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'■This Da') is Pubiifhect
By ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO. Edinburgh,
And sold by JOHN MURRAY, 32. Fleet-Street, London.
Handfomely printed in Seven Volumes 8vo, price 3I. 4s. <5d. in boards }
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THE
FARMER’S MAGAZINE:
A PERIODICAL WORK,
EXCLUSIVELY DEVOTED TO
AGRICULTURE Ss? RURAL AFFAIRS:
1800, 1801, 1802, 1803, 1804, 1805, 1806.
PUBLISHED QUARTERLY.
Ye generous Britons, venerate the PLOUGH,
And o’er your hills, and long-withdrawing vales,
Let Autumn fpread her treafures to the fun. Thomson.
j£j* The defign of the Farmer’s Magazine is to collect and difleminate ingenious The¬
ories, important and well-authenticated Fa£ts, and accurate Experiments, which relate
to the different branches of rural economy. It muft be well known to every perfbn
in the lead acquainted with the different parts of the United Kingdom, that difeoveries
and improvements, particularly in Agriculture, travel Very flowly. To remedy this,
the Farmer’s Magazine was firfl projected ; and the Proprietors are happy to fay, that,
if they may judge from the almoft unprecedented fale of more than 4000 copies of each
Number, the objeCt of this publication is in a great degree anfwered. The Work, in
its plan and arrangement, is well calculated for' the end the Proprietors had in view.
It confids of—1. Mifcellaneous Communications, chiefly of the mod important practical
nature.—a. The Pveview of Agricultural Publications —3. Agricultural Intelligence from
almod every didriCt in Scotland, and from feveral in England. The utility and import¬
ance of this branch mud be evident to every practical Farmer, who, at the moderate
price of Two Shillings and Sixpence a quarter, may learn the date of the crops, and
the price of grain, cattle, ,&c. in the different parts of the kingdom, befides being en«
abled to compare his own practice with that in other didriCts, and thus to correct what
is improper or deficient.
Edinburgh : Printed by D, Willjsqh
FARMER’S MAGAZINE.
’The following form the Principal Articles of
THE CONTENTS *
THE FARMER’S MAGAZINE.
PTo. I. Published C20th January 1800, contains>
Introduftion ; being a Sketch of the Origin and Progrefs of Agricul¬
ture— Obfervations on the Additional Statiftical Account of the Parifh of
Hounatn—On Manorial Claims—On fome Obfelete Terms in Leafes-—
Curfory Remarks on raifing Rents—On Value of Land—On Subfetting
of Land—Annual Expenfe attending a Plough and two Horfes—Remarks
on the Neceffity of Summei'-Fallow on all Clay Soils, as defcribed in the
Yorkfhire Survey— On the great Utility of Tares—On the Neceffity of
having Green Food upon a Breeding Farm at all Seafons of the Year—On
the Food of Horfes—Mr Durno’s Report concerning the Method of cul¬
tivating Flax and Hemp in Prufiia, Ruflia, and Poland—Obfervations on
the Climate of Eaft Lothian —Curfory Hints on Agricultural Publications
—Review of Mr Middleton’s Survey of the County of Middlefex—-On
Tithes—Calculations refpe&ing the Number of Perfons fupported by Agri¬
culture in England and Wales—Of the Management of Meadows—Review
of Mr Lowe's Survey of the County of Nottingham—On the Culture of
Roota Baga, or Swedifh Turnip—Review of Due de la Rochefoucault
Liancourt’s Travels in North America, Vol. I State of Hulbandry in
Pennfylvania—View of Rural Economy during the Year 1799—Agricul¬
tural Intelligence relating to Scotland ; comprehending a State of the
Markets for Grain, Cattle, and Sheep ; Account of the Crops in differ¬
ent Counties, &c.—Ditto relating to England, containing State of Crops
in Middlefex, Effex, Surry, and Kent—Obituary, with Biographical
Notices.
PTo. IL Monday, 1 U/z April 1800.
The Rural Inquirer, No. I.—On the Culture of Flax, from the Pra&ice
of Ireland—Sheep and Great Farms favourable to Population—Premiums
offered by the Board of Agriculture for 1800—Query concerning the
Quality of Straw—Letter II. from a Scots Farmer during a Tour through
England—Anfwer to a Query refpefting Smut in Wheat—On Drilling
Beans—Loofe Hints on the Principles and Praftice of Rural Science—
Papers concerning the Introduction of Barley Mills into Scotland—Ac¬
count of the Introduction of Summer Fallow into Scotland ; with fome
Particulars of John Walker, who firft praCtifed it—On the Danger attend¬
ing Trees about Corn Fields—On the New Mode of Drainage—AbftraCl
of the Propnfals for eftablifhing a Joint Stock Farming Society, by Sir J.
Sinclair—Effay on the Management of Hav—Review of Dr Robertfon’i
General View of the Agriculture of the County of Perth—Ditto of Mr
Brown’s General View cf the Agriculture of Weft Riding of Yorkftiire—
Sketch of the State of Agriculture for the laft Three Months—Compara¬
tive Advantages of Horfes and Oxen—Agricultural Intelligence relating
to Scotland—Pitto relating to England—Obituary—I^iars of Grain in
Scotland.
- «• A/V
FARMER’S MAGAZINE.
No. Ill Monday, 14/7/ July 1800.
The RuthI Inquirer, No. II.—Rural Sketch of County of LancaRer—
Letter III. from a Scots Farmer during a Tour through England—-Ex-
traft of a Letter from a Linen Manufatturer to Sir J. Sinclair—National
Advantages which the Encouragement of the Growth of Flax will produce,
with the Number of People one Acre will employ—On Floating of Land
 Obfervations on Expenfes of Farming ; on Manorial Claims ; and on
Improvement of Entailed Eftates—Short View of Agriculture in Ruflia—
On the Quality of Rye-Grafs Seed—A Plan for making Hay from Heath
—On the proper Mode of Ridging a Wet Clay Soil—Review of Dr
Thomfon’s General View of the Agriculture of County of Fife—Review
of General View of the Agriculture of Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, con¬
cluded—Review of Due de la Rochefoucault Liancourt’s Travels, Vol. II.
—Review of Matthews’s Remarks on the Scarcenefs and Dearnefs of
Cattle, &c.—Review of Bailey and Gulley’s General View of the Agri¬
culture of County of Northumberland—On the Benefit of Water Meadows
—Defcription of Rural Affairs during the laft Three Months.
No. IF. Monday, 20th October 1800.
On the Management of a late Crop of Oats—Prefent State and Ma¬
nagement of Common Fields and Wafte Lands in Yorklhire—Stri&ures on
Hedge Management—On Inequality of Weights and Meafures—On Pre-
fervation of Fruit—Effay on the proper Size of Farms—On raifing Cab¬
bages—Obfervations on the Ufe of Lime—Letter IV. from a Scots Farmer
in a Tour through England—On Abolition of Tithes—On Manures—On
Grub Worm (with a Plate)—Defcription of a Plough for Cleaning Tur¬
nips (with a Figure)—Remarks on Foreftalling, and Mifreprefentations of
Newfpaper?—Review of General View of the Agriculture of Northumber¬
land—Fallowing defended—Account of Rev. Mr Adam Dickfon—Agri¬
cultural Table of Scotland—Return of Grtin of all Kinds, irhported and
exported at Leith, from July 12. to Oftober 11.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME SECOND.
No. V. Monday, 12th January 1801.
Thoughts on High Price of Provifions—Proceedings of the County of
Caithijefs, regarding the calling of Feal, Divot, &c,—Thoughts on Leaf-
es—Form of a Leafe—Cultivation-Table—On Tithes—On the Effefts o.*-
Monopoly and Foreftalling—Striftures on Farm-Management near Lon¬
don— On Working of Oxen—On Storing of Fruit, &c.—Propofals for a
a Chamber of Agriculture—On Double Turnip Plough, with Remarks by
Conduftors—On the Culture of Carrots—Remarks on the Management
purfued in his Majefty’s Farm in Windfor Great Park—Sketch of a Tour
through the Northern Parts of Scotland—Query on Lime Hufbandry—
Review of Lincoln Survey—Review of Mr Stone’s Obfervations on the
above Survey—Review of a Temperate Difcuflion of the Caufes which
have led to the prefent'High Price of Bread, addreffed to the plain fenfe
FARMER’S MAGAZINE.
W
of the Public—Leading Article of Intelligence—Scotifh Agricultural In¬
telligence—Englifh ditto—Obituary.
No. VI. Monday, 13/7/ Npril 1801.
Obfervations on Means of Improving Haugh Lands—Stri&ures on
Farm-Management near London, Letters III. & IV.—Eftimate of the
Quantity of Bread-Corn required annually to fupply the Inhabitants of
G. Britain—Abflraft of Syflem of Agriculture purfued on his Majefty’s
Farms—Receipts for deftroying the Goofeberry Caterpillar—On Summer-
Fallow—-Thoughts on various branches of Rural Economy—Letter on
the Effect of Tithes—On Smut in Wheat—Sketch of a Tour through the
Northern parts of Scotland, Part II.—On Lime and Dung—Defcription
of an Improved Drill Barrow, (with a Figure)—Communications on A-
rnerican Hufbandry—Review of Dr Smith’s General View of Agriculture
of Argyle—Review of Dr Walker’s Memorial concerning prefent Scarcity
of Grain—Reviewers Reviewed ; Survey of Weft Riding of Yorklhire—-
Review of Comparative Statement of Expenfe of Horfes and Oxen for
Farm-labour—Review of the Form of a Leafe and Cultivation Table—
Agricultural Intelligence relating to Scotland—Ditto relating to England
—Obituary.
No. VII. Monday, ?>0th August 1801.
On Value of Turnips, Rcota Baga, Potatoes, Yams, &c. as Subftitutes
for Grain in feeding Horfes, &c.—Hints as to the Advantages of Old
Failures, and on the Converfion of Grafs Lands into Tillage, by Sir J.
Sinclair—On the Difadvantages that attend want of Leafes, and fmall Ca¬
pital— Query refpefting the fuccefs of planting, in Spring, old Roots of
Cabbages, and open Kail that had been cut—Strictures on Farm-Manage¬
ment near London, continued—On making Compofts on Head Lands—
On Tithes, and Oxen for Draught—On the Exaction of Tithe in kind—
Sketch of a Tour through the Northern Counties of Scotland, Part III.—
Communications on American Hulbandry—On the Means of Increafing
the Quantity of Manure, the Ufe of Lime on different Soils, &c.—Com-
parifon between Large and Small Farms—Review of Effays and Notes on
Hufbandry and Rural Affairs, by J. B. Bordley of Philadelphia—Review
of Selections from Dr Anderfon’s Correfpondence, &c.— Review of Glean¬
ings from Books on Agriculture—On the Method of preparing Cheefe m
the liodefan, commonly called Parmefan Cheefe—On Corn Laws, from
Mr Findlater’s MS. Survey of Tweedale—On the Policy of fixing a Legal
Standard of Intereft, from the fame—Leading Article of Agricultural In¬
telligence—Scotilh Agricultural Intelligence—Englilh ditto.
No. VIII. Monday, Id November 1801.
Obfervations on the different kinds of Grubs and Caterpillars—Communi¬
cation from Sir J. Sinclair on Folding Sheep—ExtraCf of Mr Ellman’s
Letter on fame fubjeCt—Strictures on Farm-Management near London,
Let. VII. & VIII.—.On the Mifchief arifuig from Thiftles and other
Weeds, by the fides of Roads and Fences—EffeCts of Lime in Deftroying
Heath,
FARMERS MAGAZINE.
v
Heath, and producing White Clover—Whether Large or Small Cattle
are moll profitable—On Wafte Lands — Queries refpefting Shell Marl—On
fome of the Caufes which retard the Progrefs of Agricultural Science, and
Hints for its Improvement—A Note of various Meafures, calculated for
the Improvement of County of Caithnefs, carrying on anno iSoi—Obfta-
eles to Cultivation of Wafie Lands, and the beft means of Removing them
—Obfervations on Ufe of Lime--Obfervations on Cultivation of Potatoes
—On Mr Elkington’s Method of Draining—Hints of Management, tend¬
ing to obviate the Efiedls of Severe Drought—Sketch of a Tour through
the Northern Counties of Scotland, P^rt IV.—Review of Col. Fullarton 8
Letter to Lord Carrington—Leading Article of Agricultural Intelligence
■—Ssotifh Agricultural Intelligence—Enghfh ditto.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME THIRD.
JVo. AT. Mondayy 1st February 1802.
Comparative advantages of keeping married and unmarried Servants on
Farms ; and the policy of encouraging the increafe of Cottages and Villa¬
ges—Defcription of Mr Hunter's Turnip-Feeding Byre, at Efkmount,
Forfarfhire, (with plan and explanation ayncxed)—Plan for preventing the
Curl in Potatoes, with Remarks pn the Comparative Expenfe of Horfes
and Oxen—Hints refpefting Conftru&ion of Farm-Offices—Communica¬
tions on the Goofeberry Caterpillar—On the Difadvantage and Lofs at¬
tending a fixed Rotation of Crops—On improving the Breed of Live
Stock—On the beft means of converting Grafs Lands to Tillage, without
oxhaufting the Soil—Experiments on Lime Husbandry—Review of Mid-
Lothian Agricultural Survey—Leading Article of Agricultural Intelli¬
gence—Scotifh Agricultural intelligence—Account of a variety of fuc-
cefsful Experiments in culture of Potatoes—Refults of interefting Experi¬
ments on fame fubjeft, by Rev. Mr Findlater—Ditto on a fuccefsful Em¬
bankment againft the Sea, at Nethertown of Grange, near Forres—Eng-
lifh Agricultural Intelligence.
No. V. Mondayy 3V May 1802.
Obfervations on the ex'ifting obftacles to Agricultural Improvement, with
hints as to the means of their removal—Experiments and obfervations on
the culture of Potatoes, by Sir A. Grant of Monymulk—Letter by ditto
to the Board of Agriculture, on fame fubjedl—Drawing and defeription
of a Machine for Pounding Lineftone—Valuable hints regarding Cattle,
by Sir J. Sinclair, with an Appendix—Obfervations on the quantity of
feed necefiary for different foils—Dire&ions for Kiln-drying Seed-Wheat,
with a view to prevent the Smut, by J. F. Erfkine of Man—Praftical Ob¬
fervations on Tillage—Barberries not prejudicial to the growth of Wheat—
Remedy for the Goofeberry Caterpillar—Account, by Rev. Mr Findlater,
of thy belt method of Floating Land, (with a copperplate)—Remarks on
A. B.’s hints refpedfing the confirudlion of Farm Offices—Account of a
new method of reaping corn by piece-work—On paring and burning gvafa
Up-4—Obfervations oh law of Scotland, with regard to farm dung and
3 fftaw
vi
FARMER’S MAGAZINE.
Itraw—Eflay on beft means of converting grafs lands to tillage, without
exhaufting the foil, el vice verfa : concluded—On the burning of limeftone
with peats—On the working of Oxen—On Potatoes—Account (with a
figure) of the Argylefhire plough—Advantages of Planting, in Sheep
Farms—Experiments on the Fattening of Sheep—Review of Mid-Lothi¬
an Agricultural Survey, concluded—Obfervations on Bell’s Hufbandry—
Leading Article of Agricultural Intelligence—Scotilh Agricultural In¬
telligence—Englifh ditto—Obituary, containing Memoir of the late Duke
of Bedford, (with a Portrait)—Fiars of Grain, 1801.
No. XL Monday, 2J August 1802.
General View of the Corn Trade and Corn Laws of Great Britain, by
Rev. G. Skene Keith—Obftacles to Agricultural Improvement (continued)
—Queries on Vegetation—Fiars of the County of Haddington, from 1794
to 1801—On the Working of Oxen—On the Swedifh Turnip, and the
Keeping of Potatoes—Account of the Drainage of Loch Coot—Expla¬
nation of Plan of a Thrafhing-Mili Barn, after the Pattern of Mr Erlkine
of Mar’s at Lornfiiill—Remarks on the Review of Mid-Lothian Agricul¬
tural Survey-—Obfervations on the Ufe of Lime and Compoft Middens—
Defcription of a fuccefsful Embankment on Lord Galloway’s eftate—
Flints on the Improvement of Wafte Lands, addrefled to Lord Carring¬
ton—On Peat Compolls—Strictures on Farm-Management near London,
Let. X.—On making Compott Dunghills—On the probable caufe of the
Curl in Potatoes—On Feeding Sheep, and a Subftitute for Folding, com¬
municated by A. Hunter, M. D. York—On raifing Cabbages as a fubfti-
tute for Turnips, with Obfervations on Raifing and Keeping Potatoes—
Confiderations on the Prices of Corn—Review of General View of the
Agriculture of Suffolk—Review of TranfaCtions of the Society at Lon¬
don, for Encouragement of Arts, Manufaftures, and Commerce—Review
of Forcing, Fruit, and Kitchen Gardener—Literary Intelligence—Leading
Article of Agricultural Intelligence—Scotifh Ditto—Englifh Ditto.
No. XII. Monday, 1st November 1802.
On the Corn Trade and Corn Laws of G. Britain—Obftacles to Agri¬
cultural Improvement—Tithes defended—Obfervations on Thrafhing Ma¬
chines—Information requefted concerning Implements ufed in Hufbandry,
&c-—0° ^ie Hufbandry, &c. of the Hindoos, in a Letter from an Offi¬
cer in the Army, to his Friend in this Country—On the Fattening of
Cattle, &c. &c.—On prsfervation of the Urine of Cattle—On Squirrels
Deftroying young 1 rees, &c. &.C.-—On want of Encouragement to Ten¬
ants On Manures—On the Working of Oxen—Anfwers to Queries on
Vegetation- Account of the Drainage of Lochs Leuchars and Cotts, in
Morayfhire On Management of Turnips—On Magnefia as a Manure—
Plan of an Experimental Farm Society in Northumberlandfhire—Strictures
on Farm-Management near London, Let. XI.—On Drainage—On Ma¬
nagement of Potatoes—Sketch of Speech of C. Taylor, Efq. Secretary
to the Society of Arts, &c.— On Converting Grafs Land to Tillage—On
Burning Limeftone with Feats—Thoughts on Sale of Corn by Weight in
Scotland
FARMER’S MAGAZINE. vii
Scotlanc! Account of Worms lately infefting fundry High Sheep raans
in Tweeda’e—Review of Norfolklhire Agricultural Report—Review of
Lord Meadowbank’s Pamphlet on Peat Mofs—Letter from Reviewers of
Mid-Lothian Report—Leading Article of Agricultural Intelligence—
Scotilh Intelligence—Experiments on Scooping Potatoes, by Rev. Mr
Findlater—Englifh Intelligence.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME FOURTH.
No. XI1L Wednesday, 2d February 1803.
Dedication to G. Gulley, Efq.—Addrefs by the Publiiher—On Culture
of Potatoes, and the caufe of Curl, with Remarks by Conduaor—
Thoughts on ConftruCtive ReftriSions, fo far as they afTeft the tenantry
of Scotland—On Improvement of Land confidered by many people as un-
improveable—On the Benefit of keeping a flock of Swine—Experiments
on the Diftillation of Roots-r-A Short Hiftory of I ithes, Iciuds or
Tenths, as applicable to Scotland—Stridfures on harm-Management near
London, Let. XII.—On Modern Improvement of Farm Stock, with Re¬
marks by Conductor—Query concerning the Culture of Moffes—A Short
Abridgement of Elkington’s Treatife on Draining Land Query as to
taking the Tar out of Wool—On Emigration, and the Means of prerent¬
ing it—Anfvvers to Queries on Vegetation—Anfwers to Queries concerning
the Sowing of Wheat in the Spring Months, with Queries on the Work¬
ing of Oxen—Obfervations on Froft^d Oats, and a Remedy pointed out
for rendering them nutritious, with Remarks by Conductor—On Dileafes
to which young Calves are expofed—Obfervations on 1 ithes Inquiries
concerning the Ufe of Marl—A fhort Statement of various Meafures cal¬
culated for the Improvement of the County of Caithnefs, carrying on in
1802—A ludicrous Account of Deciiion refpecling a Squirrel- Review ot
Mr Tighe’s Statiftical Survey of the County of Kilkenny Leading Ar¬
ticle of Agricultural Intelligence—Scotifh Agricultural Intelligence Eng-
iilh Ditto.
No. XIV. Monday, 2d May 1803.
Letter from G. Dempfter, Efq. to Condudtor—On Phrafiiing Machines
—Method of tanning Leather in the Lewis and other Ifiands of the He¬
brides—On the raifing of Flax—Tithes again confidered—On Culture ot
Turnips—Account of Peat Modes and Shell Marl on the Eitate of Duni-
chen—On Cheviot Sheep—On the Nature and Management of the ohort
Sheep, with Remarks on the Difference between them and trie Cheviot
Breed—The Improved Breed of Sheep defended-—Oa the Soiling of Ilorles
and Cattle—On Swedifb Turnip—On the Expenfe attending the Making
of Thorn Hedges, and Training them up—On Mofs as a Manure Que¬
ries on Drill Hufbandry—On laying Land down with OraC. Sesds j and
Obfervations on Houfe Lamb—Information requeued relpedting the Dif-
eafes of Domeftic Animals—On Pit Draining—Obfervations on the Con-
ttruftion, Hanging, and Faftcning of Gates; with an Engraving Com¬
municated by T. N Parker, Efq.—Correfpondence between Sir J. Sinclair,
FARMER’S MAGAZINE.
viii
Bart, and Geo. Dempfter, Efq. on the Enlar^ment of Farms, &c.—Re¬
view of New Farmer’s Calendar—Review of Hunter’s Georgical Eflays—
Review of Findlater’s Peebles Survey—Review of Letter to Landholders
of Stirlingfhire—Leading Article of Agricultural Intelligepce—Scotilh
Intelligence—Englifh Ditto.
No, XV. Monday> 1st August 1803.
Curfory Refle&ions on the Means of preventing Emigration from the
Highlands—Hints for the Improvement of the Highlands, communicated
by Sir J. Sinclair—The Scottilh Tythe Syftem further illuftrated ; with
Note by Conductor—Thoughts on the EfFeA of Froft on Growing Corns,
&c—On Britifh Opium—Method of Draining pra&ifed in the Counties
of Eflex, &c.-—On the Turnip Fly—On the Weather—Experimental A-
griculture in the County of Durham—Obfervations on Shell Marl as a
Manure—Hints refpeifling Scots Improvers—On the Potato Curl—On the
Superiority of Horfes to Oxen in Farm Labour, &c.—On the Manage¬
ment of Calves—On Inoculating Sheep for the Scab—On the Nature, Im¬
provement, and Qualities of the different Soils proper for Rearing Sheep,
Let. I.—Account of Northumberland Breed of Sheep, and the progref-
five improvements made thereupon—Account of Improvement of Holm
Land in Cumberland—The Highland Society Vindicated—Review of Ge¬
neral View of the Agriculture of the Counties of Roxburgh and Selkirk—.
Review of Laurence’s Praftical Treatife on Horfes—Review of Bell’s
Treatife on Leafes—Poflfcript to FirH Branch—Letter from Lord Somer¬
ville—Note thereupon by the Conductor—Leading Article of Agricultural
Intelligence—General State of Rural Economy, and Markets for Grain,
Cattle, &c.—Plan fanftioned by Parliament for Improving the Highlands
applauded—Additional Qbfervations on Malt-tax—Remarks on Income or
Property Tax, fo far as it affetSs Farmers—Scottifh Agricultural Intelli¬
gence—Englifh ditto—Irifh ditto—-Liverpool Meteorology for April,
May, and June—Obituary ; Death of Sir J. Montgomery, with a fhort
Account of Improvements executed by him.
No. XVI, Mondayy 7th November 1803.
Account of Eddleftone Farming Club, with Note by Conduftor—On
Manwfadture of Dunlop Cheefe—On Cultivation of Mofles—On Improv¬
ing Peat-Bogs by Paring and Burning—Letter by the late Sir James
Stewart pn the Importation of Corn—Thoughts on Flax-Hufbandry—-
Obfervations on the Difeafe of Sheep, for which Inoculation has been
pra£tifed on the Continent, &c.—Obfervations on Sheep-—On the Nature,
and Management of the Short Sheep—Rcmonftrance of the Newcaftle
Coalheavers—Recipe for the Difeafe called Red-water—Communication
of the Baron Munchaufen—On the Culture and life of Buck Wheat-
Experiments on ditto, and Oblervations on South-Down Sheep—Obferva¬
tions on Aft refpefting Parochial Schoolmaflers—On the Malt-Tax, with
Propofal for afcertaining relative Qualities of Englifh and Scotifh Barleys
•—Remarks on Review of Peebles Survey A Law recommended for re¬
gulating Drainage, with Note by Conduftgr—Qa the Import and Export
FARMER’S MAGAZINE.
ix
of Grain, and the High Duties or. Diftillatmn-LctKr by Dr Hunter of
York on Smut in Wheat—Reprefentation to Right Hon. Henry Dandas
in 1708, by fcveral Eaft-Lothian Farmers, on the Income-Tax—O ilerva-
tion’on the Leieefter, or Improved Breed of Sheep, &c. ; ».th Remark,
bv Conduftor—Anfwer to Obfervations on Tithes, by A Friend to Int-
provmml'. No. XIII. t with Remarks by Conduaor—On the Value of
Corns when ufed for Diftillation, communicated by Chev. Edelcrantz of
Stockholm—Striftures on Farm-Management near London, Letter XU I. ;
with Note by the Conduaor—General Obfervations on Highland Rural
Economy—Queries concerning Mofs anfwered—Review of Statical Sur¬
vey of County of Down—Leading Article of Agricultural Intelligence
Scotifti Intelligence—Englifh ditto—Liverpool Meteorology, 1803.
Supplement to Vol. IV.
On Thrafhing Machines, Letter II.—Account of the Diflria of Lam-
mermuir in Eaft Lothian, drawn up in 1794, from the Communication ot
fcveral Farmers-Reply to Mr T. S. on Tythes—Hints regarding Pota-
toes Scheme for fowing Wheat Lands when the Ground is wet On the
Culture of Turnips, &c.—A Ihort Account of Dr William Halyburton,
with Extrads from his Georgical Letters—Advantages of fowing Oats in-
ftead of Barley—Retrofpeftive View of Britifir Hufbandry for 1803
Corn Markets—Rent of Land—Income or Property Tax, as affeding
Farmers—Malt Tai—Drilling Grain, Turnips, Potatoes, and Young
Graffes Thirlage Bill—Agriculture of Caithnefs, Invernefs, Moraylhire,
Eaft Lothian, Ayrftiire, Tweeddale, Mid-Lothian—Account of Wheat
fold in Haddington Market, for ready Money, from 3. Dec. 1802 to
Nov. 1803 England—Yorklhire—Northumberland—Norfolk.
-Re-
CONTENTS OF VOLUME FIFTH.
FI0, XVII. Monday, Gth February 1804.
RetrofpeAive View of Agriculture of Caithnefs, with Appendix
trofpedive View of Agriculture of Tweeddale, by a Member of Eddle-
ftonc Farmer’s Club—Ob Drilling of Corn, &c. and on Culture of I ur-
nins Roota Baga, &c.—On Poor Laws of Scotland—On afcertaimng the
Quality of Lime—Defcription of Staftbrdfhire Wheel-Plough, in a letter
torn Mr P.tt, communicated by Sir J. Sinclair, Bart.; with an Explana¬
tion—Remarks on the StafFordfhire Wheel-Plough, defcribed in the pre¬
ceding Article, by Mr Alexander Trotter, Farmer at Thurfo Fait—On
Smut of Wheat, with Note by Conduftor—On Cambndgefture Fen Huf-
bandry—Thoughts on Management of Dung —Letter from SirG- ^ac*
Kenzie, on prefent price of Labour in the Highlands, with Note by Con-
duftor—On Augmentation of Stipends in Vidual—General View of the
Taxes on Malt, as impofcd both in England and Scotland, by George
Skene Keith, D. D. Minifter of Keithhall and Kinkell—Appendix rela¬
tive to ditto*—On the Huihandry of Ayrfhire, with Note by Condndor-
On the Succefsful Application of Call-Iron Work, for the Hanging ™d
FARMER’S MAGAZINE.
x
Fattening of Gates, by Thos. N. Parker Efq—Reviewers Reviewed :
Vindication of Findlatef’s Survey of Peeblefhire—Leading Article of A-
gricultural Intelligence—Scotilh Intelligence—Englifn ditto—Irilh ditto 
Liverpool Meteorology.
No. XVIII. Mondayy 1th May 1804.
Memoirs of John Cockburn of Ormifton Efq., with a Portrait On the
Impolicy of impottng Perfonal and Predial Services on the Tenantry of
Scotland, with Note by the Condu&or—Thoughts on certain Obftacles to
Improvement—On the Injudicious Methods reforted to in Setting Land,
with Note by Condu&or—On the Application of Dung On the Ma¬
nagement of Sheep at Cauterets in the Department of the BafTe Pyrenees,
with an Account of the Scab or Sheep-Pox—Comparative Utility of Horl
fes and Oxen for Draught—On Planting Otters and Willows Baron
Munchaufen on the Redundancies of Nature—On Capons ; and Informa¬
tion requefted concerning the Cutting of Straw—Obfervations on the Bell
and moft Economical Method of Boiling Potatoes—Advantages of Potato
Hufbandry, with Note by Condu&or—Mode ufed in Eaft-Lothian for
Striking the Annual Fiars of Grain—On Culture of Ruta Baga Querie*
by a Buchan Crofter—Queftion confidered, whether Ruta Baga or Yams
can be moft profitably cultivated—On Regulating the Value of Labour ;
by Sir G. S. Mackenzie—Information requefted as to the moft: expeditious
Way of Taking up the Roots of Trees—Review of Letters to a Noble
Lord on the Manufactures, Agriculture, &c. of Scotland Review of
Hints to Agriculturifts—Review of Statiftical Survey of County of Cavan
—Leading Article of Agricultural Intelligence—Scotilh Intelligence 
Englilh ditto.
No. XIX. Mondayy VSth August 1804.
Confiderations on Regulating the Value of Labour—Curfory Obferva¬
tions on Farm Management betwixt Forth and Tyne—Thoughts on th*
Analyzation of Lime, &c. ; by Sir G. S. Mackenzie—Experiments in the
Analyzation of Marl ; by the fame—On afcertaining the Quality of Lime-
ttone—On Draining—On a fuitable Rotation of Crops—Thoughts on
Turnpike Roads and Road Ads—On Extirpating Whins and Broom 
On Steeping Wheat—On Scooping Potatoes for Seed—Obfervations on
the Fen Hulhandry of Cambridgefhire—Query refpe&ing Advantages of
Enclofing of Land—On Storing up Turnips for Winter Confumption 
On Working of Oxen—Cure for the Black Spald in Calves—Plan of a
Feeding Byre, with a figure—Anfwer to Arator’s two Letters on Thrafh-
ing Machines, with Obfervations by Condu&or—Account of the Difco-
very and Propagation of Perennial Rye Grafs in Upper Ward of Clydef-
tlale—Comparative Trial of Different Breeds of Sheep—Agriculture of
the Netherlands—Advantage of making Woods, and Planting Oak for Un¬
dergrowth-Account of Farmer Crefinus and his Enchantments—Propofal
for eftablilhing Farming Schools—Obfervations on the Principles of Corn
Laws—Report of Committee on the Corn Trade—Statement of Expenfes
e£
FARMER’S MAGAZINE. u
•f Farm Culture In Norfolk, In 1790 & 1804—Excerpts from Report of
Malt-Tax Committee—Excerpts from Dr S. Keith s Evidence given
therein—Review of Dr Gardiner’s Effays—Review of^Mr Hunter of
Thurfton’s Letter—Curfory Obfervations on Lord Lauderdale s inquiry
into the Nature of Public Wealth—Leading Article of Agricultural Iu-
lelligeuce, with Abftraa of New Corn Bill-Scot.lh Intclhgence-Eng-
liih ditto.
No. XX. Monday, \2th November 1804.
Comparative View of Farmers fifty years ago, and at th@ prefent day,
as alfo of the ftate of Society among them at thefe periods—Confiderations
on the Lofs occafioned by the Shortnefs or total want of Leafes in fome
parts of Scotland—On the ufe of Steam in drying Malt, Grain, and Po¬
tatoes; with Obfervations on Highland Potatoe Hufbandry—Reply to the
Letter of A. G. on the fubjeft of Thrafhing Machines—Culture and Ufe
of Ruta Baga or Swedifh Turnip—Propriety of Bruifing Oats for fuch
Horfes as do not grind them fufficiently with their teeth—Thoughts on
the Quantity of Grain required to Seed a Scotch Acre of Land Nature,
Improvement and Qualities of different Soils proper for rearing Sheep-
Detached Thoughts on the Syftem purfued by Mechanics in Scotland, m
profecuting and executing their w’orks of labour Sir George S. Mac¬
kenzie on the Price of Labour, with Note by Conduftor—Original Let¬
ter from John Cockburn Efq. of Ormilton to Alexander Wight, one of
his Tenants—Advantage of ufing Hot Lime when Seed Wheat is Steep¬
ed Elegy to the Memory of the late Duke of Bedford—ODfervations
upon Straighting ridges—Mr Low of Annfield on the Analyzation
Limeftone—On the ufe of Parfley as Food for Horfes and Cattle—Ob¬
fervations concerning the Grain Crops of 1804, and on different Breeds of
Sheep Thoughts on the Poor Laws and Prefent State of the Poor in
Scotland, with a Hint for inllituting Parochial Benefit Societies Curlory
Remarks on the Englilh Poor Laws—Anfwer to Query in laft Number,
concerning the advantage of enclofing Corn Lands—Account of the Dull
Turnip Hufbandry of Berwicklhire ; drawn up for the information of the
late Duke of Bedford, by Mr Alexander Low at Woodend—Directions
where graduated Spring Steelyards may be procured ; with Remarks on
Mr Ducket’s Skim Plough—Leading Article of Agricultural Intelligence,
wherein a concife ftatement concerning the Crop of this year is given
Scotifh Intelligence—Account of Wheat fold in Haddington Market frona
2d Dec. 1803 to 26th OCt 1804—Englifh lutelligence—Liverpool Me¬
teorology.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME SIXTH.
No.. XXL Monday, Wth February 1805.
On the Selection of Grain for Seed—Obfervations on the Working of
Oxen ; by Lord Somerville; with Anfwers to Queries on that Subjea—
Comparative Expenfe of Farm Labour in the Difirict of Ealt Lothian in
5790 and 1804, ae reported to the Cora Committee of the Houfe of
Commons-—
xn
FARMER’S MAGAZINE,
Commons—On ' he Analyfis of Limeftone ; by Mr James Headrick—
The Qiieftion confidered, Whether Magnefian Limeftone is prejudicial to
Vegetation Account of a Pump without a Pifton, invented about thirty
years ago by George Jardine, blackfmith in Glafgow—On the Injury done
to Potatoes by Worms—Letter from Sir G. S. Mackenzie on the Ana¬
lyfis of Limeftone, and on the Value of Labour'—Further confiderations
on the Value of Labour in the Highlands, with Remarks on Sir G. S.
Mackenzie’s Letters on that Subjedl—Remarks on the Roxburghfhire Feed-
ing i>yre, defcribedu’n No. 19.—Queries concerning the be# mode of re¬
claiming Mountain Land—Anfwer to the Letter extra&ed from the Tyne
Mercury, relative to the Bamborough Breed of Sheep—Account of the
Chintfe mode of making Capons—On the Cultivation of the Jerufalem
Artichoke' -Animadverfions on the Propofal for ere&ing Farming Schools
On Stopping 1 hraftiing Machines which are drawn by Horfes from low
Jiarts On fowing Parfley as a Green Crop for Horfes—Queries on different
Subje&s in Hufbandry—An improved Rotation of Crops on the Rich
Soils of Eaft Lothian recommended—Method of making Potatoe Bread
in the Highlands—On the prefent State of Farming in Eaft Lothian, com¬
pared to what it was in former times, with fome Remarks on the fmall
return from Capital Stock invefted in Agriculture—On the Benefit of Roll¬
ing, when Turnips are attacked by the Black Caterpillar—Account of a
Machine whereby Wheat Land may be Harrowed in Wet Weather, with
a Plate and Defcription Query concerning a Machine for Hummelling
Barley—Review of Cumberland Agricultural Survey—Review of Weft-
rnoreland Agricultural Survey—Review of Loudon’s Obfervations on
Planting, &c.—Review of Lord Somerville’s Publication on Sheep, Wool,
Ploughs and Oxen—Leading Article of Agricultural Intelligence, in which
the Glafgow Reiolutions againft the Corn Laws are examined—Scotilh
Agricultural Intelligence—Englifh ditto—Liverpool Mcteoroloay—The
Publifhers* Addrefs to their Readers,,
No. XXII. Monday, c20th May 1805,
On the Conftnnftion of a Farm-Yard, where Turnip Hufbandry is prac-
tifed, with a Plate—Remarks on the Comparative Trial made at Edger-
ftone in Feeding Sheep—The Impolicy of Stenting or Afleffing for fupr
port of the Poor demonftrated—On the Utility and Neceffity of Summer
Fallow, with Direcflions for executing the different Operations, and a Note
thereupon by the Condudor—Letter from Hon. Baron Hepburn, with
an outline View of the Corn Laws, their caufes and efteds—Sketch of Tur¬
nip Hufbandry, in a Letter from a Berwickfiiire gentleman to hip friend in
England Thoughts concerning the utility of Ploughing Matches, with fome
Remarks on the condud of the Highland Society in confining premiums
to thofe diftrids where good ploughing is already pradifed ; with Note by
Condudor-On the Culture of Sainfoin—On the propriety of cutting
Mildewed Wheat early—Account of a Prolific Ewe—Reply, Sir G. S.
Mackenzie to Mr Headrick—On the power of Horfes in drawing a
JJiraihing Machine, when yoked in different ways—Thoughts on the u-
ini'y of a general Law for regulating Drainage in Scotland—On the Be-
Refit
FARMER’S MAGAZINE.
3UU
neSt of mixing Turnip Seed with Sulphur, fo as the ravages of the Fly
may be prevented—Premiums offered by the Salton Farmers’ Club, to en¬
courage Order and Cleanlinefs in the Villages within their Diftridl—Ac¬
count of a Plough lately invented for water-furrowing Land in a complete
manner—Obfervations on different Branches of Machinery, &c. by Mr
Farey junior—General Remarks on the Corn Laws, and on the propriety
of the alterations made upon them in the laft Seflion of Parliament; with
Note by the Conductor—Account of the Management of a Grazing Faim
in Romney Marfh—Account of Mr Shirreff’s Ofier Plantations at Cap-
tainhead in Eaft Lothian—Defcription of the Chinefe Plough, with a Fi¬
gure—On the Right which the outgoing Tenant has to Farm-yard Dung
made in the lafl year of the Leafe, with Note by Condu&or—Query con¬
cerning a Paffage in the Earl of Hadinton’s Treatife on Foreft Trees—
Account of the quantity of Grain deponed to in afcertaiuing the liars of-
Eaft Lothian for Crop 1804, with the prices at which it was fold—Re¬
view of Sir J. Banks’s pamphlet on the difeafes of Wheat—Review
of Nicol’s Pra&ical Planter—Review of Pamphlets on the Property Tax,
as it affe&s the Occupiers of Land—Obfervations on the Review of Mr
Loudon’s Publication on Planting, &c.—Leading Article of Intelligence
 Scotifh ditto—Iriih ditto—Englifh ditto—Obituary : Short Account of
Robert Kennedy Efq. younger of Underwood ; with Elegy to his me¬
mory.
No.'XXIII. Monday, IZth August 1805.
Thoughts on the Equalization of Weights and Meafures—Letter II.
On the Management of Turnips—On the faving of Turnips from the Ca¬
terpillar—Remarks on the Huibandry of Ayrftiire, with fome Suggeftions
for its Improvement—On the Value of Land in different Diltrifts—
Thoughts on Various Subjects of Rural Economy—Letter accompanying
Extra&s from Fourcroy on Vegetation—Letter from the late Lord Daer to
Sir J. Sinclair, concerning the Fine-wooled Sheep of the Spaniih Breed—
Subftance of a Converfation betwixt Lord Daer and M. Brouffonet, at
Paris, June 4th, 1791, refpefting Spaniih Wool and Sheep—Rules and
Regulations of the Moray (hire Farmer’s Fund for the Benefit of Widows,
Orphans, and decayed Members—On the Analyiis of Limeftone, by Mr
Headrick—Anfwer by A. S. to the Obfervations of Sir G. S. Mac¬
kenzie—On Cement of Lime—On Modern Improvements in Agriculture,
as they affeft the Price of Grain—On the Benefit of ullng Call Metal for
Hinges of Gates—Account of Mofs Improvements of John Wilkinfoa
Efq. of Caftlehead, Lancailiire ; communicated by Sir J. Sinclair—On
the Improvement of Mofs Land in the liland of Collonfay, one of the
Hebrides—Effay on Storing Turnips for Winter and Spring Coofumption,
being the one to which the Premium offered by Sir G. S. Mackenzie was
adjudged—Curfory Thoughts concerning the Management of the great
Poft Road running through Eaft Lothian—On the Turnip Caterpillar—-
Remarks and Obfervations on Smearing of Sheep—Mr Condon’s Reply to
the Stri&ures of Muratore—Suggeftions refpefting Fuel in the Highlands
—Leading Article of Agricultural Intelligence—-Scotifh Intelligence—
Englifh ditto.
FARMER’S MAGAZINE.
xlv
N~o. XXIV. Monday■> 1 \th November 1805.
Letter from Secretaiy of Eddleftone Club*—Elfay on the Endurance of
Leafes, and the Security afforded by Law to Tenants under that Tenure—
Remarks on Accounts given of the Eikmount and Roxburghlhire Feeding
Byre—Premiums offered by Duke of Bedford for 1806—Effay on Stor¬
ing Turnips—On the Influence of Soils, and their Amelioration of Vege¬
tation—On the Benefit which Farmers would derive from the Study of
Botany —Queries concerning the Curing of Braun, with Anfwers thereto
by a Gentleman in Kent—The Utility of granting Bounties on the Ex¬
portation of Corn demonftrated—Curfory Thoughts on Corn Laws, and
the Encouragement that ought to be given, fo as Corn might become plen¬
tiful—On the Utility of Ploughing Matches—Recipe for making Salve to
Cure the Foot-Rot in Sheep—Query concerning the beft way of Feeding
Cattle on Turnips—On the Working of Thraffting Machines—On the
Advantages which follow the Enclofing of Land—Hints concerning the
Formation of Water Meadows—On the Seleftion of Grain for Seed, and
the Advantages which would arife from having a Farm, or Farms, fet apart
for railing new Varieties—Effay upon the too great Extent of Paper Cir¬
culation in G. Britain, particularly in Scotland—Account of the Wood
Plantations at New Abbey, in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright—On the
Nature, Improvement, and Qualities of different Soils proper for rearing
Sheep, Letter III.—A£t palled laft Seffion of Parliament to Regulate the
Importation ahd Exportation of Corn—Statement of Particulars refpefting
Cattle fed on Clover and Tares at Markle, Eaft-Lothian, 1805—A falu-
tary Invention for blafting Rocks with Gun-Powder—On Threading; or
Reaping Corn by piece-work—Review of Minutes in Agriculture and
Planting—Review of Lord Selkirk on Highland Emigration—Leading
Article of Agricultural Intelligence—Scotifh Ditto—Account of Wheat
fold in Haddington Market, from November 2d 1804, to O&ober 25th
1805—Englilh Intelligence—Obituary : Death of Mr Mackie.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME SEVENTH.
No. XXV. Monday, 10/7; February 1806.
Account of Improvements by late Earl of Findlater ; Communicated by
Sir J. Sinclair—Plan and Profile of a Plough that will turn the Furrow
to either Side, intended for the Sides of Steep Hills ; Communicated by
Mr Andrew Gray—Remarks on the Agriculture of Ayrflure—A Contrail
between the Life of a Country Gentleman and of a Town Rake—Second
Effay upon the Endurance of Leafes, prefented to the Eddleftone Farmer’s
Club—Sir G. S. Mackenzie’s Reply to the Stri&ures of Mr Headrick and
A. S.—Letter from Mr Low, Annfield, on the Analyfis of Limeftone—
Curfory Confiderations on the High Rate of Modern Rents, with Inquiries
how fuch are to be paid—On Flax Huibandry of Ireland-.On Manufac¬
ture of Dunlop Cheefe—Letter on Mofs Hufoandry, from Mr M‘Neil 
Queries on different Branches of Hufbandry, with Anfwers thereto De¬
bate in the Eddleftone Club—Hints by a Banffshire Ploughman On the
Influence
FARMER’S MAGAZINE.
xv
Influence of Manures on Vegetation extrafted and abridged from the
Writings of Fourcroy—On different Modes of increafmg Manure—On
Management of Roads in Eaft-Lothian—On Ufe of the Syphon—Effay
on the Culture of Wheat, to which the Premium offered by the Publish¬
ers is adjudged—Botanical Key to Letters of S. L. on Soils proper for
Rearing Sheep—On the difference betwixt Englifh and Scotch Corn Mea-
fures—Review of Bell on Leafes—Review' of Aiton on the Origin, Qua¬
lities, and Cultivation of Mofs-Earth—Leading Article of Intelligence—
Scottifh Ditto—Englifh Ditto.
No. XXVI. Monday, IZth May 1806.
Experiments in- the Culture of Potatoes ; Communicated by the Rev.
Mr Campbell, Kilcalmonell—Strictures on Mr Headrick’s Letter con¬
cerning Magnefian Limeftone—On the Utility of Diffufmg Agricultural
Knowledge, with Remarks on Farm Management—Obfervations on the
former and prefent State of Hufbandry in Forfarfhire—On an Experimen'oal
Farm for the Selection and Propagation of the beft kinds of Seed—On
Smearing Sheep—The Management of Live Stock on Arable Farms con-
fidered—Hints w'ith refpeCt to Milch Cow's—Anfwers to Strictures of the
Country Gentleman on Paper Circulation—Effay upon the Queftion, To
what extent does the Scotch Law communicate a property in his Leafe to
the Tenant, &c.—AbftraCt of Proceedings in the Cafe of a Clergyman
againft his heritors for repairs—On the Valuation of Parfonage Teinds—
Obfervations on a Paffage in the Statiftical Account of Renfrew—Addi¬
tional Obfervations on the Syphon—Account of the Quantity and Price
of Grain deponed to before the Sheriff of Haddington, in the Procefs for
afcertaining the Fiars of that County, Crop and Year 1805—Experiment
too prevent Ruta Baga from fhooting—On Farm Houfes in Rofsfhire—
Literary Intelligence—Effays on the improvement of Highland Hufbandry,
to the Authors of w'hich the Premium offered by Sir George Mackenzie
was awarded ; with Remarks by the ConduCior—Recipes for making
Butter, &c.—Obfervations on Storing Turnips—Review of Pamphlets on
Highland Emigration—Leading Article of Agricultural Intelligence—Scet-
tifh Ditto—Irifh Ditto—Englifh Ditto.
No. XXVII. Monday, 11 th August 1806.
Defcription of a Reaping Machine to be wrought by one Horfe, invented
by Mr Gladftones, Millwright in Caftle-Douglas ; with a Plate—Effay dn
Premiums, wherein the proper fubjeCIs for fuch fupport are pointed out,
with Remarks by Condu&or—Experiments on Cheviot Sheep—On the
Navel 111 in Calves ; by Mr Sitwell-—Letter from Sir G. S. Mackenzie on
the Improvement of the Highlands—On Wheel Carriages—Obfervations
on Manures—Fourcroy on Vegetation ; On the Influence of Light—On
Ploughing Matches—Confiderations on the prefent High Rate of Rents—
On the Prices of Provifions and Labour—The Queflion confidered, Whe¬
ther can the Highlands of Scotland be bell improved by the refident In¬
habitants, or by Farmers brought from other diflricfs — On changing Seed
Corn—Magnefia not hurtful to Vegetation—Importance of Barley or Bear
xvi
FARMER’S MAGAZINE.
in Scotland—Reply to Jog-Trot on the extended Circulation of Paper
Currency^—Explanatory Letter from Rev. Mr Campbell—Remarks on part
®f Mr Campbell’s Effay on Potatoe Hufbandry —On the Expediency of
AfTefTments for the Poor of Scotland, and the Impolicy of all direft. Taxa¬
tion on the Lower Claffes—Account of Holkham Sheep-Shearing—Re¬
view of Eaft-Lothian Survey—Review of Norfolk Survey—Leading Ar¬
ticle of Intelligence—State of Weather and Crops—Law Report cm the
Hiring of Servants—On Lord Grenville’s Refolutions for Reforming the
Scotch Legal Syftem—Whether there is a Common Law, by which Te¬
nants are fubje&ed to repair Fences—On the Duke of Athol’s Election—
Scotch Intelligence—Englifh Ditto.
No. XXVIII. Monday10/7/ November 1806.
On the Figure in which Trees flibuld be difpofed in Plantations ; with a
Plate—Evil Tendency of afcertaining the Rent of Farms by the higheft
offer—Anfwer to the Letter of A. S. on Sheep-Smearing—On the En¬
durance of Leafes—Fourcroy on the Influence of Water on Vegetation ;
withPoflfcriptby theTranflator—Inftance of preferving a Tree nearly barked
—Propofals for Inftituting Evening Schools for the Inflruftion of Farm
Servants—On the Comparative Value of Land in the Counties of Wigtoun
and Haddington—On Free Martins—Ufes of Black Currants difplayed ;
with Recipe for making Black Currant Wine—Qn the Forming and Re¬
pairing of Roads—Report on Queftion, Whether difcretionary Manage¬
ment can be exercifed by Farmers not tied down by Covenants or Regula¬
tions—On Highland Hufbandry, in Reply to Senex—Reply to Heritor’s
Account of Proceedings in the cafe of Culfamond—Curiory Remarks on
Baron Hepburn’s Outline View of the Corn Laws—Letter from Fifefhire
Ploughman—On the Difeafes of Calves, &c.—Obfervations on Potatoes
and Turnips—On Britifh Grafl'es moft fuitable for common Culture—Re¬
cipe for the Foot-Rot in Sheep—Review of Bell’s Treatife on Leaks, ex¬
plaining the Nature and Effeft of the Contract of Leafe, and the legal
Rights enjoyed by the Parties—Legal Polity of Scotland as it affeifts Oc¬
cupiers of Land—Leading Article of Agricultural Intelligence—Scotifh
Intelligence—Account of Wheat fold in Haddington Market, from r.
Nov. 1805, to 24. Oft. 1806 ; with weekly, monthly, and annual average
Prices thereof.—Englifli Intelligence—Account of G. Culley efq.’s Sale
©f Sheep—On the High Price of Seed-Wheat in the London Market-
Obituary ; Death of William Forbes Leith, Efq.
*3° No. XXIX., being the first Number ofi Volume VIII., mil be
published on Monday, 9th -February 1807.
/>. IV'diison, printer, Edinburgh.
Fart L
Buildings.
GAUD
f Planting
end Gar¬
dening,
p. 598.
antique and ruflie air of its Doric columns without
bafes} by the chaftity of its little ornaments, a crook,
a pipe, and a fcrip, and thofe only over the doors •, and
by the limplicity of the whole both within and without;
it is adapted with fo much propriety to the thickets
which conceal it from the view, that no one can wilh
it to be brought forward, who is fenlible to the charms
of the Arcadian fcene which this building alone has
created. On the other hand, a very fpacious field, or
fheep walk, will not be difgraced by a farm houfe, a
cottage, or a Dutch barn ; nor will they, though fmall
and familiar, appear to be inconfiderable or infignifi-
cant objects. Numberlefs other inftances might be ad¬
duced to prove the impoffibility of reftraining particu¬
lar buildings to particular fituations, upon any general
principles : the variety in their forms is hardly greater
than in their application. Only let not their ufes be
dilguiled, as is often abfurdly attempted with the hum¬
bler kinds. “ A barn | drefled up in the habit of a
country church, or a farm houfe figuring away in the
fiercenefs of a caftle, are ridiculous deceptions. A
landfcape daubed upon a board, and a wooden fteeple
lluck up in a wood, are beneath contempt.”
Temples, thofe favourite and moll: coftly objects in
gardens, too generally merit cenfure for their inutility,
their profufion, or the impropriety of their purpofe.
“ Whether they be dedicated to Bacchus, Venus, Pria-
pus, or any other demon of debauchery, they are in
this age, enlightened with regard to theological and
fcientific knowdedge, equally abfurd. Architefture,
in this part of its fphere, may more nobly, and with
greater beauty and efl'edl, be exercifed upon a chapel,
a maufoleum, a monument, judicioufiy difpofed among
599. the natural ornaments. The late Sir William Har-
bord has given us a model, of the firft kind, at Gun-
ton, in Norfolk ; the parith church Handing in his
park, and being an old unfightly building, he had
it taken down, and a beautiful temple, under the di-
reftion of the Adams erefted upon its iite for the fame
facred purpofe :—The maufoleum at Caftle-Howard,
in Yorkfhire, the feat of the earl of Carlifle, is a noble
ftrufture :—And as an inftance of the laft fort, may be
mentioned the Temple of Concord and Viftory at
Stowe, erected to the memory of the great Lord Cha¬
tham and his glorious war; a beautiful monumental
building, fuited to the greatnefs of the occafion.”
To the great variety above mentioned mull be added,
Mr Wheatley obferves, the many changes which may
be made by the means of ruins. They are a clafs by
themfelves, beautiful as objefts, expreffive as characters,
and peculiarly calculated to conneCt with appendages
into elegant groups, They may be accommodated
with eafe to irregularity of ground, and their diforder
is improved by it. They may be intimately blended
with trees and thickets ; and the interruption is an ad-
OlfermatiQM vantage : for imperfeCtion and oftfcurity are their pro-
Modem perties, and to carry the imagination to fomething
Gardening, greater than is feen, is their effeCL They may for any
of thefe purpofes be feparated into detached pieces ;
contiguity is not necefiary, nor even the appearance
* °f it, ii the relation be preferved ; but draggling ruins
have a bad effect, when the feveral parts are equally
confiderable. There fliould be one large mafs to raife
an idea of greatnefs, to attract the others about it, and
to be a common centre of union to all: the fmaller
Vol. IX. Part II,
E N I N G, 401
pieces then mark the original dlmenlkms of one exten- Buildings,
five firudture j and no longer appear to be the remains
of feveral little buildings.
All remains excite an inquiry into the former ftate
of the edifice, and fix the mind in a contemplation of
the ufe it was applied to ; befides the characters ex-
preffed by their Ityle and pofition, they fuggelt ideas
which would not arife from the buildings if entire..
The purpofes of many have ceafed : an abbey, or a
caftle, if complete, can now be no more than a dwell¬
ing •, the memory of the times, and of the manners
to which they are adapted, is preferved only in hifto-
ry, and in ruins 5 and certain fenfations of regret, of
veneration, or compaflion, attend the recolleftion.
Nor are thefe confined to the remains of buildings
which are in difufe 3 thofe of an old manfion raife
reflections on the domellic comforts once enjoyed, and
the ancient hofpitality which reigned there. What¬
ever building wre fee in decay, we naturally contrail
its prefent with its former ftate, and delight to ruminate
on the companion. It is true that fuch effeCts pro¬
perly belong to real ruins 3 they are however pro¬
duced in a certain degree by thofe which are fictitious :
the impreflions are not fo ftrong, but they are exaCtly
fimilar 3 and the reprefentation, though it does not
prefent faCts to the memory, yet fuggefts fubjeCts to
the imagination. But, in order to affeCt the fancy,
the fuppofed original defign fliould be clear, the ufe
obvious, and the form eafy to be traced : no frag¬
ments Ihould be hazarded without precife meaning,
and an evident connexion 3 none Ihould be perplexed
in their conftrudftion, or uncertain as to their applica¬
tion. ConjeClures about the form raile doubts about
the exiftence of the ancient ftrufture : the mind muft
not be allowed to hefitate 3 it muft be hurried away
from examining into the reality by the exaClneis and
the Lrce of the refemblance.
In the ruins of 1 intern abbey § the original con- J Betwen
ftruftion of the church is perfeCUy marked ; and it is Chepftow
principally from this circumftance that they are cele- ^0du[^°n
brated as a fubjeft of curiofity and contemplation. U
The walls are almoft entire^, the roof only is fallen in,
but moft of the columns which divided the aides are
ftill Handing : of thofe which have dropped down, the
bafes remain, every one exa£Uy in its place 3 and in the
middle of the nave four lofty arches, which once flip-
ported the fteeple, rife high in the air above all the
reft, each reduced now to a narrow rim of Hone, but
completely preferving its form. The ftiapes even of
the windows are little altered : but fome of them are
quite obfcured, others partially {haded, by tufts of
ivy 3 and thofe which are mold clear are edged with
its flender tendrils, and lighter foliage, wreathing
about the fides and the divifions : it winds round the
pillars 3 it clings to the walls 3 and in one of the aifles
clufters at the top in branches, fo thick and fo large as
to darken the fpace below. The other aifles, and the
great nave, are expofed to the Iky 3 the floor is entire¬
ly overfpread with turf 3 and -to keep it clear from
weeds and bullies, is now its higheft prefervation.
Monkilh tomb ftones and the monuments of bene-
faflors long fince forgotten, appear above-the green
Award 3 the bafes of the pillars which have fallen,
rife out of it 3 and maimed effigies, and fculpture
worn with age and weather, Gothic capitals, carved
3 E cornices,
GARDE
cornices, and various fragments, are fcattered about,
or lie in heaps piled up together. Other lhattered
pieces, though disjointed and mouldering, ftm oc¬
cupy their original places ; and a itaircafe much im¬
paired, which led to a tower now no more, is iu-
fpended at a great height, uncovered and macceflible :
nothing is perfeft; but memorials of every part ltd 1
fubfift •, all certain, but all in decay 5 and fuggefting
at once every idea which can occur m a feat of devo¬
tion, folitude, and defolation. Upon fuch models
fictitious ruins Ihould be formed : and if any parts are
entirely loft, they ftiould be fuch as the imagination
can eafily fupply from thofe which are ftill remain¬
ing. Diftindl traces of the building which is fuppof-
ed°to have exrfted, are lefs liable to the fufpicion of
artifice, than an unmeaning heap of confufion. Pre-
cifion is always fatisfaftory, but in the reality it is
only agreeable j in the copy it is effential to the imi¬
tation. . .
A material circumflance to the truth of the imita¬
tion is, that the ruins appear to be very old. I he idea
is belides interefting in itfelf: a monument of antiquity
is never feen with indifterence •, and a femblanceof age
may be given to the repreientation by the hue of the
materials, the growth of ivy and other plants, and
cracks and fragments feemingly occafioned rather by
decay than by deftru&ion. An appendage evidently
more modern than the principal ftrudlure will fome-
times corroborate the effeCf : the Ihed of a cottager
amidft the remains of a temple, is a contrail both to
the former and to the prefent Hate of the building *,
and a tree flour!fifing among ruins, (how's the length of
time they have lain negleCled. No circumftance fo for¬
cibly marks the defolation of a fpot once inhabited, as
the prevalence of nature over it :
Campos ubi Troja fuit,
is a fentence which conveys a flronger idea of a city
totally overthrowm, than a defcription of its remains}
but in a reprefentation to the eye, fome remains mult
appear •, and then the perverfion of them to an ordi¬
nary ufe, or an intermixture of a vigorous vegetation,
intimates a fettled defpair of their reitoration.
Sect. II. Principles of Selection and Arrangement in
the SubjePs of Gardening.
KING. Part I.
on every occafion, to endeavour to avoid labour j or, Pifturefque
if indifpenfably neceffary, to conceal it. No trace
fhould be left to lead back the mind to the expenfive j". .1lj
toil. A mound railed, a mountain levelled, or a ufe-
lefs temple built, convey to the mind feelings equally
difgufting.
13
II. PICTURESQUE BEAUTY. Though the Of Scenery,
aids of art are as effential to gardening, as education lhld'
is to manners j yet art may do too much : fhe ought
to be confidered as the handmaid, not as the miilrefs,
of nature ; and whether fhe be employed in carving a
tree into the figure of an animal, or in lhaping a view
into the form of a picture, Ihe is equally culpable.
The nature of the place is facred. Should this tend
to landfcape, from lome principal point of view, aflill
nature and perfedl it 5 provided this can be done with¬
out injuring the views from other points. But do not
disfigure the natural features of the place :—do not fa-
crifice its native beauties, to the arbitrary laws of land¬
fcape painting.
Great Nature fcorns controul} Ihe will not bear
One beauty foreign to the fpot or foil
She gives thee to adorn : ’Tis thine alone
To mend, not change, her features. Mason.
Nature fcarcely knows the thing mankind call & land¬
fcape. The landfcape painter feldom, if ever, finds it
perfefled to his hands ; fome addition or alteration
is almofl always wmnted. Every man who has made
his obfervations upon natural fcenery, knows that the
mifletoe of the oak occurs almofl; as often as a perfeft
natural landfcape ; and to attempt to make up artifi¬
cial landfcape upon every occafion is unnatural and ab-
furd.
If, indeed, the eye wTere fixed in one point, the
trees could be raifed to their full height at command,
and the fun be made to Hand ftill, the rural artift
might work by the rules of light and fhade, and corn-
pole his landfcape by the painter’s law. But, whilft
the fun continues to pour forth its light impartially,
and the trees to rife with flow-progreflion, it would be
ridiculous to attempt it. Let him rather feek out, imi¬
tate, and affociate, fuch ftriking paffages in nature as
are immediately applicable to the place to be improv¬
ed, with regard to rules of landfcape, merely human j
—and let him,
I. Of ART. In the lower claffes of rural improve-
and’c'ar- ments, art (hould be feen as little as may be j and in the
jening, more negligent fcenes of nature, every thing ought to
p. 602. appear as if it had been done by the general law's of
nature, or had grown out of a feries of fortuitous cir-
cumftances. But in the higher departments, art can¬
not be hid ; and the appearance of defign ought not to
be excluded. A human produdtion cannot be made
perfeclly natural \ and held out as fuch it becomes an
impofition. Our art lies in endeavouring to adapt the
productions of nature to human tafte and perceptions j
and if much art be ufed, do not attempt to hide it. Art
feldom fails to pleafe w’hen executed in a mafterly man¬
ner : nay, it is frequently the defign and execution,
more than the production itfelf, that ftrikes us. It is
the artifice, not the defign, which ought to be avoid¬
ed. It is the labour and not the art which ought to
be concealed. The rural artift ought, therefore, up-
-  in this and all
Be various, wild, and free, as Nature’s felf. Mason.
Inftead of facrificing the natural beauties of the place
to one formal landfcape, let every ftep difclofe frelh
charms unfought for.
III. Of CHARACTER. Charader is very recon¬
cilable with beauty \ and, even when independent of
it, has attracted fo much regard, as to occafion feve- WheatUys
ral frivolous attempts to produce it : ftatues, inferip- Obferva-
tions, and even paintings, hiftory and mythology, andtlQM'
a variety of devices, have been introduced for this
purpofe. The heathen deities and heroes have there-
fore had their feveral places afligned to them in the Of emble-
woods and lawns of a garden 5 natural cafcades have "l311™1 .
been disfigured with river gods, and columns ereCted on-c iai a<‘ er?>
ly to receive quotations j the compartments of a fum-
mer
1S
Of imita¬
tive cha-
radlers.
Part I. CARD
Charaaer.mer We liave been filled with p^Ures of gambols and
v 1 revels, as fignifieant of gaiety; the cyprefs, becaule
it was once ufed in funerals, has been thought pecu¬
liarly adapted to melancholy ; and the decorations, the
furniture, and the environs of a building, have been
crowded with puerilities under pretence of propnety.
All thefe devices are rather emblematical than expreihve.
they may be ingenious contrivances, and recal abient
ideas to the recolleftion ; but thdy make no immediate
impreflion : for they muft be examined, compared,
perhaps explained, before the whole defign of them is
well underftood. And though an allufion to a favourite
or well known fubjeft of hiftory, of poetry, or ot tra¬
dition, may now and then animate or dignify a icene ;
yet as the fubjeft does not naturally belong to a gar¬
den, the allufion ftiould not be principal : it fhould
feem to have been fuggefted by the fcene; a tianfitory
image, which irrefiftibly occurred ; not fought for, not
laboured ; and have the force of a metaphor, free from
the detail of an allegory. .
Another fpecies of character arifes from direct imi¬
tation ; when a fcene or an objeft, which has been ce¬
lebrated in defcription, or is familiar in idea, is repre-
fented in a garden. Artificial ruins, lakes, and rivers,
fall under this denomination. The air of a feat extend¬
ed to a diftance, and fcenes calculated to raife ideas of
Arcadian elegance or of rural fimplicity, with many
more which have been occafionally mentioned, or will
obvioufly occur, may be ranked in this clafs. They
are all reprefentations. But the materials, the dimen-
lions, and other circumftances, being the. fame in the
copy and the original, their effefts are fimilar in both :
and if not equally ftrong, the defedl is not in the re-
femblance ; but the confcioufnefs of an imitation
checks that train of thought which the appearance na-
turally fuggcfts. Yet an over-anxious folicitude to dif-
guife the fallacy is often the means of expofing ittoo
many points of likenefs fometimes hurt the deception ;
they feem ftudied and forced ; and the affeftation of
refemblance deftroys the fuppofition of a reality. A
hermitage is the habitation of a reclufe ; it fhould be
diftinguifhed by its folitude, and its fimplicity : but
if it is filled with crucifixes, hour glaffes, beads, and
every other trinket which can be thought of, the
attention is diverted from enjoying the retreat to ex¬
amining the particulars : all the collateral circumflan-
ces which agree with a chara&er feldom meet in one
fubjeft ; and when they are induftrioufly brought to¬
gether, though each be natural, the colleftion is ar-
, tificial.
Of original ®ut ^ art gardening afpires to more than imita-
charadteis. tion : it can create original charafters, and give expref-
fions to the feveral fcenes fuperior to any they can re¬
ceive from allufions. Certain properties, and certain
difpofitions, of the objefts of nature, are adapted to ex¬
cite particular ideas and fenfations : many of them have
been occafionally mentioned, and all are very well
known. They require no difeernment, examination, or
difeuffion ; but are obvious at a glance, and inflantane-
oufly diftinguifhed by our feelings. Beauty alone is not
io engaging as this fpecies of charafter : the impreffions
it makes are more tranfient and lefs intereiling ; for it
aims only at delighting the eye, but the other affedts
our fenfibility. An affemblage of the moft elegant
forms in the happieft fituations is to a degree indiferimi-
E N I N G.
nate, if they have not been felecled and arranged with
a defign to produce certain expreflions ; an air of mag¬
nificence, or of fimplicity, of cneerfulnefs, tranquillity,
or fome other general character, ought to pervade the
whole; and objefts pleafing in themfelves, if they con¬
tradict that charadter, fhould therefore be excluded .
thofe which are only indifferent muft fometimes make
room for fuch as are more fignificant; many will oittn
be introduced for no other merit than their expreuion ;
and fome, which are in general rather diiagreeable, may
occafionally be recommended by it. Barrenneis ittelt
may be an acceptable circumftance in a fpot dedicated
to folitude and melancholy. . ,
The power of fuch charadters is not confined to the
ideas which the objedts immediately fuggeft ; for thefe
conneded with others, which infenfibly lead to
405
General
Arrange¬
ment.
are — —-  7 . . - ,
fubjefts far diftant perhaps from the original thought,
and related to it only by a fimilitude in the fenfations
they excite. In a profpea enriched and enlivened with
inhabitants and cultivation, the attention is caught at
firft by the circumftances which are gay eft in their fea-
fon, the bloom of an orchard, the feftivity of a hay
field, and the carols of harveft home ; but the cheerful-
nefs which thefe infufe into the mind, expands afterwards
to other objefts than thofe immediately prefented to the
eye ; and we are thereby difpofed to receive, and de¬
lighted to purfue, a variety of pleafing ideas, and every
benevolent feeling. At the fight of a ruin, refleftions
on the change, the decay, and the defolation before us,
naturally occur; and they introduce a long fucceffion
of others all tinflured with that melancholy which thefe
have infpired; or if the monument revive the memory
of former times, we do not flop at the fimple fa£l which
it records, but recolleft many more coeval circumftan¬
ces, which we fee$ not perhaps as they were, but as they
are come down to us, venerable with age, and magni¬
fied by fame. Even without the affiftance of buildings
or other adventitious circumftances, nature alone fur-
nifties materials for fcenes which may be adapted to al-
moft every kind of expreflion : their operation is. gene¬
ral, and their confequences are infinite : the mind is
elevated, depreffed, or compofed, as gaiety, gloom, or
tranquillity, prevails in the fcene ; and we foon lofe
fight of the means by which the character is formed ;
we forget the particular objects it p.refents; and giving
way to their effefts, without recurring to the caufe, we
follow the track they have begun, to any extent which
the difpofition they accord with will allow. It fuffices
that the fcenes of nature have a power to affeft our ima¬
gination and our fenfibility; for fuch is the conftitution
of the human mind, that if once it is agitated, the
emotion fpreads far beyond the occafion:. when the
paflions are roufed, their courfe is unreftrained ; when
the fancy is on the wing, its flight is unoounded ; and,
quitting the inanimate objects which firft gave them
their fpring, w7e may be led by thought above
thought, widely differing in degree, but. ftill corre-
fponding in charafter, till we rife from familiar fub-
jects up to the fublimeft conceptions, and are wrapt in
the contemplation of whatever is great or beautiful,
which we fee in nature, feel in man, or attribute to di¬
vinity.
IV. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT. Notwith-
ftanding the nature of the place, as already obferved,
3 E 2 ought
4°4
Hunting-
Box.
fragt.
Treat, on
Planting
and Gar¬
dening,
Ibid,
p. 6c6.
GARDE
ought not to be facrificed to the manlion;—the houfe
muft ever be allowed to be a principal in the compoii-
tion. It ought to be conlidered as the centre of the
fyftem j and the rays of art, like thofe of the fun,
Ihould grow fainter as they recede from the centre.
The houfe itfelf being entirely a work of art, its imme¬
diate environs ihould be highly finiihed ; but as the di-
ftance increafes, the appearance of defign fhould gra¬
dually diminiih, until nature and fortuitoufnefs have
full polleflion of the fcene.
In general, the approach Ihould be to the back front,
which, in fuitable fituations, ought to lie open to the
pafture grounds. On the lides more highly ornamented,
a well kept gravel walk may embrace the walls; to this
the fhaven lawn and fhrubbery fucceed : next, the
grounds clofely paftured 5 and laftly, the furrounding
country, which ought not to be conlidered as out of the
artill’s reach : for his art conlilf s not more in decorating
particular fpots, than in endeavouring to render the
whole face of nature delightful.
Another reafon for this mode of arrangement is, ob-
jedis immediately under the eye are feen more diftindt-
ly than thofe at a diftance, and ought to be fuch as are
plealing in the detail. The beauties of a flower can
be difcerned on a near view only; whilfl: at a diftance
a roughet of coppice wood, and the molt elegant ar¬
rangement of flowering Ihrubs, have the fame effedt.
The molt rational entertainment the human mind is
capable of receiving, is that of obferving the operations
of nature. The foliation of a leaf, the blowing of
N I N G. Part II.
flowers, and the maturation of fruit, are among theOrnament-
molt delightful fubjedts that a contemplative mind can etl Cottage,
be employed in. Thefe procefles of nature are flow ; v—'
and except the objedl fall fpontaneoufly under the eye
of the oblerver, the inconveniences of viliting it in a
remote part, fo far interfere with the more important
employments of life, as to blunt, if not deftroy, the
enjoyment. This is a ftrong argument in favour
of Ihrubs and flowers being planted under or near
our windows, efpecially thofe from whence they
may be viewed' during the hours of leifure and tran¬
quillity.
Further, the vegetable creation being fubjedt to the
animal, the ftirub may be cropt, or the flower trodden
down in its day of beauty. If therefore we wifli to
converfe with nature in private, intruders mull; be kept
off,—the ftirubbery be fevered from the ground ;—yet.
not in fuch a manner as to drive away the pafturing
flock from our fight. For this reafon, the fhaven lawn
ought not to be too extenfive, and the fence which in-
clofes it ihould be fuch as will not interrnpt the view :
but whether it be feen or unfeen, fufpedfed or unfufpedt-
ed, is a matter of no great import : its utility in pro-
tedfing the fhrubs and flowTers,—in keeping the horns
of the cattle from the window, and the feet of the fheep
from the gravel and broken ground,—in preferving
that neatnefs on the outfide, which ought to correfpond
with the finifhings and furniture within,—render it of
fufficient importance to become even a part of the orna¬
ment.
PART II. EXECUTION OF THE GENERAL SUBJECTS.
IMPROVEMENTS in general may be claffed un¬
der the following heads : The Hunting-Box, the Orna¬
mented Cottage, the Villa, and the Principal Rtjidence.
But before any ftep can be taken towards the execu¬
tion of the defign, be it large or fmall, a map or plan
of the place, exadtly as it lies in its unimproved ftate,
fhould be made 3 with a correfponding fketch, to mark
the intended improvements upon. Not a hovel nor a
twig fhould be touched, until the artift has ftudied ma¬
turely the natural abilities of the place, and has deci¬
dedly fixed in his mind, and finally fettled on his plan,
the propofed alterations : and even then, let him “ dare
with caution.”
::h ' , t
1. Of Improvements adapted to a Hunting-Box.
Here art has little to do. Hunting may be called
the amufement of nature 3 and the place appropriated
to it ought to be no farther altered from its natural ftate
than decency and conveniency require :—With men
who live in the prefent age of refinement, “ a want of
decency is a want of fenfe.”
Ibid. The ftyle throughout fhould be mafculine. If fhrubs
p. 610, &c. |je required, they fhould be of the hardier forts: the
box, the holly, the lauruftinus. The trees fhould be
the oak and the beech, wdnch give in autumn an agree¬
able variety of foliage, and anticipate as it were the
feafon of diverfion. A fuite of paddocks fhould be.
feen from the houfe 3 and if a view of dirtant covers
can be caught, the back-ground will be complete.
The ftable, the kennel, and the leaping-bar, are the
fadlitious accompaniments 3 in the conftrudlion of which
fimplicity, fubftantialnefs, and conveniency, fhould pre¬
vail.
2. Of the Styles of an Ornamented Cottage.
Neatnefs and fimplicity ought to mark the ftyle of
this rational retreat. Oftentation and fliow fhould be
cautioufly avoided 3 even elegance fhould not be at¬
tempted ; though it may not be hid, if it offer itfelf
fpontaneoufly.
Nothing, however, fhould appear vulgar, nor fhould
fimplicity be pared down to baldnefs 3 every thing
whimfical or expenfive ought to be ftudioufly avoid¬
ed 3—chaftenefs and frugality fhould appear in every
part.
Near the houfe a ftudied neatnefs may take place 3
but at a diftance, negligence fhould rather be the cha-
radleriftic.
If a tafte for botany lead to a colledlion of native
fhrubs and flowers, a fhrubbery will be requifite 3 but
in this every thing fhould be native. A gaudy exotic
ought not to be admitted 3 nor Ihould the lawn be kept
clofe fhaven 3 its flowers fhould be permitted to blow 3
and the herbage, wdieh mown, ought to be carried off,
and applied to fome ufeful purpofe.
In the artificial accompaniments, ornament muft be
fubordinate 3 utility muft prefide. The buildings, if any
appear, fhould be thofe in adtual ufe in rural economics.
If the hovel be wanted, let it appear 3 and, as a fide-
fcreen, the barn and rick-yard are admiflible j whilft
the
Part II. GARDENING. 405
Villa, the dove-houfe and poultry-yard may enter more freely
—v into the compofition.
In fine, the ornamented cottage ought to exhibit cul¬
tivated nature in the firil ftage of refinement. It ranks
next above the farm-houfe. The plain garb of rufticity
may be fet off to advantage •, but the ffudied drefs of
the artifl ought not to appear. That becoming neat-
nefs, and thofe domeftic conveniences, which render
the rural life agreeaole to a cultivated mind, are all
that fhould be aimed at.
3. Of the Embellijhments of a Villa.
This demands a ftyle very different from the preced¬
ing. It ought to be elegant, rich, or grand, accord¬
ing to the ityle of the houfe itfelf, and the ftate of the
furrounding country j the principal bufinefs of the artiff
being to conneft thefe two in fuch a manner, that the
one ihall not appear naked or flaring, nor the other de¬
folate and inhofpitable.
If the houfe be {lately, and the adjacent country rich
and highly cultivated, a flirubbery may intervene, in
which art may fliow her utmofl; {kill. Here the artifl:
may even be permitted to play at landfcape : for a place
of this kind being fuppofed to be fmall, the purpofe
principally ornamental, and the point of view probably
confined Amply to the houfe, fide-fcreens may be form¬
ed, and a fore-ground laid out fuitable to the bell dif-
tance that can be caught.
If buildings or other artificial ornaments abound in
the offscape, fo as to mark it llrongly, they ought alfo
to appear more or lefs in the fore-ground : if the dif-
tance abound with wood, the fore-ground (hould be
thickened, leff baldnefs ftiould offend ; if open and na¬
ked, elegance rather than richnefs ought to be iludied,
leff heavinefs fliould appear.
Ibid. It is far from being any part of our plan to cavil
unneceffarily at artifts, wffiether living or dead j we
cannot, however, refrain from exprefling a concern for
the almoft total negleft of the principles here in or¬
namenting the vicinages of villas. It is to be regret¬
ted, that in the prefent praftice thefe principles feem
to be generally loll fight of. Without any regard to
uniting the houfe with the adjacent country, and, in¬
deed, leemingly without any regard whatever to the
offscape, one invariable plan of embellifhment prevails j
namely, that of llripping the fore-ground entirely
naked, or nearly fo, and fur rounding it with a wavy
border of fhrubs and a gravel walk *, leaving the
area, whether large or final!, one naked lheet of green
fward.
In fmall confined fpots, this plan may be eligible.
But a Ample border round a large unbroken lawn only
ferves to {how what more is wanted. Simplicity in
general is pleafing; but even fimplicity may be carried
to an extreme, fo as to convey no other idea than that
of poverty and baldnefs. Befides, how often do we
fee in natural fcenery, the holly, and the fox-glove
flourilhing at the foot of an oak, and the primrofe and
the campion adding charms to the hawthorn fcattered
over the paftured lawn ? And we conceive that Angle
trees footed with evergreens and native flowers, and
clumps as well as borders of Ihrubs, are admiflible in or¬
namental as well as in natural fcenery.
The fpecies of fhrub will vary with the purpofe. If
the principal intention be a winter retreat, evergreens
and the early-blowing Ihrubs fliould predominate ; but Principal
in a place to be frequented in fummer and autumn, the Rcfidencc,,
deciduous tribes ought chiefly to be planted.
4. Of the Principal Residence.
Here the whole art centres. The artiff has here full
fcope for a difplay of tafte and genius. He has an ex¬
tent of country under his eye, and will endeavour to
make the moft of what nature and accident have fpread
before him.
Round a principal refldence, a gentleman may be fup¬
pofed to have fome conflderable effate, and it is not a
fhrubbery and a ground only which fall under the con-
Aderation of the artift : he ought to endeavour to dil-
clofe to the view, either from the houfe or lome other
point, as much as he conveniently can of the adjacent
effate. The love of poffeflion is deeply planted in every
man’s breaft ; and places {hould bow to the gratification
of their owners. To curtail the view by an artificial
fide-fcreen, or any other unnatural machinery, fo as to
deprive a man of the fatisfailion of overlooking his own
eftate, is an abfurdity which no artiff ought to be per¬
mitted to be guilty of. It is very different, however,
where the property of another intrudes upon the eye :
Here the view may, with fome colour of propriety, be
bounded by a woody fcreen.
The grounds, however, by a proper management,
may be made independent of whatever is external 5 and
though profpefts are nowhere more delightful than
from a point of view wThich is alfo a beautiful fpot, yet
if in the environs of fuch a garden they {hould be
wanting, the elegant, pidlurefque, and various fcenes
within itfelf, almoft lupply the deficiency.
“ This (fays Mr Wheatley) is the charadiler of the Mr Wheat-
gardens at Stowe : for there the views in the country left de-
are only circumftances fubordinate to the fcenes } an&fcript,°n °f
the principal advantage of the fituation is the variety ^ar"
of the ground within the inclofure. The houfe Hands
on the brow of a gentle afcent : part of the gardens lie
on the declivity, and fpread over the bottom beyond it:
this eminence is feparated by a broad winding valley
from another which is higher and ileeper j and the des¬
cents of both are broken by large dips and hollows,
Hoping down the fides of the hills. The whole fpace is
divided into a number of fcenes, each diftinguiflui with
tafte and fancy ; and the changes are fo frequent, lo hid¬
den, and complete, the tranfitions fo artfully conducted,
that the fame ideas are never continued or repeated to
fatiety.
Thefe gardens were begun when regularity was in fa-
flflon j and the original boundary is Hill preferved, on
account of its magnificence : for round the w’hole cir¬
cuit, of between three or four miles, is carried a very
broad gravel walk, planted with rows of trees, and open
either to the park or the country 5 a deep funk fence
attends it all the way, and comprehends a fpace of near
400 acres. But in the interior fcenes of the garden,
few traces of regularity appear.; where it yet remains
in the plantations, it is generally difguifed : every fymp-
tom, almoft, of formality, is obliterated from the ground;
and an odlagon bafon in the bottom is now converted
into an irregular piece of water, which receives on one
hand twro beautiful ftreams, and falls on the other down
a cafcade into a lake.
In the front of the houfe is a confiderable lawn, open
to
406
Principal
Refidence.
CARD
to the water : beyond which are two elegant Doric pa¬
vilions, placed in the boundary ol the gaiden, but not
marking it, though they correfpond to each other } tor
ftill further b^ck, on the brow of fome rifing grounds
without the inclofure, hands a noble Corinthian arch,
by which the principal approach is conducted, and from
which all the gardens are feen, reclining back againft
their hills ; they are rich with plantations ; full of ob-
jefts} and lying on both tides of the houfe almoft equal¬
ly, every part is within a moderate didance, notwith-
ftanding the extent of the whole.
On the right of the lawrn, but concealed from the
houfe, is a perfeft garden fcene, called the queen's
amphitheatre, where art is avowed, though formality
is avoided. Hhe fore-ground is fcooped into a gentle
hollow. The plantations on the fides, though but juft
refcued from regularity, yet in ftyle are contrafted to
each other : they are, on one hand, chiefly thickets,
Handing out from a wmod 5 on the other, they are
open groves, through which a glimpfe of the water is
vifible. At the end of the hollowr on a little knoll,
quite detached from all appendages, is placed an open
Ionic rotunda : beyond it, a large lawn Hopes acrofs the
view } a pyramid Hands on the brow ; the queen’s pil¬
lar, in a recefs on the defcent } and all the three build¬
ings, being evidently intended for ornament alone, are
peculiarly adapted to a garden-fcene. Yet their num¬
ber does not render it gay : the dulky hue of the pyra¬
mid, the retired fituation of the queen’s pillar, and the
folitary appearance of the rotunda, give it an air of
gravity ; it is encompaffed with wood j and all the ex¬
ternal views are excluded j even the opening into the
lawn is but an opening into an inclofure.
At the king’s pillar, very near to this, is another
lovely fpot} which is fmall, but not confined j for no
termination appears \ the ground one wTay, the water
another, retire under the trees put of fight, but no¬
where meet with a boundary. The view is firft over
fome very broken ground, thinly and irregularly
planted 5 then between two beautiful clumps, which
feather down to the bottom ; and afterwards acrofs a
glade, and through a little grove beyond it, to that
part of the lake where the thickets clofe upon the
brink, fpread a tranquillity over the furface, in which
their Ihadows are refle&ed. Nothing is admitted to
difturb that quiet : no building obtrudes; for objefls
to fix the eye are needlefs in a fcene which may be
comprehended at a glance •, and none would fuit the
paftoral idea it infpires, of elegance too refined for
a cottage, and of fimplicity too pure for any other
edifice.
The fituation of the rotunda promifes a profpeft
more enlarged •, and in fad! moft of the objefts on this
fide of the garden are there vifible : but they want
both connexion and contraft , each belongs peculiarly
to fome other fpot: they are all blended together in
this, without meaning •, and are rather fliown on a
map, than formed into a pifture. The water only is
capital •, a broad expanfe of it is fo near as to be feen
under the little groups on the bank without interrup¬
tion. Beyond it is a wood, which in one place leaves
the lake, to run up behind a beautiful building, of
three pavilions joined by arcades, all of the Ionic
order : it is called Kent's Building. And never wras a
..defign more happily conceived : it feems to be charac-
I
E N I N G. Part IT.
teriftically proper for a garden ; it is fo elegant, fo va- Principal
ried, and fo purely ornamental : it dire&ly fronts the Refidence.
rotunda, and a narrow rim of the country appears above
the trees beyond it. But the effeft even of this no¬
ble objedt is fainter here than at other points : its po-
fition is not the moft advantageous \ and it is but one
among many other buildings, none of wdfich are princi¬
pal.
The fcene at the temple of Bacchus is in chara&er
diredlly the reverfe of that about the rotunda, though
the fpace and the objects are nearly the fame in both :
but in this, all the parts concur to form one whole.
The ground from every fide ftielves gradually towards
the lake ; the plantations on the further bank open to
(how Kent’s building, rife from the water’s edge to¬
wards the knoll on which it Hands, and clofe again-
behind it. That elegant Hrudture, inclined a little from
a front view, becomes more beautiful by being thrown
into perfpeftive ; and though at a greater diftance, is
more important than before, becaufe it is alone in the
view : for the queen’s pillar and the rotunda are re¬
moved far afide ; and every other circumftanee refers
to this interefting objedl : the wTater attradls, the
ground and the plantations direft, the eye thither :
and the country does not juH glimmer in the offscape,
but is clofe and eminent above the wmod, and connedl-
ed by clumps with the garden. The fcene altogether
is a moft animated landscape \ and the fplendor of the
building ; the refledtion in the lake 5 the tranfparency
of the wrater, and picturefque beauty of its form, diver-
fified by little groups on the brink, wdiile on the broad-
eft expanfe no more trees caft their ftiadows than are
fufficient to vary the tints of the furface ; all thefe cir-
cumftances, vying in luftre with each other, and unit¬
ing in the point to vdiich every part of the fcene is re¬
lated, diffufe a peculiar brilliancy over the whole com-
pofition.
The view from Kent’s building is very different
from thofe which have been hitherto defcribed. They
are all diredled down the declivity of the lawn. This
rifes up the afcent: the eminence being crowmed with
lofty wood, becomes thereby more confiderable ; and
the hillocks into which the general fall is broken,
Hoping further out this way than any other, they alfo
acquire an importance wrhich they had not before ;
that, particularly, on which the rotunda is placed,
feems here to be a profound fituation; and the ftruc-
ture appears to be properly adapted to fo open an ex-
pofure. The temple of Bacchus, on the contrary, which
commands fuch an illuftrious view, is itfelf a retired ob-
iedt, clofe under the covert. The wmod rifing on the
brow, and defcending down one fide of -the hill, is
fhown to be deep j is high, and feems to be higher than
it is. The lawm too is extenfive $ and part the bounda¬
ry being concealed, it fuggefts the idea of a ftill great¬
er extent. A fmall portion only of the lake indeed is
vifible j but it is not here an objeft : it is a part of tne
fpot ; and neither termination being in fight, it has no
diminutive appearance : if more water had been admit¬
ted, it might have hurt the charadfer of the place,
which is fober and temperate 5 neither folemn nor gay 5
great and Ample, but elegant; above rufticity, yet free
from oftentation.
Thefe are the principal fcenes on one fide of the gar¬
dens. On the other, clofe to the lawn before the houfe.
Part II. GARB
Principal is the winding valley above mentioned : the lower part
Refidence. of it is affigned to the Elyfian fields. Thefe are water-
» /—— ed by a lovely rivulet •, are very lightfome, and very
airy, fo thinly are the trees fcattered about them •, are
open at one end to more water and a larger glade 5 and
the reft of the boundary is frequently broken to let in
objects afar off, which appear ftill more diftant from
the manner of ftiowing them. The entrance is under a
Doric arch, which coincides with an opening among the
trees, and forms a kind of vifta, through wTich a Pem¬
broke bridge juft below, and a lodge built like a cattle
in the park°, are feen in a beautiful perfpeftive. That
bridge is at one extremity of the gardens 5 the queen’s
pillar is at another 5 yet both are vifible from the fame
ftation in the Elyfian fields : and aU thefe external ob¬
jects are unaffeftedly introduced, divefted of their owm
appurtenances, and combined with others which belong
to the fpot. The temple of FriendOiip is alfo in fight,
juft without the place •, and within it are the temples of
ancient Virtue, and of the Britifh worthies ^ the one in
an elevated fituation, the other low down in the valley,
and near to the water : both are decorated with the ef¬
figies of thofe who have been moft diftinguifhed for mi¬
litary, civil, or literary merit} and near to the former
ftands a roftral column, facred to the memory of Cap¬
tain Grenville, who fell in an aftion at fea : by pla¬
cing here the meed of valour, and by filling thefe fields
with the reprefentations of thofe who have deferved
beft of mankind, the charaaer intended to be given to
the fpot is juftly and poetically expreffed j and. the
number of the images which are prefented or excited,
perfeaiy correfponds wuth it. Solitude was never rec¬
koned among the charms of Elyfium } it has been al¬
ways piaured as the manfion of delight and of joy :
and in this imitation, every circumftance accords with
that eftablifhed idea. The vivacity of the ftream which
flows through the vale •, the glimpfes of another ap¬
proaching to join it; the fprightly verdure of the
green fward, and every butt of the Britifh worthies
refleaed in the water the variety of the trees 5 the
lightnefs of the greens ; their difpofition •, all of them
diftina objeas, and difperfed over gentle inequalities
of the ground j together with the multiplicity of ob¬
jeas both within and without, wTich embellifh and
enliven the fcene j give it a gaiety, which the imagi¬
nation can hardly conceive, or the heart w’ifti to be ex¬
ceeded.
Clofe by this fpot, and a perfea contraft to it, is
the alder grove 5 a deep recefs in the midft of a fhade,
which the blaze of noon cannot brighten. The water
feems to be a ftagnated pool, eating into its banks;
and of a peculiar colour, not dirty but clouded, and
dimly refleaing the dun hue of the horfe-chefnuts and
alders which prefs upon the brink : the ftems of the
latter, rifing in clufters from the fame root, bear one
another down, and flant over the water. Mifhapen
elms and ragged firs are frequent in the wood which
encompaffes the hollow; the trunks of dead trees are
left Handing amongft them : and the uncouth fumach,
and the yew, with elder, nut, and holly, compofe the
underwood : fome limes and laurels are intermixed ; but
they are not many *, the wood is in general of the
darkeft greens; and the foliage is thickened with ivy,
which not only twines up the trees, but creeps alfo
over the falls of the ground: thefe are fteep and
E N I N G. 407
abrupt : the gravel-walk is covered with mofs; and a Pjri.n,cipa!
grotto at the end, faced with broken flints and pebbles, Re ldence;
preferves, in the fimplicity of its materials, and the
dufkinefs of its colour, all the chara&er of its fituation :
two little rotundas near it w^ere better, away; one
building is fufficient for fuch a fcene of folitude as this,
in which more circumftances of gloom concur than
wTere perhaps ever colledled -together.
Immediately above the alder-grove is the principal
eminence in the gardens. It is divided by a great dip
into two pinnacles ; upon one of which is a large. Go¬
thic building. The fpace before this ftruflure. is an
extenfive lawn : the ground on one fide falls imme¬
diately into the dip ; and the trees which border the
lawn, finking with the ground, the houfe rifes above
them, and fills the interval: the vaft pile feems to be
ftill larger than it is; for it is thrown into perfpedlive,
and between and above the heads of the trees, the up¬
per ftory, the porticoes, the turrets, and balluftrades,
and all the flated roofs, appear in a noble confufion.
On the other fide of the Gothic building, the ground
Hopes down a long continued declivity into a bottom,
which feems to be perfectly irriguous. Divers ftreams
wander about it in feveral directions : the conHux of
that wdrich runs from the Elyfian fields with another
below it, is full in fight; and a plain wooden bridge
thrown over the latter, and evidently defigned for a
paffage, impofes an air of reality on the river. Be¬
yond it is one of the Doric porticoes which front the
houfe ; but now it is alone ; it ftands on a little bank
above the water, and is feen under fome trees at a di~
ftance before it : thus grouped, and thus accompanied,
it is a happy incident, concurring with many other
circumftances to diftinguifti this landfcape by a charac¬
ter of cheerfulnefs and amenity.
From the Gothic building a broad walk leads to
the Grecian valley, which is a fcene of more grandeur
than any in the gardens. It enters them from the
park, fpreading at firft to a confiderable breadth ; then
winds ; grows narrower, but deeper ; and lofes itfelf
at laft in a thicket, behind fome lofty elms, which in¬
terrupt the fight of the termination. Lovely woods
and groves hang all the way on the declivities : and
the open fpace is broken by detached trees; which,,
near the park, are cautioufly and fparingly introduced,
left the breadth Ihould be contra&ed by them ; but as
the valley finks, they advance more boldly down the
fides, ftretch acrofs or along the bottom, and clutter
at times into groups and forms, which multiply the
varieties of the larger plantations. Thofe are fome-
times clofe coverts, and fometimes open groves: the
trees rife in one upon high ftems, and feather dowm to
the bottom in another ; and between them are fliort
openings into the park or the gardens. In the midft
of the fcene, juft at the bend of the valley, and com¬
manding it on both fides, upon a large, eafy, natural
rife, is placed the temple of Concord and Viftory : at
one place its majeftic front of fix Ionic columns, fup-
porting a pediment filled with bas relief, and the points
of it crowned with ftatues, faces the view ; at another,
the beautiful colonnade, on the fide, of 10 lofty pillars,
retires in perfpe&ive. It is feen from every part ; and
imprefling its own charadler of dignity on all around,
it fpreads an awe over the whole : but no gloom, no
melancholy, attends it : the fenlations it excites are ra~
408
GARDENING.
Fai t II.
Principal tlier placid j but full of refpedl, admiration, and fo-
^Refidence. ]ernnjty ; no water appears to enliven, no dillant pro-
fpedt to enrich the view ; the parts of the fcene are
large, the idea of it fublime, and the execution happy 5
it is independent of all adventitious circumftances, and
relies on itfelf for its greatnefs.
The fcenes which have been defcribed are fuch as
are moft remarkable for beauty or charafter •, but the
gardens contain many more 5 and even the objefts in
thefe, by their feveral combinations, produce very dif¬
ferent effedts, within the diilance fometimes of a few
paces, from the unevennefs of the ground, the variety
of the plantations, and the number of the buildings.
The multiplicity of the laft has indeed been often urged
as an objedlion to Stowe j and certainly, wrhen all are
feen by' a ftranger in two or three hours, twenty or
thirty capital ftrudfures, mixed with others of inferior
note, do feem too many. But the growth of the wood
every day weakens the objection, by concealing them
one from the other : each belongs to a diftindl fcene j
and if they are confidered feparately, at diiferent times,
and at leifure, it may be difficult to determine which
to take away. Yet ftill it muft be acknowledged that
their frequency dellroys all ideas of filence and retire¬
ment. Magnificence and fplendor are the charaderif-
tics of Stowe : it is like one of thofe places celebrated
in antiquity, which were devoted to the purpofes of
religion, and filled with facred groves, hallowed foun¬
tains, and temples dedicated to feveral deities j the
refort of diflant nations, and the objed of veneration
to half the heathen world : this pomp is, at Stowe,
blended with beauty j and the place is equally dillin-
guiffied by its amenity and its grandeur.
In the inidfl: of fo much embellilhment as may be
introduced into this fpecies of garden, a plain field, or
• a ffieep-walk, is fometimes an agreeable relief, and e-
ven wilder fcenes may occafionally be admitted. Thefe
indeed are not properly parts of a garden, but they
may be comprehended within the verge of it ; and the
proximity to the more ornamented fcenes is at leaft a.
convenience, that the tranlition from the one to the
other may be eafy, and the change always in our op¬
tion. For though a fpot in the higheft hate of im¬
provement be a neceflary appendage to a feat ; yet, in
a place which is perfed, other charaders will not be
wanting : if they cannot be had on a large fcale, they
are acceptable on a fmaller ; and fo many circumfian-
ces are common to all, that they may often be inter¬
mixed •, they may always border on each other.”
But on this head it would be in Vain to attempt to
lay down particular rules: different places ate marked
by fets of features as different from each other as are
thofe in men’s faces. Much muft be left to the fkill
and tafte of the artift ; and let thofe be what they may,
nothing but mature ftudy of the natural abilities of the
particular place to be improved can render him equal
to the execution, fo as to make the moft of the mate¬
rials that are placed before him.
Some few general rules may neverthelefs be laid
down. The approach ought to be conduded in fuch
a manner, that the ftriking features of the place fhall
burft upon the view at once : no trick however fhould
be made ufe of: all ffiould appear to fall in naturally.
In leading towards the houfe, its diredion fhould not
-be fully in front, nor exadly at an angle, but fhould
2
PraSllcal
'Treatifc on
Planting
and Gar¬
dening,
p. 615.
pafs obliquely upon the houfe and its accompaniments j Principal
fo that their pofition with refped to each other, as P-^idence.
well as the perfpedive appearance of the houfe itfelf, ^"" J
may vary at every ftep : and having ffiown the front
and the principal wing, or other accompaniment, to
advantage, the approach ffiould wind to the back front,
which, as has been already obferved, ought to lie open
to the park or paftured grounds.
The improvement and the rooms from which they
are to be feen ffiould be in unifon. Thus, the view
from the drawing-room Ihould be highly embelliffied,
to correfpond with the beauty and elegance within :
every thing here ffiould be feminine, elegant, beauti¬
ful, fuch as attunes the mind to politenefs and lively
converfation. The breakfafting room ffiould have more
mafculine objeds in view: wrood, water, and an ex¬
tended country for the eye to roam over j fuch as al¬
lures us imperceptibly to the ride or the chafe. The
eating and banqueting rooms need no exterior allure¬
ments.
There is a harmony in tafte as in mufic : variety,
and even wildnefs upon fome occafions, may be ad¬
mitted $ but difcord cannot be allowed. If, therefore,
a place be fo circumftanced as to confift of properties
totally irreconcileable, the parts ought, if poffible, to
be feparated in fuch a manner, that, like the air and
the recitative, the adagio and the allegro, in mufic,
they may fet off each other’s charms by the contrail.—
Thefe obfervations, in the elegant performance whence Defcription
they are extraded, the author illuftrates by the follow-0f Peri'e-
ing defcription and propofed improvement of Perfe-field,
field, the feat of Mr Morris, near Chepftow in Mon-P,6l6> ^cc“
mouthffiire •, a place upon which nature has been pe¬
culiarly laviih of her favours, and which has been fpo-
ken by Mr Wheatley, Mr Gilpin, apd other wTriters,
in the moft flattering terms.
“ Perfefield is fituated upon the banks of the river
Wye, which divides Gloucefterlhire and Monmouth-
ffiire, and which was formerly the boundary between
England and Wales. The general tendency of the ri¬
ver is from north to fouth j but about Perfefield it de-
fcribes by its winding courfe the letter S, fomewhat
compreffed, fo as to reduce it in length and increafe
its width. The grounds of Perfefield are lifted high
above the bed of the river, ffielving, and form the
brink of a lofty and fteep precipice, towards the fouth-
weft.
“ The lower limb of the letter is filled with Perfe-
wood, which makes a part of Perfefield j but is at pre-
fent an impenetrable thicket of coppice-wood. This
dips to the fouth-eaft down to the water’s edge ; and,
feen from the top of the oppofite rock, has a good ef-
fefl.
“ The upper limb receives the farms of Llancot, rich
and highly cultivated, broken into inclofures, and
fcattered with groups and Angle trees 5 two well look¬
ing farm-houfes in the centre, and a neat white chapel
on one fide : altogether a lovely little paradifaical fpot.
The lowlinefs of its fituation llamps it with an air of
meeknefs and humility ; and the natural barriers which
furround it add that of peacefulnefs and fecurity.
The pi6lurefque farms do not form a low flat bot¬
tom, fubjefl to be overflowed by the river 5 but take
the form of a gorget, rifing fulleft in the middle, and
falling on every fide gently to the brink of the Wye 5
except
Part II. CARD
Principal except on the caft fide, where the top of the gorget
-Rdidencc. jeans jn an eajy manner againll; a range of perpendicu-
lar rock •, as if to fliow its diik with advantage to the
walks of Perfefield.
“ This rock ftretches acrofs what may be called the
IJihmus, leaving only a narrow pafs down into the fields
of Llancot, and joins, the principal range of rocks at
the lower bend of the river.
“ 1 o the north, at the head of the latter, Hands an
immenfe rock (or rather a pile of immenfe rocks heap¬
ed one above another) called Windcliff; the top of
which is elevated as much above the ground of Perfe¬
field as thofe are above the fields of Llancot.
“ Thefe feveral rocks, with the wooded precipices
on the fide of Perfefield, form a circular inclofure,
about a mile in diameter, including Perfe-wrood, Llan¬
cot, the Wye, and a fmall meadow lying at the foot of
Windcliff.
“ The grounds are divided into the upper and low¬
er lawn, by the approach to the houfe ; a fmall irre¬
gular building, Handing near the brink of the preci¬
pice, but facing down the lowrer lawn, a beautiful
ground, falling ‘ precipitately every way into a valley
which fhelves down in the middle,’ and is fcattered
with groups and fingle trees in an excellent Hyle.
“ 'J'he view from the houfe is foft, rich, and beau¬
tifully pi&urefque ; the lawm and woods of Perfefield
and the oppofite banks of the river ; the Wye, near
its mouth, winding through ‘ meadows green as eme-
fald,’ in a manner peculiarly graceful j the Severn,
here very broad, backed by the wooded and highly
cultivated hills of Gloucefierfhire, Wiltfhire, and So-
merfetfliire. Not one rock enters into the compofi-
tion. The whole view confiHs of an elegant arrange¬
ment of lawn, wood, and water.
“ 1 he upper lawn is a lefs beautiful ground, and
the view from it, though it command the ‘ cultivated
hills and rich valleys of Monmouthfhire,’ bounded by
the Severn and backed by the Mendip-hills, is much
inferior to that from the houfe.
“Jo give variety to the views from Perfefield, to
ffifclofe the native grandeur which furrounds it, and
to fet off its more ffriking features to advantage, walks
have been cut through the woods and on the face of
the precipice which border the grounds to the fouth
and eaff. The viewer enters thefe walks at the lower
corner of the lower lawn.
“ The firff point of view is marked by an alcove,
from which are feen the bridge and the town of Chep-
ffow, with its caffie fituated in a remarkable manner
on the very brink of a perpendicular rock, wralhed by
the Wye yand beyond thefe the Severn ffiows a fmall
portion of its filvery furface.
“ Proceeding a little farther along the walk, a view
is caught which the painter might call a complete land-
fcape : The caHle, with the ferpentine part of the Wye
below Chepffowq intermixed in a peculiar manner with
the broad waters of the Severn, forms the fore-ground ;
which is backed by diffant hills: the rocks, crowned
with wood, lying between the alcove and the caffle, to
the right, and Cafflehill farm, elevated upon the op¬
pofite banks of the river, to the left, form the two
fide-fcreens. This point is not marked, and muff fre¬
quently be loff to the Hranger.
I he grotto, fituated at the head of Eerfe-wood,
Voju IX. Part I.
E N I N G. 4o9
commands a near view of the oppofite rocks $ mag- Principal
nificent beyond defcription ! The littlenefs of human R-efidence.
art wras never placed in a more humiliating point of *
viewr j the caffle of Chepftowq a noble fortrefs, is, com¬
pared with thefe natural bulwarks, a mere houfe of
cards.
“ Above the grotto, upon the ifthmus of the Perfe¬
field fide, is a Ihrubbery 5 ftrangely mifplaced ! an
unpardonable intrufion upon the native grandeur of
this fcene. Mr Gilpin’s obfervations upon this, as
upon every other occafion, are very juft. He fays,
‘ It is a pity the ingenious embellifher of thefe fcenes
could not have been fatisfied with the great beauties
of nature wdiich he commanded. The Ihrubberies he
has introduced in this part of his improvements I fear
will rather be efteemed paltry.’—It is not the ftirub
which offends; it is the formal introduction of it.
Wild underwood may be an appendage of the grandeft
fcene j it is a beautiful appendage. A bed of violets
or of lilies may enamel the ground with propriety at
the foot of an oak j but if you introduce them artificial¬
ly in a border, you introduce a trifling formality, and
difgrace the noble objeCt you wilh to adorn.’
“ The walk now leaves the wood, and opens upon
the lower lawn, until coming near the houfe it enters
the alarming precipice facing Llancot j winding along
the face of it in a manner which does great honour to
the artift. Sometimes the fragments of rock which
fall in its way are avoided, at other times partially re¬
moved, fo as to conduCl the path along a ledge carved
out of the rock} and in one inftance, a huge frag¬
ment, of a fomewhat conical ftiape and many yards
high, is perforated 5 the path leading through its bafe.
This is a thought which will hand down to future
times the greatnefs of Mr Morris’s tafte j the defigu
and the execution are equally great; not a mark of a
tool to be feen j all appears perfectly natural. The
arch-way is made winding, fo that on the approach
it appears to be the mouth of a cave j and, on a near¬
er view, the idea is ftrengthened by an allowable de¬
ception ; a black dark hole on the fide next the cliff,
which, feen from the entrance before the perforation is
difcovered, appears to be the darkfome inlet into the
body of the cave.
“ From this point, that vaft inclofure of rocks and
precipices which marks the peculiar magnificence of
Perfefield is feen to advantage. The area, contain¬
ing in this point of view the fields of Llancot and the
lower margin of Perfe-wood, is broken in a manner
peculiarly piCturefque by the graceful winding of the
Wye; here walhing a low graffy ftiore, and there fweep-
ing at the feet of the rocks, which rife in fome places
perpendicular from the water; but in general they have
a wooded offset at the bafe $ above which they rife to
one, two, or perhaps three or four hundred feet high j
expofing one full face, filvered by age, and beaded
with ivy, growing out of the wrinkle-like feams and
fiffures. If one might be allowed to compare the
paltry performances of art with the magnificent works
of nature, we Ihould fay, that this inclofure refembles
a prodigious fortrefs which has lain long in ruins. It
is in reality one of nature’s ftrong-holds $ and as fuch
has probably been frequently made ufe of. Acrofs the
ifthmus on the Gloucefterlhire fide there are the re¬
mains of a deep intrenchment, called to this day the
3 F Bulwark ;
i
410 garde
Principal Bulwark; and tradition ftill teems with the extraoi-
Refidence. binary warlike feats that have been performed among
^ this romantic fcenery.
“ From the perforated rock, the walk leads down
to the cold-bath (a complete place), ieated about the
mid-way of the precipice, in this part lefs keep ; and
from the cold-bath a rough path winds down to tne
meadow, by the fide of the Wye, from whence .the
precipice on the Perfefield fide is ieen with every ad-
vantan-ej the giant fragments, hung with Ihrubs and
ivy rife in a ghaftly manner irom amongft the un¬
derwood, and (how themfelves in all their native ia-
vagenefs.
“ From the cold-bath upward, a coach-road (very
fieep and difficult) leads to the top oi the cliff, at the
upper corner of the upper lawn. Near the top of the
road is a point which commands one of the mod plea¬
ting views of Perfefield : The Wye fweeping through
a graffy vale which opens to the left:—Llancot oaciv-
ed5 by its rocks with the Severn immediately behind
them ; and, feen in this point of view, feems to he
divided from the Wye by only a ftrarp ridge ot rock,
with a precipice on either fide j and behind the Se¬
vern, the vale and wooded hills of Gloucefterffuie.
“’From this place a roads leads to the top of Wind-
cliff—aftoniftiing fight ! The face of nature probably
affords not a more magnificent fcene ! Llancot in all
ffs prandeur, the ground of Perfefield, the caftle and
town of Chepffow, the graceful windings of the Wye
below, and its conflux with the Severn ; to the left
the foreft of Dean ; to the right, the rich marffies and
pifihirefque mountains of South Wales •, a broad view ot
the Severn, opening its fea-like mouth ; the conflux of
the Avon, with merchant (hips at anchor in King-road,
and veffels of different defcriptions under fail 5 Auft-
Cliff, and the whole vale of Berkeley, backed by the
wooded fwells of Gloucefferfliire, the view terminating
in clouds of diftant hills, rifing one behind another, un¬
til the eye becomes unable to diftinguilh the earth’s
billowy furface from the clouds themfelves.”
The leading principle of the improvement propofed
by our author is, to “ feparate the fublime from the
beautiful; fo that in viewing the one, the eye might not
fo much as fufpedl that the other was near.
“ Let the hanging walk be conducted entirely along
the precipices, or through the thickets, fo as to difcloic
. the natural fcenery, without once difeovering the lawn
or any other acquired foftnefs. Let the path be as rude
as if trodden only by wild beafts and favages, and the
refting places, if any, as ruftic as poffible.
“ Erafe entirely the prefent fhrubbery, and lay out
another as elegant as nature and art could render it be¬
fore the boufe, fwelling it out into the lawn towards the
ftables) between which and the kitchen-garden make
a narrow winding entrance.
“ Convert the upper lawn into a deer-paddock, Of¬
fering it to run as wild, rough, and foreft-like, as total
negligence would render it.
“ The viewer would then be thus conduced : He
would enter the hanging-walk by a fequeftered path at
the lower corner of the lawn, purfuing it through the
wood to beneath the grotto, and round the head-land,
or winding through Perfe-wood, to the perforated rock
and the cold-bath, without once conceiving an idea (if
poffible) that art, or at leaft that much art, had been
N I N G.
Part II.
made ufe of in difclofing the natural grandeur cf the
furrounding objects $ which ought to appear as if they KelKlcince‘,
prefented themfelves to his view, or at molt as if no¬
thing was wanted but his own penetration and judge¬
ment to find them out. The walk fliould therefore
be conducted in fuch a manner, that the breaks might
be quite natural; yet the points of view obvious, or
requiring nothing but a block or ftone to mark them.
A ft ranger at leaft wants no feat here 3 he is too eager
in the early part of his walk, to think of lounging up¬
on a bench.
“ From the cold bath he would afeend the fteep,
near the top of which a commodious bench or benches
might be placed: the fatigue of afeending the hill
would require a refting-place j and there are few points
wfliich afford a more pleafing view than this j it is grand,
without being too broad and glaring.
“ From thefe branches he would enter the foreft
part. Here the idea of Nature in her primitive ftate
would be ffirengthened : the roughneffes and deer to
the right, and the rocks in all their native wildnefs to
the left. Even Llancot might be ftiut out from the
view by the natural ftirubbery of the cliff. The Lover’s
Leap, however (a tremendous peep), might remain j
but no benches, nor other work of art, ftiould here be
feen. A natural path, deviating near the brink of the
precipice, would bring the viewer down to the lower
corner of the park ; where benches fliould be placed in
a happy point, fo as to give a full view of the rocks
and native wildneffes, and at the fame time hide
the farm houfes, fields, and other acquired beauties of
Llancot. ^
“ Having fatiated himfelf with this favage fcene, he
would be led, by a ftill ruftic path, through the. laby¬
rinth—when the ftirubbery, the lawn, with all its ap¬
pendages, the graceful Wye, and the broad filver Se¬
vern, would break upon the eye with every advantage
of ornamental nature : the tranfition could not fail to
ftrike.
“ From this foft fcene he would be fliown to the top
of Windcliff, where in one vaft view he would unite the
fublime and beautiful of Perfefield.”
Only one particular remains now to be noticed. A
place which is the refidence of a family all the year is
very defective, if fome portion of it be not fet apart for
the enjoyment of a fine day, for air, and exercife, in win¬
ter. To fuch a fpot fhelter is abfolutely effential ; and
evergreens being the thickeft covert, are therefore the
beft : their verdure alfo is then agreeable to the eye j
and they may be arranged fo as to produce beautiful mix¬
ture of greens, with more certainty than deciduous trees,
and with almoft equal variety: they may be colle&ed in¬
to a wood j and through that wood gravel-walks may be
led along openings of a confiderable breadth, free from
large trees which would intercept the rays of the fun,
and winding in fuch a manner as to avoid any draft of
wind, from whatever quarter it may blow. But when a
retreat at all times is thus fecured, other fpots may be
adapted only to occafional purpofes ; and be flickered
towards the north or the eaft on one hand, while they
are open to the fun on the other. The few hours of
cheerfulnefs and warmth which its beams afford are fo
valuable as to juftify the facrifice even of the principles
of beauty to the enjoyment of them j and therefore no
obieeftions
Part III. G A R D
Principal objeaions of famenefs or formality can prevail aga‘nlJ
Refidence. the pleafantnefs of a ftraight walk, under a thick hedg
^ ' or a fouth wall. The eye may, however, be diverted
from the fkreen by a border before it, where the aco¬
nite and the fnowdrop, the crocus and hepatica, brought
forward by the warmth of the fituation, will be Well¬
come harbingers of fpring •, and. on the oppofite lide ol
the walk little tufts of lauruftmes, and of variegated
evergreens, may be planted. The fpot thus enlivened
by a variety of colours, and even a degree of bloom,
may be Hill further improved by a green-home. 1 he
entertainment which exotics afford peculiarly belongs
to this part of the year j and if among!! them be inter-
fperfed fome of our earliefl flowers, they will there
ENIN G.
4**
Mow before their time, and anticipate the gaiety of Principal.
the feafon which is advancing. Ihe walk may alto ^
lead to the ftoves, where the climate and the plants are
always the fame. And the kitchen-garden fliould not
be far off; for that is never quite deltitute oi produce,
and always an aftive feene : the appearance of bufmels
is alone engaging-, and the occupations there are anear-
neft of the happier feafons to which they are prepara¬
tive By thefe expedients even the winter may be ren¬
dered cheerful in a place where flicker is provided agamlt
all but the bittereft inclemencies of the fky, and agree¬
able objefts and interefting amufements -are contrived •
for every hour of tolerable weather.
PART III. PRACTICAL GARDENING.
WE, now proceed to treat of horticulture or practi¬
cal gardening. And although it may not appear to be
the mofl perfed arrangement ; yet as it is probably the
molt convenient and ufeful in the directions to be given
for the pra&ical management of the garden, we /baU.
cojiflder the work to be done for each month of the
year in the kitchen garden, the fruit garden, the flowei
garden and the nurfery, under fo many feparate lec¬
tions.
JANUARY.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
’L In the beginning, or any time in the courfe of this
dirties. month, when the weather is open, fow fome fliort-top d
radiflies on a border expofed to the fouth, and protected
bv a wall or other fence and about the middle or lat¬
ter end of the month, you may fow fome more of the
fame fort, and alfo fome falmon radifhes to fucceed the
fhort-top’d. The feed fhould be fown pretty thick_ at
this feafon, becaufe vegetation being flow at this period
they will be longer expofed to the depredation of birds,
and if the weather prove fevere, many of them will be
cut off after they have appeared above ground. Sow
the feed evenly over the furface, and rake it in with a
large wide-toothed rake, or if fown in beds, cover it
with earth to the depth of half an inch from the alleys.
A covering of ftraw about two inches thick would
greatly promote their grow'th, and proteft them from
fj-pf! and birds. After the plants have come above
ground, the covering of ftraw fhould be drawn oft uith
a light rake in the early part of the day, and replaced
in the evening.
Garden mats are frequently ufed to cover radifhes,
a number of fmall pins being previoufly ftuck into the
ground to fupport them an inch or two from the fur-
fUce, and prevent them from prefling down the young
plants. The covering ought to be continued for a
longer or fhorter time, according to the feventy of the
•weather 5 but when the plants have pufhed out then-
rough leaves it may fafely be difeontinued. Radiflies
fown under common hot-bed frames, without the aitift-
ance of warm dung, will mcceed very well, and come
on much earlier than thofe town in the open air . due
attention, however, muft be paid to give them air w’hen-
iS
ever the weather is mild, by raifmg the glaffes,^ or re¬
moving them altogether during warm days. It want¬
ed very early, recourfe muft be had to a flight hot-
At any time in this month, when the weather is mild <-'a
and dry, let a fpot of ground in a warm fituation be
prepared for fowing a few early carrots, by digging the
ground a full fpade deep, and breaking the earth well;
and when the feed is fown, let it be raked in. When
carrots are wanted very early, they may be reared in a ^
^Aboutthf beginning, or any time in the month, Spinach,
•when the weather is mild, you may fow fome fpmach -,
but if the weather win permit, fome ought to be
fown, both in the beginning and towards the end of
the month. The fmooth-feeded or round-leaved fpinach
fhould chiefly be fown now. It is preferred, on ac¬
count of its leaves-being thicker, larger and more iuc-
culent than the prickly-feeded ; though fome ox the lat¬
ter ought alfo to be fowm, becaufe it is hardier, and
better able to fuftain the feverity of the weather. 1 hey •
may be fowm either broadcaft and raked in, or in max-
low drills about an inch deep, and nine or ten inches
afunder. It is a frequent pradlice to fow fpinach m
drills between the rows of early beans and cabbages. 20
You may fow fome feed of crefs, muftard, radifh, Small
rape &c. and likewife fome lap lettuce in a warm fitua-lalad.
tion expofed to the fun. They form an agreeable falad
when cut young. The ground on which they are to
be fown ought to be Hoped to the fouth, and covered
w:ith a common hot-bed frame, which ftiould be funk
in the ground, fo far as to allow the glaffes to ap¬
proach to within fix or eight inches of the fown fur-
face. ^
But fmall falad will fucceed beft in a flight hot¬
bed of warm dung formed to the depth Ox 18 or
20 inches j air muft be admitted freely, whenever
the weather will permit, by raifing or removing the
glafles. ... 2*
About the middle, or towards the latter end oi theParfley,
month, fow parfley feed in any dry fttuation, in fhallow
drills nine inches afunder, and cover it. in with eartn
to the depth of a quarter of an inch, or in Angle rows
along the borders of the kitchen garden, ft here are
two forts, the plain-leaved and curled-leaved j the patter
is preferred as garnifhing on account of its large bufny
2 F 2 leaves,
4*2
January.
Kitchen
Garden.
Peas.
„ 23
Keans.
T 34
■hettuce.
Examine
cauliflower
plants.
GARDE
leaves, but both are fqually good as pot herbs. This
feed lies very long in the ground before it vegetates.
Sow fome early peas in a warm lituation, to fucceed
thofe fown in November and December. The princi¬
pal early peas are the Charlton hotfpur, golden hot-
fpur, Reading hotfpur, Matters hotfpur, &c. the two
firft of which are reckoned the earlieft. Sow them in
rows two feet and a half afunder, but when they are to
be fupported by fticks they ought to be three feet
afunder. Some marrowfat peas ttiould likewife be fown
at this feafon for a firft crop of late peas : the dwarf
marrowfat is the moft proper, but any other late pea
will fucceed very well, fuch as the Spanilh moratto, tall
marrowfat, Pruflian prolific, fugar pea, dwarf fugar,
egg pea, pearl pea, &c. Thefe ftrould be fown in rows
three feet afunder j but when it is intended that they
fliould be fupported by fticks, the rowrs fhould be three
feet and a half apart.
Any time in the courfe of the month, if the weather
be mild, a main crop of beans may be fown. The
Sandwich bean, toker, Windfor, broad Spanifh, broad
long-pod, &c. are the kinds moft commonly ufed. After
the ground has been well dug, put in the beans to the
depth of about two inches, with a dibble, in rows three
feet apart, and at the diftance of four or five inches
from each other in the rows : or they may be fown in
drills to the fame depth and diftance. If no early
beans were fown in November or December, they
ought to be fown the earlieft opportunity this month •
the early Mazagan and Lifbon beans are the bert.
They ought to be planted in a wrarm border •, if at the
foot of a fouth wall, they will come on earlier. Thefe
may be planted clofer than the larger beans, two feet,
or two feet and a half, between the rows, being fuffi-
cient. When peas or beans are wanted very early, they
may be fown in hot-beds or ftoves, and when fome-
what advanced, they may either be planted out into o-
ther hot-beds, into peach and vine-houfes, or into any
warm fituation in the open air.
In the beginning, and again towards the end of the
month, you may fow fome lettuce. The kinds com¬
monly ufed are the green and white cos, brown Dutch,
Cilicia, and common cabbage lettuce. Prepare a
piece of ground in a warm fituation j fowT the feeds
moderately thick, and rake them in as evenly as pof-
fible. They may alfo be fown under hand glaffes or
in common hot-bed frames, to be occafionally covered
with glaffes or mats : but in either cafe, air muft be
treely admitted, whenever the weather will permit.
When wilhed for very early, they may be fown in a
flight hot-bed, and planted out in the open air in March
or April.
_ -f ake care of lettuce plants which have fttiod the
winter.—If you have lettuce plants in frames or under
hoops, covered writh mats, give them plenty of air when
the weather is moderate. Remove all decayed leaves,
and deftroy fnails which frequently infeft them j and
when the froft is fevere, take care to protedl them wrell
with mats.
I he cauliflower plants raifed laft autumn, which have
flood during the winter in frames, fhould be looked over
in open weather. If any decayed leaves appear, pick
them off $ ftir up the earth between the plants, and re¬
move all weeds. In mild weather, give them plenty
N I N G.
January.
Kitchen
Gardes.
25
Part III
of air during the day, by pufhing down, or removing
the glaffes altogether : but cover them during the
night, unlefs when the weather is particularly mild ;
when it is frofty, or rains much, they ought to be cover¬
ed during the day. But if the froft is very fevere,
the frames fhould be protected at night with a cover¬
ing of mats, and even during the day, fhould the froft:
be intenfe, without funfhine; and fome ftrawq dried leaves,
or fomething of that nature, ftiould likewife be laid all
round the outfide of the frame, to prevent the frort from
penetrating its fides.
Cauliflowers under bell and hand glaffes require the
fame attention: during mild wreather, the covers fhould
either be taken off altogether, or raifed (or tilted) on
the fouth fide, fo as to admit the air freely during the
day and fhut again at night, unlefs the weather fhould
be very mild, in which cafe they may remain a little
tilted on one fide ; but fhould intenfe froft prevail, they
fliould be kept fhut, and covered with ftraw or fome¬
thing of that, nature. The free admiflion of the air will
prevent the plants from becoming weak, and make them
lefs apt to run up to flower before they have acquired
fufficient fize. In mild winters, flugs very frequently in¬
jure cauliflower plants; they ought, therefore, to be care¬
fully looked for and deftroyed.
About the end of the month, if the weather is mild, Plant ca!».
plant out a few early cabbages, on a fpot of ground bages.
well dug and manured with rotten dung, at the di¬
ftance of a foot and a half from each other,, or even
clofer, as they are to be cut early, and before they ac¬
quire a great fize. The early York, Batterfea, and fu-
gar-loaf, are the kinds which fliould be planted at this
feafon.
Tranfplant fome full grown cabbages and favoys, for Tranfplant
feed, about the beginning of the month 5 though the ear- cabbages,*
ly part of winter is the moft proper time for doing fo. &c- for
See November. feed*
In open dry weather, earth up fuch celery as has ad- 28
vanced much above ground ; let the earth be well bro- Eijrth'uP
ken, and laid up almoft to the tops of the plants, butC£ 6
care muft be taken not to bruife them. This will af¬
ford them protection againft froft, which might prove
very injurious to them at this feafon.
Where celery is wanted daily, a quantity of ftraw or
fomething of that nature, ftiould be laid over the row s
on the approach of froft, which will prevent the froft
from penetrating the ground, and on the removal of the
covering, the celery may be dug up : or when fevere
weather threatens to fet in, a quantity of celery may be
taken up, placed in fome fituation ftieltered from the
weather, and covered as far as the blanched part extends
with fand. « ^
In open dry wreather prepare fome full grown en-Blanch
dive for blanching. When the plants are perfectly dry endive,
tie up their leaves clofe together, and they will be com¬
pletely blanched in about a fortnight. As endive is
very apt to rot in wet weather at this feafon, when
blanched in the open air, a quantity of it ought to be
tranfplanted into a ridge of dry earth, in fome lituation
where it may be ftieltered from rain.
In open dry weather, the earth fliould be drawn up Earth up
about fuch peas and beans as may have advanced an inchPeas and
or two above ground, which wall both ftrengthen them beans*
protect them againft froft.
If
PartHI. GAUD
January. If articIioJtes "have not been earthed up before this,
Kitchen work ihould now be done the firft opportunity. See
. Garclen- , November.
' ^ Muihroom beds ought to be well covered at this fea-
Artichokes. fon, and protefted both from rain and frofb The co-
^ j vering of draw ftiould be at lead a foot thick, and if
Manage- the rain Ihould at any time have penetrated nearly through
ment of it> }t 0Ught to be removed, and a covering of dry draw
math room pUt jn •ts p^ace . for if the bed ihould get wet, the
fpawn would be injured, and the future crop de-
llroyed.
Sometimes it is defirable to have fome of the ordinary
kitchen garden crops, at an earlier period, than that at
which they are produced in the open air. For this
purpofe recourfe is had to hot-beds ; there are like wife
fome things reared in the kitchen garden, fuch as cu¬
cumbers and melons, which cannot be obtained in this
country without their aid. The principal crops, befides
cucumbers and melons, for which hot-beds may be pre¬
pared in this month, are afparagus, fmall falad, mint,
tanfey, peas, and beans for tranfplanting •, radidies,
early carrots, early potatoes, and kidney beans. Hot¬
beds are formed either of tre(h horfe dung, or of tanners
bark •, the hot-beds ufed this month, as feed-beds for
early cucumbers and melons, are almofi always formed of
horfe dung. Procure a fufficient quantity of frefh horfe
dung, according to the fize and number of the hot-beds
you mean to form, lay it up in a heap to ferment for ten
or twelve days, longer or fhorter according to the condi¬
tion of the dung or the date of the weather, during
which time it ought to be turned over once or twice
with a fork, that it may be thoroughly mixed and
equally fermented. After the violent fermentation is
over, and the rank fleam has efcaped, it will be in
proper condition to form a hot-bed. Dung that is very
much mixed with draw, or is too dry, ought to be re-
jedled. About a cart-load may be fufficient for a
common hot-bed frame of one light, and fo on in pro¬
portion for one of two or three lights. Hot-beds Ihould
be formed in a lituation flickered from the wind, and
expofed to the morning and mid-day fun. Some dig a
trench about a foot deep, and a few inches longer and
wider than the frame with which they mean to cover
the bed ; others form hot-beds on the furface of the
ground. At this feafon of the year the laft mode is to
be preferred, becaafe it affords an opportunity of lining
the bed with freffi hot dung quite down to the bottom,
to augment the heat when it declines; in this way water
is likewife prevented from fettling about the bottom of
the bed, which is often the cafe, when the bed is formed
in a trench, which would inevitably check the fermenta¬
tion, and confequently deffroy the heat of the bed.
Mark out a fpace on the ground, a few inches longer
and wider than the frame which you intend to put on
the bed. Spread the dung when in proper condition,
regularly with a fork, beating it down gently from time
to time with the fork ; when the dung is trodden down,
it is apt to heat too violently, and does not fucceed fo
well as when the dung is allowed to fettle gradually.
The dung ought to be raiied to three feet and an half,
or thereabouts. In this way hot-beds may be formed,
which will preferve their heat for a confiderable time j
When (lighter hot-beds are required, the dung may be
raifed to one foot and an half, or two feet: thefe flight
hot beds anf\ver.very well for railing early crops..
E N i N G. . 413
Having prepared a hot-bed according to the di- January,
reftions juft given for a larger or fmaller frame,
in proportion to the quantity of feed you intend —
to fow, fuch a one as may be covered with a frame 33
of one light will be fufficient to raife plants for anSowcu-*
ordinary crop. Let the frame and lights be put on,
and kept clofe, till the heat begin to rife, then raife ^ee(jSi
the glafs, that the fleam may pafs off. Three or four
days after the bed has been formed, it may be covered
with earth prepared for that purpofe, to the depth of
about three inches j before the earth is put on, if the
dung (hall have fettled unequally, the furface of the bed
ought to be made perfeflly level. Rich light dry earth #
is beft adapted to this purpofe : that it may be dry
enough, it ought to have been protefted from the rain
by fome (hade during the winter ; for, ffiould it be wet,
it is apt to prevent the feeds from germinating, or to
injure the young plants. Fill two or three fmall flower¬
pots with fome of the fame earth, and place them in the
hot-bed till the earth in them be warmed, and then fow
the feeds.
Sow the feeds, and cover them about half an inch
deep j the bottom of the pots ought to be plunged a
little way into the earth with which the bed is covered,
fome of which ought to be drawn up round the pots.
A few days after fowing the feeds in the ppts, fome feeds
may be fown in the earth of the bed. By fowing in
pots, if the bed (hould overheat (which is fometimes
the cafe) you have it in your power to withdraw and
remove the pots out of danger.
After fowing the feeds, put on the lights j when the
fleam rifes copioufly, give the hot-bed air by raifing the
glaffes a little. The hot-bed ought to be covered every
evening about funfet with mats, which {hould be taken
off again in the morning about nine o’clock, fooner or
later according to the date of the wTeather. A (ingle
mat will be fufticient at firft, as the warmth of the bed
will be ftrong. The ends of the mats ought not to
hang down over the (ides of the frame, becaufe the rank
fleam proceeding from the bed would be confined, and
might injure the plants. The plants will appear, in
twTo or three days after the feeds have been fown, when
care murt be taken to raiie the glaffes a little to admit
frefti air, and to allow the fleam of the bed to efcape j
if this be not properly attended to, and if the beds be
kept too clofe, the plants will either be deftroyed alto¬
gether, or become weak and yellowifli. About the
time the firft fown feeds appear above ground, a few more
ought to be fowm in the earth of the bed. As thofe
tender plants are liable to fuffer from various caufes at
this feafon, it would be proper ter fow a little feed at
three different periods, at (hort intervals, that if one fow¬
ing ftiould mifearry, another may fucceed. Three or
four days after the plants have come up, they ought to
be planted out into fmall pots.
The day before the plants are to be tranfplanted,
pots filled with light rich dry earth fliould be put into
the bed, that the earth which they contain may be
brought to a proper temperature. Take the plants
carefully up, raifing them with your finger and thumb,
with all the roots as entire as poflible, and with as much
of the earth as will readily adhere about the fibres.
Plant three cucumbers and two melons in each pot,
and draw the earth well up about the ftems. If the
earth in the pots be very dry, a little water ffiould be
given.
4H
January-
Kitchen
Garden.
garde
given after the tranfplanting has been finiflied. ihe
pots ought to be plunged clofe to one another in the
earth of the bed, and all the fpaces between them ought
to be carefully filled with earth, to prevent the rank
Hearn of the dung from rifing up, which would certainly
kill the plants." The bed ought to be carefully exa¬
mined every day to fee that the roots of the plants do
not receive too much heat. If anything like that appear,
draw up the pots a little, taking care to replunge them
to the rim after the danger is over. When the plants
are fairly rooted, if the earth appears dry, give them a
little water in the warmeft time of the day ; let the
watering be occafionally repeated very moderately, ac¬
cording as the earth in the pots becomes dry. All the
water given to the plants at this feafon ought to Hand
for a few hours within the bed, that it may acquire the
fame temperature with the earth in which the plants
grow, as very cold water would chill the plants too much.
