice.
NAVIGATION.
Table I. To reduce Points of the Compafs to Degrees, and converfely* |Table III. Sun's Semidia.
North-eaft South-eaft
Quadrant. Quadrant.
North.
N^E
NiE
N^E
N&E
N^E^E
N^EfE
N^EiE
NNE
NNE^E
NNEiE
NNE4E
NE^N
NE^N
NE-jj-N
NEfN
NE
NE^E
NEf E
NE^E
NE^E
NE^E^E
NE^EfE
NE^E^E
ENE
E^N|N
E^NiN
EiN^N
South.
SiE
SiE
S^E
S^E
S^E^E
S£Ef E
S^E4E
SSE
SSE^E
SSEiE
SSE^E
Points. D. M. S.
2 48 45
5 37 3°
8 26 15
11 15 o
J4 3 45
l6 C2
J9 41 15
South-weft North-weft
Quadrant. Quadrant.
South.
S*W
SiW
S4W
SE^S
SE^S
SE-JS
SEiS
SE
SE|E
SEfE
S^E
SE^E
SE^E^E
SE^EiE
SE^E^E
E^N
E|N
EfN
E^N
Eaft.
ESE
E^SiS
E^SfS
E^SiS
E/»S
E^S
EiS
EiS
Eaft
5 °
5 i
5 i
5 l
7
7
7
7 .
8 o
22 30 O
25 l8 45
28 7 20
3° 56 *5
33 45 o
36 33 45
39 22 3°
42 11 15
45 o o
47 48 45
5° 37 3°
53 26 15
56 15 o
59 3 45
61 cz 20
64 41 15
67 30 o
70 18 45
73 7 3°
75 56 15
MW
S£WfW
S^WfW
S£W4W
SSW
SSW^W
SSWiW
SSWiW
sw^s
SW|S
SWiS
SVViS
sw
sw^w
SWiW
SW4W
SWAW
SW6W*W
SWZ»WiW
sw^wiw
Sun’s
g q Semidiam.
North.
NfW
NfW
N4W
NW^N
NW^N
NWfN
NWiN
wsw
W£SiS
W^SiS
W^S4S
78 45 °
81 33 45
84 22 20
87 '» 15
90 o o
W£S
WiS
WfS
WiS
Weft.
W^N
WIN
WiN
W^N
Weft.
Table II. The Miles and Parts of a Mile in a Degree of Longitude at every
Degree of Latitude.
Miles,
5999
59-97
59-92
59.86
59-77
59-67
59-56
59-44
59.26
59.08
58.89
58.68
58.46
58.22
57-95
57-67 3r
57-36 32
57-06 33
56-73 34
56-38 35
56.01
55-63
55-23
5481
54-38
53 93
53-46
52.97
52.47
5* 96
Miles
51 -43
50.88
50-32
49-74
49-15
48.C4
47.92
47.28
46.62
45-95
45.28
44-95
4388
43-i6
42-43
D.D
56
58
59
60
Miles. [D.L.
41.68 !j 61
40.92 ji 62
40.15 63
39.36! 64
38-57 i 65
37-/6
36-94
36.11
35-26
34-41
33-55
32 68
3I-79
30.90
3 00
Miles. liD.L.
29 °9 76
28.-17 77
27.24 78
26.30 79
25-361 80
24 41 I 81
23.45 82
22 48 83
21.50 I) 84
20.52 85
I9-54
18.54
17 54
J6 53
!5 52
16' 19
16 19
16 19
16 18
16 17
16 16
16 15
16 12
lS 47
*5 47
!5 47
15 48
15 48
727
Table
728
Pra&ice,
NAVIGATION.
Practice.
NAVIGATION.
Fable VIII. Sun's Declination for 1809, being the firjl after lea/) year.
729
19 20
Frbruaiy
lT 7'5S
16 50.3
16 32.8
16 15.0
15 56-9
15 38-6
T5 1.1
14 41 9
14 22.6
i4 TV
13 43-1
13 23.0
!3 2-7
»3 42*3
12 21.5
12 0.6
11 39.6
11 18.3
10 56.9
March
37'1 s
I4-3
51-4
28.4
5*2
42.0
18.8
7
7
6
6
6
5
5
4 55-4
4 32-°
4
3 45sP
3 21-5
2 57-9
2 34.2
2 10.6
1 46.9
1 23.2
o 59-5
° 35-7
o 12.0
April. J Mav.
29'7N-
52.8 1
I5-8
38-7
24.2
46.8
9-3
53^.
8 16.0
8 38.0
8 59-9
9 21.6
9 43-1
o 4-5
10 25.7
10 46.7
5
3
I5U 2'oN
15 20.0
15 37-9
15 55-4
16 12.7
16 29.7
16 46.5
17 2.9
17 19 1
17 35_^.
July
22° 2'5N23° 8^8 N
17 5O.6
18 5.9
l8 20.9
18 35-6
18 50.0
19 4.1
19 17.9
J9
19 44.4
19 571
22 10.6
22 18.3
22 25.6
22 32.4
22 38.9
22 45.0
22 50.7
22 56.0
23 o_9_
sl-
23 4-7
23 0.1
22 55-2
22 49.9
22 44.1
22 38.0
22 3I-5
22 24.6
J7-3
23 5-3
23 9 4
23
23 16.4
23 19-2
23 21.7
23 23.7
23 25-3
23 26.5
23 27.3
96
*•5
53-°
21 44.2
35-o
21 25.4
i5-5
5-3
20 54.6
20 43.6
18° 5'7N
5°*5
17 35-o
17 19.2
17 3*2
16 46.8
16 30.2
16 13.3
15 56.2
*5 38>8
15 21.2
3-3
J4 45 1
14 26.7
14 8.1
!3 49-3
!3 3°‘3
13 11.0
12
12 3I-9
September.
8° 2l'9N
8 0.0
7 38>i
7 16.0
6 53-8
6 31 4
6 9.0
5 464
5 23.8
38.2
lS-3
5 2-3
29‘3
6.2
43-°
19.8
56.6
33-3
10.0
Odtober.
3° 7'4S-
3 3°-7
3 54-o
4
4 4° 4
5 36
5 26.7
5 49-7
6 12.6
6 35 4
6 58.2
7 20.9
7 434
8 5-9
8 28.2
8 30.4
9 I2-5
9 34-5
9 56.3
10 18.0
November.
140 24'3S.
M 43-5
15 .2.4
15 21.1
x5 39-6
J5 57-7
16 15.7
16 33-3
!6 50.7
17 7-8
210 48'7S.
21 57-9
6.6
22 14.9
22 22.8
22 30.3
37*3
22 43.9
22 50.0
55-7
17 24.6
17 41.0
J7 57-2
18 13 1
18 28.6
18 43.9
18 58-7
!9 tS-S
19 27-5
*9 4I-3
23 0.9
23 5-6
23 10.0
23 I3*8
23 17.2
23 20.0
23 22. c
23 24.5
23 26.0
23 27.0
23 27.6
23 27.7
23 27-3
23 26.4
23 25.1
23 23*3
23 21.0
23 18.3
23 ^ i
23
10 35-2
9 5I-5
9 29.5
9 7-3
8 44.9
8 22.4
7 59’8
' 41.0
o 11.6N
O 35-3
o 58.9
1 22.5
1 46.1
2 9.7
2 33-2
2 56.6
3 20.0
3 43-3
6-5
11 48.8
12 9,0
12 29.1
12 49.0
J3 8*7
13 28.2
13 474
14 6.4
14 25.2
I4 43-7
20 9.5
20 21.6
20 33.3
20 44.7
20 55-7
21 6.4
21 16.7
21 26.6
21 '36.1
45-3
23 27.7
23 27.7
23 27.2
23 26.3
23 25.0
23 234
23 21.3
23 18.8
23 I5-9
23 *2.5
20 32.3
20 20.6
20 8.5
19 56.2
!9 43-5
!9 3°*5
19 17.1
!9 34
18 49.5
18 35.2
12 12.0
11 51.9
11 31.7
11 11.3
10 50.7
10 29.9
10 9.0
9 47-9
9 26.6
5-2
O 46.6
o 23.2
o 0.2S.
o 23.6
o 47.0
I 10.4
1 33-9
1 57-3
2 20.7
2 44.0
39-5
0.9
22.0
43-o
3-9
24.6
45-o
5-3
254
45/?
19 54.8
20 7.9
20 20.7
20 33.0
20 45.0
20 c6.6
21 7.9
21 18.7
21 29.1
21 39.1
31 I1? 244
21 54-1
18 20.6
8 43-6
x4 4.9
Days j January.
. " - j ^ ;  j-t--    ^ tj-'"  “t
TABLE VIII. The Sun's Declination for 1810, being the fecond after leafy year.
23 7-3
May.
40 24'oN i4°57/5N
15 15.6
J5 33-5
15 51,1
16 8.5
16 25.6
16 42.4
16 58.9
17 15.2
J7 31,1
17 46.8
July. | Airlift, j September, j OdJober.
December.
12 44.O
J3 3-7
J3 23-3
13 42.6
14 1.6
14 20.c
i4 39 1
31 28.5 |
Vol. XIV. Part II.
22° o'jN
22 8.6
22 16.4
22 23.7
30*7
22 37-3
22 43-5
22 49.3
22 54-7
22 59-7
9'7Ni8° 9'3N
r7 54-2
17 38.7
17 23.0
17 7.0
16 50.7
16 34.2
16 17.4
16 0.3
!5 43-0
5-7
'•3
564
51.2
45-5
39*5
33-o
26.7
19.0
18 2.2
iS 17.3
18 32.0
18 46.5
19 0.6
19 x4*5
19 28 0
19 41.1
19 54.0
- 6.4
20 18.6
20 30.4
4I-9
20 53.0
3-7
21 14.1
21 24.1
21 33*8
43-°
23 4-3
23 8.4
23, !2.2
23 i5-6/
23 18-5
23 21.1
23 23.2
23 24.9
23 26.2
23 27.1
1 11.4
1 3*5
55-1
464
37-3
27.8
18.0
7.8
57-3
1 46.3
21 52.0 [
23 27.6
23 27.7
23 27.3
23 26.?
23,254
23 23.8
23 21.8
23 *94
23 16.6
23 x34
35a
23*5
11 *5
59-3
46.6
33-7
20.3
6.8
52.9
38*7
24*1
x5 254
J' 5 7-6
14 49.5
14 31.2
14 12.7
x3 53-9
x3 35-o
13 15.8
12 564
12 36.7
12 16.9
12 c6.g
11 36.7
11 16.3
^ 55-7
35-o
10 14.0
9 53-o
9 3«-7
9 10.3
8 48.8
8°27/iN
8 5-3
7 434
7 21.3
6 59.1
6 36.8
6 14.4
5 5»*9
5 29-3
5 6.6
4 43-8
4 20.9
3 58-°
3 35-°
3 >i-9
2 48.8
2 25.6
2 2.3
1 39-1
1 x5-7
• 524
» 29.0
1 5-6
' 17.8S.
1 4r-3
4-7
28.2
51.6
15.0
384
3" FSS.
3 25.1
3 484
4 I1-7
4 34-9
4 58-°
5 21.1
5 44-1
6 7.0
6 29.9
140 19.6S.
14 38.8
*4 57-8
1 c 16.6
x5 35a
J5 53-3
16 11.3
16 29.0
16 46.5
x7 36
6 52.6
7 I5*3
7 37-9
8 0.4
8 22.7
8 44-9
9 7-°
9 29.0
9 50.9
10 12.6
17 20.4
x7 37 °
17 53-2
18 9.2
18 24.8
18 40.1
18 55-o
19 9.7
19 24.0
l9 37-9
2i°46'4S.
21 55-7
4-5
22 12.9
20.9
22 28.5
32 35.6
22 42.3
22 48. C
22 54.3
22 59.6
23 4-5
23 8.9
23 12.9
13 16.4
23 I94
23 21.0
23 24.0
23 25.6
23 26.8
«o 3*4.2
10 55.6
11 16.8
37-9
11 58.8
12 I9-5
40.0
13 0.4
r3 20.5
l3 30-4
19 5I5
4- 7
20 I7.5
30-0
20 42.1
20 53.8
5- r
21 16.0
21 26.6
21 36.7
23 27-5
23 27*7
23 27.4
23 26.7
23 25.5
23 23.8
23 21.5
23 i9-°
23 x5-9
23 I2.4
14 OJ
23 84
4 Z
Table
730
NAVIGATION.
Pra&ice
Table 'VIIi. Sun's Declination for 1811, being the third after leaf) year.
23 '3 9 ‘
22 58 9
22 53 5
22 47.7
22 41.3
22 34.6
22 27.4
22 19.7
22 11.6
22 3.1
January.
21 54.2
21 44.8
2 1 37.O
21 24.8
21 I4.I
3-1
20 51.7
20 39.9
20 27.6
20 15.0
19 48.6
19 34-9
19 20.8
19 6.3
18 5T.5
18 36-3
18 20.9
18 5.0
17 48.9
Feb uary. | Mauh
i7°i5'7S
16 58.6
16 41.3
16 23.6
'5 5-7
47-5
15 29.0
*5 IO*3
*4 SM
H 32-°
14 12.5
43 52.8
J3 32-9
13 12.7
*2 52;3
12 31.7
12 IO.9
II 49.9
II 28.8
II 7.4
IO 45.9
io 24.2
1° 2.3
9 40-3
9 18.1
8 55-8
8 33-4
8 10.9
3T ‘17 32-5 1
70 4^2 S
7 25-4
7 2.6
6 39.6
6 16.5
5 53-4
5 30*1
5 6.8
4 43-5
4 20.4
3 56-5
3 33-°
3 9-5
3 45-9
2 22.2
1 58.6
1 34-9
I 11-2
° 47-5
0 23-8
o 23.6N
o 47.2
1 10.9
2 34-5
1 58.0
2 21.6
2 45.1
3 8.5
3 31-9
3 55-
April.
40 i8'4N
4 41*5
5 4-6
5 27-5
5 5°-4
6 13.1
6 35-8
6 58.3
7 20.7
7 43-°
14 5 3 ir>
*5 ^
15 29.2
15 46.9
16 4.3
16 21.4
16 38.3
16 54 9
17 11.2
17 27.3
8 5-2
8 27.3
8 49.2
9 10.9
9 32-5
9 54-°
i5-3
10 36.4
57*3
11 18.1
11 38.7
11 59.0
12 19.3
12 39-3
12 79.0
13 18.6
13 38.0
*3 57-i
14 16.0
M 34-7
iVI ay.
2i° 58'5N 230 io'6N
6.7
22 14.6
22 22.0
22 29.I
22 35.8
22 42.O
2 2 47.9
22 53-4
22 58.5
X1 43-0
17 58.4
18 13.6
18 28.5
18 43.0
18 57.2
19 11.1
19 24.7
'9 37*9
19 5Q-9
2° 3-5
20 15.7
20 27.6
20 39.2
20 50.4
21 1.2
21 11.7
21 21.8
21 3M
21 40.9
49-9
July.
23 6.7
23 2-3
22 57.6
22 52.4
22 46.9
22 41.0
22 34.6
22 27.9
22 20.8
23 3-2
23 7-4
23
23 14.8
23 17.9
23 20.5
23 22.7
23 24.5
23 25-9
23 26.9
23 27*5
23 27-7
23 27-4
23 26.8
23 25-7
23 24.2
23 22.2
23 20.0
23 J7 3
23 14-2
18° iz'SN
!7 57-8
17 42.4
17 26.8
17 10.9
16 54-7
16 38.2
16 21.5
16 4.5
i5 47-2
22 13.3
22 5.4
21 57.2
21 48.5
21 39-5
21 30.1
21 20.4
21 10.3
20 59. 8
48.9
Auguft.
15 29-7
15 M-9
H 53-9
14 35-6
14 17.2
13 58*5
!3 39-5
13 20.3
13 1.0
12 41.4
12 21.6
12 1.6
11 41.5
11 21.1
11 0.6
10 39.9
10 19.0
9 58-0
9 36*8
9
8 54-°
Sit ptf mber.
8032'3N
8 10,6
7 48.7
7 26.6
7 4-5
6 42.2
6 199
5 57-4
5 34-8
4 49-3.
4 26.5
4 3-5
3 4°-6
3 I7-5
2 54-3
2 31-2
2 7-9
1 44.6
1 21.3
o 57-9
° 34-5
o 11.1
o*i2.3 s
° 35-7
o 59.1
1 22.5
1 45*9
2 9-3
2 32.7
2056'i
3
3 42-7
4 5-9
4 29.2
4 52.3
5 15*4
5 38-4
6 1.3
6 24.2
6 47.0
7 9-7
7 32-3
7 54-9
8 i7-3
8 39-5
9 I*7
9 23.7
9 45-6
To 29.0
10 50.4
11 11.7
11 32.8
11 53-8
12 14.5
12 35.0
12 55-4
13 Ji-S
r3 55*5
Table VIII. fl/wV Declination for 1812, being leap year'.
55*3
November.
I40 I4'8 I
J4 34-1
H S3-1
15 11.9
J5 3°-5
15 48*8
16 6.9
16 24.6
16 42.1
^ 59*3
17 16.3
17 32.9
J7 49-3
18 5-3
18 21.0
18 36.4
18 51.4
19 6.1
19 20.5
*9 34-5
2i044'oS
21 53*4
2-3
22 10.9
22 18.9
22 26.6
22 33.9
22 40.7
22 47.0
22 52.9
19 48.2
20 1.5
20 14.4
20 27.1
10 39.2
20 51.0
21 2.4
21 13.4
21 24.0
21 34.2
22 58.3
23 3*3
23 7*9
23 11.9
23 I5*5
23 18.7
23 21.3
23 23.5
23 25.3
2326.5
23 27.4
23 27.7
23 27.5
23 26.9
23 25.8
23 24.2
23 22.2
23 l9'1
23 16.7
23 13*3
23 9*4
4'9S
o.o
22 54.8
22 49.0
22 42.9
22 36.2
22 29.1
22 21.6
22 13.6
5.2
January.
T5 51*9
15 33*5
15 14.8
14 55*9
14 36-5
21 56*3
21 47.0
21 37*3
21 27.2
21 16.7
5*7
20 54.4
20 42.6
20 30.5
20 18.0
5*°
5i.8
38.2
24.1
9.8
55*°
40.0
24.6
8.9
52-9
qi 17 36.5
February. | March, i April. j May.
L9'8 8
2.8
45*5
27.9
IO.I
H 17*3
13 57*6
13 37-7
13 I7*5
12 57.2
12 36.7
12 15.9
11 55.0
11 33*8
11 12.5
10 51.0
10 29.4
o 76
9 45*6
9 23*5
9 M
8 38.9
8 16.4
7 53*8
7°3i'oS
7 8.2
6 4-53
6 22.2
59*i
35*9
12.6
49.2
25.8
2*3
3 c8.8
3 15*2
2 51.6
2 27.9
2 4-3
1 40 6
1 169
o 53*2
o 29.5
o 5.8
o 17.9N
o 41.5
I 5.2
I 28.8
1 52-3
2 15.8
2 39*3
3 2.7
3 26.1
3 494
12.6
35,7Ni50 6'7N
!5 24.7
15 42,4
15 59 9
16 17.1
16 34.0
16 50.8
17 7.2
J7 23.3
!7 39'
4 .
4 58*8
5 2i*8
5 44*7
6 7*5
6 30.2
6 52.8
7 I5*2
7 37*6
7 59*8
23
8 21.9
8 43.8
9 5*6
9 27-3
9 48.8
10 10.1
10 3I*3
10 52.2
11 13.0
11 33.6
17 54.6
18 9.9
18 24.8
18 39.4
18 53*7
19 7.7
19 21.3
19 34-7
19 47.7
20 0.3
11 54.0
12 14.3
12 34-3
!2 54.2
*3 JB*8
13 33*2
13 52.3
14 11.3
14 30.0
14 48.5
20 12.7
20 24.6
20 36.3
20 47.5
20 58.4
21 9.0
21 19.2
21 29.0
21 38*5
21 47.6
l2i 56.3
4'6N
12.5
20.1
27-3
34*o
40.4
46.4
52.0
57*2
2.0
23" 7'6N
23 3*3
22 ,58.7
22 C3-6
22 48.2
22 42.3
22 36.1
22 29.5
22 22.4
22 15.0
6-3
10.3
13-9
17.0
19.7
22.1
24.0
26.5
26.6
27-3
27.6
27.4
26.9
25*9
24*5
22.7
20.5
17.9
14.8
11.4
July.
7*3
21 59.0
21 50.5
21 41.6
21 32.3
21 22.7
21 12.6
21 2.3
20 5i*5
20 40.4
20 29.0
20 17.2
20 5.1
x9 52.7
J9 39-9
19 26.8
!9 I3*3
18 59.6
48 45.5
18 31.1
ii8 16.4
Auguit.
18° i'5N
17 46.2
7 3°-6
17 14.7
16 58.6
16 42.2
16 25.5
16 8.6
15 5i*4
15 33-9
15 16.2
14 58.2
14 40.0
21.6
14 2.9
13 44.0
13 25.0
13 5*7
12 46.2
12 26.4
6*5
11 46.4
26.1
11 5-7
10 45.0
10 24.2
10 32
9 42.0
9 20.7
8 59-3
8 37*7
September.) October. November. December.
i5'9N
54.0
32.0
9.9
47-7
25*3
2.8
40,3
17.6
54*8‘
4 32-o
4 9-i
3 46.1
3 23-o
2 59*9
2 36-8
2 13.6
1 50 3
1 27.0
1 3-7
o 40.3
Q 16.9
o 6.5
o 29.9
0 53*3
1 16.7
1 40.1
2 3*5
2 26.9
2 5°-3
’137 s
37-°
0.3
23*5
46.7
9.8
32*9
55*8
18.7
4i*5
140 29'3 S21
14 48.5
15
7*4
26.0
, 44-4
16 2.5
16 20.3
16 37-9
16 55*2
17 12.2
4*3
26.9
49.4
11.8
34*i
56-3
18.4
40*3
2.0
10 23.7
45*i
6.4
27.6
48.6
9*4
30.0
5°-4
10.6
30.6
5°*4
17 28.9
17 45*3
18 1.4
18 17.2
18 32.6
18 47.7
19 2.5
19 F7.0
19 31-0
19 44*8
19 58.2
20 11.2
20 23.9
20 36.1
20 48.0
20 59*5
21 10.6
21 21.4
21 31.7
21 41.6
5l/oS
0.1
8.7
17.0
24.7
32.0
39*o
45*4
5i*4
57*°
2.0
6.7
10.9
14.6
17.8
20.6
23.0
24.8
26.2
27.1
27.5
27*5
27.0
26.0
24*5
22.6
20.3
17.4
14.0
10.3
23
6.0
Table
Practice.
73t
732
NAVIGATION.
Practice.
Table X. Change of Sun's Dec.
1 ABLE XI. The Right Afcenfions and Decimations of i he Vrincipulfixed Stars,
adapted to the beginning of the Year 1810.
57 N- 4
37 Nj— 3 .o
35 N'-f- 2 .6
13 N:+ 8 .5
13 NJ -{-12 .5
58 S ,— 17 .1
14 S—19 .0
7 nU- 19 .2
7 Nj-j-19 .2
31 Nj -}- 20 .0
Navigation
N A V [ 73
Inland Na- Navigation of the Ancients. See Phoenicia and
. vig»tion-, Trade.
Inland Navigation, the method of conveying com¬
modities from one part of a country to another by
means of rivers, lakes, canals, or arms of the fea. See
Canal.
We have already, under Canal, taken notice of a
method propofed by Dr Anderfon of railing and lower¬
ing veffels by means of mechanical powers, inftead of
dams and locks. We lhall defcribe another mechani¬
cal contrivance propofed by Mr Leach for the fame
purpofe. This machinery is compounded of an inclined
plane and wheel in axis. The inclined plane is a pa¬
rallelogram whofe length reaches from the end of one
canal to the beginning of another, or to the fea or na¬
vigable river, to which the velfel is next to be convey¬
ed; the breadth ought to be zzf- feet. It may be
made of good oak or deal plank, and fufficiently ftrong
to bear the weight to be laid upon it; and it muft be
very ftrongly fupported by beams of oak or other
wood. It ought to be divided in the middle by a
ledge or rib of 12 inches fquare, the fide ribs being
nine by 12 inches. The elevation muft depend upon
Plate particular circumftailces. Fig. I. (hows the inclined
ccclxix. part of the machine ; AB being the wooden part juft
%• r- defcribed, placed between the fide of the hill W and
the navigable river F. According to the dimenfions
already given, the two paths A and B on which the
veffels move are exa&ly ten feet wide. G reprefents
the canal, brought perhaps from the diftance of feveral
miles to the top of the precipice WW. At the end
of the canal, and quite acrofs from R to R, muft be
built a very ftrong wall j in which are twro fluices
with flood gates at K and L, to let out the water
occafionally. Between the head of the plane AB,
and the end of the canal G, is a horizontal platform
divided into two parts, as is reprefented in the figure
by the letters HI. At the end of the canal are fix
rollers M and N, of ufe in carrying the boats and
lighters in and out of the canal. Near the end of the
. canal, at S, and T, are two other fluices, with their
flood-gates, for letting out- a quantity of fluid to drive
the other, part of the machine. O and P reprefent
the twro ends of the towing paths, one on each fide of
the canal.
Fig. a. Fig. 2. ftiows the vehicle by which the lighters are
conveyed up and down the inclined plane, by the two
paths A and B, fig. I. AA (fig. 2.) reprefents part
of the inclined plane, B the vehicle in the pofition in
which it rolls up and dowm the two paths. C is the
body of the vehicle, which is imde hollow, to con¬
tain a quantity of wrater occafionally ufed as a coun¬
terbalance for its correfpondirg vehicle. DDD are
three rollers between the bottom of the vehicle and
the plane, for the purpofe of rolling the boats up and
down. HHH are fix rollers : four by the horizontal
part of the vehicle on which the boat E is to reft in
its paflage up and down the plane ; the other two rol¬
lers are in a moveable part, which is fattened to the
body of the vehicle with a pair of very ftrong hinges ;
and in the paffage of the vehicle up and down the
plane, it turns up between the head of the boat and
the plane, preventing the former from rubbing againft
the plane. When the vehicle gets up to the top, this
3 ] N A V
moveable part falls down on the platform marked H’T, hdand Nu-
becoming parallel with the horizontal part of the ve- vigation..
hide $ after which it ferves for a launch and paffage ^
to place the boat upon the rollers MN (fig. i .) at the
end ef the canal. This paflage part of the vehicle,
together with the three rollers at the end of the canal,
is likewife of great ufe in towing a boat out of the
canal, in order to place it on the horizontal part. At
the bottom of the cavity of the vehicle is a large hole
F, with a valve opening inwardly. Through this hole
the water enters when the vehicle finks into the naviga¬
ble river F, for the purpofe of receiving a boat on the
top or horizontal part of the vehicle till it is quite
full and then will fink entirely under water, while the
boat is towed in on the horizontal part. A fmall rope
K is fattened to the valve, on purpofe to lift it up and
to keep it fo, while the vehicle and boat are afeending
up the plane out or the canal j that fo the water may
difeharge itfelf till as much as is neceflary be got out,
or till it becomes an equal balance for the correfpoftd-
ing vehicle and its contents, which are defeending by
the other path. Hence we fee, that every machine
muft have two of thefe vehicles furnilhed with rollers
as already delcribed, and fo conftru&ed that one may4
be as nearly as poflible a counterbalance to the other.
As it is neceflary that the vehicles fhould be water tight,
the infides of them muft be caulked very tight j and
they Ihould be capacious enough to hold as much
water as will balance the largeft boat with its contents.
Here it may be obferved, that every veflel will be ba¬
lanced by as many cubic feet of water as it difplaces
by being put into the water when loaded. The quan¬
tity may eafily be known, by obferving how far the
boat finks in the water, and calculating the bulk of
the part immerfed.
The machine which puts the vehicles in motion, may
either be conftru&ed with an under-fhot or breaft-water
wheel : or by an over-fhot water-wheel: or by two
walking-wheels, for men to walk in as in cranes, &c.
Fig. 3. fliows a front view of the under-lhot water-?
wheel movement j where A is the end of the axis or S'
cylinder of the cog or fpur wheel; the diameter of
which axis is four feet, and its length not lefs than
22 feet, as it muft be extended quite acrofs the canal
from one fide to the other, and placed on the top of
very ftrong fupporters on each fide of the canal, about
feven feet above the furface of the water, as the load¬
ed boat is to pafs backwards and forwards under the
cylinder, and at a convenient diftance from the wall
RR (fig. 1.), and placed between the two fluices S
and T; on the end of which cylinder is the corr-
wheel B (fig. 3.} The wheel B is fuppofed to be
20 feet of diameter, having on its edge 1 20 cogs; and
underneath the cog-wheel is the breatt-water one C,
24 feet in diameter, from the tip of one aller-board
to the tip of its oppofite. On the end of the axis of
the water-wheel D is a trundle two feet and a half
in diameter, with 15 rounds and ftaves contained there¬
in. This muft be placed between the two fluices S
and T, to let the water out of the canal ; w hich, fall¬
ing on the float-boards, .will turn the wheel round
from the right hand towards the left, when the lluice
on the. left hand of the wheel is opened ; but the con¬
trary way when that of the right is onened.—The watet?
N A V
Inland Na
vigation
- tailing upon the boards paffes along with the wheel in
the circular cavity EGF, and is difcharged at G, what¬
ever way the wheel may turn.
lo the axis or cylinder of this machine, which mud
always be horizontal, are fixed a pair of firong ropes ;
the ends of each pair faftened to the upper part of
the cylinder j it being neceffary that they Should act
in contrary diredtions. Each mud extend the whole
length of the plane, and their" drength mud be pro¬
portioned to the weight neceflary to be fudained. The
tw'o vehicles already mentioned are fadened to the other
ends of the ropes ; fo that one pair of the ropes are
wound up by the cylinder turning one way, and the
other by its turning the contrary way. Thus when
Fig. r.
one of the vehicles is at the upper part of the path A,
ready tp difcharge its boat and cargo into the upper
canal, the other boat will be at the foot ef the path B,
all under water in the lower canal, and ready for the
reception of a boat to be towed in on the horizontal
part of it } fo that as one vehicle rolls up on one fide of
the plane, the other will roll down on the other fide,
and vice verfa.
l ig<4* Fig. 4. (hows the movement by means of an over-
Ihot water-wheel. It confids of a water-wheel C,
and twro fpur or cog wheels A and B. The water¬
wheel is 18 feet in diameter, and has two row?s of
buckets placed contrariwife to one another, that it
may turn round in contrary direftions, according as
the one or the other fluice, S, or T, is opened. On its
axis F is a trundle of three feet diameter, having 18
rounds or ftaves which fall into the cogs of the fe-
cond fpur-wheel B, caufmg it to turn round in a di-
rettion contrary to that of the water-wheel. This
fecond w'heel is likewife 18 feet in diameter, with a
trundle of three feet having 18 rounds or daves.—
The diameter of the upper fpur-wheel A is alfo 18
feet, but the diameter of its axis is. fix feet. On the
edge of the wheel are ic8 cogs. Thefe fall in between
the daves of the axis of the other fpur-wheel; and
thus the third vvheel turns round the fame way with
the water wheel C. The cylinder of this upper fpur-
wheel mud be placed acrofs the canal betwixt the two
fluices, on very drong fupporters, as explained in the
former movement, and the two pair of ropes in the
fame manner.
The movement of the walking wheel is Ihown (fig.
Fig- 5* 5-)- Al and Az are two wheels for men to walk in,
each of them 24 feet in diameter. Bi and B2 are
the axes or cylinders of the two wheels, of equal
lengths; viz. 11 feet each, and four in diameter.—
At one end of each of the two cylinders Cl and C2, is
a wheel of the fame diameter with the cylinder. On
the edges of thefe wdieels are teeth of an equal num¬
ber in each wheel; and as the teeth of the wheels mu-
„ tually fall into each other, the revolutions of both
mud b^ performed in the fame time. By this con¬
trivance alfo the cylinders will turn different ways ;
and the ropes on the two different cylinders will con-
ftantly one pair be wound up, and the other wound
down, by the natural moving of the machine. DDD
is the frame that fupports the whole, which mud be
made very firm and fecure.
Let us now fuppofe, that there is a boat in the up¬
per canal to be brought down, but none to go up for
a Balance. In this cafe, as one of the vehicles mud be
3
C 734 1
N A U
at the top to receive the boat, the other will be at the Inland Na.
bottom, to take in water. Let then any of the move- vigatlon
meats jud defcribed be let to work, and it is plain,
that as the upper vehicle with its boat defcends, the’
under vehicle will afcend with the water ; the valve be¬
ing in mean time lifted up till a fufficient quantity
of water has flowed out, to make the one nearly a
counterbalance to the other ; fo that the veffel may Hide
down gently and without any violence.
If it happens that a boat is to go up while none is
to come down, one of the vehicles being at the foot
of the plane under water, and in readinefs to have the
boat towed upon its horizontal part, one of the fluices
at K or L is to be opened, and a quantity of water
let into the cidern of the upper vehicle fufficient to
counterbalance the boat with its contents which is to
afcend. I. his being done, the machine is fet to work,
the valve of the under vehicle kept open till the water
is all difcharged ; and then the boat will roll up to the
top of the plane.
From this defcription of the canal and machinery
for raifing and lowering the veffels, the reader can be
at no lois to underdand the principles on which it
depends. It would be fuperfluous to adduce examples,
or follow our author through his calculations rela¬
tive to particular cafes. We ffiall only obferve, that
the difference of time in which veffels may be raifeff
or lowered by the machinery jud defcribed, in compa-
rifon with wrhat can be done in the common way by
dams and locks, mud give a very favourable idea of
the new method. According to Mr Leach’s computa¬
tions, a boat with its cargo weighing 10 tons might be
raifed by the walking machine in 12 or 14 minutes, by
the under-ffiot wheel in 15 minutes, and by the over-
ffiot wheel in 30 minutes; and that through a fpace of
no lefs than 30 fathoms meafured on the inclined plane,
or 114 feet perpendicular.
NAVIGATORS islands. See Opoun.
NAULUM, in Roman antiquity, a piece of money
put into the mouth of a perfon deceafed to enable him
to pay Charon the ferryman for his paffage. It was to
be of the current coin of the reigning emperor ; <0 that
from this money the time of the perion’s death may be
known. The lum for poor men was a farthing, but
the rich in general were very liberal to Charon, as
appears from the number of coin$ often found in the
neighbourhood of Rome on opening the graves of great
men. Charon was looked upon as a very morofe and
obdinate old fellow, who w’ould not carry over any man
without his fare : and hence the proverbial ufe of that
verfe in Juvenal,
Furor eft pojl omnia perdere naulum.
A fimilar cudom took place among the Greeks: The
money put into the mouth of the deceafed was by them
called
NAUMACHIA, in antiquity, a ffiow or fpe&acle
among the ancient Romans, reprefenting a fea fight.
Thefe mock fea fights are fuppofed to have originated
at the time of the fird Punic war, when the Romans
fird inftrudted their men in the knowledge of naval
affairs. Afterwards they were intended to entertain
the populace, as well as to improve the feamen. They
were often, like other ffiows, exhibited at the expence
of individuals, to increafe their popularity.
In
Plate CCCLXIX.
W l.ANU l^AVJGATIOX:.
ysr
N A U [ 735 1 N A U
Naumburg In thefe fpectacles they fometimes ftrove to excel
^ U,. each other in fwiftnefs j and fometimes engaged in a
^Jaupims. ^ war]^e mannfcr. The naumachiae of Claudius indeed
was a moil favage diverfion. The combatants ufed
to deftroy each other to amufe a tyrant and a cruel
mob. As they paffed before him, they ufed this me¬
lancholy greeting, “ Ave Impcrator, moritun te falu-
lanty The emperor replied, “ Avete ^or.” This
they underftood as an anfvver of kindnefs, and a grant
of their lives $ but they foon difcovered that it pro¬
ceeded from wanton cruelty, and barbarous infenfibi-
lity. In the time of the emperor Domitian, fuch a
vail number of veflels engaged as would have nearly
formed two regular fleets for a real fight, and the
channel of water was equal in magnitude to a natural
river. The emperor Heliogabalus is reported to have
filled the channel where the veflels were to ride with
wine inilead of water. Tritons and fea moniters were
frequently exhibited during the engagement. Suetonius
and Dio Caflius inform us, that at one of thefe fea fights
of Dcmitian a violent ihower fell ; the emperor, how¬
ever, continued till the end of the engagement, often
changing his clothes, nor would he fuffer any one to de¬
part \ and as the rain continued for feveral hours, many
were feized with diilempers, and fome even died, Suet,
cap. 4. Dio. lib. Ixvii. Naumachiae were alfo places
fitted up for thefe Ihows, a fort of circi or amphitheatres,
with feats and porticoes, &c. There were feveral of
them at Rome j three built by Auguftus, one by Clau¬
dius, another by Domitian, and another by Nero:
which ferved for the reverfe of his medals. Claudius
ufed the lake Fucinus as a naumachia.
NAUMBURG, a towrn of Germany, in the circle
of Upper Saxony, capital of the county of Saxe-Naum-
burg, fituated on the river Sala, in E. Long. 11. 20.
N. Lat. 51. 12.
NAUPACTUS, or Naupactum, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a city of /Etolia, at the mouth of the Evenus.
The word is derived from and 7rr,yvvfci, becaufe it
was there that the Heraclidae built the firft: flop which
carried them to Peloponnefus. It firft belonged to
the Locri Ozolne, and afterwards fell into the hands
of the Athenians, wTho gave it to the Mefifenians, who
had been driven from Peloponnefus by the Lacede¬
monians. It became the property of the Lacedemo¬
nians after the battle of Aigofpotamos, and it was re-
ftored to the Locri. Philip of Macedon afterwards
look it, and gave it to the iEtoiians ■, from which cir-
cumftance it has generally been called one of the chief
cities of their country. E. Long. 22. 20. N. Lat.
38.0.
There was on the fliore a temple of Neptune, and
near it a cave filled wdth offerings, and dedicated to
Venus, where widows reforted to requeft new hufbands
of the goddefs. Paufan. Lb. x. p. 898.
NAUPLIA, in Ancient GeographyH a maritime city
of Peloponndus. It was the naval flation of the Ar-
gives. The fountain Canathos was in its neighbourhood.
NAUPLIUS, in fabulous hiftory, a fon of Neptune
and Amymone, king of Euboea. He was the father of
the famous Palamedes, who was fo unjulliy facrificed
to the artifice and refentment of Ulyffes by the Greeks
at the Trojan war. The death of Palamedes highly
^nraged Nauplius 5 and to revenge the injuflice of the
Grecian princes, he endeavoured to debauch their
wdves, and ruin their charadlers. When the Greeks Nauportus,
returned from the Trojan war, Nauplius was pleafed ^,av‘-C0Fy-<
to fee them diftreffed in a florin on the coafls of Eu¬
boea ; and to make their difafter ftill more univerfal,
he lighted fires on fuch places are were furrounded with
the moft dangerous rocks, that the fleet might be fliip-
wrecked upon the coafl. This had the defired- ef*
fed!; but Nauplius was fo difappointed when he faw
Ulyffes and Diomcdes efcape from the general diftrefs,
that he threw himfelf into the fea. According to
fome mythologifls there were two perfons of this name ;
one a native of Argos, who went to Colchis with Ja-
fon. He was fon of Neptune and Amymone.—The
other was king of Euboea, and lived about the time of
the Trojan wrar. He was, as fome obferve, fon of Cly-
tonas, one of the defcendants of Nauplius the Argonaut.
The Argonaut was remarkable for his knowledge of
fea affairs and of aftronomy. He built the town of
Nauplia, and fold Auge daughter of Aleus to King
Teuthras, to fcreen her from her father’s refentment.
NAUPORTUS, or Nauportum, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a town on a cogncminal river, towards its
fource, in Pannonia Superior. The reafon of the name,
according to Pliny, is, that the flap Argo, after coming
up the Danube, the Save, and the Laubach, was thence
carried on men’s fhoulders over the Alps into the A-
driatic. The river Nauportus rifes in the Alps, near
Longaticum, at the diftance of fix miles from the town~
Nauportum ; which was a colony of the Taurifci, a
people on the confines of Noricum. Now Upper Lau¬
bach in Carinthia, on the river Laubach. E. Long.
14. 40. N. Lat. 46. 28.
NAUSCOPY, the art of difcovering the approach
of Ihips or the neighbourhood of land at a confiderable
diflance. This pretended art was difcovered by M.
Bottineau, employed in the king and company’s fervice
in the ifland of France, from the year 1782 to 1784;
the account of it is as follow's:
“ This knowledge is not derived either from the
undulatiop of the waves, or from the fubtility of fight,
or from any particular fenfation ; but merely from ob-
fervation of the horizon, which difcovers figns indicating
the proximity of fhips or of land.
“ On the approximation of a fhip tJ^yard the land, .
or towards another fhip, there appears in the atmo-
fphere a meteor of a particular nature, vifible to every
one without any painful attention. It is not by any
kind of accident that this meteor appears under thefe
circumflances ; on the contrary, it is the neceffary re-
fult of the approximation of one veffel towards another,
or towards the land. The exiftence of the meteor, and '
the knowledge of its different modifications, are what
conftitute the certainty and the precifion of my infer-
mations.
“ If i am afked, how it is pofiible that the approach
of a fhip towards land fhould give birth to any meteor
whatfoever in the atmofphere, and what connexion there
can be between two objefls at fuch a diftance from each >
other ? I reply, that I am not obliged to give an ac¬
count of the hows and the wherefores : that it is fuf-
ficient for me to have difcovered the faff, without being
obliged to account for its principle.”
The writer concludes, by defiring to be called on for -
experimental proofs, and by promifing in future a com¬
plete treatife 6f Naufcopy, with maps, plates, See.
This -•
N A W [ 736 ] N A X
X?.ufea This complete treatife, as far as we know, has not
N a worth ^ct ^een puhlifhed, nor do we expeft ever to fee fuch
Caftle. a treatife on the fubje£l as will fatisfy the minds of
——V~—- thofe who are perfuaded that every effeft muft have an
adequate caufe. The whole feems to be the work of
fancy.
NAUSEA, or sickness •, a retching or propenfity
and endeavour to vomit, arifing from fomething wdiich
irritates the ftomach.
NAUTILUS, a genus of animals belonging to the
order of vermes teftacea. See Conchology Index.
NAVY, the fleet or (hipping of a prince or (fate.
See Marine.
The management of the Britifh navy royal, under the
lord high admiral of Great Britain, is intruded to prin¬
cipal officers and commiffioners of the navy, who hold
their place by patent. The principal officers of the navy
are four, viz. the treafurer, wffiofe bufmefs it is to re¬
ceive money out of the exchequer, and to pay all the
charges of the navy, by warrant from the principal
officers : comptroller, who attends and controuls all
payment of wages, is to know the rates of dores, to
examine and audit all accounts, &c. : furveyor, who
is to know the dates of all dores, and fee wants fup-
plied ; to edimate repairs, charge boalfw^ains, &c. with
what (teres they receive, and at the end of each voyage
to date and audit accounts: clerk of the a6fs, whofe
bufinefs it is to record all orders, contrails, bills, war¬
rants, &c.
The commiffioners of the navy are five : The fird
executes that part of the comptroller’s duty which re¬
lates to the comptrolling the vidlualler’s accounts; the
fecond, another part of the faid comptroller’s duty re¬
lating to the account of the dorekeepers of the yard ;
the third has the diredlion of the navy at the port of
Portfmouth ; the fourth has the fame at Chatham ; and
the fifth at Plymouth. There are alfo other commiffion¬
ers at large, the number more or lefs according to
the exigencies of public affairs ; and fince the increafe
of the royal navy, thefe have feveral clerks under them,
with falaries allowed by the king.
The vidfualling of the royal navy hath formerly
been undertaken by contrail ; but is now managed by
, « commiffioners, who hold their office on Tower-hill, Lon¬
don. The navy office is where the whole bufinefs con¬
cerning the navy is managed by the principal officers
and commiffioners.
The royal navy of Great Britain is now in a very
flourifhing date, having been diligently kept up in late
reigns, as the natural ftrength of the kingdom. When
it is complete, it is divided into three fquadrons, di-
dinguiffied by the colours of the dags carried by the
refpedlive admirals belonging to the fame, viz. red,
•white, and blue; the principal commander of which
bears the title of admiral; and each has under him a
vice admiral and a rear admiral, wffio are likewife dag
officers.
Navy Exercife. See Exercise.
Nayy Difiiphne, or Regulations. See Maritime
State.
NAWORTH castle, in Cumberland, io’’ miles
from Carlifie, near the Gelt. This cadle is dill entire
and inhabited. It is a large pile, fquare, and built
round a court. On the north it (lands over the ri-
yer Ithing, at a great height, the baeks (bagged with
2
wTood. 1 he wiiole houfe is a very irregular building ; Naxia
the rooms numerous, acceffible by 16 daircafes, with x, N
mod frequent and hidden afcents"and defeents, &c.— Naxus'
The great hall has a gallery at one end, adorned w'ith
four vaft creds carved in wood, viz. a griffin and dol¬
phin, with the fcollops; an unicorn, and an ox with
a coronet round his neck. In front is a figure in wood
of an armed man ; two others, perhaps vaffals, in (hort
jackets and caps. The top and upper end of the room
is painted in fquares, reprefenting the Saxon kings and
heroes. This cadle wxis built by one of the Dacr. s
about the reign of Henry III. "in the garden walls
were dones with Roman inferiptions, which the late
earl of Carlide gave to Sir Thomas Robinfon, and were
by him removed to bis mufeum at Rookffiy : On one of
thefe dones is this infeription, peditum centum quinqua-
ginta Britannorum ; whence it appears that the Romans,
when in poffeffion of Britain, fometimes indulged the
national troops with the favour of garrifoiiing their own
territories.
NAXIA, or Naxos, a confiderable iffand of the
Archipelago, 25 miles in length, and 88 in circum¬
ference. The whole idand is covered with orange,
olive, lemon, cedar, citron, pomegranate, fig, and
mulberry trees ; and there are a great many fprings
and brooks. This ifiand has no harbour ; and yet
they carry on a confiderable trade in barley, wine, figs,
cotton, filk, ffax, cheefe, fait, oxen, ffieep, mules,
and oil. They burn only oil of madich, though olive
oil is exceedingly cheap. It is inhabited both by Greeks
and Latins, who live in great dread of the Turks ;
for when the meaned of their (hip’s appear here, they
always wear red caps like galley-flaves, and tremble
before the lowed officer ; but as (bon as they are
gone, they put on their caps of velvet. The ladies
are fo vain, that when they return out of the country,
they have 40 women in their train, half on foot and
half on affes, one of whom carries a napkin or two,
another a petticoat, another a pair of dockings, and
fo on ; which is a very ridiculous fight to dranirers.
There are four archbiffiops fees in this ifland, and a
great many villages; but fo thin of people, that the
whole ifland does not contain above 8000 inhabitants.
The highed mountain is Zia, which fignifies “ the
mountain of Jupiter.” There are but few antiquities,
except fome fmall remains of the temple of Bacchus.
Some fay they have mines of gold and filver ; how-
-ever, there is one of emery, which is fo common here
and fo cheap, that the Englidi often ballad their drips
therewith.
Naxos, or Naxia, a confiderable town, and capital
of the ifle of Naxos, over againd the ide of Paros,
with a cadle and two archbidrops fees, the one Greek
and the other Latin. The greated part of the in¬
habitants are Greeks. E. Long. 25. 51. N. Lat.
37.8.
NAXUS, now Naxia, formerly Strongy/e, Dia,
Dionyjias, Callipolis, and Little Sicily. It was called
Strongyle, from a Greek word, (igniTying “ round,”
though in reality it is rather fquare than round. The
names of Dia or Divine, and Dionyjias, were given
it as being confecrated in a peculiar manner to the fa¬
bulous god Dionyfus or Bacchus. The appellation
of Callipolis, Pliny and Solinus derive from the metro¬
polis of the idand, formerly a mod beautiful city,
which
N A X [7
Naxu?. which is the import of the wT0rd Callipolis. The
great fertility of the country gave rife to the name
of Little Sicily, Naxus being the more fruitful of all
the Cyclades, as Agathamerus informs us, and no
lefs fertile than Sicily itfelf. As for the name of
Naxus, fome aflert that it was borrowed from one Naxus,
under whole conduft the Carians polleffed themfelves
of the illand ; others pretend it received its name from
Naxus, the fon of Endymion. Stephanus, Suidas,
and Pbavorinus, derive the name of Naxos, from the
Greek word naxai, fignifying, “ to facrifice,” and will
have it to have been fo called from the many facrilices
offered here to Bacchus. With thefe Bochart agrees,
as to its being called Naxos from the facritke; per¬
formed here in honour of Bacchus, but will have the
word naxos to be a corruption of the Phoenician naefa,
or niefa, lignifying “ a facrifice, offering.” Naxos
is, according to Pliny, 75, but reckoned by the pre-
fent inhabitants 100 miles in compafs. It has Paros
to the weft, Myconos and Delos to the north, and
los to the fouth. This itland is the moft fruitful of
the Archipelago, and was formerly famed for the ex¬
cellent wines it produced. Archilochus, as quoted
by Athenaeus, compares them to the neftar of the
gods ; and Afclepiades, cited by Stephanus, affures
us, that Bacchus took more delight in Naxos than
in any other place whatfoever, having himfelf taught
the inhabitants to cultivate their vines. The wine
of Naxos maintains to this day its ancient reputation,
being by lome deemed the belt of the Levant. Be¬
ll des wine, this ifland abounds with all forts of deli¬
cious fruits, the plains being covered with orange,
olive, lemon, cedar, citron, pomegranate, mulberry,
and fig trees. It was formerly famous for quarries of
that fort of marble which the Greeks called ophites,
from its being green, and fpeckled with white fpots
like the Ikin of a ferpent. The beft emerald is found
here on the mountains near the weftern coaft, whence
the neighbouring cape is called by the Italians capo
fmcrig/10, or the emerald cape. As to the inhabitants
of Naxos, Diodorus relates that the ifland was fir ft
peopled by the Thracians. Thefe were in a little
time fubdued by a body of Theffalians, who. having
polfelfed the iftand for the fpace of 200 years and
upwards, were compelled to abandon it by a drought
and famine.
After the Trojan war, the Carians fettled here, and
called the ifland Naxos, from their king, who was the
fon of Polemon. He was fucceeded by his fon Leu¬
cippus, and Leucippus by his fon Smardius, in whofe
reign Thefeus, coming out of Crete, landed here with
Ariadne, whom be was, in his fleep, commanded by
Bacchus to leave in this ifland. In procefs of time a
colony of Cnidians and Rhodians fettled here under
the condudt of Hippothous and Xuthus: and laft of
all the lonians, who, in time, pofleffed the whole
ifland 5 whence the Naxians are, by Herodotus, called
lonians, and ranged among the Athenian colonies. E.
Long. 26. 5. N. Lat. 36. 30. It is about 105 miles
in circumference, and about 30 broad.
Naxus, in Ancient Geography, a town of Crete, fa¬
mous for its hones, called lapis Naxius. Another of
Sicily, built by the Chalcidians ; lituated on the fouth
fide of Mount Taurus, deftroyed by Dionyfius the
Vol. XIV. Part II.
37 ] N A Z
tyrant: from its ruins Tauromenium, built by TimO'- Nayre',
leon, either arofe or was increafed, (Plutarch). ^Nazaietl.
NAYRES, the nobility of the Malabar coaft. We *
may with truth affirm that they are the oldeIT nobility
in the world ; for the moft ancient writers mention
them, and quote the law that permits the Nayre la¬
dies to have many hufbands ; every one being allowed
four. Their heufes, which Hand Angle, have as many
doors as the lady has hufbands. When one of them
vifits her, he walks round the houfe, ftriking with
his labre on his buckler: he then opens his door,
and leaves a domeftic with his arms in a kind of
porch, who ferves to inform others that the lady is
engaged. It is faid, that one day in the wreek the
four doors are ail opened, and all her hufbands vifit
her, and dine together with her. Each hulband gives
a fum of money, or portion, at the time of marriage ;
and the wife only has the charge of the children. The
Nayres, even the Samodn, and the other princes,
have no other heirs than the children of their lifters.
This law was eftablilhed, that the Nayres, having no
family, might be always ready to march again!! the
enemy. When the nephews are of age to bear arms,
they follow their uncles. The name of father is un¬
known to a Nayre child. He fpeaks of the hufbands
of his mother and of his uncles, but never of his
fathfer.
NAZARETH, a little city in the tribe of Zebu-
lun, in Lower Galilee, to the weft of Tabor, and to
the eaft of Ptolemais. Eufebius fays, it is 15 miles
from Legion towards the eaft. This city is much ce¬
lebrated in the Scriptures, for having been the ufual
place of the refidence of Jefus Chrift for the firft 33
years of his life, Luke, ii. 51. It was there our Sa¬
viour became incarnate, where he lived in obedience
to Jofeph and Mary, and from whence he took the
name of a Nazarean. After he had begun to execute
his miffion, he preached there fometimes in the fyna-
gogue, Id. iv. 16. But becaufe his countrymen had
no faith in him, and were offended at the meannefs of
his original, he did not many miracles there, Matth. xiii.
54, 38. nor wmuld he dwell therein j fo he fixed his ha¬
bitation at Capernaum for the latter part of his life, Ia\
iv. 13. The city of Nazareth was fituated upon an
eminence ; and on one fide there was a precipice, from
whence the Nazareans one day had a defign of throw¬
ing down our Saviour, becaufe he upbraided them with
their incredulity, Luke iv. 29.
St Epiphanius fays, that in his time Nazareth was
only a village, and that to the reign of Conffantine it
was inhabited by Jews alone, exclufive of all Chriftians.
Adamnanus, a writer of the feventh age, fays, that in
his time there were two great churches to be feep at
Nazareth, one in the midft of the city, built upon two
arches, in the place where our Saviour’s houfe had
flood. Under the two arches now mentioned, was a
very fine fountain, which furnifhed water to the whole
city, and from whence w'ater was drawn alfo by the
help of a pulley for the ufe of the church above. The
fecond church of Nazareth was built in a place where
the houfe flood wherein the angel Gabriel revealed to
the virgin Mary the myftery of our Lord’s incarnation \
and we are allured that the church of Incarnation,
which is fupported by two arches, is ftill in being to
5 A this
N A Z [
zureth, this clay. Mr Maundrell tells us, tLat there is a con-
ZliTll:e' vent built over what is laid to be the place of annunci¬
ation •, for the chamber where Hie received the angel’s
falutation was about 500 years ago removed from Na¬
zareth, and, according to the Roman legends, tran!-
ported by angels to Loretto, then a fmall village in
the pope’s dominions, now become a bilhop’s-fee.—
However, Calmet’s opinion (which is certainly the
true one) upon the different tranilations of this famous
houfe of Loretto, is, that they were no other than fo
many different buildings made upon the model of the
church of Nazareth, jutl as in feveral places fepulchres
have been built upon the model of that at Jerufalem.