In order to preferve a proper heat in the bed as long as
poffible, the Tides of it ought to be covered with flraw
or dry leaves, which will defend the bed from cold
piercing winds, heavy rains, and fnow. Should the bed
be unprotefted w7hen any of thefe prevail, the heat
wrould be diminifhed, and the plants receive a check.
If a lively heat be kept up, you may admit air to the
the plants every day, by raifing the glaffes in propor¬
tion to the heat of the bed and temperature of the
external air. If the air be very cold, it will be ne-
eeffary to fix a piece of mat or fome fuch thing to
the edge of the faili, which may hang down over the
opening, and prevent the cold air from rulhing too
freely into the bed. About a fortnight after the bed
has been formed, it ought to be examined carefully,
to difcover whether the heat of the bed Hill continues
ftrong enough ; if not, the dry leaves and ftraw ought
to be removed from the front and back of the bed
if any had been placed there, and a quantity of frelh
horfe dung (hould be fupplied. The lining thus ap¬
plied fhould not exceed 15 or 18 inches in thicknefs,
and {hould be raifed a few inches higher than the
bed. When too thick a lining is applied, it is apt to
throw in too great a heat, and injure the plants. A
quantity of earth {hould be laid on the top of the dung
thus applied to the depth of two inches, to keep down
the rank {team. The lining will foon increafe the
heat of the bed, and maintain it for ten days or a
fortnight longer. At the expiration of that time,
w’hen the heat begins to fail, the two fides of the
bed {hould receive a lining of the fame thicknefs,
which will again augment the heat of the bed, and
preferve it in good condition for upwards of a fort¬
night longer. By lining firft the one fide and then
the other at the interval of about a week or ten days,
the heat of the bed may be made to laft longer than
when both linings are applied at the fame time. Either
method may be followed, according to the degree of
external cold which may prevail, or according to the
degree of warmth required to be maintained in the bed.
After performing the lining, if very cold, wet, or fnowy
weather prevail, it may be proper to lay a quantity of
long dry litter all round the general lining, which will
qiroteft the whole of the bed, and keep it in a proper
temperature. By the proper management of this feed-
bed, and by the due application of linings, the growth
pf young plants may be promoted till they are fit to be
I
N I N G. Part III.
planted out into other hot-beds, ^where they are to re- January,
main and produce fruit. Where there is plenty of hot K.hchea
dung and every other convenience, a fecond bed may ^ ' '_f
be prepared, into which the young plants may be trans¬
ferred and nurfed till they become perfedlly fit for final
tranfplarttation. Due attention mufi: be paid to have
this fecond nurfery-bed in proper condition for the re¬
ception of the pots containing the young plants. It is
to be formed, earthed over, and taken care of, according
to the diredlions given for the management of the feed-
bed. When the plants have got their two firft rough
leaves, two or three inches broad, and have puftied out
their two firft running buds, they are in a proper
ftate for planting out into larger hot-beds. For the
farther management of cucumbers and melons, fee Fe¬
bruary.
It is proper that none but fuch feeds, both of cu¬
cumbers and, melons, as have been kept for fome time,
{hould be fown 5 thofe which have been kept for two or
three years are to be preferred, becaufe the plants which
proceed from them are thought to be, not only more
fruitful, but to produce their fruit fooner. Plants which
are produced from recent feeds commonly puflx vigo-
roufly, and their {hoots grow to a great length before
they Ihow a fingle fruit. The beft forts of cucumbers
for producing an early crop, are the early fliort prickly
and long green prickly 5 the former of thefe is the
earlier, the other produces the bell crop and the
largeft fruit. There are feveral forts of melons fowm
for an early crop, viz. the romana, cantaloupe, po-
lignac, &c. The romana is a very good bearer, and
produces early, and is a very wTell-flavoured, though
fmall fruit. The cantaloupe is a very well-flavoured
melon, acquires a good fize, and ripens early. The
polignac is alfo a very good melon. It is better, how¬
ever, to fowT two or three kinds, if they are eafily to
be had, for the fake of gaining greater variety.
Hot-beds may be formed any time this month for
forcing afparagus: they are to be formed in the fame
way as hot beds for cucumbers and melons j the dung,
however, need not be raifed to the fame height, from
two and an half to three feet wall be fuificient. After
a bed has been formed, it {hould be covered with
earth to the depth of fix or feven inches, and the af¬
paragus plants immediately put in •, but the frame and
glafles are not to be put on till after the violent heat of
the bed fhall have' fubfided, and the rank fleam efcaped.
A fuflicient quantity of afparagus plants, proper for
forcing, muft be provided; viz. fuch as have been
raifed from feed and planted out in the open ground for
two or three years, as direfted elfewhere j fix hundred
will be fufficient for a frame of three lights, and fo on
in proportion, for a larger or fmaller frame. The
ftrongeft and moft vigorous plants ought to be chofen,
and lhould be planted very clofe together, that the
quantity produced may repay the trouble and expence
of forcing. Having marked the fize of the frame on
the furface of the bed, raife a ridge of earth a few inches
high, againft which place the firft row of plants,. and
draw a little earth over the roots of each ; next to them
another row may be planted as clofe as poflible, and fo
on till the whole fpace is covered, fome moift earth
{hould be applied all round the outfide of the fpace,
occupied by the plants, and raifed an inch or two above
their tops. Then the whole {hould be covered with a
quantity
garde
Januiiy.
Kitchen
Garden.
Part III. , . .
Quantity of rich light earth, to the deptn of about t^o
inches/and left in that fituation till the buas begin to
appear above ground. They Oould then receive an
additional covering of rich light earth to the depth of
three or four inches. A wreath of ftrong hraw band
is previoutly fixed by fome round the bed which bo
fupports the laft covering of earth and the frame. I he
ftraw ropes (hould be about four inches thick, and fixed
down all round the edge of the bed exactly m tha
place where the frame is to be put Should here be
no reafon to fuipeft overheating or burning the fmr e
may be immediately put on ; care Oiould be tauen to
raife up or ftiove down the glaffes to allow the rank
fleam to efcape, particularly about the time the buds
begin to appear. If much ram or fnow fhould fall_ alter
the bed Has' been formed, and before the frame is put
on, it will be neceffary to cover the bed with mats or
with ftraw. The heat of the bed hkewife during that
time {hould be carefully examined ; with that view two
or three flicks, called watch Jhcks, ftiould be ftuck
the dung, which ftiould be pulled out two or three times
in the courfe of the day, and examined by applying the
hand to their extremities; if they are found very hot,
and there {hould be any danger of burning, it may be
moderated by boring feveral wide holes m the dung on
each fide of the bed, and in the earth immediately under
the roots of the plants, to admit air, and let the rank
fleam pafs off: thefe holes ftiould be (hut after the heat
of the bed is become moderate. The outfide of tne bed
ftiould be protefted during wet, or very cold windy
weather, and when its heat begins to decay, it ought to
be revived by means of lining, as directed m cucumber
and melon beds. After the afparagus begins to appeal-
above ground, due attention {hould be paid to.the re¬
gular admiftion of air, whenever the weathpr is at all
moderate; and care muft be taken to cover the beds
with mats during fevere weather, and conftantly during
the night. In four or five wrecks after the formation o
the bed, the afparagus will be fit for cutting, and will
continue to produce abundantly for two or three weeks
longer. During that time three or four hundred may
be collefted every week from a three light frame. . i ney
muft not be cut, as is the cafe when afparagus is col-
lecled in the open air, the fingers muft be introduced
into the earth, and the buds are to be broken off dole
to the roots. , , ,
When carrots are required early, make a hot'be/
about two feet thick of dung, and cover it to the depth
of fix inches with light rich earth. Sow the feed turn,
and cover it to the depth of a quarter of an men. Ad¬
mit air freely in mild weather through the day, an
cover them during the night. When about an inch or
two high, thin them to about three inches afunder, they
will be fit for drawing in April or May..
Sow rape, creffes, muftard, and radifti, m a flight hot¬
bed The dung {hould not exceed the thickneis ot
eighteen inches or two feef, and ftiould be covered with
five or fix inches of light dry earth. The feeds may be
fown very thick, either in drills or all over the lurface
of the bed, and covered (lightly. The bed {hould
be covered with a frame and glaffes, and protended
during the night and fevere weather with mats. When¬
ever the weather will permit, air muft be admitted,
otherwife the pknts will be apt to die as fall as they
come up.
N I N G. 4t5
Where mint, tanfey, and tefragon, are required very J^uary.
early, a flight hot-bed may be prepared and. co\ered Gardel1>
with earth to the depth of five or fix inches, in whic i  v »
the roots of mint, tanfey, and terragon, may be planted
andAbouTethe'beginning of thif month, fome peas and Early peas
bean^rnay be fown in a hot-bed, either for trani^-and
ing into a warm border m the open air, 01 into other
hot-beds where they are to remain,.and produce a crop ,
the early framing pea is beft for this purpoie. ,
A hot-bed Say be formed, in whtch fome ear y Earl, p,.
dwarf potatoes may be planted, ether to be planted outtato .
afterwards or to remain to produce a crop. . -j
Sow fome early kidney beans in a hot. bed or mhar.y W
pots to be placed in a hot-houfe. F.l moderate hacd"«y
pots (24s) with rich light earth, and low three or
four beans in each pot. When the plants have come
up, give them a moderate quantity of water; they wh
produce a crop in March and April.
Sect. II. Fruit Garden.
33
34
Sow car¬
rots.
IF any apple or pear trees remain unpruned on walls ^
or efpaliers, that work may be performed any tune to be
this month, even though the weather {hould be irofty . pmnecL
fome people indeed think it improper to. prune trees
during froft, left the trees {hould receive injury by
having their cut furfaces expofed to the aclion ot the
froft ; but their apprehenftons are chimeneal.
Apple and pear trees produce their flower buds on
fhort branches, (or fpurs as they are termed,) which
proceed from the (ides of the branches of one or more
years {landing, and which every year mcreafe in num¬
ber while the branches from which they proceed
continue vigorous : if thefe branches, which.throw out
fpurs, be ftiortened or cut at their extremities, they
commonly pufli out a number of fmaller branches,
which acquire confiderable length, but form no dower
buds ; it is therefore proper in pruning thele trees» to
take care never to ihorten a leading branch, where
there is room on the wall or efpalier to allow it to be
extended, unlefs when a fupply of new wood is want¬
ed to fill up a vacancy. In young trees which have
not yet formed a fufficient head, feleft the moft vigo¬
rous and beft placed (hoots, and train them to the wall
or efpalier, at the diftance of from four to fix inches
from one another ; any branches that intervene, be¬
tween them are to be removed clofe to their origin,
and all thofe branches which do not apply well to
the wall or efpaliers may likewife be removed. When -
the branches are too thin, and a (upply 01 wood is
wanted, one or more of the laft year’s (hoots, may oe
cut down to within a few inches of its origin ; four
or five buds are commonly left. Thefe branches io
{hortened, commonly puff out three or four (hoots the
enfuing feafon. The young branches that have been
laid in at full length, will in two or three years pro¬
duce a good many fpurs or thort branches along their
fides, from which a crop of fruit may be expected.
In old trees, that have been already trained, all the vi¬
gorous bearing branches are to be retained, unless where
they may happen to be too crowded, then the branch
intended to be removed {hould be cut out clofe to its
infertion. When any of the old bearing branches leem
to be worn out, or decayed, they ftiotlld be pruned^out
4i 6
January.
Fruit
Garden.
39
Plum and
cherry.
40
Peach,
nedlarine,
See.
near to their infertion $
fome fhoots will be pulhed out the following feafon,
w hell of which may be retained, to fupply the place
of the branch removed. All the leading branches
ought to be looked over, and the fuperfluous fore¬
right and mifplaced Ihoots of lalt year’s growth which
will not ealily apply to the wall, ought to be cut off
clofe to their infertion into the main branch j the moll
vigorous and bell placed Ihoots fhould be trained at
full length to the wall or efpalier at the dillance of
from four to fix inches from one another. When there
happens to be any vacant fpace on the wall or efpalier,
fome of the lall year’s Ihoots may be Ihortened, as di¬
rected in the pruning of young trees.
In looking over the leading branches, all the fpurs
which produce flower buds ought to be carefully re¬
tained; and any Humps which may have been left, after
former pruning*, ought to be Cut away quite clofe to
the branch from which they proceed, for they con-
Hantly produce a redundancy of branches which create
ronfufion, lhade the fruit from the fun, and rob it of its
proper nourilhment.
This is a proper feafon to prune plum and cherry trees
either on walls or efpaliers : the fame diredlions which
have been given for pruning apples and pears will apply
to the pruning of plums and cherries, as they likewife
produce their fruit on Ipurs, pulhed out from nearly the
extremity of the Ihoots, which are two or three years old.
It is improper in pruning to Ihorten the branches, be-
eaufe the very part would be removed from which the
fruit buds Ihould proceed next or fubfequent feafon.
Thefe trees produce their fruit on the young branches
of lalt year. A plentiful fupply of lall year’s Ihoots
mull therefore be retained to be nailed to the wall, at
the dillance of from three inches to half a foot from one
anothei ; the moll vigorous and belt placed Ihoots are
to be felefied for this purpofe, and all fore-right, weak¬
ly or fuperfluous Ihoots are to be removed, likewife
lome of the lalt year’s bearers. That the pruning knife
may be. ufed more freely, it would be proper not only
to unnail the Ihoots which had been laid in lall year,
but even fome of the principal branches. In felefting
the branches, attention mull be paid not only to their
pofition and proper diltance, but likewife to the quanti¬
ty of flower buds they contain. Thefe buds are dif-
tinguilhable from thofe which produce branches by their
roundnefs ; and towards fpring when the buds begin to
.dl, by their fize : thole which produce branches be¬
ing generally fmall, flat and pointed. It frequently
happens that one of each is produced at the fame eye
(as it is termed), or fometimes two flower buds, with a
branch bud between them. All very flrong thick
branches are to be rejedled, as well as thofe that are
long, fmall, and feeble, becaufe the very vigorous
tranches are much more apt to run to wood, than to
produce fruit. Thofe branches which are fele&ed as
the fitteft to be retained, ought to be Ihortened (due
regard being paid to their vigour, and to the number
and fituation of the flower buds they contain), which
wiH make them pulh out two or three branches the
enfumg fummer, the bell of which may be retained for
jaext year’s bearers.
In weak trees that are not difpofed to pulh vigorouf-
the Imaller Ihoots may be Ihortened to the length
@ fix or eight inches; the more vigorous flioots may be
2
GARDENING.
from the Hump that is left left from ten to fifteen inches long, or thereby
Fait III.
In trees January.
Fruit
Garden.
—y——
of moderate growth the branches ought to be left pro¬
portionally longer, the fmaller ones from half a foot to
ten inches, the more vigorous from one foot to a foot
and an half. In very vigorous trees, the branches
ought to be Ihortened but little, and fome of them not
at all, the fmaller Ihoots may be Ihortened to the
length of a foot or fifteen inches ; the more vigorous
Ihoots Ihould have only about a third or fourth part of
their length cut off j and the molt vigorous Ihould not
be Ihortened at all, for the more they are Ihortened
the more they are difpofed to pulh vigoroully and run
to wood, and on that account produce few fruit. As the
flower buds are fometimes fituated near the extremity,
at other times near the bottom of the branch, this cir-
cumflance in a certain degree mull regulate the Ihorten-
ing the branch, as care mull be taken to leave a fuf-
ficient quantity of flower buds, where fruit is the ob-
je6l. Care mult likewife be taken to have a bud which
is expefled to produce a branch, at the eye which is
next the cut extremity ; it is of no moment whether it
be alone or in company with one or two flower buds
but it is abfolutely neceffary to have one to produce a
leading branch, without which the fruit will not thrive.
When three or four lall year’s Ihoots are found on a
branch of the preceding year, the one at the upper and
lower extremities is frequently preferved ; in that cafe
the intermediate ones ought to be cut away clofe to the
branch : but Ihould any of the intermediate ones be
feledled as the moll proper to be retained, the branch
of the preceding year Ihould be cut off dole by the up-
permoll of the Ihoots which has been fixed on, and all
thofe Ihoots which are to be removed Ihould be cut
away clofe to the branch from w'hich they proceed.
After each tree has been gone over, it ought to be
carefully nailed to the \vall or fixed to the efpalier.
Vines if cut when m a growing Hate are apt to bleed Vinet and
very copioully. This bleeding is detrimental to them, figs,
and is llopt with great difficulty. If vines are pruned
a ffiort time before the rife of the fap, they are likewife
liable to bleed at the recently cut extremities; it would
therefore be improper any time this month to prune
vines which grow in the hot-houfe or in a vinery
which is to be early forced ; but fuch as grow on open
walls or in vineyards may be fafely cut any time this
month. Though it would certainly be advifable to
prune as foon after the fall of the leaf as may be, as in
that cafe the cut extremities would have fufficient time
to heal, and all danger of bleeding would be re¬
moved.
Fig trees may be pruned any time this month, though
perhaps it would be as well to defer it till next or fol¬
lowing month. For the method, fee February.
Goofeberries and currants may Hill be pruned. See
November.
Goofeberries and currants may be planted if the fe- pjan45
verity of the froll does not render the ground too hard ; goofeberries
indeed they may be planted any time from the fall of and cur-
the leaf in autumn till the puffiing out of their buds in rant5‘
fpring. It is ufual to plant them in rows along the
borders, or to divide the plots in the kitchen garden •
in which cafe they ought to be planted two or three
yards apart, and the dillance between the rows mull
depend on the fize of the plots they are to feparate (io
JJ or 18 yards). They ought to be trained up withi
i.
pait III. CAR J3
January, fingle ftalk to the height of io or 15 inches, which will
Frmt allow the kitchen crops that may be planted near them
Garden. to grow freely, and will render the operations of hoe-
ing, weeding, and raking under the bullies eafy. d'hey
are frequently planted out in compartments by them-
felves, in which cafe the bullies ought to hand at the
diltance of from five to eight feet in the rows, and the
rows ought to be eight or nine feet apart.
When plenty of room is allowed between the buthes,
they grow freely, and produce larger fruit; free ad-
million is likewile afforded to the fun and air, without
which, the fruit would not acquire its proper flavour :
hoeing, and digging between the bulhes, is more eafily
performed, and crops of different kinds of kitchen gar¬
den produflions may be reared in the intervals. Cur¬
rants are very frequently planted againft walls, and rails
to which they are regularly trained. Goofeberries alfo
are fometnnes planted againft walls and rails, thofe
againlt walls yield early and wTell flavoured fruit. The
variety of goofebenies is very great, and every feafon
adds new varieties to thofe already known, The princi¬
pal kinds are the early rough green, fmall early red,
fmooth green, large Dutch red, common hairy red,
fmooth black, rough white, white cryftal, large yellow,
rough yellow, large amber, large tawny, &c.
The different kinds of currants are the black, common
white, large Dutch white or grape currant, common
red and chainpaigne.
Rafpber- Rafpberries may be pruned or planted during this
ties. or any of the winter months ; they produce their fruit
on fmall branches which proceed from the fhoots of the
former year. Every year they pufli up a number of
fhoots from the root, which bear fruit the fubfequent
liimmer, and then die. In drefling rafpberries, all the
old dead ftalks mull be cut awray clofe by the ground,
and all the young ones except four or five of the ftrong-
efl, which fhould be Ihortened a little. All thefe (hoots
become fmall towards their extremity and bend a little ;
it is the common practice to cut off the bent part, but
fome (horten them one-third, others one-fourth. After
the (hoots have been (hortened, they ought to be inter¬
twined or furrounded by a bandage of fome kind to
keep them together, for the fake of mutual fupport, be-
caufe when they are allowed to ftand (ingle they are
apt to be weighed down in fummer by the weight of
their own leaves and fruit, particularly when loaded
with rain, or to be beaten down by the wind j in which
cafe they may frequently lie one over the other, create
confufion, and exclude the fun and air from thofe that
are undermort, or may lie fo clofe to the ground as to
have their fruit deftroyed. After the plants are pruned,
the ground between them ought to be dug, and all
draggling (hoots which advance to a diftance from the
. main plants ought to be taken up.
Rafpberries may be planted any time this month
when the weather is moderate : when new plantations
of them are wanted, they ought to be formed in open
lituations, if high flavoured fruit be wiihed for ; but
cafps will thrive very well and produce good crops in
fhadowy fituations. The ground in which they are to
be planted ought to be well d"g, and if a little rotten
dung be added, the plants will fucceed the better.
They ought to be planted at the diftance of three feet
irom each other, in rows four or five feet apart. The
offsets which are dug up from between the rows of
Vol. IX. Part II.
ENIN G. 417
old plantations of rafpberries are commonly made ufe January,
of for this purpofe. Any of the la(t years (hoots that ^ ”|l!:
are well rooted and tolerably vigorous will anfwer per- *.
feblly well. Thofe wdiich have two or three buds, form¬
ed on the roots, from which young (hoots are to proceed
the following (ummer, are generally to be preferred to
thofe which have fewer though equally vigorous. They
ought to be taken up carefully with all their roots, and
after the ftem has been (hortened a little (about one-
third) they may be planted at the diftances already
mentioned. Plantations formed now will yield fome
fruit the enfuing fummer, and a plentiful crop the fol¬
lowing feafon. The kinds of rafpberries commonly
ufed are the white, double bearing, (which bears two
crops, one in fummer the other in autumn), the fmooth
Italk, the Antwerp (very large). 44
If the weather be mild, all kind of fruit trees may Prepare for
be planted any time this month j but if it Ihould be pkgmng
deemed more advifeable to defer planting till next rult trte"
month, the ground may be prepared for their reception
any time during open wreather. The borders on which
fruit trees are to be planted, which are to be trained
againft walls or efpaliers, fliould be trenched or dug two
fpades deep. For planting and preparing ground for
fruit trees, fee October. ^
The roots of the more tender forts of fruit trees, viz. Protect the
peaches, nectarines, apricots, and indeed of all forts of roots, &c.
(toned fruit, which may have been planted any time in
the courfe of the winter, wdll require to be protected
during froft by a covering of draw, or litter mixed with
dung, or fomething of that nature, applied to a con-
fiderable diftance round the ftem, fo as to cover the
ground completely, and prevent the froft; from penetrat-
ing.
Protect fig trees during frofty weather wdth a cover-
ing of mats, or fomething of that nature, becaufe their
(hoots being fucculent, particularly towards their extre¬
mities, are apt to be deftroyed by the froft. This is of
the more conlequence as the fruit is produced from the
young fhoots only, and chiefly from their extremities,
the parts moft liable to fuffer. ^
Where there are vineries, peach, cherry-houfes, See. Force fruit
the glaffes ought to be put on about the beginning oftrees*
the month wThen it is intended to force early, and fires
ought to be applied about the middle or towards the
end of it. See Forcing, February. ^
Towards the beginning, middle, or end of the month, and ftraw-
hot-beds may be made for forcing ftraw'berries, which,berffc5*
if properly managed, will produce ripe fruit in March
or April. The hot-beds are to be formed according
to the direftions given under the article Melon, and
Cucumber. See Kitchen Garden, Januar e. The dung
ihould be railed at lead to the height of three feet, and
the frame and glaffes put on as foon as the bed is made,
which will both proteft it from rain or fnow, and draw
up the fleam fooner. As foon as the violent heat is
over, the furface of the bed Ihould be covered to the
depth, of four or five inches with dry earth, or with a
quantity of decayed tanners bark taken from an old
tan-bed. The pots containing the plants fhould be
plunged.up to the rims into the earth or tan with which
the bed is covered. They (hould be placed as clofe to¬
gether as poflible, and care taken to fill up all the in-
terftices with earth or tan. When all the pots are
plunged, put on the glaffes and keep them clofe till
3 G ' the
4,8 G A R D E N 1 N G.
January the fleam rife in the bed, when it will be neceflfary to
Flower ra{fe them a little behind, to allow the fleam to pafs off.
. CarJien- The alpine and fcarlet ftrawberry are commonly made
ufe of for this purpofe.
The plants ihould be two years old, and ii potted
the preceding autumn, they will fucceed the better •, but
Part III
if a quantity of plants were not put into pots laid
autumn for this purpofe, that work may be done any
time this month during open weather, tor the method,
fee September. Or the plants may be taken up now
with balls of earth, and placed in the beds without
being put into pots. When the plants begin to pufli,
let them have plenty of air during favourable weather,
for fhould they be kept too dole they will become
weakly, and either produce no flowers at all, or tneir
flowers will drop off without yielding fruit. They
fhould likewife be frequently watered and protefted
during the night in levere weather with a covering of
mats. When the heat of the bed begins to decay, it
ihould be renewed by proper linings of freth dung, ap¬
plied as diredled for melon-beds. As to the iize of
hot-beds nothing need be faid, as that mull be regulated
by the number of plants intended to be forced. Hot¬
beds formed of tanners bark, particularly where there
are pits conftruffed on purpofe, will anfwer better than
thofe of horfe-dung, becaufe they afford a more equable
heat. Where there are pine-houfes, or hot-houfes of
any kind, plenty of ftrawberries may be obtained early,
•without much trouble, by placing pots filled with the
plants in them anywhere near the glafs.
Sect. III. The Flower Garden or F‘leafure Ground.
48
pots^
49
Bulbous
Protect Double flowers, as fweetwilliams, wallflowers,
iWers in ftoc]-s? rofe campion, and auriculas, carnations, &c.
kept in pots ought to be protected in fevere weather,
either by common garden frames, or by coverings of
mats fupported on hoops. Due attention muff be paid
to give them air whenever the weather is mild. Where
there are no conveniences of the above defeription,
the pots may be plunged up to their rims in well-
iheltered borders clofe to a fouth wall. The pots con¬
taining hardy plants Ihould likewife be plunged in the
earth in fome dry lituation up to the rims, to protect
the roots from frofl.
During fevere frofly weather the beds in which the
mots in finer forts 0f hyacinths, tulips, rununculufes, anemones,
'eds' &c. have been planted ihould be protected by a cover¬
ing of mats or ftraw •, but if the plants have begun to
make their appearance above ground, the beds ihould
be aiched over with low hoops and covered with mats,
which ought to be fixed down to prevent their being
blown off by the wind \ and they ihould be removed
occafionally during mild weather
Plant bul- If any hyacinth, tulip, narciffus, crown imperial,
bous roots, crocus, or fnowdrop roots remain unplanted, they ought
now to be put into the ground. For the method of
^ j planting them fee October.
Sow hardy * About the latter end of the month, if the weather is
annuals. mild, fow a few fweet peas in any warm iheltered fitua-
tion for flowering early, alfo fome feeds of candytuft,
larkfpur, adonis, dwarf funflower, perficaria, venus
52 navel-wort, venus looking-glafs, lobel’s-catchfly, and
Force flow panfy violet.
ioYhouXe Pots of pinks, carnations, roles, Perfian or common
lilach, hyacinth, polyanthus, narcifius, Italian narciffus, January,
dwarf tulip, jonquil, lily of the valley, &c. may be ; '„'r^ ! v' ,
placed in the hot-iioufe, where they will flower early.
As foon as they corne into blow they ihould be removed
into a green houfe, or the apartments of a dwelling-
houfe, where they will continue longer in flower than
they would do if left in ti e flove, where the great heat
would accelerate their decay. All thofe fhould have
been put into pots the preceding autumn, or at lead
fome time previous to their being introduced into the
hot-houfe. The roles in particular require to be
well rooted in the pots belore they are forced. ^
Shrubs may now be pruned, which Ihould be per-Man?.ge~
formed with a knife and not with garden fheers. All^m oi
irregular ihoots which extend far beyond tne reft; of“
the branches fhould be cut off. A few branches ihould
aifo be cut out wherever they are too much crowded to¬
gether, likewife all dead and decayed ones. After the
pruning has been finiihed, the ground in the ihiubbery
ought to be dug over, and all fuckers removed. Where
the ihrubs are too much crowded together, fome of
them ought to be taken out 5 and where any of them
have died, or if they ftand too diftant, fonie young
ones may now be planted to fill up the vacancies. C4
Grafs walks and lawns ihould be kept neat by fre-Of grafs
quent poling and rolling. Poling may be perf rmed^^^anc
in open dry weather, with a long taper aih pole about
twelve or fifteen feet long, which breaks and fcatters
the worm calls. After this, in moderately dry weather,
roll with a wooden roller, to which all the loofe worm-
cafts will adhere. Walks or lawns may alfo be made
this month during open weather. Good turf may be
obtained from commons or downs where fheep feed,
or from fields which have been long under pafture.
Each turf ihculd be marked out a yard long and a loot
in breadth, and cut to the thicknefs of an inch with a
turfing iron. As the cutting proceeds, they fhculd be
rolled up compadily with the grafs fide in. If they are
not clofely rolled up they will be apt to break in
carrying. They muft be iaid on the walk or lawn clofe
to one another after the furface has been rendered level
and compadl by proper treading, that it may not fettle
unequally. W hen they have been put on they muft: be
beat down with a wooden rammer, and afterwards roll¬
ed with a large iron or wooden roller. 55
Gravel walks fhould be cleared of weeds and all de-Of gravel
cayed leaves, and kept clean ; and in dry weather they wa KS‘
ihould be occaiionally rolled. New walks may like¬
wife be formed now. For the method fee March.
Edqings of boxwood, thrift, &c. may be planted Edgings,
any time this month in open weather. See October.
Fledges of hawthorn, barberry, privet, hazel, holm,
yew, birch, elm, elder, &c. may be planted during this see. of
month. See November. Old hedges which haveheclges-
become open below fhould be plafhed. See Decem¬
ber. . 5s
Foreft trees for ornamental plantations, coppices, orOfforcft
woods, may be planted either now or at any time fromtrees'
the fall of the leaf till the rife of the fap in fpring. See
October.
Sect. IV. Nurfery,
So
Prune and tranfplant fhrubs, fruit and foreft trees.
Trim the flems of forefl-treesf and cut off all ir-umibs ^
regular trees.
G A R D £ N I N G.
January.
" Green-
houfe and
Ilot-houfe.
60
Of feed-
lings.
Part III.
regular rambling (boots of fhrubs, and reduce them to a
regular neat form. This work may be executed any
time this month, even during froft, when little elie can
be done. All kinds of hardy deciduous fhrubs, fruit,
and foreft trees may be tranfplanted during open
weather.
Dm ground in open weather, and wheel out dung in
froft.
Vacant compartments of ground may be dug any
time during open weather} and likewife after the ne-
ceiTary pruning has been given to the trees and fhrubs,
the ground between the rows maybe dug, and all weeds
carefully buried.
The young plants of many'of the tenderer kinds of
trees and fhrubs, fuch as cedar of Lebanon,, and fome
other fpecies of pine, cyprefs, chinefe arbor vitae, ftraw-
berry-tree, &c. require to be protected during froft.
If they have been raifed in boxes or pots, they may be
placed in garden frames and occaiionally covered with
the glaffes ; but care muft be taken always to remove
the glafles in mild open weather. If the plants ftand
in beds in the open ground, they may be covered with
mats fupported on hoops, which muft be removed du¬
ring favourable weather, or a covering of peafe ftraw, or
fomething of that nature may anfwer the purpofe.
Layers of many kinds of trees and fhrubs may be
made any time this month during open weather ; many
of them which are laid now wall be well rooted and
fit for removing by Oftober ; for the method fee No¬
vember.
Put in cuttings of honeyfuckles, goofberries, currants,
&c. indeed moft kinds of trees and fhrubs may be pro¬
pagated by cuttings. For this purpofe feledt the ftraight
fhoots of laft year’s growth ; take them off by a clean
cut with a fliarp knife, and reduce them to the length
of ten, twelve, or fifteen inches, by cutting off part of
their fmaller extremities. Plant them in rows a foot a-
part, and at the diftance of four or five inches from one
another in the row’s, taking care to infert one third or
«ne half of their length into the ground. Though cuttings
will grow v’hen their fmaller extremities are put into
the ground, they never fucceed fo wTell in this inverted
pofition, therefore in planting, attention fhould be paid
to place them in their natural pofition. Older and
longer branches of fome trees and fhrubs, viz. willow,
elder, &c. may be employed as cuttings.
Goofberries, currants, rofes, lilachs, and many other
fhrubs and trees, may be propagated by fuckers or off-
fets from the roots : thefe may be taken off any time
this month, and planted in row’s. Previous to their
being planted it would be proper to trim off part of
their extremities.
419
6t
Propagate
trees, &c.
by layers,
62
By cuttings
<53
By fuckers.
Sect. V. Green-Houfe and Hot-Hou/e.
64
The air to During froft, keep the glaffes fhut, but whenever
be cautiouf-^g weather is mild give the green-houfe air by opening
y a nutted ^ gia{pes more 0r lefs according to the ftate of the
weather : even in the brighteft mild days during this
month the glaffes fhould not be opened until about ten
o’clock in the morning, and ought to be fhut again
about three in the afternoon. In dull foggy days, even
though the w’eather be mild, they fhould be opened but
' little, and that for a fhort.time, and in very damp
weather, not at all. When very fevere froft prevails,
January.
Green-
houfe.
f "“3 muft be put on, and the flues gently warmed 5 out
the temperature of the air fhould not be railed higher
than merely to keep off the effects of the external fioft. .■v——,
A little fire fhould likewife be put on during very.wet
weather to baniflr the damps. Water fhould be given
to fuch plants as require it, but fparingly. Succulent
plants, fuch as aloes, &c. require little or no water at
this feafon. All dead and decayed leaves fhould be
carefully picked off, and the green-houfe kept clean. 65
Particular attention muft be paid to the pine apple Pine apple
plants which are to produce fruit the enfuing fummer, P^ts^re-^
as many of them in the courfe of this month, begin to^. a
fhew flowers. If due attention be not now paid to keep
up a proper heat, both in the tanned bed and in tue air
of the hot-houfe, the plants may receive fuch a check
as will confiderably affect the fize of the future fruit.
The bark bed muft be' carefully examined •, and if the
bark be much decayed and the heat found on tne de¬
cline, a quantity of frefli tanners bark fhould be pre¬
pared to be added as a refrefliment to the old. The
pots containing the pine apple plants Ihould then be ta¬
ken out of the tan pits, and a quantity of the decayed
tan removed from the furface and fides of the pits, to
make room for the frefh tan which is to be added.
The old tan muft likewiie be turned up from the bot¬
tom, and w’ell mixed with the newr, after which the
pots muft be again plunged into the tan. But if, on
examination, the heat of the ton pit be found good,
and the tan not much decayed, it will be iutheient to
turn the old tan, and to mix it well together without
making any addition of new. This operation will re¬
vive the heat of the bed, and preferve it in good condi¬
tion for fome time to come. The heat of the air in th£
houfe muft likewife be attended to, and regulated by
the thermometer and by due attention to the fires.
Moderate watering muft be given once a week or ten
days, according as the pine-apple plants may feem to
require it j and care muft be taken not to pour any of
the water into their hearts or among their leaves.
The other plants in the hot-houfe muft be regularly
watered •, but thofe of a fucculent nature, fuch as the
different fpecies of aloe, euphorbia, mefembryantne-
mum, &c. require very little water at a time, and that
but feldom. 66
Kidney beans, fown in pots or in narrow boxes of Kidney
about two or three-feet long, may be reared in the.hot-beans-
houfe. Thofe fown this month will produce fruit in
April or March. When fown in pots, two or three
may be put into each, and covered about an inch deep :
When in boxes they may be planted to the depth of an
inch along the middle, at the diftance of two or three
inches from one another. The pots or boxes may be
placed on the crib of the bark bed, on {helves, or any
convenient fituation, within the houfe, where they may
not encumber the other plants. After the plants have
come up, they fhould be regularly and frequently wa¬
tered. The kinds commonly ufed for this purpofe are
the early fpeckled dwarf, negro dwarf, and dun-co¬
loured dwarf. 67
Cucumbers may be raifed with tolerable fuccefs in Cucumbers
the hot-houfe, which will produce fruit early in fpring.
If the plants have been raifed in fmall pots, plunged in
the tan of the bark bed, or in hot-beds made of horfe
dung, they Ihould be tranfplantcd into larger pots or
boxes, in which they may remain and produce fruit $
q G 2 or
420 GARB
February, or the feeds may be fawn at once in the pots where
Kitchen are to reraa}n> Jn cafe or eiyht feeds
' t~ may be lown m each pot, or patches containing that
number may be fowm at proper intervals in long narrow
boxes. When the plants have come up, only two or
three of the llrongeft fliould be left in each pot or
patch. The pots or boxes may be placed in any con¬
venient fituation in the hot-houfe, but will fucceed bell
on a fhelf fixed near the top of the houfe, within a fiiort
diftance of the glafs. The plants murt be frequently
watered, and have fome fmall rods fixed near them, to
wdiich the runners may be fattened.
FEBRUARY.
E N I N G.
Part III.
63
Admit air
ro cauli¬
flowers,
plants.
69
Sow cauli-
flowers.
1°
Tranrplant
cabbages.
71
Sow cab-
bagesa
Sect I. Kitchen Garden.
The cauliflower plants, which are under frames,
fhould have plenty of air. Indeed, whenever the wea¬
ther will permit, the glafles ought to be taken off en¬
tirely.
About the end of the month, if the weather be mild,
fome of the ttrongett plants may be tranfplanted into
the fituations where they are to remain. They ought
to be planted in good well-manured ground, in a warm
fituation, at the diftance of twro feet and a half each
w7ay from one another. The fame attention muff be
paid to cauliflowers under bell or hand-glafles. When
more than two plants happen to be under one glafs, the
weakefl: of them fliould be planted out about the end of
the month, if the weather be mild, and only one or
two fliould be left under each glafs : but if the weather
is unfettled or fevere, tranfplanting ought to be defer¬
red till next month.
Some cauliflower feed may be fown any time this
month to produce plants to fucceed thofe that have been
preferved during winter under frames or hand-glaffes, or
to fupply the place of thofe which may have been cut
off by the feverity of the weather.
For this purpofe make a flight hot-bed of horfe dung,
to the height of 20 inches or twm feet; cover it with a
light rich earth to the depth of four or five inches, on
the furface of which fow the feeds, and cover them to
the depth of a quarter bf an inch with earth of the fame
defcription. After the feed has been fowm, a frame and
glaffes fliould be put on, if one can be fpared for this
purpofe} and when the plants begin to appear above
ground, they fliould ‘have plenty of air, whenever the
weather wdll permit, otherwife they wall be drawm up
and become weak. J he glaffes, therefore, (unlefs in
very fevere weather) fliould be raifed every day, and in
mild ones taken off entirely. Wlien there are no glaf¬
fes to fpare, the bed may be covered during the night,
and in fevere wreather, with mats properly fixed over it.
T he plants fliould be fprinkled with water from time to
time, if moderate fliowrers fliould not render this unne-
ceffary.
Cabbage plants, if tolerably ftrong, fliould be tranf¬
planted in the courfe of this month. See Id laming out
Cabbages, January.
About the middle, or towards the end of the month,
fow fome cabbage and favoy feed to raife plants for late
crops in flimmer and autumn. Both the early and late
kinds of cabbage may be fown now, but it is better to
£ow them in Auguft j but if none were fown in autumn,
or if the plants raifed then have been cut off by the fe- February,
verity of the winter, a quantity of both early and late Kitchen
fliould be fown the firft opportunity this month. That Garden,,
the plants may fooner acquire fufficient ffrength for
planting out, it would be proper to fow them in a flight
hot-bed.
Where fmall falad is required, let fome feeds ofSmallfa-
muftard, crefs, radifti, rape, &c. be fowm regularly everyla(i-
eight or ten days during the courfe of the month. See
January.
Earth up celery in open dry weather if the plants Celery,
have advanced much above ground. Sow fome upright
celery feed for an early crop about the middle or to¬
wards the end of the month in a fmall bed of rich light
earth in a warm fituation. There are three wTays in
which this may be performed, ift, The earth of the
bed (hould be well broken with the fpade 5 the feed
fown on the rough furface and raked in. 2dly, The
furface of the bed may be made fmooth ; the feed fovvn
and covered to the depth of a quarter of an inch wnth
light rich earth. 3dly, A quantity of earth, to the
depth of about half an inch, fliould be removed with
the back of a rake from the furface of the bed into the
alleys, which, after the feed has been fown, Ihould be
gently replaced with the rake, d hole who are very
anxious to have early celery, fliould fow fome in a flight
hot-bed. The plants raifed now will be fit for ufe in
June or July ; but it would be advifeable to fow’ few at
this feafon, as they will be very apt to pipe or run up
to feed before they acquire fufficient fize : there are two
kinds of celery, the Italian, and turnip-rooted or cele-
riac.
74
About the beginning of this month fow fome fliort- Radifhes.
topped radiflies to fucceed thofe fown laft ftionth, and
fome falmon and Italian radifties at any time during the
month. See January.
Some round-leaved fpinach may be fowm any time in Spinach,
the courfe of the month, to fucceed that which wras
fown laft month. See January. 75
Some early peas may be fowm this month. This is Peas,
likewife a proper feafon for fowdng a full crop of late
peas, fuch as marrowfats, rouncivals, Carolina, and fu-
gar pea, &c. For the diftances at which they are to be
fown, fee January. ^
This is the proper time to plant beans. For the me- Beans,
thod and diftances, fee January. ^,g
Such peas and beans as are fufticiently advanced in Earth up
growth ihould now be earthed up. peasant!
In mild open wmather fow fome feeds of green and jeans*
white cos lettuce, likewife fome Sicilian, imperial, brown Sow^and
Dutch, and common cabbage lettuce. See January, tranfplant
If young lettuce plants are wmnted for tranfplantinglettuces-
early, they fhould be fowm in a flight hot-bed or in
fome warm flieltered fituation ; and when they have ad¬
vanced to the height of about two inches, they may be
planted out in the open ground. Lettuces that have
flood the winter in frames, under hand-glafl'es or in
warm borders, ftiould be thinned and left Handing at
the diftance of one foot from each other, and thofe that
are drawn out Ihould be planted in fome proper fitua-
tion. _ _ So
About the middle or end of this month fow fome car-Sow carrot
rots and parfnips. They fucceed beftin light deep foil, andparfoip.
and in an open fituation. .The ground ftiould be dug,
at leaft one fpade deep or two, if the depth of the foil
will
Kitchen
Garden.
Beet.
Part III. GAUD
February, will admit, and the clods ought to be well broken.
They may be fown either broadcaft, in narrow beds, or
in drills. See March.
Sow fome feeds of red, white, and green beet, like-
wife of mangel wurzel or German beet. The fine red
root of the'tiril is ufed as a pickle, &c. ; the leaves of
the white and green are made ufe of in loops, &c. ;
and the large leaves of the mangel wurzel are boiled
and ufed as fpinach. The footltalks of its leaves are
likewife ufed as afparagus. Each kind fhould be fown
feparately, either broadcall or in drills, an inch deep,
and about a foot apart •, but the mangel wurzel re¬
quires more room than the other kinds, becaufe it is of
larger growth. After the plants have come up, they
fliould be thinned out, to the diftance of fix or eight
inches from each other. The feed may likewife be
dibbled in rows, about a foot apart, and at the dif¬
tance of lix or eight inches from each other in the row's.
Two or more feeds may be put into each hole } and
when the plants appear above ground, one of the Itrong-
eft only Ihould be left.
Some of laid year’s carrots, parfnips, and beets, Ihould
feed &C" f°r ke P^anted out hi row's, two feet apart and one foot dif-
tant from each other in the row, to Hand and produce
feed.
Some onions and leeks may be fown in mild dry wea¬
ther, any time after the middle of this month. Ihe
ground fliould be well dug, and the feeds fowm when
the furface is dry, and then raked in. The beft mode
is to divide the ground into beds of about four feet
wude, for the convenience of thinning, weeding, &c. 5
but they may alfo be fowm in plots, wnthout being divided
into beds, in which cafe, if the foil be light, the feed
may be gently trodden in, before the furface is raked.
The leeks will be fit for tranfplanting in June and July,
and the onions for drawing in Auguft. Sometimes a
frnall quantity of leek-feed is fowm along with the
onion 5 and when the onions are drawn in Auguft, the
leeks are allowed to remain to acquire a proper fize 5
but it is better to fow' each feparately. The principal
kinds of onions are the Stralburg, Deptford, Spanifh
Portugal, long keeping, and red.
The Hamburgh parfley and fcorzonera are cultivated
paifley,&c. for roots 5 the falfafy for its roots and tops. The
roots of all of them, if fown now or any time in fpring,
will be fit for ufing in autumn, and continue good all
winter. The Hamburgh parfley roots are not only ufed
for culinary purpofes, but recommended in medicine.
They are faid to be ufeful in the gravel. The feeds
may be fown in drills, fix inches apart, and covered
with earth to the depth of half an inch. The plants
ftiould be thinned in May or June, and left Handing
at the diftance of fix inches from each other in the
E N I N G.
421
82
Plant car-
83.
Sow onions
and leeks.
84
Hamburgh
85
Pet-herbs,
&c.
85
Plant gar¬
lic. &c.
About the middle of the month you may fow feeds
of burnet, lovage, angelica, marigold, fennel, dill, for-
rel, chervil, and clary. Each kind ftiould be fown fe¬
parately, either in the place where they are to remain,
or they may be tranfplanted in fummer. See June.
About the middle or end of the month fow marjo¬
ram, thyme, favory, and hyflbp. The plants may ei¬
ther remain where fown, or K* planted out in the be¬
ginning of fummer. See June.
Towards the end of the month plant ftialot, garlic, and
rokambole. Having procured a quantity of their roots,
divide and plant them in rows nine inches apart and fix February,
inches diftant from each other in the row. They may
be put in to the depth of two inches with the dibble, or _—
placed in drills, two inches deep, drawn with a hoe. 87
This is a proper time to raife a full crop ot parfley. Parfley,
See January. _ 83
A few potatoes may be planted about the middle or Potatoesj
end of this month for an early crop ; but if wanted very
early, fome early dwarf potatoes ftiould be planted in
a flight hot-bed. For -the method of planting, fee
March. _ 89
Horfe radiih is propagated by offsets or cuttings of Horfe ra¬
the roots, about three inches long, which may be plant-d’*1"
ed either with the dibble or fpade, at the diftance of fix
or eight inches from each other, in rows two feet apart.
When they are planted with the dibble, the holes ought,
to be made 10 or 12 inches deep 5 when with the fpade
a trench ihould be made a full fpade deep, in the bot¬
tom of which the offsets or cuttings ftiould be placed
ereft, and covered with earth from the next trench.
As they will not appear above ground till the month of
May, a crop of fpinach, radifhes, or fmall falad, may
be got from the ground, and cleared off before the horfe
radiih appears. After the plants have come above
ground, they ought to be kept clear of weeds.
About the middle or towards the end of the month, Sow turnip,
fow' fome feed of the early Dutch turnip in a border of
light earth, in a warm fituation. See March. . 91
If no preparations were made laft month for raifing Cucumbers
early cucumbers and melons, they may be commenced, ancl mei0n“
any time this month, with better profped of fuccefs.
For the method of forming and managing the feed-bed,
fee January.—If the cucumbers and melons, fown laft
month and tranfplanted into fmall pots, be fit for ridg¬
ing out, a hot-bed for one or more frames ftiould be
got ready for their reception, which ihould be raifed to
the height of three feet and a half, and covered with a
frame and glaffes. About a week afterwards, if the
hot-bed has fettled unevenly, the frame and glaffes
ihould be removed j and after the furface of the bed
has been made perfeftly level, replaced. As foon as
the violent heat has fubfided, the rank fteam efcaped,
and all danger of burning apparently over, cover the
bed to the depth of two inches with dry light rich
earth, and raife a conical heap of the fame earth,
to the height of about 10 inches, immediately under
the centre of each light. By the following clay the -
earth will have acquired a proper warmth, and the bed
will be fit for the reception of the young plants. The
earth, laid over the furface of the bed, to the depth of
two inches, will prevent the rank fteam of the dung,
on the one hand, from rifing up freely, and yet not
keep it down altogether : were much of the furface of
the dung expofed, and the fteam allowed to efcape
freely, the young plants would be deftroyed ; and, on
the other hand, were it prevented from efcaping alto¬
gether, by laying on earth to a fufficient depth at once,
the bed would become overheated, and the roots of the
plants might be burnt.
The pots containing the young cucumber and melon Manage-
plants, which were tranfplanted laft month (fee Ja- ment °f the-'
nuary), Ihould be well watered the day previous totorraer
their being ridged out, to make the ball of earth ad¬
here, and come out of the pot entire. After the tops
of the hillocks of earth, which had been raifed to the
422
GARDENtN G.
Part III.
93
Topping.
height of xo inches utfder each light, have been flatten¬
ed by reducing their height about two inches, make a
hole in the centre of each, capable of containing one of
the balls of earth, which is to be turned out of the pots.
Select fome pots containing the ftrongeft plants} place
your hand on the furface of the pot, allowing the plants
to pafs between ycur fingers ; invert it, and ftrike the
edge of it gently againft the frame till the ball of earth
comes out, which Ihould be put into one of the holes in
the hillock juft mentioned ; clofe the earth round the
ball, and make it rife about an inch over its furface.
After they have been thus ridged out, they fhould re¬
ceive a gentle watering, and be covered with the glaf-
fes till the fteam begin to rife much, when air Ihouid
be given by raifing the glaffes. Thefe hot-beds, into
which the cucumbers and melons have been finally
tranfplanted, muft be managed in the fame manner as
the nurfery beds, mentioned laft month. A covering
of ftraw, or fomething of that nature, fhould be laid all
round the dung 5 linings of frefh dung ftrould be applied
to the Tides of the bed when the heat begins to decline,
air admitted under the fame circumftances and with
the fame precautions as there ftated. If three cucum¬
bers or two melons have been planted in the pots, as
before diredfed, one of the weakeft of either flrould be
removed immediately before, or after they are ridged
out. Should any fymptoms of burning appear foon af¬
ter the plants have been ridged out, part of the earth,
clofe to the bottom of the hillocks, muft be removed ;
and as foon as the violent heat has fubfided, be replaced
with frefh earth. When the heat of the bed begins to
decline a little, efpecially if any of the roots of the
plants fhew themfelves through the fides of the hillocks,
a quantity of frefh earth fhould be applied all round
them, which fhould be kept within the frame for one
night previoufly, that it may acquire a proper tempera¬
ture, for Ihould it be applied cold, it might injure the
young roots. Two or three days after this an addition¬
al quantity of frefh earth fhould be applied to the fides
of the hills; and in two or three more the whole fur-
lace of the bed may be earthed over as high as the tops
of the hills.
When the plants have got two rough leaves, and
when the fecond is about an inch broad, the bud,
which is fituated at the axilla (or bafe) of the fecond
rough leaf, muft be removed either with the finger,
a pair of feiffars, or a penknife, or, when the bud is
very fmall, with a needle or pin, being careful not to
injure the joint. After the plants are thus topped or
flopped, they foon acquire ftrength ; and in about 10
or 1 2 days, each of them will throw out two or three
runners, which will fhew flowers fometimes at the fe¬
cond or third joint. Were the plants not to be topped,
the principal fhoots would probably advance to the
length of about two feet, without fending off any run¬
ners to fill up the frame, and without fhewing a Angle
flower. If none of the runners, which are puftied out
after the firft topping, fhew flowers at the third or
fourth joint, they fhould be topped likewife, which will
caufe each of them to pufh out two or three runners, all
of which may perhaps prove fruitful. As thefe runners
advance in growth they ought to be trained regularly
along the furface of the beds, and all very weak or re¬
dundant fhoots removed. The cucumbers, if well ma¬
naged, will be fit for the table about the end of this or
beginning
but the melons will not be
February.
Kitchen
Garden.
. tion ot the
flowtts.
of next month :
ripe before May or June.
Cucumbers and melons have male and female flowers   
on the fame plant, which are eafily diftinguiihed from ^
one another. The male flowers, in the centre of which Impiegna-
the an therm are fituated that contain the farina (or1
fuecundating powder), have ftalks of an equal thicknefs,*
without any fwell immediately under the flowers j
whereas a fwelling is perceptible immediately under the
female flowers which contain the female organ of gene¬
ration, as foon as they are puihed out from the ftalks of
the plant, which is the germen or future fruit. If
none of the farina of the male be conveyed into the fe¬
male flower, the germen decays, becomes yellowifb, and
drops off. It becomes therefore neceffary, particularly
at. this early period, to impregnate the female flowers
by fufpending male flowers over them, and fhaking
fome of the farina into the piftillum (or female organ) j
for after the plants have continued fome time in flower,
the air of the hot-bed in which they grow becomes
loaded with the farina, by which means it is wafted into
the female flowers. Infedls likewife, particularly bees,
at a more advanced period of the year, ferve to convey
it from flower to flower. As foon as the female flowers
have opened, pinch off a newly blown male flower, to¬
gether with a portion of its foot ftalk, remove the great-
eft part of its corolla or flower leaf, introduce it into
the female flower, and either touch the piftillum of the
female gently with the antherae of the male fo as to
make fome of the farina adhere, or fhake the male
flower over the piftillum of the female in order to make
fome of the farina fall on it. In a day or two after im¬
pregnation the germen or future fruit begins to fwell,
and in about a fortnight, if the weather be favourable
and the heat of the bed good, the young cucumbers
may be brought to table. This operation may be em¬
ployed to produce new varieties, not only of cucumbers
and melons, but of many other vegetables. Were the
female of one variety of melon to he impregnated with
the farina of another, a kind would be produced par¬
taking fomewhat of the properties of both ; thus a large
melon, not poffeffed of much flavour, might be improved
by intermixture with one fuperior in flavour but inferior
in fize. In hermaphrodite flowers this operation of im¬
pregnating, or crofting, as it is called by cattle breeders,
is performed by removing the antherge from a flower of
one fpecies, and impregnating it with the farina of ano¬
ther of the fame natural family. The plants proceeding
from fuch a commixture partake more of the properties'
of the male than the female parent. We have feen a
hybrid produced from the papaver fomniferum impreg¬
nated with the farina of the papaver onentale, fo like
the male parent as with difficulty to be diftinguiihed
from it.
The papaver onentale produces only one flower on
a ftalk ; fome of this hybrid however carried more than
one, and in this particular alone it refembled the papa¬
ver fomniferum, which branches very much. Mr
Knight has made fome curious and interefting experi¬
ments on this fubjed, which he has detailed in the fol¬
lowing letter to Sir Jofeph Banks, publilhed in the 95
Tranfadions of the R " d Society. “ The refult of MrK.T”gbt’s
fome experiments which I have amufed myfelf with 0^^eryat'ons
making on plants, appearing to me to be interefting tofui)“
the naturalift, by proving the exiftence of fuperfoetation
Fart IF
G A R D E
in the vegetable world, and being likely to conduce to
Tome improvements in agriculture, I have taken the li¬
berty to communicate them to you. The breeders of
animals have very long entertained an opinion that con-
fiderable advantages are obtained by breeding from
males and females not related to each other. Though
this opinion has lately been controverted, the nurnber
of its oppofers has gradually diminiihed, and I can Ipeak
from my own obfervation and experience, that' animals
degenerate in fize, at leaft on the fame pailure, and in
other refpefts under the fame management, when this
procefs of croffing the breed is neglected. The clofe
analogy between the animal and vegetable world, and
the fexual fyftem equally pervading both, induced me to
fuppofe that fimilar means might be productive of fimi-
lar efxeCls in each; and the event has, I think, fully juft-
ified this opinion. The principal objeCf I had in view,
was to obtain nerv and improved varieties of the apple,
to fupply the place of thofe which have become difeafed
and unproductive by having been cultivated beyond the
period which nature appears to have affigned to their
exittence. But as I faw that feveral years muft elapfe
before the fuccefs or failure of this procefs could poffibly
be afeertained, I vvifhed in the interval to fee what would
be its eifeCts in annual plants. Amongft thefe none ap¬
peared fo well calculated to anfvver my purpofe as the
common pea, not only becaufe I could obtain many
varieties of this plant, of different forms, fizes, and co¬
lours, but alfo becaufe the ftruCture of its Moffom,. by
preventing the ingrefs of infects and adventitious farina,
has rendered its varieties remarkably permanent. 1 had
a kind growing in my garden, which, having been long
cultivated in the fame foil, had ceafed to be productive,
and did not appear to recover the whole of its former
vigour when removed to a loil of a fomewhat different
quality: on this my firft experiment in 1787 was made.
Having opened a dozen of its immature bloffoms, I de-
flroyed the male parts, taking great care not to injure
the female ones; and a few days, afterwards when the
bloffoms appeared mature, I introduced the farina of a
very large and luxuriant gray pea into one half of the
bloffoms, leaving the other half as they were. The
pods of each grew equally well, but I foon perceived
that in thefe into whofe bloffoms the farina had not been
introduced, the feeds remained nearly as they were be¬
fore the bloffoms expanded, and in that ftate they with¬
ered. Thofe in the other pods attained maturity, but
were nbt in any fenfible degree different from thofe af¬
forded by other plants of the fame variety ; owing, I
imagine, to the external covering of the feed (as I
have found in other plants) being furnithed entirely by
the female. In the fucceeding fpring the difference
however became extremely obvious, for the plants from
them rofe with exceffive luxuriance, and the colour of
their leaves and items clearly indicated that they had all
exchanged their whitenefs for the colour of the male
parent. The feeds produced in autumn were dark
gray.
“ By introducing the farina of another white variety,
(or in fome inftances by fnnple culture), I found this
colour was eafily difeharged, and a numerous variety of
new kinds produced, many of which were in point of
fize and in every other refpeCl much fuperior to the ori¬
ginal white kind, and grew with exceffive luxuriance,
fome of them attaining the height of more than twelve
N I N G.
feet. I had frequent occalien to obfetve in this plant a
ftronger tendency to produce purple blofforos and co¬
loured feeds than white ones ; for when I introduced _
the farina of a purple bloffom into a white one, the
whole feeds in the fucceeding year became coloured ;
but when I endeavoured to difeharge this colour by re
verling the procefs, a part only of them afforded plants
with white bloffoms; this- part fometimes occupying one
end of the pod, and being at other times irregularly in¬
termixed with thefe which, when fown, retained their
colour. It might perhaps be fuppofed that fomething
might depend on the quantity of farina employed ; but
I never could difeover, in this or any other experiment
in which fuperfoetation did not take place, that the
larged: or fmallcft quantity of farina afforded any dif¬
ference in the effedt produced.
“ The diffimilarity I obferved in the offspring afford¬
ed by different kinds of farina in thefe experiments,
pointed out to me an eafy method of afeertaining whe¬
ther fuperfoetation, (the exiftence of which has been ad¬
mitted amongil animals), could alfo take place in the
vegetable world. For as the offspring of a white pea
is always white, unlefs the farina of a coloured kind be
introduced into the bloflom ; and as the colour of the
gray one is always transferred to its offspring though
the female be white, it readily occurred to me, that if
the farina of both were mingled or applied at the fame
moment, the offspring of each could be eaffly diftin-
guiihed.
“ My firrt experiment was not altogether fuccefsful,
for the offspring of five pods (the whole which efcap-
ed the birds) received their colour from the coloured
male. There was, however, a ftrong refemblance to the
other male in the growth and charafter of more than
one of the plants, and the feeds of feveral in the autumn
very clofely refembled it in every thing but colour. In
this experiment, I ufed the farina of a white pea, which
poffeffed the remarkable property of fhrivelling excef-
ffvely when ripe, and in the fecond year I obtained
white feeds from the gray ones above-mentioned, per¬
fectly fimilar to it. I am ftrongly difpofed to believe,
that the feeds were here of common parentage; but I
do not conceive myfelf to be in poffeffion of fadfs fuf-
ficient to enable me to fpeak with decifion on this quef-
tion.
“ If, however, the female afford the firft organifed
atom, and the farina abt only as a ftimulus, it appears
to me by no means impoftible, that the explofton of
two velicles of farina at the fame moment (taken from
different plants^) may afford feeds (as I have fuppofed)
of common parentage, and as I am unable to difeover
any fource of inaccuracy in this experiment, I muft be¬
lieve this to have happened.
“ Another fpecies of fuperfoetation, if I have juftly
applied the term to a procefs in which one feed ap¬
pears to have been the offspring of two males), has oc¬
curred to me fo often as to remove all poffibility of
doubt as to its exiftence. In 1797, that year after I
had feen the refult of the laft mentioned experiment,
having prepared a great many white bloffoms, I intro¬
duced the farina of a white pea, and, that of a gray pea
nearly at the fame moment into each, and as in the lait
year, the charadter of the coloured male had prevailed,
I ufed its farina more fparingly than that of the white
one, and now almoft every pod afforded plants of dif¬
ferent
423
February.
Kitchen
Garden.
t
424 GAUD
Felmiaiy. ierent colours. Tire majority however were white, but
Ganle " chara£lers of the two kinds were not fufficiently dil-
'~~—v i • tin61: to allow me to judge with precilion whether any
of the feeds produced were of common parentage or
not. In the laft year I was more fortunate, having
prepared bloffoms of the little early frame pea, I intro¬
duced its own farina, and immediately afterwards, that
of a very large and late gray kind 5 and I fowled the
feeds thus obtained in the end of the laft fummer. Many
of them retained the colour and charadter of the fmall
-early pea not in the flighted; degree altered, and blof-
fomed before they were iS inches high, whilft others
(taken from the fame pods) whofe colour was chang¬
ed, grew to the height of more than four feet, and were
killed by the froft before any blofioms appeared.
“ It is evident that in thofe inftances, fuperfetation
took place, and it is equally evident that the feeds were
not all of common parentage. Should fubfequent ex¬
perience evince that a lingle plant may be the offspring
of two males, the analogy between animal and vegetable
nature may induce f’ome curious conjedtures relative to
the procefs of generation in the animal world.
‘‘ In the courfe of the preceding experiments, I
could never obferve that the charadter either of the
male or female in this plant at all preponderated in the
offspring, but as this point appeared interefling, I made
a few trials to afcertain it. And as the foregoing ob-
fervations had occurred in experiments made principally
to obtain new and improved varieties of the pea for
garden culture 5 I chofe for a fimilar purpofe the more
hardy varieties ufually Town in the fields. By intro¬
ducing the farina of the largeft and mod: luxuriant kinds
into the bloffoms of the moil diminutive, and by reverf-
ing this procefs, I found that the powers of the male
and female in their effedls on the offspring are exadtly
equal. The vigour of the growth, the fize of the
feeds produced, and the feafon of maturity, were the
fame, though the one was a very early, and the other a
late variety. I had in this experiment a ftriking in-
if ance of the ftimulative effefls of croffing the breeds; for
the fmallefl variety whofe height rarely exceeded two
feet, was increafed to fix feet, whilft the height of the
large and luxuriant kind was very little diminifhed. By
this procefs, it is evident that any number of new va¬
rieties may be obtained and it is highly probable, that
many of thefe will be found better calculated to correft
the defefts of different foils and fituations, than any we
have at prefent; for I imagine that all we now poffefs
have in a great meafure been the produce of accident,
and it will rarely happen in this or any other cafe, that
accident has done all that art will be found able to ac-
complifh.
The. fuccefs of my endeavours to produce improv¬
ed varieties of the pea, induced me to try fome experi¬
ments on wheat, but thofe did not fuceeed to my ex-
pe6tations. I readily obtained as many varieties as I
wiftied, by merely fowing the different kinds together,
for the ftrutture of the bloffoms of this plant, (unlike’
that of pea), freely admits the ingrefs of adventitious
rarina, and is thence very liable to fport in varieties,
home of thefe I obtained wTere excellent, others very
bad ; and none of them permanent. By feparating
the beft varieties, a moft abundant crop wTas produced
but its quality was not. quite equal to the quantity’
3nd all the difcardcd varieties again made their appear*
enin g. Part iii.
ance. It appeared to me aft- extraordinary cirfium February,
fiance, that in the years 1795 and 1796, when almoft Kitcken
the.whole crop of corn in this bland was blighted, the Ga!den*
varieties thus obtained, anci tliefe only, eicaped in this M
neighbourhood, though fown in feveral different foils
and fituations.
-May fuccefs in the apple (as far as long experience
and attention have enabled me to judge from the culti¬
vated appearance of trees, which have not yet borne
fiuit) has been fully equal to my hopes. But as the
improvement of this fruit was the firft objedt of my
attention, no proOat-.ie means of improvement either
from foil or afpedf were neglected. The plants, how¬
ever, which I obtained from my efforts to unite the
good qualities of two kinds of apple feem to poifefs
the greateft health and luxuriance of growth, as well as
the moft promifing appearance in other refpeCts. In
fome of theie, the character of the male appears to pre¬
vail 5 in others, that of the female; and in others both
appear blended, or neither is diftinguiftiable. Thefe
variations which were often obfervable in the feeds
taken from the fingle apple, evidently arife from the
want of. permanence in the characters of this fruit
when raifed from feed.
“ Ihe refults of fimilar experiments on another fruit
the grape, w'ere nearly the fame as of thofe on the ap¬
ple, except that by mingling the farina of a black and
a white grape, juft as the bloffoms of the latter were ex*
panding, I fometimes obtained plants from the fame
berry fo diflimilar that I had good reafon to believe
them the produce of fuperfoetation. By taking off the
cups and deftroying the immature male parts (as in the
pea), I perfedly fucceeded in combining the charac¬
ters of different varieties of this fruit, as far as the
changes of form and autumnal tints in the leaves of the
offspring will allow me to judge.
Many experiments of the fame kind were tried on
other plants j.but it is fufficient to fay that all tended to
evince, that improved varieties of every fruit and efeu-
lent plant may be obtained by this procefs, and that
nature intended that a fexual intercourfe Ihould take
place between neighbouring plants of the fame fpecies.
The probability of this will, I think, be apparent,
when we take a view of the variety of methods which
nature has taken to difperfe the farina, even of thefe
plants in which it has placed the male and female parts
within the fame empalement. It is often fcattered by
an elaftic exertion of the filaments w-hich fupport it in
the firft opening of the bloffom, and its exceffive light-
nefs renders it capable of being carried to a great di-
ftance by the wind. Its pofition within the bloffom is
generally well adapted to place it on the bodies of in-
leCls,. and the villous coat oi the numerous family of
bees is not lefs w'ell calculated to carry it. I have fre¬
quently obferved with great pleafure the difperfion of
the farina of fome of the graffes, when the fun had juft
rifen in a dewy morning. It feemed to be impelled
from the plant with confiderable force, and being blue
was eaffty vifible, and very ftrongly refembled in ap¬
pearance the explofion of a grain of gunpowder. An
examination of the ftrufture of the bloffoms of many
plants, will immediately point out that nature has fome-
thing more in view than that its own proper males
fliould fecundate each bloffom, for the means it employs
are always beft calculated tg anfwer the intended pur¬
pofe.
Part III. G x\ R I)
February, pofe. But the farina is often fo placed that it can never
Kitchen reach the fummit of the pointal, unlefs by adventitious
Garden. means. an(i many trials have convinced me that it has
' no aftion on any other part of it. In promoting this
fesual intercourfe between neighbouring plants of the
fame fpecies, nature appears to me to have an impor¬
tant purpofe in view} for independent ot its ftimulative
power, this intercourle certainly tends to confine with-
in more narrow limits thofe variations which accidental
richnefs or poverty of foil ufually produces. It may be
objected by thofe who admit the exiftence of vegetable
mules, that under this extenfive intercourfe theie mult
have been more numerous j but my total w'ant of fuc-
cefs in many endeavours to produce a fingle mule plant)
makes me much difpofed to believe that hybrid plants
have been miltaken for mules, and to doubt (with a^l
the deference I feel for the opinions of Linnaeus and
his illuitrious followers) whether nature ever did or ever
will permit the production of fuch a monlter. The
exiltence of numerous mules in the animal world be¬
tween kindred fpecies is allowed, but nature has here
guarded againft their production, by impelling every
animal to feek its proper mate } and among!! the fea¬
thered tribe, when from perverfion of appetite, fexual
intercourfe takes place between thofe of diftinCt ge¬
nera (a), it has in fome inftances at leaft rendered the
death of the female the inevitable confequence. But
in the vegetable world there is not any thing to direCt
the male to its proper female, its farina is carried by
winds and infeCts to plants of every different genus and
fpecies, and it therefore appears to me (as vegetable
mules certainly are not common) that nature has not
permitted them to exiit at all.
“ I cannot difmifs this fubjeCt, without exprefling my
regret, that thofe who have made the fcience of botany
their ftudy fhould have confidered the improvement of
thofe vegetables, which in their cultivated ftate afford
the largeft portion of fubfifience to mankind and other
animals, as little connected with the objeCt of their
purfuit. Hence it has happened, that whilft much at¬
tention has been paid to the improvement of every fpe¬
cies of ufeful animal, the molt valuable efculent plants
have been almoft wholly negleCted. But when the ex¬
tent of the benefit which would arife fo the agricul¬
ture of the country, from the polfeflion of varieties of
plants, which with the fame extent of foil and labour
would afford even a fmall increafe of produce, is confi¬
dered, this fubjeCt appears of no inconfiderable impor¬
tance. The improvement of animals is attended with
much expence, and the improved kinds neceflarily extend
themfelves flowly} but a fingle bufhel of improved wheat
or peas may in ten years be made to afford feed enough
to fupply the whole ifland, and a fingle apple or other
fruit tree may within the fame time be extended to
every garden in it. Thefe confiderations have been the
caufe of my addrefling the foregoing obfervations to
you at this time} for it was much my with to have afcer-
tained before I wrote to you, whether in any iuitance a
fingle plant can be the offspring of two male parents.
The decifion of that queftion muft of neceflity have oc-
Vol. IX. Part II.
E N I N G. 42s
cupied two years, and muft therefore be left to the teff Fe^”ftry*
of future experiment.” _ Garden.
The opinion Mr Knight endeavours to eflabliflr to- —
wards the end of his letter, is certainly incorveCt, if he
means to aflert that hybrids can only be produced by a
commixture of different varieties of the fame fpecies,
and that none can be produced by the union of plants
of different fpecies. The faCt already Hated relative to
the hybrid produced between the papav. oriental, and
fotnnif (two fpecies as different, in every refpeCt, from
each other as the horfe and afs).
Sect. II. Fruit Garden.
Where peaches, nectarines, and apricots, have not Pruning of
been pruned before this, that work ought to be done fruit-trees,
without delay, becaufe the flower buds after they have
begun to fwell (which they do at this feafon) are eafily
rubbed off. Plums, cherries, apples, pears,. goofeber-
ries, currants, and rafpberries, &c. may likewife be
pruned during this month if negleCted till nown 97
About the end of the month you may prune fig Fig*-
trees, as by that time all danger of the young flroots
being killed by the froft will be over. As the young
flioots of laft feafon alone produce figs the enfuing, a
lufficient fupply of them mult be left to nail on to the
wall} and fuperfluous, ill-placed, very ftrong long-jointed
flioots, and fmall weak ones, ought to be cut away clofe
to the branch of the former year’s growth. The
branches which are retained ought to be laid m and nailed
to the wall at full length, at the diltance of about half
a foot from each other. Ihey ought not to be fliort-
ened, becaufe the figs are generally produced from that
part of the branch near to the extremity : on this ac¬
count likewnfe care muft be taken, in choofing thofe
which are to be retained, not only to prefer the fhoots
of moderately vigorous growth, but likewife thofe
which have had leart of their extremities killed by the
froft, for it frequently happens that the froft kills the
fucculent extremities of branches, and fometimes even
the w7hole ftioot.
Shortening the branches has another bad effect be-
fides removing the part from which the fruit is to pro¬
ceed, it makes them throw out a crowd of lateral (hoots,
which create confufion and (hade the fruit. Ail worn-
out old branches which are not furniftied with a fuffi-
cient number of young lateral (hoots, ought to be cut
away, either clofe to the main branch from which they
proceed, or clofe to fome (hoot placed near their lower
end. Young fig trees may be planted alfo any time
this month. See October.
Strawberry beds (hould now receive a'drefling. Laft Plant, Sec.
year’s runners fhould be cut away, weeds and decayed ftrawber-
leaves removed, the ground between the rows dug ornes‘
loofened with the hoe, and fome earth drawn up about
the roots of the plants. Strawberries may be planted
towards the end of the month: for the method fee June
and September. 99
Any time this month you may begiu to force the Force
trees on hot walls, in vine, peach, and cherry houfes,ear y
3 H &c.
(a) This is laid to be the cafe with the drake and the hen.
420 GAUD
February. Sec. They ought to be covered with the glafles, feme
Flower°rt*me Prev*ous t0 the application of fire-heat, and if the
Garden, houles have been conftruded with pits for containing
?-i y——,' hot-beds of tanners bark or horfe dung, a quantity of
eitner. ihould be got ready. If tanner’s bark is to be
ined, it ought to be fpread out and expofed to the air,
that it may dry, for it it be put in too wet it will either
not heat at all, or heat violently and foon rot, but if
properly dried, the heat will be moderate and latt for a
long time. When horfe dung is to be ufed, it ought
to be forked up into a heap and allowed to remain for
a few days, during which time it fhould be turned two
or three times with a fork that it may be thoroughly
mixed. Slight fires fiiould be applied for two or three
days at firft, which may be gradually increafed. They
ought to be kindled about funfet, and fupplied with fuel
from time to time till about ten o’clock, which will
keep the houfe in a proper heat until morning, when
t.he fires firould again be fet a going, if the heat has de¬
clined, but it will feldom be necelfary at this feafon to
keep the fires burning all day. The fuel employed
may be either coal, tvoed, peat, or turf: of thefe coal
is beft, becaufe it makes the drongeft, the mod dura¬
ble, and moft eafily managed fire. I he heat of each
houfe fhould be regulated by a thermometer. The de¬
gree of warmth kept up at this feafon, fhould not much
exceed the 6o° of Fahrenheit. When the fun fhines
bright the heat mud be regulated by opening the glades
more or lefs, and admitting the external air. Befides
the trees that may be trained to the wall or front of the
houfe, pots or boxes containing cherry or peach trees
may be introduced ; likewife pots of kidney beans, %
drawberries, &c. ndes, and a variety of other fiowers.
The trees and plants within the houfe mud be duly
watered, and have plenty of air admitted to them
whenever the .weather will permit. When the fruit
approach to maturity a greater heat fhould be maintain¬
ed within the houfe, which may be effected during the
day by the rays of the fun, and fparing admidion of
the external air, and during the night (if the Weather
be cold) by fire. v ,
Sect. III. The Pleafure or Flower Garden.
IO° rp
Sow tender Aowards the end of the month, you may fow feme
annuals. tender annuals, fuch as balfams, cockscombs, globe
amaranthus, ice plants, egg plants, &c. They mud
be fown in a hot-bed, which is to be formed and earth¬
ed over in the lame way as feed beds for cucumbers and
melons. See January. The feeds may either be fown
m the earth of the bed, or in pots plunged into the
earth. Or a few may be fown in pots, and introduced
into a cucumber or melon bed When the plants have
acquired fufficient drength to admit of being tranfplant-
ed, they fhould be put into feparate pots and transferred
joi to other hot-beds. See April.
Hardy an- About the end of the month, you may fow fome
nuals. feed of mignionet, ten weeks dock, larkfpur, dos A-
doms, convolvulus, lupines, fcarlet, fweet-feented, and
Tangier pea, candytuft, dwarf lychnis, Venus’s look-
in§ g^a^> I»°bel’s catchfiy, Venus’s navel-wort, dwrarf
poppy, annual funflower, oriental mallow, lavatera,
hawkweed, and many others. They mud be fown in
E N I N G. Part III.
places where they are to remain, for none of thefe plants February,
fucceed fo well when they are tranfplanted. Pleafure or
Dig fmall patches with a trowel in the flower borders,
bi eak the earth well, remove part of it from the furface .
with the edge of the trowel, and fow the feeds, which
fhould be covered with the earth which had been moved
afide from the furface of the patches. The fmaller
feeds fuch as mignionet, ten weeks dock, larkfpur, &c.
fhould be covered to the depth of about a quarter of ari
inch 5 the larger ones, fuch as lupines, painted and fweet
peas, annual lundower, &c. may be covered to the
depth of an inch. After the plants have advanced a
little in growth, they fhould be thinned out in propor¬
tion to their fr/e, viz. one funflower fhould be left in
a place, two plants of lavatera and oriental mallow,
four or five of the larger, and fix or eight ot the fmal¬
ler lupines, and fo on in proportion.
Mod kinds of hardy perennials and biennials mayPlanthardv
e planted out this month, viz. polyanthufes, prim-Perenmals.
roies, London pride, violets, double daifeys, double
chamomile, faxifrage, rofe campion, rockets, campanu¬
la, ^catchfly, fcarlet lychnis, double feverfew, batche-
lor’s button, carnations, pinks, fweet william, colum¬
bines, monkdiood, tree primrofe, foxglove, goiden-
rod, perennial aders, perennial fun-dower, holyhocks,
French honeyfuckles, xvalldow’ers, and many others. I0
Where auricula plants are much valued, and where Dref< and
there are many of the finer varieties, they are common-iow auri-
ly kept in pots. During mild weather anytime thisculas’
month, it would be proper to give them fome frefh earth.
Clear away all dead leaves from the plants, remove fome
of the old earth from the fides of the pot all around, fo far
as you can do it without injuring the roots, and fill the
pots with frefh earth prepared for the purpofe. See
September.
Auiicula and polyanthus feed may be fown any time
this month,. either in the open ground or in pots.
V hen fown in pots or boxes they are more eafily moved
to proper fituations during different feafens. Sow them
in light rich earth, mid cover them to the depth of a-
bout a quarter of an inch. The pots or boxes diould
be placed in a fituation dickered from the north, and
expofed to the morning and midday fun, from which
they ought to be removed in April to a more fhady
place. They will be fit for tranfplanting in the month
of June. See June.
About the end of the month plant out the carna-Tranfplant
tions which were raifed lad year by cuttings or layers, carnations,
into pots or borders where they are to remain to pro¬
duce dowers the enfuing dimmer.
Any time this month you may tranfjilant evergreen£veJ°j?
tiees, and dirubs 5 fuch as pines, firs, evergreen oaks, ^ *
hollies, yews, cypreffes, cedars, phillyreas, arbutufes,
laurels, laurudinus, &c.
1 he finer forts of tulips, hyacinths, anemones, ranun- Protedl tu~
culufes, &c. fhould be protected during fevere weather, lips, See.
as they begin to appear above ground. For the me¬
thod of dickering them fee January.
Grafs walks and lawns ought to be kept clean, poled
and rolled at lead once a week if the weather permit
it. After being rolled with a wooden roller to take
off the worm-cafts, a heavy done or iron one diould be
paffed over them to render them firm. Their edges
ought likewife to be cut with an edging iron about the
end
February.
Nurfery.
107
Walks and
edgings.
108
Early
flowers
forced.
Part III. G A
end of the month, which will give them a neat ap¬
pearance.
Gravel and grafs -walks may be made during this
month: for the latter fee January, and the former
March.
Edgings of boxwood, thrift, daifies, thyme, hyffop,
&c. may be planted this month. Boxwood forms the
neateft, moft durable, and moil eafily kept edging, and
if planted now it will fucceed very well. For the me¬
thod fee October. Where any of the old boxwood
edgings have become irregular, they ought to be taken
up and replanted.
Thrift is frequently employed as an edging, and well
kept makes a very neat one. The plants may be either
put in with the dibble fo clofe as to touch, or at the di-
itance of two or three inches from each other, or plant¬
ed as boxwood, fee October. Dailies are fometimes
ufed, and form a very pretty edging j they may be
planted in the fame manner as the thrift.
A great variety of flowers, fuch as hyacinths, jon¬
quils, and rofes, &c. may be placed in the hot-houfe,
vinery, or peach-houfe 5 and when they have come into
flower they may be placed in a green-houfe, or in a-
partments of a dwelling houfe.
Sect. IV. Nurfery.
Many things mentioned under the article work to
to be done in the nurfery for January may likewife be
done this month; fuch as pruning young trees and
fhrubs, digging between the rows, propagating by cut¬
tings, fuckers, and layers, &c. See January.
Such layers of laft year, as appear well rooted, Ihould
be removed from the parent plant ('or flool), and plant¬
ed in rows of from one to two feet afunder, according
to the fize of the plant, and at the diftance of a foot or
foot and a half from each other in the row.
If feeds or ftones of apples, pears, cherries, and plums,
flirubs^ &c. were not fown laft autumn to raife flocks for budding
fown, and ingrafting, they ftiould be fown about the begin¬
ning of this month. They ftiould be fown in light foil,
and covered to about the depth of an inch. The plants
raifed from this fowing will be fit for tranfplanting in
the beginning of next winter or fpring. The feeds of
berries and nuts of fhrubs and forert trees may likewife
be fown any time this month in narrow beds, and cover¬
ed in proportion to their fize, viz. the fmall feeds to
the depth of about half an inch, the larger to the depth
of an inch or an inch and a half, and fome of the nuts
even to a greater depth.
Trees and fhrubs may be removed from the feed-bed
or from where they ftand too thick, and planted out in
row-s at proper diftances, or tranfplanted into the places
where they are to remain.
Young trees that were budded fuccefsfully laft fum-
mer (hould be cut down to within about four inches of
the bud. See June and July.
Pears, plums, and cherries may be ingrafted towards
the end of the month, if the weather is mild : apples
likewufe may be ingrafted at the fame time, or in the
courfe of the following month.
Grafting or engrafting, in gardening, is the taking
a {hoot from one tree, and inferting it into another, in
fuch a manner, that both may unite clofely and become
one tree.
r d E N 1 N G.
4
lOp
Layers
tranf-
planted.
no
Seeds of
in
and tranf¬
planted.
112
Stocks
headed.
M3
Fruit trees
engrafted.
By the ancient writers on huihandry and gardening February
this operation is called incifion, to diftinguiih it from Nurler>'-,
inoculation or budding, which they call infertion. II4
Grafting has been pra&ifed from the moft remote anti- Hiftory of
quity, but its origin and invention are differently related engrafting,
by naturalifts. Theophraftus tells us, that a bird having
fwallowed a fruit whole, caft it forth into a cleft or ca¬
vity of a rotten tree, where, mixing w ith fome of the
putrefied parts of the tree, and being waflred with he
rains, it germinated, and produced within this tree a
tree of a different kind. This led the hulhandman to
certain refledtions, from which afterwards arofe the art
of engrafting.
Pliny gives a different account of the origin of graft¬
ing : he fays, a hulhandman wifiling to make a palli-
fade in his ground, that it might endure the longer,
and with a view to fill up and ftrengthen the' bottom of
the pallifade, w’attled it with the twigs of ivy. The
effeft of this wras, that the flakes of the pallifades tak¬
ing root, became engrafted into the twigs, and produ¬
ced large trees, which fuggefted to the hufbandman the
art of engrafting.
The ufe of grafting is to propagate any defirable forts
of fruit fo as to be certain of the variety : for as all
good varieties of fruit have been accidentally obtained
from feeds, fo the feeds of thefe, wrhen fown, wdll many
of them degenerate, and produce fuch fruit as is Yiot
worth cultivating 5 but when grafts are taken from fuch
trees as produce good fruit, thefe will never alter from
their kind, whatever be the flock or tree on which they
are grafted. Many have fuppofed that fruit undergoes
a change, by being engrafted j but this is not the cafe,
M. Du Hamel tried it on different trees, and for fear of
error repeated every experiment feveral times. He
grafted the peach on the almond, the plum on the apri¬
cot, the pear upon the apple, the quince on the white
thorn, one fpecies of plum on another, and the almond
and apricot on the peach. All thefe fucceeded alike j
the fruit was never altered j the leaves, the wood, the
flowers, wrere perfeflly the lame with thofe of the tree
from which the grafts were taken.
Some authors have made mention of engrafting trees
of diftinct genera on one another j fuch as the apple on
the oak, the elm, the mapple, and the plum. M. Du
Hamel tried a number of thefe experiments, none of
which proved fuccefsful. Engrafting feems never to
fucceed but when trees of the fame natural family are
grafted on one another. Some trees are fuppofed to
live longer, and grow more vigoroufly when engrafted
than when growing in a natural ftate. It is faid, that
this is the cafe with the peach, when engrafted on the
plum. But it is commonly alledged, that engrafted
trees do not live fo long as they would have done in
their natural ftate. The reafon why engrafted trees
are ihort lived, perhaps proceeds from another caufe
than merely from the circumftance of being grafted-,
viz. the age of the tree from which the fcions were
originally taken. rI^
The proper tools and other materials ufed in graft-Method of
ing, are, 1. A ftrong knife for cutting off the heads Per-h>rinft>g
of the flocks previous to the infertion of the graft; alfo ^
a fmall hand faw for occafional ufe in cutting off the
heads of large ftocks. 2. A common grafting knife dr
ftiarp pen knife for cutting and fhaping the grafts rea¬
dy for infertion; alfo to flope and form the ftocks for
3 H 2 the
428
February, the reception of the grafts. 3. A flat grafting chifel
, Nur|ery-. and fmall mallet for cleaving large flocks, in cleft
grafting, for the reception of the graft. 4. A quantity
of new bafs firings for bandages for tying the grafted
parts clofe together, to fecure the grafts, and promote
their fpeedy.union with the flock. And 5. A quantity
of grafting clay for claying clofely round the grafts al¬
ter their infertion and binding to defend the parts from
being dried by the fun and winds, for thefe parts ought
to be clofely furrounded with a coat of clay in fuch a
manner as effeclually to guard them from all weathers,
which would prove injurious to the young grafts, and
prevent their jundlion with the flock.
For this purpofe fome argillaceous loam or pure clay
mull be procured, to which fliould be added one fourth
part of frefh horfe dung and a fmall portion of cut hay.
The whole muft be well moiftened with water, and
thoroughly beat with a flick after the manner of
mortar.
The fcions or grafts (which fhould be fhoots of laft
year) ought to be feledled and cut oft' fome time about
the beginning or middle of the month. Each kind
ought to be put up Separately in little bundles, which
fliould be inferted into the earth of a dry border, and
fliould be protefted during fevere weather by a cover¬
ing of ftraw or Something of that nature. The reafon
fof taking them off at the time mentioned, is that their
growth may be checked, and that they may be prefer-
Ved in a condition for grafting; for were they to remain
on the trees, their buds would begin to fwell, and would
Soon advance So Sar as to be unfit for ufing with any
prolpedl of fuccefs. The flocks intended to be grafted,
muft, previous to the infertion of the graft, be cut
down ; thofe intended for dwarf trees, to be trained
on walls or efpaliers, muft be Cut over five or fix
inches above the ground ; thofe intended for Stand¬
ards fhould be cut over at the height of five or fix
feet.
The flocks muft vary according to the kinds of fruit
to be grafted on them, and to the fize of the tree to be
produced. Apples are grafted on apple flocks raifed
from feed, cuttings, or layers; for dwarfs, paradife pip¬
pin or Siberian crab flocks are ufed ; for half dwarfs,
codlin flocks raifed from fuckers, cuttings or layers ; and
for full Standards, flocks raifed by fowing the feed of
crabs or any common apple. Pears are engrafted upon
pear Slocks obtained from feed or fuckers, on quinces,
and on white thorn. When they are engrafted on
quince flocks, they become dwarf, and are fit for efpa¬
liers, &c.
Cherries are engrafted upon cherry flocks obtained
by fowing the Stones of red or black cherries, and plums
are engrafted upon plum Stocks raifed from feed or fuck¬
ers (b).
There are different methods of grafting, termed
whip-grafting, cleft-grafting, crown-grafting, cheek¬
grafting, fide-grafting, root-grafting, and grafting by
approach or inarching; but whip-grafting and cleft¬
grafting are the moft commonly ufed, and whip-grafting
• molt of all.
Part III.
Whip-grafting being the moft expeditious and fuc- February,
cefsful method of grafting, is the moll commonly prac- Nurfery.
tiled in all the nurferies ; it is always performed upon ^ *
fmall flocks, from about the fize of a goofe-quill to halfwhip-
an inch or a little more or lefs in diameter, but the near-grafting,
er the Slock and graft approach in fize, the better ; and
is called whip-grafting, becaufe the grafts and Stock
being nearly of a fize, are Sloped on one fide fo as to fit
each other, and tied together in the manner of whips or
joints of angling rods, See. ; and the method is as fol¬
lows. Having the fcions or grafts, knife, bandages,
and clay ready, begin the work by cutting off the head
of the flock at lome fmooth part; this done, cut one
fide Sloping upwards, about an inch and a half or near
two inches in length, and making a notch or fmall Slit
near the upper part of the Hope downwards, about half
an inch long, to receive the tongue of the feion ; then
prepare the feion, cutting it to five or fix inches in
length, forming the lower end alfo in a Hoping manner,
fo as exadlly to fit the Hoped part of the flock, as if
cut from the fame place, that the bark of both may
join evenly in every part, and make a Hit fo as to form
a tongue to fit the flit made in the Hope of the flock ;
then place the graft, inferring the tongue of it into the
flit of the Slock, applying the parts as evenly and clofe
as poflible, and immediately tie the parts clofe together
with a String of bafs, pafting clofely feveral times round
the Slock and graft; then clay the whole over near an
inch thick all round, from about half an inch or more
below the bottom of the graft, to an inch above the top
of the Stock, finishing the whole coat of clay in a kind
of oval form, clofing it effedlually about the feion, fo
that neither air nor water may penetrate. The clay
muft be examined from time to time, for fliould it crack
much, or fall off, a quantity of frefli clay ought to be
applied immediately. This fort of grafting may alfo
be performed upon the young Shoots of any bearing tree,
if you wish to alter the kind of fruit or to have more
kinds than one on the Same tree. By the middle or
latter end of May the graft will be well united with the
Slock, as will be evident from the Shooting of the buds
of the graft, when the clay Should be removed ; but the
bafs bandage Should remain until the united parts feem
to fwell, and be too much confined, Ihen the bandage
Should be taken off entirely.
Cleft-grafting is fo called becaufe the flock being too
large for whip-grafting, is cleft or flit down the middle ing. *S
for the reception of the graft, and is performed in
flocks from one to two inches diameter or upwards.
Firft, with a ftrong knife take off the head of the flock
with a Sloping cut about an inch and a half long, then
cleave the flock with a ftrong knife or chifel and mallet
acrofs the Slope to the depth of about two inches, or
long enough to admit the graft, leaving the instrument
in to keep the cleft open. Prepare the feion by cutting
it to fuch length as to leave four or five eyes, Sloping
the lower part of it oh each fide, wedge falhion, to the
length of an inch and a half or tWTo inches, making
one edge very thin, and leaving the other much thicker
with the bark on; then place it in the cleft at the back
part
GARDENING,
(b) Stocks which are raifed from feed, generally grow more freely and vigorously than thofe raifed from cut¬
tings or layers, and on that account are called free flocks.
/
Part III.
GARDENING.
429
118
Crown-
grafting,
February part of the flock, with the thickeft edge outwards to the
Nurfery. whole depth of the dope, taking care that the bark of
^  the flock and graft join exaftly •, when the knife or
chifel is removed, each fide of the cleft will prefs on the
graft and hold it fafl. It tnuft then be bound with a
bafs bandage and clayed over as in whip-grafting, leav¬
ing three or four of the eyes of the fcion uncovered.
If large flecks or branches are to be grafted in this
wav, they muft be cut horizontally and fmoothed, and
may be cleft cjuite acrofs, and a graft inferted on each
fide. More clefts indeed than one may be made, and
two grafts put in each. I his method of grafting may
be performed on the branches or ftems of old trees, with
a view to produce vigorous branenes or change the kind
of fruit. # '
Towards the latter end of May or beginning of June
the iundtion of the graft with the flock will be effec¬
tually formed, when the clay may be removed, and in
a fortnight afterwards the bafs bandage may alfo be
taken away.
Crown-grafting is commonly praftifed upon fuch
flocks as are too large to cleave, and is often perform¬
ed upon the large branches of apple and pear trees,
&c. that already bear fruit, when it is intended
to change the forts, or fupply the tree with a number
of new vigorous branches. It is termed crown-
grafting, becaufe, after the flock or branch has been cut
over, feveral grafts are inferted all around betwixt the
wood and bark, fo as to produce a crown-like appear¬
ance ; this kind of grafting fliould not be performed
until March or early in April, for then the fap being in
motion renders the bark and wood of the flock much eafler
to be feparated for the admiflion of the graft. I he man¬
ner of performing this fort of grafting is as follows : firft
cut off the head of the flock horizontally, and pare the
top fmooth •, then having the grafts, cut one fide of
each flat, and fomewhat doping, an inch and a half,
forming a fort of flioulder at the top of the Hope to refl
upon the crown of the flock ; after the bark of the
flock has been raifed by means of a wedge, fo as to ad¬
mit the fcion between the bark and the wood, let the
fcion be thruft down to the flioulder with its cut
fide next the wrood of the flock : in this manner three,
four, or more grafts may be inferted into one flock or
branch. After the grafts have been inferted, let them
be tied tight, and let the clay be applied fo as to rife an
inch above the top of the flock, taking care to form it
fo as to prevent the admiflion of water, which would
injure the grafts. Crown-grafting may alfo be perform¬
ed by making feveral clefts in the crown of the flock,
and inferting the grafts into the clefts. The grafts
will be pretty well united with the flock by the end of
May or beginning of June, when the clay and bandage
may be taken away. The trees grafted by this me¬
thod will fucceed very well •, but for the firft two or
three years the grafts are liable to be blown out of the
flock by violent wunds, to prevent which, long flicks
muft be tied to the flock or branch, to which they may
be fixed.
Cheek-grafting is thus executed. Cut the head of
the flock oft' horizontally, and pare the top fmooth :
then cut one fide floping an inch and a half or two
inches deep, and cut the lower part of the graft floping
the fame length, making a fort of (houlder at the top
of the (loped part j it is then to be placed upon the
Cheek¬
grafting.
flop 2d part of the flock, refling the flioulder upon the February,
crown of it j bind it with bafs, and finifti it with a co-
vering of clay as in whip-grafting. _ ^ 120
Side-grafting is done by inferting grafts into the fides vitig.giart-
of the branches without cutting them over, and may being-
pradiifed upon trees to fill up any vacancy, or for the
purpofe of variety, to have feveral forts of apples, pears,
plums, &c upon the fame tree. It is performed thus.
Fix upon fuch parts of the branches where wood is
wanted to furnifli the head or part of the tree j theie
flope off the bark and a little of the wood, and cut the
lower end of the grafts to fit the part as near as pofii-
ble, then join them to the branch and tie them with
bafs, and clas^tbem over. _ _ 171
Root-grafting. Ij'his is done by whip grafting feions Reot-
upon pieces of the root of any tree of the fame genus,13 £
and planting the root where it is to remain j it will take
root, draw nouriflnnent, and feed the graft. 122
Grafting by approach, or inarching, is preferred when Inarching*
the flocks defigned to be grafted, and the tree from
which the graft is intended to be taken, either grow fo
near, or can be placed fo near together, that the branch
or graft may be made to approach the flock, without
feparating it from the tree till after its union or junction
with the flock, fo that the branch or graft being bent
to the flock they together form a fort of arch, whence
it is called grafting by approach or inarching. It is
commonly praflifed upon fuch trees as are with difficul¬
ty made to fucceed by any of the former ways of graft¬
ing. When intended to propagate any kind of tree or
fhrub by this method of grafting} if the tree be hardy
enough to grow in the open ground, a proper quantity
of young plants for flocks mufl: be fet round it, and
when grown of a proper height, the work of inarching
mufl be performed; if the branches of the tree you in¬
tend to take grafts from be too high for the flocks, in
that cafe the flocks planted in pots, muft be placed on
a flight ftage or fome fupport of that nature, of fuch a
height as to make them reach the branches. Inarching
is fometimes performed with the head of the flock cut
off, fometimes it is allowed to remain } when the head
of the flock is cut off, the work is more eafily perform¬
ed, and is generally more fuccefsful, becaufe the flock
having no top of its own to flipport, will tranfmit all
the nourifhment taken up by its roots into the graft}
when the flocks are properly placed, make the branches
approach to them, and mark on the branches the places
where they will moft eafily join to the flock, and in
thofe parts of each branch, pare away the bark and part
of the wood two or three inches in length, and in the
fame manner pare the flock at the proper place } then
make a flit upwards in the branch fo as to form a fort of ’
tongue, and make a flit downwards in the flock to ad¬
mit it; let the parts be then joined, floping the tongue
of the graft into the flit of the flock fo as to make the
whole join in an exadl manner 5 then tie them clofe to¬
gether with bafs, and afterwards cover the whole with
a proper quantity of clay, as before diredled in the
other methods. After this, let a flout flake be fixed for the
fupport of each graft, to which the flock and graft may
be fixed, to prevent their being disjoined by the wind.
If this operation be performed in fpring, the graft and
flock will be united in four months, when the branch may
be feparated from the parent plant •, this fliould be done
cautioufly and with a ffiarp knife, left the graft fliould
be.e
43°
February
Nurfery.
123
A new me
Shod.
124
Extreme
branch¬
grafting.
GARDE
be (haken and loofened from the flock. If the head
of the flock were not removed previous to inarching,
it fhould now be cut off clofe to the infertion of the
graft, and all the old clay and bandages fhould be tak¬
en away and replaced with new, which fhould be allow¬
ed to remain a few weeks longer. If the graft and
flock do not feem perfeblly united the firfl autumn after
they have been inarched, they fhould be allowed to
Hand till next autumn : for were the branch to be cut
off from the parent plant before a complete union was
formed between it and the flock, the operation would
prove abortive.
An anonymous author has given, in a treatife publifh-
ed at Hamburgh under the title Jbncenitcites Hortenfes
Nova:, a new method of grafting trees, fo as to have very
beautiful pyramids of fruit upon them, which will exceed
in flavour, beauty, and quantity, all that can otherwife be
produced. This he fays he had long experienced, and
gives the following method of doing it. The trees are
to be tranfplanted in autumn, and all their branches cut
off: early in the following fummer the young flioots are
to be pulled off, and the buds are then to be engrafted
into them in an inverted pofition. This he fays, not
only adds to the beauty of the pyramids, but alfo makes
the branches more fruitful. Thefe are to be clofely
conne&ed to the trunk, and are to be faflened with the
common ligature j they are to be placed circularly
round the tree, three buds in each circle, and thefe cir¬
cles at fix inches diflance from each other. The old
trees may be grafted in this manner, the fuccefs paving
been found very good in thofe of twenty years Handing j
but the mofl eligible trees are thofe which are young,
vigorous, and full of juice, and are not above an inch
or two thick. When thefe young trees are tranfplant¬
ed, they muff be fenced round with pales to defend
them from the violence of the wind. The buds en¬
grafted muff be fmall, that the wounds made in the bark
to receive them, not being very large, may heal the
iooner ; and if the buds do not fucceed, which will be
perceived in a fortnight, there muff be others put in
their place. The wound made to receive thefe buds
muff be a flraight cut, parallel to the horizon, and the
piece of bark taken out, muff be downwmrds that the
rain may not get in at the wound. In the autumn of
the fame year this will be a green flourifhing pyramid,
and the next fummer it will flower, and ripen its fruit
in autumn.
Mr Fairman, of Kent, gives an account of a method
of renewing decayed trees, by wTat he calls extreme
branch-grafting, which has been publifhed in the Me¬
moirs of the Society of Arts for 1802. It is addreffed
to the Secretary.
“ Sir,
“ From much converfation with Mr Bucknall, on the
idea of improving flandard fruit trees, we could not but
remark that in apple orchards, even in fuch as are mofl
valuable, fome were to be feen that were Hinted and
barren, which not only occafioned a lofs in the produc¬
tion, but made a break in the rows, and fpoiled the
beauty and uniformity of the plantation.
N I N G.
Part III.
“ To bring thefe trees into an equal Hate of bearing,
uze, and appearance, in a fhort time, is an objedl of the
greatell importance in the fyftem of orcharding, and
alfo for the recovery of old barren trees, which are
fallen into decay, not fo much from age as from the
forts of their fruits being of the worn out, and deemed
nearly lofl, varieties.
“ Having long entertained thefe thoughts, and been
by no means inattentive to the accompiiihment of the
delign, I attempted to change their fruits by a new
mode of engrafting, and am bold enough to affert that
I have mod fortunately fucceeded in my experiments j
working, if I am to be allowed to fay it, from the er¬
rors^ of other praclitioners, as alfo from thofe of my own
habits.
^ “ My name having feveral times appeared in the
"l ranfadtions of the Society for the encouragement of
Arts, &c. j and having the honour of being a member
of that Society, I thought no pains or expence would
be too much for the completion of fo defirable an im¬
provement. Under thefe impreflions, and having many
trees of this defeription, I made an experiment on three
of them in March 1798, each being nearly a hundred
years, old.. They were not decayed in them bodies, and
but little in their branches. Two of thefe were golden
pippins, and the other wras a golden rennet: each had
likewife been paH a bearing Hate^for feveral years. I
.alfo followed up the pradlice on many more the fucceed-
ing fpring, and that of the laff year, to the number of
forty at lead, in my different plantations (c).
“ The attempt has gone fo far beyond my utmoft
expedlation, that I beg of you, Sir, to introduce the
fyffe.m to the fociety for their approbation ; and I hope
it will deferve the honour of a place in their valuable
Tranfadlions.
February.
Nurfery.
“ I directed the procefs to be conduded as follows:
cut out all the fpray wrood, and make the tree a perfed
fkeleton, leaving all the healthy limbs; then clean the
branches, and cut the top of each branch off, where it
would mealure from an inch to two inches in diameter.
Some of the branches muff of courfe be taken off, where
it is a little larger, and fome fmaller, to preferve a head
or canopy of the tree 5 and it will be neceffary to take
out the branches which crofs others, and obferve the
arms are left to fork off; fo that no confiderable open¬
ing is to be perceived when you Hand under the tree,
but that they may reprefent a uniform head. I muff
here remark to the praditioner, when he is preparing
the tree as I direded, that he ffiould leave the branches
fufficiently long to allow of two or three inches to be
taken off by the faw, that all the fplintered parts may
be removed.
“ The trees being thus prepared, put in one or two
grafts at the extremity of each branch ; and from this
circumflance I wiflr to have the method called extreme
branch grafting. A cement, hereafter deferibed, muff
be ufed inffead of clay, and the grafts tied with bafs or
foft Itring. As there was a confiderable quantity of
mofs on the bodies and branches of the trees, I ordered
my gardener to ferape it off, which is effedually done
when they are wet, by a ffubbed birch broom. I then
ordered
(c) Ihe average expence I calculated at 2s. 6d. each tree.
I
Part III.
G A K D
February.
Nuifery.
ordered him to brufu them over with coarfe oil, which
invigorated the growth of the tree, added as a manure
to the bark, and made it expand very evidently ; the
old cracks were foon, by this operation, rendered invi-
fible.
“ All wounds ihould be perfedlly cleaned out, and the
medication applied, as defcribed in the Orchardift,
p. 14. By the beginning of July the bandages were
cut, and the (hoots from the grafts fhortened, to pre¬
vent them from blowing out. I muft here, too, ob-
ferve, that all the (hoots, or fuckers from the tree,
muft enjoy the full liberty of growth till the fucceeding
(pring, when the greater part muft be taken out, and
few but the grafts fuffered to remain, except on a
branch where the grafts have not taken •, in that cafe
leave one or two of the fuckers, which will take a graft
the fecond year, and make good the deficiency. This
•"was the whole of the procefs (d).
“ By obferving what is here (fated, it will appear that
the tree remains nearly as large when the operation is
finiihed, as it was before the bulinefs began ; and this
is a moft effential circumftance, as no part of the form¬
er vegetation is loft, which is in health (it to continue
for forming the new tree. It is worthy of notice, that
when the vivifying rays of the fun have caufed the Cap
to flow, thefe grafts, inducing the fluid through the pores
to every part of the tree, wall occafion innumerable fuck¬
ers or (cions to (fart through the bark, w'hich, together
with the grafts, give fuch energy to vegetation, that, in
the courfe of the fummer, the tree wall be actually cover¬
ed over by a thick foliage, which enforces and quickens
the due circulation of fap. Thefe, when combined,
fully compel the roots to work for the general benefit of
the tree.
“ In thefe experiments, I judged it proper to make
choice of grafts from the forts of fruits which were the
moft luxuriant in their growth, or any new variety, as
oefcribed in the I’yth and 18th volumes of the Society’s
d ranfaff ions, by wdrich means a greater vigour was ex¬
cited ; and if this obfervation is attended to, the practi¬
tioner will clearly perceive, from the firft year’s growth,
that the grafts wmuld foon ftarve the fuckers w'hich
(hoot forth below them, if they were fuffered to remain.
With a view to aecomrlifh this grand objeCf of im¬
provement, I gave much attention, as I have obferved
before, to the general praffice of invigorating old trees;
and I happily difcovered the error of the common mode
of engrafting but a (hort diftance from the trunk or
body. There the circumference of the wounds is as
large as to require feveral grafts, which cannot firmly
unite and clafp over the flumps, and confequently thefe
■wounds lay a foundation for after decay. If that were
not the cafe, yet it fo reduces the flze of the tree, that
it could not recover its former (fate in many year's, and
it is dubious if it ever would 5 whereas, by the method
of extreme grafting, the tree will be larger in three or
four years, than before the operation was performed.
For all the large branches remaining, the tree has
nothing to make but fruit-bearing wood 5 and from the
very beautiful verdure it foon acquires, and the fymme-
E N I N G.
try of the tree, no argument is necefTary to enforce the
praftice. Some of the trees, done in this way, yielded
each two buthels of apples from the third year’s wood.
February.
Oreen-
houfe and
Hot-houfe.
Cement for Engrafting.
One pound of pitch,
One pound of rolin,
Half a pound of beeswax,
A quarter of a pound of hog’s lard,
A quarter of a pound of turpentine 5
Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-houfe.
The fame care of the green-houfe is required during
this month which was recommended in January. If fe-
vere frolt, or very wet weather prevails, the glades muft
be kept clofe during the day to exclude the froft and
damp, or (light fires may be had recourfe to for this
purpofe.
In mild weather the glaffes muft be opened during Air to5be
the day to admit air, and water muft be given to the admitted, -
plants regularly, though fparingly. Towards the end
of the month it will be proper to remove a little of the
earth from the furface and (ides of the boxes or pots
and to replace it with fome frefh compoft. If any of
the orange trees, myrtles, or plants of that nature,
have irregular heads, they may be cut fo as to caufe
them to throw out a number of new branches to fill up
any vacant places, or form an entirely new head. If
they require to be much pruned, or to be cut over alto¬
gether, it would be proper to fhift them at the fame
time, i. e. to remove them from the box or pot in which
they have flood with the ball of earth about their roots,
part of which, together with any matted roots, (hould
be pared oft' from the fides and bottom, and replaced in
the boxes and pots, with a proper addition of frefh
earth . Any of the plants which are to undergo this
operation, that are very fickly, (hould have almoft the
whole of the earth removed from their roots, and ought,
for fome time after ftiifting, to Hand in a bark-bed.
If the bark-bed in the pine ftove received no freftipinefto^,
tan or turning laft month, it (hould be examined as
early as convenient ; and if the heat (hould have at all
declined, it ought immediately to be turned or have an
addition of frefh tan, as directed laft month. See Ja¬
nuary.
If a lively hfeat be not kept up in the bark bed now,
when the plants (hew flower, the fize of the future fruit
will be confiderably affeCted. A proper degree of
warmth, applied to the roots of the plants, will make
them grow vigoroufly and produce large fruit. The
heat of the air of the houfe muft be kept at a proper
temperature, by due attention to the fires every night
and morning, and even during the day in frofty wea¬
ther, or when cold winds prevail. The bark bed, in
which the fucceflion pine-apple plants grow, ftiould’ be
examined ; and if the heat in it begins to decline, it
ought
(d) The fyftem fucceeds equally well on pear, as alfo on cherry trees, provided the medication is ufed to pre-
■ent the cherry tree from gumming. , 1
4.32 G A 11 13
March, ought to be turned dr receive an addition of frefh tan.
Kitchen \yhen ^he fun fhines bright, and the weather is mode-
. Gar‘en- rate, air mud be given by opening fome of the glafles.
Water fhould be given regularly both to the pine apple
and other plants in the hot-houle, but much Ihould not
I2^ be given at a time.
Kidney The kidney beans that were fown lad month ihould
beans to be receive water frequently. If none were fown lad month,
watered. forne Df the early dwarf kinds may be fown now.
Cucumbers ^ no cucumbers were fown lad month in the hot-
fown. houfe, fome may be fown now *, or, plants railed in
hot-beds may be introduced, and placed in any conve-
hient iituation near the glais.
MARCH.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
U9
Sow full
•crops.
130
Brocoli.
I31
Sea cab¬
bage.
132
1'ole worts.
133
Afparagu?.
We need not here give a detailed account of the me¬
thods of performing many of the things mentioned under
this head, in the two preceding months, though moll of
them might be performed now with better profpeft of
fuccefs, as this is the principal month in the year for
fowing and planting full crops of the greater part of
kitchen-garden vegetables. We {hall, therefore, mere¬
ly enumerate them. Make hot-beds. Sow cucumbers
and melons. Tranfplant and fow cauliflower. Tranf-
plant and fow cabbage. Tranfplant and fow lettuce.
Sow fpinach, onions, leeks, radilhes, carrots, parf-
nips, beets, beans, peas, turnips, celery, fmall fa-
lad, parfiey, falfafy, and Hamburgh parlley. Plant {bal¬
lot, garlic, fcorzonera, and rockambole.
Some feed of the early purple and cauliflower broco-
li Ihould be fown, both about the beginning and towards
the end of the month, in a bed of rich earth, in an
open fituation, to raife plants to be fit for the table the
following autumn* For the fdbfequent management,
fee April, May, June, and July.
The feeds of the fea cabbage {crambe maritimd) may
be fown any time this month, in narrow beds of light
earth, about four feet wide, for the convenience of
weeding. They may either be fown all over the fur-
face of the bed, tolerably thick, when they are to be
tranfplanted, or in drills a foot and a half or two feet
apart, where they are to remain* Thofe plants are pe¬
rennial, and every year pufli up thick fucculent {hoots.
They fliould be covered fome time during the courfe of
the winter, with dry earth, to the depth of a few inch¬
es, by which the young {hoots, as they come up in
ipring, are blanched and become fit for ufe. They
{hould be cut as foon as they appear above ground, or
very foon after, in the manner of afparagus.
Sow brown and green cole, or bore cole.
Any time in the courfe of the month fome feeds of
brown and green cole (kale) may be fown in an open fi-
tuation, for when they are {haded they are apt to grow
up tall and wTeak. The plants raifed now will be fit for
planting out in fummer, and may be cut for ufe any
time from autumn to fpring.
About the beginning of this month afparagus feed
may be fown in narrow beds of good earth in an open
fituation. The feed may be fcattered regularly all over
the furface of the bed, raked in, and then receive a
flight covering of earth from the alleys, or in drills,
about an inch deep, at the diftance of fix inches from
z
E N I N G.
Fart III,
one another* The plants will appear above ground in March.
four or five weeks, when they ought to be kept clear of
weeds, and watered occafionally during dry weather. ' Lj
The plants raifed now will be fit for tranfplanting next
fpring into beds, where they are to remain and produce
crops, or into plots, to remain for a year or two till
they be fit for forcing* 134
This is a proper feafon for making plantations of af- Afparagus
paragus, for which purpofe young plants of one or two ^ ^
years old are commonly ufed. They lucceed bell in a
deep light foil, and in an expofed fituation. The
ground Ihould be well manured, dug to the depth of
12 or 15 inches, and divided into beds of the breadth
of four feet and a half, in which the afparagus may be
planted in rows, 10 or 12 inches apart, and about the
fame dillance from each other in the rows. The ufual
mode of planting them is to llretch a garden line along
the bed, and to form a drill with a fpade, to the depth
of about fix inches, in which the afparagus roots are
placed with their crowns or buds uppermoft.
A crop of onions may be fowm in beds when it is an
obje£l to make the rnoft of the ground* ,
The furface of afparagus beds fhould be loofened ordreffed!
turned over with a fork, in the courfe of this month.
The inftrument commonly made ufe of for this purpofe,
is a fork with three flat blunt prongs. Care mull be
taken not to dig too deep, left the tops of the afpara¬
gus roots fliould receive injury. Immediately after the
furfaces of the beds have been loofened, they Ihould be
raked over ; for if the raking wrere to be deferred for
fome time till the buds of the afparagus approach the
furface of the ground, they might be broken by the
teeth of the rake. Afparagus beds will continue to
produce good crops for 10 or 12 years, if properly ma¬
naged. They ought not to be cut till the third or
fourth year after they have been planted in rich foils
however, a few of the llrongeft {boots may be cut even
in the fecond, but it ihould be done fparingly. When
afparagus has advanced to the height of three or four
inches above ground, it {hould be colle£led for the ta¬
ble j but as the {hoots are commonly cut about three
inches under the furface of the ground, care mull be
taken not to injure the riling buds (for feveral buds rife
in fucceflion from the fame root), for this reafon, it is
commonly cut with an inftrument made on purpofe,
called an afparagus knife, which fhould be introduced
clofe by the {hoot to the requifite depth, and direfted fo
as to cut it off obliquely.
Artichoke plants, that were earthed up during win- Artichokes
ter to protedl them from froft, ftiould now be exa-dreffed,
mined j and if their ftems appear to pulh up vigoroufly, antf
the earth ought to be removed and levelled. The foil
ftiould likewife be loofened from the plants, and if ma¬
ny {hoots proceed from the fame root, they ftiould all be
taken away except three of the ftrongeft. The redun¬
dant {hoots, if carefully detached from the main roots,
may be employed to form new plantations 5 the earth,
therefore, fhould be fo far removed as to allow the hand
to be introduced to ilip them clofe to their inler-
tion. ... 137
Plantations of young artichokes are made towards the pjantetj,
end of this or in the courfe of next month, as fooh, in¬
deed, as the offsets (the only way in which this plant
is propagated) can be procured. For this purpofe
choofe a plot of good ground, dig in a good quantity
of
139
Sow fkir-
»ets,
Part III. GAUD
March, of rotten dung, and plant tlie offsets with a dibble after
Kitchen their tops and roots have been trimmed a little (if it ap-
, , pear neceffary), in rows about four feet and a half
afunder, and at the diftance of from two to three feet in
the rows. A crop of fpinach. lettuce, radithes, &c.
may be got from the ground the firft year, without inju¬
ring the artichokes. This plantation will produce heads
in September and October, and will continue to pro¬
duce plentiful crops for fix or feven years. Whenever
artichokes are required late in the feafon, young plan¬
tations ought to be formed every year, as it is from
them alone that heads may be expected late in autumn •,
for the old plantations generally produce them in June,
July, and Auguft. There are two forts, the large
globe, and the French or green oval artichoke*, the for¬
mer is commonly preferred, on account of the fize of
the head and the quantity of eatable matter they af-
13S ford.
Pot-herbs Slips or cuttings of fage, rue, rofemary, hyffop,
ProPagate<fi thyme, and favory, may be planted any time this month.
They fhould be planted about fix inches apart, and to
the depth of nearly two-thirds of their length. By
next autumn they will be fit for tranfplanting.
Some feeds of fkirrets may be fown in narrow beds,
in an open fituation, either in drills fix inches afunder,
or regularly over the furface of the bed. After the
plants have come above ground, they fliould be thinned
out to the diftance of about fix inches from one another,
and allowed to remain in the place where fown. Ibis
plant is frequently propagated by offsets taken from old
roots, which ftiould be planted at the diftance of fix or
eight inches from one another.
About the end of the month, if the weather be mild
and dry, a few early kidney-beans may be fown in a
well (heltered fituation, at the foot of a wall, having a
fouth expofure. See April. But as thefe plants are
tender, they are liable to be injured by cold weather,
therefore a fmall quantity only ftuould be fown now'.
About the middle or latter end of the month fome
cardoons may be fown for tranfplanting. For this pur-
pofe a piece of light ground Ihould be well dug, the
feed fown thinly, and raked in evenly 5 a few W'eeks after
the plants have come up, they Ihould be thinned out
to the diftance of about fix inches from one another,
to allow them room to grow till they are ftrong
enough to be planted out, which will be in June. See
June. They may be fowm likewife in rows five feet
afunder, and at the diftance of four feet from each
other in the row, and allowed to remain where fown.
They are biennial, grow to the height of three or four
feet, and are cultivated for the fake of the footftalks of
their leaves, w'hich are blanched by being earthed up
fomewhat in the manner of celery, on which account
they require a good deal of room.
This is a proper time to plant chives, a fmall fpecies
of onion, which is ufed in fpring as a fubftitute for
young onions. They grow in large tufts, and are pro¬
pagated by parting the rcpts into fmall tufts containing
eight or ten bulbs, which may be planted with the dib¬
ble in beds or rows at the diftance of fix or eight inches
from one another.
You may now plant Jerufalem artichokes, a fpecici
artichokes, Qf funflower {Jielianthus tuberofa) the roots of which
fomewhat referable the potato, and are to be planted
Vol. IX. Part II.
140
kidney
beans,
141
and car-
jk>0
144
Plant
chives,
M3
Jerulalem
433
March.
Kitchen
Garden.
144
ENIN G.
much in the fame manner to the depth of about four
inches, in row's three feet apart, and about half that
diftance from each other in the row. They are fit for
the table in Oiftober, and continue good all winter and
fpring.
A full crop of potatoes may be planted any time to-potatoes,,
w ards the end of this or in the courfe of next month.
Cuttings of moderate-fized potatoes (of tne variety in¬
tended to be planted), each containing one or two eyes
at leaft, may be put in with a blunt dibble, to the depth
of about four inches, in rows two feet apart, and at the
diftance of about a foot from each other in the row', or
in trenches or holes made with the fpade. In the fields
they are planted either with the dibble or in furrows
made by the plough. See Agriculture. They fuc-
ceed beft in light foil, which Ihould be well manured.
After they have come above ground, they ought to be
kept clear of weeds, and have a quantity of earth
drawn up about their items. There are many varieties
of this vegetable, which are obtained from leed 5 the
principal are, early dwarf, champion, large round white,
oblong red and white kidney, common kidney, fmall
white kidney, round red, large round dark red, &c. 145
Any time in the courfe of this month new' planta- an<1 mint*
tions of mint may be formed. This plant is propa¬
gated by parting the roots or by cuttings of the young
ftalks ; the former is praftifed this month, the latter in
next and following month. Procure a quantity of the
roots from an old plantation of mint; part and plant
them in rows fix inches alunder, and about the fame
diftance from each other in the row, either with the
dibble, or in drills about an inch deep, drawm by the
hoe. Thefe plants fucceed very well in any foil, but
prefer a moift one. The kinds commonly cultivated
are fpearmint, peppermint, orangemint, &c.
The leaves and flowers of Indian creffes are frequent-Sow Indian
ly ufed in falads, and their feeds for pickling. Thecreffes»
feeds may be fown about the beginning of the month,
at the diftance of tw'o or three inches from each other,
in drills, about an inch deep. If they are not fown
along fide of a hedge or other fupport, they may have
flicks placed befide them like peas after they have come
above ground. There are two kinds, the large, and
dwarf; the former is generally preferred. 147
Seeds of bafil, love apple (or tomatoes'), and capficum,
may be fown any time this month. They are tender
annuals, and muft be fowm in a hot-bed, to be after¬
wards planted out in the open ground in May; they
muft be managed like other tender annuals. See Ft'ower
Garden. Bafil is ufed in foups and falads, and muft be
fowui in very dry earth, otherwdfe the feeds will rot.
Love apples are ufed in foups and for pickling. The
capficum, of w'hich there is great variety, is ufed as a
pickle, and for feafoning. The principal kinds are
the long-podded, heart-ftiaped, bell-lhaped, angular-pod¬
ded, round fhort-podded, cherry-lhaped, &c.
Sow cucumbers and melons, to be planted out under cucumbers
hand or bell-glaffes. and melons.
Some cucumber and . melon feed may be fown to¬
wards the end of this month, in any of the beds already
employed j or one may be formed on purpofe to raife
plants to be reared under bell or hand-glafles. Thofe
fowm now will be fit for ridging out in the beginning of
May. See May.
3 I
Sect.
pruned,
I:S°
planted,
'S*
prctedled
jr flower,
***
and farced.
153
Tranfplant
early an¬
nuals*.
154
Sftw tender
and hardy
annuals.
CARD
Sect. II. Fruit Garden.
All kinds of fruit trees mentioned under tins head
laid month may be pruned now, though it ought to be
performed as near the beginning of the month as pof-
fible ; for if the weather has been mild during the pre¬
ceding month, many of the trees will have advanced
too far to be in a flate proper for pruning. . Figs, how¬
ever, on account of the late period at which they begin
to pufh, may be fafely pruned ; indeed this is the belt
feafon for pruning them.
Fruit trees may ftill be planted, though the earlier in
the month the better 5 for if mild weather prevails, the
buds of the trees will have advanced fo far before the
end of the month, as to render tranfplanting lefs fafe.
For the method, fee October. The duration of the
planting feafon depends more on the mildnefs and fe-
verity of the weather than the time of the year.
When apricot, nedlarine, and peach trees are in
flower, they fliould be protefted during froft with large
garden-mats fixed to the top of the walls by hooks, and
faftened at the bottom to prevent them from being agi¬
tated by the wind fo as to dalh off the bloffbms. Thefe
mats muft be removed during the mildeft part of the
day, unlefs when the weather is very fevere, and without
funihine. Inftead of mats, old filh-nets doubled may
be ufed for this purpofe, and need not be removed du¬
ring the day 5 a number of fmall branches of ever¬
greens (well clad with leaves) fixed among the branches
of the trees in flower, will alfo afford flicker to the
bloffom and fetting fruit.
Drefs ftrawberry beds, if not done laft month. See
February.
Fruit trees on hot walls, in peach, cherry, and vine-
houfes, muft be duly attended to, muft receive air and
water regularly, and have the fires put on every even¬
ing and cold morning.
Sect. III. F/ower Garden and Fleafure Ground.
If any early annuals, fuch as balfams, cockscombs,
See. were fown laft month, they will be fit for planting
out into fmall pots or a hot-bed prepared for the pur¬
pofe. This hot-bed fliould be raifed to the height of
two feet} and when the violent heat has fubfided, co¬
vered over to the depth of fix inches with. rich dry
earth. The plants may be put in at the diftance of
three or four inches from one another, or rather in
fmall pots, becaufe from thefe they can be more eafily
removed into larger ones at a. fubfequent period.. Due
attention muft be paid to give them water and air when
requifite j and linings of frefli dying muft be applied to.
the bed whenever the heat begins to decline. If pro¬
perly taken care of, they will be fit for final tranfplanta-
tion in May or June.
If no tender annuals were fown in February, fome
may be fown any time this month.
Sow lefs tender or half-hardy annuals, foch as China
after, Indian pink, capficum, French and African mari¬
gold, chryfanthemum, tree and purple amaranthus, and
Chinefe hollyhocks.
Form a flight hot-bed any time this month, which
need not be raifed higher than two feet, and earth it
over to the depth of about fix inches. The feed may
E N I N G. Part III.
be fown in narrow drills, at the diflance of two or March,
three inches from one another, and each kind, feparate-, Nlirfer7- j
ly or in pots, plunged in the earth of the bed. After '
the plants have come up, they will require plenty of
free air and moderate watering 5 and when they have ac¬
quired the height of two or three inches, they muft be
gradually hardened to bear the open air, by taking the
lights entirely off in mild warm days. Inftead of hot¬
bed frames and lights, oil-paper frames, or hand-
glaffes, may be made ufe of. The plants raifed now
will be fit for tranfplanting into the flower border in
May. If hardy annuals were not fown laft month,
they may be fown any time during the prefent. I5S
Cuttings of double chryfanthemums which were plant- Manage-
ed laft autumn in pots or boxes, fliould be planted out 016111 of
into pots or flower borders if mild weather prevails. mumsTnd ~
Auricula plants in pots ftiould be protetted from rain auriculas,
and froft, and ftiould ftill be kept covered with hooped
arches, over which mats may be occafionally thrown,
for ftiould they be expofed to much rain or fevere
weather now when their flower-ftalks begin to advance,
the future bloom might be injured. Keep the pots
clear of weeds, and give them a little water in dry
weather, or expofe them to a gentle ftiower. If the
pots received no frefti earth I'aft month, let them receive
fome now. 155
Let the hoops mentioned the two preceding months hyaciHths»
ftill continue over the beds of tulips, hyacinths, ranun- &c'
cuius, &c. for if fevere weather occurs, 'the beds muft
be protedled by a covering of mats, as already mention¬
ed. . See January. When the ftalks of hyacinths,
particularly double ones, have advanced almoft to their
full height, they are apt to be borne down by the
weight of their own flowers, therefore a neat fmall ftick
ought to be fixed in the ground clofe to every plant, to
which the flowerftalks ftiould be faftened by a piece of
bafs or other loft ligature. 157
Ranunculufes and anemones may ftill be planted ;railuncuIu"»
they will fucceed the early ones, and flower in June ^'on^e‘
and July.
Towards the end of the month, feeds of biennial andsembien-
perennial flowers may be fown, fuch as carnations, nials, &c.
pinks, fweetwilliams, wallflowers, and ftock julyflowers
of all forts, alfo rofe campion, catchfly, fcarlet lychnis,
columbines, Greek valerian, polyanthus, auriculas, fca-
bioufes, and Canterbury bells j likewife hollyhocks,.
French honeyfuckles, rockets, honefty or fatin flower,
tree primrofe, ftirubby mallow, broad-leaved campanula,
foxglove, fnapdragon or frogfmouth, &c.
Biennial and perennial plants may likewife be tranf-
planted at this feafon. 1 ^
Trees and fnrubs, both deciduous and evergreen, mayp!ant trees
ftill be planted j but that work ftiould be finilhed before anc* 1*!ra'C!S
the end of the month.
Sect. IV. Nurfery.
. t6o
Fruit trees, elms, &c. may be engrafted ; and the Ingrafting
fhoots of trees engrafted laft year fliould be fo ftiort- treat-
ened about the time their buds begin to fwell, as to leave
four or five buds, which -will pufti out branches to form(;e>j iajt
4 head. The ihoots of laft year’s growth of trees bud-year,
ded the preceding fummer ftiould likewife be ftiortened,
and the heads of trees budded laft fummer ftiould be ^
cut off about four inches above the bud, which will
caufe
i6i
Sow feeds
of trees,
See.
162
Propagate
PartHI. CARD
March, caufe it to pufh out vigoroufly. The part of the flock
Nurfery. which is left will ferve as a fupptrt, to which the young
tr—; branch may be fixed in the courfe of the furamer to pre¬
vent it from beii% blown out by the wrind.
Seeds of hardy trees and Ihrubs may be fown
any time this month, in beds three or four feet wide,
which ihould be well dug, and thoroughly pulverifed.
The feed may be fown either regularly over the furface
of the bed or in drills, and covered in proportion to
their fize $ the acorns and other large feeds to the depth
of from an inch and a half to two inches, and the
fmaller ones from about half an inch to an inch. Some
of the more delicate flmibs, fuch as the arbutus, &c.
may be fown in pots or boxes, by which means they
will be more eafily protected from the feverity of the
weather in winter.
Mofi kind of trees and fhrubs may be propagated by
by cuttings. cuttjngS this month, particularly vines.
The vine cuttings muft be fhoots of laft year’s growth,
about ten or twelve inches long, and each furnilhed with
three buds. If cut from the vines during the winter,
before the fap begins to rife, and preferved in dry earth,
they will fucceed the better. Some leave about an inch
of the former year’s wood attached to each cutting, but
this is unneceffary. They may be planted in rows a
foot and a half afunder, and at the diftance of eight or
ten inches from each other in rows, and fo deep as to
leave only their uppermoft bud above ground 5 they
ftiould afterwards be occafionally watered, and kept
clear of weeds. Though cuttings of vines may be raifed
in the open air, much better plants may be obtained by
ftriking them in a hot-bed or tan-pit in a hot-houfe.
At pruning feafon fele£! fome well-ripened fhoots, cut
them into pieces of a convenient length, and infert them
a little way into pots filled with dry earth, where they
may remain till wanted for planting. Proteft them in
ievere, but in mild weather, expofe them to the free air.
About the beginning of this month, if there is no room
in the hot-beds already made, prepare one on purpofe,
which may be formed and earthed over exa&ly like a
feed bed for melons. See January. Fill a number
•f pots, about four inches deep, correfponding to the
cuttings you mean to plant, with light rich earth. Take
the cuttings you have preferved during the winter j felect
the roundeft and fulleft buds; cut the branch about a
quarter of an inch above, and about three inches below
the bud, with a iharp knife, fo as to make a fmooth cut,
. and infert each clofe by the fide of the pot, fo deep,
that the bud may be covered about a quarter of an inch
by the earth of the pot •, for it is alleged, that a cutting
ftrikes with greater freedom when placed clofe to the
fide than in the middle of the pot. When plants are
xaifed in this manner from a fingle bud, they feem as if
reared from feed. As foon as the cuttings are planted,
plunge the pots into the earth of the bed, give them a
gentle watering, and put on the glaffes. Attention
muft be paid to the bed, to fee that the heat be not too
ftrong, for a moderate bottom heat is all that is necef-
fary. Air fliould be freely admitted during the day,
and even during the night, in mild weather; but when
the weather is cold, the beds fhould be covered with
mats during the night, to proteft them from froft. The
nuttings fhould likewife be fhaded when the fun {bines
very bright, with mats, and fhould receive occafional
watering. When the plants are about fix or eight
435
April.
Kitchen
Garden.
E N. I N G.
inches high, they will require to be fhifted into larger
pots, which muft be done cautioufiy for fear of injuring
their roots. Take pots of about fix inches deep, and
about the fame width 5 put a little good earth into the
bottom of each, and turn the cutting out of the fmall
pot into it with the ball of earth as entire as poflible,
and fill it up wdth earth. The frames of the beds
fhould be raifed in proportion as the plants increafe in
height, and the heat of the bed renewed by linings of
frelh dung when on the decline. Support the (hoots
wThen they are about ten or twelve inches high, and
pinch oft' the tendrils and lateral fhoots as foon as they
appear. They will be fit for planting out in the end of
June or beginning of July.
When dry weather prevails, give gentle waterings Water
to feedling trees and fhrubs, and keep them free fromfeedlings,
weeds.
163
Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-houfe.
1 $4
The plants in the green-houfe fhould receive air Air to be
freely, unlefs during wet or frofty weather, and more freedyad-
frequent and plentiful waterings than in the two formernii
months. Dead branches or decayed leaves fhould be
removed, and any of the larger leaved plants that ap¬
pear foul fliould have their leaves cleaned with a wTet
fponge. Thofe alfo which require fhifting or pruning
may be managed as directed laft month. Sow feeds
and plant cuttings of green-houfe plants j for which
purpofe a hot-bed or tan-pit of a hot-houfe will be ne-
ceffary at this feafon.
Pine apple plants will require a good deal of warmth, Treatment
particularly m the tan -pit j as their fruit will now be of pine
confiderably advanced, they muft therefore be kept in aaPPies“
vigorous ft ate of growth, to fecure large fruit. If the
heat of the tan-bed be not very great, at leaft one-third
of new tan ought to be added. After the tan has been
procured, it ought to be fpread out and dried a little,
and then laid up in a heap, in fome fhade adjacent to
the hot-houfe, till it begin to ferment. The plants
fhould then be taken from the tan-bed, and a quantity
of the decayed tan removed from its furface and fides,
to make room for the new, which muft be thoroughly
mixed with the old 5 and, as this operation ought to be
completed in the courfe of one day, a fufticient number
of hands fhould be employed to effe£l it. Both pine
apples and other plants in the hot-houfe fhould be re¬
gularly watered, and have frefh air admitted in bright
calm days, from about two hours before till two or three
after noon.
APRIL.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
If the heat begin to decline in the cucumber and Manage-
melon beds, they fhould receive linings as direfted in ment of cu-
the former months j for thefe plants will not yield fine cumbers
fruit, or a plentiful crop, if the beds are deftitute of aanci melens‘
proper heat. Air muft be admitted every day, and a
moderate watering given every four or five days, par¬
ticularly to cucumbers j but melons fhould receive it fpa-
ringly, efpecially when their fruits are fetting, as much
water at that time would prove injurious, and make the
fruit drop oft. Keep the plants clear of all decayed
3 I 2 leaves
45<5
April.
Fruit
Garden.
167
Plant
iettucr.
168
Sidney
beans.
169
Tranfplant
cabbages,
&c.
370
cauli¬
flowers,
171
■ferocoli,
GAUD
leaves and decayed male flowers. When the fun flrines
i'o bright as to caufe the leaves of cucumbers and melons
to flag, it will be proper to fhade them for two or three
hours, during its greatefl: heat, with a thin mat or a
little loofe hay, ftrewed thinly over the glaffes.
Make hot-beds on which to ridge out cucumbers or
melons under hand glafles or oiled paper frames. See
May.
Sow fome cabbage, Cilicia, imperial, and large ad¬
mirable cabbage lettuces any time this month 5 indeed,
fome ought to be fown about the beginning, middle,
and towards the end of the month, to fecure a regular
fucceflion. Should the lettuces that were fown laft
month or in February ftand too thick, they may be
thinned out and tranfplanted at the diftance of about ten
inches from each other, and watered occaflonally till
they take root.
Some early kidney beans, viz. the Batterfea, fpeckled,
dun-coloured, and Canterbury dwarfs, may be planted
towards the end of the month, in a well-flieltered fitua-
tion, expofed to the fouth, in drills two feet or two feet
and a half afunder, and about two inches from each
other in the drills. The tall running kinds fliould not
be planted till next month.
Some of the cabbage and favoy plants, which were
fown in February and March, fliould be thinned and
tranfplanted, when their leaves are about two inches
broad, into beds, to gain ftrength before their final tranf-
plantation 5 and thofe which have flood the winter may
be planted out for good.
Cauliflower plants under bell or hand glaffes fhould
have fome earth drawn up about their ftems, and flrould
be expofed to the open air during the day in good
weather. Thofe fown lafl month fliould be planted
out into beds in the open air, or into flight hot-beds, to
forward their growth. Some of the ftrongeft of the
plants raifed in the early part of fpring may be planted
out at the end of the month, at the diflance of two
or two feet and a half each way from one another,
and fliould be occaiionally watered till they are well
rooted.
Young plants of brocoli, which were fown lafl month,
may be planted out at the diflance of two or three
inches from one another, to acquire ftrength for final
tranfplantation j and fome feed of the early purple, late
purple, and cauliflower brocoli, may be fown to raife
plants for tranfplanting in June. Some plants of laft
year’s fowing, which produced heads this Ipring, ftiould
be allowed to remain for feed, which will ripen in
Auguft.
Sect. II. Truit Garden.
172
Tr-anfplant
and prune,
April.
Fruit
Garden.
174
E N I N G. Part III.
be rubbed off, and the young fruic on apricot trees where
fet too thick Ihould be thinned.
Look over the vines trained on walls about the end
of the month, and rub off the young fhoots which pro¬
ceed from the old wood, unlefs they happen to be fituated Drefs vine?,
where a fupply of young ivood is wanted j likewife where
two thoots proceed from the fame eye on branches of
of laft year’s growth, let the weakeft be rubbed off.
Stakes Ihould be placed befide the vines in the vine¬
yard, to which they fliould be tied, and the ground
between the rows fliould be kept perfe&ly free from
w-eeds. ^
1'he vine was introduced by the Romans into Britain, Hiftory of
and appears formerly to have been very common. From the vintf.
the name of vineyard yet adhering to the ruinous fites
of our caftles and monafleries there feem to have been
few in the country but what had a vineyard. The
county of Gloucefter is particularly commended by
Malmfbury in the twelfth century, as excelling all the
reft of the kingdom in the number and goodnefs of its
vineyards. In the earlier periods of our hiftory the ifle
of Ely w’as exprefsly denominated the IJle of Vines by
the Normans. Vineyards are frequently noticed in the
deferiptive accounts of Doomfday j and thofe of Eng¬
land are even mentioned by Bede as early as the com¬
mencement of the eighth century.
Doomfday book exhibits to us a particular proof that
wrine was made in England during the period preceding
the conqueft. And after the conqueft, the bifliop of
Ely appears to have received at leaft three or four tuns
annually, as tythes from the produce of the vineyards
in his diocefe, and to have made frequent refervations
in his leafes of a certain quantity of wine for rent. Dr
Thomas, the kte dean of Ely, gives the following ex-
trafls from the archives of that church.
In late feafons, pear, plum, and cherry trees may ftill
be planted-, and even apricot, peach, and neflarine •, but
it ftiould be done as early in the month as poflible, for
if any of theft “"have advanced much in growth before
they are tranfplanted, they will not pulh freely in the
courfe of the fummer, and will be liable to be injured
by drought. Where pruning has been neglefled, it
may ftiil be done, but the fooner the better, for many
fruit trees will now be in flower.
and^Jrateft Fruit trees in flower fliould ftill be protected in cold
fjsut trees, weather. See March. All ill-placed ihoots Ihould
i- ^
Exitus vineti - - 2 15 3-y
Ditto vineae - - 10 12 2^
Ten buftiels of grapes from the vineyard 076
Seven dolia mufti from the vineyard, 12th
Edward II. - - 1510
Wine fold for - - - 1 12 o
Verjuice - - ~ 1 7
One dolium and one pipe filled with new
wine, and fuppofed at Ely. For wine
out of this vineyard - 1 2 2
For verjuice from thence. - o 16 O
No wine but verjuice made, 9th Edward IV.
From theft extracts it appears that Ely grapes would
fometimes ripen, and the convent made wine of them -y
and fometimes not, and then they converted them in¬
to verjuice. Haddocks in his hiftory of the Exche¬
quer, i. 364, fays that the ftieriffs of Northampton-
ftiire and Leicelterftiire, were allowxd their account,
for the livery of the king’s vinedreffer at Rockingham,
and for necefiaries for the vineyard. A piece of land
in London, now form ng Eaft Smithfield and fome adjoin¬
ing ftreets, was withheld from the religious houft within
Aldgate by four fucceflive conftables of the Tower, in
the reigns of Rufus, Henry, and Stephen, and made by
them into a vineyard,+ o their great emolument. In the
old accounts of rectorial and vicarial revenues, and in
the old regiflers of ecclefiaftical fuits concerning them,
the
Part III. CARD
April, the tithe of wine is an article that frequently occurs
Fruit in Kent, Surry, and other counties. And the wines
Garden. of Gloucefterihire within a century after the conquelt
■—' were little inferior to the French in fweetnefs. It is
alleged that a black grape very fimilar to the black
mufcadine was introduced from Gaul into Britain,
about the middle of the third century. > lo thele
proofs of the antiquity of vineyards in Britain, we (hall
add the following account of the vineyard at Pams-
hill Surry, (the moft extenfxve one at prelent m Eng¬
land), given by the original proprietor, the honourable
Charles Hamilton, to Sir Edward Barry, and publithed
in his treadle on wanes, p. 468. . .
“ The vineyard at Pains-hill is lituated on the
fouth fide of a gentle hill, the foil a gravelly fand : it
is planted entirely with two kinds of Burgundy grapes,
the Auvernat, which is the moft delicate, but the
tendereft ; and the Miller grape, commonly called the
black clulrer, which is more hardy. The firlt year
I attempted to make red wine in the ufual way, by
treading the grapes, then letting, them ferment m a
vat, till all the hulks and impurities formed a thick
cruft at the top : the boiling ceafed, and clear wine
was drawn off from the bottom. This effay did not
anfwer •, the wine was fo very harlh and auftere, that
I defpaired of ever making red wine fit to drink ;
but through that harlhnefs I perceived a flavour lome-
thing like that of fome final! French white wines
which made me hope I Ihould fucceed better with
white wine. That experiment fucceeded far beyond
my moft fanguine expectation •, for the very firft year
I made white wine, it nearly refembled the flavour
of Champagne j and in two-or three years more, as
the vines grew ftronger, to my great amazement my
wine had a finer flavour than the belt Champagne I
ever tatted. The firft running w-as as clear as fpints j
the fecond was ceil de perdrix; and both of them ipark-
led and creamed in the glafs like Champagne. t
would be endlefs to mention how. many great judges
of wine were deceived by my wine, and thought it
Tuperior to any Champagne they ever drank ; but fuch
is the prejudice of moft people again it any thing 01
Enolilh growth, I generally found it moft prudent
not to declare where it grew, till after they had pai¬
red their verdia upon it. The fureit proof I can
give of its excellence is, that I have fold it to wane
merchants for fifty guineas a hogfhead •, and one wine
merchant to whom I fold five hundred pounds worth
at one time allured me, he fold lome of the bed of
it from 7s. 6d. to 10s. 6d. per bottle. After many
years experience, the belt method 1 tound of making
and managing it was this : I let the grapes hang till
they had got all the maturity the feafon would, give
them then they were carefully cut oft with ^fciffars,
and brousht home to the wine barn, in fmall quan¬
tities, to prevent their heating, or preffing one another j
then they were all picked off the ftalks, and all the
mouldy or green ones were difcarded, before they
were put upon the prefs; where trey were ad Pre^
fed in a few hours after they were gathered : mucn
would run from them,, before the prefs fqueezed
them, from their own weight one upon Mother. J his
running was as clear as water, and fweet as !yrup j
and all this of the firft preliing, and part of the
Fruit
Garden.
E N I N G. 437
fecond continued white ; the other preilings grew red- April,
dilh, and were not mixed with the beft. As tail as
the v.’ine run from the prefs into a large receiver, it
was put into the hoglheads, and clofely bunged up.
In a few hours one would hear the fermentation be¬
gin, which would foon burft the calks, if not guard¬
ed againft, by hooping them ftrongly with iron, and
fecuring them in ftrong wooden frames, and the heads
with wedges. In the height of fermentation, I have
frequently feen the wine oozing through the pores of
the ftaves. The hoglheads were left all the depth of
winter in the cold barn, to reap the benefit of the frofts.
When the fermentation was over, which was eafily dif-
covered by the ceffation of noife and oozing, but to
be more certain, by pegging the calk, when it would
be quite clear, then it was racked off into clean hogf-
heads, and carried to the vaults, before any warmth
of weather could raife a fecond fermentation. In
March, the hoglheads were examined : if any were not
quite fine, they were fined down with common filh glue in
the ufual manner j thofe that were fine of themfelves
were not fined down, and all were bottled about the
end of March 5 and in about fix weeks more, would
be in perfecl order for drinking, and would be in their
prime for above one year j but the fecond year the fla¬
vour and fweetnefs would abate, and would gradually
decline, till at laft it loft all flavour and fweetnefs 5 and
fome that I kept fixteen years became fo like old hock,
that it might pafs for fuch to one who was not a perfect
connoiffeur. The only art I ever ufed to it, was put¬
ting three pounds of white fugarcandy to fome of the
hoglheads, when the wine was firft tunned from the
prefs, in order to conform to a rage that prevailed, to
drink none but very fweet Champagne. I am convin¬
ced much good wine might be made in m^ny parts of
the fouth of England. Many parts are fouth of Pains-
hill } many foils may be yet fitter for it 5 and many
fituations rauft be fo : for mine was much expoied to
the fouth weft wind (the worft of all for vines), and
the declivity was rather too fteep j yet with theie dis¬
advantages it fucceeded many years. Indeed the un¬
certainty of our climate is againft it, and many fine
crops have been fpoiled by May frofts and wet fum-
mers $ but one good year balances many dijappoint-
mentis.”
In a differtation on the growth of wine in England
by F. X. Vifper, printed at Bath 1 786, there is a method
of training vines along the furface of the ground pro-
poled, which feems well adapted to the northerly cli¬
mate of Britain, for which the Rev. M. L. Broeg ob¬
tained a patent. Mr Vifper acknowledges, that he took
the firft hint from the following paffage, from Lord
Chancellor Bacon : “ The lownefs of the fruit boughs
makes the fruit greater, and cauies it to ripen better ;; for
we always fee in apricots, peaches, and mello-cottens
upon a wall, the largeft fruit is towards the bottom ;
and in France, the grapes that make the wine grow
upon low vines bound to fmall (lakes, while the raifed
vines in arbours make verjuice.” He adds “ It is re¬
ported, that in fome places vines are fuffered to grow
like herbs, fpreading upon the ground, and the grapes
of thefe vines are very large it were proper to try
whether plants nfually luftained by props, will not bear
large leaves and fruit if laid along the ground.”
Sect.
43®
April.
Flower
Garden, or
Fleafure
Ground,
&c.
r^6
Sow and
tranfplant
anfiual-.
177
Flant ever
greens.
178
Walks
dreffed.
GAUD
Sect. III. The Flower Garden ^ or V leaf are Ground.
Sow and tranfplant tender annuals. See February
and March. Protect hyacinths, ranunculufes, and
anemones, planted in beds, irom heavy rain and froll, as
direfted in January and February y likewife, when they
are in flower, from very bright lunfldne, from about
two hours before till two or three after noon y but in
this cafe the covering fliould be raifed a confiderable
height, to admit air, and allow them to be viewed.
Plant tuberofes in a hot^bed or hot-houfe, and give
them but little water till they have come above
ground.
Evergreen fhrubs and trees may (till be planted, but
the earlier in the month the better.
Grafs walks and lawns fhould be poled, rolled, and
mown. Gravel walks may be broken up and turned.
179
Examine
newly in¬
grafted
trees.
Sect. IV. Nurfenj.
Look over newly engrafted trees, and fee if the
clay keeps clofe about the grafts, as it is apt to crack
and fall off; when you find it any way defective fo as
admit the air and rain to the graft, then remove it and
apply frefh clay in its ftead. All ftioots wrhich rife from
the flalk below the graft muff be taken off whenever
they are produced y for if permitted to remain, they
would rob the graft of nouriftunent, and prevent it
{hooting freely.
Trees that were budded laft yearj will now begin to
pulh out their firft fhoots. Should they be infefted with
infe&s, fo as to caufe any of their leaves to curl, thefe
fhould be picked off, and pains taken to deftroy the
vermin. Shoots that proceed from the flock under the
bud muft be rubbed off as foon as they appear.
The fowing and tranfplanting of young trees and
plant young (hrubs from the feed bed, or where they ftand too thick,
fhould be finilhed early in the month, and if very dry
weather prevail, water Ihould be given to feed-beds,
cuttings, and lately tranfplanted trees and fhrubs.
1S0
Thofe bud
ded laft
year.
1S1
And tranf-
Sfct. V. Green-houfe and Hot-hcufe.
Air may be admitted, and water given more freely
than in the former months, becaufe the plants will be¬
gin now to advance in growth •, but in general the
management muft be nearly the fame as recommended
j82 laft month.,
Requifite A proper degree of warmth, both in the bark bed
heat for and in tne air of the hot-houfe, is requfite for fruiting
*tne apples. pjne app|e piants> Water may be more frequently
given, and air admitted more freely, becaufe the weather
will be milder y and in other refpe&s they muft be
managed as dire&ed in March. The fucceflion pine
aP?1e plants, or fuch as are to fruit next year fliould
be ftiifted into larger pots, (viz. 24s.) the fize com¬
monly made ufe of. When the plants are healthy,
they Ihould be turned out of the pots with the ball of
earth about their roots as entire as poflible, and put
them into larger ones with an additional quantity of
frefh earth y but fhould the plants be fickly, infefted
with infects, or appear to have bad roots, the whole
of the earth fhould be fhaken off, and the roots trim-
/ined, a few of the under leaves {tripped off' the Item,
4
E N I N G. * Part III.
and the plants then put into pets filled entirely with May.
frefti earth. Kitchen
After the plants have been thus fhifted, they fhould . Garden-
have a moderate quantity of water given them fre¬
quently, which will promote their growth. The young
pine apple plants which were railed from fuckers or
crowns laft feafon Ihould likewife be fliifted into larger
pots, if their roots appear to have filled thofe in winch
they have flood during the winter : if healthy, they
fliould be turned out of the pots with the ball of earth
entire ; if otherwife, they muft be treated like the fuc¬
ceflion plants as above.
This is a proper feafon for propagating hot-houfe Propagate
plants by cuttings, layers, &c. or for fowing their feeds, hot-houfe
Cuttings of green-houfe plants may likewife be fttuck Plant3i
in the bark bed of the hot-houfe, and kept there till fit
for tranfplanting. *
MAY.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
Melons require attention, particularly when their Treatment
fruit are fetting. The heat of the hot-beds muft be of melons,
kept tip by proper linings y water muft be given810"
moderately, and air admitted regularly. In warm
weather when the fun (hines bright, the plants ftiould
be fhaded from its rays for an hour or two about
mid-day, by a covering of mats or fomething of that
nature. A piece of tile or {late {hould be placed un¬
der each fruit after it is fet, to prevent it from coming
into contaft with the moift earth of the bed, which
would injure it, and caufe it to drop off. Ridges may
be formed for the reception of the melon and cucum¬
ber plants, which were fown laft or preceding month,
to be raifed under hand or bell glaffes. Thefe rid¬
ges Ihould be about four feet wide, and are to be
conftru&ed in the fame manner as hot-beds. See Jan¬
uary. The dung ftiould be raifed to the height of
two feet and half, and covered with fix or eight inches
bf rich light earth, and may be made either in trenches
about a loot deep or on the furface of the ground.
When more than one ridge is to be conftru&ed, they
fhould be placed parallel to one another at the dif-
tance of about four feet, which interval ftiould af¬
terwards be filled up with frefti horfe dung when the
heat in the ridges begins to decline j this will both
revive the heat, and when earthed over, will afford
room to extend the advancing runners of the plants.
As foon as the ridges are earthed over, the hand or
bell glaffes fnay be put on along the middle of the bed,
at the diftance of four feet, when intended for melons,
and three feet when for cucumbers y and the following
day, or as foon after as the earth under the glaffes has
become warm, a hole {hould be made under each, into
which two melon or three cucumber plants are to be put
with the ball of earth about their roots y the earth fliould
then be well clofed about the ball and ftem of the plant,
a little water given, and the glaffes put on. Shade
them for a day or two, and give air during the day
by railing the glaffes. When the plants have filled
the glaffes, the runners muft be trained out from under
them, but this ftiould not take place till the end of
the month, or fome time in June. Oil paper frames
are {bmetimes ufed for covering the ridges. Thefe
frames
Part TTI. G A R D
frames are made of thin Hips of wood covered with
paper, rendered tranfparent and water proof by means
E N I N G.
Sect. III. The Ylower Garden, or Vleafure Ground.
13$
Plant kid¬
ney beans.
of oil. Melons reared in this way will produce plen¬
tifully in Auguft and September, and cucumbers from
the middle of June, till the cold weather in autumn
fet in. If no cucumber plants were raifed in March
or April for this purpofe, fome feeds may be fown in
the ridges. Some may likewife be fown about the end
of the month in the open ground, to produce a crop
for pickling ; but (hould cold weather prevail at that
time, it fhould be deferred till June. Gourds and
pumpkins may be fown in the open ground in a warm
fituation, or in a hot-bed, to be afterwards tranfplant-
ed.
A full crop of kidney beans may be planted both of
the dwarf and tall running forts : the former, viz^
black fpeckled, Batterfea and Canterbury white, {hould
be planted in drills about an inch deep, and two feet
and a half afunder, at the diftance of two or three
inches from each other ; the latter, viz. the fcarlet and
large Dutch white, fliould be fown in drills, about an
inch and a half deep, and three feet and a half or
four afunder. Thefe running kinds mull have tall
flicks, or fome fupport of that nature.
The capficum and love apples which were raifed lafl
Stc. planted or the preceding month in hot-beds, may be planted out
into well fheltered fituations expofed to the fouth.
Some fpinach plants, both of the fmooth and prickly
feeded, fhould be allowed to run up for feed j and fome
of the different kinds of radifhes fhould be tranfplanted
for the fame purpofe.
The different crops fhould be kept clear of weeds^
and thinned with the hoe. Turnips may be left at fhe
diftance of feven or eight inches from each other car¬
rots, fix or eight *, parfnips, eight to ten or twelve j onions,
four or five j Hamburgh parfley, fcorzonera, and fal-
fafy, fix or feven y and cardoons, five or fix} that they
may acquire ftrength for final tranfplantation.
Plant out cabbages, favoys, cauliflower, brocoli, and
bore cole.
186
Capficum,
1S7
Sow fpi¬
nach.
188
Weed and
thin crops.
189
Plant out
cabbages,
&c.
190
Wall-trees
trained.
191
Examine
vines.
Sect. II. Fruit Garden.
As wall trees will now have made vigorous fhoots, a
fufficient quantity of the beft placed lateral, and all the
terminal ones, fhould be trained to the wall, and all
foreright, ill placed, fuperfluous, and very luxuriant
fhoots, fhould be removed. None of the young branches
fhould be fhortened, unlefs where a fupply of new wood
is wanted to fill up fome vacant fpace. When the fruit
ftands too thick on wall trees, they fhould be thinned.
When wall trees are infefted with infefts, means fhould
be made ufe of to deftroy them} the curled leaves fhould
be picked off with a view to check their propagation :
tobacco duft may be fometimes employed with advan¬
tage } but water fprinkled plentifully over the branches
with an engine conftrufted on purpofe, is the moft effi¬
cacious remedy.
Let vines both on walls and in vineyards be looked over}
and let all fuperfluous branches, which proceed from
the old wood or lateral fhoots, which are puffied out by
the young branches, be rubbed off} indeed this muft be
done conftantly during the fummer.
439
June.
Kitchen
Garden.
Tender annuals fhould be tranfplanted into new! 192
formed hot-beds, when they are wiffied to flower earr Tranfplant
and in full perfection, particularly balfams and cockf- tcncjer an-
C<>mbS‘ , . , , . , . , „ „ ho:-beds.
Let the auricula plants m pots, which are paft flow-
er, be placed in fome fituation wffiere they may enjoy Treatment
the free air and the fun till about ten o’clock in. the auricu¬
las.
morning. ^
Some wallflower and flock gilliflower feed may be gow ^aii.
fown about the beginning of the month } cuttings alfo of flower, See.
double wall-flowers and flocks may be planted under
bell and hand glaffes, or in a ffiady border. ^
Pergunial and biennial plants that w7ere fown laft Tranfplant
March, will be fit for transplanting about the end ofb'enuiab»
the month into beds, where they may remain to acquire ^tc*
ftrength.
Sect. IV. Nurfery.
Towards the end of the month, the clay fhould be Newly-
removed from newdy grafted trees, and the bandages gratttd
loofened, becaufe they might check the growth of thetrees'
grafts wffiich will now ffioot freely, and all buds under
the graft ffiould be carefully removed.
Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-honfe.
About the end of the month, if the weather fhould piai*t^'V0 ki¬
be favourable, the greater part of the plants may beremoveii
removed from the green-houfe, and placed in fome w?ell- into open
fheltered fituation in the open air. The plants in theair-
hot-houfe fhould receive wrater and air freely, particu¬
larly in bright weather.
JUNE.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
The fame care of cucumbers and melons which wasjvielons
recommended for laft month, is neceffary now } the cu- 81c. ’
cumbers fown in the open ground lafl month ffiould
be thinned, when they begin to puffi out their firil
rough leaves, and a few more feeds may be fown for the
fame purpofe, but the earlier in the month the better.
Tranfplant celery for blanching. For this purpofe,
form trenches, about a fpade deep and three feet apart } .
lay the earth which comes out of the trenches regular¬
ly along each fide } lay into each‘trench fome well rot¬
ten dung, and dig it in : put the plants in a row along
the middle of the trench at the diftance of four or five
inches from one another. About a month or fix weeks
after they have been planted, when they have acquired
the height of fix or eight inches, a quantity of earth-
ffiould be laid about their ftems, to blanch them and -
prepare them for the table} this ffiould be done during dry
weather, and repeated once a fortnight, or according as
the plants advance in growth, till they are blanched to
the height of a foot or fifteen inches. The earlier
ibvvn celery will be fit for tranfplanting about the be¬
ginning of the month } the later fown, about the end.
About the latter end of the month tranfplant endive
for
44-0
GAR DENING.
Part III.
Tuive.
Fruit
Gar.eji,
6c.c.
T99
Endi%'e
blanched.
200
Cauliflow¬
ers, &c,
p’anted
out.
201
Sow tur¬
nips.
202
Plant out
leeks,
203
and pot¬
herbs.
for blanching •, which fliould be planted out in vows, a
foot apart, and at the fame dillance frcm one another
in the row. Some endive feed fhould be fown for a
principal crop j the green curled is commonly fown for
this purpofe, becaufe it is leaf! apt to be injured by rain
or cold.
The cauliflower, brocoli, and bore-cole plants which
were fown laft month, fhould be planted out at the
diftance of about three inches from one another, into
beds where they may reraain, to acquire flrength to fit
them for final tranfplantatiori in July. Some of the
early cauliflower plants, which have formed good heads,
fhould be allowed to Hand for feed, which will ripen in
September.
About the middle of this month is the beft feafon
for fowing a principal crop of turnips j the di V rent
kinds commonly feiwn, are the yellow, white Dutch,
round white, Hone-turnip, Swediih, black Ruffian, fmall
French round. The large white Norfolk, green topped,
and red-topped, are chiefly ufed for field culture.
Plant out leeks in rows nine inches afunder, and
about fix inches from one another in the row j it is
an ufual praftice to trim off the extremities of their
leaves and of their roots before they are planted.
Plant out pot-herbs, fuch as thyme, favory, fweet-
marjoram and hyffop; likevvife angelica, marygolds,
clary, &c. A rainy or dull day fhould be chofen, and
the plants put in at the diftance of fix inches from one
another ; occafional watering will be neceffary, till they
have taken root. Cuttings or flips of fage, hyffop, rue,
rofemary, lavender, &c. may be planted in a fhady fltu-
ation, and occaflonally watered.
Sect, II. Fruit Garden.
Wall trees, and vines in the vineyard, require the
204 fame attention this month that was recommended laft.
Strawberry When plantations of ftrawberries are wanted, the young
plant;, pre- pjants t}iat are produced at the joints of the runners,
" that are furnifhed with good roots, fhould be taken up
about the end of this month, and planted in a fhady
border at the diftance of about fix inches from one
another ; by September they will be fit to be planted
out at the diftance of a foot or fifteen inches from each
other.
Sect. III. Flower Garden, or Pleafure Ground.
205
Bulbous The roots of hyacinths, jonquils, ranunculufes, &c.
roots, See. fhould be taken up after their ftalks begin to decay,
taken up dried and preferved till planting feafon 3 the roots of
narciffus, crocus, fnotv-drop, &c. may likewife be taken
up and feparated, and either planted again immediately
or kept till autumn.
Take up alfo autumnal flowering bulbs, fuch as
colchicum, autumnal crocufes and narciffus, Guernfey
and belladona lilies, cyclamens, &c.; take off the off-
fets, and plant them again immediately, or keep them
2Q5 till next month.
Propagate Perennial plants, fuch as doubla fcarlet lychnis,
perennial double rocket, &c. may be propagated by cuttings of
plants. their ftalks \ each cutting fhould confift of three or four
joints, two oi which, (or more than one half the length
of the cutting), fliould be inferted into the ground 3
they may be either planted into a fhady border, three
't 3
or four inches apart, or more clofely together, and co- July,
vered with bell or hand glaffes. Kitchen
Propagatecarnations, pinks, and double fweet-vvilliams, Ga*^en‘
by layers. Seleft young ftiOots about five or fix inches 207
long for this purpofe 3 ftrip off the leaves from the lower c arnations,'
part of the ftalks, and trim off the tops of thole placed icc-
at its extremity 3 make a flanting cut with a fharp knife
on the under part of the ftalk, which fliould commence
at a joint near the middle of the flioot, and extend up¬
wards almoft half way to the next 3 make a hole in the
earth about an inch ox an inch and a half deep, im¬
mediately under the {hoot, for its reception 3 fix it down
with a fmall hooked flick, and cover it with earth, except
an inch or two at its extremity. A little water fhould
be given in dry weather, which will make the layers
flrike root more readily. Pinks and carnations may
likewife be propagated by .cuttings or pipings. Thefe
pipings are formed of the extremities of the young
flioots, taken off immediately under the third joint,
which fhould be inferted into light earth almoft to their
tops, (the extremities of their leaves being previoufly
trimmed off.) They fliould receive a little water to
make the earth fettle clofely about them, and fliould be
covered with a bell or hand glafs. The earth is fome-
times rendered quite wet, and reduced to a ftate refem-
bling mortar, before the pipings are introduced.
About the end of the month hedges fhould receive
their firft clipping.
Sect. IV. Nurfery.
About the end of the month you may inoculate Fruit-trees
peaches, nedlarines, apricots, and rofes: for the method, inoculated,
fee July.
If any of the trees that were budded laft fummer, or
engrafted laft fpring, have made very vigorous ftioots,
flakes fhould be fixed into the ground clofe to the
flocks, to which both the flocks and ftioots mufl be
fixed.
Propagate both deciduous and evergreen fhrubs by
layers, particularly fuch as do not pufh out roots freely
except from the new wood.
SECT. V. Green-houfe and Hot-houfe.
If the green-houfe plants were not placed in the open Exotics
air laft month, on account of the coldnefs of the w7ea-propagated,
ther, they may be fafely trailed out now. Thefe plants
may be propagated this month by cuttings, layers, in¬
arching, &c.
Hot-boufe plants may likewife be propagated now,
and fhould receive a plentiful allowance of air and wa¬
ter 3 pine apple plants which are approaching to matu¬
rity fliould be fparingly watered, becaufe too much wa¬
ter would injure the flavour of the fruit.
JULY.
• Sect. I. Kitchen Garde#.
Plant cut cabbages, favoys, brocoli, bore-cole, endive Gabbagas,
and celery 3 for the methods' fee the former months. &c. planted
Sow feme brocoli feed about the beginning of the out.
month. Sow fome endive feed for a winter crop 3 the
green curled endive is the beft for this purpofe, but
fome
Part III.
gardening.
July-
Fruit
Garden,
&c.
211
Late crops
of peas.
2ii
Fruit pro-
te(fted.
fome white and Batavian may likewife be Town. Some
kidney-beans, of the dwarf kind, fliould be fown for a
late crop. Some turnip-rooted or Spanifh radhh may
be fown, and managed exaftly like turnip : there are
two kinds, the black and the white ; both of which are
very hardy, and Hand the winter well.
Some peas and beans may be fown when a late crop
is wanted.
As artichokes now advance to maturity, thofe who
prefer one large head to two or three fmaller ones,
ought to cut off all the lateral heads from the ftalks,
before they exceed the fize of a hen’s egg ; which will
promote the growth of the principal head. It is a
common practice to break down the ftalks of artichokes
near the ground, as foon as their heads have been cut
foi the table, to make them puih more vigoroufly from
the root.
If the ftalks of onions, garlick, and fhallot, begin to
decay, which is fometimes the cafe about the end of
this month, they fliould be pulled up and dried. See
August.
Sect, II. Fruit Garden.
As fruits advance to maturity, wall trees fliould be
protedfed from birds by nets; and means fliould be ta¬
ken to deftroy fnails, wafps, and other infers.
becomes ufelefs j but if no hole appears, the bud is good,
and may be inferted into the ftock, by railing the bark
with the handle of the budding knife on each fide of
the perpendicular cut, immediately under the crofs cut.
If the piece of bark which contains the bud he too long
for the incifion made in the ftock, it fliould be reduced
to a proper length with the knife, and introduced be¬
tween the bark and wood of the ftock, and placed fo as
to make the bud projeft through the perpendicular cut.
Having fixed the bud, and placed the bark of the ftock
clofely about it, put a bandage of mat, which Ihould
be previoufly fteeped in water to increafe its tenacity,
round the ftock, which fhould extend from a little be¬
low to a little above the incifion j taking care that
none of the folds of the bandage cover the bud.
In three weeks or a month after the inoculation has
been performed, the buds will have united with the
ftock, wdiich is difcoverable by the bud appearing
plump j the bandages ftiould then be removed : were
they to remain, they would cramp the buds and injure
them. The incifions fliould be made in the ftocks,
about fix inches above ground, when dwarf trees are
wanted ; and at the height of fix feet, when ftandards
are to be inoculated : the buds remain dormant, and re¬
quire no further attention till next fpring •, when they
begin to pufli out, the heads of the ftalks Ihould be
cut off.
441
July.
Green-
Home and
Hot-houfe.
213 Sect. III. F/owcr Garden^ or Pleafure Ground.
Plant out
annuals. Some tender annuals may be planted out into the
flower borders in the open air.
And auri- Seedling auriculas and polyanthufes may be planted
■culas, See. into a border not expofed to the midday fun, at the
diftance of two inches from one another, and watered
occafionally.
Sect. IV. Nurjery.
Inoculate apricots, peaches, nectarines, plums, and
pears 5 the firft four are commonly inoculated on plum
ftocks, the laft on pear or quince ftocks. Inoculating
or budding, as it is termed, may be performed on many
other trees, and fhrubs j the method of performing it is
2I5 as follows. °
Method of _ With a budding knife, which refembles a penknife
inoculation, with a flat handle, make a horizontal cut at fome
fmooth part quite, through the bark of the ftock, from
the middle of which make a perpendicular cut down¬
wards, about two inches in length, fo as to form a fi¬
gure refembling the letter.T. Take a young ftioot of
tne tree, with vyhich you intend to inoculate, cut off
the leaves from its lower extremity, leaving a fmall part
of the footftalk of each, then, about an inch under the
loweft bud, make a crofs cut in the flioot almoft half¬
way through, with the knife flaming upwards, and
with a clean cut, bring it out about half an inch above
the bud, detaching part both of the wood and bark
containing the bud. Separate the fmall piece of the
wood which was taken off along with the bud, from
the bark, which is readily done with your knife, pla¬
cing the point of it between the bark and wood at one
end •, then examine the infide of the bark, to fee if the
internal eye of the bud be left; for if there appears a
ima hole, the eye is gone with the wood, and the bud
Vex. IX. Part II.
Seedling pines, where they ftand too thick in the SeedW
eed-bed, may be tranfplanted 5 but great care muft be janes tranf-
taken to water them and ftiade them from the fun. planted.
Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-houfe.
Green-house plants require a plentiful fupply of wa¬
ter at this feafon. If the fruit have fet too‘thick on*1?
orange or lemon trees, they fliould be thinned, other-1,
wile they will not acquire a proper fize. oranges.
As many, of the pines will ripen their fruit in the 2I^
courfe of this month, it is a proper time to begin to ProPagate
propagate thefe plants, which is done by planting the piue appleS*
crowns that are produced at the top of the fruit, and
the fuckers, which proceed from the root of the plants
about the time the fruit is ripe, or foon after they are
cut. J
Thefe fuckers or crowns, if properly managed, will
produce fruit in twro years, and then decay. Each fruit
is furmounted by at leaft one crown, which frequently
has a number of offsets at its bafe j and each plant, after
it has produced fruit, throws out from its root one or
more fuckers before it decays. The crowns, when
they are leparated from the fruit, muft lie five or fix
days in fome dry place, till the part which was attach¬
ed to the fruit is completely dried, before they are fit
tor planting. The fuckers which proceed from the rodt
ot the p ant ftiould be taken off, when they have ac¬
quired the length of five or fix inches, and when their
lower extremity has become brown •, they muft likewife
lie in fome dry fituation for a few days, till the part by
which they were connefted with the root of the parent
plant be thoroughly dried. Put each crown or fucker
into a fmall pot, filled with light rich earth, and plunge
hem in the bark-bed of a hot-houfe, or in a hot-bed
made on purpofe. 3I^
.XT^l.niet^0<^ eff railing pine apples in water is given byMethod
William Ballard, Efij. of DevonOiire, in the 67th vo.
3 K lume10 w*wr‘
44*
July
G A
R
His account
D E N I N G.
Part III.
lume of the Philofophical Tranfadhons.
Green- c£ is as follows :
houfe and u jn tile front part 0f the houfe, and indeed any-
- Lt y ---where in the lowed: parts of it, the pine-apple plants
will not thrive well in water, ihe way in which I
treat them is as follows :—I piace a (hell near the high-
eft part of the back wall, fo that the pine apples may
Stand without abfolutcly touching, but as near it as can
be •, on this Ihelf I place pans full of water, about ieven
or emht inches deep ; and in thefe pans I put the pme-
apple3 plants, growing in the fame pots of earth as they
are generally planted in, to be plunged into the bark-
» bed in the common way •, that is, I put the pot o~
earth, with the pine plant in it, in the pan full of wa¬
ter, and as the water decreafes I conftantly fill up the
pan. I place either plants in fruit, or young plants,
as foon as they are well rooted, in thefe pans of water,
and find they thrive equally well: the fruit reared this
way is always much larger, as wTell as better fiavouied,
than when ripened in the bark-bed. I have more than
once put only the plants themfelves without any earth,
I mean after they had roots, into thefe pans of water,
with only water fufficient to keep the roots always co¬
vered, and found them flourifh beyond expeftation.^ In
my houfe the fhelf I mention is fupported by irons from
the top } and there is an intervening fpace of about I o
inches between the back wall and the Ihelf. .A neigh¬
bour of mine has placed a leaden ciitern upon the top
of the back flue, in which, as it is in contaft with the
flue, the water is always warm when there is fire m the
houfe, and finds his fruit excellent and large. My
fhelf does not touch the back flue, but is about a foot
above it •, and, confequently, the water is only warmed
by the air in the houfe. Both thefe _ methods do well.
The way I account for this fuccefs is, that the warm
air, always afcending to the part where the fhelf is pla¬
ced, as being the highefl: part of the houfe, keeps it
much hotter than in any other part. Ihe temperature
at that place is, I believe, feldom lefs than what is in¬
dicated hy the 730 of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and
when the fun {bines it is often above ioo° : the water
the plants grow in feems to enable them to bear ^the
greateft heat, if fufficient air be allowed and I often
fee the roots of plants growing out of the holes in the
bottom of the pot of earth, and fhooting vigoroufly in
the water. . ,
“ My hot-houfe, the dimenfions of which it may be
proper to know, is 60 feet long, and 1 x feet wide, the
flues included •, fix feet high in the front, and 11 feet at
the back of the infide of the houfe. It is warmed by
two fires. A leaden trough or ciilern on the top of the
back flue is preferable to my ffielf *, as in it the pine
plants grow much fafter in the winter, the water being
always warmed by the flue. Of this I have feen great
benefits thefe laft two months in my neighbourhood.
“ Xt is not foreign to this purpofe to mention, that as
a perfon was moving a large pine plant from the hot-bed
in my houfe laft fummer, which plant was juft (hewing
fruit, by fome accident he broke off the plant juft above
the earth in which it grew, and there was no root what¬
ever left to it. By way of experiment, I took the
plant, and fixed it upright in a pan of water, without
any earth whatever, in the ffielf; it there foon threw
out roots, and bore a pine apple that weighed upwards
of two pounds.”
1. The bromelia ananas, of which there are fix va- Auguft.
rieties : i.Ovatus, or oval-fhaped pineapple. 2. Py-
ramidalis (pyramidal), or fugar-loaf pine. 3. Glaber, Jn' _
with fmooth leaves. 4. Lucidus, with firming green ^
leaves. 5. Serotinus, with a yellowifli-coloured flefti. Varieties
6. Viridis, or green pme apple. of the pine
The firft fort of ananas is the moft common in Europe •, apple,
but the fecond fort is much preferable to it, the fruit of
this being larger and much better flavoured : the juice
of this fort is not fo aftringent as that of the firft ; fo
that this fruit may be eaten in greater quantity, with
lefs danger. This fort frequently produces fuckers im¬
mediately under the fruit, whereby it may be increafed
much better than the common fort •, fo that in a few
years it may be the beft common fort in Britain.
The third fort is preferved for curiofity by way of
variety ; but the fruit is not worth any thing.
The fort with very fmooth green leaves, was raifed
from feeds taken out of a rotten fruit, which came
from the vVeft Indies to the late Henry Heathcote,
Efq. from whom Mr Millar received one plant, which
produced large fruit : this is what the people of Ame¬
rica call the king pine.
. AUGUST.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
* 2 21
Sow fome prickly-feeded, or triangular-leaved fpi- Sow winter
nach, for a whiter and fpring crop ; for though the crops of
round-feeded produces larger and more fucculent leaves, fphiaeh.
the prickly-feeded is to be preferred now, becaufe it is
by much the hardier of the two. After the plants have
got their firft leaves about an inch broad, they fliould
be thinned to the diftance of four inches from one ano¬
ther, and kept free from wTeeds. 2JJ
Sow fome cabbage feed both of the early and late Cabbage,
kinds, to produce plants for next year. ^
Sow fome onions, to be ufed when young in winter 0nionl
or fpring, or to produce a crop of early onions this
fummer. The Straffiurg or any other kind may be
fown now, but the Welffi onion is very hardy, and
Hands the winter well j for though their tops ffiould be
deftroyed by the feverity of the weather, they, will puffi
up again from the root in the fpring : this onion, how¬
ever, does not produce bulbs. _ 224
Towards the end of the month fow fome cauliflower Cauliflower
feed to produce plants for an early crop next fummer,
which may be prote£led during the winter, either under
hot-bed frames, bell or hand-glaffes, or in a well-ffiel-
tered border expofed to the fouth. Between the 1 8th
and 24th of this month is, perhaps, the beft time to
fow thefe feeds. The London gardeners, who fow
great quantities, are accuftomed to fow them on a par¬
ticular day, viz. the 21ft of this month. If they be
fown too early, they are apt to button, as the. garden¬
ers term it, i. e. run up to feed without producing heads
of a proper fize j and if they be fowm too late., the
plants do not acquire fufficient ftrength, before w inter,
to enable them to fupport the feverity of the weather. 225
Sow fome lettuce feed about the middle of the month, Lettuce,
both to fupply the table late in the autumn, or begin¬
ning of winter, and to plant out into well-ffieltered
borders, or under hot-bed frames, to ftand during win¬
ter.
Plant
Auguft.
Fruit
Garden.
PartHI. G A R D.
Plant out brocoli, favoys, bore-cole, and celery, tor
tbe ufe of winter and fpring. _
The cardoons which were planted in June ihould
have fome earth laid up to their items, to blanch them
Plant out and render them fit for the table. That this may be
brocoli, &.C. accompliihed the more eafily, tie up the leaves of eacn
plant, wTith a piece of bafs mat or fmall ftraw rope, and
apply fome earth clofe round the item, which earthing
muit be repeated at intervals, till it rife to the height ol
two feet. _ . . .
The principal crops of onions will be fit tor taking
up in the courfe of this month. Choofe a dry day for
taking them up-, take off the italks within two or three
inches of the bulb fpread them in fome dry place, ex-
pofed to the funihine, for IO or 12 days, that they may
be thoroughly dried.
227
Time of
taking up
onions.
228
Drefs the
vines, See.
229
Propagate
fibrous-
rooted
perennials.
230
Treatment
of auriculas
231
and car¬
nations.
£32
Sow bul¬
bous root¬
ed plants.
233
Clip hedges
Sect. II. Fruit Garden.
Look over vines, figs, and ether wall trees j remove
all foreright and fuperfluous branches, and nail the
others dole into the wall, that the rays of the fun may
have free accefs to the fruit.
Vines in the vineyard likewife ihould be fixed to the
itakes, and cleared of all fuperfluous ihoots.
Sect. III. Flower Garden or Pleafure Ground.
About the end of the month, you may propagate
by flips, fibrous-rooted perennial plants, fuch as double
rofe campion, catchfly, double fcarlet lychnis, double
rocket, double ragged robin, bachelors button, gentia-
nella, polyanthufes, auriculas, double daifies, &c. As
thefe plants frequently grow in tufts, they may be taken
up and divided, taking care that every flip be provided
with fome roots.
Auricula plants in pots ihould receive freih earth.
’ Auricula and polyanthus feed may be fown any time
this month, but will not come up till fpring..
Layers of carnations, double fweetwilliams, and
pinks, that are properly rooted, may be feparated from
the parent plant, and planted into borders or pots.
Cuttings and pipings of pinks and carnations, may be
planted out into beds or borders.
Towards the end of the month the feeds of bulbous-
rooted flowers, fuch as tulips, hyacinths, narciffus, iris,
crocus, fritillaria, crown imperial, lilies, and fnowdrops \
likewife, the feeds of anemone, ranunculus, and cycla¬
men, may be fown in beds or boxes, to obtain new va¬
rieties. They muff be protefted during winter from the
frofl: ; and when they appear above ground in fpring,
they muff b« kept clear of weeds.
Plant out feedling biennials and perennials.
About the end of this month hedges Ihould receive
their fecond clipping.
ENIN C.
Sect. V. Grecn-ho'ufe and Hot-houfe.
Green-house plants, in the open air, mull be ma
naged as already dire&ed. .
The plants in the hot-houfe muff receive a pientiiul
allowance of air and water. .
Succeflion pine-apple plants, that are to produce fruit
next year, ftiould be fliifted into larger pots, viz twen¬
ty-fours or fixteens, about the beginning of the month.
The plants ihould be turned out of the old pots and
placed in the new ones, a quantity of light rich eartu
being previoufly put into the bottom of each. Eacn
pot fliould then be filled with fome of the fame eaith,
watered, and plunged into the tan, which, at the fame
time, fliould be turned over and receive an addition of
about one-third of frefh tan.
SEPTEMBER.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
443
Sect. IV. Nurfery.
234
Examine BuDDING may ftill be performed about the begm-
the budded of ^ and thofe trees which were budded
three weeks or a month ago, fliould be examined. If the
buds remain plump and freih, there is reafon to believe
that they have fucceeded ) in that cafe the bandages
mu ft be loofened.
trees.
235
Plant fome brown Dutch, cos, and common cab-plant out
bage lettuce, in a well-fheltered fituation, expofed to lettuce,
the mid-day fun, to be covered with hot-bed frames and
glaffes, which (hould not be put over them till fome
time next month. . 235
Plant out from the feed-bed tbe cauliflowers thatCauli-
were fown laft month, into well-lheltered borders, at flowers,
the diftance of three or four inches from one another,
taking care not to plant them fo deep as to cover their
hearts with earth. Lhefe plants may be either planted
out again next month under garden frames, bell or hand-
glaffes, to ftand during the winter, or may remain where
planted. 237
Plant brocoli, favoys, bore-cole, celery, and endive. Brocoli,
Earth up celery and cardoons.
Tie up the leaves of endive with a piece of bafs mat,
or fometbing of that nature, to blanch them, and pre¬
pare them for the table. _ _ 23S
Mufhroom beds may be formed any time this month, Preparation
as fpawn will very eafily be procured during Auguft, of mufli-
September, or Oftobcr. The fpawn has the appear-room bedv
ance of a white mould (hooting out in firings, which,
when bruifed, fmells like mulhrooms. It may be ob¬
tained either from old mufhfoom beds, old hot-beds, or
dung bills that are principally compofed of horfe dung,
and from pafture fields, indeed in any place where
horfe or (beep’s dung has lain for fome time undifturbed
and not expofed to much moiiture j and may be pre-
ferved for a confiderable length of time, in a proper
(late for ufing. If fpawn is not otherwife to be. pro¬
cured, fome may be produced by laying a quantity of
horfe dung and rich earth in alternate layers, and co¬
vered with ftraw to exclude the rain and air ; for the
more thefe are excluded, the fooner the fpawn will ap¬
pear, which commonly happens in about two months
after the dung and earth have been laid together.
Mufhroom beds (hould be formed of dung that has been
fpread out for fome time, without having been ferment¬
ed, and may be made two or three feet broad, and of
any length. A ftratum of dung about a foot thick,
(hould be laid firft, which (hould be covered with
rich earth to the depth of about four inches, then ano-
2 K 2 ther
444
September. theri ftrattim of dung about ten inches thick, which
Garden. ^10u^ covered like the former j a third ftratum of
——y—dung may be laid and covered with earth like the two
former. 1 he whole Ihould be made to grow narrower
as it advances in height, and formed into a ridge re¬
sembling the roof of a houfe. When the bed is finiihed
it fliould be covered with draw, to exclude the rain,
and to prevent the bed from being dried by the fun or
■wind, in which lituation it Ihould remain eight or ten
days, when the bed wall be in a proper temperature of
warmth to receive the fpawn. The fpawm Ihould be
placed in lumps four or five inches afunder, in the
doping fides of the bed, and covered with a little rich
earth } the whole mult then be covered with a thick
coat of ftrawa When thefe beds are made in fpring or
autumn, as the weather in thofe months is temperate,
the fpawn will take foon, and the mufhrooms will ap¬
pear in aoout a month after the bed has been made j
but when thefe are made in winter, when the weather
is cold, or even in fummer when the weather is very
hot, a much longer time will elaple. The principal
thing to be attended to, in the management of thefe
beds, is to prelerve them in a proper degree of moiflure
and warmth. Therefore, when the weather is very
cold or very wet, care mull be takes to apply a thick
covering of dry ilrarv, and when the bed appears dry,
a gentle watering mud be given.
GARDENING. Part III.
Sect. III. Flower Garden or Fleaf are Ground.
Old iber.
Kitchen
Garden.
Transplant and propagate fibrous-rooted perennial — v 
plants by flips.
Towards the end of the month, hyacinths, tulips,-r a
and other bulbs, may be planted. See October. planfed^'
Sect. IV. Nurfcry.
Transplant evergreens towards the end of the Traniplant
month, fuch as Portugal laurels, lauruftinus, arbu-and broPa'
tus, &c. gate ever-
Eoth evergreen and deciduous trees and fhrubs maySreCnSr
be propagated by layers or cuttings about the end of
the month.
Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-houfe.
Asour the end of the month, if the weather be'^'cn^er
cold, orange and lemon trees, and many of the ten-piants
derer kinds of green-houfe plants, ihould be removed in-^T inrto
to the houfe. 16 houfe-
About the end of this month or beginning of next, Tan-bed
the tan-bed in the hot-houfe ihould be refreihed with a renewed,
quantity of new tan, one half or two thirds according
as the old tan may be more or lefs decayed.
OCTOBER.
Sect. II. Fruit Garden.
239
Fruit to be
expofed to
the fun.
240
Plant draw
berries.
24*
Different
kinds of
Itraw-
berries.
Where any fruit, particularly grapes, are fhaded
with leaves, pains ihould be taken to expofe them to
the rays of the iun, that they may acquire proper fla¬
vour, likewife when the cluiters are entangled, they
ihouid be difengaged, that each may have the benefit
of the fun and air.
Strawberries may be planted any time this month
when the weather is ihowery. If rain ihould not fall to¬
wards the beginning of the month, the tranfplanting
ihould be deferred, otherwife they mull be watered oc-
cafionally, for fome time after they are planted. If
any were planted into beds in June, they will be in ex¬
cellent condition for planting out now ; but if none
were planted out then, the beft rooted plants produced
at the joints of the runners, or offsets from the old
plants, ihould be chofen, and planted at the diilance
of a foot or 15 inches from one another, either in beds,
about four feet wide, or in rows along the borders.
xYloit kinds of ftrawberries fucceed beft in an open fi-
tuation, but the wood ftrawberry may be planted under
the lhade of trees or buihes.
■\^.e P™ciPal k-jnds °f ftrawberries, are, the fcarlet
or Virginian, white wood, green wood, red wood,
arge white wood, hautboy itrawberry, large globe
hautboy oblong hautboy, royal hautboy, green haut¬
boy, Chih ftrawberry, globe Chili, fugar-loaf Chili
pine-apple Chili Bath Chili, Carolina Chili, white
Carohna Chili, Devonihire Chili, Royal Chili, Dutch
Chi 1, Alpine or prolific, which produces fruit from
June to November, red Alpine, white Alpine, fcarlet Al¬
pine, pme-apple ftrawberry, red, white, and green.
About the end of the month, moft of the late pears
and apples will be fit for taking down, to be laid up
for keeping. See October.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
Plant out fome of the lettuces that were raifed in Plant out
Auguft, into a well iheltered border or into a hot-bed ^ettuces-
frame to fupply the table during winter and fpring. 247
Cauliflowers that were planted out laft month from the Cauli-
feed-bed, may now be planted under hot-bed frames, , at1;0" ers ur-
the diftance of about four inches from one another/ order lrameS‘
under bell or hand glafles. Four or five plants may be
put under each hand glafs, all of which (fliould they
furvive the winter) may again be planted out in the
fpring, except one, or at moft two, of the ftrongeft,
which fliould be allowed to remain and produce heads.*
See February.
Propagate aromatic vegetables by flips, fuch as thyme,
mint, balm, fage, &c.
Afparagus beds fliould receive their winter drefling, n 2f48,
i. e. their ftalks ihould be cut down, and the alleys be- raKus/ Pa*
tween the beds ihould be dug, and a little of the earth
from the alleys fpread over the furface of each bed.
Afparagus beds require fome dung once every two years,
which ihould be applied at this feafon. Before the
alleys are dug, a little well rotten dung ftiould be fpread
over the furface of the beds, dug in with a fork, and
covered with a little of the earth from the alleys.
Where forced afparagus is required early in winter, a
hot-bed may be made any time this month. See
January.
Plant fome early Mazagan beans, and hotfpur peas
about the end of the month, to ftand the winter, and
produce a crop early in fummer.
Sect. II. Fruit Garden.
Winter pears and apples ihould in general be ga-Gat2jfe^
thered this month. Some will be fit to take down thewinterap*
beginning pies.
Garden.
2S°
Prune and
plant fruit
trees.
Part III. CARD
October, beginning of the month, others will not be ready before
rUlt the. middle, or towards the end. To know when the
fruits, have had their full growth, fome of them fliould
be tried in aifterent parts of the tree, by turning them
gently upwards; if they quit the tree eaiily, it is a lign
of maturity, and time to gather them. But none of the
moie delicate eating pears should be permitted to han<r
longer on the trees than the middle of the month, ef-
pecially if the nights prove froily; for if they are mice
touched with the froll, it will occafion many of them
to rot before they are fit for the table : and therefore,
m general, let neither apples nor pears remain longer
on the trees than the middle or the end of this month
for they will not improve by hanging on the trees after
that time. The bell apples and pears which are in¬
tended for long keeping, ihould be taken down one by
one, on a dry day, and carefully put into balkets, to
be carried to the fruitery, or place where they are to be
ftored up. The fruit themfelves Ihould be dry when
taken down from, the trees, therefore Ihould not be ga¬
thered too early in the morning, before the dew on
their furface has evaporated. They Ihould be laid in
a heap for ten days or a fortnight, that their watery
juices may tranfpire j each Ihould then be thoroughly
dried with a cloth, and laid on the Ihelves of the
iruitery, or in boxes or hampers well covered with dry
ftraw or hay. J
About the end of the month, apricots, peaches, and
nectarines may be pruned. See January.
All foits ol fruit trees may be planted, fuch as apri¬
cots, peaches, nectarines, plums, cherries, apples, pears
quinces, vines,^ figs, mulberries, medlars, fervices, fil¬
berts, &c. T he ground for this purpofe fhould be
tienched to the depth of one or two fpades, and Ihould
be well manured. If the borders on which the fruit
trees are to be planted have not a fufficient depth of foil
a quantity of good earth may be added. Peaches, nec¬
tarines, Oapricots, plums, and cherries, are commonly
planted at the diftance of about fifteen feet from one
another. Pears and apples when engrafted on dwarf
docks may be planted about the fame diftance, but
thole which are on free flocks, about eighteen or twen¬
ty feet. Cherries and plums for flandards fhould be
planted at the diilance of twenty or twenty-five feet from
one another. Apples and pears, on free flocks, fhould
b,e P!red m(.rows» thirty or forty feet afunder, and at
tne mflance of twenty-five or thirty feet from one ano-
tner in the row. Dwarf apples and pears, however,
may be planted at lefs than half that diflance.
.The principal kinds of apricots are, the early muf-
cadine, Turkey, Bruffels, Roman, Breda, orange, Al¬
giers, royal,. Moor-park, alberget, tranfparent, Dun-
more, or apricot peach, and Portugal.
The principal forts of peaches are, the red magdalen
white magdalen, red nutmeg, white nutmeg, noblefs’
early Newington, old Newington, great French mig-
none, fmall mignone, admirable chancellor, Millet’s
mignone, incomparable, violet native, purple native,
-voyal George, M.ontauban, teton de Venus, round’
tranfparent, Catharine, and bloody peach.
principal kinds of nedlarines are, early nutmeg
Newington, red, Roman, violet, violet, mufk, golden!
icarlet, Elruge, Temple, Murray, Brugnion, white I-
tc-IibLn •
I he principal forts of plums are, the Primordan or
E N I N a 44S
early white, Precoce or early black, early Morocco, October.
Orleans, green gage, la royale, damas de Tour, damas ~ '
violette, white bonum magnum or egg plum, red bo-
nun magnum or Imperial, Perdrigron white, Perdri-
gron violet, Monfieur plum, drap d’or, royal dauphin,
Fotheringham, azure native, or early blue gage, queen
mother, myrobalan, apricot plum, red, white,° diapree,
Monfieur native, Roche carbon, Jaune native, groffe
queen Claude,, petite queen Claude, imperiale violette
or blue imperial, petite mirabille, damas mufque, dia-
pree noire, diapree violette, imperitrice blanche or
white emprefs, imperitrice noire or late black, Spanifli
damas, damas of September, St Catharine, common '
damfon, Bullace.
The principal kinds of cherries are, the early Mav
May-duke, arch-duke, Harrifon’s duke, white heart!
black heart, bleeding heart, Adams’s crown heart,’
Herdordfhire heart, ox heart, Turkey, carnation, am¬
ber, Kentifh or Flemiih, Portugal, morella, white crof-
fian, black coroun, fmall black guigne or geen, fmall
led guigne, fmalleft wild black of the woods and
hedges, ditto red.
Ihe principal kinds of apples are, the common cod- Apple?.
Im, kentifh codlin, Dutch codlin, Margaret, golden
pippin, gold rennet, Holland pippin, Kentifh pippin
nonpareil, royal ruffet, Wheeler’s rulfet, golden
rufiet, gray ruffet, winter pearmain, fcarlet pear-
mam, Loan’s pearmain, aromatic ruffet, pomme d’Ap-
pis, Newton pippin, Englifh rennet, autumn rennet
winter queening, margille, nonefuch, gray Lead-
mg.ton, Marget, tender rennet, kitchen rennet, large
white, Italian, Spanifli rennet, Canada rennet, oroffe
rennet de Normandie, Fearns pippin, white French ren¬
net, clufter .pearmain, lemon pippin, French pippin,
winter greening, winter pippin, Flanders pippin, white
coftin, Kirton pippin, ftone pippin, courpendu, or hang¬
ing body, courpendu red, rambour fummer, rambour
winter, rennet grife, French rennet, cat’s head, leather-
coat, ruffet of winter, pomme de gelee, Siberian crab,
American cherry crab, two years apple hanging on the
trees, if permitted, till the iecond year.
The principal kinds of pears are, the green mifTab Pears/
Catharine, jargonelle, cuiffe madame, Windfor chamon-
telle, creffane, echalferie, grafle blanquette, beure de
roi, white beure, winter beure, colmar, St Germain
W St Germain, Martinfee, graffe nijifcat, autumn
lent
* 7 £>   ****hv,c*l, autumn
muicat, orange bergamot, Hambden’s bergamot, red
beure, golden beure, brown beure, great rouffelet,’petit
rouflelet, Holland bergamot, verte longue, winter bon-
chretien, fummer ditto, Spanifli ditto, Meflieur Jean
Green fugar,. la marquis, fwan egg, virgleufe, Portugal’
gray goodwife, citron de carmes, ambrette, royal
d.hiver, St Michael, Louife bonne, fummer orange
winter orange, Swifs bergamot, devionett.
. Baking pears. Large black pear of Worcefter, Par-
kmlon’s warden, Uvedale St Germain, Cadillac. The
principal kinds of quinces are the Portugal, apple quince
pear quince. The principal kinds of mulberries are
the common black, white, red, medlars, Dutch, Not¬
tingham or Englifli. Services. Common wild fervice
bervey fweet fervice or ferb, apple-fliaped, pear-fhaped,’
berry-fhaped. r ’
The principal forts of figs are, the common blur,Figs.5,3
early long blue, early white, large white, large Genoa,
Brunfwick, Marfeilles, Cyprian, brown Ifchia,. brown/
Malta,,
446 G A U D E
November. Malta. Filberts. Large red fkmned filbert, white
Kitchen (tinned, common hazel nut, Barcelona nut, cob nut,
Garden. c]L1fler nut^ Byzantine nut. . .r
Goofeberries, currants, and rafpbernes, may likewile
be planted about the end of this month, bee Ja¬
nuary.
Sect. III. Tloxver Garden, or Fleafure Ground.
Bulbous BuLBOUS-rooted plants, bach as^ tulips, hyacinths,
roots plant-narciffus, jonquils, crocus, dens-cams, crown imper a ,
-ed- fword lily, ixia, Perfian and Enghlh ms, ranunculus,
and anemone, maybe planted any time this month,
either in beds by themfelves, or in flower holders, to¬
gether with other flowers} but the finer lorts ot tulip,
hyacinths, ranunculus, and anemone, are commonly
planted in beds, fix or eight inches diflant, and two or
Plant out deciduous and evergreen trees and flirubs.
The method of planting all thefe is to open a circular
hole, wide enough to receive the roots, and about a
fpade deep, more or lefs, according to the length of the
TO<Thorn and other hedges may be planted towards the
end of this month, or any time in the courle ot the
next.
Sect. IV. Nurfery.
*55 Sow haws, holly berries, hips, barberries, yew-ber-
E°w none ri acortlSj beech-mafts, maple and alh-foed cherry and
Shut, &c. ^ {tones, in a bed about four feet wide. It is a
common praftice to keep haws and hips, m heaps cover¬
ed over with earth for twelve months*, for tho.e uhich
are fown without this preparation frequently he a whole
year in the feed-bed, without coming above ground.
Plant cuttings of laurels and evergreens.
Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-houfe.
The hardier kinds of green-houfe plants Ihould be all
removed into the green-houfe, when they ihould have
plenty of air, except in very cold or wet weather.
The fucceflion pine-apple plants Ihould be removed
into the fruiting houfe, which Ihould previoufly receive
a quantity of new tan, as directed lalt month, f *e
younger fucceflion plants likewife ftiould be moved into
the place of thofe that have been transferred into the
fruiting houfe, air fliould be given freely in mild weather,
and water very moderately.
N I N G.
Sect. II. Fruit Garden.
Patt III.
November.
Fruit
Ganlen.
NOVEMBER.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
TIE up endive for blanching, continue to earth-up
dive See. cardoons, and drefs the plantations of artichokes, i. e.
’ ’ Cut down their larger leaves, and lay fome earth about
the plants, to pfoteft them during winter.
Carrots and parfneps may be taken up, and preferved
in fand during the winter.
Some more peas and beans nicty be fown to fucceed
thofe that were fown laft month, or to fupply their
place if they Ihould be cut off by the feverity of the
weather.
The bell time for pruning vines is immediately after 2S7
the fall of the leaf, becaufe the greateft poflible time in Prune vines
that way is allowed for healing the wounds. Vines
that are cut about the time of the rife of the fap m the
fpring, are apt to bleed profufely ; this happens feme-
times even to thofe that are pruned m the courfe ot the
winter It is a common error, in pruning vines, to allow
the branches to grow too clofe together, particularly
in thofe varieties which grow vigoroufly, and have very
large leaves 5 for, in fummer, when the leaves are tudy
expanded, they are fo much crowded together as to ex¬
clude the rays of the fun from the fruit. When pruning
is properly performed, the young branches Ihould be
left at the diftance of from one foot or two feet, and
even upwards from one another; but this in a great
meafuremuft be regulated by the fize of their leaves.
The Syrian grape has leaves about a foot and a ha 1
broad/ with foot-ftalks fix inches long. I he black
Hamburgh has leaves twelve or thirteen inches
broad, with footftalks feven inches long. 1 he black
clufier on the contrary has leaves five inches broad, with
foot-ftalks three inches long. Blue frontignac and claret
grape have leaves fix inches broad, with foot-ftalks about
four inches long. When vines are weakly, each ihoot
ftiould be Ihortened fo as to leave only three or tour
eye* • when they are moderately vigorous, each Ihould
be left about a foot long. When very vigorous, fome
of the Ihoots may be left three or four feet long or
more ; the Ihoots of vines, however, that are trained to
the rafters of a vinery or pine-ftove may be left eighteen
or twenty feet long. It has been obfe'rved, that both
the largeft grapes and fineft clufters are produced on
{hoots of a confiderable length. When vines have been
allowed to run into confufion, much time and pains are
requifite to reduce them to regularity j but when they
have been trained regularly from the beginning, pruning
is eafily and expeditioufly performed. _ . . *S*
If the following directions for training vines in a Direaums
vinery be obferved, they mil. eafily be kept m order, f™tram.nS
and plentiful crops of good fruit may be expected.
Vines may be planted both on the back wall and
front of a vinery ; thofe on the back wall ftvould be
planted fron fix to twelve feet afunder, according to the
vigour of growth of the particular fort, and in luch a
pofition that tire two uppermoft buds may point eaft and
weft *, thefe on the front fhould be planted _ fo as one
may be trained to each rafter. When the vines begin
to grow, all the buds except the two uppermoit mult
be ^rubbed off from thofe on the back wall, and aft ex¬
cept the uppermoft from thofe on the front wall. If any
of the plants ftiew fruit the firft year, the clufters ftiould
be rubbed off, as well as the tendrils and latera ihoots
aod the principal {hoots ftiould be trained regularly to
the trellis as they advance in growth. Fires Ihould be
put in the vinery during the fpring, to encourage an
early growth in the vines, that they may have full time
to ripen their wood. In the month of June the glaffes
may be taken off altogether but Ihould be put on again
in September, and continued till the fall of the leaf,
when the vines fhould be pruned. The two {hoots
which each vine on the back-wall was permitted to
Dufti, fliould be cut down to their third or fourth bud,
r ’ according
Pan III. GARDE
November, according as either of them appears fulled and dronged,
Fru't and then bent dcr.vn as near as podible to a horizontal
, Garden. p0pltjori) forming a figure refembling the letter T.
Plants in front that are trained to the rafters, fhould
be cut down aimed to the bottom, and no more left
than is merely fufhcient to train them to the rafter.
Only two droots fhould again be permitted to grow on
each plant on the back wall, and one on thofe of the
front, and thefe may be allowed to run the whole height
of the houfe before they are dopped. After the vine
fhoots are dopped (which is done by pinching off their
tops), they will in general pufh out laterals at three or
four eyes, on the upper part of the fhoot. Thefe late¬
rals fhould not entirely be taken off, as it would caufe
more eyes lower upon the fhoots to pudr out. It would
therefore be prudent to permit the fird laterals to grow
twelve or fourteen inches, and then to pinch off their
tops. Thefe laterals, in their turn, will pufh out fecon-
dary laterals, which diould be pinched off at the fecond
or third joint, and in that way the fap may be diverted
till the end of the feafon.
The fhoots of the plants on the back wall mud be
brought down to a horizontal pofition, and cut fo that
the branches of each plant may reach within a foot
of the other. If all the vines on the rafters have pufhed
vigoroufly, it will be proper to prune every other p^ant
down to three or four eyes, and the red to from twenty to
twenty-five eyes each, the latter being intended to pro¬
duce fruit, and the former to make bearing wood againff
another year. When the vines begin to pufh in the
fpring of the third year, the dioots of thofe on the back
wall fhould not be allowed to dand nearer one another
than a foot or fifteen inches, all the intermediate buds
being carefully rubbed off. The fhoots ought to be
trained up perpendicularly, and however vigorous they
may be, no more than one cluder diould be allowed to
remain on any of them : all of them may run up to the
height of five or fix feet before they are dopped. The
fhoots on the rafters, that were pruned to twenty or
twenty-five eyes each, will probably pudi at all of them;
but not more than five or feven dioots fhould be per¬
mitted to remain, even on the dronged; viz. a leading
dioot, and two or three on eaeh fide. Care being taken
to leave one fhoot as near the bottom as podible, as the
whole branch will require to be pruned down to this
dioot next winter. Only one dioot diould be left upon
thofe vines that wrere pruned down to three or four eyes,
at every other rafter; and this mud be trained up the
rafter as in the preceding year. At next pruning feafon
all the dioots proceeding from the horizontal branches
of the vines in the back wall diould be pruned down to
three or four eyes. The vines on the front which pro¬
duced fruit diould be pruned to their fowled dioot, wdiich
diould be diortened, fo as to leave four or five eyes.
Thofe at every other rafter which wrere diortened the
preceding year, and which were allowed to pudi one
fhoot, diould now be pruned like the bearers of the
former year; i. e. twenty or twenty-five eyes diould be
left on each. In the following and all fucceeding
feafons, thefe vines on the front will require a fimilar
management, with this difference, that, as they acquire
N 1 N G. 447
more drength, they may be permitted to pudi more November.
dioots, and more cluders may be allowed to remain on
each fhoot; for, as the vines advance in age, they will pieafu-e''
certainly be enabled to produce every year for a certain Ground.
period, a larger crop of fruit. The fpurs of the vines ^—y~—J
on the back-wall, i. e. the fhoots that w'ere diortened to
three or four eyes, diould be allowed to pudi up one
dioot: thefe fhoots at next pruning feafon mud be cut io
as to leave a long one, viz. about four feet, and a lliort
one, alternately. The long ones diould be allowed to
pufli five dioots (all the other buds being rubbed off),
the four lateral of which diould be cut down to two or
three eyes each, at next pruning feafon, and the terminal
one diould be left about a foot and a half long. The
diort dioots between the long ones mud condantly be
pruned down to two or three eyes each, in order to keep
up a proper fuccedion of bottom w’ood. ihe pruning
following feafon mud be the fame, with this difference,
that the upright dioots, as they have acquired a foot and
a half additional length, may be allowed to pudi feven
dioots indead of five. 259
The principal kinds of vines (e) are, * the white
mufcat of Alexandria, * black damafcus, * golden galli- grapes>,
cian, # f- white frontinac, *f gridy frontinac, *f black
or purple frontinac, f J blue or violet frontinac, f f red
frontinac, *f white fweet water, *f black Hamburgh,.
*f red Hamburgh, or Gibraltar grape, * white Ham¬
burgh, *f malvoife or blue tokay, *f genuine tokay,
*f flame-coloured tokay, f J brick grape, *f white mul-
cadine or chaflelas, *f royal mufcadine or d’arboyce,
*j- Malmfey grape, claret grape, * Syrian, f J Bur¬
gundy or Munier grape, -f4 fmall black cluder, f large
black cluder, -f-f early black July grape or morillon,
noir natif, f white pardey-leaved. 2(jo
Goofberries and currants maybe pruned any time prune g00f..
from the fall of the leaf, till their buds begin to grow berries and
in the fpring. If thefe budies be not well pruned, the currants,
fruit will neither be large nor well-ffavoured. The
principal thing to be attended to is, to keep them open ;
for they are very apt to become over-crowded with
branches: all fuckers therefore which arife from the
root, or dioots which proceed from the main dem,
diould be removed, becaufe they would only create con-
fufion, by growing up into the heart of the bufh. W'hen
lad dimmer’s dioots dand too thick, on the main
branches, which is frequently the cafe, particularly
with goofberries, they fhould be thinned, and few
either of them or of the main branches diould be diort¬
ened, becaufe the more they are diortened the more
liable they are to run to wood. They who make ufe
of garden-diears, for fake of expedition, which is too
frequently the cafe, may fave time, and make neat-look¬
ing budies, but will be difappointed with refpeft to the
quantity and quality of their fruit.
Scot. III. Flower Garden or Pleafure Ground.
Fibrous-rooTed perennial plants may dill be plant¬
ed ; likewife bulbous-rooted plants, fuch as tulips, hya¬
cinths, &c.
Shrubs and ornamental or fored trees may be tranf-
planted
(e) Thofe marked * are for a hot-|ioufe ; thofe marked f are for a vinery ; and thofe marked J are for
* common wall.
448 GARDE
December, planted now or any time during tlie winter when the
Kitchen vveather is open.
Garden. 1
Sect. IV. The Nurfenj.
Transplant young trees and fhrubs, and protect
tender feedlings during fevere weather.
Sect. V. Green-Houfe and Hot-Houfe.
The plants in the green-houfe (hould have air during
the day, whenever the weather will permit, and fliould
receive but little water. The plants in the hot-houfe
Ihould likewife receive air during the day in favourable
weather, and fires muft be put on every evening, but
feldom need to be continued during the day, except the
weather is very fevere.
DECEMBER.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
The cauliflower plants and lettuces planted under
hot-bed frames, or under bell or hand-glaffes, {hould be
expofed to the air during the mild days, and protefted
during fevere weather with a covering of mats or ftraw.
In dry weather celery and cardoons {hould be earthed
up, and endive tied up for blanching.
In this month there is nothing to be done either in
the fruit garden, nurfery, green-houfe, or hot-houfe, that
has not already been taken notice of in the preceding
months.
a6r
Conftruc-
tion of
green-
houfes.
Here we {hall add fome obfervations on the con-
ftruction of green-houfes and hot-houfes.
A green-houfe conftrudled for the protedfion of fuch
vegetables as cannot Hand in the open air during win¬
ter, may vary in form and dimenfions according to the
fancy of the proprietor, and the number of plants it is
intended to contain. When the front only is of glafs,
which formerly was the only, and even ftill is the pre¬
valent, mode of conftrudting green-houfes, the pillars
between the fafhes ought to be as narrow as the weight
they have to fupport will admit of, and formed fo as to
give the leaft poflible obftrudtion to the light) they
may be either of flone, brick, wood, or call iron. The
height of the fafties {hould equal if not exceed the
width of the houfe, that a fuflicient quantity of light
may be thrown on the plants which {land near the back
wall, otherwife they will lofe colour, become unhealthy
and deformed ; for not only the colour, but the vigour,
and even the form of vegetables, depends on the light.
When one half or the whole of the roof is of glafs,
which ought to be the cafe, there is no neceflity for
attending to the proportion the height ought to bear
to the width of the houfe. The ends of the houfe
{hould alfo be of glafs, unlefs when it is connedled with
a feries of other buildings. The pots containing the
plants are commonly fet on benches, which gradually
increafe in height as they recede from the front; how¬
ever, when the roof is of glafs, the arrangement may be
different. Every green-houfe ought to be furniftied
with flues } for though many winters may occur in
which the application of fire-heat may not be neceffary,
jet fuch intenfe frofts at times prevail as would infalh-
2
N X N G, Part III
bly kill a great many of the plants : external coverings, Conftruc-
it is true, are frequently made ufe of as a protedlion tion °f
againfl: the feverity of the vveather, but they do not , c^eT,
anfwer the purpofe equally well, for when the froft con- ' C U j
tinues long they cannot be applied day and night with¬
out doing injury, by excluding air and light j the ap¬
plication of fire-heat is likewife neceffary for baniffung
the damp, which very much injures and frequently de-
ftroys the plants, during long-continued, dull, rainy
weather. The flues in green-houfes are frequently con¬
fined to the back wall, but they ought to pafs in
front of the houfe likewife, becaufe the plants fituated
are moft liable to be injured by the feverity of the
weather.
As fires are feldom required, and thofe but very
flight ones, merely to banilh froft and damp, it will not
be neceffary from economical motives to conftrinft the
flues, fo as to throw off the greateft poflible quantity of
heat, they may therefore be concealed that they may
not affeft the appearance of the houfe.
Hot-houfes for rearing plants which grow in warmer
climates, or for forcing at an early period fuch vege¬
tables as grow in the open air, vary confiderably accord¬
ing to the different purpofes for which they are intend¬
ed. i ft, Confervatories, or dry ftoves, fo called becaufe
they are conftrufted without pits for containing tanners
bark, oak leaves, or. other fermentable fubftances, and
in which the plants grow in the earth which forms the
floor of the houfe, and not in pots. Thofe are common¬
ly of a confiderable width and height, and are either
covered entirely, or at leaft on the front, roof, and ends,
with glafs. 2dly, Hot-houfes for rearing exotic plants,
furniftied with a pit containing tanners bark, oak leaves,
heated fand, &c. in which pots containing the plants
are plunged : thefe likewife are of confiderable breadth
and height, and have their front, roof, and ends, cover¬
ed with glafs. 3dly, Pine-houfes wdiich are furniihed
with a pit, as above: thefe are low, the roof being with¬
in a few feet of the furface of the pit, that the pine
plants may be as near the light as poflible, and the
roof and part of the front only need be of glafs.
Vine-houfes are commonly conftrudled without pits,
and are generally about 12 or 14 feet high, fometimes
very narrow, at other times of confiderable breadth j
the former anfwer beft for forcing at a very early period,
and in both houfes the vines are commonly trained
both to the back and front.
Peach-houfes are almoft ahvays conftrufted without
pits, are of a moderate height, and vary in breadth.
The peaches are trained either to the front or back, or
to both j and fometimes they are planted in the middle
of the houfe, and allowed to grow like ftandard fruit
trees, in which cafe the houfe ftiould be capacious.
Cherry and fig-houfes are conftrudled nearly in the
fame way as peach houfes. The flues for warming all
thefe ought to pafs round the front as well as the back
of the houfe, and ought to have as much of their fur-
face expofed as poflible 5 for the more of the furface of
the flue comes in contadl with the air of the houfe, the
more readily the houfe will be warmed : therefore they
ought not to be built in contaft with the front or back
walls when that can be avoided, but ought to be fup-
ported on pillars of brick, to keep them from refting
on the ground.
The furnaces for containing the fuel are placed fome¬
times
Part II f.
GARB
houfes, &.c.
Conftruc- times in front, fometimes at the end, but moft frequent-
tion of iy behind the houfe. They ought to be fituated fo far
„G(-reeia^ below the level of the flue, as is neceffary to caufe a
fufficient draught j if this be not attended to, the fmoke
will not pafs through the flues to warm the houfes, but
efcape fome other way. When the furnaces are about
j 8 inches high (a common lize), they ought to be
placed about two feet below the level of the flue, that
the heated air may have an afcent of about fix or eight
inches, which will be fufficient to give the requilite
draught.
When the hot-houfe is of conliderable extent, it is
better to employ feveral moderate, than a fmaller num¬
ber of ftrong fires, for violent fires are apt to crack the
flues, in which cafe the fmoke efcapes into the houfe,
and injures the plants. Some are partial to large fires,
from an idea that they confume lefs fuel in proportion ;
but this is a miltake, for two moderate fires are found
to heat the fame extent of hot-houfe to an equal de¬
gree, and more equably, with a lefs expenditure of
fuel than one large one. One moderate fire will be
fufficient for an extent of 500 or 600 fquare feet of
glafs, but if the houfe is protected with coverings du-
E N I N G. 449
ring the night, it will be fufficient for 700 or 800.: Conftruc-
thus the number of fquare feet of glafs being known,
the requilite number of fires may be eafily afcertained. ,oufesen&c.
The fires employed for warming hot-houfes may at the 
fame time be converted to other ufeful purpofes. At
Billing in Northamptonfhire, the feat of Lord John
Cavendifli, the furnaces are conftrucled to burn lime at
the fame time that they heat the hot-houfe. One fur¬
nace can burn four bulhels of lime, and confume about
three-fourths of a hundred weight of coal, when lighted
only at night and in the morning.
Hot-houfes are fometimes protefted during the win¬
ter nights by external coverings of wood or canvafs,
&c. This renders lefs fire neceffary j but the faving in
point of fuel is more than overbalanced by the original
expence of the covering, by the trouble of taking it off
and putting it on morning and evening, and by the
quantity of glafs broken, particularly when the cover¬
ing is made of canvafs, which is apt to be dallied
again!! the glafs by the wind. When light coverings
of cloth are applied internally they are not liable to the
laft-mentioned objeftion, but there are few hot-houfes
where they can be fo applied.
INDEX to Part III.
~/?NNU^LS, when fown, N°5i, 76, 100,
101, 154
Apple trees, when pruned, 38
Apples, wrhen gathered, 249
different kinds of, 251
Apricots, different kinds of, 230
Artichokes, when earthed up, 31
when dreffed and planted, 136,
*37
Jerufalem, when planted, 143
Afparagus, how fown and managed, 133
— *35
beds dreffed, 248
B.
Beans, when fown,
when earthed up,
early kidney,
full crop of,
Blanch endive,
23
3°
66
185
29
Bulbous roots, how protefted in beds, 49
when planted, 50
when taken up, 205
c.
Cabbages, when planted, 26
wrhen tranfplanted 27
Cardoons, when fown, 141
Carrots, when fown, 18, 44
Cauliflower, when to examine, 25
raifed in a hot-bed, 69, 170,
224, 236
Celery, early crop, how raifed, 73
Cherni trees, wffien pruned, 39
Vol IX. Part IT.
Cherry trees, different kinds of, N° 250
Crops, full, for the kitchen garden, 129
Cucumbers, early, how raifed, 67,91
E.
Engrafting of fruit trees, when per¬
formed 113
hiftory of, 114
method of performing, 115
different kinds -of, 116—124
F.
Figs, method of pruning, 97
different kinds of, 253
Flowers, how prote£led in pots, 48
forced in hot houfe«, 52
Fruit trees, how to force the growth
of, 46, 99
pruning of, 96
engrafting of, 113
planting, 130
protecting the flowrer, x 51,173
G.
Garden, kitchen, 17
Garlic, wffien planted, 86
Grapes, different kinds of, 259
Green-houfes, conftruCtion of, 260
H.
Hot-houfes, conftruftion of, 260
Hot-beds, method of preparing, 32
I.
Inarching of fruit trees, 122
Inoculation of fruit trees, ’ 215
L.
Lawns, drefling of,
Leeks, how raifed,
Lettuce, when fown,
N* 54, xc6
83
24, 79, 167
M.
Melon feeds, when fown, 33, 91, 92,
topping, _ 93
impregnation of, 94
obfervations on, 95
treatment of, 184, 198
Mufhroor?i-beds, how to manage, 3 2
preparation of, 238
N.
NeBarines, when pruned,
different kinds of,
Nurfery,
Onions, how raifed,
early crop of,
time of taking up,
P.
Parfey, when fown,
Peach trees, w^en pruned,
different kinds of,
Peafe, when fown,
late crop of,
Pear trees, ,whf;n pruned,
different kinds of,
Pine apples, management of, h
Hove for,
4heat for,
* how propagated,
3 L
40
250
59
83
223
227
21, 84
40
250
22
211
38
252
65
126
182
218
Pine
45° C
Pin apples, raifed in water, N° 219
varieties of, 220
P/um trees, when pruned, 39
different kinds of, 250
Potatoes, early, when planted, 36
full crop of, 144
Pot-herbs, when fown, 85
planted out, 203
R.
Radijhes, when fown, 17
horfe, how propagated, 89
Rafpberries, when pruned and planted, 43
S.
Sa/ad, fmall, 20
ARBENIN
Seedlings, ' N® 60
Shrubs, how managed, 53
Spinach, when fown, 19
winter crop of, 221
Strawberries, forcing of the growth
. of> 47
time and mode of dref-
fmg,. 98
plantations of, made, 204,
240
different kinds of, 241
Trees, roots of, how protefted, 45
time proper for planting, 44
G. Index.
Trees, propagated by layers, N° 61
cuttings, 62
fuckers, 63
air cautioufly admitted to, 64
Turnips, full crop of, 201
V.
Vines, how propagated, 162
drelfed, j
hiflory of, j <7 -
pruning and training of, 257, 258
w.
Walks, grafs and gravel, dreffing of, 107
GAR
Gardiner GARDINER, STEPHEN, bifhop of Winchefter,
P . and lord chancellor of England, born at Bury St Ed-
? a ■ munds in Suffolk, natural fon to Richard Woodville,
brother to Queen Elizabeth wife to EdwTard IV. was
learned in the canon and civil law’s, and in divinity. He
fxgned the divorce of Henry VIII. from Katharine of
Spain ; abjured the pope’s fupremacy 5 and wrrit De ve-
ra et falfa obedientia, in behalf of the king j yet in
Edwrard’s reign he oppofed the reformation, and wTas
punilhed with imprifonment ■, but Queen Mary coming
to the throne, fhe enlarged him. He drew up the ar¬
ticles of marriage between the queen and Philip of
Spain, which were very advantageous to England. He
was violent againft the reformers •, but on his death-bed
was diffatisfied wdth his life, and often repeated thefe
words: Erravi cum Petro,fed non Jlevi cum Petro. He
died in 1555.
GARGARISM (from “ to wafh the
mouth j”) a gargle. Its ufe is for w'afhing the mouth
and throat with, w'hen inflammations, ulcerations, &c.
are there. A fmall quantity may be taken into the
mouth, and moved brilkly about, and then fpit out;
or if the patient cannot do this to any advantage, the
liquor may be injefled by a fyringe. When gargles are
required, their, ufe (hould be more frequently repeated
than is done in common pradliee.
GARGET, a difeafe of cattle, confifting in a fuel¬
ling of the throat *and the neighbouring parts j to pre¬
vent wdiich bleeding in the fpring is recommended.
GARGIL, a diftemper in geefe, which by flopping
the head frequently proves mortal. Three or four
cloves of garlic, beaten in a mortar with fweet butter,
and made into little balls, and given the creature fall¬
ing, are the ordinary cure.
GARIDELLA, a genus of plants belonging to the
decandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 26th order, Mukijiliquce. See Botany
Index.
GARIZIM, Gerizim, or Gerijim, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy^ a mountain of Samaria, at the foot of w'hich
flood Sichem ; fo Hear, that Jotham could be heard by
the Sichemites from its top, (Judges, ix. 7.) Famous
for. the temple built on it by Sanballet, in favour of his
GAR
fon-in-law Manaffeh, by the permiflion of Alexander Garland
the Great, and 200 years after deftroyed by John Hyr- 11
canus, fon of Simon, the fourth in fucceflion of the Af-, Garnet*
moneans (Jofephus). v——y——
GARLAND, a fort of chaplet made of flowers,
feathers, and fometimes precious ftones, worn on the
head in manner of a crown.—The word is formed of
the French guirlande, and that of the barbarous Latin
garlanda, or glnrlanda. Menage traces its ori¬
gin from gyrus through gyrulus, to gyrulare, gyrlan-
dum, ghirlandum ; and at length ghirlanda and guir-
lande ; fo that guirlande and garland are defcended in
the fixth or feventh degree from gyrus.—Hicks rejedfs
this derivation, and brings the word from gardel handa,
which in the northern languages fignify a nofegay artfully
wrought with the hand.
Garland alfo denotes ornaments of flowers, fruits,
and leaves, intermixed j anciently much ufed at the
gates of temples, where feafls and folemn rejoicings
were held j or at any other place where marks of pub-
lic joy or gaiety were required, as at triumphal arches,
tournaments, See.
GARLIC. See Allium, Botany Index.
GARMENT, that wherewith any perfon is clothed.
See Dress and Habit.
GARNET, in Natural Hi/lory, a very beautiful gem,
of a red colour, with an admixture of blue. See Mi¬
neralogy Index.
When pure and free from blemiflies, it is little infe¬
rior in appearance to the oriental ruby, though only of
a middle degree of hardnefs between the fapphire and
common cryftal. It is found of various fizes, from that
of a pin’s head to an inch in diameter.
Among lapidaries and jewellers, genuine garnets
are known by different names according to their dif¬
ferent degrees of colour. 1. The garnet, Amply fo
called, is the fineft and moll valuable kind, being of a
very deep blood-red with a faint admixture of blue.
2. The rock-ruby ; a name very improperly given to
the garnet when it is of a very ftrong but not deep red,
and has a fairer call of the blue j this is a very beauti¬
ful gem. 3. The forane or ferain garnet j that of a
yet brighter red, approaching to the colour of native
cinnabar,
GAR [ 4Si ] GAR
Carnet cinnabar, with a faint blue tinge. 4. The almandine,
II a garnet only a little paler than that called the rock-
Garrick. ru^
v ^ G arne7-Colour. See Colouring of Glass.
To imitate Garnets. The making the counterfeit
garnet in pafte is done as follows.—Take prepared cry-
ftal two ounces, common red-lead fix ounces, manga-
nefe 16 grains, zaffre three grains j mix all well, put
them into a crucible, cover it with lute, and fet it in
a potter’s kiln for 24 hours. Or take cryftal two oun¬
ces, minium five ounces and a half, manganefe 15
grains, zaffre four grains : mix them well together and
let all be baked, in a pot well luted, in a potter’s kiln
24 hours.
GARONNE, a large river of France, which ta¬
king its rife in the Pyrenean mountains, runs north-
weft by the city of Tholoufe, divides the provinces of
Guienne and Gafcony, and, vifiting the city of Bour-
deaux, falls into the bay of Bifcay, about 60 miles
below that city. It has alfo a communication with
the Mediterranean, by means of the royal canal of
Louis XIV. The tide flows up this river 20 miles
above Bourdeaux.
GARRICK, Davida Efq. the great Rofcius of his
age and country, who for near 40 years fhone the bright-
eft luminary in the hemifphere of the ftage, was born at
the Angel Inn at Hereford, in the year 1716. His
father, Captain Peter Garrick, was a French refu¬
gee, and had a troop of horfe which were then quar¬
tered in that city. This rank he maintained in the ar¬
my for feveral years, and had a majority at the time of
his death j that event, however, prevented him from
ever enjoying it. Mr Garrick received the firft rudi¬
ments of his education at the free-fehool at Litchfield j
which he afterwards completed at Rochefter, under
the celebrated Mr Colfon, fince mathematical profeifor
at Cambridge. Dr Johnfon and he were fellow-ftu-
dents at the fame fchool; and it is a curious fa ft, that
thefe two celebrated geniufes came up to London, with
the intention of pufhing themfelves into aftive life, in
the fame coach. On the 9th of March 1736, he was
entered at the honourable fociety of Lincoln’s Inn.
The ftudy of the law, however, he foon quitted j and
followed for fome time the employment of a wine mer¬
chant : but that too difgufting him, he gave way at laft
to the irrefiftible bias of his mind, and joined a travel¬
ling company of comedians at Ipfwich in Suffolk, where
he went by the name of Lyddle. Having in this poor
fchool of Apollo got fome acquaintance with the thea¬
tric art, he burft at once upon the world, in the year
x 740-1, in all the luftre of perfeflion, at the little
theatre in Goodman’s Fields, then under the direction
of Henry Giffard.
The chara&er he firft performed was Richard III.
in which, like the fun burfting from behind a cloud,
he difplayed in the earlieft dawn even more than
meridian brightnefs. His excellence dazzled and afto-
nifiied every one ; and the feeing a young man, in no
more than his 24th year, and a novice in reality to
the ftage, reaching at one fingle ftep to that height of
perfection which maturity of years and long practical
experience had not been able to beftow on the then
capital performers of the Englifh ftage, was a pheno¬
menon that could not but become the objeCt of uni-
verfal fpeculation and of as univerfal admiration. The
theatres at the weft end of the town were deferted j Garrick.
Goodman’s Fields, from being the rendezvous of citi- v
zens and citizens -wives alone, became the refort of all
ranks of men 5 and Mr Garrick continued to a£l till
the clofe of the feafon.
Having very advantageous terms offered him for the
performing in Dublin during fome part of the fummer
(T741), he went over thither, where he found the
lame juft homage paid to his merit which he had re¬
ceived from his own countrymen. To the fervice of
the latter, however, he efteemed himlelf more imme¬
diately bound ; and therefore in the enfuing winter,
engaged himfelf to Mr Fleetwood, then manager of
Drury Lane j in which theatre he continued till the
year 1745, when he again went over to Ireland, and
continued there the whole feafon, joint manager with
Mr Sheridan in the direcHon and profits of the theatre
royal in Smock Alley. From therree he returned to
England, and was engaged for the feafon of 1746 with
Mr Rich at Covent Garden. This was his laft per¬
formance as a hired aClor : for in the clofe of that
feafon, Mr Fleetwood’s patent for the management of
Drury Lane being expired, and that gentleman having
no inclination further to purfue a defign by wdfich,
from his want of acquaintance with the proper con-'
duff of it, or fome other caufe, he had confiderably
impaired his fortune j Mr Garrick, in conjunffion
with Mr Lacy, purchafed the property of that theatre,
together with the renovation of the patent j and in
the winter of 1747, opened it with the greateft part of
Mr Fleetwood’s company, and /with the great addi¬
tional ftre-ngth of Mr Barry, Mrs Pritclxard, and
Mrs Cibber, from Covent Garden.
Were we to trace Mr Garrick through the feveral
occurrences of his life,—a life fo affive, fo bufy, and
fo full of occurrences as his, we fhouldfwell this account
to many pages. Suffice it to fay, he continued in the
unmolefted enjoyment of his fame and unrivalled ex¬
cellence to the moment of his retirement. His univer-
fality of excellence was never once attacked by compe • .
tition. Tragedy, comedy, and farce, the lover and
the hero, the jealous hufband who fufpeffs his wife
without caufe, and thej thoughtlefs lively rake who at¬
tacks her without defign, were all alike his own. Rage
and ridicule, doubt and defpair, tranfport and tender-
nefs, compaffion and contempt ; love, jealoufy, fear,
fury, and fimplicity 5 all took in turn poffeffion of his
features, while each of them in turn appeared to be
the foie poffeffor of his heart. In the feveral charac¬
ters of Lear and Hamlet, Richard, Dorilas, Romeo,
and Lufignane; in his R.anger, Bayes, Drugger, Kite-
ly, Brute, and Benediff, you faw the mufcular con¬
formations that your ideas attached to them all. In
ftiort, Nature, the miftrefs from whom alone this great
performer borrowed all his leffons, being in herfelf in-
exhauftible, this her darling fon, marked out for her
trueft reprefentative, found an unlimited fcope for
change and diverfity in his manner of copying from
her various produffions. There is one part of theatri¬
cal conduff which ought unqueftionably to be recorded
to Mr Garrick’s honour, fince the caufe of virtue and
morality, and the formation of public manners, are
confiderably dependent upon it ; and that is, the zeal
with which he aimed to banifh from the ftage all thofe
plays which carry with them an immoral tendency,
3 L 2 and
G A 11 [ 452 ] G A R
Garrick, and to prune from tlrofe which do not abfolutely, on
the whole, promote the interefts of vice, fuch fcenes
of licentioufnefs and liberty, as a redundancy of wit
and too great livelinefs of imagination have induced
lome of our comic writers to indulge themlelves in, and
to which the fympathetic dilpofition 01 our age ot gal¬
lantry and intrigue has given fanftion. The purity of
the Englifh ftage has certainly been mucn more fully
eftabliihed during the adminiflration of this theatrical
minifter, than it had ever been during preceding ma¬
nagements. He feems to have carried his modeft, mo¬
ral, chaife, and pious principles with him into the
very management of the theatre itfelf, and refcued per¬
formers from that obloquy which ftuck on the profef-
fion. Of thofe who were accounted blackguards, un¬
worthy the aiTociation of the world, he made gentle¬
men, united them with fociety, and introduced them
to all the domeftic comforts of life. The theatre was
no longer efteemed the receptacle of all vice •, and the
moral, the ferious, the religious part of mankind, did
not hefitate to partake of the rational entertainment of
.a play, and pafs a cheerful evening undifgufted with
the licentioufnefs, and uncorrupted by the immorality,
of the exhibition.
Notwithftanding the numberlefs and laborious avo¬
cations attendant on his profeffion as an atlor, and his
flation as a manager*, yet dill his aftive genius was
perpetually burfting forth in various little produ&ions
in the dramatic and poetical way, whofe merit cannot
but make us regret his want of time for the purfuance
of more extenfive and important works. It is certain
that his merit as an author is not of the firft magni¬
tude : but his great knowledge of men and manners, of
flage effeCt, and his happy turn for lively and ftriking
fatire, made him generally fuccefsful ; and his pro¬
logues and epilogues in particular, which are almoft in¬
numerable, pofiefs fuch a degree of happinefs,; both in
the conception and execution, as to Hand unequalled.
His Ode on the death of Mr Pelham ran through four
editions in lefs than fix weeks. His Ode on Shake-
fpeare is a mafterly piece of poetry *, and when deliver¬
ed by himfelf, was a molt capital exhibition. His al¬
terations of Shakefpeare and other authors have been
at times fuccefsful, and at times exploded. The cut¬
ting out the gravediggers fcene from Hamlet will never
be forgotten to him by the inhabitants of the gallery
at Drury. Though neceffary to the chaftenefs of the
fcene, they cannot bear to lofe fo much true fterling
wit and humour j and it muft be owned, that exube¬
rances of that kind, though they hurt the uniformity,
yet increafe the luxuriance of the tree. Among his
alterations the following are part : Every Man in his
Humour, altered from Ben Johnfon *, Romeo and Ju¬
liet, Winter’s Tale, Catherine and Petruchio, CyTmbe-
line, Hamlet, &c. altered and made up from Shake¬
fpeare Gamefters, a comedy, from Shirley 5 Ifabella,
from Southerne. To thefe we add, as original pro¬
ductions, The Farmer’s Return, and Linco’s Travels,
interludes 5 Guardian, Lethe, Lying Valet, Mifs in
her Teens, Male Coquet, Irilh Widow*, and other co¬
medies in tw:o aCts ; Enchanter, a muGcal entertain¬
ment ; Lilliput: the Chriltmas Tale is afcribed to him,
and many others.
We now bring him to the period of his retirement
in the fpring of 17763 when, full of fame, with the ac¬
quirement of a fplendid fortune, and growing into
years, he thought proper to feek the vale of life, to
enjoy that dignified and honourable eafe which w*as
compatible with his public fituation, and which he had
fo well earned by the aClivity and the merits of his
dramatic reign. But very fhort indeed was the period
allotted to him for this precious enjoyment : for on
the 20th of January 1779, he departed this life 3 leav¬
ing no one rival in excellence upon earth to compen-
fate for his lofs, or a hope of our ever meeting with
his like again.
GARRISON, in the art of war, a body of forces,,
difpofed in a fortrefs, to defend it againft the enemy,
or to keep the inhabitants in fubjeClion 3 or even to be
fublifled during the wfinter feafon : hence garrifon and
winter quarters are fometimes ufed indifferently for the
fame thing 3 and fometimes they denote different things.
In the latter cafe, a garrifon is a place wherein- forces
are maintained to fecure it, and where they keep re¬
gular guard, as a frontier town, a citadel, callle, tower,
&c. The garrifon fhould be always ftronger than the
townfmen.
Du Cange derives the w*ord from the corrupt Latin
garnifio, which the latter writers ufe to fignify all man¬
ner of munition, arms, victuals, &c. neceffary for the
defence of a place, and fuftaining of a fiege.
Winter quarters lignify a place where a number of
forces are laid up in the winter feafcn, without keeping
the regular guard.
GARSTANG, a town in Lancafhire, 223 miles
from London. It is a large populous place, near a mile
in length, but built In a very irregular manner, wfith
dirty ftreets, and very indifferent houfes. The church
is a {lately Gothic ftruCture. By the late inland navi¬
gation, it has communication with the rivers Merfey^
Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Hum¬
ber, Thames, Avon, &c. which navigation, including
its windings, extends above 500 miles, in the counties
of Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Weftmorland, Chefter,
Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c.
GARTER, a ligature for tying up the flocking 3
but particularly ufed for the badge of a noble order of
knights, hence denominated the
Ot;der of the Garter, a military order of knighthood,
the moft noble and ancient of any lay order in the
world, inftituted by Edward III. The knights com¬
panions are generally princes and peers 3 and the king
of England is the fovereign or chief of the order. The
number of knights was originally 26 ; but fix were
added in 1786, on account of the increafe of the royal
family. They are a college or corporation, having a
great and little feal.
Their officers are a prelate, chancellor, regifter, king
at arms, and uffier of the black rod. I hey have alfo
a dean, with 1 2 canons and petty canons, vergers, and
26 penfioners or poor knights. The prelate is the
head. This office is veiled in the bilhop of Winchefter,
and has ever been fo. Next to the prelate is the chan¬
cellor ; which office is veiled in the bilhop of Salilhury,
who keeps the feals, &c. 1 he next is the regifter,
who by his oath is to enter upon the regiftry, the Icru-
tinies, ele£lions, penalties, and other aels of the order,
with all fidelity: The dear of Windfor is always regif¬
ter ex officio. The fourth officer is Garter and king-
at-arms, being two diftinct offices united in one perfon.
Gartec
GAR [4
Garter carries the rod and iceptre at the feaft Si.
George, the proteftor of this order, when the fovereign
is preient. He notifies the eleftions of new knights,
attends the folemnity of their inftallations, carries the
garter to foreign princes, &c. He is the prmcipa
officer within the college of arms, and chief of the he¬
ralds. See King-at’Arms.
All thefe officers except the prelate have fees and
penfions. The college of the order is feated m the
caftle of Windfor, within the chapel of St George, and
the charter houfe, eredfed by the founder for that pm-
pot'e. The habit and enfign of the order are, a garter,
mantle, cape, george, and collar. The three firit were
affigned the knights companions by the founder ; and,
the george and collar by Henry VIII-
The garter challenges pre-eminence over all the
other parts of the drefs, by reafon that from it the
noble order is denominated } that it is the finf part ox
the habit prefented to foreign princes and ablent
knights, who, and all other knights-eleft, are there¬
with firit adorned j and it is of fo great honour and
grandeur, that by the bare inveftiture with this "oble
enfign, the knights are efteemed companions ot the
greateft military order in the world. It is worn on
the left leg- between the knee and calf, and is ena¬
melled with this motto, HoVI SOTT QU1 mal y PENSE ;
i. e. Shame to him that thinks evil hereof: 1 he meaning
of which is, that King Edward having laid claim to the
kingdom of France, retorted ihame and defiance upon
him that fhould dare to think amifs of the juft enter-
prife he had undertaken, for recovering his lawful right
to that crown ; and that the bravery of thofe knights
whom he had elefted into this order, was fuch as
would enable him to maintain the quarrel againft thole
that thought ill of it.
The mantle is the chief of thefe veftments made ule
of upon all folemn occafions. "I he colour of the man¬
tle is by the ftatutes appointed to be blue. I he length
of the train of the mantle only diftinguiffies tne fove¬
reign from the knights companions, lo the collar oi
the mantle is fixed a pair of long firings, anciently
woven with blue filk only, but now twilled round, and
made of Venice gold and filk, of the colour of the
robes, with knobs or buttons, and taffels at the end.
The left fhoulder of the mantle has from the inftitu-
tion been adorned with a large garter, with the device,
Honi soit, &c. Within this is the crofs of the or¬
der, which was ordained to be wmrn at all times by
King Charles I. At length the ftar was introdu¬
ced, being a fort of crofs irradiated with beams of
filver- - . f
The collar is appointed to be compofed of pieces of
gold in faffiion of garters, the ground enamelled blue,
and the motto gold.
When the knights wear not their robes, they are to
have a filver ftar on the left fide 5 and they commonly
bear the pifture of St George, enamelled on gold, and
befet with diamonds, at the end of a blue ribbon, crof-
fincr the body from the left fhoulder. I hey are not to
appear abroad without the garter, on penalty of 6s. 8d.
paid to the regifter.
The manner of elefling a knight companion into
this moft noble order, and the ceremonies of invefti¬
ture, are a$ follow. When the fovereign dengns to
cleft a companion of the garter, the chancellor belong-
53 ] G A It
ino- to this order draws up the letters, which, paffing
both under the fovereign’s fign manual arid fignet of the
order, are fent. to the perfon by Garter principal king
at arms j and are in this manner, or to the lame effeft.
“ We with the companions of our moft noble order
of the garter, afiembled in chapter, holden this puaent
day at our caftle at Windfor, confidering the virtuous
fidelity you have fhown, and the honourable exploits
you have done in our fervice, by vindicating and main¬
taining our right, &c. have defied and chofen you one
of the companions of our order. Iherefore, we re¬
quire you to make your fpeedy repair unto us? to receive
the enfigns thereof, and be ready for your inflallation
upon the — day of this prefent month, occ.
The garter, which is of blue velvet bordered with
fine gold wire, having commonly the letters of the
motto of the fame, is, at the time ol eleflion, buckled
upon the left leg, by two of the fenior companions,
who receive it from the fovereign, to whom it w^as
prefented upon a velvet cufhion, by Garter king at
arms, with the ufual reverence, whilfl the chancellor
reads the following admonition, enjoined by the fta¬
tutes : “To the honour of God omnipotent, and in
memorial of the blefled martyr St George, tie ajoux
thy leg, for thy renown, this noble garter j wear it as
the fymbol of the moft illuftrious order, never to be
forgotten or laid alide j that thereoy thou mayeft^ be
admonifhed to be courageous ; and having undertaken,
a juft war, in which thou lhait be engaged, thou
xnayeft Hand, firm, valiantly fight, and fuccefsfuby con¬
quer.” The princely garter being then buckled on, and
the word of its fignification pronounced, the knight elect
is brought before the fovereign, who puts about his
neck, kneeling, a dark bine ribbon, whereuntois ap¬
pendant, wrought in gold within the garter, the image
of St George on horfeback, with his fword drawn,,
encountering with tne dragon. In the mean time, the
chancellor reads the following admonition :. “ Wear
this ribbon abov.t thy neck, adorned with the image ot
the bleffed martyr and foldier of Chrift, St George,
by whofe imitation provoked, thou mayeft fo overpafs
both profperous and adverfe adventures, that having
ftoutly vanquiftied thy enemies both of body and foul,
thou 'mayeft not only receive the praile of this tran-
lient combat, but be crowned with the palm of eternal
viftory.” Then the knight ekaed kiffes the fovereign’s
hand; thanks his majefty for the great honour done him j
rifes up, and falutes all the companions feverally, who
return their congratulations. See a reprefentation of
the above inftgnia, among others, on the plate belong¬
ing to Orders of Knighthood.
Since the inftitution of this order, t'Rere have been
eight emperors and twenty-eight kings, beftdes nu¬
merous fovereign princes enrolled as companions there¬
of. Its origin is fomewhat differently related. Ine
common account is, that the countefs of Sanlbury
at a ball happening to drop her garter, the king took,
it up and prefented it to her with thefe words, “ Ho¬
ni foil qui mal y penfe; i. e. Evil to him that evil
thinks. This accident, it is faid, gave rife to the order
and the motto; it being the fpirit of the times to mix
love and war together : but as in the original ftatutes
of this order there is not the lead conjeflure to coun¬
tenance fuch a feminine inftitution, credit cannot be
given to this tradition. Camden, Fern, &c. take it
! 9 a
OAR [ 454 ] GAR.
ir-''r, to liave been inftituted on occafion of tbe vidfory ob-
11 ^ tamed by Edward over tbe French at the battle of
Creffy 5 that prince, fay fome hiftorians, ordered his
garter to be difplayed, as a fignal of battle : in com¬
memoration whereof, he made a garter the principal
ornament of the order, erected in memory of this fig¬
nal victory, and a fymbol of the indiffoluble union of
the knights.
It appears from Raftel’s Chronicle, lib. vi. quoted by
Granger in the fupplement to his Biographical Hiftory,
that this order was devifed by Richard I. at the fiege of
the city of Acre, when he cauled twenty-fix knights,
who firmly flood by him, to wear thongs of blue leather
about their legs, and that it was perfefted in the nine¬
teenth year of Edward III.
In 1551, Edward VI. made fome alterations in the
ritual of this order : ^that prince compofed it in La¬
tin, the original whereof is ftiil extant in Ids own
hand writing. He there ordained, that the order
fhould no longer be called the order of St George, but
that of the Garter; and, inflead of the george, hung
at the collar, he fubflituted a cavalier, bearing a book
on the point of his fword, with the word proieBio gra¬
ven on the fword, and verbum Dei on the book: with
a buckle in the left hand, and the word Jides thereon.
Larrey.
Garter, principal King at Arms. This office was in-
ftituted by Henry V.
Garter, and principal king at arms, are two diftindl
offices united in one perfon : Garter’s employment is
to attend the fervice of the order of the garter; for
which he is allowed a mantle and badge, a houfe in
Windfor caftle, and penfions both from the fovereign
and knights, and laftly, fees. He alfo carries the rod
and feeptre at every feaft of St George, when the fove-
!reign is prefent, and notifies the eledion of fuch as
are new chofen ; attends the folemnity of their inflal-
lations, takes care of placing their arms over their
feats ; and carries the garter to foreign kings and
princes, for which fervice it has been ufual to join him
in commiffion with fome peer, or other perfon of di-
ffindion.
Garter’s oath relates only to fervices being performed
within the order, and is taken in chapter before the fo¬
vereign and knights. His oath, as king at arms, is'ta¬
ken before the earl marffial.
Garter is alfo a term in heraldry, fignifying the
moiety or half of a bend.
GARTH is ufed in fome parts of England for a
little backfide or clofe. It is an ancient Britifh word.
Gardd, in that language, figlufies garden, and is pro¬
nounced and written garth. This word is alfo ufed for
a dam or wear, &c.
Garth Men is ufed in our ftatutes for thofe who
catch fiffi by means of fiffi garths, or w^ears. By ftatute
it is ordained, that no fiffier, nor garth man, fhall ufe
any nets or engines to deftroy the fry of fiffi, &c.
17 Ric. II. cap. 9. The word is fuppofed by fome to
be derived from the Scotch word gart, which fignifies
forced or compelled; becaufe fiffi are forced by the wear
to pafs in a loop, where they are taken.
Garth, Sir Samuel, an excellent Engliffi poet and
phyfician, was defeended from a good family in York-
flure. He was admitted into the college of phyficians
3
at London in 1693. that time zealoufiy promo- Garth,
ted and encouraged the erefting of the difpenfary for Garumna,
the relief of the iick poor, by giving them advice gra- r v~"v**
tis, and medicines, at low rates. This work of charity
having expofed him and many other phyficians to the
envy and refentment of feveral perfons of the fame fa¬
culty as. well as apothecaries, he ridiculed them, with
a peculiar fpirit and vivacity, in a poem called the
Difpenfary, in fix cantos, highly efteemed. He was
one of the moft eminent members of tbe famous fo-
ciety called the Kit Kat Club, which confifted of
noblemen and gentlemen difunguiihed by their excel¬
lent parts and affedlion to the houfe of Hanover.
Upon the acceffion of George I. he v/as knighted,
and made phyfician in ordinary to his majefty, and
phyfician general to the army. Nor were thefe more
than juft rewards even of his phyfical merit. He had
gone through the office of cenfor of the college in
1702 ; and had pradfifed always with great reputation,
and a ftridf regard to the honour and intereft of the
faculty, never, Hooping to proflitute the dignity of
his profeffion, through mean and fordid views of felf-
intereft, to any, even the moft popular and wealthy
apothecaries. In a fteady adherence to this noble
principle, he concurred with the much celebrated Dr
Radcliffe, with whom he was alfo often joined in phy¬
fical confultations. He had a very extenfive pradlice,
but was very moderate in bis views of advancing his
own fortune; his humanity and good nature inclin¬
ing him more to make ufe of the great intereft he had
with perfons in power, for the fupport and encourage¬
ment of other men of letters. He chofe to live with
the great in that degree of independency and freedom
which became a man poiTeffed of a fuperior genius,
whereof he was daily giving freffi proofs to the pub¬
lic. One of his laft performances in polite letters,
was his tranflation of the whole fourteenth book, and
the ftory of Cinnus in the fifteenth book, of Ovid’s Me-
tamorphofes. Thefe, together with an Engliffi ver-
fion of the reft, were publiffied in 17175 and he has
prefixed an excellent preface to the whole, wherein,
he not only gives an idea of the work, and points out
its principal beauties, but ffiows the ufes of the poem,
and how it may be read to moft profit. The diftem-
per which feized him the enfuing year, and ended not
but with his life, caufed a general concern 5 which
was particularly teftified by Lord Lanfdowne, a brother
poet, though of a different party, in fome admirable
verfes written on tbe occafion. He died, after a ffiort
illnefs, which he bore with great patience, in January
I7I9-
GARUMNA, a noble and navigable river of Gaul,
which rifing from the Pyrenees, formerly bounded
Aquitain on the north (Caffar) 5 but by the new regu¬
lation of Auguftus divided it in the middle, emptying
itfelf to the north of Burdegala, in the Aquitanic
ocean. Now the Garonne. Mela obferves concern¬
ing it, that unlefs it is fwelled by winter rains, or the
melting of the fnow, it is for a great part of the year
ffioaly and fcarce navigable 5 but when increafed by
the meeting tide, whereby its waters are impelled, it is
fomewhat fuller 5 and the farther the river advances,
it is broader, till at length it refembles a large frith or
arm of the fea, not only bearing large veffels, but al-
fc
Gas
Gafcony.
GAS [
fo fwelling like a raging fea, tofTes them extremely,
efpecially if the direftion of the wind be one way and-
that of the current another.
GAS, in Chemiftry, a general name for all perma¬
nently elaftic fluids, which are obtained by chemical
proceffes, as azotic gas, muriatic acid gas, nitrous gas.
See Chemistry Index, It is derived from the German
gafcht or gaji, fignifying an eruption of wind, or the
ebullition attending the expullion of elaflic fluids from
fubftances in a flate of fermentation or effervefcence.
It was firft employed by Van Helmont.
GASCOIGNE, Sir William, chief juftice of the
court of king’s bench under Henry IV. A molt
learned and upright judge : who being infulted on the
bench by the then prince of Wales, afterwards Hen¬
ry V. with equal intrepidity and coolnefs committed the
the prince to prifon •, and by this feafonable fortitude
laid the foundation of the future glory of that great
monarch, tvho from this event dated his reformation
from the licentioufnefs of his youth. It is not well
authenticated that the prince flruck Sir William, as
recorded by Shakefpeare •, but all authors agree, that
he interrupted the courfe of juftice to fcreen a lewrd
fervant. Sir William died in 1413*
Gascoigne, George, an Englifh poet of fome fame
in the early part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was
born at Walthamftow in Eflex, of an ancient family,
and educated at both univerfities, but principally at
Cambridge. From thence he removed to Gray’s Inn,
and commenced ftudent of the law ; but having a ge¬
nius too volatile for that ftudy, he travelled abroad, and
for fome time ferved in the army in the Low Countries.
He afterwards wrent to France 5 where he became ena¬
moured of a Scottifh lady, and married her. Being
at length, fays Wood, weary of thofe vanities, he re¬
turned to England } and fettled once more in Gray’s
Inn, wdiere he wrote moft of his dramatic and other
poems. The latter part of his life he fpent in his na¬
tive village of Walthamftow, where he died in the year
1578. He had the charafter of a polite gentleman,
an eloquent and witty companion, et vir interpoetas fui
feculiprcejiantifjimus. His plays, firft printed feparately,
wTere afterwards, with feveral other poems, &c. re¬
printed in twTo volumes 4to j the firft: volume in I577>
the fecond in 1587.
G ASCOIN, or Gascoign, denotes the hinder thigh
of a horfe, which begins at the ftifie, and reaches to
the ply or bending of the ham.
GASCONADE, a boaft or vaunt of fomethmg
very improbable. The term has its rife from the Gaf-
cons, or people of Gafcony in France, who it feems
have been diftinguifhed for bragging and rhodomon-
tade.
GASCONY, the moft: fouth-weft province of France,
is bounded by Guienne on the north, by Languedoc
on the eaft, by the Pyrenees which feparate it from
Spain on the fouth, and by the bay of Bifcay on the
weft. It had its name from the ancient inhabitants,
called Gafcones, or Vafcones ; by the moderns Bafques,
or Vafques. After thefe were fubdued by the Franks,
they had for fome time dukes of their own, who were
fubjeft to the dukes of Aquitaine ; but both were at
laft difpoffeffed by the kings of France. The country
produces corn, wane, fruits, tobacco, hemp, brandy,
prunes, &c. The inhabitants are noted for a corrupt
455 1 . ,G A S
and vicious pronunciation of the French tongue, as well
as their vain-glorious boafting.
GASSENDI, Peter, one of the moft celebrated __
philofophers France has produced, wras born at Cnan-
terfier, about three miles from Digne in Provence, in
1592. When a child, he took particular delight in
gazing at the moon and ftars as often as they appeared
in clear unclouded weather. Ihis pleafure frequently
drew him into bye places, in order to feaft his eye
freely and undifturbed ; by which means his parents
had 'him often to feek, not without many anxious fears
and apprehenfions. They therefore put him to fchool
at Digne} where, in a fiiort time, he made fuch an
extraordinary progrefs in learning, that fome perfons,
who had feen fpecimens of his genius, refplved to have
him removed to Aix, in order to ftudy philofophy
under Fefay, a learned minor friar. This propofa!
was fo difagreeable to his father, who intended to breed
him up in his own way to country bufinefs, as being
more profitable than that of a fcholar, that he would
confent to it only upon condition that he ftiould return
home in two years at fartheft. Accordingly young
Gaffendi, at the end of the appointed time, repaired
to Chanterfier j but he had not been long there when
he was invited to be profeffor of rhetoric at D:«gne, be¬
fore he was quite 16 years of age •, and he had been
engaged in that office but three years, when his mafter
Fefay dying, he was made profeffor in his room at Aix.
When he had been there a few years, he campofed his
Paradoxical Exercitations j which, coming to the hands
of Nicholas Peirefc, that great patron of learning
joined with Jofeph Walter prior of Valette in promot¬
ing him ; and he having entered into holy orders, was
firft made canon of the church of Digne and doctor of
divinity, and then obtained the wardenftiip or redfor-
Ihip of that church. Gaffendi’s fondnefs for aftrono-
my grew up with his years} and his reputation daily
increafing, he wTas in 1645 appointed royal profeflor
of mathematics at Paris. This inftitution being chiefly
defigned for aftronomy, our author read lectures on
that fcience to a cnwvded audience. However, he
did not hold this place long •, for a dangerous cough
and inflammation of the lungs obliged him, in 1647,
to return to Digne for the benefit of his native air.—
Gafl'endi wrote againft the metaphyfical meditations of
Defi^artes; and divided with that great man the phi¬
lofophers of his time, almoft all of whom w^ere Carte-
fians or Gaffendians. He joined to his knowledge of
philofophy and the mathematics an acquaintance with
the languages and a profound erudition. He wrote, _
I. Three volumes on Epicurus’s Philofophy 5 and fix
others, which contain his own philofophy. 2. Aftro-
nomical Works. 3. The Lives of Nicholas de Peirefc,
Epicurus, Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Puerbachius,
and Regiomontanus. 4. Epiftles, and other treafies.
All his works were colledfed together, and printed at
Lyons in 1658, in fix volumes folio. He died at Pa¬
ris in 1658, aged 63.
G AS TEROSTEUS, the stickleback, a genus of
fifties belonging to the order of thoracici. See Icil-'
thyology Index.
GAST-HOUND. See Gaze Hound.
GASTRIC, in general, fomething belonging to the
ftomach.
Gaffendi
Gaih :c»
Gastric Juice, a thin pellucid liquor, which diftils
from
GAT [ 456 1 GAT
Gafttocne- from certain glands in tbe flomacli, for tlie dilution,
niius &c. of the food. See Anatomy.
.^[c GASTROCNEMIUS, in Anatomy. See Anatg-
~ MY, Table of the Mufcles.
GASTROMANCY, or Gastromantia, a kind of
divination pradiled among the ancients by means of
words coming or feeming to come out of the belly.
The word is Greek, 'yxs-eifixflua, compofed of yocrv^,
belly, and ftctflua, divination.
There is another kind of divination called by the
fame name gaftrcmancy, which is performed by means
of glaffes or other round tranfparent vefiels, within
which certain figures appear by magic art. It is thus
called, becaufe the figures appear as in the belly of the
vellels.
GASTRORAPHY, in Surgery, the operation of
fewing up wounds of the abdomen. See Surgery.
GASTROTOMY (of yurrg, and TSjttvo, I cut), the
operation of cutting open the belly j otherwife called
the Cajar can fetlion. See Midwifery.
GAT AKER, Thomas, a learned critic and divine,
was -born at London in 1574, and ftudied at St John’s
college, Cambridge. He was afterwards chofen preacher
at Lincoln’s Inn j which he quitted in 1611, for the
reflory of Rotherhithe in Surry. In 1620, he made
a tour through the Low' Countries j and in 1624, pu-
blilhed at London a book, entitled, Tranfubftantiation
declared by the confeflion of the Popiih Writers to
have no neceffary foundation in God’s Word: he
wrote likewife a defence of this difcourfe. In 1642,
he wTas appointed one of the afifembly of divines, and
was engaged with them in uniting annotations upon
the Bible. He died in July 1654, in the 80th year
of his age. Befides the above works, he publilhed,
1. A D-iifertation upon the Style of the New Tefta-
ment. 2. De Nomine Tetragrammata. 3. De Diph-
thongix, five Bivocalibus. 4. An Edition and Tranfla-
tion of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus’s Meditations.
5. A CcHe&ion of Sermons, in folio ; and many other
works. His piety and charity were very exemplary j
and his modefty fo great, that he declined all ec-
clefiaftical dignity and court preferments. His ex-
tenfive learning was admired by Salmafius and other
great men abroad } his houfe was a private feminary
for young gentlemen of this nation, and many fo¬
reigners reforted to him to receive advice in their
-ftudies.
GATE, in ArchiteBure, a large door, leading or
giving entrance into a city, towm, caftle, palace, or
other confiderable building. See Architecture.
Thebes, in Egypt, was anciently known by the ap¬
pellation with a hundred gates. In ancient Rome there
was a triumphal gate, porta triumphalis. In modern
Rome there is the jubilee gate, which is only opened in
the year of a grand jubilee.
The gates of London were many of them converted
into gaols or prifons, as Ludgate, Newgate, &c. but
they are now removed. The leffer or by-gates are
called prferns. Gates, through w'hich coaches, &c.
are to pafs, fhould not be lefs than 7 feet broad, nor
more than 12 ; the height to be the breadth.
Gate, or Gait, in the manege, called in French
train, is ufed for the going or pace of a horfe.
Gate, in a military fenfe, is made of ftrong planks,
with iron bars, to oppofe an enemy. They are gene-
4
rally made in the middle of the curtain, from whence
they are feen, and defended by the two Hanks of the
baftious. They fhould be covered with a good rave¬
lin, that they may not be feen or enfiladed by the
enemy. Thefe gates, belonging to a fortified place,
are pafiages through the rampart, which may be (hut
and opened by means of doors and a portcullis. They
are either private or public.
Private gates are thofe palfages by which the troops
can go out of the town unfeen by the enemy, when
they pafs to and from the relief of the duty in the
outworks, or from any other occafion which is to be
concealed from the befiegers.
Public gates are thole pafiages through the middle
of fuch curtains, to which the great roads of public
ways lead. The dimenfions of thefe are ufirally about
13 or 14 feet high, and 9 or 1 o feet wide, continued
through the rampart, with proper recefl.es for foot
paflengers to ftand in out of the way of wheel car¬
riages.
Gates of Hell. This exprefiion is ufed in Scripture,
to denote figuratively either the grave or the powers of
darknefs, i. e. the devil and his angels.
The Mahometans ufe the expreflion literally, and
fuppofe that hell has feven gates. The firft is that
whefe Muflulmans, who incur the guilt of fin, will be
tormented. The fecond is for the Chriftians. The
third is for the Jews. The fourth is for the Sabians.
The fifth for the Magians or worlhippers of fire. The
fixth for Pagans and idolaters. And the feventh for
hypocrites, who make an outward fliow of religion,
but have none.
GATESHEAD, in the county of Durham, is as
it were the fuburbs of Newcaftle, though it lies in an¬
other county, being divided by the river Tyne j over
which there is a fine ftone bridge, with an iron gate
in the middle, having the arms of Durham on one
fide, and thofe of Newcaftle on the other, which is
the boundary between the bilhopric and Northumber¬
land. The church is a fine building, with a very high
tower, feen at a great diftance j and in the church¬
yard are feveral ancient monuments. There are few
traces left of its ancient monaftery, except a ftone
gateway, or rather a modern eredfion. The houfe
covered two acres and a half of land.
GATH, or Geth, in Ancient Geography, a cele¬
brated city of the Philiftines, and one of their five
principalities. It is famous for having given birth to
Goliath. David made a conqueft of it in the begin¬
ning of his reign over all Ifrael ; and it continued fub-
je<!ft to the kings his fuccefibrs till the declenfion and
decay of the kingdom of Judah. Rehoboam rebuilt or
fortified it 5 King Uzziah retook it, and Hezekiah once
more reduced it under his fubje£Hon.
Gath flood about five or fix miles from Jamnia,
about 14 fouth of Joppa, and 32 weft of Jerufalem.
Hence fome authors (among whom is F. Calmet)
have committed an egregious miftake in making Gath
the moft fouthern, and Ekron the moft northern, of
the Philiftine cities } as if thefe two had been the two
boundaries of their dominions, whereas thefe two ci¬
ties are not above five miles afunder •, and Gaza is the
laft of the five fatrapies fouth. And Jofephus (in the
place already quoted) exprefles himfelf plainly enough,
when he fays, that Hezekiah took all the Philiftine
cities
G A U [ 457 1 G A U
Gath cities from Gaza to Gath ; there being many more
U cities of that name, which hgnities in the Hebrew a
jaubms. ^ wine prefs% Several more of the name of Geth or
Gath are mentioned in Eulebius and St Jerome, ■whofe
lituation, according to them, plainly (hows them to
have been diiferent places from this, and from each
other 5 belides thofe which had an adjunft to diftin-
guifh them.
This city recovered its liberty and luftre in the time
of the prophets Amos and Micah } but was afterwards
demolhhed by Hazael king of Syria, after which it
became of but little confideration till the time of the
holy war, when Fulk king of Jerufalem built a caflle
on its ruins.
Gath Opher, Gath Epher, or Gath, in the canton of
Opher, in Galilee, was the birth-place of the prophet
Jonah. Jolhua makes this city to be part of the tribe
of Zebulun ; and St Jerome, in his preface upon Jo¬
nah, fays, that it was two miles from Sephoris, other-
wife called Dioccefarea.
Gath Ritnmon, a city belonging to the tribe of Dan.
St Jerome places it ten miles from Diofpolis on the
wav from Eleutheropolis. It was given to the Levites
of Kohath’s family.
Gath Rimmon, was alfo a city in the half tribe of
Manaffeh, on this fide Jordan, and was alfo given for a
place of abode to the Levites of Kohath’s family.
Gath Rimmon, was likewife a city in the tribe of
Ephraim, given to the Kohathites.
GATTON, a borough in the county of Surry, 19
miles from London. It lies under the fide of a hill
going to Reygate } and is fuppofed to have been
known to the Romans, by reafon of their coins and
other antiquities that have been found here. It is a
borough by prefcription j and has fent members to
parliament ever fmce the 29th of Henry VI. It wTas
formerly a large town } but is now a mean village,
with a fmall church, and without either fair or market.
The members are returned by its conllable, who is an¬
nually chofen at the lord of the manor’s court.
GAUBIUS, Jerome-David, M. D. profeffor of
medicine at Leyden, and afterwards fellow of the Roy¬
al Society of London, wras born at Heidelberg in
the year 1705. From the Jefuits he received the
rudiments of his education, and wTas much efteemed
by them on account of his abilities j but his father
afterw’ards fent him to the orphan houfe of Halle, left
he fhould be obliged to abjure his religion. The na¬
ture of the difcipline, however, he here found to be
much too fevere, which induced him to requeft his fa¬
ther to remove him from it, which was accordingly com¬
plied with. His teacher at this hofpital attributing the
diflike of young Gaubius to the want of genius, urged
him to give his fon fome mechanical employment ; but
the father thought proper to indulge his ardent defire
after knowledge, and accordingly fent him to Amfter-
-dam to ftudy under his uncle John, who was an eminent
.phyftcian. After profecuting his medical ftudies for
fome time at Hordwyk, he refolved to vifit Leyden,
where the immortal Boerhaave w^as an eminent profef¬
for, and whofe penetrating eye foon difcovered that
Gaubius w’as poileffed of talents above mediocrity. He
honoured him with unlimited accefs to his houfe, de¬
lighted in imparting inftru<ftion to him, and gradually
forwarded the cultivation of his mind. He took the
Vol. IX. Part II.
degree of doctor at the age of 20, after a deputation on
the nature of folids, containing an abftradt of the fyftem
which he himfelf followed through life.
He travelled through various parts of Europe, and
wdien he returned to Heidelberg by the way of Straf-
burgh, he wTas appointed city-phyfician at Deventer in
the province of Overyffel ; but he foon after removed
to Amfterdam. Boerhaave never loft fight of his fa¬
vourite pupil} for when the infirmities of old age and
indefatigable labour made him anxious to refign his
chair, Gaubius on his recommendation u’as appointed
to fucceed him. He publiftied his Inftruftions for writ¬
ing Recipes in the year 1738, by which he acquired
great and juftly merited approbation, as he reduced the
art from a mere mechanical to a fcientific form. His
Principles of Nofology is perhaps his moft mafterly per¬
formance, as it evinced that he was highly wmrthy of
fuch a preceptor. His next publication, which appear¬
ed in 1771, was his “ Adverfaria varii Argumenti,” a
work wdiich was particularly interefting to chemifts j
and his oration on the 200th anniverfary of the acade¬
my of Leyden attrafted confiderable notice, as in it
he traced out, with his accuftomed acumen, the chief
epochs of the arts and fciences in Holland.
He was likewife the author of numerous and valuable
papers in the Tranfa&ions of the Society of Haerlem,
and was editor of many excellent performances, among
which we may rank Cramer’s Element a artis docimajlicce;
Albinus de prefagienda vita et morte, and Swammer¬
dam’s Book of Nature, which he partly tranflated. His
literary merit fpread his fame fo far beyond the bounds
of his native country, that pupils repaired to Leyden
from every quarter of Europe. In addition to his
widely extended reputation, he was bleffed with the en¬
joyment of good health till he was 70 years of age, and
died on the 29th of November 1780, in his feventy-
fifth year.
One work of his, entitled “ Inftitutiones Pathologiee
Medicinalis,” was deemed fo valuable by Profeflbr
Ackerman, and of fuch Angular advantage in acade¬
mical ledlures, that he gave the world a fourth edition
of it, publiftied at Nuremberg in 1787.