Mariti tells us, that in the eaftern part of the city
Rands the church dedicated to the Bleffed Virgin : the
zeal of the Coenobites raifed it from the ruins of that
which had been deftroyed by the Saracens. It is a
very handfome building, and confilfs of three naves ;
in the middle of which is. the principal altar 5 to which
there is an afcent by two magnificent flairs, much ad¬
mired for their iron ballullrades, the work of an inge¬
nious monk of the convent. The defcent to the grot¬
to or annunciation chapel below is by fteps of beauti¬
ful marble, cut with great tafle. Two beautiful co¬
lumns of oriental granite flrike the eye of the obferver
in the entrance. They appear to have been conllruft-
ed both to fupport and ornament the grotto. The al¬
tar of this fubterranean chapel is extremely elegant ;
and the different kinds of marble with which it is or¬
namented, receive an additional luftre from the com¬
bined light of feveral filver lamps prefented by Chri-
flian princes. On folemn feftivals, the walls and the
pilaflers are ornamented with various pieces of tapef-
try, reprefenting the myfteries of the virgin •, a fu-
perb prefent from the Houfe of Audria. In the
weftern part of the city (lands a Chriftian church,
built, as it is faid, on the file of the ancient fynagogue
where Jefus (howed the Jews the accomplifhment of
the prophecies in his perfon. This place ferved a long
time as a (helter for flocks, but at prefent it is in good
repair. In the neighbourhood may be feen a fountain
of excellent water, which is, however, efleemed by the
people on another account. They conje&ure that it
was contiguous to the habitation of the virgin, and
that it was ufed by her. At fome'diftance is a large
flone of a round form, called Chri/l's Table. It is
pretended that he came hither more than once with his
difciples to eat. The inhabitants of Nazareth pay it a
kind of worihip, burning perfumes and incenfe around
it. It is fituated in 350 E. Long, and in 3 2° N. Lat. j
and formerly held the third rank under the patriarch of
Jerufalem. At prefent it is part of the domains of the
chief of Acre. The ancient city, after the ravages of
fanaticifm, was reduced to a miferable hamlet, con¬
taining only >a few Arab huts.—Under the proteflion
of Daher Omar, however, it recovered very conflder-
• ably, and is now of far more importance.
NAZARITE, or Nazarean, or Na^arines, a
term which may fignify, 1. One that is of Nazareth,
or any native of this city. 2. It was given to Jefus
Chrift and his difciples, and is commonly taken in a
fenfe of deriflou and contempt in fuch authors as have
written againlt chriftianity. 3. It has been taken for a
feft of heretics called Nazareans. 4. For a Nazarite, a
man that has laid himfclf under the obligation of a vow
738 ] N A Z
to obffirvc the rules of Naz'iritefhip, whether it be for Nazarite
bis whole life, rs Samfon and John the Baptifl, or only '~~y ~
for a time, as thofe mentioned in Numbers vi. 28, 19,
20. Amos ii. it, 12. Laftly, The name Nazarite, in
fome paffages of Scripture, denotes a man of particular
diflinflion and great dignity in the court of fome prince.
But we muft fpeak of thefe feveral forts of Nazarites
fomething more diftinftly.
The name of Nazarene belongs to Jefus Chrifl, not
only becaufe of his having lived the greateft part of his
life at Nazareth, and becaufe this city has always been
confidered as his country, but alfo becaufe the pro¬
phets had foretold that he fliould be called a Nazarene,
Matth. ii. 23. “ And he came and dwelt in a city
“ called Nazareth, that it might be fulfilled which was
“ fpoken by the prophets, He (hall be called a Naza-
“ rene.” We find no particular place in the prophets
in which it is faid that the Mefliah fhould be called a
Nazarene ; and St Matthew only quotes the prophets
in general. Perhaps he would infinuate, that the con-
fecration of the Nazarites, and the great purity of
which they made profeflion, was a type and a fort of
prophecy of thofe of our Saviour, or elfe that the
name 1'P Naxir or Nazarite given to the patriarch
Jofeph, Gen. xlix. 26. Deut. xxxiii. if), was a pro¬
phecy which was to be fulfilled in the perfon of Jefus
Chrilt, of whom Jofeph was a figure. Laftly, St
Jerome was of opinion, that St Matthew here alludes
to that paffage of Ifaiah xi. 1. and lx. 21. “ And
“ there (hall come forth a rod out of the ftem of Jeffe,
“ and a branch (in Hebrew Nezer) (hall grow out of
“ his roots.” This branch or Nezer, and this rod,
are certainly intended to denote Jefus Chrift, by the
general confent of all the fathers and interpreters.
When the word Nazarean is put for the heretics
known by this name, it denotes Chriftians converted
from Judaifm, whofe chief error confifted in defend¬
ing the neceflity or expediency of the works of the
law, and who obftinately adhered to the pra&ice of
the Jewifh ceremonies. The name of Nazarenes at
firft had nothing odious in it, and it was often given
to the firft Chriftians. The fathers frequently men¬
tion the gofpel of the Nazarenes, which differs no¬
thing from that of St Matthew, which was either in
Hebrew or Syriac, for tbe ufe of the firft converts, but
was afterwards corrupted by the Ebionites. T hefe
Nazareans preferved this firft gofpel in its primitive
purity. Some of them were ftill in being in the time
of St Jerome, who does not reproach them with any
error. They were very zealous obfervers of the law
of Mofes, but held the traditions of the Pharifees in
very great contempt.
Nazarite, when put to fignify thofe under the an¬
cient law who made a vow of obferving a more than
ordinary degree of purity (Numb. ubi. cit,), denotes a
man or. woman who engage themfelves by a vow to
abftain from wine and all intoxicating liquors, to let
their hair grow without cutting or (having, not to enter
into any houfe that was polluted by having a dead
corpfe in it, nor to be prefent at any funeral. And if
by chance any one (hould have died in their prefence,
they began again the whole ceremony of their confe-
cration and Nazaritefhip. This ceremony generally
lafted eight days, fometimes a month, and fometimes
their whole lives. When the time of their Nazarite¬
fhip
N A Z [ 739 ] N E A
Nazarite. {hip was accomplifhed, the pried brought the perfon fuperintendant general of the king’s houfehold, the Nazianzcn
* to the door of the temple, who there offered to the chief officer of the crown, the high deward of his
Lord a he lamb for a burnt-offering, a ffie lamb for family, treafures, and revenues; and that in this fenfe , ' a^0'i ',
an expiatory facrifice, and a ram for,,a peace-offering. Jofeph was the Nazir of the court of Pharaoh. Le
They offered likewife loaves and cakes, with wine ne- Clerc trandates the Nazir, a prince, and calls Jofeph
ceffary for the libations. After all this was facrificed “ the prince of his brethren,” in the two places already
and offered to the Lord, the pried Or fome other quoted. Mr Pool declares in favour of this lad tranlla-
ffiaved the head of the Nazarite at the door of the ta- tion. See 'Jofeph. Chardin. Ghnjfofl. St 'Jerome, <br'c.
bernacle, and burnt his hair, throwing it upon the NAZIANZEN. See Grroory Nazianzen.
fire of the altar. Then the pried put into the hand NAZIM, the lord lieutenant, viceroy, or governor
of the Nazarite the ffioulder of the ram roaded, with of a province in Hindodan j the fame as Subahdar, of
a loaf and a cake, which the Nazarite returning into Nabob.
the hands of the pried, he offered them to the Lord, NEALED, among feamen, is ufed when the
lifting them up in the jprefence of the Nazarite. And founding is deep water dole to the diore 5 as alfo.
from this time he mignt again drink wine, his Naza- when the ffiore is fandy, clayey, oozy, or foul and
riteffiip being now' acc*jmplifhed. rocky ground.
As to thofe that were perpetual Nazarites, as were NEALING, or rather Annealing, a term ufed
Samfon and John the Baptid, it appears thar they for the preparing of feveral matters, by heating of
were confecrated to their Nazariteffiip by their parents, baking them in the oven, or the like,
and continued all their lives in this date, without NkalinG of glafs, is the baking of glafs, to dry,
drinking wine or cutting their hair. harden, and give it the due confidence, after it has been
Thofe that made a vow of Nazaritediip out of Pa- blown, and faffiioned into the proper works.—This is
ledine, and could not come to the temple when their ufually performed in a kind of a tower called the leer,
vow was expired, contented themfelveS’with obferving built over the melting furnace. See Glass.
the abdinence required by the law, and after that cut- Nealing of glafs is alfo ufed for the art of daining
ting their hair in the place where they w7ere : as to the glafs with metalline colours. “ One fine ufe of filver
offerings and facrifices prefcrlbed by Mofes, which were (fays Mr Boyle) was only difeovered fince the art of
to be offered at the temple by themfelves, or by others annealing upon glafs came to be pra&ifed. For pre¬
fer them, they deferred this till they could have a con- pared filver, or even the crude metal, being burnt on
venient opportunity. Hence it was, that St Paul be- a glafs plate, will tinge it of a fine yellow or golden
ing at Corinth, and having made the vow of a Naza- colour. And there are feveral mineral' earths, and
rite, he had his hair cut off at Cenchrea, and put off other coarfe matters, of ul^e in this art, which by means
fulfilling the red of his vow till he ftiould arrive at Je- of fire impart tranfparent colours to glafs, and fome-
rufalem, A6ts. xviii. 18. When a perfon found that he times very different ones from thofe of the bodies them-
was not in a condition to make a vow of Nazariteffiip, felves.
or had not leifure to perform the ceremonies belonging Nealing of feel, is the heating it in the fire to a
to it, he contented himfelf by contributing to the ex- blood-red heat, and then taking it out, and letting it
pence of the facrifice and offerings of thole that had cool gently of itfelf. This is done to make it fofter,
made and fulfilled this vow ; and by this means he -be- in order to engrave or punch upon it. See Temper-
came a partaker in the merit of fuch Nazariteffiip. ing and Engraving.
When St Paul came to Jerufalcm, in the year of Chrid Nealing is alfo ufed for the art or aft of burning
58, the apodle St James the Lefs, with the other bre- or baking earthen or other ware in an oven. The
thren, faid to him, Afts xxi. 23, 24. that to quiet the miners at Mendip, when they meet with a rock they
minds of the converted Jews, who had been informed cannot cut through, anneal it by laying on wood and
that he everywhere preached up the entire abolition of coal, and contriving the fire fo that they quit the mine
the law of Mofes,' he ought to join himfelf to four of before the operation begins, it being dangerous to en-
the faithful who had a vow of Nazariteffiip upon them, ter it again before it be quite cleared of the fmoke.
and contribute to the charge of the ceremony at the Nkaling of tile is ufed in ancient ftatutes for the
Ihaving of their heads j by which the new converts burning of tile. The w'ord is formed of the Saxon
would perceive that he continued to keep the law, and once/an, accendere, to light, burn,
that what they had heard of him was not tru^. NEAP or Neep tides, are thofe tides which bap-
The Hebrew word Nazir, or Nazarite, which is made pen when the moon is in the middle of the fecond and
Life of to exprefs a man exalted to great dignity, as it is fourth quarters. The neap tides are low tides, in re-
faid of the patriarch Jofeph, Gen. xlix. 26. and Deut. fpeft of their oppofites the fpring tides. As the
xxxiii. 16. “ that he was feparate from his brethren,” higheft of the fpring tides is three days after the full
as it is in our tranilation 5 or as the Vulgate and others or change, fo the loweft of the neap is four days be-
•underftand the Plebrew, “ that he was a Nazarite fore the full or change. On which occafion the feamen
among his brethren,” is varioufly underftood. Some fay that it is deep neap.
think that the Hebrew word T'P Nazir, in thefe pla- NEAPED. When a ffiip w'ants water, fo that ffie
ces, fignifies one who is crowned, chofen, feparated, or cannot get out of the harbour, off the ground, or out of
diftinguiffied r the word *rp Nazir fignifies a crown, the dock, the feaman fay Ihe is neaped, or beneaped.
The Septuagint tranflate this word a chief, or him that NEAPOLIS, in /Indent Geography, a city of the
is honoured. Calmet thinks that this was a term of Higher Egypt, in the Nomos Panopolitanus, between
dignity in the courts of eaftern princes, and that at this Thebae to the fouth, and Panopolis to the north, on
day in the court of Perlia the word Nazir fignifies the the eaft fide of the Nile } otherwife called Cacene. A
5 A 2 fecond
t
NEC
Neapolis fecond Neapolis of Babylonia, fituated near
‘1 phrates on the fouth fide.—A third of Campania, an an-
r y 1 y' cient town and a colony from Cumae. See Velleius,
Pliny, Strabo) •, accounted a Greek city, and a great
ftickler for Greek ufages, (See Livy, Tacitus). Its
hot baths were in nothing interior to thofe of Baige, ac¬
cording to Strabo : at two miles diftance from it {lands
the monument of Virgil, held in religious veneration
by learned pofterity. The Younger Pliny relates, that
Virgil’s birth day was more religioufly obferved by Si-
lius Italicus than his own, efpecially at Naples, where
he reforted to his tomb as to a temple. The city is
waflied by the river Sebethus. Virgil feigns the nymph
Sebethis to prefide over the ftream. Now Naples, ca¬
pital of the kingdom of that name. See Naples.—-
A fourth, Neapoiis of Caria, near the - Meander,
(Ptolemy).— A fifth, an inland town of Cyrenaica,
fituated between Ptolemais and Arfinoe, (Ptolemy) j
and to be diitinguifiied from the Caenopdfis, or Nea¬
polis, on the eaft border of the fame province, (id.)
A fixth of Ionia, (Strabo) j which belonged firft to
the Ephefians, but afterwards to the Samians, who
exchanged Marathefium, a more diftant city, for a
nearer.—A feventh, Neapolis of Macedonia Adje61a,
fituated at the diftance of I 2 miles to the eaft of Phi¬
lippi, (Antonine).— An eighth, Neapolis of Pifidia,
on the borders of Galatia, fituated between Amblada
and Pappa, (Ptolemy).—A ninth of Samaria, the
ancient Sichem, which fee ; for called upon its reftora-
tion by the Romans,' (Coin, Pliny, Jofepbus).— A
tenth of Sardinia, fituated ©n the fouth-weft fide of
the ifland, 30 miles to the north of Metalla ; now
called Neapoli.—An eleventh, of the Regio Syrtica,
called alfo Leptis.—A twelfth, of Zeugitana on the
Mediterranean, to the eaft of Clypea, and fouth of the
Promontorium Mercurii.
NEAT, or Afif Weight, the weight of a commo¬
dity alone, clear of the cafk, bag, cale, or even filth.
See Net.
NEB EL, or Nablum, a mufical inftrumeRt among
the Jews. See Nablum.
NEBIO, or Nebbio, a ruined city of Italy, on the
north fide of the^ifland of Corfica, with a bifhop’s fee,
wkofe bifltop refides at San Fiorenzo, from which it is
a mile diftant.
NEBO, in Ancient Geography, a very high moun¬
tain, a part of the mountains of Abarim, and their
higheft top, whither Mofes w7as ordered to afeend to
take a view of the land of Canaan, and there die. Si¬
tuated in the land of Moab over againft Jericho : with
a cognominal town at its foot (Ifaiab) belonging to the
Reubenites, which afterwards returned to the Moabites*,
in Jerome’s time defolate 5 eight mixes to the fouth of
Hefhbon.
Nebo, or Naho. See Nabo.
NEBUCHADNEZZAR. See NabuchadneZ*
ZAR. '
.NEBULY, or Nebulee, in Heraldry, is when a
coat is charged with feveral little figures, in form of
words running within one another, or when the out¬
line of a bordure, ordinary, &c. is indented or waved.
NECESSITY, whatever is done by a caufe or
power that is irrefiftible j in which fenfe it is oppofed
to freedom. Man is a neceffary agent, if all his affions
fo determined by the caufes preceding each aft ion,
F 74° ] NEC
the Eu- that not one part a£Hon could poflibly not have come Neceffity.
to pafs, or have been otherwife than it hath been j nor v J
one future aftion can poflibly not come to pafs, or be
otherwife than it {hall be. But he is a free agent,
if he be able, at any time, under the circumftances and
caufes he then is, to do different things $ or, in other
words, if he be not unavoidably determined in every
point of time, by the circumftances he is in, and the
caufes he is under, to do that one thing he does, and
not pofiiMy to do any other thing. Whether man is
a neceffary or a free agent, is a queftion which has
been debated with much ingenuity by writers of the firft
eminence, from Hobbes and Clarke, to Prieftley and
Gregory. See Metaphysics, Part HI. chap. v. and
Predestination.
Necessity, in My tlx* logy, a * power fuperior to all
other powers, and equally irrefiftible by gods and by
men. Herodotus, as he is quoted by Cudworth, men¬
tions an oracle which declared that “ God himfelf could
not fhun his deftined fate.” And among the fragments
of Philemon colle&ed by Le Clerc, is the following
fentence :
AovMi Sctriteav to-pw, oi fiatrtXits diuv, 0 Use; eevetyxy;;.
“ We are fubjeft to kings, kings to the gods, and
God to Neceflity.” Hence it is, that, in the Iliad, we
find Jove himfelf, the fire of gods and men, regretting
that he was reftrained by NeceJJity from refeuing his
favourite fon from the fw7ord of Patroclus. Nay to
fuch a height was .this impiety carried in the earlieft
ages of Greece, that we find Hefiod and Homer teach¬
ing that the gods themfelves were generated by Necef-
Jity, of Night and Chaos.
This power, though always reprefented as blind and
unintelligent, was howrever worftfipped as a goddefs,
bearing in her hand large iron nails, wedges, anchors,
and melted lead*, as emblems of the inflexible feve-* Horace.,
rity of her nature. “ In the city of Corinth flie had hE
a temple, in wdiich the goddefs Violence likewife re- *J5*
fided, and into which no perfon was ever permitted to
enter but the prieft who officiated in facris f
Learned men have exercifed their ingenuity \n \ Paufanias
vain attempts to trace this portentous notion to its y1 Corinth.
origin. Some, who wiftied to interpret it in a pious caP' 1V*
fenfe, have fuppofed that the gods who are fubjeft
to NeceJJity were only thofe w'ho were the miniflers of
the fupreme numen; and that by itfelf was meant
nothing more than divine providence. But this is not
confiftent with Hefiod and Homer’s Generation of the
Gods, or with the epithets Java necejjitas, dura necejji-
tas, by which this power w-as perpetually diftinguifhed.
Others, and among them Mofheim, have fuppofed that
this monftrous fable was invented by the Pagan priefts,
and diligently inculcated upon the minds of the people,
in order t© excufe the villanies of the obje&s of their
worlhip. For, fays he, who could be indignant at
Jupiter’s numberlefs adulteries, after it was known that
in all his a£Hons he was the fervant of blind Neceffity :
In the thefts of Mercury, the whoredoms of Venus,
and the frequent fquabbles of the other gods, there
could be no moral turpitude, if they were under the { Martial..
influence of a fuperior power. frJW'an!l
r r Jib. ix. Ns
Numina cum vide as duris ohnoxia fatis, 88 • E(*'
Invidia pjfis exonerare deqs J.
This *
Amftel.
NEC [ 74i ] NEC
Kcceflity. This account of the matter is at leaft as plaufifele as
v_"' any other which is ufually given j but the real cafe
undoubtedly was, that when men “ did not like to re¬
tain God in their knowledge, God gave them over to
a reprobate mind to do thofe things which are not con¬
venient ; when their foolifli heart was darkened, and
profefling thetnfelves to be wife, they became fools.”
See Parc^e.
Nfxessity, in Law, as it implies a defeat of will,
escufes from the guilt of crimes. See Crime.
Comjmljion and inevitable necejjily are a conftraint up¬
on the will, whereby a man is urged to do that which
his judgement difapproves j and which, it is to be pre¬
fumed, his will (if left to itfelf) would reje&. As
punifhments are therefore only inflidled for the abufe
of that free will which God has given to man, it is
highly juft and equitable that a man Ihould be excufed
for thofe a&s which are done through unavoidable
force and compulfion.
I. Of this nature, in the firft place, is the obliga¬
tion of civil fubjcBion, whereby the inferior is con-
ftrained by the fuperior to a£l contrary to what his
own reafon and inclination would fuggeft : as when
a legiflator eftablifhes iniquity by a law, and com¬
mands the fubjedt to do an adl contrary to religion or
found morality. How far this excufe will be admitted
m foro confcientice, or whether the inferior in this, cafe
is not bound to ©bey the divine rather than the hu¬
man law, it is not our bufinefs to decide; though,
among the cafuifts, it is believed the queftipn will
hardly bear a doubt. But, however that may be,
obedience to the laws in being is undoubtedly a fuffi-
cient extenuation of civil guilt before the municipal
tribunal. 'J* e Iheriff who burnt Latimer and Ridley,
in the bigotttd days of Queen Mary, w^as not liable to
punifhment from Elizabeth for executing fo horrid an
office ; being juftified by the commands of that ma-
giftracy wdnch endeavoured to reftore Superftitipn, un¬
der the holy aufpices of its mercilefs fifter, Perfecu-
tion.
As to perfons in private relations, the principal
cafe where conftraint of a fuperior is allowed as an
excufe for criminal mifcondudl, is with regard to the
matrimonial fubjedlion of the wife to her hufhand :
for neither a fon nor a ferVant are excufed for the com-
miffion of any crime, whether capital or otherwife, by
the command or coercion of the parent or mafter •,
though in fome cafes the command or authority of
the hufband, either exprefs or implied, will privilege
the wife from punifhment, even from capital offences.
And therefore, if a woman commit thefr, burglary, or
other civil offences againft the lawrs of fcciety, by the
coercion of her hufhand, or even in his company,
which the law conftrues a coercion, {he is not guilty
of any crime ; being confidered as adting by compul¬
fion, and not of her own will. This dodlrine is at
leaft: 1000 years old in this kingdom, being to be
found among the laws of King Ina the Weft Saxon.
And it appears, that among the northern nations on
the continent, this privilege extended to any woman
tranfgrefllng in concert with a man, and to any fervant
that committed a joint offence with a freeman; the
male or freeman only was puniftied, the female or Have
difmiffed $ procul dubio quod alterum libertas, alterum
necejjitas impelleret. But (befides that, in our law,
which is a ftranger to flavery, no impunity is given to Neceffity.
fervants, who are as much free agents as their mafters)
even with regard to wives, this rule admits of an ex¬
ception in crimes that are mala in fe, and prohibited
by the law of nature j as murder, and the like : not
only becaufe thefe are of a deeper dye, but alfo, fince
in a ftate of nature no one is in fubjedlion to another,
it would be unreafonable to fereen an offender from
the puniftiment due to natural crimes, by the refine¬
ments and fubordinations of civil fociety. In treafon
alfo (the higheft crime which a member of fociety
can, as fuch, be guilty of), no plea in coverture ffiall
excufe the wife ; no prefumption of the hufband’s
coercion ffiall extenuate her guilt : as well becaufe of
the odioufnefs and dangerous ccnfequence of the crime
itfelf, as becaufe the huffiand, having broken through
the moft facred tie of focial community by rebellion a-
gainft the ftate, has no right to that obedience from a
wife, which he himfelf as a fubjeft has forgotten to pay.
In inferior mifdemeanours alfo, we may remark another
exception, that a wife may be indicted and fet in the
pillory with her huffiand, for keeping a brothel : for
this is'an offence touching the domeftic economy or go¬
vernment of the houfe, in which the wife has a princi¬
pal {hare ; and is alfo fuch an offence as the law pre¬
fumes to be generally conduced by the intrigues of the
female fex. And in all cafes where the wife offends
alone, without the company or coercion of her huffiand,
ftie is refponfible for her offence as much as any femme-
foie.
2. Another fpecies of compulfion or neceffity is what
our law calls durefs per minas ; or threats and menaces,
which induce a fear of death or other bodily harm, and
which take away for that reafon the guilt of many
crimes and mifdemeanors, at leaft before the human
tribunal. But then that fear which compels a man to
do an unwarrantable aftion ought to be juft and well-
grounded } fuch,. “ qui cadere pojjit in virum conjlan-
tem, non timidum et meticulofum,'1'1 as Braclon expreffes
it, in the words of the civil law. Therefore, in time
of war or rebellion, a man may be . juftified in doing
many treafonable afts by compulfion of the enemy or
rebels, which would admit of no excufe in the time of
peace. This, however, feems only, or at leaft principal¬
ly, to hold as to pofitive crimes, fo created by the laws
of fociety, and which therefore fociety may excufe ; but, ,
not as to natural offences, .fo declared by the law of
God, wherein human magiftrates are only the execu¬
tioners of divine puniffiment. And therefore though a
man be violently affaulted, and hath no other poffible
means of efcaping death but by killing an innocent per-
fon, this fear and force ffiall not acquit him of murder ;
for he ought rather to die himfelf than efeape by the
murder of an innocent. But in fuch a cafe he is per¬
mitted to kill the affailant j for there the law of nature,
and felf-defence its primary canon, have made him his
own proteclor.
3. There is a third fpecies of neceffity, which may
be diftinguifhed from the aftual compulfion of exter¬
nal force orTear; being, the refult of reafon and reflec-,
tion, which aft upon and conftrain ,3 man’s will, and
oblige him to do an aftion which without fuch obli¬
gation would be criminal. And that is, when a man
has his choice of two evils fet before him, and, being,
under a neqeffity of choofing one, he choofes- the leaft.
pernicious. .
f
NEC [ 742 ] NEC
Neccffity pernicious of the two. Here the will cannot be faid
v ' freely to exert itfelf, being rather paffive than adlive j
or, if adfive, it is rather in rejtdling the greater evil
than in choofirig the lefs. Of this fort is that necef-
lity, where a ’man by the commandment of the law is
bound to arreft another for any capital oflence, or to
tlifperfe a riot, and refiftance is made to his authority :
it is here juflifiable, and even neceflary, to beat, to
wound, or perhaps to kill, the offenders, rather than
permit the murderer to efcape, or the riot to conti¬
nue. For the prefervation of the peace of the king¬
dom, and the apprehending of notorious malefadlors,
are of the utmoft confequence to the public ; and
therefore excufe the felony, which the killing would
otherwife amount to.
4. There is yet another cafe of neceffity, which has
occafioned great fpeculation among the writers upon
general law; viz. whether a man in extreme want of
food or clothing may juftify ftealing either, to relieve
his prefent neceffities. x And this both Grotius and
Puffendorff, together with many other of the foreign
jurilfs, hold in the affirmative ; maintaining by many
ingenious, humane, and plauffble reafons, that in fuch
cafes the community of goods, by a kind of tacit con-
ceflion of fociety, is revived. And fome even of our
lawyers have held the fame ; though it feems to be an
unwarranted doflrine, borrowed from the notions of
fome civilians ; at leall it is now antiquated, the law of
England admitting no fuch excufe at prefent. And
this its doftrine is agreeable not only to the fentiments
of many of the wifeft ancients, particularly Cicero,
■who holds, That fuum cinque incommcdum fercndum ej},
potius quam de alterius commodis detrahendum ; but alfo
to the Jewilh law, as certified by King Solomon him-
felf : “ If a thief fteal to fatisfy his foul when he is
hungry, he (hall reffore fevenfold, and fliall give all
the fubftance of his houfe which was the ordinary
puni/hment for theft in that kingdom. And this is
founded upon the higheft reafon : for men’s properties
would be under a ftrange iniecurity, if liable to be in¬
vaded according to the w’ants of others j of w'hich
wants no man can poflibly be an adequate judge but
the party himfelf who pleads them. In England
efpecially, there would be a peculiar impropriety in
admitting fo dubious an abufe : for by the laws fuch
futhcient provifion is made for the poor by the power of
the civil magiilrate, that it is impoffible that the molt
needy flranger ftiould ever be reduced to the ndcefllty
of thieving to fupport nature. The cafe of a Ikanger
is, by the way, the fircngeft inftance put to Baron
Puffendorff, and whereon he builds his principal ar¬
guments : which, however they may hold upon the
continent, where the parfimonious indufiry of the
natives orders every one to work or ftarve, yet muff:
lofe all their weight and efficacy in England, where
charity is reduced to a fyftem, and interwoven in jour
very conftitution. Therefore our law’s ought by no
means to be taxed with being unmerciful, for denying
- this privilege to the neceflitous j eipecially w’hen wTe
confider, that the king, on the reprefentation of his
miniffers of juftice, hath a power to foften the law,
and to extend mercy in cafes of peculiar hardfhip. An
advantage which is wanting in many ftates, parti¬
cularly thofe which are democratical : and thefe have
■jn its dead introduced and adopted, in the body of
4
the law itlelf, a multitude of circumftances tending to Neclio,
alleviate its rigour. But the founders of our conltitu- Neck-
tion thought it better to veft in the crown the pow’er of v~™
pardoning particular objedls of compaffion, than to
countenance and effablifli theft by one general undittin-
guiffiing law.
NECHO, king of Egypt, began his reign 690 B. C.
and was killed eight years after by Sabacon king of
Ethiopia. Pfammiticus his fon fucceeded him, and
was the father, as Herodotus informs us, of Necho II.
who reigned in the 616 B. C. This Necho II. is ce¬
lebrated in hiffory for attempting, though in vain, to
cut a canal from the Nile to the Arabian gulf. He
carried his arms as far as the Euphrates, and con¬
quered the city of Carchemifh. This prince is not only
known in Scripture under the name of Necho, but alio
in profane hiftory. He no fooner fucceeded to the
crown than he raifed great land armies, and fitted out
vaft fleets, as w’ell upon the Mediterranean as upon the
Red Sea : he gave battle to the Syrians near the city
of Migdol j routed them, and made himfelf mafter
of the city of Cadytis. The learned, however, are not
agreed about this city Cadytis. Some will have it to
be Cades in Arabia Petraea, others Jerufalem ; and
others fay it is the city of Cedes, or Kedeih, in Galilee,
in the tribe of Naphtali.
The Scriptures acquaint us ivith the whole expedi¬
tion of Necho in all its particulars, 2 King xxiii. 29.
&c. and 2 Chr. xxxv. 20, 21, &c. In the year of the
wmrld 3394, this prince having drawn out his army
into the field to make wrar wfith the Affyrians or Ba¬
bylonians, and to take the city of Carchemiffi, other-
wife called Circujium, upon the Euphrates, Jofiah king
of Judah, who was a tributary to the king.of Babylon,
marched to oppofe his paffage. Necho, who had no
defigns againft him, font to tell him, “ What have I to
do with you, king of Judah ? It is not againft you that
I am come forth, but againft another people, againft:
w'hom the Lord has commanded me to make war.
Leave off therefore to fet yourfelf againft me for fear
the Lord (hould punilh you for your refiftance.” But
Jofiah w’ould not hearken to the remonftrances of Ne¬
cho, but gave him battle at Megiddo, where he receiv¬
ed the w7ound of which he died. The people of Je¬
rufalem fet up Jehoahaz for king of Judah, and Necho
foon paffed forwards, without making any longer ftay
in Judea.
But at his return from his expedition, which was
very fuccefsful, he halted at Riblah in Syria ; and
fending for Jehoahaz king of the Jews, he depofed
him, loaded him with chains, and fent him into
Egypt. Then coming to Jerufalem, he fet up Elia-
kim, or Jehoiakim, in his place, and exacted the pay¬
ment of 100 talents of filver and one talent of gold
from the country. Jeremiah (xlvi. 2.) acquaints us,
that the city of Carchemiffi was taken from Necho by
Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, in the fourth year
of Jehoiakim king of Judah *, fo that Necho did not
enjoy his conqueft above four years. Jofephus adds,
that the king of Babylon purfuing his victory, brought
under his dominion all the country which is between
the Euphrates and Egypt, excepting Judea. Thus
Necho was again reduced within the limits of his own
country.
NECK, in Anatomy, is the {lender part fituated be¬
tween
1
NEC
Necrollum tween the head and trunk of the body. See Ana-
11 TOMY.
NECROLIUM, a word ufed by forne of the alche-
^ mical writers to exprefs a remedy almoft always car
pable of averting death, and continuing life to its ut-
moft period.
NECROLOGY, necro/ogium, formed of vtKgos,
“ dead,” and Aeyos, “ difcourfe or enumeration,” a
book anciently kept in churches and monafteries,
wherein were regiftered the benefa&ors of the fame,
the time of their deaths, and the days of their cdmme-
[ 743 1
NEC
were never more to behold the light. In Egypt, many N^cromar,-
of thofe fubterraneous cavities, being dugout iaf the na- c>’-
tural rock, ftill remain, and command the admiration ' v
of travellers j and near to the pyramids in particular
_ there are fome apartments of a wonderful fabric, which
though they extend in length 4400 feet, and are about
30 feet in depth, appear to have been, if not entirely
dug, at lead reduced to form by the chifel or pickaxe
of the artill.
From the practice of burying in fuch caverns fprung
the opinion that the infernal manlions were fituated
moration j as alfo the deaths of the priors, abbots,^ fomewhere near the centre of the earth, which by the
religious, canons, &c. This was otherwife called ca-
tender and obituary.
NECROMANCY, the art of revealing future events
by a pretended communication with the dead.
This fuperflitious and impious impofture appears
to have had its origin at a very early period in Egypt,
and to have been thence propagated in every nation
with the manners of which hiftory has made us ac¬
quainted. The conquefts of Sefoftris might intro¬
duce it into India j the Ifraelites would naturally bor¬
row it from the people among whom they fojourned
400 years; and it would eafily find its way into Phoe¬
nicia, from the vicinity of that country to the land of
its nativity. From the Egyptians and Phoenicians
it was adopted, with the other rites of paganifm, by
the Greeks ; and it was imported into Rome with
Grecian literature and Grecian manners. It was not
however confined to the pagan nations of antiquity :
it fpread itfelf through all the modern nations of Eu¬
rope, and took fuch deep rcot as to be long retained
even after thofe nations were converted to the Chriftian
faith.
Of its early antiquity we have complete evidence
in the writings of Mofes, where it is feverely con-
. demned as an abomination to the Lord * ; and though
it appears to have been even then fpread into Phceni-
* 1, tz. c;a> we might yet conclude its birth-place to have
been Egypt, becaufe, at their exody, the Ifraelites were
corrupted only by Egyptian fuperllitions, and becaufe
necromancy leems to be one of thofe whoredoms
which the prophet Ezekiel reprefents his countrymen
as having brought with them from Egypt, and con¬
tinued to pradtife till they were carried captives into
Babylon.
If from facred we proceed to confult profane authors,
we Ihall find them not only affirming Egypt to have
been the birthplace of necromancy, but in fome degree
accounting for the origin of fo impious a delufion.
2. ^'rom Diodorus the Sicilian f we learn, that the Gre¬
cian fable of Charon the ferryman of hell, of Styx, Co-
cytus, the Elysian Fields, Tartarus, the judgement of
Minos and Rhadamanthus, &c. with the whole fcenery
of the infernal regions, rvere imported from Egypt into
Greece. The ancient Egyptians, and indeed all the
people of. the eaft, made ufe of caves for burying places,
which were well fuited to the folemn fadnefs of the fur-
viving friends, and proper receptacles for thofe wno
* Deut.
xviii. iq,
Egyptians was believed to be not very diftant from its
furface In thefe dreary manfions, it was very eafy $ Bryant's
for fuch adepts as the prielts of Egypt to fabricate Ere- Analyfu of.
bus, Tartarus, the Elyfian Fields, and all thofe fcenes Mytbology-
which were difplayed before the initiated (fee Myste¬
ries), and by them defcnbed to the million of the peo¬
ple. As it was in thofe dark abodes that necromancy
was praftifed, it would be no difficult matter for fuch
magicians as withftood Mofes to impofe fo far upon the
credulous vulgar, as to make them believe, that in con-
fequence of their invocations they aftually faw the
ghofts of their friends afcend out of the earth. It ap¬
pears from the book of Exodus, that the Ifraelitiffi wo¬
men were, even in the wildernefs, well acquainted with
the ufe of the mirror, which was therefore undoubted¬
ly known to the Egyptians. But a mirror of a parti¬
cular form and properly illuminated at the inftant re¬
quired, might eafily be made to reflect, in a cavern
from which all other light was carefully excluded, the
image of the deceafed, who was called upon by the ne¬
cromancer ; and we can readily conceive, that with re~
fpect to the queition to be propofed, a perfon might
be concealed, prepared to give fuch ambiguous anlwers
as would fatisfy the inquirer, and at the fame time fave
the credit of the oracle. The terrified imaginations
of the fpedlators would aid the delufion, and make a
very flight refemblance pafs for the gholt or of
their departed friend 5 or the necromancer might affign
plaufible reafons vVhy a fpectre, after having dwelt for
fome time in the infernal regions, ffiould lofe fomething
of its refemblance to the body which it animated. Such
juggling tricks, though performed by artifts lefs accom-
pliihed than Jannes and Jambres, have gained credit
among people much more enlightened than the Egyp¬
tians can poffibly have been when the fcience of necro¬
mancy was invented by their priefts.
That the Ifraelites, notwithilanding the prohibition
of their legiflator, continued to pra&ife the rites of ne¬
cromancy, is apparent from Saul’s tranfa&ion with the
witch of Endor (fee Magic). From the fame tranf-
aftion, it is likewife apparent that the witches of Ifrael,
and therefore in all probability the necromancers of E-
gypt, pretended to evocate the ghofts of the dead by a
demon or familiar fpirit, which they had at their com¬
mand to employ upon every emergency. This demon
was called OB j and therefore Saul deiires his fervants
to find him a woman who was miftrefs of an OB (a).
It
(a) The original, or radical, fignification of this word occurs in Job xxxii. ver. 19.; where EHhu compares
his belly to new bottles, which he calls oboth, the plural of ob. But as bottles were then made of leather, new
bottles filled with wine and ready to burft, as Elihu defcribes them, would of courfe be of a form nearly globu--
lar.
NEC
Necromaii- It is probable that tbofe wretched impoftors bad in
, cy‘ their pay fome perfons who occafionally afted the
part of the demon, and when the execution of the
plot required their agency, emitted, by means of a
cavity dug for that purpofe, a low hollow voice from
below the ground. Hence we find Ilaiah, in his de-
f Chap. nunciations againfi: Ariel f, faying, “ Thou ihalt be
xxix. 4. brought down, and (halt fpeak out of the ground 5 and
thy fpeech (hall be low out of the dud, and thy voice
(hall be as of one that hath a familiar fpirit (an ob) out
of the ground, and thy fpeech {hall whifper out of the
.duft.”
But though the Egyptian priefts were undoubtedly
the inventors of the whole myilery of necromancy, and
though it was from them imported into Greece by the
Selli or priefts of Dodona, it does not appear that the
Grecian necromancers pretended to be mafters of OBS
or familiar fpirits. Mopfus, Orpheus, Linus, Eumol-
pus, &c. who-either travelled into Egypt in queft of
knowledge, or were adlually natives of that country, in-
ftrudied the early Greeks in this occult fcience : but
■whatever might be the practice of thefe apoftles them-
felves, their difciples profeffed to do all the feats of ma¬
gic by performing certain rites, by offering certain fa-
crifices, by muttering a certain form of words, by
charms, fpells, and exorcifms. By thefe they pretend¬
ed to evocate the dead as certainly as the Egyptians
and Jews did by their familiar fpirits. By a fmall dif-
play of critical learning this might be eafily proved
from the popular ftory of Orpheus and Eurydice, which
certainly was founded on one of thefe necromantic de¬
ceptions exhibited in a cave near Dodona, where the
priefts had a hades or infernal manfton, in humble imi¬
tation of thofe with which the firft of them were well
acquainted in Egypt. It is indeed evident, without
the aid of criticifm : no man of any letters is ignorant,
that whatever fuperftitions of. this kind prevailed among
the Romans were bornwved from the Greeks. But we
all know that Virgil makes one of his fhepherds, by
means of certain herbs, poifons, and fenfelefs charms,
raife up ghofts from the bottoms of their graves j and
Lucan has fabricated a ftory of this kind, which may
be confidered as an exarft parallel to the witch of En-
} Lib. vi. d01-* Juft before the battle of Pharfalia he makes f
ver. 57©.ct young Pompey travel by night to a Theffalian forcerefs,
feq- and anxioufty inquire of her the ilfue of the wrar. This
female necromancer, by a tedious procefs of charms and
incantations, conjures up the ghoft of a foldier who had
been lately fiain. The phantom, after a long preamble,
denounces a predi&ion much of the fame kind with that
which.the king of Ifrael received from Samuel at En-
dor) and though w7e have elfewhere (hown, that no¬
thing but the fpirit of God could have forefeen the in¬
evitable deftrudfion of Saul, his fons, and his army (fee
NEC
Magic), it was very eafy for any man of tolerable fa-Necromaa-
gacity to forefee the defeat of Pompey’s raw and undif- , cy
ciplined troops by the hardy veterans of the viftorious v
Csefar.
It would be endlefs to enumerate all the fallacious
evocations of ghofts, and 'the ambiguous refponfes re¬
turned by thofe pretended fpirits, of which we have
accounts from the poets and hiftorians of the celebrated
nations of antiquity. We (hall therefore proceed to
mention a few which occur in the fabulous hiftory of
more modern nations, and then leave the fubjedl to the
^meditation of our readers. In Mallet’s Northern An¬
tiquities, we have the following account of a necroman¬
tic exploit, between wftlich, and the defeent of the an¬
cient heroes into hell, it is impoflible not to remark a
ftriking fimilitude.
“ Odin the fovereign of man arifes. He faddles his
horfe Sleipner j he mounts, and is conveyed to the fub-
terraneous abode of He/a. The dog which guards the
gates of death meets him. His breaft and his jaws are
ftaindd with blood. He opens his voracious mouth to
bite, and barks a long time at the father of magic.
Odin purfues his way *, and the infernal cavern refounds
and trembles under his horfe’s hoofs. At length he
reaches the deep abode of death, and flops near the
eaftern gate, where (lands the tomb of the prophetefs.
He fings with a voice adapted to call up the dead ; he
looks towards the. world •, he engraves Runic charadters
on her tomb ; he utters myfterious words *, and he de¬
mands an anfwer, until the prophetefs is conftrained to
arife and thus utter the words of the dead.—“ Who is
this unknown that dares to difturb my repofe, and
drag me from the grave, in which I have been dead fo
long, all covered with fnowq and moiftened with the
rains ?” &c.
The Gaelib druids pretended to be mafters of tire
fame fecret. This is evident from the name of a fpecies
of divination, not uncommon among the Scotch High¬
landers fo lately as in the beginning of the 18th cen¬
tury. By a gentleman excellently verfed in the anti¬
quities of that people, and a fteady friend to the writer
of this article, we have been informed, that not many
years ago fome of the Highlanders relied implicitly up¬
on certain oracular refponfes, called in their language
taghairm. This word feems to be compounded o^ ta,
which in fome parts of the Highlands is ftill ufed to
denote a fpirit or ghoft, and ghairm, which fignifies
calling upon or invoking. Taghairm, therefore, in its
original import, is necromancy in the moft proper fenfe
of that word.
There were different kinds of taghairm, of which one
was very lately praftifed in Skye. The diviner covered
himfelf with a cow’s hide, and repaired at night to
fome deep-founding cave, whither the perfon who con-
fulted
[ 744 ]
lar. Hence it may be inferred that the original import of ob was round ox globular : but b and p being labials,
are often changed into each other *, and therefore, from the Hebrew ob is derived the Greek tip, oculus, tyfloy-xi,
video, and the Latin ops, a name under which the earth was worftnpped. was a name of Diana or the
moon : the father of one of the Dianas was likewife XJpis ; but this Upis was undoubtedly the fun. Now the dif¬
ference between upis and opis is nothing •, hence we are led to believe, that as they are all derived from ob, this
word was employed by the early idolaters of Egypt to denote the firft and greateft of Pagan gods, the fun. If fo,
thofe wretches who pretended to be miftreffes of obs, were exaftly the fame kind of impoftors with the Pythonef-
fes of the Greeks.
3
NEC r 745 1 NEC
Necroman-fulted him followed foon after without any attendants.
cy- At the mouth of the cave he propofed aloud the quef-
i.._n yr—— tjons wl)jc}1 he wanted folutions ; and the man with¬
in pronounced the refponfes in a tone of voice fimilar to
that with which the OBS, or pretended demons of anti¬
quity, gave from beneath the ground their oracular an-
fwers. That in the latter days of iaghairm, the Gaelic
diviners pretended to evocate ghofts, and from them to
extort folutions of difficulties propofed, we have no po-
fitive evidence •, but that fuch was the original pretence
there can be little doubt, when we refleft either upon
the place wffiere this fpecies of divination was pra&ifed,
or upon the import of the wmrd by which it was deno¬
minated.
As we have been led to mention taghairm, we (hall
beg leave to make a few' obfervations on another fpe¬
cies of it, called taghairm an uifge, or “ taghairm by
water.” This too was laft praftifed in the Ifle of Skye,
by a man of the name of M'Cuidhean, whofe anceflors
had long been famous for the art. He lived near a
beautiful cafcade on a fmall river ; and when confulted
on any matter of confequence, he covered his whole
body with a cow’s hide, that neceffary implement of
Highland divination, and placed himfelf between the
water of the cafcade and the rock over which it flowed.
Then another man with a heavy pole gave repeated
firokes to the water, and the diviner behind it crying
out now' and then in Gaelic, “ Is this a flock of arn ?”
This operation w'as continued till M'Cuidhean was per¬
ceived to be frantic or furious, when he was confidered
ns in^a condition to anfwer the mod important quef-
tions. He was frequently confulted about futurity ;
and though he could not, in the proper fenfe of the
word, be called a necromancer, his refponfes were Ali¬
ened to as proceeding from fomething more than hu¬
man. A degree of frenzy, either real or affedled,
feems to have accompanied the predictions of certain
kinds of diviners in all ages j and we cannot help re¬
marking the fimilarity between the madnefs of M‘Cuid-
hean and that of the Sibyl in the fixth book of the KL-
neid ; though we cannot fuppofe the one to have been
borrowed from the other.
At, Phoehi nondum patiens, immams in antra
Bacchatur votes, magnum Ji pectore pojjit
Excujiffe Deum: tanto magis Hie fatigat
Os rabidum, fera corda damans, Jingitque premendo.
Struggling in vain, impatient of her load,
And lab’ring underneath the pond’rous god ;
The more (lie ftrove to ffiake him from her breaft,
With more and far fuperior force he prefs’d.
Dryden.
That all thefe pretences, whether ancient or modern,
to the power of divination by means of familiar fpirits,
or by the art of necromancy, were groundlefs as w'ell
as impious, it would be affronting the underftandmgs
of our readers to offer any proof. Under the article
Magic we have faid enough on the fubjeCl, and per¬
haps more than enough, to thofe wffio know that de¬
mons, if they have any exiftence, and the departed
fpirits of good and bad men, are all under the controul
of Him who governs the intelledlual as well as material
world by fixed and equal law's.—Thefe details of fuper-
.flition, how'ever, will not be ufejels, if, by fhowiixg
Vol. XIV. Part II.
how poor and wretched a creature man becomes when Necropolis
left to his own inventions, they {hall make any one
grateful for the benefits of good government, and the" ' 1
bleffings of revealed religion.
NECROPOLIS, a fuburb of Alexandria in Egypt.
It fignifies “ the City of the Dead }” wherein there
were temples, gardens, and fuperb maufoleums. Here
Cleopatra is faid to have applied the afpic to her breaft,
to prevent being led in triumph by Auguftus, who en¬
deavoured to fave her.
NECROSIS, viK^ori',, in Medicine, a complete mor¬
tification of any part $ called alfo Jideratio and fpha-
celus.
NECTANEBUS, or Nectanabis, a king of E-
gypt, who defended his country againft the Perfians.
His grandfon of the fame name made an alliance with
Agefilaus king of Sparta, and with his affiftance he
quelled a rebellion of his fubje£ls. Some time after he
was joined by the Sidonians, Phoenicians, and inhabi¬
tants of Cyprus, who had revolted trom the king of
Perfia. This powerful confederacy was foon attacked
by Darius the king of Perfia, who marched at the head
of his troops. Neftanebus, to defend his frontiers a-
gainft fo dangerous an enemy, levied 20,000 mercena¬
ry foldiers in Greece, the fame number in Libya, and
60,000 wrere furniffied in Egypt. This numerous body
was not equal to the Perfian forces, and Neftanebus,
defeated in a battle, gave up all hopes of refiftance,
and fled into Ethiopia, where he found a fafe afylum.
His kingdom of Egypt became from that time tributary
to the king of Perfia.
NECTAR, among ancient poets, the drink of the
fabulous deities of the heathens 5 in cemtradiftinftion
from their folid food, which w’as called ambrojia.
NECTARINE, a fruit differing in nothing from
the common peach, of which it is a fpecies, but in
having a fmoother rind and a firmer pulp. See Per-
SICA.
NECTARIUM, from ne&ar, the fabled “ drink
of the gods j” defined by Linnaeus to be a part of the
corolla, or appendage to the petals, appropriated for
containing the honey, a fpecies of vegetable fait under
a fluid form, that oozes from the plant, and is the prin¬
cipal food of bees and other infedls.
Notwithftanding this definition, which feems to con-
fider the neclarium as neceffary a part of the corolla as
the petals, it is certain that all flowers are not provid¬
ed with this appendage, neither indeed is it effential to
frudftification.
There is, befides, a manifeft impropriety in terming
the nedlarium a part of the corolla. Linnaeus might, ]g[iine'r
with equal propriety, have termed it a part or appen- Bot. Ditt.
dage of the ftamina, calyx, or pointal, as the appear¬
ance in queftion is confined to no particular part of
the flow'er, but is as various in point of fituation as of
form. The truth is, the term nedlarium is exceedingly
vague-j and, if any determinate meaning can be affixed
to it, is expreffive of all the fingularities which are ob-
ferved in the different parts of flowers.
The tube, or lower part of flowers with one petal,
Linnaeus confiders as a true neflarium, becaufe it is
generally found to contain the fweet liquor formerly
mentioned. This liquor Pontedera compares to that
called amnios in pregnant animals, which enters the
fertile or impregnated feeds : but that this is not at
5 B leaft
NEC
Nectarium. leafl its foie ufe, is evident from this circumftance, that
the honey or liquor in queftion is to be found in flowers
where there are either no feeds, or thofe which, from
the want of male organs, cannot be impregnated.
I has the male flowers of nettle and willow, the female
. flowers of fea-fide laurel and black bryony, the male
and female flowers of clutia, kiggelaria, and butcher’s
broom, all abound with the honey or ne&ar alluded
to.
Vaillant was of opinion, that the ne&arium w?as an
eflential part of the corolla ; for which reafon he diftin-
guiflied the Angular appearances in fennel flower and
columbine by the name of petals: the coloured leaves
which are now termed the petals he denominates the
flower cup.
That the ne&arium, however, is frequently diftinft
from the petals, is evident both from the well known
examples juft mentioned, as likewife from the flowers
of monkftiood, hellebore, ifopyrum, fennel flower of
Crete, barremvort, grafs of Parnaffus, chocolate nut,
cherleria, and fauvagefia.
Thefe general obfervations being premifed, w'e pro-
need to take a nearer and more particular view of the
principal diverfities, both in form and fituation, of this
ft l iking appendage to the flower, i. In many flowers
the ne&arium is fliaped like a fpur or horn 5 and that
either in flowers of one petal, as valerian, water mil¬
foil (utricularia), butterwort, and calves-fnout ; or in
fuch as have more than one, as larkfpur, violet, fumi¬
tory, balfam, and orchis. 2. In the following plants,
the neftarium is properly a part of the corolla, as ly¬
ing within the fubftance of the petals : ranunculus,
lily, iris, crown imperial, water leaf, moufe tail, ana¬
nas or pine apple, dog’s-tooth violet, piperidge buih,
Valiifneria, hermannia, uvularia, and fwertia. 3. The
neflarium is frequently placed in a feries or row with¬
in the petals, though entirely unconnefted with their
lubftance. In this fituation it often refembles a cup,
as in narciflus. A neclarium of this kind is faid by
Tinnaeus to crown the corolla. The following are ex¬
amples : daffodil, fea daffodil, campion, vifeous cam-,
pion, fwallow-wOrt, ftapelia, cynanchum, nepenthes,
cherleria, balfara-tree, African fpiraea, witch-hazel, olax,
and paftion-flower. 4. In Indian-crefs, buckler, muf-
tard, Barbadoes cherry, and monotropa, the neftarium
is fituated upon or makes part of the calyx. 5. The
neftarium in baftard flower-fence is feated upon the an-
therse or tops of the ftamina j whence the name adenan-
thera, or glandular anthera, which has been given to
this genus of plants. In the following lift it is placed
upon the filaments j bean-caper, bay, fraxinella, mar¬
vel of Peru, bell-flower, lead-wmrt, roella, and com-
melina. 6. In hyacinth, flowering-rufh, ftock July
flower, and rocket, the ne&arium is placed upon the
feed-bud. 7. In honey-flower, orpine, buckwheat, col-
linfonia, lathraea, navelwort, mercury, clutia, kiggela¬
ria, fea-fide laurel, and African fpirsea, it is attached
to the common receptacle. Laftly, In ginger, nettle,
dyer’s weed, heart-feed, coftus, turmeric, grewia, ba-
ftard-orpine, vanelloe, fhrew-tree, and willow, the nec-
tarium is of a very lingular conftrudlion, and cannot
properly fall under any of the foregoing heads.
In difcriuiinating the genera, the nedarium often
furnifhes an effential charader.
Plants which have the nedarium dxftind from the.
[ 746 ]
NEE
petals, that is, not lodged within their fubftance, ar
affirmeu by Linnaeus to be generally poifonous. The
following are adduced as examples : inonkfhood,
lebore, columbine, fennel-flower, grafs of Pam. 
barren-wort, oleander, marvel of Peru, bean-caper, fuc
culent fwallow-wort, fraxinella, and honey-flower.
rvECUlA, in Botany, a name given by the ancient
Greeks to a fpecies of mullein.
The Greeks and Romans both ufed the ftalks of a
peculiar kind of mullein, called thryallis by Nicander.
For the making of wicks of lamps we have a kind of
mullein called lychnites, and candle-wick mullein, from
the of Uiofcorides j but it is not certain that
ours is the fame plant.