GAUDEN, Dr Joseph, fon of John Gauden vicar
of Mayfield in Effex, was born there in 1605. At
the commencement of the civil war, he was chaplain to
Robert earl of Warwick •, who taking part with the
parliament againft the king, was followed by his chap¬
lain. Upon the eftablifliment of the Prefbyterian mo¬
del of church government, he complied wfith the ruling
powders, and wTas nominated one of the affembly of di¬
vines who met at Weftminifter in 1643, and took the
covenant 5 yet having oftered fome fcruples and objec¬
tions to it, his name was afterwards ftruck out of the
lift. Nor did he efpoufe the parliament caufe any
longer than they adhered to their firft avowed princi¬
ples of reforming only, inftead of deftroying, mo¬
narchy and epifcopacy. In this fpirit he wTas one of
thofe divines who figned a proteftation to the army
againft the violent proceedings that affe&ed the life of
the king : and a few days after his execution publifhed
the famous Eixwv BxmXacn, A Portraiture of his Sacred
Majejiy in his Solitude and Sufferings ; which ran through
50 editions in the courfe of a year. Upon the return
of Charles II. he was promoted to the fee of Exeter j
and in 1662 was removed to Worcefter, much to his
3 M regret*
Gdubius,
Gauden.
G A U t 458 ] G A U
Gavel, regret, having flattered himfelf with the hopes of a
Gavelet, tranflation to Wincheiler; and his death happened the
fame year. He wrote many controverflal pieces fuited
to the circumflances of the times, and to his own views
from them. The Eikon Baji/ihe above-mentioned he
publiftied as the king’s private meditations: though on
this point there has been a long controverfy. After
the bifliop’s death, his widow, in a letter to one of her
ions, calls it The 'Jewel; and faid, her hufband had
hoped to make a fortune by it ; and that die had a
letter of a very great man’s, which would clear up that
he writ it. This affertion, as the earl of Clarendon
had predicted, was eagerly efpoufed by the anti-royal-
iits, in the view of difparaging Charles I. But it has
been obferved, that Gauden had too luxuriant an ima¬
gination, which betrayed him into a ranknefs of ftyle
in the Afiatic way; and from thence, as Bilhop Bur¬
net argues with others, it may be certainly concluded,
that not he, but the king himfelf, was the true author
of the B*cr<A<xj) ; in which there is a noblenefs and
juftnefs of thought, with a greatnefs of ftyle, that made
it be looked on as the beft wnitten book in the Englifh
language.
GAVEL, or Gabel, among builders. See Gabel.
Gavel, in Law, tribute, toll, cuftom, or yearly re¬
venue j of which w7e had in old time feveral kinds. See
Gabel.
Gavf.l Kind, a tenure or cuftom belonging to lands
in the county of Kent. The word is faid by Lambard
to be compounded of three Saxon words, gyfe, eal, hjn,
“ omnibus cognatione proximis data.’1'1 Verftegan calls it
gavelkind, quafi “ give all kind,” that is, to each child
his part: and Taylor, in his hiftory of gavelkind, de¬
rives it from the Britilh gavel, i. e. a hold or tenure,
and cenned, “ generatio aut familia and fo gavel con¬
ned might fignify tenura generationis.—It is univerfally
known what ftruggles the Kentifti men made to pre-
ferve their ancient liberties, and with how much fuc-
cefs thofe ftruggles were attended. And as it is prin¬
cipally here that we meet with the cuftom of gavel¬
kind (though it was and is to be found in fome other
parts of the kingdom), we may fairly conclude, that
this was a part of thefe liberties: agreeable to Mr Sel-
den’s opinion, that gavelkind, before the Norman con-
queft, was the general cuftom of the realm. The di-
ftinguiftied properties of this tenure are various : fome
of the principal are thefe : 1. The tenant is of age
fufficient to alienate his eftate by feoffment, at the age
of 15 2. The eftate does not efcheat in cafe of an
attainder and execution for felony *, their maxim being,
“ the father to the bough, the fon to the plough.”
'3. In moft places he had the power of deviftng lands by
will, before the ftatute for that purpofe was made.
4. The lands defcend, not to the eldeft, youngeft, or
any one fon only, but to all the fons together ; which
was indeed anciently the moft ufual courfe of defcent,
all over England, though in particular places particu¬
lar cuftoms prevailed.
GAVELET, in Laxv, an ancient and fpecial ceffa-
vit ufed in Kent, where the cuftom of gavelkind con¬
tinues, by which the tenant, if he withdraws his rent and
fervices due to the lord, forfeits his land and tenements.
The procefs of the gavelet is thus. The lord is firft
to feek by the fteward of his court, from three weeks
to three weeks, to find foaie diftrefs upon the tene¬
ment, till the fourth court; and if at that time he Gavelet
find none, at this fourth court it is awarded, that he If
take the tenement in his hand in name of a diftrefs,
and keep it a year and a day without manuring j wuth t
in which time, if the tenant pay his arrears, and make
reafonable amends for the withholding, he (hall have
and enjoy his tenement as before : if he come not be¬
fore the year and day be paft, the lord is to go to the
next county court with witneffes of what had paffed
at his own court, and pronounce there his procefs, to
have further witneffes j and then by the aw^ard of his
own court, he fhall enter and manure the tenement as
his own : fo that if the tenant defired afterwards to
have and hold it as before, he muft agree with the
lord ; according to this old faying : “ Has he not fince
any thing given, or any thing paid, then let him pay
five pound for his were, e’er he become healder again.”
Other copies have the firft part with fome variation ;
“ Let him nine times pay, and nine times repay.”
Gavelet, in London, is a wnit ufed in the huftings,-
given to lords of rents in the city of London. Here
the parties, tenant and demandant, appear by fcire
facias, to (how caufe why the one Ihould not have his
tenement again on payment of his rent, or the other
recover the lands on default thereof.
GAUGAMELA, in Ancient Geography, a village
of Aturia, lying between the rivers Lycus and Tigris ;
famous for Alexander’s viftory over Darius. It is faid
to have been allowed to Darius Hyftalpes for the
maintenance of a camel; and hence the name. It was
not far from a more confiderable place called Arbela ;
whence the latter gave the name to the vi&ory. See
Akbela.
GAUGE-POINT of a folid meafure, the diameter of
a circle whofe area is equal to the folid content of the
fame meafure.
GAUGER, a king’s officer, who is appointed to
examine all tons, pipes, hogiheads, and barrels, of wine,
beer, ale, oil, honey, &c. and give them a mark of
allowance, before they are fold in any place within the
extent of his office.
GAUGING. See Geometry.
GAuciNG-Rod, an inftrument ufed in gauging or
meafuring the contents of any veffel. That ufually
employed is the four-foot gauging rod. It is com¬
monly made of box, and confifts of four rules, each a
foot long and about three-eighths of an inch fquare,
joined together by three brafs joints 5 by which means
the rod is rendered four feet long when the four rules
are quite opened, and but one foot when they are all
folded together. On the firft face of this rod, mark- piate
ed 4, are placed two diagonal lines } one for beer and CCXXVIttl
the other for wine : by means of which the content of
any common veffel in beer or wine gallons may be rea¬
dily found, by putting the rod in at the bung hole of
the veifel till it meets the interfe<ftion of the head of
the veffel with the ftaves oppofite to the bung hole.
For diftin&ion of this line, there is written thereon,
beer and wine gallons. On the fecond face, 5, are a
line of inches and the gauge-line $ which is a line ex-
preffing the areas of circles, whofe diameters are the
correfpondent inches in ale gallons. At the beginning
is written, ale area. On the third face, 6, are three
fcales of lines ; the firft, at the end of wffiich is written
hogjheadj is for finding how many gallons there are in
»
G A U
[ 459 1
G A U
Oauging-
Rod.
a hogdiead when it is not full, lying with its axis pa¬
rallel to the horizon. The fecond line, at the end of
which is written B. L. fignifying a butt lying is for the
fame ufe as that for the hoglhead. The third line is
to find how much liquor is wanting to fill up a butt
when it is Handing : at the end of it is written B. S.
fignifying a butt Jlanding. In the half of the fourth
face of the gauging rod, 7? there are the three fcales of
lines, to find the wants in a firkin, kilderkin, and bar¬
rel, lying with their areas parallel to the horizon.
They are diftinguilhed by letters F. K. B. fignifying a
Jirkm, kilderkin, and barrel.
Ufe of the diagonal lines on this rod. Xo find the
content of a vefiel in beer or wine gallons, put the
brafed end of the gauging rod into the bung hole of
the cafe, with the diagonal lines upwards, and thruft
this brafed end to the meeting of the head and Haves •,
then with chalk make a mark at the middle of the
bung hole of the veffel, and alfo on the diagonal lines
of the rod, right againfl, over one another, w’hen the
brafed end is thruH home to the head and Haves : then
turn the gauging rod to the other end of the veffel,
and thruff the brafed end home to the end, as before.
Laffly, See if the mark made on the gauging rod come
even with the mark made on the bung hole, when the
rod was thruH to the other end } which if it be, the
mark made on the diagonal lines will, on the fame
lines, Ihow the whole content of the cafe in beer or
wine gallons.
If the mark made on the bung hole be not right
againfl that made on the rod when you put it- the
other way, then right againft the mark made on the
bung hole make another on the diagonal line } and the
divifion on the diagonal line between the two chalks
will (how the veffel’s whole contents in beer or wine
gallons. Thus, e. gr. if the diagonal line of the veffel be
28 inches four-tenths, its contents in beer gallons will
be near 51, and in wine gallons 62.
If a veffel be open, as a half barrel, tun, or copper,
and the meafure from the middle of one fide to the
head and ftaves be 38 inches, the diagonal line gives
122 beer gallons 5 half of which, viz. 61, is the con¬
tent of the open half tub.
If you have a large veffel, as a tun or copper, and
the diagonal line taken by a long rule proves 70 inches j
the content of that veffel may be found thus : Every
inch at the beginning end of the diagonal line call ten
inches. Thus ten inches becomes 100 inches j and
every tenth of a gallon call loo gallons; and every
whole gallon call 1000 gallons.
Example. At 44.8 inches on the diagonal beer
line is 200 gallons; fo that 4 inches 48 parts, now
called 44 inches 8-tenths, is juft two tenths of a gallon,
now called 200 gallons; fo alfo if the diagonal line be
76 inches and 7-tenths, a clofe cafe of fuch diagonal^
will hold 1000 beer gallons; but an open cafe but half
fo much, viz. 500 beer gallons.
Efe of the Gauge Line. To find the content of any
cylindrical veffel in ale gallons; feek the diameter of
the veffel in inches, and juft againft it on the gauge
line is the quantity of ale gallons contained in one inch
deep : this multiplied by the length of the cylinder
will give its content in ale gallons.
For example, fuppofe the length of the veffel 32.06,
and the diameter of its bafe 25 inches ; to find what
Gaul.
is the content in ale gallons ? Right againft 25 inches
on the gauge line is one gallon and .745 of a gallon ;
which multiplied fey 32.06, the length, gives 55.9447
gallons for the content of the veffel.
The bung diameter of a hogfliead being 25 inches,
the head diameter 22 inches, and the length 3 2.06
inches ; to find the quantity of ale gallons, contained in
it > Seek 25, the bung diameter, on the line of inches ;
and right againft it on the guage line you will find
1.745 : take one third of it, wdiich is .580, and fet it
down twice ; feek 22 inches in the head diameter, and
againft it you will find on the gauge line 1.356 ; one-
third of which added to twice .580 gives 1.6096;
which multiplied by the length 32.06, the produft will
be 51.603776, the content in ale gallons. Note, this
operation fuppofes, that the aforefaid hogfhead is in
the figure of the middle fruftum of a fpheroid.
The ufe of the lines on the two other faces of the
rod is very eafy ; you need only put it downright into
the bung hole (if the veffel you defire to know the
quantity of ale gallons contained therein be lying) to
the oppofite ftaves ; and then where the furface of the
liquor cuts any one of the lines appropriated to that
veffel, will be the number of gallons contained in that
veffel.
GAUL, the name given by the Romans to the coun¬
try that now forms the kingdom of France.—The ori¬
ginal inhabitants w^ere defeended from the Celtes or
Gomerians, by whom the greateft part of Europe was
peopled ; the name of Gal/i, or Gauls, being probably
given them long after their fettlement in that country.
See Gallia.
The ancient hiftory of the Gauls is entirely wrapped
up in obfeurity and darknefs; all we know concerning
them for a long time is, that they multiplied fo faft,
that, their country being unable to contain them, they
poured forth in vaft multitudes into other countries,
which they generally fubdued, and fettled themfelves
in. It often happened, however, that thefe colonies
were fo molefted by their neighbours, that they wrere
obliged to fend for afliftance to their native country.
This was always very eafily obtained. The Gauls were
upon every occafion, ready to fend forth great numbers
of new adventurers ; and as thefe fpread defolation
wherever they came, the very name of Gauls proved r
terrible to moft of the neighbouring nations.—The Account of
earlieft excurfion of thefe people, of which we have any .the Gauliftr
diftina account, was into Italy, under a famed leader,
named Bellovefus, about 622 years before Chrift. He ‘ } =
croffed the Rhone and the Alps, till then unattempted ;
defeated the Hetrurians ; and feized upon that part of
their country, fince known by the names of Lombardy
and Piedmont.—The fecond grand expedition was made
by the Coenomani, a people dwelling between the rivers
Seine and Loire, under a general named Elitonis. They
fettled in thofe parts of Italy, now known by the
names of Brefciano, the Cremonefe, the Mantuan, Car-
niola, and the Venetian.—In a third excurfion, two
other Gaulilh nations fettled on both fides of the river
Po ; and in a fourth, the Eoii and Lingones fettled in
the country between Ravenna and Bologna. The time
of thefe three laft expeditions is uncertain.
The third expedition of the Gauls was more remark¬
able than any of the former, and happened about 200
years after that of Bellovefus. Fhe Senones fettled
3 M 2 betweea
Gaul.
Expedition
G A U [460
between Paris and Meaux, were invited into Italy by a
Hetrurian lord, and fettled themfelves in Umbria.
Brennus tbeir king laid fiege to Clufium, a city in al¬
liance witli Rome ; and this produced a war with the
Romans, in which the latter were at firft defeated, and
their city taken and burnt j but at length the whole
army was cut off by Camillus, infomuch, that not a
iingle perfon efcaped.
Some other expeditions the Gauls undertook againft
the Romans: in which, though they always proved un-
fuccefsful, by reafon of their want of military difci-
pline; yet their fiercenefs and courage made them fo
formidable to the republic, that, on the firft news of
their march, extraordinary levies of troops were made,
facrifices and public fupplications offered to the gods,
and the law which granted an immunity from military
fervice to priefts and old men, was, for the time, abo-
lifhed.
Againlf the Greeks, the expeditions of the Gauls
Greeks ^ WeiC Ver^ ^t:t^e more fuccefsful than againft the Ro¬
mans. The firft of thefe we hear of was about 279
years before Chrift, in the year after Pyrrhus had in¬
vaded Italy. At this time, the Gauls finding them¬
felves greatly overftocked at home, fent out three great
colonies to conquer new countries for themfelves. One
of thefe armies was commanded by Brennus, another
by Cerethrius, and the third by Be/gius. The firft en¬
tered Pannonia or Hungary •, the fecond Thrace j
and the third marched into Illyricum and Macedonia.
Here Belgius at firft met with great fuccefs; and en¬
riched himfelf by plunder to fuch a degree, that Bren¬
nus envying him, refolved to enter the fame countries,
in order to fhare the fpoil. In a ftiort time, however,
Belgius met with fuch a total defeat, that his army
was almoft entirely deftroyed 5 upon which Brennus
haftened to the fame place. His army at firft confift-
ed of 150,000 foot and 15,000 horfe: but two of his
principal officers revolted, and carried off 20,000 men,
with w'hom they marched into Thrace; wdrere, having
joined Cerethrius, they feized on Byzantium and the
weftern coaft of the Propontis, making the adjacent parts
tributary to them.—To retrieve this lofs, Brennus fent
for frefh fupplies from Gaul j and having increafed his
army to 150,000 foot, and upwards of 60,000 horfe,
he entered Macedonia, defeated the general who op-
pofed him, and ravaged the whole country. He next
marched towards the ftraits of Thermopylae, with a
deffgn to invade Greece 5 but was flopped by the
forces fent to defend that pafs againft him. He paf-
fed the mountains, however, as Xerxes had formerly
done ; upon which the guards retired, to avoid being
furrounded. Brennus then having ordered Acicho-
rius, the next to him in command, to follow at a di-
ftance wdth part of his army, marched with the bulk
of the forces to Delphi, in order to plunder the rich
temple there. This enterprife proved exceedingly un¬
fortunate : a great number of his men were deftroyed
by a dreadful ftorm of hail, thunder, and lightning *,
another part of his army was deftroyed by an earth¬
quake •, and the remainder, fomehow or other, ima¬
gining themfelves attacked by the enemy, fought a-
gainft each other the whole night, fo that in the morn¬
ing fcarce one half of them remained. The Greek
forces then poured in upon them from all parts j and
that in fuch numbers, that though Acichorius came
Gauf.
3
Miferable
fate of the
army.
] G A U
up in due time with his forces, Brennus found himfelf
unable to make head againft the Greeks, and was de- ^
feated with great flaughter. He himfelf w'as def-
perately wounded ; and fo diftieartened by his misfor¬
tune, that, having affembled all his chiefs, he advifed
them to kill all the wounded and difabled, and to make
the beft retreat they could ; after which he put an end
to his own life. On this occafion, it is faid that 20,000
of thefe unhappy people -were executed by their own
countrymen. Acichorius then fet out with the re¬
mainder for Gaul; but, by being obliged to march
through the country of their enemies, the calamities
they met with by the way were fo grievous, that not
one of them reached their own country. A juft judge¬
ment, fay the Greek and Roman authors, for their fa-
crilegious intentions againft Delphi. 4
The Romans having often felt the eftefts of theGaul i"-
Gaulifh ferocity and courage, thought proper at laft,
in order to humble them, to invade their country, mam °”
Iheir firft fuccefsful attempt was about 118 years be¬
fore Chrift, under the command of Quintus Marcius,
furnamed Rex. He opened a way betwixt the Alps and
the Pyrenees, which laid the foundation for conquer¬
ing the whole country. This was a work of immenfe
labour of itfelf, and rendered ftill more difficult by the
oppofition of the Gauls, efpecially thofe called the
Staeni, who lived at the foot of the Alps. Thefe peo¬
ple, finding themfelves overpowered by the confular ar¬
my, fet fire to their houfes, killed their wives and chil¬
dren, and then threw themfelves into the fiames. Af¬
ter this Marcius built the city of Narbonne, which be¬
came the capital of a province. His fucceffor Scaurus
alfo conquered fome Gaulifh nations j and in order to
facilitate the fending troops from Italy into that coun¬
try, he made feveral excellent roads between them,
which before were almoft impaffable. Thefe fuccefles
gave rife to the invafion of the Cimbri and Teutones j
an account of whofe unfortunate expedition is given
under the articles Cimbri, Rome, Teutones, &c.
From this time, the Gauls ceafed to be formidable
to the Romans, and even feem to have been for fome
time on good terms with them. At laft, however,
the Helvetii kindled a war with the republic, which
brought Caefar over the Alps, and ended in the total 5
fubjeftion of the country. Orgetorix was the firft Surprifing
caufe of it j who had engaged a vaft number of his mccefs of
countrymen to burn their towns and villages, and to Tulius
go in fearch of new conquefts. Julius Caefar, to whofe far’
lot the whole country of Gaul had fallen, made fuch
hafte to come and fupprefs them, that he was got to
the Rhone in eight days j broke down the bridge of
Geneva, and, in a few days more, finiihed the famed
wall between that city and Mount Jura, now St Claude,
which extended feventeen miles in length, was fixteen
feet high, fortified with towers and caftles at proper
diftances, and a ditch that ran the whole length of
it. If his own account of it may be relied upon, he
did not fet out till the beginning of April j and yet
this huge work was finirhed by the ides or 13th of the
month : fo that, fubtrafting the eight days he was a-
coming, it muft have been all done in about five days $
a prodigious work, confidering he had but one legion
there, or even though the whole country had given
him affiftance.. Whilft this was doing, and the rein¬
forcements he wanted were coming, he amufed the
Helvetii,
G A U [ 461 ] ' G A U
' Gaul. Helvetxi, who had fent to demand a paffage through
^ v—— jjjg coantry of the Allobroges, till he had got his re¬
inforcements } and then flatly refufed it to them :
whereupon a dreadful battle enfued} in which they loll
one hundred and thirty thoufand men, in Ipite or all
their valour •, befides a number of prifoners, among
whom were the wife and daughter of Orgetorix, the
leader of this unfortunate expedition. The reft lub-
mitted, and begged they might be permitted to go
and fettle among the Aidui, from whom they original¬
ly fprung } and, at the requelt of thefe laft, were per¬
mitted to go.
The Gauls were conftantly in a ftate of variance with
one another 5 and Ctefar, who knew how to make the
moft of thefe inteftine broils, foon became the protec¬
tor of the opprefled, a terror to the oppreffor, and the
umpire of all their contentions. Among thofe who
applied to him for help, were his allies the j®dui j a-
gainft whom Arioviftus, king of the Germans, had joined
with the Arverni, who inhabited the banks of the Loire,
had taken the country of the Sequani from them, and
obliged them to f?nd hoftages to him. Caefar forth¬
with fent to demand the reftitution of both, and, in an
interview wdiich he foon after obtained of that haughty
and treacherous prince, was like to have fallen a facri-
fice to his perfidy: upon which he bent his whole
power againft him, forced him out of his ftrong in-
trenchments, and gave him a total overthrow. Ario- v
viftus efcaped, with difficulty, over the Rhine j but his
two wives, and a daughter, with a great number of
Germans of diftinftion, fell into the conqueror’s hand.
Caefar, after thisi fignal vidtory, put his army into win-
$ ter quarters, whilft he went over the Alps to make the
A general neceflary preparations for the next campaign. By this
confederacy time all the Belgae in general were fo terrified at his
againft; fuccefs, that they entered into a confederacy againft
the Romans as their common enemy. Of this, Labi-
enus, who had been left in Gaul, fent Csefar notice j
upon which he immediately left Rome, and made
fuch difpatch, that he arrived upon their confines in
about fifteen days. On his arrival, the Rhemi fubmit-
ted to him 5 but the reft, appointing Galba king of
the Sueftiones general of all their forces, which a-
mounted to one hundred and fifty thoufand men,
marched direftly againft him. Csefar, who had feized
on the bridge of the Axona, now Aifne, led his light
rj horfe and infantry over it 5 and whilft the others were
The Gauls encumbered in crofting that river, made fuch a terrible
defeated daughter of them, that the river was filled with their
with great infomuch that their bodies ferved for a bridge to
augl er‘ thofe who efcaped. This new viflory ftruck fuch ter¬
ror into the reft, that they difperfed themielves 5 im¬
mediately after which, the Sueffiones, Bellovaci, Am-
biones, and fome others, fubmitted to him. I he Ner-
vii, indeed, joined with the Atrebates and Veroman-
dui againft them ; and having firft fecured their wives
and children, made a vigorous refiftance for fome time;
but were at length defeated, and the greateft part of
them flain. The reft, with their wives and old men,
furrendered themfelves, and were allowed to live in their
own cities and towns as formerly. The Aduatici were
next fubdued •, and, for their treachery to the conquer¬
or, were fold for flaves, to the number of 50,000.
Young Craffus, the fon of the triumvir, fubdued like-
vrife feven other nations, and took poffeflion of their ci¬
ties •, which not only completed the conqueft of the Bel- Gaul,
g*, but brought feveral nations from beyond the Rhine Y”"**
to fubmit to the conqueror. The Veneti, or ancient
inhabitants of Vannes in Brittany, who had been like-
wife obliged to fend hoftages to the conqueror, were, in
the mean time, making great preparations by fea and
land to recover their liberty. Caefar, then in Illyri-
cum, was forced to equip a fleet on the Loire ; and ha-
ving given the command of it to Brutus, went and de¬
feated them by land, as Brutus did by fea ; and having
put their chief men to death, fold the reft for Haves.
The Unelli, with Veridorix their chief, together with
the Lexovii and Aulerci, were about the fame time fub¬
dued by Sabinus, and the Aquitani by Craffus, with the
lofs of 30,000 mert-. There remained nothing but the
countries of the Morini and Menapii to be conquered of
all Gaul. Caefar marched himfelf againft them : but
he found them fo well intrenched in their inacceflible
fortreiles, that he contented himfelf with burning and
ravaging their country j and having put his troops into
winter quarters, again palled over the Alps, to have a
more watchful eye on fome of his riyals there. He was,
however, foon after obliged to come to defend his Gaul-
ilh conquefts againft fome nations of the Germans, who
were coming to fettle there, to the number of 400,000.
Thefe he totally defeated, and then refolved to carry his
conquering arms into Germany j but for an account of
his exploits there, fee the article Germany. 3
Upon his return into Gaul, he found it labouring un-The Gaub
der a great famine, which had caufed a kind of univer- reV('jt’ bu5
fal revolt. Cotta and Sabinus, who were left in the^^1
country of the Eburones, now Liege, were betrayed
into an ambulh by Ambiorix, one of the Gaulifh chiefs,
and had moft of their men cut off. The Aduatici had
fallen upon Q. Cicero, who was left there with one le¬
gion, and had reduced him to great ftraits : at the fame
time Labienus, with his legion, was attacked by Indu-
tiomarus, at the head of the Rhemi and Senones j but
had better luck than the reft, and by one bold fally
upon them, put them to flight, and killed their general.
Cgefar acquired no fmall credit by quelling all thefe re¬
volts } but each viftcry loft the lives of fo many of his
troops, that he was forced to have recourfe to Pompey
for a frefti fupply, w’ho readily granted him two of his
own legions to fecure his Gaulifli conquefts. ^
But it was not long before the Gauls, ever reftlefs \ fecond
under a foreign yoke, raifed up a new revolt, and o-revolt,
bliged him to return thither. His fear left; Ponapey
Ihould gain the affedb'ons of the Roman people, had
obliged him to ftrip the Gauls of their gold and filver,
to bribe them over to his intereft $ and this gave no
fmall handle to thofe frequent revolts which happened
during his abfence. He quickly, however, reduced
the Nervii, Aduatici, Menapii, and Treviri; the laft
of whom had raifed the revolt, under the command of
Ambiorix : but he found the flame fpread much farther,
even to the greateft part of the Gauls, who had chofen
Vercingetorix their generaliflimo. Casfar ivas forced
to leave Infubria, whither he had retired to watch the
motions of Pompey, and, in the midft of winter and
fnow, to repafs the Alps into the province of Narbonne.
Here he gathered his fcattered troops with all pofiible
fpeed ; and, in fpite of the hard weather, befieged and
took Noviodunum, now Noyons ; and defeated Vercin¬
getorix, who was come to the relief of that place. He
next
G A U [ 462 1 G A U
Gaul. nexj; took the city of Avaricum, now Bourges, one of
v—' ^j,e fl;rongCft in Gaul, and which had a garrifon of
40,000 men ; of whom he made fuch a dreadful {laugh¬
ter, that hardly 800 efcaped. Whilft he was befieging
Gergovia, the capital of the Arverni, he was informed
that the Nitiobriges, or Agenois, were in arms •, and
that the iEdui were fending to Vercingetorix 10,000
men, which they were to have fent to reinforce Csefar.
Upon this news, he left Fabius to carry on the fiege,
and marched againft the Aodui. Ihefe, upon his ap¬
proach, fubmitted, in appearance, and were pardoned;
but foon after that whole nation rofe up in arms, and
murdered all the Italian troops in their capital. Ceefar,
at this, was in great ftraits what meafures to take ; but
refolved at length to raife the fiege of Gergovia, and at
once attack the enemy’s camp, which he did with fome
fuccefs ; but when he thought to have gone to Noviodu-
num, or Noyons, where his baggage, military cheft,
&c. were left, he heard that the Aldui had carried it
off, and burnt the place. Labienus, juftly thinking
that Caefar would want his afliftance in the condition
he now was, went to join him, and in his way defeated
a Gaulifh general named Camulogenus, who came to
oppofe his march ; but this did not hinder the revolt
from fpreading itfelf all over Celtic Gaul, -whither Ver¬
cingetorix had fent for freQi fupplies, and, in the mean
time, attacked Caefar $ but was defeated, and forced to
retire to Alefia, a ftrong place, now Alife in Burgun¬
dy, as is fuppofed. Hither Caefar haftened, and be-
fieged him j and having drawn a double circumvallation,
with a defign to ftarve him in it, as he was likely to
have done, upon that account refufed all offers of a fur-
render from him. At length, the long-expe&ed rein¬
forcement came, confifting of 160,000 men, under four
xo generals : thefe made feveral fruitlefs attacks on Caefar’s
'They are trenches 5 but were defeated in three feveral battles,
*?a'n which at length obliged Vercingetorix to furrender at
'due * difcretion. Caefar ufed all his prifoners with great fe-
verity, except the TEdui and Arverni, by whofe means
he hoped to gain their nations, which were the moft
potent of Celtic Gaul : nor was he difappointed ; for
both of them fubmitted to him, and the former received
him into the capital, where he fpent the winter, after
he put his army into winter quarters. This campaign,
as it proved one of the hardeft he ever had, fo he gain¬
ed more glory by it than any Roman general had done
before : yet could not at all by this procure from the fer-
vile fenate, now wholly dedicated to his rival, a pro¬
longation of his proconfullhip j upon which he is report¬
ed to have laid his hand upon his fword, and faid, that
that fhould do it.
He was as good as his word; and the Gauls, upon
their former ill fuccefs, refolving to have as many fepa-
jate armies as provinces, in order to embarrafs him the
more, Caefar, and his generals Labienus and Fabius,
were forced to fight them one after another; which
they did, however, with fuch fuccefs, that, notwith-
ftanding the hardnefs of the feafon, they fubdued the
Bituriges, Carnutes, Rhemi, and Bellovaci, with their
,general Correus, by which he at once quieted all the
Belgic provinces bordering on Celtic Gaul. The next
who followed were the Treviri, the Eburones, and the
Andes, under their general Dumnacus. The laft place
which held out againft him was Uxellodunum j which
was defended by the two laft afting generals of the
l
Gauls, Drapes the Senonian, and Luterius the Cadur- Caul,
cean. The place being ftrong and well garrifoned, '“‘“V——'
C as far was obliged to march thither from the fartheft
part of Belgic Gaul; and foon after reduced it, for
want of water. Here again he caufed the right hands
of all that were fit to bear arms to be cut off, to deter
the reft from revolting afrefti. Thus was the conqueft Gau/red-;.
of Gaul finilhed from the Alps and Pyrenees to thecedtoa *
Rhine, all which vaft tra£l was now reduced to a Ro-R'-’:nan
man province under the government of a praetor. Du-Prov^Rce*
ring his feveral expeditions into Gaul, Caefar is faid to
have taken 800 cities ; to have fubdued 300 different
nations 5 and to have defeated, in feveral battles, three
millions of men, of whom one million were killed,
and another taken prifoners.—The hiftory of the coun¬
try, from the time of its conqueft by the Romans to
the prefent, is given under the articles Rome and
France. I2
The Gauls anciently were divided into a great num- Charadler,
ber of different nations, which were continually at war &-c- °f tbc
with one another, and at variance among themfelves. ^'C1jsnt
Cagfar tells us, that not only all their cities, cantons, 1 '•*
and diftri£ls, but even almoft all families, were divided
and torn by factions j and this undoubtedly facilitated
the conqueft of the whole. The general charadler of
all thefe people was an exceffive ferocity and love of
liberty. This laft they carried to fuch an extreme,
that either on the appearance of fervitude, or incapa¬
city of a£tion through old age, wrounds, or chronic
difeafes, they put an end to their own lives, or pre¬
vailed upon their friends to kill them. In cities, when
they found themfelves fo ftraitly befieged that they
could hold out no longer, inftead of thinking how to
obtain honourable terms of capitulation, their chief
care very often was to put their wives and children to
death, and then to kill one another, to avoid being led
into flavery. Their exceflive love of liberty and con¬
tempt of death, according to Strabo, very much facili¬
tated their conqueft by Caefar $ for pouring their nume¬
rous forces upon fuch an experienced enemy, as Caefar,
their want of condu£l very foon proved the ruin of the
whole.
The chief diverfion of the Gauls was hunting •, and
indeed, confidering the vaft forefts with which their
country abounded, and the multitude of wild beafts
which lodged in them, they were under an abfolute
neceffity to hunt and deftroy them, to prevent the
country from being rendered totally uninhabitable.
Befides this, however, they had alfo their hippodromes,
horfe and chariot races, tilts and tournaments; at all
of which the bards aflifted with their poems, fongs, and
mufical inftruments.-—For an account of their religion,
fee the article Druid.
The Gauls were excefiively fond of feafting, in
which they were very profufe ; as, like all other north¬
ern nations, they were great lovers ot good eating and
drinking. Their chief liquors were beer and wine.
Their tables were very low. They ate but little bread,
which was baked flat and hard, and eafily broken in
pieces : but devoured a great deal of flefh, boiled, roaft-
ed, or broiled j and this they did in a very flovenly
manner, holding the piece in their hands, and tearing
it with their teeth. What they could not part by this
way, they cut with a little knife which hung at their
girdle. When the company was numerous, the Cory.
G A U
[ 463 ]
G A Y
Oau’anitis phee, or chief of the feaft, who was either one of the
il richeft, or nobleft, or braveft, fat in the middle, with
Gauntlope 0f t^e houfe by his fide 5 the reft took their
places next according to their rank, having their fer-
vants holding their Ihields behind them. Thefe feafts
feldom ended without bloodftied j but if by chance the
feaft proved a peaceable one, it was generally accompa¬
nied not only with mafic and fongs, but likewife with
dances, in which the dancers were armed cap-a-pee,
and beat time with their fwords upon their fhields. On
certain feftivals they were wront to drefs themfelves in
the fldns of beafts, and in that accompany the procef-
fions in honour of their deities or heroes. Others dref-
fed themfelves in mafquerade habits, fome of them very
indecent, and played feveral antic and immodeft tricks.
This laft cuftom continued long after their converfion
to Chriftianity.
GAULANITIS, or Gaulonitis (Jofephus) ; in
Jlncient Geography, according to the different manner
of writing the capital, Gaulan or Gaulon •, the extreme
part of Balkan to the fouth, and bordering on the tribe
of Gad. It was divided into the Superior, which to
the eaft extended to Arabia *, and into the Inferior,
which lay on the lake of Genefareth, (Jofephus).
GAULON, or Golan, the capital of the Gaulani-
tis Superior 5 a Levitical city and place of refuge, (Mo-
fes, Jofnua.)
GAULOS, in Ancient Geography, a fmall illand of
Sicily, in the African lea, adjoining to Melite or Mal¬
ta ; with commodious harbours ; a colony of Phoenici¬
ans, with a cognominal town. Gaulonitae, the people,
^Jnfcription). Now called Go-ao, five miles to the weft
of Malta.
GAULTHERIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the decandria clafs •, and in the natural method ranking
under the 18th order, Bicornes. See Botany Index.
GAUNT-Bellied, in the manege, is faid of a horfe
whofe belly Ikrinks up towards his flanks.
GAUNTLET. See Gantlet.
GAUNTLOPE, pronounced Gauntlet, a military
punilhment for felony, or fome other heinous offence.
In vejfels of war, it is executed in the following man¬
ner. The whole fliip’s crew is difpofed in two rows,
Handing face to face on both fides of the deck, fo as to
form a line whereby to go forward on one fide, and re¬
turn aft on the other ; each perfon being furnilhed with
a fmall twilled cord, called a knittle, having twro or
three knots upon it. The delinquent is then ftripped
naked above the waift, and ordered to pafs forward
between the two rows of men, and aft on the other
fide, a certain number of times, rarely exceeding three j
during which every perfon gives him a ftripe as he runs
along. In his paffage through this painful ordeal, he
is fometimes tripped up, and very Lverely handled
while incapable of proceeding. This punilhment, which
is called running the gauntlet, is feldom inflicted, except
for fuch crimes as will naturally excite a general anti¬
pathy among the feamen : as, on f me occafions, the
culprit would pafs without receiving a Angle blow, par¬
ticularly in cafes of mutiny and fedition, to the punilh¬
ment of which our failors feem to have a conftitutional
averfion.
In the land fervice, when a foldier is fentenced to run
the gauntlope, the regiment is drawn out in two ranks
facing each other each foldier, having a fwitch in his
hand, lalhes the Criminal as he runs along naked from Gavies
the waift upwards. While he runs, the drums beat at
each end of the ranks. Sometimes he runs three, five,
or feven times, according to the nature of the offence.
The major is on horfeback, and takes care that each
foldier does his duty.
GAVIES, or Gaurs. See Gabres.
GAVOTTA, or Gavotte, is a kind of dance, the
air of which has two brilk and lively ftrains in common,
time, each of which ftrains is twice played over. The
firft has ufually four or eight bars j and the fecond con¬
tains eight, twelve, or more. The firft begins with a
minim, or two crotchets, or notes of equal value, and the
hand rifing ; and ends with the fall of the hand upon
the dominant or mediant of the mode, but never upon
the final, unlefs it be a rondeau : and the laft begins
with the rife of the hand, and ends with the fall upon
the final of the mode.
Tempi di Gaitotta, is when only the time or move¬
ment of a gavotte is imitated, without any regard to
the meafures or number of bars or ftrains.—Little airs
are often found in fonatas, which have this phrafe to
regulate their motions.
GAURA, a genus of plants belonging to the o&an-
dria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 17th order, Calycanthemce. See Botany Index.
GAUSE, or Gawse, in Commerce, a very thin,,
flight, tranfparent kind of fluff, woven fometimes of
filk, and fometimes only of thread.——To warp the
filk for making of gaufe, they ufe a peculiar kind of
mill, upon which the filk is wound : this mill is 1
wooden machine about fix feet high, having an axis
perpendicularly placed in the middle thereof, with fix
large wings, on which the filk is wound from off the
bobbins by the axis turning round. When all the
filk is on the mill, they ufe another inftrument to wind
it off again on two beams: this done, the filk is paffed
through as many little beads as there are threads of
filk; and thus rolled on another beam to fupply the
loom.
The gaufe loom is much like that of the common
weavers, though it has feveral appendages peculiar
to itfelf. See Loom.
There are figured gaufes ; fome with flowers of gold
and filver, on a filk ground : thefe laft are chiefly
brought from China.
GAY, John, a celebrated Englifh poet, defeended
from an ancient family in Devonlhire, was born at
Exeter, and received his education at the free fchool
of Barnftaple in that county, under the care of Mr
William Rayner.—He was bred a mercer in the
Strand ; but having a fmall fortune, independent of
bufinefs, and confidering the attendance on a fliop as-
a degradation of thofe talents which he found himfelf
poffeffed of, he quitted that occupation, and applied
himfelf to other views, and to the indulgence of his
inclination for the Mufes. In 1712 we find him fecre-
tary, or rather domeftic fteward, to the duchefs of
Monmouth, in which ftation he continued till the be¬
ginning of the year 7714*, at which time he accompa¬
nied the earl of Clarendon to Hanover, whither that
nobleman w7as defpatched by Queen Anne. In the lat¬
ter end of the fame year, In confequence of the queen’s
death, he returned to England, where he lived in the
higheft eftimation and intimacy of friendftiip with -
many
GAY [ 464 1 G A Z
Gay. many perfons of the firft diftin£Hon both in rank and
abilities.—He was even particularly taken notice of by
Oueen Caroline, then princefs of Wales, to whom he
had the honour of reading in manufcript his tragedy of
the Captives; and in 1726 dedicated his Fables, by
permiffion, to the duke of Cumberland.—From this
countenance ftiown to him, and numberlefs promifes
made him of preferment, it was reafonable to fuppofe,
that he would have been genteelly provided for in fome
office fuitable to his inclination and abilities. Inftead
of which, in 1727, he was offered the place of gentle¬
man uffier to one of the young princeffesj an office
which, as he looked on it as rather an indignity to a
man whofe talents might have been fo much better em¬
ployed, he thought proper to refufe •, and fome pretty
warm remonffrances were made on the occafion by his
lincere friends and zealous patrons the duke and du-
chefs of Queenlberry, which terminated in thofe two
noble perfonages withdrawing from court in difguft.
Mr Gay’s dependencies on the promifes of the great,
and the difappointments he met with, he has figu¬
ratively defcribed in his fable of the Hare with many
friends. However, the very extraordinary fuccefs he
met with from public encouragement made an ample
amends, both with refpeft to fatisfaftion and emolu¬
ment, for thofe private difappointments.—For, in the
feafbn of 1727-8, appeared his Beggar"1 s Opera; the
valt fuccefs of which was not only unprecedented, but
almoft incredible.—It had an uninterrupted run in
London of 63 nights in the firft feafon, and was re-
4 newed in the enfuing one with equal approbation. It
fpread into all the great towns of England j was play¬
ed in many places to the 30th and 40th time, and at
Bath and Briftol 50 ; made its progrefs into Wales,
Scotland, and Ireland, in which laft place it was added
for 24 fucceflive nights 5 and laft of all it was perform¬
ed at Minorca. Nor was the fame of it confined to the
reading and reprefentation alone, for the card table
and drawing room ffiared with the theatre and clofet
in this refpedd j the ladies carried about the favourite
fongs of it engraven upon their fan mounts j and fcreens,
and other pieces of furniture were decorated with the
fame. In Ihort, the fatire of this piece was fo ftriking,
fo apparent, and fo perfectly adapted to the tafte of all
degrees of people, that it overthrew the Italian opera,
that Dagon of the nobility and gentry, which had fo
long feduced them to idolatry, and which Dennis, by
the labours and outcries of a whole life, and many other
writers by the force of reafon and refleftion, had in vain
endeavoured to drive from the throne of public tafte.
The profits of this piece were fo very great, both to the
author and Mr Rich the manager, that it gave rife to a
quibble, which became frequent in the mouths of many,
viz. That it had made Riah gay, and Gay rich ; and it has
been afferted, that the author’s own advantages from it
were not lefs than 2000I. In confequence of this fuc¬
cefs, Mr Gay was induced to -write a fecond part to it,
which he entitled Folly. But the difguft fubfifting be¬
tween him and the court, together with the mifrepre-
fentations made of him as having been the author of
fome difaffefled libels and feditious pamphlets, occafion-
ed a prohibition and fuppreflxon of it to be fent from the
lord chamberlain, at the very time when every thing
was in readinefs for the rehearfal of it. A very con¬
siderable fum, however, accrued to him from the pub-
a
lication of it afterwards in quarto.—Mr Gay wrote fe- Gay,
veral other pieces in the dramatic way, and many very Gaza,
valuable ones in verfe. Among the latter, his Trivia, *
or the Art of Walking the Streets of London, though his
firft poetical attempt, is far from being the leaft confi-
derable, and is what recommended him to the efteem
and friendftiip of Mr Pope : but as, among his drama¬
tic works, his Beggar's Opera did at firft, and perhaps
ever will, ftand as an unrivalled mafterpiece, fo, among
his poetical works, his Fables hold the fame rank of
eftimation; the latter having been almoft as univerfally
read as the former was reprefented, and both equally
admired. Mr Gay’s difpofition was fweet and affable,
his temper generous, and his converfation agreeable and
entertaining. But he had one foible, too frequently in¬
cident to men of great literary abilities, and which fub-
jefted him at times to inconveniencies which otherwife
he needed not to have experienced, viz. an excels of in¬
dolence, without any knowledge of economy. So that,
though his emoluments were, at fome periods of his life,
very confiderable, he was at others greatly ftraitened in
his circumftances; nor could he pi‘evail on himfelf to
follow the advice of his friend Dean Swift, whom we '
find in many of his letters endeavouring to perfuade him
to the purchafing of an annuity, as a referve for the exi¬
gencies that might attend on old age.—Mr Gay chofe
rather to throw himfelf on patronage, than fecure to
himfelf an -independent competency by the means point¬
ed out to him ; fo that, after having undergone many
viciffitudes of fortune, and being for fome time chiefly
fupported by the liberality of the duke and duchefs
of Queenfberry, he died at their houfe in Burlington
gardens, in December 1732. He wras interred in
Weftminfter Abbey, and a monument erefled to his
memory, at the expence of his aforementioned noble
benefadfors, with an infcription expreffive of their re¬
gards and his own deferts, and an epitaph in verfe by
Mr Pope.
GAZA, Theodore, a famous Greek in the 15th
century, was born in 1398. His country being invad¬
ed by the Turks, he retired into Italy; where he
at firft fupported himfelf by tranfcribing ancient au¬
thors, an employment the learned, had frequent re-
courfe to before the invention of printing. His un¬
common parts and learning foon recommended him to
public notice *, and particularly to Cardinal Beffarion,
who procured him a benefice in Calabria. He was
one of thofe to whom the revival of polite literature
in Italy was principally owing. He tranflated from
the Greek into'Latin, Ariftotle’s Hiftory of Animals,
Theophraftus on Plants, and Hippocrates’s Apho-
rifmsj and from the Latin into Greek, Scipio’s Dream,
and Cicero’s Treatife on Old Age. He wrote feveral
other works in Greek and Latin 5 and died at Rome in
*475- . . 7 ...
Gaza, in slncient Geography, a principal city and
one of the five fatrapies of the Philiftines. It was fitu-
ated about 100 ftadia from the Mediterranean, on an
artificial mount, and ftrongly walled round. It was
deftroyed by Alexander the Great, and afterwards by
Antiochus. In the time of the Maccabees it was a
ftrong and ilouriftiing city j but was deftroyed a third
time by Alexander Jannaeus. At prefent it has a mi-
lerable appearance. The buildings are mean, both as
to the form and matter. Some remains of its ancient
grandeur
G A Z [ 465 ] G A Z
grandeur appear in the handfome pillars of Parian
marble which fupport fome of the roofs; while others
are difpofed of here and there, in different parts of al-
moft every beggarly cottage. On the top of the hill,
at the north-call corner of the town, are the ruins of
large arches funk low into the earth, and other foun¬
dations of a llately building, from whence fome of
the bafhaws have carried off marble pillars of an in¬
credible fize. Tl\e caftle is a contemptible ftru£turef
and the port is ruined. E. Long. 34. 55. N. Lat.
31. 28.
GAZE-hound, or Gaft-hound, one that makes more
ufe of his fight than of his nofe. Such dogs are much
ufed in the north of England : they are fitter in an
open champaign country than in bufhy and woody
places. If at any time a well-taught gaze-hound takes
a wrong way, he wall return upon a fignal, and begin
the chafe afrefh. He is alfo excellent at fpying out the
fattell of a herd j and having feparated it from the reft,
will never give over the purfuit till he has worried it to
death.
GAZEL, in Zoology, a fpecies of Capra. See
Mammalia Index.
GxA.ZETTE, a newfpaper, or printed account of
the tranfaftions of all the countries in the known world,
in a loofe iheet or half fheet. This name is with us
confined to that paper of news publithed by authority.
The word is derived from ga%etta, a Venetian coin,
which was the ufual price of the firft newfpaper printed
there, and which was afterwards given to the paper it-
felf.
The firft gazette in England rvas publifhed at Ox¬
ford, the court being there, in a folio half fheet, No¬
vember 7. 1665. On the removal of the court to Lon¬
don, the title was changed to the London Gazette.
The Oxford gazette was publiftred on Tuefdays, the
London on Saturdays : and thefe have continued to be
the days of publication ever fince.
GAZNA, a city of Afia, once much celebrated,
and the capital of a very extenfive empire $ but which
is now either entirely ruined, or become of fo little
confideration, that it is not taken notice of in our
books of geography. The city was anciently an em-
pory and fortrefs of Sableftan, not far from the confines
of India. During the vaft and rapid conquefts of the
Arabs, all this country had been reduced under their
fubjeftion. On the decline of the power of the caliphs,
however, the vaft empire eftablilhed by Mahomet and
his fucceflbrs was divided into a number of independent
principalities, mod: of which were but of ftiort duration.
In the year of the Hegira 384, anfwering to the 994th
of the Chriftian era, the city of Gazna, with fome part
of the adjacent country, wras governed by Mahmud
Gazni; who became a great conqueror, and reduced
under his fubje&ion a coniiderable part of India and
meft of Perfia. (
This empire continued in the family of Mahmud
Gazni for upwards of 200 years. None of his fuc-
ceffors, however, w^ere poiTeffed of his abilities j and
therefore the extent of the empire, inftead of increaf-
ing, w7as very .confiderably diminilhed foon after Mah¬
mud’s death. The Seljuks made themfelves mafters of
Khorafan, and could not be driven out ; the greateft
part of the Perfian dominions alfo fell off; and in the
347th year of the Hegira, the race of Gazni fultans
VOX. IX. Part II.
wras entirely fet afide by one Gauri, who conquered
Khofru Shah the reigning prince, and bellowed his
dominions on his own nephew Gayathoddin Moham¬
med. Thefe new fultans proved greater conquerors
than the former, and extended their dominions farther
than even Mahmud Gazni himfelf had done. They
did not however, long en]oy the fovereignty of Gazna ;
for in 1218, Jenghiz Khan having conquered the
greateft part of China and almoft all Tartary, began
to turn his arms weftward ; and fet out againft the
fultan of Gazna at the head of 700,000 men.
To oppofe this formidable army, Mohammed, the
reigning fultan, could mufter only 400,000 men ^ and,
in the firft battle, 160,000 of his troops are faid to have
perilhed. After this viflory, Jenghiz Khan advanced j
Mohammed not daring to rilk a fecond battle, the lofs
of which would have been attended with the entire
ruin of his kingdom. He therefore diftributed his
army among the ftrongeft fortified towns he had in his
dominions j all of which Jenghiz Khan took one after
another. The rapid progrefs of his conquefts, i
deed, almoft: exceeds belief. In 1219 and 1220, he
had reduced Zamuk, Nur, Bokhara, Otrar, Saga-
nak, Uzkant, Alftiafh, Jund, Tonkat, Khojend, and
Samarcand. Mohammed, in the mean time, fled firft
to Bokhara ; but on the approach of Jenghiz Khan’s
army, quitted that place, and fled to Samarcand.
When this laft city wjas alfo in danger of being invell-
ed, the fultan did not think proper to truft himfelf in
it more than in the other, though it was garrifoned by
110,000 of his braveft troops; and therefore fled
through byways into the province of Ghilan in Perfia,
where he took refuge in a ftrong fortrefs called Eftabad.
But being alfo found out in this retreat, he fled to an
ifland in the Cafpian fea called Ablftun; where he
ended his days, leaving his empire, fuch as it was, to
his fon Jaloloddin.
The new7 fultan was a man of great bravery and ex¬
perience in war ; but nothing was able to ftop the pro¬
grefs of the Moguls. In 1220 and 1221, they madd
themfelves mafters of all the kingdoms of Karazim and
Khorafan, committing everywhere fuch maflacres as
w7ere never heard of before or fince that time. In the
mean time Jaloloddin affembled his forces wfith the
utmoft diligence, and defeated two detachments of the
Mogul army. This happened while Jenghiz Khan
wras befieging Bamiyan ; but anfwered little other pur-
pofe, than ferving to bring upon that city the terrible
deftru£lion of which an account is given under the ar
tide Bamiyan. Immediately after the reduflion of
that city, Jenghiz Khan marched towards Gazna;
which was very ftrongly fortified, and where he expeft-
ed to have found Jaloloddin. But he had left the
place 13 days before; and, as Jenghiz Khan’s army
was much reduced, he might perhaps have flood his
ground, had it not been for an accident. He had
been lately joined by three Turkifti commanders, each
of whom had a body of 10,000 men under his com¬
mand. After his victories over the Moguls, thefe
officers demanded the greateft ftiare of the fpoils;
which being refufed, they feparated themfelves frt>m
the fultan. He ufed his utmoft endeavours to make
them hearken to reafon ; and fent feveral meffages
and letters to them, reprefenting the inevitable ruin
which muft attend their feparation, as Jenghiz Khan
3 N . w<*s
G A Z [ 466 ] G A Z
Gazna.
was advancing againft them with his whole army. At
laft they w:ere perfuaded to lay aiide their animofi-
ties : but it was now too late ; for Jenghiz Khan, be¬
ing informed of wdiat palled, detached 60,000 horfe
to prevent their joining the fultan’s army 5 who, find¬
ing himfelf deprived of this powerful aid, retired to¬
wards the river Indus. When he w'P.s arrived there,
he flopped in a place where the llream w7as mofl rapid
and the place confined, with a view both to pre¬
vent his foldiers from placing any hopes of fafety in
flight, and to hinder the whole Mogul army from at¬
tacking him at once. Ever fince his departure from
Gazna he had been tormented with a colic : yet, at a
time ivhen he fuffered moft, hearing that the enemy’s
vanguard was arrived at a place in that neighbourhood
called Herder, he quitted his litter, and, mounting a
horfe, marched with fome of his cholen foldiers in the
night; furprifed ihe Moguls in their camp 5 and hav¬
ing cut them almoft all in pieces, without the lofs of
a Angle man on his fide, returned with a confiderable
booty.
Jenghiz Khan, finding by this that he had a vigi¬
lant enemy to deal with, proceeded with great circum-
fpeclion. When he came near the Indus, he drew out
his army in battalia : to Jagatay, one of his fons, he
gave the command of the right wing •, to Oktay,
another fon, he gave the command of the left: and
put himfelf in the centre, with 6000 of his guards.
On the other fide, jaloloddin prepared for battle like
one who had no refource but in vi£tory. He firft lent
the boats on the Indus farther oft'*, referving only one
to carry over his mother, wife, and children : but un¬
luckily the boat fplit when they w7ere going to embark,
fo that they were forced to remain in the camp. The
fultan took to himfelf the command of the main body
of the army. His left wdng, drawm up under fhelter
of a mountain which hindered the w’hole right wing
of the Moguls from engaging at once, was command¬
ed by his vizir j and his right by a lord named Amin
Ma/ek. This lord began the fight j and forced the
enemy’s left wing, notwithftanding the great difparity
of numbers, to give ground. The right w’ing of the
Moguls likewdfe wanting room to extend itfelf, the ful¬
tan made ufe ol his left as a body of reierve, detaching
from thence fome fquadrons to the afliltance of the
troops who flood in need of them. He alfo took one
part of them with him when he went at the head of
nis main body to charge that of Jenghiz Khan ; which
Ire did with fo much relolution and vigour, that he not
only put it in diforder, but penetrated into the place
where Jenghiz Khan had originally taken his ftation :
hut that prince, having had a horle killed under him,
was retired from thence, to give orders for all the
troops to engage.
This difadvantage had like to have loft the Moguls
the battle j for a report being immediately fpread that
tne enemy had broken through the main body, the
troops were fo much difcouraged, that they wmuld cer¬
tainly have fled, had not Jenghiz Khan encouraged
them by riding from place to place in order to fhow
himfelf. At lafl, however, Jaloloddin’s men, wJio
were in all but 30,000, having fought a whole day
witn ten times their number, were feized wuth fear
and fled. One part of them retired to the rocks wdiich
were on theihore of.the Indus, where the enemy’s horfe
could not follow them •, others threw themfelves into
the river, where many were drowned, though fome had
the good fortune to crofs over in fafety } while the reft:
furrounding their prince, continued the fight through
defpair. The fultan, however, confidering that he
had fcarce 7000 men left, began to think of providing
for his own fafety : therefore, having bidden a final
adieu to his mother, wife, and children, he mounted a
frefli horfe, and fpurred him into the river, which he
croffed in fafety, and even flopped in the middle of it
to infult Jenghiz Khan, wrho was now arrived at the
bank. His family fell into the hands of the Moguls 5
who killed all the males, and carried the W’omen into
captivity.
Jaloloddin being now fecurely landed in India, got
up into a tree in order to preferve himlelf from wild
beafts. Next day, as he walked melancholy among
the rocks, he perceived a troop of his foldiers, with
fome officers, three of whom proved to be his particu¬
lar friends. Thefe, at the beginning of the defeat,
had found a boat in which they had failed all night,
with much danger from the rocks, fhelves, and rapid
current of the river. Soon after, he faw 300 horfe
coming towards him ; who informed him of 4000 more
that had efcaped by fwimming over the river j and
thefe alfo foon after joined the reft. In the mean time
an officer of his houfehold, named Jnma/arra^ad,
knowing that his mafler and many of his people were
efcaped, ventured to load a very large boat with arms,
provifions, money, and fluff to clothe the foldiers j
wTith wrhich he crofted the river. For this important
fervice Jaloloddin made him fteward of his houfehold,
and furnamed him the Chofen or the Glory of the Faith.
For fome time after, the fultan’s affairs feemed to go
on profperoufly : he gained fome battles in India 5 but
the princes of that country, envying his profperity,
confpired againft him, and obliged him to repafs the
Indus. Here he again attempted to make head againft
the Moguls 5 but w7as at laft defeated and killed by
them, and a final end put to the once mighty empire
of Gazna.
The metropolis w7as reduced by Otkay ; w7ho no
fooner entered the country in which it w7as fituated,
than he committed the mort horrid cruelties. The
city was well provided w7ith all things neceffary for
fuftaining a fiege ; had a ftrong garriion, and a brave
and rcfolute governor. The inhabitants, expefting
no mercy from Jenghiz Khan, w7ho they knew had
fworn their ruin, were refolved to make a defperate
defence. They made frequent fallies on the*befiegers,
feveral times overthrew their works, and broke above
100 of their battering rams. But one night, after an
obftinate fight, part of the city w7alls fell down 5 and
a great number of Moguls having filled up the ditch,
entered the city fword in hand. The governor per¬
ceiving all was loti, at the head of his braveft foldiers
ruffied into the thicket! of his enemies, where he and his
followers were all ilain. However, Gazna was not en¬
tirely deliroyed, nor were the people all killed ; for
after the maffacre had continued for four or five hours,
Otkay ordered it to ceafe, and taxed thofe who were
left alive at a certain rate, in order to redeem themfelves
and the city. It does not, however, appear that after
this time the city of Gazna ever made any confiderable
figure.—It was taken by the Moguls in the year 1 222.
GEBRES*
Gazna.
G E D
[ 46- 1
G E D
Gebres
II
Geddes,
GEBRES. See Gabres.
GECCO, in 'Natural HiJlonj, name given by the
Indians to their terrible poifon, which kills when mixed
' v with the blood in ever fuch a fmall quantity. I hey
fay that this gecco is a venomous froth or humour
vomited out of the mouths of their molt poifonous fer-
pents; which they procure in this fatal ftrength, by
hanging up the creatures by the tails, and whipping
them to enrage them : they colleft this in proper vef-
fels as it falls} and when they would ufe it, they either
poifon a weapon with it, or wounding any part of the
flelh introduce the fmalleft quantity imaginable into it;
* and this is faid to be immediate death.
GECKO. See Lacerta, Erpetology Index.
GED, William, an ingenious though unfuccefsful
artilt, who was a goldfmith in Edinburgh, deferves to
be recorded for his attempt to introduce an improve¬
ment in the art of printing. The mvention, firft
pradtifed by Ged in 1725, was fimply this. From any
types of Greek or Roman, or any other charadler, he
formed a plate for every page, or iheet, of a book, from
which he printed, inftead of uling a type for every let¬
ter, as is done in the common way. This was firft
pradlifed, but on blocks of wood, by the Chinefe and
Japanele, and purfued in the firft effays of Cofter the
European inventor of the prefent art. “ This improve¬
ment (fays James Ged the inventor’s fon) is principal¬
ly confiderable in three moft important articles, viz.
expence, corredtnefs, beauty and uniformity.”
In July 1729, William Ged entered into partner-
fliip with William Fenner, a London ftationer, who
was to have half the profits, in confideration of his
advancing all the money requifite. To fupply this,
Mr John James, then an archited! at Greenwich (who
built Sir Gregory Page’s houfe, Bloomlhury church,
&c.) was taken into the fcheme, and afterwards his
brother Mr Thomas James, a letter founder, and James
Ged the inventor’s fon. In I73°> partners ap¬
plied to the univerfity of Cambridge for printing Bibles
and common prayer books by blocks inftead of fingle
types j and, in confequence, a leafe was fealed to them,
April 23. 1731. In their attempt they funk a large
fum of money, and finiftied only two prayer books j fo
that it was forced to be relinquilhed, and the leafe was
afterwards given up. Ged imputed his difappointment
to the villany of the prefsmen, and the ill treatment of
his partners (which he fpecifies at large), particularly
Fenner, whom John James and he were advifed to profe-
cute, but declined it. He returned to Scotland in 1736,
where he gave his friends a fpecimen of his perform¬
ance, by an edition of Salluft. But being ftill un-
fuccefsful, and having failed in obtaining redrefs from
Fenner, who died infolvent, he was preparing again to
fet out for London, in order to join with his fon James
as a printer there, when he died Odtober 19.1749. Ged’s
fon attempted unfuccefsfully, in 1751, to revive this in¬
vention ; Meffrs Tilloch and-Foulis about the year 1782
pra&ifed it on a fmall fcale at Glafgow ; and of late
years many beautiful editions of the claflics have been
* See Pr/W-printed in this way by Didot of Paris. *
GEDDES, Alexander, a learned Scots catholic
divine and eminent bible critic, was born in the parifti
of Ruthven in Banffshire, in the year 1737. His pa¬
rents were refpetlable, although not opulent. His fa¬
ther was a farmer, who deemed no trouble too great,
ing and
Phil. Mag.
x. 267.
in order to procure for his children as liberal an educa¬
tion as poflible. Both father and mother were of
the catholic perfuafion, and the only book of confe¬
quence which the former had in his library was an
Englilh tranflation of the bible, in which young Ged-
des was inftru&ed with fuch care and attention, that he
rvas able to give an account of the hiftory of it before
he had reached the eleventh year of his age. The firft:
inftruftions he received, after thofe of his parents, were
communicated by a fchool-miftrefs in the vicinity, by
whom he was fo much diftinguilhed, that it became the
firft mental gratification which, in his own opinion, he
ever felt. He was next put under the tuition of a
young man from the city of Aberdeen, who had been
engaged by the la/rd for the education of his own chil¬
dren •, and afterwards went to a place called Scalan, in
the Highlands, where thofe were to be trained up who .
defigned to devote themfelves to the catholic priefthood,
and to finifh their education at fome foreign univerfity.
Here it was, in this obfcure retreat, that Geddes laid
the foundation of that intimate acquaintance with the
learned languages, by which he was fo eminently di-
ftinguifhed in the fubfequent part of his life. He went
to the Scots univerfity at Paris in the year 1758, and
foon after began the ftudy of rhetoric in the college of
Navarre. By the ftrength of his genius and his inde¬
fatigable attention, he was foon at the head of this clafs,
although he had to contend with two veterans, and be¬
came the favourite of Vicaire the profeffor, whofe friend-
fhip lafted to the clofe of life.
Inftead of entering into the philofophical clafs at the
ufual time, he ftudied that fubjeft at home, in order to
facilitate his theological ftudies, on which he entered
under M. M. Bure and de Sauvent, at the college of
Navarre, and Lavocat at the Sorbonne was his He¬
brew preceptor. So great, or rather aftoniftiing, wras
his progrefs, that Profeffor Lavocat urged him ftrong-
ly to continue at Paris ; but his friends prevailed with
him to return to his native country in 1764. His firft
charge as a prieft was in a catholic chapel in the
county of Angus, from which he removed to Tra-
quair in 1765, and became chaplain to the earl of that
name, where he remained for about three years. This
fituation wTas moft: agreeable to his literary purfuits, as
he had unlimited accefs to a very extesifive library,
wThich greatly aflifted him in the profecution of his dar¬
ling ftudies. He left the earl’s houfe in the year 1768,
and returned to Paris, where he devoted his time during
the following winter to the perufal of books and manu-
feripts in the king’s libraries, making large extrafts
from fcarce copies, particularly fuch as were in the
Hebrew tongue.
In the fpring of 1769, he returned to his native
country, and became paftor of a congregation at Auch-
inhalrig in Banffshire, where he was for fome time in¬
volved in pecuniary difficulties, out of which he was
extricated by the liberality of the then duke of Norfolk.
Thefe were occafioned by the debts he incurred in
building a new chapel for his flock, and in making the
parfon’s houfe one of the neateft and moft convenient in
Scotland. With the view of bettering his circum-
ftances he commenced farmer ; but as he had to borrow
money to ftock his farm, and as the crops-failed for three
fucceffive feafons, he was under the neceffity of abandon¬
ing this fcheme in a much poorer ftate than when he
3 N 2 firft
Gedcies.
G E D [ 468 ] G E D
Geddes. foil proje&ed it. But his unwearied exertions, joined
« j-jjg affiftance of friends, again relieved him, and he
was enabled to difcharge every claim againft him of a
pecuniary nature in an honourable manner.
In the year 1779 he refigned his paftoral charge at
Auchinhalrig, which wras a heavy ftroke to the mem¬
bers of his congregation, as. the zeal and diligence with
which he difcharged the duties of his minilterial func¬
tion had endeared him to all. He was alfo juftly
efteemed for his attention to the inftrudtion of youth.
Next year the univerfity of Aberdeen conferred on him
the degree of LL. D. a literary honour which <was'
never beftowTed on any Roman-catholic by that body
fince the Reformation. He afterwards went to Lon¬
don, that he might profecute his favourite itudies with
. greater facility, and give the world his Englifh tranf-
lation of the Old and New Teftament, to which he had
turned his attention for a number of years. He offici¬
ated for fome months after his arrival in the imperial
ambaffador’s chapel in Duke-ftreet, till the term of
eafter 1782, at which time it was fuppreffed by order
of the emperor Jofeph II. after which DrGeddes leems
to have declined entirely the exercife of his clerical
functions.
No fooner had the defign of Mr Geddes, relative to
a new tranilation of the Bible been made public, than
he met with formidable oppofition from his Catholic
brethren *, an event which the doctor with good reafon
feems to have anticipated. His own words on this oc-
cafion were : “ I expeft not exceffive profits from excef-
five exertion. I truft I ffiall never want 7neat, and
clothes, and^re; to a philofophical and contented mind,
what more is neceffary ?” He wras many years em¬
ployed in preparing this important work for the prefs,
before he had any profpedt of adequate fuccefs. In ad-
dreffing the Engliffi Catholics on the fubject of his tranf-
lation, he has thefe memorable words : “ At any rate,
I do what I think it my duty to do, and do it fairly and
openly. In the following pages ye wall find neither
palliation nor diiguife. I pour out my fentiments with
the fame fmcerity as if I w^ere before the tribunal of
Him who is to judge the living and the dead. Mif-
take I may, but prevaricate I never will.” He difco-
vered this noble fpirit in every a£lion of his life, and in
all his tranfaflions and intercourfe with mankind, al¬
though he did not conciliate the regard of thofe who
could have bellowed* upon him the mod effeaual af-
liftance.
After fpending much of his life in biblical ftudies,
Ire met with a long and cruel interruption, of which he
uius ipeaks : u I had but little hope of ever living in a
fituation to refume them, when Providence threw me
into the arms of fucn a patron as Origen himfelf mio-ht
have been proud to boalt of_a patron, who, for thefe
ten years pall, has, with a dignity peculiar to himfelf,
afforded me every conveniency that my heart could de-
iire towards the carrying on and completing of my ar¬
duous work.” }
It is needlefs to inform the public, that the patron to
whom the learned dodor here alludes was Lord Petre.
For this munificence continued through the whole of
his life, and even beyond it by his latter will, Chriftians
of every denomination will feel fentiments of gratitude,
when they are qualified to make a true eftimate cf the
advantages of free and impartial enquiry.
In the year I792j ^le ffift volume of his tranflation Geddet.
was publiffied, dedicated to his patron Lord Petre, con- 1 ■w
taining the firft fix books of the Old Teftament. Soon
after this volume made its appearance, three apoitolic
vicars, calling themfelves the biiliops of Rama, Acan-
thos and Centuriae, iffued a paftoral letter, addfeffed to
their refpedtive flocks over which they prefided, warn¬
ing them againft the reception of Dr Geddes’s tranila¬
tion. In his reply to the biffiop of Centurise we find
thefe words: “ Perhaps, my lord, you wiffi to have an¬
other occafion of exercifing your epifcopal authority,
and of playing with cenfures as children do wdth a new
ball.—I wifli your lordfliip much joy of the bauble ; but
however, my lord, beware of playing too often with it.
Read St Chryfoftom on Ecclefiaftical Cenfures, and
learn from him a little more moderation. Permit an
old prieft to tell you, that it is a very great ornament in
a young bifhop. As to myfelf, my lord, I am not afraid,
of your threats, and ffiall laugh at your cenfures as
long as I am confcious that I deferve them not.—You
cannot, hinder me from praying at home j and at home
I will pray,*in defiance of your cenfure, as often as I
pleafe. The chief Biffiop of our fouls is always accefli-
ble ; and through him I can, at all times, have free ac-
cefs to the Father, who will not rejedt me, but for vo¬
luntary unrepented crimes. In the panoply of con¬
fcious innocence, the whole thunder of the Vatican
would in vain be levelled at my head.”
The fecond volume of his tranflation, owing to a va¬
riety of interruptions, did not make its appearance till
the year 1797, to which was prefixed a dedication to
her royal highefs the duchefs of Gloucefter, as an
“ early, fpontaneous, and liberal encourager of the
work.” In this volume the do£tor gives up, and boldly
combats, the abfolute infpiration of fcripture, believing
that the Plebrew, like all other hiftorians, wnote from
fuch human documents as they could find, and were of
confequence liable to fimilar miftakes. This latitude of
thinking naturally led the doctor to give up as fabulous,
and wholly unworthy of the divine philanthropy, every
command, precept, and hijunflion, which appeared un¬
worthy even of human authority. Pie denied of confe¬
quence, that the command given to deftroy the Canaan-
ites could have God for its author. His volume of Cri¬
tical Remarks was publiffied in 1800, in which he en¬
ters into an able vindication of his own theory, which
rather increafed than diminiffied the number of his ene¬
mies, for as he wrote to pleafe no party, he forefaw that
he would have enemies in every party, and fo it hap¬
pened.
Dr Geddes wras a man of extenfive literature, uncom¬
mon liberality of thinking, the friend of all mankind j
a man of integrity, honour and benevolence ; in the
ftrifteft fenfe of the wmrd, a truly genuine Catholic,
and whofe love of truth was fo invincible, that nei¬
ther hopes nor fears could induce him to con¬
ceal it.
His profpeclus of a new tranflation of the Bible in
4to was publifned in 1786, and a letter to the biffiop
of London on the fame fubjefl in 17^7' His pro-
pofals were printed in 1788. As a controverfial wri¬
ter, Dr Geddes was eminently diftinguifhed by his let¬
ter to Dr Prieftley, in defence of the divinity of Je-
fus Chrift, and by one to a member of parliament, on
the expediency of a general repeal of the penal ftar
tutes
G E H [ 469 ] GEL
Geddes, tutes which have a refpeft to religious opinions. In
Gehenna, the fpring of the year 1800, he publilhed an apology
for the Roman Catholics of Great Britain, in which
he zealouily defended his peculiar tenets, but difplayed
a commendable moderation, when he mentioned the in¬
juries to which he himfelf and brethren w'ere fubjedled
by the continuance of perfecuting laws ; and, when he
argued in behalf of abolillung ail legal difabilities, he
dilcovered the foundeft logical underflanding.
We (hall clofe our fhort account of this great man in
the words of one who was well acquainted with him, and
fully qualified to appreciate his merits. “ It muit be
lamented, that, in the death of Dr Geddes, the world
has loft the fervices of a man, who by his acute and
penetrating genius—his various, profound, and exten-
five erudition—his deep refearch—his indefatigable ap¬
plication—and his independent, dignified, and unfetter¬
ed fpirit, riling fuperior to the prejudices of education ;
nobly difdaining the fliackles of fyftem } fpurning the
petty temporizing arts of unmanly accommodation •,
and fetting at defiance all the terrors of malignity,
bigotry, and intolerance, wras fupereminently qualified
for the great, laborious, and important work in which
he had, for a long feries of years, been engaged, of giv¬
ing an Englifh verfion of the venerable literary remains
of facred antiquity, the fcriptures of the Old and New
Teftament. During his life, this work did not meet
with encouragement adequate to the magnitude of the
defign 5 or, it may be added, to the merit of the exe¬
cution. In this laft refpeft, it will be matter of fur-
prife to all w'ho are competent to judge of the nature
of fuch an enterprife, how much has been done, and
with what uncommon ability and fuccefs. It everywhere
difplays the Ikilful hand of a mafter.”
He had correfted and prepared his tranflation for
the prefs up to the hundredth and eighteenth pfalm,
when he was feized with a moft painful and excrucia¬
ting diftemper, which put a period to his meftitnable
life on the 26th of February 1802. The learned world
will unqueftionably have caufe to lament, that Dr Ged¬
des wras arrefted by the hand of death in the midft of
his career, unlefs that unexpefted phenomenon, an¬
other Geddes, ftiould make his appearance, and happily
finifh what his extraordinary predeceffor conduced fo
far with fuch aftonilhing abilities ;— but, rara avis in
terns.
GEHENNA, a fcripture term wdiich has given fome
pain to the critics. It occurs in St Matthew, v. 22.
29. 30. x. 28. xviii. 9. xxiii 15. 33. Mark ix. 43. 45. 47.
Luke xii. 5. James hi. 6.
The authors of the Louvain and Geneva verfions re¬
tain the wTord as it Hands in the Greek; the
like does M. Simon : the Englifti tranflators render it
by hell and hellfire, and fo do the tranflators of Mons
and Father Bohours.
The word is formed from the Hebrew gehinnom, i. e.
“ valley of Hinnom.” In that valley, which was near
Jerufalem, there w7as a place named' Tophet, where fome
Jews facrificed their children to Moloch, by making
them pafs through the fire. King Jofias, to render this
place for ever abominable, made a cloaca or common
iewer thereof, where all the filth and carcafes in the
city w'ere caft.
The Jews obferved farther, that there was a continual
fire kept up there, to burn and confume thofe carcales;
for which reafon, as they had no proper term in their
language to fignify hell, they made ufe of that of gehenna
or gehinnon, to denote a fire unextinguiftiable.
GELA, in Ancient Geography, a city of great ex¬
tent on the fouth of Sicily, taking its name from the ri¬
ver Gelas, which wafties it. It was built by colonifts
from Rhodes and Crete, 45 years after the building of
Syracufe, or in the third year of the 22d Olympiad, 690
before Chrift ; originally called Lindn, from the colo¬
nifts of Lindus, a city of Rhodes, who fettled there
fir ft. Now Terra Nuova, and the river called Flume di
Terra Nuova. The people were called Geloi, Gclenfes,
and Gelani. The city Gela, after having flood 408
years, was deftroyed by Phintias, tyrant of Agrigentum;
and the inhabitants were removed to a new city, called
Phintias after his name.
GELATINA, jelly. See Jelly.
GELATINOUS, among the phyficians, is applied
to any thing approaching to the glutinous confiftence
of a jelly.
GELD, in the Englifti old cuftoms, a Saxon wTord
fignifying money, or tribute. It alfo denoted a com-
penfation for fome crimes committed : Hence wergeld,
in their ancient laws, was ufed for the value of a man
flain •, and orfgeld, of a beaft.
GELDENHAUR, Gerard, in Latin Geldenha-
rius, an hiftorian and Proteftant divine in the 16th
century. He was a native of Nimeguen, and ftudied
claflical learning at Deventer. He went through his
courfe of philofophy at Louvain, where he contraft-
ed a very ftrift friendftiip with feveral learned men,
and particularly with Erafmus. He became reader
and biftorian to Charles of Auftria, and afterwards to
Maximilian of Burgundy. At length he embraced
the Proteftant religion; taught hiftory at Marpurg,
and aftemards divinity till his death, in 1542. He
wrote, 1. Hiftory of Holland. 2. Hiftory of the Low
Countries. 3. Hiftory of the biftiops of Utrecht; and
other works.
GELDERLAND. See Guelderland.
GELDERS. See Guelders.
. GELDING, the operation of caftrating any animal.
See Castration, Farriery Index.
GELE'E, Claude. See Claude.
GELENHAUSEN, a fmall imperial town of Wet-
teravia in Germany, with a caftle built by the emperor.
Frederic I. E. Long. 8. 13. N. Lat. 50. 20.
GELLENIUS, Sigismund, a learned and excellent
man, born of a good family at Prague, about the year
1498. Erafmus conceiving an efteem for him at Ba-
fil, recommended him to John Frobenius as a correc¬
tor for his printing-houfe; which laborious charge
he accepted, and had a great number of Hebrew',
Greek, and Latin books to correct: he alfo tranflated
many works himfelf from the Greek into Latin ; and
publifhed a dictionary in four languages, Greek, La¬
tin, German, and Sclavonian. Profitable and honour¬
able employments were offered him in other places;
but nothing could tempt him to quit his peaceful fitua-
tion at Bafil. He died in 1555. All his tranflations
are highly efteemed.
GELINOTTE, or Grus. See Tetrad, Orni¬
thology Index.
GELLERT, Christian Furchtegolt, rvas born
at Haynichen, in July 1715, near Freyberg, where
hxT.
GEL [ 470 ] GEM
Gellert, Hs father was a clergyman. He was extraordinary pro-
Gdli. feflfor 0f philofophy at Leiplic, and a diftinguithed wri-
ter among the Germans. When but 13 years of age
he difcovered a poetical genius j but having none to
guide his tafle for this kind of compolition, he was led
to imitate Gunther, Neukerch, and Hanke, men of in¬
different abilities. He lludied theology at Leiplic in
1734, and returned home at the expiration of four
jears, when he commenced public fpeaker j but his
timid difpofition prevented him from fhining as an ora¬
tor in the pulpit. The delicacy of his conftitution for¬
bidding him to afpire after extenfive learning, .he con¬
fined himfelf to the acquifrtion of that which might ren¬
der him ufeful. He was much refpefted for his firft at¬
tempts in poetry, called Amufements of Reafon and Wit,
which appeared in 1742.
The labour which he found requifite for the compofi-
tion of fermons, inclined him to lay afide the clerical
profeflion, and devote himfelf wholly to the inftruftion
of youth, in which he not only diffufed knowledge
through the minds of his pupils, but alfofinfpired them
with the love of religion and virtue. He was made
A. M. in 1744, and publifhed the firlt volume of his
fables in the enfuing year. Pi’s “ Swedilh Countefs”
was the firft German romance deferving of notice. He
gave the world the fecond part of his fables in I74^>
although two years before this period he was much af-
ilidled with hypochondriacal affe£Hons. In 1751, he
was folicited to accept the office of extraordinary pro-
■feifor of philofophy, together with a decent falary,
which was augmented on the termination of the war.
Affailed by unconquerable lownefs of fpirits and con¬
firmed melancholy, he flill exhibited the fame patience,
refignation, and univerfal philanthropy as he had ever
fhewn, and which excited the admiration of the enemy
during the war. His fufferings continued to increafe in
feverity, and at laft terminated his exiftence on the
13th of December 1769. He contributed much to the
improvement of the tafte and morals of his country¬
men, and their gratitude for his fervices made them
deeply lament his lofs. His praife was refounded by
every voice, his likenefs was call in gypfum, and
moulded in wax; it was engraved on copper, and re-
prefented in fculpture and painting.
It is faid of this amiable man and captivating writer,
by Kutner, who wrote the lives of German authors,
that it will probably be a century before the appearance
of another poet, fo fully qualified to excite the love and
admiration of his cotemporaries, and obtain fuch a
powerful influence over the tafte and way of thinking
of all defcriptions of men. If it would indicate too
much partiality to call him a genius of the firft clafs, he
certainly was a moft agreeable and fertile writer j the
poet to whom religion and virtue are deeply indebted ;
an able reformer of public manners, and fonder of af¬
fording confolation, than of plunging into defponden-
cy. Kutner gives him a moft excellent and enviable
chara&er, in thefe words : “ As long as the Germans
{hall underhand their prefent language, will the works
of Gellert be read ; and his chara&er will be honour¬
ed while virtue is known and refpefled.”
GEL LI, John Baptist, an eminent Italian writer,
was born of mean parents at Florence, in the year 1498.
•He was bred a taylor, feme fay a {hoemaker ; but had
Tych an extraordinary genius, that he acquired feveral
languages, and made an uncommon progrefs in the belles Gellibrand
lettres : and though he continued always to work at his
trade, became acquainted with all the wits and learned 1 _. 4
men at Florence, and his merit was univerfally known.
He was chofen a member of the academy there, and
the city made him a burgefs. Fie acquired the higheft
reputation by his works, which are, 1. I. Caprici del
Bottaio, quarto j which contains ten dialogues. 2.
La Circe, oflavo. This, which alfo contains ten dia¬
logues, and treats of human nature, has been tranf-
lated into Latin, French, and Englilh. 3. Differta-
tions in Italian on the poems of Dante and Petrarch.
4. The comedies of I^a Sporta and La Errore ; and 0-
ther works. He died in 1563.
GELLIBRAND, Henry, a laborious aftrono-
mer of the 17th century, was born in 1597. Though
he was not without good views in the church, yet he
became fo enamoured with mathematical ftudies, that
on the death of his father he became a ftudent at Ox¬
ford, contented himfelf with his private patrimony,
and devoted himfelf folely to them. On the death of
Mr Gunter, he w^as recommended by Mr Briggs to
the truftees of Grefham college, for the aftronomical
profefforftiip there ; to which he was elecled in 1627.
His friend Mr Briggs dying in 1630, before he had
finilhed his Trigonometrid Britannica, it was finifhed by
Gellibrand at his requeft. He wrote feveral other
things, chiefly tending to the improvement of naviga¬
tion ; and died in 1636.
GELLIUS, Aulus, a celebrated grammarian wrho
lived in the 2d century under Marcus Aurelius and
fome fucceeding emperors. He wrote a eolledtion of
obfervations on authors, for the ufe of his children 5
and called it NoRes Atticee, becaufe compofed in the
evenings of a wdnter he fpent at Athens. The chief
value of it is for preferving many fafts and monu¬
ments of antiquity not to be found elfewhere. Cri¬
tics and grammarians have beftowed much pains on this
winter.
GELLY. See Jelly.
GELO, or GeloN, a fon of Dinomenes who
made himfelf abfolute at Syracufe 484 years before
the Chriftian era. He conquered the Carthaginians
at Himera, and made his oppreffion popular by his
great equity and moderation. He reigned feven years,
and his death was univerfally lamented at Syracufe.
He was called the father of his people, and the patron
of liberty, and honoured as a demigod. His brother
Hiero fucceeded him. See Syracuse.
GEM, in Natural Hijlory, a common name for all
precious ftones j of which there are two clafles, the pel¬
lucid and femipellucid.
The bodies compofing the clafs of pellucid gems are
bright, elegant, and beautiful foffils, which are found
in fmall detached maffes, extremely hard, and of great
luftre.
The bodies compofing the clafs of femipellucid gems.,
are ftones naturally compound, not inflammable or folu-
ble in wrater, found in detached mafles, and compofed
of cryftalline matter debafed by earth : however, they
are but {lightly debafed ; and are of great beauty and
brightnefs, of a moderate degree of tranfparency, and
are ufually found in fmall mailes.
The knowledge of gems depends principally on ob-
ferving thpir hardnefs and colour. Their hardnefs is
commonly
GEM [47
Gem. commonly allowed to ftand in the following order :
“—•v—The diamond the hardeft of all; then the ruby, fap-
phire, jacinth, emerald, amethyft, garnet, carneol,
chalcedony, onyx, jafper, agate, porphyry, and marble.
This difference, however, is not regular and conftant,
but frequently varies. Good cryflals may be allowed
to fucceed the onyx *, but the whole family of me¬
tallic glaffy fluors leems to be ftill fofter.—In point of
colour, the diamond is valued for its tranfparency, the
ruby for its purple, the fapphire for its blue, the eme¬
rald for its green, the jacinth for its orange, the
amethyft carneol for its carnation, the onyx for its
tawny, the jafper, agate, and porphyry, for their ver¬
milion, green, and variegated colours, and the garnet
for its tranfparent blood red.
All thefe gems are fometimes found coloured and
fpotted, and fometimes quite limpid and colourlefs. In
this cafe the diamond cutter or polifher knows how to
diftinguifh their different fpecies by their different de¬
grees of hardnefs upon the mill. For the cutting or
polifhing of gems, the fine powder of the fragments
of thofe that are next in degree of hardnefs is always
required to grind away the fofter; but as none of
them are harder than the diamond, this can only be
polifhed by its own powder.
Cronftedt obferves of gems in general, that the co¬
lour of the ruby and emerald are faid to remain in the
fire, wdiile that of the topaz flies off: hence it is ufual
to burn the topaz, and thence fubftitute it for the dia¬
mond. “ Their colours ("fays our author^) are com¬
monly fuppofed to depend upon metallic vapours ; but
may they not more juftly be fuppofed to arife from a
phlogifton united with a metallic or fome other earth ?
becaule we find that metallic earths which are perfeiffly
well calcined give no colour to any glafs : and that the
manganeie, on the other hand, gives more colour than
can be afcribed to the fmall quantity of metal wdrich is
to be extra£ied from it.” M. Magellan is of opinion,
that their colour is owing chiefly to the mixture of
iron which enters their compofition j but approves the
fentiment of Cronftedt, that phlogifton has a lhare in
their production, it being well known that the calces
of iron when dephlogifticated produce the red and
yellow colours of marble, and when phlogifticated to
a certain degree produce the blue or green colours.
With regard to the texture of gems, M. Magellan
obferves, that all of them are foliated or laminated,
and of various degrees of hardnefs. Whenever the
edges of thefe laminae are fenfible to the eye, they have
a fibrous appearance, and refleCt various fhades of co-
1. r, whic h change fucceffively according to their an¬
gular noiition to the eye. Thefe are called by the
French chatoyr,rites; and what is a blemifh in their
tranfparency, often enhances their value on account of
their fcarcity. But when the fubftance of a gem is
co:nr.ofed of a broken texture, confifting of various
fets of laminae differently inclined to each other, it
emits at the fame time various irradiations of different
colours, which fucceed one another according to their
angle of polition. This kind of gems has obtained the
name of opals, and are valued in proportion to the
brillancy, beauty, and variety of their colours. Their
cryftallization, no doubt, depends on the fame caufe
which produces that of falls, earths, and metals, which
is treated of unuer the article CRYSTALLIZATION. The
Silic. Calc. Iron.
39
42-5
35
33
39
24
23
25
22
37
34
40
48
9
9
5
6
8
8
10
20
20
11
12
11
10
11
i ] GEM
following table fhows the component parts of gems ac¬
cording to the analyfis of Bergman and M. Achard j
the letter B prefixed to each denoting Bergman’s ana¬
lyfis, and A that of Achard,
Argil.
Red oriental ruby, - B 40
Ditto, _ - A 37.5
Blue oriental fapphire, - B 58
Ditto, - - A 58
Yellow topaz from Saxony, B 46
Green oriental emerald, - B 60
Ditto, - - A 60
Yellow brown orient, hyacinth, B 40
Ditto, - - A 42
Tourmalin from Ceylon, B 39
Ditto from Bralil, - B 50
Ditto from Tyrol, - B 42
Garnet from Bohemia, - A 30
Gem.
3
6
6
7
15
16
9
5
6
10
But later analyfes ftiew that the component parts are
different from the above, particularly the colouring
matters wdiich are here afcribed to iron. See Mine#-
RALOGY.
The chryfoprafe from Kofeinitz in Silefta was like-
wife analyzed by M. Achard $ who found that it con¬
tained 456 grains of filiceous earth, 13 of calcareous,
fix of magnelia, three of copper, and two of iron. “ This
(fays M. Magellan) feems to be the only gem that con
tains no argillaceous earth.”
Imitation or Counterfeiting of Gems in Glafs. The
art of imitating gems in glafs is too conliderable to
be paffed without notice : fome of the leading compo-
fitions therein we ftiall mention upon the authority of
Neri and others.
Thefe gems are made of paftes j and are nowTay in¬
ferior to the native ftones, when carefully made and
well polilhed, in brightnefs or tranfparence, but want
their hardnefs.
The general rules to be obferved in making the paftes
are thele : 1. That all the veffels in which they are
made be firmly luted, and the lute left to dry before
they are put into the fire. 2. That fuch vefiels be
chofen for the work as wall bear the fire well. 3. That
the powders be prepared on a porphyry ftone 5 not in
a metal mortar, which would communicate a tinge to
them. 4. That the juft proportion in the quantity of
the feveral ingredients be nicely obferved. 5. That
the materials be all well mixed •, and, if not fuflicient-
ly baked the firft time, to be committed to the fire
again, without breaking the pot j for if this be not
obferved, they wall be full of blifters and air blad¬
ders. 6. That a fmall vacuity be always left at the top
of the pot, to give room to the fwelling of the ingre¬
dients.
To make pafte of extreme hardnefs, and capable of
all the colours of the gems, wdth great luftre and beau¬
ty.—'Fake of prepared cryftal, ten pounds j lait of
polverine, fix pounds 5 fulphur of lead, two pounds :
mix all thefe well together into a fine powder 5 make
the whole with common water into a hard pafte 3 and
make this pafte into fmall cakes of about three ounces
weight each, with a hole made in their middle j dry
them in the fun, and afterwards calcine them in the
ftfaiteft part of a potter’s furnace, Alter this, pow¬
der
GEM [ 472 ] G E M
'Gem. der them, and levigate them to a perfedt finenefs on a
porphyry ftone, and fet this powder in pots in a glafs
furnace to purify for three days : then call the whole
into water, and afterwards return it into the furnace,
where let it Hand 15 days, in which time all foulnels
and blifters will difappear, and the pafte will greatly
referable the natural jewels. To give this the colour
of the emerald, add to it brafs thrice calcined j for a
fea green, brafs limply calcined to a rednefs } for a
fapphire, add zaft'er, with manganele ; and for a to¬
paz, manganefe and tartar. All the gems are thus
imitated in this, by the fame way of working as the
making of coloured glalfes ; and this is fo hard, that
they very much approach the natural gems.
The colour of all the counterfeit gems made of the
feveral paftes, may be made deeper or lighter accord¬
ing to the work for which the Hones are defigned 5 and
it is a necefl'ary general rule, that fmall Hones for rings,
&c. require a deeper colour, and large ones a paler.
Befides the colours made from manganefe, verdigris,
and zaffer, which are the ingredients commonly ufed,
there are other very fine ones which care and Ikill
may prepare. Very fine red may be made from gold,
and one not much inferior to that from iron ; a very
fine green from brafs or copper; a Iky colour from
filver, and a much finer one from the granates of Bo¬
hemia.
A very lingular and excellent way of making the
pafle to imitate the coloured gems is this : Take a
quantity of faccharum faturni, or fugar of lead, made
with vinegar in the common way ; fet it in fand, in a
glafs body well luted from the neck downwards 5 leave
the mouth of the glafe open, and continue the fire 24
hours; then take out the fait, and if it be not red but
yellowilh, pow'der it fine, and return it into the velfel,
and keep it in the fand heat 24 hours more, till it be¬
comes as red as cinnabar. The fire mufl not be made
fo flrong as to melt it, for then all the procefs is fpoil-
ed. Pour diflilled vinegar on this calcined fait, and
leparate the folution from the dregs ", let the decanted
liquor Hand fix days in an earthen veffel, to give time
for the finer fediment to fubfide j filter this liquor,
and evaporate it in a glafs body, and there will remain
a mofl pure fait of lead j dry this well, then diffolve it
in fair water ; let the folution Hand fix days in a
glazed pan ; let it fubfide, then filter the clear folu¬
tion, and evaporate it to a yet more pure wThite and
fweet fait •, repeat this operation three times; put the
now perfedlly pure fait into a glafs veffel, fet it in a
land heat for feveral days, and it will be calcined to a
fine impalpable powder of a lively red. This is called
the fulphur of lead.
Take all the ingredients as in the common compo-
, fition of the paftes. of the feveral colours, only inftead
of red lead, ufe this pow'der 5 and the produce will wTell
reward the trouble of the operation, as experience has
often proved.
A pafte proper for receiving colours may be readily
made by well pounding and mixing fix pounds of white
land cleanfed, three pounds of red lead, twm pounds of
purified pearl-afhes, and one pound of nitre. A fofter
pafte may be made in the fame manner, of fix pounds
of white fand cleanfed ; red lead, and purified pearl-
alhes, of each three pounds 5 one pound of nitre, half
a pound of borax, and three ounces of arfenic. For
common ufe a pound of common fait may be fubfti- Gem.
tuted for the borax. This glafs will be very foft, and ™™-v—■
will not bear much wrear if employed for rings, buckles,
or fuch imitations of ftones as are expofed to much
rubbing } but for ear-rings, ornaments worn on the
breaft, and thofe little ufed, it may laft a confiderable
time.
In order to give pafte different colours, the procefs
is as follows : For
Amethvjl. Take ten pounds of either of the com-
pofitions deferibed under Colouring of Glass, one ounce
and a half of manganefe, and one drachm of zaffer j
powder and fufe them together.
Black. Take ten pounds of either of the compofi-
tions juft referred to, one ounce of zaffer, fix drachms
of manganefe, and five drachms of iron, highly calcined j
and proceed as before.
Blue. Take of the fame compofition, ten pounds 5
of zaffer, fix drachms 5 and of manganefe, two drachms :
and proceed as with the foregoing.
Chryfoiite. Take of either of the compofitions for
pafte above deferibed, prepared without faltpetre, Nten
pounds, and of calcined iron five drachms j and purfue
the fame procefs as with the reft.
Red Cornelian. Take of the compofitions mention¬
ed under Colouring of Glass, twro pounds of glafs of
antimony, one pound j of the calcined vitriol called
fcarlet ochre, two ounces; and of manganefe, one drachm.
Fufe the glafs of antimony and manganefe with the
compofition 5 then powder them, and mix them with
the other, by grinding them together, and fufe them
with a gentle heat.
White Cornelian. Take of the compofition juft re¬
ferred to, two pounds •, of yellow ochre well w^aftied,
two drachms ; and of calcined bones, one ounce. Mix
them, and fufe them with a gentle heat.
Diamond. Take of the wdiite land, fix pounds *, of
red lead, four pounds j of pearl allies, purified, three
pounds ; of nitre two pounds j of arfenic five ounces j
and of manganefe, one fcruple. Powder and fufe
them.
Eagle-marine. Take ten pounds of the compofition
under Glass j three ounces of copper highly calcined
with fulphur 5 and one fcruple of zaffer. Proceed as
before.
Emerald. Take of the fame compofition with the
laft nine pounds } three ounces of copper precipitated
from aquafortis j and two drachms of precipitated iron.
See E|Merald, Mineralogy Index.
Garnet. Take two pounds of the compofition under
Glass 5 twTo pounds of the glafs of antimony, and two
drachms of manganefe. For vinegar garnet, take of the
compofition for pafte, deferibed in this article, two
pounds ; one pound of glafs of antimony, and half an
ounce of iron, highly calcined : mix the iron with the
uncploured pafte, and fufe them : then add the glafs-
of antimony powdered, and continue them in the heat
till the whole is incorporated.
Gold ox full Yellow. Take of . the compofition for
pafte ten pounds j and one ounce and a half of iron
ftrongly calcined 5 proceeding as with the others. "
Deep Purple. Take of either of the compofitions for
pafte, ten pounds j of manganefe, one ounce $ and of
zaffer, half an ounce.
Ruby. Take one pound of either of the compofi¬
tions
GEM [ 473
Rem. tlons for pafte, and two drachms precipitate of gold by
“~y~ tin ; powder the pafte, and grind the calx of gold with
it in a glafs, flint, or agate mortar, and then fufe them
together. A cheaper ruby pafte may be made with
half a pound of either of the above compofitions, half a
pound of glafs of antimony, and one drachm and a half
of the calx of gold •, proceeding as before.
Sapphire. Take of the compofltion for pafte, ten
pounds ; of zaffer, three drachms and one fcruple •, and
of the calx CaJJii, one drachm. Powder and fule them.
Or the fame may be done, by mixing with the pafte
one-eighth of its weight of fmalt.
Topaz. Take of the compofitions under Glass
ten pounds, omitting the faltpetre 5 and an equal
quantity of the Gold-coloured hard Glass. Powder
and fufe them. See Topaz, Mineralogy Index.
Turquoife. Take of the compofition for blue pafte
already defcribed, ten pounds \ of calcined bone, horn,
or ivory, half a pound. Powder and fufe them.
Opaque white. Take of the compofition for pafte
ten pounds; and one pound of calcined horn, ivory,
or bone 5 and proceed as before.
Semitranfparent white, like opal. See Opal, Min¬
eralogy Index.
To the above we {hall add the following receipts and
procefles, contaifted in a memoir by M. Fontanieu of
the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, and faid to
have met with much approbation.
I. Of the Bafes. Although the different calces of lead
are all adapted to produce the fame effe6t in vitrifica¬
tion 5 yet M. Fontanieu prefers lead in fcales, and
next to that minium, as being the moft conftantly
pure. It is neceffary to lift through a filk fieve the
preparations of lead one wifties to make ufe of in the
vitrification, in order to feparate the groffer parts, as
alfo the lead found in a metallic ftate when white lead
in fcales is employed.
The bafe of factitious gems is calx of lead and rock
cryftal, or any other ftone vitrifiable by the calces al¬
ready mentioned. Pure fand, flint, and the tranfpa-
rent pebbles of rivers, are fubftances equally fit to make
glafs : but as it is firft neceffary to break the maffes
the art of making coloured
] GEM
Much of the fuccefs in
ftones depends on the accurate proportion of the fub¬
ftances made ufe of to form the cryftal which ferves as
a bafe to the factitious ftones. After having tried a
great variety of receipts, our author found they might
be reduced to the following.
I. Take two parts and a half of lead in fcales, one
part and a half of rock cryftal or prepared flints, half
a part of nitre, as much borax, and a quarter part of
glafs of arfenic. Thefe being wrell pulverized and
mixed together, are to be put into a Heflian crucible,
and fubmitted to the fire. When the mixture is well
melted, pour it into cold water : then melt it again a
fecond and a third time j taking care, after each melt¬
ing, to throw it into freftr cold water, and to feparate
from it the lead that may be revived. The fame cru¬
cible fhould not be uled a fecond time, becaufe the
glafs of lead is apt to penetrate it in fuch a manner as
to run the rilk of lofing the contents. One muft alfo
be careful to cover the crucible well, to prevent any
coals getting into it, which would reduce the calx of
lead, and fpoil the compofition.
2. Take twro parts and a half of white cerufe, one
part of prepared flints, half a part of fait of tartar,
and a quarter part of calcined borax : melt the mixture
in a Heflian crucible, and then pour it into cold water •,
it is then to be melted again, and wTalhed a fecond
and a third time, the fame precautions being obferved
as for the firft bafe.
3. Take two parts minium, one part rock cryf-.
tal, half a part of nitre, and as much fait of tartar :
this mixture being melted, muft be treated as the for¬
mer.
4. Take three parts of calcined borax, one part of
prepared rock cryftal, and one part of fait of tartar j
thefe being well mixed and melted together, muft be
poured into warm wrater : the w^ater being decanted
and the mafs dried, an equal quantity of minium muft
be added to it; it is then to be melted and wafhed feveral
times as direfted above.
5. That called by our author thd Mayence bafe, and
which he confiders as one of the fineft cryftalline com-
of cryftal, ftones, or pebbles, into fmaller parts-'; fo • pofitions hitherto known, is thus compofed : Take
Gem,
by this operation particles of iron or copper are fre ¬
quently introduced, and to thefe duft or greafy matters
are alfo apt to adhere. Our author therefore begins by
putting the pounded cryftal or pebbles into a crucible,
which he places in a degree of heat capable of making
the mafs red hot ; he then pours it into a wooden bowd
filled wdth very clear w-ater ; and lhaking the bowd
from time to time, the fmall portions of coals furniftied
by the extraneous bodies fwim on the furface of the
water, and the vitrifiable earth, with .the iron, &c.
refts on the bottom. He then decants the water ; and
having dried the mafs, he pounds it, and lifts the powder
through the fineft filk fieve : he then digefts the pow¬
der during four or five hours with marine acid, {baking
the mixture every hour. After having decanted the
marine acid from the vitrifiable earth, he wafhes the
latter until the water no longer reddens the tinfture of
turnfol. The faid earth being dried, is palled through
a filk fieve, and is then fit for ufe. Nitre, fait of tar¬
tar, and borax, are the three fpecies of falts that enter
with quartz and the feveral calces cf lead into M. Fcn-
tanieu’s vitrifications.
VOL. IX. Part II.
three parts of fixed alkali of tartar, one part of rock
cryftal or flint pulverized : the mixture to be well
baked together, and then left to cool. It is afterwards
poured into a crucible of hot water to diffolve the
frit; the folution of the frit is then received into a
ftone-ware pan, and aquafortis added gradually to the
folution till it no longer eftervefces : this water being
decanted, the frit muft be walhed in warm water till it
has no longer any tafte : the frit is then dried, and
mixed with one part and a half of fine cerufe or white
lead in fcales; and this mixture muft be-well levigated
with a little diftilled water. To one part and a half
of this powder dried add an ounce of calcined borax :
let the whole be well mixed in a marble mortar, then
melted and poured into cold water as the other bafes
already defcribed. Thefe fufions and lotions having
been repeated, and the mixture dried and powdered,
a 12th part of nitre muft be added to it, and then
melted for the laft time ; when a very fine cryftal wijl
be found' in the crucible.
6. As a compofition for furniftiing very fine .whitA’
ftones : Take eight ounces of cerufe, three ounces. of
3 O rock
1
G E M
Gem. rock cryftal pulverized, two ounces of borax finely
powdered, and half a grain of manganefe : having
melted and walked this mixture in the manner directed
above, it will produce a very fine white cryftal.
II. Of the Colours. The calces of metals, as already
obferved, are the fubftances employed to colour facti¬
tious gems 5 and on the preparation of thefe calces
depends the vividnefs of their colours.
a, From GoId.~] To obtain the mineral purple
known by the name of precipitate of CaJJius, M. Fonta-
nicu employs the following different proceffes,
i. Diffolve fome pure gold in aqua regia, prepared
with three parts of precipitated nitrous acid and one
part of marine acid $ and to haften the diffolution, the
matrafs fhould be placed in a fand bath. Into this
folution pour a folution of tin in aqua regia. The
mixture becomes turbid, and the gold is precipitated
with a portion of the tin, in the form of a reddifh powT-
der ; which, after being wafhed and dried, is called
precipitate of Caffms.—The aqua regia employed to
diffolve the tin is compofed of five parts of nitrous
acid and one part of marine acid : to eight ounces
of this aqua regia, are added fixteen ounces of diftilled
water. Some leaves of Malacca tin, about the fize and
thicknefs of a fixpence, are then put into this diluted
aqua regia, till it will diffolve no more of them : which
operation our author obferves, requires commonly twelve
or fourteen days-, though it might probably be haftened
by beating the tin ftill thinner, and then rolling it into
the form of a hollow cylinder, or turning it round into
fpiral convolutions, and thus expofing a greater extent
of furface to the a£fion of the menftruum. In order to
prepare more readily the precipitate of Caflius, M. Fon-
tanieu puts into a large jug eight ounces of folution of
tin, to which he adds four pints of diftilled water: he
afterwards pours into this metallic lye fome folution of
gold, drop by drop, taking care to ftir the whole with
a glafs tube : when the mixture becomes of a deep
purple colour, he ceafes dropping th<j folution of gold j
and in order to haften the precipitation of the mineral
purple, pours into the mixture a pint of ffefti urine.
Six or feven hours after, the precipitate is collefled at
the bottom of the veffel: the fluid is then decanted j
and the precipitate, waihed once or twice, is dried till
it becomes a brown powder.
2. Pour into a veffel of fine tin with a thick bottom
four ounces of the folution of gold j three minutes
after add twTo pints of diftilled water. Let this mix¬
ture Hand in the tin veffel during feven hours, taking
care to ftir it every hour w ith a glafs tube *, aftemards
pour it into a conical glafs jug, and add to it a pint of
new urine : the mineral purple is foon precipitated,
and then is to be waftied and dried.
3. Diftil in a glafs retort placed in a bath of
afhes, fome gold diffolved in aqua regia, made with
three parts nitrous and one part marine acid \ when
the acid is paffed over and the gold contained in the
retort appears dry, leave the veffel to cool, then pour
into it fome new aqua regia, and proceed to diftil as,
before. Replace the aqua regia twice upon the gold,
and diftil the fame. After thefe four operations, pour
by little and little into the retort fome oil of tartar
per dehquium, wdrich will occafion a brifk effervefcence :
when this ceafes, diftil the mixture till it becomes dry,
and then put fome warm water intp the retort.
G E M
Shake the whole and pour it into a cucurbit, when a Gem.
precipitate is depofited, the colour of which is fome- ——y~“
times brown and fometimes yellow : After having
waihed this precipitate, dry it. Our author fays, this
mineral purple was much fuperior to the foregoing,
fince tw’o grains of it only were fafficient to an ounce
of the bafe, wdrilft it required of the other two a 20th
part of the bafe. And he adds, that he found a means
of exalting the colour of the precipitate of Caffius, by
puttings to it a fixth part of its weight of glafs of an¬
timony finely pow7dered, and of nitre in the proportion
of a drachm to eight ounces of the bafe.
b, From Silver.'] The oxide of filver, being vitrified,
produces a yellowilh gray colour. This oxide enters
only into the compofition of the yellow artificial dia¬
mond and the opal. M. Fontanieu introduces it into
the bafe in the form of luna cornea.
In order to prepare it, he directs to diffolve the fil¬
ver in precipitated nitrous acid, and afterwards to
pour into it a folution of fea fait : a wThite precipitate
is obtained 5 wfttich, being wTafhed and dried, melts
very readily in the fire, and is foon volatilized if not
mixed with vitrifiable matters. To make the yellow
diamond, 25 grains of this luna cornea are put to an
ounce of the fourth bafe : the dofe of filver may be di-
minilhed according to the (hade of yellow that one
wiihes to procure.
c, From Copper.] The oxide of copper imparts to
white glafs the fineft green colour j but if this metal
be not exa£lly in a ftate of oxide, it produces a browrriifti
red colour. Mountain blue verdigris, and the refidue of
its diftillation, are the different preparations of copper
which our author employs to make the artificial eme¬
ralds.
d, From Irani] Although it has been afferted
that the oxides of iron introduce a very fine tranfpa-
rent red colour into white glafs, M. Fontanieu could
only obtain from it a pale red a little opake. The
oxide of iron that he employed was in the proportion
of the 20th part of the bafe.
There are feveral ways of preparing the oxide of
iron called crocus Mortis, or fajfron of Mars. In ge¬
neral, it is neceffary that this metal be fo far oxidated
that the magnet ceafes to attract it : thus one may
ufe the fcales of iron found upon the bars of the fur¬
naces, which ferve to diftil aquafortis. By digefting
filings of fteel with diftilled vinegar, then evaporat¬
ing and replacing the vinegar 10 or 12 times upon .
thefe filings and drying them alternately, an oxide of
iron is obtained, which muft be lifted through a
lilk fleve, and then calcined. The oxide of iron thus
obtained by the vinegar, our author fays, only in¬
troduced into his bafes a green colour inclining to a
yellow.
By the following procefs a faffron of Mars of the
fineft red colour is obtained : Let an ounce of iron fil¬
ings be diffolved in nitrous acid in a glafs retort, and
diftilled over a fand bath to drynefs. After having
replaced the acid or the dry oxide, and re-diftilled it a
fecond and a third time, it is then edulcorated with
fpirits of wine, and afterwards waihed with diftilled
water.
e. From the Magnet.] It is neceffary to calcine the
magnet before it be introduced into the vitrifications:
Having therefore torrefied the magnet during two
hours, .
[ 474 ]
G E M
Gem. hours, it mud be waihed and dried.
‘"'V"-'-—' ed in the compofition of the opal.
/, From Cobalt.~\ The oxide of cobalt is only proper
to introduce a blue colour into glafs; but this femime-
tal is rarely found free from iron and bifmutb, and there¬
fore it is firft neceffary to feparate them from it. This
is done by calcining the ore of cobalt in order to dif-
epgage the arfenic ; afterwards the oxide mud be di¬
ddled in a retort with fal ammoniac, and the iron
and the bifmuth are found* fubhmed with this fait.
The didillation mud be repeated with the fal ammo¬
niac till this fait is no longer coloured yellow. The
. cobalt which remains in the cornute is then calcined
in a potdierd, and becohies a very pure oxide; which
being introduced into the bafe, in the proportion of
a poodth part, gives it a very fine blue colour, the in-
tenfity of which may be increafed at difcretion by the
addition of oxide of cobalt. In order to prepare blach
enamel refembling that which is called black agate of Ice¬
land 5 melt together a pound and a half of one of the
bafes, two ounces of the oxide of cobalt, two ounces of
crocus Martis prepared with vinegar, and two ounces
of manganefe.
g, From Tin.'] The oxide of tin, which is of a white
colour, renders opake the glafs with winch it is melted,
and forms white enamel. For this purpofe, calcine the
putty of tin j then wadi and dry it, and lift it through
a filk fieve. Take fix pounds of the fecond bafe, the
fame quantity of the calcined putty of tin, and 48
grains of manganefe.
/z, From Antimony.] Antimony is only fufceptible
of vitrification in a certain date of oxidation, and then
it produces a reddidi or hyacinth coloured glafs 5
but if the antimony be in a date of abfolute calx,
fuch as the diaphoretic antimony, then it is no longer
vitrifiable, and may be fubdituted for oxide of tin to make
white enamel. M. Fontanieu introduces the glafs of an¬
timony in the compofition of artificial topazes. For the
oriental topax, he takes 24 ounces of the fird bafe, and
five drachms of the glafs of antimony. To imitate the
topaz of Saxony, he adds to each ounce of the bafe five
grains of the glafs of antimony. For the topaz of Bra¬
zil, he takes 24 ounces of the fird bafe, one ounce 24
grains of glafs of antimony, and 8 grains of the preci¬
pitate of CaJJius. ■
i. From Manganefe.] This mineral employed in a
fmall quantity, renders the glafs whiter j a larger
quantity produces _a very. fine violet colour, and a
dill larger dofe of it renders the glafs black and
opake.
There are two ways of preparing manganefe. 1. The
mod ample confids in expofing it to a red heat, and
then quenching it with diddled vinegar \ it is after-
wards dried and powdered, in order to pafs it through
a filk fieve. 2. Haudiquer de Elancour defcribes the
fecond. manner of preparing the manganefe, proper to
furnidi a red colour, and names it fufvble manganefe.
Take of .manganefe of. Piedmont one. pound j torrefy
and pulverize it; then mix it with a pound of nitre,
and calcine the mixture during 24 hours ; afterwards
wadi it repeatedly in warm water, till the wrater of the
lyes has no longer any tade j dry the manganefe, and
mix with it . an equal weight of fal ammoniac 5 levigate
• this mixture on a dab of porphyry with oil of vitriol
diluted with water to the ftrength of vinegar. Dry the
[ 475 J , . G. E M
It is only employ- mixture, and introduce it into a cornute j didii ny a ^
graduated fire 5 and when the fal ammoniac is fublimed
weigh it, and add to the mixture an equal quantity.
Then dillil and fublime as before, and repeat the opera¬
tion fix times, being careful at each time to mix the fal
ammoniac and the manganefe upon the porphyry with
diluted oil of vitriol.
At Tournhault in Bohemia, there is fold a fufible
glafs of a yellow colour, very like that of the topaz of
Brazil, which, w'hen expofed to a degree of fire in a cu¬
pel fufficient to redden it, becomes of a very fine ruby
colour, more or lefs deep according to the degree of
fire to which it has been expofed. Our author affayed
this glafs, and found it to contain a great deal of lead,
but was not able to difcover any gold in it.
III. Of the different degrees of fire neceffary for Facli-
tious Gems. Our author obferves, that there are three
degrees of heat very different in their energy. The fire
kept up in the wind furnaces in the laboratories of che-
mifts, is lefs adlive than that wdiofe effedl is accelerated
by the means of bellows ; and a fire fupported by wood,
and kept up during 60 hours without interruption, pro¬
duces lingular effedls in vitrification, and renders the
glafs finer and lefs alterable.
When recourfe is had to the forge, in order to ope¬
rate a vitrification, it is neceffary to turn about the
crucible from time to time, that the mafs may melt
equally. Some coal alfo fhould be replaced, in pro¬
portion as it confumes towards the nozel of the bel¬
lows ; for without this precaution, we fhould run the
rifk of cooling the crucible oppofite to the flame, and
probably of cracking it, when all the melted mafs run¬
ning among the coals would be totally loft. Though
this is the readieft way of melting, it fhould not be em¬
ployed out of choice ; for the crucible often breaks, or
coals get into it, which may reduce the lead to the me¬
tallic ftate.
The wind furnace is either fquare or round. A
fmall cake of baked clay or brick, of the thicknefs of
an inch, is placed upon the grate ; and upon this cake
is placed the crucible, furrounded with coals. The
degree of heat produced by this furnace is much lefs
than that of the forge : but in order to fucceed in the
vitrification, M. Fontanieu recommends the ufe of a
furnace defcribed by Kunckel, of which, the interior
part is fo difpofed, that we may place crucibles at
three different heights j and the name of chambers is
given to thofe Heps upon which the crucibles are pla¬
ced.
It is obvious, that the degree of heat cannot be equal
in the faid three chambers. In the firft or loweft cham¬
ber the heat is greatefl, afterwards in the next, and laft-
ly, in the higheft. We fhould begin by placing the
crucibles according to their fize, in thefe different cham¬
bers ; by which means the beft effedl in vitrification is
produced.
In order to condu£t the fire wTell, only three billets
of white wood fhould be put into the furnace at a time
for the firft: 20 hours, four billets at a time for the
next 20 hours, and fix billets for the laft 20 hours ; in
all 60 hours. The furnace is then left to cool, care
being taken to flop the air holes with feme lute •, and
in about 48 hours after, wThen the kiln is quite cold.,
the crucible is to be withdrawn.
IV. The Compofitions. 1. For the. white diamond ;
Gem.
3 O 2
Take
GEM
Gem. Take the bafe of Mayence. This cryftal is very pure,
. ancj }-,as no colours.
2. For the yellow diamond : To an ounce of the
fourth bafe, add for colour 25 grains of luna cornea or
10 grains of glafs of antimony.
3. For the emerald : 1. To 15 ounces of either of the
bales, add for colour one drachm of mountain blue and
fix grains of glafs of antimony ; or, 2. To an ounce of
the fecond bafe, add for colour 20 grains of glafs of
antimony and three grains of calx of cobalt.
4. For the fapphire : To 24 ounces of the Mayence
bale, add for colour two drachms 46 grains of the calx
of cobalt.
5. For the amethyft : To 24 ounces of the Mayence
bafe, add for colour four drachms of prepared manganefe
and four grains <jf precipitate of Caflius.
6. For the beryl: To 24 ounces of the third bafe,
add for colour 96 grains of glafs of antimony and four
grains of calx of cobalt.
7. For the black agate: To 24 ounces of either of
the bafes, add two ounces of the mixture diredled
above in par./i
8. For the opal: To an ounce of the third bafe, add
for colour 10 grains of luna cornea, two grains of mag¬
net, and 26 grains of abforbent earth.
9. For the oriental topaz : To 24 ounces of the firft
or third bafe, add for colour five drachms of glafs of
antimony.
10. For the topaz of Saxony: To 24 of the fame
bafe, add for colour fix drachms of the glafs of anti¬
mony.
11. For the topaz of Brafil: to 24 ounces of the
fecond or third bafe, add for colour one ounce 24
grains of the glafs of antimony and eight grains of pre¬
cipitate of Caflius.
12. For the hyacinth: To-24 ounces of the bafe
made with rock cryflal, add for colour two drachms 48
grains of glals of antimony.
13. For the oriental ruby: 1. To 16 ounces of the
ivlayence bafe, add for colour a mixture of two drachms
48 grains of the precipitate of Caflius, the fame quan¬
tity of crocus Martis prepared in aquafortis, the fame
of golden fulphur of antimony and of fulible manganefe,
with the addition of two ounces of mineral cryftal : or,
2. To 20 ounces of the bafe made with flint, add half
an ounce of fufible manganefe and two ounces of mine¬
ral cryftal.
14. For the balafs rubby : 1. To 16 ounces of the
Mayence bafe, add the above colouring powder, but di-
minilhed a fourth part j or, 2. To 20 ounces of the bafe
made with flints, add the fame colouring powder, but
with a fourth lefs of the manganefe.
The fa&itiouS' gems are eafily diftinguifhed from the
natural, by their foftnefs and fufibility 5 by their folu-
bility in acids \ by their caufing only a Angle refrac¬
tion of the rays of light j and in many cafes, by their
ipecific gravity, which exceeds 2.76 in all precious
gems of the firft order, as the diamond, ruby, fap¬
phire., &c.
Imitation of Antique Gems. There has been at dif¬
ferent times a method pradlifed by particular perfons
of taking the impreflions and figures of antique gems,
with their engravings, in glafs of the colour of the ori-
gmal gem. This has always been efteemed a very va-
G E M
luable method, and greatly preferable to the more or- Gem.
dinary ones of doing it on fealing wax or brimftone j u-—v
but, to the misfortune of the world, this art being a
fecret only in the hands of fome particular perfons
who got their bread by it, died with them, and every
new artift was obliged to re-invent the method ; till
at length Mr Homberg having found it in great per-
fedtion, gave the whole procefs to the world to be no
more forgotten or loft 5 and fince that time it has been
very commonly pradlifed in France, and fometimes in
other places.
Mr Homberg was favoured in his attempts rvith all
the engraved gems of the king’s cabinet; and took fuch
elegant impreflions, and made fuch exadt refemblances
of the originals, and that in glaffes fo artfully tinged
to the colour of the gems themfelves, that the niceft
judges were deceived in them, and often took them for
the true antique ftones. The counterfeit gems alfo
ferve, as well as the original ones, to make more co¬
pies from afterwards > fo that there is no end of the
numbers that may be made from one j and there is
this farther advantage, that the copy may be eaflly
made perfedf, though the original fhould not be fo,
but ftiould have fuftained fome damage from a blow or
otherwife.
The great care in the operation is to take the im-
preflion of the gem in a very fine earth, and to prefs
down upon this a piece of proper glafs, foftened or
half melted at the fire, fo that the figures of the im-
preflion made in the earth may be nicely and perfedlly
exprelfed upon the glafs. In general, the whole pro¬
cefs much refembles that of the common founders.
But when it is brought to the trial, there is found a
number of difficulties which were not to be forefeen,
and which \Guld not at all affedt the common works of
the founder. For his purpofe, every earth will ferve that
is fine enough to receive the impreffions, and tough
enough not to crack in the drying : thefe all ferve for
their ufe, becaufe the metals which they caft are of a
nature incapable of mixing with earth, or receiving it
into them, even if both are melted togther, fo that
the metal always eafily and perfedlly feparates itfelf
from the mould j but it is very difficult in thefe cafts
of glafs. They are compofed of a matter which differs
in nothing from that of the mould, but that it has
been run into this form by the force of fire, and the
other has not yet been fo run, but is on any occafion
ready to be fo run, and will mix itfelf infeparably
with the glafs in a large fire : confequently, if there
be not great care ufed, as well in the choice of the
glafs as in the manner of ufing it, when the whole is
finiffied there will be found great difficulty in tire fe-
parating the glafs from the mould, and often this
cannot be done without wholly deftroying the im-
preffion.
All earths run more or lefs eafily in the fire as they
are more or lefs mixed with faline particles in their na¬
tural formation. As all falts make earths run into
glafs, and as it is neceffary to ufe an earth on this oc¬
cafion for the making a mould, it being alfo neceffary
to the perfedlion of the experiment that this earth
fhould not melt or run, it is our bufinefs to fearch out
for this purpofe fome earth which naturally contains
very little fait. Of all the fpecies of earth which Mr
Homberg examined on. this occafion, none proved fa
much
[ 476 1
GEM [ 477 ] / GEM
much dxvefted of falts, or fo fit for the purpofe, as the
common tripela, or Tripoli, ufed to polifh glafs and
flones. Of this earth there are two common kinds :
the one reddifh, and compofed of feveral flakes or ftra-
ta 5 the other yellowifli, and of a Ample ftrufture. Thefe
are both to be had in the (hops. The latter kind is
from the Levant; the former is found in England,
France, and many other places. The tripela muft be
chofen foft and fmooth to the touch, and not mixed
with fandy or other extraneous matter. The yellowifli
kind is the befl; of the two, and is commonly called
Venetian tripoli. This receives the impreffions very
beautifully \ and never mixes with the glafs in the ope¬
ration, which the red kind fometimes does. Mr Hom-
berg ufually employed both kinds at once in the fol¬
lowing manner: firft powder a quantity of the red
tripela in an iron mortar, and lifting it through a fine
fieve fet it by for ufe *, then fcrape with a knife, a
quantity of the yellow tripela into a fort of powder,
and afterwards rub it till very fine in a glafs mortar
with a glafs peftle. The finer this powder is, the finer
will be the impreflion, and the more accurately perfect
the call. The artificer might naturally fuppofe, that
the belt method to obtain a perfect fine powder of this
earth -would be by walking it in water 5 but he mult
be cautioned againfi: this. Th<*e is naturally in this
yellowilh tripoli a fort of undluofity, which when it is
formed into a mould keeps granules together, and
gives, the whole an uniform glofly furface : now the
walking the powder takes away this undtuofity ; and
though it renders it much finer, it makes it leave a
granulated furface, not this fmooth one, in the mould ;
and this mult render the furface of the calf lefs fmooth.
When the two tripelas are thus feparately powder¬
ed, the red kind mull be mixed with fo much water
as will bring it to the confiftence of palle, fo that it
/may be moulded like a lump of dough between the
fingers : this palle mull be put into a fmall crucible
of a flat lhape, and about half an inch or a little more
in depth, and of fuch a breadth at the furface as is a
little more than that of the Hone whofe impreflion is
to be taken. The crucible is to be nicely filled with
this palle lightly prefled dowm into it, and the fur-
face of the palte mull be llrewed over with the fine
powder of the yellow tripela not wetted. When this
is done, the Hone, of which the impreflion is to be taken^
mull be laid upon the furface, and prefled evenly down
into the palle with a finger and thumb, fo as to make
it give a llrong and perfedl impreflion 5 the tripela is
then to be prefled nicely even to its fides wdth the
fingers, or with an ivory knife. The Hone mull be thus
left a few moments, for the humidity of the palle to
moillen the dry powder of the yellow tripela which is
llrewed over it: then the Hone is to be carefully raifed
by the point of a needle fixed in a handle of wood ; and
the crucible being then turned bottom upwards, it will
fall out, and the impreflion will remain very beautifully
on the tripoli.
If the fides of the cavity have been injured in the
falling out of the Hone, they may be repaired ; and the •
crucible mull then be fet, for the palle to dry, in a place
where it will not be incommoded by the dull.
I he red tripoli being the more common and the
cheaper kind, is here made to fill the crucible only to
fave the other, which alone is the fubllance fit for ta¬
king the impreflion. When the Hone is taken out,
it mull be examined, to fee whether any thing be lodged
in any part of the engraving, becaufe if there be any
of the tripela left there, there will certainly be fo much
wanting in the impreflion. When the crucible and
palle are dry, a piece of glafs mull be chofen of a pro¬
per colour, and cut to a fize proper for the figure j
this mull be laid over the mould, but in fuch a man¬
ner that it does not touch the figures, otherwife it
wrould fpoil them. The crucible is then to be brought
near the furnace by degrees, and gradually heated till
it cannot be touched without burning the fingers j then
it is to be placed on the furnace under a muffle, fur-
rounded with charcoal. Several of thele fmall cru¬
cibles may be placed under one muffle; and when they
are properly difpofed, the aperture of the muffle Ihould
have a large piece of burning charcoal put to it, and
then the operator is to watch the procefs, and fee when
the glafs begins to look bright: this is the fignal of
its being fit to receive the impreflion. The crucible
is then to be taken out of the fire j and the hot glafs
mull be prefled down upon the mould with an iron in-
llrument to make it receive the regular impreflion :
as foon as this is done, the crucible is to be fet at the.
fide of the furnace out of the way of the wind, that
it may cool gradually without breaking. When it is
cold, the glafs is to be taken out, and its edges' Ihould
be grated round with pincers, which will prevent its
flying afterwards, which is an accident that fometimes
happens when this caution has been omitted, efpecially
when the glafs is naturally tender. The different co¬
loured glafles are of different degrees of hardnefs, ac¬
cording to their compofition; but the hardell to melt
are always the bell for this purpofe, and this is known
by a few trials.
If it be defired to copy a Hone in relief which is
naturally in creux, or to take one in creux which is
naturally in relief, there needs no more than to take
an impreflion firll in wax or fulphur, and to mould
that upon the palle of tripela inllead of the Hone itfelf;
then proceeding in the manner before direfled, the
procefs will have the defired fuccefs. >
A more Ample and eafy method than the above, is
by taking the calls in gypfum, or plaller of Paris as
it is commonly called. For this purpofe, the gypfum
mull be finely pulverized, and then mixed with clear
water to the confidence of thick cream. This is pour¬
ed upon the face of the gem or feal of wfflich the im¬
preflion is wanted, and which mull be previoufly moifl-
ened with oil to facilitate the feparation of the call j
and in order to confine the liquid plaller, it is only ne-
ceffary to pin a flip of oiled paper round the fides of
the feal by wray of a cap or rim. When the plaller is
dry, it is to be taken off, and fet before the mouth of
the furnace, in order to free it entirely from moiliure ;
when it is fit to be ufed as a matrix in the fame way as
that formed with the tripoli earths. Only no crucible or
other receptacle is at all neceffary \ the calls being form¬
ed like fo many fmall cakes half an inch thick, and thus
put into the furnace with bits of glafs upon them.
I he glafs, after coming to a proper heat, is preffed
down upon the mould with an iron fpatula to receive
the defired impreflion, the preffure requifite being
more or lefs according to the fize of the Hone. This
method has been long praclifed very fuccefsfully, and
with
G E M
[ 478 ]
GEM
with fio fmall emolument, by that Ingenious feni. engra¬
ver Mr Deuchar of Edinburgh. The only refpect in
which it is inferior to the other more operofe and ex-
penflve methods, confifts in the chance oi air bubbles
arifing in pouring on the plafter *, which chance, how¬
ever is lefs in proportion to the fmenefs of the gyp-
ham employed. When air bubbles do occur, the calls
may be laid alide, as it is fo eafy to replace inem.
The application of paftes to multiply and prelerve
the impreflions of camaieux and intaglios,^ is an object
very interefting to artifts and to antic^uaneSj as well as
to men of learning and taile in the fine arts.
This art, though only lately reftored in any degree
of perfection, is of very conliderable antiquity. I he
great prices which the ancients paid for the elegant
gems engrayed by the celebrated Greek artilts,. could
not but early fuggeft to them the idea of multiplying
their numbers, by taking off tbexr impreihons in wax,
in fulphur, in plafter, or in clay} but more particularly
in coloured glafs, or that vitrified fubftance commonly
called pajle. .
As the impreftions on pafte are durable, and imi¬
tate the colours and brilliancy of the original itones,
they ferve the fame purpofes as the gems themfelves.
This art was therefore praclifed not _ only by the
Greeks, but by all the nations who cultivated Grecian
tafte.
Many of the fineft gems of antiquity are now loft,
and their impreflions are to be found only on ancient
paftes. Great therefore is the value of thefe paftes.
Numerous collediions of them have been foimed by
the curious. Inftances of this are found in. the Flo¬
rentine Mufaeum, in Stofch’s wrork on ancient gems
with infcriptions, in Winckelmann’s defcription of
Stofch’s cabinet, and in the noble colle£tion of Mr
Charles Townley in London.
The art of taking impreflions of gems feems not to
have been altogether loft even in the Gothic ages }
for Heraclius, who probably lived in the ninth century,
and wrote a book De colonbus et civtibus RomanoruTTi)
teaches in very plain though not elegant terms how to
make them. Indeed, fome of the few perfons who then
poffeffed this art, taking advantage of the ignorance
of the times, fold paftes for original gems. 'Ihus the
famous emerald of the abbey of Reichnaw near Con-
ftance, although a prefent made by Charlemagne, is now
found to be a piece of glafs. And thus the celebrat¬
ed emerald vafe in the cathedral of Genoa is likewife
found to be a piece of pafte (a). The Genofe got
this vafe at the taking of Cefarea in the year 1101 as
an equivalent for a large firm of money *, nor was any
impofition then fufpe&ed, for in the year 1319 they
pawned it for 1200 merks of gold. • . .
But this ingenious art, revived indeed in Italy In the
time of Laurence of Medici and Pope Leo X. was not
cultivated in an extenfive manner till the beginning of
the prefent century, when M. Homberg reftored it, as
already mentioned. In this he is faid to have been
greatly aflifted and encouraged by the then duke of
Orleans regent of France, who ufed to amufe himlelf
with that celebrated chemift in taking off impreflions in
pafte from the king of France’s, from his own, and
other colleftions of gems.
According to the French Encyclopedifts, M. Cla-
chant the elder, an engraver of fome note, who died at
Paris in 1781, learned this art from his royal highnefs,
to whofe houfehold his father or he feerns to have be¬
longed. Mademoifelle Feloix next cultivated this art,
and it is believed ftill carries it on. She had been taught
by her father, who in quality of garden de chambre to
the regent had often aflifted in the laboratory of his
mafter, where he acquired this knowledge. Her col¬
lection confifts of J 800 articles.
Baron Stofch, a Prulhan, who travelled over Lurope
in queft of original engraved ftones and impreflions 01
ancient gems, for the elegant work which he publifhed
and Picart engraved (b), was well acquainted with this
art. He had taught it to his fervant Chriftian .Dehn,
who fettled at Rome, where he made and iold. his well
known fulphur inipreflions and paftes. He had .col-
lefled 2500 articles. Dolce has arranged them in a
fcientific order, and given a defcriptive catalogue of
them.
It was chiefly from Dehn’s collection that the tafte
for fulphurs and paftes has become fo univerfal. They
are great objects of ftudy, and often require much learn¬
ing to explain them. They have unqueftionably ferv-
ed to extend and improve the art of engraving on
ftones } and have been of infinite ufe to painters, to
ftatuaries, and to other artifts, as well as to men o*
claflical learning and fine tafte.
It is very difficult to take off impreflions, and per¬
fectly to imitate various-coloured cameos. It cannot
be properly done in wax, fulphur, plafter, or glafs Ox
one colour only. The difficulties arifing from their fize
and. form, and from the various nature of tl.e different
forts of glafs which do not well unite into different
ftrata, are very numerous: nor could the completed
fuccefs in this chemical and mechanical branch of the
art produce a tolerable cameo. Impreflions or imita¬
tions, if unaffifted by the tool of the engraver, do not
fucceed: becaufe the undercutting and deep work of
moft of the originals require to be filled up with clay
or wax, that the moulds may come off fafe without in¬
juring them. Hence the impreflions from thefe moulds
come off hard and deftitute of delicacy, fharpnefs, and
precifion of outline, till the underworking of the
moulder is cut away. But Mr Reiffenftein at Rome,
by his genius, perfeverance, and the affiftance of able
artifts, has overcome thefe difficulties } and has had the
fatisfaCtion of fucceeding, and producing variegated
cameos which can hardly be diftinguifhed from the ori¬
ginals. . . ,
Mr Lippart of Drefden, an ingenious glazier, and an
enthuliaft in the fine arts, pra&ifed this branch not un-
fuccefsfullv } but not finding fufficient encouragement
for his paftes of coloured glafs, or perhaps from local
difficulties in making them well and cheap, he aban¬
doned
Ge
(A) See M. de la Condamine’s Diff. in Memoir, de 1’Acad. Roy. de Paris, I757-
(b) Gemmae antiquse colojatae, fculptorum nominibus infignitae, acre incifae per Bernardum i mart.
dam. 1724, folio.
Amfttla-
G E M [ 479 ] ° k M
doned this art. He fubftituted in its place impreffions
of fine white alabafter or felenite plafter. Such im-
preflions, when carefully foaked in a folution of white
Caftile foap, then dried, and rubbed over with a foft
brufh, take a very agreeable polifh. They (how the
work perhaps to better advantage than red or vyhite
fulphurs do; but they are not fo durable, and are liable
to be defaced by rubbing.
Of thefe impreffions Mr Lippart publilhed three
different colleftions, each of them containing 1000
articles ; and to the merit of having increafed the num¬
ber of Madamoifelle Feloix and Chriftiano Dehn’s
colleddions, which are all inferted in his, he added
that of employing two learned Germans to arrange
and defcribe them. The firft thoufand were arran¬
ged and defcribed by the late Profeifor Chrift at Leip-
fic, and the fecond and third thoufand by Profeffor
Heine at Goettingen. Nor did Mr Lippart flop here :
but to make the ftudy of antiquity more eafy and ac¬
ceptable to artifts, he felecled out of the whole collec¬
tion of 3000, a fmaller one of 2000 of the bell and
more inftructive fubjedls, of which he himfelf drew up
and publifhed a description in German.
But of all the artifts and ingenious men who have
taken impreflions of engraved gems in fulphur and in
pafte, no one feems to have carried that art to fuch
perfection as Mr James Taflie, a native of Glafgow,
who refided in London from the year 1766 till his death.
His knowledge in various branches of the fine arts,
particularly in that of drawing, naturally led him to
it. The elegant portraits which he modelled in wax,
and afterwards moulded and call in pafte, and which
entirely referable cameos, are well known to the pub-
lic.
Mr-Taflie, profiting of all the former publications of
this fort, and by expence, induftry, and accefs to many
cabinets in England and other kingdoms to which
former artifts had not obtained admiflion, was enabled
to increafe his colleftion of impreflions of ancient and
modern gems to the number of above 15,000 articles.
It is the greateft collection of this kind that ever ex-
ifted ; and ferves for all the purpofes of artifts, anti¬
quaries, fcholars, men of tafte, and even philofophers.
Tfie great demand for his paftes was perhaps owing in
the beginning to the London jewTel'lers, who introduced
them into faihion by fetting them in rings, feals, brace¬
lets, necklaces, and other trinkets.
The reputation of this colledion having reached the
emprefs of Ruftia, Ihe was pleafed to order a complete
fet $ which being accordingly executed in the bell and
moft durable manner, were arranged in elegant cabinets,
and are now placed in the noble apartments of her im¬
perial majefty’s fuperb palace at Czarlko Ztlo.
Mr Taftie, in executing this commiflion, availed him¬
felf of all the advantages which the improved ftate of
chemitlry, the various ornamental arts, and the knovv-
ledge of the age, feemed to afford. The impreflions
were taken in a beautiful white enamel compofition,
which is not fubjeCl to ftirink or form air bladders ;
which emits fire when ftruck with fteel, and takes a
fine poliih j and which ftiows every ftrolce and touch ot
the artift in higher perfeClion than any other fub-
ftance. When the colours, mixed colours, and nature
of the refpedive originals, could be afcertained, they
wrere imitated as completely as art can imitate them j
infomuch that many of the pafte intaglios and cameos
in this colleClion are fuch faithful imitations, that
artifts themfelves have owned they could hardly be
diftinguilhed from the originals. And when the co¬
lour and nature of the gems could not be authenticated,
the paftes were executed in agreeable, and chiefly tranf-
parent, colours 5 conftant attention being beftowed to
preferve the outlines, extremities, attributes, and in-
feriptions.
It was the learned Mr Rafpe (from whom this ac¬
count (c) is taken) who arranged this great collection,
and made out the deferiptive catalogue. His arrange¬
ment is nearly the fame with that of the late Abbe
Winkelmann, in his defeription of the gems which ber
longed to Baron Stofch. But as modern works were
inferted in this colledion, he found it neceffary to
make a few alterations, and added fome divifions to
thofe of M. Winkelmann, as will appear from the fol¬
lowing confpedus, with which we lhall conclude this
detail.
I. Ancient Art and Engravings.
Egyptian hieroglyphics, facred animals, divinities,
priefts.
Bafilidian, Gnoftic, and other talifmans, &c.
Oriental and barbarous ancient and modern engra¬
vings.
Greek and Roman original copies, and imitations
(the Etrufcan are claffed with the Greek works.)
A, Mythology or fabulous age. Gods, inferior di¬
vinities, religious ceremonies.
B, Heroic age before the fiege of Troy.
C, Siege of Troy.
D, Hiftoric age. Of Carthage, Greece, Rome, fub»
jeds unknown.
E, Fabulous animals and chimeras.
F, Vafes and urns.
II. Modern Art and Engravings.
A, Religious fubjeds.
B, Portraits of kings and fovereigns.
C, Portraits of illuftrious men in alphabetical order.
D, Portraits unknown.
E, Devices and emblems.
F, Cyphers, arms, fupporters, and medley of modem
hiftory.
GEMAPPE, a village of Auftrian Hainault, three
miles weft-by-fouth of Mons, rendered memorable for a
vidory which the French under General Dumourier
obtained over the Auftrians, Nov. 5. 1792 ; in which
the carnage on both fides was fo dreadful, that three
coal pits in the vicinity wTere filled up with the dead
bodies of men and horfes.
GEMARA, or Ghemara, the fecond part of the
Talmud.
The
Gem
Gemara.
(c) Account of the prefent ftate and arrangement of Mr James Taflie’s colledion of paftes and impreflions
from ancient and modern gems, by R, C. Rafpe, London, 1786, 8vo.
GEM [ 48°
The word mna gemara, is commonly fuppofed to
denote a fupplement but in ftriclnefs it rather iignines
complement, perfeflion :xbeing formed of the Chaldee
laa, ge/nar, or ghemer, u to finiih, perfefl, or complete
any thing.”
The rabbins call the Pentateuch firnply the /awj
the firft part of the Talmud, which is only an expli¬
cation of that law, or an application thereof to parti¬
cular cafes, with the decilions of the ancient rabbins
thereon, they call the Mi/c/ina, i. e. “ fecond law:” and
the fecond part, which is a more extenfive and ample
explication of the fame law, and a colledlion of deci-
fions of the rabbins poilerior to the Mifchna, they call
Gemara, q. d. “ perfection, completion, finiifiing
becaufe they efteem it the finilhing of the law, or an
explication beyond which there is nothing farther to be
deli red.
The Gemara is ufually called, fimply Talmud, the
common name of the whole work. In this fenfe we
lay, there are twTo Gemaras or Talmuds 5 that of Je-
rufalem and that of Babylon : though in llriftnefs the
Gemara is only an explication of the Mifchna, given
by the Jewifh doctors in their fchools : much as the
commentaries of our fchool divines on St Thomas, or
the matter of the fentences, are an explication of the
writings of thofe authors.
A commentary, Monf. Tillemont obferves, was wrote
on the Mifchna, by one Jochanan, whom the Jews
place about the end of the fecond century : but Fa.
Morin proves, from the work itfelf, wherein mention
is made of the Turks, that it was not wrote till the
time of Heraclius, or about the year 620 and this is
what is called the Gemara, or Talmud of Jerufalem,
which the Jews do not ufe or efteem much becaufe of
its obfcurity.
They fet a much greater value on the Gemara, or
Talmud of Babylon, begun by one Afa j difcontinued
for 73 years, on occafion of the wars with the Saracens
and Perttans j and finittied by one Jofa, about the clofe
of the feventh century. See Talmud.
Though the name Talmud, in its latitude, includes
both the Mifchna and the two Ge/naras, yet it is pro¬
perly that of Afa and Jofa alone which is meant under
that name. This the Jew's prize above all their other
writings, and even fet it on a level with Scripture it¬
felf : in effedt, they conceive it as the word of God,
derived by tradition from Mofes, and preferved with¬
out interruption to their time. R. Jehuda, and after¬
wards R. Johanan, R. Afa, and R. Jofa, fearing the
traditions Ihould be loft in the difperfion of the Jews,
collected them into the Mifchna and the Gemara. See
Caraites and Rabbinists.
GEMINI, in AJlronomy, the TWINS } a conftellation
or fign of the zodiac, the third in order, reprefenting
Caftor and Pollux ; and it is marked thus, n . The
ftars in the fign Gemini, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are
25; in Tycho’s, 25 j in Hevelius’s, 385 in the Britannic
Catalogue, 85.
GEMINIANI, a celebrated mufician and compofer,
was born at Lucca in the year 1680. He received his
firft inftnuftions in mufic from Aleflandro Scarlatti 5
and after that became a pupil of Carlo Ambrofio Lu-
nati, furnamed 11 Gobbo, a moft celebrated performer
on the violin *, after which he became a difciple of Co¬
relli, and under him finittied his ftudies on that inftru-
] v G E M
ment. In the year 1714 he came to England; whereGemiman'.
in a fhort time he fo recommended himfelf by his ex- r v J ’
quifite performance, that all who profeffed to love and
underftand mufic were captivated with hearing him.—
Many of the nobility laid claim to the honour of being
his patrons; but he feemcd chiefly to attach himfelf
to Baron Kilmanfegge, chamberlain to King George I.
as eleftor of Hanover, and a favourite of that prince.
In 1716, he publifhed and dedicated to his patron 12
fonatas a violino violone e cembalo: the firft fix with
fugues, or double flops as they are vulgarly called;
the laft with airs of various meafures, fuch as alle-
mandes, courantes, and jiggs. This publication was
fo wTell reliftied by the baron, that he mentioned Ge-
miniani to the king as an excellent performer; in con-
fequence of which our mufician had the honour to per¬
form before his majefty, in concert with the celebrated
Handel, who played on the harpfichord. But though
Geminiani was exceedingly admired, yet he had not
a talent at affociating mufic with poetry, nor do we
find that he ever became a public performer: he
was therefore obliged to depend for his fubfiftence
on the friendftiip of his patrons and the profits which
accrued to him from teaching. He had alfo the
misfortune to be an enthufiaft in painting ; and the
verfatility of his temper was fuch, that, in order to
gratify this paflion, he not only fufpended his ftudies,
and neglefted to exercife his talents, but involved him-
felfLin debts. In 1727, he was offered the place of
mafter and compofer of the ftate mufic in Ireland;
but this could not be conferred on a Catholic, and Ge¬
miniani refufed to change his religion : upon which it
was given to Matthew Dubourg, a young man who
had been one of his pupils, and was a celebrated per¬
former on the violin. Geminiani then fet himfelf to
compofe parts to the oJ)era quinta of Corelli ; or, in
other words, to make concertos of the firft fix of his
folos. This work he completed, and, with the help
of a fubfcription, at the head of which were the names
of the royal family, publilhed in 1726. In 1732, he
publifhed his opera feconda, which contains a celebrated
minuet that goes by his name. He publilhed many
other pieces, the profits of which did not much mend
his circumftances; but this perhaps was owing to his
rambling difpofition and enthufiaftic fondnefs of paint¬
ing. He was alfo an utter ftranger to the bufinefs
of an orcheftra, and had no idea of the labour and
pains neceffary in the inftrudlion of fingers for the per¬
formance of mufic to which they were ftrangers. The
confequence of this was, that a concerto fpirituale, which
he had advertifed for his own benefit in 1748, failed in
the performance. The audience, however, compaftion-
ated his diftrefs, and fat very filent till the books were
changed; when the performance was continued with
compofitions of the author’s own, and which he exe¬
cuted in fuch a manner as was never forgot. . The
profits arifing from this performance enabled him to
take a journey to Paris ; wrhere he ftaid long enough
to get plates engraven for a fcore of folos, and the parts
of two operas of concertos. About the year 1755
returned to England, and advertifed them for fale.—
In 1761 Geminiani wTent over to Ireland ; and was
kindly entertained there by Mr Matthew Hubourg,
who had been his pupil, and was then mafter of the
king’s band in Ireland. This perfon through the
courfe
G E M [ 48
courfe of Ills life had ever been difpoled to render him
friendly offices; and it was but a ffiort time after Ge-
miniani’s arrival at Dublin that he was called upon to
do him the laid. It appears that Geminiani had fpent
many years in compiling an elaborate treatife on mulic,
which he intended for publication ; but foon after his
arrival at Dublin, by the treachery of a female fer-
vant, who, it was faid, was recommended to him for
no other end than that the might fteal it, it was con¬
veyed away, and could not be recovered._ The great-
nefs of this lofs, and his inability to repair it, made a
deep impreflron on his mind ; and, as it is conjectured,
haftened his end ; at lead he furvived it but a ffiort
time, ending his days on the 17th of September 1762.
The following lift comprifes the whole of his publica¬
tions, except two or three articles of frnall account :
Twelve folos for a violin, open'd prwui, fix concertos
in feven parts, opera feaonda ; fix concertos, in feven
parts, opera ter^a; twelve folos for a violin, opeia
quarta; fix folos for a violoncello, opera quinta; the
fame made into lolos for a violin j fix concertos from
his opera quanta; fix concertos in eight parts, opera
fettima; rules for playing in tafte j a treatife on good
tafte ; the art of playing the violin j 12 fonatas from
his firft folos, opera undecima ; Ripieno parts to ditto j
leffons for the harpfichord •, Quida Armonica ; fupple-
ment to ditto ; the art of accompaniment, two book's ;
his firft two operas of concertos in fcore 5 and the En¬
chanted Foreft.—Of his folos the opera prima is efteem-
ed the bell. Of his concertos feme are excellent, others
of them fcarce pafs the bounds of mediocrity. 1 he
fixth of the third opera not only furpaffes all the reft,
but, in the, opinion of the bell judges of harmony, is
the fineft inftrumental compofition extant.
GEMMA, or Bud, in Botany: a compendium or
epitome of a plant, feated upon the Item and branches,
and covered with feales, in order to defend the tender
rudiments enclofed from cold and other external injuries,
till, their parts being unfolded, they acquire ftrength,
and render any further protection unneceflary.
Buds, together with bulbs, which are a fpecies of
buds generally feated upon or near the root, conftitute
that part of the herb called by Linnaeus hybernacula ;
that is, the winter quarters of the future vegetable : a
very proper appellation, as it is during that fevere
feafon that the tender rudiments are protedled in the
manner juft mentioned.
Plants, confidered in analogy to animals, may pro¬
perly enough be reckoned both viviparous and ovipa¬
rous. Seeds are the vegetable eggs j buds, living
fetufes, or infant plants, which renew the fpecies as
certainly as the feeds.
Buds are placed at the extremity of the young ffioots,
and along the branches, being fixed by a ftrort foot-
llalk upon a kind of brackets, the remainder of the
leaves, in the wings or angles of which the buds in
queftion were formed the preceding year. They are
fometimes placed fingle \ fometimes two by two, and
thofe either oppofite or alternate; fometimes collefted
in greater numbers in whirls or rings.
With relpeft to their conftrudlion, buds are com-
pofed of feveral parts artificially arranged. Externally,
we find a number of feales that are pretty hard, fre¬
quently armed with hairs, hollowed like a fpoon, and
placed over each other like tiles. Thefe feales are
VOL. IX. Part II.
i ] GEM
fixed into the inner plates of the bark, of .which they
appear to be a prolongation. Xheir ule is to deffind
the internal parts of the bud; which, being unfolded,
will produce, fome, flowers, leaves, and ftipulae 5 others,
footftalks and feales. All thefe parts, while they re¬
main in the bud, are tender, delicate, folded over each
other, and covered with a thick clammy juice, v».iich
is fometimes refinous and odoriferous, as in the taca-
mahac tree. This juice ferves not only to de.end the
more tender parts of the embryo plant from cold, the
affaults of infedts, and other external injuries .5 but
likewife from exceffive perfpiration, which, in its
young and infant ftate, would be very deftructive. It
is confpicuous in the buds of horfe chefnut, poplar, and
wallow trees.
In general, we may diftinguiffi three kinds of buds;
that containing the flower, that containing the leaves,
and that containing both flower and leaves.
The firft, termed gemma for if era, and by the French
bouton a fieur or a fruit, contains the rudiments of one
or feveral flowers, folded over each other, and lunound-
ed with feales. v In'feveral trees, this kind of bud
is commonly found at the extremity of certain^ fraall
branches, which are ffiorter, rougher, and lefs gar-
niftied with leaves, than the reft. The external feales
of this fpecies of bud are harder than the internal;
both are furnifhed with hairs, and in general more
fuelled than thofe of the fecond fort; The bud con¬
taining the flower too is commonly thicker, fhorter, al-
moft: fquare, lefs uniform, and lefs pointed j being ge¬
nerally terminated obtufely. It is called by Pliny
oculus gemnice} and is employed in that fpecies of
grafting called inoculation, or budding..
The fecond fpecies of bud, viz. that containing the
leaves, termed gemma folifera, and by the French bouton
a feuilles or a bois, contains the rudiments of feveral
leaves, which are varioufly folded over each other, and
outwardly furrounded by feales, from which the fmalr
ftipulae that are feated at the foot of the young branches
are chiefly produced. Thefe buds are commonly more
pointed than the former fort. In the hazel nut, how¬
ever, they are perfeflly round j and in horfe chefnut,
very thick.
The third fort of bud is fmaller than either of the
preceding} and produces both flowrers and leaves,
though not always in the fame manner. Sometimes
the flowers and leaves are unfolded at the fame time.
This mode of the flower and leaf bud is termed by
Linnaeus gemma folifera et florifera. Sometimes the
leaves proceed or emerge out of this kind of bud upon,
a fmall branch, which afterwards produces flowers.
This mode of the flower and leaf bud is termed by-
Linnaeus gemma folifera florifera, and is the moft com¬
mon bud of any.
Such buds as produce branches adorned only with
leaves, are called barren; fuch as contain both leaves
and flowTers, fertile. From the bulk of the bud we
may often with eafe foretel whether it contains leaves
only, or leaves and flowers together, as in cherry and
pear trees.
Neither the buds produced on or near the root,
called by fome authors tunones, nor thofe produced on
the trunk, and from the angles or wings of the leaves,
contain, in ftridl propriety, an entire delineation of the
plant; fince the roots are wanting, and in various
op buds,
Ceixima.
GEM [ 482 ] G E N
buds, as we have feen, flioots are contained with
leaves only, and not with flowers: but as a branch
may be confidered as a part fimilar to the whole plant,
and, if planted, would in procefs of revegetation ex¬
hibit or produce roots and flowers, we may in general
allow, that the bud contains the whole plant, or the
principles of the whole plant, which may be unfolded
ad libitum; and thus refembles the feed, in containing
a delineation of the future plant in embryo: for al¬
though the bud wants a radicle, or plumula, of which
the feed is poffeffed, yet it would undoubtedly form
one, if planted in the earth. Eat as the medullary
part adhering to the bud is too tender, and by the
abundance of juice flowing into it from the earth would
be difpofed to putrefaction, the buds are not planted
in the foil, but generally inferted within, the bark of
another tree} yet placed fo that the production of the
marrow, or pith, adhering to them, may be inferted
into the pith of the branch in which the fiffure or cleft
is made 5 by wdiich means there is a large communica¬
tion of iuice. This propagation by gems or buds,
called inoculation, is commonly practifed with the firft
fort of buds above defcribed.
From the obvious ufes of the buds, we may collefb
the reafon why tire Supreme Author of nature has
granted this fort of protedfion to moff of the trees that
are natives of cold climates : and, on the other hand,
denied it to fuch as, enjoying a warm benign atmo-
Iphere, have not the tender parts of their embryo
fhocts expofed to injuries and depredations from the
feverities of the weather. Of this latter kind are the
plants of the following lift 5 feme of them very large
trees ■, others fmaller woody vegetables, of the fhrub
and under-fhrub kind: Citron, orange, lemon, caffava,
mock orange, blad apple, fhrubby fwallow-wort, aiater-
nus, fhrubby geraniums, berry-bearing alder, Chrift’s
thorn, Syrian mallow, boabab or Ethiopian four
gourd, jufticia, mild fena, the acacias and fenfitive
plant, coral tree, ftinking bean trefoil, medicago, ole¬
ander, viburnum, fumach, ivy, tamarifk, heath, Barba-
does cherry, lavatera, rue, fhrubby nigbtfhades, Guinea
henwerd, cyprefs, lignum vitae, and favine, a fpecies of
juniper.
On annual plants, wbofe root as well as ftalk perifhes
after a year, true buds are never produced ; in their
Head, however, are produced fmall branches, like a
Lttle feather, from the wings of the leaves, which
wither without any farther expannon if the plants climb
and have no lateral branches j but if, either by their
own nature or from abundance of lap, the plants be¬
come branched, the ramuli juft mentioned obtain an
increafe fimilar to that of the whole plant.
The fame appearance obtains in the trees of warm
countries, fuch as thofe enumerated in the above lift, in
which a plumula, or fmall feather, fends forth branches
without a fcaly covering j as, in fuch countries, this
tender part requires no defence or protediion from cold.
A fcaly covering then is peculiar to buds, as it protedls
the tender embryo enclofed from all external injuries.
When we therefore fpeak of trees having buds that are
naked or without feales, our meaning is the fame as if
Wre had faid that they have no buds at all.
The buds that are to be unfolded the following
year, break forth from the evolved buds of the prefent
year, in fuch a manner as. to put on the appearance
of fmall eminences in the wings or angles of the leaves. Geruaudr
Thefe eminences or knots grow but little during the
fummer; as, in that feafon, the lap is expended on the Genciarn',es;
increafe of the parts of the plant: but in autumn, ~
when the leaves begin to wither and fall off, the buds,
placed on the wings, increafe ; and the embryo plant
contained in the bud is fo expanded, that the leaves and
flowers, the parts to be evolved the following year, are'
diftindfly vifible. Thus in horfe chefnut the leaves, and
in cornel tree the flowers, are each to be obferved in
their refpedfive buds.
As each bud contains the rudiments of a plant, and
would, if feparated from its parent vegetable, become
every way fimilar to it; Linnseus, to fiiow the wonder¬
ful fertility of nature, has made a calculation, by which
it appears, that, in a trunk fcarce exceeding a fpan in
breadth, J 0,000 buds (that is, herbs) may be produced.
What an infinite number, then; of plants might be railed
from a very large tree !
GEMMATIO, from gemma, “ a bud;” a term ufed
by Linnaeus, expreffive of the form of the buds, their
origin, and their contents. It includes both-thofe pro¬
perly called buds, and thofe which are feated at the
roots, ftyled bulbs.
As to the origin of buds, they are formed either of
the footftalks of the leaves, of jftipulae, or of feales of
the bark. Their contents have been already difeovered,
in the preceding article, to be either flowers, leaves, or
both.
GEMONIFE scal/e, or Gradus Gemonii, among
the Romans, was much the fame as gallows or gibbet
in England.—Some fay they were thus denominated
from the perfon who raifed them. ; others, from the
firft criminals that fuffered on them ; and others, from
the verb gemo, “ I figh or groan.”
libe gradus gemanii, according to Publius Vicfor or
Sextus Rufus, was a place raifed on feveral fteps, from
whence they precipitated their criminals; others re-
prefent it as a place whereon offenders were executed,
and afterwards expofed to public view. The gemonice
fcahe were in the tenth region of the city, near the
temple of Juno. Camillus firft appropriated the place
to this ufe, in the year of Rome 358.
GENDARMES, or Gens d’armes, in the French
armies, a denomination given to a feledi body of horfe,
on account of their fucceeding the ancient gendarmes,
who were thus called from their being completely
clothed in armour; (fee Scots Gendakmes, Infra.)
Thefe troops were commanded by captain lieutenants,
the king and the princes of the bleed being their
captains; the king’s troop, befides a captain-lieute¬
nant, had two fublieutenants, three enfigns, and three
guidons.
Grand Gendarmes, latterly were a troop compofed
of 250 gentlemen ; the king himfelf was their captain,
and one of the firft peers their captain-lieutenant, who
had under him two lieutenants, three enfigns, three
guidons, and other officers.
Small Gendarmes, were the Scots gendarmes, the
queen’s, the dauphin’s, the gendarmes of Anjou, Bur¬
gundy, the Englifh and Flemilh gendarmes, having
each a captain lieutenant, fub-lieutenant, enfign, guidon,
and quarter-mafter.
Scots Gendarmes, vtere originally inftituted by
Charles VII. of France, about the middle of the 15th
century,
GEN [ 483 ] GEN
Gender, century, and formed a part of his guard j in which
Genealogy. Nation aifo they adled under other princes. It was their
- prerogative to take precedence of all the companies of
Conrtit'of tlie gendarmerie of France 5 and, on particular occa-
Siltland. hons, they even preceded the two companies of the
king’s moufquetaires. The fons of the Scottilh mo-
narchs were the ufual captains of this company; and,
after Mary’s acceffion to the throne, its command
belonged to them as a right. It was thence that
James VI. made a claim of it for his fon Prince Henry.
This honour, and its emoluments, were alfo enjoyed
by Charles I. and the next in command to this prince
W’as Louis Stuart duke of Lennox. George Gordon
marquis of Huntly fucceeded the duke of Lennox in
the year 1674, and took the title of captain or com¬
mander in chief when Charles I. mounted the Englith
throne. It is not certain whether Charles II. was ever
captain of this company; but it was conferred on his
brother the duke of York, who wras captain of the
Scots gendarmes till the year 1667, when he reiigned
his commiflion into the hands of the French king.
Since that time no native of Great Britain has enjoyed
this command. See Scots Guards.
All the different gendarmeries are now abolifhed, in
confequence of the reforming fyftems that have lately
taken place in France.
GENDER, among grammarians, a divifion of nouns,
or names, to diftinguhh the two fexes.
This was the original intention of gender : but after¬
wards other words, which had no proper relation either
to one fex or the other, had genders affigned them,
rather out of caprice than reafon 5 which is at length
eftablifhed by cuftom. Hence genders vary according
to the languages, or even according to the words in¬
troduced from one language into another. Thus, arbor
in Latin is feminine, but arbre in French is mafculine ;
and dens in Latin is mafculine, but dent in French is
feminine.
The oriental languages frequently negleft the ufe of
genders, and the Perfian language has none at all.
The Latins, Greeks, &c. generally content them-
felves to exprefs the different genders by different ter¬
minations } as bonus equus, “ a good horfe j” bona equd,
“ a good mare,” &c. But in Englifh we frequently
go further, and exprefs the difference of fex by differ¬
ent words : as boar, fow; boy, girl j buck, doe j bull,
cow j cock, hen ; dog, bitch, &c.—We have only
about 24 feminines, diftinguifhed from the males, by
the variation of the termination of the male into efs ;
of which number are abbot, abbefs j count, countefs j
actor, aftrefs 5 heir, heirefs 5 prince, princefs, &c.
which is all that our language knows of any thing like
genders.
The Greek and Latin, befides the mafculine and fe¬
minine, have the neuter, common, and the doubtful
gender j and likewife the epicene, or promifcuous,
which under one fingle gender and termination includes
both the kinds.
GENEALOGY, an enumeration of a feries of an-
ceffors •, or a fummary account of the relations and al¬
liances of a perfon or family, both in the diredt and col¬
lateral line.
The word is C reek, ymxXoyix 5 which is formed of
yoas, “ race or li eage,” and Aayaj, “ difcourfe.”
In divers chapt :rs and military orders, it is required,
that the candidates produce their genealogy, to fliotv Gtne. 0*
that they are noble by fo many defcents. ^ Ge^eral.
GENEALOGICA arbor, or Trxz of Confangui-
nity, fignihes a genealogy or lineage drawn out under
the figure of a tree, with its root, ftock, branches,
&c. The genealogical degrees are ufually reprefented
in circles, ranged over, under, and alide each other.
This the Greeks called Jiemmata, a word fignifying
crown, garland, or the like. See the articles Con¬
sanguinity and Descent, and the plates there referred
to.
GENEP, a ftrong town of Germany, in the circle
of Weftphalia, fubjeit to the king of PrutTia. E. Long.
4. 29. N. Lat. 51. 42.
GENERAL, an appellation given to whatever be¬
longs to a whole genus.
General Affembly. See Assembly.
General Charge, in Law. See Charge to enter
Heir.
General Terms, among logicians, thofe which are
made the figns of general ideas. See Logic and Me¬
taphysics.
General Warrant. See Warrant.
General of an Army, in the art of War, he who
commands in chief. See the article War, where his
office and duties are particularly explained.
General of the Artillery. See Ordnance.
General of Horfe, and General of Foot, are poffs
next under the general of the army, and thefe have up¬
on all occafions an abfolute authority over all the horfe
and foot in the army.
Adjutant General, one who attends the general,
affifts in council, and carries the general’s orders to
the army. He diftributes the daily orders to the ma¬
jors of brigade. He is likewife charged with the ge¬
neral detail of the duty of the army. The majors of
brigade fend every morning to the adjutant general
an exadt return, by battalion and company, of the
men of his brigade. In a day of battle the adjutant
general fees the infantry drawn up } after which, he
places himfelf by the general, to receive any orders
which may regard the corps of which he has the de¬
tail. In a fiege, he orders the number of workmen
demanded, and figns the warrant for their payment.
He receives the guards of the trenches at their ren¬
dezvous, and examines their condition 5 he gives and
figns all orders for parties. He has an orderly fer-
jeant from each brigade of infantry in the line, to
carry fuch orders as he may have occafion to fend from
the general.
Lieutenant General, is the next in command after
the general j and provided he Ihould die or be killed,
the order is, that the oldeft lieutenant general (hall take
the command. This office is the firft military dignity
after that of general. One part of their fun&ion is,
to affift the general with their council : they ought
therefore, if poffible, to poffefs the fame qualities with
the general himfelf; and the more, as they often com¬
mand armies in chief.
The number of lieutenant generals has been mul¬
tiplied of late in Europe, in proportion as the armies
have become numerous. They ferve either in the field,
or in fieges, according to the dates of their commiffions.
In battle, the oldeff commands the right wing of the
army, the fecond the left wing, the third the centre,
3 P 2 tile
General.
GEN [ 484 ] GEN
the fourth the right wing of the fecond line, the fifth
the left wing, the fixth the centre; and fo on. In
fieges, the lieutenant generals always command the
right of the principal attack, and order what they judge
proper for the advancement of the fiege during the 24
hours they are in the trenches : except the attacks,
which they are not to make without an order from the
general in chief.
Lieutenant General of the Ordnance. See Ord¬
nance.
Lieutenant General of^ Artillery, is, or ought to
he, a very great mathematician, and an able engineer j
to know all the powers of artillery \ to underltand the
attack and defence of fortified places, in all its different
branches j how to difpofe of the artillery in the day of
battle to the bell advantage j to conduft its march and
retreat j as alfo to be well acquainted with all the nu¬
merous apparatus belonging to the train, and to the la¬
boratory, &c.
Major General, the next officer to the lieutenant
general. His chief bufinefs is to receive orders from
the general, or in his abfence from the lieutenant gene¬
ral of the day 5 which he is to diltribute to the brigade
majors, with whom he is to regulate the guards, con¬
voys, detachments, &c. On him refts the whole fa¬
tigue and detail of duty of the army roll. It is the ma¬
jor general of the day who is charged with the encamp¬
ment of the army, who places himfelf at the head of it
when they march, who marks out the ground of the
camp to the quartermafter general, and who places the
newr guards for the fafety of the camp.
The day the army is to march, he diftates to the
field officers the order of the march, which he has re¬
ceived from the general, and on other days gives them
the parole.
In a fixed camp he is charged with the foraging,
with reconnoitring the ground for it, and polling the
efcorts, &c.
In fieges, if there are two feparate attack, the fe¬
cond belongs to him j but if there is but one, he takes,
either from the right or left of the attack, that which
the lieutenant general has not chofen.
When the army is under arms, he affilts the lieute¬
nant general, whofe orders he executes.
If the army marches to an engagement, his poll is at
the head of the guards of the army, until they are near
enough to the enemy to rejoin their different corps $ af¬
ter which he retires to his own proper poll: fpr the
major generals are difpofed on the order of battle as the
lieutenant generals are 5 to whom, however, they are
iubordinate, for the command of their divifions. The
major general has one aid-de-camp, paid for executing
his orders.
General is alfo ufed for a particular march, or
beat of drum j being the firff which gives notice, com¬
monly in the morning early, for the infantry to be in
readinefs to march.
General is likewife an appellation by which officers
in law, in the revenues, &c. are diftinguithed j as, at¬
torney general, folicitor general, &c. receiver general,
comptroller general, &c. See Attorney, &c.
General is alfo ufed for the chief of an order of
monks, or of all the houfes and congregations efta-
hliihed under the fame rule. Thus we fay, the general
of the Francifcans, Ciftertians, &c.
GENERALISSIMO, called alfo captain general,GzntizWRi-
and limply general, is an officer who commands all the
military powers of a nation 5 who gives orders to all the Q^nCrat;on
other general officers j and receives no orders himfelf ^
but from the king.
M. Balzac obferves, that the cardinal de Richelieu
firff coined this word, of his own abfolute authority,
upon his going to command the French army in Italy.
GENERATE, in Mufc, is ufed to lignify the ope¬
ration of that mechanical power in nature, which every
found has in producing one or more different founds.
Thus any given found, however limple, produces along
with itfelf, its odtave, and two other founds extremely
fliarp, viz. its twelfth above, that is to fay, the oftave
of its fifth j and the other tire feventeenth above,
or, in other wrords, the double odtave of its third
major.
Whether we fuppofe this procreation of founds to
refult from an aptitude in the texture and magnitude
of certain particles in the air, for conveying to our
ears vibrations that bear thofe proportions, one to ano¬
ther, as being determined at once by the partial and
total ofcillations of any mufical firing ; or from what¬
ever economy of nature we choofe to trace it the
power of one found thus to produce another, when in
adlion, is faid to generate. The fame wTord is applied,
by Signior Tartini and his followers, to any two founds
which, fimultaneoufly heard, produce a third.
GENERATED, or GENITED, is ufed, by fume
mathematical writers, for whatever is produced, either
in arithmetic, by the multiplication, divilion, or ex¬
traction of roots *, or in geometry, by the invention of
the contents, areas, and fides •, or of extreme and mean
proportionals, without arithmetical addition and fub-
traCtion.
GENERATING line, or figure, in Geometry,
is that which, by its motion of revolution, produces any
other figure, plane or folid. See Genesis.
GENERATION, in Physiology, the a£t of procre¬
ating and producing a being fimilar to the parent. See
Anatomy, N° 157.
Generation of Fifhes. See Comparative Anatomy,
N° 304, and Ichthyology.
Generation of Plants. See Botany.
Generation of LnfeBs. See Comparative Anatomy,
p, 312, and Entomology, p. 234.
Parts of Generation. See Anatomy, N° i57.
Generation, in Mathematics, is ufed for formation
or production. Thus we meet with the generation of
equations, curves, folids, &c.
Generation, in Theology. The Father is faid by
fome divines to have produced his Word or Son from
all eternity, by way of generation j on which occafion
the word generation raifes a peculiar idea : that procef-
fion, which is really effeCted in the wray of underftand-
ing, is called generation, becaufe in virtue thereof, the
Word becomes like to him from whom he takes this ori¬
ginal ; or, as St Paul expreffes it, is the figure or image
of his fubftance, i. e. of his being and nature. And
hence it is, they fay, that the fecond Perfon in the Tri¬
nity is called the Son.
Generation is alfo ufed, though fomewhat impro¬
perly, for genealogy, or the feries of children ffl'ued
from the fame ftock. Thus the gofpel of St Matthew
commences with the book of the generation of Jefus
v Chrift,
GEN [ 485 ] , . G E. N ,
The latter and more accurate tranflators, the general defection and corruption of the world j the
Genefis
Generation Chrift, &c.
inftead of generation ufe the word genealogy.
Generation is alfo ufed to fignify a people, race,
or nation, efpecially in the literal translations ot the
Scripture, where the word generally occurs wherever
the Latin \\?l$ generatio, and the Greek yjvij-jj. 1 iius,
“ A wicked and perverfe generation leeketh a fign,”
Sec. “ One generation palfes away, and another conr-
eth,” &.c.
Generation is alfo ufed in the fenfe of an age, or
the ordinary period of man’s life. -Thus we fay,. “ to
th? third and fourth generation.” In this fenfe hiftori-
ans ufually reckon a generation the fpace ot 33 yeaiS or
thereabouts. See Age.
Herodotus makes three generations in a hundred
years ^ which computation appears from the latter au¬
thors of political arithmetic to be pretty juft.
GENERATOR, in Mafic, fignifies the principal
found or founds by which others are produced. Thus
the lowed: C for the treble of the harpfichord, befides
its obtave, will ftnke an attentive ear with its twelfth
above, or G in alt, and with its feventeenth above, or
E in alt. The C, therefore, is called their generator,
the G and E its products or harmonics. But in the
approximation of chords, for G, its o6lave below is
fubftituted, which conftitutes a fifth from the generator,
®r loweft C j and for E, is likewife fubftituted its fif¬
teenth below, which, with the above-mentioned C, forms
a third major. To the loweft notes, therefore, exchan¬
ged for thofe in alt by fubftitution, the denominations
of produ61s or harmonics are likewife given, whilft the
C retains the name of their generator. But ftill accord¬
ing to the fyftem of Tartini, two notes in concord,
which when founded produce a third, may be termed
the concurring generators of that third. (See Genera-
tion liarmonique, per M. Rameau ; fee alfo that deline¬
ation of Tartini’s fyftem called The Power and Princi¬
ples of Harmony.)
GENERICAL name, in Natural Hijlory, the word
ufed to fignify all the fpecies of natural bodies, which
agree in certain effential and peculiar chara61ers, and
therefore all of the fame family or kind •, fo that the
word ufed as the generical name equally exprelfes every
one of them, and fome other words expreftive of the
peculiar qualities or figures of each are added, in order
to denote them fingly, and make up what is called the
fpecific name. See Botany and Natural Hijlory.
GENESIS, the firft book of the Old Teftament,
containing the hiftory of the creation, and the lives of
the firft patriarchs.
The book of Genefis ftands at the head of the Pen¬
tateuch. Its author is held to be Mofes : it contains
the relation of 2369 years, viz. from the beginning of
the world to the death of Jofeph. The Jews are for¬
bidden to read the beginning of Genefis, and the begin¬
ning of Ezekiel, befpre 30 years of age.
The Pie brews called this book Berefchith, becaufe it
begins with that word, which in their language figni¬
fies in principle, or “ in the beginning.” The Greeks
gave it the name Genefs, Fenm, q. d. produdlion, ge¬
neration, becaufe it begins with the hiilory of the pro¬
duction or generation of all beings.
This book, befides the hiftory of the creation, con¬
tains an account of the original innocence and fall of
man : the propagation of mankind j the rife of religion j
Genefis
deluge 5 the reftoration of the world; the divifion
and peopling of the earth •, and the hiftory of the
firft patriarchs to the death of Jofeph. It was eafy
for Mofes to be fatisfied of the truth of what he deli¬
vers in this book, becaufe it came dowm to him through
a few hands ; for from Adam to Noah there was one
man, viz. Methufelah, who lived fo long as to fee them
both: in like manner Shem converfed with Noah and
Abraham j Ifaac with Abraham and Jofeph, from
whom the records of this book might eafily be convey¬
ed to Mofes by Amram, who was contemporary with
Jofeph.
Genesis, in Geometry, denotes the formation of a
line, plane, or folid, by the motion or flux of a point,
line, or furface. See Feuxions.
The genefis or formation, e.gr. of a globe or fphere,
is conceived by fuppofing a femicircle to revolve upon
a right line, drawn from one extreme thereof to the
other, called its axis, or axis of circumvolution : the
motion or revolution of that femicircle is the genefis of
the fphere, &c.
In the genefis of figures, &c. the line or furface that
moves is called the deferibent; and the line round which,
or, according to which, the revolution or motion is
made, the dirigent.
G ENET, Gennet, or Jennet, in the manege, de¬
notes a fmall-fized wHl-proportioned Spanifti horfe.
To ride a la genette, is to ride after the Spaniih fa-
ftuon, fo Ihort, that the fpurs bear upon the horfe’s
flank.
GENETHLIA, in antiquity, a folemnity kept in
memory of fome perfon deceafed.
GENETHLIACI, in AJlrology, perfons who ereCl
horofeopes, or pretend to foretel what Ihall befal a man
by means of the ftars which prefided at his nativity.
The word is formed of the Greek origin, gene¬
ration, nativity.
The ancients called them Chaldcei, and by the gene¬
ral name mathematici: accordingly, the feveral civil and
canon laws, which wre find made againft the mathemati¬
cians, only refpect the genethliaci or aftrologers.
They were expelled Rome by a formal decree of the
fenafe j and yet found fo much protection from the
credulity of the people, that they remained therein
unmolefted. Hence an ancient author fpeaks of them
as hominum genus quod in civitate nofra femper et veta-
bitur et retinebitur.
GENETTE, in Zoology. See Viverra, Mam¬
malia Index.
GENEVA, a city of Switzerland, on the confines
of France and Savoy, fituated in 6° E. Long, and
46° I 2' 9" N. Lat. It ftands on the banks of the river
Rhone, juft at the place where the latter ifiues from
the lake which takes its name from the city ; and part
of it is built on an ifland in the river. It is handfome,
well fortified, and pretty large j the ftreets in general
are clean and well paved, but the principal one is en¬
cumbered with a row of ftiops on each fide between
the carriage and foot-path. The latter is very wide,
and protedled from the weather by great wooden pent-
houfes projefting from the roofs 5 which, though very
convenient, give the ftreet a dark and dull appear¬
ance. The houfes are generally conftrufled of free-
ftone, with bafements of limeftone j the gutters, fpouts,
ridges,
Geneva.
GEN
[ 4
86
Geneva. rkiPes, and outward ornaments, being made ot tinned
v~ iron. Some of them have arcbed walks or piazzas in
front. The place called Trei/le is very agreeable, be¬
ing planted with linden trees, and commanding a fine
prcfpedt of the lake, with feveral ranges of rocks rifing
behind one another, fome covered with vineyards and
herbage, and others with Ihow, having openings be¬
tween them. Immediately below Geneva the Rhone
is joined by the Arve, a cold and muddy itream riling
among the Alps, and deriving a conliderable part of its
waters from the Glaciers. Ihe Rhone is quite clear
and tranfparent, fo that the muddy water of the Arve
is diftinguilhable from it even after they have flowed
for feveral miles together. There are four bridges
over the Rhone before it joins the Arve j and from it
the city is fupplied wdth w^ater by means of an hy¬
draulic machine, which raifes it 100 Paris feet above
its level. The principal buildings ai‘e, I. The maifon
de ville, or townhoufe, a plain ancient edifice, with
large rooms, in which the councils aflemble, and pub¬
lic entertainments are held j and in one of them a week¬
ly concert is held by fubfcription during the winter.
The afcent to the upper llory is not by Heps but a
paved acclivity : which, however, is fo gentle, that
horfes and mules can go up to the top. 2. 1 he
church of St Peter’s, formerly the cathedral, is an an¬
cient Gothic building, with a modern portico of feven
large Corinthian columns of red and w’hite marble from
Roche. The only thing remarkable in the infide is
the tomb of Henry duke of Rohan. 3. The arfenal is
in good order, and fupplied with arms fuflicient for
I 2,000 men. There are many ancient fuits of armour •,
and the fealing ladders, lanthorns, hatchets, &c. ufed by
the Savoyards in their treacherous attempt on the city
in the year 160 2, to be afterwards noticed, are here pre-
ferved. The magazines contain 110 cannon, befides
mortars. 4. The hofpital is a large handfome building,
by which and other charities near 4000 poor people
are maintained. 5. The fortifications on the fide of Sa¬
voy are of the modern conftruTion, but are command¬
ed by fome neighbouring grounds. On the fide of
France they are old fafliioned, and at any rate are ra¬
ther calculated to prevent a furprife than to fuftain a re¬
gular fiege. There are three gates, towards France,
Savoy, and Switzerland 5 and the accefs to the lake is
guarded by a double jetty and chain.
The territory belonging to this city contains about
feven fquare leagues, and is divided into nine pa-
rilhes j the town is by far the molt populous in Swit¬
zerland, having about 30,000 inhabitants, of whom,
however, 5000 are generally fuppofed to be abfent.
It has a fmall diftriT dependent on it, but this
does not contain above 16,coo. The adjacent coun¬
try is extremely beautiful, and has many magnificent
views arifing from the different pofitions of the nume¬
rous hills and mountains with regard to the town and
lake. The inhabitants were formerly dillinguiflied in¬
to four clafles, viz. citizens, burgeffes, inhabitants, and
natives ; and fince the revolution in 1782, a fifth clafs
named domicihus, has been added, who annually
receive permiflion from the magiftrates to refide in the
city. The citizens and burgeffes alone, however, are
admitted to a (hare in the government 5 thofe called
inhabitants are ftrangers allowed to fettle in the town
with certain privileges j and the natives are the fons qf
I
Geneva.
ng tn
neva.
] GEN
thofe inhabitants, who poffefs additional advantages.
The people are very active and induilrious, carrying on
an extenfive commerce.
This city is remarkable for the number of learned ji,:ate. .
men it has produced. The reformed doctrines of reli- ^a'
gion were very early received in it, being preached
there in 1533 by William Farel and Peter Viret of
Orbe, and aftewards finally eftablifhed by the celebra¬
ted John Calvin. Of this reformer Voltaire obferves,
that he gave his name to the religious doctrines firft
broached by others, in the fame manner that Americas
Vefputius gave name to the continent of America,
which had formerly been difeovered by Columbus. It
was by the afiiduity of this celebrated reformer, and
the influence that he acquired among the citizens,
that a public academy was firfl eftablifhed in the city,
where he, Theodore Eeza, and fome of the more emi¬
nent firft reformers, read leClures wdth uncommon fuc-
cefs. The intolerant fpirit of Calvin is rvell known j
but little of it now appears in the government of Ge¬
neva : on the contrary, it is the moft tolerating of all
the eftates in Switzerland, being the only one of them
which permits the public exercife of the Lutheran re¬
ligion. The advantages of the academy at Geneva are
very confpicuous among the citizens at this day, even
the lowrer clafs of them being exceedingly well inform¬
ed 5 fo that, according to Mr Coxe, there is not a city
in Europe where learning is fo generally diffufed. “ I
received great fatisfadlion (fays he) in converfing even
wdth feveral tradefmen upon topics both of literature
and politics ; and was aftonifhed to find in this clafs
of men fo uncommon a fhare of knowledge 5 but the
wmnder ceafes when wTe are told that all of them were
educated at the public academy.” In this feminary
the induftry and emulation of the ftudents are excited
by the annual diftribution of prizes to thofe who di-
fidnguifh themfelves in each clafs. The prizes confift:
of fmall medals, but are conferred wdth fuch folemnity
as cannot fail to produce a fhdking effe£l on the minds
of youth. There is alfo a public library to which the
citizens have accefs, and which undoubtedly tends
greatly to that univerfal diffufion of learning fo re¬
markable among the inhabitants. It was founded by
Bonnivard, remarkable for his fufferings in the caufe of
the liberties of his country. Having been a great an-
tagonift of the dukes of Savoy, againft wdiom he af-
ferted the independence of Geneva, he had the mis¬
fortune at laft to be taken prifoner, and was imprifon-
ed for fix years in a dungeon below the level of the
lake, in the caftle of Chillon, which Hands on a rock in
the lake, and is connefled with the land by a drawr-
bridge. In 1536 this caftle was taken from Charles III.
of Savoy by the canton of Berne, aflifted by the Gene¬
vans, who furniflied a frigate (their whole naval force)
to befiege it by water. Bonnivard wras nowr taken from
his dungeon, where by conftant walking backward and
forward, his only amufement, he had wTorn a hollow
in the floor which confided of folid rock. Bonnivard
confidered the hardflfips he had endured as ties which
endeared him to the city, and became a principal pro¬
moter of the reformation by the mild methods of per-
fuafion and inftruflion. He clofed his benefaflions by
the gift of his books and manuferipts, and bequeathing
his fortune towrards the eftabiilhment and fiupport of
the feminary. His works, which chiefly relate to the
hiftory
GEN [48
Geneva., hifiory of Geneva, are Hill preferved with great care
"■ * and revtrence. I he library contains 25,000 volumes,
v’ith many curious manufcripts, of which an account
has been pufclifhed by the reverend M. Sennebier the
librarian, who has likewife diftinguifhed himfelf by fe-
veral literary works. MeRrs Bonnet, SauiTure, Mallet,
and De Luc, are the other moil dhtinguiihed literary
geniufes of which Geneva can boai’r. The laft is par¬
ticularly remarkable for the perfeclion to which he has
brought the barometer, and which is now fo great,
j that very little feems poflible to be done by any body
Account of elfe. His cabinet merits the attention of naturaluts,
De Luc’s as containing many rare and curious fpecimens of fof-
cabmet. fj]s> which ferve to illuflrate the theory of the globe.
It may be divided into three parts : 1. Such as enable
the naturalift to compare the petrifa&ions of animals
and vegetables with the fame bodies wich are Hill
known to exiit in our parts of the globe. 2. To com¬
pare thefe petn'actions of animals with the fame bo¬
dies which are known to exiit in different countries.
3. To confrder the petrifactions of thofe bodies which
are no longer known to exiit. The fecond part com¬
prehends tire ftones under three points of view : 1.
Thofe of the primitive mountains, which contain no
animal bodies ; 2. Thofe of the fecondary mountains,
which contain only marine bodies’, 3. Thofe which
contain terreftrial bodies. The third part contains the
lavas and other volcanic productions 5 which are diflin-
guiihed into two claffes : 1. Thole which come from
volcanoes now actually burning ; 2. Thofe from ex-
3 tinguifhed volcanoes.
Hiftory and In the time of Charles the Great, the city and ter-
mentof r^tory °f Geneva made part of his empire •, and, under
Geneva. fucceffors, it became fubje£t to the German empe¬
rors. By reafon of the imbecility of thefe princes,
howrever, the bithops of Geneva acquired fuch autho¬
rity over the inhabitants, that the emperor had no o-
ther means of counterbalancing it than by augmenting
the privileges of the people. In thefe barbarous ages
alfo the bifhops and counts had conftant difputes, of
which the people took the advantage ; and by fiding
fometimes with one, and fometimes with the other,
they obtained an ex tend on of their privileges from
both. The heufe of Savoy at length purchafed the
territory, and furceeded the counts with additional
powTer : agrdnft them therefore the bifuops and people
united in order to refill their encroachments j and, du¬
ring this period, the government was ffrangely com¬
plicated, by reafon of the various pretenfions of the
three parties. The counts of Savoy, hoveever, had at
lad the addrefs to diffolve the union between the bi¬
fhops and citizens, by procuring the epifc«pal fee for
their brothers, and even their illegitimate children ; by
wdiich means their power became gradually fo exten-
five, that towards the commencement of the 16th
century, Charles III. of Savoy (though the govern¬
ment was accounted entirely republican) obtained an
almofl abfolute authority over the people, and exer-
cifed it in a moil unjufl and arbitrary manner. Thus vio¬
lent commotions took place 5 and the citizens became
divided into two parties, one of which, viz. the pa¬
triots, were ftyled Euigcnqffl-n or confederates; the
partifans of Savoy being difgraced by the appellation
of Mamelucs or flaves. The true period of Gene¬
van liberty may therefore be ccnfidered as commencing
7 ] GEN
with the treaty concluded with Berne and Frlburg in Geneva,
the year 15265 in confequence of which the duke '“""'N “■
was in a fliort time deprived of his authority, the bi-
fhop driven from the city, and the reformed religion and
a republican form of government introduced. A long
wrar commenced with Savoy on this account 5 but the
Genevans proved an overmatch for their enemies by
their own bravery and the afufiance of the inhabitants
of Berne, In 1584, the republic concluded a treaty
with Zurich and Berne, by which it is allied to the Svvils
cantons. The houfe of Savoy made their laft attempt
againft Geneva in 1602, when the city was treach-
eroufty attacked in the night time during a profound
peace.. Two hundred ioldiers had fealed the. walls,
and got into the town before any alarm was given 5
but they were repulfed by the defperate valour of a few
citizens, w'ho perlfhed in the encounter. A petard had
been faftened to one of the gates by the Savoyards 5
but the gunner wras killed before it could be difehar-
ged. The war occafioned by this treachery was next
year concluded by a folemn treaty, which has ever
fince been obf rved on both fides : though the inde- ■
pendence of Geneva was not formally acknowledged by
the king of Sardinia till the year 1754.
The reftoration of tranquillity from without in
confequence of the above treaty, was however foon
followed by the flames of internal difeord, fo com¬
mon in popular governments 5 fo that during the
whole of the laft century the hiftory of Geneva af¬
fords little more than an account of the ftruggles be ¬
twixt the ariftocratical and popular parties. About
the beginning of the prefent century the power of the
grand council was become almoft abfolute 5 but in
order to reftrain its authority, an edict was procured
in 1707 by the popular party, enacting, that every
five years a general council of the citizens and burgh¬
ers iliould be fummoued to deliberate upon the af¬
fairs of the republic. In confequence of this law a ge¬
neral affembly was convened in 1712; and the very
firft aft of that affembly was to abolilh the edaft by
which they had been convened. A proceeding lo ex¬
traordinary can fcarcely be accounted for on the prin¬
ciples of popular ficklenefs and inconftancy. Rout-
feau, in his Mifcellaneous Works, aferibes it to the
artifices of the magiftrates, and the equivocal terms
marked upon the billets then in ufe. For the quettion
being put, “ Whether the opinion of the councils for
abolilhing the periodical affemblies thould pat’s into a
law i”’ the words approbation or rejection, put upon the
billets by which the votes wTere given, might be inter¬
preted either way. Thus, if the billet was choten on
which the word approbation was written, the opinion
of the councils which rejected the affemblies was ap¬
proved 5 and by the word rejection, the periodical af¬
fembly was rejected of courle. Hence feveral- of the
citizens complained that they had been deceived, and
that they never meant to rejedt the general affembly,
but only the opinion of the councils.
In confequence of the abolition of the general af¬
femblies, the power of the ariftocratical party was
greatly augmented 5 till at length the inhabitants exert- ■
ing themfelves with uncommon fpirit and perfeverance,
found means to limit the power of the magiftrates, and
enlarge their own rights. In 1776, as Mr Cox informs -
us, the government might be confidered as a mean be¬
twixt
GEN [ 488
Geneva, twixt that of the ariftocratical and popular cantons of
^*"*"*~v ~rr * Switzerland. The members of the lenate, or ^ littie
4 council of 25, enjoyed in their corporate capacity fe-
Slwtch 0 ^ vcrai very considerable prerogatives. By them half the
]
GEN
the govern¬
ment in
1776.
members of the great council were named } tue princi¬
pal magiftrates were fupplied from their own body j
they convoked the great and general councils, delibe¬
rating previoufly upon evTefy queflion which wus to be
brought before thefe councils. I hey were vefled alfo
with the chief executive pow’er, the adminiflration. of
finances, and had in a certain degree the junlduffion
in civil and criminal caufes. Moft of the fmaller polls
were likewife filled by them j and they enjoyed the
fble privilege of conferring the burgherfhip. Ihefe,
and other prerogatives, however, were balanced by
thofe of the great council and the privileges of the ge¬
neral council. The former had a right to choofe the
members of the fenate from their own body; receiving
appeals in all caufes above a certain value, pardoning
criminals, &c. befides which they had the important
privilege of approving or rejefting whatever was pro-
pofed by the fenate to be laid before the people.
The general council or affembly of the people is
compofed of the citizens and burghers of the town }
their number in general amounting t® 15^°? though
ufually not more than 1200 were prefent} the remain¬
der refiding in foreign countries, or being otherwife
abfent. It meets twice a-year, choofes the principal
magiflrates, approves or rejecls the law7s and regula¬
tions propofed by the other councils, impofes taxes,
contrails alliances, declares w7ar or peace, and nomi¬
nates half the members of the great council, &c. But
the principal check to the power of the fenate arofe
from the right of re-eleElion, or the power of annually
expelling four members from the fenate at the nomi¬
nation of the fytidies or principal magiftrates, and from
the right of reprefentation. The fyndics are four in
number, chofen annually from the fenate by the gene¬
ral council; and three years elapfe before the fame
members can be again appointed. In choofing thefe
magiftrates, the fenate appointed from its owm body
eight candidates, from whom the four fyndics wTere
to be chofen by the general council. The latter, how7-
cver, had it in their power to rejeil not only the firft
eight candidates, but alfo the whole body of fenators
in fucceflion : in which cafe, four members of the fenate
retired into the great council : and their places were
filled by an equal number from that council. With
regard to the power of reprefentation, every citizen
or burgher has the privilege of applying to the fenate
in order to procure a new regulation in this reipedl,
or of remonftrating againft any aft of the magiftracy.
To thefe remonftrances the magiftrates were obliged to
give an explicit anfwer ; for if a fatisfaftory anfwer was
not given to one, a fecond w7as immediately prefented.
The reprefentation was made by a greater or fmaller
number of citizens according to the importance of the
point in queftion.
Since the 1776, however, Several changes have taken
:he revolu- place. This right of re-eleflion, which the ariftocratical
party were obliged to yield to the people in 1768, Soon
proved very difagreeable, being considered by the iormer
as a kind of oftracifm •, for which reafon they catched
at every opportunity of procuring its abolition. They
were now diftinguilhed by the title of negatives^
Account of
lion in
i';82.
while the popular party had that of reprefentants ; and (
the point in difpute was the compilation of a new code
of laws. This meafure the negatives oppofed, as
fuppofing that it would tend to reduce their preroga¬
tives ; while, on the other hand, the reprefentants ufed
their utmoft endeavours to promote it, in hopes of
having their privileges augmented by this means. At
laft in the month of January 1777, the negatives w7ere
obliged to comply with the demands of their antago-
nifts; and'a committee for formings new code of law's
was appointed by the concurrence of the little, great,
and general councils. The committee was to laft for two
years, and the code to be laid before the three councils
for their joint approbation or rejeftion. A fketch of
the firft part of the code was preiented to the little and
great councils on the firft of September 1779, that
they might profit by their obfervations before it wras
prefented to the general council. Great difputes a-
rofe ; and at length it was carried by the negatives that
the code ftiould be rejefted and the committee dilfolv-
ed. The oppofite party complained of this as un-
conftitutional, and violent difputes enfued ; the iffue of
which was, that the great council offered to compile
the code, and fubmit it to the decifion of the public.
This did not give fatisfaftion to the popular party,
who confidered it as infidious : the contentions revived
w7ith more fury than ever, until at length the negatives
fuppofing, or pretending to fuppofe, that their coun¬
try w7as in danger, applied to the guarantees, France,
Zurich, and Berne, entreating them to proteft the
laws and conftitution. This w7as produftive of no
good effeft •, fo that the negatives found no other me¬
thod of gaining their point than by fowing diffenfion
among the different claffes of inhabitants. The na¬
tives were difeontented and jealous on account of many
exclufive privileges enjoyed by that clafs named citi¬
zens : they were befides exafperated againft them for
having, in banifhed eight of the principal na¬
tives, who pretended that the right of burgherfhip be¬
longed to the natives as well as to the. citizens, and
demanded that this right ought to be gratuitoufly
conferred inftead of being purchafed. The negatives,
in hopes of making fuch a confiderable addition to
their party, courted the natives by all the methods
they could think of, promifing by a public declaration
that they were ready to confer upon them thofe privi¬
leges of trade and commerce which had hitherto been
confined exclufively to the citizens. The defigns of the
negatives were likewife openly favoured by the court
of France, and defpatches w7ere even written to the
French refident at Geneva to be communicated to the
principal natives who fided with the ariftocratic party.
The attorney-general, conceiving this mode of interfe¬
rence to be highly unconftitutional, prefented a fpirited
remonftrance j by which the French court were fo much
difpleafed, that they procured his depofition from his
office y and thus their party was very confiderably in-
creaied among the natives. Ihe reprefentants weie
by no means negligent in their endeavours to conciliate
the favour of the fame party, and even promifed what
they had hitherto oppofed in the ftrongeft manner,
viz. to facilitate the acquifition of the burgherlhip,
and to bellow it as the recompenfe of induftry and
good behaviour. Thus tw7o parties were formed a-
mong the natives themfelves} and the diffenfions be-
, coming
G E M [ 48
courfe of his life had ever been difpoled to render him
friendly othces j and it was but a Ibort time after Ge-
miniani’s arrival at Dublin that he was called upon to
do him the laft. It appears that Geminiani had Ipent
many years in compiling an elaborate treatife on mulic,
which he intended for publication •, but foon after his
arrival at Dublin, by the treachery of a female fer-
vant, who, it was faid, was recommended to him for
no other end than that (he might deal it, it was con¬
veyed away, and could not be recovered. 'Ihe great-
nefs of this lofs, and his inability to repair it, made a
deep impreflion on his mind j and, as it is conjedlured,
haftened his end ; at lead he furvived it but a flrort
time, ending his days oifthe 17th of September 176a.
The following lift comprifes the whole of his publica¬
tions, except two or three articles of fmall account :
Twelve folos for a violin, opera prim a; ftx concertos
in feven parts, opera feconda; lix concertos in feven
parts, opera terz-a; twelve folos for a violin, opera
quarta; fix folos for a violoncello, opera quinta; the
fame made into folos for a violin ; fix concertos from
his opera quarta; fix concertos in eight parts, opera
fettima; rules for playing in tafte; a treatife on good
tafte \ the art of playing the violin j 1 2 fonatas from
his nrft folos, opera undecima; Ripieno parts to ditto j
leflbns for the harpfichord j Guida Armonica; fupple-
ment to ditto the art of accompaniment, two books ;
his firft two operas of concertos in fcore 5 and the En¬
chanted Foreft.—Of his folos the opera prinia is efteem-
ed the beft. Of his concertos fome are excellent, others
of them fcarce pafs the bounds of mediocrity. The
fixth of the third opera not only furpaffes all the reft,
but, in the opinion of the beft judges of harmony, is
the fineft inftrumental compoiition extant.
GEMMA, or Bud, in Botany-, a compendium or
epitome of a plant, feated upon the ftem and branches,
and covered with fcales, in order to defend the tender
rudiments enclofed from cold and other external injuries,
till, their parts being unfolded, they acquire ftrength,
and render any further proteflion unneceffary.
Buds, together With bulbs, which are a fpecies of
buds generally feated upon or near the root, conftitute
that part of the herb called by Linnaeus hjbernacula ;
that is, the winter quarters of the future vegetable : a
very proper appellation, as it is during that fevere
feafon that the tender rudiments are protected in the
manner juft mentioned.
Plants, confidered in analogy to animals, may pro¬
perly enough be reckoned both viviparous and ovipa¬
rous. Seeds are the vegetable eggs 5 buds, living
fetufes, or infant plants, which renew the fpecies as
certainly as the feeds.
Buds are placed at the extremity of the young (hoots,
and along the branches, being fixed by a fhort foot-
ftalk upon a kind of brackets, the remainder of the
leaves, in the wings or angles of which the buds in
queftion were formed the preceding year. They are
lomctimes placed lirigle; fometimes two by two, and
thofe either oppofite or alternate ; fometimes colledfed
in greater numbers in whirls or rings.
With refpedt to their conftruflion, buds are com-
pofed of feveral parts artificially arranged. Externally,
we find a number of fcales that are pretty hard, fre¬
quently armed with hairs, hollowed like a fpoon, and
placed over each other like tiles. Thefe fcales -are
Vol. IX. Part II.
I ] Cx E M
fixed into the inner plates of the bark, of which they
appear to be a prolongation. Their ufe is to defend
the internal parts of the bud; which, being unfolded,
will produce, fome, dowers, leaves, and ftipulae ; others,
footftalks and fcales. All thefe parts, while they re¬
main in the bud, are tender, delicate, folded ever each
other, and covered with a thick clammy juice, which
is fometimes refinous and odoriferous, as in the taca-
mahac tree. This juice ferves not only to defend the
more tender parts ot the embryo plant from cold, the
affaults of infefts, and other external injuries *, but
likewife from exceflive perfpiration, which, in its
young and infant ftate, would be very deftruftive. It
is confpicuous in the buds of horfe chefnut, poplar, and
willow trees.
In general, avc may diftinguifh three kinds of buds •,
that containing the flower, that containing the leaves,
and that containing both floAArer and leaves.
The firft, termed gemma jlorifera, and by the French
bouton a jteur or a fruit, contains the rudiments of one
or feveral flowers, folded over each other, and furround-
ed with fcales. In feveral trees, this kind of bud
is commonly found at the extremity of certain (mail
branches, which are (horter, rougher, and lefs gar-
niftied with leaves, than the reft. The external fcales
of this fpecies of bud are harder than the internal;
both are furnilhed with hairs, and in general more
fuelled than thofe of the fecond fort. The bud con¬
taining the floAver too is commonly thicker, ftiorter, a! -
moft fquare, lefs uniform, and lefs pointed ; being ge¬
nerally terminated obtufely. It is called by Pliny
oculus gemmee; and is employed in that fpecies c£
grafting called inoculation, or budding.
The fecond fpecies of bud, viz. that containing the
leaves, termed gemma folifera, and by the Irench bouton
a feuilles or a hois, contains the rudiments of feveral
leaves, vvkich are varioufly folded over each other, and
outAvardly furrounded by fcales, from which the Imail
ftipulm that are feated at the foot of the young branches
are chiefly produced. Thefe buds are commonly more
pointed than the former fort. In the hazel nut, how¬
ever, they are perfedlly round ; and in horfe chefnut,
very thick.
The third fort of bud is fmaller than either of the
preceding; and produces both flowers and leaves,
though not always in the fame manner. Sometimes
the flovA^ers and leaves are unfolded at the fame time.
This mode of the flower and leaf bud is termed by
Linnaeus gemma folifera et for if era. Sometimes the.
leaves proceed or emerge out of this kind of bud upon
a fmall branch, Avhich afterwards produces flowers.
This mode of the flower and leaf bud is termed by-
Linnaeus gemma folifera forifera, and is the moft com¬
mon bud of any.
Such buds as produce branches adorned only with
leaA'es, are called barren; fuch as contain both leaA^es
and flowers, fertile. From the bulk of the bud we
may often Avith eafe foretel whether it contains leaves
only, or leaves and flowers together, as in cherry and
pear trees.
Neither the buds produced on or near the root,
called by fome authors turiones, nor thole produced on
the trunk, and from the angles or wings of the leaves,
contain, in ftrict propriety, an entire delineation of the
plant; fince the roots are wanting; and in various
3 P binds,
GEM [ 482 ] G E N
Gemma, buds, as we have feen, {hoots arc contained with
]eaves only, and not with flowers : but as a branch
may be confldered as a part flmilar to tlie whole plant,
and, if planted, would in procefs of revegetation ex¬
hibit or produce roots and flowers, we may in general
allow, that the bud contains the whole plant, or the
principles of the whole plant, which may be unfolded
ad libitum; and thus refembles the feed, in containing
a delineation of the future plant in embryo: for al¬
though the bud wants a radicle, or plumula, of w'hich
the feed is poilefled, yet it would undoubtedly form
one, if planted in the earth. Eut as the medullary
part adhering to the bud is too tender, and by the
abundance of juice flowing into it from the earth would
be difpofed to putrefadlion, the buds are not planted
in the foil, but generally inferted within the bark of
another tree; yet placed fo that the production of the
marrow, or pith, adhering to them, may be inferted
into the pith of the branch in which the fiffure or cleft
is made 5 by which means there is a large communica¬
tion of juice. This propagation by gems or buds,
called inoculation, is commonly pracfifed with the firit
fort of buds above defcribed.
From the obvious ufes of the buds, wTe may collect
the reafon why the Supreme Author of nature has
granted this fort of protection to molt of the trees that
are natives of cold climates : and, on the other hand,
denied it to fuch as, enjoying a warm benign atmo¬
sphere, have not the tender parts of their embryo
Ihoots expofed to injuries and depredations from the
feverities of the weather. Of this latter kind are the
plants of the following lift ; feme of them very large
trees \ others fmaller woody vegetables, of the ftmib
and under-flirub kind : Citron, orange, lemon, caffava,
mock orange, blad apple, fhrubby fwallow wort, alater-
nus, flirubby geraniums, berry-bearing alder, Chrifl’s
thorn, Syrian mallow, boabab or Ethiopian four
grurd, jufticia, mild fena, the acacias and fenfitive
plant, coral tree, {linking bean trefoil, medicago, ole¬
ander, viburnum, fumach, ivy, tamarftk, heath, Barba-
does cherry, lavatera, rue, Ihrubby nightfhades, Guinea
henweed, cyprefs, lignum vitm, and favine, a fpecies of
juniper.
On annual plants, whofe root as well as ftalk periftics
after a year, time buds are never produced j in their
Head, however, are produced fmall branches, like a
little feather, from the wings of the leaves, which
wither without any farther expanfton if the plants climb
and have no lateral branches ; but if, either by their
own nature or from abundance of fap, the plants be¬
come branched, the ramuli juft mentioned obtain an
inereafe limilar to that of the whole plant.
The fame appearance obtains in the trees of warm
countries, fuch as thofe enumerated in the above lift, in
which a plumula, or fmall feather, lends forth branches
without a fcaly covering j as, in fuch countries, this
tender part requires no defence or proteflion from cold.
A fcaly covering then is peculiar to buds, as it protects
the tender embryo enclofed from all external injuries.
When we therefore fpeak of trees having buds that are
naked or without feales, our meaning is the fame as if
we had faid that they have no buds at all.
The buds that are to be unfolded the following
year, break forth from the evolved buds of the prefent
year, in fuch a manner as to put on the appearance
of fmall eminences in the wings or angles of the leaves. Cemmatio
Thefe eminences or knots grow but little during the N
fummer \ as, in that feafon, the fap is expended on the. GencIarmeV
increafe of the parts of the plant: but in autumn, V
when the leaves begin to wither and fall off, the buds,
placed on the wings, increafe ; and the embryo plant
contained in the bud is fo expanded, that the leaves and
flowers, the parts to be evolved the following year, are
diftlnclly vifible. Thus in horfe cheffut the leaves, and
in cornel tree the flowers, are each to be obferved in
their refpeftive buds.
As each bud contains the rudiments of a plant, and
would, if feparated from its parent vegetable, become
every way flmilar to it j Linmeus, to ftiow the wonder¬
ful fertility of nature, has made a calculation, by which
it appears, that, in a trunk fcarce exceeding a fpan in
breadth, 10,000 buds (that is, herbs) may be produced.
What an infinite number, then, of plants might be railed
from a very large tree 1
GEMMATIO, from gemma, “ a bud;” a term ufed
by Linmeus, expreflive of the form cf the buds, their
origin, and their contents. It includes both thofe pro¬
perly called buds, and thofe which are feated at the
roots, ftyled buibs.
As to the origin of buds, they are formed either of
the footftalks of the leaves, of liipulae, or of feales of
the bark. Their contents have been already difeovered,
in the preceding article, to be either flowers, leaves, or
both.
GBMONIFE scaltf., or Clradus Gemohii, among-
the Romans, was much the fame as gallows or gibbet
in England.—Some fay they were thus denominated
from the perfon 'who railed them ; others, from the
firft criminals that fuffered on them ; and others, from
the verb gemo, “ I figh or groan.”
The gradus gemomi, according to Publius Victor or
Sextus Rufus, was a place raifed on feveral Heps, from
whence they precipitated their criminals; others re-
prefent it as a place whereon offenders were executed,
and afterwards expofed to public view. The gemonice
/codec were in the tenth region of the city, near the
temple of Juno. Camillus firft appropriated the place
to this ufe, in the year of Rome 358.
GENDARMES, or Gens d’armes, in the French
armies, a denomination given to a felett body of horfe,
on account of their fucceeding the ancient gendarmes,
who were thus called from their being completely
clothed in armour; (fee Scots Gendarmes, infra.)
Thefe troops were commanded by captain lieutenants,
the king and the princes of the blood being their
captains; the king’s troop, belides a captain-lieute¬
nant, had two lublieutenants, three enfigns, and three
guidons.
Grand Gendarmes, latterly were a troop compofed
of 25c gentlemen ; the king himfelf was their captain,
and one of the firft: peers their captain-lieutenant, who
had under him two lieutenants, three enfigns, three
guidons, and other officers.
Small Gendarmes, were the Scots gendarmes, the
queen’s, the dauphin’s, the gendarmes of Anjou, Bur¬
gundy, the Englifii and Flemifii gendarmes, having
each a captain lieutenant, fub-lieutenant, enfign, guidon,
and quarter-mailer.
Scots Gendarmes, were originally inftituted by
Chavles VII. of France, about the middle of the 15th
century,
Stuart's
Conjlit. of
Scutland.
GEN
century, and formed a part of his guard j
ftation alfo they adled under other princes. It was their
prerogative to take precedence of all the companies of
the gendarmerie of France j and, on particular occa-
fions, they even preceded the two companies of the
king’s moufquetaires. The fons of the Scottifh mo-
narchs were the ufual captains of this company j and,
after Mary’s acceffion to the throne, its command
belonged to them as a right. It was thence that
James VI. made a claim of it for his fon Prince Henry.
This honour, and its emoluments, were alfo enjoyed
by Charles I. and the next in command to this prince
was Louis Stuart duke of Lennox. George Gordon
marquis of Huntly fucceeded the duke of Lennox in
the year 1624, and took the title of captain or com¬
mander in chief when Charles I. mounted the Englilh
throne. It is not certain whether Charles II. was ever
captain of this company j but it was conferred on his
brother the duke of York, who was captain of the
Scots gendarmes till the year 1667, when he religned
his commiOion into the hands of the French king.
Since that time no native of Great Britain has enjoyed
this command. See Scots Guards.
All the different gendarmeries are now abolilhed, in
conlequence of the reforming fyflems that have lately
taken place in France.
GENDER, among grammarians, a divifion of nouns,
or names, to diftinguiih the two fexes.
This was the original intention of gender: but after¬
wards other words, which had no proper relation either
to one fex or the other, had genders affigned them,
rather out of caprice than reafon 5 which is at length
eftablifhed by cuftom. Hence genders vary according
to the languages, or even according to the words in¬
troduced from one language into another. Thus, arbor
in Latin is feminine, but arbre in French is mafculine j
and dens in Latin is mafculine, but dent in French is
feminine.
The oriental languages frequently negledt the ufe of
genders, and the Perfian language has none at all.
i he Latins, Greeks, &c. generally content them-
.felves to exprefs the different genders by different ter¬
minations ; as bonus equits, “ a good horfe bona equa,
“ a good mare,” &c. But in Engliih we frequently
go further, and exprefs the difference of fex by differ¬
ent words: as boar, fow; boy, girl 5 buck, doe; bull,
cow ; cock, hen ; dog, bitch, &.c.—We have only
about 24 feminines, diftinguilhed from the males, by
the variation of the termination of the male into efs ;
of which number are abbot, abbefs ; count, countefs;
uclor, affrefs ; heir, heirefs; prince, princefs, &c.
which is all that our language knows of any thing like
genders.
The Greek and Latin, befides the mafculine and fe¬
minine, have the neuter, common, and the doubtful
gender; and likewife the epicene, or promifcuous,
which under one fingle gender and termination includes
both the kinds.
GENEALOGY, an enumeration of a feries of an-
ceftors ; or a fummary account of the relations and al¬
liances of a perfon or family, both in the diredt and col¬
lateral line.
I he word is Greek, yinoiXoyix ; which is formed of
yr»o?, “ race or lineage,” and Auyaj, “ difcourfe.”
In divers chapters and military orders, it is required,
gara,
General.
[ 483 1 G E N
in which that the candidates produce their genealogy, to fftow Gene.feu
that they are noble by fo many defeents.
GENEALOGICA ARBOR, or Tree of Confangui-
nity, fignifies a genealogy or lineage drawn out under
the figure of a tree, with its root, flock, branches,
&c. The genealogical degrees are ufually reprefented
in circles, ranged over, under, and afide each other.
This the Greeks called Jlemmata, a word fignifying.
crown, garland, or the like. See the articles Con¬
sanguinity and Descent, and the plates there referred
to.
GENEP, a flrong town of Germany, in the circle
of Weftphalia, fubjeCt to the king of Pruffia. ' E. Long.
4. 29. N. Lat. 51. 42.
GENERAL, an appellation given to whatever be¬
longs to a whole genus.
General Affembly. See Assembly.
General Charge, in Law. See Charge to enter
Heir.
General Terms, among logicians, thofe which are
made the figns of general ideas. See Logic and Me¬
taphysics.
General Warrant. See Warrant.
General of an Army, in the art of War, he who
commands in chief. See the article War, where his
office and duties are particularly explained.
General of the Artillery. See Ordnance.
General of Horfe, and General of Foot, are polls
next under the general of the army, and thefe have up¬
on all occafions an abfolute authority over all the horfe
and foot in the army.
Adjutant General, one who attends the general,
affifls in council, and carries the general’s orders to
the army. He diflributes the daily orders to the ma¬
jors of brigade. He is likewife charged with the ge¬
neral detail of the duty of the army. The majors of
brigade fend every morning to the adjutant general
an exaft return, by battalion and company, of the
men of his brigade. In a day of battle the adjutant
general fees the infantry drawn up ; after which, he
places himfelf by the general, to receive any orders
which may regard the corps of which he has the de¬
tail. In a fiege, he orders the number of workmen
demanded, and figns the warrant for their payment.
He receives the guards of the trenches at their ren¬
dezvous, and examines their condition ; he gives and
figns all orders for parties. He has an orderly fer-
jeant from each brigade of infantry in the line, to
carry fuch orders as he may have occafion to fend from
the general.
Lieutenant General, is the next in command after
the general; and provided he fhould die or be killed,
the order is, that the oldefl lieutenant general fhall take
the command. This office is the firfl military dignity
after that of general. One part of their funtlion is,
to affifl the general with their council : they ought
therefore, if poffible, to poffefs the fame, qualities wdth
the general himfelf; and the more, as they often com¬
mand armies in chief.
The number of lieutenant generals has been mul¬
tiplied of late in Europe, in proportion as the armies
have become numerous. They ferve either in the field,
or in lieges, according to the dates of their commiffions.
In battle, the oldefl commands the right wing of the
army, the fecond the left wing, the third the centre,
3 P 2 idle
General.
GEN [ 484 ] GEN
the fourth the right wing of the fecond line, the fifth
the left w’ing, the fixth the centre} and fo on. In
fieges, the lieutenant generals always command the
right of the principal attack, and order what they judge
proper for the advancement of the fiege during the 24
hours they are in the trenches : except the attacks,
which they are not to make without an order from the
general in chief.
Lieutenant General of the Ordnance. See Ord¬
nance.
Lieutenant General of Artillery, is, or ought to
be, a very great mathematician, and an able engineer •,
to know all the powers of artillery ; to underftand the
attack and defence of fortified places, in all its different
branches ; how to difpofe of the artillery in the day of
battle to the beft advantage ; to conduft its march and
retreat 5 as alfo to be well acquainted with all the nu¬
merous apparatus belonging to the train, and to the la¬
boratory, &c.
Major General, the next officer to the lieutenant
general. His chief bufinefs is to receive orders from
the general, or in his abfence from the lieutenant gene¬
ral of the day ; which he is to diffribute to the brigade
majors, with whom he is to regulate the guards, con¬
voys, detachments, &c. On him refts the whole fa¬
tigue and detail of duty of the army roll. It is the ma¬
jor general of the day who is charged with the encamp¬
ment of the army, who places himfelf at the head of it
when they march, who marks out the ground of the
camp to the quartermafter general, and who places the
new guards for the fafety of the camp.
The day the army is to march, he dictates to the
field officers the order of the march, wffiich he has re¬
ceived from the general, and on other days gives them
the parole.
In a fixed camp he is charged with the foraging,
with reconnoitring the ground for it, and polling the
efforts, &c.
In fieges, if there are two feparate attack, the fe¬
cond belongs to him j but if there is but one, he takes,
either from the right*or left of the attack, that which
the lieutenant general has not chofen.
When the army is under arms, he affifts the lieute¬
nant general, whofe orders he executes.
If the army marches to an engagement, his poll is at
the head of the guards of the army, until they are near
enough to the enemy to rejoin their different corps j af¬
ter which he retires to his own proper poll: for the
major generals are difpofed on the order of battle as the
lieutenant generals are •, to whom, however, they are
fubordinate, for the command of their divifions. The
major general has one aid-de-camp, paid for executing
his orders.
General is alfo ufed for a particular march, or
beat of drum } being the firff which gives notice, com¬
monly in the morning early, for the infantry to be in
readinefs to march.
General is likewife an appellation by which officer^
in law, in the revenues, &c. are diftinguilhed •, as, <7/-
torney general, folicitor general, &c. receiver general,
comptroller general, &c. See Attorney, &c.
General is alfo ufed for the chief of an order of
monks, or of all the houfes and congregations efta-
bliihed under the fame rule. Thus wre fay, the general
of the Francifcans, Ciftertians, &c.
GENERALISSIMO, called alfo captain getieral,Gtntxz\\ft\~
and limply general, is an officer who commands all the nj°
military powers of a nation ; who gives orders,to all the Qenel.at;on
other general officers j and receives no orders himfelf ,
but from the king.
M. Balzac obferves, that the cardinal de Richelieu
firff coined this word, of his own abfolute authority,
upon his going to command the French army in Italy.
GENERATE, in Mufic, is uffid to fignify the ope¬
ration of that mechanical power in nature, which every
found has in producing one or more different founds.
Thus any given found, however fimple, produces along
with itfelf, its odtave, and two other founds extremely
fliarp, viz. its twelfth above, that is to fay, the oflave
of its fifth ; and the other the feventeenth above,
or, in other words, the double oftave of its third
major.
Whether wre fuppofe this procreation of founds to
refult from an aptitude in the texture and magnitude
of certain particles in the air, for conveying to our
ears vibrations that bear thofe proportions, one to ano¬
ther, as being determined at once by the partial and
total offillations of any mufical firing j or from wdiat-
ever economy of nature we choofe to trace it j the
powrer of one found thus to produce another, when in
aclion, is faid to generate. The fame word is applied,
by Signior Tartini and his followers, to any two founds
which, fimultaneoufly heard, produce a third.
GENERATED, or Genited, is ufed, by fome
mathematical waiters, for whatever is produced, either
in arithmetic, by the multiplication, diviiion, or ex¬
traction of roots; or in geometry, by the invention of
the contents, areas, and fides j or of extreme and mean
proportionals, without arithmetical addition and fub-
traftion.
GENERATING LINE, or FIGURE, in Geometry,
is that which, by its motion of revolution, produces any
other figure, plane or folid. See Genesis.
GENERATION, in Physiology, the aft of procre¬
ating and producing a being fimilar to the parent. See
Anatomy, N° 157.
Generation of Fifhes. See Comtarative Anatomy,
N° 304, and Ichthyology.
Generation of Plants. See Botany.
Generation of Infe&s. See Comparative Anatomy,
p. 312, and Entomology, p. 234.
Parts of Generation. See Anatomy, N° 157.
Generation, in Mathematics, is ufed for formation
or produftion. Thus wTe meet wdth the generation of
equations, curves, folids, &c.
Generation, in Theology. The Father is faid by
fome divines to have produced his Word or Son from
all eternity, by wray of generation ; on which occafion
the wmrd generation raifes a peculiar idea : that procef-
fion, which is really effefted in the way of underftand-
ing, is called generation, becaufe in virtue thereof, the
Word becomes like to him from whom he takes this ori¬
ginal ; or, as St Paul expreffes it, is the figure or image
of his fubftance, i. e. of his being and nature. And
hence it is, they fay, that the fecond Perfon in the Tri¬
nity is called the Son.
Generation is alfo ufed, though fomewffiat impro¬
perly, for genealogy, or the feries of children iffued
from the fame ftock. Thus the gofpel of St Matthew
commences with the book of the generation of Jefus
Chrift,
Generation
Genefis.
GEN [48
Chrjft, &c. The latter and more accurate tranflators,
iiiftead of generation ufe the word genealogy.
Generation is alfo ufed to fignlfy a people, race,
or nation, efpecially in the literal tranflations of the
Scripture, wThere the word generally occurs wherever
the Latin has generation and the Grech ymcaj. fbus,
“ A wicked and perverfe generation ieeketh a fign,”
£tc. “ One generation palfes away, and another com-
eth,” &c.
Generation is alfo ufed in the fenfe of an age, or
the ordinary period of man’s life, i bus w7e fay,, to
the third and fourth generation.” In this fenfe niilori-
ans ufually reckon a generation tne ipace or 33 years or
thereabouts. See Age.
Herodotus makes three generations in a hundred
years } wdwch computation appears from the latter au¬
thors of political arithmetic to be pretty juft.
GENERATOR, in Mufic, fignifies the principal
found or founds by which others are produced. Thus
the loweft C for the treble of the harpfichord, befides
its oftave, will ftrike an attentive ear with its twelfth
above, or G in alt, and with its feventeenth above, 01
E in alt. The C, therefore, is called their generator,
the G and E its produffs or harmonics. But in the
approximation of chords, ror G, its oflave oelow is
iubftituted, which conftitutes a fifth from the generator,
or loweft C j and for E, is likewife fubftituted its fif¬
teenth below, which, with the above-mentioned C, forms
a third major. To the loweft notes, therefore, exchan-
o-ed for thofe in alt by fubftitution, the denominations
of products or harmonics are likewife given, whilft the
C retains the name of their generator. But itill accord¬
ing to the fyftem of Tartini, two notes in concord,
which when founded produce a third, may be termed
the concurring generators of that third. (See Genera-
tion Harmonique, per M. Rameau ; fee alfo that deline¬
ation of Tartini’s fyftem called The Power and Princi¬
ples of Harmony.)
GENERICAL NAME, in Natural Hijlory, the word
ufed to fignify all the fpecies of natural bodies, which
agree in certain effential and peculiar characters, and
therefore all of the lame family or kind ", fo that the
word ufed as the generical name equally expreffes every
one of them, and fome other words exprefiive of the
peculiar qualities or figures of each are added, in order
to denote them fingly, and make up wdiat is called the
fpecific name. See Botany and Natural Hijlory.
GENESIS, the firft book of the Old Teftament,
containing the hiftory of the creation, and the lives of
the firft patriarchs.
The book of Genefis Hands at the head of the Pen¬
tateuch. Its author is held to be Mofes : it contains
the relation of 2369 years, viz. from the beginning of
the world to the death of Jofeph. The Jews are for¬
bidden to read the beginning of Genefis, and the begin¬
ning of Ezekiel, before 30 years of age.
The Hebrews called this book Berefchith, becaufe it
begins with that word., which in their language figni¬
fies in principio, or “ in the beginning.” The . Greeks
gave it the name Genejis, Fevirif, q* d. produftion, ge¬
neration, becaufe it begins with the hiftory of the pro-
duClion or generation of all beings.
This book, befides the hiftory of the creation, con¬
tains an account of the original innocence and fall of
man 5 the propagation of mankind ; the rife of religion j
si GEN
the general defe&ion and corruption of the world j the
deluge ; the reftoration of the w7orld j the divifion
and peopling of the earth •, and the hiftory of the
firft patriarchs to the death of Jofeph. It was eafy
for Mofes to be fatisiied of the truth of what he deli¬
vers in this book, becaufe it came down to him through
a few hands; for from Adam to Noah there was one
viz. Methufelah, who lived fo long as to fee them
Genefis
11
Geneva.
man,   , 
both : in like manner Shem converfed with Noah and
Abraham } Ifaac with Abraham and Jofeph, from
whom the records of this book might eafily be convey¬
ed to Mofes by Amram, ufiio was contemporary with
Jofeph.
Genesis, in Geometry, denotes the formation of a
line, plane, or folid, by the motion or flux of a point,
line, or furface. See Fluxions.
The genefis or formation, e.gr. of a globe or fphere,
is conceived by fuppofing a femicircle to revolve upon
a right line, drawn from one extreme thereof to the
other, called its axis, or axis of circumvolution : the
motion or revolution of that femicircle is the genefis of
the fphere, &c.
In the genefis of figures, &c. the line or furface that
moves is called the defcnbent; and the line round which,,
or, according to which, the revolution or motion is
made, the dirigent.
GENET, Gennet, or Jennet, in the manege, de¬
notes a fmall-fized wrell-proportioned Spanifh horfe.
To ride a la genette, is to ride after the Spanilh fa-
ftiion, fo fliort, that the fpurs bear upon the horfe’s
flank.
GENETHLIA, in antiquity, a folemnity kept in
memory of fome perfon deceafed.
GENETHLIACI, in AJlrology, perfons who ered
horofcopes, or pretend to foretel what lhall befal a man
by means of the ftars which prefided at his nativity.
The word is formed of the Greek ytviiXi, origin, gene¬
ration, nativity.
The ancients called them Chaldcei, and by the gene¬
ral name mathematici: accordingly, the feveral civil and
canon law's, which w7e find made againft the mathemati¬
cians, only refpecf the genethliaci or aftrologers.
They were expelled Rome by a formal decree of the
fenate *, and yet found fo much protedion from the
credulity of the people, that they remained therein
unmolefted. Hence an ancient author fpeaks of them
as hominum genus quod in civitate nojlra femper et veta-
bitur et retinebitur.
GENETTE, in Zoology. See Viverra, Mam¬
malia Index.
GENEVA, a city of Switzerland, on the confines
of France and Savoy, fituated in 6° E. Long, and
46° 12! 9" N. Lat. It Hands on the banks of the river
Rhone, juft at the place where the latter iffues from
the lake which takes its name from the city j and part
of it is built on an ifland in the river. It is handfome,
well fortified, and pretty large *, the ftreets in general
are clean and well paved, but the principal one is en¬
cumbered with a row of fliops on each fide between
the carriage and foot-path. The latter is very wide,
and proteded from the weather by great wooden pent-
houfes projeding from the roofs; which, though very
convenient, give the ftreet a dark and dull appear¬
ance. The houfes are generally conftruded of free-
ftone, with bafements of limeftone ; the gutters, fpouts,
ridges,
GEN [ 4^6 ] GEN
rIdSes> and cutvvard ornaments, being made of tinned
iron. Some of them have arched walks or piazzas in
front. The place called Treille is very agreeable, be¬
ing planted with linden trees, and commanding a fine
profpedl of the lake, with feveral ranges of rocks riling
behind one another, fome covered with vineyards and
herbage, and others with fnow, having openings be¬
tween them. Immediately belowr Geneva the Rhone
is joined by the Arve, a cold and muddy ftream riling
among the Alps, and deriving a conliderable part of its
waters from the Glaciers. The Rhone is quite clear
and tranfparent, fo that the muddy water of the Arve
is diftinguilhable from it even after they have flowed
for feveral miles together. There are four bridges
over the Rhone before it joins the Arve 5 and from it
the city is lupplied with water by means of an hy¬
draulic machine, which raifes it 100 Paris feet above
its level. The principal buildings are, 1. The maifon
de ville, or townhoufe, a plain ancient edifice, with
large rooms, in which the councils afiemble, and pub¬
lic entertainments are held ; and in one of them a week¬
ly concert is held by fubfcription during the winter.
The afcent to the upper ftory is not by Heps but a
paved acclivity : which, however, is fo gentle, that
horfes .and mules can go up to the top. 2. The
church of St Peter’s, formerly the cathedral, is an an¬
cient Gothic building, with a modern portico of feven
large Corinthian columns of red and white marble from
Roche. The only thing remarkable in the infide is
the tomb of Henry duke of Rohan. 3. The arfenal is
in good order, and fupplied with arms fuflicient for
12,000 men. There are many ancient fuits of armour •,
and the fcaling ladders, lanthorns, hatchets, &c. ufed by
the Savoyards in their treacherous attempt on the city
in the ^ear 1602, to be afterwards noticed, are here pre-
ferved. The magazines contain 110 cannon, befides
mortars. 4. I he hofpital is a large handfome building,
by which and other charities near 4000 poor people
are maintained. 5. The fortifications on the fide of Sa¬
voy are of the modern conftrudhon, but are command¬
ed by fome neighbouring grounds. On the fide of
h ranee they are old fafhioned, and at any rate are ra¬
ther calculated to prevent a furprife than to fuftain a re¬
gular fiege. There are three gates, towards France,
Savoy, and Switzerland j and the accefs to the lake is
guarded by a double jetty and chain.
The territory belonging to this city contains about
feven fquare leagues, and is divided into nine pa-
rifhes j the town is by far the moft populous in Swit¬
zerland, having about 30,000 inhabitants, of whom,
however, are generally fuppofed to be abfent.
It has a fmall diftridf dependent on it, but this
does not contain above 16,000. The adjacent coun¬
try is extremely beautiful, and has many magnificent
views arifing from the different pofitions of the nume¬
rous hills and mountains with regard to the town and
lake. 1 he inhabitants were formerly diftinguifhed in¬
to four claffes, viz. citizens, burgeffes, inhabitants, and
natives j and fince the revolution in 1782, a fifth clafs
named domicilius, has been added, who annually
receive permiflion from the magiftrates to refide in the
city. 1 he citizens and burgeffes alone, however, are
admitted to a flrare in the government; thofe called
inhabitants are ftrangers allowed to fettle in the town
with certain privileges j and the natives are the fons qf
I
tnoie inhabitants, who poffels additional advantages. Geneva.
I he people are very achve and indultrious, carrying on
an extern!ve commerce. x
This city is remarkable for the number of learned State of
men it has produced. The reformed doftrines of reli- leaminS
gion wrere very early received in it, being preachedGeneva'
there in 1533 by William Farel and Peter Viret of
Orbe, and afterwards finally eftablilhed by the celebra¬
ted John Calvin. Of this reformer Voltaire obferves
that he gave his name to the religious dodlrines firft
broached by others, in the fame manner that Americus
Vefputius gave name to the continent of America
which had formerly been difeovered by Columbus. It
was by the afliduity of this celebrated reformer, and
the influence that he acquired among the citizens
that a public academy was firfl: eftablifhed in the citvJ
where he, Theodore Eeza, and fome of the more emi¬
nent firft reformers, read lectures with uncommon fuc-
cefs.. Tire intolerant fpirit of Calvin is well known •
but little of it now appears in the government of Ge¬
neva : on the contrary, it is the moft tolerating of all
the eftates in Switzerland, being the only one of them
which permits the public exercife of the Lutheran re¬
ligion. The advantages of the academy at Geneva are
very confpicuous among the citizens at this day, even
the lower clafs of them being exceedingly well inform¬
ed ; fo that, according to Mr Coxe, there is not a city
in Europe where learning is fo generally diffufed. “ I
received great fatisfadlion (lays he) in converfing even
with feveral tradefmen upon topics both of literature
and politics ; and wTas aftonifhed to find in this clafs
of men fo uncommon a fhare of knowledge ; but the
wmnder ceafes when we are told that all of them were
eaucated at the public academy.” In this feminary
the induftry and emulation of the ftudents are excited
by the annual diftribution of prizes to thofe who di-
ftinguifh themfelves in each clafs. The prizes confift
of fmall medals, but are conferred with fuch folemnity
as cannot fail to produce a ftriking effeft on the minds
of youth. There is alfo a public library to which the
citizens have accefs, and which undoubtedly tends
greatly to that univerfal diffufion of learning fo re¬
markable among the inhabitants. It wxis founded by
Bonnivard, remarkable for his fufferings in the caufe of
the liberties of his country. Having been a great an-
tagonift of the dukes of Savoy, againft wdiom he af-
ferted the independence of Geneva, he had the mis¬
fortune at laft to be taken pnfoner, and was imprifon-
ed for fix years in a dungeon below the level of the
lake, in the caftle of Chillon, which ftands on a rock in
the lake, and is conne&ed with the land by a dmv-
bridge. In 1536 this caftle was taken from Charles III.
of Savoy by the canton of Berne, aflifted by the Gene¬
vans, who furniihed a frigate (their whole naval force)
to befiege it by water. Bonnivard was now taken from
his dungeon, wThere by conftant walking backward and
forward, his only amufement, he had wrorn a hollow
in the floor which confifted of folid rock. Bonnivard
confidered the hardfhips he had endured as ties which
endeared him to the city, and became a principal pro¬
moter of the reformation by the mild methods of per-
fuafion and inftruftion. He clofed his benefactions by
the gift of his books and manuferipts, and bequeathing
his fortune towards the eftabliihment and fupport of
the feminary. His works, which chiefly relate to the
hiftory
G E N
L 487 ]
GEN
cabinet.
£>eneva. hiilory 01 Geneva, are ilill preferved with great care
and reverence. The library contains 25,000 volumes,
with many curious manufcripts, of which an account
has been publifned by the reverend M. Sennebier the
librarian, who has likewife diftinguilhed himfelf by fe-
veral literary works. Meflrs Bonnet, Sauffure, Mallet,
ara De Luc, are the other moid diftinguilhed literary
gemufes of which Geneva can boaft. The lail is par¬
ticularly remarkable for the perfection to which he has
brought the barometer, and which is now fo great,
2 that very little feems poflible to be done by any body
Account of elfe. His cabinet merits the attention of naturalifts,
De Luc s as containing many rare and curious fpecimens of fof-
fils, which ferve to iiluftrate the theory of the globe.
It may be divided into three parts : 1. Such as enable
the natural!!! to compare the petrifadfions of animals
and vegetables w;ith the fame bodies wich are ftill
known to exift in our parts of the globe. 2. To com¬
pare thefe petrifactions of animals with the fame bo¬
dies which are knowm to exift in dilfcrent countries.
3. To confider the petrifadlions of thofe bodies which
are no longer known to exift. The fecond part com¬
prehends t'ue ftones under three points of viewr : 1.
Thofe of the primitive mountains, which contain no
animal bodies ; 2. Thofe of the fecondary mountains,
which contain only marine bodies j 3. Thofe which
contain terreitrial bodies. The third part contains the
lavas and other volcanic produclions 5 which are diftin-
guifhed into twTo claiTes : 1. Thofe which come from
volcanoes noxv adfually burning ; 2. Thofe from ex-
tinguifhed volcanoes.
In the time of Charles the Great, the city and ter¬
ritory of Geneva made part of his empire 5 and, under
his fuccefibrs, it became fubjedl to the German empe¬
rors. By reafon of the imbecility of thefe princes,
howrever, the bilhops'of Geneva acquired fuch autho¬
rity over the inhabitants, that the emperor had no o-
ther means of counterbalancing it than by augmenting
the privileges of the people. In thefe barbarous ages
alfo the bilhops and counts had conftant difputes, of
w'hich the people took the advantage; and by fiding
fometimes with one, and fometimes with the other,
they obtained an extenlicn of their privileges from
both. The houfe of Savoy at length purchafed the
territory, and fucceeded the counts with additional
powrer : againft them therefore the bifhops and people
united in order to refill their encroachments; and, du¬
ring this period, the government was ftrangely com¬
plicated, by reafon of the various pretenfions of the
three parties. The counts of Savoy, however, had at
laft the addrefs to difiblve the union between the bi¬
fhops and citizens, by procuring the epifc@pal fee for
their brothers, and even their illegitimate children j by
which means their power became gradually fo exten-
five, that towards the commencement of the 16th
century, Charles III. cf Savoy (though the govern¬
ment was accounted entirely republican) obtained an
aimoft abfolute authority over the people, and exer-
cifed it in a moil unjuft and arbitrary manner. Thus vio¬
lent commotions took place ; and the citizens became
divided into two parties, one of which, viz. the pa¬
triots, were ftyled Eidgcnojpn or confederates; the
partifans of Savoy being diigraced by the appellation
of Mamelucs or flaves. The true period of Gene¬
van liberty may therefore be confidered as commencing
Hiftory and
govern¬
ment of
Geneva.
with the treaty concluded with Berne and Friburg in Geneva,
the year 15265 in confequence of which the duke***
was in a fiiort time deprived of his authority, the bi-
Ihop driven from the city, and the reformed religion and
a republican form of government introduced. A long
war commenced with Savoy on this account; but the
Genevans proved an overmatch for their enemies by
their own bravery and the afiiftance of the inhabitants
of Berne, In 1584, the republic concluded a treaty
with Zurich and Berne, by which it is allied to the Swils
captons. The houfe of Savoy made their laft attempt
againft Geneva in 1602, when the city was treach-
eroully attacked in the night time during a profound
peace. Two hundred foldiers had fealed the walls,
and got into the town before any alarm wras given 5
but they were repulfed by the defperate valour of a few
citizens, who periftied in the encounter. A petard had
been faltened to one of the gates by the Savoyards $
but the gunner was killed before it could be difehar-
ged. The war occaftoned by this treachery was next
year concluded by a folemn treaty, which has ever
fince been oblerved on both fides : though the inde¬
pendence of Geneva was not formally acknowledged by
the king of Sardinia till the year 1754.
The reftoration of tranquillity from without in
confequence of the above treaty, was however foon
followed by the fiames of internal difeord, fo com¬
mon in popular governments j fo that during the
whole of the laft century the hillory of Geneva af¬
fords little more than an account of the ftruggles be¬
twixt the ariftocratical and popular parties. About
the beginning of the prefent century the power of the
grand council was become aimoft abfolute j but in
order to reftrain its authority, an edidl was procured,
in 1707 by the popular party, enabling, that every
five years a general council of the citizens and burgh¬
ers fliould be fummoned to deliberate upon the af¬
fairs of the republic. In confequence of this law a ge¬
neral alfembly was convened in 17123 and the very
firft adl of that alfembly was to aboiiih the edifl by
which they had been convened. A proceeding lb ex¬
traordinary can fcarcely be accounted for on the prin ¬
ciples of popular ficklenefs and inconftancy. Rouf-
feau, in his Mifcellaneous Works, aferibes it to the
artifices of the magiftrates, and the equivocal terms
marked upon the billets then in ufe. For the queition
being put, “ Whether the opinion of the councils for
aboliflung the periodical affemblies ftiould pals into a
law ?” the words approbation or rejection, put upon the
billets by which the votes were given, might be inter¬
preted either way. Thus, if the billet was chofen on
which the word approbation was written, the opinion
of the councils which rejected the alfemblies was ap¬
proved 3 and by the word rejection, the periodical af-
fembly was rejedled of courfe. Hence fcveral of the
citizens complained that they had been deceived, and
that they never meant to reject the general alfembly,
but only the opinion of the councils.
In confequence of the abolition of the general af-
fembl :es, the power of the ariftocratical party was
greatly augmented 3 till at length the inhabitants evert¬
ing themfelves with uncommon fpirit and perfeverance,
found means to limit the power of the magiftrates, and
enlarge their own rights. In 1776, as Mr Cox informs
us, the government might be confidered as a mean be¬
twixt
G E N
1776.
Geneva, tvvixt tliat of the ariftocratical and popular cantons of
w”-v—Switzerland. The members of the fenate, or little
^ 4. f couiicil of 25, enjoyed in their corporate capacity fe-
the jriivern- veral very coniiderable prerogatives. By them half the
ment in members of the great council were named ; the princi¬
pal magiftrates were fupplied from their owrn body j
they convoked the great and general councils, delibe¬
rating previoufly upon every queflion which was to be
brought before thefe councils. J. hey w7ere veiled alfo
with the chief executive power, the adminiflration of
finances, and had in a certain degree the jurifdittion
in civil and criminal caufes. Molt of the fmaller polls
were likewife filled by them j and they enjoyed the
foie privilege of conferring the burgherlhip. Thefe,
and other prerogatives, however, were balanced by
thofe of the great council and the privileges of the ge¬
neral council. The former had a right to choofe the
members of the fenate from their own body $ receiving
appeals in all caufes above a certain value, pardoning
criminals, &c. befides which they had the important
privilege of approving or rejecting whatever was pro-
pofed by the fenate to be laid before the people.
The general council or alfembly of the people is
compofed of the citizens and burghers of the town ;
their number in general amounting to 1500, though
ufually not more than 1200 were prefent 5 the remain¬
der refiding in foreign countries, or being otherwife
abfent. It meets twice a-year, choofes the principal
magiltrates, approves or rejects the laws and regula¬
tions propofed by the other councils, impofes taxes,
contracts alliances, declares war or peace, and nomi¬
nates half the members of the great council, &c. But
the principal check to the power of the fenate arofe
from the right of re-e left ion, or the power of annually
expelling four members from the fenate at the nomi¬
nation of tht/yndics or principal magiltrates, and from
the right of reprefentation. The fyndics are four in
number, chofen annually from the fenate by the gene¬
ral council 5 and three years elapfe before the fame
members can be again appointed. In choofing theie
magiltrates, the fenate appointed from its own body
eight candidates, from whom the four fyndics were
to be chofen by the general council. The latter, how¬
ever, had it in their power to reject not only the firit
eight candidates, but alfo the whole body of fenators
in fucceflion : in which cafe, four members of the fenate
retired into the great council : and their places ivere
filled by an equal number from that council. With
regard to the power of reprefentation, every citizen
or burgher has the privilege of applying to the fenate
in order to procure a new regulation in this refpeft,
or of remonllrating againft any aft of the magiftracy.
To thefe remonftrances the magiltrates were obliged to
give an explicit anfwer j for if a fatisfaftory anfwer was
not given to one, a fecond was immediately prefented.
The reprefentation was made by a greater or fmaller
number of citizens according to the importance of the
5 point in queftion.
Account of Since the 1776, however, feveral changes have taken
the revolu- place. This right of re-elediion, which the ariitocratical
party were obliged to yield to the people in 1768, icon
proved very difagreeable, being confidered by the former
as a kind of oltracifm *, for which reafon they catched
at every opportunity of procuring its abolition. They
were now diftinguilhed by the title of negatives^
2,
[ 488 ] GEN
while the popular party had that of reprejenlants ; and
the point in difpute was the compilation of a new code
of laws. This meafure the negatives oppoled, as
fuppofing that it would tend to reduce their preroga¬
tives ; while, on the other hand, the reprefer.tants uled
their utmoft endeavours to promote it, in hopes of
having their privileges augmented by this means, a t
lalt in the month of January I777> negatives wTeie
obliged to comply with the demands of their antago-
nifts and a committee for forming a new code of laws
was appointed by the concurrence of the little, great,
.and general councils. The committee was to laft for two
years, and the code to be laid before the three councils
for their joint approbation or rejection. A Iketch of
the firit part of the code w^as prelented to the little and
great councils on the firit of September 1779, that
they might profit by their obfervations before it wras
prefented to the general council. Great difputes a-
Genc
tion in
*78-*-
rofe j and at length it w as carried by the negatives that
the code Ihould be rejefted and the committee diffolv-
ed. The oppofite party complained of this as un-
con ftitutional, and violent difputes enfued ; the iffue of
which w'zs, that the great council offered to compile
the code, and fubmit it to the decifion of the public..
This did not give fatisfaftion to the popular party,
who confidered it as infidious : the contentions revived
with more fury than ever, until at length the negatives
fuppofing, or pretending to fuppofe, that their coun¬
try wTas in danger, applied to the guarantees, France,
Zurich, and Berne, entreating them to proteft the
laws and conftitution. This wras produftive of no
good effeft ; fo that the negatives found no other me¬
thod of gaining their point than by lowing diffenfion
among the different claffes of inhabitants. The na¬
tives were difcontented and jealous on account of many
exclufive privileges enjoyed by that clafs named citi-
x.ens : they were befides exafperated againft them for
having, in 1770, banilhed eight of the principal na¬
tives, who pretended that the right of burgherlhip be¬
longed to the natives as well as to the citizens, and
demanded that this right ought to be gratuitoully
conferred inftead of being purchafed. The negatives,
in hopes of making fuch a conliderable addition to
their party, courted the natives by all the methods
they could think of, promifing by a public declaration
that they were ready to confer upon them thofe privi¬
leges of trade and commerce which had hitherto been
confined exclufively to the citizens. The defigns of the
negatives were likewife openly favoured by the court
of France, and defpatches were even written to the
French refident at Geneva to be communicated to the
principal natives who lided with the ariftocratic party.
The attorney-general, conceiving this mode of interfe¬
rence to be highly unconftitutional, prefented a fpirited
remonftrance j by which the French court were fo much
difpleafed, that they procured his depofition from his
office •, and thus their party was very confiderably in-
crealed among the natives. I he reprefentants w'ere
by no means negligent in their endeavours to conciliate
the favour of the fame party, and even promifed what
they had hitherto oppofed in the ftrongeft manner,
viz. to facilitate the acquifition of the burgherlhip,
and to bellow it as the recompenfe of induftry and
good behaviour. Thus two parties W'ere formed a-
mong the natives themfelves j and the diffenfions be¬
coming
GEN
. coming every day worfe and worfe, a general infurrec-
tion took place on the 5th of February 1781. A dif-
pute, accompanied with violent reproaches, having
commenced betwixt two neighbouring and oppofite
parties of natives, a battle would have immediately tak¬
en place, had it not been for the interpohtion of the
fyndics on the one fide, and the chiefs of the reprefen?
tants on the other. The tumult was beginning to fub-
fide, when a difcharge of mufquetry was heard from the
arfenal. Some young men who Tided with the nega¬
tives, having taken poffeflion of the arfenal, had fired
by miftake upon feveral natives of their own party, and
had killed one and wounded another. This w^as con-
fidered by the reprefentants as the fignal for a general
infurre&ion, on which they inftantly took up arms
and. marched in three columns to the arfenal $ but
finding there only a few young men who had raflily
bred without orders, they permitted the reft to retire
without moleftation. In the opinion of fome people,
however, this affair w^as preconcerted, and the repre¬
fentants are faid to have been the firft aggreffors.
I he reprefentants having thus taken up arms, were
in no hafte to lay them down. They took poffeffion
of all the avenues to the city j and their committee be¬
ing. fummoned next morning by the natives to fulfil
their engagements with refpect to the burgherfliip,
they held feveral meetings with the principal negatives
on that fubjedf, but without any fuccefs: for though
the latter readily agreed to an augmentation of the
commercial privileges of the natives, they abfolutely
refufed to facilitate the acquifition of the burgherlhip.
The committee, however, embarraffed and alarmed at
tue number and threats of the natives, determined to
abide, by what they had promifed j drew up an edidl
permitting the natives to carry on trade, and to hold the
rank of officers in the military affociations j and con¬
ferred the burgherfhip on more than 100 perfons taken
from the natives and inhabitants, and even from the
peafants of the territory. This was approved by the
three councils j the negatives, dreading the power of
their adverfaries,. who had made themfelves mafters of
the city, not daring to make their appearance.
Thus the popular party imagined that they had got
a complete victory j but they foon found themfelves
deceived.. They were prevailed upon by the deputies
from Zurich and Berne (who had been fent to conci¬
liate the differences) to lay down their arms j and this
was no fooner done, than the fame deputies declared
the edidl in favour of the natives to be null and illegal.
The fenate declared themfelves of the fame opinion j
and maintained, that the affent of the councils had
been obtained only through fear of the reprefentants
who were under arms, and whom none at that time
durft oppofe. The reprefentants, exafperated by this
proceeding, prefented another remonftrance on the
iSthofMarch 1782, fummoning the magiftrates once
more to confirm the edidl ; but a month afterwards
received the laconic anfwer, that “ government was
neither willing nor able to confirm it.” The natives,
now finding themfelves difappointed in their favourite
objeft.at the very time they had fuch ftrong hopes of
obtaining it, behaved at firft like frantic people j and
thefe tranfports having fubfided, an univerfal tumult
took place. 'I he moft moderate of the popular party
endeavoured in vain to allay their fhry, by difnerfinv
Vol. IX. Part II. 7 ' 1 *
C 489 1
GEN
themfelves in different quarters of the city j atfq the
citizens, finding themfelves at laft obliged either to
abandon the party of the natives or to join them open¬
ly, haftily adopted the latter meafure ; after -which, as
none could now oppofe them, the officers of the repre¬
fentants took poffeffion of the town, and quelled the
m.furre&ion. Various negotiations were carried on
with the negatives in order to prevail upon them to
ratify the edidl, but without fuccefs : on which a
few of the magiftrates were confined by the popu¬
lar party along with the principal negatives j and
as they juftly expefted the interference of France on
account of what they had done, they refolved to
prolong the confinement of the prifoners, that they
might anfwer the purpofe of hoftages for their own
fafety. In the mean time the body of citizens, deceiv¬
ed by the pretences of the popular party, afted as if
their power was already eftabliftied and permanent.
In confequence of this, they depofed feveral members
of the great and little councils, appointing in their
room an equal number of perfons who were favourable
to the caufe of the reprefentants. The great council
thus new modelled, executed the edift for conferring
the burgherlhip upon a number of the natives j and
appointed a committee of fafety, compofed of eleven
members, with very confiderable authority. By this
committee the public tranquillity was re-eftablifhed j
after which, the fortifications were ordered to be re¬
paired 5 and the people were buoyed up by the moft
dangerous notions of their own prowefs, and a confi¬
dence that France either durft not attack them or did
not incline to do fo. In confequence of this fatal er¬
ror, they refufed every offer of reconciliation which
was made them from the other party j until at laft
troops wTere difpatched againft them by the king of
Sardinia and the canton ’of Berne $ and their refpec-
tive generals, Meffrs de la Marmora and Lentulus^
were ordered to a& in concert with the French
commander, M. de Jaucourt, who had advanced to
the frontiers with a confiderable detachment. The
Genevans, however, vainly puffed up by a confi¬
dence in their own abilities, continued to repair their
fortifications with indefatigable labour ; the peafants
repaired from all quarters to the city, offering to mount
guard and work at the fortifications without any pay j
women of all ranks crowded to the walls as to a place
of amufement, encouraging the men, and even aflift-
ing them in their labour. The befiegers, however,
advanced in fuch force, that every perfon of difeern-
ment forefaw that all refiftance would be vain. The
French general Jaucourt, on the 29th of June 1782,
defpatched a meffage to the fyndics j in which lie in¬
filled on the following humiliating conditions : 1. That
no .perfon Ihould appear on the ftreets under pain of
military punilhment. 2. That a certain number of
citizens, among whom were all the chiefs of the re¬
prefentants, fhould quit the place in 24 hours. 3. That
all arms fhould be delivered to the three generals.
4. That the depofed magiftrates Ihould be inftantly
re-eftablilhed : And, laftly, That an anfwer Ihould be
returned in two hours. By this meffage the people
were thrown into the utmoft defpair j and all without
exception refolved to perilh rather than to accept of
terms fo very difgraceful. They inftantly hurried to
the ramparts with a view of putting their refolution
3 0. in
Gej
GEN
[ 49° ]
GEN
Geneva, in force ; but in tbe mean time tne fyndics fouiv
   means to obtain from tbe generals a delay of 24 hours.
During this interval, not only men of all ages prepared
for the approaching danger, but even women and cm -
dren tore the pavement from the ftreets, carrying tie
Hones up to the tops of the houfes, with a view ot
rolling them down upon the enemy in cafe they ihou
force their way into the town. About 80 women
and girls, drelled in uniforms, offered lo form them-
{elves into a company for the defence of their country.
The committee of fafety accepted their fervices, and
placed them in a barrack fecured from the cannon of
the befiegers. The negatives were greatly alarmed at
this appearance of deiperate reiiftance } and ionm of
the mold moderate among them endeavoured, but with¬
out ihccefs, to effecd a reconciliation. At the hour
* in which it was expended that the attack would begin,
the ramparts were filled with defenders j and though
the mold zealous of the popular party had calculated
only on 3000, upwards of 5000 appeared in the pub¬
lic caufe. The French general, however, juftly alarm¬
ed for the prifoners, who were now in imminent dan¬
ger, again prolonged the period propofed for the ca¬
pitulation. By thefe repeated delays the ardour of the
defendants began to abate. rlhe women firit began to
figure to themfelves the horrors of a town taken ^by
affault, and given up to an enraged and licentious fol-
diery ; many timid perions found means not only to
difguife their own fears, but to impire others with
them under the pretence of prudence and caution . at
laid the committee of iafety themfelves, who had fo
fdrenuoufly declared for holdilities, entirely changed
their mind. Being well apprized, however, that it
would be dangerous for them to propofe furrendeiing
in the prefent temper of the people, they aifenibled tne
citizens in their refpefdive circles, reprefenting, that
if the city Ihould be attacked in the night, it would
^ be no longer poffible to convene them : for which rea-
fon they recommended to them that each circle fhould
nominate feveral deputies with full authority to decide
In their Head ; adding, that they ought rather to ap¬
point thofe perfons who from their age and relpeTable
character wTere capable of aflilding their country by
their advice, while others wrere defending it by their
valour. Thus a new council, compofed of about 100
citizens, was formed } in w'hich the chiefs, by various
manoeuvres, firid intimidating, and then endeavouring
to perfuade the members of the neceflity of furrender¬
ing, at laid found means to take the thoughts of the
people entirely off the defence of the city, and engage
them in a fcheme of general emigration. A decla¬
ration was drawn up to be delivered to tbe fyndics with
the keys of the city, the chiefs fummoned the princi¬
pal officers from their poids, ordered the cannon of
feveral batteries to be rendered unfit for fervice, and
at laid took care of themfelves by quitting the town.
The people were in the utmoft defpair 5 -and left the
town in fuch multitudes, that when the Sardinians
entered it in the morning, they found it almold de¬
ferred.‘ This was followed by the reldoration of the
former magifdrates, a complete fubjecdion of the po¬
pular party, and the ddablilhment of a military go-
M ^ vernment.
ftitutiorTe The changes which took place on this occafion were
ttabitlhed" as follow : 1. An abolition of the right of rc ckTion,
2. The abolition of that right by which the general Geneva,
council nominated half the vacancies in the great coun- ~ v"~““
cil. 3. The right of remonldrating was taken from
the citizens at large, and veiled in 36 adjuncts, who
might be prefent in the great council the firid Monday
of every month. They enjoyed a right of reprefenta-
tion, and in confequence of that had a deliberative
voice ; but on the wffiole were fo infignificant, that
they were nicknamed Les Images, or “ Ihe Ihadows.”
4. The introduddion of the grabeau, or annual con¬
firmation of the members of the' fenate and of the great
council, veiled entirely in the latter. By this law
part of the authority both of the fenate and general
council was transferred to the great council j and by
fubjedding the fenate to this annual revifion, its power
was greatlv lelfened, and it was made in fadd depend¬
ent upon the general councils. 5* f he circles or clubs
in which it was culdomary to convene the citizens, and
all public afiemblies whatever, wTere prohibited } ami
fo rigoroufly was this carried into execution, that the
fociety of arts was prohibited from meeting. 6.
The militia were abolilhed 5 firing at marks, even
with bows and arrows, was prohibited j and the towm,
inldead of being guarded by the citizens, was now put
under the care of 1000 foreign foldiers, whole colonel
and major were both to be foreigners. Fhefe troops,
were to take an oath of fidelity to the repuolic, and or
obedience to the great council and the committee .ot
war : but were under the immediate command and in-
fpeddion of the latter, and lubjecd to the fuperi.or con-
troul of the former. 7. No perfon was permitted to
bear arms, whether citizen, native, or inhabitant. 8.
Several taxes were impofed without the confent of the
general council j but in time to come it was provideo,
that every change or augmentation of the revenue
Ihould be fubmitted to that body. 9. Several privi¬
leges with regard to trade and commerce, formerly pof-
fefled by tbe citizens alone, were now granted both to
citizens and inhabitants.
It is not to be fuppofed that this revolution would
be agreeable to people wrho had fuch a ftrong fenle oj
liberty, and had been accuftomed to put fuch a value
upon it, as the Genevans. From what has been already
related, it might feem reafonable to conclude, that an
almoft univerfal emigration wrould have taken place :
but after their refentmeut had time to fubfide, moll of
thofe who fled at firft, thought proper to return; and,
in the opinion of Mr Coxe, not more than 600 finally
left their country on account of the revolution in
1782. The emigrants principally fettled at Brulfels.
and Conftance, where they introduced the arts of
printing linens and watchmaking. Soon after the re¬
volution, indeed, a memorial, figned by above loco
perfons of both fexes, all of them either poffelfed of
loxne property or verled in trade or mamnaclures, was
prefented to the earl of d emple, then. iord lieutenant
of Ireland, exprelling a defire to nettle in.that kinguom.
The propofal met with general approbation , the Im i
parliament voted jjOjOCol. towards defraying the ex
pences of their journey, and affording them a proper
fettiement in the iiland. Lands were purchafed for
8000I. in a convenient fituation near Waterford •, part
of New Geneva was actually completed at the expence
of lOjOOOl. ; a charter was granted with very con-
fiderable privileges} the ftandard of gold was alter¬
ed
Scheme of
fettling a
number of
Genevans
in Ireland.
GEN [49
td for the accommodatioft of the watch manufa&ures }
u—and the foundation of an academy laid upon an ufeful
and liberal plan. Seven Genevans landed in Ireland
in the month of July 1783 : but when the nation had
expended near 30,000!. on the fcheme, it wras fud-
denly abandoned. This feems principally to have been
owing to the delays neceflarily occafroned in the exe¬
cution of fuch a complicated plan ; and in fome degree
alfo by the high demands of the Genevan commiffion-
ers, who required many privileges inconliftent with
the laws of Ireland. By thefe delays the Genevans,
wdrofe charadler feems not to be perfeverance^ wrere indu¬
ced to abandon the fcheme, and return to their former
place of refidence. Even the few who had already landed,
though maintained at the public expence, were difcon-
tented at not finding the new towm prepared for their
reception j and as thofe among the propofed emigrants
who poffeffed the greateft (hare of property had already
withdrawn their names, the remainder did not. choofe
to remain in a country where they had not capital fuf-
ficient to carry on any confiderable trade or manufac¬
ture. A petition wTas then prefcnted by the Gene¬
van commiffioners, requefting that lo,oool. of the
50,000!. voted might be appropriated to the form¬
ing a capital : but as this had been voted for other
purpofes, the petition was of courfe rejefted ; in con-
lequence of which, the Genevans relinquiihed the fet-
tiement by an addrefs, and foon after quitted the
3 ifland.
New revo- The people of Old Geneva, though returned to their
lution in former place of abode, w’ere far from being inclined to
i?8?- fubmit to the yoke with patience. They were obliged
to pay heavy taxes for maintaining a military force ex-
prefsly calculated to keep themfelves in lubje£tion : and
fo intolerable did this appear, that in a few' years every
thing feemed ready for another revolution. The fuc-
cefs of this feemed more probable than that of the for¬
mer, as France was not now in a condition to inter¬
fere as formerly. The general ferment foon rafe to
fuch a height, that government was obliged to call in
the aid of the military to quell a tumult which hap¬
pened in the theatre. This produced only a tempo¬
rary tranquillity j another tumult took place on the
26th of January 1789, on account of the publication
of an edift raifing the price of bread a farthing per
pound. On this the people inftantly rofe, plundered
the bakers (hops : and next day a carriage loaded with
bread and efcorted by foldiers was plundered in its
wray to the diftribution office. The foldiers fired on
the populace, by which one man was killed and ano¬
ther wounded : but the tumult ftill increafing, the
foldiers were driven away ; and the body of the decea-
fed was carried in a kind of proceffion before the town
houfe, as a monument of the violence and oppreffion
of the ariftocratic party. The magiftrates in the mean
time fpent their time in deliberation, inftead of taking
any effieflual method of quelling the infurredrtion. The
people made the beft ufe of the time afforded them by
this delay of the magiftrates ; they attacked and car¬
ried two of the gates, dangerouily wounding the com¬
manding officer as he attempted to allay the fury of
both parties. At laft the magiftrates defpatched againft
them a confiderable body of troops, whom they thought
the infur gents would not have the courage to refift j
but in this they found themfelves deceived. The
i ] G E N
people had formed a ftrong barricade, behind which
they played off two fire pumps filled with boiling wa-
ter and foap lyes againft the extremities of two bridge*
which the military had to crofs before they could at¬
tack them. The commanding officer was killed and
feveral of his men wounded by the difcharge of fmall
arms from windows 5 and the pavement was earned up
to the tops of houfes in order to be thrown down upon
the troops if they ftiould force the barricades and pe¬
netrate into the ftreets. -The tumult in the mean time
continued to increafe, and was in danger of becoming
univerfal j,when the magiftrates, finding it would be im-
poffible to quell the infurgents without a great effufion
of blood, were reduced to the neceffity of complying
with their demands. One of the principal magiftrates
repaired in perfon to the quarter of St Gervais, pro¬
claimed an edi£l for lowering the price of bread, grant¬
ed a general amnefty, and releafed all the infurgents
who had been taken into cuftody. Thus a momen¬
tary calm was produced j but the leaders of the infiar-
rection, fenfible that the magiftrates were either unable
or unwhlling to employ a fufficient force againft them,
refolved to take advantage of the prefent opportunity
t» procure a new change of government. A new m-
furreefion, therefore, took place on the 29th of the
month, in which the foldiers were driven from their
polls, difarmed, and the gates feized by the people.
The magiftrates then, convinced that all oppofition
was fruitlefs, determined to comply with the demands
of their antagonifts in their full extent; and the arif-
tocratical party fuddenly changing their fentiments,
renounced in a moment that fyftem to which they had
hitherto fo obftinately adhered. On the application
of the folicitor general, therefore, for the recovery of the
ancient liberties of the people, the permiftion of bear¬
ing arms, re-eftablilhment of the militia, and of their
circles or political clubs, the removal of the garrifon
from the barracks, and the recal of the reprefentants
who were banilhed in 17825 thefe moderate demands
were received with complacency, and even fatisfadtion.
The preliminaries were fettled without difficulty, and
a new edift of pacification was publilhed under the
title of Modifications a l'Edition de 1782, and approv¬
ed by the fenate, great council, and general council.
So great was the unanimity on this occafion, that the
modifications were received by a majority of 1321
againft 52. The pacification was inftantly followed by
marks of friendfhip betwixt the two parties which had
never been experienced before 5 the fons of the prin¬
cipal negatives frequented tile circles of the burghers ;
the magiftrates obtained the confidence of the people 5
and no monument of the military force fo odious to
the people will be allowed to remain. “ The barracks
of the town houfe (fays Mr Coxe) are already eva¬
cuated, and will be converted into a public library 5 the
new barracks, built at an enormous expence, and more
calculated for the garrifon of a powerful and defpotic
kingdom than for a fmall and free commonwealth,
will be converted into a building for the univerfity.
The reformation of the ftudies, which have fcarce-
ly received any alteration fince the time of Calvin,
is now in agitation. In a word, all things feeth at
prefent to confpire for the general good 5 and it is
to be hoped that both parties, (hocked at the recol-
le&ion of pall troubles, will continue on as friendly
3 Q 2 tefins,
Geneva.
GEN [ 492 ] GEN
terms as tlie jealous nature of a free conllitution will
admit.”
Geneva, as well as the whole of Switzerland fell a
vidlim to French rapacity in 1802. The following ob-
fervations, made by a traveller on the fpot, afford us
fome information of the conlequences of this event to
Geneva, of its degraded ftate, and of the manners of the
inhabitants.
“ The population of Geneva is about 24,000: more¬
over it contains at prefent between 1200 and 1400
French troops: the parties intermix but little, and have
had no difputes, although they certainly regard each
other with an eye of jealoufy. The Genevans do the
French foldiers the juftice to fay, that they have de¬
meaned themfelves in a very becoming manner during
their refidence here: they acknowledge themfelves to
be a conquered people, and dare not open their mouths,
except to an Englifhman, againfl the treacherous in¬
vaders of their country, and deflroyers of their liber¬
ties.
“ You are too well verfed in the hiftory of this peo¬
ple to require being told, that, notwithflanding their
prefent humiliated condition, Freedom is the goddefs
they wrorlhip j and that, had there been any poffibility
of fecuring her from violation, they would gladly have
bled before her altars. However various has been their
fuccefs, in the different revolutions which have agitated
this fecluded ftate, the Genevans have uniformly evin¬
ced a courage which awed their enemies, and a deter¬
mined bravery in defence of their rights, w'hich in fhew-
ing that they prized them highly, gave proof that they
were worthy to enjoy them.
“ The territory of Geneva is comprehended in the De-
partment du Leman, which department contains about
16 fquare leagues of land j its population is eftimated at
609,000 perfons. It is divided into three cantons or
hundreds, the largeft of which has Geneva for its capital,
and contains about 75,000 fouls, of which 10,000 only
are Genevans, 20,000 are French, and the remainder
are Savoyards. The prefet, as in all the other depart¬
ments, is appointed by the Firft Conful, durante bene-
placito. The care of the high roads and public walks,
public finances, executive juftice, military affairs, and
paffports, are under his immediate dire&ion. All mili¬
tary appointments are given to Frenchmen : one gene¬
ral commands the town, and another the country. At
the firft moment of the revolution all the old magif-
trates were difplaced, and fince that time the civil of¬
ficers have been elected by the citizens at large, confe-
quently fome are Frenchmen, and fome Genevans : the
prefent mayor is one of the latter: he is a gentleman of
great refpe£lability, and is much efteemed by both par¬
ties. Whenever a new code of laws fhall be eftabli fil¬
ed in France, its operations will be extended over the
territory of Geneva j but at prefent the people here re¬
tain their old laws with fome trifling alterations only,
rather the form than the fubftance : thus, the guillotine
is now fubflituted for the gallows, and the punifhments
in general, without varying the degree, are infli&ed ac¬
cording to the French manner.
“ In their treaty with France, the Genevans ftipula-
ted, that their hofpital fhould not be obliged to receive
French foldiers: this hofpital was founded in the early
part of the laft century, by fome of the richeft citizens,
and is fo well fopported by legacies, and by annual fub-
fcriptions, that the fund enables the directors to expend
two;thoufand louis a year. In contempt of his treaty,
Bonaparte has infifted on the admiftion of French fol¬
diers, for whofe accommodation, however, he.promifed to
pay a certain fum per diem : in contempt of his promife,
again, he has withheld the payment ! An hofpital,
however, is now preparing at Carouge, a village in
Savoy, between Geneva and Grange Colonge, for
Frenchmen, to which, it is expe&ed, the foldiers will
be removed in May or June. Here is alfo a general
hofpital, once the nunnery of St Clair ; it was founded,
together with many other ufeful inftitutions, by that ce¬
lebrated reformer, John Calvin, who fled from the per-
fecution of Francis I. and found an afylum in Geneva.
The revenue arifing from the eftates of this hbfpital has,
till within thefe laft few years, been commenfurate with
its expences; but, for fome time back, it has been
found neceffary to collecf almoft an additional fourth,
in order to fupply its difburfements : twice in the year
the treafurer goes round to every houfe, and folicits the
charitable contribution of its inmates.
“ Prior to the laft revolution, I learn, that 600,000
French livresj difcharged all the public expences: with
this very trifling fum were paid the falaries of the ma-
giftrates, of the mafter of the town, of the mafter of
the country, the expences of the academy, of repair¬
ing the roads, of cleaning and lighting the town j in
fhort, thefe 600,000 livres were fufficient to defray all
the ordinary expences of the government. Since that
too-memorable event, the citizens of Geneva have been
afleffed to the amount of 1,500,000 livres, the falaries
of the inferior magiftrates are in arrears, the roads are
not kept in good repair, the town is very dimly lighted,
and the ftreets, a few of the principal ones excepted,
are left with all their dirty honours thick upon them !