^ I he ancients uied the ftalks of many different plants
for the wicks of their candles and lamps. The ruih,
ftripped of its bark, was as commonly in ufe with them
as with us for this purpole ; and they alfo ufed the net¬
tle, this mullein, and many other plants, whofe ftalks
were compofed of tough filaments, for the fame pur-
pofe 5 beating them out like hemp, and when dry dip¬
ping them in melted refin, and other fuch inflammable
Jubilances. When thus prepared, they are readily in¬
flammable, like our flambeau ; and this mullein, hav¬
ing ftalks more long and large, and more firm than all
the others, was u!ed to make thole lights with which
they let fire to the funeral pile, for confuming the alhes
of their dead friends.
^<FC\ LA LIS, a genus of infecls belonging to the
order of coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
NEEDHAM, John Juberville, was born at Lon¬
don the 10th of September in the year 1713. His
parents were defeended from ancient and noble fami¬
lies. His father, who had once pofieffed a confiderable
patrimony at Hilfton, in the county of Monmouth,
was of the younger and Catholic branch of the Need¬
ham family : the head of the elder and Proteftant
branch was Lord Kilmory, created vifeount in the year
1623- J lie father of Mr Needham died young, and
left but a fmall fortune to his four children. His
eldeft fon, who is the lubjedl of this article, profecut-
ed his ftudies under the fecular clergy of the Englilh
college of Douay, where he took orders, taught rhe¬
toric for feveral years, gave eminent proofs of fagacity
and genius, and furpaffed all the other profefi'ors of
that feminary in the knowledge of experimental phi-
lofophy. In I74°> l’6 was engaged by his fuperiors
in the fervice of the Englilh miffion, and was intruft-
ed with the direftion of the fchool eroded at Twy-
ford, near Winchefter, for the education of the Ro¬
man Catholic youth. In 1744? he was appointed
profeffor of philofophy in the Englilh college ‘at Lif-
bon, where, on account of his bad health, he remain¬
ed oniy 13 months. After his return, he paffed feve¬
ral years at London and Paris, which were principally
employed in microfcopical obfervations, and in other
branches of experimental philofophy. The refults of
thefe obfervations and experiments were publilhed in
the Philofophical Tranfadions of the Royal Society
of London in x 749> and a volume in 12mo at Pa¬
ris in 1750 j and an account of them was alfo given
by M. de Buffon, in the firft volumes of his Natural
Hifiory. I here was an intimate connexion between
this illuftrious French naturalift and Mr Needham t
they made their experiments and obfervations to¬
gether $
Necula
/
Nee.lham
II
Needle.
NEE
[ 7+7 1
NEE
gether •, though the refults and fytlems which they de¬
duced from the fame objefts and operations were to¬
tally different. Mr Needman was admitted to a place
in the Royal Society of London in tne year iy47)
and in the Antiquarian Society fome time after. From
the year 1751 to 1767 he was chiefly employed in
finilhing the education of feveral Englilh and Iriflt
noblemen, by attending them as tutor in their travels
through France, Italyj and other countries. He then
retired from this wandering lite to the Engiith femi-
nary at Pans, and in was chofen by the Royal
Academy of Sciences in that city a corresponding
member.
When the regency of the Auflrian Netherlands, in
order to the revival of philofophy and hteiature in tnat
country, formed the project of an Imperial academy,
which was preceded by the erection of a fmall liieraiy
fociety to prepare the way for its execution, i.lr IV-ed-
ham w7as invited to Bruilels by Count Cobentzel and
the prefident Neny, and was appointed fucceflively
chief director of both thefe fouraiations. He held
this place, together with fome ecclefiaffical preferments
in the Low Countries, until his death, which happened
the 30th of December 1781. “ His piety, temper¬
ance, and purity of manners (we follow the expreU
flons of the abbe Mann) were eminent : his attach¬
ment to the dofihdnes and duties of Chriftianity was in¬
violable. His zealous oppofition to modern infidels
was indefatigable, and even paffionate. His piooity^
was untainted. He was incapable of every ipecies Oi
duplicity • his beneficence was univerfal, and his un-
fufpicious candour rendered him often a dupe to per-
fidv.” Thefe and other good qualities the panegyrift
attributes to his deceafed friend j and the learned au¬
thors of the Monthly Review, to whom Mr Needham
was known, ad^nit the juftnefs of the panegyric. He
was undoubtedly (fay they), both an honeft man and a
worthy citizen j but though his death be a real lofs to
the literary world, yet he died feafonably for himfelf j
for had he lived to fee Jofeph II. and the Great, ma¬
king fo free with the paint, patches, and trinkets of the
mother church, confifcating her lands, abolifhing her
convents, fupprefhng her holidays, introducing common
fenfe into her worfhip, erefting political condu&ors to
difperfe the thunder of the Vatican, and achieving many
other things in this llyle of improvement, it would have
vexed full fore his feeling heart, a'or this honeft man
was narrow even to fuperftition and bigotry in his reli¬
gious fyftem 5 and we never knew a man in whom there
was fuch an unaccountable mixture of implicit faith
and philofophical curioffty as in Mr Needham. He
was a keen and judicious obferver of nature, had a pe¬
culiar dexterity in confirming his obfervations by expe¬
riments, and he was always occupied (fometimes indeed
with too much fancy and precipitation) in geneializing
fafts, and reducing them to his fyftem. “ His pen
(fays Abbe Mann) was neither remarkable for fecun¬
dity nor method : his writings are rather tue great
lines of a fubjeef expreffed with energy, and thrown
upon paper in a hurry, than finithed treatifes. His
works are well known both in Britain and in France.
Needham, a town in Suffolk, 73 miles from London,
ftands on the Orwell, 9 miles from Ipfwicn, in the road
to Huntingdonfliire.
NEEDLE, a very common little inftrument or uten-
fil made of fteel, pointed at one end, and pierced at the
other, ufed in fewing, embroidery, tapeftry, &c.
Needles make a very conftderable article in com¬
merce, though there is fcarce any commodity cheaper,,
the confumption of them being almoft incredible.
Tee fizes are from N° 1. the largeft, to N° 25, the
fmalleft. In the manufacture of needles, German and
Hungarian fteel is of moft repute.
In the making of them, the firft thing is to pafs the
fteel through a coal fife, and under a hammer, to bring
it out of its fquare figure into a cylindrical one.
This done, it is drawn through a large hole of a wire¬
drawing iron, and returned into the fire, and drawn
through a fecond hole of the iron fmaller than the firft j
and thus fucceffively from hole to hole, till it has ac¬
quired the degree of finenefs required for that fpeeies
of needles j obferring every time it is to be drawn,
that it be greafed over with lard, to render it more
manageable. The fteel thus reduced to a fine wire, is
cut in pieces of the length of the needles intended.
Thefe pieces are flattened at one end on the anvil, in or¬
der to form the head and eye : tncy are then put into
the fire to foften them farther 5 and thence taken out
and pierced at each extreme of Uie flat part on the an¬
vil, by force of a puncheon of well-tempered fteel, and
laid on a leaden block to bring out, with another pun¬
cheon, the little piece of fteel remaining in the eye.
The corners are then filed off the fquare of the heads,
and a little cavity filed on each fide of the flat ot the
head ; this done, the point is formed with a file, and
the whole filed over : they are then laid to heat red-hot
on a long narrow iron, crooked at one end, in a char¬
coal fire ; and when taken out thence, are thrown into
a bafon of cold water to harden. On this operation a
good deal depends •, too much heat burns them, and
too little leaves them foft } the medium is learned by
experience. Vvhen they are thus hardened, they ase
laid in an iron fhovfl, on a fire more or lefs brifk in
proportion to the thicknefs of the needles j taking care
to move them from time to time. This ferves to tem¬
per them, and takeoff their brittlenefs; great caie here
too muft be taken of the degree of heat, i hey are
then ftraightened one after another with the hammer,
the coldnefs of the water ufed in hardening them, having
twifted the greateft part of them.
The next procefs is the poliftiing them. To do this,
they take 12,000 or 15,090 needles, and range them
in little heaps againft each other on a piece of new
buckram fprinkled with emery dull, d he needies thus
difpofed, emery-duft is thrown over them, which is
again fprinkled with oil of olives j at laft the whole is
made up into a roll, well bound at both ends, ihis
roll is then laid on a polifhing table, and over it a thick,
plank loaded with ftones, which two men work back¬
wards and forwards a day and a half, or two days,
fucceflively *, by which means the roll thus continually
agitated by the weight and motion of the plank over
it, the needles withinfide being rubbed againft each
other w'ith oil and emery, are infenfibly polifhed. Af¬
ter polifhing they are taken out, and the filth ivafhed
off them with hot water and foap : they are then wi¬
ped in hot bran, a little moiftened, placed with the
needles in a round box, fufpended in the air by a corfl,
which is kept ftirring till the bran and needles be dry.
The needles thus wiped in two or three different brans,
5 B 2 are
Needle.
NEE r 748 ] NEE
Needle, are taken out and put in wooden veffels, to have the
V ^ good feparated from thofe whofe points or eyes have
been broken either in polifhing or wiping •, the points
are then all turned the lame way, and fmoothed with
an emery Hone turned with a wheel. This operation
finifhes them, -and there remains nothing but to make
them into- packets of £50 each. Needles were firlt
made in England by a native of India, in 1545, but the
art was loft at his death •, it was, however, recovered by
Chriftopher Greening in 1560, who was fettled with
his three children, Elizabeth, John, and Thomas, by
Mr Damar, anceftor of the prefent Lord Milton, at
Long Crendon in Bucks, where the manufaftory has
been carried on from that time to this prelent day.
Plate Difjping-Ne.EDLE, or Inclinatory 'Needle, a magnetical
CCGLXIX. neec}]e) f0 hung, as that, infteadof playing horizontally,
I* and pointing out north and fouth, one end dips, or in¬
clines to the horizon, and the other points to a certain
degree of elevation above it.
The dipping-needle rvas invented in the year 1576,
by one Robert Norman, a compafs-maker at Wapping.
The occafion of the difeovery, according to his own ac¬
count, was, that it being his cuftom to linith and hang
the needles of his compaffes before he touched them, he
always found, that immediately after the touch, the
north-point would bend or incline downward, under the
horizon j infomuch that, to balance the needle again,
he was always forced to put a piece of wax on the fouth
end as a Counterpoife. The conftancy of this effedt
led him at length to obferve the precife quantity of the
dip, or to meafure the greateft angle which the needle
would make with the horizon ; and this at London he
found to be 710 50'. In 1723 Mr Graham made a
great many • obfervations on the dipping needle, and
found the angle to be between 74 and 75 degrees.
Mr Nairne, in 1772 found it to be fomewhat above
7 2°. It is not certain whether the dip varies, as well
as the horizontal diredlion, in the fame place. The
trifling difference between Mr Norman and Mr Nairne
would lead us to imagine that the dip was unalterable ;
but Mr Graham, who was a very accurate obferver,
makes the difference more confiderable. It is certain,
however, from a great number of experiments and ob¬
fervations, that the dip is variable in different latitudes,
and that it increafes in going northwards. It appears
from a table of obfervations made with the marine dip¬
ping-needle in a voyage towards the north pole in 1733,
that in lat. 60. 18. the dip was 750 ; and in lat. 70. 45.
it was 770 52' j in lat. 80. 12. it was 8l# 52'} and in
lat. 80. 27. it was 82° 2V*
Several authors have endeavoured to apply this dif¬
eovery of the dip to the finding of the latitude $ and
Mr Bond attempted to apply it to the finding of the
longitude alfo j but for Avant of obfervations and ex¬
periments he could not make any progrefs. The af¬
fair was farther profecuted by Mr Whifton, who pub-
lifhed a treatife on the longitude, and for fome time
imagined it Avas poflible to find it exaftly by means of
the dip of the needle j yet he at laft defpaired of it, for
the following reafons; 1. The weaknefs of the magne¬
tic pov\7er. 2. The concuflion of the (hip, which he
found it exceedingly difficult to avoid fo much as was
neceffary for the accuracy of the experiments. 3. The
principal objedlion was an irregularity in the motions
of all magnetic needles, both horizontal and dipping,
by which they, within the compafs of about a degree, Needle,
vary uncertainly backward and, fonvard 5 even fome- v'"“'
times in a few hours time, without any evident caufe.
For a particular account of thefe variations, both of
the horizontal and dipping needle, fee the article Va¬
riation.
Mr Nairne made a dipping needle in 1772 for the pig, 2#
Board of Longitude, which Avas ufed in the voyage
towards the north pole. This is reprefented at fig. 2.
The needle A A. is 12 inches long, and its axis, the
ends BB of which are made of gold, alloyed wnth cop¬
per, refts on friction wheels CCCC, of four inches
diameter, each end on two friction wheels j which
wheels are balanced Avith great care. The ends of the
axis of the fridtion wheels are likewife of gold alloyed
Avith copper, and moved in fmall holes made in bell
metal; and oppofite to the ends of the axes of the
needle and the fridtion wheels, are flat agates, fet in
at DDD, finely poliftred. The magnetic needle vi¬
brates within a circle of bell metal, EEE, divided in¬
to degrees and half degrees-, and a line, palling through
the middle of the needle to the ends, points to the divi-
fions. The needle of this inftrument was balanced be¬
fore it Avas made magnetical but by means of a crofs,
the ends of which are FFFF, (contrived by the re¬
verend Mr Mitchell) fixed on the axis of the needle,
on the arms of Avhich are cut very fine ferews to receive
fmall buttons, that may be fcrew7ed nearer or farther
from the axis, the needles may be adjufted both ways to
a great nicety, after being made magnetical, by rever-
fing the poles, and changing the fides of the needle.
GG are two levels, by which the line of o degrees of
the inftrument is fet horizontal, by means of the four
adjufting ferev/s LLLL j H is the perpendicular axis,
by which the inftrument may be turned, that the di¬
vided face of the circle may front the call or weft j
to this axis may be fixed an index I, which points to an
oppofite line on the horizontal plate K when the in¬
ftrument is turned half round 5 MMMM are ferews
which hold the glafs cover to keep the needle from
being difturbed by the wind. When this needle ij
conftrudled for fea, it is fufpended by an univerfal
joint on a triangular Hand, and adjufted vertically by
a plumb line and button above the divided circle and
the dovetail work at the upper 90 $' and the divifions
on the circle are adjufted fo as to be perpendicular to
the horizon by the fame plumb line, and an adjoining
ferew 5 and when it is adjufted, a pointer annexed to
a ferew, which ferves to move the divided circle, is fix¬
ed at the loweft 90. Whenever the inftrument is ufed
to find the dip, it muft be fo placed that the needle
may vibrate exactly in the magnetic meridian.
Magnetical Needle, in Navigation, a needle touched
with a loadftone, and fuftained on a pivot or centre ;
on which playing at liberty, it direfts itfelf to certain
points in or under the horizon j whence the magneti¬
cal needle is of Iavo kinds, viz. horizontal or inclinatory.
See the article Magnet.
Horizontal needles are thofe equally balanced on each
fide of the pivot that fuftains them, and which, playing
horizontally with their two extremes, point out the north
and fouth points of the horizon. For their application
and ufe, fee the article Compass.
In the conftruftion of the horizontal needle, a piece
of pure fteel is provided j of a length not exceeding fix
^  _ inches,.
NEE [ 749
Needle, inches, left its weight Pnould impede its volubility j fea
“—V"-*- very thin, to take its verticity the better j and not
pierced with any holes, or the like, for ornament fake,
which prevent the equable diffulion of the magnetic
virtue. A perforation is then made, in the middle of
its length, and a brafs cap or head foldered on, whofe
inner cavity is conical, fo as to play freely on a llyle
or pivot headed with a fine fteel point. The north
point of the needle in our hemifphere is made a little
lighter than the fouthern 5 the touch always deftroying
the balance, if well adjufted before, and rendering the
north end heavier than the fouth, and thus occafioning
the needle to dip.
The method of giving the needle its verticity or di-
reftive faculty has been ftiown already under the ar¬
ticle Magnet ; but if, after touching, the needle be
out of its equilibrium, fomething muft be filed off from
the heavier tide, till it balance evenly.
Needles in fea compaffes are ufually made of a rhom-
boidal or oblong form ; we have given their ftrudlure
already under the article Compass.
The needle is not found to point precifely to the
north, except in very few places; but deviates from it
more or lefs in different places, and that too at differ¬
ent times ; which deviation is called its declination or
variation from the meridian. See the article Varia¬
tion.
Surgeons Needles are generally made crooked, and
their points triangular •, however they are of different
forms and fizes, and bear different names, according to
the purpofes they are ufed for.
The largeft are needles for amputation ; the next,
needles for wounds; the fineft, needles for futures.
They have others, very fhort and flat, for tendons j
others, ftill ftiorter, and the eye placed in the middle,
for tying together of veffels, 8cc. Needles for couch¬
ing catarafls are of various kinds j all of w'hich have
a fmall, broad, and (harp point or tongue, and fome
with a fulcus at the point. Surgeons have fometimes
ufed two needles in this operation j one with a {harp
point for perforating the coats of the eye, and another
with a more obtufe point for deprefling or couching
the opaque cryftalline lens ; but care ftiould be taken
in the ufe of any of thefe, that they be firft well po¬
liced with cloth or leather, before they are applied to
the eye.
Mr Warner obferves, that the blade of the couching
needle ftiould be at leaft a third part larger than thofe
generally ufed upon this occaffon, as great advantages
will be found in the deprefling of the cataraft, by the
increafed breadth of the blade of that inftrument.
The handle, alfo, if made fomewhat fliorter than
ufual, will enable the operator to perform with greater
fteadinefs, than he can do with a larger handled inftru¬
ment.
It is to be obferved, that needles of ftlver pierce
more eafiiy in ftitching arteries after an amputation,
than thofe made of fteel.
Nesdle Fijh. See Sygnathus, Ichthyology
Index.
Needles, fharp pointed rocks north of the ifle of
Wight. They are fituated at the weftern extremity of
the ifland, which is an acute point of high land, from
which they have been disjoined by the waffling of the
] N E G
There were of thefe lofty white rocks formsrly
three, but about 14 years ago the talleft of them, call¬
ed Lot's Wife, wdiich rofe 120 feet above low water
mark, and in its ftiape refembling a needle, being un¬
dermined by the conftant efforts of the waves, was
thrown dowm, and totally difappeared.
NEEDS, or St Neots, fix miles from Huntingdon,
58 miles from London, fo called from the monument of
a faint of that name in it, who was burnt by the Danes,
is a large well built town, having a handfome ftrong
church, with a very fine fteeple, and a ftone bridge over
the Oufe.
NEEDWOOD forest, in Staffordftiire, between
the Trent, Dove, and Blythe, and near Utoxeter, is
faid to exceed all the forefts in England in the excel¬
lency of its foil and the finenefs of its turf.
NE EXEAT REGNO, in Law, is a writ to re-
ftrain a perfon from going out of the kingdom with¬
out the king’s licenfe. F. N. B. 85. It may be di¬
rected to the flierjff, to make the party find furety that
he will not depart the realm, and on refufal to com¬
mit him to prifon : or it may be directed to the party
himfelf 5 and if he then goes, he may be fined. And
this writ is granted on a fuit being commenced againft:
a man in the chancery, when the plaintiff fears the de¬
fendant will fly to fome other country •, and thereby
avoid the juftice and equity of the court 5 which hath
been fometimes pra&ifed : and when thus granted, the
party muft give bonds to the matter of the rolls, in the
penalty of 1000I. or fome other large fum, for yielding
obedience to it; or fatisfy the court, by anfvver, affida¬
vit, or othefwife, that he hath no defign of leaving the
kingdom, and give fecurity.
NEFASTI dies, in Roman antiquity, an appella¬
tion given to thofe days wherein it was not allowed to
adminifter juftice, or hold courts. They were fo called
becaufe, non fari licebat, the praetor was not allowed to
pronounce the three folemn words or formulas of the
law, do, dico, addico, I give, I appoint, I adjudge. Thefe
days were diftinguifhed in the calendar by the letter N„
for nefqftus; or N. P. Nefajlus Primo, when the day
was only nefajhts in the forenoon, or firft part. The
days of a mixed kind were called intereiji.
NEGAPATAN, a town of Afia, in the peninfula
on this fide the Ganges, and on the coaft of Coroman¬
del. It was firft: a colony of the Portuguefe, but was
taken from them by the Dutch, and now forms part of
the Britiftr territory. It is fituated in E. Long. 79. 10.
N. Lat. 11. 15.
NEGATION, in Logic, an adl of the mind affirm¬
ing one thing to be different from another} as that the
foul is not matter. See Logic.
NEGATIVE, in general, fomething that implies a
negation : thus we fay, negative quantities, negative
powers, negative figns, &c.
Negative Sign. The ufe of the negative fign, in
algebra, is attended with feveral confequences that at
firft fight are admitted with difficulty, and has fome¬
times given occafion to notions that feem to have no
real foundation. This fign implies, that the real va¬
lue of the quantity reprefented by the letter to which
it is prefixed is to be fubtrafted ; and it ferves, with
the pofitive fign, to keep in view what elements or
parts enter into the compofition of quantities, and in
what
Need?
II .
Negative-
N E G [ 75° ] N E G
what manner, whether as increments or decrements,
(that is, whether by addition or fubtraflion), which is
of the greateft ufe in this art.
In confequence of this, it ferves to exprefs a quan¬
tity of an oppoute quality to the pofitive, as a line in
a contrary pofition ; a motion with an oppofite direc¬
tion ; or a centrifugal force in oppofition to gravity •,
and thus often faves the trouble of diftinguilhing and
demonfcrating feparately, the various cafes of propor¬
tions, and preferves their analogy in view. But as
the proportions of lines depend on their magnitude
only, without regard to their pofition, and motions
and forces are faid to be equal, or unequal, in any gi¬
ven ratio, without regard to their direftions •, and, in
general, the proportion of quantity relates to their
magnitude only, without determining whether they are
to be confidered as increments or decrements; fo there
is no ground to imagine any other proportion of —b
and -\-a (or of —1 and 1) than that of the real mag¬
nitudes of the quantities reprefented by b and a, whether
thefe quantities are, in any particular cafe, to be added
or fubtracled. It is the fame thing to fubtrafl the de¬
crement, a^ to add an equal increment, or to fubtraff
•—b from a—b, as to add -\-b to it : and becaufe mul¬
tiplying a quantity by a negative number implies only
a repeated fubtraflion of it, the multiplying —b by
■—n, is fubtracling —b as often as there are units in
«; and is therefore equivalent to adding -j-^ fo many
times, or the fame as adding -\-nh. But if we infer
from this, that x is to —n as —b to n b, according to
the rule, that unit is to one of the faftors as the other
faftor is to the product, there is no ground to imagine,
that there is any myftery in this, or any other meaning
than that the real magnitudes reprefented by 1, «,
and n b are proportional. For that rule relates only to
the magnitude of the factors and product, without de¬
termining whether any faftor, or the produff, is to be
added or fubtra&ed. But this likewife muft be deter¬
mined in algebraic computations 5 and this is the pro¬
per ufe of the rules concerning the ligns, without w hich
the operation could not proceed. Becaufe a quantity
to be fubtrafted is never produced in compofition by
any repeated addition of a pofitive, or repeated fab-
traftion of a negative, a negative fquare number is
never produced by compofition from the root. Hence
V—1, or the fquare root of a negative, implies an
imaginary quantity; and in refolution, is a mark
or charafler of the impofiible cafes of a pro¬
blem, unlefs it is compenfated by another imaginary
iymbcl or luppofition, w’hen the whole expredion
may have a real fignification. Thus 1-f —1, and
1 — v——1, taken feparately, are imaginary, but their
fum is 2 ; as the conditions that feparately wmuld ren¬
der the folution of a problem impoffible, in feme cafes
deftroy each others effeft when conjoined. In the pur-
fuit of general conclufions, and of fimple forms repre-
fenting them, expreffions of this kind muft fometimes
arife where the imaginary fymbol is compenfated in a
manner that is not always fo obvious.
By proper fubftitutions, however, the expreffion may
be transformed into another, wherein each particular
term may have a real fignification as well as the whole
expreffion. The theorems that are femetimes briefly
difeovered by the ufe of this fymbol, may be demon-
E'ectricity
II
Negro.
-"W"" |J
ftrated without it by the inverfe operation, or fome iNe^ative
other way ; and though luch fymbols are of fome ufe
in the computations by the method of fiuxions, its evi¬
dence cannot be faid to depend upon arts of this kind. -
See Algebra and Fluxions.
Negative EleHricitij. See the article Electricity,
pajftm. See allb Positive EleBrwity.
NEGINO J'H. This term is read before fome of
the Pfalms, as Pfalm Ixvii. It fignifies Jlring injlru-
ments of mufc, to be played on by the fingers, or w-o-
men muficians ; and the titles of thefe pfalms where
this word is found, may be thus tranflated, ^ pfalm of
David to the majler of mufc, who prefdes over the fring
infruments.
NEGOMBO, a fea port town of Afia, on the weft
coaft of Ceylon. It has a fort built by the Portuguefe,
which w'as taken from them by the Dutch in 1640.
E. Long. 80. 25. N. Lat. 17. o.
NEGRIL point, the moft wefterly promontory of
the ifland of Jamaica.
NEGRO, Homo pelli nigra, a name given to a
variety of the human fpecies, wdio are entirely black,
and are found in the torrid zone, efpeciftlly in that
part of Africa which lies within the tropics. In the
complexion of Negroes wre meet with many various
ftiades; but they likewife differ far from other men in
all the features of their face. Round cheeks, high
cheek-bones, a forehead fomevvhat elevated, a fhort
broad, flat nofe, thick lips, fmall ears, uglinefs, and
irregularity of ftiape, charaifterize their external ap¬
pearance. The negro women have the loins greatly de-
preffed, and very large buttocks, which gives the back#
the fhape of a faddle* V:ces the moft notorious feetn
to be the portion of this unhappy race ; idlenefs, trea¬
chery, revenge, cruelty, impudence, fteafing, lying,
profanity, debauchery, naftinefs, and intemperance, are
faid to have extinguiflied the principles of/ natural law,
and to have lilenced the reproofs of confcience. They
are ftrangers to every fentiment of compaflion, and are
an awful example of the ^corruption of man w’hen left
to himfelf.
The origin of the negroes, and the caufe of their
remarkable difference from the reft of the human fpe¬
cies, has much perplexed natural!fts. Mr Boyle
has obferved, that it cannotG be produced by the heat
of the climate : for though the heat of the fun may
darken the colour of the Ikin, yet experience does not
ftiow that it is fufficient to produce a new blacknefs
like that of the negroes.
In Africa itfelf, many nations of Ethiopia are not
black ; nor w7ere there any blacks originally in the
Weft Indies. In many parts of Afia under the fame
parallel with the ^African region inhabited by the
blacks, the people are but tawny. He adds, that
there are negroes in Africa beyond the fouthern tropic;
and that a river fometimes parts nations, one of which
is black, and the other only tawny. Dr Barriere alleges
that the gall of negroes is black, and being mixed
with their blood is depofited between the Ikin and
fcarf-lkin. However Dr Mitrhel of Virginia, in the
Philofophical Tranfaftions, N° 476. has endeavoured
by many learned arguments to prove, that the influ¬
ence of the fun in hot countries, and the manner of
life of their inhabitants, are the remote cault.s of the
colour of the negroes, Indians, &x. Lord Karnes,
N E G [75
Negro, on the other hand, and fuch philpfophers as he, whole
“■''v ' genius and imagination are too lively to fubmit to a
dry and painful inveftigation of fa£ts, have contended
that no pbyhcal caufe is fufficient to change the
colour, and what we call the regular features of white
men, to the dark hue and deformity of the woolly¬
headed negro. Their arguments have been examined
with much acutenefs and ingenuity by Dr Stanhope
Smith of New Jerfey, Dr Hunter, and Profeflor
Zimmerman, who have made it in a high degree pro¬
bable, that the a£lion of the fun is the original and
chief caufe of the black colour, as well as dilforted
features of the negro. See America, N° 48—51. and
Complexion.
True negroes are found in no quarter of the globe
where the heat of the climate is not very great. I hey
exill nowhere but in the torrid zone, and only in three
regions fituated in that zone, viz. in Senegal, in Guinea,
and on the weftern fhores of Africa, in Nubia, and the
Papous land, or what is called Nc%v Guinea. In all
thefe regions the atmofpbere is Icorching, and the heat
exceffive. The inhabitants of the north are udutelt j
and as we advance fouthwards towards the line, and
thofe countries on which the fun’s rays fall more per¬
pendicularly, the complexion gradually aiTumes a dark¬
er (hade. And the fame men, whcfe colour has been
rendered black by the powerful aftion of the lun, if
they remove to the north, gradually become whiter (at
lea ft their pofterity), and lofe their burnt colour.
"Whites when tranfported into the burning regions of
the torrid zone, are the firft fubject to fever 5 the (kin
of the face, hands, and feet, becomes burnt, hardens
and falls off in fcales. Hitherto the colour of negroes
appears to be only local, extnnfic, and accidental, and
their (liort frizzled and fparfe hair is to be accounted
lor in the very fame manner.
Climate poffeffes great and evident influences on the
hair, not only of men, but of all other animals. It in
one cafe thefe tranfmutations are acknowledged t& be
confiftent with identity of kind, they ought not in the
N other to be efteemed criterions of different fpecies. Na¬
ture has adapted the pliancy of her work to the (itua-
tions in which the may require it to Be placed. The
beaver and (beep removed to the warm latitudes ex¬
change, the one its fur, and the other its wool, for a
coarfe hair that preferves the animal in a more moderate
temperature. The coarfe and black (hag of the bear is
converted, in - the arclic regions, into the fineft and
whiteft fur. The colour of the hair is likewiie changed
by climate. The bear is whit* under the arftic circle j
and, in high northern latitudes, foxes, hares, and rabbits,
are found white. Similar effects of climate are difeern-
ib*!e on mankind. The hair of the Danes is generally
red j of the Engliih, fair or brown } and ol the French,
commonly black. -The hair of all people of colour is
black, and that of the African negroes is likewife fparfe
and curled in a manner peculiar to themfelves; but this
peculiarity is analogous to the effect which a warm cli¬
mate has on almoft every other animal. Cold, by ob-
ftrufting the perfpiration, tends to throw out the per-
fpirable matter accumulated at the fkin in an additional
coat of hair. A warm climate, by opening the pores,
evaporates this matter before it can be concreted into
the fnbftance of Lair ; and the laxnefs and aperture of
the pores render the hair liable to be eafily eradica-
i ] N E G
ted by innumerable incidents. Its curl may refuit Negro,
in part from the nature of the fecretion by which it is *
nourilhed, and in part from external heat. That it
depends in fome degree on the quality of the fecretion
is rendered highly probable from its appearance on the
chin and other parts of the human body. Climate is as
much diftinguiffed by the nature and proportion of the
fecretions as by the degree of heat. (See Physiolo¬
gy, fe£h 6.) Whatever be the nutriment of the hair,
it is evidently combined in the torrid zone of Africa
with fame fluid of a highly volatile or ardent quality,
which produces the rank fmell of many African nations.
Saline iecretions tend to curl and to burn the hair. I he
evaporation of any volatile fpirit would render its fur-
face dry and difpoied to contract j whilft the centre con¬
tinuing diftended by the vital motion, the!e oppofite
dilatations and contractions would neceftarily produce a
curve, and make the hair grow involved. External and
violent heat parching the extremities of the hair, tends
likewife to involve it. A hair held near the fne in-
ftantly coils itfelf up. Africa is the hotteft country on
the globe ; and the influence of its heat, either external
or internal, or both, in giving the peculiar form to the
hair of the natives, appears, not only from its fparfeneis
and its curl, but from its colour. It is not of a fhining,
but of an aduft black; and its extremities tend to
brown, as if it had oeen fcorched by the fire.
The peculiarities of the negro features and form may
likewife be accounted for from the exceffive heat of the
climate and the ftate of African fociety. Being lava¬
ges, they have no arts to proteft them from the rays of
a burning fun. The heatvand ferenity of the Iky pre-
ferving the lives of the children without much care of
the parents, they feem of courfe to be, in the interior
parts of the country, negligent of their offspring. Able
themfelves to endure the extremes of that ardent climate,
they inure their children to it from their molt tender
age. They fuffer them to roll in the duft gnd fand be¬
neath the direft rays of a vertical fun. The mother,
if fhe be engaged, lays down the infant on the flrft fpot
(he finds, and is feldom at the pains to feek the mifer-
able flicker of a barren ftirub, which is all that the in¬
terior country affords. When we refleft on the influ¬
ence of a glare of light upon the eye, and on the con¬
tortions of countenance produced by our efforts to re¬
pel or prevent it, we need not wonder, that the pliant
features of, a negro infant (hould, by conftant expofure,
acquire that permanent irregularity which we term their
charadferiftic ugiinefs. But befides the climate, food
and clothing and modes of life have prodigious effects
on the human form and features. This is apparent even
in poliftied focieties, where the poor and labouring part
of the community are much more coarfe in their features,
and ill formed in their limbs, than perfons of better for¬
tune and more liberal means of fubfiftence. What an
immenfe difference exifts in Scotland, for inftance, be¬
tween the chiefs and the commonalty of the Highland
clans ? If they had been feparatcly found in different
countries, they would have been ranged by fome philo’
fophers under different fpecies. A fimilar diftintfion
takes place between the nobility and peafantry of
France, of Spain, of Italy, and of Germany.
That food and clothing, and the different modes oi
life, have as great an influence upon the (hapes and fea¬
tures of the Africans as upon the natives of Europe, ;;
s. evident
N E G r 7
evident from the different appearances of the negroes in
the fouthern republics of America according to the fta-
tions in which they are employed. “ The field flaves
(fays Dr Smith) are badly fed, clothed, and lodged.
They live in fmall huts on the plantations, where they
labour, remote from the fociety and example of their
fuperiors. Living by themfelves, they retain many of
the cuftoms and manners of their African anceftors.
The domeftic fervants, on the other hand, who are kept
near the perfons, or employed in the families of their
mafters, are treated with great lenity ; their fervice is
light ; they are fed and clothed like their fuperiors ;
they fee their manners, adopt their habits, and infenfibly
receive the fame ideas of elegance and beauty. The
field flaves £re, in confequence, flow in changing the
afpeft and figure of Africa. The domeftic fervants'
have advanced far before them in acquiring the agree¬
able and regular features, and the expreffive countenance
of civil fociety. The former are frequently ill-lhaped.
They preferve, in a great degree, the African lips,
nofe, and hair. Their genius is dull, and their coun¬
tenance fleepy and ftupid. The latter are firaight and
t well proportioned *, their hair extended to three, four,
and fometimes even to fix or eight inches ; the fize and
fhape of the mouth handiome, their features regular,
their capacity good, and their look animated.”
Upon the whole, we hope that the reader, who fhall
candidly weigh in his own mind what we have faid at
prefent and under the article Complexion, wall agree
with us, that the black colour in the torrid zone, the
iparfe crifp hair of the negroes, and the peculiarities of
their features and form, proceed from caufes altogether
extrinfic ; that they depend on local temperature and the
fiate of fociety 5 and that they are as accidental as the
various (hades of colour which chara&erize the different
nations of Europe. If the whites be confidered as the
(lock w7hence all others have fprung, it is eafy to con¬
ceive how they have degenerated into negroes. Some
have conjectured that the complete change may have
taken place, at the end of three centuries, whilft others
have thought that it could not be effefted in lefs than
double that period. Such conjeftures can be formed
from no certain data ; and a much greater length of
time is undoubtedly neceffary before negroes, when
tranfplanted into our temperate countries, can entirely
lofe their black colour. By eroding the breed with
whites, every taint of the negro colour may be expelled,
we believe, from the fifth generation (a).
But the moft ferious charge brought againft the
poor negroes is, that of the vices faid to be natural
12 1 N E G
to them. If they be indeed fuch as their enemies Negro,
reprefent them, treacherous, cruel, revengeful, and ' ™ — v- ■■1
intemperate, by a necedity of nature, they muff be a
different race from the whites; for though all thefe
vices abound in Europe, it is evident that they proceed
not from nature, but from wrong education, which
gives to the youthful mind fuch deep impreflions as no
future exertions can completely eradicate. Let us in¬
quire cooly if the vices of the negroes may not have a
fimilar origin.
In every part of Africa with which the nations of
Europe have any commerce, flavery prevails of the
word kind. Three-fourths of the people are (laves to
the reft, and the children are born to no other inherit¬
ance. “ Moft parts of the coaft differ in their go- Edwards's
vernments ; fome are abfolute monarchies, whilft others Hi/lory of
draw near to an ariftocracy. In both the authority of^
the chief or chiefs is unlimited, extending to life, and it
is exercifed as often as criminal cafes require, unlefs
death is commuted into flavery j in which cafe the of¬
fender is fold, and if the (hipping will not buy the cri¬
minal, he is immediately put to death. Fathers of free
condition have power to fell their children, but this
powrer is very feldom enforced.” In Congo, however,
a father f will fell a fon or daughter, or perhaps both,|^-0^
for a piece of cloth, a collar or girdle of coral or beads, Univer.
and often for a bottle of wine or brandy. A hulband Hijlory,
may have as many wives as he pleafes, and repudiate or v°l-xiii. p.
even fell them, though with child, at his pleafure. The
wives and concubines, though it be a capital crime for
the former to break the conjugal faith, have a way to
rid themfelves of their hulhands, if they have fet their
affeftions upon a new gallant, by accufing them of
fome crime for wEich the puniftiment is death. In a
word, the bulk of the people in every ftate of Africa
are born (laves to great men, reared as fuch, held as
property, and as property fold (fee Slavery.) There Edwards's
are indeed many circumftances by which a free man Hijlory of
may become a (lave: fuch as being in debt, andnot^^c/2
able to pay j and in fome of fuch cafes, if the debt be In^ies'
large, not only the debtor, but his family likewife, be¬
come the (laves of his creditor, and may be fold. A'
dultery is commonly punilhed in the fame manner, both
the offending parties being fold, and the purchafe-mo-
ney paid to the injured hulband. Obi, or pretended
witchcraft (in which all the negroes firmly believe, fee
Witchcraft), is another, and a very common offence,
for which (lavery is adjudged the lawful punifhment j
and it extends to all the family of the offender. There
are various other crimes winch fubjeft the offender and
his
(a) I. A wEite man with a negro woman, or a negro man with a white woman, produce a mulatto, half white
and half black, or of a yellow-blackifti colour, with black, (hort, frizzled hair. 2. A white man with a mulatto
woman, or a negro with a mulatto woman, produce a quadroon, three fourths white and one fourth black, or
three fourths black and one fourth white, or of a lighter yellow7 than the former. In America, they give the
name of cabres to thofe who are defeended from a black man and a mulatto woman, or a mulatto man and a black
woman, who are three fourths black and one fourth white, and who are not fo black as a negro, but blacker
than a mulatto. 3. A white man with a quadroon woman, or a negro with a quadroon woman, produce a mefti-
•zo, feventh eighths white and one eighth black, or feven eighths black and one eighth white. 4. Awhile man with
a meftizo W’oman, or a negro with a-meftizo woman, produce, the one almoft a perfefl white, the other almoft
a perfect black, called a qmnteroon. This is the laft gradation, there being no vifible difference between the fair
quinteroons and the whites : and the children of a wEite and quinteroon confider themfelves as free from all taint
jpf the negro race.
4
N E G [ 753 ] N E G
-Negro. Ills children to be fold j and it is more than probable,
  v that if there were no buyers, the poor wretches would
be murdered without mercy.
In fuch a flate of fociety, what difpofitions can be
looked for in the people, but cruelty, treachery, and
revenge ? Even in the civilized nations of Europe, blef-
fed with the lights of law, fcience, and religion, fome
of the lower orders of the community confider it as a
very trivial crime to defraud their fnperiors •, whilit al-
moft all look up to them with ftupid malevolence or
rancorous envy. That a depreffed people, when they
get power into their hands, are revengeful and cruel,
the preient age affords a dreadful proof in the conduift
of the demagogues of a neighbouring nation j and is it
wonderful that the negroes of Africa, unacquainted
with moral principles, blinded by the cruelleft and moll
abfurd fuperftitions, and whofe cuftoms tend to eradi¬
cate from the mind all natural affeftion, Ihould fome-
times difplay to their lordly maftefS of European ex-
tra&ion the fame fpirit that has been fo generally dif-
played by the lower orders of Frenchmen to their ec-
clefiaftics, their nobles, and the family of their murder¬
ed fovejreign ! When we confider that the majority of
the negroes groan under the cruelleft flavery, both in
their owm country and in every other where they are to
be found in confiderable numbers, it can excite no fur-
prife that they are in general treacherous, cruel, and
vindi&ive. Such are the caprices of their tyrants at
home, that they could not preferve their own lives or
the lives of their families for any length of time, but by
a perpetual vigilance, which muft neceffarily degenerate,
firft into cunning, and afterwards into treachery j and
it is not conceivable that habits formed in Africa ftiould
be inftantly thrown off in the Weft Indies, wdiere they
are the property of men whom fome of them muft con¬
fider as a different race of beings.
But the truth is, that the ill qualities of the negroes
have been greatly exaggerated. Mr Edwards, in his
valuable Hiftory of the Weft Indies, affures us that the
Mandingo negroes difplay fuch gentlenefs of difpofi-
tion and demeanour, as would feem the refult of early
education and difcipline, were it not that, generally
fpeaking, they are more prone to theft than any of the
African tribes. It has been fuppofed that this propen-
fity, among other vices, is natural to a ftate of flivery,
which degrades and corrupts the human mind in a de¬
plorable manner ; but why the Mandingoes ftiould have
become more vicious in this refpedl than the reft of the
natives of Africa in the fame condition of life, is a que-
ftion he cannot anfwer.
“ The circumftances which (according to the fame
author) diftinguifh the Koromantyn or Gold Coaft ne¬
groes from all others, are firmnefs both of body and
mind j a ferocioufnefs of difpofition $ but withal, ac¬
tivity, courage, and a ftubbornnefs, or what an ancient
Roman would have deemed an elevation of foul, which
prompts them to enterprifes of difficulty and danger,
and enables them to meet death, in its moft horrid
ftiape, with fortitude or indifference. They fometimes
take to labour with great' promptitude and alacrity, and
have conftitutions well adapted for it 5 for many of them
have undoubtedly been flaves in Africa. But as the
Gold Coaft is inhabited by various tribes, which are
engaged in perpetual warfare and hoftility with each
other, there cannot be a doubt that many of the captives
Vol. XIV. Part II.
taken in battle, and fold in the European fettlements, Negr
were of free condition in their native country, and “ v~
perhaps the owners of flaves themfelves. It is not won¬
derful that fuch men ftiould endeavour, even by means
the moft defperate, to regain the freedom of which they
have been deprived ; nor do I conceive that any further
circumftances • are neceffary to prompt them to adlion,
than that of being fold into captivity in a diftant coun¬
try. One cannot fuj-ely but lament (fays our author)
that a people thus naturally intrepid, ftiould be funk
into fo deplorable a ftate of barbarity and fuperftition j
and that their fpirits ftiould ever be broken down by
the yoke of flavery. Whatever may be alleged con¬
cerning their ferocioufnefs and implacability in their
prefent notions of right and w’rong, I am perfuaded
that they poffefs qualities wffiich are capable of, and well
deferve, cultivation and improvement.
“ Very different from the Koromantyns are the ne¬
groes imported from the Bight of Benin, and known
in the Weft Indies by the name of Eboes. So great
is their conftitutional timidity and defpondency of mind,
as to occafion them very frequently to feek, in a vo¬
luntary death, a refuge from their own melancholy re¬
flections. They require therefore the gentleft and
mildeft treatment to reconcile them to their fituation j
but if their confidence be once obtained, they manifeft
as great fidelity, affeClion, and gratitude, as can rea-
fonably be expeCted from men in a ftate of flavery.
The females of this nation are better labourers than the
men, probably from having been more hardly treated in
Africa.
“ The natives of Whidah, who, in the Weft Indies,
are generally called Pafiaws, are unqueftionably the moft
docile and belt difpofed flaves that are imported from
any part of Africa. Without the fierce and favage
manners of the Koromantyn negroes, they are alfo
happily exempt from the timid and defponding temper
of the Eboes. The cheerful acquiefcence wuth which
thefe people apply to the labours of the field, and their
conftitutional aptitude for fuch employment, arife, with¬
out doubt, from the great attention paid to agriculture
in their native country. Bofman fpeaks with rapture
of the improved ftate of tKe foil, the number of villages,
and the induftry, riches, and obliging manners of the
natives. He obferves, however, that they are much
greater thieves than thofe of the Gold Coaft, and very
unhke them in another refped, namely, in the dread
of pain, and the apprehenfion of death. They are,
fays he, fo very apprehenfive of death, that they are
unwilling to hear it mentioned, for fear that alone
ftiould haften their end j and no man dares to fpeak of
death in the prefence of the king, or any great man,
under the penalty of fuffering it himfelf, as a 'punifliment
for his prefumption. He relates, further,that they are
addi&ed to gaming beyond any people of Africa. All
thefe propenfities are obfervable in the charafter of the
Papaws in a ftate of flavery in the Weft Indies. That
puniftiment wffiich excites the Koromantyn to rebel,
and drives the Ebo negro to filicide, is received by the
Papaws as the chaftifement of legal authority, to which
it is their duty to lubmit patiently. The cafe feems to
be, that the generality of thefe people are in a ftate of
abfolute flavery in Africa, and, having been habituated
to a life of labour, they fubmit to a change of fituation
with little reluCtance.”
5 C Having
N E G
Having recited fuch obfervations as occurred to him
on contemplating the various tribes of negroes from each
other, Mr Edwards thus eftimates their general charac¬
ter, influenced as they are by circumftances which foon
efface the native and original imprelfions which dilfin-
guifh one nation from another when newly imported
into the Welt Indies.
“ Notwnthftanding what has been related of the firm-
nefs and courage of the natives of the Gold Coaft, it is
certain that the negroes in general in our iflands (fuch
of them at lead as have been any length of time in a
Hate of fervitude) are of a diftrurtful and covrardly dif-
pofition. So degrading is the nature of flavery, that
fortitude of mind is loft as free agency is reftrained.
To the fame caufe probably muft be imputed their pro-
penfity to conceal or violate the truth ; which is fo
general, that the vice of falfehood is one of the moft
prominent features in their charafter. If a negro is
afked even an indifferent queftion by his mafter, he fel-
dom gives an immediate reply ; but, affe&ing not. to
underftand what is laid, compels a repetition of the
queftion, that he may have time to confider, not what
is the true anfwer, but what is the moft politic one for
ipm to give. The pronenefs obfervable in many of them
to the vice of theft has already been noticed; and I am
afraid (fays our author), that evil communication makes
it almoft general. It is no eafy matter, I confefs, to
diferiminate thofe circumftances which are the refult of
rproximate caufes, from thofe which are the effeffs of
national cuftoms and early habits in favage life ; but I am
afraid that cowardice and dhTimulation have been the
properties of flavery in all ages, and will continue to be
fo to the end of the world. It is a fituation that necef-
farily fuppreffes many of the heft afftflions of the human
heart.—If ft calls forth any latent virtues, they are
thofe of fympathy and compaffion towards perfons in
the fame condition of life 5 and accordingly we find
that the negroes in general are ftrongly attached to
their countrymen, but above all, to fucb of their com¬
panions as came in the fame (hip with them from Afri¬
ca. This-is a ftriking circumftance : the term Jhipmate
is underftood among them as fignifying a relationlhip
of the moft endearing nature ; perhaps as recalling the
time when the fufferers were cut off together from their
common country and kindred, and aw-akening recipro¬
cal fympathy from the remembrance of mutual afflic¬
tion. But their benevolence, with a very few excep¬
tions, extends no further. The fofter virtues are fel-
dom found in the bofom of the enflaved African. Give
him fufficient authority, and he becomes the moft re-
morfelefs of tyrants. Of all the degrees of wretched-
nefs endured by the fons of men, the greateft, affured-
ly, is the mifery which is felt by thofe who are unhap¬
pily doomed to be the flaves of ftaves ; a moft unnatural
relation, which fometimes takes place in the fugar
plantations. The fame obfervation may be made con¬
cerning their condudl towards ihe animal creation.
Their treatment of cattle under their dire&ion is brutal
beyond belief. Even the ufeful and focial qualities of
the dog fecure to him no kind ufage from an African
mafter. One of the moft pleafing traits in their charac¬
ter is the refpeft and attention which they pay to their
aged countrymen. The whole body of negroes on a
plantation muft be reduced to a deplorable ftate of
wretchednefs, if, at any time, they fuffer their aged
N E G
companions to want the common neceffaries of life, orNegrohnd.
even many of its comforts, as far as they can procure  1
them, They feem to be actuated on thefe occafions by
a kind of involuntary impulfe, operating as a primitive
law of nature, which fcorns to wait the cold dictates of
reafon: among them, it is the exercife of a common
duty, which courts no obfervation, and looks for no
applaufe.”
As the colour, and features, and moral qualities of
the negroes may be thus eafily accounted for by the in¬
fluence of climate and the modes of favage life, fo there
is good reafon to believe that their intellectual endow¬
ments are equal to thofe of the whites who have been
found in the fame circumftances. Of thofe imitative
arts in which perfection can be attained only in an im¬
proved ftate of fociety, it is natural to fuppofe that they
have but little knowledge 5 but the fabric and colours
of the Guinea cloths are a proof of their native ^inge¬
nuity. In the Weft Indies many of them are expert
carpenters, fome watchmakers, and one or two have
fuccefsfully praftifed phyfic ; whilft others have figured
both in Latin and in Englilh poetry, fo that we cannot
doubt but that “ God, who, made the world, hath
made of one blood all nations of men,” and animated
them with minds equally rational.
NEGROLAND, or Nigritia, a country of Afri¬
ca, lying next to Guinea towards the north, and ex¬
tending from 18° of vveft to 230 of eaft longitude,
and from 90 to 20° of north latitude. On the north
it is bounded by Zaara or the Defert; on the eaft, by
countries unknown ; on the fouth, by Guinea ; and on
the weft, by the Atlantic ocean j and is watered by
the great river Niger or Senegal, which runs through
it from eaft to weft. The Europeans have fettlements
on the coafts of this country, efpecially near the
mouths of the Niger and Gambia, which laft is fup-
pofed to be a branch of the former. A great many
nations inhabit the banks of the rivers; fome Pagans,
fome Mohammedans, of different languages, and inde¬
pendent of one another. The country is fruitful, efpe¬
cially along the rivers; abounding in rice, Guinea
grain, and Indian corn, where it is cultivated; and
with cocoa nuts, plantains, pulfe, palm trees, and tro¬
pical fruits; nor is it deftitute of cattle, and a variety
of other animals, particularly fuch as abound in Gui¬
nea. See Guinea.
Negroland is fertilized by the overflowing of its
rivers the Senegal and Gambia, as Egypt is by the
Nile. It hath not yet been afeertained whether the
Gambia is a branch of the Senegal or not. As far
as the Europeans have penetrated up the country, they
appear to be diftinft ; and the Mandingo negroes
report that the Gambia has a different origin. The
entrance into the Niger, or Senegal river, is narrow
and fomewhat difficult, by reafon of its immoveable
bar, and fandy fhoals, as well as the feveral iflands at
the mouth of it, and the feveral canals and marflies that
clog it : but after failing up eight or ten leagues, it is
found broad and deep, and fit to carry large veffels; and,
excepting about five or fix leagues on each fide above
the mouth, which is fandy and barren ground, the
banks are covered with /lately trees and villages, and
the country in general is fertile and well watered:
for, like the Nile, this river overflows its banks for
many leagues, and enriches the land to a great de-
gtee,
[ 754 ]
N E G
though, for want of fkill, the
L 75
inhabitants do
]
N E H
Jfegroland gree, 0 , .
1 not reap the advantages which they might obtain from
ye^ropont. fert^jlyt The people on both hdes of the river
live as near to it as they can, and feed great herds of
cattle, lowing large and fmall millet, the former of
which is called by us Turkey wheat, in great quantities,
and with great increafe. If the river fails of over¬
flowing at its ufual leafon, a great fcarcity enfues in
the adjacent country ; and, even when it overflows
regularly, it breeds fuch vaft flights of gralhoppers
and infects, as quite darken the air, and frequently
devour the whole produce of the foil : in which cafe
the people kill thofe inleCts and eat them j which they
do either by pounding in leather bags, and then boil¬
ing them in milk, or, wdiich is reckoned the more de¬
licious method, by frying or broiling them over a light
blaze in a fryingpan full of holes. Thus the legs
and wings of the infedts are burnt oft, and the reft of
the body is fufficiently roafted to be eaten as a dainty,
which they look upon to be very wholefome and nou-
rifhing.
To the eaft, north-eaft, and fouth-eaft of the ifland
of Senegal, the country, as far as it is known, is
overrun with woods and marfhes : the Senegal, Gam¬
bia, and Sherbro, which are looked uport by fome as
branches of one immenfe river, pafling through it in
their way to the Atlantic ocean. During the rainy
months, which begin in July, and continue to Oddo-
ber, they lay the whole country under water *, and in¬
deed the hidden rife of thefe rivers is incredible to fuch
as are not acquainted with the violent rains that fall
between the tropics. At Galam, 900 miles from the
mouth of the Senegal, the waters rife 150 feet per¬
pendicular from the bed of the river. At the ifland of
Senegal, the river rifes gradually, during the rainy
feafon, above 20 feet perpendicular over part of that
flat coaft } which of itfelf fo freftiens the water, that
(hips lying at anchor, at the diflance of three leagues
from its mouth, generally make ufe of it, and fill their
water there for their voyage home. When the rains
are at an end, which foon happens in Odfober, the
intenfe heat of the fun ufually dries up thofe ftagnating
waters which lie on the higher parts, and the re¬
mainder from lakes and marfties, in which are found
all forts of dead animals. At laft, thofe two are
quite dried up ; and then the effluvia that arife are al-
moft quite infupportable. At this feafon the winds
blow fo hot from the land, that they may be compared
to the heat proceeding from the mouth of an oven,
and they bring with them an intolerable fmell. The
wolves, tigers, lions, and other wild beafts, then re¬
fort to the river, fteeping their body under water, and
only their fnout above it for the fake of breathing.
The birds foar to an immenfe height in the air, and fly
a vaft wray over the fea, where they continue till the
wind changes, and comes from the weft.
Negroes, White. See Hei.iophobi and Abbino.
NECROMANCY. See Necromancy.
NEGROPONT, anciently Euboea, an ifland of the
Archipelago, ftretching along the enftern coaft of
Achaia or Livadia, from which it is feparated by a
narrow channel called the Euribus. Ibis ftrait is fo
narrow, that the ifland is joined to the continent by a
bridge thrown over it \ and here, it is thought, there
was formerly an ifthtnus, The irregularity of the tides
in the Euripus hath ^rcm the remoteft antiquity been Nehemiah'
very remarkable, and this irregularity is found to be ^
connefled with the age of the moon. From the three
laft days of the old moon to the eighth day of the new
moon, and from the 14th to the 20th day inclufive,
they are regular j but on the other days they are ir¬
regular, flowing 12, 13, or 14 times in the fpace or
24 hours, and ebbing as often. The ifland is 90 miles
long and 25 broad in the wfldeft part •, and produces
corn, oil, fruit, and cattle, in great abundance. The on¬
ly place in the ifland worth notice is the capital, which
is alfo called Negropont; and which is walled, and con¬
tains about 15,000 inhabitants ; but the Chriftians are
faid to be much more numerous than the Turks. I he
captain bathaw, or admiral of Turkey, who is alfo go¬
vernor of the city, the ifland, and the adjacent con¬
tinent of Greece, refides here : and the harbour, which
is very fafe and fpacious, is feldom without a fleet of
galleys, ready to be put to fea againft the pirates and
the Maltefe. A part of the bridge between the city and
the coaft of Greece, confifts of a draw bridge no long¬
er than juft to let a galley pals through.
NEHEMIAH, or Neemias, fon of Hachaliah, was
born at Babylon during the captivity, (Neh. i. 1, 2,
&c.) He w'as, according to fome, of the race of the
priefts, but, according to others, of the tribe of Judah
and the royal family. Thofe who maintain the tirft
opinion, fupport it by a paflage in Ezra, (x. 10.) where
he is called a prieft •, but thofe who believe that he was
of the race of the kings of Judah, fay, ift, That Ne-
hemiah having governed the republic of the Jews for a
conftderable time, there is great probability he was oi
that tribe of which the kings always were. 2dly, Ne--
hemiah mentions his brethren Hanani, and fome other
Jews, who coming to Babylon during the captivity, ac¬
quainted him with the fad condition ot their country,
gdly, The office of cupbearer to the king or Perfia,
to which Nehemiah was promoted, is a further proof
that he was of an illuftrious family. 4^-y» -^■e excufes
himfelf from entering into the inner part of the templer
probably becaufe he was only a laic, (Neh. vi. n.)
“ Should fuch a man as I flee ? And who is there
that, being as I am, would go into the temple to fave
his life
The Scripture (Ezra ii. 63. Nehem. vii. 65.) calls
him xnunn tirjhatha, that is to fay, “ cup bearer ; for
he had this employment at the court of Artaxerxes
Longimanus. He had an exceeding great tendernels
for the country of his fathers, though he had nererfeen
it ; and one day, as fome Jews newly come trom Jeru-
falem acquainted him with the miferable eftate of that
city, that its walls were beat down, its gates burnt, and
the Jew’s were become a reproach among all nations j
he was fenfibly affecled with this relation ; he faffed,
prayed, and humbled himfelf before the Lord, that he
would be favourable to the defign he had then conceiv¬
ed of a Iking the king’s permiflion to rebuild Jerufalem.
The courfe of his attendance at court being come, he
prefented the cup to the king according to cuftom ; but
with a countenance fad and dejetfted } which the
king obferving, entertained fome fufpicion, as if be
might have had fome bad defign ; but Nehemiah (ii.)
difcovering the occafion of his djfquiet, Artaxerxes
gave him leave to go to Jerufalem, and repair its walls
and gates; butj however, upon this condition, that he
c C 2 ftiould
N E II [ 756 ] N E H
V' hemiaT]. Oiould return to court at a time appointed. Letters
"—v were made out, directed to the governors beyond the
Euphrates, with orders to furnith Nehemiah with tim¬
bers neceflary for covering the towers and gates of the
city, and the houfe defigned for Nehemiah himielf, who
was now appointed governor of Judea, in the year of
the world 3350.
Nehemiah being arrived at Jerufalem with the king’s
commiffion, went round the city 5 and having viewed
the condition of the walls, affembled the chief of the
people, produced his commiffion, and exhorted them to
undertake the reparation of the gates and walls of the
city. He found every perfon ready to obey him 5
whereupon he immediately began the wrork. -The
enemies of the Jews obferving thefe works in fuch for-
wardnefs, made ufe of all the means in their pou7er to
deter Nehemiah from this undertaking, and made feve-
ral attempts to furprife him ; but finding that their de-
figns were difeovered, and that the Jews kept upon their
guard, they had recourfe to craft and ftratagem, endea¬
vouring to draw him into an ambufeade in the fields,
where they pretended they would finilli the difpute at an
amicable conference : but Nehemiah gave them to un¬
derhand, that the work he had begun required his per-
fonal attendance ■, and therefore he could not come to
them. He fent the fame anfwer to four feveral mef-
fages that they fent one after another on the fame fub-
jeff, [Id. iv. and vi.).
Sanballat, the chief of the enemies of the Jews, to¬
gether with his affbeiates, wrote word, that a report was
fpread that the Jews were building the walls of Jerufa¬
lem only with a defign tt> make it a place of ftrength,
to fupport them in an intended revolt; that it w?as faid
alfo that Nehemiah had fuborned falfe prophets to fa¬
vour his deligns, and to encourage the people to choofe
him king 5 and to flop the courfe of thefe rumours, he
advifed h im to come to him, that they might confer to¬
gether, and take fuch refolutions as flrould be found
convenient. Nehemiah gave hxmfelf no trouble on this
account, but returned for anfw'er, that all thofe accufa-
tions wTere falfe and made at random. About the fame
time he difeovered, that a falfe prophet, called She-
tnaiah, had been corrupted by his enemies, and that
fome of the chief of the city were fecretly in confede¬
racy with them. Yet all this did not difeourage him ;
he went on with his work, and happily completed it in
two and fifty days after it had been begun.
Then he made a dedication of the walls, of the
towers, and of the gates of Jerufalem, with the folem-
nity and magnificence that fuch a wrork required. He
feparated the priefts, the Levites, and the princes of the
people, into twro companies, one of wffiich walked to
the fiouth and the other to the north, on the top of the
walls. Thefe twro companies were to meet at the tem¬
ple. The proceffion was accompanied with mufic both
vocal and inftrumental : and when they were all come
to the temple, they there read the lawq offered facrifices,
and made great rejoicings. And as the feaft of taber¬
nacles happened at the fame time, it was celebrated
with great folemnity, [Id. viii.). Nehemiah obferving
that the compafs of the city was too large for its inha¬
bitants, he ordered that the chief of the nation fhould
fix their dwelling in the city •, and caufed them to draw
lots, by which a tenth part of the whole people of Ju¬
dah were to dwell at Jerufalem, [Id. xi.). Then he ap¬
plied himfelf to the reformation of fuch abufes as had
crept into the adminifiration of the public affairs. He
curbed the inhumanity of the great ones, who held in
a flate of fiavery the ions and daughters of thofe who
were poor or unfortunate, keeping their lands in pof-
ieilion, which theie poor people had been obliged either
to mortgage or to fell to the rich. Another abufe there
was, which Ezra had in vain attempted to redrefs, that
they had contraded marriages with iirange and idola¬
trous wromen. Nehemiah, undertook to diffolve thefe
marriages, fucceeded in it, and fent away all fuch wo¬
men as had been taken againft the exprefs command of
the law, [Id. ix ). Having likew’ife obferved, that the
priefts and J. wites were obliged to take refuge wherc-
ever they could, and fo the miniftry of the temple was
not attended or performed with that decency it ought,
becaule they did not receive the revenues that the law
had appointed for their fubfifience ; he obliged the peo¬
ple pun&ually to pay the minilters of the Irord what
was due to them, and enjoined the priefls and Levites
duly to attend on their refpeblive duties, and to dif-
charge their fun&ions, [Id. xiii. io, 11, &c.) He en¬
forced the obfervation of the fabbath, which had been
much neglebled at Jerufalem, and would not permit
flrangers to come in to buy and fell, but kept the gates
of the city (lint all that day. And, to perpetuate as
much as was poffible theie good regulations which he
had newly eftablilhed, he engaged the chief men of the
nation folemnly to renew7 the covenant with the Lord.
This.ceremony was performed in the temple, and an in-
ftrument w-as drawn up, which was figned by the piin-
cipal men, both priefts and people [Id. ix. x.), in the
year of the wrorld 3551.
We read in the books of Maccabees (2 Macc. i.
19, 20, 21. &c.), that Nehemiah fent to fearch for the
holy fire, which before the captivity of Babylon the
priefts had hid in a dry and deep pit ; but not finding
any fire there, but inftead thereof a thick and muddy
■water, he fprinkled this upon the altar 5 whereupon the
wrood which had been fprinkled with this water took
fire prefently as foon as the lun began to appear.
Which miracle coming to the knowledge of the king
of Perfia, he caufed the place tp be enccmpaffed with
walls where the fire had been hid, and granted great fa¬
vours and privileges to the priefts. It is recorded in
the fame books, (2 Macc. ii. 13, 14.^). That Nehemiah
erebted a library, wherein he placed whatever he could
find, either of the books of the prophets, of David, or
of fuch princes as had made prefents to the temple.
Laftly, He returned to Babylon [Id. v. 14. and xiii. 6.)
according to the promife he had made to King Arta-
xerxes, about the thirty-fecond year of this prince, in
the year 3563. From thence he returned again to 'Je¬
rufalem, where he died in peace, about the year 3580,
having governed the people of Judah for about thirty
years.
The book wffiich in the Englifh Bible, as alfo in the
Hebrew, has the name of Nehemiah, in the Latin Bible
is called the book of E/dras; and it muft be confeffed,
that though this author fpeaks in the firft perfon, and
though at firft reading one wrould think that he had
writ it day by day as the tranfablions occurred, yet
there are fome things in this book wffiich could not
have been wTritten by Nehemiah himfelf 5 for example,
memorials are quoted wherein were regiftered the names
Neho’.v
H
Nelfon.
N E L - [ 757 1
of tlie priefts in tlie time of Jonathan the fon of Elia- early penod, and
(bib, and even to the times of the high prieft Jaddus,
who met Alexander the Great. Thefe therefore muft
have been added afterwards.
It may wrell be queftioned, whether this Nehermah
be the fame that is mentioned in Ezra, (ib 2. and
Neh. vii. 7.) as one that returned- from the Bahylo-
niih captivity under Zerubbabel } fince from the firft
year of Cvrus to the twentieth of Artaxerxes Longi-
manus, there are no lefs than ninety-two years inter¬
vening •, fo that Nehemiah mult at this time have been
a very old man, upon the lowed computation an hun¬
dred, confequently utterly incapable of being the king’s
cup-bearer, of taking a journey from Shufhan to Jeru-
falem, and of behaving there with all the courage and
activity that is recorded of him. Upon this prefump-
tion, therefore, w7e may conclude that this was a difte-
rent perfon, though of the fame name, and that Tir-
Ihatha (the other name by which he is called, Ezra ii.
63. and Neh. vii. 65.) denotes the title of his office,
and both in the Periian and Chaldean tongues was the
general name given to the king’s deputies and gover¬
nors.
NEHOW, one of the Sandwich itlands, difcovered
by Captain Cook in his lad voyage to the Pacific
ocean : thefe idands are eleven in number, and are fitu-
ated fif>m 18° 44'to 22° 15'N. Lat. and from 154° 56'
to 1600 24'W. Long.
NEIGHBOUR, 1. One who drvells or is feated
near to another (2 Kings iv. 3.) 2. Every man to
wffiom we have an opportunity oi doing good (Matt,
xxii. 39.) 3. A fellow labourer of one and the fame
people (Acts vii. 27.) 4. A friend (Jobxvi. 21.)
At the time of our Saviour, the Pharilees had redrain¬
ed the word neighbour to fignify thofe or their own na¬
tion only, or their own friends ; being of opinion that
to hate their enemy was not forbidden by their lawn
But our Saviour informed them, that the whole world
were their neighbours •, that they ought not to do to
another what they wrould not have done to themfelves 5
and that this charity ought to be extended even to their
enemies, (Matt. v. 43. Luke x. 29, &c.)
NEISSE, a town of Silefia in Germany, and the
refidence of the bidrop of Brellaw, who has a magnifi¬
cent palace here. The air is very wholefome, and
provilions are cheap ; the inhabitants carry on a great
trade in wane and linen. This place fuffered greatly by
an inundation and fire in 1729. It was taken by the
Pruffians in 1741, who augmented the fortifications af¬
ter the peace in 1742, and built a citadel to which they
gave the name of PruJJia. It is feated on a river of the
fame name, in E. Long. 17. 35. N. Lat, 50. 32.
NEIUS MONS, in Ancient Geography, at the foot of
which dood Ithaca, a torvn of the ifland of that name,
(Homer).
NELSON, The Right Honourable Viscount, one of
the mod Celebrated naval commanders, w’as the fon of
the reverend Edmund Nelfon, and was born at Burnham
Thorpe, in Norfolk, wffiere his father was redtor, in the
year 1758. He received his education at the fchool of
North Waldiam ; but we are unacquainted with the
particulars relative to his childhood, and whether the
progrefs he made in his dudies was in any refpedl ex¬
traordinary. It is certain, however, that he dilcovered
a drong prediledlion for the, naval profeffion at a very
NET,
laving quitted fchool at th«
age of
twelve years, went on board* the Raifonable of 64 guns,
commanded by his mother’s brother, Captain Maurice
Suckling.
In the month of April 1773, a voyage of difcovery
to the north pole wms undertaken by the honourable
Condantine John Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave,
in confequence of an application by the Royal Society
to Lord Sandwich 5 and although the indrudlions which
were iffued, prohibited all boys from being received on
board, yet the enterprifing fpirit of Horatio Nelfon
earnedly folicited to be appointed cockfwam to Captain
Lutwidge, rather than fubmit to be left behind 5 and
his unfubdued fpirit fo forcibly druck the captain, that
his wiih wTas complied with.
When the Ihip returned to England in the month of
Ochober 1773, Mr Nelfon having received information
that a fquadron wTas fitting out for the Ead Indies, em¬
ployed all his intered to be appointed to one of the
drips. It was not long before he was placed in the
Seahorfe of 20 guns, commanded by the celebrated
Captain Farmer, and datioued in the fore-top to keep
watch, but foon after removed to the quarter-deck.
He obtained the profeffional order of lieutenant on
the 8th of April, 1777, and received his commiffion
the next day, as fecond of the Lowmdoffe of 32 guns,
Captain William Locker, in which (hip he arrived at
Jamaica ; but feeling that his glowing mind was cir-
cumfcribed in fo fmall a frigate, he requeded the com¬
mand of a fchooner, which a6led as tender to the
Lowedoffe, thus availing himfelf of the opportunity of
becoming an experienced pilot for every intricate pal-
fage through the illands, fituated on the northern lide
of Hifpaniola.
When Sir Peter Parker arrived at Jamaica in the
year 1778, Lieutenant Nelfon was nominated by that
gallant admiral to be the third of his own flag dup,
the Bridol, and by rotation he foon became the fird.
In this ffiip his fervices terminated in the rank of a
lieutenant.
On the nth of June, 1779, he obtained the rank of
pod-captain \ and during the nine years he had been
in the fervice he not only became an able officer by his
condant attention to every part of his duty, and hii*
keen ohlervation, but he alio laid the foundation of be¬
ing a pilot of didinguidied eminence. The fird Ihip to
which he was appointed after being made a pod cap¬
tain, was the Hinchinbroke. On the arrival of Count
d’Edaign at Hifpaniola, as an attack upon Jamaica w7as
immediately apprehended, Captain Nelfon was intruded
with the command of the batteries of Port Royal, with
the concurring approbation of the Britifh admiral and
general. In the'month of January 1780, it was re-
folved on to reduce Fort Juan, on the river St John,
in the gulf of Mexico, when Captain Nelfon was made
choice of to command the naval department, and that
of the military was committed to Major Polfon. In
accompliffiing the objedl of this arduous and intereding
undertaking, Nelfon’s ufual intrepidity was again ex¬
hibited. Having quitted the dip under his command,
he fuperintended the tranfporting of the troops in boats,
300 miles up a river, which none but Spaniards had
ever navigated fince the time of the buccaneers.
His great and vigorous exertions were reprefented by
Major Polfon to General Calling in their true colour?,
nor
N E L [7
nor was his gallantry paiied over by that officer in fi-
lence. After ftorming an out-work • belonging to the
•enemy, he conftruefed batteries, and fought the Spa¬
niards •, and it is to his conduct in the redu&ion of Fort
Juan that the fuccefs of Britain has been juftly and
chiefly aicribed. He was next appointed to the Janus,
at that time flationed at Jamaica ; on his arrival at
which place every medical affiftance was given him
which his fituation required ; but as his health llill con¬
tinued on the decline, he deemed it expedient to return
to England in his majefly’s (hip Lion, the honourable
William Cornwallis commander, to whofe unremitting
care and attention he owed the prefervation of his life.
He obtained the command of the Albemarle in the
month of Auguft, 1781, which put his delicate con-
Aitution to the fevereit trial, as he was flationed during
the whole of the enfuing winter in the North feas.
He failed from Quebec in the month of O&ober,
1782, with a convoy to New York, w’here he had an
opportunity of joining the fleet under Sir Samuel
Hood 5 and in the month following he failed with him
to the Weft Indies, where he was honourably employed
until the termination of hoflilities. He foon after re¬
ceived orders to repair to England, being dire&ed to
attend in his way, his royal highnefs Prince William
Henry on his vifif to the Havannah. When he reach¬
ed England, the Albemarle was paid off at Portf-
mouth on the 311! July, 1783. During the autumn of
that year he paid a vilit to France, where he continued
till the fpring of the enfuing year, when he received
the command of the Boreas frigate of 28 guns, and his
deftination wras the Leeward iflands, where he con¬
tinued until June 1787, and was then ordered to repair
to England, In the month of March the fame year
he was married to the amiable and accomplilhed widow'
of Dr Nelbit, of the illand of Nevis. When the Boreas
frigate was paid off at Sheernefs on the 30th Novem¬
ber, 1787, he retired to the parfonage-houfe of Burn¬
ham Thorpe, which had been conferred upon him by
his father for a place of refidence, there to enjoy the
confolations which relult from domeitic felicity.
He again came forward on the 30th of January
^793, to fliine forth more confpicuous as a naval officer
than he had ever done before, at which time he re¬
ceived the command of the Agamemnon of 64 guns,
being foon placed under the orders of that truly great
and illuftrious charafler, Lord Hood, who at that pe¬
riod was deftined to command in the Mediterranean.
The unlimited confidence repofed in him by this noble
and gallant admiral, is an inconteftable evidence of the
high eftimation in which his courage and naval abilities
were held. If his fuperior deiigned to attack batteries,
or cut fliips out of the harbours in* which they were
moored •, if troops were to be landed in perilous fitua-
tions, or paffages of extreme difficulty to be explored,
the great Nelfon took the lead on every fuch occafion,
feconded by the brave officers and crew belonging to
the Agamemnon. Toulon, Baftia, and Calvi, witnef-
fed his gallant and intrepid deportment, of which Lord
Hood did not fail to make honourable mention. At
the flege of Calvi Captain Nelfon loft the fight of his
right eye, a Ihot from the battery of the enemy having
A ruck that of which he had the command, and driven
ibine particles of fand againft his face with irrefiftible
irapetupfity.-
58 ] N E L
\\ hen Lord Hood left his flation in the Mediter- Ndibu.
ranean in the month of O&ober, 1794, the command  v—“
devolved on Admiral Hotham, who honoured our hero
with an equal (hare of his confidence and effeem. On
tne 13th and 14th of March, and 13th of July 1795,
he again rendered himfelf confpicuous in the adticns
vvmch then took place with the French fleet ; and
foon after he was chofen by Admiral Hotham to co¬
operate with General De Vins, on the coaft of Genoa,
in which fervice he continued fo long as Hotham re¬
tained the command, who was fuperfeded by Sir John
Jervis. This officer fo much applauded the conduct of
Captain Nelfon, that he received the honour of wearing
a pendant of diflinftion ; and in the month of May he
was removed from the Agamemnon to the Captain of
74 guns. On the nth of Auguft he had a captain ap¬
pointed under him.
From April to Oclober I795> Commodore Nelfon
was continually employed in the mod aftive and ar¬
duous fervice, the blockade of Leghorn, the taking of
Porto Ferrajo, with the ifland of Caprea, and finally in
the evacuation of Baftia. In December 1796 he hoift-
ed his broad pendant on board La Minerve frigate,
and was difpatched with that ftxip, and La Blanche, to
Porto Ferrajo, to bring the naval ftores left there to
Gibraltar, which the fleet was in much want of. While
on this fervice in the night of the 17th December, he
fell in with two Spanifh frigates, one of which he im¬
mediately attacked, and ordered the Blanche to bear
down to engage the other. About half part ten the
commodore brought his (hip to clofe adion, which con¬
tinued without interruption till half pall one, when the
Spanifh frigate of 40 guns, 28 of which were iS
pounders, ftruck to La Minerve.
After various other adive and important fervices du¬
ring the three preceding months, Sir Horatio Nellbn,
in April 1797, hoifled his flag on board the Captain of
74 guns as rear-admiral of the blue, and in the end of
May he fhifted his flag from the Captain to the The-
feus, when he was appointed to the command of the
inner fquadron at the blockade of Cadiz. While on
this fervice he exhibited another remarkable proof of
his undaunted perfonal courage. In the attack on the
Spanifli gun-boats in July, he was boarded in his barge,
which had only the ufual complement of xo men, and
the cockfvvain. The commander of the Spanifh gun¬
boats, in a barge with 30 men and oflicers, made a
defperate attack on the admiral and his brave compa¬
nions. The conflid remained long doubtful, but after
18 of the Spaniards w ere killed, and almoft the whole
of the remainder wounded, the rear-admiral and his
brave crew fucceeded in carrying this fuperior force.
On the 15th of July the fame year, Admiral Nelfon
was detached with a imall fquadron to attack the town
of Santa Cruz in the ifland of Teneriffe. A thoufand
men, including marines, were landed in the courfe of a
dark night, made themfelves mafters of the town, and
retained poffeffion of it for feven hours ; but finding it
impoffible to ftorm the citadel, they prepared for their
retreat, which the Spaniards allowed them to make un-
molefled, agreeable to the ftipulations which had been
entered into. In this unfortunate attack the brave
Nelfon loft his arm by a cannon (hot.
But a more Iplendid lc::m- of ’■Iw life of our hero is
now opening. On the 13th of April 1798 he was de¬
tached
N E L [ 759 ] N E L
Nehon. tached from Earl St Vincent’s fleet, in purfuit of the
French to the coafl: of Egypt, with 12 fail of the line
and one 50 gun (hip, while the enemy’s fleet conflfled
of 13 fail ol the line and four frigates, protedted by the
batteries on the flrore, and feveral gun-boats. This me¬
morable aftion commenced at funfet, and terminated
glorioufly for the honour of our hero and that of the
Britilh navy. Nine fail of the line fell into the hands
of the conqueror, two were burnt, and two effected
their efcape. The brave Nelfon was wounded in the
aftion, believing hirnfelf to have been (hot through the
head 5 but after his wound was examined by the fur-
geon, it was happily found not to be mortal, a cir-
cumflance which diffufed the moil; lively fatisfaftion
through the whole fleet. To the honour of this great
man it ought to be mentioned, that even under the
convi£lion of approaching diflblution, he prepared for
the interefling change with calmnefs and fortitude, de¬
fined his chaplain to recommend him to Lady Nelfon,
appointed the brave Hardy to the rank of pofl-captain
and to the command of a fhip, and took an affe£lionate
.leave of Captain Louis.
The French admiral’s (hip, L’Orient, was blown up
during the aflion. From the mainmaft; of this (hip
Captain Hallowell ordered a coffin to be conftructed,
■which wras prefented to Admiral Nelfon, and gratefully
accepted by the hero, as a token of affeflionate regard.
For fome months he had it placed upright in his
cabin ; but in confequence of the entreaties of an old
fervant, the admiral was at length prevailed on to al¬
low it to be removed. Our readers will not be fur-
prifed that Lord Nelfon (hould now be regarded as the
great defence of the empire, and the fupport of her na¬
tional glory. It is to his gallantry and naval (kill that
we are indebted for the viflory of Copenhagen, and
the annihilation of that formidable northern confede¬
racy which menaced the profperity, the commerce, the
very exiftence of the red of Europe.
One of the moft important fervices which Lord Nel¬
fon performed, was the purfuit of the combined fleets
of France and Spain to the Weft Indies. This fleet
had failed from Cadiz on the 10th of April, and it was
at firfl: conjeflured that Egypt was the place of their
deflination. In confequence of this conje61ure, Lord
Nelfon failed in purfuit of the enemy for the coafl: of
Egypt ; and, having miffed his object, after reconnoi¬
tring that coafl, he paffed the (traits of Gibraltar, and
anchored in Lagos bay on the 10th of May ; foon after
which he failed for the Wed Indies with ten (hips of
the line j arrived off Barbadoes on the 4th of June ; and
having touched at Tobago, Trinidad, and Grenada, at
the latter of which places he was informed that the
combined fleet had been feen on the 6th off Dominica ;
he reached at Antigua on the 12th, where he received in¬
formation that the enemy had been feen on the 8ih (land¬
ing to the northward. Lord Nelfon, without the lofs
of a moment, continued the purfuit of the enemy on
their return to Europe, where they arrived about the
end of July 5 and after taking in provinons and
water at Gibraltar, and reconnoitring the harbour of
Cadiz •, he returned to England, where he arrived in
the Victory, on the 18th of Auguft, after having been
engaged for nearly four months in one of the mod ar¬
duous, and, at the fame time, one of the moft important
and beneficial, although, in its immediate objedt, unfuc-
cefsful er.terprifes, for which his life was diftingukhed. N
His lordfhip had now been abfent from England more
than two years, on the Mediterranean ftation.
The concluding feene of this extraordinary man’s
naval career, kindles emotions of admiration and re¬
gret ; and at once excites both tranfport and extreme
of forrow. Perhaps no adlion, in point of fplendour
and magnanimity, can equal that which deprived his
country of one ot the greateft heroes it ever produced.
Britons appear to be feufible of its vaft importance •, yet
it is not improbable that poilerity will confider it as ft ill
mere (plendid, their love and admiration not being
damped, by the poignant recolledlion that they perfonal-
ly favv the man by whole lofs it was accomplilhed.
When Lord Ntlfon perceived that, in confequence of
his manoeuvres, he h«d reduced the enemy to the abfo-
lute neceffity of engaging him, he exclaimed in the
prefence of Captain Hardy and the other officers who
furrounded him on the quarter deck.; “ Now they can¬
not efcape us ; I think we (hall at lead; make fare of
twenty of them.—I (hall probably lofe a leg, but that
will be purchafing a victory cheaply.” But alas !
amidft the inexpreffible fatisfafficn and delight, which
a victory fo (plendid could not fail to infpire, he ha*
left us to lament that it was purchafed by the lofs cf a
life fo incomparably valuable.
His lordftiip’s flag (hip fell on board the Redoubtable,
by which means he was expofed to the fire of the muf-
ketry from the tops-, and the infignia of his grandeur and
dignity, it is fuppofed, fingled him out to the aims of the
enemy, which in the iffue were too fatally fuccefsfuh
His fecretary was cut in two by his fide with a chain
(hot, and foon after a ball grazed his lordftiip’s (boul¬
der, entered his left bread, and paffed through his
lungs. He lived about three hours after this tragical
event, during which he remained perfectly recolledled,
and he difplayed the fame heroic magnanimity in the
arms of death, which had fo eminently diflinguiih-
ed him through the whole of his career. His laid
words to Captain Hardy were, “ I know I am dying.
I could have wifhed to furvive to breathe my laft upon
Britifh ground, but the will of God be done !” In a
few moments he expired. His laft fignal ought not,
and will not be forgotten, which was by telegraph,—
“ That England expelled every man would do his du¬
ty.” Pie fpoke in raptures concerning the event of the
day only a fhort time before his diffolution, and fent
word to Admiral Collingwocd, defiring that he would
make his affe&ionate farewell to all his brother feamen
throughout the fleet. In this manner died, in the 47th
year of his age, the greateft commander that perhaps
ever adorned the Britiffi navy, leaving behind him a
name dear to Great Britain, and an example of heroifm
which will infpire his companions in arms to emulate
his virtues, that they too may live in the remembrance
of a grateful pefterity.
His Angular plan of attack on this memorable ocea-
fion was communicated by his lordlhip to all his cap¬
tains, who unanimoufly gave it as their opinion that it
could not poffibly fail of fuccefs, being conceited with
fuch eonfummate wifdom ; and they even pledged their
lives for the favourable refult of it. His titles u’ere,
Vifcount Nelfon, and Duke of Bronte.—The united
parliament voted him a penfion of 30C0I. a year, to con¬
tinue during his ovvn life and his two next heirs ; the
Eaft
.N E M [ 760 ] N E M
TSTelfoti Eafl: India company made him a prefent of 10,000!.; the
« grand fignior gave him a diamond aigrette worth 4000I.:
Game? emperor of Ruflla gave him a diamond box worth
—v 1 2500I. j the king of Naples made him prefents to the
amount of 5000I. together with the dukedom of Bronte,
and an eftate of 3000]. per annum. Thus all Europe
confpired to teftify the eitimation in which they held
this dihinguilhed hero ; and the numerous monuments
which have been, and Hill are creeling to his memory
throughout the Britilh empire, will continue hailing
evidences of the efteem in which he was held by his
grateful country. Parliament alfo voted a fum for the
purchafe of an eflate for his heirs, and his majefly
conferred the title of earl on his immediate fuccefior.
Nor were his talents wholly confined to the know¬
ledge of naval taffies, for it is known that as a fenator
he was highly refpeflable, although he enjoyed few op¬
portunities of coming forward in that capacity. When
he did, his fpeeches were heard by their lordlhips with
refpeff, and the molt profound attention. The few
fpecimens we have of his abilities as a politician, afford
no mean proof that if he had devoted as much of his
time to thofe ftudies as he did to his peculiar profeffion,
he would have made a diftinguifhed figure in the houfe
of peers.
NEMAUSIS, or Nemausum, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, the capital of the Arecomici in Gallia Narbonen-
fis •, a colony, (Coin), with the furname Augujla, (In-
feription). In it Hands a Roman amphitheatre, which
is ftil! almoft entire. Now' Nifmes in Languedoc.
NEMEA {Strabo, Livy) ; a river of Achaia, run¬
ning between Sicycn and Corinth, the common boun¬
dary of both territories, a;rd falling into the Corinthi¬
an bay.
Nemea, in Ancient Geography, fituated between
Cleonae and Philus in Argolis ; whether town, dillricf,
or other thing, uncertain ; there a grove flood in w'hich
the Argives celebrated the Nemean games, and there
happened all the fabulous circumftances of the Nemean
lion. The diffridf Nemea is called Bembmadia, (Pli¬
ny ; a village, Bembina, Handing near Nemea, (Strabo).
Stephanus places Nemea in Elis 5 though not in Elis,
» but on its borders •, Pliny, erroneoufiy, in Arcadia. In
the adjoining mountain is Hill flrown the den of the li¬
on, diflant 15 fladia from the 'pXact Nemea, (Paufanias) ;
in which Hands a confiderable temple of Jupiter Ne-
mceus and Cleonseus, from the vicinity of thefe twTo
places. This place gave name to the Nemaean games,
celebrated every third year.
NEMEAN games, fo called from Nemea, a vil¬
lage between the cities of Cleonse and Philus, where
they were celebrated every third year. The exercifes
were chariot-races, and all the parts of the Pentathlum.
Thefe games were inflituted in memory of Opheltes or
Archemorus the fon of Euphetes and Creufa, and who
was nurfed by Hypfipele-, who leaving him in a mea¬
dow wdiile fhe went to fimw the befiegers of Thebes a
fountain, at her return found him dead, and a ferpent
twdned about his neck : whence the fountain, before
called Langia, was named Arclmnorus ; and the cap- Nemefiantts
tains, to comfort Hypfipele, infiituted thefe games.— ^ ^
Others aferibe their inlHtution to Hercules, after his x'"" A
victory ever the Nemean lion. Others allow, that they
were infiituted firfi in honour of Archemorus'j but in¬
termitted, and revived again by Hercules. The victors
were crowned with parfley, an herb ufed at funerals, and
feigned to have fprung from Archemorus’s blood. The «.
Argives prefided at thefe games.
NEMESIANUS, Aurelius Olympics, a Latin *
poet who was born at Carthage, and tlourilhed about
the year 281, under the emperor Cams, and his fons
Carinus and Numerian ; the lafl of which emperors
was lo fond of poetry, that he contelled the glory with
Nemefianus, who had written a poem upon filhing and
maritime affairs. We have Hill remaining a’ poem of
our author called Cynegeticon, and four eclogues : they
were publilhed by Paulus Manutius in 1538 ; by Bar-
tbelet in 1613 } at*Leyden in 1653 5 with the notes of
Janus Vlitias. Giraldi hath prelerved a fragment of
Nemefianus, which was communicated to him by San-
nazarius, to whom we are obliged for our poet’s works;
for having found them written in Gothic chara&ers, he
procured them to be put into the Roman, and then fent
them to Paulus Manutius. Although this poem hath
acquired fome reputation, it is greatly inferior to thofe
of Oppian and Gratian upon the fame fubjeft •, yet Ne-
mefianus’s flyle is natural enough, and has fome degree
of elegance. The wmild was fo much poffeffed with an
opinion of his poem in the eighth century, that it was
read among the clafiics in the public fchools, particular¬
ly in the time of Charlemagne, as appears from a letter
of the celebrated Hincmar bifiiop of Rheims, to his
nephew Hincmar of Laon.
NEMESIS, in Pagan w'orfhip, the daughter of Ju¬
piter and Neceffity, or, according to others, of Oceanus
and Nox, had the care of revenging the crimes which
human jufiice left unpunifhed. She w’as alfo called
Adrajleea, becaufe Adraflus king of Argos firfl raifed
an altar to her \ and Rhamnujia, from her having a
magnificent temple at Rhamnus in Attica. She had
likewife a temple at Rome in the Capitol. She is re-
prefented with a Hern countenance, holding a w’hip in
one hand and a pair of feales in the other.
NEMESIUS, a Greek philofopher who embraced
Chriflianity, and was made bifirop of Emefa ;n Phoeni¬
cia, where he had his birth ; he flouriflied in the begin¬
ning of the fifth century. There is a work of his extant,
entitled De Natura Hominis, in which he refutes the fa¬
tality of the Stoics and the errors of the Manichees, the
Apollianarifis, and the Eunomians j but he efpoufes the
opinion of Origin concerning the pre exifience of fouls.
(a). This treatife was tranilated by Valla, and print¬
ed in 1535. Another verfion was afterwards made of
it by Ellebodius, and printed in 1665 •, it is alfo infert-
ed in the Bibliotheca Patrum, in Greek and Latin.
Lafily, Another edition was publiflred at Oxford in
i6~]i, folio, wdth a learned preface, wherein the editor
endeavours to prove, from a paffage in this book, that
the
(a) It is much more probable that he and Origen both brought their opinion with them from the fchools of
philofophy, than that either of them borrow'td it from the other. See Metaphysics, Part III. Chap. IV.
N E O [76
Nemine the circulation of the blood was known to Nemefius 5
H _ which, however was fince (hown to be a miftake by
.Neomcma. jn his HiJIory of Phyfc.
y NEMINE contradicente, “ none contradifting
it j” a term chiefly ufed in parliament when any thing
is carried without oppofition.
NEMOURS, a town of the Ifle of France, in
the Gatinois, formerly with the title of a duchy. It
is feated on the river Loing, in E. Long. 2. 45. N.
Lat. 48. 15.
NENAGH, a pofl; and fair town of Ireland, in the
county of Tipperary, and province of Munfter, 75 miles
from Dublin. It is fituated on a branch of the river
Shannon which runs into Lough-Derg. Here ftand
the ruins of an old caftle called Nenagh-round. Alfo
thofe of an hofpital founded in the year 1200, for ca¬
nons following the rule of St Auguftin. It was dedi¬
cated to St John the Baptift, and w'as ufually called
Teachon, or St John’s houfe. In the reign of Henry
III. a friary for conventual Francifcans was alfo found¬
ed here, and eiteemed the richefl: foundation of that or¬
der in the kingdom. Here is a barrack for two troops
of horfe. This town was burnt on St Stephen’s day
1348, by the Irifh. The fairs held here are four.
NENIA, or N;enia, in the ancient poetry, a kind
of funeral long fung to the mufic of flutes at the obfe-
quies of the dead. Authors reprefent them as forry
compofitions, fung by hired women mourners called
Prcefcce. The firfl rife of thefe Nenia is afcribed to
the phyficians. In the heathen antiquity, the goddefs
©f tears and funerals was called Nenia; whom fooie
fuppofe to have given that name to the funeral fong,
and others to have taken her name from it.
NEOCESARIA, (Pliny), a town of Pontus on the
fouth or the left fide of the Lycus. About the year
342, when Leontius and Salluflius were confuls, it was
entirely ruined by a dreadful earthquake, no edifice
having withftood the violence of the fliock, except the
church and the biihop’s habitation, who was faved, with
the clergy and fome other pious perfons, wdiile the reft
of the inhabitants were buried in its ruins.
NEOMAGUS, (Ptolemy) •, Noviomagus, (An-
tonine) } a town of the Regni in Britain : now thought
to be Guildford in Surry, (Lhuyd) ; or Croydon, (Tal¬
bot). But Camden takes it to be Woodcote, two miles
to the fouth of Croydon, where traces of an ancient
town are Hill to be feen.
Neomagus, (Ptolemy) •, Noviomagus, ( Antonine) ; a
town of the Treviri on the Mofelle. Now Numagsn
14 miles eaft, below Triers.
Neomagus, (Ptolemy) ; Ntviomagus Lexoviorum,
(Antonine) 5 a town of Gallia Celtica. Now Lifetnc,
in Normandy.
Neomagus, (Ptolemy) ; Noviomagus Nemetum, (An¬
tonine). Now Spire, a .city of the Palatinate, on the
left or weft fide of the Rhine.
Neomagus, (Ptolemy) ; a town of Gallia Narbo-
nenfis, on the confines of the Tricaftini. Now Nijons
in Dauphine.
NEOMENIA, or Noumenia, a feftival of the an¬
cient Greeks, at the beginning of every lunar month,
which, as the name imports, was obferved upon the day
of the new' moon, in honour of all the gods, but efpe-
cially Apollo, who was called Neotnenios, becaufe the
fun is the fountain of light) and whatever diftindion
Vol. XIV. Part II.
1 ] N E P
of times and feafons may be taken from other planets, Neophyte
yet they are all owing to him as the original of thofe ^
borrowed rays by which they (bine. , ■
The games and public entertainments at thefe fefti-
vals were made by the rich, to whofe tables the poor
flocked in great numbers. The Athenians at thefe
times offered folemn prayers and facrifices for the pro-
fperity of their country during the enfuing month. See
Games.
The Jews had alfo their neomenia, or feaft of the new
moon, on which peculiar facrifices wTere appointed : and
on this day they had a fort of family entertainment and
rejoicing. The moft celebrated neomenia of all others
was that at the beginning of the civil year, or firft day
of the month Tifri, on which no fervile labour was per¬
formed : they then offered particular burnt facrifices,
and founded the trumpets of the temple. The modern
Jews keep the nebmenia only as a feaft of devotion,
which any one may obferve or not as he pleafes.
NEOPHYTES, “ new plants a name given by
the ancient Chriltians to thofe heathens who had newly
embraced the faith ; fuch perfons being confidered as
regenerated, or born anew by baptifm. The term neo¬
phytes has been alfo ufed for new priefts, or thofe juft
admitted into orders, and fometimes for the novices
in monafteries. It is ftill applied to the converts made
by the miflionaries among the infidels.
NEPA, a genus of infers belonging to the order of
hemiptera. See Entomology Index.
NEPAL, a kingdom of India, to the north-eaft of
the city of Patna, at the diftance of about 12 days jour¬
ney. The roads in the mountains are both narrow
and dangerous, but in the plains they are allowed to be
good. Some parts of it are obnoxious to a putrid fe¬
ver, of which thofe who are feized with it die in a few
days j but the people in the plains are not obnoxious
to it. The plain is about 200 miles in circumference,
and the only entrance to it is by the mountains. It
contains three principal cities \ Cat'hmandu, having
about 18,000 houfes ; Lelit Pattan contains 24,000;
and B^hatgan 12,000 families. Befides thefe there are
many large and populous towns, the chief of which are
Timi and Cipoli. The religion of the inhabitants, like
that of moft other countries in a ftate little removed
from barbarifm, abounds with a number of abfurd rites
and ceremonies, which it would be fuperfluous to enu¬
merate ; but many of them adopt that of the Brahmins,
the moral part of which, in many refpecls, muft be al¬
lowed to be excellent.
The temple of Baghero in the city of Lelit Pattan,
is faid to be fuperior to the king’s palace, on account
of the immenie quantities of gold, filver, and jewels
which it contains ; and the waters of a river about
three miles from Cat’hmandu are confidered as holy,
to which people of rank are conveyed in the profpecl
of death. This kingdom is believed to be of very
great antiquity, as its language and independence have
been preferved from time immemorial; yet the diffen-
fions of its nobles completely ruined it not many years
ago, who could not agree about the choice of a proper
fucceiTor on the death of their fovercign.
NEPENTPJES, a genus of plants belonging to the
gynandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
among thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Bo¬
tany Index.
5 D NEPETA,
N E P [
NEPETA, Catmint, or Ncp, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the didynamia clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 42d order, Vcrlicillatce. See
Botany Index.
NEPHELIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the
monoecia clafs. See Botany Index.
NEPHEW, a term relative to uncle and aunt, fig-
nifying a brother’s or filler’s fon ; who, according to
the civil law, is in the third degree of confanguinity,
but according to the canon in the fecond.
NEPHRITIC, fomething that relates to the kid¬
neys. See Kidney.
Nephritic Wood, (lignum nephriticum'), a wood of
a very denfe and compadl texture, and of a fine grain,
brought tb us from New Spain in fmall blocks, in its
natural ftate, and covered with its bark.
This wood is faid to be a good diuretic •, and we are
told it is ufed among the Indians in all difeafes of the
kidneys and bladder, and in fuppreffion of urine, from
whatever caufe. It is alfo recommended in fevers, and
in obllrudtions of the vifcera. The way of taking it
among the Indians is only an infufion in cold water.
1 befe ufes are not however properly afcertained. See
Guilandina, Botany Index.
Nephritic Stone. See Jade, Mineralogy Index.
NEPHRITICS, in Pharmacy, medicines proper
for difeafes of the kidneys. See Materia Medica
Index.
NEPHRITIS, or inflammation of the kidneys. See
Medicine Index.
NEPOS, Cornelius, a celebrated Latin biogra¬
pher, who flourilhed in the time of Julius Caefar, and
lived, according to St Jerome, to the fixth year of
Auguflus. He was an Italian, if we may credit Ca¬
tullus, and born at Hoftilia, a fmall town in the ter¬
ritory of Verona, in Cifalpine Gaul. Aufonius, how’-
ever, will have it that he was born in the Gauls : and
in that they may both be in the right, provided that
under the name of Gam is comprehended Gallia Cifal-
pina, which is in Italy. Leander Alberti thinks Ne-
pos’s country was Verona ; and he is fure that he
was either born in that city or neighbourhood. For
the reft, Cicero and Atticus were friends of our au¬
thor ; who wrote the lives of the Greek hiftorians, as
he himfelf attefts in that of Dion, fpeaking of Philif-
tus. What he fays, alfo, in the lives of Cato and Han¬
nibal, proves that he had alfo written the lives of the
Latin captains and hitlorians. He wrote fomc other
excellent works which are loft.
All that we have left of his at prefent is, “ The
J.ives of the illuftrious Greek and Roman Captains j”
which were a long time afcribed to AEmilius Probus,
who publithed them, as it is faid, under his own name,
to infinuate himfelf thereby into the favour of the em¬
peror Theodofius j but, in the courfe of time, the
fraud has been difcovered, although feveral learned
perfons have confounded the two authors. This piece
ha§ been tranllated into French by the Sieur de Cla-
veret, with a dedication to the duke of Longueville,
in 1663 ; and again by M. le Gras, then of the con¬
gregation of the Oratory at Paris, 1729, i2mo. We
have an excellent tranflation of it into Englifh, by fe¬
veral hands at Oxford, which has gone through feveral
editions.
NEPTUNE> in Pagan worlhip, the god of the
762 ] N E P
fea, was the fon of Saturn and Vefta or Ops, and the Neptune;
brother of Jupiter and Pluto. He aflifted Jupiter in ~—r—™'
his expeditions \ on which that god, when he arrived
at the fupreme power, aftigned him the fea and the
illands for his empire. He was, however, expelled
from heaven with Apollo for confpiring againft Ju¬
piter, when they were both employed by Laomedon
king of Phrygia in building the walls of Troy ; but
that prince difmifling Neptune without a reward, he
fent a fea monfter to lay wafte the country, on which
he was obliged to expofe his daughter Hefione. ILe
is faid to have been the firft inventor of horfemanfliip
and chariot racing j on which account Mithridates
king of Pontus threw chariots drawn by four horfes
into the fea in honour of this god $ and the Romans
inftituted horfe races in the circus at his feftival,
during which all other horfes left working, and the
mules were adorned with wreaths of flowers.
In a conteft with Minerva he produced a horfe by
ftriking the earth with his trident ; and on another
occafion, in a trial of Ikill with Minerva and Vulcan,
produced a bull, whence that animal was faerificed to
him. His favourite wife was Amphytrite, whom he
long courted in vain, till fending a dolphin to inter¬
cede for him, he met with fuccefs j on which he re¬
warded the dolphin by placing him among the ftars.
He had alfo two other wives, one of whom was called
Salajia from the fait water the other Venilia from
the ebbing and flowing of the tides. He had like-
wife many concubines, by whom he had a great num¬
ber of children. He is reprefented with black hair,
with a garment of an azure or fea green j holding his
trident in his hand, and feated in a large (hell drawn
by fea horfes; attended by the fea gods Palemon,
Glaucus, and Phorcys, and the fea goddefles Thetis,
Melita, and Panopaea, and a long train of tritons and
fea nymphs.
This deity was known in Egypt by the name of Ce-
nobus or Canopus, and was worihipped as the numen a-
quarum or fpirit of the Nile. His emblem was the fi¬
gure of certain vafes or pitchers, with which the Egyp¬
tians filtrated the water of their facred river, in order
to purify and render it fit for ufe. From the mouth
of each of thefe vafes, which were charged with hie-
roglyphics, arofe the head and fometimes the head
and hands, of a man or woman. Such are the em¬
blems w’hich ftill remain of the Egyptian Neptune or
Canobus; and it was by this emblem that the tute¬
lar god of Egypt vanquifhed the god of Chaldea in
the ridiculous manner mentioned by Ruffinus in his
Ecclefiaftical Hiftory *. * nf, fc •
“ The Chaldeans (fays he) who adored the fire, cap. ?<5.
carried their god into various countries that he might
try his ftrength in contefts with other gods. He
vanquifhed, as we may eafily conceive, the images
made of gold, filver, brafs, and wood, &c. by reducing
them to allies *, and thus the worfhip of fire was every¬
where eftablifhed. The prieft of Canobus, unwilling,
as became him, to admit the fuperiority of ftrange
gods, contrived to make his god vanquifh the god
of Chaldaea in a pitched battle. The vafes which were
worfhipped as the emblems of Canobus being ufed for
filtering the waters of the Nile, were ©f courfe per¬
forated on all fides with very fmall holes. This
faithful prieft having flopped all the holes in one of
thefe
N E R C 763 ] N E R
tbcfe vvitli was, .and painted the vafe of different co¬
lours for a reafon which the reader will admit to be
a good one, filled it up with water, and fitted to its
mouth the head of an idol. This emblem of Cano¬
bus was then placed in a fmall fire brought by the
Chaldaeans as the emblem of their god ; and thus the
gods of Egypt and Chaldsea were forced into battle.
The conteft, however, w^as of fhort duration. The
heat melting the w7ax made way for the water to run
out, which quickly extinguifhed the fire $ and thus
Canobus vanquished the god of the Chaldeans.” Ri¬
diculous as this flory is, it is perfe&ly fuitable to the
genius of Paganifm, and the mean artifices of the Pagan
priefthood j but we fufpeft that the hiftorian laboured
under one miftake, and fubftituted the Chaldaeans in-
ftead of the Perfians. See Polytheism.
NEREIDS, in the Pagan theology, fea nymphs,
daughters of Nereus and Doris.—The Nereids were
efteemed very handfome ; infomuch that Cafllope, the
wife of Cepheus king of Ethiopia, having triumphed
over all the beauties of the age, and daring to vie
with the Nereids, they were fo enraged that they fent
a prodigious fea monfter into the country j and, to
appeafe them, (he was commanded by the oracle to ex-
pofe her daughter Andromeda, bound to a rock, to be
devoured by the monfter. In ancient monuments, the
Nereids are reprefented riding upon fea horfes •, fome-
times with an entire human form, and at other times
%vith the tail of a fifh.
NEREIS, a genus of animals belonging to the or¬
der of vermes mollufca. See Helminthology Index.
NEREUS, in fabulous biftory, a marine deity, was
fon of Oceanus and Thetis. He fettled in the TEgean
fea, was confidered as a prophet, and had the power
of affuming what form he pleafed. He married his
fitter Doris, by whom he had 50 daughters called the
Nereids, who conftantly attended on Neptune, and
when he wTent abroad furrounded his chariot.
NERI, Anthony, a learned wmiter who publilhed
a curious book printed at Florence 1612, in 410, with
this title Dell"' Arte Verraria Libri VII.; or the Art
vf Glafsmahing.
NERIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria clafs; and in the natural method ranking under
the 30th order, Contortce. See Botany and Dyeing
Index.
NERO, Claudius Domitius C^sar, a celebrated
Roman emperor, fon of Caius Domitius Ahenobarbus
and Agrippina the daughter of Germanicus. He was
adopted by the emperor Claudius, A. D. 50, and four
years after he fucceeded to him on the throne. In the
beginning of his reign he (bowed, feveral marks of the
greateft kindnefs and condefcenfion, affability, com-
plaifance, and popularity. The objeft of his admini-
ftration feemed to be the good of his people ; and when
he wras defired to fign his name to a lift of malefac¬
tors that were to be executed, he exclaimed, Would
to heaven I could not write ! He hated flattery ; and
when the fenate had liberally commended the wfifdom
of his government, he defired them to keep their
praifes till he deferved them. Thefe promifing virtues
foon, however, proved to be artificial : Nero foon dif-
played the real propenfities of his nature. He deliver¬
ed hirafelf from the fway of his mother, and at laft
ordered her to be murdered. This unnatural act of bar¬
barity might aftonifii fotne, but Nero had his devoted
adherents j and when he declared that he had taken
away his mother’s life to fave himfelf from ruin, the
fenate applauded his meafures, and the people figmfied
their approbation. Many of his courtiers (hared her
unhappy* fate ; and Nero facrificed to his fury or ca¬
price all fuch as obftrudted his pleafure or diverted his
inclination. In the night he generally wrent from his
palace to vifit the meanert taverns, and all the feenes
of debauchery which Rome contained. In this noc¬
turnal riot he was fond of infulting the people in the
ftreets and his attempts to offer violence to the wife
of a Roman fenator nearly cod him his life. He alfo
turned a&or, and openly appeared on the Roman ftage
in the meaneft chara&ers. In his attempts to excel in
mufic, and to conquer the difadvantages of a hoarfe
difagreeable voice, he moderated his meals, and often
paffed the day without eating. The Olympian games
attra&ed his notice : he went into Greece, and pre-
fented himfelf a candidate for the public honour. He
was defeated in wreftling •, but the flattery of the
fpeftators adjudged him the vidtory, and he returned
to Rome with all the fplendour and pomp of an eaftern
conqueror, drawm in the chariot of Auguftus, and at¬
tended by a band of muficians, actors, and ftage dan¬
cers from every part of the empire. Thefe private
and public amufements of the emperor were indeed
innocent; his character only was injured, and not the
lives of the people. His condudl, however, foon be¬
came more abominable : he difguifed himfelf in the
habit of a woman, and was publicly married to one of
his eunuchs. This violence to nature and decency
was foon exchanged for another : Nero refumed his
fex, and celebi'ated his nuptials wfith one of his mean-
eft catamites : and it was on this occafion that one
of the Romans obferved that the world would have
been happy if Nero’s father had had fuch a wife. But
his cruelty was now difplayed in a dill higher degree,
for he facrificed to his wantonnefs his wife O&avia
Poppaea, and the celebrated writers, Seneca, Lucan,
Petronius, &c. Nor did the Chriftians efcape his
barbarity. He had heard of the burning of Troy ;
and as he wilhed to renew7 that difmal feene, he caufed
Rome to be fet on fire in different places. The con¬
flagration became foon univerfal, and during nine fuc-
ceffive days the fire continued. All was defolation :
nothing was heard but the lamentations of mothers
w7hofe children had periftied in the flames, the groans
of the dying, and the continual fall of .palaces and
buildings. Nero was the only one wTho enjoyed the
general confternation. He placed himfelf on the top
of a high tower, and he fung on his lyre the deftruc-
tion of Troy, a dreadful feene which his barbarity had
realized before his eyes. He attempted to avert the pub¬
lic odium from his head by a pretended commiferation of
the miferies of his fubje&s. He began to repair the
ftreets and the public buildings at his own expence.
He built himfelf a celebrated palace, wffnch he called his
golden houfe. It was liberally adorned with gold, with
precious ftones, and with every thing rare and exquifite.
It contained fpacious fields, artificial lakes, weods,
gardens, orchards, and whatever exhibited a beautiful
feene. The entrance of this edifice could admit a large
coloffus of the emperor 120 feet high j the galleries
were each a mile long, and the whole was covered with
5 D 2 gold.
Nero.
(
N E R r 764 ] N E S
gold. The roofs of the dining halls reprefented the
firmament, in motion as well as in figure 5 and conti¬
nually turned round night and day, Ihowering down
ail forts of perfufnes and fweet waters. When this
grand edifice, which, according to Pliny, extended
all round the city, was finiflied, Nero faid, that now
hfe could lodge like a man. His profufion was not lefs
remarkable in all his other adtions. When he went
a filhing, his nets were of gold and fiik. He never ap¬
peared twice in the fame garment ‘7 and when he trok
a voyage, there were thoulands of fervants to take care
of his wardrobe. This continuation of debauchery
and extravagance at laft roufed the people. Many
confpiracies wjere formed againft him ■, but they were
generally difeovered, and fuch as were acceffory fuf-
fered the fevereft punifhments. The moll dangerous
confpiracy againll Nero’s life was that of Pifo, from
which he was faved by the confeffion of a Have. The
confpiracy of Galba proved more fuccefsful, who, when
he was informed that his plot was known to Nero, de¬
clared himfelf emperor. The unpopularity of Nero fa¬
voured his caufe 5 he was acknowledged by all the
Roman empire, and the fenate condemned the tyrant
to be dragged naked through the llreets of Rome, and
whipped to death, and afterwards to be thrown down
from the Tarpeian rock like the meaneft malefadlor.