The inhabitants go fo far as to affert, that, in confe-
quence of the negledl which the public drains have fuf-
fered, they have been affedted with fevers and other ill-
neffes to which they had hitherto been ftrangers.
“ I underftand, that the revenue of Geneva, fince it
has been annexed to the republic of France, arifes
chiefly from the following fources.—An excife duty is
laid on all provifions (wheat excepted), on wine and
merchandife of every defcription, w’hich is brought in¬
to Geneva : the annual produce of this tax is about
120,000 French livresj a land tax; a tax on doors and
windows; a tax on the fale of eftates; a heavy tax on
the collateral inheritance of an eftate—where the inhe¬
ritance is lineal and immediate, the tax is moderate.
To thefe taxes or contributions, as they are called, mull
be added la contribution mobiliere, which is a fmall tax
on perfonal property, and produces annually about
75,000 livres. The colledtors of thefe taxes are ap¬
pointed by the Firft Conful, and are paid very highly
for their trouble : the prefet, and all the principal pub¬
lic officers, are very regularly paid, but thofe in a fub-
ordinate fituation feldom get above one-third of their
ftipends.
“ Divorces feem to be obtained here with too much
facility. But, in the firft place,- as to marriages, they
mull be celebrated, according to the French law, be¬
fore the municipality, at the maifon de ville. Mar¬
riage in France, you know, is merely a civil ceremony,
the parties being obliged to fwear before an appointed
magiftrate, that they are of age, and that they have
confented
Geneva.
GEN [ 493 ] GEN
Geneva contented to become man and wife. The Genevans,
Lake, however, do not confider this ceremony as fufficient ;
,Geiieva’ but> as our Gretna Green couples, on their return to
v Britain, think it neceffary, after the fervour of paffiou
is abated, and the mercury is fallen, in the animal ther¬
mometer, fomething lower than blood heat, to have the
holy rites performed with the folemnity prefc'ribed by
law ; fo the Genevans, in addition to the civil ceremo¬
ny prefcribed by the laws of the republic of France,
voluntarily conform to the religious ordinance of their
own church. That a man (hould be able to obtain a
divorce from the wife who is unfaithful to his bed, is
highly reafonable : but here, if a woman leaves her
hufband, and refufes to return to his habitation, after
being fummoned by him for that purpofe, he can repu¬
diate her for difobedience. This doubtlefs was ground¬
ed on the prefumption, that, if a woman fled from her
hulband, and refifted his felicitation to return, it could
only be for the purpofe of cohabiting with fome other
man : but an advantage is taken of this prefumption 3
and now, when the parties, for whatever reafons, are
defirous of being divorced, the wufe, with the know¬
ledge and confent of her hufband, generally goes into
Switzerland, where fhe remains fix months, during
which time the hufband fummons her to return, fhe re¬
fufes, and at the end of that term a divorce is declared
* Month between them.”*
^<r.°i802. Genei'A Lake. This lake is in the fhape of a
crefcent 3 along the concave fide of which Mr Coxe
travelled 54 miles. Switzerland forms the hollow, and
Savoy the convex part 3 the greatefl breadth being
about 12 miles. The country on the fide of Savoy is
full of high and craggy mountains 3 but from Geneva
to the environs of Laufanne it fiopes to the margin of
the lake, and is very rich and fertile. The banks rife
confiderably in the neighbourhood of Laufanne, and
form a moft beautiful terrace, with a rapid defeent a
few miles beyond the town. A plain begins in the
neighbourhood of Vevay, which continues for a great
way beyond the end of the lake, but contrafting to¬
wards the water by the approach of the mountains.
The lake itfelf appears at a diflance of a beautiful blue
colour, and the water is very clear and tranfparent.
Near Geneva the coafl of the lake abounds with pebi
bles 3 between that city and Laufanne it is fandy 3
from thence to Chilon it is bounded by hard calca¬
reous rocks 3 and the extremity of the flrore is a marfli
formed by mud colledled from the river Rhone. The
greatefl; depth of this lake found by M. de Luc is 160
fathoms. Here the birds called tippet grebes make their
appearance in December, and retire in February to
other places where they breed. They make floating
nefls of reeds 3 but as the lake of Geneva affords none
of thefe, they are obliged to migrate to other places
wkere they grown Their {kins are much effeemed,
and fell for 1 2s. or 14s. each. The lake of Geneva,
like all others fituated between mountains, is fubject
to hidden ftorms.
Geneva, or Gin, among diftillers, an ordinary malt
fpirit, diftilled a fecond time, with'the addition of fome
juniper berries.
Originally, the berries wTere added to the malt in the
grinding 3 fo that the fpirit thus obtained was flavour¬
ed with .the berries from the firft, jind exceeded all that
could be made by any other method. At prefent, they Genevieve
leave out the berries entirely, and give their fpirits a
flavour by diftilling them with a proper quantity of oil ■
of turpentine 3 which, though it nearly refembles the
flavour of juniper berries, has none of their valuable
virtues.
GENEVIEVE, fathers or religious of3 the name of
a congregation of regular canons of the order of St Au-
guftine, eftablilhed in France.
The congregation of St Genevieve is a reform of
the Auguftine canons. It was begun by St Charles
Faure, in the abbey of St Vincent de Senlis, of which
he was a member, in the year 1618.
In the year 1634, the abbey was made eleflive 3 and
a general chapter, compofed of the fuperiors of 15
houfes who had now received the reform, chofe F.
Faure coadjutor of the abbey of St Genevieve, and
general of the whole congregation. Such were its be¬
ginnings.
It has fince increafed very much, and it now confifts >
of above a hundred monafteries 3 in fome whereof the
religious are employed in the adminiftration of the
parilhes and hofpitals : and in others, in the celebra¬
tion of divine fervice, and the inftru&ion of ecclefiaftics
in feminaries for the purpofe.
The congregation takes its name from the abbey of
St Genevieve, which is the chief of the order, and-
whofe abbot is the general thereof. The abbey itfelf
took its name from St Genevieve, the patronefs of the
city of Paris, who died in the year 5x2. Five years
after her death, Clovis ere&ed the church of St Ge¬
nevieve, under the name and invocation of St Peter,
where her relicks are {till, or were till lately preferved,
her flirine vifited, and her image carried with great
proceflions and ceremonies upon extraordinary occa-
fions, as when fome great favour is to be entreated of
heaven.
GENG1S KHAN, the renowned fovereign of the
Moguls, a barbarous and bloody conqueror. See-
Jenghiz Khan, and (Hijlory of the) Moguls.
GENIAL, an epithet given by the Pagans to cer¬
tain gods who were fuppoied to prefide over genera¬
tion.
The genial gods, fays Feftus, were earth, air, fire, and
water. The twelve figns, together with the fun and
moon, w-ere fometimes alfo ranked in the number.
I* GENII, a fort of intermediate beings, by the Ma¬
hometans believed to exift betw-een men and angels.
They are of a groffer fabric than the latter, but much
more aftive and powerful than the former. Some of
them are good, others bad, and they are capable of
future falvation or damnation like men. The orientals
pretend that thefe genii inhabited the world many
thoufand years before the creation of Adam, under
the reigns of feveral princes, who all bore the common
name of Solomon 3 that falling at length into an al-
mofi: general corruption, Eblis was fent to drive them
into a remote part of the earth, there to be confined 3
and that fome of that generation ftill remaining were by
Tahmurath, one of the ancient kings of Perfia, forced
to retreat into the famous mountain of Kaf; of whofe
fucceflions and wars they have many fabulous and ro¬
mantic ftories. They alfo made feveral ranks and de¬
grees among this kind of beings (if they are not rather
different
GEN [ 494 ] G E N
Oen logic fii
II.
Genius.
ilifferent fpecies) 5 fome being abfolutely called Jin ;
feme Per/, or fairies; fome Div, or giants; and others
Tacwins, or fates.
GENIGGLOSSI, in Anatomy. See Anatomr,
Table of the Mufcles.
GENIOHYOIDPEUS, in Anatomy. Ibid.
GENIQSTOMA, a genus of plants, belonging to
the pentandria clafs. See Botany Index.
GENIPPA, a genus of plants, belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 30th order, Cantor tee. See Botany Index.
GENISTA, BROOM, or DYERS WEED, a genus of
plants, belonging to the diadelphia clafs ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 33d order, Papiliorra-
cece. See Botany Index.
GENITxiL, an appellation given to whatever be¬
longs to the parts of generation. See Anatomy,
N° 107, 108.
GEN1TES, among the Hebrew's, thofe defeend-
ed from Abraham, without any mixture of foreign
blood.
The Greeks diflinguilhed by the name of genites
fuch of the Jews as were ilfued from parents, who, du¬
ring the Babylonilh captivity, had not allied with any
gentile family.
GENITIVE, in Grammar, the fecond cafe of the
declenfion of nouns. The relation of one thing confi-
dered as belonging in fome manner to another, has oc-
cafioned a peculiar termination of nouns called the ge¬
nitive cafe; but in the vulgar tongues they make ufe
of a lign to exprefs the relation of this £afe. In Eng-
lilh they prefix the particle of, in French de or du, &c.
Though in ftri&nefs there are no cafes in either of
thefe languages ; inafmuch as they do not exprefs the
different relations of things by different terminations,
but by additional prepofitions, wdrich is otherwife in
the Latin.
GENIUS, a good or evil fpirit or daemon, whom
the ancients fuppofed fet over each perfon, to diredt
his birth, accompany him in life, and to be his guard.
See Daemon.
Among the Romans, Feftus obferves, the name ge¬
nius was given to the god who had the pow'er of do¬
ing all things, deum qui vim obtineret rerum omnium
gerendarum ; which Vo 111 us, de Idol, rather choofes to
read genendarum, who has the power of producing all
things ; by reafon Cenforinus frequently ufes gerere for
gtgnere.
Accordingly St Auguftin, de Civitate Dei, relates,
from Varro, that the genius was a god wEo had the
power of generating all things; and prefided over them
when produced.
Fellus adds, that Aufuftius fpake of the genius as
the Son of God, and the Father of men, w7ho gave
them life ; others, however, reprefented the genius as
the peculiar or tutelary god of each place ; ‘and It is
certain, the laff is the mod ufual meaning of the word.
H he ancients had their genu of nations, of cities, of
provinces, . &c. Nothing is more common than the
following infeription on medals, genius populi rom.
“ the genius of the Roman people or genio pop.
rom. “ to the genius of the Roman people. In this
fenfe genius and lar were the fame thing; as, in effedl,
Cenforinus and Apulius affirm they wTere. See Lares
*md Penates.
The Platonifts, and other eaflern philofophers, fup- Genius,
pofed the genu to inhabit the vaft region or extent of ■
air between earth and heaven. They w'ere a fort of
intermediate powders, wffio did the office of mediators
between gods and men. They wrere the interpreters
and agents of the gods ; communicated the wills of
the deities to men ; and the prayers and vow's of men
to the gods. As it was unbecoming the majefty of the
gods to enter into fuch trifling concerns, this became
the lot of the genii, whofe nature was a mean between
the two ; wffio derived immortality from the one, and
paffions from the other ; and who had a body framed
of an aerial matter. Moil of the philofophers, how¬
ever, held, that the genii of particular men were born
with them, and died ; and Plutarch attributes the
ceafing of oracles partly to the death of the genii.—
See Oracle.
The heathens, who confidered the genii as the guar¬
dians of particular perfons, believed that they rejoiced
and were afflidled at all the good and ill fortune that
befel their wards. They never, or very rarely, ap¬
peared to them ; and then only in favour of fome per¬
fon of extraordinary virtue or dignity. They likewife
held a great difference between tho- genii of different
men ; and that fome were much more powerful than
others : on which principle it was, that a wizzard in
Appian bids Antony keep at a diftance from Odlavius,
by reafon Antony’s genius was inferior to and flood in
awe of that of Odtavius. There were alfo evil genii,
who took a pleafure in perfecuting men, and bringing
them evil tidings : fuch was that mentioned by Plu¬
tarch which appeared to Brutus the night before the
battle of Philippi. Thefe were alfo called larvce and
lemures. See Larvae and Lemures.
Genius, in matters of literature, &c. a natural ta¬
lent or difpofition to do one thing more than another j
or the aptitude a man has received from nature to per¬
form well and eafily that which others can do but in¬
differently and with a great deal of pains.
T© knowr the bent of nature is the moft important
concern. Men come into the world with a genius de¬
termined not only to a certain art, but to certain parts
of that art, in which alone they are capable of fuccefs.
If they quit their fphere, they fall even below medio¬
crity in their profeffion. Art and induftry add much
to natural endowments, but cannot fupply them where
they are wanting. Every thing depends on genius.
A painter often pleafes without obferving rules; wffiilff
another difpleafes though he obferves them, becaufe he
has not the happinefs of being born with a genius for
painting.
A man born with a genius foEcommanding an army,
and capable of becoming a great general by the help
of experience, is one whofe organical conformation is
fuch, that his valour is no obltruflion to his prefence
of mind, and his prefence of mind makes no abate¬
ment of his valour. Such a difpofition of mind cannot
be acquired by art : it can be poffeffed only by a per¬
fon who has brought it wdth him into the wrorld. What
has been faid of thefe two arts may be equally applied
to all other profeffions. The adminiffration of great
concerns, the art of putting people to thofe employ¬
ments for which they are naturally formed, the ftudy of
phyfic, and even gaming itfelf, all require a genius.
Nature has thought fit to make a diilribution of her
talents
4
GEN
[ 495 1
Genius,
Genoa.
talents- among men, in order to render them neceilfn>
to one another •, the wants of men being the very hrlt
lirW of fociety : fhe has therefore pitched upon parti¬
cular perfons, to give them aptitude to perform rightly
fonm things which die has rendered impoffiole to
others-, and the latter have a greater facility granted
them for other things, which facility has been retuled
to the former. Nature indeed has made an unequal
diftribution of her bleffings among her children j yet
ihe has dilinherited none ; and a man diveded ot
kinds of abilities, is as great a phenomenon as an um-
verfal genius. f . ,.
From the diverfity of genius the difference ot incli¬
nation arifes in men, whom nature has had the precau¬
tion of leading to the employments for which fire de-
fWns them, with move or lefs impetuofity m propor-
thr crr<jater or leffer number of obftacles they
The Lomban
year 774. when
ion to
iguria to the
Grea
T
G E N
mafters of Genoa till the
conquered by Charles the
of France. He reduced
tion to the greater or leffer number of obftacles they
have to furmount in order to render themfelves cap¬
able of anfwering this vocation. Thus the inclina¬
tions of men are fo very different, becaufe they follow
the fame mover, that is, the impulfe of their genius.
This, as with the painter, is what renders one poet
pleafing, even when die trefpaffes againft rules-, while
others are difagreeabie, notwithftanding their huff
regularity. >
The genius of thefe arts, according to the abbe du
Bos, confifts in a happy arrangement of the organs oi
the brain ; in a juft conformation of each of thefe or¬
gans f as alfo in^the quality of the blood, which dif-
pofes it to ferment, during exercifc, fo as to furnifh
plenty of fpirits to the fprings employed in the func¬
tions of the imagination. Here he fuppoles that the
compofer’s blood is heated ; for that painters and poets
cannot invent in cool blood : nay, that it is evident
they muft be rapt into a kind of enthniiafin when
they produce their ideas. Ariftotle mentions a poet
who never wrote io well as when his poetic fury hur¬
ried him into a kind of frenzy, dhe admirable pic¬
tures we have in Taffo of Armida and Clovinda were
drawn at the expence’ of a dilpofition he had to real
madnefs, into which he fell before he died. “ Do you
imagine (fays Cicero), that Pacuvius wrote in cold
blood ? No, it was impoflible. He muft have been
infpired with a kind of fury, to be able to write fuch
admirable verfes.”
GENOA, a city of Italy, and formerly capital of a
republic of the fame name, fituated in E. Long. 9. 30.
N. Eat. 44. 30.—By thef Latin authors it is very fre¬
quently, though corruptly called Janua; and its pre-
fent territories made part of the ancient Liguria.. The
era of its foundation is not known. In the time of
the fecond Punic war it was a celebrated emporium -,
and having declared for the Romans, was plundered
and burnt by Mago the Carthaginian. It was after¬
wards rebuilt by the Romans j and with the reft , of
Italy continued under their dominion till the decline
of the weftern empire in 47^' Soon after, it teii un¬
der the power of Theodoric the Oftrogoth who having
defeated the ufurper Odoacer, became king of Italy.
This happened in the year 498 5 and in a thort time,
the Goths being alrooft entirely fubdued by Belifarius
the emperor Juftinian’s general, Genoa wras reannexed
to the Roman empire. In 638, it was plundered and
burnt by the Lombards,, whofe king Protharis erc£led
it into a provincial dukedom.
> continued
they were
Pepin king
to tne ancient bounds fettled by Auguftus,
and erefted it into a marquifate : appointing his rela¬
tion Audemarus the firft count or margrave. Genoa
at this time being diftinguifhed lor its wealth and po-
puloufnefs, began to give its name to the whole coaft ;
and continued under the dominion of thefe counts tor
about 100 years, till the race of the Pepins became en¬
tirely extind in Italy, and the empire was transferred
to the German princes.—In the year 935 or 936,
while the Genoefe forces were abfent on fome expedi¬
tion, the Saracens furprifed the city, which they plun¬
dered and burnt, putting to death a great number, ot
the inhabitants, and carrying others into captivity.
Having embarked their captives, together with an im-
menfe booty, they fet fail for Africa y. but. the Ge¬
noefe immediately returning, purfued tne invaders y
and having entirely defeated them, recovered ad th
captives and booty, and took a great many m the ene¬
my’s fhipS. , , . inn
About the year 950, the Franks having loft all au¬
thority in Italy, the Genoefe began to form tbemielves
into a republic, and to be governed by their own ma-
A ft rates, who were frejely eleded, and took the name
of Cnnfuls. In order to fupport their independence,
they applied themfelves with great aftiduity to com¬
merce and navigation and being apprehenlive that
fome of the German emperors, who frequently entered
Italy as invaders, might renew their pretenfions to their
ftate, they confented to acknowledge Lerenganus 111.
duke of Friuli, who had been ele.ded emperor by a
party of Italian nobles. Berengarius, who had much
ado to maintain himfelf in his new dignity, endeavour¬
ed by his conceflions to enlarge tue number of his
friends and adherents; and accordingly made.no diffi¬
culty to confirm the new republic in all its rigiits atn
privileges. After this the Genoefe began to extend
their commerce from Spain to Syria, and fiom Egypt
to Conftantinople j their veffels, according to the cu-
ftom of thefe times, being fitted for fighting as wed as
merchandife. Having thus acquired great- reputation
they were invited in 1017, by the Pifans, who had
likewife formed themfelves into a republic, to join with
them in an expedition againft Sardinia, which had been
conquered by the Moors. In this expedition they were:
fuccefsful; the ifland was reduced j but ir°ni. this time
an enmity commenced between the two.republics, which
did not end but with the ruin of the Pifans.
The firft war with Pifa commenGed about 30 years
after the Sardinian expedition, and lafted 18 >ea^s *
when the two contending parties having concluded
Genoa,
« treaty of peace, jointly fent their j.orces againft. the
Moors m Africa, of whom they are faid to have killed
100,000. The Genoefe were very aftive in the time
of the crufades, and had a principal {bare in the tak¬
ing of Jerufalem. They alfo waged confiderable ivar.s
with the Moors in Spain, of whom they generally got
the better. They alio prevailed againft the. neighbour¬
ing ftates 5 and, in 1 220, had enlarged their territories
beyond the fkirts of the Apennines, fo that the reft
of"Italy looked upon them with a jealous eye : but in
1311 the fatftions which had for a long time reigned
in the city, notwithftanding all its wealth and. power
* induced-
gen [ 496 ] GEN
IndaceJ the inhabitants to fubmit themfelves for 20
y L" years to the dominion of Henry VII. emperor of Ger¬
many. That emperor, however, died in Auguft 1312 j
and the vicar he had left foon after went to Pifa, up¬
on which the diffenlions in Genoa revived with greater
fury than ever. In 1317, a quarrel happened between
the families of Spinola and Doria ; which came to
fuch a height, that both parties fought in'the ftreets
for 24 days without intermiffion, railed battering en¬
gines again!! each other’s houfes, and filled the city
wuth blood. At laft the Spinolae quitted the city, and
retired to their territories in the Apennine mountains.
The civil war continued till the year 1331 ; when, by
the mediation of the king of Naples, it was concluded,
that all exiles ihould return to the city •, that the re¬
public fliould be governed by the king’s vicar 5 and
all the offices of the Hate be equally divided between
the Guelfs and the Gibellines, the two contending
parties.
By this ruinous war, the coaf! of Genoa, formerly
adorned with palaces and vineyards, was now reduced
to the appearance of a barren walle. So great was
the general defolation, that, according to Petrarch,
the ipedlators who failed along were ftruck with allo-
niffiment and horror. Villani, a cotemporary author,
relates, that it was fuppofed _ by the learned, that
greater exploits had not been performed at the fiege of
Troy 5 and that the Ioffes 'each party had fuftained
would have been fufficient to have purchafed a king¬
dom, the Genoefe republic being in his time the
richeft and moft powerful flate in Chriffendom. The
annalift Stella informs us, that, before the war, the
moft extravagant profufion and luxury prevailed among
the Genoefe : but that, towards the end, many noble
families were reduced to indigence and poverty j fo
that, about 100 years after, it became fafhionable for
the nobles to live in a plain manner, without any fhow
or magnificence.
In 1336, both parties, fufpending their mutual ani-
mofities, fent two fleets of 20 galleys each into the
German ocean, to the afliftance of the king of France,
who was engaged in a war with Edward III. king of
England. This naval expedition proved the caufe of
a moft remarkable revolution in the Genoefe govern¬
ment. The failors of the fleet, thinking themfelves
injured by their officers, whom they accufed of de¬
frauding them of their pay, proceeded to an open mu¬
tiny ; and, having expelled the admiral, and other com¬
manders, feized the galleys. The king of France be¬
ing chofen arbitrator, decided in favour of the officers,
and imprifoned 16 of the chiefs of the mutineers. Up¬
on this feveral of the failors left the fleet, and return¬
ed to Genoa; where they went round the coafts, re¬
peating their mutinous complaints, which were great¬
ly hearkened to, upon a falfe report that the mutineers
who had been imprifoned were broke upon the wheel.
The factious fpirit increafed 5 and at laft the Genoefe
infilled in a tumultuous manner for having an abbot of
their own chooling, and 20 of the people with the con-
fent of the captains of the republic affembled for that
purpofe. While the mob were impatiently expe&ing
their decifion, a mechanic, generally accounted a fool,
mounted a wooden bench, and called out that one
.Simon Bucanigree Ihould be chofen abbot. This be-
^ 3
ing inftantly echoed by the populace, he was nrft de- Genoa,
dared abbot, then lord, and at laft duke of Genoa. >—
This new expedient did not at all anfwer the pun.
pofe.. The diffenfions continued as violent as ever,
notwithftanding the power of the new magiftrates >
and by thefe perpetual divifion's the republic was at
laft fo much weakened, that in 1390 the king of France
was declared lord of Genoa. Under the French go¬
vernment, however, they foon became exceedingly
impatient; and, in 1422, the duke of Milan obtained
the fovereignty. With this fituation they were equally
difpleafed, and therefore revolted in 1436. Twenty-
two years after, finding themfelves preffed by a power¬
ful fleet and army fent by Alphonfo king of Naples,
they again conferred the fovereignty of their ftate
upon the king of France. In 1460, they revolted
from the French ; and, four years after, put themfelves
again under the prote&ion of the duke of Milan : from
whom they revolted in 1478. He was again declared
fovereign of the republic in 1488 ; and, 11 years after,
the city and territories of Genoa were conquered by-
Louis XII. of France.
_ The almoft unparalleled ficklenefs of the Genoefe
difpofition was not-to be correcled by this misfortune.
They revolted in 1506 ; but next year were again fub-
dued by Louis. Six years after, they again revolted ;
and in 1516, the city was taken and plundered by the
Spaniards. In 1528, Andrew Doria, a Genoefe ad¬
miral in the fervice of the French, undertook to ref-
cue his country from the dominion of foreign princes,
and reftore it to its liberty. Knowing well the fickle
difpofition of his countrymen, he took all occafions of
exciting difcontents among them again!! the govern¬
ment. He perfuaded them, that the French (who had
again obtained the fovereignty) had left them only a
ftiadovv of liberty, while they pretended to protedl
them from their enemies. To the nobility he repre-
fented the difgrace of fuffering the government to be
veiled in the hands of foreigners lefs worthy of autho¬
rity than themlelves. Thus he foon formed a ftrong
faction, and formed his plan ; for the execution of
which he took the moft proper time, namely, when
almoft three-fourths of the French garrifon had been,
carried off by the plague. He advanced with 500
men ; and his friends having opened the gates of the
city to him, he feized the principal polls, and thus be¬
came mailer of it without drawing his.fword. The
garrifon retired to the forts, where they foon after ca¬
pitulated, and being driven out of the city, Doria re-
ellablilhed the ancient form of government. See Do¬
ria.
The republic hath fince continued to preferve her
liberty, though greatly fallen from her ancient fplen-
dour, and now become a very inconfiderable ftate. In
1684, the Genoefe had the misfortune to fall under
the refentment of Louis XIV. at which time the city
was almoft deftroyed by a formidable bombardment.
In the year 1688, it was bombarded by Admiral Byng,
and forced to capitulate ; but there were at that time
no views of making a permanent conqueft of the city.
In 1730, the illand of Corfica revolted from the Ge¬
noefe, and could never afterwards be reduced by them ;
for which reafon it was fold to the French, who in the
year 1770 totally reduced it.
The
GEN [ 497 ] GEN
The Genoefe territories extend along that part of
the Mediterranean fea, commonly called the gulj oj
Genoa, about 15 2 miles ; but their breadth is very un¬
equal, being from eight to about 20 miles.. Where
they are not bounded by the fea, the following Hates
and countries, taking them from weft to eaft, are their
boundaries, viz. Piedmont, Montferrat, Milan, Placen¬
tia, Parma, the dukedom of Lufcany, and the repub-
lic’of Lucca. This traft, though a great part of it
is mountainous, and fame of that barren enough, yet
produces plenty of excellent fruit, good pafture, wood,
garden fluff, and mulberry trees, with fame wine and
oil, but little corn. What they, want of the laft, they
have either from Lombardy, Sicily, 01 iNfipLs.
Genoa ftands on the coaft of the Mediterranean fea,
at the bottom of a little gulf, partly, on. the flat, and
partlx on the declivity, of a pleafant hill j in confequence
of which, it appears to great advantage from the fea.
It is defended on the land fide by a double wall, which
in circumference is about ten Italian miles. 1 wo of
the ftreets confift entirely of a double ftraight row of
magnificent palaces. The others, though clean and.
well paved, are crooked and narrow’. Fhe palaces of
the nobility are almoft all of marble, and many of them
are painted on the outfide. That there ftiould be fuch
a profufion of marble here, is not to be wondered at,
as the neighbouring hills abound with it. The city
contains a vaft number of palaces, churches, and con-
\ vents, and feveral hofpitajs. The palace where the
doge refides, and w'here the great and little council,
and the two colleges of the procuratori and governa-
tori affemble, is a large ftone building in the. centre of
the city : but it contains home fine paintings in frelco j
two ftatues of Andrew and John Doria in white mar¬
ble •, and an arfenal, in which are faid to be arms for
thirty-four thoufand men, with a Afield, containing
one hundred and twenty piftol barrels, and thirty-three
coats of mail, which, it is pretended, were worn by
as many Genoefe heroines in a - croifade. Of the
churches, the fineft are thofe of the Annunciation, St
Mary Carignan, St Dominic, and St Martha. In the
cathedral is a dilh made of a Angle emerald. All the
inhabitants here, except the principal ladies, wdio are
carried in chairs, w’alk on foot, on account of the nar-
rownefs or fteepnefs of the ftreets. I he fortifications
of the city, towards the fea, are remarkably ftrong.
There are two fine ftone bridges over the rivers Bon-
zerva and Bifagno, the firft wdiereof wafties the weft,
and the other the eaft fide of the city, within which
there is alfo a furprifing ftone bridge joining two hills.
The harbour, though large, is far from being fafe;
but no care or expence have been fpared to render it
as fafe and commodious as poflible. The wind to
which it is moft expofed, is that called Labeccio, or the
fouth-weft. The place where the republic’s galleys
he, is called the Darfena, where are a great number
ef Turkifti flaves. On a rock, on the w’eft fide of the
harbour, is the fanal or lighthoufe, a high tower, on
the top of which is a lanthorn, containing thirty-fix
lamps. The trade of Genoa is chiefly in velvets, da-
maiks, plulh, and other filks, brocades, lace, gloves,
fweetmeats, fruits, oil, Parmelan cheele, anchovies,
and medicinal drugs from the Levant } but the bad-
nefs of the harbour, and the high price of commodi¬
ties, greatly checks the commerce. In lyjL Genoa
Vol. IX. Part II.
was declared a free port for ten years, under certain
reftrictions : in that called Porto Franco, any merchant
may have a warehoule, and import or export g^oods
duty free 5 but fuch as are difpofed of in the city, or
on the continent, are taxed pretty high. I he nobili¬
ty are allowed to trade in the wholefale way j to carry
on velvet, filk, and cloth manufactures ; and to have
{hares in merchant ftfips : and fome of them, as the
Palavicini, are actually the greateft merchants in Ge¬
noa. Another very profitable article of trade carried
on by them is banking, and dealing in bills of ex¬
change. A new academy of painting, fculpture, civil
and military architedlure, was inftituted here in 1751.
One may walk the ftreets of Genoa in the night with
the greateft fafety, which is more than can be laid of
many cities in Italy. Exceflive fplendour and luxury
are, in feveral reipedls, reftrained by falutary laws.
No beggars are permitted to alk alms in Genoa, and
the inns are better than thofe at Turin. When a {in¬
gle perfon is buried, a kind of garland of all lorts of
artificial flow’ers is placed on the coffin. The Genoefe
in general are efteemed crafty, induftrious, and inured
to labour above the other Italians.
Amidft the political convulfions which agitated Eu¬
rope, in confequence of the unexampled French revolu¬
tion, it was fcarcely to be expefted that Genoa would
efcape the ffiock. Accordingly in the year 1798, by
the force and intrigues of the French republicans, its
political conftitution was totally fubverted, and changed
into what was afterwards denominated the Ligurian Re¬
public, which was to be governed in a manner fimilpr to
that of their own, and the country alfo was divided into
departments. As the preceding campaign had termi¬
nated in favour of the combined powers, and left them
in the poffeflion of every important place in Italy, this
only excepted, the capture of it became an objeft of the
utmoft confequence to the contending parties. To re¬
gain it wras the higheft ambition of the houfe of Auf-
tria, while the retaining of it was matter of folicitude to
the French republic. The reafon is obvious. The con-
queft of it reftored to the emperor of Germany the
pofieffion of all Italy, gave him the means of refuming
his former pofitions in the Maritime Alps, and rein¬
forcing his former pofition on the Rhine. lo the
French it was a place of the utmoft confequence, be-
caufe while they were enabled to retain it in their own
hands, they could eafily favour the operations of their
army in Switzerland, or their entrance into Italy by the
defiles of Piedmont.
As the allies w’ere fully determined on its conqueft
for the reafons already affigned, as w'ell as for others of
an inferior nature and magnitude, it is but candid to ad¬
mit that the general by whom it was defended had in¬
numerable difficulties to ftruggle with, and obftacles to
furmount. When M alien a fucceeded Championet, the
army was ' reduced to the moft melancholy fituation.
Confined during the winter feafon to the bleak fummits of
the Apennines, it was reduced in numbers more than
one half, and a conftant prey to famine and difeafe.
To add to the difficulties which everywhere prefented
themfelves to Maffena, the higher claffes of the Genoefe
looked upon the French only as the deftroyers of their
rank, commerce, and political importance 5 in conic-
quence of which they fecretly aided every meafure by
which they might be driven from the country. Inftead
3R of
gen [ 498 ] GEN
Genfing 0f 6o,oco iren which he was promifed, MalTena had no
Gentilef^hi more t1nan 20>0°0 after all his unwearied exertions, and
• — > -- with thefe he had to defend an extent of country from
Mount Cenis to the frontiers of Tufeany. He wifely
difmified all the former generals, independent of their
merit, becaufe the foldiers affociated with them the idea
oi former mifery and difgrace. In addition to the fu-
perior flrength of the Auftrian army, Maffena found a
formidable infurreflion railed againil him in the eaftern
territory of the Genoefe republic. The paflage by fea
was cbitrudfed by the Britifti fleet, and his expedited
fuccQiirs from Marfeilles only reached him in part. As
he could not meet the army in the field by which he
was blockaded, his only alternative was to remain in
Genoa, every moment in dread of perilhing by famine,
if not fpeedily relieved.
In the mean time, the Auftrian army had nothing to
do during the winter but to remain in a ftate of obfer-
vation; the diftrefs to which the republican general was
reduced was unfpeakably great. After enduring a
number of hardfhips with the moft undaunted fortitude,
and finding the city no longer tenable, a principle of
humanity for his diftreffed army and the ftarving inha¬
bitants induced him to furrender.
Iv: the progrefs of fubfequent hoftilities the French
again obtained poffeffion of it, and it is now (1806) fub-
je£t to the dominion of a brother of Bonaparte’s, who
has affumed the title of king of Italy.
GENSING. See Panax, Botany Index.
GENTIANA, Gentian, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the pentandria clafs; and in the natural method
ranking under the 20th order, Rotacece. See Botany
Index.
GENTILE, in matters of religion, a Pagan, or
worfhipper of falfe gods.
The origin of this word is deduced from the Jews,
who called all thofe who rvere not of their name q'Wj
gojim, i. e. gentes, which in the Greek tranfiations of
the Old Teftament is rendered tm in which fenfe
it frequently occurs in the New Teftament; as in
Matth. vi. 32. “ All thefe things the nations or
Gentiles feek.” Whence the Latin church alfo ufed
gentes in the fame fenfe as our Gentiles, efpecially in the
New Teftament. But the word gentes foon got another
fignification, and no longer meant all fuch as were not
Jews 5 but thofe only who were neither Jews nor Chri-
ftians, but followed the fuperftitions of the Greeks and
Romans, &c. In this fenfe it continued among the
Chriftian waiters, till their manner of fpeech, together
with their religion, was publicly and by authority re¬
ceived in the empire 5 when gentiles, from gentes, came
into ufe : and then both words had two fignifications,
viz. in treatifes or laws concerning religion, they fig-
nified Pagans, neither Jews nor Chriftians ; and in
civil affairs, they were ufed for all fuch as. were not
Romans.
Gentile, in the Roman law and hiftory, a name
which fometimes expreffes what the Romans otherwife
called barbarians, whether they were allies of Rome
or not: but this word was ufed in a more particular
fenfe for all grangers and foreigners not fubjedl to the
Roman empire.
GENTILESCHI, Horatio, an Italian painter,
was born at Pifa in 1563. After having made him’
felf famous at Florence, Rome, Genoa, and other parts
of Italy, he removed to Savoy j from whence he w’ent Centals,
to France, and at laft, upon the invitation of Charles I. Gentleman.
came over to England. He was well received by  v 
that king, who appointed him lodgings in his court,
together with a confiderable falary 5 and employed
him in Ins palace at Greenwich, and other public
places. I he moft remarkable of his performances m
England, were the ceilings of Greenwich and York
houfe.. He did alfo a Madona, a Magdalen, and Lot
with his two daughters, for King Charles j ail which
he performed admirably well. After the death of the
king, when his colle&ion was expofed to fale, nine
pictures of Gentilefchi w7ere fold for 600I. and are
now faid to be the ornaments of the hall in Marlbo¬
rough houfe. His moft efteemed piece abroad was
the portico of Cardinal Bentivoglio’s palace at Rome.
He made feveral attempts in face painting, but with
little fuccefs; his talent lying altogether in hiftories,
with figures as big as the life. He was much in favour
with the duke of Buckingham, and many others of
the nobility. After 1 2 years continuance in England,
he died here at 84 years of age, and was buried in the
queen’s chapel at Somerfet-houfe. Elis print is a-
mong the heads of Vandyke, he having been drawn,
by that great mafter. He left behind him a daughter,
Artemijia Gentilefchi, who was but little inferior to
her father in hiftory painting, and excelled him in
portraits.
GENTILIS, Albericus, profeffbr of civil law at
Oxford ■, an Italian by birth. He had quitted Italy
with his father,- on account of religion. He wrote
feveral works \ three books, in particular, De jure belli,
which have not been unferviceable to Grotius. He
died at London in 1608.
Gentilis, Scipio, brother to the former, and as
celebrated a civilian as he, forfook his native country
that he might openly profefs the Proteftant religion.
He was counfellor of the city of Nuremberg, and pro-
feffor of law with uncommon reputation. He was a
great humanift ; and in his le&ures, as well as books,
mixed the flowers of polite learning with the thorns of
the law. He died in 1616.
GENTLEMAN. Under this denomination are
comprehended all above the rank of yeomen f where-f See CW
by noblemen are truly called gentlemen. tnonahy.
A gentleman is ufually defined to be one, who,
without any title, bears a coat of arms, or whofe an-
ceftors have been freemen: and by the coat that a
gentleman giveth, he is known to be, or not to be, de-
fcended from thofe of his name that lived many hun¬
dred years fince.
The word is formed of the French gentilhonime ; or
raiher of gentil, “ fine, fafhionable, or becoming 5” and
the Saxon man, q. d. honejlus, or honefo loco natus.'—•
The fame fignification has the Italian gentilhuomo, and
the Spaniih hidalgo, or hijo dalgo, that is, the fon of
fomebody, or a perfon of note.—If wre go farther
back, we fhall find gentleman originally derived from
the Latin gentilis homo ; which was ufed among the
Romans for a race of noble perfons of the fame name,
born of free or ingenuous parents, and whofe ancef-
tors had never been Haves or put to death by law.
Thus Cicero in his Topics, “ Gentiles funt, qui inter fe
eodem funt nomine, ab ingenms oriundi, quorum majorutn
nemo fervitutem fervivit, qui capite non funt diminuti, &c.
•—Some
gen [ 499 ] GEN
Gentleman,—Some hold that it was formed from gentile, i. e. pa-
Gentoos. gan • and that the ancient Franks, who conquered
' ' Gaul, which was then converted to Chriftianity, were
called gentiles by the natives, as being yet heathens.—
Others relate, that towards the declenlion of the Ro¬
man empire, as recorded by Ammianus Marcellinus,
there were two companies of brave foldiers, the one
called gentiles, and the other fcutarii; and that it
was hence we derive the names gentleman and efquire.
See Esquire.—This fentiment is confirmed by Paf-
quire, who fuppofes the appellation gentiles and ecuyers
to have been tranfmitted to us from the Roman fol-
diery ; it being to the gentiles and fcntarii, who were
the braved of the foldiery, that the principal benefices
and portions of lands were afligned. See Benefice.
—The Gauls obferving, that during the empire of the
Romans, the fcutarii and gentiles had the beft tene¬
ments or appointments of all the foldiers on the fron¬
tiers of the provinces, became infenfibly accuftomed to
apply the fame names, gentilhommes and ecuyers, to fuch
as they found their kings gave the bed; provifions or
appointments to.
Gentleman UJher of the Black Rod. See Rod.
Gentlemen of the Chapel; officers whofe duty and
attendance is in the royal chapel, being in number 32.
Twelve of them are prieds ; the other 20, commonly
called clerks of the chapel, affid in the performance of
divine fervice. One of the fird 1 2 is chofen for con-
feflbr of the houfehold 5 whofe office is to read prayers
every morning to the houfehold fervants, to vifit the
fick, examine and prepare communicants, and admi-
nider the facrament. One of 20 clerks, well verfed in
mufic, is chofen fird organid, who is mader of the
children, to indru61 them in mufic, and whatever elfe
is neceffary for the fervice of the chapel •, a fecond is
likewife an organid 5 a third, a lutanid j and a fourth
a violid. There are likewife three vergers, fo called
from the filver rods they carry in their hands ; being
a ferjeant, a yeoman, and groom of the vedry ; the
fird attends the dean and fubdean, and finds fur-
plices and other neceffaries for the chapel \ the fecond
has the whole care of the chapel, keeps the pews, and
feats the nobility and gentry ; the groom has his at¬
tendance within the chapel door, and looks after it.
GENTOOS, in modern hidory, according to the
common acceptation of the term, denote the profeiTors
of the religion of the bramins or brachmans, who in¬
habit the country called Hindofan, in the Ead Indies,
from the word fan, a “ region,” and hind or hindoo ;
which Ferifhtah, as we learn from Colonel Dow’s tranf-
Jation of his hidory, fuppofes to have been a fon of
Ham the fon of Noah. It is obferved, however, that
Hindoo is not the name by which the inhabitants ori¬
ginally dyled themfelves ; but according to the idiom
of the Shanfcrit which they ufe, jumbodeep, from jum-
boo, a “ jackall,” an animal common in their coun¬
try j and deep, a large portion of land furrounded by
the fea ; or bhertekhunt, from khunt, i. e. “ a conti¬
nent,” and bherrhut, the name of one of the fird In¬
dian rajahs. It is alfo to be obferved, that they have
affumed the name of Hindoos only fince the era of the
Tartar government, to didihguidi themfelves from
their conquerors the Muffulmans. The term Gentoo or
Gent, in the Shanfcrit dialed!, denotes animal m gene¬
ral, and in its more confined fenfe mankind, and is ne¬
ver appropriated particularly to fuch as follow the uoc- Gentoos.
trines of Brama. Thefe are divided into four great' s^im
tribes, each of which has its own feparate appellation 5
but they have no common or colledfive term that com¬
prehends the whole nation under the idea affixed by
the Europeans to the word Gentoo. Mr Halhed, in
the preface to his tranflation of the Code of Gentoo
Law's, conjedlures, that the Portuguefe, on their fird
arrival in India, hearing the word frequently in the
Nmouths of the natives, as applied to mankind in gene¬
ral, might adopt it for the domedic appellation of the
Indians themfelves, or perhaps their bigotry might
force from the wTord Gentoo a fanciful allufion to gen¬
tile or Pagan. The Hindoos, or Gentoos, vie with
the Chinefe as to the antiquity of their nation. They
reckon the duration of the world by four jogues, or
didindf ages ; the fird the Suttee jogue, or age of
purity, wrhich is faid to have laded about 3,200,000
years 5 during which the life of man was 100,000
years, and his dature 21 cubits: the fecond, the Tir-
tah jogue, or the age in which one-third of mankind
W’ere reprobate which confided of 2,400,000 years,
when men lived to the age of 10,000 years: the third,
the Dw'aper jogue, in wdiich half of the human race
became depraved, which endured to 600,060 years,
when men’s lives were reduced to 1000 years : and
fourthly, the Collee jogue, in wdiich all mankind were
corrupted, or rather diminifhed, wrhich the w7ord collee
imports. This is the prefent era, which they fuppofe
W'ill fubfid for 400,000 years, of which near 5000 are
already pad ; and man’s life in this period is limited to
100 years. It is fuppofed by many authors, that mod
of the Gentoo fhafers, or feriptures, were compofed
about the beginning of the Collee jogue : but an ob-
jedlion occurs againd this fuppofition, viz. that the
diaders take no notice of the deluge ; to which the
bramins reply, that all their feriptures wrere written
before the time of Noah, and the deluge never extend¬
ed to Hindodan. Neverthelefs, it appears from the
Ihaders themfelves, that they claim a much higher an¬
tiquity than this j indances of which ale recited by
Mr Halhed.
1 he do61rine of tranfmigration is one of the didin-
guilhing tenets of the Gentoos. With regard to this
fubjecl, it is their opinion, according to Mr Holwell,
that thofe fouls wdnch have attained to a certain de¬
gree of purity, either by the innocence of their man¬
ners or the feverity of their mortifications, are removed
to regions of happinefs proportioned to their refpec-
tive merits ; but that thofe wTho cannot fo far furmount
the prevalence of bad example, and the powerful de¬
generacy of the times, as to deferve fuch a promotion^
are condemned to undergo continual punifhment in the
animation of fuccedive animal forms, until, at the da¬
ted period, another renovation of the four jogues diall
commence, upon the diffolution of the prefent. They
imagine fix different fpheres above this earth j the
highed of which called futtee, is the refidence of Bra¬
ma, and his particular favourites. This fphere is alfo
the habitation of thole men wTho never uttered a falfe-
hood, and of thofe wromen who have voluntarily burn¬
ed themfelves with their hufbands 5 the propriety of
W'hich pra6tice is exprefsly enjoined in the code of the
Gentoo laws. This code, printed by the Ead India
Company in 1776? i^a very curious colledlion of Hin-
3 R 2 doo
GEN
[ 5oo ]
GEN
Gentoos, doo jurifprudence, which was fel'e&ed by the molt ex-
Gen u-
flexion
perienced pundits or lawyers from curious originals in
, the Shanfcrit language, who wj-ere employed for this
purpofe from May 1773 to February 1775 > after¬
wards tranflated into the Periian idiom, and then into
the Englilh language by Mr Halhed.
Tiie feveral inftitutes contained m this collection are
interwoven with the religion of the Gentoos, and re¬
vered as of the higheft authority. The curious reader
will difcover an affonifhing fimilarity between the in-
llitutes of this code and many of the ordinances ^ of
the Jewilh law : between the charader of the bramins
or priefts, and the Levites; and between the ceremo¬
ny of the fcape goat under the Mofaic difpenfation,
and a Gentoo ceremony called the ajhummed jug, in
which a horfe anfwers the purpofe of the goat. Many
obfolete cuftoms and ufages alluded to in many parts
of the Old Teftament, may alfo receive illuftrations
from the inftitutes of this code. It appears from the
code, that the bramins, who are the priefts and legiila-
tors of the country, have reftgned all the fecular and
executive power into the hands of another call or tribe *,
and no bramin has been properly capable of the magi-
itracy fince the time of the futtee jogue. The only pri¬
vilege of importance which they have appropriated to
themfelves, is an exemption from all capital puniftiment:
they may be degraded, branded, imprifoned for life, or
lent into perpetual exile-, but it is everywhere expressly
ordained, that a bramin lhall not be put to death on any
account whatfoever.
We have already obferved, that the Hindoos are di¬
vided into four great and original tribes, which accord¬
ing to the Gentoo theology, proceeded from the four
different members ef Brama, the fuppofed immediate
agent of the creation under the fpirit of the Almighty.
Thefe tribes are the Brarnins, which proceeded from his
mouth, and whofe office is to pray, read, and inftruft 5
the Chehteree, which proceed from his arms, whofe of¬
fice is to draw the bow, to fight, and to govern the
Bice, proceeding from the belly or thighs, who are to
provide the neceffaries of life by agriculture and traffic
and the Soonder, from the feet, which are ordained to
labour, ferve, and travel.
Few Chriftians, fays the tranflator of the Gentoo
code, have expreffed themfelves with a more becoming
reverence of the grand and impartial defigns of Provi¬
dence, in all its wroks, or with a more extenfive cha¬
rity towards all their fellow creatures of every profef-
lion, than the Gentoos. It is indeed an article of faith
among the Bramins, that God’s all merciful power
would not have permitted fuch a number of different re¬
ligions, if he had not found a pleafure in beholding their
varieties.
GENUFLEXION, (of genu, “ knee,” and Jle&o
“ I bend,”) the aft of bowing or bending the knee 5
or rather of kneeling down.
The Jefuit Rofweyd, in his Onomafticon, ffiows, that
genuflexion, or kneeling, has been a very ancient cuftom
in the church, and even under the Old Teftament dif¬
penfation j and that this praftice w-as obferved through¬
out all the year, excepting on Sundays, and during the
time from Eafter to Whitfuntide, when kneeling was
forbidden by the council of Nice.
Others have fhown, that the cuftom of not kneeling
on Sundays had obtained from the time of the apcftles,
as appears from St Irenaeus, and Tertullian; and the Germ?
Ethiopic church, fcrupuloufly attached to the ancient
ceremonies, ftill retains that of not kneeling at divine
fervice. The Ruffians efteem it an indecent pofture to
worftiip God on the knees. Add, that the Jews ulually
prayed handing. Rofw7eyd gives the reafons of the
prohibition of genuflexion on Sundays, See. from StBaffl,
Anaftafius, St Juftin, &.c.
Baronius is of opinion, that genuflexion was not efta-
bliffied in the year of Chrift 58, from that paffage in
Afts xx. 36. where St Paul is exprefsly mentioned to
kneel down at prayer ; but Saurin ftiows, that nothing
/can be thence concluded. The fame author remarks,
alfo, that the primitive Chriftians carried the praftice of
genuflexion fo far, that fome of them had worn cavities
in the floor where they prayed : and St Jerome relates
of St James, that he had contrafted a hardnefs on his
knees equal to that of camels.
GENUS, among metaphyficians and logicians, de¬
notes a number of beings which agree in certain ge¬
neral properties common to them all: fo that a ge¬
nus is nothing elfe but an abftraft idea, expreffed by
fome general name or term. See Logic and Meta¬
physics.
Genus, is alfo ufed for a charafter or manner appli¬
cable to every thing of a certain nature or condition :
in which fenfe it ferves to make capital divifions in di¬
vers fcicnces, as medicine, natural hiftory, &c.
Genus, in Rhetoric. Authors diftinguiffi the art
of rhetoric, as alfo oration or difeourfes produced there¬
by, into three genera or kinds, demonftrative, delibera¬
tive, and iudiciary. To the demonftrative kind belong
panegyrics, genethliacons, epithalamiums, funeral ha¬
rangues, &c. To the deliberative belong perfuafions,
diffuafions, commendations, &c. To the judiciary kind
belong defences and accufations.
Genus, in Medicine. See Medicine, under the
Nofology.
Genus, in Natural Hijlory, a fubdivifion of any clafs
or order of natural beings, whether of the animal, ve¬
getable, or mineral kingdoms, which agree in certain
common charafters. See Natural Hijlory. _
Genus, in Mufic, by the ancients called melodicer
is a certain manner of dividing and fubdividing the prin¬
ciples of melody; that is, the confonant and diffonant
intervals, into their concinnous parts.
The moderns confidering the oftave as the moft
perfeft of intervals, and that whereon all the concords
depend, in the prefent theory of mufic, the divifion of
that interval is confidered as containing the true divifton
of the wdiole feale.
But the ancients went to work fomewhat different¬
ly : the diateffaron, or fourth, wjas the leaft interval
which they admitted as concord j and therefore they
fought firft how that might be moft conveniently di¬
vided from wdience they conftituted the diapente and
diapafon.
The diateffaron being thus, as it were, the root and
foundation of the fcale, what they called the genera,
or kinds, arofe from its various divifions ; and hence
they defined the genus tnodulandi to be the manner of
dividing the tetrachord and difpofing its four founds as
to fucceffion.
The genera of mufic were three, the enharmonic,
chromatic, and diatonic. The two firft were varioufly
fubdivided ;
GEO [5°
Geocentric fuhdivided •, and even the laft, though that is commonly
II reckoned to be without any fpecies, yet different authors
GeofiVoy. jlave prop0fed different divinons under that name, vnth-
V out giving any particular names to the fpecies as tiias
done to the other two. , „ „ r
For the charadlers, &c. of thefe feveral genera, lee
Enharmonic, Chromatic, and Diatonic.
GEOCENTRIC, in Ajlronomy, is applied to a pla¬
net or its orbit, to denote it concentric with the earth,
or as having the earth for its centre, or the fame centre
with the earth. . ,
GEOFFR7EA, a genus of plants belonging to the
diadelphia clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 3 2d order, Papikonacece. See Botany and
Materia Medica Index. r - A
GEOFFREY of Monmouth, biihop oi bt A-
faph, called by our ancient biographers Gallofndus
Monumentenjis. Leland conjeaures that he was educa¬
ted in a Benediaine convent at Monmouth, where he
was born ; and that he became a monk of that order.
Bale and after him Pits, call him archdeacon of Mon¬
mouth j and it is generally afferted that he was made
biihoo of St Afaph in the year 1151 or 1152, m the
reign of King Stephen. His hiftory was probably h-
nilhed after the year 1138. It contains a fabulous ac¬
count of Britiih kings, from the Trojan Brutus to
the reign of Cadwallader in the year 690. But Geof¬
frey, whatever cenfure he may deferve for his credu¬
lity, was not the inventor of the ftories he relates. t
is a tranflation from a manufcript written m the Bri¬
tiih language, and brought to England from Armo¬
rica by his friend Gualter, archdeacon of Oxiord.
But the achievements of King Arthur, Merlin s pro¬
phecies, many fpeeche* and letters, were chiefly ms
own addition. In excufe for this hiltonan, Mr Whar¬
ton judicioufly obferves, that fabulous hiftones were
then the faffiion, and popular traditions a recommenda¬
tion to his book.
GEOFFROY, Stephen-Francis, a phyfician emi¬
nent for his chemical and botanical knowledge, was
born at Paris in the year 1672, where his father kept
an apothecary’s (hop, and had been feveral times m the
magiftracy. He received a liberal education; and,
x ] GEO
while profecuting the ftudy of medicine, he had confer- Geoffroy,_
ences at his father’s houfe with Caflini, du Verney, Gt' ^1P
Homberg, and other men of diftinguilhed eminence.
At Montpellier he attended the letlures oi the moll
able profeffors of phyffc, and afterwards vifited the fouth
of Fiance, carefully viewing every object defervxng of
his attention. He accompanied count de Tallard to
England in 1698, where he became acquainted with
the chief men of fcience, and wras made a member o*
the Royal Society. He next went into Holland, and
in 1700 he attended the abbe de Louvois in a tour to
Italy. He was, on his return, made bachelor of medi¬
cine in 1702, and, in two years after, he was created
M. D. One of his thefes was on the queftion, u An
hormnis primordia vermis /” which was tranflated into
French for the fake of fome ladies ot exalted raiitt, by
whom it was deemed intereiting.
Geoffroy did not haftily commence the prachce of
medicine, continuing the profecution of his ftudies in re¬
tirement for fome years. He never appeared anxious to
pulh himfelf forward, although his knowledge made
him be often confulted by feveral gentlemen of the fa¬
culty. He was fo concerned for the recovery of jus
patients, that it gave him an air of melancholy, which
at fir ft alarmed them, till they became acquainted with
the caufe. He was, in 1709, made profeffor of phyfic
by the king to the Royal College, vacant by the death
of the celebrated Tournefort. He began with ledlures
on materia medica j and in 1712, M. Fagon reftgned
to hipi the chemical chair : on both which topics Gepf-
froy lectured with unwearied aftiduity. He was twice
chofen to the office of dean by the faculty of Paris, and
he filled a place in the Royal Academy of Sciences,
from the year 1699. His health at laft yielded to his
toils, and he died in January, 1731. He is known to
the chemical world by his table of affinities, far fupe-
rior to any which had appeared before his time. His
greateft work was his Hiftory of the Materia Medica,
which, in an unfiniflied ftate, was publifned after hE
death in the year 1741, in 3 vols 8vo.
GEOGRAPHICAL miee, the fame with the lea
mile; being one minute, or the 60th part of a degree
of a great circle on the earth’s ffirface.
G E O G K
INTRODUCTION.
Definition O EOGRAPHY is that part of knowledge which
Gt defcribes the furface of the earth ; its diviiions,
extent, and boundaries ; the relative pofttion of the fe¬
veral countries and places on the globe, and. the man¬
ners, cuftoms, and political relations of their^ inhabi¬
tants. The word is Greek, ftom V*i or Vs*>
terra, “ the earth,” and y^QvJcribo, “ I write. As
everything that immediately contributes jo the alcer-
taining of the fituation and limits of countries and places
on the furface of the earth, is within the province of
geography, this fcience includes the defcnption and ule
of globes, maps, and charts, with the methods of con-
ftru&ing them.
A P H Y.
This fcience has been divided into Geography pro-Divifion of-
perly fo called, or a defcription of ^ lands of thegeoSraPh?’
rrfobe, and Hydrography, or a defcription of the wa¬
ters ; but this divifion is of little confequence, and. is
now feldom employed. Geography has alfo.been divid¬
ed into general and particular, terms which are .va-
rioufly underftood by different writers on the fubjeft.
By Varenius, one of the oldeft and beft modern writers
on general geography, general or univerfal geography
is ufed to denote that part of the fubjeft which confiders
the earth in general, and explains its affeftions as a.tei-
reftrial globe, without attending to its arbitrary divifion
into different regions; and by particular or fpecial geo¬
graphy, this writer underftands the defcription of the
particular regions of the earth : and he divides this lat¬
ter into two parts; chorographyy defcribing fome com
502
> Introduc¬
tion.
G E O G It
*Vid. Pin
herton s Geo
erafhy, vol
>• P- 3-
fideiable parts of the earth, as of the quarters, and topo-
__ graP}y, defcribing a particular province or diftria.
. Geography may be conveniently divided into defcrip-
hve geography, or that part of the fcience which de-
Icnbes the form, limits, extent, and variety of furface
of different countries, with the manners and cuftoms of
their inhabitants; and physical geography, or that part
which teaches how to determine the lituations of differ¬
ent places on the globe, and to lay down and delineate
their politions for the information of others. Defcrip-
tive geography is the more popular and entertaining
part of the fubjedl. It is ufually divided into ancient
or claflical geography, geography of the middle ages,
and modern geography. The firft branch of the fub-
jeft confiders the ffate of the earth fo far as it was
known or difcovered at different periods, previous to
the fixth_century of the Chriffian era. The geography
.of the middle ages extends from the fixth to the fif¬
teenth century, and modern geography from the fif-
teenth century to the prefent time. One of the moft
u eful fubdivifions of defcriptive geography is that em-
ployed by Mr Pinkerton, who confiders the geography
of the feveral countries which he defcribes under four
different heads. I. Hijlorical or progrejjive geography ;
m which he treats of the names, extent', original popu¬
lation, progreflive geographical improvements, hiftori-
cal epochs and antiquities of the countries. 2. Political
geography y under which he defcribes the religion and
ecciefiaftic inftitutions, government, laws, population,
colonies military force, revenue, and political relations.
3. Civil geography, comprehending manners and cuf¬
toms, language, literature, and the arts, education,
cities and towns, principal edifices, roads, manufatffures
and commerce. And, 4. Natural geography, compre¬
hending an account of the climate and feafons, face of
the country, its foil, and ftate of agriculture, its rivers
lakes, mountains, and forefts, and an enumeration of the
natural produftions and natural curiofities, which are
•ufually found within each diftria*. Defcriptive geoara-
phy is fometimes fly led geography, while phy-
iica! or general geography is called natural geogra-
Among the other departments of this fludy we may
mention facred geography, or that which illuftrates the
lacred writings; and ecciefiaftic geography, which de-
ienbes the divifion of a country according to its church
government, as into archbifhoprics, bifhoprics, &c
. Many w.riters of treatifes or fyftems of geography
give a detailed account of the hiftorical events and com¬
mercial concerns of the feveral countries which they de-
cn ej ut we confider this as unneceffary in a pure
geographical work, as thefe departments belong rather
History and Political Economy.
Some fyftematic writers on geography confidering the
term m a very comprehenfive view, as including a de-
Icnption of the internal ftrudure of the earth, as well
as of its furface, have thought it neceffary to enter into
difeuflions iefpe£hng the original formation of the
earth, and the minerals of which it is compofed. How
far they are right in this we (hall not pretend to deter¬
mine. In this work, thefe fubjedls will be treated of
under the articles Geology and Mineralogy.
Another fubjedt relative to the affections of the earth
refpeCts the phyfical and chemical changes that take
-place in its atmofphere. Thefe properly belong to the
A P H Y.
fcience of Meteorology, and will be found under that Introduc-
aiticle. tion.
We propofejn this article to offer only an introduc- " '
tory outline of deicriptive geography, as the feveral objeeft of
quarters of the globe, and their fubdivifions into em-this trea-
pires, kingdoms, and ftates, are deferibed as particu-1^6,
larly as is compatible with the limits of this work, un¬
der the feveral articles to which they belong in the °-e-
neral alphabet. & 6
Our attention will be chiefly direCled to phyfical geo-
graphy, efpecially that part of it which defcribes ’the
conftruCHon and ufe of globes, maps, and charts.
Phyfical geography is. properly a branch of mixed of phyfical
mathematics, and its principles depend on geometry,
and its kindred fciences, trigonometry and perfpeftive.’
It is intimately connected with aftronomy ; and as thefe
two fciences mutually illuftrate each other, they are
commonly taught at the fame time. The phyfical
changes that take place on the earth, as far as it is con-
ndered in its general character of an individual of the
lolar fyftem, have been already explained under Astro¬
nomy 5 and we fliall have little here to add refpeaino
them, except as they are modified by the fituation of
the obferver on different parts of the earth’s furface.
The principles and pradice of phyfical geographv
though ftriCtly dependent on pure mathematics, may
be, for the moft part, explained in a popular way, fo as
to be underftood by the generality of readers. This
popular view of the fubjeCt we ftiall attempt in the pre¬
fent article, throwing every thing that is purely ma¬
thematical into the form of notes. It muft be evident
however,. that a reader who is converfant with mathe¬
matics will ftudy phyfical geography to more advan¬
tage ; and for this purpofe, it will be fufficient to pof-
iefs a moderate acquaintance with arithmetic, the ele¬
ments of geometry, plane trigonometry, fisheries, and
peripeCtive.
It is fcarcely neceffary to enlarge on the importance ImPor'tance
or utility of geography. It is one of thofe fciences, the °f geo£ra"
knowledge of which is almoft conftantly required. phy‘
Without an acquaintance with the geography of the
countries that are the feenes of the adions which he re¬
lates, the.hiftorian muft either be extremely concife^ or
his narration muft be obfeure and unintelligible. Geo¬
graphy affords the beft illuftration of hiilory, and is
equally neceffary to the hiftorian and his reader. To
the traveller, under which denomination we may clafs
the foldier, the failor, the merchant, as well as thofe
who Gavel for pleafure or curiofity, a previous know¬
ledge of the countries, through which he is to pafs, is
always ufeful, and often indifpenfable. To the politi¬
cian a comprehenfive knowledge of geography is of the
higheft importance. If he is ignorant of the extent,
form, boundaries, appearances, climate, &c. of the
country with which he is at war, he will plan his hoftile
expeditions without effed, and will fend his invadino-
armies only to perifti among the defiles of the enemjq
or to .meet a more inglorious and deplorable fate from
the difeafes of the climate.
Even, if we confider geography as a ftudy of mere
amufement and curiofity, it forms one of the moft ra¬
tional and interefting ftudies in which we can engage.
Nothing can be more gratifying to the obferver of
mankind than to furvey the manners and cuftoms of va¬
rious
Parti. G E O G
Hiftory. rious nations, and to compare the relative ftate of civi-
 lization and improvement in countries widely remote
from each other. The ftudent of geography can lit in
his clofet, and accompany the adventurous traveller in
his toilfome journey, through
“ antres vaft, and deferts wild,
Rough quarries, rocks, and hills, whofe heads touch
heav’n !”
A P H Y. 503
trace his progrefs over the boundlefs ocean, and draw' Hiftory.
from his narration a delightful fund of inftruftion and ’ v  
amufement, free (except in imagination) from thofe pe¬
rils and hardlhips, which the writer had undergone.
At the end of this article, we lhall offer a few re¬
marks on the belt method of teaching and learning geo¬
graphy. We muff now take a brief view of the origin
and progrefs of the fcience.
PART I. HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE OF GEOGRAPHY.
Hiftory of ANhiftorical account of geography would be extreme-
geography. ly intereifing, as it would include, not only the pro-
greffive improvements of the fcience, confidered as a
branch of mixed mathematics, but an account of the
fucceflive difcoveries of different parts of the earth that
have been made by the more civilized communities.
Such an account in detail, howTever, cannot be expefted
here ; and we lhall confine ourfelves principally to a
curfory viewr of the geographical difcoveries of ancient
and modern nations, referving the progreffive improve¬
ments of phyfical geography for thofe parts of the arti¬
cle to which they properly belong •, as they would nei¬
ther be fo interefting nor fo intelligible to a general
reader, before he has been made acquainted wfith the
y principles of the fcience.
Origin. As foon as mankind had formed themfelves into fo-
cieties, and begun to eftablilli connexions with their
neighbours, they would find it neceffary to inform them¬
felves of the polition of the countries which bordered on
their own ; and very foon their curiofity would lead
them to defire to form an acquaintance writh the extent,
of the country in which they lived, and with many
particulars rel’peffing thofe which wrere remote from
them. Thus, we fee that fcarcely had the fciences ari-
fen among the Greeks, before their philofophers began
to occupy themfelves in geographical purfuits. We are
told that Anaximander exhibited to his countrymen a
plan of Greece and the neighbouring countries, and in
this he wTas imitated by his countryman Hecateus of Mi¬
letus. Of the nature of thefe ancient plans or maps,
and their progreffive improvements, we {hall fpeak more
8 at large hereafter.
oGh°Ve™eS Commerce, and the tafte for adventures, which ufual-
ntcians^^'ly accomPanies were doubtlefs among the firft caufes
of geographical refearches $ but the Phoenicians are the
earlieft commercial people of whofe difcoveries we have
any correff: accounts. This people feem firff to have
inveftigated the coaffs on the Mediterranean ; and their
navigators, extending their voyages beyond this fea,
through the narrow channel which is now called the
Straits of Gibraltar, entered the Atlantic ocean, and
planted colonies in Iberia, a part of Spain, in the coun¬
try of Tharfhifh, which is probably the modern Anda-
lufia, and upon the weffern fhores of Africa.
The learned Bochart, led by the analogy between
the Phoenician tongue, and the oriental languages, has
followed the tracks of the Phoenicians, both along the
{bores of the Mediterranean, and thofe of the Atlantic.
Thefe analogies are not always fure guides 5 but we can
fcarcely doubt that the city of Cadiz was a Phoenician
colony, and it is not likely that this was the only one
formed by that enterprifing people. 9
In the time of Solomon, Phoenician fhips, employed Situation cf
by him, fet fail from a port in the Red fea, called °Phir-
Azion-Gaber, and paffmg from that fea through the
ftraits of Babelmandel, carried on their commerce in
the Indian ocean. The country of Ophir, to which
they failed, muff have been at a confiderable diftance
froni the Red fea, as we are told that a voyage thither
required three years. “ The king (fays the author of
the firft book of Kings) had a navy of Tharfhifh, with
the navy of Hiram. Once in three years came the navy
of Tharftiifh, bringing gold and ftlver, ivory, and apes
and peacocks.” Some have placed Ophir upon the coaft
of Africa, where the modern Sofala is fituated ; Others
fuppofe it was a port in the iftand of Ceylon, or in the
Hand of Sumatra, in which latter iftand there is ftill a
place called Ophir. The gold duft and ivory brought
from thence, feem to (hew that it was an African port. * Montucla
(pee Ophir.) M. Montucla fuppofes that the Phoeni-#£/?• *
cians muft even at this period have failed round theMathem-
continent of Africa, and that Ophir was fome place ontom'1V*
the Gold Coaft (a). ^
The Carthaginians, a Phoenician colony, imitated Carthagi-
their predeceffors. We know that they failed into thenian50 '
Atlantic ocean, as far as the coaft of Cornwall in Eng¬
land, whence they procured large quantities of tin. The
fame people made feveral attempts towards a complete
furvey of the weftern coaft of Africa. Of thefe we
have an account only of one expedition, that of Hanno,
of which we have already given an account under the
article Africa.
The Carthaginian navigators, if we may believe the
recital of Diodorus Siculus, (lib.xv.) difeovered a coun¬
try fituated in the Atlantic ocean, which furnilhed all
the neceffaries and conveniences of life. Some pretend
that this country was America, but it is much more
probable that it was fome one of the Cape de Verd
Hands,
(a) The moft celebrated writers who have fupported the opinion, that Ophir was a port in Africa, are Mon-
tefquieu, Bruce, and d’Anville. Dr Prideaux and M. Goffelin again contend, that Ophir was a port in Arabia
Felix, and the fame with Sabea or Sheba ; and their opinions have lately been ably fupported by Dr Vincent,
See Vincent's P eriplus of the Erythrean Sea, Part XL
Circumna¬
vigation of
Africa.
Voyage of
Satafpes.
.
Expedition
of Scyla*.
14
geography
improved
by Alexan¬
der o
G E O G R
iffands. The Carthaginian fenate, fearful that the re¬
lation of the failors who had difcovered fuch a country,
might be the means of producing frequent emigrations,
are laid to have uled every endeavour to Hide the memo¬
ry of this expedition.
* Hiftory fpeaks of feveral voyages undertaken by or¬
der of the kings of Egypt and of Perfra, for the purpofe
of afcertaining the extent of Africa ; and Herodotus re¬
lates that Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, employed fome
Phoenician navigators to fail along the coaft of Africa,
for the purpofe of taking a more exa6l furvey of it. oee
^ FRIC A.
M. Goffelin, who has conhdered the geography of
the ancients in a very learned differtation, maintains,
that the different paffages of ancient writers, who have
always declared that the Phoenicians and the Greeks
circumnavigated Africa, are not fulticient to prove the
certainty of fuch a voyage. The paffage in Herodotus
has been difcuffed by him at confiderable length, and be
feems to have proved his relation to be nothing more
than a romance, founded on the hifforical knowledge
of the Egyptians. M. Goffelin, however, admits,
that many ancient voyages took place from thofe coun¬
tries in which geography had arrived at fome perfec¬
tion 5 and there are numerous arguments, proving that
all the fliores of the old continent had been failed
round. See Bailhfs Hi/lory of^JJironomy, p. 307.
edit. 1775.
Xerxes king of Perfia, according to Herodotus, gave
a fimilar commiflion about the year before Chrilf 480,
to one of his fatraps named Satafpes, who had been
condemned to die. Satafpes entered the Atlantic
ocean through the ftraits of Gibraltar, and bending his
courfe towards the fouth, he coafttd the continent of
Africa, till he doubled a cape which was called Syloco,
and which Riccioli confiders as the fame with the Cape
of Good Hope. He is faid to have continued his courfe
to the fouth for fome time, and then to have returned
home, affigning as a reafon for not proceeding further,
that he had encountered a fea fo full of herbage, that
his paffage had been completely obftrufted. This rea¬
fon appeared fo ridiculous to Xerxes, that he ordered
Satafpes to be crucified ; but in this fentence he appears
to have been rather too precipitate, as it is certain that
in fome latitudes there grows fuch a quantity of fea
weed, that a veffel can fcarcely make way through it j
as in that part of the fea which lies between the Cape
de Verd iilands, the Canaries, and the coaft of Africa,
and is called by the Portuguefe the fea of Saragoha.
This (hews that the relation of Satafpes may have been
correft, as he might think it dangerous to attempt pro¬
ceeding where he found himfelf fo much entangled.
Herodotus has commemorated another marine expe¬
dition, undertaken by Scylax, by order of Darius the
fon of Hyftafpes, and which probably took place about
the year 422 B. C. Scylax embarked upon the river
Indus, the courfe of which he followed to its mouth,
from whence he failed in the courfe of 30 months, ei¬
ther into the Arabian gulf, or the Red fea. This Scy¬
lax muff not be confounded with a navigator of the
fame name, who, at a later period, made a voyage of
inveftigation round the Red fea.
The conquefts of Alexander the Great, if they add¬
ed little to the happinefs of mankind, had at lead the
advantage of throwing confiderable light on the date of
2
A P H Y. Part I.
geography at that time, as they afforded to the Greeks Hiftory,
a more perfect knowledge of the river Indus, and of
many parts of that vaft country which derives its name
from that river. Alexander does not feem to have pene¬
trated to the Ganges, though his expedition led the way
to the knowledge of that river ; for foon after he went
as far as Palibothra, a town fituated on the river Indus,
at its confluence with another river coming frpm the
weft. The followers of Alexander went down the In¬
dus, as far as its opening into the Indian ocean, where
they witneffed for the firft time the phenomenon of the
flux and reflux of the fea,—a phenomenon which excit¬
ed in them great aftonifhment and terror. It was after
this that Alexander detached, about the year 327 be¬
fore Chrift, twm of his captains, Nearchus and Onefx-
critus, to inveftigate the coaft of the Indian fea. Near¬
chus w7as ordered to return by the Red fea, and this he
effefled. Some fragments of his voyage have come
down to us, and upon thefe has been formed an excel¬
lent work by Dr Vincent, entitled the “ Periplus of
the Erythrean Sea.” This learned and valuable work
is juft completed by the publication of the Second Part,
and affords much additional illuftration of the geogra¬
phical information and commercial enterprifes of the an¬
cients.
Oneficritus failed to the eaft, and if we may believe
the account that is left of his voyage, he gave us the
firft exa£l information refpe£Hng the illand of Ceylon,
The meafure given by Oneficritus, of the extent of the
ifland which he inveftigated, viz. 7000 (ladia, does not
correfpond to Ceylon, whether we confider the length
or circumference o( the ifland, (fee Ceylon) j and it
we take it as the meafure of the length, it more nearly
correfponds to that of Sumatra. The relations of Near¬
chus and Oneficritus were extant in the time of Stra¬
bo, by whom the latter is faid to exceed, in point ol ex>-
aggeration, all the other hiftorians of Alexander’s ex¬
pedition. At the fame time, it muft be acknowledged
that there are many things related by Oneficritus, as
quoted by Strabo, which fufficiently agree with what
we know of India, and the productions of that coun¬
try 5 for he fpeaks of the fugar cane, tne cotton plant,
the bamboo, &c. r „
The kings of Egypt who fucceeded Alexander, took Hy Ptolemy
confiderable intereft in the progrefs of geography. The '
fecond of thefe kings, Ptolemy Philadelphus, about the1
year 280 before Chrift, fent into India two ambaffadors,
Megafthenes and Daimachus, accompanied by the ma¬
thematician Dionyfius. Megafthenes was fent to the
king of Palibothra on the banks of the Ganges, and
Daimachus to another Indian potentate. No account
remains of the proceedings of Dionyfius and Daima¬
chus, but Megafthenes left an account of his journey,
which is frequently quoted by Strabo, by whom it is
coniidered as a mixture of real adventures and impro¬
bable exaggerations. Thele quotations of Strabo are
certainly all that remain of the relation of Megallhenesj
for the work publiftied under the name of Megafthenes
is a literary impofture, fimilar to the works of Berofus,
Manetho and Ctefius.
In the reign of Ptolemy Lathyrus, about 115 years
before Chrift, other expeditions were undertaken, for
the purpofe of failing round the continent of Africa.
Eudoxus and Cyficus having incurred the difpleafure
of Ptolemy, were fent on this voyage of difcovery.
They
15
16
Parti, G E O G R
Htftory- They patted through the ftraits of Gibraltar, and cir-
v——y—~ curanavigating Africa, returned by the Red fea. Laft-
ly, in the reign of Ptolemy, furnamed Alexander, about
90 years before Chrift, Agatarchides, who had been
the king’s governor, was fent to take a complete lurvey
of the Red fea, and wrote an account of his voyage, of
which, however, there remain only a few extracts that
are preferved by Photius, in his Bibliotheca, a work of
17 ninth century.
Voyage of ',jp]ie extentton of commerce feems always to have
Pythias, keen one o£ t|ie princjpai objefts of thefe voyages of
difcovery. It is not furprifing, therefore, that the in¬
habitants of Marfeilles, which was early celebrated as
a commercial city, appear among the ancient naviga¬
tors who laboured to extend geographical knowledge.
Two voyagers, Pythias and Euthymenes, undertook an
expedition about 320 years before the Chriftian sera.
Euthymenes entered the Atlantic through the ftraits of
Gibraltar, and turned towards the fouth, for the pur-
pofe of taking a furvey of the coaft of Africa. This is
all that we know of his route *, but Pythias fleered
northward, and after reconnoitring the coafts of Spain
and Gaul, failed round the ifland of Albion, and firetch¬
ing flill farther to the north, difcovered an ifland which
is believed to be the modern Iceland, or the Thule of
the ancients, terrarum ultuna Thule. Perhaps, how¬
ever, this was only one of the Ferro iflands. Strabo,
wTho appears to have been prejudiced againfl Pythias,
treats his relation as fabulous, founding his opinion
principally on the number of incredible circumftan-
ces that occur in his narration. Taking thefe cir-
cumflances, however, not according to their literal
meaning, but in a figurative fenfe, they reprefent pretty
well the flate of the fea and fky in thefe countries which
are fo little favoured by nature. Pythias certainly feems
to have been one of the firfl Greek navigators who en-
18 tered the Baltic.
Ancient We have thus traced the progrefs of geographical
feogra- difcoveries to very nearly the period which we affigned
phers. as riie limit of ancient geography} and fhall now notice
very briefly fome of the principal fcientific geographers
of antiquity, whofe names or writings have defcended to
poflerity, and fhall afterwards give a fummary fketch of
the knowledge which the ancients feem to have pottetted
of the habitable globe.
As geography is a branch of knowledge intimately
connected with geometry and aftronomy, it became an
objedl of confideration with many of the ancient geo¬
meters and aflronomers. We have already mentioned
the names of Anaximander of Miletus, and his coun¬
tryman Plecateus. Strabo alfo notices Democritus,
Eudoxus of Cnidos, and Parmenides, to the lafl of
whom he attributes the divilion of the earth into zones.
Thefe were followed by Eratoflhenes, -who lived about
240 years before the Chriflian sera, and Hipparchus,
who flour!fhed about 80 years afterwards; Polybius,
Geminus, and Pofiidonius. Eratoflhenes wrote three
books on geography, of which Strabo criticifes fome
paffages, though he frequently defends him againfl Hip¬
parchus, wl. often affe&s an oppofite opinion. Poly¬
bius wrote on geography as well as hiflory, and as well
as Geminus and Pottidonius, is frequently quoted by
Strabo. Polybius and Geminus argue with confiderable
acutenefs for the poflibility of the torrid zone being in¬
habited, a circumflance which was generally difbelieved
VOL. IX. Part II.
a p h r. 505
by the ancients 5 and they even adduce arguments which Hittorv.
are very plaufible, to prove that the climate of the
countries under the equator is more temperate than that
of thofe which are fituated nearer, the tropics.
We mutt not here omit a geographer and mathema¬
tician who lived about the time of Alexander the Great.
This was Dicearchus of Meflina, the difciple of Theo-
phraflus, who wrote a defcription of Greece in iambic
verfes, of which fome fragments yet remain. What ren¬
ders this work mofl remarkable is, thatit contains the height
of feveral mountains meafured geometrically by Dicear¬
chus. Thus, for inflance, the height of Mount Cyl-
lene is Rated at 15 fladia, and that of Satabyce at about
14. Taking the Radium at toifes, we have for the
latter of thefe heights, at mofl 1400 toifes, whereas
many of the ancients afligned 300, 400, or even 300
ftadia, as the height of fome of their mountains.
With Dicearchus we may mention another geometer
noticed by Plutarch in his life of Paulus Emilius ; viz.
Xenagoras, a difciple of Ariilotle, who alfo employed
himfelf in meafuring mountains, and has attigned only
15 fladia, which is equal to about 1417 toifes, as the
height of Mount Olympus. In fome of the later pe¬
riods previous to the Chriflian aera, w’e find the names
of feveral geographers, as Artemidorus of Ephefus,
who wrote a geographical work in eleven books, of
which nothing remains ; Scymnus of Chio, author of a
defcription of the earth in iambic verfes, which remains
in a very mutilated flate j Ifidorus of Charax, who left
a defcription of the Parthian empire, and Scylax of
Caryades, author of a voyage round the Mediterranean
fea, which is ftill extant.
The works of all thefe geographers, however, are Strabo,
trifling when compared with the geography of Strabo,
a work in 16 books, which has come down to us en¬
tire. This is one of the mofl valuable works of anti¬
quity, both from the fpirit of difcuflion which runs
through it, and the number of curious obfervations
which the author has collefted of different geographers
and navigators who preceded him j and of whofe works
nothing remains except thefe extracts. Strabo lived in
the reigns of Auguflus and Tiberius, and was nearly 2Q
cotemporary with Pomponius Mela. This latter geo- Pomponius
grapher wrote a w’ork de Jitu orbisy which is little more Mela,
than a bare fummary, though it is valuable, as it gives
us a fketch of what was known in his time ref-
pefling the flate of the habitable globe. Pomponius
Mela was followed by Julius Solenus, who has alfo
treated of geography in his Polyhiilor, a compilation
which is fufficiently valuable from the number of curious
obfervations which are there collefted. 3,i
Of all the ancient geographers, poflerity is mofl: in- Ptolemy,
debted to Ptolemy, who produced a work much more
fcientific than had ever before been written on this fci-
ence \ a geography in eight books, which mull ever be
confidered as one of the principal monuments of the la¬
bours of its author. In this work there appear, for
the firfl time, an application of geometrical principles to
the conftruflion of maps j the different projections of
the fphere, and a diflribution of the feveral places on
the earth, according to their latitudes and longitudes.
This work mult have been the refult of a great many
relations both hiflorical and geographical, that had
been collected by Ptolemy. It has patted through nu¬
merous editions.
3S
Sonu*
5°6
Iliitory.
23
Dionyfins
the Perie-
getic.
Hadfon’s
-oUection.
24
2S
Geographi¬
cal know¬
ledge of the
ancients.
26
Europe.
*7
Alia.
G E O G R
Some time after Ptolemy lived, Dionyfius the Afri¬
can, commonly called the Pcnegeiic, from the title of
a work that he compofed in verfe, containing a defcrip-
tion of the world, which may be conlidered as one of
the molt correft fy Items of ancient geography, and was
by Pliny propofed to himfelf as a pattern. This work was
afterwards tranflated into Latin verfes by Prifcian, and by
Avienus, the latter of whom alfo wrote a defcripticn of
the maritime coalts in iambic verfes, of which there re¬
main about 700. Among the lateft geographers of
this period are reckoned Marcianus and Agathemares,
of whom little is known, except that the latter was au¬
thor of two books on geography.
The fcattered works of molt of thefe authors being
difficult to procure, were collected by Hudfon into one
work, and publiffied by him in four volumes oftavo, in
the years 1698, 1702, and 1712, under the title of
Geographies veteris feriptores Grecice minore?, together
with a Latin tranllation and notes and differtations on
each by Dodwell. In this work we find the remains
of Hanno, Scylax, Nearchus, Agatarchides, Arrian,
Marcianos, Dicearchus, liidore of Charax, Scymnus,
Agathemeres, Dionyfius the Periegetic, Artemidorus,
Dionyfius of Bifance, Avienus, Prifcian, and fome frag¬
ments of Strabo, of Plutarch, of Ptolemy, of Abulfeda,
and of Ulug Beg. This is a moll valuable colleftion,
and as it had become extremely Icarce, was a few years
ago reprinted at Leipfic.
The above is a haity Iketch of the names and cha-
ra£lers of molt of the geographical writers within the
period which we have affigned to the ancient hiltory of
the fcience. We ffiall have occafion to make fome
further obfervations on the more eminent of thefe geo¬
graphers in a future part of this article.
With refpeft to the knowledge of the globe that was
pofleffed by the ancients, there have been various opi¬
nions } fome have confidered them as very extenfively
acquainted with almoit every part of it, not excepting
fome portion of America •, while others have confined
their geographical knowledge within very narrow li¬
mits. The following obfervations are chiefly drawn
from M. Montucla, an eminent judge in every thing
that relates to the hillory of the mathematical fciences.
As to the knowledge which the ancients poffeffed of
the habitable globe, it is certain that they were well
acquainted with Europe, or at lealt all that part of it
which had been made fubjedt to the Roman empire, as
far as the banks of the Rhine and the Danube. They
were tolerably well acquainted with Germany and Sar-
matia. They had fome knowledge of the Baltic fea, as
a fleet had been fent by Auguftus, which failed as far
as the peninfula then called the Cimbrian Cherfonefus,
the modern Jutland. The Baltic was at that time ce¬
lebrated for the production of ambergrife. They had
acquired a knowledge of the ifland of Britain, from the
expeditions of Julius Caefar, and Claudius ; but the
northern parts of this ifland, and the whole of Ireland,
were to them nations of rude, uncivilized favages. The
boundary of their knowledge of Europe to the north,
was the Thule of Pythias, or Iceland 5 at leaft if it is
certain, as is the general opinion, that this ifland is the
ultima Thule.
With refpedl to Afia, they feem to have furvey-
ed the country as far towards the ealt as the river
Ganges) and th^immenfe extent of country compre-
A P H Y.
Part [
hended between the Indus and the Ganges, was called Hiftory.
by them India on this Jide the Ganges. Further on to- v——
wards the north of China, in the neighbourhood of the
mountains where thefe rivoH derive their fource, they
placed feveral nations of people, of whom they related
the molt ridiculous fables. Beyond thefe, Hill more
towards the ealt, they placed the Seres, and upon the
coaft of the gulf, which is now the bay of Cochin Chi¬
na, called by Ptolemy the Great Bay, were fituated the
Sinae, fo called by Ptolemy, though they are not men¬
tioned by Strabo, Pomponius Mela, or Solinus. The
Seres w7ere probably the inhabitants of the northern
parts of China, and the Sinae, thofe of the fouthern parts
of China, who very early occupied Cochin-China, Ton-
quin, &c. countries which in the fequel they have en¬
tirely fubjugated. They maintained a commerce by land
with the Seres, and their route is pointed out in one of
Ptolemy’s maps. Beyond the Seres, according to Stra¬
bo and Pomponius Mela, lay between the Oriental
fea, though Ptolemy, for want of certain intelligence
refpecting that part of Afia, confiders the point as un¬
decided, and places there feveral unknown countries.
The ancients carried this extremity of Afia much far
ther to the eait than it is found to extend by modern
geographers ) for, according to them, the Seres and the
Sinae were fituated about the longitude of 18o°, while
the meridian of Pekin, or about the middle of the Chi-
nefe empire, reaches no farther than to 1340, reckoning
the longitude from the molt diltant of the Canary
iflands, as was done by Ptolemy. To the north of the
Indus the ancient geographers placed the Scythians,
and Hyperboreans (the Tartars and Samoides of more
modern date) and fome other nations to an indefinite
extent, who were fuppofed to form on that fide an in-
furmountable barrier, having behind them an ocean of
ice, which was believed to communicate with the Caf-
pian fea, though this was at lealt at the diltance of 450
leagues.
The boundary of Afia, affigned by the ancients to
the fouth, was the Indian ocean, and they were ac¬
quainted with its communication witli the Red fea, by
means of a Itrait, the figure of which is very ill ex-
prefled in their maps. This is alfo the cafe with the
Perfian gulf, with which they wrere acquainted, but
wffiich in the ancient maps has nearly the form of a
rhombus, one fide of which, towards the mouths of the
Indus, was pretty wTell known to them, but the fide
next the mouths of the Ganges is very inaccurately de¬
lineated, being continued nearly in a itraight line. It
is even probable that the ifland which Ptolemy calls
Taprobana, was only the peninfula of India very much
disfigured in the delineation. 2s
The fituation of this ifland of Taprobana, fo cele-Situation
brated among the ancients, is a problem in geography °1 the ifland
that is yet unfolved. It is commonly fuppofed to bej^J^P10"
the modern illand of Ceylon ) but the dimenfions of it
as laid down by ancient geographers, render this lup-
pofition doubtful, and there are fome who rather be¬
lieve it to be the modern Sumatra. The ancients had
alfo fome obfeure knowledge of the penir.mla of Ma¬
lacca, which they called the Golden Cherfonefus, and
they feem to have examined the gulf formed by that
land, which is now the gulf of Cochin China, or com¬
monly called the gulf of Tonkin. It is fomewhat ex¬
traordinary that they do not feem to have been ac¬
quainted
Part L
Hiftory.
29
Africa.
3°
GEOGRAPHY.
S°7
quainted with Java, Borneo, and that numerous group
of iilands which form, in that quarter, the greateft Ar¬
chipelago in the world. It is equally Angular that the
Maldives had efcaped the obfervation of thefe naviga¬
tors. This feems to prove that they never ventured out
into the open fea, but kept clofe along the Ihore. Pto¬
lemy indeed fays, that his illand of 1 aprobana was fur-
rounded with many hundreds of fmaller illands, to fome
of which he gives names ; but all this is involved in
impenetrable obfcurity.
Of Africa, the ancients knew only thofe parts which
lay along the coaft, and to a very fmall diftance in¬
land, if we except Egypt, with which they were well
acquainted, at leaf! as far as the catarafls of the Nile,
and a little beyond them, as far as the illand of Meroe,
towards the 20th degree of north latitude. Iheir
knowledge of the coafts of Africa on the fide of the Red
fea, extended no farther than the fhores of that fea, ex¬
cept that part which was dependent on Egypt j the in¬
terior of the country being inhabited by ferocious and
untractable people. They were flill lefs acquainted
with the countries which lay beyond the ftrait, and
Ptolemy appears to have given no credit to the navi¬
gators who were faid to have failed round that part of
the world, for he has left the continent of Africa im-
perfeft towards the fouth. Strabo and Pomponius Mela
wTere, however, decidedly of opinion that Africa wTas a
peninfula, and that it was joined to the reft of the con¬
tinent only by that narrow neck of land which is now
called the ifthmus of Suez. The ancients feem to have
had no knowledge of that large and beautiful illand of
Madagafcar, unlefs we fuppofe that Ptolemy had fome
imperfeff acquaintance with it, under the name of the
illand Menuthius. The coaft of Africa upon the Medi¬
terranean fea, was once covered with towns, dependent
on the Roman empire, flourilhing and polilhed, while
it prefents at prefent nothing but a neft of pirates,
whom the jealoufy of the great commercial nations fup-
ports, to the difgrace and prejudice of civilized ftates.
Proceeding from the ftraits of Gadez or Gibraltar, they
had become acquainted with the coaft as far as a cape
which they called Hejperion-Kercis, probably the mo¬
dem Cape de Verd, or the cape that lies a little to the
weft of it, though in the maps of Ptolemy it is thrown
a little back inland. The Fortunate illands, or the
Hefperides, at prefent the Canaries, better known by
Tame than in reality, feem to have been the boundaries
of ancient geography to the weft, as the Seres and Si¬
nce were to the eaft. It appears, however, that the
Cape de Verd illands were not entirely unknown to the
ancients, and they are probably the fame with what
were then called the Gorgades or Gorgones, which
were fuppofed to be two days fail to the weft of He-
fperion-Keras.
“ There is little doubt (fays Mr Pattefon) concern¬
ing the names by which moft of the principal countries
of Europe were known to the ancients •, nor is there
any difficulty in difpofing the chief nations, which an¬
cient writers have enumerated in the louth-weft part of
Alia or on the African coaft of the Mediterranean ; but
with the north and north-eaft parts of Europe, about
two thirds of Alia towards the fame quarters, and nearly
the fame proportion of Africa towards the fouth, they
appear to have been wholly unacquainted. Of America
xhey did not even fufpedft the exiftence ) and if it ever
happened, as fome writers have imagined, that Phce- Hiflono
nician merchant Ihips were driven by ftorms acrofs the v
Atlantic to the American fhores, it does not appear that
any of them returned from thence to report the dif-
covery.
“ The names of provinces, fubdivilions, and petty
tribes, mentioned by ancient authors, in thole countries
which wrere the chief fcenes of Roman, Grecian, or
Ifraelitilh tranfa&ions, are almoft as numerous as in a
modern map of the fame countries •, and the fituations of
many of them can be very nearly affigned : but the li¬
mits of each, or indeed of the ftates or nations to ■which
they belonged, can, in very few inftances, be precifely
fixed. Thus the fouthern boundaries of the Sarmatse
in Europe, cannot be afcertained wfithin a degree at the
neareft 5 and in France, neither the limits of the peo¬
ple called the Belgae, Celtae, and Aquitani; nor thofe
of the Roman divifions, viz. Belgica, Lugdunenfis,
Aquitania, Narbonenfis, and the Province, can be laid
down, in many places, but by a hardy conjefture. The
fame obfervation may be juftly applied to the Tafra-
conenfis, Lufitania, and Betica of Spain ; to the Cauci,
Catti, Suevi, &c. of Germany *, and, above all, to the
Britannia prima et fecunda, and other divifions of \h.e* Pattefon s
Roman government in Britain : of which not only the Part
limits, but the fituations are ftill in dTpute.” *
During the middle ages geography, as wrell as moft Ge0grap]iy.
other arts and fciences, feems rather to have gone back-0f the mid-
awards than advanced. The weaknefs of the Roman die ages,
emperors, the relaxation of military difeipline, the
boundlefs paffion for luxury and pleafure, and the con¬
tinual incurfions of the barbarous nations, while they
contributed to haften the fall of the weftern empire,
alfo accelerated the ruin of the arts. It feems as if
thefe deftruftive hordes of barbarians, the Goths, the
Huns, and the Vandals, had enveloped the whole world
in one profound and univerfal ignorance. T his dark-
nefs, which overfpread the whole of Europe, did not per¬
mit geography to make any advances for a very con-
fiderable time. There were indeed fome navigators
who inveftigated countries that were ftill little known,
but they were fo ignorant, that they afford us very little
new light. There was one named Cofmas, who made
a voyage to India, which procured him the name of
Indo-Pleuftes, and who gave an account of his voyage
under the title of Sacred Geografdty. This man was fo
egregioufly ignorant, as to believe that he had difeo-
vered that the earth was a plane, and that the diverfity
of the feafons, and the inequality of the days and
nights, were owing to a very high mountain fituated
to the north, behind which the fun fet to a greater or
lefs depth. ^ 2
The voyages of the Arabians to the Eaft Indies DifC0Ver-
(fee the hiftory of Commerce), contributed to throwies ofthe
farther light on that extenfive part of the globe. Con- Arabians,
querors of the countries on the Red fea, and enthufiaf-
tic propagators of their religion, they carried their
arms as far as the extremity of India. We fee them in
the 9th century extending to China ; and Renaudot has
published two of their narrations, in which we can trace
with tolerable accuracy, the places vifited by their au¬
thors. The ifland of Serendib, fo" celebrated in their
tales, is certainly the modern Ceylon j for dib or dit, in
the Malay language, fignifies ijlatid,* fo ihat 'Serendib,
fignifies the ifland of Seren or Selan. Farther, thefe
3 S 2 relations
/
5o 8 G E O G R
Hiftory. relations do not give us as favourable an idea of the
' ' Chinefe as we derive from their own hillory ; on the
contrary, if we may believe thefe Arabian travellers,
this people were, even at that time, in a ftate not very
civilized.
Modern We are now arrived at the modern period of our
difcoveries. hiftory, during which the moft important difcoveries
have been made, and our knowledge of the habitable
globe more than doubled. The difcoveries and im¬
provements during this period are fo numerous, that it
will be impoflible to give here any thing more than
a chronological view of the moft remarkable, referring
for a detailed account of them to the geographical and
hiftorical articles in this work.
The tafte for voyages of difcovery began in Europe
foon after the revival of literature in the 15th century,
juft before the commencement of which, namely, in the
reign of Henry III. king of Spain, about the year
1395, the Canary iftands were more fully ftirveyed than
at any former period.
1415. Prince Henry III. fon of John king of Por¬
tugal, failed round the coaft of Africa.
1417. The Canary iflands were lubdued by Bethan-
court, nephew of the admiral of France.
1420. The illand of Madeira was examined by John
Gonfalvo and Triftan Vaz, two Portuguefc.
1446. Cape de Verd was difcovered by Dennis Fer¬
nandez.
1487. The Cape of Good Hope was difcovered
by Barthelemi Diaz. The difcovery of this cape led
the way to that of the new world. This great event,
which gave a new flight to the genius of mankind, is
one of the moft; important in the hiftory of geography.
A particular account of this difcovery will be found
under the article America. The following are the
dates of the principal geographical difcoveries which
have taken place between that of Columbus, and the
voyages of our celebrated navigator Cook.
1496. Florida, by Sebaftian Gabot, an Englifliman.
1498. The Indies, by Vafco di Gama.
1499. The river of Amazons, by Yanez Pinion.
1500. Brazil, by Alvarez Cabral, a Portuguefe.
1504. Newfoundland, by fome Normans.
1518. Mexico, by Ferdinand Cortes.
1519. The ftraits of Magellan, South fea, and
Phillippine iflands, by Ferdinand Magellan.
1525. Canada, by Jean Verrazan, a Florentine, fent
by Francis I. of France.— Peru, by F. Pizarro of Spain.
1527. New Guinea, by Alvaro de Salvedra.
1534. Chili, by Diego Almagro.
I535’ California, by Ferdinand Cortes.
1567. The iflands of Solomon, by Alvaro de Men¬
doza.
1618. New Holland, by Zechaen.
1642. Van Dieman’s land, by Abel Janfen Tafman.
1643. Brower’s land.
16^4. New Zealand.
1678. Louiiiana, by Robert Cavelier de Lafalle,
governor of Frontiniac.
1700. New Britain, by Dampier, an Englifliman.
1739. Cape Circumcifion, contefted between the
French and Engliih. Said by Montucla to be difco¬
vered by two French veffels
1767. The ifland of Taiti, by Wallis, an Englifh-
man.
A P H Y. Part 1.
1778. The Sandwich iflands, by Cook. Hiftory.
Within this period there are reckoned 23 voyages v"~'
round the world, viz. thofe of Magellan, Drake, Ca-Nun^erof
vendifh, Noort, Spilburg, Lemaire, L’Hermite, Cle -voyages
pington, Carreri, Shelvack, Dampier, Cowley, Woodesmund the
Rogers, Le Gentil, Anfon, Wallis, Roggewrein, Bou-the world-
gainville, Sarville, Dixon, three voyages of Cook, La
Peyroufe, Marchand, Vancouver, and Pages.
Within thefe few years, very confiderable light has 35
been throwm on the ftate of our geographical know¬
ledge, by feveral valuable voyages and travels that
have lately appeared. The difcoveries that have been
fucceffively made in the great South fea, and in other
parts of the wTorld, efpecially the extenfive iftand of
New Holland, are nowr fo fully eftablilhed, as to add
confiderably to the certainty of our geographical know¬
ledge } and the voyages of Cook, La Peyroufe, and Van¬
couver, have afforded us more exadl furveys of the
coafts of thefe countries than we could, fome years ago,
have dared to hope for. The accounts of the late em-
baflies to China, Tibet and Ava, afford many authentic
materials for a modern fyffem of geography, the place
of wLich muft have been fupplied by more remote and
doubtful information. From the latter of thefe accounts
we are become familiarly acquainted vdth an empire
(that of the Birmans), which a fhort time ago was
fcarcely known (fee Asia, 81 —152.) Our know¬
ledge of Hindoftan and the neighbouring countries has
been greatly extended by the refearches of the Aiiatic
Society, and fome other late works •, while our ac¬
quaintance with the interior of Africa has been render¬
ed lefs imperfeft by the exertions of the African So¬
ciety, and by the travels of Park, Brown, and Bar-
row ; and the northern boundaries of America, even
as far as the fea which appears to furround the northern
extremity of that vaft continent, have been more
fully dlfclofed by the journeys of Hearne and Mac¬
kenzie.
The late voyage of Turnbull, however infignificant it
may be in other refpedts, has at lead the merit of en¬
larging our knowledge of the manners and political
tranfadlions of the South fea iftanders, and of intro¬
ducing to our acquaintance, in the perfon of Tamaha-
ma, the chief of Owhyhee, a fovereign, wdio, in am¬
bition and defire of improvement, bids fair to vie with
Peter the Great j and to transform a nation of favages,
to a civilized people. ,
With all the advantages which geography has lately Prefent de-
received, the fcience is ftill far from being perfeft; and lefts of geo-
the exclamation which D’Anville is faid to have made graphy.
in his old age, “ Ah! mes amis, il y a bien d’erreurs
dans la geographic”—Ah l my friends^ there are a great
many errors in geography, may ftill be applied with con¬
fiderable juftice. Many points in the fcience have
been but very lately afcertained. Thus, the extent
of the Mediterranean fea was almoft unknown at the
beginning of the 17th century, although it is/ now al¬
moft as exadlly afcertained as that of any country in
Europe. In a book publiftied by Gemma Friftus, de or-
bis divifione, in 1530, wre find the difference of longitude
between Cairo in Egypt and Toledo in Spain ftated
at 530 inftead of 350, and other meafures of extent are
proportionally erroneous. Not many years ago there
was an uncertainty with refpeft to the extremity of the
Black fea and the Cafpian, to the amount cf 30 or 40 ^
PaitL G E O G R
Hiftory. and To lately -as the year 1769, the longitude of
Gibraltar and of Cadiz was not known within half a
degree.
Many parts of the geography of Europe are ftill
very defedlive ; Spain and Portugal have been but im-
perfeefly explored, and European Turkey is ftill lefs
known. It may appear extraordinary that we have yet
no corredl chart of the Britifh channel, though we are
affured by Major Rennel that this is the cafe ; and it
has been proved by the trigonometrical furveys of Bri¬
tain that have yet been publiihed, that there are many
grofs errors in our beft county maps. We have had oc-
cafion to remark that geography has fometimes been
retrogreflive, and there cannot be a greater proof of
the truth of the obfervation, than that in a map of the
Shetland iftands, publiihed not long ago, by Prefton,
they are reprefented as too large by one third, both in
length and breadth, and their relative pofttions are
very inaccurate, though in the maps of the fame iftands
publiftied before the year 1750, they are laid down
with much greater accuracy, as appears from fur¬
veys made by order of the late king of France, and
from the maps pubhihed by Captain Donelly, and at
Copenhagen, in the year 1787.
In Afia we are imperfedtly acquainted with Tibet,
and fome other central regions ; and even Perfia, Ara¬
bia, and Aiiatic Turkey, are but little known. Of
Auftralafia, or New Holland, and New Guinea, almofi:
nothing is known except the coafts, and a great part of
them towards the fouth has been but imperfedlly ex¬
plored. Of Polynelia, or the numerous iflands in
the South Pacific ocean, we are alfo very ignorant j
and in the Pacific ocean, particularly towards the
fouth pole, many difeoveries probably remain to be
made.
Our ignorance of the central parts of Africa is no¬
torious, and the improvement of our geographical
knowledge in that quarter has, for fome years, been a
favourite objefl. It may admit of doubt, however,
whether this objedl wall be fpeedily attained, as the ob-
flacles to inveftigation in thofe inhofpitable trails, feem
nearly infurmountable by human prudence and courage.
Even the (bores of Africa have not been complete¬
ly furveyed, efpecially thofe towards the fouth and
eaft.
America has of late been much more fully explored
than at any former period : but ftill the weftern parts of
North America, and the central and fouthern regions of
South America, are very little known •, and the Spanifh
fettlements towards the north are fcarcely known, ex¬
cept to their own inhabitants.
The fcience of geography will probably be never
perfeilly underftood, as, befides the numerous obftacles
which oppofe the progrefs of the traveller, it is/carce-
ly poftible that exail trigonometrical /furveys of every
place and country, the only certain method of afeer-
taining their exact fituations and relative pofitions, can
be made.
Political geography muft ever remain the mod un¬
certain part of the fcience. New changes are perpetu¬
ally taking place in the relations of neighbouring dates,
according as ambition, tyranny, or commercial conveni¬
ence di&ates. Territory is transferred, by ceflion or by
conqueft, from one nation to another. Whoever will
compare the relations of the European, ftates, as they
A P H Y. 509
appear in the prefent maps, and in thofe publiihed half Kiftory.
a century ago, will fcarcely recognile the countries to ""■’-v—-"i
be the fame. The great diviflons indeed remain as be¬
fore, but the boundaries of moft of them are entirely
changed. A number of independent dates, and in one
inftance, a large kingdom, have been fwallowed up by
the unjuftifiable ambition of their more powerful neigh¬
bours, and their names may be blotted from the map
of Europe. The republics of Holland, of Switzer¬
land, of Venice, are no more : the kingdoms of Po¬
land and Sardinia have ceafed to exift ; the fucceftbr of
St Peter, who once gave laws to princes, and governed
Europe with unbounded fway, is now a wretched exile,
and his dominions are doomed to increafe the already
overgrown power of defpotic upftarts. Whether the
prefent generation of emperors and kings, eredled by
the mighty Napoleon, will remain as long as did the
dates on whofe ruins they have been raifed, or are ra¬
ther ephemeral productions, doomed to perifti at the fet-
ting of that fun which now gives them life and vigour,
is a queftion which future experience alone can deter¬
mine.
The limits preferibed to this article do not permit us 37
to enter on a critical examination, or even a charac-
teriftic (ketch, of the geographical works that have ap¬
peared in the modern period of the hiftory of the
fcience j and a bare enumeration of names would be
equally tirefome and uninterefting. Some of the bed
modern works will be mentioned in the fequel; at pre¬
fent we (hall conclude this Part in the words of an able
judge of the prefent (late of the fcience.
“ The Spaniards and Italians (fays Mr Pinkerton)
have been dormant in this fcience ; the French works
of La Croix and others are too brief j while the Ger¬
man compilations of Bufching, Fabri, Ebeling, &c.
are of a moil tremendous prolixity, arranged in the
mod taftelefs manner, and exceeding in dry names, and
trifling details, even the minutenefs of our gazetteers.
A defeription of Europe in 14 quarto volumes, may
well be contrafted with Strabo’s defeription of the
world in one volume : and geography feems to be that
branch of fcience, in which the ancients have eftablifti-
ed a more claflical reputation than the moderns. Every
great literary monument may be faid to be eredled by
compilation, from the time of Herodotus to that of
Gibbon, and from the age of Homer to that of Shake-
fpeare ; but in the ufe of the materials there is a wide
difference between Strabo, Arrian, Ptolemy, Paufanias,
Mela, Pliny, and other celebrated ancient names, and
modern general geographers; all of whom, except
d’Anville, feem under graduates in literature, without
the diftinguilhed talents or reputation, which have ac¬
companied almoft every other literary exertion. Yet
it may. fafely be affirmed, that a production of real'
value in univerfal geography requires a wider extent
of various knowledge than any other literary depart¬
ment, as embracing topics of the mod multifarious,
defeription. There is, however, one name, that of
d’Anville, peculiarly and juftly eminent in this fcience j
but his reputation is chiefly derived, from his maps,
and from his illuftrations of various parts of ancient
geography. In fpecial departments Goffelin, and o~
ther foreigners, have alfo been recently diftinguifti-
ed $ nor is it neceffary to remind the reader of the great *
merit of Rennell and Vincent in our own country u,n s Ge0‘
PART^r^-y,l>' 8j
geography.
510
Principles
and
Praftice.
PART II.
PRINCIPLES AND
PRACTICE OF GEOGRAPHY.
Part IT.
Principles
and
Practice.
^ Chap. I. Of the Surface, and General Divifons of
the Earth.
IT has been fuppofed, by the lefs enlightened part
of mankind in all ages, that the furface of the earth is
nearly a plane, bounded on all lides by the fky. It
was fhewn, however, in the article Astronomy,
fN° 269—272) that the earth is of a fpherical figure,
and an account was there given of the manner in which’
the true form of it was determined. Independently of
the confiderations there detailed, the fpherical figure of
the earth may be inferred, in a popular view, from the
following fa£ts.
Proofs of 1. When we ftand on the fea-lhore, while the fea is
the fpheri- perfe£Uy calm, we eafily perceive that the furface of the
cal form of water js not qUite plain, but convex or rounded ; and
the earth. •£ we gre on one ^ 0p a broa(i river or arm of the fea,
as the frith of Forth, and with our eyes near the water,
look towards the oppofite coaft, w'e lhall plainly fee
the water elevated between our eyes and the oppofite
(bore, fo as to prevent our feeing the land near the edge
,of the water.
2. When we obferve a (hip leaving the Ihore, and
going out to fea, wre firfl: lofe fight of the hull, then of
the fails and lower rigging, and laftly of the upper part
of the mails. Again, when a Ihip is approaching the
ihore, the firlt part of her that is feen from the land is
the topmaft, then the fails and rigging appear, and laft¬
ly the hull comes gradually into view. Thefe appear¬
ances can arife only from the Ihip’s failing on a convex
furface j as, if the furface of the fea was plain, a {hip on
its firft appearance would be vifible, though very fmall,
in all its parts at the fame time, or rather the hull
would firft appear, as being molt diftinguiftiable •, and,
in going out of fight, it would in the fame manner dif-
appear at once, or the hull would be the laft part of
which we ftiould lofe fight.
3. Many navigators lent on voyages of difcovery,
have, by keeping the fame courfe, at length arrived at
the port from wThich they fet out, having literally fail¬
ed round the globe. This could npt happen if the fea
were a plain.
4. When we travel to a confiderable diftance, in a
direction due north or due fouth, a number of new ftars
fucceftively appear in the heavens, in the quarter to
which we are travelling ; while many of thofe in the
oppofite quarter gradually and fucceftively difappear,
and are feen no more till we return in a contrary direc¬
tion.
5. In an eclipfe of the moon, which has been fhewn
(Astronomy, N° 199) to be owing to the obfeuration
of the moon’s furface by the fhadow of the earth, the
boundary of the obfeured part of the moon is always
circular. Now, it is evident that no body, which is
not fpherical, can, in all fituations, call a circular ftia-
dow.
Magnitude The diameter of the earth is generally computed
of the at 7958 miles, though Mr Vince makes it 7930,
carth* nearer the medium derived from a companion of the
polar with the equatorial axis. Taking this laft, there¬
fore, as the mean diameter, the circumference wil! be
— 24,912 miles, and confequently the extent of the fu-
perficies will be =r 197,552,160 miles, of which it is
computed that at leaft two-thirds are covered with wa¬
ter.
In the above computation no account is taken of the
mountains and other eminences on the furface of the
globe } for, although thefe are of confiderable <?onfe-
quence in a geographical point of view, as they confti-
tute the moft natural and remarkable boundaries of
countries, and by their influence on the foil and climate
of the different regions, contribute in a great degree to
form thofe lhades of diftin&ion which diverfify the in¬
habitants of the feveral quarters of the earth, they are,
however, too trifling, when compared with the diame¬
ter of fo great a body, to make any fenfible error in the
calculation. ^
The furface of the earth is exceedingly diverfified, al-Divifions
moft everywhere rifing into hills and mountains, or of the
finking into valleys •, and plains of any great extent are«irth*
extremely rare. Among the moft extenfive plains, are
the fandy deferts of Arabia and Africa, the internal
part of European Ruflia, and a traft of confiderable ex¬
tent in the late kingdom of Poland, now called Pruflian
Poland. Eut the moft remarkable extent of level
ground, is the vaft platform of Tibet in Afia, which
forms an immenfe table, fupported by mountains run¬
ning in every direftion, and is the moft elevated traft
of level country on the globe. The chief elevations or
mountains that occur, with their elevation, &c. will be 42
mentioned under Geology. The greateft concavities Oceans,
of the globe are thofe which are occupied by the wa¬
ters of the fea, and of thefe by far the largeft forms the
bed of the Pacific ocean, which ftretching from the
eaftem flrores of New Holland to the weftern coaft of
America, covers nearly half the globe. The concavity
next in fize and importance, is that which forms the
bed of the Atlantic ocean, extending between the new
and the old worlds 5 and a third concavity is filled by
the Indian ocean. Smaller colle&ions of water, though
ftill large enough to receive the name of oceans, fill up
the remaining concavities, and take the names of Arflic
and Antarflic oceans. _ 43
Smaller colleflions of water that communicate freely Seas,
with the oceans, are called feas, (vid. A j fig. 1), and of plate
thefe the principal are the Mediterranean, the Baltic, CCXXX.
the Black fea, and the White fea. Thefe feas fome-
times take their names from the country near which
they flow \ as the Irifti fea, and the German ocean.
Some large bodies of water, which appear to have no
immediate connexion with the great body of waters,
being everywhere furrounded by land, are yet called
feas; as the Cafpian fea. ... 44
A part of the fea running up within the land, fo as Bays or
to form a hollow, if it be large, is called a hay or gulfs.
gulf; as the bay of Bifcay, gulf of Mexico : if fmall,
a creek, road, or haven. . ^-
When two large bodies of water communicate by _aStraitgt
narrow pafs between two adjacent lands, this pafs is
called
Part II.
GEOGRAPHY.
Principles
and
PradHce.
46
Currents.
» 47
Lakes.
48
Rivers.
49
Continents.
50
IHands.
called zfiraii orJlrails (C, fig. 1.) as the ftraits of Gib¬
raltar, the firaits of Dover, of Babelmandel, &c. The
water ufually flows through a ftrait with confiderable
force and velocity, forming what is called a current,
and frequently this current always flows in the fame di-
reftion. Thus, in the flraits of Gibraltar there is a
conftant current from the Atlantic into the Mediter¬
ranean, though the furface of the latter never feems to
be elevated beyond its ufual level. There is always a
current round Cape Finifterre and Cape Ortegal, fetting
into the bay of Bifcay, and it has been difcovered by
Major Kennel, that this current is continued in a di-
reflion N. W. by W. from the coaft of France to the
weftward of Ireland and the Scilly iflands. Hence he
draws this ufeful practical inftruftion for navigators
who are entering the Engliflr channel from the Atlan¬
tic, viz. that they fliould keep no higher latitude than
48° 45', left they ihould be carried by the current
upon the rocks of Scilly. For want of this neceffary
precaution, it is faid that many Ihips have been loft on
thefe rocks.
A body of frefh water, entirely furrounded by land,
is called a lake, loch, or lough (as D, fig. x), with the
exception of the fea above mentioned ; as the lake of
Geneva, Lake Ontario, Lake Champlain, Loch Lo¬
mond, &c.
This term, or its fynonimes, loch or lough, is fome-
times applied to what is properly a gulf or inlet of the
fea, as Loch Fyne in Scotland, and Lough Swilly in Ire¬
land.
A confiderable ftream of water riling inland, and
running towards the fea, is called a river; a fmaller
ftream of the fame kind is called a rivulet or brook.
Vid. E, fig. 1.
The great extent of land which forms the reft of the
globe, is divided into innumerable bodies, fome of which
are very large, but the majority extremely fmall. There
are three very extenfive trails of country, which may
all be denominated continents, though only two of
them have hitherto been diftinguiftied by that appella¬
tion. The moft confiderable of thefe continents is what
has been called the old world, comprifing Europe,
Alia, and Africa. The fecond comprehends North
and South America, or what has been denominated the
new world, and is little inferior in extent to the former.
The third great divifion forms the country called New
Holland.
A body of land entirely furrounded by water is called
an ijland, (vid. a, fig. 1.) as Britain, Ireland, Jamaica,
Madagafcar, &c. According to the ftridl meaning of this
definition, the large divifions juft mentioned are iflands j
for it is almoft certainly afcertained, that the continent
of North America is everywhere bounded by the fea,
and it has long ceafed to be doubtful that New Holland
is in the fame circumftances, and it is generally called
the largeft ifland in the word. But perhaps it would
be better to confine the term to thofe numberlefs fmaller
iflands that appear above the furface of the waters.
When a number of fmaller iflands are fituated near each
other, the whole afl'emblage is commonly called a group
of iflands, as b, b. The large affemblages of iflands
that have been difcovered in the South Pacific ocean,
have lately been comprehended under the name of
Polynefia, conftituting a fixth divifion of the whole
earth} the other five being Europe, Afia, Africa,
America, and the iflands of New Holland and New
Guinea, under the name of Auftralafia.
A body of land that is almoft entirely furrounded by
water is called a peninfula, as c, fig. I.; as the penin-
fula of Malacca, the Morea, or Grecian Peloponnefus,
&c. Indeed the continent of Africa may be confidered
as a vaft peninfula, being united to Afia only by the
fmall ifthmus of Suez.
The narrow neck of land which joins a peninfula to
the main land, or which connefts two trails of country
together, is called an ijlhmus, as d. The moft remark¬
able ifthmufes are the ifthmus of Darien, conne61ing the
continents of North and South America, and the ifthmus
of Suez, joining Africa to Afia.
A narrow tra6l of land ftretching far out into the
fea, being united to the main land by an ifthmus, is
called a promontory, and its extremity next the fea, is
called a cape; as ef, fig. 1. The moft remarkable
capes are the Cape of Good Hope, at the fouthern ex¬
tremity of Africa j Cape Horn at the fouthern extremity
of South America j the North Cape at the northern ex¬
tremity of Europe ; and Cape Talmara, at the northern
extremity of Afia.
It may aflift the memory of the young geographer,
to compare together the above divifions of land and
water. We may remark that the large bodies of land,
called continents, correfpond to the extenfive tradls of
water called oceans; that iflands are analogous to lakes;
peninfulas to feas or gulfs ; ifthmufes to ftraits ; pro¬
montories to creeks, &c.
The inhabited parts of the earth are calculated to
occupy a fpace of 38,990,569 fquare miles, of which
the four quarters into which the globe is ufually divid¬
ed are fuppofed to have the following proportions:
Europe, 4,456,065
Afia, 10,768,823
Africa, 9,654,807
America, 14,110,874.
The whole population of the earth has been comput¬
ed at 700,500,000 fouls ; and of thefe
Afia is funpofed to contain 500,000,000
Europe, 150,000,000
Africa, 30,000,000
America, 20,000,000
and Auftralafia and Polynefia, &c.. 500,000
Hence the proportional number of inhabitants to
every fquare mile in each quarter is as follows;
511
Principles
and
Practice.
52
Ifthmus.
S3
Promontory
and cape.
In Afia
Europe
Africa
America
46
34
3
3 to every two fquare miles.
Chap. II. Of the ConJlruBion and life of the Globes.
Sect. I. Defcription and life of the Terreftrial Globes.
For the purpofe of reprefenting more accurately the Nature of'
globe which we inhabit, geographers have long had re- the globes,
courfe to fpherical balls, on the face of which are
drawn the various divifions of the earth, and which are
fitted up with fuch an apparatus, as enables us to illuf-
trate and explain the phenomena produced by the mo¬
tions *
512
Principles
and
Practice.
55
Circles on
the globes.
. s6
Axis and
poles.
57
Equator or
equinoctial
, .58
Meridians.
G E O G U
tlons of die earth, and the different fituations of its
various inhabitants. The ball thus prepared, is called
an artificial globe, and what we have defcribed is pro¬
perly the terrefinalglobes fo called to diilinguifli it from
another of a llmilar form, and furnilhed in a fimilar
manner, but the furface of which reprefents the various
affemblages of liars or conftellations that appear in
the heavens, and therefore this is called the celejhal
globe.
In order to afcertain the relative pofitions of places
and countries on the earth, certain circles are fuppofed
to be drawn on its furface, analogous to thofe which
were mentioned in Astronomy, as fuppofed to be
drawn in the heavens. As thefe circles are really re*
prefented on the artificial globes, it wall be proper here
to confider a little more particularly their nature and
ufes.
As the earth turns about on an imaginary axis, once
in 24 hours, the artificial globe is furnilhed with a real
axis, formed by a ware palling through the centre, and
on which the globe revolves. The two extremities of
this axis are its poles, the one being called the north,
and the other the foutb pole.
A Treat circle drawn on the globe, at an equal dillance
from both poles, is the equator or equinodlial line, and
reprefents on the globe a fimilar circle, fuppofed to be
drawn round the earth, and dillinguilhed by the fame
names. By failors this is commonly called the line,
and when they pafs over that part of the water, where
it is imagined to be drawn, they often make ufe of va¬
rious fuperftitious ceremonies. The two parts of the
globe into which it is divided by the equator, are called
the northern andfon them hemifpheres.
The equinodlial line on the earth paifes through the
middle of Africa, in the almolt unknown territories of
Macoco, and Monemugi, traverfes the Indian ocean,
pafies through the ifiands of Sumatra and Borneo, and
the immenfe expanfe of the Pacific ocean; then extends
over the province of Quito in South America, to the
mouth of the river Amazons.
As every circle is fuppofed to be divided into $60°,
fo the equator is thus divided on the artificial globe.
Through every 150 of the equator there is drawn on
the globe a great circle palling through the poles.
Thefe circles are called meridians, becaufe when the
fun in his apparent courfe from call to w^eft reaches
the correfpoading circle in the heavens, it is noon on
that part of the earth over which the meridian is fuppo¬
fed to pafs. Properly fpeaking, every place on the
earth has its own meridian, though to prevent confu-
fion, thefe circles are drawn on the artificial globe,
A P H Y. Fait II.
only through every 15® of the equator. To fuppiy the Principles
place of the other meridians, the globe is hung in a anil
lirong brazen circle, which is called the brazen meri- P^tice..
dian, or fometimes only the meridian. The brazen 59
meridian, like the equator, is divided into 360°, but Brazen me«
thele are marked by nineties on each quadrant, being ndian.
on one half of the meridian numbered from the equa¬
tor to the poles, and on the other half from the poles
to the equator. On the oppofite fide of the brazen
meridian there are two concentric fpaces, which are
divided into degrees correfponding to the months and
days of each month, the degrees being marked on con¬
centric Ipaces from the north pole to about both
ways. The ufe of thefe divifions will appear here¬
after (b).
Through every tenth degree of the meridians, there Parallels
are drawm on the globe circles parallel to the equator, of latitude,
which, for a reafon that will appear prefently, are called
parallels of latitude.
Before we proceed in defcribing the other circles,
&.c of the artificial globe, we fhall here make a few
remarks on the ufes of the equator, the meridians and
parallels (c).
The equator ferves to meafure the diftance of one of latitude
place from another, either to the eaftward or weftward, and longi-
and this diftance is called the longitude of the place, tude.
The meridians ferve in like manner to meafure the dif¬
tance of one place from another in a diredt line north
or fouth of the equator, and the diftance of the place
thus meafured is called its latitude.
The longitude and latitude of places may be illuftrat-
ed in the following manner. Let PEP'Q (fig. 3) repre-
fent the earth or the globe, (fuppofed to be tranlverfe)
wdiofe axis is PCP', the north pole being P, and the
fouth pole P' j and let EAQR reprefent a circle paf-
fing through the centre C, in a direction perpendicular
to the axis PP'. This circle correfponds to the equa¬
tor, and it divides the earth of the globe into two hemi¬
fpheres, EPQ being the northern, and EP'Q the
fouthern hemifphere. Let G, I, K, reprefent the fitua¬
tions of three places on the furface of the globe, through
which let the great circles PKP", PIP', and
PGP', be drawn, interfe&ing the equator EQ, in
n, in, a, refpeflfvely. The circles are the meridians of
the places K, I, G. As every circle is fuppofed to be
divided into 360®, there muft be 90° from each pole to
the equator. Hence the latitude of the place K is
meafured by the degrees of the arc intercepted between
K and n, and the latitudes of G and I are meafured by
the degrees of the arcs intercepted between G and a,
and I and m refpe&ively. Thefe latitudes will be called
north
(b) The meridians are properly only femicircles, reaching from pole to pole, and of thefe there are twenty-
four
(c) In Geography, as in other fciences, there are two methods of conveying inftruftion. One is, to lay down
the principles of the fcience firft, and afterwards apply thefe to the praflice of it 5 the other method is, to combine
the principles and practice in one view. The former is ufually confidered as the more fcientific, but we are inclin¬
ed to think that the latter is often to be preferred, as being lefs dry and tedious, efpecially to a general reader.
We have here, therefore, chofen to explain the nature of latitude and longitude, and the problems relpedting them,
before completing the defcription of the globe. We fhall proceed in the fame manner, uniting as far as poftible,
the principles and practice in one view7. Making, therefore the terreftrial globe our text book, wre fhall thence
•explain the principles of geography, rather than detail thefe in a feparate feftion, and afterwards illuftrate them by
the globe.
a
/
Part II. G E O G
Principles nortli latitudes, becaufe tlie places lie in the northern
an^ hemirphere. Let there be two other places, WV, in
, Pratfltcc. ;the fouthern hemifphere ; the latitude of W will be
jneafured by the degrees of the arc intercepted between
W and a } and the latitude of V by the arc intercepted
between V and tn j and thefe will be called 1'outh la¬
titudes. Further, let the circle c, e, r/, v, G, be drawn
parallel to the equator ; this circle is called a parallel
of latitude, and as it does not pafs through the centre,
it is evidently lefs than the equator, or it is a fmall
circle. Now, all the arcs, fuch as R, e, a, G, &c. in¬
tercepted between the parallel and the equator, muft be
equal, fince the circle is parallel to the equator j and
hence every point in this parallel, or every place on the
earth through which it is fuppofed to pafs, has the fame
latitude.
Latitude is the fame all over the earth, being con-
flantly meafured from the equator to the poles.
The longitude of a place is meafured by the degrees
of an arc of the equator, intercepted between fome par¬
ticular meridian, and the meridian palling through the
place. Thus, liippofe G to reprefent the particular
meridian, and m to reprefent the place whofe longitude
is required y the longitude of wz is meafured by the
arc tn a of the equator, intercepted between a, the
point where the meridian of G meets the equator, and
cv the point of the equator where it is cut by the me¬
ridian of the place m. The particular meridian from
which w7e begin to reckon the degrees of longitude is
called the prime or firji meridian^ and it is different in
different countries.
The method of eftimating the dillances of places by
longitudes and latitudes, is of confiderable antiquity, and
was employed by Eratofthenes, who firit introduced a
regular parallel ef latitude, which began at the ftraits
of Gibraltar, paffed eafhvards though the ifkmd of
Rhodes to the mountains of Indiay all the intermedi¬
ate places through which it paffed being carefully not¬
ed. Soon after drawing this parallel through Rhodes,
which rvas long conlidered with a degree of preference,
Eratofthenes undertook to trace a meridian, pafting
through Rhodes and Alexandria, as far as Syene and
Meroe. Pythias of Marfeilles, according to Strabo,
confidering the iftand of Thule as the moft weftern
point of the then known wrorld, began to count the
longitude from thence, while Marianus of Tyre placed
their firft meridian at the Fortunate iflands, or the Ca¬
naries $ but they did not determine which was the
weftermoft of thefe iflands, and confequently which
ought to ferve as a firft meridian. Among the Ara¬
bians, Alfragan, Albategnus, Nafiir Eddin, and dug
Beg, alfo reckoned from the Fortunate iilands j but A-
bulfeda began to reckon his longitude from a meridian
io° to the eaftw-ard of that of Ptolemy, probably be¬
caufe it paffed through the weftern extremity of Africa,
where, according to him, were fituated the pillars of
Hercules ; or becaufe it paffed through Cadiz, which
was at that time rendered famous by the conquefts of
the Moors in Spain.
When the Azores were difcovered by the Portuguefe
in 1448, fome geographers made ufe of the ifland of
Tercera as their firft meridian. Other geographers,
as Blaeu, father and fon, placed the firft meridian at
the Peak of Teneriffe, a mountain fo far elevated above
the fea, that it may be eafily knowm by navigators;
Vo-l. IX. Part II.
R A P H Y. 513
while others have made the iftand of St Philip, one of Principles
the Cape de Verds, the firft meridian, becaufe they con- praa^jce
ceived this to be the place where the magnetic needle , ft 4
had no variation. For a long time it was cuftomary to
reckon the longitude in moft countries from the ifte of
Ferro, one of the Canary iftes } but it is now cuftomary
for each nation to reckon the longitude, either from
the metropolis of the country, or from the national ob-
fervatory fituated near it. Thus in France, Paris is the
firft meridian, and in Great Britain, the Royal Obfer-
vatory of Greenwich, As in feveral good maps, the
ifle of Ferro is ftill ufed as a firft meridian, it may be
proper to remark, that the obfervatory at Greenwich 63
lies 170 45' to the eaft of Ferro. Hence it is very Method of
eafy to reduce the longitude'of Ferro to that of Green-re(luch'1?t
wich 5 for if the longitude required be eaft, wye have
only to fubtraft 170 45' from the longitude of Ferro, meridian?6
and the remainder is the longitude eaft from Londony
on the other hand, if the place be weft from Ferro, we
obtain the longitude weft from London by adding to .
that of Ferro 17° 45'. If the place lies between Ferro
and London, its longitude from London will be ob¬
tained by fubtrafting its longitude eaft from Ferro from
170 45- It is evident that by the revcrfe of this me¬
thod, we may reduce the longitude from London to
that of Ferro.
In the diagram referred to above, if G reprefent the
obfervatory of Greenwich, a will be the point from
which wTe begin to reckon the degrees of longitude,
and all places fituated to the eaft of <7, fuch as R, my
will have eaft longitude, while thofe fituated to the
weft, as 7z, will have weft longitude. In reckoning the
longitude, we fometimes number the degrees only as
far as j 8oM, but at other times they are numbered all
round the equator from the point a ; for inftance, 180“,
till we come to a again ; hence reckoning in the di¬
rection zr, R, m, we ftiould fay that every place was in
fo many degrees eaft longitude, while if we reckoned in
the dire&ion /?, E, we ftiould fay that all the places
had fo many degrees weft longitude all round the equa¬
tor. To accommodate the globes to both thefe modes
of reckoning the longitude, the equator is ufually divid¬
ed both ways, in a continued feries from o at the firft
meridian to 360°.
It is evident, that as the parallels of latitude become
fmaller as they approach the poles, the arcs of thefe
parallels intercepted between the fame two meridians
will be alfo fmaller as we proceed from the equator to
the poles, though in fafl they confift of the fame abfo-
lute number of degrees. Hence it will be eafy to fee
that a degree of longitude muft be fmaller towards the
poles than at the equator, and muft become gradually
fmaller and fmaller till we arrive at the poles, where it
will be equal to nothing. Thus the arc G v. contains
the fame number of degrees as the arc <7,777, though the
former arc is much fmaller than the latter. As a de¬
gree of longitude is therefore different at every degree
of latitude, it becomes neceffary to afeertain the rela¬
tive proportion between the tw7o j and for this purpofe
the following table has been conftrufled, which (hews
the abfolute meafure of a degree of longitude in geo¬
graphical miles and parts of a mile for every degree of
latitude, taking the degree of longitude at the equator,
equal to 60 geographical miles.
TABLE
514 GEOGRAPHY. Part II
Principles Frincijiies
Pra6Uce TABLE I. Shewing the length, of a degree of longitude for every degree of latitude, in geographical miles. prJ^fce
Lat. Geo. miles
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
T 2
'3
14
*5
59.96
59.94
59-92
59.86
59-77
59-67
59-56
59-40
59.20
59.08
58.89
58.68
58.46
58.22
58.00
Lat.
16
17
18
r9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Geo. miles
57.6°
57-30
57-°4
56.73
56.3*
56.00
55-63
55-23
54.81
54-38
54.00
53-44
53-oo
52.48
5I-96
Lat.
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
4r
42
43
44
45
Geo. miles
51-43
50.88
50.32
49-74
49.15
48.54
47.92
47.28
46.62
46.00
45.28
44-95
43.88
43.16
42.43,
LaG
46
47
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Geo. miles
41.68
41.OO
40.15
39-36
38-57
37-73
37.00
36.18
35-26
34-41
33-55
32.67
3I-79
30.90
30.00
Lat.
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
7*
72
73
74
75
Geo. mile1
29.04
28.17
27.24
26.30
25.36
24.41
23-45
22.48
21.5 I
20.52
19.54
i8-55
x7-54
16.53
J5-52
Lat
Geo. miles
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
14.51
13-5°
12.48
11-45
10.42
9-38
8-35
7-32
6.28
5.23
4.18
3-14
2.09
1.05
0.00
As it is often more convenient to eflimate degrees of longitude in Englidi ftatute miles, we have added the
following
Table 11. Shewing the length of a degree of longitude for every degree of latitude, in Eng!if) fatute miles.