This, however, was not executed ; for Nero pre¬
vented it by a voluntary death. He killed himfelf,
A. D. 68, in the 32d year of his age, after a reign
of 13 years and eight months. Rome was filled with
acclamations on the occafion : and the citizens, mere
ftrongly to indicate their joy, wore caps, fuch as
were generally ufed by flaves who had received their
freedom. Their vengeance was not only exercifed
againft the ftatues of the deceafed monfter, but many
of his friends were the object of the public refentment 5
and many were crufhed to pieces in luch a violent
manner, that one of the fenators, amid the univerfal
joy, faid that he was afraid they Ihould foon have
caufe to wilh for Nero. The tyrant, as he expired,
requefted that his head might not be cut off from
his body, and expofed to the infolence of the popu¬
lace, but that the whole might be burned on the
funeral pile. Plis requeft was panted by one of Galba’s
freedmen, and his obfequies were performed with the
ufual ceremonies. Though his death feemed to be the
fource of general gladnefs, yet many of his favourites
lamented his fall, and were grieved to fee that their
pleafures and amufements were flopped by the death
of this patron of debauchery and extravagance. Even
the king of Parthia fent ambaffadors to Rome, to con¬
dole with the Romans, and to beg that they would
honour and revere the memory of Nero. His ftatues
were alfb crowned with garlands of flowers ; and
many imagined that he was not dead, but that he
would foon make his appearance and take vengeance
on his enemies. It will be fufficient to obferve, in
finifliing the charadler of this tyrannical monfter, that
the name^of Nero is even now ufed emphatically to ex-
prefs a barbarous and unfeeling oppreffor. Pliny calls
him the common enemy and fury of mankind j and fo
indeed he has been called by all writers, who exhibit
Nero as a pattern of the moft execrable barbarity and
unpardonable wantonnefs. The fame Pliny furnilhes us
with this lingular anecdote of him : “ Nero had or¬
dered himfelf to be painted under the figure df a co- Nerva
loffus, upon cloth or canvas, 1 20 feet in height.” Pie t ii.
adds, “ that this prepofterous picture, when it was fi- ,
niQied, met with its fate from lightning, which con-
fumed it, and involved likewifa the moft beautiful part
of the gardens where it was placed in the confiagra-
tion.”
NERVA, Cocceius, a Roman emperor after Do-
mitian, who was the laft of the 12 Cuefars. He was,
a native of Narnia in Umbria ; his family however was
originally of Crete. Dion Cafiius fays he was born on
the 17th of March, in the 18th year of Tiberius’s reign,
and of the Chriftian era the 3 2d. Nero in the 1 2th year
of his reign made him praetor, and ereffed a ftatue for
him in the palace on account of his poems (for he was
one of the heft poets of his age), forne of which were
inferibed to him. He was conful in 71 with Vefpafian,
and in 90 with Domitian.
Ancient authors uniformly celebrate him as a prince
of a moft mild and humane temper, of great modera¬
tion and generofity, who looked on his office as em¬
peror, not as if it was for his own advantage, but for
that of his people j and whilft he reigned, which was
however but for a ffiort time, he made the happinefs of
his fubjecls his only end and purf fit. He narrowly
efcaped death under Domitian •, was naturally of a
weak and timorous difpofition j and, as feme fay,
addiffed to exceffive drinking. The Romans unani-
moufly crofe him emperor *, and they had no caufe to
repent of their choice, for he was conftantly attentive
to what could make them happy 7 he was generous,
merciful, and difinterefted. An inftance of his great
lenity appears in his pardoning Calpurnius Craffus who
confpired againft him. In fliort, he omitted nothing
that might contribute to the reftoring of the empire
to its former luftre : recalling thofe who had been ba-
niftied for religion, and redreffing all grievances that
came to his knowledge. He however found his ftrength
failing, and that it would be impoffible for him to fi-
niffi his defigns, in confequence of which he adopted
Trajan. After his death, which happened in the year
98, he wTas ranked among the gods. He was the firft
Roman emperor of foreign extra&ion.
NERVES, in Anatomy, certain white gliftening
cords, proceeding from the brain and fpinal marrow,
and dividing into very fmall branches, which are fent
off throughout all parts of the body ; and which are
found to be the organs of fenfation and motion. See
Anatomy Index.
NERVOUS fluid. See Anatomy Index.
NESSUS, in fabulous hiftory, a celebrated Centaur,
fon of Ixion and a Cloud. He offered violence to De-
janira, whom Hercules had entrufted to his care, with
orders to carry her acrofs the river Evenus. Hercules
faw the diftrefs of his wife from the oppofite ffiore of
the river, and immediately he let fly one of his poifon-
ed arrows, which ftruck the Centaur to the heart. Nef-
fus, as he expired, gave the tunic he then wore to De-
janira, affuring her that from the poifoned blood which
had flowed from his wounds, it had received the power
of calling a hufband away from unlawful loves. Deja-
nira received it with pleafure, and this mournful prefent
caufed the death of Hercules. A river which fepa-
rates Thrace from Macedonia. It is alfo called Nefus,
Ne/ios, and Nejius.
NEST0
N E S [ 765 ] N E S
NEST. See Nidus.
Eatable Birds Nests. See Birds Nefis.
NESTOR, in fabulous hiftory, a fon of Neleus and
Chloris, nephew to Pelias and grandfon to Neptune.
He had eleven brothers, who were all killed with his
father by Hercules. His tender age detained him at
home, and was the caufe of his prefervation. The con¬
queror fpared his life and placed him upon the throne
of Pylos. He married Eurydice the daughter of Cly-
menus; or, according to others, Anaxibia the daugh¬
ter of Atreus. He foon diftinguiflied himfelf in the
field of battle •, and rvas prefent at the nuptials of Peri-
thous, when a bloody engagement took place between
the Lapithae and Centaurs. As king of Pylos and
Meffenia he led his fubje&s to the Trojan war, where
he diftinguifhed himfelf among the reft of the Grecian
chiefs, by eloquence, addrefs, wifdom, juftice, and un¬
common prudence. Homer difplays his charadler as
the moft perfeft of all Jus heroes j and Agamemnon ex¬
claims, that if he had 20 generals like Neftor, he
ftiould foon fee the walls of Troy reduced to allies. After
the Trojan war Neftor retired to Greece, where he en¬
joyed in the bofom of his family the peace and tranquil¬
lity which were due to his wifdom and to his age. The
manner and the time of his death are unknown: the
ancients are all agreed that he lived three generations
of men $ which length of time is fuppofed to be 300
years, though more probably only 90 years, allowing
30 years for each generation. From that circumftance,
therefore, it was ufual among the Greeks and the La¬
tins, when they wilhed a long and happy life to their
friends, to wilh them to fee the years of Neftor. He
had many children j two daughters, Pilidice and Po-
lycafte; and feven fons, Perfeus, Straticus, Aretus,
Echephron, Pififtratus, Antilochus, and Thrafymedes.
Neftor was one of the Argonauts, according to Vale¬
rius Flaccus, v. 380, &c.—A poet of Lycaonia in
the age of the emperor Severus. He was father to
Pifander, who under the emperor Alexander rvrote
fome fabulous ftories One of the body guards of
Alexander.
Nestor, whofe fecular name is not known, was a
native of Ruflia, and the earlieft hiftorian of the north.
He was born in 1056 at Bielozero ; and in the 19th
year of his age he affumed the monaftic habit in the
convent of Petcherlki at Kiof, and took the name of
Nejlor. He there made a confiderable proficiency in
the Greek language : but feems to have formed his
ftyle and manner rather from the Byzantine hiftorians,
Cedrenus, Zonaras, and Syncellus, than from the an¬
cient claflics. The time of Neftor’s death is not afcer-
tained 5 but he is fuppofed to have lived to an advan-
cpd age, and to have died about the year 1115.
His great work is his Chronicle, to which he has
prefixed an introduflion, which after a Ihort Iketch of
the early ftate of the world, taken from the Byzantine
writers, contains a geographical defcription of Ruflia
and the adjacent regions 5 an account of the Sclavonian
nations, their manners, their emigrations from the
banks of the Danube, their difperfion, and fettlement
in the feveral countries wherein their defcendants are
now eftabliftied. He then enters upon a chronological
feries of the Ruflian annals, from the year 858 to about
1113. His ftyle is fimple and unadorned, fuch as fuits
a mere recorder of fafts $ but his chronological exaft-
nefs, though it renders his narrative dry and tedious, Neftorian^
contributes to afcertain -the era and authenticity of the v——'
events which he relates.
It is remarkable (fays Mr Coxe, from whom we
have taken this narrative), that an author of fuch im¬
portance, whofe name frequently occurs in the early
Ruflian books, (hould have remained in obfcurity above
600 years ; and been fcarcely known to his modem
countrymen, the origin and a61ions of whofe anceftors
he records with fuch circumftantial exa£tnefs. A copy
of his Chronicle was given in 1668 by Prince Radzivil
to the library of Konigftmrg, where it lay unnoticed^
till Peter the Great, in his paflfage through that town,
ordered a tranfcript of it to be fent to Peterfburgh. But
it ftill was not known as the performance of Neftor :
for when Muller in 1732 publifhed the firft part of a
German tranflation, he mentioned it as the work of the
abbot Theedofius of Kiof; an error which arofe from
the following circumftance : The ingenious editor not
being at that time fufficiently acquainted with the Scla—
vonian tongue, employed an interpreter, w'ho, by mif-
taking a letter in the title, fuppofed it to have been
written by a perfon whofe name was Theodofius. This
ridiculous blunder was foon circulated, an^ copied by
many foreign wrriters, even long after it had been can¬
didly acknowledged and corredted by Muller.
NESTORIANS, a fedl of ancient Chriftians, ftill
faid to be fubfifting in fome parts of the Levant ;
whofe diftinguilhing tenet is, that Mary is not the
mother of God. They take their name from Nefto-'
rius biftiop of Conftantinople, whofe dodlrines were
fpread with much zeal through Syria, Egypt, and
Perfia.
One ef the chief promoters of the Neftorian caufe
was Barfumas, created bifhop of Nifibis, A. D. 435.
Such was his zeal and fuccefs, that the Neftorians,
who ftill remain in Chaldea, Perfia, Aflyria, and the
adjacent countries, confider him alone as their parent
and founder. By him Pherozes the Perfian monarch
was perfuaded to expel thofe Chriftians who adopted
the opinions of the Greeks, and to admit the Neftorians
in their place, putting them in poflfeflion of the princi¬
pal feat of ecclefiaftical authority in Perfia, the fee of
Seleucia, which the patriarch of the Neftorians has al¬
ways filled even down to our time.—Barfumas alfo
eredled a fchool at Nifibis, from which proceeded thofe
Neftorian dodtors who in the fifth and fixth centuries^
fpread abroad their tenets through Egypt, Syria, Ara¬
bia, India, Tartary, and China.
He differed confiderably from Neftorius, holding
that there are two perfons in Jefus Chrift, as well as
that the Virgin was not his mother, as God, but only
as man.
The abettors of this dodlrine refufe the title Nefto-
rians j alleging that it had been handed down from the
earlieft times of the Chriftian church.
In the tenth century, the Neftorians in Chaldea,
whence they are fometimes called Chaldeans, extended
their fpiritual conquefts beyond Mount Imaus, and in¬
troduced the Chriftian religion into Tartary properly
fo called, and efpeeially into that country called Karh,
bordering on the northern part of China. The prince
of that country, whom the Neftorians converted to the
Chriftian faith, affumed, according to the vulgar tradi¬
tion, the name of cjohn after his baptifm, to which he
added.
N E S [ 766 ] N E S
Neftorlans, added tlie furname of PreJbijter, from a principle of
Neftorius. m0(jefly . whence it is faid his fucceffors. were each of
them called Prejler John until the time of Gengis
Khan. But Molheim obferves, that the famous Prefter
John did not begin to reign in that part of Afra before
the conclofion of the 11th century. The Neftorians
formed fo conliderable a body of ChriIlians, that the
miffionaries of Rome were induftrious in their endea¬
vours to reduce them under the papal yoke. Inno¬
cent IV, in 1246, and Nicolas IV. in 1278, ufed their
utmoft efforts for this purpofe, but without fuccefs. Till
the time of Pope Julius III. the Neftorians acknow¬
ledged but one patriarch, who refided firft at Bagdad,
and afterwards at Mouful; but a divifion ariling among
them, in 1551 the patriarchate became divided, at
leaft for a time, and a new patriarch was confecrated
by that pope, whofe fucceffors fixed their refidence in
the city of Ormus in the mountainous part of Perfia,
where they ftill continue, diftinguifhed by the name of
Simeon ; and fo far down as the laft century, thefe pa¬
triarchs perfevered in their communion with the church
of Rome, but feem at prefent to have withdrawn them-
felves from it. The great Neftorian pontiffs, who form
the oppofite party, and look with a hoftile eye on this
little patriarch, have fince the year 1559 been diftin-
guiftied by the general denomination of Klias, and re-
fide conftantly in the city of Mouful. Their fpiritual
dominion is very extenfive, takes in a great part of A-
fia, and comprehends alfo within its circuit the Arabian
‘ Neftorians, and alfo the Chriftians of St Thomas, who
dwell along the coaft of Malabar. It is obferved, to
the lading honour of the Neftorians, that of all the
Chriftian focieties eftablifhed in the Eaft, they have
been the moft careful and fuccefsful in avoiding a mul¬
titude of fuperftitious opinions and pratSlices that have
infefted the Greek and Latin churches. About the
middle of the 17th century, the Romifh miflionaries
gained over to their communion a fmall number of Ne¬
ftorians, whom they formed into a congregation or
church ; the patriarchs or bifhops of which refide in the
city of Amida, or Diarbekir, and all affume the deno¬
mination of Jofeph. Neverthelefs the Neftorians in ge¬
neral perfevere to our own times in their refufal to en¬
ter into the communion of the Romifh church, notwith-
ftanding the earneft entreaties and alluring offers that
have been made by the pope’s legate to conquer their
inflexible conftancy.
NESTOR1US, from whom the fe& of Neftorian
Chriftians derive their name, was born in Germanica a
city of Syria. He received his education at Antioch,
where he was likewife baptized \ and foon after his bap-
tifm he withdrew himfelf to a monaftery in the fuburbs
.of that city. Upon his being admitted to the order of
priefthood, he quickly acquired fo great reputation by
the eloquence of his preaching, and the regularity of
his life, that by the emperor Theodofius he was deem¬
ed a fit perfon to fill the fecond fee in the Chriftian
church, and wras accordingly confecrated bifliopof Con-
ftantinbple in the year 429.
In one of his firft fermons after his promotion, he
publicly declared his intention to make war upon here¬
tics } and with that intolerant fpirit which has fo often
difgraced the preachers of the mild religion of Jefus, he
called upon the emperor to free the earth from heretics^
promifing to give him heaven as a reward for his zeal.
To this fpiritual motive he added one, that, though Ntflariu*.
carnal, he poflibly judged of equal force :—“ Join ’•'““■v'-*-*
with me (faid he) in war againft them, and I will aflift
you againft the Perfians.” Although the wifer and
better part of his audience were amazed to fee a man,
before he had tafted (as the hiftorian * expreffes him- * Socrates.^
felf) the water of his city, declare that he would per-
fecute all who were not of his opinion j yet the majori¬
ty of the people approved of this difeourfe, and encou¬
raged him to execute his purpofe. Accordingly, five
days after his confecration, he attempted to demolifli
the church in which the Arians fecretly held their af-
femblies $ and he fucceeded fo far in his defign, that
thefe people, growing defperate, fet it on fire them-
felves, and confumed with it fome of the neighbouring
houfes. This fire excited great commotions in the
city, and Neftorius was ever afterwards called an in-
From the Arians he turned his perfecution againft;
the Novatians, but was flopped in his career by the in-
terpofition of the emperor. He then let loofe his fury
upon thofe Chriftians of Afta, Lydia, and Caria, v/ho
celebrated the feaft of Eafter upon the 14th day of the
moon •, and for this unimportant deviation from the Ca¬
tholic practice, many of thefe people were murdered
by his agents both at Miletum and Sardis.—One can¬
not be forry that fuch arelentlefs perfecutor Ihould him¬
felf be afterwards condemned as a heretic, for holding
an opinion which no man who fpeaks or thinks with
philofophic accuracy will now venture to controvert.
This obnoxious tenet which produced a fchifm in the
church, and was condemned by a general council, was
nothing more than that “ the Virgin Mary cannot with
propriety be called the mother of God.” The people
being accuftomed to hear this expreffion, were much
inflamed againft their biihop, imagining that he had re¬
vived the error of Paulus Samofetenus and Photinus,
who taught that Jefus Chrift was a mere man. The
monks declared openly againft him, and, with fome of
the moft confiderable men in Conftantinople, feparated
themfelves from his communion. Several biftiops wrote
to him earneft perfuafives to acknowledge that Mary
was the mother of God j and when he would not com¬
ply, they procured his condemnation in the council of
Ephefus, which deprived him of his fee. He then re¬
tired to his ancient monaftery at Antioch, whence be
was taken four years afterwards by the emperor’s order,
and banifhed in 435 to Tarfus. That city being taken
and deftroyed by the barbarians, he was removed to
Panopolis, a city of Thebais ; where he was not fuffer-
ed to remain long, but was compelled to go from place
to place, till, being in one of his journeys mortally
bruifed by a fall, death relieved him from the fury of
his perfecutors.
If we examine fuch of his writings as remain, we
(hall find that be was very unjuftly condemned. It ap¬
pears that he rejected the errors of Ebton, Paulus Sa¬
mofetenus, and Photinus ; that he maintained in exprefs
terms, that the divine Word was united to the human
nature in Jefus Chrift in the moft ftrhft and intimate
fenfe poflible 5 that thefe two natures, in this ftate of
union, make but one Chrift and one perfon j that the
properties of the Divine and human natures may both
be attributed to this perfon 5 and that Jefus Chrift may
be-faid to have been born of a virgin, to have fuffered
NET t 767 ] NET
Neftus, and died j but he never would admit that God could
, Net- be faid to have been born, to have buffered, or to have
v died.—When we confider that every perfon partakes of
the fubftanee of his mother, tmd that it is this which
conftitutes the parental and filial relation between them,
it is indeed furprifing that the expreffion “ Mother -of
God” (hould ever have been admitted into the Chriftian
church, or that any man who underflands the meaning
of the words fhould condemn Neftorius for not having
ufed them.
NEST US, or Nessus, a river which feparates
Thrace from Macedonia. It falls into the iEgean fea
near the ifland Thafos. It is fomelimes called Nefus
and NeJJus.
NET, a device for catching filh and fowl. See the
article Fishery.
The taking fowls by nets is the readieft and moft
advantageous of all others, where numbers are to be
taken. The making the nets is very eafy, an<^ what
every true fportlman ought to be able to do for himfelf.
All the neceffary tools are wooden needles, of which
there fhould be feveral of different fizes, fome round
and others flat •, a pair of round pointed and flat fcif-
fars ; and a wheel to wind off the thread. The pack¬
thread is to be of different ftrength and thicknefs, ac¬
cording to the fort of birds to be taken ; and the gene¬
ral fize of the mefhes, if not for very fmall birds, is
two inches from point to point. The nets fhould nei¬
ther be made too deep nor too long, for they are then
difficult to manage j and they muff be verged on each
fide with twilled thread. The natural colour of the
thread is too bright and pale, and is therefore in many
cafes to be altered. The moft ufual colour is the ruf-
fet; which is to be obtained by plunging the net, after
it is made, into a tanners pit, and letting it lie there
till it be fufficiently tinged : this is of a double fervice
to the net, fince it preferves the thread as well as alterk
the colour. The green colour is given by chopping
fome green wheat and boiling it in water, and then
foaking the net in this green tin£lure. The yellow co¬
lour is given in the fame manner with the decoftion of
celandine •, which gives a pale ftraw-colour, which is
the colour of ftubble in the harveft-time. The brown
nets are to be ufed on ploughed lands, the green on
grafs grounds, and the yellow on ftubble lands.
Day-Net, among fowlers, a net generally ufed for
taking fuch fmall birds as play in the air, and will
floop either to prey, gig, or the like ; as larks, linnets,
Spwtfmari/buntings, &c. The time of the year for ufing this net
BiElionary. is from Auguft to November*, and the beft time is
very early in the morning : and it is to be obferved,
that the milder the air, and the brighter the fun is, the
better will be the fport, and of longer continuance.
The place where this net fhould be laid, ought to be
plain champaign, either on fhort ftubbles, green lays,
or flat meadows, near corn fields, and fomewhat remote
from towns and villages : you muft be fare to let your
net lie clofe to the ground, that the birds creep not
out and make their efcape.-—The net is made of a fine
packthread with a fmall mefh, not exceeding half an
inch fquare j it muft; be three fathoms long, and but
one broad : it muft be verged about with a fmall but
ftrong cord ; and the two ends extended upon two
fraall long poles, fuitable to the breadth of the net,
with four flakes, tail-ftrings, and drawing-lines.-—This
net is compofed of two, which muft be exa&ly alike ;
and are to be laid oppofitc to one another, fo even and
clofe, that when they are drawm and pulled over, the
fides muft meet and touch each other. You muft flake
this net down with ftrong flakes, very ftiff on their
lines, fo that you may with a nimble touch call them
to and fro at pleafure ; then faften your drawing-cord
or hand-lines (of which there muft be a dozen at leaft,
and each two yards long) to the upper end of the fore-
moft ftaves: and fo extend them of fuch a ftraitnefs,
that with a little ftrength they may rife up in the nets
and call them over.
Your nets being thus laid, place your gigs, or play¬
ing-wantons, about 20 or 30 paces beyond, and as
much on this fide your nets : the gigs muft be faftened
to the tops of long poles, and turned into the wind, fo
as they may play to make a noife therein. Thefe gigs
are a fort of toys made of long goofe-feathers, like
fhuttle-cocks, and with little fmall tunnels of wood
running in broad and flat fwan-quills, made round like
a fmall hoop 5 and fo, with longer firings faftened to a
pole, will, with any fmall wind or air, move after fuch
a manner, that birds will come in great flocks to play
about them.
When you have placed your gigs, then place your
ftale $ which is a fmall flake of wood, to prick down
into the earth, having in it a mortice-hole, in which
a fmall and flender piece of wood, about two feet
long, is faftened, fo as it may move up and down
at pleafure : and faften to this longer flick 9 fmall line,
which, running through a hole in the flick above-
mentioned, and fo coming up to the place where you
are to fit, you may, by drawing the line up and down
with your right hand, raife up the longer flick • as you
fee occafion.
Faften a live lark, or fuch like bird, to this longer
flick, which, with the line making it to flir up and
down by your pulling, will entice the birds to come to
your net.
There is another flale, or enticement, to draw on
thefe birds, called a loohing-glafs; which is a round
flake of wood, as big as man’s arm, made very fharp at
the end, to thruft it into the ground : they make it
very hollow in the upper part, above five fingers deep 'y
into which hollow they place a three-fquare piece of
wood about a foot long, and each two inches broad,
lying upon the top of the flake, and going with a foot
into the hollownefs ; which foot muft have a great knob
at the top, and another at the bottom, with a deep
flendernefs between ; to which flendernefs you are to
faften a fmall packthread, which, running through a
hole in the fide of the flake, muft come up to the place
where you fit. The three-fquare piece of wood which
lies on the top of the flake, muft be of fuch a poife and
evennefs, and the foot of the focket fo fmooth and
round, that it may whirl and turn round upon the leaft
touch ; winding the packthread fo many times about
it, which being fuddenly drawn, and as fuddenly let
go, will keep the engine in a conftant rotatory mo¬
tion : then faften with glue on the uppermoll flat
fquares of the three-fquare piece, about 2a final!
pieces of looking-glafs, and paint all the fquare wood
between them of a light and lively red ; which, in
NET [ 768 ] NET
Net, the continual motion, will give fucli a reflexion, that
^■nuisT" t^e will play about to admiration until they are
t . ‘ taken.
Both this and the other ftale are to be placed in the
middle between the two nets, about two or three feet
diftance from each other j fo that, in the falling of the
nets, the cords may not touch or annay them : neither
muft they ftand one before or after another ; the glafs
being kept in a continual motion, and the bird very
often fluttering. Having placed your nets in this
manner, as alfo your gigs and ftales, go to the fur¬
ther end of your long drawing lines and ftale lines j
and, having placed yourfelf, lay the main drawing line
acrofs your thigh, and, with your left, pull the ftale
line to ftiow the birds 5 and when you perceive them
to play near and about your nets and ftales, then pull
the net over with both hands, with a quick but not
too hafty motion j for otherwife your fport will be
fpoiled.
Plate See Plate CCCLXIX. where A (hows the bodies of
CCCLXIX. majn netj ancj OUght to be laid. B, the
tail lines, or the hinder lines, ftaked to the ground.
C, the fore lines ftaked alio to the ground. D, the
bird ftale. E, the looking-glafs ftale. G, the line
which draws the bird ftale. H, the line that draws
the glafs ftale. I, the drawing, double lines of the
nets, which pulls them over. K, the flakes which
flake down the four nether points of the nets and the
two tail lines. L, the flakes that ftake down the fore
lines. M, the Angle line, with the wooden button to
pull the net over with. N, the ftake that ftakes down
the Angle line, and where the man fhould At j and O,
the gig.
Net, Neat, in commerce, fomething pure, and un¬
adulterated with any foreign mixture.
Thus, wines are faid to be net when not falAfied or
balderdaftied j and coffee, rice, pepper, &c. are net
when the Alth and ordures are feparated from them.
,See Neat.
A diamond is faid to be net when it has no ftains or
flaws ; a cry Hal, when tranl'parent throughout.
Net is alfo ufed for what remains after the tare
has been taken out of the weight of any merchan-
dife, i. e. when it is weighed clear of all package. See
Tare.
T hus w'e fay, a barrel of cochineal w’eighs 4
pounds ; the tare is 50 pounds, and there remain net
400 pounds.
Net Produce, a term ufed to exprefs what any
commodity has yielded, all tare and charges deduced.
The merchants fometimes ufe the Italian words netta
prcceduto, for net produce.
NETHERLANDS, anciently called Be/gia, but
Ance denominated Low Countries or Netherlands, from
their low Atuation, are Atuated between 2® and 7*’ of
eaft longitude, and between 50° and i;30 30' of north
latitude : and are bounded by the German fea on the
north, Germany on the eaft, by Lorrain and France on
the fouth, and by another part of France and the Bri-
tith feas on the weft extending near 300 miles in
length from north to fouth, and 200 miles in breadth
f;om eaft to weft. They cor.Aft of 17 provinces; 10
of which are called the Aujlrian and French Nether¬
lands, and the other feven the United Provinces.
The greateft part of the Netherlands was conquered
3
by the Romans; and that part wEich lies towards Nether-
Gaul continued in their fubjeftion till the decline of Ends,
that empire ; after which the Franks became matters
of it; and, under the French monarchy, it was part of
the kingdom of Metz or Auftrafta,
Towards the end of the 15th century Maximilian of
Auftria, fon of the emperor Ferdinand III. acquired,
by marrying the only daughter of the duke of Burgun¬
dy, the duchies of Brabant, Limburg, and Luxemburg;
the counties of Flanders, Burgundy, Hainault, Hol¬
land, Zealand, and Namur ; and the lordftiip of Frief-
land. Philip of Auftria, fon to Maximilian and Mary,
married Jane the daughter of Ferdinand king of Arra-
gon and of Ifabella queen of Caftile ; by which means
their Ion Charles inherited not only almoft all Spain
and the great countries then lately difeovered in Ame¬
rica, but alfo thofe noble provinces of the Netherlands,
and was chofen emperor under the name of Charles V.
Towards the latter end of the 1527, he added to his
dominions the temporalities of the bithoprick of Utrecht
pn both Ades of the Yffel; and Henry of Bavaria, be¬
ing diftreffed through war with the duke of Guelder-
land, and tired with the continued rebellion of his own
fubjesfls, furfendered to the emperor the temporalities
of his diocefe, which was conflrmed by the pope, and
the ftates of the country. In 1536, Charles V. bought
of Charles of Egmond the reverflon of the duchy of
Guelderland and of the county of Zutphen, in cafe that
prince fhould die without iffue. The fame year the ci¬
ty of Groningen took the oath of allegiance, and fub-
mitted to Charles V. and in 1543 he put a garrifon in¬
to the city of Cambray, and built a citadel there. Hav¬
ing thus united the 17 provinces, as it w^ere in one bo¬
dy, he ordered that they fhould continue for ever under
the fame prince, without being ever feparated or dif-
membered ; for which purpofe he publilhed in Novem¬
ber 1549, with the confent and at the requeft of the
ftates of all the provinces, a perpetual and irrevocable
edift or law, by which it was enabled, that in order to
keep all thofe provinces together under one and the
fame prince, the right of reprefentation, with regard to
the fucceflion of a prince or princefs, fhould take place
for ever, both in a direft and collateral line, notwuth-
ftanding the common laws of fome provinces to the
contrary. Charles had even a mind to incorporate
thefe provinces with the Germanic body, and to make
of them a circle of the empire, under the title of the cir¬
cle of Burgundy, in order thereby to engage the princes
of the empire to concern themfelves for the preferva-
tion of thofe provinces. But the Netherlands, always
jealous of their liberty, did not feem to like that incor¬
poration ; end when they were demanded to pay their
fhare towards the expences of the empire, they refufed
it : whereupon the princes of Germany refufed, in their
turn, to take any part in the wars in Flanders, and
looked upon thofe provinces as by no means belonging
to the Germanic body.
Philip of Auftria and his fon Charles, who were born
in the Netherlands, had for thefe provinces that natural
affedlion which men ufe to have for their native coun¬
try ; and, knowing how jealous the inhabitants were of
their liberty, and of the privileges granted to them by
their former princes, they took great care to preferve
them, and fuffered willingly that the ftates, w-ho were
the guardians of the people’s liberty and privileges,
ftiould
Nether¬
lands.
NET [ 769 J N E T
Ihould In a manner fliare the rupreme aathority with gotry for cnee laved a free people from the iron rod of Ned“J'-
them. Philip II. fon to the emperor Charles V. had defpotifm on the one hand, and the cruelties or rrantic ^
not the fame affedlion for the Netherlands, nor thofe democrates on the other, i he provinces under the go- Nettings,
generous fentiments which his father had endeavoured vernment of France were, till the late revolution, un~ *~v r',~"
to infpire him with. Being born in Spain of a Portu- der the fame fevere arbitrary dominion as the otner fuo-
guefe woman, he had no regard but for his native jefts of that crown,- and they now experience the fame
country ”, and, when he removed out of the Nether- miferies with tne reft of tire lepublic.
lands, he left them to the weak government of a w’o- The Spaniards continued poueueu or almoft e,g^
man, to the proud and haughty fpirit of Cardinal de of thefe provinces, until tne duke of Iwarloorough,
Grenville, and to the wild ambition of feme lords of general of the allies, gained the memorable viclory ot
thefe provinces, who availing themfelves of the impru- Ramillies. After which Bruffels the capital, and great
dent conduct and continual blunders of the council of part of thefe provinces, acknowledged Charres • (a
Spain, found their private intereft in the difturbances terwards emperor) their fovereign j and his daughter,
they could not fail to produce. Philip II, alfo, inftead the late emprefs queen, remained poffeiTed^of them till
of the mild and moderate meafures which his predecef- the war that followed the deatn ot her rather, when
fors had fuccefsfully employed on many occafions, as the French made an.entire conqueft or them, except
beft fuiting the genius and temper of the people, had part of the province ot Luxemburg 5 but tncy ie'
recourfe to the moft violent and cruel proceedings; ftored by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 174°» anf'
which, far from curing the evil, ferved only to exafpe- the French retained only Artois, the Cambrefts, part
rate it the more and render it incurable. The Spa- of I landers, part of Hainault, and part of Luxemburg,
niards, whom he fent thither, being born and educated ot which they have had the dominion now upwards of
in an abfolute monarchy, jealous of the liberties and eighty years. .
envious of the riches of the people, broke through all The foil is generally fruit.ul, but difters in the !e-
their privileges, and ufed them almoft after the fame veral parts. The climate alfo difters in the evera
manner as they had done the inhabitants of their new provinces; in thofe towards the fouth it does not dif-
and ill-gotten dominions in America. This treatment fer much from that of Lngland, though the feafons
occafioned a general infurreftion. The counts Hoorn, are more regular. In the northern provinces the win-
Egmont, and the prince of Orange, appeared at the ter is generally very (harp, and the fummer fultry hot;
head of it, and Lather’s reformation gaining ground but the extreme cold and exceffive heat feldom con-
about the fame time in the Netherlands, his difciples tinue above five or fix weeks. I he. air is reckoned
joined the malecontents : whereupon King Philip in- very wholefome, but is fubje£t to thick fogs in wm-
troduced a kind of inquifition in order to fupprefs ter, through the. moiftnefs of the country, which
them, and many thoufands were put to death by that would be very noxious, were it not for the dry eafterly
court, befides thofe that periftied by the fword ; for winds, which, blowung oft a long continent .01 two
thefe perfecutions and encroachments had occafioned a or three months in.the year, clear the air, and occafion
civil war, in which feveral battles were fought. The very (harp frofts in January and Februaiy ; during
counts Hoorn and Egmont were taken and beheaded : which, the ports, rivers, and canals, aie cornmoiily
but the prince of Orange, retiring into Holland, with (hut up. I he face of the country is low ana fiat; fox,
the affiftance of England and France, preferved Hoi- except fome fmall hills and a few rifing grounds in
land and fomc of the adjacent provinces, which entered Utrecht and Guelderland, and in the parts lying to-
into a treaty for their mutual defence at Utrecht in wTards Germany, there is no hill to be feen in the whole
1579, and they have ever fince been ftyled the United 17 provinces. Fhis is tne reafon why they have been
Provinces; but the other provinces were reduced to the called the Low Countries. French Handers abounds
obedience of Spain by the duke of Alva and other Spa- in grain, vegetables, flax, and cattle, but is m want of
ni(h generals. However, their ancient privileges were wood. For the hiftory of the events which took place
in a great meafure re ftored; every province was allow- in the Netherlands during the Fiench revolution, by
ed its great council or parliament, whofe concurrence which they were united to France, fee France.
was required to the making of laws, and railing money For the Dutch Netherlands, fee United Provinces.
for the government, though thefe affemblies were too NEIHIN1MS, among the Jews, the poiierity o;
often obliged to follow the diflates of the court. the Gibeonites, who were condemned by Jofliua to
The emperor Jofeph II. endeavoured to deprive them be hewers of wood and drawers of w'ater fox the houw
even of the form of their free conftitution ; and he of God.
might very probably have fucceeded, had he not at- NEFOPION, a name given by the ancients to a very
tempted at the fame time a reformation of the church, fragrant and coftly ointment, confiding of a great .num-
Xhe Auftrian Netherlands are ■wholly Catholic, and fo ber of the fineft fpicy ingredients. Hippocrates, in his
bigotted to the Romifti fuperftition, that though they Treatife of the Difeafes of Women, frequently pre-
had tamely fubmitted to many encroachments of the feribes the netopion in difeafes of the uterus ; and in
archducal houfe on their civil rights, no fooner did the other places he fpeaks of its being poured into the ear
monarch encroach upon the property of the holy mo- as a remedy for deafnefs ; thcle compofitions, by their
ther church than they refifted his authority, and claim- attenuating qualities, dividing the viicous and thick hu-
ed all their ancient privileges political and religious, mours. The word netopion is aifo fometimes uied to
The fame attachment to their ancient faith and worftxip exprefs the unguentuni JE.gyptiacum, and iometimes fim-
made them very lately contribute to expel from their ply for oil of almonds.
territories the French whom they had invited to relieve NETT INGS, in a (hip, a fort of grates made o'
them from the Auftrian yoke. Thus her religious bi- fmall ropes feized together with rope yarn or twine, and
Vol. XIV. Part II. 5 E fixed
N E V [ 770 ] N E V
fixed on the quarters and in the tops 5 they are fbrr-e-
times ftretched upon the ledges from the wafte trees to
the roof trees, from the top of the forecaftle to the poop,
and fometimes are laid in the wafte of a fliip to ferve
inftead of gratings.
NETTLE. See Urtica, Botany Index.
Sea-NETTiE. See Medusa, Helminthology 7«^v,
and ^NiMJi-F/ower. •
NETTiE-Tree. See Celtis, Botany Index.
NETT UNO, a handfome town of Italy, in the
Campagna di Roma. It is but thinly peopled, though
feated in,a fertile foil. The inhabitants are almoft all
hunters. E. Long. 12. 57. N. Lat. 41. 30.
NEVA, a river at Peterlburgh, in Rufiia. The
views upon the banks exhibit the grandeft and moft
lively fcenes. The river is in places broader than
the Thames at London. It is deep, rapid, and tranf-
parent as cryftal, and its banks are lined on each fide
with a continued range of handfome buildings. On
the north fide the fortrefs, the academy of fciences
and that of art are the moft ftriking objefts *, on the
oppofite fide are the imperial palace, the admiralty,
the manfions of many Ruflian nobles, and the Englilh
line, fo called becaufe (a few houfes excepted) the
whole row is occupied by the Englith merchants. In
front of thefe buildings, on the fouth fide, is the quay,
which ftretches for three miles, except where it is in¬
terrupted by the admiralty j and the Neva, during the
whole of that fpace, has been lately embanked at the
expence of the emprefs, by a wall, parapet, and pave¬
ment of hewn granite *, a molt elegant and durable mo¬
nument of imperial munificence. There is a commu¬
nication between the oppofite fides of the river by a
bridge of pontoons, which when any thing is appre¬
hended from the force of ice rulhing down the ftream,
can be, and is generally indeed, removed. The great
depth of the river, it appears, prevents the building of
a ftone bridge j and, if it could be built, there is no rea-
fon to fuppofe it could poflibly refill the force of thofe
vaft Ihoals of ice which in the beginning of winter come
down this rapid river. An attempt, however, has been
made to remedy this inconvenience ; and a Ruflian
peafant has adlually proje&ed the j»!an of throwing a
wooden bridge of one arch acrofs it, which in its nar-
xow'eft part is 980 feet in breadth. As we think this is
a matter of very confiderable importance, as well as of
curiofity, we ftiall give the following copious account of
the plan and its author, in Mr Coxe’sown words j who
tells us that the artift had then executed a model 98
feet in length, which he faw and examined with confi¬
derable attention.
“ The bridge is upon the fame principle with that
of Shaffhaufen, excepting that the mechanifm is more
complicated, and that the road is not fo level. I Ihall
attempt to defcribe it by fuppofing it finilhed, as that
will convey the beft- idea of the plan. The bridge is
roofed at the top, and covered at the fides ; it is formed
by four frames of timber, tvro on each fide, compofed of
various beams or truffes, which fupport the whole ma¬
chine. The road is not, as is ufual, carried over the
top of the arch, but is fufpended in the middle.
rt The following proportions I noted dowm with the
greateft exaftnefs at the time when they wTere explain¬
ed to me by the artift.
Length of the abutment on the north end, 658 feet.
Span of the arch, - . _ 980
Length of the abutment on the fouth end, 658
Length of the whole ftrudture, including the
abutments, - - - 2296
The plane of the road upon its firft afeent
makes an angle of five degrees with the
ordinary furface of the river.
Mean level of the river to the top of the
bridge in the centre, - - 168
Ditto to the bottom of the bridge in the
centre, - - - - 126
Height of the bridge from the bottom to the
top in the centre, - - 42
Height from the bottom of the bridge in
the centre to the road, - - 7
Height from the bottom of ditto to the
water, - - - - 84
Height from the water to the fpring of the
arch, - - - - 56
So that there is a difference of 35 feet between the
road at the fpring, of the arch and the road at the
centre 5 in other words, an afeent of 35 feet in half
980, or in the fpace of 490 feet, which is little more
than eight tenths of an inch to a foot. The bridge is
broadeft towards the fides, and diminilhes towards the
centre.
In the broadeft part it is . - - 168 feet.
In the centre or narowefl; - - 42
The breadth of the road is - - 28
“ The artift informed me, that to complete the
bridge would require 49,650 iron nails, 12,908 large
trees, 5500 beams to ftrengthen them j and that it
would coft 300,000 rubles or 6o,oool. He fpeaks
of this bold project with the ufual warmth of genius j
and is perfectly convinced that it would be prailicable.
I muft own that I am of the fame opinion, though I
hazard it with great diffidence. What a noble effedl
would be produced by a bridge ftriking acrofs the
Neva, with an arch 980 feet wide, and towering 168
feet from the furface of the water! The defeription
of fuch a bridge feems almoft chimerical 5 and yet
upon infpeftion ©f the model We become reconciled
to the idea. But whether the execution of this ftu-
pendous work may be deemed pofiible or not, the mo¬
del itfelf is worthy of attention, and refledls the higheft
honour on the inventive faculties of that unimproved
genius. It is fo compadlly cenftrudled, and of fuch uni¬
form folidity, that it has fupported 3540 pood, or
127,440 pounds, without having in the leaft fwerved
from its direction, which I am told is far more, in pro¬
portion to its fize, than the bridge if completed would
have occafion to fuftain from the preffure of the car¬
riages added to its own w-eight.
“ The perfon who projected this plan is a common
Ruffian peafant. This extraordinary genius was ap¬
prentice to a ffiopkeeper at Niffinei Novogorod : op¬
pofite to his ‘dwelling was a wmoden clock, which ex¬
cited his curiofity. By repeated examination he com¬
prehended the internal ftrufture, and without any af-
fiftance formed one exadlly fimilar in its proportion
and materials. His fuccefs in this firft effay urged
him to undertake the conftru&ion of metal clocks and
watches.
N E U
Nevel watches. The emprefs, hearing of thefe Wonderful ex-
!i . ^ ertions of his native genius, took him under her pro-
Neuchat- te(a;on^ an(j fent }j;m to England ; from whence, on
^ ' account of the difhculties attending his ignorance of
the language, he foon returned to Ruflia. I faw a
repeating watch ef his workmanfhip at the Academy
of Sciences : it is about the bignefs of an egg } in the
infide is reprefented the tomb of our Saviour, with
the done at the entrance, and the centinels upon duty :
fuddenly the done is removed, the centinels fall down,
the angels appear, the women enter the fepulchre, and
the fame chant is heard which is performed on Eafter-
eve. Thefe are trifling, although curious performances j
but the very planning of the bridge w’as a molt fublime
conception. This perfon, whofe name is Kulibin,
bears the appearance of a Ruffian peafant: he has a
ilong beard, and wears the common drefs of the coun¬
try. He receives a perffion from the emprefs, and is
encouraged to follow the bent of his mechanical ge-
.nius (a).
NEVEL, or Nebel, in the Jewiffi antiquities, a
kind of mufical inftrument. See Nablum.
NEVERS, a town of France, in the department of
Nievre, and lituated in E. Long. 3. 14. N. Lat. 46. 59.
on the river Loire, which here receives the rivulet
Nievre, from which this city derives its name. It is a
a place of great antiquity, fuppofed to be Csefar’s Novio-
dunum in Aiduis, where he ere&ed magazines for his
armies. Francis L made it a duchy and peerage in
1*521, in favour of Francis of C’eves, to whom it came
by marriage. It devolved afterwards to the houfe of
JVIantua, and then to the Palatine family, who in 1651
fold it to Cardinal Mazarine. The cardinal obtained
a title of duke and peer for his nephew Philip Mancini,
in whofe family it continued till the late revolution.
The town is fortified with walls, defended with many
high torvers and deep ditches,,' and is the feat of a bi-
fhopric, fuffragan of Sens, as likewife of a bailiwic and
chamber of accounts. There is a ftone bridge on the
Loire, with 20 arches, a draw-bridge on each fide, and
towers to defend them. This town is famous for its ma-
nufadlure of glafs and earthen ware, and is faid to contain
about 8000 inhabitants. In the centre of Nevers, on the
fummit of a hill, is built the palace of the ancient
dukes, ft appears to have been conftrufted in the fix-
teenth century, and exhibits a model of the beauty and
delicacy of Gothic architedlure. The apartments are
hung with tapeftry of 200 years old, which have an air
of grotefque and rude magnificence.
NEUCHATTEL, a town of SwilTerland, capital
of a county of the fame name. There are feveral an¬
cient ruins near it, which (how its former extent ; and
thire are two large churches, befides a catlle where the
governor refides. The town contains about 3000 in-
N E U
habitants. It is fituated partly on a fmall plain, be- N
tween Mount Jura and the lake of Neuchattel, which
is 17 miles long and five broad *, the fide of the har¬
bour is the ufual walk of the inhabitants. Part of it
too is built upon the fide of the mountain ; whence
fome of its ffreets arc very deep. In this fmall place
feveral public works have lately been executed, which
Mr Coxe thinks are far beyond the revenues, or even
the wants, of luch a little ftate. Among thele he in-
flances a fuperb caufeway and a town-houle “ built
(fays he) of fuch folid materials, as if it was intended to .
furvive to the moll diltant poflerity, and to rival the
duration of the much-famed Roman capitol.” At the
beginning of the 18th century, commerce was very
little followed in this town, owing to an ablurd opi¬
nion which prevailed among the inhabitants of its be¬
ing difgraceful ; but this prejudice is now extingullh-
ed, and the town in a much more fiourifhing fituation
than before. The chief article of exportation is wine,
which is much elteemed j and manufactures of printed
linens and cottons have been effablifhed with confider-
able fuccefs. The llourilhing ftate of Neuchattel is
principally owing to the benefaCliens of Mr David
Pury, late banker of the court at Liihon. He was
born at Neuchattel in 1709 ; but having received his
education there, he quitted it in great poverty, and re¬
paired to Geneva, where he ferved his apprenticelhip,
but in what line is not mentioned. From Geneva he
went to London, where he aCled as clerk to a dealer
in precious ftones, and acquired great reputation by
eftimating the value of diamonds at fight. After a
long refidence in England he went to Lifbon, where
he carried on a very extenfive commerce : and having
been appointed court-banker, his fortune rapidly in-
creafed. His generofity, however, kept pace with his
wealth ; and he not only remitted large fums to Neu¬
chattel while living, but left his country his heir when
he died. His contributions in all are eftimated by Mr
Coxe at 200,000!. ; a confiderable part of which has
been employed in conftrufting the public works already
mentioned. Neuchattel has a grand and little council:
the firft is compofed of 40 perfons, with two matters of the
keys ; the little council confifts of 24 members, com¬
prehending the mayor, who is prefident. Thefe two
councils affemble regularly every month. The eccle-
fiaftics likewife affemble every month, to confult on
affairs belonging to the church, and to fill up the places
of minifters that die. They choofe a dean every year,
who is prefident of the general affemblies, which are
called clajjes; and fometimes he is confirmed in this
dignity. E. Long. 7. 10. N. Lat. 47. 5.
NeucHattee, a fovereign county of Swifferland,
bounded on the weft by the Franche Compte, on the
north by the bilhopric of Batte, and on the eaft and
5 E .2 fouth
1 71' 1
(a) We have given this detail in Mr Coxe’s own words, as it appears to us to deferve attention on ac¬
count of the greatnefs of the projedl, which would have excited admiration had it been attempted by one en¬
lightened by fcience and liberal arts, much more when it comes through the humble medium of a Ruffian peafant.
Jt was never executed, as we are juft informed by a gentleman who left St Peterlburgh about the beginning
of June 1793 J but the model remains, and is ftill fhown. The fame gentleman (we quote his owm words)
adds, “ that every mechanic thinks it practicable -,.and that the general belief is, that the emprefs would have
built it, had (he not found ufe for all her money in carrying on her warlike and diplomatic tranfaftions with
other courts.”
N E U [77
chattel fouth. by the cantons of Berne and Fnbnrg. This
evis. principality of Neuchattel and Vallengin extend from
~y"—111 c lake of Neuchattel to the borders of Franche
Compte, being in length about 1 2 leagues, and fix in
breadth. The plain with the lower part of the moun¬
tains is. occupied by the diftrift of Neuchattel, but
Vallengin is totally enclofed by Jura. Parallel chains
of thefe mountains run from eaft to weft, forming fe-
veral valleys in the molt elevated parts. The lower
grounds of this chain confift of arable lands and vine¬
yards ; the higher of large trafts of foreft, which in
many parts have been cleared and converted into paf-
ture grounds, intermixed with fields of barley and oats.
The inhabitants are numerous, and remarkable for
their genius, politenefs, and aftive induftry. It contains
three cities, one town, 90 villages, and about 300 houfes
difperfed in the mountains. The inhabitants are all
Proteftants, except two Roman catholic villages: and
in 1529 they entered into a ftritt alliance with the can¬
tons of Berne, Friburg, Soleure, and Lucern. The air
is healthy and temperate, but the foil not everywhere
equally fertile : however, there are large vineyards,
• which produce white and red wine, which laft is excel¬
lent. The paftures on the mountains feed a great num¬
ber of cattle j there are plenty of deer in the forefts ;
the lakes and rivers abound with filh. The mildnefs of
the government, and agreeable fituation of the inhabi¬
tants in general in thefe diftricts, is evident from the
great increafe of population in the fpace of 32 years.
In 1752 they contained only 28,017 fubje&s and 4318
aliens : but in 17^4 number was augmented to
fubjedts and 97°4 aliens j being an increafe
of near a fourth part in that time. The facility with
which the burghedhip of Neuchattel is acquired, may
alfo be accounted one of the means of augmenting its
population j for between the years 1760 and 1770,
the magiftrates admitted 41 perfons to this privilege j
from 1770 to 1780, 46; from 1780 to 1785, 51 5 in
all 138 ; many of whom had children before they pur-
chafed their burgherfhip, and 38 of them were foreigners,
either German, French, or Dutch. This country has
experienced fimilar changes with the reft of Switzer¬
land during the ufurpation of the French.
NEUFCHATTEiVU, a commercial townof France,
in the department of the Vofges j formerly having an
abbey of the nuns of St Clair, a commandery of Malta,
and feveral convents of monks and nuns. It is feated
in a fertile foil, which produces corn, wine, and all the
neceffaries of life, on the river Mouzon. E. Long. c.
45. N. Lat. 48. 20.
NEVIS, one of the Caribbee iflands, lying about
fcven leagues north of Montferrat, and Separated from
St Chriftopher’s by a narrow channel. It makes a
beautiful appearance from the fea, being a large coni¬
cal mountain covered with fine trees, of an eafy afeent
on every fide, and entirely cultivated. The circumfe¬
rence is about 21 miles, with a confiderable trad of
-tevel ground all around. The climate in the lower
part is reckoned to be warmer than Barbadoes, but it
is more temperate towards the fummit. The foil is
very fine in ttie lower part, but grows coarfer as we
afeend. The productions are nearly the fame with
ihofe of St Chriftopher’s. There are three pretty good
toads or bays, with fmall towns in their vicinity ;
Charles Town, Morcton bay, and Newcaftle. This
2 ] N E U
pleafant illand was fettled under the aufpices ®f Sir
Thomas Warner from St Chriftopher’s. His fuccef-
for, Governor Lake, was confidered as the Solon of
this little country, in which he difpofed of every thing
with fuch prudence, wifdom, and juftice, as procured
him a high reputation with the French as well as
Englifh. In the Dutch war they met with fome di-
fturbance from the French; but by being covered by
an Englifti fquadren, the enemy were obliged to defift
from then intended mvafion, after a fmart engage¬
ment in fight of the ifland. Sir V/illiam Stapleton
fometimes refided here, and Sir Nathaniel Johnfon con-
ftantly, at which time the inhabitants of Nevis were
computed at 30»O00. In the wTar immediately after
the revolution, they exerted themfelves gallantly, and
and had two regiments of 300 men each. In that of
Queen Anne they behaved equally well, though they
were lefs fortunate j for the French landing with a
fuperior force, and having inveigled moft of their
Haves, they were forced to capitulate. About 4000
of thefe (laves the French carried away and (bid to
the Spaniards, to wwk in their mines. The parlia¬
ment, after making due inquiry into the Ioffes they
had fuftained, voted them about a third part of the
fum in which they had fuffered. Thefe Ioffes by war,
an epidemic difeafe, and repeated hurricanes, exceed¬
ingly diminiflied the number of the people. They are
now thought not to exceed 2000 or 3000 whites, and
6000 blacks. There is here a lieutenant governor,
with a council, and an affembly, which is compofed
of three members from each of the five parifties into
which the ifiand is divided. The commodities are
cotton and fugar; and about 20 fail of (hips are an¬
nually employed in this trade.
NEURADA, in Botany, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the decandria clafs, and in the natural method
ranking under the 13th order, Succulents. See Bo¬
tany Index.
NEUROGRAPHY, fignifies a defeription of the
nerves. See Anatomy.
NEUROPTERA, the name of one of the orders
into which the clafs of infefts is divided according to
the Linnaean claftification. See Entomology Index.
.NEUTER, a perfon indifferent, who h^s efpoufed
neither party, and is neither friend nor foe.
A judge ought to be neuter in the caufes he judges *,
in queftions, where reafon appears neuter, a man (hould
ever incline to the fide of the unhappy.
Neuter, in Grammar, denotes a fort of gender of'
nouns, which are neither mafeuline nor feminine. See
Gender.
The Latins have three kinds of genders, mafeuline,
feminine, and neuter. In Englifh, and other modem
tongues, there is no fuch thing as neuter nouns. See
Noun.
Verbs Neuter, by fome grammarians called intranji-
tive verbs, are thofe which govern nothing, and that arc
neither aftive nor pofitive. See Verb.
When the a&ion expreffed by the verb has no obje&
to fall upon, but the verb alone fupplies the whole idea
of the aftion j the verb is faid to be neuter: as, I deep,
thou yawned, he fneezes, we walk, ye run, they (land
(till.
Some divide verbs neuter into, 1. Such as do not
fignify any aftion, but a quality; as a/bet, “ it.-is white
NEW [ 773 ] NEW
Neutral or a fituation, •&% fedet, “ he fits j” or have fome relation
Salts to p]ace . as adejl^ “ he is prefent}” or to fome other
Newark. ^ate or attribute, as regrlat, “ he rules,” &c. And,
—^  2. Thofe that do fignify actions, though thofe fuch as
do not pafs into any fubjefl different from the aftor j as
to dine, to fup, to play, &c.
But this latter kind fometimes ceafe to be neuter,
and commence a£five ; efpecially in Greek and Latin,
when a fubjeft is given them : as, vivere vitam, ambu-
lare viam, pugnare pugnatn. Thus the old French poets
fay, Soupirer fon tourment; the Englifh, to Jigh his
woes, &c.
But this is obferved only to obtain where fomething
particular is to be expreffed, not contained in the verb:
as, vwere vitam beatam, to live a happy life j pugnare
bonam pugnam, to fight a good fight, &c.
According to the abbot de Dangeau, verbs neuter
may be divided into ablive and pqffive; the firft, thofe
that form their tenfes in Englifh, by the auxiliary verb
to have; in French, by avoir. The fecond, thofe that
form them in Englifh with the verb to be; in French
etre.—Thus, to fleep, to yawn, dormir and eternuer,
are neuters aBive.—To come, and to arrive, are neuters
pajjive.
Neutral Salts, in Chemi/lry, compounded of an acid
with any other fubflance capable of uniting with it and
deftroying its acidity, as fulphuric acid and foda, or
Glauber’s fait, muriatic acid and foda, or common fait.
NEUTRALITY, the flate of a perfon or thing
that is neuter, or that takes part with neither fide.
NEW-abbey, fituated near Kilcullen bridge in the
county of Kildare, and province of Leinfter, in Ireland.
It was founded by Rowland Euflace, of a great and an¬
cient family in this county ; the tower is flill (landing,
and fome part of the abbey ; the ruins of the reft have
contributed to build feveral dwellings near it. In the
infide Rowland Euftace and his lady lie buried j their
figures, clothed in armour, are to be feen there. Near
this is a handfbme feat of the Carter family, on the op-
pofite fide of the river Liffey.
NEWARK upon Trent, in the county of Notting¬
ham, is a great thoroughfare in the York road, 124
miles from London. It has bridges over the Trent,
which forms an ifland here, by dividing itfelf into two
ftreams two miles above the town, which meet again
two miles below it. A magnificent caftle was built
here in the reign of King Stephen, which held out
ftoutly in the barons wars for King John, who died
here, Oftober 19. 1216; and it alfo flood out for
King Charles I. to the laft j but after he had put him-
felf into the hands of the Scots army then before it,
the governor by his order furrendered it, after which
it was demolifhed.—It was fituated near the river j the
walls of the towers are very thick, and of a very great
height} and were there no hiftorical teftimony, thefe
remains are fufficient evidence that it was formerly of
great importance. In the court before thefe ruins is
a very fine bowling green, and near it a manufa61ory of
facking. The town being fubje6t to inundations from
the river Trent, and often from that circumftance made
itnpaffable, a turnpike road, at the inftigation of a pub¬
lican, was made about twenty years ago, fo high as to
be palTed with fafety in the greateft floods, by arches
of brick being made in feveral places to carry off the
water, conftrufted by Mr Smeaton, at the expence
of 12,000!. Near the town there is a bridge con- Ncwbo-
ftrufled for the fame purpofe, made moftly upon dry rough
land, confifting of nine arches. Its church, which is Nevv!'aft\
reckoned one of the fineft in the kingdom, was built by on Tyne.
Henry VI. and has a lofty fpire. v—. v—
NEWBOROUGH, or Newburgh, in the ifle of
Anglefey, North Wales, diftant from London 254
miles, though but a fmall town, fituated over againft:
Caernarvon in North Walps, about 17 miles fouth-
weft from Beaumaris, is governed by a mayor, two
bailiffs, and a recorder. Its Welfh name is Rhojjir, or
Rhofvair.
NEWBURG, the name of feveral towns of Ger¬
many, two of which are the chief towns of duchies of
the fame name ; one in Bavaria, and the other in the
Palatinate.
NEWBURY, a town in the county of Berks in-
England, 16 miles from Reading, and 56 from Lon¬
don, arofe on the decay of Spinham-Land. Notwith-
ftanding its name fignifies New-Borough, it is as old
almoft as the Conqueft. It made fo much broad
cloth formerly, that in the reign of Henry VIII. here
flourifhed John Winfcomb, commonly called ^ack of
Newbury, one of the greattft clothiers that ever was
in England, who kept 100 looms in his houfe •, and
in the expedition to Flowden Field againft the Scots,
marched with 100 of his own men, all armed and
clothed at his own expence j and he built all the weft
part of the church. Alfo Mr Kenric, the fon of a
clothier here, though afterwards a merchant in Lon¬
don, left 4000I. to the town, as well as 7500I. to
Reading, to encourage the rvoollen manufaftory. It
makes a great quantity of fhalloons and druggets, but
not near fo much broad cloth now as formerly *, yet it
is a flourilhing town, with fpacious ftreets, and a largp
market place, in which is the guild-hall. In the
neighbourhood, on the banks of the Kennet, there
is a ftratum of petrified wood dug out for firing, where
they frequently find trunks of large oaks yet undecay¬
ed, with petrified hazel nuts, fir cones, &c. with the
bones and horns of flags, antelopes, &c. tufks of boars,
and heads of beavers. The river Kennet, which
abounds with excellent trout, eels, and cray-fifh, runs
through the town ; and here is plenty of all other pro-
vifions. It was made a corporation by Queen Eliza¬
beth, and is governed by a mayor, high fteward, alder
men, &c>
NEWCASTLE-ww^/er-Z/we, a town in England,
in the county of Stafford, on a branch of the Trent,
is 15 miles north of Stafford, 33 fouth fouth-eaft of
Warrington, and 149 from London : had a caflle, now
in ruins j and is fo called from an older Caftle, which
formerly flood two miles off, at Chelferton-under-
Line. It wTas incorporated by King Henry I. and
again by Queen Elizabeth and King Charles II. and is
governed by a mayor, two juflices, two bailiffs, and 24
common council. The clothing trade flourifhes here ; .
but its chief manufaftory is hats, here being an incor¬
porated company of felt-makers. A great quantity of
ftone ware is made near this place.
Newcastle on Tyne, the capital of the county of
Northumberland in England, 15 miles north of Dur¬
ham, 94 north of York, 63 fouth by eaft of Berwick,
60 eaft of Carlifle, and 271 from London, Hands at the
end of the Pids wall, on the north fide of the Tyne,
over
NEW [ r
Newcaftle o\rer which it has a (lately bridge into the bilhopric
i on T-y™- of Durham, in which its fuburb called Gatejlde is fitu-
Gted ) for the liberties of New’caille extend no farther
than the great iron gate upon the bridge which has the
arms of the bifliop of Durham carved on the ead fide
and thofe of Newcaftle on the weft fide. W. Long.
s. 27. N. Lat. 55. 3. It is admitted to have been a
Roman ftation, though no evidence at prefent appears,
except at fandon-gate, whofe fuperftrudlure is of dif¬
ferent w7orkjnan(hip and model from any others of the
town, the arches being circular. The Carpenter’s
tower is alfo of Roman original. In the Saxons time
it was called Moncqfler, from the monks here, rvho all
fled when it was depopulated by the Danes; and after¬
wards Newcajlley from a caftle built here by William
the Conqueror’s fon, Robert, in 1080, to defend the
country againft the Scots, whofe kings had this town be¬
fore the Norman conqueft, and fometimes refided here.
■?—Several monafteries and houfes wTere built here foon
after the caftle j and it wrps greatly enlarged and en¬
riched by a good trade to the coafts of Germany, and
by the fale of its coal to other parts of England ; for
which, and for other merchandife, it is become the
great emporium of the north of England, it being the
neateft and largeft towm in thofe parts, next to York.
In the reign of EdwTard I. it was burnt by the Scots j
but a very rich burgher who was taken prifoner, foon
ranfomed himfelf for a good fum of money, and be¬
gan the firft fortifications of the place, which he ex¬
tended from Sand-gate to Pampedon, and thence to
the Auftin friars gate 5 which the townfmen finifhed,
and encompafled with (tout walls, which extended two
miles, wherein are feven gates and many turrets, with
feveral cafements bomb-proof. To which two other
gates wTere added in more modern times, viz. Bridge-
gate and Sand-gate : the wall between them was af¬
terwards removed to open the quay. Edward III.
granted the corporation the duties and cuftoms of the
town for feven years, to enable them to complete the
fortification. It is a borough at lead as ancient as
King Richard II. who granted that a fword (hould be
carried before the mayor; and King Henry VI. made
it a town and county incorporate of itfelf, independ¬
ent of Northumberland. Henry VII. built a mona-
ftery here for the Francifcans. Befides wThich, it had
feveral religious foundations, feveral of which ftruftures
have been converted to companies halls and private
refidences. In the reign of Henry VIU. this place
is faid to have exceeded in the ftrength and magnifi¬
cence of its works all the cities of England, and moft
places in Europe. The town is governed by a mayor,
1 2 aldermen, a recorder, fheriff, town clerk, a clerk of
the chambers, two coroners, eight chamberlains, a
fword-bearer, a wTater bailiff, and feVen ferjeants at
mace. Its fituation, efpecially the moft bufy part of
it towards the river, is very uneven, it being built on
the declivity of a fteep hill, and the houfes very clofe.
The caftle overlooks the whole town. That part built
by Robert was of great ftrength, and fquare, and fur-
rounded by two walls; the fquare was 62 feet by 54,
, and the walls 13 feet thick, within which w'as a cha¬
pelt The outward fortifications are now defaced, and
their fite crowded with buildings. The tower remains
entire, and fituated on a lofty eminence, and its prin¬
cipal entrance is to the foutb. This caftle belongs to
4
'4 1 N E W
the county, and makes no part of the liberties.—It is Newcaftle
now the county prifon, and in the great hall the judges on Dne*
hold the affizes. Here Baliol king of Scotland did ho-
mage to King Edward I. in 1292: as did Edward Baiiol
in 1334 to King Edward III. Here is a magnificent
exchange and a cuftomhoufe ; and a very fine quay.
There is a handfome manfion houfe for the mayor, who
is allowed loool. a-year, for his table, befides a coach
and barge. The old bridge was carried away in a
flood, and the prefent was eredled about 1775, of nine
noble elliptic arches. With the old bridge 22 houfes
were thrown down, and fix lives loft. It w'as original¬
ly built of wood ; but having been deftroyed by fire in
1248, was rebuilt of ftone, and confifted of 12 arches,
three of which on the north fide were clofed up, and
ferved f6r cellars : this was again rebuilt about 145c,
and w’as crowded with wooden buildings; but near the
middle was a tower with an iron gate, ufed as a town
prifon. A ftrong building crofted the bridge, .which
was ufed as a magazine. On the fouth front was a
ftatue of King Charles II. The water which deftroy¬
ed this bridge, on November 11. 1771, was upwards
of 12 feet above high water mark in Ipring tides.—On
removing the foundations of the piers of the old bridge
to ereft the prefent, by obfervations made, and medals
found, part of it is fuppofed to have exifted from the
time of the Romans. It is computed that above 6000
keelmen are employed here, who have formed them-
felves into a friendly fociety ; and, by their own con¬
tributions, built a noble hofpital containing 50 cham¬
bers, for fuch of their fraternity as are poor, difabled,
or paft their labour ; and it is fupported by the con¬
tribution of thofe that are in health. The town is
extremely populous; and, notwithftanding the multi¬
tude of thofe employed in and abotit the coal pits,
wdth which the town is in a manner furrounded, has
abundance of poor; but it has alfo many wealthy in¬
habitants, and it is faid they pay above 4000I. a-yeax
to their relief. It is obferved, that this town has the
greateft public revenue in its own right as a corpora¬
tion, of any towm in England, it being computed at no
lefs than 8000I. a-year. In 1774, the receipts of the
corporation were 20,360!. 9s. 8d. ; and their difburfe-
ments about 19,445!. The number of inhabitants is
abo-fl 36,891, exclufive of a number of feamen who
cannot be accurately eftimated. Here are four churches
or chapels. That of St Nicholas is the mother church,
a curious fabric, built cathedral-wife by David king of
Scots, 240 feet long, 75 broad, and proportionably
high, with a towrer fteeple 194 feet in height, of Go¬
thic architeflure ; alfo St Andrew’s, St John’s, and
All Saints, lately rebuilt on the fite of the old ftruc-
ture, of a circular form. Here are alfo feveral meet¬
ing houfes, and four charity fchools for 300 children ;
a fine hall for the furgeons, and a large prifon called
Ncxvgate ; alfo an hofpital for lunatics, another for the
lying-in of married women, as well as a fund raifed
for the relief of thofe who are delivered at their own
houfes. Here is a w’ell endowed and large infirmary,
and an affembly room that attra&s attention, contain¬
ing every ufeful apartment, and a ball-room 93 feet
by 40 : The front is ornamented with fix Ionic pillars,
&c. In another part of the town is a new theatre.
Here is a very neat fet of baths. A free grammar
fchool was granted by James I. from an old foundation
of '
Ne weal'll
on Tyne
NEW £ -
of St Mary’s hofpital, in the veflry room of whofe
chapel is the eledlion of the officers of the corporation.
There were formerly feveral palaces in this city, viz. Pam-
pedon hall, Lurnley place, Earl’s place, Northumber¬
land houfe, Weftmoreland place, &c. The free ma-
fons have lately erefted an elegant hall, richly orna¬
mented, to hold their lodge in, near High friar chair,
capable of holding above 4000 of that ancient frater¬
nity. Here is an hofpital for 39 decayed freemen
and their widows j and another for three clergymen’s
widows and three merchants widows. The Maidens
hofpital, built in 1753,15 endowed with 2400I. for fix
maiden women and fix poor men. Dr Thomlin, a prs-
bendary of St Paul’s, and reftor of Whicham in the
bilhopric of Durham, gave a library of above 6000
valuable books to the corporation, and fettled a rent
charge of 5I. a-year for ever for buying new ones j
and Sir Walter Blanket, formerly one of its reprefenta-
tives in parliament, built a neat repofitory for them, and
fettled 25I. a-year for ever on a librarian. The upper or
north part of the town, inhabited by the politer fort
of people, is much pleafanter than that part next the
river, and has three level, w7ell built, and fpacious
ftreets. The river all the way up from Shields to
Newcaftle is broad, the channel fafe, and the tide
flows w’ith a ftrong current to the town, and far be¬
yond it. In the beginning of the late civil wars, this
town was taken and plundered by the Scotch fanatics, who
here fold their king, Charles I. for 200,000b in hand,
and fecurity for as much more. The glafs works are
very curious, and have more bufinefs of the fine fort
than moft other places, the duty on this article drawn
by government is faid to amount to 2O0,oool. annually.
Befides, it has a confiderable manufafture of broad and
narrow cloths, and feveral foap boileries •, and this
place is famous for grindftones, for which there is fuch
a demand, that fcarce a fhip llirs without them ; from
whence came the proverb, “ That a Scotfman and a
Newcaftle grindftofie travel all the world over.” Ships
fit for the coal trade are built here to perfeflion, with
great ftrength. Plere is a confiderable manufaflory of
hardware and wrought iron, after the manner of that at
Sheffield.—Its markets are on Tuefdays and Saturdays.
Its fairs in Auguft, which laft nine days, and Oflober
29th, which laft nine days. By an a£t of Queen Mary,
the price of the carriage of goods hither from London
by waggons was fettled at 2d. per lb. London alone
is faid to confume at leaft 766,887 chaldrons of its
coal every year 5 but as for the fifh vended in that
city by the name of Newcajlle falmon, it is more pro¬
perly called Berwick falmon, the frelh falmon being
taken near 50 miles farther, as far as the Tweed, and
brought on the backs of horfes to Shields, where it
is cured, pickled, and fent on board for London. It
is worth remembering, that at the affizes here in 1745,
twTo old men wrere fubpoena’d hither as witneffes from
a neighbouring village, viz. one 135 years of age, and
his fon 95, both hearty, and having their fight and
hearing ; and that in I744> one Adam Turnbull died
in this town aged 112, who had had four wives, the
laft of whom he had married when he was near 100
years old.
The annual amount of the revenue of cuftoms at
this port, which Mr Brand in his Hiftory of New-
75 ] NEW
caftle ftates at 41,000!. is now very confidcrably up- NeweafKi'
W'ards of 70,OOol. on Tyne,
The coals carried out of it annually (on an average
from 1785 to 1791) were nearly 448,000 Newcaftle
chaldrons j the weight of which is 1,187,200 tons.’
The following are the exports of coals from the Tyne
for the years annexed.
Years.
1802
1803
1804
1805
Coaftways.
494,488
iWS?
579,929
552,827
Over fea.
4M57
42,808
48,737
47,213
Plantations
2844
1516
3852
2360
The number of perfons employed in the coal trade of
the rivers Tyne and Wear in 1792 exceeded 64,000.
The manufaflure of earthen ware is greatly increaf-
ed, and carried on to great perfection in its neighbour¬
hood, in feven potteries 5 and their produce exported
hence to foreign parts, as well as to the different ports
of this kingdom } fome of which potteries conftantly
employ upwards of ICO perfons, men, women, and
children.
New works of confiderable extent for the manufac¬
ture of iron have been eftablhhed j as alfo a very capi¬
tal manufactory for white lead, milled lead, &c. Inde¬
pendent of red and white lead, the quantity of lead ex-'
ported from the river Tyne during four years wTas as-
follows.
Years.
1802
1803
I 804
1805
Tons.
8609
6364
IO352
9163
Cwt.
18
6
The trade with the Weft India ifiands is increafingr
and may in time become very confiderable j as the
port has great advantages, in being able to fupply
on the cheapeft terms many articles w'anted in thofe
iilands; fuch as coals, grindftones, lime, bricks, tiles,
iron wares, &c. ; and is moft; advantageoufly fituated
for the re-exportation of the Weft India produce to
the ports on the Baltic, to Germany, the United Pro¬
vinces, Flanders, and part of France ; and moreover,
the rifli of navigation, and the rate of infurance, not
being greater than between thofe ifiands and Liver¬
pool, and fome other ports on the weftern coaft of this
kingdom.
The town of Newcaftle is daily increafing in its po¬
pulation and opulence. It has been long noted for
hofpitality and good living. Great improvements have
been made in the town, by opening new ftreets, and
paving the principal ones, in the fame manner as in
London.
To the lift of public edifices of modern ereCtion, and
mentioned above, viz. the grand affembly rooms, and
the elegant theatre, which were built by fubfeription,
and the fuperb parilh church of All Saints, built at a-
very great expence by the parilhioners, may be added-
a commodious riding houfe, built allb by fubfedption.
Newcastle, a borough town of Ireland, in the
county of Dublin, and province of Leinfter, which re¬
turns twm members to parliament, and holds two fairs,
9th of May and 8th of OCtober.
Newcastle alfo the name of a handfome town
NEW [ 776 ]
Neweaftle in t"he county of Limerick and province of Munfter, found
on the high road to Kerry, 114 miles from Dublin.
Here was a religious houfe poflcffed by the knights
templars. It is faid, they ufed fome barbarous cuftoms
which greatly difgufted the Irifli, who, watching a fa¬
vourable opportunity, attacked a number of the kaights
riding out together and put them to death } the place
is ftill remembered where their remains were interred.
This order wras fuppreffed in the famous council of
Vienna, 22d of March 1312. Newcaltle confifts of a
large fquare where markets and fairs are held j on the
northern fide Hands a market houfe, with an affembly
room; on the fouth fide is the church, which is the
neatefl; in the county; it was finifiied in 1777 at
the foie expence of Lord Courtenay. It (lands clofe
to the walls and fortifications of the knights templars,
of which one of the caftles is fitted up for Lord Courte¬
nay’s agent.
Newcastle, a fmall town in America, 35 miles be¬
low Philadelphia, on the weft bank of Delaware river.
It was (lift fettled by the Swedes about the year 1627,
and called Stockholm. It was afterwards taken by the
Dutch, and called New Amjlerdam. When it fell in¬
to the hands of the Englilh, it was called by its pre-
fent name. It contains about 60 houfes, which have
the afpeft of decay, and was formerly the feat of go¬
vernment. This is the firft town that was fettled on
Delaware river.
Newcastle, Duke of. See Cavendish.
New England. See England, New.
New Fony? of Hampfhire in England, is a tra£l of
at lead 40 miles in compafs, which had many populous
towns and villages, and 36 mother churches, till it
was deftroyed and turned into a loreft by William the
"Conqueror. There are nine walks in it; and to every
one a keeper, under a lord warden, befides two ran¬
gers, and a bow-bearer. As this large traft lay many
ages open and expofed to invafions from foreigners,
King Henry VIII. built fome caftles in it; and it has
now feveral pretty towns and villages. It is fituated
in that part of Hampfhire wEich is bounded on the
eaft by Southampton river, and on the fouth by the
Britifti Channel. It poiTeffes advantages of fituation,
with refpeft to the convenience of water carriage and
nearnefs to the dock yards, fuperior to every other
foreft, having in its neighbourhood feveral ports and
places of (belter for (hipping timber, among which
Lymington js at the diftance of only twm miles, Bew-
ley about half a mile, and Redbridge three or four
miles from the foreftand the navigation to Portf-
mouth, the moft confiderable dock yard in this king¬
dom, is only about 30 miles from the neared of thofe
places. This is the only foreft belonging to the
crown of which the origin is known. Doomfday-
book contains the moft diftindt account of its affore-
ftation by William the Conqueror : the contents of
every field, farm, or eftate afforefted, in hides, caru-
cates, or virgates, by which the extent of land was
then computed, together with the names of the hun¬
dreds and villages, and of the former proprietors
(which are for the moft part Saxon), the rent or yearly
value of each poffeffion, and the tax which had been
paid for it to the crown during the reign of Edward
the Confeffor, before the inhabitants were expelled,
a-nd that part of the country laid wafte, are all to be
3
NEW
in that moft curious and venerable record.
Wifhing to difeover the original extent of the foreft,
we extradled, for our own information, all that relates
to it in that ancient furvey. The extradl is far too
voluminous for infertion. The names of many of
the places having been. changed fince that time, it is
difficult to afeertain with precifion what were then the
limits of the foreft. The oldeft perambulation wje have
met with is among the Pleas of the Foreft, in the
eighth year of King Edward I. preferved in the
Chapter-houfe at Weftminfter. The boundaries there
deferibed include all the country from Southampton
river on the eaft to the Avon on the weft, following
the fea coaft as far as the fouthern boundary between
thofe rivers, and extending northwards as far as North
Chadeford, or North Charford, on the weft, and to
Wade and Orebrugg, or Owerbridge, on the eaft ; and
the greateft part, if not the whole, of that extenfive
diftritft, is mentioned in Doomfday book to be the
foreft belonging to the crown. Another perambula¬
tion was however made in the 29th of the fame king,
which leaves out- a great part of the country contain¬
ed within the former. This perambulation, which is
preferved in the tower of London, confines the foreft
to limits which, as far as we can trace them, appear to
have been followed in the 22d year of Charles 11.
when the foreft was again perambulated. By the
Charta de Forefla, all lands not belonging to the crown
which had been afforefted by Henry II. Richard I.
or King John, were to be difaftbrefted ; but as no
provifion was made for the reduction of the more an¬
cient afforeflations, it is eafy to account for the great
diminution of this foreft in the reign of Edward I.
who was not a prince likely to fubmit to any encroach¬
ment on his rights. The perambulation of the 22d
of Charles II. is the laft which we find on record : it
contains the prefent legal bounds of the foreft, and
was given to the furveyors as their guide, in taking the
plan which they have made lately by diredfion. From
that plan, with the approbation of the lords comnaif-
fionersof his majefty’s treafury, an engraving was made.
According to the laft-mentioned perambulation and the
plan, the foreft extends from Godlhill on the north-
weft to the fea on the fouth-eaft, about 20 miles ; and
from Hardley on the eaft to Ringwood on the weft,
about 15 miles; and contains within thofe limits
about 92,365 acres ftatute meafure. The whole of
that quantity, however, is not foreft land, or now the
property of the crown : there are feveral manors and
other confiderable freehold eftates within the perambu¬
lation, belonging to individuals, to the amount of about
24,797 acres ; about 625 acres are copyhold or cufto-
mary lands belonging to his majefty’s manor of Lynd-
hurft ; about 1004 acres are leafe-hold under the
crown, granted for certain terms of years, and forming
part of the demifed land revenue, under fhe manage¬
ment of the furveyor-general of crown lands ; about
901 acres are purpreftures or encroachments on the
foreft ; about 1193 acres more are enclofed lands held
by the mafter-keepers and groom-keepers, with their
refpeefive lodges; and the remainder, being about
63,845 acres, are woods and wafte lands of the foreft.
To perpetuate the fpot where "William Rufus was
killed by the glance of an arrow (hot at a (lag, a tri¬
angular (lone was eredted in 1745’ George III. vi-
fited
New Fo¬
reft.
New-Hol-
Ir.nd
Newfound
land.
NEW [
fited tills fpot in 1789. In Auguft 1782, a curious
ancient golden crol's was found here by a labouring
man digging turf. It weighed above an ounce of gold,
and had on one fide an engraving of our Saviour, and
• on the other, the ladder, fpear, nails, and other emblems
of his fiifferings.
Nf.it Holland. See Holiand, New.
New York. See York. New.
New Zealand. See Zealand, New.
New Years Gifts, prelents made on the firft day
of the new year. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin
of this cuftom among the Romans to Tatius king of
the Sabines, who reigned at Rome conjointly with
Romulus, and who having confidered as a good omen
a prefent of fome branches cut in a wT?od confecrated
to Strenia, the goddefs of ftrength, which he received
on the firft day of the new year, authorized this cu¬
ftom afterwards, and gave to thefe prefents the name
of /lren<z. However this may be, the Romans on that
day celebrated a feftival in honour of Janus, and paid
their refpecls at the fame time to Juno ; but they did
not pafs it in idlenefs, left they ftiould become indo¬
lent during the reft of the year. They fent prefents
to one another ©f figs, dates, honey, &c. to (how their
friends that they wiftied for a happy and agreeable
life. Clients, that is to fay, thofe who were under
the prote&ion of the great, carried prefents of this
kind to their patrons, adding to them a fmali piece of
filver. Under Auguftus, the fenate, the knights, and
the people, prefented fuch gifts to him, and in his ab-
fence depofited them in the capitol. Of the fucceed-
ing princes fome adopted this cuftom and others abo-
liftied it j but it always continued among the people.
The early Chriftians condemned it, becaufe it appeared
to be a relick of Paganifm and a fpecies of fuperfti-
tion *, but when it began to have no other object than
that of being a mark of veneration and efteem, the
church ceafed to difapprove of it.
NEWEL, in architefture, is the upright poft
which a pair of winding ftairs turn about 5 this is
properly a cylinder of ftone, which bears on the
ground, and is formed by the end of the fteps of the
winding ftairs.
NEWFIDLER-sea, a lake in Hungary, 17 miles
in length and 6 in breadth.
NEWFOUNDLAND, a large ifland of North
America, belonging to Great Britain, lying between
46. 50. and 51. 30. N. Lat. and between 53. 30. and
58. 20. W. Long, from London. The form is that of
an irregular triangle, the bafe or fouth fide being 80
leagues in extent > the eaft fide is the longeft •, and the
whole circumfefence about 150 leagues. It is bound¬
ed on the north by the ftraits of Belleiile, which fepa-
rate it from Labrador ; on the eaft and fouth it hath
the Atlantic ocean, and on the weft the gulf of St
Lawrence. The climate is rather fevere ; and the foil,
at leaft on the fea coaft, which is all that we know of
it, is poor and barren. A few kitchen vegelables, wuth
ftrawberries and rafpberries, are all its produce. The
country within land is mountainous, and abounds with
timber ; there are feveral rivers which are plentifully
ftored with various forts of fifti, abundance of deep bays,
and many good ports. St John’s and Placentia are the
two principal fettlements, and at each of thefe there is
a fort 5 the number of people who remain here in the
Vol. XIV. Part IT.
laud.
777 ] NEW
winter hath been computed at 4000. T!>e French, by Newfound
the treaty of Utrecht, were permitted to fi(h from Cape,
Bonavifta on the eaft fide round the north of the illand
to Point Rich on the weft ; and by the treaty of Paris,
they are allowed the ifies of St Pierre and Miquelon,
upon which they are to dry their filh, but not to ereft
fortifications of any kind.
The great importance of this place arifes from its
filhery, which is in part carried on by the inhabitants
at the feveral harbours, which are about 20 in number,
who take vaft quantities of cod near the coaft, which
they bring in and cure at their leifure, in order to have
it ready for the (hips when they arrive. But the great
and extenfive filhery is on the banks at fome diftance
from the iftand. The great bank lies 20 leagues from
the neareft point of land from the latitude 410 to 490,
ftretching 300 miles in length and 75 in breadth. 
To the eaft of this lies the Falfe Bank ; the next is
ftyled Vert, or the Green Bank, about 240 miles long,
and 120 over; then Banquero, about the fame fize ;
tae ftioals of Sand Illand, Whale Bank, and the Bank
of St Peter’s, with feveral others of lefs note, all
abounding with fifh.
The cod are caught only by a hook ; an expert
fiiher will take from 130 to 300 and upwards in a day;
for the fifti never bite in the night : the labour is
very great. The feafem is from May to Oclober, in
the height of which there are from 500 to 700 fail
upon the banks at a time. The fifti caught in the
fpring months are beft ; they are cured in very differ¬
ent ways. Some are ftyled white fijh, others mud JiJh,
which are flowed and faked in the hold, and will not
keep long ; but the Left and moft valuable are the dried
cod. The quantity taken is prodigious : yet in fome
feafbns and in different places varies confiderably, as
the filli frequently change their ftations. The fjhing
Jhips, as they are called, lie upon the banks, with the
help of their boats take and cure their own fifti, and as
foon as they are full fail for a market. The fack (hips
proceed diredlly to the iftand, where they purch-fe
fifti from the inhabitants either by barter or bills of ex¬
change. The principal markets for cod are Spain,
Portugal, Italy, and the Weft Indies. The value of
this fifhery is computed at fome hundred thoufand
pounds annually ; employing, befides feveral hundred
ftiips, fome thoufands of feamen, and affording a main¬
tenance to a number of tradefmen of different occupa¬
tions, by which many large towns on the weft fide of
England accumulate much wealth, and at the fame time
contribute in many refpedls to the benefit of the public.
The great utility of this fiftiery was very early feen„
and very vigoroufly purfued ; for in the beginning of
the reign of King James I. we had two hundred and
fifty fail employed therein. It is computed, that
three quintals of wet fifti make one quintal of dried cod.
Befides, the livers of every hundred quintals make a
hogftiead of oil; and exclulive of thefe there are many
leffer advantages that go in diminution of the expence.
I he fifliery, as we have faid above, produces different¬
ly in different feafons; but it is judged to be a very
good one when it produces 300,000 quintals of fifti and
3000 barrels of oil, both equally faleable and valuable
commodities. As every (hip carries twelve, and each
of their boats eight men, and as thefe return home in
fix months, there cannot be a more noble nurfery (or
5 F (earner,-.
NEW [ 778 ] ''NEW
- ieanien. The artificers and traders employed in build¬
ing, victualling, and repairing thefe veitels, are very nu¬
merous in the refpeCtive ports from which they fail.
X hefe circumftances juitify the particular attention paid
by government to this branch of the public fervice j in
reipeCt to which that they may be well informed, an an¬
nual and very diftinct account, by which the whole is
teen at one view, is delivered by the proper officer- to
the governor of Newfoundland, that is, to the com¬
modore of Iris majefty’s fquadron. Mr Pennant, in the
appendix to his Arclic Zoology, gives us, from what
appears to be very good authority, the following ac¬
count of this ifland.
“ Wi thin the circuit of 60 miles of the fouthern
part, the country is hilly, but not mountainous. The
hills inereafe in height as they recede from the fea ;
th&ir courle is irregular, not forming a chain of hills,
but rifmg and failing abruptly. The coalts are high,
and the iiiores molt remarkably bold. The fame may
be find of ahnoft every part of this vail illand. The
country is much wooded, and the hills (fuch as have
not fiat tops to admit the rain to ftagnate on them) are
clothed with birch, with hazel, fpruce, fir, and pine, all
fmall; xvhich is chiefly owing to the inhabitants taking
olf the bark to cover the fifh flages. '['his peninfula is
fo indented by the fine and deep bays of Placentia, St
Mary, Conception, and Trinity, that it may be pene¬
trated in all parts, which is done for the fake of fowling,
or the procuring of fparsJ for mails, oars, &c. The
ifland is on all fides pierced with deep bays, which pen-
infulate it in many places by ifthmufes molt remarkably
narrow.—The mountains on the fouth-welt fide, near
the fea, are very high, and terminate in lofty headlands 5
inch are Chapeau Rouge, a moll remarkably high pro¬
montory, Cape St Mary’s, and Cape le Hune. Such in
general is the formation of the iiland ; on the north-
eaft, moll of the hills in the interior part of the coun¬
try terminate pyramidically, but form no chain. The
interior parts of the country confill chiefly of morafles,
or dry barren hammocks, or level land, with frequent
lakes or ponds, and in fome places covered with llufited
black fpruce. The rivers of Newfoundland are unfit
for navigation, but they are of ufe in floating down
the wood with the fummer floods. Still the rivers and
the brooks are excellent guides for the hunters of
beavers and other animals, to penetrate up the country,
which as yet has never been done deeper than 30 miles.
Near the brooks it is that timber is commonly met
with, but feldom above three or four miles inland, and
in valleys j the hills in the northern diflridt being na¬
ked and barren.
“ In fome parts of Newfoundland there is timber fuf-
ilciently large for the building of merchant fnips : the
hulk is made of juniper, and the pine furnifhes mails
•and yards j but as yet none has been found large
enough for a maft for a large cutter. The filhery is
divided into two feafons j that on the ffiore, or the
ffiore feafon, commences about the 20th of April, and
ends about the, 10th of Odlober ; the boats fiffi in from
four to 20 fathoms of water. The moll important, the
bank filhing feafon, begins the 10th of May, and con¬
tinues till the laft of September, and is carried on in 30
to 45 - fathoms depth of water. Banking veflels have
failed from St John’s to the bank as early as the 12th
of April. At fixft they ufe pork or birds for a bait j
but as they catch fhh, they fupply themfelves with a N- wn
Ihell filh called clams, which is found in the belly of ket
the cod. The next bait is the loblfer ; after that the New:
herring and the launce, which latl till June, when the ^
capelan comes on the coaft, and is another bait. In
Auguft the fquid comes into ufe, and finally the herring
again. The greatefi: number of cod filh taken by a
Angle filherman in the feafon has been 12,000, but the
average is 7000. The large!! filh which has been ta¬
ken was four feet three inches long, and weighed 46
pounds'. A banking veil'd of 10,coo fiih ought to be
filled in three weeks, and fo in proportion ; and 80
quintals (il 2lb. each) for a boat in the fame time.
“ In 1785, 541 Englilh veffels filhed on the bank, a
number exceeding that of the French. A heap of
dried filh, 20 leet long and ten wide, and four deep,
contains 300 quintals. Such a heap fettles, in the
courfe of 48 hours after it is made, about An ex¬
traordinary fplitter will fplit five quintals of filh in an
hour. The average in that time is two. There is no
filhing during winter, on account of the inclemency
of the feafon. It is fuppofed that the filh in a great
meafure quit the banks before that time, as in general
they are very fcarce when the filhing veffds go upon
the banks early in the fpring.
“ There are a few (mail towns on the edafls, which
have gardens fown with Englilh pulfe 5 but many of
the inhabitants quit the country in winter.
“ An admiral or fome fea officer is generally govern¬
or of Newfoundland.”
NEWMARKET, in Cambridgeffiire, 13 miles
from Cambridge, 13 from St EdmundAury, and 60
from London, is a town with one long Ureet, the
north fide in Suffolk, the fouth fide in Cambridge-
Ihire. It is a healthy place, and a great thorough¬
fare in the road from London to Norfolk ; but Hands
mollly by the horfe races every year in April and Oc¬
tober, here being the fmell courfe in England ; on
which there is a houfe for the king when he comes to
the races, which was built by Charles II. The king
gives a plate or two every year, befides. thofe given by
the nobility } and wagers are laid upon the horfes,
which are feldom under 500I. and often above 10O0I.
Here are two coffeehoufes, at which, every night and
morning during the races, there is gaming, as there is
alfo at the houfes of the nobility and gentry. Here are
alfo cock matches. Here is a little chapel, which is a
chapel of eafe to the mother church at Litton 5 and
another in the Suffolk fide, which is parochial. The
town was burnt in 1683, but foon rebuilt.
NEWROSS, a borough town in the county of
Wexford, and province of Leinlter, in Ireland, 67 miles
from Dublin. This town was formerly walled, and
fome of the gates lliTl remain. It lies on the river
Barrow, which is here very deep, and lliips of burden
can come up to the quay even when the tide is out.
The church is large, but the cullomhoufe and quay
are both fir all, and fometimes overtlooded many feet.
It is one of the itaple ports for exporting wool, yet
its trade is but inconlklerable 5 beef and butter are the
principal articles exported. Here is a barrack for a
troop of horfe, and a good ferry into the county of
Kilkenny. Near this town is a charter fchool. It
is alfo a poll town, and gives title of earl to the fami¬
ly of Gore. It was formerly fortified, and adorned
with
NEW [ 7
"Kvwfpapers u Itli many religious houfes, among which was a crouch-
11 cd friary, built on the fummit of a hill in the town j
, K^"7-ri- but one of the friars having killed a principal inhabi¬
tant, the whole body of the people arofe, put the friars
to death, and totally deftroyed the friary j on the file
of which the monaftery of St Saviour, for conventual
Francifcans, was afterwards erefied by Sir John Deve-
reux ; and the esft end of this laft building is now the
parish church. A friary for F.remites, following the
rule of St Auguftine, was alfo founded here in the reign
of Edward III.
NEWSPAPERS, periodical publications, daily,
weekly, &c. for the purpofe of communicating to the
world every thing of importance, whether political or
literary, &c. which is going on. They have tended
much to the diifemination of learning, and have ferved
many other valuable purpofes; and while they are car¬
ried on with candour, impartiality, and ability, they are
unquedionably a great national benefit. When this,
however, is not the cafe, and it often happens, they dif-
grace their authors, and are highly injurious to the pub¬
lic. They were firft publiihed in England, Auguft 2 2.
1642. 'journal de Spavans, a French paper, was firlt
pubiilhed in 1665, though one tvas printed in England,
under the title of the Public Intelligencer, by Sir Ro¬
ger L’Efirange, 1663, rvhich he dropped, on the pub¬
lication of the firft London Gazette. Newfpapers and
pamphlets were prohibited by royal proclamation 1680.
Though at the Revolution prohibitions of this kind
were done aw^ay, and the prefs fet at liberty, yet news¬
papers were afterwards made objefts of taxation, and
for this purpofe were firft ftamped in 1713. The number
of them, however, gradually increafed ; and there were
printed in the whole kingdom during the years 1775,
12,680,0005 1776,12,830,0005 1777, 13,150,6425
W?8* I3>240>°59 i I779» 14,106,842 ; 1780,
14,217,3715 1781, 14,397,6205 1782, 15,272,519.
They are now ftill more numerous. The average num¬
ber of newfpapers printed in England at the clofe of
the reign of George II, was 9,464,790. The number
in 1790, was 14,03.5/39 5 in 1792, it was 15,005,760.
Chalmers'1 Life of Lluddiman, p. 442.
NEW Style, firft ufed in England in 1753, was
introduced into the weftern world by Pope Gregory
XIIT. See Chronology, N° 24.
NEW I', or Eft, the common lizard. See La*
cert A, Ertetolcgy Index.
NEWTON, Sir Isaac, one of the greateft philo-
fophe.s and mathematicians the world has ever produ¬
ced, was the only child of Mr John Newton of Colef-
worth, not far from Grantham in Lincolnfhire, who had
an eftate of about 12c 1. per annum, which he kept in
his own hands. He was born at that place on Chrift-
mas day 1642. His father dying when he was young,
his mother’s brother, a clergyman of the name of Ayf-
cough, or AJhew, who lived near her, and dire tied all
her affairs after the death of Mr Newton, put her fon
to fchool at Grantham. When he had finifhed his
fchool learning, his mother took him home, intend¬
ing, as fhe had no other child, to have the pleafure of
his company 5 and that he, as his father had done,
fliould occupy his own eftate. Eut his uncle happen¬
ing to find him in a hay loft at Grantham working a
mathematical problem, and having otherwife obferved
the bey’s mind to be uncommonly bent upon learning,
79 3 NEW
he prevailed upon her to part with him 5 and fhe fent N&
him to Trinity College in Cambridge, where her bro¬
ther, having himfelf been a member of it, had ftill ma¬
ny friends. Ifaac was foon taken notice of by Dr Ifaac
Barrow ; wjho, obferving his bright genius, contraded
a great friendlhip for him. M. de Fontenelle tells u=,
“ That in learning mathematics he did not ftudy Eu¬
clid, who feemed to him too plain and fimple, and un¬
worthy of taking up his time. He underftood him al-
moft before he read him 5 and a call of his eye upon the
contents of his theorems was fufficient to make him ma¬
iler of them. He advanced at once to the geometry of
Des Cartes, Kepler’s Optics, &c. It is certain that he
had made his great difeoveries in geometry, and laid the
foundation of his two famous works, the Principia and
Optics, by the time he was 24 years of age.”
In 1664, he took the degree of bachelor of arts : and
in 1668 that of mafter, being defied the year before,
fellow of his college. He had before this time difeo-
vered the method of fluxions 5 and in 1669 he was
chofen profeffor of mathematics in the univerfity of
Cambridge, upon the refignation of Mr Barrow. The
fame year, and the two following, he read a courfe of
optical leflures in Latin, in the public fchools of the
univerfity 5 an Englilh tranflation of which was print¬
ed at London in 1728, in 8vo, as was the Latin ori¬
ginal the next year in 410. From the year 1671 to
1679, he held a correfpondence by letters with Mr
Henry Oldenburg fecretary of the Royal Society, and
Mr John Collins fellow of that fociety 5 which letters
contain a variety of curious obfervations.
Concerning the origin of his difeoveries, we are told,
that as he fat alone in a garden, the falling of fome
apples from a tree led him into a fpeculation on the
power of gravity 5 that as this power is not diminifhed
at the remoteft diftance from the centre of the earth to
which we can rife, it appeared to him reafonable to
conclude, that it muft extend much farther than was
ufually thought ; and purfuing this fpeculation, by
comparing the periods of the feveral planets with their
diftances from tire fun, he found, that if any power
like gravity held them in their courfes, its ftrength
muft decreafe in the duplicate proportion of the in*
creafe of diftance. This inquiry was dropped 5 but rc-
fumed again, and gave rife to his writing the treatife
which he publiftied in 1687, under the name of
tkematica'l Principles of Natural Philofopky; a work
looked upon as the produdlion of a celeftial intelligence
rather than of a man. The very lame year in which
this great work was publifhed, the univerfity of Cam¬
bridge was attacked by King James II. wThen Mr New¬
ton was one of its moft zealous defenders, and was ac¬
cordingly nominated one of the delegates of that uni¬
verfity to the high-commilTion court 5 and the next
year he was chofen one of their members for the con¬
vention parliament, in which he fat till it was diffolved.
In 1696, Mr Montague, then chancellor of the exche¬
quer, and afterwards earl of Halifax, obtained for him
of the king fhe office of warden' of the mint 5 in which
employment he was of fignal fervice, when the money
was called in to be recoined. Three years after, he
was appointed mafter of the mint 5 a place of very con-
fiderable profit, which he held till his death. In 1699,
he was elefted one of the members of the Royal Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Paris. In 1701, he was a fecond
5 F 2 time
Newton.
NEW [ 780 ] NEW
time choten m mber of patliameT;t for die untvefiity of
Cambridge. In 1704, he publiflied his Optics; which
is a piece of philofophy fo new, that the fcience may be
confidered as entirely indebted to our author. In X705,
he was knighted by Queen Anne. In 1707, he pub-
lifhed his Arithmetica Univerfalis. In 1711, his /hia-
hjju per ^uantitatum Series, Fluxiones et Differentias,
Sec. was publilhed by William Jones, Efq. In 1712,
feveral letters of his were publilhed in the Commercium
Fpifloliciim. In the reign of George I. he was bet¬
ter known at court than before. The princefs of
Wales, afterwards queen confort of England, ufed
frequently to propofe queflions to him, and to declare
that (lie thought herfelf happy to live at the fame time
with him, and have the pleafure and advantages of his
converfation. He had written a treatife of ancient
chronology, which he did not think of publifhing j but
the princefs defired an abltraft, which (he would never
part with. However, a copy of it hole abroad, and
was carried into France ; where it was tranflated and
printed, with fome obfervatior.s, which were afterwards
anfwered by Sir Ifaac. But, in 1728, the Chronology
it (elf was publilhed at London in quarto ; and was at¬
tacked by feveral perfons, and as zealeufly defended by
Ss.* Ifaac’s friends. The main delign of it was to find
out, from fome tradls of the moff ancient Greek aftro-
nomy, what w’as the pofition of the colures with refpedf
to the fixed ftars, in the time of Chiron the centaur.
As it is now known that thefe flars have a motion in
longitude of one degree in 72 years, if it be once known
through w’hat fixed liars the colure paffed in Chiron’s
time, by taking the diftance of thefe ftars from thofe
through which it now pafles, we might determine what
number of years has elapfed fince Chirqn’s time. As
Chiron wTas one of the Argonauts, this would fix the
time of that famous expedition, and confequently that
of the Trojan w^r j the two great events upon which
all ancient chronology depends. Sir Ifaac places them
500 years nearer the birth of Chrift than other chro-
nologers have done.
This great man had all along enjoyed a fettled and
equal ftate of health to the age of 80, when he began
to be afftidled with an incontinence of urine. However,
for the five following years, he had great intervals of
safe, which he procured by the obfervance of a ftrift
regimen. It was then believed that he certainly had
the ftone j and when the paroxyfms were fo violent,
that large drops of fweat ran down his face, he never
uttered the lead complaint, or exprefi'ed the fmalleft de¬
gree of impatience ; but, as foon as he had a moment’s
eafe, would fmile and talk with his ufual cheerfulnefs.
Till then he always read and wrote feveral hours in a
day. He had the perfefl u£ of all his fenfes and un-
derftanding till the day before he died, which was on
the 20th of March 1726-7 in the 85th year of his age.
He lay in ftate in the Jerufalem chamber at Weftmin-
iter, and on the 28th of March his body was conveyed
into Weftrmnfter abbey 5 the pall being fupported by
the lord chancellor, the dukes of Montrofe and Rox¬
burgh, and the earls of Pembroke, Suffex, and Mac¬
clesfield. The biihop of Rochefter read the funeral
fervice, being attended by all the clergy of the church.
The corpfe was interred juft at the entrance into the
choir, where a noble monument is erefted to his memory.
Sir Ifaac was of a middling ftature, and in the latter
part of his life fomewhat inclined to be fat. His coun¬
tenance was pleafing and at the fame time venerable.
He never made ufe of fpecfacles, and loft but one tooth
during his whole life.
His temper is faid to have been fo equal and mild,
that no accident could difturb it. Of this the follow¬
ing remarkable inftance is related. Sir Ifaac had a
favourite little dog, which he called Diamond; and
being one day called out of his ftudy into the next
room, Diamond was left behind. When Sir Ifaac re¬
turned, having been abfent but a few7 minutes, he had
the mortification to find, that Diamond having thrown
down a lighted candle among fome papers, the nearly
finifhed labour of many years was in flames, and almoft
confumed to allies. This lofs, as Sir Ifaac was then
very far advanced in years, was irretrievable j yet with¬
out once ftriking the dog, he only rebuked him with
this exclamation, “ Oh ! Diamond ! Diamond ! thou
little knoweft the mifehief thou haft done !
He rvas a great lover of peace, and would rather
have chofen to remain in obfeurity than to have the
calm of life ruffled by thofe ftorms and difputes which
genius and learning always draw upon thofe that are
peculiarly eminent for them. In contemplating his ge¬
nius it prefently becomes a doubt, which of thefe en¬
dowments had the greateft fliare, fagacity, penetration,
ftrength or diligence: and after all, the mark that
feems moft to diftinguilh it is, that he himfelf made
the jafteft eftimation of it, declaring, that, if he had
done the w’orld any fervice, it was due to nothing but
induftry and patient thought ; that he kept the fub-
jedft under confideration conftantly before him, and
waited till the firft dawning opened gradually, by
little and little, into a full and clear light. It is faid,
that when he had any mathematical problems or fo-
lutions in his mind, he would never quit the fubjefl
on any account. Dinner has been often three hours
ready for him before he could be brought to table : and
his man often faid, when he has been getting up in a
morning, he has fometimes begun to drefs, and with
one leg in his breeches fat do vn again on the bed,
where . he has remained for hours before he got his
clothes on. From his love of peace, no doubt, arofe
that unufual kind of horror which he had for all dif¬
putes 5 a fteady unbroken attention, free from thofe
frequent recoiiings infeparably incident to others, was
his peculiar felicity j he knew it, and he knew the ve*
lue of it. No wonder then that controverfy was look¬
ed' on as his bane. When fome objeffions, haftiiy made
to his difeoveries concerning light and colours, induced
him to lay afide the delign he had of publiftiing
his optic le&ures, we find him refledfing on that dif-
pute, into wdiich he was unavoidably drawn thereby, hv
thefe terms : “ I blamed my own imprudence for part¬
ing with fo real a bleffing as my quiet, to run after a
ftiadovv.” It is true this fliadow (as Mr Fontenelle
obferves) did not efcape him afterwards, nor did it coft
him that quiet which he fo much valued, but proved
as much a real happinefs to him as his quiet itfelf $ yet
this was a happinefs of his own making : he took a
refolution, from thefe difputes, not to publilh any more
about that theory till he had put it above the reach
of controverfy, by the exadfeft experiments and the
ftridfeft demonftrations j and accordingly it has never
been called in queftion fince. In the fame temper, af¬
ter
Newton.
NEW [ 781 ] NEW
Newton, ter he had Tent the manufcript of his Trincipia to the
L—Royal Society, with his confent to the printing of it
by them, upon Mr Hook’s injurioufly infilling that
himfelf had demonllrated Kepler’s problem before our
author, he determined, rather than be involved again
in a controverfy, to fupprefs the third book, and was
very hardly prevailed upon to alter that refolution. In
is true, the public was thereby a gainer ; that book,
which is indeed no more than a corollary of fome pro-
pofnions in the firlt, being originally drawn up in the
popular way, with the defign to publilh it in that form j
whereas he was now convinced that it would be bell
not to let it go abroad without a Uriel demonftration.
After all, notwithftanding his anxious care to avoid
every occafion of breaking his intenfe application to
ftudy, he was at a great diilance from being lleeped in
philofophy : on the contrary, he could lay afide his
thoughts, though engaged in the moll intricate refear-
ches, when his other affairs required his attendance;
and as foon as he had leifure, refume the fubje£l at the
point where he had left off. This he feems to have
done not fo much by any extraordinary llrength of
memory, as by the force of his inventive faculty, to
which every thing opened itfelf again with eafe, if no¬
thing intervened to ruffle him. The readinefs of his
invention made him not think of putting his memory
much to the trial : but this was the offspring of a vi¬
gorous intenfenefs of thought, out of which he was but
a common man. He fpent therefore, the prime of his
age in thofe abllrufe refearches, when his fituation in
a college gave him leifure, and even while lludy was his
proper profefflon. But as foon as he was removed to
the mint, he applied himfelf chiefly to the bufinefs of
that office j and fo far quitted mathematics and philo¬
fophy, as not to engage in any purfuits of either kind
afterwards.
The amiable quality of modelly is reprefented as
Handing foremoll in the character of this great man’s
mind and manners. It was in reality greater than can
be eafily imagined, or will be readily believed j yet it
always continued fo without any alteration, though
the whole world, fays Fontenelle, confpired again!! it j
and let us add, though he was thereby robbed of his
inventions of fluxions. Nicholas Mercator publilhing
his Logarithmotechnia in 1668, where he gave the qua¬
drature of the hyperbola by an infinite feries, which was
the firll appearance in the learned world of a feries of
this fort drawn from the particular nature of the curve,
and that in a manner very new and abllra£led 5 Dr Bar-
row, then at Cambridge, where Mr Newton, at that time
about 26 years of age, refided, recolle&ed that he had
m at with the fame thing in the writings of that young
gentleman $ and there not confined to the hyperbola
only, but extended, by general forms, to all forts of
curves, even fuch as are mechanical; to their quadra¬
tures, their redlifications, and their centres of gravity ;
to the folids formed by their rotations, and to the fu-
perficies of thofe folids ; fo that, when their determi¬
nations were poflible, the feries Hopped at a certain
point, or at lealt their fums were given by Hated rules :
and, if the abfolute determinations were impoffible,
they could yet be infinitely approximated ; which is
the happiefi and molt refined method, fays Mr Fonte¬
nelle, of fupplying the defeats of human knowledge
that man’s imagination could pofflbly invent. To be
mafler of fo fruitful and general a theory was a mine of
gold to a geometrician j but it was a greater glory to
have been the difcoverer of fo furprifing and ingenious
a fyflem. So that Mr Newton finding, by Merca¬
tor’s book, that he was in the way to it, and that^
others might follow in his track, fhould naturally have
been forward to open his treafures, and fecure the pro¬
perty, which coniifted in making the difcovery j but
he contented himfelf with his treafure which he had
found, without regarding the glory. What an idea
does it give us of his unparalleled modelty, when we
fee him declaring, that he thought Mercator had en¬
tirely difcovered his fecret, or that others would, be¬
fore he was of a proper age for writing ? His MS. up¬
on infinite feries was communicated to none but Mr
John Collins and the lord Brounker j and even that
had npt been complied with, but for Dr Barrow, who
would not fuffer him to indulge his modelly fo much
as he defired.
It is further obferved, concerning this part of his
charadter, that he never talked either of himfelf or
others, nor ever behaved, in fuch a manner as to give
the moll malicious cenfurers the leaft occafion even to
fufpedl him of vanity. He was candid and affable, and
always put himfelf upon a level with his company. He
never thought either his merit or his reputation fuffi-
cient to excufe him from any of the common offices of
focial life v no Angularities, either natural or affedled,
dillinguilhed him from other men. Though he was
firmly attached to the church of England, he was
averfe to the perfecution of the non-conformilts. He
judged of men by their manners 5 and the true fchif-
matics, in his opinion, were the vicious and the wicked.
Not that he confined his principles to natural religion,
for he was thoroughly perfuaded of the truth of reve¬
lation j and amidft the great variety of books which he
had conflantly before him, that which he fludied with
the greateff application was the Bible : and he under¬
flood the nature and force of moral certainty as well
as he did that of a llri6l demonftration.