Lat.
O
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
x3
14
15
Eng, miles.
69.2000
69.1896
69 1578
69.1052
69.03 1 2
68.9363
68.8208
68.6845
68.5267
68.3481
68.1489
67.9288
67.6880
67.4264
67.1448
66.8424
Lat.
16
J7
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25 '
26
27
28
29
3°
31
Eng. miles.
665192
66.1760
65.8134
65.430°
65.0265
64.6037
64.1609
63.6986
63-2177
62.7167
62.1963
61.6579
61.1001
60.5237
59-9293
59-3i62
Lat
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
Eng. miles.
58.6851
C8.0360
57-5696.
56.6852
55.9842
55-2659
54-53°3
53-7788
53.0100
52.2259
51-4 253
?o.6c94
49-7783
48.9313
48.0705
47.1944
Lat.
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
Enj. m les.
46.3038
45-3994
44.4811
43-5489
42.6037
41.6453
40.6751
39.6917
38.6959
37.6891
36.6705
35^408
34.6000
335489
32-4873
3 1-4i6i
Lat.
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
Eng. miles.
30-3352
29-2453
28.1464
27.0385
25.9230
24.7992
23.6678
22.5294
21.3842
20.2320
19.0743
17.9103
16.7409
15-5665
14.3874
13.2041
Lat. I Eng. miles.
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
12.0166
10.8250
9.6306
8-4334'
7-2335
6.031 c
4.8274
3.6219
2415!
1.2075
0.0000
Method of Hence it appears that the degrees of latitude are all
reducing equal, and that a degree of longitude at the equator is
degrees to equal to a degree of latitude, as each is TToth of a
miles and gjeat.circle. In the fecond of the above tables, a de¬
gree of longitude at the equator is eftimated at 69.2
Englilh miles, or about 69^. The length of a degree
in miles is ufually eftimated at 69^, but this is too
much. Hence, to reduce degrees of latitude, and thofe
of longitude near the equator, to Englilh miles, it is
neceflary to multiply them by 69.2, or, if great accuracy
is not required, by 70.
64 Problem I. To fnd the latitude and longitude of a
Problems ' given place.
on latitude
and longi¬
tude. —
Bring the place below the graduated edge of the
braxen meridian, and the degree of the meridian that
lies immediately over the place is its latitude. Obferve
w-here the meridian cuts the equator, and that degree
will be the longitude of the place.
Example. To fnd the latitude and longitude of Edin¬
burgh.—Bringing Edinburgh below the meridian, w-e
find over it nearly the 56th degree of north latitude
(55° 58')> and the point where the meridian cuts the
equator is nearly 3* (3° 12' W. Long.) degrees weft from
London.
N. B. The longitude and latitude of places cannot
be afeertained exa&ly by the globes, as thefe are not
calculated to Ihow the fraftional parts of a degree but
they may be found with fufficient corre&nefs for ordi¬
nary purpofes.
Corollary i. The difference of latitude and lon¬
gitude
Part II. G E O G R
Principles gitude between two places is found by fubtra£Hng tbe
and lefs from the greater, if they lie the fame way, i. e. north
Practice. or fouth, eaft or welt j or by adding the two together, if
"v " they lie in a different dire61ion.
Cor. 2. Thole places that have the fame latitude
with any given place are found, by bringing the
given place to the meridian, and obferving what places
pafs under the fame degree, while the globe is turned
round.
Cor. 3. Thofe places which have the fame longitude
with a given place, are found by bringing the place to
the meridian, and obferving what other places lie under
the graduated edge, while the globe is at reft.
Problem II. The latitude and longitude of a place
being given, to find the place itfelfi on the globe.
Turn the globe till the given longitude comes under
the brazen meridian *, then mark the given latitude on
the meridian, and immediately below it is the place
required.
Example. What place is fituated in 48* 23' N. Lat.
and 4* 29' E. Long, from Greenwich ? Anfi. Breft in
65 France.
Computa- As the fun, in his apparent motion round the earth,
tionot Ion- meafures a great circle in about 24 hours, or in one
t/me hour paffes over -^th of fuch circle, or 15*'^ it is evident
that all places which lie 150 weft of any meridian, muft
have noon or any other time of the day, an hour later
than thofe fituated under that meridian; and that all
places which lie 150 eafi of any meridian, muft have
the fame times of the day an hour fiooner. Hence, be-
caufe the meridians drawn on the globe make a differ¬
ence of an hour each in the time of places, they are
fometimes called hour-circles; and the longitude of
places is fometimes reckoned in time as well as in
degrees.
Degrees of longitude are reduced to hours and mi¬
nutes, and v. v. by allowing an hour for every 13®, and
<55 four minutes for every degree.
Horary cir- Though the meridians on the globe are fometimes
tics called horary circles, this name is generally confined to
a fmall brafs circle, which is adapted to one or each pole,
and graduated into twice twelve hours; fo that an index
fixed to the axis, or the meridian, points out the feveral
hours of day and night as the globe revolves.
In globes of the old conftrudlion the hour circles are
fixed on the outfide of the meridian, but this prevents
the meridian from being moved quite round, which is
required in fome problems.
Mr Jofeph Harris, formerly affay-mafter of the mint,
contrived an ingenious method of remedying this incon¬
venience. He placed two horary circles between the
meridian and the globe, one at each pole, and they were
fixed tightly between two brafs rollers, placed about tbe
axis, fo that when the globe was turned, they were
carried round with it, while the edge of the brazen
meridian ferved as an index to cut the horary divifions.
A globe, thus furnifhed, ferves univerfally and readily
for performing problems in both northern and fouthern
latitudes ; and alfo in places near the equator •, whereas,
in globes of the old conftru&ion, the axis and horary
circle prevent the brazen meridian from bring moved
quite round in the horizon.
. A P H Y. 515
The conftruftion of the hour circles was rendered Principles
fomewhat more fimple by Mr G. Wright of London.
In his globes, there are engraved two hour circles, one
at each pole, on the map of the globe, each circle being
divided into a double let of 12 hours, as in the ufual
hour circles ; but here the hours are numbered both to
the right and left. (See fig. 4.) The hour hand, or
index, is placed below the brazen meridian, in fuch a
way that it may be moved at pleafure to any required
part of the circle, and remain there fufhciently Heady
during the revolution of the globe on its axis, being
entirely independent of the pole. In this manner
the motion of the globe round its axis, carrying the
hour circle, the time is pointed out by the ftationary
index.
In the globes conftru&ed by the late Mr George
Adams, the equator is made to anfwer the purpofe of
an hour circle, by means of a femicircular wire placed
in its plane, (fee £) F, fig. 5.) and carrying two indices
F, one on the eaftern, the other on the weitern, fide of
the brazen meridian. The method of ufing thefe in¬
dices will be fhewn prefently. In thefe globes the
equator is alfo marked with twice x 2 hours, which in-
creafe from eaft to weft, the hours to the weft of the
firft 1 2 being afternoon hours.
PROBLEM III. The hours at any place being given, to Problems
find what hour it is at any other place. *
a. By the ordinary globes.
Bring the place at which the hour is given to the
meridian, and fet the index of the hour circle to the
given Lour. Then turn the globe till the other place
comes under the meridian, and the index will now point
to the hour required.
N. B. Where there is no index, the edge of the me¬
ridian will in both cafes point out the hour.
b, By Adams’s globes.
The fteps are here the reverfe of the former. Bring
the place at which the time is required to the
brazen meridian, and fet the index to the given hour.
Then turn the globe till the other place comes below
the meridian, and the index will (hew the time re¬
quired.
N. B. In the ordinary globes, where the hour circle
is ufually marked with two fets of figures, it is proper,
in performing this problem, to make ufe of that fet
which increafes towards the eight hand, obferving that
whichever XII. is fixed on for noon, the hours to the
right or eafi of this are hours P. M. and thofe to the
left or wefi are hours A. M. On Adams’s globes the
contrary of this takes place, from the hours being
marked on the equator. They increafe from eaft to
weft, and, of courfe, thofe to the eaft of XII. are
morning hours, and thofe to the weft of it afternoon
hours.
Example 1. When it is noon at London, what hour
is it in the Society ifles ? Anf. Two A. M.
Ex. 2. When it is 3 P. M. at Edinburgh, what
hour is it at Delhi in Hindooftan ? Anfi. Thirty minutes
paft eight P. M.
3 T 2
Problem
zi6 GEOGRAPHY. Part IL
PrinciDies *
and Problem IV. Having the hour at any place given, to
Practice. Jind all thofe places where it is noon.
a, By the ordinary globes.
Bring the given place to the meridian, and fet the
'tadex to the given hour. Then turn the globe till the
index point to r 2 at noon, and the places then under
the meridian are thofe required.
b. By Adams’s globes.
Bring the given place to the meridian, and fet the
index to 12 at noon. Then turn the globe till the in¬
dex fhall point to the given hour j and all the places
then under the meridian have noon at that time.
Ex. 1. It is now 30 min. paft 10. A. M. at Edin¬
burgh ; In what places is it noon ? Anf. Near Stock¬
holm } at Dantzic, Breflaw, Prelburg, Vienna, Pofega,
Ragufa, Tarento, and the Cape of Good Hope.
Ex. It is now midnight at London; Where is it
noon ? Anf. In the north-eaft parts of Afia, in the
middle of Fox ides ; at the Friendly ides (nearly), and
at the eaft cape of New Zealand.
From the different fituation of places with refpedf to
latitude and longitude, the inhabitants of thefe places
received from the ancients denominations that are hill
68 retained.
Amceci. Thus, thofe places which have the fame longitude,
or are fituated under the fame meridian, but are in op-
pofite latitudes, the one lying as many degrees to the
north of the equator as the other lies to the fouth of it,
are faid to be antgeci to each other. From this defi¬
nition it is evident, that thofe places fituated under the
equator have no antceci.
The appearances arifing from the changes of the
heavenly bodies are different in the oppofite places.
Thus, I. The days of the one are equal to the nights of
the other, and vice verfa ; but they have noon, mid¬
night, and all the other hours at the fame time.
2. They have contrary feafons at the fame time : when
it is fummer at one place it is winter at the other, and
fo of fpring and autumn. 3. The liars that never fet
at one place, never rife at the other, and vice verfa.
Fenced. Again, thofe places that have the fame latitude, or
are under the fame parallel, but are in oppofite longi¬
tudes, i. e. lie under oppofite arcs of the fame meridion¬
al circle, or 18o° from each other, are faid to be peri-
oeci to each other. Thofe places which may be fitu¬
ated at the poles, have evidently no periceci.
The celeftial appearances to the perioeci are as follow.
1. The length of the day or night is the fame to both
places j but the hours, though diilinguifhed by the
fame numbers, are contrary j noon at the one being mid¬
night at the other •, and any hour in the forenoon at the
one being the fame of the afternoon to the other.
2. Both places have the fame feafons of the year at the
fame time. 3. The fame liars that never rife or fet to
one place, alio never rife or fet to the other. 4. The
heavenly bodies rife in the fame point of the horizon at
both places, and continue for the fame interval above or
below it.
Antipodes. Laftly, Thofe places which are fituated direclly op¬
pofite to each other, by a dillance equal to the diame¬
ter of the earth, are faid to be ANTIPODES to each
other. If wTe conceive a line through the centre of the Principles
earth, and terminated in two points of its furface, thefe r am*
extreme points are antipodes to each other. Thus, the pld<^!(:e'
city of Lima in Peru is nearly the antipodes to Siam in
the Eall Indies j and Pekin in China has for its an¬
tipodes Buenos Ayres in South America. Thefe
places are always in oppofite longitudes, and (except
under the equator) in oppofite latitudes.
The celeltial appearances to the antipodes are
thefe. 1. The hours are contrary, as to the periseci.
2. The days of the one are of the fame length with the
nights of the other j hence the longed day to one is the
Ihorted to the other, and vice verfa. 3. They have
contrary feafons at the fame time. 4. Thofe dars
which, at one place are always above the horizon, are,
to the other, always below it. 5. When the heavenly
bodies are riling at one place, they are fetting at its
antipodes, and vice verfa. For various opinions refpe£l~
ing the antipodes, fee the article Antipodes.
The antipodes of any place are the perioeci to the an-
toeci of that place j and the antoeci to their perioeci.
This will account for the method prefently deferibed of
finding the antipodes on the globe.
PROBLEM V. To find the antoeci to any given place. Problems
Bring the given place to the meridian, and thus af-
certain its latitude. Then count from the equator to¬
wards the oppofite pole as many degrees as are equal to
the latitude of the place ; and the point where this
reckoning ends is the place required.
Ex. 1. Where are the antaci to the Cape of Good
Hope ? Anf. At Malta nearly.
Ex. 2. What people are the antceci to the inhabi¬
tants of Quebec in North America ? Anf. The inha¬
bitants of Patagonia in South America.
Problem VI. To fnd the perioeci of any given place.
Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and
fet the horary index to the upper XII. Then turn the
globe till the index point to the lower XII. The place
which is then below the meridian in the fame latitude
with that of the given place, is the fituation required.
Ex. I. Where are fituated the perioeci of Newcaftle
upon Tyne ? Anf In the Alcoulki or Fox iflands.
Ex. 2. Required the perioeci to California in North
America. Anf Near the mouth of the river Indus.
Problem VII. To fnd the antipodes to any given place.
Find the antceci of the given place (by Problem V.)
and then find the periceci of the latter (by Problem VI.)
This lail is the place required.
Ex. 1. It is required to find the antipodes of Lon¬
don. Anf. The latitude of London is 510 31' N. the
antoeci to this, or 51* 31' S. on the prime meridian, is
in the fouth Atlantic ocean } the perioeci to this is in
180® W. Long, and 51° 31' S. Lat. a little to the
fouth of the iflands of New Zealand. The inhabitants
of the fouthern ifland of New Zealand are therefore
the neareft antipodes to London.
Several other circles befides thofe which we have
mentioned are deferibed on the artificial globe, and are
fuppofed to be drawn on the earth. I hefe wre lhall
now proceed to deferibe, and explain their geographical
ufes.
The
Part II.
Principles
and
Practice.
GEOGRAPHY.
^ 73
Tropics.
74.
Polar cir.
cles.
^ , 7S
Colures.
Zone’6
The Ecliptic (Astronomy, N° 43.) is a great circle
drawn on the globe, eroding the equator obliquely in
two points, called the equinoftial points. (Astronomy,
N* 44.) This circle extends on each fide of the equa¬
tor to the latitude of 230 28', and is divided into 12
great parts correfponding to the 1 2 figns of the zodiac
(fee Astronomy, N° 52.),and marked with their cha-
rafters, and each fign is fubdivided into 30 degrees.
The ecliptic has alfo its poles, which are two points
that are diftant 90° every way from the circle on each
fide. As the ecliptic declines from the equator 230
28', its poles are confequently diftant from thofe of the
equator, or of the globe,-by the fame meafure. This
circle properly belongs to the celeftial globe, but as it
is extremely ufeful in performing many geographical
problems, it is always drawn on both globes, and re¬
quires to be noticed here, fince it determines the po-
lition of feveral of the circles which we are about to
mention.
Through thofe two points of the ecliptic, where it
is at the greateft diftance from the equator, there are
drawn on the globes two circles parallel to the equator,
called tropics. That in the northern hemifphere is
called the Tropic of Cancer, as it palfes through the
lign Cancer 5 and, for a fimilar reafon, that which is in
the fouthern hemifphere is called the Tropic of Capri¬
corn. I he two points through which they are drawn
are called foljlitial points. The imaginary line which
correfponds to the tropic of Cancer on the earth palfes
from near Mount Atlas on the weftern coaft of Africa,
paft Syene in Ethiopia : thence, over the Red fea, it
pafles to Mount Sinai, by Mecca the city of Mahomet,
acrofs Arabia Felix to the extremity of Perfia, the Eaft
Indies, China, over the Pacific ocean to Mexico, and
the ifiand of Cuba. The tropic of Capricorn takes a
much lefs interefting courfe, pafli-ng through the country
of the Hottentots, acrofs Brafil, to Paraguay and Peru.
If the poles of the ecliptic be fuppofed to revolve
about the poles of the earth, they will deferibe two
circles parallel to the equator, and 23* 28' diftant from it.
Two fuch circles are drawn on the globes, and are call¬
ed Polar Circles, that in the north being called the
j4r£Uc Polar Circle, or merely the Arclic Circle, while
that in the fouth is called the AntarEHc Polar Circle,
or AntarBic Circle.
Both the tropics and the polar circles are marked on
the globes by dotted lines, to diftinguilh them from the
other parallels.
The meridional circles that pafs through the equinoc¬
tial and folftitial points are called Colures; the form¬
er being called the EquinoBial and the latter the SolJH-
tial Colure.
For an account of the variety of day and night in
different parts of the globe, fee Astronomy, Part II.
ch. i. feft. 2.
By means of the tropics and polar circles, the earth
is fuppofed to be divided into five fpaces, to which the
ancients gave the name of 'Lones, or Belts. Thus the
fpace included between the two tropics was called the
'1 orrid Zone, becaufe it was fuppofed to be fo much
heated or roajled by the vertical fun, which there pre¬
vails, as to be uninhabitable. The ancient terms are
Rill occafionally ufed, but the countries between the
517
tropics are now more commonly called the Intratropi- Principles
cal Regions. The two fpaces included between each anl'
tropic and its correfponding polar circle were called , Fra(ftlce-
Temperate Zones, and were diftinguiihed according to
their pofition into Northern and Southern Temperate
Zones. Laftly, The fpaces between the polar circles
and the poles were called the northern and fouthern
Frigid Zones, and were fuppofed uninhabitable from ex-
ceflive cold. Fhefe laft are ufually denominated the
Polar Regions. ^
The countries lying between the tropics are the Countries
greater part of Africa, the fouthern parts of Arabia, between
the eaftern. and weftern peninfulas of India j all thofethe tropiCS'
clufters of iflands lying between the fouthern continent
of Afia and New Holland, called the Sunda, Molucca,
Philippine, Pelew, Ladrone, and Carolina iflands ; the
northern half of New Holland, New Guinea, New
Britain j mod of the groups of iflands in the Pacific
ocean, as the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, the
Friendly and Society ifles, the Sandwich and Navigators
ifles j the Weft India iflands ; the greater part of South
America j the Cape de Verd iflands, and thofe of St
Helena, Afcenfion, St Matthew, and St Thomas. See
the map of the world in Plate CCXXXVI, or the plain
chart in Plate CCXXXVII.
All places fituated between the tropics have the fun
vertical twice in the year, at noon j but the time of the
year when this happens is different in the different lati¬
tudes j at the equator, the fun is vertical when he is in
the equmoclial points, or when he has no declination.
The inhabitants of the other intratropical regions have
the fun vertical when his declination is equal to their
latitude, and on the fame fide of the equator. Thus-,
the inhabitants of New Caledonia, about 20° S. Lat.
have the fun vertical when his declination is 20° S.
To illuftrate this, it will be fufficient to obferve that,
as the ecliptic is that circle in the heavens in which the
fun is fuppofed to move, the fun’s rays are perpendicu¬
lar fucceflively to every point of the earth which lies be¬
low that point of the ecliptic in which the fun happens
to be, and he will therefore be vertical to all the places
through which the ecliptic (continued to the earth)
paffes fucceflively.
The inhabitants of the torrid zone have their ftiadows Amp’hifciL
at noon day fometimes to the fouth, i. e. when the fun’s
declination is north, and fometimes to the north, i. e.
when the fun’s declination is fouth. They were there¬
fore called by the ancients Amphifcii, from about,
and ry.ix, fhadow. See Amphiscii and Ascii.
In the north temperate zone are fituated the whole ©f Countries
Europe except Lapland j Barbary, and part of Egypt, in thetem-
in Africa y nearly the whole continent of Afia ; a great P61**6201’**
part of North America ; the Azores, and the Canary
and Madeira iflands.
In the fouth temperate zone lie the fouthern part of
Africa, the fouthern half of New Holland, New Zea¬
land, and the fouthern part of South America.
In the temperate zones the fun is never vertical, and
the length of the days and nights differs much more
than in the torrid zone. go
The inhabitants of thefe regions have their fhadows Heterofcii,
at noon always in the fame direction j thofe in the
north temperate zone having them directed to the
north
Si 8
Principles
and
Practice.
8t
Countries
in the fri¬
gid zones.
83
Perifcii,
. *3
Climates.
G E O G R
north, and thofe in the fouthern zone, towards the
fouth. They were hence called by the ancients He-
terofcii. See Heteroscii.
The countries that are fituated in the northern frigid
zone, are Lapland, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, the
northern parts of Afiaand America, and part of Green¬
land. _ _
No land has yet been difcovered within the fouth polaf
circle, though it was long fuppttfed that a large conti¬
nent was fituated there, which was called Terra Au-
Jlralis Incognita. Our celebrated navigator Cook
made many attempts to penetrate the icy fields which
abound in thefe feas, in fearch of this imaginary con¬
tinent, but without fuccefs, he having penetrated no
farther than 7 2°. See Cook’s Difcoveries, N° 49. and
71-
Within the polar circles the fun does not always rife
or fet every 24 hours as in the other zones *, but for a
certain number of days in fummer he never fets, and for
a certain number of days in winter he never rifes^ the
number of days during which the fun is prefent or ab-
fent increafing from the polar circles to the poles, fo
that at the poles he never fets for fix months, nor rifes
during a like period.
When the fim continues above the horizon more
than 24 hours, the inhabitants of the polar regions have
their fhadows call all around them j and hence they
have been called Perifcii. See Periscii.
The ancients did not employ regular parallels of la¬
titude, but they divided the fpaces between the equator
and the poles into fmall zones corresponding to the
length of the longeft day in each divifion. To thefe
fubdivifions they gave the name of climates, the fitua-
tion and extent of which they determined in the follow¬
ing manner. As the day at the equator is exa&ly 1 2
hours throughout the year, but the longeft day in-
creafes as we approach the poles, the ancients made the
firft efimate to end at that latitude where the loqgeft
day was I 2| hours, which by obfervation they found to
be in the latitude of 8° 25'. The fecond climate ex¬
tended to latitude 16* 25', wdiere the longeft day is 13
hours, and thus a new climate extended, io as to divide
the w7hole tradt between the equator and the poles into
24 climates, in each of which the longeft day was long¬
er by half an hour than in that nearer the equator.
The fpace between the polar circles and the poles they
divided into fix climates, in each of which the length
of the longeft day increafed by a month, till at the
poles it was fix months long. Hence, the 24 climates
between the equator and the polar circles are called
Hour Climates ; and the fix between the polar circles
and the poles are called Month Climates. For further
particulars refpedting this ancient divifion of the
globe, and- a table of the climates by Ricciolus, fee
Climate. As the table given under that article is
calculated only for the middle of each climate, and
neither mentions the breadth of each, nor is extended
to all the climates, we fhall here fubjoin one in w'hich
are given the latitude at which each climate terminates,
its breadth in degrees, and the length of the longeft day
at the parallel terminating each.
A F H Y.
Hovs. Climates.
Climates.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
XIX
XX
XXI
XXII
XXIII
XXIV
Latitude. Breadth. Longeft Days
8° 25'
16 25
23 5°
3° 25
36 28
41 22
45 29
49 1
52
54 27
56 37
58 29
59 38
61 18
62 25
63 22
64 6
64 49
6c 21
65 45
66 6
66 20
66 28
66 31
8° 25'
8
25
3°
8
54
7
33
57
29
10
58
29
20
7
52
44
43
32
26
J9
14
8
3
12h 30m
‘*3
*3 3°
14
14 30
15
15 3°
16
3°
16
17
*7 3°
18
18 30
19
19 30
20
20 30
21
21 30
22
22 30
23
23 3°
24
Month Climates.
Climates.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
Latitude. Breadth
67° 21'
69 48
73 37
78 30
84 5
90
50'
2° 27
49
8
35
55
Longeft Day.
1 month.
2
3
4
5
6
Part TL
Principles
and
Practice.
84
Table of
climates,
*5.
As the divifion of the globe into climates, though Places in
now' almoft difufed, is of fervice in {hewing the length the north-
of the longefi: day in different countries, we fhall hereern cl1'
enumerate the principal places in each northern climate,
thefe being bell known and moft interefting.
I. The Gold and Silver Coafts in Africa 5 Malacca
in the Eaft Indies j and Cayenne and Surinam in South
America.
II. Abyflinia in Africa > Siam, Madras, and Pondi¬
cherry, in the Eaft Indies j the ifthmus of Darien j
Tobago, the Grenades, St Vincent, and Barbadoes, in
the Weft Indies.
III. Mecca in Arabiaj Bombay, part of Bengal, in
the Eaft Indies 5 Canton in China } Mexico and the
bay of Campeachy, in North America 5 and Jamaica,
HLfpaniola, St Chriftopher’s, Antigua, Martinique, and
Guadaloupe, in the Weft Indies.
Partll. G E O G R
Principles IV. Egypt and the Canaries in Africa ; Delhi, the
and capital of the Mogul empire, in Alia $ moft of the gulf
Pra^t.ce. q£ jy{exjCO} an[j Florida, in North America; and
~w "' the Havannah in the Weft Indies.
V. Gibraltar j part of the Mediterranean lea; the
Barbary ccaft in Africa j Jerufalem, Ifpahan, capital
of Perlia, and Nankin, in China, in Alia , and Cali¬
fornia, New Mexico, Weft Florida, Georgia, and the
Carolinas in North America.
VI. In Europe, Lilhon, Madrid, the illands of Mi¬
norca and Sardinia, and part of Greece or the Morea j
in Afia, Alia Minor, part of the Cafpian fea, Samar-
cand, Pekin, Corea, and Japan ; and in North America,
Maryland, Philadelphia, and Williamfburgh in Virgi¬
nia.
VII. In Europe, the northern provinces of Spain,
the fouthern provinces of France, Turin, Genoa, Rome,
and Conftantinople •, in Alia, the reft of the Cafpian,
and part of Tartary j and in North America, Bofton
and New York.
VIII. Paris and Vienna, in Europe ; and New Scot¬
land, Newfoundland, and Canada, in North America.
IX. London, Flanders, Prague, Drefden, Cracow, in
Europe j the fouthern provinces of Ruflia and the mid¬
dle of Tartary in Alia j and the northern part of New¬
foundland, in America.
X. Dublin, York, Holland, Hanover, Warfaw ; the
weft of Tartary, Labrador, and New South Wales, in
North America.
XL Newcaftle, Edinburgh, Copenhagen, and Mof-
cow.
XII. Southern part of Sweden j and Tobollk in Si¬
beria.
XIII. Stockholm •, and the Orkney Hies.
XIV. Bergen in Norway, and St Peterlburgh.
XV. Hudfon’s ftraits in North America.
XVI. Moft of Siberia j and the fouthern parts of
Greenland.
XVII. Drontheim in Norway.
XVIII Part of Finland in the Ruffian empire.
XIX. Archangel on the White fea.
XX. Iceland.
XXI. Northern parts of Ruffia in Europe, and Si¬
beria in Alia.
XXII. New North Wales, in North America.
XXIII. Davis’s ftraits, in North America.
XXIV. Samoieda in Alia.
XXV. Northern parts of Lapland.
XXVI. Weft Greenland.
XXVII. Southern part of Nova Zembla.
XXVIIL Northern part of Nova Zembla.
XXIX. Spitzbergen.
XXX. Unknown.
The only parts of the terreftrial globe that we have
yet to defcribe and illuftrate are the Quadrant of Alti¬
tude, and the Wooden Horizon ; and thefe it is neceffary
A P H Y. 5x9-
to explain, before we proceed to conlider the remain- Principles
ing problems performed with this globe. p ‘T*
The Quadrant of Altitude is a thin flexible flip of 1CP~ <
brafs, graduated into 90°, and made to fix on any part s<S
of the brazen meridian by means of a nut and ferew. Quadrant
Round this nut it moves on a pivot,, and by its flexibi-of aititude“
lity may be applied clofe'to the iurface of the globe.
The quadrant of altitude is ufed to meature the di-
ftances of places from each other on the terreftrial
globe, and to afeertain the altitudes of th6 fun, ftar$r
&c. on the celeftial globe.
To meafure the di/lance between two places on the
globe, nothing more is required than to ftretch the gra¬
duated edge of the quadrant between them, and mark
the number of degrees intercepted. Thefe reduced to
geographical, or to Englilh miles (by N0 63.) give the, ,
abfolute diltance between the places. It is moft con¬
venient to bring one of the places to the zenith, which
may be done by reflifying the globe for the latitude
of that place as immediately to be explained, and then
to ftretch the quadrant to the other place, the diftance
marked, fubtra&ed from 90°, gives the true diftance in
degrees. If the diftance required be greater than 90°,
it is proper to redlify the globe for the antipodes of the
given places, and add the diftance obferved to 90°: the
fum is the diftance required.
It has been very generally ftated that the bearing ot
one of the places from the other may be found by ob-
ferving, on the wooden horizon, in what point of the
compafs the quadrant of altitude thus fixed in the zenith,
cuts the horizon. This is conlidered by Mr Pattefon as
a miftake : “ For (fays he) fuppeiing one of the places
to lie due eaft of the other, they are in the fame paral¬
lel of latitude, and confequently it is impoffible that
the prime vertical of either of them (tlsat is, a circle
cutting the eaft and weft points of the horizon, Ihould
pafs through the other, unlefs they both lay under the
equator. A line ihewing the bearings of places is call¬
ed a rhumb line. The lines of north and fouth on the
globe, being meridians, and thofe of eaft and weft, be¬
ing parallels of latitude, are confequently circles j but ail
the remaining rhumbs are a kind of fpiral lines.” g^-
The globes are fupported by a wooden frame ending ■'Vooden
above in a broad flat margin, on which is parted a pa- horizon,
per marked with feveral graduated circles. This broad
margin is called the wooden horizon, and repreients the
rational horizon of the earth, or the limit between the
vilible and the invifible hemifpheres. On the paper
with which the wooden horizon is covered, are drawn
four concentric circles. The innermoft of thefe is
divided into 360 degrees, divided into four quadrants.
The fecond circle is marked with the points of the com¬
pafs, i. e. the four cardinal points, eaft, weft, north, and
fouth, (d) each being fubdivided into eight parts or
rhumbs, (fee Compass.) The circle next to that juft
mentioned contains the twelve figns of the zodiac,
diftinguilhed by their proper names and charatfters j
and
(d) The cardinal points of the compafs are thus determined. The two points in which the meridian of any
place when produced fo as to pafs through the neareft pole, cuts the horizon, (ufing this in an aftronomical fenfe,
fee Astronomy,) are the north and fouth points ^ the former being that point where the meridian firit cuts the
horizon in the northern hemifphere, and the fouth, that where it firft meets the horizon in the fouthern hemifphere.
Again, the two points where a great circle, palling through the zenith at right angles with the meridian, (and
4 " called
520
Principles
and
Practice.
SS
To re<flify
the globe.
89
ObKque
fpheie.
Q E O G R
and eacli fign is divided into 30 degrees. The laft
circle (hews the months and days correfponding to each
(ign.
This wooden ring can reprefent the rational horizon
of any place marked on the terreftrial globe only, when
that place is fituated in the zenith •, and the method of
bringing the place into this (ituation is called reElifying
the globe.
PROBLEM VIII. To reftify the globe according to the
latitude of any place.
Find the latitude of the place, (by Problem I.) and
fee whether it be north or fouth. Then elevate the
pole of the globe which is in the fame hemilphere with
the latitude, as far above the wooden horizon as is
equal to the latitude 5 bring the given place to the bra¬
zen meridian, and it will be in the zenith.
Example. To rectify the globe for the latitude of
Edinburgh, The latitude of Edinburgh is 55® 58' N.
therefore raife the north pole 550 58' above the horizon,
and bring Edinburgh below the brafs meridian.
It is for the purpofe of more eafily reftifying the
globe, that one half of the brazen meridian is graduated
from the poles to the equator *, as, where this is not
clone, it is neceffary to take the complement of the la¬
titude, or the difference between it and 90°, which in
fome cafes requires a calculation.
The place being brought below the meridian, when
the pole is elevated to the proper degree, it is evidently
in the zenith, or 90° diftant every way from the hori¬
zon. Thus, in the above example, if we count the de¬
grees from that part of the meridian below which
Edinburgh is (ituated, wre (hall find that they amount
to 90° each way 3 for counting from Edinburgh along
the meridian to the north pole, we have 34° 2' 3
which added to yf 58' the elevation of the poles gives
90® on that fide. Again, counting from the fame point
of the meridian towards the fouthern part of the hori¬
zon, we have 550 58', as far as the equator, and 340
2' from thence to the horizon, making, as before, 90°,
and as the graduated edge of the meridian is 90° both
from the eailern and weftern fide of the horizon, Edin¬
burgh, in this fituation of the globe, is in the zenith.
When either of the poles of the globe is thus ele¬
vated above the horizon, fo as not to be in the zenith,
the globe is faid to be in the pofition of an oblique
fphere, in which the equator and all its parallels are un¬
equally divided by the horizon. This is the fnoft com¬
mon fituation of the earth, or it is the fituation. which it
has with refpeft to all its inhabitants, except thofe at the
equator and the poles. To the inhabitants of an ob¬
lique fphere the pole of their hemifphere is elevated
above the horizon as many degrees as are equal to their
latitude, and the oppofite pole is depreffed as much be¬
low the horizon, fo that the ftars only at the former
are feen 3 the fun and all the heavenly bodies rife and
fet obliquely, the feafons are variable, and the days and
nights unequal. This pofition of the fphere is repre-
fented at fig. 6. where the equator E£), and the paral-
A P H Y.
Part II
lels cut the horizon HO obliquely, and the axis PS is Principles
inclined to it. Hence this pofition is called oblique. ^
If the globe is placed in fuch a pofition that any , ' ‘
point of the equator is in the zenith, it is faid to be in
the pofition of a right or dircB fphere, becaufe the equa- Right
tor and its parallels are vertical, or over the horizon at fyliere.
right angles. This pofition is feen at fig. 7. where the
axis PS is in the plane of the horizon, and the equator
EQ is in a plane perpendicular to it. The inha¬
bitants of fuch a fphere, which are the inhabitants of
the earth below the line, have no elevation of the poles,
and confequently no latitude : they can fee the (lars at
both poles 3 all the ftars rife, culminate, and fet to
them 3 and the fun always moves in -a curve at right
angles to their horizon, and is an equal number of hours
above and below it, making the days and nights always
equal. _ pr
If the globe be fo placed that one of the poles is in Parallel
the zenith, and confequently the other in the nadir, it fphere.
is in the pofition of a parallelfphere; fo called becaufe
the equator EQ^ (fig. 8.) coincides with the horizon,
and the parallels are of courfe parallel to it 3 while all
the meridians cut the horizon at right angles. The in¬
habitants of a fphere, in this pofition, have the greateft:
poflible latitude 3 the ftars, which are fituated in the
hemifphere to which the inhabitants belong, never fet,
but defcribe circles all around 3 while thofe of the con¬
trary hemifphere never rife : the fun is above the hori¬
zon for fix months, during which it is day, and is, be¬
low the horizon for an equal interval, when it is
night.
The wooden horizon is a neceffary part of the appa¬
ratus of both globes 3 but it has been (hewn, that in the
terreftrial globe, it can reprefent the rational horizon of
a place, only when the globe is reftified for the latitude
of that place. In the celeftial globe, it reprefents the
rational horizon in all pofitions.
In Adams’s globes there is a thin brafs femicircle
NHS (fig. 5.) that is moveable about the poles, and
has a fmall thin circle N Aiding on it. This femicircle
is graduated into two quadrants, the degrees of wrhich
are marked both ways from the equator to the poles in
the terreftrial globe : this femicircle reprefents a move-
able meridian ; and the fmall Aiding circle, which is
marked with a few of the points of the compafs, is
called a viftble horizon, the ufe of wdiich will appear
prefently.
Before w^e proceed to the remaining problems on the
terreftrial globe, it will be proper to take notice of fome
geographical principles that are connected with the ho¬
rizon.
It is evident, that the extent of the fenfible horizon
of an obferver depends on the height of his eye above
the level furface of the earth. An eye placed on the
furface of the earth fees fcarcely any thing around it 3
but if it is elevated above that furface, it fees farther in
proportion to its elevation, provided always that its
view is not cbftrudled by intervening obje£ls.. J hus, in
an extenfive plain, the eye can fee farther, if elevated
to
called the prime vertical) cuts the horizon, are the eaft and weft points 3 the former being on the left hand of a
perfon facing the fun at noonday, while the latter is on his right hand.
3
II.
G E O G
Principles to a proper height, than it can from the fame height in
and
Practice
93
Horizon of
of the fea.
a town or among hills ; and, at fea, where the furface
, is perfectly equal, the view is in proportion to the height
of the eye. It becomes an interefting problem to afcer-
tain the extent of the vilible horizon, or the diltance to
which a perfon can fee at any given height of the eye 5
as, when this is known, we can calculate pretty accu¬
rately the diftance of an object feen from fuch a height,
as land feen from the topmafl of a fhip at fea.
For folving this problem, it mult be remarked, that
the diftance of an obferver from the boundary of the ho¬
rizon, or from a diftant object, is different when mea-
fured along the furface of the earth, and when meafured
in a dire£t line. To illuftrate this, let HDN (fig. 9.)
reprefent a fefiion of the earth, of which C is the cen¬
tre, and let D be the fituation of an obferver, whofe
eye is elevated to B. The lines BA, BE, tangents
to the curve at H and E, reprefent the limit of the vi-
fible horizon, or the radii of the circle circumfcribing
vifion. If the eye were elevated ftill higher, as to G,
it is evident, that the extent of the vifible horizon will
be increafed, being now reprefented by the tangent GF.
T-he length of the tangent BA, or GF, is eafxly found
by plane trigonometry (e).
It was remarked above, that the vifible horizon Is
moft diftinft at fea, from the abfence of thofe oTjecls
which obitrufl vifion on land. Hence the fenfible ho¬
rizon is fometimes called the horizon of the fea, and
this may be obferved by looking through the fights of
a quadrant at the moft diftant part of the fea. In mak¬
ing tliis obfervation, the vifual rays BA, or GF, by
reafon of the fpherical furface of the fea, always extend
a little below the true fenfible horizon SS, and confe-
quently below the rational horizon HN, which is paral¬
lel to it. Hence the quadrant (news the depreffion of
the horizon of the fea lower than it really is; and it is
obvious from the figure, that the higher the eye is fitu-
ated, the greater muft be this depreflion. Thus, the
depreffion, when the eye is at G, marked by GF, is
evidently much greater than that marked by BE, when
the eye is at B. The deprefiion of the horizon of the
fea is not always the fame, though there be no variation
in the height of the eye j but the difference in this cafe
Vol. IX. Part II.
94
R A PHY. 521
is very fmall, amounting only to a few feconds, and is Principles
owing to a difference of the degree of refraiftion in the
atmofphere. Were there no refraftion, the vifual ray
would be BE (when the eye is at B), and E would be
the moft diftant point $ but, by reafon of the refraction,
a point on the furface of the earth beyond E, as F,
may be feen by an eye fituated no higher than B ; and
if the refraction were ftill greater, a ftill more diftant
point might be obferved.
It will be neceffary here to anticipate a few remarks Difference
refpefting the difference between the apparent and true *ietween
levels 5 a fubject that will be more fully difeuffed under "
Levelling. Two or more places are on a true level, true level,
when they are equally diftant from the centre of the
earth, and one place is higher than another, or above
the true level, 'when it is farther from the centre of the
earth. A line that is equally diftant in all its points
from the centre, is called the line of true level, and it
is evident that this line muft be curved } and either
make part of the earth’s furface, or be concentricalwith it.
Thus the line DAO, which has all its points, D, A, O,
equally diftant from the centre C, is the line of true le.>
vel. But the line of light DMP, as given by the ope¬
ration of a level, is a ftraight line, which is a tangent
to the earth’s furface at D, always riling higher above
the true line of level, according as it extends to a
greater diftance. This ftraight line is called the line
of apparent level. Thus MA is the height af the ap¬
parent level above the true at the diftance DA, and
OP is the excels of the apparent above the true level,
at the diftance DO.
The following table was conftrufted by Caffini, for
the purpofe of Ihewing the excefs of the apparent above
the true level at various diftances from the point of ob¬
fervation. It conlifts of three columns, in the firft of
which the diftance of the obferved obje£t from the place
of obfervation is given, from one fecond to 60 minutes,
or a degree. In the fecond is given the length of the
arc meafured on a great circle of the earth, that corre-
fponds to the obferved diftance, in feet and inches } and
in the third is given the height of the apparent above
the true level in feet and inches, correfponding to each
obferved and real diftance of the objeft.
3 U
(E) t^!e right-angled triangle ACB (fig. 9.), the length of CB is given, fuppofing the height of the eye
BD to be 6 feet; for adding 6 feet to 19,943,400 feet, the length of the femidiameter of the earth, we have
19»943>4c6 feet for the length of EC. Then, making the hypothenufe CB radius, we {hall have, As radius to
tne nne of the angle BCA, fo is CB to BA; and this will be nearly the fame as the arc DA. Again, without
jlnding the quantity of the angle at C, BA may be found, by confidering that BA* is equal to the difference of
the fquares of CB and CA, i. e. BA’-CB'-—CA*= (CB-f-CA)x(CB—CA)=CB+CA into BD; and
hence BA — a/(CB-f CA) x BD.
lo illuftrate the laft in numbers, we have CB= 19,943,406 feet, and CA —19,943,400 feet. Then, to find
B A, we have I9,943?4o6 + 19,943,400 ( — 39,886,806) X 19,943,406—19,943,400 ( = 6) = 239,320,836;
whence BA— v7239,320,836—15470 feet nearly, or about three miles.
^ The diftance, to which a perfon can fee, is found to vary as the fquare root of the altitude of the eye. To
find a general expreflion for this quantity,
let a be the altitude of the eye in feet,
d the diftance at that altitude in miles ;
then we have V6 ; V *=3 : d X ^=1.2247 X ^~a. Hence, we deduce this general rule : Multiply the
,'quare root of the neigh of the eye in feet by 1,2247? artd theprodubi will be the di/lance to which we can fee
from
522
Principles
and
Pra&ice.
GEOG RAPHY.
Seconds.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
H
!5
16
r7
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Feet. Inch.
ICI
202
3°4
406
507
609
710
812
9T4
1015
1117
1218
1320
1421
i523
1625
1726
1828
1929
2031
2132
2234
2336
2437
2539
2640
2742
2843
2945
3°47
3r48
3250
3351
3453
3554
3656
3757
3859
3961
4062
4164
4265
4367
4468
457°
4672
4773
4875
4976
5078
5i79
5281
5383
5484
5586
5687
5789
5890
5992
6094
6.8
1.6
8.4
3-2
10.0
4.8
11.6
6.4
1.2
8.0
2.8
9.6
4.4
11.2
6.0
0.8
7.6
2.4
9.2
4.0
10.8
5-6
0.4
7.2
2.0
8.8
3-6
10.4
5-2
0.0
6.8
1.6
8.4
3-2
10.0
4.8
11.6
6.4
1.2
8.0
2.8
9.6
4.4
11.2
6.0
0.8
7.6
2.4
9.2
4.0
10.8
5-6
0.4
7.2
2.0
8.8
3-6
10.4
5.2
0.0
Inch.
Minutes
o 074
O.296
1.186
2.670
4.746
7.409
IO.680
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
*3
14
J5
16
17
18
J9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Feet.
Feet.
Inch.
6094
12188
18282
243 7 6
30470
36564
4261:8
48752
54846
60940
67034
73128
79222
85316
91410
975°4
i°3598
109692
115786
121880
127974
134068
140162
146256
1S235°
158444
164538
170632
176726
182820
188914
195008
201102
207196
213290
219384
2,25478
231572
237666
243760
249854
255948
262042
268136
274230
280324
286418
292512
298606
304700
3io794
316888
322982
329076
335I7°
341264
347358
353452
359546
365640
3
7
H
22
31
42
56
71
88
107
127
149
173
199
226
255
286
3*9
354
390
428
468
510
553
599
646
694
745
797
851
907
965
1024
1085
1148
1213
1277
1348
1417
1496
1569
1638
1716
1794.
1875
1958
2042
21 28
2215
2305
2396
2489
2584
2681
2779
*2880
2982
3085
319C
10.680
6.580
11.853
I. 812
I-932
11.412
5436
9-384
9.876
7.728
2.940
7.512
9.444
8.736
4.320
9.264
11.568
11.232
7.188
0.504
4.248
5-352
10.224
6.084
II. 23 2
1.776
1.680
10.944
5.568
8.484
9.828
8.532
3.528
7.884
9.600
8.676
5.112
10.908
2.064
1.764
11.388
10.452
9.084
0.108
11.424
7.032
0.000
2.328
2.016
6.792
5-472
9.240
10.368
8.856
4.704
9.912
0.480
0.408
8.628
2.208
Part II.
Principles
and
Practice.
from that height in miles. Example. Let the height of the eye be 49 feet. Multiply the fquare root of 49 or 7,
by 1,2247, and we have 8.5729 or about 8f miles for the diftanee to which the eye can fee at the height of 49^,e^-
Part IT. G E O G
Principles The above table will anfwer feveral ufeful purpofes.
In the firft place, the height of the apparent level above
the true may be found by it at any diftance, from one
fecond to one degree, or 69^ miles. Thus, at the di¬
ftance of go'rrabout 35 miles, we have 182820 feet for
the length of the arch of a great circle on the earth,
and correfponding to this we have 797 feet 8 inches
484 parts for the excefs of the apparent level above the
true. 2. The extent of the vifible horizon correfpond¬
ing to any height of the eye, may be found from the
table by obfervation. The femidiameter of the horizon
does not fenfibly differ from an arc of a great circle on
the earth, containing as many minutes and feconds as
are equal to the angle of depreflion obferved, and the
number of feet contained in fuch an arc may be found
in the table. Thus, if the depreffion, as obferved by
obfervation, be 40", its femidiameter is alfo about 40",
and the length of the arc correfponding to it is 243,760
feet.
The following table, alfo taken from Caffini, fliews
the different depreffions of the horizon of the fea at dif¬
ferent heights of the eye, both by obfervation and cal¬
culation *, with the difference betwixt the two occafion-
ed by refraction.
The height of the eye above The deprejjion of the ho-
the furface of the fea. ri’zon of the fea.
Feet.
1157
Inches.
6,9
Difference by refraCtion
("32 30 by obfervation
(^36 18 by calculation
3 48
775 2,3
Difference by refra&ion
("27 o by obfervation
^29 36 by calculation
2 36
571
Difference by refraCtion
T 24 o by obfervation
\ 25 25 by calculation
1 25
387 3,4
Difference by refraCtion
f 19 45 by obfervation
(_ 20 54 by calculation
288 4,3
Difference by refraCtion
("15 o by obfervation
I17 1
by calculation
2 I
R A P H Y.
The height of the eye above
the furface of the fca.
The deprejjion of the ho¬
rizon of the fea.
.523
Principles
and
Practice.
Feet. Inches.
187 0,9
/ //
I
13 o by obfercation
14 41 by calculation
Difference by refraftion
9 7 >3
Difference by refraction
1 41
3 20 by obfervation
3 18 by calculation
o 2
In the above table, the depreflion, as eftimated by
calculation, is greater than that by obfervation in every
cafe except the laft, in which the latter is greater by
two feconds than the former •, but this difference was
too fmall to be difcovered by the inftrument that Caf¬
fini employed.
RefraCtion leffens the angle of depreflion, by raifing the
objeCts obferved } but as this refraCtion is itfelf variable,
the depreflion and extent of the horizon alfo vary. We
are informed by Caflini, that even in the fineft weather
he obferved the refraCtion to differ at the fame hour of
different days, and at different hours of the fame day.
The truth of this obfervation may be eafily afcertained
by looking through a telefcope furniihed with crofs
hairs, and fixed in fiich a polition that fome highly ele¬
vated objeCt, as the weathercock of a fteeple, may be
feen through it ; for, on obferving the weathercock at
different times of the day, it will be feen fometimes on
the centre of the objeCl-glafs j fometimes above, and
fometimes below it. A fimilar experiment may alfo be
made with plane fights fixed on a crofs-ftaff. It has
long been obferved, that the top of a dillant hill may
fometimes, when the refraClion is very great, be di-
ftinCtly feen from a fituatioh from which, at other times,
when the refraClion is much lefs, it is not difcernible,
even though the Iky be very clear.
Many of the following problems may feem to belong
to the celeftial rather than the terreftrial globe ; but as
they may be folved equally well by means of both, and
as perfons not uncommonly poffefs a terreftrial globe
without its ufual companion, we fhall throw as many
problems as poflible under this head.
95
Problem IX. To find the fun’s place in the ecliptic Problems
any given time. respecting
7 5 the fun.
Find the day of the month in the calendar on the
wooden horizon ; and oppofite to it, in the adjoining
circle, will be found the fign and degree in which the
3 U 2 fun
I'rom the above, it is eafy to deduce the method of computing the diftance of any objeCl feen in the horizon
from a certain height. 1 hus, fuppofe a man at the maft-head, 130 feet above the water, fees land or a ftiip juft
coming in fight. We know, that, at this height, an eye can fee 14 miles, confequently the objeCt feen will be
about.i 4 miles or about five leagues diftant. If the objeCl is within the horizon, or nearer the place of obferva¬
tion, its diftance may be calculated pretty exaClly, by defeending from the maft-head till the objeCl juft comes
to tne horizon $ meafuring the height at which this takes place, and thence computing the diftance.
524 G E O G R
Principles fun Is on the given day. Then look for the fame fign
Practice an<^ c^e§ree in the circle of the ecliptic drawn on the
1 - t gl°he, and that is the fun’s place at noon for the given
time.
Ex. i. What is the fun’s place on the 4th of June ?
Elnf. In 13® 57' of the fign Gemini.
Ex. 2. Required the fun’s place for the firfi: day
of every calendar month ?
For January II0 23'
February ££12 35
March K 11 9
April fY> 11 56
May bit 14
June n 11 3
July 05 9° 42'
Auguft SI 9 18
September 9 9
October si 8 27
November rq, 9 16
December / 9 33
PROBLEM X. To find the filin's declination for any gi¬
ven time.
Find the fun’s place for the given day by Prob. X.
and bring it to the brazen meridian. The degree
marked on the meridian immediately over the'place is
the declination required.
Ex. Required the fun’s declination for 1 8th March ?
The fun’s place for the given day is 20° j' of X, and
this being brought to the meridian, will be immediate¬
ly below' 30 54' S. which is therefore the declination
required. 1
From the above example, it is evident that the me¬
thod of,finding the declination of the fun correfponds to
that of finding the latitude of a place on the globe, gi¬
ven in Problem I. the fun’s declination being meafured
in the fame way by an arc of the meridian interpofed
between the equator and the fun’s place in the eclip¬
tic (f).
PROBLEM XL To reBify the globe for the fun's place
and the day of the month.
Find the fun’s declination for the given day, by
Problem XL ; then elevate the pole that is in the fame
hemifphere with the degree of declination, as many de¬
grees as are equal to the declination.
Ex. Reftify the globe for the fun’s place on the 6th
Oftober ? Elnfi. The fun’s declination on that day is
50 S. therefore the fouth pole mull be elevated 5'* above
the horizon.
Reftifying the globe for the fun’s declination corre¬
fponds to the reftifying of it for the latitude of a given
place. See N° 88.
Problem XII. To find the time of the fun's rifing and
fetting at a given place, for any given day.
Rectify the globe for the declination on the given
day, and bring the given place to the meridian, and
fet the index of the hour circle at XII. Turn the
globe, till the given place come to the eaftern edge of
the horizon, and the time of funrife will be fhewn by
the pofition of the index. Then turn the globe till the
given place come to the weftern part of the horizon,
and the pofition of the index will point out the time of
funfet.
A P H Y. Part IT.
To perform the fame problem by Adams’s globes. Principles
Reftify the globe for the declination, bring the gi- an<?
ven place to the meridian, and fet the horary index at ,
12 as before j then turn the globe towards the w'eft, ”
till the given place reach the weftern edge of the hori¬
zon, and the index will point to the time of fun rile.
The time of funfet will be known, in like manner, by
bringing the place to the eaftern fide of the horizon.
If the hour circle in the ordinary globes has a double
row of figures, the fun’s rifing and fetting maybe found
at the fame time ; for if the place be brought to the
eaftern part of the horizon, the time of funrife will be
Ihewn by the index, in that circle where the hours in-
creafe towards the eaft j and the time cut by the index
in the circle w'here the hours increafe towards the weft,
will ftiow the time of funfet.
Ex. 1. Required the time of the fun’s rifing and fet¬
ting at London, on the 29th Auguft ? Anf. The fun
riles at nine minutes after five, and fets nine minutes
before feven.
Ex. 2. Required the time of funrife and funfet at E~
dinburgh on the ill of June ? Anf. For funrife, 27 mi¬
nutes after three •, for funfet, 33 minutes after eight.
Corollary. From this problem wre may eafily find
the length of the day and night for any given time ;
for, having found by the globe the time of funrife and
funfet, the double of the latter is the length of the dav,
and the double of the former the length of the night.
PROBLEM XIII. To find the fin's meridian altitude on
any given day, at a given place.
Re&ify the globe for the latitude of the given place,
by Problem VIII.find the fun’s place on the given
day by Problem IX. and bring it to the brazen meri¬
dian. Then fix the quadrant of altitude in the zenith,
or over the given place, and bring it over the fun’s
place •, and the degree of the quadrant lying over the
fun’s place will fhew the meridian altitude.
If the globe has no quadrant of altitude, the fun’s
meridian altitude may be found by counting the num¬
ber of degrees on the meridian, between the horizon
and the fun’s place.
Ex. Required the fun’s meridian altitude at Edin¬
burgh on the zifl: of June ? Elnf. 57° 30', or the
greateft poflible, this being the fummer folitice.
Corollary. It may be known whether the fun’s
meridian altitude be north or fouth, by the following
obfervations. When the fun’s declination and the lati¬
tude of the place are of different names, i. e. the one
north and the other fouth, the meridian altitude is of
the fame name with the declination. If the declination
and latitude be both north or both fouth, the altitude is
of the fame name with the declination, if the latter be
the greater j but, otherwife, the altitude is of an oppo-
fite name.
Problem XIV. Having the latitude of the place and the
day of the month given, to find the fun's altitude for
any given hour.
Rectify the globe for the latitude j find the fun’s
place, and bring it to the meridian, and fet the horary
index
(f) For a table of the fun’s declination correfponding to his true place, fee Vol. III. p. 170.
Part II.
GEOGRAPHY.
Principles index to noon ; turn tlie globe till tbe index point to
aru' the given hour, then fix the quadrant of altitude in the
. ^>r^ice~j zenith, and bring its graduated edge over the fun’s
place, and the degree cut by the fun’s place will be the
altitude required.-
Ex. What will be the fun’s altitude at 10 o’clock
A. M. on the 30th of November at Edinburgh ?
x4nf. 8® 50'.
Problem XV. Having the furl's meridian altitude gi¬
ven at any place, to find the latitude of the place.
Bring the fun’s place for the given day to the meri¬
dian, and move the globe in the horizon till the dif-
tance between the fun’s place and the northern or fouth-
ern edge of the horizon, (according as the cafe may re¬
quire), be equal to the given altitude. The degree of
elevation of the pole will ihew the latitude required.
Ex. The fun’s meridian altitude obferved at a cer¬
tain place on 5th Auguft is 740 24' N. What is the la¬
titude of the place ? Hnf i° 36' N.
Problem XVI. The latitude of the place and the day
of the month being given, to find when the fun is due
eafi or due wefi.
Reflify the globe for the latitude of the place, bring
the fun’s place to the meridian, and fet the index to
XII. Fix the quadrant of altitude in the zenith, and
if the fun’s declination be of the fame name with the
latitude, bring the graduated edge of the quadrant to
the eallern fide of the horizon ; but if the declination is
of a different name from the latitude, bring the qua¬
drant to the weftern part of the horizon. Turn the
globe till the fun’s place in the ecliptic come below the
edge of the quadrant, and the index will point to the
hour when the fun is due eaft. Subtrafl this from XII.
and the remainder (hews the time when the fun is due
weft.
Ex. At what hours is the fun due eaft and weft at
the fummer and winter folftice at Greenwich ? Anf. At
the fummer folftice he is due eaft at 20 minutes paft fe-
ven, and due weft at 20 minutes before five. At the
winter folftice he is due eaft at 20 minutes before five,
and due weft at 20 minutes paft feven.
Corollary. When the declination and latitude
are of the fame name, the fun is due eaft after rifing 5
but when the declination and latitude are of different
names, he is due eaft before rifing. As it is not con¬
venient to obferve on the globe when the fun is due
eaft before rifing, or while he is under the horizon, it
is better to bring the oppofite point of the ecliptic due
weft, and then the index (hews the time when he is due
eaft.
Problem XVII. Having a place in the torrid %one
given, to find on what two days of the year the fun is
vertical at that place.
Find the latitude of the given place, and keeping
that in view, turn the globe round, noting the two
points at the ecliptic that pafs below the degree of lati¬
tude. Find in the calendar circle of the horizon the
days correfponding to thofe points of the ecliptic ; and
thefe are the days on which the fun is vertical at the
given place.
F.x. 1. Oii what days is the fun vertical at St He-
525
lena, m latitude 130 S. ? Anf. On 6th February Principles
and 6th November. and
Ex. 2. Required the days on which the fun is ver- 1 fa<^lce'
tical at Tobago, in latitude 11° 29' N ? Anf. On A-
pril 19. and Auguft 23.
Problem XVIII. To find thofe places in the torrid
“zone where the fun is vertical on a given day.
Find the fun’s place for the given day, and bring it
to the brazen meridian ; then turn the globe, and note
ail the places which pafs under that point of the meri¬
dian : thefe will be the places to which the fun is verti¬
cal on the given day.
Ex. k In what places is the fun vertical at the fum¬
mer iolftice ? Anf At Canton in China, at Calcutta
in Bengal, at Mecca in Arabia, and at the Havan-
nab.
Ex. 2. To what places is the fun vertical on the 16th
of May and 29th of July ? Anf. At Bombay, Pegu,
in the northern part of Manilla, in the middle of the
Ladrone illands, at Owhyhee, Mexico, in Ilifpaniola,
and at Tombucloo in the central parts of Africa.
Problem XIX. Having the day and hour at any given
place, to find where the fun is then vertical.
Find the fun’s declination by Problem XI. and the-
places where it is noon at the given time, by Problem
III. 5 then any of thofe places where it is noon, whofe
latitude is the fame as the fun’s declination, will have
the fun vertical at the given time.
Ex. On the 1 ft of Auguft at Edinburgh, it being
35 minutes paft four, P. M. it is required to find where
the fun is vertical ? Anf. The fun’s declination on that
day is 180 14' N. and the place where it is noon at the
given time, that lies neareft in latitude to the declina¬
tion, is Kingfton in Jamaica : this, therefore, is the
place required.
Problem XX. A place in the northern frigid zone
being given, to find when the fun begins to appear
above the horizon, and when to difappear ; as alfo the
length of the longefi day and night.
Rectify the globe for the latitude, and bring the
afeending figns of the zodiac (fee Astronomy, N°5 2)
to the fouthern part of the horizon ; obferve what de¬
gree of the ecliptic is interfecled by that point of the ■
horizon, and in the calendar circle find the day of the.
month anfwering to that degree. That will Ihew the
time of the fun’s firft appearance above the horizon at
tne given place, and this is the end of the longeft night
in that latitude. I hen bring the defending figns to the
fame part of the horizon, and obferve the day which
anfwers to the degree of the ecliptic interfefted; this will
fhew the time of the fun’s difappearance, or the begin¬
ning of the longeft night. Now bring the afeendino-
figns to the northern part of the horizon, and obferve
t re degree of the. ecliptic, and the correfponding
day as before, which will give the time when the
fun begins to ihine continually, or the beginning of
t ie longeft day. Again, bring the defeending figns to
t e lame point, and thus will be given the time when
the fun ceafes to Ihine continually, or the end of the
longeft day.
E\> At what time does the fun. begin to appear '
above
^26
Principles
and
Pra6tice.
06
‘problems
•refpefting
the cli¬
mates.
above the horizon at North Cape in Lapland, the lati¬
tude of which is 'jz® N. ? When does he difappear, and
how long is he entirely abfent during the longed: night ?
Anf He begins to appear on the 26th of January, and
entirely difappears on the 16th of November j he is
therefore abfent for 71 days.
Cor. From the fun’s firft appearance at the end of
the longed: night to the beginning of the longed day,
and from the end of the longed: day to the fun’s total
difappearance at the beginning of the longed night, he
rifes and fets every day.
Problem XXL To find in what part of the northern
frigid %one the fun begins to jbine continually on a
given day.
Find the fun’s declination for the given day, and
fubtract this from 90°, the remainder will Ihew the la¬
titude required.
Note.—The given day mud be between the 2 I d of
March and the 21 d of June, as at no other time does
the fun begin to dude continually in the northern frigid
zone.
Ex. Required the latitude in which the fun begins
to dune without fetting on the id of June ? Anf. The
fun’s declination for that day is 22° N. and this fubtraft-
ed from 90° leaves 68° N. the latitude required.
Problem XXII. The length of the longef day in any
place being given, to find the latitude of that place.
Bring the fird degree of Cancer to the meridian, and
fet the horary index at noon. Then turn the globe
towards the wed, till the index point to the hour of fun-
fet, or half of the length of the given day •, raife or
deprefs the pole, till the fun’s place in the ecliptic is ex-
a£tly in the wedern edge of the horizon. The eleva¬
tion thus obtained will be equal to the required lati¬
tude.
In Adams’s globes, after bringing the fird degree of
Cancer to the meridian, and fetting the index to noon,
the globe mud be turned towards the wed, till the in¬
dex drew the time of funfet, and the fun’s place mud
be brought to the eadern fide of the horizon.
Ex. In what latitude is the longed day 18 hours
long ? Anf. In latitude 58° 30' N.
By this problem the limits of the hour climates may
be pretty nearly afcertained.
Problem XXIII. To find the latitudes of thofe places
in the frigid %one where the fun is continually above
the horizon for a given number of days.
Count from the fird degree of Cancer towards the
neared equinoctial point, as many degrees as is equal to
half the given number of days \ bring the point thus
obtained below the meridian, and note the degree of
the meridian which it interfefts. This fubtraCted from
90° will leave a remainder that is nearly equal to the
latitude of the place.
Ex. In what latitude does the fun never fet during
76 days? Anf. In latitude 7i°3o', or very near the
fouthern part of Nova Zembla.
Note.—This problem cannot be performed accurately
by the globe j for as the fun requires 365 days fix
hours to move through the whole 360° of the ecliptic,
he does not advance quite a degree in 24 hours.
GEOGRAPHY. Part IT.
By this problem the limits of the month climates may Principles
be pretty nearly afcertained. praftfce
Problem XXIV. The hour and day being given at any "*
place, to find in what places the fun is rifing, and in
what he is fetting; where it is noon, and where mid¬
night.
Find by Problem XIX. the place to which the fun is
vertical at the given time j reftify the globe for the
latitude of that place, and bring the place below the
meridian. In this pofition of the globe all thofe places
that lie within the wedern edge of the horizon will
have the fun rifing, and all thofe which are in the
eadern edge of the horizon will have it fetting. Again,
to thofe places which lie under the upper femicircle of
the brazen meridian, it will be noon •, and to thofe
which lie below the lower femicircle, it will be mid¬
night.
Ex. Suppofe it to be four o’clock P. M. on the
4th of June at London j where is the fun at that time
rifing, and where is he fetting j to what places is it
noon, and to what midnight ? Anf. The north-eadern
part of Siberia, Kamtfchatka, the mod wedern of the
Sandwnch ides, and the mod eadern of the Society ides,
are within the wedern edge of the horizon, and confe-
quently to thefe the fun is rifing. At Tobollk, in the
Cafpian fea, in the defert of Arabia, in the middle of
the Red fea, in Abydinia, in the central parts of Af¬
rica, and in the country of the Hottentots, the fun will
be fetting, as thefe places lie within the eadern edge of
the horizon. New Britain, the idands of Martinique
and Trinidad, and the middle part of South America,
which lie below the upper femicircle of the meridian,
have noon j and Chinefe Tartary, the eadern part of
China, the Philippine ides, and the wedern part of
New Holland, which are fituated below the under edge
of the femicircle, have midnight. ^
As the remaining problems on the terredrial globe On twi-
chiedy refpect the continuance of twdlight, it is proper, light*
before we proceed, to make a few remarks on this fub-
jedt, For the explanation of the term, fee Crepusculum
and Twilight.
The Crepufculum, or Twilight, it is fuppofed, ufually
begins and ends wdien the fun is about 189 below the
horizon 5 for then the dars of the 6th magnitude difap¬
pear in the morning, and appear in the evening. It is
of longer duration in the foldices than in the equinoxes,
and longer in an oblique fphere than in a right one ;
becaufe in thofe cafes the fun, by the obliquity of his
path, is longer in afcending through 180 of latitude.
Twilight is occafioned by the fun’s rays refracted in
our atmofphere, and refiedted from the particles of it to
the eye. For let A (fig. 10.) be the place of an ob-
ferver on the earth ADL, AB the fenfible horizon,
meeting in B the circle CBM bounding that part of
the atmofphere which is capable of refradting and re-
fledting light to the eye. It is plain that when the fun
is under this horizon, no diredt rays can come to the
eye at A: but the fun being in the refradted line CG,
the particle C will be illuminated by the direft rays
of the fun ; and that particle may refieft thofe rays
to A, where they enter the eye of the fpedtator. And
thus the fun’s light illuminating an innumerable multi¬
tude of particles, may be all rededted to the fpedtator at
X
Part II. GEO G
Principles A. From E draw BD touching the circle ADL in
and and let the fun be at S in the line AD ; then the
. . ray SB will be retledled into the lituation BA, and
will enter the eye, becaufe from a principle in optics
the angle of incidence DRC is equal to the angle of
refledlion ABE. See Optics. This ray SB, or BA,
will therefore be the firfl that reaches the eye at dawn
in the piorning, and the lalt that falls on the eye at
night, when twilight ce&fes, becaufe as the fun gets
low^er down, the particles of the air at B will no longer
be illuminated.
The depth of the fun below the horizon at the begin¬
ning of the morning or end of the evening twilight, is
determined by obferving the moment when the air fint
begins to fhine in the morning, or ceafes to fhine in the
evening j then finding the fun’s place for that time,
and hence the time till his rifing in the' horizon, or af¬
ter his difappearance below. This depth of the fun
below the horizon has been variouily Hated by different
affronomers, but it is now generally ellimated at i8°.
Accordingly in Mr Adams’s globes there is a circular
wire fixed 18° below the horizon, to reprefent the limits
of the crepufculum (fee PWY, fig. 5 .)
As the caufe of twilight is not conftant, its limits
muff continually vary j for if the exhalations in the
atmofphere be more copious or more extenfive than
ufual, the morning twilight will begin fooner, and that
of the evening laft longer than ordinary ; as the more
copious the exhalations, the more rays will be refiedled
from them, and confequently the more they will fhine,
and again, the higher they are, the fooner they will
be illuminated by the fun. From this circumftance
the evening twilight is commonly longer than the morn¬
ing, at the fame time, and in the fame place. The re-
fradlion is alfo greater according as the air is more
denfe, and not only is the brightnefs of the atmo-
Iphere variable, but the fame takes place in its height
above the earth j therefore, the twilight is longeft in
hot weather, and in hot countries, all other things be¬
ing equal. 7'he chief differences, however, arife from
the different fituations of places on the earth, or from
the difference of the fun’s place in the heavens. Thus,
the twilight is longeft when the earth is the pofition of
a parallel fphere, and fhorteft in that of a right fphere
(fee N° 90.) : and in an oblique fphere, the twilight con¬
tinues longer at any place, in proportion as that place
is nearer to either of the poles; a circumftance which
affords confiderable relief to the inhabitants of the
northern countries in their long winter nights. Twi¬
light fcontinues longeft in all places of north latitude,
when the fun is in the tropic of Cancer, and to thofe in
fouth latitude when he is in the tropic of Capricorn.
'The time of the fhorteft twilight alfo varies in different
latitudes : thus, in England, the fhorteft twilight is
about the beginning of Odfober and of March, when
the fun is in =£5= and >£ j hence, when the difference
between the fun’s declination and the depth of the
equator is lefs than 18°, fo that the fun does not de-
fcend more than 180 below the horizon, the twilight
will continue through the wffole night, as happens in
Britain from the 2 2d of May to the 2 2d of July.
In the latitude of 490 N. twilight continues for the
whole night, only on the 21ft of June, or the time of
the funmier folftice; but . at all places further to the
R A P H Y. ' 52
north it continues for a certain number of days before Prinfiples
and after the fummer folftice. ancl
Near the north pole there is continual twilight from ,
the 22d of September, the time of the fun’s permanent
abfence, to the 1 2th of November. It then ceafes till
about the 30th of January, when it again appears, and
continues till the 2ift of March, the time of the fun’s
permanent appearance. Hence the inhabitants of thofe
places neareft the pole, though they never fee the fun
for nearly fix months, have, however, the benefit of
twilight for above the half of that time, and are entirely
excluded from the fun’s light little more than 12 wTeeks,
during fix of which the moon is conftantly above the
horizon.
Were it not for the gradual change from light to Ufes of
darknefs, and vice verfa, which is the confequence oftwiiight.»
twilight, much inconvenience would arife. A hidden
change from the darknefs of midnight to the full fplen-
dor of the fun, and the reverfe, would injure the fight,
and would, in many cafes, be productive of much dan¬
ger to travellers, who. w’ould be overtaken by utter
darknefs before they had time to prepare for its ap¬
proach.
Problem XXV. To find where it is twilight at any Problems
given time. refpedting .
twilight.
Find wffere the fun is vertical at the given time, and
reCfify the globe for the latitude of that place. Ob-
ferve what places are within the limits of twilight, or
not quite 18° below the horizon. To thofe which are
fituated within the weftern zone, between the horizon
and the parallel of i8Q, it will be twilight in the morn¬
ing ; . and thofe which are in the eaftern zone will
have it twilight in the evening.
ibis problem may be more conveniently performed
by rectifying the globe for the antipodes of the place
which has the fun then vertical, and - obferving what
places are fituated in the zone formed above the hori¬
zon, between it and a parallel circle of 180.
Ex. It is required to find where it is twilight on the
4th of June, when it is three o’clock, P. M. at London.
Anfi. Kamtfchatka, the Sandwich illes, and the Mar-
quefas, have twilight in the morning ; and the inhabi¬
tants of Ma dag a fear, of Tibet, and the eaftern part of
Perfia, have twilight in the evening.
Problem XX\ I. To find the duration of twilight at
a given place on any given day.
ReCtify the globe for the latitude of the place; find -
the fun’s place for the given day by Problem X. and
bring it below the meridian, and fet the horary index
to XII. Turn the glebe till the fun’s place be juft
within the circle that marks the limit of twilight, and
the index will (hew the beginning of twilight. Sub-
traCI the time of the beginning of twilight from the
time of funrifing at the given place (found by Problem
XII.) and the remainder will ftiew the duration of
twilight at the given place.
_ AW.—The above rule will anfwer both for the or¬
dinary globes, and for thofe of Adams, except that in
the latter the fun’s place muft be brought below the
weftern part of the horizon. A more convenient w7ay
in both globes w'ill be, to bring that point of the
ecliptic which is oppofite to the lun’s place, 180 above
the-
528 G E O G R
Principles the rveftern horizon, and the index will then drew the
Practice. beginnIng of twilight. _ _
. ^ Ex. How long will twilight continue at London on
the following days: March 2d ; September 25th •, and
December 26 ? On the 2d of March it will
continue one hour and fifty minutes ; on the 25th of
September two hours j and on the 26th of December,
two hours ten minutes (g).
Caufe of Problem XXVII. To Jhew the cdufe of day dnd
day and night by the globe*
night.
It will have appeared, from the confideration of the
caufe of day and night given under the article Astro¬
nomy, that only that half of the earth which is oppofite
to the fun, is illuminated by his rays, while that which
is turned from him is involved in darknefs. As the
earth revolves on its axis from weft to eaft, in the fpace
of 24 hours, every place on the earth in the courfe of
that time alternately enjoys the light of the fun, and is
deprived of it.
To illuftrate this by the globe, re&ify the globe for
the fun’s declination, fo as to place the fun in the ze¬
nith, and the horizon will reprefent the boundary be¬
tween light and darknefs-, that hemifphere which is
above the horizon being illuminated by the fun’s rays,
and that which is below the horizon being derived of
light. If now a patch is put on the globe, fo as to repre¬
fent any place, and if the globe be made to revolve from
weft to eaft when the place is brought to the weftern
edge of the horizon, the fun will appear to the inhabi¬
tants of that place to be rifing in the eaft, though, in
faff, the appearance arifes from the place itfelf coming
beyond the limit of darknefs. As the globe continues
to turn, the place rifes towards the meridian, and this
produces the appearance as if the fun were advancing to¬
wards the meridian in a contrary diretlion. When the
place comes below the meridian, it is noon to that
place, and the fun appears to have attained its greateft
height.
As the place proceeds towards the eaft, it gradually
recedes from the meridian, and the fun appears defeend-
ing in the weft. When it reaches the eaftern edge of the
horizon, and is proceeding below the boundary of light
and darknefs, the fun appears to be fetting and during
the whole time that the place is moving below the ho¬
rizon, the fun will not appear till the place once more
rifes in the weft.
Problem PROBLEM XXVIII. To find at •what places an eclipfe
on lunar of the moon is vifble at any given time.
eclipfes.
Find the place to which the fun is vertical at the
given time, and reftify the globe for the latitude of
that place. As the moon is oppofite to the fun, which
illuminates the fuperior hemifphere of the globe, the
A p H Y.
Part II,
eclipfe of the moon will be vifible to all the places that Pnncipltes
lie below the horizon.
As the places below the horizon are not eafily exa¬
mined, this problem may be more conveniently per¬
formed by redlifying the globe for the antipodes of the
place to which the iun is vertical at the given time, ra¬
ther than for the place itfelf j as in this latter pofition
of the globe the moon being in oppofition to the fun,
will be vertical to the place below- the zenith, and
its eclipfe wTill be viiible at all the places now above
the horizon.
Ex. 1. On the 4th of January 1806, at 55 minutes
paft 11 P. M. reckoning the time at Greenwich, there
was an eclipfe of the moon. It is required to find thofe
places to wThich the eclipfe wTas vifible ? Arf. Through
the greateft part of Africa, in fome part of Europe,
in Afia, South America, and a great part of North
America.
Ex. 2. On the 10th of May 1808, when it is eight
o’clock A. M. at Greenwich, the moon wall be totally
eclipfed. In what places will the eclipfe be vifible ?
Anf. In moft parts of America j in the ifiands of the Pa¬
cific ocean, and on the eaftern coaft of New Holland.
Sect. II. Of the Vfe of thd Celefial Globe*
lot
The celeftial globe, wfith refpedl to the circles that Celeftial
are deferibed on it, and the apparatus with which it isS',0^e-
furniftied, fcarcely differs from the terreftrial globe,
whfich has been fo fully deferibed in the preceding fec-
tion. The furface of the celeftial globe is made to re¬
prefent all the ftars that are commonly vifible to the
naked eye, arranged under their conftellations, and
bounded by the figures wdfich have been given to thefe
conftellations by the early aftronomers.- (See fig. 5.)
In Adams’s celeftial globe the moveable femicircle
(N° 91.) turning round the poles reprefents a circle of
declination, and the fmall circle on it, an artificial fun
or planet.
Both the globes are often furniftied with a mariner’s
compafs, which is ufually placed in the lower part of
the frame.
It muft here be remarked, that the reprefentation of
the heavens on the celeftial globe, though probably
much more accurate than that of the earth on the ter¬
reftrial, is not fo natural as the latter ; for, in viewing
the ftars on the external furface of a globe, the fpecla-
tor fees them in an oppofite pofition to that in w-hich he
obferves them in the heavens, fo that to form a juft
conception of their ex ad! fituation, he muft fuppofe his
eye to be feated in the centre of the globe. Hence, if
a large hollow hemifphere were made of glafs, and if
the ftars in the correfponding hemifphere of the firma¬
ment were painted in tranfparent colours on its fui*-
face j an eye fituated in the centre of fuch a hemi¬
fphere
(g) If we have the latitude of a place, and the fun’s declination given, we may find the beginning of the morn¬
ing and the end of the evening twilight by calculation. Thus, in the oblique-angled fpherical triangle ZPN
(fig. II.) we have given ZP the co-latitude; PN the co-declination, and ZNrz 108° being the fum of 90® the
cuadrant, and 18° the depreffion at the extremity of twilight. Then by fpherical trigonometry we may calculate
the triangle ZPN, the hour angle from noon, and this reduced to time, at the rate of 150 per hour, gives the
time from noon to the beginning or end of twilight, For the mode of calculation, fee Spherics.
Part II.
GEOGRAPHY.
Principles fphfire would fee the fiars exactly as they appear in the
and heavens.
i - j The great ufe of the celeftial globe is to perform a
variety of problems with refpeft to the ftars, and the
motions of the heavenly bodies through the fpace which
they occupy.
Problem I. To place the celejlialglobe in fuch a Jitua-
tion as that it Jhall exhibit an accurate reprefentation
of the face of the heavens at any given place, mid at
any given time.
Reftify the globe for the latitude of the place, as in
Problem VIII. of the terreftrial globe, or by letting the
pole of the celeftial globe pointing to the pole of the
earth, by means of the co'mpafs that is ufually annexed
to the globes ; find the fun’s place in the ecliptic ;
bring this to the meridian, and fet the horary index at
noon. Again, make the globe turn on its axis till
the index point to the given time, and in this pofition
the globe will exadlly reprefent the face of the hea¬
vens, correfponding to the given time and place ; every
conftellation and ftar in the heavens anfwering in pofi¬
tion to thofe on the globe. Hence, by examining the
globe, it will immediately be feen what ftars are above
or below the horizon, which are on the eaftern and
weftern parts of the heavens, which have juft rifen
above the horizon, and which are about to fink be¬
low it.
As this problem will be found extremely ufeful to
the ftudent of aftronomy, we {hall here quote the exam¬
ple given in illuftration of it by Meffrs Bruce of New-
caftle.
“ Required the fituation of the ftars for the lati¬
tude of Newcaftle, on Odlober 6th, at eight o’clock in
the evening ?
“ In our prefent furvey of the heavens, we {hall com¬
mence at the north point of the horizon, and proceed
round eaftward j noticing the different conftellations, and
the relative fituation of the principal ftars in thefe con-
Rellations.
“ The firft ftar which ftrikes the eye of the obfer-
ver, in the north-eaft part of the heavens, is Capella, in
the conftellapon Auriga, or the Waggoner : It is of the
firft magnitude, of the altitude of 23 °, or nearly the
fourth part of the diftance from the horizon to the ze¬
nith. There are two ftars of the fecond magnitude,
which form with Capella a triangle :—The ftar which
forms the ftiort fide of the triangle is in the right {boul¬
der of Auriga, and is marked /2 5 it lies at the diftance
of about 8° from Capella, further to the north 5 its al¬
titude is 18° :—The liar forming the longer fide of
the triangle is in the Bull’s northern horn 5 its diftance
from Capella is more than 26°; its altitude not more
than 50, and azimuth N. E. There are three ftars of
the fourth magnitude, a little to the fouth of Capella,
that bear the name of the Kids.
“ If a line be drawn through the two ftars that form
the upper fide of the triangle, and continued to the
horizon, it will point out Caftor, «, in Gemini juft riling,
azimuth E. N. E : it is between the firft and fecoird
magnitude. The other ftars in this conftellation have
not yet rifen.
■* A line drawn between Caftor and Capella, and con¬
tinued higher in the heavens, will point out Perfeus, in
which there are three ftars, one of the fecfcnd ma°ni-
Voi.. IX. Part II. *
Pradlice.
tude, «, named Algenib, and two of the third magni- Principles
tude, one on each fide of Algenib, at the diftance of aml
about 50 : they form a line a little curved on the fide
next Auriga. The altitude of Algenib is 3 70 1 azimuth
N. E. by E.
“ A little to the fouth of Perfeus is the Head of Me-
dufa, which Perfeus is holding in his hand. Befides two
or three fmall ftars, it contains one of the fecond, and
one of the third magnitude. The name of the brighteft
is Algol; altitude 330, azimuth E. N. E. Algol is
only 1 o° diftant from Algenib.
“ Direflly below the ''Head of Medufa, about 140
above the horizon, are the Pleiades or feven ftars:
They are feated in the ftioulder of Taurus, and are fo
eafily knowm, that no defcription is neceffary. Aide-
baran, a ftar of the firft magnitude, which forms the eye
of Taurus, is juft rifing ; azimuth E. N. E. A vertical
circle drawn through Algol will point to it. There
are two ftars of the third magnitude, and feveral fmaller
very near Aldebaran, which form with it a triangle.
The whole clufter is called the Hyades.
“ A line drawn from Aldebaran through Algol, and
continued to the zenith, will direcl to Caftiopeia. This
contains five ftars of the third magnitude, befides feveral
of the fourth : it is in form fomething like the letter Y,
or, as fome think, an inverted chair. It is fituated
above Perfeus, within 30° of the zenith. The altitude
of the brighteft ftar, called Schcdar, is 6o°; azimuth
E. N. E. ’
“ Below Caftiopeia and weft of Perfeus is Andromeda,
which contains three ftars of the fecond magnitude. A
line from Algenib, parallel to the horizon towards the
fouth, will pals very near thefe three ftars 5 and, as they
are all of the fame magnitude, and placed nearly at the
fame diftance of 150 from each other, they may eafily
be known. The name of the ftar neareft Perfeus, and
which E in the foot of Andromeda, marked y, is Al-
maak : its altitude is 490; azimuth E. N. E. The
nape of /3, in the girdle, is Mirach : its altitude 440 ;
azimuth E. The altitude of in the head of Andro¬
meda, is 46° j azimuth E. S. E.
“ About 18° below Mirach are two ftars in Aries, not
more than 50 diftant from each other, formino- with
Mirach an ifofceles triangle: the moft eaftern ftar, «, is
of the fecond magnitude \ the other, /3, of the third, at¬
tended by a fmaller ftar, marked y, of the fourth mag¬
nitude. A line drawn from Mirach, perpendicular to
the horizon, will pafs between the two, and befide?
will point to a ftar of the fecond magnitude, direftly E.
not above 30 from the horizon.
“ This ftar is the firft of Cetus, marked a, and is of
the fecond magnitude: it is named Menhar. A line
drawn from Capella through the Pleiades will alfo point
to it. Cetus is a large conftellation, and contains eight
ftars of the third magnitude ; they all lie to the weft of
Menkar 5 a ftar in the tail, is more than 40® diftant
from it. The azimuth of /3 is S. E. by E j altitude
nearly the fame as Menkar.
“ I he conftellation Pifces is fituated next to Aries; it
contains one ftar of the third magnitude, marked^ :
its altitude is io°, azimuth E. by S. It is diftant from
Menkar 15°. A line drawn from Almaak, through *
in Aries, wall point to it.
“ If we return again to <*, in the head of Andromeda,
we fhall find three other ftars nearer the meridian, which
3 X with
f
and
Practice.
530 o E O G R
Principles with it, form a fquare. rlhefe ftars are in Pegafus, and
are placed at the diftance of 150 from each other J they
are all of the fecond magnitude. The two dars form¬
ing the weftern fide of the fquare are called tne
upper one Scheat, which is marked and which is
in the thigh of Pegafus; the under one Markab, which
is marked and which is in the wing j the loweit ftar
in the eaflern fide »f the fquare is in the tip o. the ivmg,
and is marked y. The altitude of Scheat is 55 5 az*~
muth S. E. 4 E. Altitude of Markab, 430; azimuth
S. E. by S 4 E.
“ A line drawn through y and (the diagonal in the
fquare of Pegafus) and continued to the meridian, will
point out Cygnus, a remarkable conftellation in the
form of a large crofs, in which there is a Ear of the
fecond magnitude, named Deneb^or Arided; it is mark¬
ed and is almoft direftly upon the meridian at the
altitude of 80^. Cygnus contains fix liars of the third
magnitude. 1 he conifellation Cepheus, which contains
no remarkable liars, is fituated between Cygnus and the
north pole.
“ Below Pegafus, and nearer the meridian, is Aqua¬
rius, containing four liars of the third magnitude. A
line drawn from ae in Andromeda, through Markab,
will point to « in Aquarius. Its altitude is 3 2 j azi¬
muth S. S. E.
“ A bright liar of the firll magnitude named Tomel-
Lnut, in Pifces Aultralis, is then upon the horizon ; azi¬
muth S. S. E.
“ Delphinus is a fmall conftellation, fituated about 30°
below Cygnus upon the meridian ) it contains five liars
of the third magnitude, four ftf them being placed clofe
together, and forming the figure of a rhombus or lo¬
zenge. A line drawn through the two under liars
of the fquare will point to it. Its altitude is about
50°*
“ A little to the weft of Delphinus, but not quite fo
high, is Aquila, containing one very bright ftar of the
firll magnitude, named At air: It may very eafily be
known from having a ftar on each fide of it of the third
magnitude, forming a llraight line. T. he length of the
line is only about 50 ; altitude of Atair 40° 5 azimuth
S. S. W.
“ Confiderably above Atair, and a little to the W. of
Cygnus, is Lyra, containing a liar of the firft magnitude,
one of the moll brilliant in the firmament. It it called
Lyra or Vega, and is 350 to the N. W. of Atair; al¬
titude 6o° ; azimuth W. S. W. Lyra, Atair, and Ari-
ded, form a large triangle.
“ We come now to notice three conftellations, which
occupy a large fpace in the welfern fide of the heavens:
thefe are Hercules immediately below Lyra ; Serpenta-
rius between Plercules and the horizon, extending a lit¬
tle more towards the fouth ; and Bootes, reaching from
the horizon W. N- W. to the altitude of 45°.
“ Hercules contains eight liars of the third magni¬
tude; the ftar in the head, ec, named Ras Algethi, is
within 50 of « in the head of Serpentarius. This lall
is a liar of the fecond magnitude, and is named Ras
Alhague: its altitude is 30°; azimuth, S. W. by
W. 4 W. A line drawn from Lyra, perpendicular
to the horizon, will pafs between thefe two liars. The
Other liars in Hercules extend towards the zenith, and
thofe in Serpentarius towards the horizon.
A P H Y. . Fait 11.
“ The conllellation Bootes may eafily be known from Principles
the brilliancy of Arcfturus, a liar of the firft magnitude,
and fuppofed to be the neareft to our fyftem of any in  
the northern hemifphere : it is within io° of the ho¬
rizon ; azimuth W. N. W. Bootes alfo contains
feven liars of the third magnitude, moftly fituated high¬
er in the heavens than Arfturus. The ftar immediate¬
ly above Ardlurus is called Mezen Mirach, and is
marked s. The ftar in the left Ihoulder, named Se-
ginus, forms with Mirach and Ar&urus a ilraight-
line.
“ Between Serpentarius and Bootes is Serpens, con¬
taining one ftar of the fecond magnitude, and eight of
the third: a in Serpens is nearly at the fame diitance
from the horizon, as Arfturus ; azimuth W.
“ Above Serpens, and a little to the eall of Bootes, is
the Northern Crown, containing one liar of the lecond
magnitude, named Gemma, and feveral of the third,
which have the appearance of a lemicircle. A line
drawn from Lyra to Arfturus will pafs through this
conllellation.
“ We come now to Urfa Major, a conftellatisn
containing one liar of the firll, three of the fecond, and
feven of the third magnitude. It may eafily be diftinguiih-
ed by thofe feven liars, which, from their refemblance
to a waggon, are called Charles’s Wain. I he four liars
in the form of a long Iquare, ara^-he tour wheels of the
waggon ; the three liars in the tail of the Bear, are the
three horfes, which appear fixed to one of the wheels.
The two hind wheels, x named Dubhe, and /3, are called
the pointers, from their always pointing nearly to the
north pole. Hence the pole ftar may be known. Ihe
altitude of Dubhe is 30° ; azimuth N. by W. -§- W.
The dillance between the two pointers is 50; the
diitance between the pole liar and Dubhe, the upper
pointer, is 30°.
“ Urfa Minor, befides the pole liar of the fecond
magnitude, fituated in the tail, contains three of the
third, and three of the fourth magnitude. Thefe form
fome refemblance to the figure of Charles’s Wain in¬
verted, and may eafily be traced.
“ Draco, containing four liars of the fecond and fe¬
ven of the third magnitude, fpreads itfelf in the heavens
near Urfa Minor : the four liars in the head are in the
form of a rhombus or lozenge : the tail is between the
pole ftar and Charles’s Wain.
“ Befides thefe conftellations, there are a number of
others, which, as they contain no remarkable liars, we
have not deferibed; an enumeration of thefe will. fuf-
fice. The Lynx, between Urfa Major and Auriga ;
Camelopardalus, between Urla Major and Caffiopeia ;
Mufca, and the Greater and Lefs Triangles between Aries
and Perfeus, Aculeus, clofe to the head of Pegalus ;
Sagittarius fetting in the foutn-well ; Antinous and
Sobielki’s Shield below Aquila; the I ox and Goofe
between Aquila and Cygnus; the Greyhounds and
Berenice’s Plair between Bootes and Urfa Major, and
Leo Minor below Urfa Major” *. * Bruce s
The aftronomical terms that we mull here employ IntroduSiian
in deferibing the method of performing the problems
on the celeftial globe, will be found explained ^ the/^*"^
article Astronomy, or under their proper heads m the^ p
general alphabet of this worit. See Ascension, Azi¬
muth, Declination, &c.
Problem
/
Part II
Principles
and
Practice.
i°3
Problems
refpefting
the dars.
G E O G II
Pkoblem II. To find the right aficenfion and ieclinatm
of any given far.
Bring the given ftar below the brazen meridian, and
mark the degree of the meridian under which it lies.
'J'hat degree (hews the declination of the llai, and the
degree of the equator cut by the meridian gives the ftar s
right afcenfion. ir t . , ,
‘ The right afcenfion of a ftar may ado be found by-
placing the globe in the pofition of a right fphere, and
then bringing the ftar to the eaftern part of the hori¬
zon ■, for that point of the equator which comes to the
horizon at the fame time with the ftar, marks its right
afcenfion. See Astronomy, N 249> 250,
Ex. i. What is the right afcenfion and declination
of the ftar Sirius ? Anf. Its right afcenfion is 99*, and
its declination 160 21/ S. .
Ex 2. Required the right afcenfion and declination
of Aldebaran, or the ftar in the Bull’s Eye marked
Anf. Its right afcenfion is 66°, and its declination 10
S' N.
Problem III. Having the right afcenfion and declina¬
tion of a far given, tofnd the far on the globe.
Bring that degree of the equator which marks the
right afcenfion below the brazen meridian, and count¬
ing along the meridian towards the north, or fouth, as
far as the degree of declination, the required ftar will
be there found. # .
Ex. 1. The right afcenfion of a certain ftar is 162
IS' and its declination is 570 27' N. 5 What is the
name of the ftar? Anf. The lower pointer of Urfa
major, marked /3. .
Ex. 2. The right afcenfion of Arfiurus is 211 30 >
and its declination is 20* 13' N. : it is required to find
it on the globe.
This problem is extremely ufeful in difcovermg the
names and relative fituations of the different ftars.
Problem IV. To find the latitude and longitude of a
given far.
Bring the folftitial colure (fee N° 75) below the
brazen meridian, and there fix the quadrant of altitude
over that pole of the ecliptic which is in . the fame he-
mifphere with the given ftar. Then, keeping the globe
fteady, bring the graduated edge of the quadrant over
the given ftar, and the degree of the quadrant cut by
the ftar, counted from the ecliptic, marks its latitude,
and the degree of the ecliptic that is cut by the qua¬
drant is the longitude of the given ftar (h). See Astro¬
nomy, N° 252, 253. _ . , r A n
Ex. 1. What is the latitude and longitude oi Arctu-
rus ? Anf. Lat. 310 N. Long. Libra 2.0°.
Ex. 2. What is the latitude and longitude of Capel-
la ? Anf. Lat. 230 N. Long. Gemini 18® 30'.
Problem V. Having the day of the month given, to
find at what hour any far comes below the meridian.
Find the fun’s place, and bring it to the meridian,
and fet the horary index to XII.;. turn the globe till the
given ftar come below the meridian, and the index will
point out the hour.
A P. H Y. 531
To know whether the hour is in the. forenoon or Principles
afternoon, it is neceffary to obferve, that if the. ftar be
to the caft of the fun, it will reach the meridian later *
than the fun, but if it be to the weft of that luminary,
it will come to the meridian fooner . hence, in tne
former cafe, the hour will be P. M. and in the latter
A. M. . , .
Ex. 1. At what hour does Sirius come to the meri¬
dian on the 9th of February? Anf At 7 minutes,
paid 9 P. M.
Ex. 2. Required the hour when Caftor panes the
meridian on the fame day. Anf. At 52 minutes pail
9 P. M.
Problem VI. Having any far given, and a given hour,
to find on what day the far will come to the meridian
at a given hour.
Bring the given ftar below the meridian, and fet the
horary index to the given hour. Make the globe re¬
volve till the index come to twelve at noon j and the
day of the month which correfponds to the degree of
the ecliptic then below the meridian, found in the ca¬
lendar circle of the wooden horizon, will be the day re¬
quired.
Ex. 1. On what day does^Algenib, the firft ftar or
Perfeus, come to the meridian at midnight ? Anf. On
the 13th of November.
Ex. 2. On what day does Arfturus come to the me¬
ridian at 9 o’clock P. M. Anf. On the 10th of June.
Problem VII. Having the latitude, the day of the month
and the hour of the night given, to find the altitude and
azimuth of any given far.
Reftify the globe for the given latitude ; bring the
fun’s place below the meridian, and fet the horary in¬
dex at XII. then turn the globe till the index point at
the given hour. Fix the quadrant of altitude at 90°
from the horizon, that is, in the zenith, and bring its
graduated edge over the place of the ftar : the degree
of the quadrant intercepted between the horizon and
the ftar is the altitude required *, and the diftance be¬
tween the foot of the quadrant and the neareft part of
the horizon, will be the azimuth.
It is evident that this problem on the celeftial globe
is exactly fimilar to Problem XIII. on the terreftrial
globe, for finding the altitude of the fun.
Ex. I. What will be the altitude and azimuth of
Cor Hydrse on the 21ft of December at London, at
4 o’clock A. M. ? Anf. The altitude 30°, the azi¬
muth S. 148 W.
Ex. 2. Suppofe an obferver at the Cape of Good
Hope, on the 21ft of June at midnight j required the al¬
titude and azimuth of Artturus to him ? Anf. Alti¬
tude 12°, azimuth N. 550 W.
Problem VIII. Having given the azimuth of any given
far, and the day of the month in a given latitude ; to
find the hour of the night, and altitude of the far.
Reflify the globe as in the laid problem j fix the
quadrant of altitude in the zenith, and bring it to the
given azimuth. Turn the globe till the ftar comes be-
3X2 low
(11) It muft be remembered that the longitude of the heavenly bodies is not eftimated m degrees and minutes
like their right afcenfion, but in figns, degrees, and minutes, as the fun’s place is reckoned.
S32
G E O G E
Principles low the graduated edge of the quadrant, when the
E”(! horary index will point out the hour, and the altitude
r 1Ce' . of the ftar will be feen by the quadrant.
Ex. Suppofe the azimuth of Dubhe to be N. 230 W.
at London on the ill: of September ; it is required to
find the altitude of the liar, and the hour of the night ?
Jlnf. The altitude of Dubhe at that time is 310, and
the hour is 9 o’clock P. M.
Problem IX. The latitude of the place, the altitude of
a far, and the dap of the month, being given ; to fnd
the azimuth and the hour of the night.
Redlify the globe as before, and having fixed the
quadrant of altitude in the zenith, turn the globe and
quadrant of altitude till the latter comes over the liar
at the given degree of altitude. In this pofition the in¬
dex will drew the time of night, and the pofition of the
quadrant at the horizon will fliew the azimuth of the
liar.
In the fame way the hour of the night and the
azimuth of the fun may be found, by fixing a patch on
the globe in the fun’s place, and bringing it to the
quadrant as diredted for the ft an"
As the fun and ftars have the fame altitude twice in
the day, it is proper to know whether they are to tbe
eaft or weft of the meridian; or whether the hour re¬
quired be in the evening or the morning.
Ex. At Edinburgh, on the 23th of December, in
the forenoon, when the fun’s altitude is f 20', requir¬
ed the hour and the fun’s azimuth ? Anf. It is 10
o’clock A. M. and the fun’s azimuth is S. 270 30' E.
Problem X. Having the a%imuth of the fun or a far,
the latitude of the place, and the hour of the day given ;
to find the altitude and day of the month.
Redlify the globe for the latitude of the place, fix
the quadrant in the zenith, and bring its edge under
. the given azimuth. Bring the fun’s place or the ftar
to the edge of the quadrant, and fet the index at the
given hour. The degree marked in the quadrant will
Ihew the altitude 3 and if the globe be turned till the
Index points to twelve at noon, the day of the month,
anfwering to that degree of the ecliptic which is in-
terfedled by the brazen meridian, is the day required.
Ex. The azimuth of the ftar « in the Northern Crown
was obferved at London at 9 o’clock P. M. to be S. 80®
W. j required the altitude and day of the month?
j-iV/. Altitude 38' ; day of the month ift of September.
Problem XL Having obferved two flars to have the
jame azimuth; to find the hour of the night.
Reftify the globe as before j turn the globe and
move the quadrant till the edge of the latter comes over
both ftars, and the horary index in this pofition of the
globe will give the hour required.
The following is a fimple and eafy method of finding
when two ftars have the fame azimuth. Hold a fmall
tine with a plummet at its lower extremity between the
eye and the two ftars, and if both ftars fall within the
line, they have the fame azimuth. The fame may be
done by obferving when any two ftars pafs behind the
perpendicular edge of a wall at the fame time.
Ex. Vega and Atair were obferved to have the fame
azimuth at London on the nth of May j required the
hour of the night ? finf 15 minutes paft 2 A, M»
A P H Y.
Part II.
This, problem may be applied to the regulating of Principles
clocks and watches, by reducing apparent to real time, a,K!
as explained under Astronomy. Practice.
Problem XII. To find the rifing, fetting, and cul¬
minating of any far or planet, its continuance above
the horizon, its oblique afeenfon and defeenfon, and
its eafiern and we/tern amplitude ; the place and day
being given.
Reftify the globe as in the foregoing problems; bring
the given ftar or the given planet (finding its place in
an ephemeris for the given day, and marking it by a
patch on the globe), to the eaftern part of the horizon,
and the index of the hour circle will point out the time
of rifing : the degree of the equator that comes to the
horizon with the given ftar or planet, marks its oblique
alcenfion, and the eaftern amplitude is (hewn by the di-
ftance of the ftar or planet from the eaftern part of the
horizon.
Bring the ftar or planet to the meridian, and the in¬
dex will point to the time of its culminating.
Move the globe fcill the ftar or planet come to the
weftern part of the horizon, and the time of its fetting,
its oblique defcenfioiq.and its weftern amplitude, may be
found in the fame manner as dire£led above ; for its
rifing, oblique afceniion, and eaftern amplitude, the
number of hours paffed over by tbe index, while the ftar
or planet is moving from eaft to weft, will Ihew the time
of its continuance above tbe horizon.
Ex. 1. Required the above circumftances with refpe£L
to Sirius on the 14th of March at London. Anf. It
rifes at 24 minutes paft two P. M.j comes to the meri¬
dian, or culminates, at 57 minutes paft fix P. M.; and fets
at half-paft eleven PM. Hence it remains above the
horizon nine hours and fix minutes. Its oblique afeen-
fion is 1200 47', its oblique defeenfion 77° 17', and.its
amplitude 270 S.
Ex. 2. It is required to find the fituation of the feve-
ral planets on tbe 19th of January 1806. Hnf. Mer¬
cury is about 22° to tbe weft of the fun, and rifes fouth-
eaft by eaft, at 20 minutes before feven A. M. Venus
is an evening ftar, and fets about half part eight. Mars
is a very little to the eaft of the fun, and rifes and fets,
fo near the fame time with the fun, that he cannot be
feen. Jupiter is a morning ftar, and rifes about fix
o’clock. Saturn is a little to the eaft of the ftar Spica
Virginis, and rifes about half an hour after midnight,
Herfchel is very near Saturn, and rifes about the fame;
titne.
PROBLEM XIII. To find thofe fiars which never rife, and
thofe which never fet, in a given latitude.
Reftify the globe for the latitude of the place 5 then,;
holding a black lead pencil fo as to touch the furface of
the globe at the northern point of the horizon, tum>
the globe, fo that the pencil may deferibe a circle ;
all the ftars which are between this circle and the ele¬
vated pole, never fet. Again, holding the pencil at
the fouthern point of the horizon, turn the globe fo as.
to deferibe another circle there, and all the ftars that,
are between that circle and the pole, below the horizon,
never rife.
If the place is in fouthern latitude, the ftars that ne
ver fet are found by deferibing a circle at the fouthern
point,
I03
Karveft
njoon il-
laftcated
Part II. G E O G R
Principles point of the horizon, and thofe that never rife by a fi-
milar circle at the northern point (i).
1 hroughout almofl the whole year, the moon rifes
later every lucceffive day, by above three quarters of an
hour j but at a conhderable diftance from the equator,
as in the latitude of Britain, France, and fome other
countries, a remarkable anomaly takes place in the
moon’s motion about the time of harveft. At this fea-
lon, when the moon is about full, file rifes for feveral
nights fucceflively at about 17 minutes only later than
on the preceding day. This is attended with confider-
able advantage, for as the moon rifes before twilight is
well ended, the light is as it were prolonged, and thus
an opportunity given to the induftrious farmer to conti¬
nue longer in the field, for the purpofe of gathering in
the fruits of the earth. From the advantage derived
from the full moon at the feafon of harveft, it has been
called the harveji moon. The following problem has
been contrived for the purpofe of illuftrating the pheno¬
menon by means of the globe.
Problem XIV.
Rectify the globe for any confiderable northern lati¬
tude, fuppofe that of London. As the angle which the
moon’s orbit makes with the ecliptic is but fmall, we
may fuppofe, without any confiderable error, her orbit
to be repreiented by the ecliptic. In September the
fun is in the beginning of =0;, fo that the moon, when
full, being in oppofition to the fun, muft be in or near
the beginning of Put a patch, therefore, in the
globe at the firft point of in the ecliptic ; and as the
moon’s mean motion is about 13° in a day, put another
patch on the ecliptic 13s beyond the former, and it-
will point out the moon’s place the night after it is full.
A third and fourth patch, put at the diftance of 130
further on, will ftiew the moon’s place on the fecond ■
and third nights after full, &c. Now, bring the firft
patch to^ the horizon, and obferve the hour pointed out
by the index j turn tne globe till the fecond patch
comes to the horizon, and it will appear by the index
that there are only 1 y minutes between the time of the
firft patch rifing, and that of the fecond. This fmall
difference in the motion of the moon evidently arifes
-irorn the fmall angle which her orbit makes with the
horizon. The remaining patches will come to the ho¬
rizon wuth a little greater difference of time, and this
difterence will gradually increafe as the moon advances
m the ecliptic •, but for the firft week -after the full
moon at harveft the difference will not be more than
two hours. If patches he continued on to the firft-point
^ will be found that the time of their rifing, or-:
coming to the horizon, will increafe confiderably till
the laft will be above hour later in coming to the
norizon, becaufe that point of the ecliptic makes the
greateft angle with the horizon.
Ihe point of the ecliptic, which makes the leaft
angle with the horizon at rifing, makes the greateft
angie at fetting 5 and, confequently, when the differ-
A P H Y.
53.
ence is leaft at the time of rifing, it is greateft at the Principles
time of fetting. and
Practice.
Problem XV. To explain the equation of time by the 104
globe. Equation of
time il-
The difference between apparent time and mean orlllttratec5,
equal time, has been explained in Astronomy, from
N° 50 to 60 j and the method of computing the equa¬
tion of time is alfo there defcribed.
To explain the equation of time on the globe, make,
with a black lead pencil, marks all round the equator
and ecliptic, beginning with <T1, at eqUai diftances
from each other, fuppofe about 150. Then, on turn¬
ing the globe, it will be feen that all the marks on th&
firft quadrant of the ecliptic, reckoning from T* to 25,
come to the brazen meridian fooner than the correfpond-
ing marks on the firft quadrant of the equator. Now,
as the former marks reprefent time as meafured by the
iun, or a dial, and the latter reprefent it as meafured
by an accurate clock, it will be evident, that through
the firft quarter the dial is fafter than the clock.
Still turning the globe, it will be feen that the marks
on the fecond quarter of the ecliptic, reckoning from-
25 to :Cb, come to the meridian later than the
correfponding marks of the equator; confequently in
this quarter the fun or the dial is flower than the clock.
By moving the globe round, and marking the approach
of the dots in the third quadrant, it will be feen that,
as in the firft, the dial now precedes the clock, and in
tne fourth quadrant, that it is behind it, according to
the explanation given in Astronomy.
SECT. Illr Of the Conflruclion of Globes':
The conftruaion of globes is of confiderable import- General
ance; as, in performing the problems in which they are conftmc-'
employed, very much depends on the accuracy withtionof
which they have been conftruaed. We fliall here Slobes’
therefore, defcribe pretty minutely the methods in
which the artifts of Britain and France make their-
globes.
1 here are certain general circumftances which are
attended to in the conftruaion of every globe.
There is firft provided a wooden axis, fomewhat lefs
than the intended diameter of the globe, and to the ex¬
tremities of this axis, which is the bafis of the whole
mcceeding ftruaure, there are fixed two metallic wires
to ferve as poles. Now, two hemifpherical caps form-
ed on a wooden mould or clock, are applied in the axis.
1 heie caps are compofed of pafteboard, or folds of pa¬
per laid one over another on the mould, till they are of
the thicknefs of a crown piece 5 and after the whole
has flood to dry, and has become a folid body, an inci-
hon is made with a fharp knife along the middle, and
the two caps are thus flipped off the mould. Thefe
caps are now to be applied on the poles of the axis, as
they were before on thofe of the mould 5 and to fix-
them
pkceJaX"™ Saai«Pfroroeo« "itT ‘h- foUwi"8 “A*1- Find the latitude of the
declination of the efv n ft “ b „ the name ^ ^ °f latitude. Then, if the
If it be of a co„«tr„"la; td e^edT,: ^"evewile"'’ ^ ^ ^ .
534
Principles
ar.ki
Praiflice.
G E O G 1
them firmly on the axis, the two edges are fewed toge-
ther with packthread. ,
When the rudiments of the globe are thus laid, the
artift proceeds to ftrengthen the work, and make the
furface fmooth and equal. For this purpofe, the two
poles are fixed in a metallic fesncircle, of the propofed
Jize; and a compofition made of whitening, mixed with
water and glue, heated, melted, and incorporate to
gether, is daubed all over the paper (urface. While
the pi after is applied, the globe is turned round in the
femicircle, the edge of which pares away all the matter
that is fuperfluous and exceeds the proper dimenfions,
and fpreads the reft over thofe parts that require it.
After this operation the ball ftands to dry, and when
it is thoroughly dried, it is again put in the femicircle,
and frefh plafter applied to it; and thus they continue to
apply compofition and dry the ball alternately, till the
iurface accurately touches the femicircle in every point,
when it becomes perfectly firm, fmootb, and equal.
When the ball of the globe is thus finifhed, the map,
containing a delineation of the furface of the earth, is
to be pafted on the globe. For this purpofe, the map
is engraved in feveral gores or guffets, fo that when
thefe are accurately joined together on the ipherical
i’urface, they may cover every part of the ball, without
overlapping each other. I he greateft nicety is required
in forming thefe engraved guffets, as well in tue accuracy
of the enpraving, as in the choice and fhape of the paper
employed. The method of deferibing the gores or guffets,
ufually employed by the Britifh artifts, is as follows.
1. From the given diameter of the globe there is
found a right line AB (fig. 12.), equal to the circum¬
ference of"a great circle correfponding to that diame¬
ter ; and this line is divided into 12 equal parts.
2. Through the feveral points of divilion, i, 2, 3, 4>
&c. with a diftance equal to ten of the divifions, arches
are deferibed crofting each other as in D and E ; and
thefe figures are palled on the globe, fo as when joined
together to cover its whole furface.
3. Each part of the line AB is divided into 30
equal parts, fo that the whole line, which may reprefent
the equator, is divided into 360°.
4. From the points 13 and E, which reprefent the
poles, with a diftance there are deferibed archer
a b, a b, (fig. 13 •) which form tw elfth parts of the po¬
lar circles.
5. In a fimilar manner about the fame poles 13 and
E, with a diftance =66^, reckoned from the equator,
there are defciibed other arches, cd> c d, which are the
twelfth parts of the tropics,
6. In forming the celeftial globe, through the point
of the equator marked e (fig. 13.) repreienting the
right afeenfion of a given ftar, and through the two
poles D and E, there is drawn an arch of a circle ;
and if the complement of the declination from the pole
D be taken in the compaffes, and an arch be deferib-
?d, interfecling the former in the point 2, this point 2
will be the place of the given ftar.
7. In this way all the ftars of each conftellation are
laid down, and the circumfcribing outline of the conftel¬
lation is drawn as figured in the tables of Bayer, Flam-
itead, &c.
8. In the fame manner are determined the declinations
and right afeenfions of every degree of the ecliptic, </, g.
The above is the method deferibed by Mr Chambers,
4
A P H Y. , Part II.
of laying down or delineating the gores of a celeftial Principles
globe. Thofe of the terreftrial globe are delineated in 1>r^ce
much the fame manner, only that every place is laid  ' j
down on the gores, according to its longitude and lati¬
tude, determined by the interfedlion of circles; and then
the outline of the coafts, boundaries of countries, &c.
are added, like the figures of the conflellations above
mentioned.
9. When the furface of the globe has been thus pro-
jefted on a plane, the guffets are to be engraved on
copper, to fave the trouble of making a new projection
for every globe.
10. In the mean time, a ball of paper, plafter, or
the like, of the intended diameter of the globe, is pre¬
pared in the manner above deferibed, and by means of
a femicircle and ftyde, great circles are drawn on its
furface, fo as to divide it into a number of equal parts,
correfponding to the number of guffets ; and fubdivid-
ing each of thefe according to the other lines and divi¬
fions of the globe. When the ball is thus prepared,
the guffets are to be accurately cut from the printed en¬
graving, and pafted on the ball.
Wdien the papers have been thus pafted on, and fuf-
fered to dry, nothing remains but to colour and illumi¬
nate the globe, and to cover it with a thin layer of the
fineft varnifti, that it may^the better refill_ duft and
moifture. The ball of the *globe is now finilhed, and
is to be hung in a ftrong brazen meridian, furnifhed
with hour circles and a quadrant of altitude, and fitted
into a ftrong wooden horizon. _ _ 106
The method employed by the French artifts in pro- Method of
jetting the guffets of globes, is thus deferibed by M. forming the
La Lande. _ gores*
“ To form celeftial and terreftrial globes, it is necef-
fary to engrave gores, which are a fort of projedlion or
developement of the globe. I he length PC (fig. 14 )
of the axis of the curve, is equal to a fourth part of the
circumference of the intended globe ; the intervals^ of
the parallels on the axis PC are all equal; the radii of
the circles K D I, which reprefent the parallels, are
equal to the co-tangents of the latitudes, and the arches
of each, fuch as KI, are nearly equal to the number of
degrees that correspond to the breadth of the gore
(ufually 30°), multiplied by the fine of the latitude :
thus, there will be found no difficulty in tracing them ;
but the principal difficulty proceeds from the change
which thofe parts of the gores undergo, when they are
glued upon the globe ; as, in order to adjuft them to
the fpace which they ought to occupy, it is neceffary to
make the paper lefs on the fides than in the midale,
becaufe the fides are too long.
“ The method employed by artifts for engraving
thefe gores, is thus deferibed by Bion (JJfage des Globest
tom. iii.), and by Robert de Vaugondy in the feventh
volume of the Encyclopedic, and this method is fufti-
cient for prattical purpofes.
u Draw on the paoer a line AC, equal to tne coord
of 1 5°, to make the half breadth of the gore ; and a
perpendicular PC, equal to three^times ^the choid of
3°~ ' ’ ’ ^ ‘ “
^O0, to make the half length : for thefe papers, the
dimenfions of which will be equal to the chords, be¬
come equal to the arcs themfelves when they are pafted
on the globe. Divide the height CP into nine parts,
if the parallels are to be drawn in every io° : divide alfo
the quadrant BE into nine equal parts; through each di-
vifion
Part IL G E O G
Piinciples vilion point of tLe quadrant, as G, and through the
and correi'ponding point I) of the right line CP, draw the
Practice. pcrpendiculars HGF and DP, the meeting of which in
"v p gives one of the points of the curve BFP, which will
terminate the circumference of the gore. W hen a fuf-
ficient number of points are thus found, trace the out¬
line PIB with a curved rule. By this conftrudHon are
given the gore breadths, which are on the globe, in
tlie ratio oi the colines of the latitudes, fuppolxng thofe
fereadths taken perpendicular to CD, which is not very
exact ; but it is impoffible to prefcribe a rigid operation
fufficient to make a plane which lhall cover a curved fur-
face, and that on a right line AB lhall make lines PA,
PC, PD, equal to each other, as they ought to be on
the globe. To defcribe the circle KDI, which is at
the diftance of 30° from the equator, there mull be ta¬
ken above D, a point that lhall be diftant from D' the
value of the tangent of 6o°, which may be taken either
from tables, or may be meafured on a circle equal to
the circumference of the globe that is to be drawn 5
this point will ferve as a centre for the parallel DI,
which ought to pafs through the point D ; for it is
fuppofed equal to that of a cone circumfcribing the
globe, and which would touch it at the point D.
“ The meridians are traced, to every 10°, by divid¬
ing each parallel, as KI, into three equal parts at the
points L and M, and drawing from the pole P, through
all thele points of divilion, curve® xvhich reprefent the
intermediate meridians lying between PA and PB, fuch
as BR and ST (fig. 15.)
“ The ecliptic A£) (fig. 15.) is traced by means of
the known declination, from different points of the
equator, as found in the tables j for io° it is equal to
3* 58'j for Bp 205 for 30t’“xx° 29',
&c ”
In general, it is obferved that the paper on which
maps are printed, fuch as that called in France colombier,
contrafts itfelf or a hne in fix inches, upon an average,
when it is dried after printing 5 hence it is necelfary to
prevent this inconvenience in engraving the gores: if,
however, notwithftanding this, the gores are llill found
too Ihort, it mull be remedied by taking from the fur-
face of the ball a little of the white with which it is
covered •, thus making the dimenlions of the ball cor-
refpond to thofe of the gores as they are printed. But,
what is lingular, in drawing the gore, moiftened with
the palte to apply it on the globe, the axis GH length¬
ens, and the fide AN Ihortens in fuch a manner that
neither the length of the fide ACK, nor that of the
axis GEH of the gore are exadlly equal to the quarter
of the circumference of the quarter of the globe, when
compared to the figure en the copper, or to the num¬
bers Ihewn on the fide of fig. 15.
i‘ Mr Bonne leaving made feveral experiments on
the dimenfions which the gores take after being covered
with pafte in order to apply them to the globe, efpe-
cially of the paper called jefus, which had been em¬
ployed in covering globes of a foot in diameter \ found
'that it was necelfary to give to the gore engraved on
copper the dimenfions laid down in fig. 15. Suppoling
that the radius of the globe contains 720 parts, the
half of the breadth of the gore AGzri88.5 \ the dif-
tance AC for the parallel of io° taken on the ftraight
line LM is —128.1, the fmall deviation from the paral¬
lel of io° in the middle of the gore ED is 4, the
R A P H Y.  535
line ABN is a liraight line, the radius of the paral- Principles
lei of lo° or of the circle GET, is 4083, &c. The p
fmall circular cap which is placed under H, has its . ' ■
radius 253, inftead of 247, which it would have if
the fine of 20° had been the radius of it.”* * La Lands
Globes are made of various fizes, from a diameter Afirtnemie,
of three inches, to that of as many feet 3 but their n\’
moft ufual diameter is that of 18 inches, which are 1 ' 3
fufficiently large for moil of the purpofes far which
globes are employed. Some large globes were made
about 100 years ago, in France, by P. Coronelli, a
Erancifcan monk, which were in confiderable- reputa¬
tion. They were engraved, and the plates are llill to
be feen at Paris, at the houfe of M. Defnos, in the
Rue St Jacques. There are fome large globes at
Cambridge, which were drawn by the hand; but
the largeil globes of which we have any account, are
thofe which were made for the late unfortunate Louis -
XVI. and were kept in the palace of Marly. They
were I 2 feet in diameter, and we believe, are Hill ex-
ifting at Paris, where they occupy lour entire rooms,
each of them being partly in an upper room, and part¬
ly in that below it, the door of the upper room forming
the horizon.
The account which we have given of the method of
conftru&ing globes, will be ufeful to thofe who pur-
chafe thefe iniiruments ; but to affiit them llill further,
we ftxall fubjoin the following practical rules for the
choice of globes. ic?
1. The papers diould be well and neatly palled OnRu'e^t0r
the globes, which may be known by the lines and^T^1"'
circles meeting exactly, and continuing all the way "
even and whole 3 the circles not breaking into feveral
arches, nor the papers either .coming, lliort, or lapping
over one another.
2. The colours Ihould be tranfparent, and not laid tcs>
thick upon the globe, to hide the names or the places.
3. The globe Ihould hang evenly between the brazen
meridian and the wooden horizon, not inclining either
to the one fide or the other;
4. The globe Ihould move as clofe to the horizon
and the meridian as it conveniently may, otherwise
there will be too much trouble to find againlt what
part of the globe any degree of the meridian or hori¬
zon is.
5. The equinoflial line Ihould be even with the hori¬
zon all round, when the north or fouth pole is elevated
90° above the horizon.
6. The equinoflial line fhould cut the horizon in the
eaft and weft points, in all the elevations of the pole
from o to 90*.
7. The degree of the brazen meridian marked o,
ftiould be exa&ly over the equinoctial line of the
globe.
8. Exactly half of the brazen meridian fhould be
above the horizon, which may be known by bringing
any of the decimal divifions on the meridian to the
north point of the horizon, and finding their comple¬
ment to 90° on the fouth point.
9. When the quadrant of altitude is placed as far
from the equator, or the brazen meridian, as the pole
is elevated above the horizon, the beginning of the
degrees of the quadrant ftiould reach juft to the plane
furface of the horizon.
xo. When the index of the hour circle pafles from
- otic.
and
Practice.
i-oS
556 G E O G R
Principles one hour to another, 15 degrees of the equator muft
pafs under the graduated edge of the brazen meri-
fdian.
11. The wooden horizon fhould be made fubftan-
tial and ftrong ; it being generally obferved, that, in
moft globes, the horizon is the tirll part that fails, on
account of its having been made too flight.
In ufing a globe, the eaftern fide of the horizon
fhould be kept towards the obferver, (unlefs in parti-
cular problems which require a different pofition) ; and
that fide may be known by the wrord enjl on the hori-
. zon. In this pofition the obferver will have the gra¬
duated fide of the meridian towards him, and the qua¬
drant of altitude diredlly before him ; and the globe
will be exadlly divided into two equal parts by the
graduated fide of the meridian.
In performing feme problems, it will be neceflary
to turn about the whole globe and horizon, in order
to look at the well fide j but this turning will be apt
to dillurb the ball, fo as to fhift away that degree of
the globe which was before fet to the horizon or
meridian. This inconvenience may be avoided by
thrufting the feather end of a quill between the ball
of the globe and the brazen meridian, and thus, with¬
out injuring the furface of the globe, it will be kept
from turning in the meridian, while the whole is
moved round, fo as to examine the weftern fide.
We have already mentioned fome improvements
which have been made on the globes, for the pur-
pofe of remedying the defeft in the old conflrudtion,
of placing the hour circles on the outfide of the bra¬
zen meridian. Some other improvements and modifi¬
cations have been contrived by various artifts 5 but of
thefe we lhall only mention thofe of Mr Senex, Mr B.
Martin, Mr Smeaton, and Mr Adams.
Mr John Senex, F. R. S. invented a contrivance for
remedying thefe defedls, by fixing the poles of the di-
theurnal motion to two fhoulders or arms of brafs, at the
diftance of 23^° from the poles of the ecliptic. Thefe
ffioulders are ftrongly faftened at the other end to an
iron axis, which pafles through the poles of the ecliptic,
and is made to move round with a very ft iff motion j "*
fo that vv-hen it is adjufted to any point of the ecliptic
which the equator is made to interfedl, the diurnal
motion of the globe on its axis will not difturb it.
When it is to be adjufted for any particular time,
either paft or future, one of the brazen fhoulders is
brought under the meridian, and held fall to it with
one hand, while the globe is turned about with the
other fo that the point of the ecliptic which the
equator is to interfeft may pafs under the o degree of
the brazen meridian j then holding a pencil to that
point, and turning the globe about, it will defcribe the
equator according to its pofition at the time required j
and transferring the pencil to 234 and 661 degrees
on the brazen meridian, the tropics and polar circles
will be fo defcribed for the fame time. By this con¬
trivance, the celeftial globe may be fo adjufted, as to
exhibit not only the rifing and fetting of the liars in
all ages and in all latitudes, but likewife the other
phenomena that depend upon the motion of the diur¬
nal round the annual axis. Senex’s celeftial globes,
especially the two greateft, of 27 and 28 inches in
diameter, have been conftrufted upon this principle ;
fo that by means of a nut and fcrew, the pole of
3
A P H Y.
Part II.
the equator is made to revolve about the pole of the Principles
ecliptic. p ^
To reprefent the above appearances in the moft na- r‘-c^lce-
tural and eafy manner, Mr B. Martin applied to the
contrivance of Mr Senex a moveable equinoctial and
folftitial colure, a moveable equinodtial circle, and a
moveable ecliptic 5 all fo connected together as to re¬
prefent thofe imaginary circles in the heavens for any
age of the w orld.
110
109
Mr Senex’s
iinprove-
In order to the performance of the problems which Improve-
relate to tire altitudes and azimuths of celeftial obieds,ments by
Mr Smeaton, F. R. S. has made fome improvements apP'j ^niea~
plicable to the celeftial globe j and to give fome idea
of the conftrudion, they mayr be defcribed as follows:
Inftead of a thin flexible flip of brafs, which generally
accompanies the quadrant of altitude, Mr Smeaton
fubftitutes an arch or a circle of the fame radius,
breadth, and fubftance, as the brafs meridian, divided
into degrees, &c. fimilar to the divifions of that circle,
and which, on account of its ftrength, is not liable to
be bent out of the plane of a vertical circle, as is
ufual with the common quadrant put to globes. That
end of this circular arch at which the divifion begins,
refts on the horizon, being filed off fquare to fit and
reft fteadily on it throughout its whole breadt{i 5 and
the upper end of the arch is firmly attached, by means
of an arm, to a vertical focket, in fuch a manner that
■when the lower end of the arch refts on the-horizon,
the louTer end of this focket {hall reft on the up¬
per end of the brafs meridian, diredly over the zenith
of the globe. This focket is fitted to and ground
with a fteel fpindle of the length, fo that it will turn
freely on it without {baking ; and the fteel fpindle has
an apparatus attached to its lower end, by which it can
be fallened in a vertical pofttion to the brafs meridian,
with its centre directly over the zenith point of the
globe. The fpindle being fixed firmly in this pofition,
and the focket wdiich is attached to the circular arch
put on it, and fo adjufted that the low’er end of the
arch juft refts on and fits clofe to the horizon ; it is evi¬
dent that the altitude of any objedff above the horizon
will be fhewn by the degree which it interfeifls on this
arch, and its azimuth by that end of the arch wThich
refts on the horizon.
Belides this improvement, Mr Smeaton propofes that,
inftead of fixing the hour index, as is ufually done, on
one end of the axis, it be placed in fuch a manner
that its upper furface may move in the plane of the
hour circle rather than above it. To effect tins, he
diresfts the extremity of the index to be filed off fo as to
form a circular arc, of the fame radius wuth the inner
edge of the hour circle, to which it is made to fit ex¬
actly, and a fine line is drawn in the middle oi its up¬
per furface, to point out the hour, inftead of the taper¬
ing point ufually employed. By this contrivance, if
the hour circle be made four inches in diameter, the
time may be (hewn to half a minute. For a more par¬
ticular account of Mr Smeaton’s improvements, we re¬
fer the reader to the 79th volume of the Philofophical
Tranfaclions.
Another improvement of the celeftial globe, by wThich
it is better adapted to aftronomical purpofes, is defcrib¬
ed in the article Astronomy, Vol. Ill, p. 17B. nT
Befides the modifications in the conftruftion of globes,A dams’s
introduced by Mr Adams, and which have been al-*3te!m‘
, provement*
ready
Fart IT. G E O G II
principles ready defcribed, there are fome others which we xnuft
ar'^ briefly mention, refpecling principally the placing the
, Pra^iCe‘ globe in an inclined polition, and fitting it with a move-
able or floating meridian and horizon.
The globes conflrufted after this manner do not
hang in a frame like the ordinary globes, but are fix¬
ed on a pedeftal, and fupported by an axis which is
inclined 66%° to the ecliptic, and is of courfe always
paiallel to the axis of the earth, fuppofing the orbit of
this planet to be parallel to the ecliptic. On the pe-
deftal below the globe is a graduated circle, marked
with the figns and degrees of the ecliptic j and adjoin¬
ing to this is a circle of months and days, anfwering
to every degree of the ecliptic j and within this is a
third circle fhewing the lun’s declination for every day
of the month. There is a moveable arm on the pe¬
deftal, which being fet to the day of the month, im¬
mediately points out the fun’s place and declination.
Round the globe there is a circle reprefenting the
horizon of any place, and at right angles to this is fix¬
ed a femicircle, ferving for a general meridian. The
middle point of this femicircle ferves to reprefent the
fituation of any inhabitant on the earth •, for this purpofe
there is fixed a fteel pin over the middle point of this
femicircle.
Mr Adams alleges that only one fuppofition is ne-
cefiary for performing every problem with this globe,
namely, that a fpherical luminous body will enlighten one
half of a fpherical opaque body, and confequently that a
circle at right angles with the central folar ray, and di¬
viding the globe in half, will be a terminator (hewing
the boundary of light and darknefs for any given day.
For this purpofe, at the end of the moveable arm,
oppofite to the fun, there is a pillar, from the top of
which projects a piece carrying a circle that furrounds
the globe, dividing it into equal portions, and feparat-
ing the illuminated from the dark parts *, and 18° be¬
hind this there is another circle parallel to it, reprefent¬
ing the limit of twilight.
There are two plates below the globe, which are
turned by the diurnal revolution of the globe, each of
them being divided into twice 12 hours, and on the
outfide being marked with the degrees of longitude
correfpcnding to every hour ; fo that thefe circles give
at fight the hour of the day at any two places on the
globe, and the correfponding difference of longitude.
The celeftial globe is mounted in a fimilar manner,
except that it is fixed on the axis, and the ecliptic ex-
aftly coincides with the fun’s apparent path from the
* Mams’* earth *.
Le&ures,
Sect. IV. Of the Armillary Sphere.
If a machine be conftructed that is compofed only
Armillary of the circles of the fphere, and made fo as to revolve
There. like a globe, a great many of the molt ufeful prob¬
lems relating to the heavenly bodies may be folved by
it. An inftrument of this kind is called an armillary
fphere, and of thefe there are various forms. One of
the moft convenient is^ that contrived by the late Mr
James Fergufon, and is thus defcribed in his Le&ures.
It is reprefented at fig. 16.
The exterior parts of this machine are a compages
of brafs rings, which reprefent the principal circles of
Vol. IX. Part II.
A P H Y* 537
the heaven, viz. 1. The equinoctial A A, which is di- Principles
vided into 360 degrees, (beginning at its interfedion ^ a".cl
with the ecliptic in Aries) for (hewing the fun’s right,
afeenfion in degrees •, and alfo into 24 hours, for (hew¬
ing his right afeenfion in time. 2. The ecliptic BE,
which is divided into 12 figns, and each lign into 30
degrees, and alfo into the months and days of the year,
in luch a manner, that the degrees or points of the
ecliptic in which the fun is on any given day, (lands over
that day in the circle of months. 3. The tropic of
Cancer, CC, touching the ecliptic at the beginning of
Cancer in e ; and the tropic of Capricorn DD, touch¬
ing the ecliptic at the beginning of Capricorn in f;
each 234 degrees from the equinodial circle. 4. The
Ardic circle E, and the Antardic circle F, each 234
degrees from its refpedive pole at N and S. 5. The
equinodial colure GG, palling through the fouth and
north poles of the heaven at N and S, and through the
equinodial points Aries and Libra, in the ecliptic.
6. .1 he folftitial colure HH, palling through the poles
of the heaven, and through the folftitial points Cancer
and Capricorn, in the ecliptic. Each quarter of the
(ormer of thefe colures is divided into 90 degrees, from
the equinodial to the poles of the world, for (hewing the
declination of the fun, moon, and liars ; and each quar¬
ter of the latter, from the ecliptic at e and f, to its poles
b and d, for (liewing the latitudes of the (tars.
in the north pole of the ecliptic is a nut b, to which
is fixed one end of a quadrantal wire, and to the other
end a fmall fun Y, which is carried round the ecliptic
BB, by turning the nut : and in the fouth pole of the
ecliptic is a pm at d, on which is another quadrantal
wire, with a fmall moon Z upon it, which may be
moved round by hand 5 but there is a particular con¬
trivance for caufing the moon to move in an orbit which
croffes the ecliptic at an angle of 54 degrees, in two
oppoiite points called the moon’s nodes ; and alfo for
drifting thefe points backward in the ecliptic, as the
moon’s nodes drift in the heaven.
Within thefe circular rings is a fmall terreftrial globe
I, fixed on the axis KK, which extends from the north
and fouth poles of the globe at n and s, to thofe of the
celedial fphere at N and S. On this axis is fixed the
fiat celedial meridian LL, which may be fet direcftly over
the meridian of any place on the globe, and then turn¬
ed round with the globe, fo as to keep over tire fame
meridian upon it. This dat meridian is graduated the
fame way as the brafs meridian of a common globe,
and its ufe is much the fame. To this globe is fitted the
moveable horizon MM, fo as to turn upon two ftrong
wires proceeding from its call and weft points to the
globe, and entering the globe at oppofite points of its
equator, which is a moveable brals ring let into the
globe in a groove all around its equator. The globe
may be turned by hand within this ring, fo as to place
any given meridian upon it, dire&ly under the celeftial
meridian LL. The horizon is divided into 360 de¬
grees all around its outermoft edge, within which are
the points of the compafs, for (hewing the amplitude of
the fun and moon, both in degrees and points. The
celeftial meridian LL, paffes through two notches in the
north and fouth points of the horizon, as in a common
globe j but here, if the globe be turned round, the hori¬
zon and the meridian turn with it. At the fouth pole
3 Y of
538
Princip’es
and
Pradlice.