Sir Ifaac did not negleft the opportunities of doing
good, when the revenues of his patrimony, and a pro¬
fitable employment, improved by a prudent economy,
put it in Jiis power. We have two remarkable inflances
of his bounty and generofity ; one to Mr M‘Laurin,
profcffor of mathematics at Edinburgh, to whom he
offered 2j1. per annum, and the other to his niece Bar¬
ton, on whom he fettled an annuity of look When
decency upon any occafion required expence and fhow,
he was magnificent without grudging it, and with a
very good grace j at all other times, that pomp which
feems great to low minds only, was utterly-retrenched,
and the expence referved for better ufes. He never
married, and perhaps he never had leifure to think of
it. Being immerfed in profound ftudies during the
prime of. his age, and afterwards engaged in an employ¬
ment of great importance, and even quite taken up with
the company which his merit drew to him, he was not
fenfible of any vacancy in life, or of the want of a com¬
panion at home. He left 32,000!. at his death ; but
made no will, which Mr Fontenelle tells us was becaufe
he thought a legacy was no gift. As to his works,
befides what were publilhed in his lifetime, there were
found after his death, among his papers, feveral difcour-
fes upon fubjefts of antiquity, hiflory, divinity, chemi-
NEW [ 782 ] N E W
N-vt toiiKin Hry, and mathematics, feveral of vvhicli were publifhed
fin;°^hy' at different times.
Newtonian Phi/ofopJiyy the doflrine of the univerfe,
and particularly of the heavenly bodies, their laws, af-
. fedtions, &c. as delivered by Sir Ifaac Newton.
Different * ihe term Newtonian Philofophy is applied very dif-
qpinions ferently j wdience divers confufed notions relating
cunceming thereto. Some authors under this philofophy include
this philo- an the corpufcul ar philofophy, confidered as it now
Hands corredted and reformed by the difcoveries and
improvements made in feveral parts thereof by Sir
Ifaac Newton. In which fenfe it is that Gravefande
calls his elements of phyfics, IntroduBio ad Philofophiam
Newtonianam. And in this fenfe the Newtonian is the
fame with the new philofophy •, and Hands contradiflin-
■guilhed from the Cartefian, the Peripatetic, and the
ancient Corpufcular.
Others, by Newtonian philofophy, mean the method
or order which Sir Ifaac Newton obferves in philofo-
phizing ; viz. the reafoning and drawing of conclu-
Hons diredlly from phenomena, exclufive of all previous
hypothefes; the beginning from fimple principles ; de¬
ducing the firff powers and laws of nature from a few
feledl phenomena, and then applying thofe laws, &c.
to account for other things. And in this fenfe the
Newtonian philofophy is the fame with the experimental
philofophy, and Hands oppofed to th^anojent corpufcu¬
lar.
Others, by Newtonian philofophy, mean that where¬
in phyfical bodies are confidered mathematically, and
where geometry and mechanics are applied to the fo-
lution of the appearances of nature. In which fenfe the
Newtonian is the fame with the mechanical and mathe¬
matical philofophy.
Others again, by Newtonian philofophy, underffand
that part of phyfical knowledge which Sir Ifaac New¬
ton has bandied, improved, and demonffrated, in his
Principia.
Others, laftly, by Newtonian philofophy, mean the
new principles which Sir Ifaac Newton has brought
into philofpphy j the new fyffem founded thereon j
and the new folutions of phenomena thence deduced j
or that which charadlerizes and diftinguiflies his philo¬
fophy from all-others^—Which is the fetife wherein we
fliall chiefly confider it.
As to the hiffory of this philofophy, w'e have no¬
thing to add to w-hat has been given in the preceding
article. It was firff made public in the year 1687,
by the author, then a fellow' of Trinity College, Cam¬
bridge, and in the year 1713, republilhed with confi-
derable improvements.—Several authors have fince at¬
tempted to make it plainer; by fetting afide many of
the more fublime mathematical refearches, and fubffi-
tuting either more obvious reafonings or experiments
in lieu thereof; particularly Whiffon in his Prcclecl.
Phyf. Mathemat. Gravefande in Element, el Inf it. and
Dr Pemberton in his View.
The whole of the Newtonian philofophy, as delivered
a by the author, is contained in his Principia or Mathe-
Definitions matical Principles of Natural Philofophy. He founds his
on which fyffem on the following definitions :
the philo- quantity of matter is the meafure of the
-tounded fame> arifing from its denfity and bulk conjun&ly.—
Thus air of a double denfity, in a doxrble fpace, is
quadruple in quantity ; in a triple fpace, fextuple in Newtonian
quantity, &c. Pinlofophy.
2. The quantity of motion is the meafure of the " *
fame, arifing from the velocity and quanti* of mat¬
ter conjundlly. This is evident, becaufe the motion
of the whole is the motion of all its parts ; and there¬
fore in a body,double in quantity, with equal velocity,
the motion is double, &c. ^
3. The -mis inf la, or innate force of matter, is a Vis infita
power of refilling, by which every body, as much as defined and
in it lies, endeavours to perfevere in its prefent ftate,0^®^6^ t0*
whether it be of reft, or moving uniformly forward in
a right line.—This definition is proved to be juft, only
by the difficulty we find in moving any tiling out of
its place ; and this difficulty is by feme reckoned to
proceed only from gravity. They contend, that in
thofe cafes where we can prevent the force of gravity
from adling upon bodies, this power of refiftance be¬
comes infenfible, and the greateft quantities of matter
may be put in motion by the very leaft force. Thus
there have been balances formed fo exadft, that when
loaded with 200 weight in each fcale, they would turn
by the addition of a fingle drachm. In this cafe
4001b. of matter was put in motion by a fingle
drachm, i. e. by xtTso Part its ovvn quantity: and
even this fmall weight, they fay, is only neceffary on
account of the inaccuracy of the machine : fo that we
have no reafon to fuppofe, that, if the fri£t^jn could
be entirely removed, it would take more force to move
a tun weight than a grain of fand. This objedlion,
howTever, is not taken notice of by Sir Ifaac : and he
beftows on the refilling power above mentioned the
name of vis inertia ; a phrafe which is perhaps not well
chofen, and with which inferior writers have endeavour¬
ed to make their readers merry at the expence of New¬
ton. A force of inaiiivity, it has been faid, is a forcelefs
force ; and analogous to a black while, a cold heat, and
a tempefuous calm.
But obje£fions of more importance have been made
to the whole of this doflrine than thofe which merely
refpeft the term vis inertice. “ An endeavour to re¬
main at reft (we are told*) is unnec.-ftary, whilft no- * Founds
'thing attempts to difturb the reft. It is likewife \va-Examina-
poffible to be conceived, as it implies a contradiclion. 0/ the
A man, by oppofing force to force, may endeavour
not to be moved ; but this op'pofition is an endeavour^f^ Qj '
\.o move, not with a defign to move, but by counter-^ jfry?'
acting another force to prevent being moved. An Book of the
endeavour not to move therefore cannot exilt in bo- Principia,
dies, becaufe it is abfurd 7 and if we appeal to fa£l, c‘
we ihall find every body in an actual and conftant en¬
deavour to move.” It has been likewife obferved,
and we think juftly, that “ if bodies could continue to
move by any innate force, they might alfo begin to
move by that force. For the fame caufe which can
move a body with a given velocity at one time, could
do it, if prefent, at any other time ; and therefore if
the force by which bodies continue in motion were
innate and eflential to them, they would begin to
move of themfelves, which is not true.” Newton
indeed fays that this innate force is the caufe of
motion under certain circumftances only, or w’hen the
body is a61ed upon by a force imprefled ab extra.
Bat, if this fmpreflVd force do not continue as well
as
2
NEW [ 783 ] NEW
Newtonian as begin tbe motion, if it ceafe the inftant that
Pi.ilofo; hy. tlie impreflion is over, and the body continue to
' move by its vis inertice, why is the body ever flopped?
If in the beginning of the motion the body, by
its innate force, overcomes a certain refiftance of fric¬
tion and air, in any following times, the force being
undiminilhed, it will overcome the fame refidance for
ever. Thefe refiftances, therefore, could never change
the Hate of a moving body, becauie they cannot
change the quantity of its motive force. But this is
contrary to univerfal experience.” For thefe reafons
we are inclined to think that bodies are wholly paf-
live ; that they endeavour nothing •, and that they con¬
tinue in motion not by any innate force or vis injita, but
by that force, whatever it be, which begins the motion,
and which, whilft it remains with the moving body,
is gradually diminilhed, and at laft overcome by op-
pofite forces, when the body of courle ceafes to
move.
4. An itnprefled force is an aflion exerted upon a
body, in order to change its Hate, either of red or of
moving uniformly forward in a right line.—This force
confiils in the a«5lion only ; and remains no longer
in the body when the a£Hon is over. For a body
maintains every new date it acquires by its vis inertice
only.
It is here implied, and indeed fully ex prefled, that
motion is not continued by the fame power that pro¬
duced it. Now there are two grounds on which the
truth of this doftrine may be fuppofed to red.
“ Firjl, On a dire61 proof that the imprefled force
does not remain in the body, either by Ihowing the
nature of the force to be tranfitory and incapable of
more than its drd aflion ; or that it a6ls only on the
furface, and that the body efcapes from it ; or that
the force is fomewhere elfe, and not remaining in the
body. But none of thefe direfl proofs are offered.
“ Secondly, It may red on an indirebl proof, that
there is in the nature of body a fufficient caufe for'
the continuance of every new date acquired ; and
that therefore any adventitious force to continue mo¬
tion, though neceflary for its produdlion, is fuper-
fluous and inadmiflible. As this is the very ground
on which the fuppofition dands, it ought to have been
indubitably certain that the innate force of the body
is fufficient to perpetuate the motion it has once ac¬
quired, before* the other agent, by which the motion
was communicated, had been difmifled from the office.
But the innate force of body has been diown not
to be that which continues its motion ; and there¬
fore the proof, that the imprefled force does not re¬
main in the body, fails. Nor indeed is it in this cafe
defirable to fupport the proof, becaufe we fliould then
be left without any reafon for tbe continuance of mo-
^ Young's tion *•” When we mention an imprefled force, we
Examina- mean fuch a force as is communicated either at the
tkn, 8tc. lurface of the body or by being diflufed through the
mafs.
5. A centiipetal force is that by which bodies are
drawm, impelled, or any way tend towards a point, as
to a centre.—The quantity of any centripetal force
may be confldered as of three kinds, abfolute, accele¬
rative, and motive.
6. The abfolute quantity of a centrifugal force is the
meafure of the famN proportional to the efficacy of the
caufe that propagates it from the centre, through the Newtonian
fpaces round it. Flnlo^ptiy^
7. The accelerative quantity of a centripetal force is
the meafure of the fame, proportional to the velocity
which it generates in a given time.
8. The motive quantity of a centripetal force is a
meafure of the fame, proportional to the motion
which it generates in a given time. This is always
known by the quantity of a force equal and contrary
to it, that is jud fufficient to hinder the defeent of the
body.
Scholia.
a
I. Abfolute, true, and mathematical time, of itfelf, Of Tioie.
and from its own nature, Hows equably, without re¬
gard to any thing external, and, by another name, is
called duration. Relative, apparent, and common time,
is fome fenfible and external meafure of duration,
whether accurate or not, which is commonly ufed in¬
dead of true time j fuch as an hour, a day, a month, a
year, &c. ^
II. Abfolute fpace, in its own nature, without re- Space,
gard to any thing external, remains always flmilar and
immoveable. Relative fpace is fome moveable dimsn-
fion or meafure of the abfolute fpaces j and which is
vulgarly taken for immoveable fpace. Such is the di-
menfion of a fubterraneous, an aerial, or celedial fpace,
determined by its pofition to bodies, and which is vul¬
garly taken for immoveable fpace ^ as the didance of
a fubterraneous, an aerial, or celedial fpace, deter¬
mined by its pofition in refpefl of the earth. Abfo¬
lute and relative fpac* are the fame in figure and mag¬
nitude j but they do not remain always numerically the
fame. For if the earth, for indance, moves, a fpace
of our air which, relatively and in refpedl of the
earth, remains always the fame, will at one time be one
part of the abfolute fpace into which the earth pafles \
at another time it will be another part of the fame ;
and fo, abfolutely underdood, it yvill be perpetually
mutable. $
III. Place is a part of fpace which a body takes place de-
up j and is, according to the fpace, either abfolute or fined,
relative. Our author fays it is part al fpace; not the
fituation, nor the external furface of the body. For
the places of equal folids are always equal ; but
their fuperficies, by reafon of their diffimilar figures,
are often unequal. Poiitions properly have no quan¬
tity, nor are they fo much the places themfelves as the
properties of places. The motion of the whole is the
fame thing with the fum of the motions of the parts;
that is, the tranflation of the whole out of its place is
the fame thing with the fum of the tranflatioas of the
parts out of their places : and therefore the place of
the whole is the fame thing with the fum of the places
of the parts ; and for that reafon it is internal, and in
the whole body.
IV. Abfolute motion is the tranilation of a body q- -v/0q,jr,
from one abfoiute place into another, and relative mo¬
tion the tranflation from one relative place into ano¬
ther. Thus, in a (hip under fail, the relative place of
a body is that part of the fhip which the body pof-
feifes, or that part of its cavity which the body fills,
and which therefore moves together with the (hip ;
and relative red is the continuance of the body in the
fame part of the fhip, or of its <;av!ty. But re d
ahfblutfi
NEW
Newtonian abfolute reft; is the continuance of the body in the
' a^oi°phy- fame part of that immoveable fpace in which the ftiip
itfelf, its cavity, and all that it contains, is moved.
Wherefore, if the earth is really at reft, the body
which relatively refts in the ftiip will really and abfc-
lutely move with the fame velocity which the ftiip has
on the earth. Rut if the earth alfo moves, the true
and abfolute motion of the body will arife, partly from
the true motion of the earth in immoveable fpace j
partly from the relative motion of the Ihip on the
earth : and if the body moves alfo relatively in the
ftiip, its true motion will arife partly from the true mo¬
tion of the earth in immoveable fpace, and partly from
the relative motions as well of the ftiip or. the earth
as of the body in the ftiip ; and from thefe relative mo¬
tions will arife the relative motion of the body on the
earth. As if that part of the earth where the (hip is,
was truly moved towards the eaft, with a velocity of
iooio parts j while the ftiip itfelf with a frefti gale is
carried towards the weft, with a velocity expreffed by
io of thefe parts ; but a failor walks in the ftiip tq-
- wrards the eaft with one part of the faid velocity : then
the failor will be moved truly and abfolutely in im¬
moveable fpace towards the eaft with a velocity of
iooi parts ; and relatively on the earth towards the
weft, writh a velocity of 9 of thofe parts.
Abfolute time, in aftronomy, is difiinguiftied from
relative, by the equation or correfHon of the vulgar
time. For the natural days are truly unequal, though
they are commonly confidered as equal, and ufed for a
meafure of time : aftronomers correft this inequality
for their more accurate deducing of the celeftial mo¬
tions. It may be that there is no fuch thing as an
'•equable motion whereby time may be accurately mea-
fured. All motions may be accelerated or retarded j
but the true or equable progress of abfolute time is
liable to no change. The duration or perfeverance of
the exiftence of things remains the fame, whether the
motions are fwift or flow, or none at all j and there¬
fore ought to be diftmguifhed from what are only
feniible meafures thereof, and out of which we colleft
it by means of the aflronomical equation. The ne-
xefiity of which equation for determining the times' of
a phenomenon is evinced, as well from the experiments
of the pendulum clock as, by eclipfes of the fatellites of
8 Jupiter.
Itnmmabi- As the order of the parts of time is immutable, fo
lity of time alfo is the order of the parts of fpace. Suppofe thofe
and fpace. parts to be moved out of their places, and they will be
moved (if we may be allowed the expreflion) out of
themielves. For times and fpaces are, as it were,
the places of themielves as of all other things. All
things are placed in time as to order of fucceftion j and
in fpace as to order of fituation. It is from their
e{fence or nature that they are places ; and that the
primary places of things fhould be moveable, is abfurd.
1 hele are therefore the abfolute places } and tranfla-
tions out of thofe places are the only ablolute mo¬
tions.
But becaufe the parts of fpace cannot be feen, or
dtuinguifhed from one another by the fenfes, therefore
in their Head we ufe fenfible meafures of them. For,
from the pofitions and dillances of things from any
body, confidered as immoveable, we define all places ;
and then with refpefl to fuch places, we eftimatc all
C 784 1
N E W
motions, confidering bodies as transferred from fome Newtonian
of thofe places into others. And fo, inftead of abfo- ^hdofaphy.
lute places and motions, we ufe relative ones ; and *
that without any inconvenience in common affdrs :
but in philofophical difquifitions we ought to abftrafl
from our fenfes, and confider things themfelves di-
ftinft from what are only fenfible meafures of them.
For it may be, that there is no body really at reft,
to which the places and motions of others may be re¬
ferred.
But we may diftinguifh reft and motion, abfolute
and relative, one from the other by their properties,
caufes, and effeds. It is a property of reft, that
bodies really at reft do reft in refped of each other.
And therefore, as it is polfible, that in the remote re¬
gions of the fixed fiars, or perhaps far beyond them,
there may be fome body abfolutely at reft, though it be
impoftible to know from the pofition of bodies to one
another in our regions, whether any of thefe do keep
the fame pofition to that remote body ; it follows,
that abfolute reft cannot be determined from the pofi¬
tion of bodies in our regions.
It is.a property of motion, that the parts which 0fth^ mo-
retain given pofitions to their wholes do partake of the tion of dif-
motion of their wholes. For all parts of revolving ferent bo-
bodies endeavour to recede from the axis of motion j
and the impetus of bodies moving forwards arifes from^^j^0
the joint impetus of all the parts. Therefore if fur-ther.
rounding bodies are moved, thofe that are relatively
at reft within them will partake of their motion.
Upon which account the true and abfolute motion of
a body cannot be determined by the tranflation of it
from thofe only which feem to reft ; for the external
bodies ought not only to appear at reft, but to be
really at reft. For otherwife all included bodies, be-
fide their tranflation from near the furrounding ones,
partake likewife of their true motions ; and though
that tranftation was not made, they would not really
be at reft, but only feem to be fo. For the fur-
rounding bodies (land in the like 1 elation to the fur-
rounded, as the exterior part of a whole does to the
interior, or as the fliell does to the kernel ; but if
the ftiel! moves, the kernel will alfo move, as being
part of the whole, without any removal from near the
fhell.
A property near akin to the preceding is, that if
a place is moved, whatever is placed therein moves
along with it ; and therefore a body which is moved
from a place in motion, partakes alfo of the motion ef
its place. Upon which account all motions from
places in motion, are no other than parts of entire
and abfolute motions \ and every entire motion is
compofed of the motion of the body out of its
firft place, and the motion of this place out of its
place j an^ fo on, until we come to fame immoveable
place, as in the above mentioned example of the failor.
Wherefore entire and abfolute motions can be no other-
wife determined than by immoveable places. Now,
no other places are immoveable but thofe that from
infinity to infinity do all retain the fame given pofitions
one to another; and upon this account muft ever re¬
main unmoved, and do thereby conftitute what we call
immoveable fpace.
The caufes by which true and relative motions are
diftinguifhed one from the other, are the forces xm-
preffed
NEW C 785 ] NEW
Newtonian prefTed upon bodies to generate motion. True mo-
Philofophy. t-lon jg nether generated nor altered, but by fome
force impreffed upon the body moved : but relative
motion may be generated or altered rvithout any force
impreffed upon the body. For it is fufficient only to
imprefc fome force on other bodies with rvhich the
former is compared, that by their giving way, that
relation may be changed, in which the relative reft or
motion of the other body did confift. Again, True
motion fuffers always fome change from any force im-
prtffed upon the moving body j but relative motion
does not neceffarily undergo any changes by fuch force.
For if the fame forces are likewife impreffed on thofe
other bodies wnth which the cornparifon is made, that
the relative polition may be preferved ; then that con¬
dition will be preferved, in which the relative motion
conGfts. And therefore any relative motion may be
changed when the true motion remains unaltered, and
the relative may be preferved when the true motion
fuffers fome change. Upon w'hich account true mo-
ro tien does by no means confift in fuch relations.
Abfolute The eftedfts which diftinguifh abfolute from relative
*tnd relative motion are, the forces of receding from the axis of
ftm'uil/ed c“cu^r mot,"°n. For there are no fuch forces in a
^ 11 ’ circular motion purely relative : but, in a true and
abfolute circular motion, they are greater or lefs ac¬
cording to the quantity of the motion. If a veffel,
hung by a long cord, is fo often turned about that
the c'<rd is ftrongly twifted, then filled with water,
and let go it will be whirled about the contrary w'ay ;
and while the cord is untwifting itfelf, the furface of
the water will at fivft be plain, as before the veffel be¬
gan '■o move j L'U the veffel, by gradually communi¬
cating its motion to the Mater, v\ill make it begin fen-
fibly to revolve, and recede by little and little from
the middle, and afcend to the fides of the veffel, form¬
ing itfelf into a concave figure ; and the fwifter the
motion becomes, the higher will the wTater rife, till at
laft, performing its revolutions in the fame times with
the veffel, it becomes relatively at reft in it. This
afcent of the wrater {hows its endeavour to recede from
the axis of its motion j and the true and abfolute cir¬
cular motion of the water, which is here dire&ly con¬
trary to the relative, difcovers itfelf, and may be mea-
fured by this endeavour. At firft, when the relative
motion in the water was greateft, it produced no en¬
deavour to recede from the axis ; the water lhowTed no
tendency to the circumference, nor any afcent towards
the fides of the veffel, but remained of a plane furface ;
and therefore its true circular motion had not yet be¬
gun. But afterwards, when the relative motion of the
water had decreafed, the afcent thereof towards the
fides of the veffel proved its endeavour to recede from
the axis; and this endeavour fhowed the real circular
motion of the water perpetually increafing, till it had
acquired its greateft quantity, when the water refted
relatively in the veffel. And therefore this endeavour
does not depend upon any tranflation of the tvater in
refpeft of the ambient bodies ; nor can true circular
motion be defined by fuch tranflations. There is only
one real circular motion of any one revolving body,
correfponding to only one power of endeavouring to
recede from its axis of motion, as its proper and ade¬
quate effeft: but relative motions in one and the fame
body are innumerable, according to the various rela-
Vol. XIV. Part II.
tions it bears to external bodies j and, like other rela- NAvtaniarr
tions, are altogether deftitute of any real effe£l, other-!
wife than they may perhaps participate of that only
true motion. And therefore, in the fyftem which fup-
pofes that our heavens, revolving below the fpheie of
the fixed ftars, carry the planets along with them, the
feveral parts of thole heavens and the planets, which
are indeed relatively at reft in their heavens, do yet
really move. For they change their pofition one to
another, which never happens to bodies truly at reft j
and being carried together with the heavens, partici¬
pate of their motions, and, as parts of revolving wdioles,
endeavour to recede from the axis of their motion.
Wherefore relative quantities are not the quantities
themfelves whofe names they bear, but thofe fenfible
meafures of them, either accurate or inaccurate, which
are commonly ufed inftead of the meafured quantities
themfelves. And then, if the meaning of w7ords be
determined by their ufe, by the names time, /pace,
place, and motion, their meafures are properly to be
underftood ; and the expreflion will be unusual and
purely mathematical, if the meafured quantities them¬
felves are meant. ,
It is indeed a matter of great difficulty to difcover,
and effectually to diftinguifh, the true motions of par¬
ticular bodies from thofe that are only apparent : be-
caufe the parts of that immoveable fpace in which thofe
motions are performed, do by no means come under
the obfervation of our fenfes. Yet we have fome things
to direft us in this intricate affair \ and thefe arife
partly from the apparent motions which are the dif¬
ference of the true motions, partly from the forces
which are the caufes and effecls of the true motions.
For inftance, if two globes, kept at a given diftance
one from the other by means of a cord that conq§£ts
them, were revolved about their common centre of
gravity ; we might, from the tenfion of the cord, dif¬
cover the endeavour of the globes to recede from the
axis of motion, and from thence we might compute
the quantity of their circular motions. And then, if
any equal forces ftiould be impreffed at once on tlrfi al¬
ternate faces of the globes to augment or diminifh
their circular motions, from the increafe or decreafe
of the tenfion of the cord we might infer the incre¬
ment or decrement of their motions ; and thence
would be found on what faces thofe forces ought to
be impreffed, that the motions of the globes might be
moft augmented ; that is, we might difcover their bin-
dermoft faces, or thofe which follow in the circular
motion. But the faces which follow being known, and
confequently the oppofite ones that precede, we fhould
likewife know the determination of their motions. And
thus we might find both the quantity and determina¬
tion of this circular motion, even in an immenfe va-?
cuum, where there was nothing external or fenfible,
with which the globes might be compared. But now,
if in that fpace fome remote bodies were placed that
kept always a given pofition one to another, as the
fixed ftars do in our regions 5 we could not indeed de¬
termine from the relative tranflation of the globes
among thofe bodies, whether the motion did belong to
the globes or to the bodies. But if we obferved the
cord, and found that its tenfion was that very tenfion
which the motions of the globes required, we might con¬
clude the motion to be in the globes, and the bodies to
5 G be
NEW [ ?S6 ] NEW
rhi'cfo"’-^ re^ *’ anc^ t^“enj laflly, from the tranflation of the
_0 °^'1?' globes among the bodies, we fhould find the determina¬
tion of their motions.
Having thus explained himfelf, Sir Ifa?ic propofcs to
fiiow' how we are to colledl the true motions from their
caufes, effedfs, and apparent differences j and vice verja,
how, from the motion, either true or apparent, we may
come to the knowledge of their caufes and effedts. In
order to this, he lays down the following axioms or
Ix laws of motion.
Laws of i- Every body perseveres in its state of
motion. REST, OR OF UNIFORM MOTION IN A RIGHT LINE, UN¬
LESS IT IS COMPELLED TO CHANGE THAT STATPt BY
FORCES IMPRESSED UPON IT.—Sir Ifaac’s proof of this
axiom is as follows : “ Projedliles perfevere in their
motions, fo far as they are not retarded by the refiftance
of the air, or impelled downwards by the force of gra¬
vity. A top, whofe parts, by their cohefion, are perpe¬
tually drawm afide from redlilinear motions, does not
12 ceafe its rotation otherwife than as it is retarded by the
Obje&icns
air. The greater bodies of the planets and comets,
^ ^ mee^ng with lefs refiftance in more free fpaces, preferve
their motions, both progreflive and circular, for a much
longer time.”—Notwitbftanding this demonftration,
how’ever, the axiom hath been violently difputed. It
hath been argued, that bodies continue in their flate of
motion becaufe they are iubjedted to the continual im-
pulfe of an invifible and fubtile fluid, which always
pours in from behind, and of which all places are full.
It hath beei*affirmed, that motion is as natural to this
fluid as reft is to all other matter. It is faid, moreover,
that it is impoffible we can know in what manner a body
would be influenced by moving forces if it was entirely
deftitute of gravity. According to what we can ob-
ferve, the momentum of a body, or its tendency to move,
depends very much on its gravity. A heavy cannon¬
ball will fly to a much greater dittance than a light one,
though both are adluated by an equal force. It is by
no means clear, therefore, that a body totally deftitute
of gravity would have any proper momentum of its
own ; and if it had no momentum, it could not con¬
tinue its motion for the fmalleft fpace of time after the
moving power was withdrawn. Some have imagined
that matter was capable of beginning motion of itfelf,
and confequently that the axiom was falfe j becaufe we
fee plainly that matter in fome cafes hath a tendency
to change from a flate of motion to a ftate of reft, and
from a ftate of .reft to a ftate of motion. A paper ap¬
peared on this fubjeft in the firft volume of the Edin¬
burgh Phyfical and Literary Effays 5 but the hypo-
tbefis never gained any ground.
2. THE ALTERATION OF MOTION IS EVER PROPOR¬
TIONAL TO THE MOTIVE FORCE IMPRESSED \ AND IS
MADE IN THE DIRECTION OF THE RIGHT LINE IN
which that force is impressed.—Thus, if any
force generates a certain quantity of motion, a double
force will generate a double quantity, whether that Newtonian
force be imprelfed all at once, or in fucceffive moments. ^Llofophy,
To this law no objection of conlequence has ever been "" v ^
made. It is founded on this felf-evident truth, that
every efFeft muft be proportional to its caule. Mr
Young, who feems to be very ambitious of detecting
the errors of Newton, finds fault indeed with the ex-
preffions in which the law is Hated ; but he owns, that
if thus expreffed, The alteration of motion is proportional
to the allions or reffances which produce it, and is in
the direBion in which the a chons or refinances are made,
it would be unexceptionable.
3. To EVERY ACTION THERE ALWAYS IS OPPOSED Objections
AN EQUAL RE-ACTION: OR, THE MUTUAL ACTION OF to the thirdk
TWO BODIES UPON EACH OTHER IS ALWAYS EQUAL,Lw.
AND DIRECTED TO CONTRARY PARTS. This axiom is
alfo dilputed by many. In the above-mentioned paper
in the Phyfical Effays, the author endeavours to make
a diftinction between re-a6tion and refiftance •, and
the lame attempt has been made by Mr Young.
“ When an adtion generates no motion (fays he), it is
certain that its effefts have been deftroyed by a con¬
trary and equal adfion. When an adlion generates two
contrary and equal motions, it is alfo evident that mu¬
tual adions were exerted, equal and contrary to each
other. All cafes where one of thefe conditions is not
found, are exceptions to the truth of the law. If a fin¬
ger prefles againft a ftone, the flone, if it does not yield
to the preffure, preffes as much upon the finger j but if
the ftone yields, it re-ads lefs than the finger ads 5 and
if it Ihould yield with all the momentum that the force
of the preffure ought to generate, which it would do if
it were not impeded by fridion, or a medium, it would
not fe-ad at all. So if the ftone drawn by a horfe,
follows after the horfe, it does not re-ad fo much as the
horfe ads; but only fo much as the velocity of the
flone is diminiffied by fridion, and it is the re-adion
of fridion only, not of the ftone. The ftone does not
re-ad, becaufe it does not ad; i: refills, but refiftance is
not adion.
“ In the lofs of motion from a ftriking body, equal
to the gain in the body ftruck, there is a plain folution
without requiiing any re-adion. The motion lofl is
identically that which is found in the other body ; this
fuppofition accounts for the whole phenomenon in the
molt fimple manner. If it be not admitted, but the
folution by re-adion is infilled upon, it will be incum¬
bent on the party to account for the whole effed of
communication of motion ; otherwife he will lie under
the imputation of rejeding a folution which is fimple?
obvious, and perfed ; for one complex, unnatural, and
incomplete. However this may be determined, it will
be allowed, that the circumftances mentioned, afford
no ground for the inference, that adion and re-adion
are equal, fince appearances may be explained in ano¬
ther way” (a).
Others
(a) If there be a perfed reciprocity betwixt an impinging body and a body at reft fuftaining its impulfe,
may we not at our pleafure confider either body as the agent, and the other as the refiftant ? Let a moving
body, A, pafs from north to fouth, an equal body B at reft, which receives the ftroke of A, ad upon A from
fouth to north, and A refift in a contrary diredion, both inelaftic : let the motion reciprocally communicated
be called fix. T. hen B at reft communicates to A fix degrees of motion towards the north, and receives fix
degrees towards tne foutn. B having no other motion than the fix degrees it communicated, will, by its
equal
NEW [ 787 ] NEW
Newtonian Others grant that Sir Ifaac’s axiom is very true in
rhilofophy.refpeft to terreftrial fubflances ; but they affirm, that,
V v " in thefe, both action and re-a£fion are the efTefts of
gravity. Subftances void of gravity would have no
momentum •, and without this they could not aft j they
fhould be moved by the leaf! force, and therefore could
not refill or re-aft. If therefore there is any fluid which
is the caufe of gravity, though fuch fluid could aft up¬
on terreftrial fubllances, yet thefe could not re-aft up¬
on it j becaufe they have no force of their own, but
depend entirely upon it for their momentum. In this
manner, fay they, we may conceive that the planets
circulate, and all the operations of nature are carried
on by means ©f a fubtile fluid j which being perfeftly
aftive, and the reft of matter altogether paffive, there
is neither refiftance nor lofs of motion. See Mo¬
tion.
From the preceding axiom Sir Ifaac draws the fol¬
lowing corollaries.
1. A body by two forces conjoined will defcribe the
diagonal of a parallelogram in the fame time that it
would defcribe the fides by thofe forces apart.
2. Hence we may explain the compofition of any
one direft force out of any two oblique ones, viz. by
making the two oblique forces the fides of a parallelo¬
gram, and the direft one the diagonal.
3. The quantity of motion, which is collefted by
taking the fum of the motions direfted towards the fame
parts, and the difference of thofe that are direfted to
contrary parts, fuffers no change from the aftion of bo¬
dies among themfelves j becaufe the motion which one
body lofes is communicated to another : and if we fup-
pofe friftion and the refiftance of the air to be abfent,
the motion of a number of bodies which mutually im¬
pelled one another would be perpetual, and its quantity
always equal.
4. The common centre of gravity of two or more Newtonian
bodies does not alter its ftate of motion or reft by the PhiIofbPh^
aftions of the bodies among themfelves j and therefore
the common centre of gravity of all bodies afting upon
each other (excluding outward aftions and impedi¬
ments) is either at reft, or moves uniformly in a right
line.
5. The motions of bodies included in a given fpace
are the fame among themfelves, whether that fpace is
at reft, or moves uniformly forward in a right line
without any circular motion. The truth of this is evi¬
dently ihowm by the experiment of a ftiip ; where all
motions happen after the fame manner, whether the
ftiip is at reft, or proceeds uniformly forward in a ftraight
line.
6. If bodies, anyhow moved among themfelves, are
urged in the direftion of parallel lines by equal accele¬
rative forces, they will all continue to move among
themfelves, after the fame manner as if they had been
urged by no fuch forces.
The whole of the mathematical part of the Newto¬
nian philofophy depends on the following lemmas 5 of
which the firft is the principal.
Lem. I. Quantities, and the ratios of quantities,
which in any finite time converge continually to equa¬
lity, and before that time approach nearer the one to
the other than by any given difference, become ulti¬
mately equal. If you deny it ; fuppofe them to be ul¬
timately unequal, and let D be their ultimate difference.
Therefore they cannot approach nearer to equality than
by that given difference D 5 which is againft the fuppo-
fition.
Concerning the meaning of this lemma philofophers objections
are not agreed j and unhappily it is the very fundamen- to the firft
tal pofition on which the wThole of the fyftem refts. lemma,
Many objeftions have been raifed to it by people who
5 G 2 fuppofed
equal and contrary lofs and gain, remain in equilibro. Let the original motion of A have been twelve, then A
having received a contrary aftion equal to fix, fix degrees of its motion will be deftroyed or in equilibrio j con-
fequently, a motive force as fix will remain to A towards the fouth, and B will be in equilibrio, or at reft. A
will then endeavour to move with fix degrees, or half its original motion, and B will remain at reft as before.
A and B being equal maffes, by the laws of communication three degrees of motion will be communicated to B,
or A with its fix degrees will aft with three, and B will re-aft alfo with three. B then will aft on A from
fouth to north equal to three, while it is afted upon or refifted by A from north to fouth, equal alfo to three, and
B will remain at reft as before 5 A will alfo have its fix degrees of motion reduced to one half by the contrary
aftion of B, and only three degrees of motion will remain to A, with which it will yet endeavour to move; and
finding B ftill at reft, the fame procefs will be repeated till the whole motion of A is reduced to an infinitely
Imall quantity, B all the while remaining at reft, and there will be no communication of motion from A to B,
which is contrary to experience.
Let a body, A, whofe mafs is twelve, at reft, be impinged upon firft by B, having a mafs as twelve, _ and
a velocity as four, making a momentum of 48 ; and fecondly by C, whofe mafs is fix, and velocity eight,
making a momentum of 48 equal to B, the three bodies being inelaftic. In the firft cafe, A will become
poffeffed of a momentum of 24, and 24 will remain to B ; and, in the fecond cafe, A will become pofieffed
of a momentum of 32, and 16 will remain to C, both bodies moving with equal velocities after the (hock, in
both cafes, by the laws of percuffion. It is required to know, if in both cafes A refifts equally, and if B and C aft
-equally ? if the aftions and refiftances are equal, how does A in one cafe deftioy 24 parts of B’s motion, and in
the other cafe 3 2 parts of C’s motion, by an equal refiftance ? And how does B communicate in one cafe 24 de¬
grees of motion, and C 32, by equal aftions ? If the aftions and refiftances are unequal, it is afked how the fame
mafs can refill differently to bodies impinging upon it wuth equal momenta, and how bodies poffeffed of equal mo¬
menta can exert different aftions, it being admitted that bodies refill proportional to their maffes, and that their
power of overcoming refillance is proportional to their momenta?
It is incumbent on thofe who maintain the dcftrine of univerfal re-aftion, to free it from thefe difficulties and ap¬
parent contradiftions.
NEW [ 788 ] NEW
Newtonian fuopofed themfeives capable of underftanding it. They
rhilofoph;. fay^ :s impoirtble we can come to an end of any
infinite feries, and therefore that the word ultimate can
in this cafe have no meaning. In fome cafes the lemma
is evidently falle. Thus, fuppofe there are two quanti¬
ties of matter A and B, the one containing half a pound,
and the other a third part of one. Let both be conti¬
nually divided by 2 5 and though their ratio, or the
proportion of the one to the other, doth not vary, yet
the difference between them perpetually becomes lefs,
as well as the quantities themfelves, until both the dif¬
ference and quantities themfelves become lefs than any
affignable quantity : yet the difference will never total¬
ly vanifh, nor the quantities become equal, as is evident
from the two following feries.
trill »i f 1 1
T r T-S' T3W TVS’ 2-3-3 TTT To-3T>
T S t't 2-3: Wg- 9 ? T cTT TTT T-3T TTTr»
’niff, * 1 * 1 t 1 t t 1 1
-5 TT 2”3r 7 S' 'SS' 7-5-T TT? TTT3- ToTTj
&c.
&c.
&c.
Thus we fee, that though the difference is continual¬
ly diminiibing, and that in a very large proportion,
there is no hope of its vanifhing, or the quantities be¬
coming equal. In like manner, l?t us take the propor¬
tions or ratios of quantities, and we fhall be equally un-
fuccefsful. Suppofe two quantities of matter, one con¬
taining 8 and the other 10 pounds; thefe quantities al¬
ready have to each other the ratio of 8 to 10, or of 4
to 5 ; but let us add 2 continually to each of them,
and though the ratios continually come nearer to that
of equality, it is in Vain to hope for a perfect coinci¬
dence. Thus,
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24, &c.
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26, &c.
Potin 4- 5 <5 7 S pioiiii p,-
rvauo z ^ -g 9- To TT TT TT> SXC.
anfwered. ^r°r an^ other lemmas Sir Ifaac makes the
following apology. “ Thefe lemmas are premifed, to
avoid the tedioufnefs of deducing perplexed demonftra-
tions ad abfurdum, according to the method of ancient
geometers. For demonftrations are more contracted by
the method of indivifibles ; but becaufe the hypothefis
of indivifibles feems fomewhat harfh, and therefore that
method is reckoned lefs geometrical, I chofe rather to
reduce the demonftrations of the following propofitions
to the firft and laft fums and ratios of nafcent and eva-
nefcent quantities, that is, to the limits of thofe fums
and ratios ; and fo to premife, as fhort as I could, the
demonftrations of thofe limits. For hereby the fame
thing is performed as by the method of indivifibles ;
and now thofe principles being demonftrated, we may
ufe them with more fafety.—Therefore, if hereafter I
fhould happen to confider quantities as made of parti¬
cles, or Ihould ufe little curve lines for right ones ; I
would not be underftood to mean indivifibles, but eva-
nefcent divifible quantities ; not the fums and ratios of
of determinate parts, but always the limits of fums and
ratios ; and that the force of fuch demonftrations al¬
ways depends on the method laid down in the foregoing
lemmas.
“ Perhaps it may be objefted, that there is no ulti¬
mate proportion of evanefcent quantities, becaufe the
proportion, before the quantities have vaniftied, is not
the ultimate, and, when they are vaniftied, is none 
Brit by the fame argument it may be alleged, that a
body arriving at a certain place, and there flopping,
has no ultimate velocity; becaufe the velocity before Newtonian
the body comes to the place is not its ultimate veloci-^k’k’P^y
ty ; when it is arrived, it has none. But the anfwer is L' v"
eafy : for by the ultimate velocity is meant that with
which the body is moved, neither before it arrives at
its place and the motion ceafes, nor after; but at the
very inftant it arrives, that is, that velocity with which
the body arrives at its laft place, and with which the
motion ceafes. And in like manner, by the ultimate
ratio of evanefcent quantities is to be underftood the ra¬
tio of the quantities, not before they vanifh, nor after¬
wards, but with which they vanifh. In like manner,
the firft ratio of nafcent quantities is that with which
they begin to be. And the firft or laft fum is that
with which they begin and ceafe to be (or to be aug¬
mented and diminiftred). There is a limit which the
velocity at the end of the motion may attain, but not
exceed ; and this is the ultimate velocity. And there
is the like limit in all quantities and proportions that
begin and ceafe to be. And, fince fuch limits are cer¬
tain and definite, to determine the fame is a problem
ftridtly geometrical. But whatever is geometrical we
may be allowed to make ufe of in determining and
demonftrating any other thing that is likewife geome¬
trical.
“ It may alfo be objedled, that if the ultimate ratios
of evanefcent quantities are given, their ultimate mag¬
nitudes wdll be alfo given ; and fo all quantities will
confift of indivifibles, which is contrary to what Eu¬
clid has demonftrated concerning incommenfurables, in
the 10th book of his Elements. But this objeflion is
founded on a falfe fuppofition. For thofe ultimate
ratios with which quantities vanifh are not truly the
ratios of ultimate quantities, but limits towards which
the ratios of quantities decreafing continually ap¬
proach.”
Lem. II. If in any figure AdcE terminated piate
by the right line A a, AE, and the curve a c E, CCCLXDL
there be infcribed any number of parallelograms Fig- 1.
A £, B r, C &c. comprehended under equal bafes
AB, BC, CD, &c. and the fides B£, C c, T) d,
&c. parallel to one fide A o of the figure ; and the
parallelograms aYr. b l, b ~L c m, c IML d n, &c. are com¬
pleted—Then if the breadth of thofe parallelograms
be fuppofed to be diminifhed, and their number aug¬
mented in infinitum; the ultimate ratios which the in¬
fcribed figure AK £ L c M D, the circumfcribed fi¬
gure Aa/bmcndoY., and curvilineal figure AabcdY,
will have to one another, are ratios of equality.—For
the difference of the infcribed and circumfcribed figures
is the fum of the parallelograms K /, Lot, M «, D 0 ,•
that is (from the equality of all their bafes), the
re&angle under one of their bafes K b, and the fum
of their altitudes A a, that is, the redftangle AB la.
—But this re£tangle, becaufe its breadth AB is fup¬
pofed diminifhed in infinitum, becomes lefs than any
given fpace. And therefore by Lem. I. the figures
infcribed and circumfcribed become ultimately equal
the one to the other ; and much more will the interme¬
diate curvilinear figure be ultimately equal to either.
Lem. III. The fame ultimate ratios are alfo ratios
of equality, when the breadths AB, BC, CD, &c. of
the parallelograms are unequal, and are all diminifhed
in infinitum.—The demonftration of this differs but lit¬
tle from that of the former.
In
NEW
t 789 ]
NEW
Fig. 2.
Newtonian In his fucceeding lemmas, Sir Ifaac goes on to prove,
Philpfophy. jn a manner fimilar to the above, that the ultimate ra-
'' tios of the fine, chord, and tangent of arcs infinitely di-
minifhed, are ratios of equality, and therefore that in
all our reafonings' about thefe we may fafely ufe the
one for the other :—that the ultimate form of evanef-
cent triangles made by the arc, chord, and tangent, is
that of fimilityde, and their ultimate ratio is that of
equality j and hence, in reafonings about ultimate ra¬
tios, we may fafely ufe thefe triangles for each other,
whether made with the fine, the arc, or the tangent.—
He then (hows fome properties of the ordinates of cur¬
vilinear figures j and proves that the fpaces which a
body deferibes by any finite force urging it, whether
that force is determinate and immutable, or is conti¬
nually augmented or continually diminilhed, are, in the
very beginning of the motion, one to the other in the
duplicate ratio of the powers. And, laftly, Having
added fome demonftrations concerning the evanefcence
of angles of contaft, he proceeds to lay down the ma¬
thematical part of his fyftem, and which depends on
the following theorems :
Theor. I. The areas which revolving bodies de-
feribe by radii drawn to an immoveable centre of force,
lie in the fame immoveable planes, and are proportional
to the times in which they are deferibed.— For, fup-
pofe the time to be divided into equal parts, and in the
firft part of that time, let the body by its innate force
deferibe the right line AB (fig. 2.) ; in the fecond part
of that time, the fame would, by Law 1. if not hinder¬
ed, proceed direftly to c along the line B c—AB $ fo
that by the radii AS, BS, c S, drawn to the centre, the
equal areas ASB, BSc, would be deferibed. But,
when the body is arrived at B, fuppofe the centripetal
force afts at once with a great impulfe, and turning a-
fide the body from the right line Be, compels it after¬
wards to continue its motion along the right line BC.
Draw c C parallel to BS, meeting BC in C; and at
the end of the fecond part of the time, the body, by
Cor. 1. of the Laws, will be found in C, in the fame
plane with the triangle ASB. Join SC ; and becaufe
SB and c C are parallel, the triangle SBC will be
equal to/ the triangle SBC, and therefore alfo to the
triangle SAB. By the like argument, if the centripe¬
tal force a£ls fuccefiively in C, D, E, &c. and makes
the body in each fingle particle of time to deferibe the
right lines CD, DE, EF, &c. they will all lie in the
fame plane *, and the triangle SCD will be equal to the
triangle SBC, and SDE to SCD, and SEF to SDE.
And therefore, in equal times, equal areas are deferib¬
ed in one immoveable plane ; and, by compofition, any
fums SADS, SAFS, of thofe areas are, one to the
other, as the times in which they are deferibed. Now,
let the number of thofe triangles be augmented, and
their fize diminifhed in infinitum; and then, by the
preceding lemmas, their ultimate perimeter ADF will
be a curve line : and therefore the centripetal force by
which the body is perpetually drawn back from the
tangent of this curve will a£l continually ; and any de¬
feribed areas SADS, SAFS, which are always propor¬
tional to the times of defeription, will, in this cafe alfo,
be proportional to thofe times. Q_. E. D.
CoR. 1. The velocity of a body attrafted towards an
immoveable centre, in fpaces void of refiftance, is re¬
ciprocally as the perpendicular let fall from that centre
on the right line which touches the orbit. For the ve-Newtonian
locities in thefe places, A, B, C, D, E, are as the Phil--'oph} (
bafes AB, BC, DE, EF, of equal triangles; and thefe
bafes are reciprocally as the perpendiculars let fall up¬
on them.
Cor. 2. If the chords AB, BC, of two arcs, fuccef-
fively deferibed in equal times by the fame body, in
fpaces void of refiftance, are completed into a parallelo¬
gram ABCV, and the diagonal BV of this parallelo¬
gram, in the pofition which it ultimately acquires when
thofe arcs are diminifhed in infinitum, is produced both
vrays, it will pafs through the centre of force.
Cor. 3. If the chords AB, BC, and DE, EF, of
arcs deferibed in equal times, in fpaces void of refift¬
ance, are completed into the parallelograms ABCV,
DEFZ, the forces in B and E are one to the other in
the ultimate ratio of the diagonals BV, EZ, when thofe
arcs are diminifhed in infinitum.. For the motions BC
and EF of the body (by Cor. 1. of the laws), are com¬
pounded of the motions B c, BV and Eyj EZ *, but
BV and EZ, which are equal to C c~ and Fyj in the
demonftration of this propofition, were generated by
the impulfes of the centripetal force in B and E, and
are therefore proportional to thofe impulfes.
Cor. 4. The forces by w'hich bodies, in fpaces void
of refiftance, are drawn back from redtilinear motions,
and turned into curvilinear orbits, are one to another as
the verfed fines of arcs deferibed in equal times ; which'
verfed fines tend to the centre of force, and bifedl the
chords when thefe arcs are diminifhed to infinity. For
fuch verfed fines are the half's of the diagoaals mention¬
ed in Cor. 3.
Cor. 5. And therefore thofe forces are to the force
of gravity, as the faid verfed fines to the verfed fines
perpendicular to the horizon of thofe parabolic arcs
which projefliles deferibe in the fame time.
Cor. 6. And the fame things do all hold good
(by Cor. 5. of the laws) when the planes in which the
bodies are moved, together with the centres of force,
which are placed in thofe planes, are not at reft, but
move uniformly forward in right lines.
Theor. II. Every body that moves in any curve
line deferibed in a plane, and, by a radius drawn to a
point either immoveable or moving forward with an
uniform reftilinear motion, deferibes about that point
areas proportional to the times, is ux-ged by a centripe¬
tal force direfled to that point.
Case I. For every body that moves in a curve line
is (by Law 1.) turned afide from its redlilinear courfe
by the aftion of fome force that impels it; and that
force by which the body is turned off from its redlili-
near courfe, and made to deferibe in equal times the
leaft equal triangles SAB, SBC, SCD, &c. about the
immoveable point S, (by Prop. 40. E. 1. and Law 2.)
a£ts in the place B according to the diredlion of a line
parallel to C j that is, in the direction of the line BS ;
and in the place C according to the direction of a line
parallel to </D, that is, in the dire&ion of the line CS,
&c. 5 and therefore a6ts always in the dire&ion of lines s
tending to the immoveable point S. Q. E. D.
Case II. And (by Cor. 5. of the laws) it is indif¬
ferent whether the fuperficies in which a body deferibes
a curvilinear figure be quiefeent, or moves together
with the body, the figure deferibed, and its point S9
uniformly forward in right lines.
CoKr
NEW [ 7QO ] NEW
Newtonian Cor. I. In non-refifling fpaces or mediums, if the
Philofopi .y. areas are not proportional to the times, the forces are
not directed to the point in which the radii meet j but
deviate therefrom in confequentia, or towards the parts
^ to which the motion is direfted, if the defcription of
the areas is accelerated •, but in antecedentia if re¬
tarded.
Cor. 2.. And even in refilling mediums, if the de¬
scription of the areas is accelerated, the directions of
the forces deviate from the point in which the radii
meet, towards the parts to which the motion tends.
Scholium.
A body may be urged by a centripetal force com¬
pounded of Several forces. In which cafe the meaning
of the proposition is, that the force which refults out
of all tends to the point S. But if any force a£ls per¬
petually in the diredion of lines perpendicular to the
delcribed Surface, this force will make the body to de¬
viate from the plane of its motion, but will neither aug¬
ment nor diminilh the quantity of the defcribed Sur¬
face ; and is therefore not to be neglected in the com-
pofition of forces.
Theor. III. Every body that, by a radius drawn
to the centre of another body, howfoever moved, de¬
scribes areas about that centre proportional to the
times, is urged by a force compounded of the centripe¬
tal forces tending to that other body, and of all the ac¬
celerative force by which that other body is impelled.—
The demonftration of this is a natural confequence of
the theorem immediately preceding.
Hence, if the one body L, by a radius drawn to the
other body T, defcribes areas proportional to the timet,
and from the whole force by which the firft body L is
urged, (whether that force is fimple, or, according to
Cor. 2. of the laws, compounded of Several forces), we
fubduft that whole accelerative force by which the
other body is urged ; the whole remaining force by
which the firft body is urged will tend to the other
body T, as its centre.
And vice verfa, if the remaining force tends nearly
to the other body T, thofe areas will be nearly propor¬
tional to the times.
- If the body L, by a radius drawn to the other body
T, defcribes areas, which, compared with the times, are
very unequal, and that other body T be either at reft,
or moves uniformly forward in a right line, the a6lion
of the centripetal force tending to that other body T
is either none at all, or it is mixed and combined with
very powerful a£lions of other forces : and the whole
force compounded of them all, if they are many, is di¬
rected to another (immoveable or moveable) centre.
The fame thing obtains when the other body is aC\i.-
ated by aoy other motion whatever ; provided that
centripetal force is taken which remains after fub-
dufting that whole force afting upon that other
body T.
Scholium.
Becaufe the equable defcription of areas indicates
that a centre is refpeCled by that force with which the
body is moft affeCled, and by which it is drawm back
from its reftilinear motion, and retained in its orbit, we
may always be allowed to ufe the equable defcription of
areas as an indication of a centre about which all cir-Newtoni:.*
cular motion is performed in free fpaces. Philuiophy.
Theor. IV. The centripetal forces of bodies which
by equable motions defcribe different circles, tend to
the centres of the fame circles *, and are one to the other
as the fquares of the arcs defcribed in equal times ap¬
plied to the radii of circles.—For thefe forces tend to
the centres of the circles, (by Theor. 2. and Cor. 2.
Theor. 1.) and are to one another as the verfed fines of
the lead arcs defcribed in equal times, (by Cor.
Theor. 1.) that is, as the fquares of the fame arcs ap¬
plied to the diameters of the circles, by one of the lem¬
mas •, and therefore, fince thofe arcs are as arcs defcrib¬
ed in any equal times, and the diameters are as the ra¬
dii, the forces will be as the fquares of any arcs defcrib¬
ed in the fame time, applied to the radii of the circles,
E. D.
Cor. 1. Therefore, fince thofe arcs are as the ve¬
locities of the bodies, the centripetal forces are in a
ratio compounded of the duplicate ratio of the velo¬
cities dire&ly, and of the fimple ratio of the radii in-
verfely.
Cor. 2. And fince the periodic times are in a ratio
compounded of the ratio of the radii dire£lly, and the
ratio of the velocities inverfely ; the centripetal forces
are in a ratio compounded* of the ratio of the radii di-
re&ly, and the duplicate ratio of the periodic times
inverfely.
Cor. 3. Whence, if the periodic times are equal, and
the velocities therefore as the radii, the centripetal forces
will be equal among themfelves ; and the contrary.
Cor. 4. If the periodic times and the velocities are
both in the fubduplicate ratio of the radii, the centri¬
petal forces will be equal among themfelves j and the
contrary.
Cor. 5. If the periodic times are as the radii, and
therefore the velocities equal, the centripetal forces will
be reciprocally as the radii ; and the contrary.
Cor. 6. If the periodic times are in the fefquiplicate
ratio of the radii, and therefore the velocities recipro¬
cally in the fubduplicate ratio of the radii, the centri¬
petal forces will be in the duplicate ratio of the radii
inverfely ; and the contrary.
Cor. 7. And univerfally, if the periodic time is as
any power Rn of the radius R, and therefore the velo¬
city reciprocally as the power Rn—1 of the radius, the
centripetal force will be reciprocally as the power RJa-*
of the radius; and the contrary.
Cor. 8. The fame things all hold concerning the
times, the velocities, and forces, by which bodies de¬
fcribe the fimilar. parts of any fimilar figures, that have
their centres in a fimilar pofition within thofe figures,
as appears by applying the demonftrations of the prece¬
ding cafes to thofe. And the application is eafy, by
only fubftituting the equable defcription of areas in the
place of equable motion, and ufing the diftances of the
bodies from the centres inftead of the radii.
Cor. 9. From the fame demonftration it likewife
follow’s, that the arc which a body uniformly revolving
in a circle by means of a given centripetal force de¬
fcribes in any time, is a mean proportiohal between the
diameter of the circle, and the fpace which the fame
body, falling by the fame given force, would defcend
through in the fame given time.
4
N E W l 7
Newtonian “ By means of the preceding propofition and its co-
Philoiophy.ro]lar;es (fays Sir Ifaac), we may diiccver the propor-
V v tion of a centripetal force to any other known force,
fuch as that of gravity. For if a body by means of its
gravity revolves in a circle concentric to the earth, this
gravity is the centripetal force of that body. But from
the defeent of heavy bodies, the time of one entire re¬
volution, as well as the arc deferibed in any given time,
is given (by Cor. 9. of this theorem). And by fuch
propofitions Mr Huygens, in his excellent book Dc Ho-
rologio Ofci/latorio, has compared the force of gravity
with the centrifugal forces of revolving bodies.
The preceding propolition may alfo be demonllrated
in the following manner. In any circle fuppofe a poly¬
gon to be inferibed of any number of Tides. And if a
body, moved with a given velocity along the fides of
the polygon, is reflecled from the circle at the feveral
angular points; the force with wdnch, at every reflec¬
tion it ftrikes the circle, will be as its velocity : and
therefore the fum of the forces, in a given time, will be
as that velocity and the number of reflexions conjunX-
ly -y that is, (if the fpecies of the polygon be given), as
the length deferibed in that given time, and increafed
or diminiflied in the ratio of the fame length to the ra¬
dius of the circle 5 that is, as the fquare of that length
applied to the radius •, and therefore, if the polygon,
by having its fides diminiflied in infinitum, coincides
with the circle, as the fquare of the arc deferibed in
a given time applied to the radius. This is the centri¬
fugal force, with which the body impels the circle *,
and to which the contrary force, wherewith the circle
continually repels the body towards the centre, is equal.
On thefe principles hangs the whole of Sir Ifaac
Newton’s mathematical philofophy. He now fliows
how to find the centre to which the forces impelling
any body are direXed, having the velocity of the body
given : and finds the centrifugal force to be always as
the verfed fine of the nafeent arc direXly, and as the
fquare of the time inverfely •, or direXly as the fquare
of the velocity, and inverfely as the chord of the naf¬
eent arc. From thefe premifes he deduces the method
of finding the centripetal force direXed to any given
point when the body revolves in a circle ; and this
whether the central point is near or at an immenfe
diftance ; fo that all the lines drawn from it may be
taken for parallels. The fame thing he Ihows with re¬
gard to bodies revolving in fpirals, ellipfes, hyperbo¬
las, or parabolas.—Having the figures of the orbits
given, he fliows alfo how to find the velocities and
moving powers $ and, in fhort, folves all the moft dif¬
ficult problems relating to the celeftial bodies with an
aftonifhing degree of mathematical fldll. Thefe pro¬
blems and demonftrations are all contained in the firfl
book of the Principia : but to give an account of them
here would far exceed our limits j neither would many
of them be intelligible, excepting to firft-rate mathe¬
maticians.
In the fecond book, Sir Ifaac treats of the proper-
ties of fluids, and their powers of refiflance: and here
Rules for be lays down fuch principles as entirely overthrow the
philofophi- doXrine of Des Cartes’s vortices, which w’as the fa¬
tal re a ibn- (hionable fyftem in his time. In the third book, he be-
lI>&' gins particularly to treat of the natural phenomena, and
apply them to the mathematical principles formerly de-
monflrated j and, as a neceffary preliminary to this part,
i ] NEW
he lays down the following rules for reafoning in natu-Newtonian
ral philofophy. Philofo-Ay^
1. We are to admit no more caufes of natural things
than fuch as are both true and fufficient to explain their
natural appearances.
2. Therefore to the fame natural effeXs we mull al¬
ways aflign, as far as poflible, the fame caufes.
3. The qualities of bodies which admit neither in-
teniion nor remiffion of degrees, and wThich are found to
belong to all bodies within the reach of our experi¬
ments, are to be elteemed the univerfal qualities of all
bodies whatfoever.
4. In experimental philofophy, we are to look upon
propofitions .colleXed by general induXion from pheno¬
mena as accurately or very nearly true, notwithftanding
any contrary hypothefes that may be imagined, till
fuch time as other phenomena occur, by which they
may either be made more accurate, or liable to exceptions.
The phenomena firit confidered are, 1. That the fa-
tellites of Jupiter by radii drawn to the centre of their
primary, deferibe areas proportional to the times of
their defeription } and that their periodic times, the
fixed ftars being at reft, are in the fefquiplicate ratio of
their diftances from its centre. 2. The fame thing is
likewife obferved of the phenomena of Saturn. 3. The
five primary planets, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
and Saturn, with their feveral orbits encompafs the fun.
4. The fixed ftars being fuppofed at reft, the periodic
times of the five primary planets, and of the earth,
about the fun, are in the fefquiplicate proportion of
their mean diftances from the fun. 5. The primary
planets, by radii drawn to the earth, deferibe areas no
ways proportionable to the times : but the areas which
they defciibe by radii drawn to the fun are propor¬
tional to the times of defeription. 6. The moon, by a
radius drawn ta the centre of the earth, deferibes an
area proportional to the time of defeription. All thefe
phenomena are undeniable from aftronomical obferva-
tions, and are explained at large under the article A-
stronomy. The mathematical demonftrations are
next applied by Sir Ifaac Newton fn the following
propofitions :
Prop. I. The forces by which the fatellites of Ju¬
piter are continually drawn off from reXilinear motions,
and retained in their proper orbits, tend to the centre
of that planet; and are reciprocally as the fquares of
the diftances of thofe fatellites from that centre. The
former part of this propofition appears from Theor. 2.
or 3. and the latter from Cor. 6. of Theor. 5.; and
the lame thing we are to underftand of the fatellites of
Saturn.
Prop, II. The forces by which the piimary planets
are continually drawn off from reXilinear motions, and
retained in their proper orbits, tend to the fun ; and
are reciprocally as the fquares of the diftances from the
fun’s centre. The former part of this propofition is
manifeft from Phenomenon 5. juft mentioned, and
from Theor. 2. } the latter from Phenomenon 4. and
Cor. 6. of Theor. 4. But this part of the propofition
is with great accuracy deducible from the quiefcence of
the aphelion points. For a very fmall aberration from
the reciprocal duplicate proportion would produce a
motion of the apfides, fenfible in every fingle revolution,
and in many of them enovmoufly great.
Prop. III. The force by which the moon is retained
in
NEW [
Newtonian in Its orbit, tends towards the earth j and is reciprocally
Thiiofophy. lUp fnnare nf t-hp rllft^nrp nf it-a nlapp frr>m tlif.
79
as the fquare of the diftance of its place from the centre
of the earth. The former part of this propcfition is
evident from Phenom. 5. and Theor. 2.; the latter from
Phenom. 6. and Theor. 2. or 3. It is alio evident from
the very flow motion of the moon’s apogee •, which, in
every fingle revolution, amounting but to 30 3' in con-
fequentia, may be neglefted : and this more fully ap¬
pears from the next propofitlon.
Prop. IV. The moon gravitates towards the earth,
and by the force of gravity is continually drawn off
from a reftilinear motion, and retained in its orbit.—
The mean diftance of the moon from the earth in the
fyzigies in femidiameters of the latter, is about 60-5-.
Let us affume the mean diftance of 60 femidiamerers in
the fyzigies 5 and fuppofe one revolution of the moon in
refpeft of the fixed ftars to be completed in 27d 711 43',
as aftronomers have determined ; and the circumference
of the earth to amount to 123,249,60c Paris feet.
Now, if we imagine the moon, deprived of all motion,
to be let go, fo as to defcend towards the earth with the
impulfe of all that force by which it is retained in its or¬
bit, it will, in the fpace of one minute of time defcribe in
its fall 15^ Paris feet. For the verfed fine of that arc
which the moon, in the fpace of one minute of time,
defcribes by its mean motion at the diftance of 60 fe¬
midiameters of the earth, is nearly 15-^ Paris feet •,
or more accurately, 15 feet 1 inch and one line-§•
Wherefore fince that force, in approaching to the earth,
increafes in the reciprocal duplicate proportion of the
diftance •, and, upon that account, at the uirface of the
earth, is 60 x 60 times greater than that at the moon ; a
body in our regions, falling with rhat force ought, in
the fpace of one minute of time, to dek ribe 60 X 60 X
I5tt Paris feet $ and in the fpace of one lecond of time
to defcribe ijTt °f thofe feet ; or. more accurately, 13
feet 1 inch, 1 line -g. And with this very force we ac¬
tually find that bodies here on earth do really defcend.
—For a pendulum ofcillating feconds in the latitude of
Paris, will be three Paris feet and B-y lines in length,
as Mr Huygens has obferved. And the fpace which
a heavy body defcribes by falling one fecond of time
is to half the length of the pendulum in the duplicate
ratio of the circumference of the circle to its diame¬
ter j and is therefore .15 Paris feet, 1 inch I line ■£.
And therefore the force by which the moon is retained
in its orbit, becomes at the very furface of the earth,
equal to the force of gravity which we obferve in heavy
bodies there. And therefore (by Rule I. and 2.) the
force by which the moon is retained in its orbit is that
very fame force which we commonly call gravity. For
were gravity another force difterent from that, then bo¬
dies defcending to the earth with the joint impulfe of
both forces would fall with a double velocity, and, in
the fpace of one fecond of time, would defcribe 30^
Paris feet j altogether againft experience.
The demonftration of this propofition may be more
diffufely explained after the following manner : Sup-
pofe feveral moons to revolve about the earth, as in
the fyftem of Jupiter or Saturn, the periodic times of
thofe moons would (by the argument of indu&ion)
obferve the fame law which Kepler found to obtain
among the planets; and therefore their centripetal for¬
ces would be reciprocally as the fquares of the diftan-
2 ] NEW
ces from the centre of the earth, by Prop. I. Now, If Newtonian
the loweft of thefe were very fmall, and were fo near
the earth as almoft to touch the tops of the higheft \r—
mountains, the centripetal force thereof, retaining it
in its orbit, would be very nearly equal to the weights
of any terreftrnl bodies that ftiould be found upon
the tops of thefe mountains; as may be known from
the foregoing calculation. Therefore, if the fame little
moon ftiould be defer ted by its centrifugal force that
carries it through its orbit, it would defcend to the
earth ; and that with the lame velocity as heavy bo¬
dies do atftually defcend with upon the tops of thofe
very mountains, becaufe of the equality of forces that
oblige them both to defcend. And if the force by
which that loweft moon would defcend were different
from that of gravity, and if that moon were to gravitate
towards the earth, as we find terreftrial bodies do on
the tops of mountains, it rvould then defcend with
tw'ice the velocity, as being impelled by both thefe for¬
ces confpiring together. Therefore, fince both thefe
forces, that is, the gravity of heavy - bodies, and the
centripetal forces of the moons, refpeft the centre of
the earth, and are fimilar and equal between themfelves,
they will (by Rule 1. and 2.) have the fame caufe.
And therefore the force which retains the moon in its
orbit, is that very force wdiich we commonly call gra¬
vity; becaiife otherwife, this little moon at the top of
a mountain muft either be without gravity, or fall twice
as fwiftly as heavy bodies ufe to do.
Having thus demonftrated that the moon is retained
in its orbit by its gravitation towards the earth, it is
eafy to apply the fame demonftration to the motions of
the other fecondaiy planets, and of the primary planets
round the iun, and thus to (how that gravitation prevails
throughout the whole creation •, after which, Sir Ifaac
proceeds to (how from the fame principles that the
heavenly bodies gravitate towards each other, and con¬
tain different quantities of matter, or have different
denfities in proportion to their bulks.
Prop. V. All bodies gravitate towards every planet j
and the weights of bodies towards the fame planet, at
equal dillances from its centre, are proportional to the
quantities of matter they contain.
It has been confirmed by many experiments, that
all forts of heavy bodies (allowance being made for
the inequality of retardation by fome fmall refiftance
of the air,) defcend to the earth from equal heights in
equal times; and that equality of times we may di-
ftinguifti to a great accuracy by the help of pendu¬
lums. Sir Ifaac New’ton tried the thing in gold, fil-
ver, lead, glafs, fand, common fait, wood, water, and
wheat. He provided two wooden boxes, round and
equal, filled the one with wood, and fufpended an
equal weight of gold in the centre of ofcillation of the
other. The boxes hanging by equal threads of 11
feet, made a couple of pendulums, perfectly equal in
weight and figure, and equally receiving the refiftance
of the air. And placing the one by the other, he ob¬
ferved them to play together forwards and backward,
for a long time, with equal vibrations. And there¬
fore the quantity of matter in the gold was to the
quantity of matter in the wood, as the a6tion of the
motive force (or vis matrix') upon all the gold, to the
a61ion-©( the fame upon all the wood j that is, as the
weight
3
Plate CCCLI
M1NE1LVL 0 GT
rX/.ri:
t'late CCCIill
MIXEB AL O (iV
V
Plate CCCLIU.
NEW [ 793
Neivtonian weight of the one to the weight of the other. And
Philofophy. thg happened in the other bodies. By thefe expe-
"v riments, in bodies of the fame weight, he could mani-
feftly have difcovered a difference of matter lefs than
the thoufandth part of the whole, had any fuch been.
But without all doubt, the nature of gravity towards
the planets, is the fame as towards the earth. For
fliould we imagine our terreftrial bodies removed to the
orb of the moon, and there, together with the? moon,
deprived of all motion, to be let go, fo as to fall to¬
gether towards the earth 5 it is certain, from what we
have demonflrated before, that in equal times, they
would defcribe equal fpaces with the moon, and of
confequence are to the moon in quantity, of matter,
as their weights to its weight. Moreover, fince the
fatellites of Jupiter perform their revolutions in times
which obferve the fefquiplicate proportion of their di-
liances from Jupiter’s centre, their accelerative gravi¬
ties towards Jupiter will be reciprocally as the fquares
of their diftances from Jupiter’s centre 5 that is, equal
at equal diltances. And therefore, thefe fatellites, if
fuppofed to fall towards Jupiter from equal heights,
W’ould defcribe equal fpaces in equal times, in like man¬
ner as heavy bodies do on our earth. And by the fame
argument if the circumfolar planets were fuppofed to
be let fall at equal diftances from the fun, they would,
in their defcent towards the fun, defcribe equal fpaces
in equal times. But forces, which equally accelerate
unequal bodies, mult be as thofe bodies: that is to fay,
the weights of the planets towards the fun muft be as
their quantities of matter. Further, That the weights
of Jupiter and his fatellites towards the fun are pro¬
portional to the feveral quantities of their matter, ap¬
pears from the exceeding regular motions of the fatel¬
lites. For if fome of the bodies were more ftrongly
attracted to the fun in proportion to their quantity of
matter than others, the motions of the fatellites would
be difturbed by that inequality of attra&ion. If, at
equal diftances from the fun, any fatellite, in propor¬
tion to the quantity of its matter, did gravitate to¬
wards the fun, with a force greater than Jupiter in pro¬
portion to his, according to any given proportion, fup-
pofe d to e ; then the diftance between the centres of
the fun and of the fateliite’s orbit would be always
greater than the diftance between the centres of the fun
and of Jupiter nearly in the fubduplicate of that pro¬
portion. And if the fatellite gravitated towards the
fun with a force lefs in the proportion of e to d, the di¬
ftance of the centre of the fatellite’s orb from the fun
would be lefs than the diftance of the centre of Jupiter’s
from the fun in the fubduplicate of the fame proportion.
Therefore, if, at equal diftances from the fun, the acce¬
lerative gravity of any fatellite towards the fun were
greater or lefs than the accelerating gravity of Jupiter
towards the fun but by ToVo part of the whole gravity;
the diftance of the centre of the fatellite’s orbit from
the fun would be greater or lefs than the diftance of Ju¬
piter from the fun by tsVo- Part c‘r t-'ie whole diftance ;
that is, by a fifth part of the diftance of the utmoft fa¬
te Hite from the centre of Jupiter ; an eccentricity of
the orbit which would be very feniiVe. But the orbits
of the fatellites are concentric to Jupiter ; therefore the
accelerative gravities of Jupiter, and of all its fatellites,
towards the lun, are equal among'themfelves. And by
the fame argument, the weieht of Saturn and cf bis fa- -
Vox- XIV. Part II. ^
]
NEW
tellites towards the fun, at equal diftances from the fun , Newtonian
are as their feveral quantities of matter; and thep]lilofoPliy'
weights of the moon and of the earth towards the fun,
are either none, or accurately proportional to the maffes
of matter which they contain.
But further, the weights of all the parts of every
planet towards any other planet are one to another as
the matter in the feveral parts. For if fome parts gra¬
vitated more, others lefs, than in proportion to the quan¬
tity of their matter; then the whole planet, according
to the fort of parts with which it moft abounds, would
gravitate more or lefs than in proportion to the quantity
of matter in the whole. Nor is it of any moment whe¬
ther thefe parts are external or internal. For if, as an
inftance, we fhould imagine the terreftrial bodies with
us to be raifed up to the orb of the moon, to be there
compared with its body ; if the weights of fuch bodies
were to the weights of the external parts of the moon
as the quantities of matter in the one and in the other
refpedlively, but to the weights of the internal* parts
in a greater or lefs proportion ; then likewife the
weights of thofe bodies would be to the weight of the
whole moon in a greater or lefs proportion ; againft
‘what we have fhowed above.
Cor. I. Hence the weights of bodies do not de¬
pend upon their forms and textures. For if the weights
could be altered with the forms, they would be great¬
er or lefs, according to the variety of forms in equal
matter ; altogether againft experience.
Cor. 2. Univerfally, all bodies about the earth gra¬
vitate towards the earth ; and the weights of all, at -
equal diftances from the earth’s centre, are as the quan¬
tities of matter which they feverally contain. This is
the quality of all bodies v'thin the reach of our expe¬
riments ; and therefore (by Rule 3.) to be affirmed of
all bodies whatfoever. If ether, or any other body,
were either altogether void of gravity, or were to gra¬
vitate lefs in proportion to its quantity of matter;
then, becaufe (according to Ariftotle, Des Cartes, and
others) there is no difference betwixt that and other
bodies-, but in mere form of matter, by a fucceffive
change from form to form, it might be,changed at laft
into a body of the fame condition with thofe which
gravitate moft in proportion to their quantity of mat¬
ter ; and, on the other hand, the heavieft bodies, ac- -
quiring the firit form of that body, might by degrees
quite lofe their gravity. And therefore the weights
would depend upon the forms of bodies, and with thofe
forms might be changed, contrary to what was proved
in the preceding corollary. .
Cor. 3. All fpaces are not equally full. For if all
fpaces were equally^ full, then the fpecific gravity of the
da;d which fills the region of the air, on account of
the extreme denfity of the matter, would fall nothing
ft tort of the fpecific gravity of quickfilver or gold,'
or any other the moft denfe body ; and therefore, nei¬
ther gold, nor any other body, could defeend in air.
For bodies do not defeend in fluids, unlefs they are
fpecifically heavier than the fluids. And if the -quan¬
tity of matter in a given fpace can by any rarefaction
be diminilhed, what fhould hinder a diminution to in¬
finity ?
Cor. 4. If all the folid particles of all bodies are of
the fame denfity, nor can be rarefied without pores,
a void fpace or vacuum muft be granted. [By bodies
- 5 H Of’.:-
NEW
[ 794 ]
NEW
Newtonian 0{ tlie fame denfity, our author means tnofe whofe vires
Pm.oiupny. lner[{ce are {n the proportion of their bulks.]
Pros. VI. That there is a power of gravity tend¬
ing to all bodies, proportional to the feveral quantities
of matter which they contain.
That all the planets mutually gravitate one towards
another, we have proved before 5 as well as that the
force of gravity towards every one of them, confidered
apart, is reciprocally as the fquare of the diftance of
places from the centre of the planet. And thence it
follows, that the gravity tending towards all the pla¬
nets is proportional to the matter which they con¬
tain.
Moreover, fince all the parts of any planet A gra¬
vitate towards any other planet B. and the gravity of
every part is to the gravity of the whole as the matter
of the part to the matter of the whole j and (by Law 3.)
to every adtion correfponds an equal re-adtion : there¬
fore the planet B will, on the other hand, gravitate to¬
wards all the parts of the planet A •, and its gravity
towards any one part will be to the gravity towards
the whole, as the matter of the part to the matter of
the whole. Q^. E. D.
Cor. 1. Therefore the force of gravity towards any
whole planet, arifes from, and is compounded of, the
forces of gravity towards all its parts. Magnetic and
eledlric attradlions afford us examples of this. For all
attraction towards the whole arifes from the attractions
towards the feveral parts. The thing may be eafily un-
derftood in gravity, if we confider a greater planet as
formed of a number of leifer planets, meeting together
in one globe. For hence it would appear that the
force of the whole muft arife from the forces of the
component parts. If it be objected, that, according
to this law, all bodies with us muft mutually gravitate
one towards another, whereas no luch gravitation any¬
where appears *, it is anfwered, that, fince the gravita¬
tion towards thefe bodies is to the gravitation towards
the whole earth, as thefe bodies are to the whole earth,
the gravitation towards them muft be far iefs than to
fall under the obfervation of our fenfes. [The expe¬
riments wdth regard to the attraction of mountains,
however, have now further elucidated this point.]
Cor. 2. The force of gravity towards the feveral
equal particles of any body, is reciprocally as the fquare
of the diftance of places from the particles.
Prop. VII. In two fpheres mutually gravitating
each towards the other, if the matter, in places on all
fides round about and equidiftant from the centres, is
fimilar j the weight of either fphere towards the other
will be reciprocally as the fquare of the diftance be¬
tween their centres.
For the demonftration of this, fee the Principia,
Book I. Prop. Ixxv. and Ixxvi.
Cor. 1. Hence we may find and compare together
the weights of bodies towards different planets. For
the weights of bodies revolving in circles about pla¬
nets are as the diameters of the circles direflly, and
the fquares of their periodic times reciprocally ; and
their weights at the furfaces of the planets, or at any
other diftances from their centres, are (by this prop.)
greater or lefs, in the reciprocal duplicate proportion
of the diftances. Thus from the periodic times of Ve¬
nus, revolving about the fun, in 224d. i6|-h. ; of the
utmoft circumjovial fatdlite revolving about Jupiter, in
3
i6d. i6Tyi. j of the Huygenian fatellite about Saturn Newtonian
in i^d. 22-|h j and of the moon about the earth in Phdofophy.^
27d. 7b. 43' j compared with the mean diftance of Ve- '
nus from the fun, and with the greateft heliocentric
elongations of the outmoft circumjovial fatellite from
Jupiter’s centre, 8' 16" \ of the Huygenian fatellite
from the centre of Saturn, 3' 4" •, and of the moon from
the earth, 10'33"; by computation our author found,
that the weight of equal bodies, at equal diftances from
the centres of the fun, of Jupiter, of Saturn, and of the
earth, towards the fun, Jupiter, Saturn, and the earth,
were one to another as “vs'TT) and re-
fpe&ively. Then, becaufe as the diftances are increafed
or diminifhed, the weights are diminffhed or increafed
in a duplicate ratio ; the weights of equal bodies to¬
wards the fun, Jupiter, Saturn, and the earth, at the
diftances ioqoo, 997, 791, and 109, from their centres,
that is, at their very fuperficies, will be as iocoo, 943,
529, and 435 refpedively.
Cor. 2. Hence likewife we difcover the quantity of
matter in the feveral planets. For their quantities of
matter are as the forces of gravity at equal diftances
from their centres, that is, in the fun, Jupiter, Saturn,
and the earth, as 1, »r^v> Tohnr, and refpec-
tively. If the parallax of the fun be taken greater or
lefs than 10" 30'", the quantity of matter in the earth
muft be augmented or diminiftred in the triplicate of
that proportion.
Cor. 3. Hence alfo we find the denfities of the
planets. For (by Prop. Ixxii. Book I.) the weights of
equal and fimilar bodies towards fimilar fpheres, are,
at the furfaces of thofe fpheres, as the diameters of the
fpheres. And therefore the denfities of diffimilar
fpheres are as thofe weights applied to the diameters
of the fpheres. But the true diameters of the fun, Ju¬
piter, Saturn, and the earth, were one to another as
10000, 997, 791, and 109 } and the weights towards
the fame, as iocco, 943, 529, and 435 refpe&ively j
and therefore their denlities are as 1 20, 94!-, 67, and
400. The denfity of the earth, which comes out by
this computation, does not depend upon the parallax
of the fun, but it is determined by the parallax of the
moon, and therefore is here truly defined. The fun
therefore is a little denfer than Jupiter, and Jupiter
than Saturn, and the earth four times denfer than the
fun $ for the fun, by its great heat, is kept in a fort of
a rarefied ftate. The moon alfo is denfer than the
earth.
Cor. 4. The fmaller the planets are, they are, <vr-
teris paribus, of fo much the greater denfity. F fo
the powers of gravity on their feveral furfaces c -me
nearer to equality. They are likewife, cateris paribus,
of the greater denfity as they are nearer to the fun.
So Jupiter is more denfe than Saturn, and the earth
than Jupiter. For the planets were placed at differ¬
ent diftances from the fun, that, according to their
degrees of denfity, they might enjoy a greater or lefs
proportion of the fun’s heat. Our water, if it were
removed as far as the orb of Saturn, would be con¬
verted into ice, and in the orb of M< rc ;7 would
quickly fly away it\ vapour. For the light of the fun,
to which its heat is proportional, is feven times denfer
in the orb of Mercury than with us : and by the ther¬
mometer Sir Ifaac found, that a fevenfoid heat of our
fummer fun will make water boil. Nor are we to doubt,
that
NEW [ 795 ] NEW
Newton.
that the matter of Mercury is adapted to its heat, and
is therefore more denfe than the matter of our earth j
fmce, in a denfer matter, the operations of nature re¬
quire a ftronger heat.
It is fhown in the fcholium of Prop. xxii. Book II. of
the Princifiia, that, at the height of 200 miles above the
earth, the air is more rare than it is at the fuperficies of
the earth, in the ratio of 30 to 0,0000000000003998,
or as 75,000000000000 to 1 nearly. And hence the
planet Jupiter, revolving in a medium of the fame den-
fity with that fuperior air, tvould not lofe by the re-
fiftance of the medium the 1000000th part of its mo¬
tion in 1000000 years. In the fpaces near the earth,
the refiftance is produced only by the air, exhalations,
and vapours. When thefe are carefully exhaufted by
the air pump from under the receiver, heavy bodies fall
within the receiver with perfedt freedom, and with¬
out the leaf! fenfible reliftance 5 gold itfelf, and the
lighteft down, let fall together, will defcend with equal
velocity ; and though they fall through a fpace of four,
fix, and eight feet, they will come to the bottom at
the fame time ; as appears from experiments that have
often been made. And therefore the celeflial regions
being perfedfly void of air and exhalations, the planets
and comets meeting no fenfible refiftance in thofe
fpaces, will continue their motions through them for
an immenfe fpace of time.
Newton, Thomas, lord bilhop of Briftol and
dean of St Paul’s London, was born on the firft of
•January -1704. His father, John New'ton, was a
confiderable brandy and cyder merchant, who, by his
induftry and integrity, having acquired what he thought
a competent fortune, left off trade feveral years before
he died.
He received the firft part of his education in the free
fchool of Litchfield ; a fchool which, the bilhop ob-
ferves with fome kind of exultation, had at all times
fent forth feveral perfons of note and eminence 5 from
Bilhop Smaldridge and Mr Wollafton, to Dr Johnfon
and Mr Garrick.
From Litchfield he was removed to Weftminfter
fchocl, in 17*7, under the care of Dr Freind and Dr
Nicoll.
During the time he w*as at Weftminfter, there were,
he obferves, more young men who made a diftinguilh-
ed figure afterwards in the world, than perhaps at any
other period, either before or fince. He particularly
mentions William Murray, the late earl of Mansfield,
with whom he lived on terms of the higheft friendfhip
to the laft.
He continued fix years at Weftminfter fchool, five
of which he paffed in the college. He afterwards w^ent
to Cambridge, and entered at Trinity college. Here
he conftantly refided eight months at leaft in every year,
till he had taken his Bachelor of Arts degree. Being
chofen fellow of his college, he came afterwards to
fettle in London. As it had been his inclination from
a child, and as he was alfo defigned for holy orders,
he had fufficient time to prepare himfelf, and compofed
fome fermons, that he might have a ftock in hand
when he entered on the miniftry. His title for orders
was his fellowfhip ; and he was ordained deacon in
December 17 29, and prieft in the February following,
by Bifhop Gibfon.
* At his firft fetting out in his office, he was curate at
St George’s, Hanover-fquare ; and continued for feve- Newton,
ral years affiftant preacher to Dr Trebeck. His firft'■"“"'N-'"’"
preferment was that of reader and afternoon preacher
at Grofvenor Chapel, in South Audley ftreet.
This introduced him to the family of Lord Tyrcon-
nel, to whofe fon he became tutor. He continued in
this fituation for many years, very much at his eafe,
and on terms of great intimacy and friendfhip with Lord
and Lady Tyrconnel, “ without fo much (fays he) as
an unkind word or a cool look intervening.”
In the fpring of 1744, he was, through the intereft
of the earl of Bath (who w7as his great friend and pa¬
tron, and whofe friendfhip and patronage were return¬
ed by grateful acknowledgements and the warmeft en¬
comiums), prefented to the reftory of St Mary le Bow;
fo that he was 40 years old before he obtained any
living.
At the commencement of 1745, he took his doftor’s
degree. In the fpring of 1747 he was chofen lecturer
of St George’s, Hanover-fquare, by a moft refpedtable
veftry of noblemen and gentlemen of high diftindtiom
In Auguft following he married his firft wife, the eld-
eft daughter of Dr Trebeck ; an unaffefted, modeft,
decent young woman, with whom he lived very happy
in mutual love and harmony for near feven years.
In 1749 he publiftied his edition of Milton’s Para-
dife Loft, (which (fays he, very modeftly) it is hoped
hath not been ill received by the public, having, in
1775, gone through eight editions. After the Para-
dife Loft, it was judged (fays he) proper that Dr
Newton fhould alfo publifh the Paradife Regained, and
other poems of Milton ; but thefe things he thought
detained him from other more material ftudies, though
he had the good fortune to gain by them more than
Milton did by all his works put together. But his
greateft gain (he fays) was their firft introducing him
to the friendlhip and intimacy of two fuch men as Bi-
ftiop Warburton and Dr Jortin, whofe works will fpeak
for them better than any private commendation.
In 1754 he loft his father at the age of 83 ; and
within a few days his wife, at the age ©f 38. This
was the fevereft trial he ever underwent, and almoft
overwhelmed him. At that time he rvas engaged in
writing his Difiertations on the Prophecies ; and hap¬
py it was for him : for in any afflidlion he never found
a better or more effedtual remedy than plunging deep
into ftudy, and fixing his thoughts as intenfely as he
poffibly could upon other fubjedts. The firft volume
was publifhed the following winter ; but the other did
not appear till three years afterwards; and as a reward
for his paft and an incitement to future labours, he
w’as appointed, in the mean time, to preach Boyle’s
ledfure. The biftiop informs us, that- 1250 copies of
the Diflertations were taken at the firft impreffion, and
1000 at every other edition: and “ though (fays he)
fome things have been fince publiftied upon the fame
fubjedts, yet they ftill hold up their head above water,
and having gone through five editions, are again pre¬
pared for another. Abroad, too, their reception hath
not been unfavourable, if accounts from thence may be
depended upon.” They were tranflated into the Ger¬
man and Danifti languages ; and received the warmeft
encomiums from perfons of learning and rank.
In the fpring of 1757, he was made prebendary of
Weftminfter, in the room of Dr Green, and promoted
5 H 3 « to
N E X [ 796 ] N G O
Newton to tlie deanery of Salifbury. In October following, he
^ . wras made fub-almoner to his rnajefty. This he owed
 . to Bithop Gilbert. He married a fecond wife in Sep¬
tember 1761. She was the widow of the Rev. Mr
Hand, and daughter of John Lord Vifcount Lifburn.
In the fame month he killed his majefty’s hand for his
bilhopric.
In the winter of 1764, Dr Stone, the primate of
Ireland, died. Mr Grenville fent for Bilhop Newton,
and in the moft obliging manner defined his acceptance
of the primacy. Having maturely weighed the matter
in his mind, he declined the offer.
In 1768 be was made dean of St Paul’s. His ambi¬
tion was now fully fatisfied *, and he firmly reiolved ne¬
ver to afk for any thing more.
From this time to his death, ill health was almoft
his confiant companion. It was wonderful that fuch a
poor, weak, and (lender thread as the biihop’s life,
flrould be fpun out to fuch an amazing length as it real¬
ly was. In the autumn of 1781 (ufually the moil fa¬
vourable part of the year to himj he laboured under re¬
peated illneffes : and on Saturday the 9th of February
1782, he began to find his breath much affeiffed by
the froft. His complaints grew woife and wqrle till
the Thurfday following. Fie got up at five o’clock,
and was placed in a chair by the fire ; complained to
his wife how much he had fuffered in bed, and repeat¬
ed to himfelf that portion of the Pfalms, “ O my God,
I cry unto thee in the day time,” &c. See. About fix
o’clock he was left by his apothecary in a quiet deep.
Between feven and eight he awmke, and appeared ra¬
ther more ealy, and took a little refrelhment. He con¬
tinued dozing till near nine, when he ordered his fer-
vant-to come and drefs him, and help him down flairs.
As foon as he was dreffed, he inquired the hour, and
bid his fervant open the fhutter and look at the dial of
St Paul’s. The fervant anfwered, it was upon the
ffroke of nine. The bilhop made an effort to take out
his watch, with an intent to fet it ; but funk down in
his chair, and expired without a figh or the lead vifible
emotion, his countenance ftill retaining the lame pla¬
cid appearance which was fo peculiar to him when
jffive. Of his numerous works, his Differtations on
the Prophecies are by much the mod valuable. His
learning was undoubtedly very confiderable ; but he
leldom exhibits evidence of a very vigorous mind. On
one occafion, indeed, he appears to have thought with
freedom ; for wre believe he was the fird dignitary of
the church of England who avowed his belief of the
final reditution of all things to harmony and happi-
nefs.
NEWTY A, a port little known, on the coaff between
Goa the capital of the Portuguefe fettlements in In¬
dia, and the Englifii fettlement of Bombay. Mr Ren-
' nel conjectures it to be the Nitrias of Pliny ; nea' which
the pirates cruized for the Roman fliip. The fame wri¬
ter places it near to 150 52' 30" North Latitude, and
730 16' 30" Ead Longitude.
NEXi, among the Romans, perfons free born, who
for debt were reduced to a date of flavery. By the
laws of the twelve tables it was ordained, that infolvent
debtors fhould be given up to their creditors to be
bound in fetters and cords, wfiience they w’ere called
Nexi; and though they did not entirely lofe the rights
of freemen, yet they were often treated more harfhly
3
than the Haves thcmfelves. If any one w'as indebted Neytrecht
to feveral perfons, and could not within fixty days find
a cautioner, his body according to feme, but accord tN|g0~^ia-1
ing to others his effeCls, might be cut in pieces, and
divided among his creditors. The latter opinion teems
by much the moft probable, as Livy mentions a law
by which creditors had a right to attach the goods
but not the perfons of their debtors.
NEYTRECHT, a town of UpperHungary, capital
of a county of the fame name, with a b:fhop\s fee ;
feated on the river Neitra, 40 miles north-eaft of Pref-
burg. E. Long. 17. 49. N. Lat. 48. 28.
NGAN-KING-FOU, a city of China, and capi¬
tal of the weftern part of the province of Kiang nan.
It is governed by a particular viceroy, who keeps a
large garrifon in a fort built on the banks of the river
Yang-tle kiang. Its lituation is delightful*, its com¬
merce and riches render it very confiderable 5 and every
thing that goes from the fouthern part of China to
Nan king muft pafs through it. /Ill the country be-
longing to it is level, plealant, and fertile. It has
under its jurifdi&ion only fix cities of the third clals.
NGO-K1A, a Chinefe drug, of which the compo-
fition will no doubt appear as Angular as the numerous
properties aferibed to it. In the province Chang-tong,
near Ngo-hien, a city of the third clafs, is a well
formed by nature, which is reckoned to be feventy
feet in depth, and which has a communication, as the
Chinele fay, with fome iubterranean lake, or other
large refervoir. The water drawn from it is exceed¬
ingly clear, and much heavier then common j and if it
be mixed with muddy water, it purifies it and ren¬
ders it limpid, by precipitating all its impurities to the
bottom ol the veffel. This wrater is employed in ma¬
king the ngo-kia, which is nothing elfe but a kind of
glue procured from the fkin of a black afs.
The animal is killed and flayed, and the fidn is fteep*
ed for five days in water drawn from this well. At
the end of that tinie, it is taken out to be feraped and
cleaned j it is afterwards cut into fmall pieces, which
are boiled over a How fire, in the fame kind of water,
until it is reduced to a jelly, which is drained, while
w;arm, through a cloth, to free it from all the grofs
matter which could not be melted. When this glue
is cool, and has acquired a confifience, it is formed
into fquare cakes, upon which the Chinele imprint cha-
raclers and coats of arms, or the figns of their ihops.
This well is the only one of the kind in China j it
is always (hut, and fealed by the governor of the place
with his own feal, until the cuftomary day of ma¬
king the emperor’s glue. This operation generally
lafts from the autumnal harveft till the month of March.
During that time, the neighbouring people and mer¬
chants treat for the purchafe of the glue with thofe
who guard the well, and with the people who make
it. The latter manufaffure as much of it as they
can, on their own account, with this differer.ee,
that it is not fo pure, and that they are lefs fcrupulous
in examining whether the afs be fat, or of a very
black colour : however, all the glue made here is as
much efteemed at Peking as that which the mandarins
who are on the fpot tranfmit to court and to their
friends.
As this drug is in the greateft requeft, and as the
quantity of it made at Ngo-hien is not fufficient to
fuppljtr
N I A [ 797 j N I A
Niagara.
fupply the whole empire, there are not wanting pedole
who counterfeit it elfewhere, and who manufa&ure
a fpurious kind from the {kins of mules, horfes, and
camels, and fometimes even from old boots; it is,
however, very eafy to diftinguifh that which is ge¬
nuine j it has neither a bad fmell nor a difngreeable
taile w'hen applied to the mouth j it is brittle and
friable, and always of a deep black colonr, fometimes
inclining to red. The qualities of the counterfeit
kind are entirely different ; both its tafte and fmell
are difagreeable, and it is vifcous nnd flabby even
when made of the {kin of a hog, which is that which
imitates the true kind the beft.
The Chinefe attribute a great number of virtues to
this drug. They affure us that it diflblyes phlegm,
facilitates the play and elafticity of the lungs, gives a
free refpiration to thofe who breathe with difficulty ;
that it comforts the bread, increafes the blood, itops
dyfenteries, provokes urine, and lirengthens children in
the wmmb. Without warranting the truth of all thefe
properties, it appears, at lead, certain, by the te.di-
mony of the miffionaries, that this drug is ferviceable
in all difeafes of the lungs. It is taken with a de-
coftion of dmples, and fometimes in powder, but very
feldom.
NIAGARA, a fort of North America, which was
taken from the French in 1759. According to the
treaty of 1794, it vvas delivered up by Britain to the
United States in 1796. It is iituated on a fmall penin-
fula formed by the river Niagara as it dows into the
lake Ontario. About fix leagues from the fort is the
greated cataraft in the world, known by the name of
the Waterfall of Niagara. The river at this fall runs
from SSE to NNW ; and the rock of the fall erodes it
.not in a right line, but forms a kind of figure like a
hollow femicircle or horfe {hoe. Above the fall, in the
middle of the river, is an ifl^nd about 800 or 1000
feet long j the lower end of wffiich is jud at the perpen¬
dicular edge of the fall. On both fides of this ifland
runs all the water that comes from the lakes of Canada j
viz. Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, and
Lake Erie, which have fome large rivers that open
themfelves into them. Before the water comes to this
ifland, it runs but {lowly compared with its motion
afterwards, when it grows the mod rapid in the world,
running with a furprifing fwiftnefs before it comes to
the fall. It is perfeflly white, and in many places is
thrown high up into the air. The water that runs
down on the wed fide is more rapid, in greater abun¬
dance, and whiter, than that on the ead fide; and
Teems almofl to outfly an arrow in fwiftnefs. When
you are at the fall, and look up the river, you may fee
that the water is everywhere exceedingly fteep, almoft
like the fide of an hill •, but w hen you come to look at
the fall itfelf, it is impoffible to exprefs the amazement
it occafions. The height of it, as meafured by mathe¬
matical indruments, is found to be exactly 137 teet ■,
and when the water is come to the bottom, it jumps
back to a very great height in the air. The noile may be
heard at the didance of 45 miles, but feldom further-,
nor can it be heard even at Fort Niagara, which is only
fix leagues didant, unlefs Lake Ontario is calm. At
that fort it is obferved', that when they hear the noife
of the fall more loud than ordinary, they are fure that
a ijorth-eaft wind will follotv $ which is the more fur¬
prifing, as the fort lies louth-weit from the fall. At Niagara,
fome times the fall makes a much greater noife than at " 'r~mm
others j and this is held for an infallible fign of ap¬
proaching rain or other bad w-eather.
From the place w-here the water falls there arifes
abundance of vapour like very thick fmoke, infomuch
that wrhen viewed at a diflance you would think that
the Indians had fet the forefls on fire. Thefe vapours
rife high in the air when it is calm, but are difperfed
by the wind wffien it blows hard. If you go into this
vapour or fog, or if the wind blows it on you, it is fo
penetrating, that in a few moments you will be as wet
as if you had been under water. Some are of opinion
that when birds come dying into this fog or fmoke of
the fall, they drop down and peridi in the wTater; either
becaufe their wings are become wet, or that the noife
of the fall adonilhes them, and they know not whcr$
to go in the darknefs : but others think that feldom
or never any bird periffies there in that manner ^ be¬
caufe among -the abundance of birds found dead be¬
low the fall, there are no other forts than fuch as
live and fwim frequently in the water ; as fvvans, geefc,
ducks, w-ater hens^ teal, and the like. And very
often great flocks of them are feen going to dedruc-
tion in this manner : they fwdm in the river above the
fall, and fo are carried down lower and lower by the
w-ater ^ and as w-ater fowl commonly take great delight
in being carried with the dream, they indulge them¬
felves in enjoying this pleafure fo long, till the fwift¬
nefs of the water becomes fo great, that it is no longer
poffible for them to rife, but they are driven down the
precipice and peridi. They are obferved, when they
draw nigh the fall, to endeavour with all their might
to take wing and leave the water ; but they cannot.
In the months of September and O&ober fuch abun¬
dant quantities of dead water fowl are found every
morning below the fall, on the fliore, that the garrifott
of the fort for a long time live chiefly upon them.
Befides the fowl, they find alfo feveral forts of dead
filh, alfo deer, bears, and other animals which have
tried tb crofs the w-ater above the fall : the larger
animals are generally found broken to pieces. Jud:
below-, a little way from the fall, the water is not ra¬
pid, but goes all in circles, and whirls like a boiling
pot j which however does not hinder the Indians go¬
ing upon it in fmall canoes a-fifhing but a little fur¬
ther, and low-er, the other fmaller falls begin. When
you are above the fall, and look down, your head be¬
gins to turn ; even fuch as have been here numberlefs
times, will feldom venture to look dow-n, without at the
fame time keeping fad hold of fome tree with one.
hand.
It was formerly thought impoffible for anybody
living to come at the ifland that is in the middle of
the fall : but an accident that happened about 50 ' •.
years ago made it appear otherwife. The hiflory
is this: Two Indians of the Six Nations went out
from Niagara fort to hunt upon an ifland that is in the
middle of the river, or flrait, above the great fall, on
which. £here ufed to be abundance of deer. They took
fome French brandy with them from the fort, which
they tafled feveral times as they were going over the
carrying place j and when they were in their canoe,
they took now and then a dram, and fo went along
up the ftrait towards the ifland where they propofed
to
N I A
a- to 'Bunt $ but growing fleepy, they laid
down in the canoe, which getting loofe drove back
with the ftream, farther and farther down, till it came
nigh that ifland that is in the middle of the fall. Here
one of them, awakened by the noife of the fall, cries
out to the other that they were gone : Yet they tried
if poffible to fave life. This ifland was nigheft, and
with much working they got on ftiore there. At
flrfl they were glad $ but when they had conftdered
every thing, they thought themfelves hardly in a bet¬
ter flate than if they had gone down the fall, flnce
they had now no other choice, than either to throw
themfelves down the fame, or perifh with hunger.
But hard neceffity put them on invention. At the
lower end of the ifland the rock is perpendicular, and
no water is running there. The ifland has plenty of
Wood ; they went to work then, and made a ladder
or (hrouds of the bark of the lind tree (which is very
tough and ftrong) fo long till they could with it reach
the water below ; one end of this bark ladder they
tied fait to a great tree that grew at the fide of the
rock above the fall, and let the other end down to the
water. So they went down along their new’ invented
Hairs, and when they came to the bottom in the mid¬
dle of the fall they refted a little ; and as the water
next below the fall is not rapid, as before mentioned,
they threw themfelves out into it, thinking to fwim
on fliore. We have faid before, that one part of the
fall is on one fide of the ifland, the other on the other
fide. Hence it is, that the waters of the twm cata-
ra£ls running againft each other, turn back againfl: the
rock that is juft under the ifland. Therefore, hardly
had the Indians begun to fwim, before the waves of
the eddy threw them back with violence againfl; the
rock from whence they came. They tried it feveral
times, but at laft grew wTeary ; and by being often
thrown againfl: the rock they were much bruifed, and
the ikin torn off their bodies in many places. So
they w'ere obliged to climb up flairs again to the ifland -
not knowing what to do. After fome time they per¬
ceived Indians on the ftiore, to whom they cried out.
Thefe faw and pitied them, but gave them little hope
or help : yet they made hafte down to the fort, and
told the commandant where twm of their brothers were.
He perfuaded them to try all poflible mean? of reliev¬
ing the turn poor Indians j and it was done in the fol¬
lowing manner :
The water that runs on the eaft fide of this ifland is
{hallow, efpecially a little above the ifland towards the
eaftern ftiore. The commandant caufed poles to be
made and pointed with iron j two Indians took upon
them to walk to this ifland by the help of thefe poles,
to fave the other poor creatures, or perilh themfelves.
They took leave of all their friends, as if they were
going to death. Each had two fuch poles in his
hands, to fet to the bottom of the ftream, to keep
them fteady 5 and in this manner reached the ifland: and
having given poles to the two poor Indians there, they
all returned fafely to the main land. Thefe two Indians
(who in the above-mentioned manner were firft brought
to this ifland) were nine days on the ifland, and almoft
ready to ftarve to death. Now fince the road to this
ifland has been found, the Indians go there often to
kill deer, which have tried to crofs the river above
*he fall, and are driven upon it by the ftream. On
r 798 3 n 1 a
themfelves the weft fide of this ifland are fome fmall iflands or
rocks, of no confequence. The eaft fide of the river is
almoft perpendicular, the weft fide more floping. In
former times, a part of the rock at the fall which is on
the weft fide of the illand, hung over in fuch a man¬
ner, that the water which fell perpendicularly from it
left a vacancy below, fo that people could go under
between the rock and the water ; but the prominent
part fome years fince broke off and fell down. The
breath of the fall, as it runs in a femicircle, is rec¬
koned to be about 300 feet. The ifland is in the
middle of the fall, and from it the water on each fide
is almoft the fame breadth j the breadth of the ifland
at its lower end is about 100 feet. Below the fall,
in the holes of the rocks, are great plenty of eels,
which the Indians and French catch with their hands
without any other means. Every day when the fun
fhines, you fee here from ten o’clock in the morning
to two in the afternoon, below the fall, and under
you, where you ftand at the fide of the fall, a glo¬
rious rainbow, and fometimes two, one within the
other. The more vapours, the brighter and clearer
is the rainbow’. When the wind carries the vapours
from that place, the rainbow is gone, but appears
again as foon as new vapours come. From the fall
to the landing above it, where the canoes from Lake
Erie put a ftiore (or from the fall to the upper end of
the carrying place), is half a mile. Lower the ca¬
noes dare not come, left they ftiould be obliged to
try the fate of the two Indians, and perhaps with
lefs fuccefs. They have often found{ below the fall
pieces of human bodies, perhaps drunken Indians,
that have unhappily come dowm to the fall. The
French fay, that they have often thrown whole great
trees into the w’ater above, to fee them tumble dowm
the fall: (they went down with furprifing fwiftnefs,
but could never be feen afterwards j whence it w-as
thought there was a bottomlefs deep or abyfs juft under
the fall. 1 he rock of the fall confifts of a gray lime-
ftone. For aif interefting account of this celebrated
fall, the reader is referred to Volney’s Travels in Ame¬
rica.
Having mentioned the Six Nations which live on the
banks of the Niagara, w'e fhall here add a few particu¬
lars relative to thofe nations which, as they feem not to
be well underftood even in America, are probably ftiil
lefs known in Europe. The information which we have
to give was communicated to the Royal Society of Lon¬
don by Mr Richard M‘Caufland furgeon to the 8th re¬
giment of foot, who, writing from the beft authority,
informs us, that each nation is divided into three tribes,
of which the principal are called the turtle tribe, the
wolf tribe, and the bear tribe.
Each tribe has two, three, or more chiefs, called
fachems ; and this diftin&ion is always hereditary in
the family, but defcends along the female line : for
inftance, if a chief dies, one of his fifter’s fons, or one
of hrs own brothers, wall be appointed to fucceed
him. Among thafe no preference is given to proxi¬
mity or primogeniture; but the fachem, during his
lifetime, pitches upon one whom he fuppofes to have
more abilities than the reft j and in this choice he
frequently, though not always, confults the princi¬
pal men of the tribe. If the fucceffor happens to be
a child, the offices of the poft are performed by. fome
of
N I A
[ 799 1
N I C
Niagara, of his friends until he is of fufficienb age to aft him-
 v ’ felf.
Each of thefe ports *1 fachem has a name which is
peculiar to it, and which never changes, as it is al¬
ways adopted by the fucceflbr : nor dees the order of
precedency of each of thefe names or titles ever vary.
Neverthelefs, any fachem, by abilities and aftivity,
may acquire greater power and influence in the nation
than thofe who rank before him in point of precedency j
but this is merely temporary, and dies with him.
Each tribe has one or two chief warriors ; which
dignity is alfo hereditary, and has a peculiar name at¬
tached to it.
Thefe are the only titles of diftinftion which are
fixed and permanent in the nation ; for although any
Indian may by fuperior talents, either as a counfellor
or as a warrior, acquire influence in the nation, yet it
is not in his power to tranfmit this to his family.
The Indians have alfo their great women as well as
their great men, to whofe opinions they pay great de¬
ference ; and this diftinftion is alfo hereditary in families.
They do not fit in council with the fachems, but have
feparate ones of their own.—When war is declared, the
fachems and great w'omen generally give up the manage¬
ment of public affairs into the hands of the warriors. It
may however fo happen, that a fachem may at the fame
be alfo a chief warrior.
Friendfhips feem to have been inftituted with a view
towards ftrengthening the union between the feveral
nations of the confederacy ; and hence friends are call¬
ed the finews o f the Six Nations. An Indian has there¬
fore generally one or more friends in each nation. Be-
fides the attachment which fubfifts during the lifetime
of the two friends, whenever one of them happens to be
killed, it is incumbent on the furvivor to replace him,
by prefenting to his family either a fcalp, a prifoner, or
a belt confifting of fome thoufands of wampum •, and
this ceremony is performed by every friend of the de-
ceafed.
The purpofe and foundation of war parties, therefore,
is in general to procure a prifoner or fcalp to replace
the friend or relation of the Indian who is the head Nicaea;
of the party. An Indian who wilhes to replace a v
friend or relation prefents a belt to his acquaintance j
and as many as choofe to follow him accept this belt,
and become his party. After this, it is of no con-
fequence whether he goes on the expedition or re¬
mains at home (as it often happens that he is a child 5)
he is ftill confidered as the head of the party. The
belt he prefented to his party is returned fixed to the
fcalp or prifoner, and partes along with them to the
friends of the perfon he replaces. Hence it happens,
that a war party, returning with more fcalps or pri-
foners than the original intention of the party inquir¬
ed, will often give one of thefe fupernumerary fcalps or
prifoners to another wrar party whom they meet going
out ; upon which this party, having fulfilled the purpofe
of their expedition, will fometimes return without go¬
ing to war.
NICAiA, in Ancient Geography, the metropolis of
Bithynia j fituated on the lake Afcanius, in a large
and fertile plain; in compafs 16 ftadia : firft built by
Antigonus, the fon of Philip, and thence called Anti-
gonea; afterwards completed by Lyfimachus, who call¬
ed ii\Nictra, after his confort the daughter of Antipater.
According to Stephanus, it was originally a colony of
the Bottigei, a people of Thrace, and called Ancore;
and afterwards called Niece a. Now Nice in Alia the
Lefs *. Famous for the firft general council.—A fe- * See Nici*
cond Niccea, (Diodorus Siculus), of Corflca.—A third,
of the Hither India, (Arrian) ; fituated on the weft
fide of the Hydafpes, oppofite to Bucephale, on the eaft
fide.—A fourth Niccea, a town of Liguria, at the
Maritime Alps, on the eaft fide of the river Paulon,
near its mouth, which runs between the Varus and Ni-
caea, (Mela). A colony of the Maflilians, (Stepha¬
nus) ; the laft town of Italy to the weft. Now Nit&'za
or Nice, capital of the county of that name, on the Me¬
diterranean.—A fifth, of Locris, (Strabo); a town near
Thermopylae *, one of the keys of that pafs. It flood
on the Sinus Maliacus.
END OF THE FOURTEENTH VOLUME.
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vol. XIV.
Part I.
Plate CCCXXXVII.—CCCXLV. to face - - page 38
CCCXLVI.—CCCL. . - - - 76
CCCLI.—CCCLIII. < f - - ^54
Part II.
CCCLIV.—CCCLXII. - - - - 552
CCCLXIII.—CCCLXVIII. - - - 702
CCCLXIX  
ERRATA.
In tlie Explanation of the Plates of Midwifery on pp. 75 and 76, in fome copies, for Plates CCC, CCCI,
CCCII, CCCIII, and CCCIV. read Plates CCCXLVI, CCCXLVII, CCCXLVIII,. CCCXLIX, and
CCCL.
Page 511. col. 1. fide note, for Plate CCCXXIII. read Plate CCCLIV. *
_ .
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