»»3
Dr Long’s
.fphere.
GEOGRAPHY.
Part !].
of the fpliera is n circle of 24 hours, fixed to the rings,
and on the axis is an index which goes round that cn-
cle, if the globe be turned round its axis.
The whole fabric is fupported on a pedcftai N, and
may be elevated or depreiled upon the joint O, 10 any
number of degrees from o to 90, by means or the arc
P, which is fixed into the firong brafs arm and hides
in the upright piece R, in which is a fcrew at r, to fix
it at any proper elevation.
In the box T are two wheels and two pinions, whofe
axes come out at V and U ; eitner of which may be
turned by the fmall winch W. When the winch is
put upon the axis V, and turned backward, the terrei-
trial globe, with its horizon and celeftial meridian,
keep at reft ; and the w'hole iphere of circles turns round
from eaft, by fouth, to weft, carrying the fun Y, and
moon Z, round the fame way, caufing them to rife above
and fet below the horizon. But when the winch is
put upon the axis U, and turned forward, the Iphere
with the fun and moon keep at reft j and the earih,
wnth its horizon and meridian, turn round from weft,
by fouth, to eaft ; and bring the fame points of the
horizon to the fun and moon, to which thefe bodies
come when the earth kept at reft, and they were car¬
ried round it ; (hewing that they rife and fet in the
fame points of the horizon, and at the fame times in the
hour circle, whether the motion be in the earth or in
the heaven. If the earthly globe be turned, the hour
index goes round its hour circle 5 but if the fphere be
turned, the hour circle goes round below the index.
And lb, by this conftruction, the machine is equally
fitted to ftiewr either the real motion of the earth, or the
apparent motion of the heaven.
To rectify the fphere for ufe, firft fiacken the fcrew
r in the upright item R, and taking hold of the arm
O, move it up or down until the given degree of lati¬
tude for any place be at the fide of the ftem R ; and
then the axis of the fphere will be properly elevated, fo
as to Hand parallel to the axis of the world, if the
machine be fet north and fouth by a fmall compafs;
this done, count the latitude from the north pole upon
the celeftial meiidian LL, dowm-towards the north notch
of the horizon, and fet the horizon to that latitude *,
then turn the nut b until the fun Y comes to the
given day of the year in the ecliptic, and the fun
will be at its proper place for that day : find the place
of the moon’s afeending node, and alfo the place of
the moon, by an Ephemeris, and fet them right ac¬
cordingly : laftly, turn the winch W, until either the
fun comes to the meridian LL, or until the meridian
comes to the fun (according as you want the fphere or
the earth to move), and fet the hour index to the XII.
marked noon, and the whole machine will be redlified.
T hen turn the winch, and obferve when the fun or
moon rife and fet in the horizon, and the hour index
will (hew the times thereof for the given day.
Thofe who have made themfelves acquainted with
the ufe of the globes, as deferibed in the firft and fe-
cond fedlions of this chapter, will be at no lofs to per¬
form many problems refpedfing the motions of the
heavenly bodies by means of this fphere.
Dr Long, feme years ago, conftrufted an armillary
fphere of glafs, in Pembroke hall at Cambridge. It
was 18 feet in diameter, and could contain below it
more than 30 perfons, fitting in fuch a manner with-
PraCtice.
in the fphere, as to view from its centre the reprefen- Principles
tation of the heavens drawn in its concavity. The „ a)lu
lower part of the fphere, or that part which is not
vifible in the latitude of Britain, is wanting •, and the
whole apparatus is fo contrived, that it may be turned
round with as little exertion as is requifite to wind up
a common jack. Dr Long has given a defeription of
this fphere, accompanied with a figure, in his Ailro-
nomy.
The invention of the armillary fphere is thought by
La Lande to be as ancient as that of aftronomy itfelf.
It has been attributed to Atlas, to Hercules, to Ana¬
ximander, and Mufeus ; while others have fuppofed that
it originated in Egypt. The fphere of Archimedes,
which became fo celebrated, appears to have been fome-
thing like that of Dr Long, as it was certainly corn-
pofed of a globe of glafs, which, befides containing
the circles of the fphere, ferved as a planetarium,
and reprefented the motions of the planets. Claudian
has celebrated it in fome beautiful lines. See Archi¬
medes.
A combination of the armillary fphere with a plane¬
tarium was conftrucled by the late Mr George Adams,
and is figured in Plate XIII. fig. 1. of his Aftronomi-
cal and Geographical Effays.
Chap. III. Of the ConfruElion and life of Maps and
Clh/irts.
Sect. I. Defeription of Maps and Charts.
It has been feen, that the furface of the earth may Diftindlion
be delineated, in the moft accurate manner, on the fur- of maps and
face of a globe or fphere. This mode of delineation, c'iarts*
however, can be employed only for the purpofe of
reprefenting the general form and relative proportions
of countries on a very confined fcale \ and is, befides,
from its bulk and figure, not well (uited to many of
the purpofes of the geographer. To obviate thefe in¬
conveniences, recourfe has been had to maps and
charts, or delineations of the earth’s furface on a plane ;
where the form and boundaries of the feveral countries,
and the objects moft remarkable in each, whether by
fea or land, are reprefented according to the rules of
perfpedlive, fo as to preferve the remembrance that
they are parts of a fpherical furface. In this way, the
feveral countries or diftridls of the earth may be re¬
prefented on a larger fcale, and delineations of this kind
admit of more eafy reference. ^ 1IS.
In maps, the circles of the fphere, and the boundaries Defeription
of the countries within them, -are drawn as they would of a map.
appear to an eye fituated in fome point of the fphere,
or at a conftdcrable diftance above it. In maps of any
confiderable extent of country, the meridians and pa¬
rallels of latitude are circular lines, but, if the map re-
prefents only a fmall diftritft, as a province or county,
thofe circles become fo large, that they may, without
any confiderable error, be reprefented by ftraight lines.
In charts, which are alfo called hydrographical maps, as
they are reprefentations rather of the water than land,
the meridians and parallels are ufually reprefented by
ftraight lines, crofting each other at right angles, as in -
the (mailer maps; and, in particular parts, there are
drawn lines diverging from feveral points, in the di-
re6lion of the points of the compafs, in order to mark. .
Part IT. G E 0 G R
Principles the bearings of particular places. In maps, the inland
ana face 0f the country is chiefly regarded in the dclinea-
, ^fa(fl:ice- tion ; but in charts, which are deligned for the purpofes
of navigation, the internal face of the land is left nearly
blank, and only the fea-coaft, with the principal ob¬
jects on it, fuch as churches, light-houfes, beacons,
&c. are accurately delineated 5 while particular care is
taken to mark the rocks, flioals, and quickfands in the
fea, that may endanger the fafety of veflels j the depths
or foundings of the principal bays and harbours, and the
direftion of the winds, where thefe are ftationary or pe¬
culiarly prevalent. Another diftindtion of maps and
charts is, that in the former, the fea-coafl; is ihaded on
the fide next the land, wThile, in the latter, it is ihaded
towards the fea.
In maps the upper fide reprefents the north, the
lower fide the fout'h ; that on the right hand the eaft,
and that on the left hand the weft. All the margins
of the map are graduated 5 the upper and lower ihowing
the degrees of longitude, and the right and left margins
the degrees of latitude. (See fig. 1. to which the
reader muft refer in going over the following defcrip-
tion). If the map is on a fmall fcale, only every ten
degrees of longitude or latitude are marked on the
margin; but, if the map is drawn on a large fcale, every
degree is numbered, and fometimes every half degree is
marked with the number 30 in fmaller figures. The
fpace included between every ten degrees in fmall maps,
or between every two degrees in thofe on a larger fcale,
is ufufllly divided into ten fpaces, which are alternately
left blank, and marked with parallel lines, to denote
the fubdivifions of fingle degrees or minutes. Through
every ten degrees of latitude a line is drawn, reprefent-
ing a parallel of latitude j and through every ten degrees
of longitude, or at fmaller intervals in each, where the
fize of the map will admit of it, there are drawn lines re-
prefenting meridians. In fome maps thefe lines are conti¬
nued from fide to fide, or from top to bottom, acrofs both
fea and land -, but in other maps, they are fometimes only
drawn acrofs the fea. The firft meridian, however, and
the principal circles of the fphere, as the equator, tropics,
&c. fhould always be drawn diredlly acrofs the map.
In molt maps, it is marked on the margins, whether
the longitude is eaft or weft, and the latitude north or
fouth; but, if this is not marked, it may eafily be known,
by obferving towards what part of the map the degrees
increafe. If the degrees of latitude increafe from the
lower to the upper part of the map, the country deli¬
neated lies in north latitude ; but if they increafe from
above downwards, it lies in fouth latitude. Again, if the
degrees of longitude increafe towards the right, the
countries are in eaft longitude ; but if towards the left,
they are in weft longitude.
The principal objedls that diverfify the face of the
country delineated in the map, fuch as rivers, mountains,
forefts, lakes, roads, cities, towns, forts, &c. are marked
in fuch a manner, as that they may be molt eafily dif-
tinguiftied. A river is denoted by a black crooked
line, drawn very fine towards the fource or head of the
river, and gradually becoming broader as it approaches
towards the mouth ; and the lefler rivers, or rivulets,
which unite their waters with thofe of the principal
llream, are denoted by fimilar lines appearing to branch
off from the firft.
Mountains are reprefented by the figures of little hills;
A P H Y.  539
and if thefe figures are placed in a row, they denote Principles
a ridge of mountains running acrofs the land. If a an.d
mountain is a volcano, it is denoted in the map by the
appearance of fmoke iffuing from its fummit. Woods
or forefts are reprefented by a number of little trees or
fhrubs, placed in a group. Lakes are denoted by a
circumfcribed fpot fhaded with dark lines, and bays or
fens by a more regular ipot of the fame kind, more
lightly ftiaded, or, where the map is coloured, painted
of a light green. Roads are reprefented in a map by
two ftraight lines drawn parallel to each other, for the
principal roads, or by a fingle ftraight line for the leffer
or crofs roads. Cities are denoted by a large houfe, or
the figure of a church with the fteeple in the middle j
and if the city is the metropolis of the country, this is
denoted by a white circular fpace in the middle of the
houfe or church. Small towns are ufually reprefented
by circles j and where a fmall church with the fteeple at
one end occurs, it denotes a parifti. Where the map is
on a large fcale, or reprefents only a fmall diftricf, the
towns are denoted by a group of fmall houfes, or more
commonly by a number of fmall fhaded fpots on each
fide of the road. A fort, caftle, or fortified town, is
denoted by a femicircular fpace furrounded by an an¬
gular edge reprefenting baftions. The ftioals upon the
coaft are reprefented by fmall dots 5 the depth of water
in bays and harbours by figures, denoting the number
of fathoms, among which is fometimes drawn the figure
of an anchor, to ihew that in that place there is good
anchorage for fhips.
The boundaries or limits that divide countries from
each other are diftinguilhed in maps by dotted lines
drawn round each country or diftriff, in fuch a dire£lion
as to fliow its proper form. Where the map is coloured,
the countries or diftricls are diftinguiftied from each
other by the fide of the boundary next each being
ftiaded by a dift'erent colour from that of the adjoining.
Thus, in a map of Europe, the boundary of France may
be ftiaded green, that of Spain red, that of Italy yellow,
that of Germany blue, &c. In one corner of the map
there is irfually drawn a fcale divided into a number of
equal parts, by which the number of miles or leagues
from one part of the map to another may be meafured.
Sometimes the parts into which the fcale is divided are
ufed to denote geographical miles, of 60 to a degree j
but more commonly they correfpond to the miles in ufe
in the country where the map is made, as, in Britain,
to Britifti ftatute miles of 69^ to a degree.
To mark more diftindlly the bearings of different
parts of the map, there is ufually added in fome blank
Ipace a circle with four radii, marking the four cardinal
points of the compafs; the north point being diftinguifti¬
ed by the figure of a Jieur de /is, and the eaft point by
a crofs.
Till of late, the only diftinflion between the land
and water in maps and charts, was afforded by the
ftiading of the fea coaft, as mentioned above. In this
way, however, the eye cannot eafily and expeditioufty di-
ftinguiih the form and extent of the land; and, where the
ftiading is carried much beyond the boundary of the coaft,
as is often done, efpecially in engraving fmall iflands, the
land is made to appear much larger than it really is.
I he ingenious Mr Wilfon Lowry having lately
contrived an inftrument for engraving parallel ftraight
lines, in 3 much more clear and commodious way
3 Y a than
Practice.
116
Conftruc-
tion of
maps.
£40 G E
Principles than could be done by the common graver, it occurred
anc* to Mr Pinkerton, while preparing his Modern Geogra-
‘phy, that this invention might be applied with ad¬
vantage to the improvement of maps. A fet of maps
■was, accordingly engraved by Mr Lowry for Pinker¬
ton’s Geography, in which the water was marked by
dark parallel lines to difcriminate it from the land.
Thefe lines are drawn horizontally $ and Mr Pinker¬
ton propofed that, in engraving charts, the land
Ihould be marked with fimilar lines drawn in a per¬
pendicular direction, while the water (hould be left
blank. This improvement has fince been adopted by
other conftru&ors of maps and charts, and bids fair
to be generally ufed. The effedt is pleafing ; and the
progrefs of inilrucrion will be greatly facilitated by the
new method, as the extent and bearings of the feveral
countries are feen, as it were, with a glance of the
eye. In many of thefe maps winch we have feen,
however, the lines are drawn too ftrongly, which
renders the fea fo dark, that the names of iflands and
places on the fea coaft can with difficulty be perufed.
As the line of coaft in thefe maps is ftrongly marked,
the parallel lines denoting the fea (hould be engraved
in a light and foft llyle; and in this way Mr Lowry’s
firit fpecimens are executed.
Sect. II. Of the ConJlruBion of Maps and Charts.
The conltruclion of maps confifls in making a pro-
jedlion of the furface of the globe on the plane of fome
one of its circles, fuppohng the eye to be placed in
fome particular point. The defcribing of thefe pro-
jedfions depends on the principles of perfpedfive, and
the projedlion of the fphere. The general principles
will be explained under thofe articles, but the parti¬
cular mode of drawing maps properly forms a part of
the prefent treatife;
The methods of conftrudiing maps vary according to
the lize or fcale of the map, and to the projedtion em¬
ployed in conftrudHng it.
There are three projections employed in conftrudting
maps, the orthographic, the fereographic, and the globu¬
lar. In the orthographic projeftion the eye is fuppofed
to view the part of the globe to be projected, from an
infinite diftance. In this projedlion the parts about the
middle of the map are very well reprefented, but thofe
towards the margin are too much contracted.
In the ftereographic projedtion, the eye is fuppofed
to be fituated in the furface of the globe to be repre¬
fented, and looking towards the oppofite furface. This
is the method ufually employed in conftrudting mod
maps, efpecially maps of the world, or planifpheres.
In conftrudting a map of the world, as well as mod
partial maps, the part of the fphere to be reprefented
is luppofed to be in the pofition of a right fphere (fee
No. 90). In this mode of projedtion, the hemi-
fphere to be reprefented is fuppofed to be delineated
on the plane of that meridian by which it is bounded,
in the fame manner as its concave furface, conceiving
the fphere to be tranfparent, would appear to an eye
placed in the oppofite hemifphere, where the equator
erodes a meridian ; that is, 90° didant from that which
forms the plane of the projedfion. In a delineation of
this kind, the meridians and parallels of latitude are re¬
prefented by arches of circles, except the equator and the
central meridian, which are draight lines} and each naral-
o G R A P H Y.
Part IT.
117
Ortho¬
graphic
projections
118
Stereo¬
graphic
projections
lei or meridian forms an arc of a greater circle, in proper- Principles
tion as it approaches nearer to the centre of the map. practice
By either of thefe projedtions only half the globe ^ ~ b
can be reprefented in one projedlion *, but in the map of
the world, the two hemifpheres are ufually drawn on
the plane of the fame circle, adjacent to each other.
By Mercator’s projedlion, ufually employed for charts,
and to be deferibed prefently, the wffiole globe may be
reprefented in one projedlion, but much dillorted.
If the projedlion of a map of the world be formed on
the plane of a meridian, the two projedlions will repre-
fent the eafiern and weftern hemifpheres of the globe.
When the projedlion is made on the plane of the
equator, in the lituation of a parallel fphere, the pro¬
jedlions reprefent the northern and fouthern hemi¬
fpheres, which appear as their concave furface would
lA feen by an eye placed at the oppofite pole. In
this way the meridians become ftraight lines diverging
from the fame centre, and the parallels are circles
having the fame common centre.
The following is the method of conftrudHng a map
of the world, on the plane of a meridian, according to
the globular projedtion. (See fig. 17). ir(?
About the centre C, with any radius as CB, deferibe Globular
a circle, reprelenting the meridian that is to form the !3roJe<^:'on „
plane of the hemilphere. Draw the diameters NS,°| ^q'
and AB, croffing each other at right angles, and the
former of thefe will be the central meridian, and the
latter the equator. Divide each femidiameter into nine
equal parts, and divide each quadrant of the circle alfo into
nine equal parts, each of which will be equal to 11°. If
the fcale of the map be fufficiently large, each of thefe
may again be divided into ten equal parts or degrees. The
next objedt is to deferibe the meridians paffing through
every 1 o° of the equator. Suppofe we are to draw the me¬
ridian of 8o° weft of Greenwich. We have here three
points given, the two poles and the point 8o° on the equa¬
tor, and it is eafy to deferibe a circle that ftiall pafs through
thefe three points. This arch will be the meridian. The
method of drawing a circle through any three points is,
in this cafe, as follows. About the centre S, with the
radius SC, deferibe a circular arch, as XX ; and about
the centre N, with the fame radius, deferibe the arch
ZZ ; then about the centre 8o°, with the fame diftance,
deferibe arches 1, x, 2, 2, crofling the former, and draw
lines from 2 to 1 on each fide of AB, croffing each
other, and AB produced, in D. D is the centre of the
circular arc, reprefenting the meridian of 8o° weft from
Greenwich 5 and with the fame radius the meridian of
140° weft longitude may be drawn. All the other
meridians are to be drawn in a fimilar manner, by de¬
fcribing a circular arch through three points N, S, and
the required degree. (See Geometry.)
For defcribing the parallels, fuppofe that of 6o° N.
Lat. j about the centre O, with any radius, defcriBe the
circle FGH, and about the points 6o°, 6o°, in the pri¬
mitive circle, with the fame diftance, deferibe the arcs
cc,dd, cutting the circle FGH: through the points
of interfe£lion draw ftraight lines, and the point where
thefe lines meet in NS produced, as in I, is the centre
of the arch that will reprefent the parallel of 6o°. The
other parallels are drawn in a fimilar manner, obferving
that the firft circle, fuch as FGH, mull have for its
centre that point in the central meridian through which
the parallel is to be drawn. Fig. 18. reprefents this
proje&ion
projection
G E o G R
with all the meridians and parallels com-
Part II.
Principles
an^ pleted.
, Pra^n,-e t If the map is very large, and the paper on which it
is to be drawn does not admit of fo many circles, the
centres of the meridians and parallels are more ealily
found in the following manner. Having divided the
femi-diameters and quadrants, each into 9 equal parts,
find, from a fcale of equal parts, the length of the half
chord of each arc, and the verfed fine of half the fame
arc •, then add together the fquare of the half chord,
and the fquare of the verfed line, and divide the fum by
the verfed fine } the quotient is equal to the diameter,
and 4 of this to the radius of the circle required. In
this manner the radii of all the meridians and parallels
may be found.
As, in drawing maps on a large fcale, compaffes of
an ordinary fize will not anfwer for defcribing the cir¬
cular arcs, it is convenient to have fome other mechani¬
cal contrivance for this purpofe ; and it is found that a
thin flexible ruler of tough wood, called a boxv, may
be fo bended as to form a curve, very nearly circular,
that will pafs through the three points that are to de¬
termine the meridian or parallel. In this way the
circles on maps on a large fcale are ufually drawn by
engravers and ftudents of geography ; and where the
circle is of very large radius, the method is fufficiently
accurate *, but it ought by no means- to be employed
where compares of a proper fize can be procured, or
conveniently ufed.
The following is the method given by Dr Hutton,
for defcribing a globular projedtion of the earth on the
plane of the equator. For the north or fouth hemi-
ipheres draw AQBE, for the equinodfial (fig. 19.), di¬
viding it into the four quadrants EA, AQ, QB, and
EE j and each quadrant into 9 equal parts, reprefenting
each io° of longitude ; and then from the points of di-
vifion, draw lines to the centre C, for the circles of
longitude. Divide any circle of longitude, as the firft
meridian EC, into 9 equal parts, and through thefe
points defcribe circles from the centre C, for the pa¬
rallels of latitude, numbering them as in the figure.
In this method equal fpaces on the earth are reprefent-
ed by equal fpaces on the map, as nearly as any pro-
jedfion will bear ; for a fpherical furface can in no way
be reprefented exadtly upon a plane. Then the fe-
veral countries of the world, Teas, Hands, fea-coafts,
towns, &c. are to be entered in the map, according to
their latitudes and longitudes.
To draw a Map of any particular Country,
Co aft rue- There are three methods of doing this,
tion of par- I ft, For this purpofe its extent muft be known as to
ticular latitude and longitude ; as fuppofe Spain, lying between
rn‘'^ ■ the north latitudes 36° and 44°, and extending from
io° to 23° of longitude, fo that its extent from north to
fouth is 8°, and from eaft to weft 13®.
Draw the line AB for a meridian pafling through
the middle of the country (fig. 20.), on which fet oft'
8° from B to A, taken from any convenient fcale 5
A being the north and B the fouth point. Through A
and B draw the perpendiculars CD, EF, for the ex¬
treme parallels of latitude. Divide AB into eight
parts, or degrees, through which draw the other paral¬
lel of latitude parallel to the former.
For the meridians, divide any degree in AB into 60
anti
Practice.
A P H Y. 541
equal parts, or geographical miles. Then, becaufe the Principles
length in each parallel decreafes towards the pole,
from the table (hewing this decreale given in p. 514.
take the number of miles anfvvering to the latitude of
B, which is 48^- nearly, and fet it from B, feven times
to E, and fix times to F; fo is EF divided into de¬
grees. Again, from the fame table take the number of
miles of a degree in the latitude A, viz. 43 3- nearly j
which let off from A, feven times to C, and fix times
to D. Then from the points of divilion in the line
CD, to the correiponding points in the line EF, draw
fo many right lines for the meridians. Number the de¬
grees of latitude up both Tides of the map, and the de¬
grees of longitude on the top and bottom. Alfo iti
fome vacant place make a (bale of miles, or of degrees,
if the map reprefent a large part of the earth } to ferve
for finding the diftances of places upon the map.
Then make the proper divifions and fubdiviftons of
the country j and having the latitudes and longitudes
of the principal places, it will be eafy to fet them down
in the map ; for any town, &c. muft be placed where
the circles of its latitude and longitude interlebf. For
inftance, Gibraltar, whole latitude is 36° 11', and lon¬
gitude 12° 27', will be at G ; and Madrid, whole lati¬
tude is 40° 10', and longitude 14° 44', will be at M.
In the lame manner the mouth of a river may be fet
down ; but to defcribe the whole courfe of the river,
the latitude and longitude of every turning, and of the
towns and bridges by which it paffes, muft alfo be mark¬
ed down. The fame is neceffary for woods, forefts,
mountains, lakes, cattles, &c. The boundaries are de~
feribed by fetting down the remarkable places on the
fea coaft, and drawing a continued line through them
all. This method is very proper for fmall countries.
2d Method. Maps of particular places are hut por¬
tions of the globe, and may therefore be drawn in the
fame manner as the whole globe, either by the ortho¬
graphic or ftereographic projebtion of the Iphere. But
in partial maps a more eafy method is as follows. Ha¬
ving drawn the meridian AB in the laft figure, and
divided it into equal parts as before, draw lines through
all the points of divifion; put them together to AB, to
reprefent the parallels of latitude. Then to divide thefe,
fet off the degrees in each parallel; diminifti after the
manner directed for the two extreme parallels CD and
EF, and through all the correfponding points draw the
meridians, which will be curved lines $ thefe were right
lines in the laft method, becaufe only the extreme pa¬
rallels were divided acccording to the table. This me¬
thod is proper for a large trabf, as Europe, &c. in
which cafe the parallels and meridians need be drawn
only through every 50 or io°. This method is much
ufed in drawing maps, as all the parts are nearly of
their due magnitude, except being a little diftorted to¬
wards the outfide, from the oblique interfedtion of the
meridians and parallels.
3d Method. Draw PB of a convenient length, for
a meridian ; divide it into nine equal parts, and through
the points of divifion, defcribe as many circles for the
parallels of latitude, from the centre P, which repre-
fents the pole. Suppofe AB (fig. 21.) the height of the
map ; then CD will be the parallel paffing through
the greateft latitude, and EF will reprefent the equa¬
tor. Divide the equator EF into 9 equal parts of the
fame fize as thofe in AB, both ways beginning AB ;
divide
;"54'2
Principles
and
Pra<ftice.
izx
"Mercator’s,
prpjeftion.
G E O G R
divide alfo all tlie parallels into the fame number of
equal parts, but leffer, in proportion to the numbers tor
the feveral latitudes, as diredfed in the laft method for
the redtilineal parallels. Then through all the corre-
fponding divifions draw curved lines, which will lepre-
fent the meridians, the extreme meridians being EC and
FD. Laftly, Number the degrees of latitude and lon¬
gitude, and place a fcale of equal parts, either in miles
or degrees, for meafuring diftances.
When the place of which a map is to be made is
but fmall, as when a county is to be delineated, toe me¬
ridians will be fo nearly parallel to one another, and
the whole will differ fo little from a plane, that the
map may be laid down in a much more eafy manner
than wThat is given above. It will be here fu rile lent to
meafure the diftances of places in miles, and note thein
down in a plane redlangular manner. The method of
delineating fuch partial maps is the province of the fur-
veyor. See Surveying.
Mercator’s projedlion is chiefly confined to charts for
the purpofes of navigation. In this projection the me¬
ridians, parallels, and rhumbs, are all ftraight lines ;
but inftead of the degrees of longitude being everywhere
equal to thofe of latitude, as is the cafe in plain charts,
the degrees of latitude are increafed as we approach to¬
wards either pole, being made to thofe of longitude in
the proportion of radius to the fine of the diftance from
the pole, or cofine of the latitude, or, what is the fame
thing, in the ratio of the fecant of the latitude to radi¬
us. Hence all the parallel circles are reprefented by
equal and parallel ftraight lines, and all the meridians
are parallel lines alfo j but thefe increafe indefinitely to¬
wards the poles.
From this proportional increafe of the degrees of the
meridian, it is evident that the length of an arc of the
meridian beginning at the equator, is proportional to
the fum of all the fecants of the latitude ; or that the
increafed meridian bears the fame proportion to its true
arc as the fum of all the fecants of the latitude to as
many times the radius. The increafed meridian is alfo
analogous to a fcale of the logarithmic tangents,
though this is not at firft very evident. It is not cer¬
tain by whom this analogy was firft difeovered, but the
difeovery appears to have been made by accident. It
was firft publifhed and introduced into the praClice of
navigation by Mr Henry Bond, by whom this property
is mentioned in an edition of Norwood’s Epitome of
Navigation, printed about 1645. This analogy, though
it had been found true by aClual meafurement, was not
accurately demonftrated. Nicholas Mercator offered to
difclofe, for a fum of money, a method which he had
difeovered for demonftrating it j but this was not ac¬
cepted, and the demonftration was, we believe, never
difclofed. See Nicholas Mercator. About two
years after, howrever, the demonftration was again dif¬
eovered, and publiftied by James Gregory.
The meridian line in Mercator’s chart is a fcale of
logarithmic tangents of the half colatitudes. The dif¬
ferences of longitude on any rhumb, are the logarithms
of the fame tangents, but of a different fpecies 5 thofe
fpecies being to each other as the tangents of the angles
made with the meridian. Hence any fcale of logarithmic
tangents is a talkie of the differences of longitude, to fe¬
veral latitudes, upon fome one determinate rhumb •, and
therefore as the tangent of the angle of fuch a rhumb
I
A P H Y.
Part IT.
is to the tangent of any other rhumb, fo is the difter-
ence of the logarithms of any two tangents, to the dif¬
ference of longitude on the propofed rhumb, intercept¬
ed between the two latitudes, of whole half comple¬
ments the logarithmic tangents were taken.
It was the great ftudy of our predeceffors to contrive
fuch a chart in piano, with ftraight lines, on which all
or any parts of the world might be truly let down, ac¬
cording to their longitudes and latitudes, bearings, and
diftances. A method for this purpofe was hinted at by
Ptolemy, near 2000 years fince, and a general map in
fuch an* idea, was made by Mercator : but the princi¬
ples were not demonftrated, and a ready way Ihown
of deferibing the chart, till Wright explained how to
enlarge the meridian line by the continual addition of
fecants, fo that all degrees of longitude might be pro¬
portional to thole of latitude, as on the globe } which
renders this chart, in feveral refpedbs, far more conve¬
nient for the navigator’s ufe, than the globe itfelf, and
which will truly Ihew the courfe and diftance from piace
to place, in all cafes of failing.
For further particulars refpe&ing the conftrudlion,
and for the ufe of charts, lee Navigation.
In choofing maps, it is proper to examine particular¬
ly whether the curved lines of thole that ought to have
the meridians and parallels arches of circles be truly cir¬
cular. If the map is compofed of more than one Iheet,
the iheets fhould be fo joined together as that the cor-
refponding meridional lines and parallels be each in one
continued line. The colours in painted maps, as was
obferved with refpedf to globes, fhould be fine and
tranfparent, and not laid on too thickly.
Maps folded for the pocket anfwer very well for
travelling, in fo far as they point out the relative fitua-
tion of places } but, owing to the intervals at which the
parts are palled on the canvals, the diftances between
places cannot be afeertained with any degree of ac¬
curacy.
Sect. III. Of the Ufe of Maps.
Maps are of great utility in the ftudy of geography
and hiftory •, and if they are accurately drawn, many of
the problems that are ulually performed on the globes,
may be folved mechanically by means of maps.
In confulting a map, it is not fufticient to find out in
it the name of the place of which you defire to know the
fituation,. although this is frequently all at which the
confulter of a map aims : it is, befides, proper for the
ftudent to inform himfelf refpedling the relative pofition
of the place, with regard to its vicinity to other places;
its bearings and diftance from the principal places in the
fame or neighbouring diftri£ls •, whether it is near the
fea fhore, and is near a convenient harbour; whether
it be feated on fome principal river, and on what fide
of the river 5 whether it is in the neighbourhood of a
confiderable canal ; whether it be near a lake, moun¬
tain, foreft, &c. and many other little particulars that
will readily fuggeft themfelves to an attentive reader.
The problems that are ufually performed by means
of maps, are the following.
Problem I. To find the latitude and longitude of any
given place. I2J
In maps on a large fcale, or where the meridians and Ufe ofmaps.
parallels of latitude are ftraight lines, the latitude of the
place
Part IL G E O G
Principles place may he eafily found by ftretching a thread over
pra^e the place, fo that it may crofs the fame degree of lati-
. tude on each fide of the map 3 and the degree croffed
will be the latitude required. Or, with a pair of com-
paiTes meafure the (horteil dillance of the place from
the neareft parallel, and apply this diftafice to either
hde of the map, fo as to keep one point of the compaf-
fes on the fame parallel ; then the other point will fhew
the degree of latitude as meafured on the graduated
margin, counting from the parallel north or fouth, ac¬
cording as the place is in north or fouth latitude.
The longitude of the place may be found in a firnilar
manner, by ftretching the thread over the place, or
laying a ruler acrofs it, fo as to cut the fame degree of
longitude on the top and bottom of the map, and that
is the degree required.
The above methods anfwer very well in plain charts or
in maps of counties 3 but when the meridians and parallels
are curved lines, we muft find how often the diftance of
the place, meafured by the compaffes from the nearelt
parallel, will reach the next parallel in a flraight direc¬
tion, and from thence the latitude may be found with
fudicient exailnefs. Thus, fuppofe we are required to
find the latitude of Berlin, the capital of Pruflia. The
neareft parallel is that of 50° north latitude 5 the dif¬
tance of Berlin from this parallel will reach the paral¬
lel of 6o° in four times, meafuring on the map of Eu¬
rope. The fourth part often, or two and a half, add¬
ed to 50, gives the latitude required, or 524.
1 o find the longitude on fuch maps, meafure how often
the diftance of the place from the neareft meridian will
reach the next meridian. Thus, in the fame inftance,
the diftance of Berlin from the meridian of 10, which
is the neareft towards the eaft, taken three times, will
extend a little beyond the meridian of 20. Add to 10
the third part of this diftance, which is about three and
a half, and we have 130 30' for the longitude of Ber¬
lin eaft from London.
Problem II. The latitude and longitude of a place being
given; to find the place on the map.
Where the meridians and parallels are ftraight lines,
this is done by ftretching one thread from the given la¬
titude on one fide of the map to the fame latitude on
the other fide 3 while another thread is ftretched be¬
tween the correfponding degrees of longitude. The
interfecling point of the two threads (hews the place re¬
quired. I hus, fuppofe we are required to find the
place whofe latitude is 340 29' S. and longitude 1S0
23' E. Stretching one thread between the given lati¬
tudes, and another between the given longitudes, we
lhall find that they crofs over the Cape of Good Hope,
which is therefore the place required.
When the meridians and parallels are curved lines
the molt accurate way will be to deferibe a circle of la¬
titude through the given degree of latitude on each fide, ■
and a circle of longitude through the correfponding de¬
grees of longitude, and the interfedtion of thefe circles
will Ihew the place. An eafier method will be, know¬
ing between what two parallels of latitude and longitude
the place lies, and confequently by what four lines it is
bounded, to find the place by trial, by confiderlng the
proportional diftance of it from each line.
it A P 11 Y. • 54J
Problem III. The latitude of a place being given ; to and
fnd all thofe places on the fame map that have the Practice.
fame latitude. J " 1
If a parallel of latitude happen to be drawn on
the map through the given place, this problem is eafily
folved, by tracing along the parallel, and feeing what
other places it paffes through. If a parallel is not
drawn through the given place, take with a pair of
compaffes the diftance of the place from the neareft pa¬
rallel 3 then keeping one foot on the parallel, and the
other in fuch a pofition as to deferibe a line parallel to
the parallel of latitude, move the compaffes, and all the
places over which the point that is not on the parallel
paffes, have the fame latitude with the given place.
I his method will not fucceed in maps on which a
large trad! of country is delineated on a fmall feale.
Problem IV. Given the longitude of a place; to find
on the map all thofe places that have the fame longi¬
tude.
Fin.d the longitude of the given place, and if a meri¬
dian pailes through it, obferve all the places that lie
under this meridian ; or, if a meridian does not pafs
through the place, find by the compaffes, as in the laft
problem, thofe places that are fituated at the fame pa¬
rallel diftance with the given place from the neareft;
meridian. I hefe places have nearly the fame longitude
with the given place.
Problem V. To fnd the antceci of a given place. -
Find the latitude and longitude of the place by Pro¬
blem I. and find another place of the fame longitude,
whofe latitude is equal to that of the former, but in a
contrary dirediion. The inhabitants of this latter place
are the antoeci to the latter.
Tx. Suppofe a fliip to be in the Indian ocean, in
lat. 130 S. and long. 8o° E. it is required to find the
antoeci to her prefent fituation ? Anf. The place
which has nearly the fame longitude, and an equal la¬
titude in a contrary diredtion, viz. 130 N. is Madras.
Problem VI. To fnd the perioeci of a given place.
Find the longitude of the given place, and fubtradl
it from 1 8o° : the remainder will be the longitude in
an oppofite dirediion of the perioeci. Then find a place
having an equal longitude with this laft, and having
the fame latitude with that of the given place : this lat¬
ter is the fituation required.
Ex. It is required to find the perioeci to the inhabi¬
tants of the gulf of Siam. Anf. The longitude of Siam
is too0 50'E. which, fubtradfed from 18c°, leaves
79° 1 o' W. Now, the place that has this longitude,
and.the fame latitude with Siam, viz. about 140 N. is '
the iilhmus of Darien.
Problem VII. To fnd the antipodes of a given place.
Fhis problem is folved on maps in the fame manner
as on the globe.
Problem ^ III. Having the hour at any place given ; to
fnd what hour it is in any part of the world.
Find the difference of longitude between the two
places, and reduce this to its equal value in time, by
N°> 1 -
*544-
Principles
and
Practice.
G E O G K
N° 6?. Add this value to the given hour, if the place
where the time is required be to the eaftward of the gi¬
ven place, and the fum is the time required. It the
place at which the time is required he to the weltward
of the given place, fubtracl the difference of lor.gttude
in time from the given hour, and the difference is the
time fought. ^ . r j
Note.—U, after adding, the fum is found greater
than 12, 12 muft be cancelled, and the hours muft be
changed from A. M. to P. M; and Vice verfa; and it,
on fubtrafting, the difference in time between the two
places happens to be greater than the given hour, 12
muft be added to the given hour, and the hours changed
as before mentioned.
Ex. Suppofe it to be at prefent 9 A. M. at Lift)on,
what time of the day is it at Pekin in China ? AnJ.
The difference of longitude between Pekin and Liibon
is 12 c° 2 V, which reduced to time gives 8 hours 22
minutes; and finee Pekin lies to the eaft or Lifixm,
this muft be added to 9, the given hour, giving a lum
of 17 hours, 22 minutes j but as this is greater than 12,
we muft take 1 2 away, and the difference, 5 hours 22
minutes, changed from morning to afternoon hours, is
the time required. It is therefore 2 2 minutes paft five
P. M. at Pekin.
Problem IX. To find thofe places in the torrid %one to
which the fun is vertical on any given day.
Find in an ephemeris, or nautical almanack, the fun’s
declination for the given day; then obierve, in tne map
of the world, all thofe places which lie under that pa¬
rallel of latitude, which is the fame with the decima¬
tion, and thefe wall be the places requued.
Ex. It is required to find at what places the fun will
be vertical on the 20th of March and 23d of Septem¬
ber ? Anf. The fun’s declination on the 20th of
March, is 19' S. and on the 23d of September 6'N.
Now the principal places that lie near the parallel o
19' S. and 6' N. are the iiland of St Thomas, the mid¬
dle part of the illands of Sumatra and Borneo } the
Gallipagos ifles, and Quito in South America.
i*3 The Analemma, or Orthographic Projeftion dehne-
Analemma ^ in piate CCXXXV. will folve many of the moft
ecoffrapB- curious problems, and with the atnftance of maps wn;
cal pro- be almoft equivalent to a terreftrial globe. A he paral-
blems. lei lines drawn on this figure reprefent the aegrees cn
the fun’s declination from the equator, whether nortn
or fouth, amounting to 234- nearly. On thefe lines are
marked the months and days which correfpond to fuch
and fuch declinations. The fixe of the figure does not
admit of having every day of the year inferted ^ but
by making allowance for the intermediate days, in pro¬
portion to the reft, the declination may be gueffed at
with tolerable exadlnefs. The elliptical lines are de-
figned to Ihew the hour of funrifing or funfetting before
or after fix o’clock. As 60 minutes make an hour of
time, a fourth part of the fpace between each of the
hour-lines will reprefent 15 minutes; which the eye can
readily guefs at, and which is as great exadlnefs as can
be expedled from any mechanical invention, or as is ne-
eeffary to anfwer any common purpofe. The circles
drawn round the centre at the diftance of 11^ each,
{hew the point of the compafs on which the fun rifes and
fets, and on what point the twilight begins and ends.
2
A P H Y. Bart II.
In order to make ufe of this analemma, it is only Principles
neceffary to confider, that, when the latitude of the
nlace and the fun’s declination are both north or both   
fouth, the fun rifes before fix o’clock, between the eaft
and the elevated pole j that is, towards the north, ii
the latitude and declination are north •, or towards the
fouth, fif the latitude and declination are fouth. Let us
now fuppofe it is required to find the time of the fun’s
riling and fetting, the length of the days and nights,
the time when the twilight begins and ends, and what
point of the horizon the fun rifes and fets on, tor the
Lizard point in England, Frankfort in Germany, or
Abbeville in France, on the 30th of April. I he la¬
titude of thefe places by the maps will be^found nearly
co0 N. Place the moveable index fo that its point
may touch 50° on the quadrant ot north latitude in the
figure •, then obferve where its edge cuts the parallel
line on which April 30th is written. From this reckon
the hour-lines towards the centre, and you vein find t .at
the parallel line is cut by the index nearly at the di¬
ftance of one hour and 15 minutes. So the fun riles at
one hour 15 minutes before fix, or 45 minutes alter
four in the morning, and fets 15 minutes after feven in
the evening. The length of the day is 14 hours 30
minutes. Obferve how far the interfeaion ot the edge
of the index with the parallel of April 30th is diftant
from any of the concentric circles, which you will find
to he a little beyond that marked two points of the
compafs, and this thews that on the 30th of April the
fun rifes two points and fomewhat more from the eait
towards the north, or a little to the northward of eaft-
north-eaft, and fets a little to the northward ot weft-
north-weft. To find the beginning and ending ot_ the
twilight, take from the graduated arch of tne circle
1 7 \ degrees with a pair of compaftes } move one toot ot
the compaffes extended to this diftance along the paral¬
lel of April 30th, till the other juil touches the edge
of the index, which muft ftill point at 50. The place
w-here the other foot refts on the parallel of April 30th,
then denotes the number of hours before fix at which
the twilight begins. This is fomewhat more than three
hours and a half, which (hews that the twilight then
begins foon after two in the morning, and likewiie that
it begins to appear near five points from the eaft towards
the north. The ufes of this analemma may be varied
in a great number of ways ; but the example juft now
given will be futficient for the ingenious reader.
Sect. IV. Of the Origin and Progrefs of Maps.
124
The firft map of which we have any certain record, Origin of
is that of Anaximander, about 560 years before the maps.
Chriftian era. This is mentioned by Strabo, book 1.
and is fuppofed to be that referred to by Hipparchus,
under the name of the ancient map.
It has been alleged, that Sefoftris? king of Egypt,
on his return from his boafted expedition, alter having
traverfed great part of the earth, recorded his march m
maps, of which he gave copies, not only to the Egyp¬
tians, but to the Scythians, to the great admiration of
both people. This is the relation of Euftathius 5 but
M. Montucla confiders it as a very improbable ftory, * Montuda,
and thinks that the invention of maps cannot be dated Hif. d,
prior to Anaximander *. Some have fuppofed that the Mathwa .
Jews laid down the holy land in a map, when they 1 - „
tnbuted^
Flatr CCXXX .
C. K O G H A I* H Y
O' o
Cri: O G K A r liY.
Plate C C XXXII.
<**?<■// . //<?. ■ ,
\ -c
GE O (ERAP HY.
Plate CCXXXDI.
/
GE O G f{ APHT .
Plate CC XXXIV
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Cr E O G R A P i n '
Plate CCXXXV.
(u c ^
Plate C CXXXVI
GKE O CrRAT KX.
Plate CCJtJOm.
TIate CCXXXVll
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Plate CCAXXVIT
-WaTXJculfrtoryircct.
>
Part IT. G E O G
^ie tii^'ercnt portions to the nine tribes at Shi-
Piadtice. a ^uPP°fition which is derived from Jolhua’s ac-
— v—— count, that they were Pent to walk through the land,
and that they described it in feven parts in a book. Jo-
fephus alfo relates, that when Jofhua Pent people from
the different tribes to meafure the land of promife, he
lent with them men well ikilled in geometry. All this,
however, is no proof that thefe perfons drew a iketch
ot the country, according to our idea of a map 5 but
probably omy wrote down, for the fatisfadlion of their
employers, the extent, boundaries, and general charac-
teriftics of the divifions of the land.
Herodotus has given a minute defcription of a map
conftrufted by Ariftagoras, tyrant of Miletus, an
abridgement of which will ferve to give Pome notion of
the maps of thofe times. It was drawn upon brafs or cop¬
per, and leems to have been merely an itinerary con¬
taining the route through the countries which were to
be traverfcd in a march which Ariftagoras propoled to
Cleomenes, king of Sparta, for the purpole of attacking
the king of Perfta at Sufa, that he might thus aflift in
reftoring the lonians to their liberty.' The rivers Ha¬
irs, Euphrates, and Tigris, which, according to Hero¬
dotus, muft have been Croffed in that expedition, were
laid down in this map j and it contained one ftraight
line, called the royal road or high way, which com¬
prehended all the ftations or places of encampment,
from Sardis, the beginning of the route, to Sufa, a dif-
tance of 13,500 ftadia, or 16874 Roman miles of 5000
feet each. The number of encampments in this whole
route was 111.
Ptolemy of Alexandria, the celebrated geographer
mentioned in N® 21. conftrudfted maps to illuftrate his
defcription of places, and thefe are the firft that have
regular meridians and parallels, the better to define and
determine the fituation of places. Ptolemy acknow-
iedges that his maps, with the addition of fome improve¬
ments of his own, the principal of which was certainly
the introduction of meridians and parallels, were copied
from previous maps made by Marianus Tyrius, &.c.
1 hey are, however, often very inaccurate.
According to Atheneus, a work which feems to have
contained maps, v/as written by Baeton, under the title
of Alexander’s march and a work on the fame fubjeCl
is mentioned as the produtftion of Amynthus. We are
informed by Pliny, that this Baeton was one of the fur-
veyors of Alexander’s marches ; and he quotes the ex-
aft number of miles of thele marches, according to Bae-
ton’s menluration, and confirms their authenticity by
the letters of Alexander. Pliny alfo remarks, that a
copy of this conqueror’s furveys was given by Zenobius,
his treafurer, to the geographer Patrocles, who was ad-
12« m^ral fleets of Seleucus and Antiochus.
feutinge- Among the moft celebrated of the ancient maps, are
mn table, the Peutingerian tables, fo called, becaufe publiihed by
Peutinger of Augfhurg. Thefe tables contain an itine¬
rary of the whole Roman empire 5 all places except feas,
wood, and deferts, being laid down according to their
meafured diftances, though without any mention of la¬
titude, longitude, or bearing. A particular defcription
of this monument of antiquity is given in the 18th vo¬
lume of the Pliftory of the Academy of Infcriptions,
and in the Hiftory of the Academy of Sciences for
1761, from which M. Montucla has drawn up the fol¬
lowing account. The map of Peutinger, as it is in the
Vol. IX. Part II.
RAP II Y.
545
original in the imperial library, is exaftly one French Principles
root in height, and 20 feet eight inches in length, ac- ,ir'^
cording to meafures taken by Buache, from a copy of Pra^ic<'*
the fplendid edition given by Scheelein 1753. It'com-  
prebends the whole extent of the Roman empire, from
Conftantinople to the ocean, and from the (bores of A-
frica to the northern parts of Gaul j but the table which
it affords of this vait extent of country is by no means
calculated to give us an idea of its figure, fince the 35°
of longitude which it comprehends, occupy 20 feet 8
inches, while the 13° of latitude are comprifed within
trie (pace^ of one foot; thus the countries reprefented
are fo disfigured, that the Mediterranean appears only
Ince a broad river, and all the countries are fo diftorted,
towards the north and fouth, that they cannot be re-
cognifed.
Moft of thofe who have feen this ancient map, have
confidered it as the rude and bungling work of a man
little converfant with geography, and ftill lefs fo with
matnematics ; but Edmund Brutz confiders the diftor-
tion ot this map as fimilar to what we fee in fome pieces
ot perfpeftive, and that it ought to be examined from
lome certain near point in order to perceive the objefts
in their natural proportion.
Buache tuppofed long ago, that this map was con-
ftrufted with more fcientific Ikill than it appears to be
at the firft glance ; and that the apparent irregularities
which we obferve in it, might have been introduced de-
fignedly, lor the purpofe of deriving greater advantages
as to wdiat was intended for the principal objeft. In
faft, as the Roman routes extended almoft entirely
from eaft to weft, they paid more attention to the mea-
jures in this direftion than thofe between north and
fouth ; and the map in this way might have had the
greater convenience of being more eafily rolled up, and
confequently more portable.
I nus far Buache hazarded no more than conjefture ;
nit a labour undertaken by him with a very different
VIew> ^ to trne deiign of the map of Peutinger.
He had been tracing a fcale of climates, and of the
ength ol the days and nights, for the purpofe of attach¬
ing it to fmall maps of the different countries of Europe.
As the fpace occupied by the fcale was pretty much
extended in height, but had very little breadth, he
formed the idea of drawing a kind of map upon two
fcales, one pretty much extended for the latitude, and
the other very much contrafted for the longitudes, pre¬
ferring the hollows of the coafts and boundaries of each
(late. As this difpolition of his map ftrangely disfigu¬
red the countries which it was intended to reprefent, he
was led to imagine that this map might be the reverie <
ol that ol Peutinger. This was fufficient to engage
him to conltruft another map upon the fame principle •
but in which the fcale of longitudes was much greater
than that of the latitudes. He then faw that he had
been right in his fuppofition, and that the map which
ie had laft conftrufted had a confiderable refemblance
to that of Peutinger. This latter is in faft only a plain
chart, conftrufted upon two fcales, of which that of the
longitudes is very great, and that of the latitudes much
imaller.
One difficulty alone arofe. By fuppoling that he ob-
erved m this map a cuftom at prefent eftablilhed among
geographers, of reprefenting the meridians by lines
drawn perpendicular to the bafe of the chart, and the
3 ^ parallels
546
GEOGRAPH Y.
Part II.
Principles
and
Practice.
* M. Mo n
tucla, tom
iv. p. spp.
246
Catalogue
of the beft
maps.
parallels to tbe equator by ftraight lines drawn parallel
to this fame bafe, Buache found a confiderable error.
The bottom of the gull of Venice and Rome did not
then appear, as they ought to do, under the fame meri¬
dian. He fodn, however, faw the folution of this diffi¬
culty. The method of drawing the meridians parallel
to the fides of the chart, is a matter of pure agreement,
and had probably not been obferved in the map of
which we are fpeaking. The ancient Roman geogra¬
phers having conlidered that Italy was naturally divided
by the Appenines, according to its length, into two
parts that were nearly equal, had therefore delineated
the length of Italy from Trent to the end of the penin-
fula, parallel to the lower margin of the map, and had
afterwards arranged the ether parts which the map was
to containj 'conformably to this dilpolxtion ; and as the
length of Italy is not in a direction parallel to the equa¬
tor, it would happen neceffarily that the meridians and
parallels, if they had been drawn on this map, would
have been parallel neither to the lides nor to the lower
margins of the map, and that the vertical line paffing
through Rome mult interfecl the gulf of Venice at about
the middle : but this line is not a meridian.
Thus, this map is not fo rude a work as has been
imagined, but has been entirely conftrudled according
to rule ; and it even appears that the author had em¬
ployed pretty good materials in its compilation, as the
portions are laid do.vn in a manner that differs little
- from modern obfervations *.
From the time of Ptolemy till about the 14th centu¬
ry, no new maps were publithed \ and the firit maps of
any efteem among the moderns wxre conftrufted by
Mercator, to whom we are indebted for the projefticn
according to which marine charts are conlirucfted.
Mercator was followed by Ortelius, who undertook to
conilruft a new fet of maps with the modern diviiions of
countries and names of places, for want of which the
maps of Ptolemy were become almoft ufelefs. Alter
Mercator and Ortelius, many others publiftied maps,
which were chiefly copied from thofe above mentioned,
till about the middle of the 17th century, when Blaeu
publiihed his large atlas, or Cofmographie blaviane, in
which is a pretty accurate defeription of the earth, the
lea, and the heavens, comprifed in 12 folio volumes.
About the fame time an atlas in two folio volumes was
publilhed in France by M. Sanfon, the maps of which
are in general very cor red!, containing many improve¬
ments of the travellers of thofe times. The maps of
Blaeu and Sanfon were copied with little variation both
in England, France, and Holland, till from later ob¬
fervations De Lifle, Robert, Wall, &c. publilhed ffill
more accurate and copious fets of maps.
The works of recent travellers and navigators have
confiderably improved the conftruclion and accuracy of
our maps and charts •, but there is Hill much to be done,
efpecially with refpeft to trigonometrical furveys, be¬
fore any high degree of correftnefs can be acquired.
Among the lateff maps and charts, thofe conftrufted
by Mr Arrowfmith are in the greatelf eftimation.
As a collection of good and accurate maps is of the
greatell importance in the ftudy of geography and hif-
tory, we ihall here fubjoin a lilt of fome of the beft
modern maps that have been publilhed.
Thofe maps which may be collected for the purpofe
of forming an atlaSj have been arranged under three
heads, according to their lue, or the extent of their
feale. iff, Thofe which conlift of more than flx Iheets,
fuch as De Bouge’s map of Europe in 50 half Iheets,
and Caffini’s map of France in 183 Iheets. 2dly, Thofe
from fix to four flreets, to which clafs belong feveral
maps of kingdoms. And, gdly, Thofe from one llieet
to four, which is the Imalleit lize that can anfwer the
purpofe of an atlas. We ffiaii briefly notice the belt
maps of each fize.
Planijpheres, or Maps of the World.—We know of
no very large map of the world that can at prefent be
confidently relied on: the belt is that of Mr Arrow¬
fmith in four Iheets j and Faden has publilhed very good
maps in one flieet.
Maps of Europe.—iR. fize. That of De Bouge, pub¬
lilhed at Vienna, or that by Sotzmann in 16 Iheets,
which is the better of the two. 2d Size. Arrowfinith’s
in four {beets. 3d Size. That by Faden hr one llieet.
Maps of England.—I. The trigonometrical lurveys
of the counties, publiffied by Bindley and Gardner, and
by Faden. II. Cary’s atlas of the counties, and his
England and Wales in 81 Iheets. III. Fadcn’s map in
one Iheet.
Maps of Wales.— I. That of Evans in nine Iheets.
III. The maps in Pennant’s Tours, and Evans’s Cam¬
brian Itinerary.
Maps of Scotland.—I. The furveys of the feveral
counties. II. Ainfiie’s nine Iheet map. III. An excel¬
lent map by General Roy, and Ainflie’s reduced map
in one fheet.
Maps of Ireland.—I. Surveys of counties. III. A
valuable map by Dr Beaufort in two Iheets, or Faden’s
in one flieet.
Maps of France.—I. Caffini’s, mentioned above, and
the atlas nationale in 85 fheets. III. Faden’s one iheet
map, and a map, in departments, by Bellycime in four
flieet s.
Maps of the Netherlands.—I. Ferrari’s map in 23
fheets. II. Atlas de Department Belgique. III. Fer¬
rari’s map reduced by Faden.
Maps of Holland.—II. Kep’s maps cf the United
Provinces. III. Faden’s map of the Seven United
Provinces in one Iheet.
Maps of Gertfiany.—II. Chauchard’s map of Ger¬
many. III. A map of the Auftrian dominions, in one
fheet, by Baron Lichtenffern.
Maps of Prvffia.—I. Sortzmann’s atlas in 21 fheets.
III. Sortzmann’s reduced, in one fheet.
Maps of Spain.—Lopez’s atlas, not, however, very
accurate. II. A map of Spain in nine fheets by Men-
telle and Chanlaire. III. Faden’s map in one flieet.
Maps of Portugal.—II. Geoffry’s improved by Rainf-
ford, in fix fheets. III. De la Rochette’s chorogra-
phical map in one flieet, publifhed by Faden.
Maps of Italy.—I. The maps of the feveral ftates.
III. D’Anville’s map of Italy improved by De la Ro-
chette, in four fheets, publilhed by Faden.
Maps of Turkey in Europe.—III. Arrowfmith’s map
of Turkey in two fheets. De la Rochette’s map of
Greece in one Iheet.
Maps of Switzerland.— I. Weifs’s atlas, publifhed at
Strafburg in 1800. III. Weifs’s reduced map in one Iheet.
Maps of Denmark.—I. Maps of the provinces, un¬
der the direftion of Bygge. III. Faden’s maps of
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, in one flieet.
Maps
Principles
and
Pr act ce.
Appendix. GEOGRAPHY.
Maps of Sweden.-—I. Atlas of the Swedilh provin- and Brown. Major Rennell’s partial maps mn)'be con*
ces, by Baron Hermelin. III. De la R.ochette’s, by fulted with advantage,
w Baden, in one flieet. Of AhyJJinia. there is a good map in Bruce’s travels.
Maps of Afa.—The beft general map of Afia is that Of Egypt, the beft maps are that of the Delta
by Arrowfmith in four fheets, publilhed in 1801; and by Niebuhr, and that of Lower Egypt by la Ro-
D’Anville’s, in fix ftieets, may ftill be confulted with chette.
advantage. Of the Mahometan States, the bed maps are thofe
There are few good maps of the individual coun- by Shaw, and a chart of the Mediterranean in four
tries ; but the following are efteemed among the beft. ftieets, by Faden.
Of China.—D’Anville’s atlas, and a map by Arrow- Of the Cape of Good Hope, the beft: is Barrow’s
fmith. furvey.
Of Tartary.—A map by Witfen, in fix ftieets, and Maps of America.—There is no modern general
one by De \\ itt in one ftieet. map of America that can be relied on. The beft:
Of Japan.—Robert’s map in one flieet. _ . it that of D’Anville, in five ftieets, publiflied in 1746
Of the Birman Empire.—The maps publiftied in Mr and 1748.
Symes’s embafly. . Mr Arrowfmith has publiftied an excellent map of
Of Hindofan.—Rennell’s map in four flieets. His at- North America, on a very large fcale, but has omitted
las of Bengal, and his map of the fouthern provinces. the Spanifti dominions.
Of Perfa there is no good modern map ; but La Of the United States, the beft map is Arrowfmith’s
Rochette publiftied a beautiful one, to illuftrate the ex- in four ftieets, publiftied in 1802; and there are very good
pedition of Alexander the Great. maps of the individual provinces in Morfe’s American
Of Arabia there are fome good partial maps in Nie- Geography.
Luhr’s journey. _ Of the Britijh Pojfejftons in America, befides Arrow-
Of the Afiatic Ifands there is an excellent chart by fmith’s map above mentioned, there is a good map of
Arrowfmith, in four ftieets. Upper Canada by Smith, in one ftieet.
Of Aufralajia, or New Holland, the beft drawing Of the Wefl India Ijlands, the beft map is that of
is contained in Arrowfmith’s chart of the Pacific Jefferys in 16 ftieets, from which a fmaller one in one
ocean. ftieet has been reduced.
Maps of Africa.—-The beft general map of Africa is Of South America, the beft map is that publiftied by
ft ill that of D’Anviile, though fome little additions Faden in 1799, in fix ftieets, from an engraving done at
may be made to it, derived from the journeys of Park Madrid fome years before.
APPENDIX.
127
Obferva- r BEFORE we conclude this article, we muft make a correft copies. Thofe works alfo which, under the dif-
tions on the few obfervations on the method to be followed for acquir- guife of fiflitious voyages and travels are intended to
ftudy of ing or imparting geographical knowledge. convey a geographical knowledge of various countries,
geograp y. As f0me knowdedge of geography, as well as of chro- afford a very pleafing and profitable method of inftruc-
nology, is abfolutely neceffary, before hiftory can be pro- tion. A late wmrk of this kind, by M. Jaufret, enti-
perly underftood, the rudiments of thefe fciences ftiould tied the Travels of Rolando, may be advantageoufly put
be learned, as foon as the capacity of the pupil wall al- into the hands of young people ; and, as tlTey are far-
low. It happens fortunately, that fome of the moft ufe- ther advanced, the travels of Anacharfis the younger
ful parts of geography, thofe which confider the rela- by the Abbe Barthelemi will give them confiderable
tive fituations, extent and boundaries of countries, with information refpeiling the manners, cuftoms, and hifto-
the manners and cuftoms of their inhabitants, are highly rical events of ancient Greece.
interefting ; and provided that a knowledge of them When the young ftudent is fufficiently advanced to
be conveyed to a child. in a pleafing manner, they are profecute the ftudy of geography on a more extenfive
well fitted to intereft his curiofity, and awaken his at- and fcientific plan, it wmuld be defirable that he ftiould
tention. The more fcientific parts of geography, and a begin by reading fome elementary treatife on aftronomy,
detailed account of the minute circumftances refpeRing fuch as that of Mr Bonnycaftle, or the SpeBacle de la
each country, though extremely ufeful, and indeed ne- Nature; or, if he has acquired a proper degree of ma-
ceffary to the more advanced ftudent, may be w'ith- thematical knowledge, he may read Laplace’s Syjleme
held for a little without any great lofs, till his age du Monde, the aftronomical part of RobifotPs Media-
and judgement permit him to lee their utility and ap- nical Philofophy, or the aftronomical article in this
plication. dictionary.
In teaching geography to very young children, their It may happen, that, from a defeft of early educa-
chief attention ftiould be directed to thofe circum- tio'n, or want of time, a preliminary courfe of aftrono*
(lances which are moft interefting; and even with this my cannot be commanded. Still, however, confider-
limited view much may be learned at a very early pe- able progrefs may be made in geography, by the me-
riod. For this purpofe the diffeaed maps that are ufu- chanical means of maps and globes. °The ftudent Ihouid,
ally fold at toy (hops, may be employed with confider- therefore, provide himfelf with a pair of the beft globes’
able advantage ; but it is to be regretted, that the maps chofen according to the direftlons laid down in N° 107 j
ufed in preparing thefe are feldom taken from the moft and with a few good maps of thofe countries which
3 Z 2 are
543
G E O G R
are mcft intereftlng, particularly maps of Europe, Afia,
Africa, and North and South America, the Britilh
iflands, France, Germany,1 Italy, Ruflla, and Den¬
mark, which may be collefted from the lift given at
N° x 26.
Being provided with thefe materials, the ftudent
fhould firft read over Chap. I. of Part II. of this trea-
tife, or a ftmilar part of fome elementary work in geo¬
graphy. On the elementary principles of geography
we would recommend the general principles prefixed
to Mr Pattefon’s general and claftical Atlas j and for
teaching the ufe of the globes, Bruce’s Introduction to
Geography and Aftronomy. For a complete account
of modern geography we cannot refer to a better
work than that of Mr Pinkerton j and for a combined
account of ancient and modern geography, the pupil
may have recouife to a work on that fubjeCl by Dr
Adam of Edinburgh.
After reading over the preliminary part above men¬
tioned, the pupil may go through the fecond Chapter
of Part II. folving all the problems as he goes along
on the terreitrial globe ; and thus he may proceed pro-
greffively through the whole article, leaving that part
of Part I. which treats of the hiftory of geography for
the laft objedl of his enquiry.
In ftudying the particular circumftances of each
country, the pupil fhould always have the map of
the country before him j and, as he goes along, ftiould
trace there the lituation of each particular place •, of
the principal mountains, lakes, the fources and direc¬
tions of the rivers, the form and bounding of the ftiores,
&c. In his progreflive view of particular geography,
it will be proper for the pupil to begin with the coun¬
try in which he refides $ and, after having made him-
felf mafter of that, to proceed fucceflively to thofe which
border on it, or whofe connexion with it is the moft
interefting.
Thus an inhabitant of thefe iflands, after having
taken a view of Europe in general, fhould make himfelf
acquainted with Britain and Ireland (by perufing
the articles England, Scotland, and Ireland in this
Diftionary or in other works) j whence he may proceed
to France and its dependencies in the Netherlands,
Switzerland, Italy $ thence to Germany and the
Austrian territories, Prussia, Sweden, Den¬
mark, and Russia ; whence he may return to the
fouth of Europe to Spain, Portugal, and Turkey,
&c. After Europe, the United States of America
will probably be found the moft interefting $ the pupil
may therefore ftudy the geography of North America
before that of Asia. From Asia he may proceed to
Australasia and Polynesia j thence to Africa, and
fo conclude with South America. Nothing will con¬
tribute more to the advancement of geographical ftudies
than the conftrudlion of maps. If the pupil has time
therefore he fhould early be inftru&ed in this part of the
A F H Y. Appendix.
fubjeft by at firft drawing a map of the world accord¬
ing to the diretftions laid down in N* 118. then one of
Europe, and fo of other quarters and countries. In
conftru&ing this map, it will be proper firft to lay down
thofe places which are near the coaft, in order to form
the outline of the maritime part of the country, and on¬
ly the moft remarkable places inland, efpecially thofe
which are fituated in the courfe of the principal rivers.
In every map the moft prominent features of the coun¬
try, as the mountains, lakes, rivers, and principal cities
and towns, fhould firft be attended to, and from thefe
the pupil may be introduced to the other places in the
order of their magnitude or importance.
The moft agreeable and interefting method of ftud-
dying particular geography, after having become ac¬
quainted with the elementary principles of the fcience,
would be to perufe the beft books of voyages and tra¬
vels j for fromt.mfe, where the traveller can be depend¬
ed upon, the moft correft fyftems of geography are com¬
piled. Many of thele, however, are too prolix and par¬
ticular to be put into the hands of moft young people,
and a judicious abridgement of the beft of them will
anfwer every purpofe ; and perhaps Dr Mayor’s collec¬
tion may be recommended, as the beft of the kind
in the Englilh language. For thofe wdiofe time and
convenience will admit of their reading the beft writers
cf voyages and travels, there is no want of fuch works ;
and Mr Pinkerton has given at the end of his excellent
work, a lift of the beft in moft languages. We {hall
here only notice a few of the beft and lateft.
Pennant’s Tours in Britain.
Young’s Tours in the Britifh ifles.
Saintfond’s Travels in England and Scotland.
Young’s Travels in France.
Holcroft’s Tour in France.
Spallanzani’s Travels in the two Sicilies.
Coxe’s Travels in Ruflia, &c.
Pallas’s Travels in the Ruffian empire.
Carr’s Northern Summer.
Staunton’s Account of China.
Barrow’s Travels in China.
Percival’s Account of Ceylon.
Symes’s Embafly to Ava.
Collins’s account of New South Wales.
Bruce’s Travels in Abyffinia.
Barrow’s Travels in Africa.
Park’s Travels in the interior of Africa.
Browne’s Travels in Africa.
Sonnini’s Travels in Egypt.
Percival’s Cape of Good Hope.
Mackenzie’s Journey in North America.
Davis’s Travels in America.
Mackinnon’s Tour in the Weft Indies; with the
voyages of Anfon, Byron, Cook, Phipps, Bligh, Wil-
fon, Wallis, La Peyroufe, &c. &c.
INDEX.
Index.
GEOGRAPHY.
549
INDEX.
Adams', improvement of the
globes, . N° in
Africa, circumnavigation of, 11
Alexander the Great improves geo-
_ graphy, r4
Altitude, quadrant of, 86
Amphifcii, n g
Analemma for folving geographical
problems, 123
Anaximander, the inventor of maps, 124
Ancients, geographical knowledge of, 25
in Europe, 26
Alia, 27
Africa, 29
Antipodes, 70
Antoeci, <58
Arabians, difcoveries of, 2 2
Armillary fphere, Fergufon’s, 112
Long’s, 113
B.
Bays defined, 44
elucidation of the Peutingerian
tables, 1 2 c
C.
Cape defined, 33
Carthaginians, difcoveries of, 10
Celejlial globe defcribed, 102
Climates, divifion of the earth into, 83
table of, 84
northern, places in the, 85
problems relating to the, 96
Colures explained, 73
Continents defined, 49
Currents defined, 46
D.
Day and night, caufe of, illullrated by
the globe, 100
Dionysius the Periegetic, 22
%
E.
Earth, fpherical form of, how proved, 39
magnitude of, 40
divilions of, 41
population of, 53
Eclipfes, lunar, problem refpefting, 101
£'c///>//c explained, 72
Equation of time illuftrated by the
globe, 104
Fergufon's armillary fphere,
11 2
G.
Geographers, ancient, enumerated, 18
lludfon’s colledlion of, 23
Geography, definition of, x
divifion of, 2
Geography, phyfical, K* 4
importance of, 5
hifiory of, p. 503
origin of, N* 7
improved by Alexander the
Great, 14
by Ptolemy Phila-
delphus, 95
of the ancients, 25
middle ages, 31
modern difcoveries in, 33
prefent defedls of, 36
general obfervations on the
mode of ftudying, 127
Globes, nature of, 34
circles on the, ^3
axis and poles of, 36
equator of, 37
meridians of, 38
brazen meridian of, 39
parallels of latitude, 60
horary circles of, 66
ecliptic on the, 72
tropical circles of, 73
\ polar circles of, 74
colures of, 73
quadrant of altitude, 86
wooden horizon of, 87
celeftial, defcribed, 102
general conltruftion of, 105
gores of, how formed, 106
rules for choofing, 107
ufing, 108
improvement of, by Senex, 109
by Smeaton, 11 o
by Harris, 66
by Wright, tb.
Gulfs defined, 44
H.
Harris'1 s improvement on the hour-
circle of the globes, 66
H&rvef moon illuftrated by the globes, 103
Heterofcii, 80
Horary circles on the globe, 66
Horixon, wooden, of globes, 87
of the fea, explained, 93
depreftion of, how
eftimated, P’S ^3
Ifands defined, N° 50
defined, 52
L.
Labes defined, 47
Latitude and longitude explained and
illuftrated, 61
parallels of, 60
introduced by Eratof-
thenes, 61
problems on, 64
Level, true and apparent, N° 94
table for eftimating
the difference of, p. 322
Long's armillary fphere, N° 113
Longitude how reduced to any fingle
meridian, 62
how reduced to miles, 63
how computed in time, 65
M.
Maps, and charts, diftindtion of, 114
defcription of, 113
conftrudtion of, 116
by the orthographic
projedlion, 117
by the ftereographic
projection, n8
of the world, how projedted by
the globular projection, 119
particular, conftrudtion of, 120
ufe of, 1 22
origin of,. 1 24
Peutingerian, 123
catalogue of the belt, 126
Mercator's-^xo^^ion, £ 121
Meridians on the globe, 38
brazen, 3^
prime or firlt, p.512
O.
Oblique fphere, 89
Oceans defined, 42
Ophir, fituation of, difcuffed, 9
P.
Parallel fphere, qj
Peutingerian table defcribed, 125
Peninfula defined, 31
Periceci, 69
Perifcn, 8 2
Phoenicians, difcovcries of, 8
Polar circles explained, 74
Pompomus Mela, an ancient geogra¬
pher, 20
Problems on latitude and longitude, 68
I. To find the latitude and
longitude of a given
place, P« 5I4
II. Latitude and longitude
given, to find the place, 313
refpedting time, N° 67
III. Flour at any place be¬
ing given, to find the
hour at any other place, p. 515
IV. Hour at any place be-
ing given, to find where
it is noon, 316
refpedting the antoeci, &c. N°7i
V. To find the artoeci of a
given place, p. 316
VI. To fiqd the perioeci, ib.
Problems
55° G
Problems on the terreftrial globe.
\' II. To find the antipodes,p.516
VIII. To redlify the globe
for the latitude, N° 88
refpedling the fun, 95
IX. To find the fun’s place, ib.
X. To find the declination, p.524
XL To redtify the globe
for the fun’s place, ib.
XII. To find the time of fun-
rife and funfet, ib.
XIII. To find the fun’s meri¬
dian altitude at a given place, ib.
XIV. To find the fun’s alti¬
tude for a given hour, ib.
XV. Sun’s meridian altitude
given, to find the latitude
of the place, 5 25
XVI. To find when the fun
is due call or w’eft, ib.
XVII. ~l To find when the
XVIII. > fun is vertical in
XIX. j the torrid zone, ib.
XX. To find when the fun
begins to appear, See. in
the northern frigid zone, ib.
XXI. To find when he be¬
gins to fhine continually
there, 526
XXII. To find the limits of
the hour climates, ib.
XXIII. Month climates, ib.
XXIV. To find wTere the fun
is rifing, fetting, &c. at a
given time, ib.
XXV. To find where it is
twilight at a given time, 527
XXVI. To find the duration
of twilight, &c. ib.
XXVII. To fhew the caufe
of day and night by the
globe, 528
E O G R A P H Y.
Index.
XXVIII. To find where an
eclipfe of the moon is vifi-
ble, p. 528
Problems on the celeftial globe, 5 29
I. To place the globe fo as
to reprefent the heavens
for any evening in any
latitude, ib.
II. To find the right afeenfion
and declination of a flar, 531
III. Having the right afeen¬
fion and declination given,
to find the liar, ib.
IV. To find the latitude and
longitude of a given liar, ib.
V. 1 To find on what day a
VI. given liar comes to
the meridian at a
given hour, ib.
VII. To find the altitude and
azimuth of a given liar, ib.
VIII. The azimuth, &c.
given, to find the altitude, ib.
IX. To find the azimuth and
hour of the night, 532
X. Azimuth and latitude
given, to find the altitude
and day of the month, " ib.
XI. Obferving two liars to
have the fame azimuth, to
find the hour of the night, ib.
XII. To find the rifing, fet¬
ting, &c. of a liar or pla-
net> 533
XIII. To find thofe liars
which never rife, or never
fet, ib.
XIV. To illullrate the phe¬
nomena of the harvell
moon, _ 534
XV. To illullrate the equa¬
tion of time, ib.
Problems performed by maps, N° 1 2 2
Promonlory defined, 53
Ptolemy's work on geography, 21
Ptolemy Philadelphus improves geo-
graphy ^ 15
Pythias, voyage of, 1 7
R.
Right fphere, / 90
Rivers defined, 48
S.
Satafpes, voyage of,
Scy/ax, expedition of,
Seas defined,
Sencx's improvement of the globes,
Smeaton's improvement of the globes,
Sphere, oblique,
right,
parallel,
armillary, by Fergufon,
by Long,
invention of,
Strabo's work on geography,
Straits defined,
Sun, problems refpe&ing,
I 2
*3
43
109
no
89
90
91
112
!9
45
95
T.
Taprobana, fituation of, 28
Time, problems relating to, 67
Tropics explained, 73
Twilight explained, 97
ufes of, 98
problems refpetfling, 99
W.
Wright's improvement of the hour cir¬
cle of the globes, 66
Z.
Zones, divifion of the earth into, 76
Zone, torrid, countries in, 77
temperate, places in, 79
frigid, countries in, g j
GEOLOGY.
Introduo
. bon. ^ INTRODUCTION.
Definition HTHAT part of natural hiftory which treats of the in-
and objedt ternal ftrudture of the earth, as far as we have been
of geology, able to penetrate below its furface •, of the arrangement
of the materials of which it is compofed, and of the
changes which have taken place in thefe, is called Ge¬
ology, from yjj, the earth, and Aoysj, a difcourj'e.
This fcience has been called by Werner, Geognosy
and is by him defined to be that part of mineralogy
which, confdering minerals as a part of our globe, treats Irtroduc-
chiefly of their bearings and poftions with refpcEl to each tion.
other (a). Till of late this department of literature ~ v *
W’as called phyfical geography, but at prefent the terms dt
Geology and Geognosy are generally adopted ; oft0irj_
thefe we have preferred the former, as being equally p. 444.
expreffive and more familiar j and under this head we
propofe to include every thing that is ufually compre¬
hended under what have been called theories of the
earth.
Geology differs from Cosmogony as a part from
the
(a) ^ erner has probably made this trifling change from a defire of novelty \ and fome of his admiring pupils
have attempted to difplay in very pompous but puerile terms, that it is of great value and importance.
G E O L
Introduc- the whole j the obje^l of the latter is to give an account
tion
Division.
Importance
of the
fcience
4
to the na-
turalift;
of the creation of the univerje, while the former con¬
fines itfelf to the confideration of the planet which we
inhabit.
Geology is intimately connected with mineralogy,
and may indeed be faid to depend on this as its very
foundation. Werner, as we have feen, confiders Geog-
nofy as a part of Mineralogy ; but we are dlfpofed to
concur with Dr Kirwan, who, fpeaking of mineralogy
with refpeft to its relation to geology, calls it “ the
alphabet of the huge and myilerious volume of inani¬
mate nature.'”
Geology may be divided into defcriptive and fpecu-
lative } the former giving a general account of the ma¬
terials of which the globe is compofed, and of their
arrangement ^ while the latter is ftri&ly confined to
what may be called a theory of the earth, or an attempt
to explain the manner in which the ftrufture and ar¬
rangement have been brought about, and the changes
that have taken glace in the difpofition of the component
parts of the earth.
The fcience of geology is of confiderable importance
5
to the mln-
in many points of view*.
1. The lludent of natural hiftory cannot but derive
a great fund of profit and advantage from a fcience,
which makes him acquainted with fo large a depart¬
ment ot nature. Mineral bodies, whether wTe confider
them as individuals of nature, or as collected into thofe
mafies which form the ftrata of the earth, and the
mountains that rile above its furface, are peculiarly in-
terelling to the naturaliil, as wTell from the variety of
form and beauty of appearance which fome of them
prefent, as the ufeful purpofes to wdiich many of them
are applied. The other kingdoms of nature delight us
with the difplay of order and deiign exhibited in their
organization, or intereft us from the intimate connexion
which fubfifts between many of them and ourfelves.
Thefe are objects of the beautiful; wdrile the ftupendous
mountain, the awful volcano, the towering cliff, the
gloomy mine, and the majeffic cavern, are objetts of
the grand and the fublime.
2. To the miner, and all thofe wTho are employed
in fearching the bowels of the earth for the treafures
which they contain, geology, as well as mineralogy,
forms an effential qualification. Experience has Ihewm
that certain minerals and metals are found more fre¬
quently attached to fome of the ftony materials of the
earth, than to ethers, and that a few of them are only
found in particular ilrata. Examples of this kind will
be given prefently. We have alfo learned that the
arrangement of the materials in the earth is fo far re¬
gular and uniform, that when we know the particu¬
lar materials near wdiich certain metals and mine¬
rals are commonly found, and the ufual difpofition in
thefe places ; and w'hen we find in another lituation the
fame materials difpofed in a fimilar manner, wTe are
pretty certain that the metal or mineral of which we
are in fearch is not far diftant. We are therefore en¬
couraged to profecute the fearch with every probability
of fuccefs. Thofe who undertake to direft an invefti-
gation of this kind, or to carry on the operations re-
quifite for the obtaining whstt is fought, wmuld do well
to inform thernfelves beforehand of fuch fa61s as are
well eftablilhed rcfpefling the diilrikution of the mate-
° G Y. 55,
rials of the earth, and the fubftances ufually found con- Introduc-
necled with them. ’'For want of this neceffary informa- tion-
tion, we often fee projectors impofe on the credulity, '4 #
and impoverish the finances, of gentlemen of landed pro¬
perty, who are led to fuppofe that they poffefs on fome
part of their ellate a rich vein of metal, feam of coal,
&c. the working of which will confiderably improve
their income. ^
3. The failure of undertakings, of this kind, partly to the land-
from the villany of the projeflor, and partly from thesd proprie-
ignorance of his employer, thews the advantages thattor’
gentlemen of landed eilates wYould derive from the
lludy of geology. An acquaintance with this fcience
would guard them againft the artifices of defigning
men, and prevent them from embarking in uncertain
and expenljve projedls, the iffue of which is too often
rum and difappointment. ^
4. But the itudy of geology boafts a ftill higher ad- and to the
vantage. Nothing has more contributed to demonftrateChriftian’
tlie truth of the divine writings, and to clear up many
doubtful paffages in them, than the difeoveries that
have lately been made in the ftru&ure and formation
of the earth. The original Hate of the globe is fo
intimately conne6led with that wdiich it at prefent ex¬
hibits, that we cannot properly underftand the latter
without referring to the former j and recent experience
has {hewn that the obfeurity in which the philofophical
knowledge of this fubje6l was involved, has been high¬
ly favourable to thofe fyftems of atheiim and infidelity
which prevailed in the laft age. Much of this obfeuri¬
ty is now removed; and the inveftigations ofWhite-
hurft, Werner, Kirwan, Howard, and fome other geo-
logifts, by proving that the fuppofition of a deluge is
the only hypothefis on which wfe can account for the
prefent ftate of our globe, have contributed as much to
the advancement of true religion as of philofophical
knowledge.
“ bo numerous indeed, and fo luminous, have been the
more modern geological refearches, and fo obvioufiy
conne6led with the objebt w^e have now in view, that
fince the obfeuration or obliteration of the primitive
traditions, ftrange as it may appear, no period has oc¬
curred fo favourable to the illuftration of the original
ftate of the globe as the prefent, though fo far removed
from it. At no period has its furfac<? been traverfed in
fo many different dire61ions, or its ftiape and extent
under its different modifications of earth and w-ater been
fo nearly afeertained, and the relative denlity of the
whole fo accurately determined, its folid conftituent
parts fo exa6lly diftinguifhed, their mutual relation, both
as to pofition and compofition, fo clearly traced, or pur-
fued to fuch confiderable depths, as within thefe Jail
thirty years. Neither have the teftimonies that relate
to it been ever fo critically examined and carefully * Kiriuan'
weighed, nor confequently fo well underftood, as with- GeoLEflyu
in the latter half of the i 8th century S
Geological refearches feem at firlt view to be attend- Difficu!t_ies
ed with almoft infurmountable difficulty. It is
dent that the part of the earth which it is in our power not infurl
to examine, is infinitely fmall when compared to that mountable,
winch is entirely beyond our reach ; and even much of
the elevated parts, that appear above the furface, wmuld
feem to be fo completely cut off from us by inacceffible
precipices, and the ice and fnovv with which the furn-
mits ?
552 GEO I
Imroduc- rnits of forae of tliem are! perpetually covered, that
t tlon‘ , our knowledge of their ftru&ure and compolitions
mud for ever remain imperfect. Much of thefe diffi¬
culties, however, is rather apparent than real. It is
true that our refearches can extend but a very little
way below the furface ; but fo tar as our experience
has yet taught us, any farther inveftigation would be
rather a matter of cmdofity than utility. Thofe metals
and minerals which prove of mod fervice to mankind,
are found at no very great depth in the earth, and fome
of them almod on its furface •, and when we have pene¬
trated beyond thefe, the materials difeovered are of a
, nature fo uniform, and of a texture fo firm and hard,
that it is pollible they may extend even to the centre.
Again, the inveftigations of SauiTure, De Luc, Dolo-
mieu, and Humboldt, have proved that the mod dan¬
gerous precipices, and the highed fummits of thofe im-
menfe mountainous chains which traverfe the earth in
fo many direblions, oppofe but feeble barriers to per-
fevering indufhy and philofophic ardour.
The diverfity which occurs in the iiruclure and lo¬
cal arrangement of fubterraneous fubdances, feems to
throw another difficulty in the way of the geologid $
but the farther his refearches are extended, the more
will this apparent diverfity be diminifhed. The practi¬
cal ikill which fome miners poflefs in many parts of the
rvorld, proves that the mazes of this labyrinth are not
without a clue j and we may fafely conclude, that when
our knowledge of the druCture of the earth, and the
difpofition of its materials, (hall be dill farther extend¬
ed, the greater part of the obfcurities under which the
fubject is now veiled, will be entirely removed. Mul¬
tiplied obfervations of later years have enabled us to
form certain general conclufions, and lay down cer¬
tain general laws, which mud materially a did future
9 obfervers.
Principal In the modem improvements of geology the Ger-
jmprovet-j mans tp,e way. an(l Lehmann may be confidered
" ' as the father of the fcience. Eminently Hulled in ge¬
neral phyfics, pradtical mining* mineralogy, and che-
midry, and fully acquainted with the circumdances
attending the relative fituation of mod mineral bodies
in very extenfive traCts of different countries which he
examined, he was enabled to deduce, from a long fe-
ries of obfervations, fome general conclufions, which
have, with fome exceptions, been fince verified in every
part of the world.
Lehmann was followed in his own country by
Bergman, Berber, Gmelin, Crondedt, Born, and Wer¬
ner ; in Italy, by Arduini and Tilas *, in Switzerland,
by SauiTure and De Luc j in Ruffia, by Pallas ; in
Frrjce, by Delametherie, Saint Fond, Dolomieu, and
Lavoifier; and in Britain, by Hutton and Kirwan,
names which mud ever be held in the highed edima-
10 txon by the cultivators of this part of natural hidory.
Method of Before entering on the dudy of geology, it is ne-
ftudying Ceffary to acquire a competent knowledge of chemidry,
§e osy‘ and a pretty extenfive acquaintance vvith mineralogy,
as thefe fciences form an effiential introduction to the
more general refearches refpefting the druCIure of the
earth. The former fupplies the means of afcertaining
the nature of the fubdances met with j and the latter
mud be well underdood, before we can arrange thefe
fubftances under their proper heads, and before we
- o G Y.
can comprehend the terms employed by geological I' trodue*
writers. tio«.
I he dudy of this fcience, like that of fome other '
parts of natural hidory, particularly botany, can be
profecuted with but little advantage in the clolet. The
dudent mud examine the declivities of hills, the beds
of rivers, the interior of caverns and of mines, the re¬
cedes of the ravine, and the utmod fummits of the
mountain, before he can obtain that degree of know¬
ledge which is necedary to conftkute a ikiiful and phi¬
lofophic geologid. While making thefe perfonal ob¬
fervations, he ihould dudy the works of the bed writers,
and compare the fads related and defcribed by them,
with thole which he himfelf has obferved. The writ¬
ings on this fubjeCt may be divided into two principal
clafles, one comprehending thofe works which contain
a fydematic account of the whole, or fome part of the
fubjeCI 5 fuch as Bergman’s Phyfical Geography, the
Geological Effays of Kirwan, the Theorie de la Terre
of Delametherie, the writings of Werner, &c. : and
the fecond comprifing thofe works which treat of the
geology of particular countries in the familiar dyle of
travels j as Born’s Travels in Hungary, Ferber’s Tra¬
vels through Italy, Sauffure’s Voyage dans les Jllpes,
Pallas’s Travels, Jar’s Voyages Metaliurgiques, Saint
Fond’s 1 ravels in England and Scotland, &c. After
having acquired a knowledge of the principles and ge¬
neral faffs of the fcience from the former, the dudent
will, by means of the latter, increafe his knowledge in
the mod familiar and agreeable way. „
In the Iketch of geology which we are to give in Arrange-
the following article, we lhall confider the lubject un- ment*
der three general heads, which will be the fubjecl of as
many chapters.
In the fird chapter we lhall defcribe the arrangement
and didribution of the materials of which the earth is
compofed. Here, after giving fome general notion of
that arrangement, we ffiall confider each of the prin¬
cipal materials under a feparate feftion, in which we
lhall fird lay down thofe general marks by which each
is didinguiihed, defcribe its general arrangement, and
mention the places, efpecially in Britain, where the
lubdance is found in greated abundance, and thofe
metallic or mineral bodies which are commonly found
in connexion with it. After having briefly conlidered
each fubdance, we fnall bring the more general didribu¬
tion of them under one view, dill direfling oui atten¬
tion to the arrangement of thefe materials in the Bri-
tiffi illands.
In the fecond chapter we (hall give a brief outline of
the mod remarkable theories that have been framed
in modern times, to account for the didribution of
mineral bodies, and the manner in which we find
them now arranged. In this chapter we fliall dwell
more particularly on the two rival theories which at
prefent divide the geological world, and lhall enume¬
rate fome of the objeflions which have been made to
each.
In the third chapter we lhall give fome account of
the derangement of the fubdances that compofe our
globe, fo far as it has originated from known caufes j
and this will lead us to the conlideration of Earth¬
quakes and Volcanoes.
2
Chap.
Chap. T.
GEOLOGY.
I. Of Ike Arrangement and. Diflrihitim of
13
Stratifica¬
tion.
14
Horizontal
Arrange¬
ment, sec. Chap
the Materials of which the Earth is Compofed.
the Earth. _ I
v— 1 * t The materials of which the general mafs of the earth
12 compoied, are varioufiy diftributed in different parts,
diftribution *.n/0me f*aces t^ey form irregular mafles or blocks,
of :he ma- e^“er buried below the furface, or elevated to a greater
terialsof or lefs height above it. In moll: places, however, the
the earth, materials are arranged in a more regular manner j thofe
°f the.fame kind being collefted into extenfive mafles,
lying in layers or ftrata, above or below a fimilar
mafs of another kind, or thefe alternate with each
other to a confiderable depth. Thefe ftrata are fome-
times found arranged in a dire&ion parallel to the ho¬
rizon ; at others they are vertical, or perpendicular to
the horizon, appearing as if the horizontal ftrata had
been lifted up, and laid upon their edges. More com¬
monly the ftrata are arranged in a dire&ion inclining
to the horizon, when they are faid to dip.
The uppermoft ftratum is in moft places covered to
a certain depth with mould that has evidently been
formed from the decompofition of organized fubftances.
In many parts of the earth this mould extends to
a very confiderable depth, and conftitutes the foil j in
other places it is barely fufficient to form a coating to
the ftrata, and in others it is entirely wanting.
A good inftance of horizontal ftrata occurs about
and vertical two miles to the eaft of Balleycaftle in the north of
ftiata. Ireland, of which we ftiall fpeak more particularly by
and by. One of the moft curious examples of vertical
ftrata in Britain is found in the fmail ifiand of Caldey,
on the coaft of Pembrokefhire, w'here the ftrata of
which the whole ifiand is compofed are placed in
fuch a manner, that their edges are all expofed to view,
and they may be fucceflively examined from the one end
of the ifiand to the other. It is feldom that an oppor¬
tunity offers of examining the arrangement of ftrata
fo eafily as is afforded in this fmall ifiand. In moft
cafes it is neceffary to penetrate to great depths before
we can acquire an imperfeft knowledge of the ftrati-
fication of the earth ^ and in no inftance have we yet
proceeded a mile below the furface. In Caldey ifiand,
however, the ftrata may be examined to the extent of
more than a mile, beginning at what may be fuppofed
the uppermoft ftratum, which is not more than a foot
thick, to that which may be called the loweft, at the
oppofite end of the iiland, being a mafs of red ftone of
more than a mile in depth.
Derange- Sometimes the ftrata are continued in a regular ar-
rneut of the rangement, preferving the fame inclination to a very
ftrata. confiderable extent 5 but more commonly they appear in
fome parts feparated, as if they had been broken afun-
der. Thefe feparations are ufually in a perpendicular
dire&ion, and the cavities are found filled with various
heterogeneous matters. Sometimes thefe are chiefly
compofed of fragments of the adjacent ftrata, but for
the moft part they confift of mineral or metallic fub¬
ftances of a different nature.
When thefe fiffures are filled up with broken frag¬
ments, or rubble, as it is called, it very commonly hap¬
pens that they become the beds of brooks or rivers.
I hus the river Dement runs for a confiderable extent
in Derbyfhire over a fiffure of this kind. When the
filfure is filled up with a folid ftony matter, this forms
VoL. IX. Part II,
553
what in Scotland is called a dyke. If a mafs of mineral Arrange-’
or metallic matters fill the fiffure, or be infinuated be- meut>&c-
tween the ftrata, it forms what is called a vein, and °/ the M:;-
thefe veins iometimes branch between the ftrata in vari- C1
ous directions. , .the ^afthl
When a frafture has taken place in the ftratified
mafs, ofle part oi the mafs fometimes preferves the fame
poiition as it had before, or ftill forms a continued line
with the other parts of the mafs, or is parallel to it j
but more frequently one part is thrown out of its origi¬
nal petition, and becomes more inclined to the horizon
than before. Sometimes one fide of the mafs is more
deprelfed than the other, as is commonly feen in many
of the ftrata in Derby thire ; at others the two parts of
the mafs are fo difturbed as to incline towards each
other, as if they had been broken upwards. When the
edges of the ftrata on each fide of the fiffure are thus
divided and difarranged, they are faid by the miners to
trap.
^ The chafms thus formed are fometimes of confider¬
able width. Some are found in Cornwall nearly 20 feet
acrofs, and almoft full of metallic and other mineral
lubftances. It not unfrequently happens, that thefe
fiffures are empty, containing nothing but water in the
bottom. A celebrated chafm of this kind is (hewn at
the Peak in Derby {hire 5 and if a ftone be thrown in,
it is heard to ftrike from fide to fide for a confiderable
time, till at length it feems loft in fubterraneous water.
. the country in which the ftrata lie runs in a wa¬
ving direction of hill and dale, the ftrata ufually pre-
ferve the fame waving direction, keeping pretty nearly
parallel to each other. A curious example of this kind Plate
has been delcribed by Gerhard, as occurring in the ccxxxvnx,
diftriCt of Mansfield in Germany. See fig. 1. In 16
thofe places where fome remarkable diflocation of the Strata !n
ftrata has not taken place, their diftribution is in ge- fubr ^
neral extremely regular, certain materials lying above ^
or below certain others in an uniform manner. The
obfervations of later geologifts have difeovered* pretty
nearly the arrangement that takes place in moft coun¬
tries j and we fhall prefently give fome examples of the
ftratificanon of feveral parts of Europe. Before we at¬
tempt this, however, we muft mention fome circum-
ftances in which the materials compofing the ftrata dif¬
fer from each other.
The general ^obfervation of all modern geologifts Divifion of '
proves, that all them materials may be diftnbuted under tnateri-
two general claffes j one confifting of thofe fubftances aIs*
which are found more or lefs connected with the re¬
mains of organized bodies, as the bones, teeth, and
fliells of animals, the trunks of trees, and other ’parts
of vegetable bodies 5 and the other comprehendinir
thofe m the fubftance of which thefe organic remains arC
never found. As it is now generally believed that
the latter of thefe are of a formation prior to the form¬
er, we. fhall here adopt the general divifion of them
mto primary and fecondary. We might go ftill farther
in this divifion, by arranging them under more heads •
one, for example, containing thofe in which organic re¬
mains are fparingly found, and others containing thofe.
lubftances which are found only in particular places •
but as the firft of thefe involves in it a particular theory
which we fhall notice ftilly hereafter, and the others
allude to faCls which will be mentioned when treating
0- the feparate materials, we (hall not here extend our
4 A divifion
554 GEO L
Arrange- diviuon beyond tbe diftribution of the materials into
cFth’ ^ta' Primary an<^ fecondary.
terials of" 1 ie ^0ii0wing ftiort detail, many terms will occur
the Earth, which can be underftood only by the mineralogift.
v...,—y—, Xhey will be fully explained under the article Mine¬
ralogy. The names which we fhall give to the fub-
ftances defcribed will be fuch as have been molt gene¬
rally adopted in this country 5 but to prevent ambigui¬
ty, we lhall, where it feems to be neceflary, add the
fynonimous names that occur in the belt geological
Writings.
A. Primitive Compounds.
Sect. I. Of Granite.
18
Granite The name granite has long been applied to all Hones
dr uribta. •vv}1ic}} are compofed of an aggregate of quartz, feldlpar,
and mica, diilributed in luch a manner as that each of
them appear in a feparate ftate \ but as this definition
has been confidered as too loofe, and comprehending
too many varieties, the name is at prefent reftricted to
that kind of granitic Hone in which the quartz, feld-
fpar, and mica, are found in grains or cryftals. Of the
' three fubftances, the feldfpar is generally the molt
abundant, and the mica the leaf! fo.
Granite is found in the loweft and the higheft fitua-
tions of the earth that have yet been examined. It
forms the bafis of all the other flrata j and though
thefe are fometimes found below it, this fituation feems
to have been the confequence of fome accident, by
which the inferior fubftances were thrown below the
granite. Many mountains feem almoft entirely com¬
pofed of granite, as Gefrorn one of the Rhaxtian Alps *,
and there is a high hill of white granite about fix miles
to the weft of Strontian in Scotland. Sometimes large
maffes of granite are found in a detached fituation at
fome diftance from the mountains to which they appear
to belong $ and thefe mafifes feem in fome inftances to
have been broken off, and rolled down the mountain,
and in others to have been carried away by irrefifti-
* Mawet kle torrents, or dillodged by earthquakes. On the
Derbyjhirc, fummits of the mountains near Port Sonnachin in Scot-
p. 132. land, are found large quantities of detached pieces of
It rtf grar)ite> fome of them of amazing fize *.
ect Itates Granite is moft commonly found in vaft blocks, fe-
parated from each other by rifts or chafms, irregularly
difpofed. This is the cafe in moft mountains, efpecial-
ly in thofe which have high, pointed fpires. The ftruc-
ture of thefe blocks is pretty uniform, there occurring
feidom more than two varieties, one called porphyritic
granite, in which the bafis is of a fine grain, containing
large cryftals of feldfpar. Of this variety many in¬
ftances occur in the north of Scotland, and near Carlf-
bad in Bohemia. The other principal variety is that in
which the granite is found in diftinft globular concre¬
tions, compofed of concentric lamellae. This variety
was obferved by Mr Jamefon, on the road between
Drefd6n and Bautzen j and Mr Barrand, in his defcrip-
tion of the Cape of Good Hope, mentions feveral glo-
Urnlar concretion? of immenfe fize. The ifle of Arran
O G Y.
Chop. I.
in Scotland alfo affords inftances of the fame variety. Arrange.
It is alfo found in Corfica, and is often called Corffca n“‘nG8tc.
granite. t^.e Ma¬
lt has been doubted by feme geologifts, whether the tht'EartK
true granite is ever found ftratified ; but numerous in y—J
ftances of its ftratification have been lately adduced, 20
that leave no room to doubt that this is fometimes theStri,ufie^'
cafe. Pallas takes notice of fome ftratified granite on
the banks of the river Berda, where what he confidered
as perfeCl primitive granite, compaftly cryftallized, is
difpofed in layers of various degrees of thicknefs, fome
not exceeding one-eighth of an inch, and bounded both
above and below by blocks of folid granite f. Again, f PallaSt
on the banks of the Gromoklea, he obferved fimilar Trav. vol. i.
layers of granite running in a dire£lion from north to^
fouth, each bed being from one fpan to three feet fix
inches in breadth, and conlifting of the moft perfeiff
primitive granite, which he confiders as a continuation
of that mineral trafl wdiich produces the cataracts of
the Dnieper J. Mr Playfair mentions an example of t Ibid, vol,
ftratified granite which he faw in Chorley foreft in Lei-11- P1 5°3*
cefterfhire, where real granite is difpofed in beds on the
eaitern border of the foreft, efpecially near Mount Sor¬
rel. Another inftance of real granite difpofed in re¬
gular beds, is alfo mentioned by Mr Playfair as occur¬
ring near the village of Prieltlaw in Berwickfhire |]. Mr |j Playfair'3
Jamefon obferved the Riefengebirge, which, feparates Pluf rationst
Silefia from Bohemia, to be for 150 miles compofed of?'
granite difpofed in horizontal ftrata, and he obferved a 7^ ivo
limilar ftratification in Saxony and Lufatia $. voj. ^
Granite conftitutes the bafe of moft of the Britifli 21
mountains, but is more commonly met with in the north
and weftern parts of the illand. There is a confiderable
mafs of granite which runs longitudinally through Corn¬
wall, from Dartmore to the Land’s End *. Confider- * Playfair,
able maffes are found in Scotland, but their extent has310-
not been accurately afeertained. According to Mr
Playfair, there is no mafs of any magnitude in the
fouthern parts, except that of Gallowray, which occurs
in two pretty large infulated tra£ts. Mr Playfair thinks
that Dr Hutton greatly underrated the quantity of gra¬
nite in Scotland, which, efpecially in the north, he con¬
fiders as extending over a large diftrift. If we fuppofe
a line to be drawn from a few miles fouth of Aber¬
deen, to a few miles fouth of Fort William, it will, ac¬
cording to Mr Playfair, mark out the central chain of
the Grampians, along which line there are many gra¬
nite mountains, and large trails in which granite is thef lllufra-
. 0 0 p. 340.
prevailing rock f.
It is remarkable that in the mountainous regions of
Peru, efpecially in the environs of the volcanoes, not0n^'jj-
granite is found, except in very low fituations, at the 395.
bottom of valleys 22
Several varieties of granite are fubjeft to decay, from Decay of
the decompofition of the feldfpar which they contain.granite.
This circumftance will probably explain a curious fadft.
It is found that the granite exifting in the interior of
mountains is much fofter than that near the furface,
probably from the decay of the feldipar in the lat¬
ter, while it remains in its original ftate in the for¬
mer (b).
Granite
(3) The decompofition of granite appears to go through feveral ftages, from the folid rock to the loofe fand.
Thefe
Chap. I. GEO
Arrange- . Granite is by no means abundant in metallic and the
of the Ma rJcIier mJner^ iubftances j it, however, contains a con-
' tcrials of* fideraI:)le variety, fome of which have as yet been found
the Earth. in 110 other fubftance, efpecially molybdena. Iron ores
are very commonly found in granite, efpecially the
compact brown iron done. It feems to be Diving to
the prefence of iron that granite affumes that fine red-
diih colour ivith which we fomctimes fee it tinged. One
of the molt remarkable inftances of this kind is afforded
by the rocks to the fouth-ealt of the valley of Chamou-
ni, at the foot of the Alps. Thefe rocks, from their
red appearance, are called Les Aiguilles Rouges, or the
red needles. Thefe rocks w'ere mentioned by Saulfure,.
but he had not afcertained their compofition. This has
fince been done by M. Berger, who found them to be
compofed of granite, with a confiderable quantity of
*Jour.de oxide of iron*. Bifmuth, cobalt, blende, galena
l2-”" (an ore *ead)> and feveral ores of copper, are alfo
VU P'2/7‘Sometimes met with-, but the metal moft frequently
found in granite is tin, efpecially in the great mining
field in Cornwall.
23
Metals
found in
granite.
Sect. II. Gneifs.
Gneifsde- Gneiss, by fome writers called kneifs, is not unfre-
fcribed. quently confounded with granite, from which it differs
rather in the arrangement than in the nature of its com¬
ponent parts. Thefe in gneifs are arranged in a fchif-
tofe or flaty form, whereas in granite, they are in dif-
tindf grains or cryflals, the layers being generally in
the direction of the mica. It fometimes is intimately
incorporated with maffes of granite, but, in moft in¬
ftances, it repofes on the granite, being generally the
fecond layer. In defcending into the valley of Cha-
mouni, Sauffure obferved a fine bed of true granite in¬
corporated with a rock of gneifs, which was arranged
f royage in very fine leaves f. Sometimes the gneifs lies entire-
tUX£?Ip:s' ly below the granite ; but this is uncommon. More
generally there is found a vertical mafs of granite, with
ft nit a of gneifs on each fide of it. Very frequently gra¬
nite and gneifs alternate with each other.
Sometimes whole mountains are compofed of gneifs.
Thus, Ben Lomond fcarcely contains any other fub-
ftance, and the Schaw, which is the moft northern point
of the northernmoft of the Shetland iflands, is entirely
gneifs. Mountains of this kind are, in general, neither
fo high nor fo fteep as thofe of granite, though Mount
Rofa in Italy, and a few others, muft be excepted.
The fummits of thefe mountains are alfo generally more
rounded than thofe of granite mountains. The bafes of
all the Shetland illands feem chiefly compofed of gneifs,
and the middle part of the Pyrenees is almoft wholly
formed of this and granite.
It is curious that where gneifs is contiguous to gra-
p. 070.
25
Where
found.
LOG Y.
555
nite, its quartz and feldfpar are more apparent, and Amrnge-
the mica lefs fo 5 while, where it is more diftant from ^c*
granite, the contrary happens f. _ _ wnab of ™
Several metallic ores are found in gneifs, particular- the Earth.
ly thofe of iron, as the magnetic iron ftone, and martial  v—
pyrites j lead ores, tin ores, blende, cobalt, copper, ^
and arienical pyrites, and not unfrequently filver ores. *n
gneifs.
SECT. III. Micaceous Schi/lus. I Kir-wan'^
Etfays, p.
I His is otherwife called fchijiofe mica, and mica Jiate.
It is alfo compofed of the fame materials with granite Micaceous
and gneifs, except that it contains little or no feldfpar j fchiftys.
the quartz and mica being arranged in layers as in
gneifs.
I nis lubftance alfo is very abundant in moft rocks
and mountains. It generally compofes the third layer
or ftratum, being immediately above or without the
gneifs. It not uncommonly appears to be the only fub-
ftance compofing the hill or mountain, from the gneifs
and granite being probably fo completely covered as to
be out of fight. - 8
Micaceous fchiftus compofes the rocks that are found where
immediately to the north of Dunkeld in Scotland, andfoi,Ild'
it is here penetrated in every direftion by veins1 of
quartz. The fouthern (bores of Loch Tay, the moun¬
tains of ulen Lochy, the vale of Tumel between Loch
Tumel and Loch Rannocb, contain much of the fame
fun (lance j and the lower part of Glen lilt is chiefly
compofed of it. In the weftern Highlands towards
Ben Lomond, micaceous fchiftus alfo abounds, and
fome of it is found in the north of Argylefhire. The
Shetland iflands are moftly compofed of micaceous fchif¬
tus, in thick layers above the gneifs, with a few maffes
of granite interfperfed.
It not unfrequently happens that a bed of micaceous
fchiftus is interfered by veins of granite. Mr Jamefon
obferved an example of this in Glen Drummond in Ba- * Min. Bf
denoch, of which he has given a plate. The veins are tbl 1Jles-
very large, and run acrofs the ftrata of fchiftus in a di vo1- "*
reftion nearly parallel to each other *. l73'
1 he metallic ores found in micaceous fchiftus, are Metals in
chiefly thofe of iron, copper, tin, lead, cobalt, and an- h-
timony.
Sect. IV. Quart*.
(Quartz is not unfrequently found diftinc! from feld- Quartz,
fpar and mica, and fometimes whole mountains are
found compofed of it. In particular, the mountain of
Kultuc, at the fouth-eaft end of the lake of Baikal,
among the Altaifchian mountains, which is 4800 feet
350#bigh, and above 4000 broad, confifts en¬
tirely of milk-white quartz ; and the mountain of Flinz-
4 A 2 berg
Thefe are thus marked by Mr Jamefon. In its beginning difmtegration it fplits into maffes, having a greater or
ef, tendency to the quadrangular form; but thefe maffes have ftill a degree oj connexion amongft thenffelves, as
oofenedfromTh •eI"°" P'^, mT 7 ,S of the fiffures, by svhfch the maffes are
hon,?„ • connex'on’ '.Tl11' down from ,helr devatEd fixations, upon the fummits of the neigh-
glenTIithT'T’ “a”' h“med rhn,,mP?uUT7d°C’^ d°"n ,he ">vering the bottom of the
d hn eg atd ? "T' , La,fl.Ir’ ? 'if detacl;ed % the aaion of the weather, are completely
. , a 1?ofe/a’’d> "h,ch 1S left "P™ tlle ‘ops or Tides of the mountains, or is carried in great
.-amities to the fea Ihore by the torrents. Jamefen's Mmera/cgy of tht Scottifh IJles, vol. i. p. 82. E
f Williams'
JMiniral
Kingdom,
▼ol.ii.p. S'!.
31
No metals
in quartz.
G E O L
berg in Luface, is almoft wholly compofed of it. There
is alfo an extenfive ridge of quartz, fome miles long, in
Bavaria, and Monnet mentions a rock of it 60 feet
high. Mountains of it are alfo found in Thuringia, Si-
leiia, and Saxony. It fometimes forms layers between
gneifs and micaceous fchiftus. A conliderable ftratum
ef this kind, confiding of granular quartz, is found be¬
tween granite and micaceous fchiftus in the ifland of
May, fee fig. 4. b. It is often found forming fpires on
the tops of mountains, and appearing like fnow.
Quartz is found in feveral parts of Britain j but there
is very little of it in the fouthern part of the ifiand.
Williams found it very common in the Highlands of
Scotland, where he has feen it regularly ftratified, with
other regular ftrata immediately above and below it j
and fometimes compofing high mountains entirely of its
own ftrata. Thefe ftrata are fometimes moderately fo-
lid j but often are naturally broken into fmall irregular
mafles, with (harp angles, and of a uniformly fine gra¬
nulated texture, refembling the fineft loaf fugar.
There are large and high mountains of this ftone in
the (hires of Rofs and Invernefs j and in a clear day
thefe appear at a diftance as white as fnow, being quite
bare of vegetation, except a little dry heath around the
bafe of the hill f.
The mountain of Swetlaia Gera, one of the Uralian
chain, confifts of round grains of quartz, white and
tranfparent, and of the fize of a pea, united without
any cement.
No metals are found in quartz, though it fometimes
contains petroleum..
3 *
Argillace¬
ous fchiftus
ciefcribed.
, 33
where
found.
Sect. V. Argillaceous Schi/lus.
This ftone, w’hich is otherwife called clay [late, is
the thonchieffer of Werner, and the argillite of Kirwan.
It is of the fame nature with gneifs and micaceous fchif¬
tus 5 but in this the ftratification is ftill more complete,
and all traces of cryftallized granite entirely difappear.
Doubts have arifen whether this ftone is primitive $ but
thefe are now cleared up, as it is frequently found al¬
ternating with gneifs and micaceous fchiftus, efpecially
in Saxony, and with other primitive ftrata. It fome¬
times happens, too, that both gneifs and granite reft
upon it.
There are two varieties of this (tone, one hard, and
the other foft; but the hard often graduates into the
fofter.
Sometimes this ftone is found forming whole moun¬
tains ; but more commonly it enters into them only par¬
tially. In fome, however, there are entire ftrata of it,
as at Zillerthal, in the Tyrol. The famous mountains
O G Y. Chap. I.
of Potofi confift entirely of, argillaceous fchiftus, and Arrange-
Sauflure found it on the fummit of Mont Blanc. ^•c‘
In Britain it is not very common *, but is fometimes 0terjai5 0f~
found on the higher parts of mountains. Thus it forms the Earth.
the fummit of Skiddaw in Cumberland. : .. — •
Argillaceous fchiftus, efpecially the fofter variety, is 34
remarkably rich in metals. We have faid that it ^orms *in it.
the greater part of Potofi, one of the richeft filver
mines. The ores of copper and lead, fulphur, pyrites,
blende, and calamine, are alfo found in it. The great
belly of copper ore in the Parrys mountain in Anglefea,
is found below this fubftance. It alfo fometimes con¬
tains antimonial and mercurial ores.
Sect. VI. Jafper.
35
It was fuppofed, by the earlier mineralogifts of thejafpcrde-
laft century, that jafper was only pure quartz, fo muchfcriked.
penetrated by a colouring metallic oxide as entirely to
deprive it of its tranfparency j but Sauflure and Dolo-
mieu, with their ufual accuracy, difcovered that it con¬
fifts of flint, and not of pure quartz, having in combi¬
nation a quantity of argillaceous matter, more or lefs
mixed with oxide of iron.
Primitive jafper is always opaque. It is commonly
found imbedded in other ftony matters. In colour it
varies from red to green, and frequently confifts of al¬
ternate ftripes of red and green, fometimes perfe&ly
diftinft, at others running together. There is a beau¬
tiful variety figured by Patrin, in which a dark-red
ground is crofled in every direction with curved white
lines, leaving here and there circular fpaces of red fur-
rounded with white, forming eyes.
Striped jafper is fometimes fo abundant, as to be the Where
chief material of fome mountains, in which it is mixed found,
with broken fragments of granite and other primary
compounds (c). Mountains of red and green jafper alfo
occur. Generally, however, it appears in ftrata, inter-
pofed between layers of micaceous fchiftus, or alternat¬
ing, and fometimes mixed with compa£l red iron ftone.
It is found in the fouth of France, repofing on granite 5
anft. in the Altaifchan mountains, it fometimes lies be¬
low argillaceous fchiftus, but has there never been
found in contaft with granite. A coarfe kind of jafper
is fometimes found in the hills near Edinburgh •, and
fome fine fpecimens are met with in the northern moun¬
tains.
Sect. VII. Hornjlone.
37
This ftone is confidered by Dr Kirwan as the fame Hornftone
with petrofilex, but Patrin and fome others diftinguilh defcribed.
them.
(c) There is often found interpofed between the ftrata of rocks, or fometimes above the upper ftratum, a bed
of fragments that have been broken off from the principal ftrata. When thefe fragments chiefly confift of hmeftone
and calcareous compounds, whether they be of an angular form, or confift of rounded pebbles, they are generally
called by the name of breccia ; but when the fragments are of a filiceous or quartzy nature, efpecially if they axe
agglutinated together, fo as to form a folid mafs, they have ufually been called puddingstone. From the. uncer¬
tain manner in which thefe terms were employed, much confufion arofe, till Rome de I’lfle, and other later na-
turalifts, have given the name of breccia to every ftony mafs that is compofed of angular fragments, of whatever
nature they be; and they call by the name of puddingftone every agglutinated mafs that is compofed of
round pebbles, whether they be calcareous, quartzofe, or of any other nature. Thefe compounds will be fpokea
cfprefently in a feparate fcfticn.
Chap. I. G E O L
Arrange- them. According to Patrin, hornftone is a compound
cf the Mai PrimitIve. rock; compofed of the fame elements with
teriais of, gran^te» in which i'chorl is very abundant, communicat-
the Earth. ing to the done a dull, gray, or fometimes blackilh,
1 v- colour, and containing a pretty large quantity of the
argillaceous matter of mica. Petrolilex, according to
him, is purer than hornftone, and commonly of a gray-
ilh or greenilh colour, femitranfparent, and very hard,
io as to give fire with fteel. They are often found
united, and fometimes form entire mountains, contain¬
ing fragments of feldfpar interfperfed. They are com¬
monly found in large thick maffes or blocks, though
they are fometimes ftratified like the fchiftofe ftones.
Dolomieu is miftaken, when he afferts that petrofilex
is only found in primitive mountains, as it will appear
hereafter, that it is fometimes a fecondary compound.
At Tuhumas, in the ifle of Rona, Mr Jamefon found
a mafs of rock chiefly compofed of hornftone and
quartz, from 12 to 15 feet wide, and of confiderable
length, lying between two beds of gneifs.
Sect. VIII. Pitchftone.
38
-Atchftonc The Germans have given the name ofpitchjione, or
ae.cn e . pechj}ein, to a ftony matter, which is found in large
mafles cf an irregular form, and of different colours, as
yellow, brown, red, green, &c. having fometimes the
appearance of rofin, and fometimes that of an enamel,
or of glafs imperfectly tranfparent. It is never cryftal-
39 lized.
fcmnd 6 !S e^tker 1X1 large maffes, or in veins. At
Mifnia, it is found forming entire mountains ; and in
other countries there are mountains containing ftrata of
pitchftone, fometimes alternating with granite, at
others with porphyry. Mr Jamefon defcribes a large
vein of it of a green colour, feveral feet wide, traver-
fing a mafs of red argillaceous fandftone, at Tormore
in the ifle of Arran. This vein is extremely curious,
and contains ftratulae of different fubftances depofited in
* Jamefonj the fame fiffure *. Another curious vein of pitchftone
tjf'l/]™1 °f\ ^ him as traverfing a bafaltic rock, toge-
i- p 102° t:ker a ve^n hornftone, in the ifland of Eigg f.
t Id. voi. ii. Jame^on confiders this as the firft example of pitch-
p. 44. ftone traverfing bafalt, difcovered in Europe, though
fimilar appearances have been found on the top of the
peak of Teneriffe.
Pitch ftone is only confidered as a primitive rock,
when it is nearly allied to porphyry.
40
Sect. IX. Hornblende, and Hornblende Slate.
Sue!bIende Hornblende is fometimes found exifting feparately
from the compounds in which it ufually occurs, as is
the cafe in Siberia, where there are mountains of black
horn blende. It is often found mixed with quartz,
mica, feldfpar, or fchorl, of a greenilh or black co¬
lour. More commonly, however, it occurs in immenfe
ftrata, fometimes in layers of gneifs, argillaceous fchif-
tus, or primitive limeftone. A ftratum of it above pri¬
mitive limeftone has been found at Miltiz. It is fome¬
times feen below granite, or granite is even found im¬
bedded in it. A rock of hornblende, repofing on gra-
1 Min. of nite, has been feen by Mr Jamefon in the ifle of Arran j
Iftes, vol. i. and on the fide of Loch Fine he found it alternating
1>,7*—J44. V7ith ftrata of micaceous fchiftus +.
O G T. 557
Ihe principal metallic fubftances found in horn- Arrange-
blende flate, are native ftflphuret of iron and copper nlerit:>
nrp r of the Ma-
C* terials of
the Earth.
Sect. X. Serpentine, —v--'
4*
Serpentine is a ftone of a fimilar nature with refpeft^^^H
to its ingredients with thofe we have been defcribing.
It takes its name from its appearance, being ganerally Serpentine
of a greenilh ground, marked with white, yellow,'Efrdbed,
brown, or reddifli fpots, fo as to bear fome refemblance
to the {kin of a fnake. Its green colour is owing to a
quantity of {lightly oxidated iron which it contains. It
is ufually opaque j but fometimes parts of it are femi¬
tranfparent, and though not very hard, is capable of
receiving a good polilh. ^
Serpentine is by no means uncommon, and is often Where
found in layers alternating with primitive limeftone, or^0111^.
below gneifs. The hill of Zobtenbeg in Lower Silefia,
confifts almoft entirely of ferpentine, difpofed in nearly
vertical ftrata, with a little hornblende interfperfed.
Whole mountains of green ferpentine are alfo found in
Siberia, and near Genoa, where it is called gabbro or
pulvereKKa. It is alfo found near the White fea, and the
mountain of Regelberg in Germany is chiefly compofed
of it. Rocks of it are found near the Lizard Point, on
the coaft of Cornwall ; and hills of it occur in fome of
the Shetland iflands.
Metals are feldom found in ferpentine, except a mag¬
netic ore of iron, which not unfrequently forms a part
of the ferpentine rocks, imparting to them its magnetm
power. Veins of copper fometimes traverfe it.
SECT. XI. Porphyry.
Porphyry generally confifts of the fame materials as Porphyry
granite, but in different proportions, and having alto-defcribed,
gether a different appearance j for inftead of being cryf-
tallized as in granite, we find in the true porphyries an
uniform compa& mafs, in which are diffeminated fmall
cryftals of feldfpar, and fometimes of fchorl. There
are, however, many varieties forming ftiades between
granite and true porphyry, feveral of which are de-
fcribed by mineralogifts.
Porphyry is very abundant in many fituations, form-Where
ing a confiderable part of hills, and even mountains, found.
It fometimes alternates with gneifs, and has been found
below it. Gneifs has alfo been found in the midft of
porphyry. It fometimes occurs in the midft of mica¬
ceous'fchiftus, and fometimes forms an external covering
to other primitive ftrata. Whole mountains of porphy¬
ry, arranged in immenfe ftrata, fometimes repofe on a
bafe of granite or gneifs. This ftone is found in the
greateft abundance in feveral places between the tropics,
efpecially in South America, where it is fometimes met
with at immenfe heights*. * Ann. do
Porphyry is very common in moft parts of Scotland, Mu/\Nut-
and, in particular, forms a confiderable ftratum at theV°i,m‘
top of the Calton hill at Edinburgh, being in fome places
2 2 or 15 yards thick, covering a bed of breccia.
Porphyry is found in confiderable quantity between
Newcaftle and Wooler, and blocks of it of confiderable
fize may be every where feen fcattered about in the
fields. The feldfpar of thefe porphyries being lefs du¬
rable than the reft of the ftone, is partly deftroyed in
foms
55§
Arrange¬
ment, &c
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
45
Metals
found in it.
.47
Schiftofe
porphyry.
43
Pudding-
ftone and
breccia.
49
Examples
of breccia.
Of puddings
Itone.
* Pallas's
rav in
Crimea, vol
il. p. 197.
51
Sienite.
G E O L
fotne blocks, and appears corroded in others j from
which circumftance the porphyries are fo porous, as to
appear as if they had been burnt. Porphyries of a fi-
milar appearance are found in the mountain of Eherele
in Provence, on the road from Frejus to Antibes *.
There is a variety of porphyry mentioned by Char-
pentier, a great part of whofe compofition is indurated
clay, and nodules of clay of different colours are found
in its fubflance. Specimens of a fimilar nature occur
in the weftern iflands of Scotland. There is alfo a fpe-
cies of porphyry nearly allied to hornftone.
The two varieties laft mentioned are rich in metallic
ores j in the former there being formed ores of filver,
copper, iron, lead, and antimony'; and, in the latter,
fparry iron ore, native fulphuret ol iron, galena, black
blende, and ores of bifmuth.
A done of a porphyritic nature is deferibed by Wer¬
ner under the name of fchijlofe porphyry, and is con-
fidered by Kirwan as the fame with the horn date of
Charpentier. It is found among the primitive rocks of
Altai, and on the borders of the lake of Baikal, in
which latter place it is mixed with granite and horn¬
blende. It is alfo found in Siberia, and in Bohemia.
Sauffure found it near Pfaffenfprung, intercepted be¬
tween ftmta of gneifs.
Sect. XII. Puddings tone and Breccia.
The diftinftion between thefe two flony matters was
mentioned in note c : they are both fufficiently com¬
mon, confiding of different materials. The breccia ufu-
ally lies in bodies, almod at the top of the other primi¬
tive drata, with fome of which it fometimes alternates.
Stratified breccias, confiding of fragments of dints and
jafper, cemented by hardened clay, are frequently found
in Siberia, and fometimes alternate drata of breccia,
porphyry, jafper, and other primary compounds, com-
pofe a condderable part of mountains. Some mountains
in the north of Scotland contain maffes of breccia, com-
pofed of fragments of red granite, micaceous fchidus, and
quartz, in a bafe of fanddone. Mount Scuraben con¬
tains drata of this kind, furmounted by a rock of white
quartz. Similiar appearances take place at Cromarty, at
Murray frith, and two or three miles to the fouth of
Aberdeen j but in many of thefe indances the breccia
mud be confidered as fecondary. Much of the northern
coad of Scotland abounds with breccia.
Puddingdone is alfo extremely common. A moun¬
tain of it is found in Siberia, near the rivulet of Tulat,
being compofed of fragments of jafper, chalcedony,
aigue marine, and cornelian, cemented by a quartzofe
matter. Immenfe heaps, and even a mountain of pud¬
dingdone, are found at Meifenheim, in the palatinate.
Puddingdone is found in confiderable abundance in
pading from Loch Nefs to Oban, in Scotland, and be¬
tween Invernefs and Dunolla. Large detached rocks
of puddingdone were feen by Pallas in the village of
Temirdlki, in the Crimea. Some of thefe maffes are
feven or eight fathoms long, lying one above an¬
other *.
Sect. XIII. Sietiite.
1
Tins name has been introduced by Werner, to de-
4
O G Y. Chap. I.
note a primary rock, effentially compofed of grains of Arrangs-
feldfpar and hornblende, intimately blended together, l^ent> &c*
in which the hornblende is generally mod predominent.
He fird called it greenjlone, but afterwards gave it the tlie Earfh>
name offienite, as he fuppofed it fimilar to a done de- ——y——
feribed by Pliny, as found at Syene in Upper Egypt,
where' it was dug in great quantities, and from thence
carried to Rome, for the purpofe of building public
- edifices.
Sienite fometimes contains a few grains of quartz and
mica; but thefe feem to be accidental, and are always in
very fmall quantity. This done is not commonly dra-
tified.
Sienite ufbally overlays mod of the other primary
rocks, and has often a bed of breccia interpofed be¬
tween it and the inferior drata. It is very commonly
found repofing on porphyry. 5*
It is found in Saxony, in the environs of Drefden ^^ere
at Meiffen in Thuringia j in Hungary, and in general oun'“
in almod all primitive chains of mountains, efpecially
in the Alps. It is doubtlefs the fame which Sauffure
found in the fummit of Mont Blanc, and which he calls
granitelle., ^
Metallic veins are not unfrequently found in fienite.Metals ia
At Scharffenberg, veins of filver and lead are found init.
it 5 and it is faid, that the veins of drontian in Argyle-
fhire run in a fimilar rock.
Sect. XIV. Primitive or Granular Lime/lone.
It was long doubted whether limedone was ever to primlsv*
be found unmixed with organic remains, or primitive ; lime (tone.
but the obfervations of late mineralogids and geologids
have fully proved, that primitive limeftone exids in
confiderable quantity. This done is of a granular druc-
ture, and of a whitifh gray colour, though frequently of
a dark iron gray, or reddifh brown. It is fometimes
fcaly or lamellar j at others nearly compact, and is
now and then found to have a fplintery fradiure. It
is generally unmixed with other primary compounds j
but fometimes particles of mica, quartz, hornblende,
&c. occur in it.
This done is always found alternating wfith the pri-where
mary drata, efpecially w ith gneifs, micaceous, and argil-found,
laceous fchidus. It fometimes forms whole mountains,
as in Stiria, Carinthia, and Carniola, in Switzerland
and in the Pyrenees, being often found feven or eight
thoufand feet high. Three mountairis in Switzerland,
all exceeding 10,000 feet in height, are chiedy com¬
pofed of it In thef« fituations it commonly forms im¬
menfe blocks, without any regular dip or dire&ion 5 but
it is fometimes dratified, as at Altenberg near the lake
of Neuenberg. It is fometimes interpofed between fie-
nite and hornblende date. One of the mod Angular
mountains of granular limedone is that of Filabres in
Spain, confiding of a block of wdiite marble three miles
in circumference, and 2COO feet high, without any mix¬
ture of other earths or dones, and with fcarcely any
fiffure.
A confiderable part of Mont Perdu in the Pyrenees
is compofed of alternate vertical bands of granite, por¬
phyry, limedone, hornblende, and petrofilex.
Granular limedone is found in various parts of Bri¬
tain, efpecially in the north of Scotland. One of the
mod remarkable examples of it occurs in the idand of
Idav
Chap. I. GEO
Arrange- Iflay ; the central part of which is formed of a compart
nicnt, Sec. Qf jt 0f confiderable extent. See fig. 4. d. It alio
wdals of" occur.s in fome other of the Weftern ides,
the Earth. Primitive limeftone often contains veins of metallic
v—— ore, efpecially thofe of galena, magnetic iron ore, blende,
56 and nyrites.
Metals in
it.
Sect. XY» Primitive Trap.
Primitive Trap is a name that was long ago given by the
trap de- Swedilh mineralogiils, to diitinguilh certain ftones that
Aribel. are 0f a compart texture, and a dark colour, compofing
part of feveral mountains. The word originally digni¬
fies a ftaircafe, and was given to mountains containing
this ftone, becaufe their ftrata retire one behind the
other like the Heps of a llaircafe. But as many rocks
of a very different kind, both in their nature and forma¬
tion, have received the common name of trap, confider¬
able confufion arofe among mineralogifts, with refpert to
what particular ftones lliould receive this appellation.
Moil of the French mineralogifts, as Sauflure, Dolo-
mieu and Saintfond make trap to fignify a primitive
rock, but they do not always mean the fame rock.
Other mineralogifts, efpecially the Germans, under-
ftand by the name of trap, certain Hcondary rocks, and
efpecially what are commonly called bafalts.
Werner comprehends under the name of trap, feve¬
ral feries of rocks, which are principally chararterifed
by their containing hornblende, which is found almotl
pure in thofe which he confiders as the moil ancient, or
what generally lie the lowreft ; and it degenerates gra¬
dually in the iucceeding ftrata into a kind of blackifti,
ferruginous, hardened clay. He diftinguiihes three fe¬
ries or formations of traps *, priniitive traps, tranfition or
intermediate traps, and ftratiform or floetz traps. We
iftall here confider the firft of thefe.
Primitive trap is almoft wholly comnofcd of horn
blende, though it is fometimes mixed with feldfpar, or
more rarely with mica and fome other fubftances. Un¬
der this general defeription Werner comprehends four
ftony fubftances j hornblende and hornblende date,
which we have already noticed in Sertion IX. pri¬
mitive greenftone, and fchiftofe greenftone.
Primitive greenftone is a mixture of hornblende and
feldfpar j under this there are feveral varieties, accord¬
ing as its texture is more or lefs granular, or compart.
3. Common greenftone, in which the hornblende
and feldfpar are intimately blended, is granular, and
bears confiderable refemblance to fienite, in which
the hornblende is predominant. 2. A fecond variety
has fmaller grains, in which are imbedded cryftals of
feldfpar, being of a ftrurture between the granular and
porphyritic. 3. A third variety has the grains of
hornblende and feldfpar extremely fmail, fo as to be
fcarcely diftinguiftiable. This ftone lofes its granular
appearance, and becomes entirely porphyritic. 4. Laft-
ly, when the niafs becomes quite homogeneous, and of
a complete green colour, it forms what was once called
*Brochant. green porphyry, and conftitutes the fourth variety *.
Mineral. Schiftofe greenftone is compofed of compart feldfpar,
hornblende, and a little mica, of which the hornblende
and feldfpar are nearly in equal quantity, and it now
and then contains a little quartz. Its ftrurture is
fchiftofe.
We have been thus particular in deferibing what
L O G Y. 559
Werner underftands by primitive trap, as' whatever Arrange-
miy be thought of bis theoretical opinions, his talent n1!eLt,
for mineralogical diftinrtions and chararters cannot be
called in queftion.
Dr Kirwan has given a long fertion on the diftin-
guilliing chararters of trap, and its relation to bafalt,
Sc’c. in his Geological Eflays. He thinks that there
might be formed a natural feries of ftones of a trap
nature, taking in not only the compofition but alfo
the texture, grain, and fpecific gravity, as fomething
of this kind has been conceived and done by Wer¬
ner.'
Primitive trap is often found in vaft ftrata in the Where
midft of gneifs, and veins of it running through gneifs, founcb
have been found in Knobfdorf in Silefia, and in Bo¬
hemia. It is alfo fometimes found in granite, and it is
found pafting through granite and micaceous fchiftus
in the Weftern ifies of Scotland. Saintfond found it al¬
ternating with granite, near St Malo j and Charpentier,
with gneifs. It fometimes forms entire mountains,- as
in the territory of Deux Fonts j and in Norway it is
found repofing on granite. It fometimes alternates with
argillaceous fchiftus, as at Leidenburgh. c-
Primitive trap frequently contains metals, efpecially Metals
the ores of iron and copper. found in it.
58
Sect. XVI. Topa% Roch.
do
7 His ftone is compofed of quartz, fchorl, topaz, and Topaz rock0
lithomarga (a kind of hardened clay), the three former
iubftances conftituting finall layers or plates alternating
with each other. It fometimes contains cavities or
geods, lined on the infide with crytlals of quartz and
topazes. The texture of this ftone is between the
fchiftofe and the granular ; that is, it is compofed of
plates or laminae j but thefe laminae are of a granular ’
ftrurture.
i opaz rock is very rare. It forms part of a moun¬
tain near Averbach, in the metallic mountains of Sax¬
ony j but no metallic matter has hitherto been diicover-
ed in it.
Sect. XVII. Siliceous Schi/lus.
<?r
SILICEOUS fchiftus, or flinty flate, is the kiefelfchiefer Siliceous
of Werner; but there feems fome difpute between hislchiftus
difciples, whether it be a primitive or a fecondary rock;de,cribe^'
on which account w^e have placed it laft in the former
feries. Brochant does the fame ; but Mr Jamefon, in
his Iketch of the Wernerian geognofy, places it among
the tranfition formations, or thofe which immediately
fucceed the primitive. It is thus deferibed by Mr Jame¬
fon. Its colour is bluifli gray ; it is internally dull; its
frarture in the great is imperfertly flaty ; in the fmail, .
large fplintery, pafTing into flat conchoidal; its frag-* , >
ments are indeterminately angular, and pretty ftiarp Mil™/ “
edged ; it js ftrongly tranilucent on the edges; it is Dumfries,
hard and brittle, difficultly frangible, and not particular- P- 48.
ly heavy *. 6l ,
An entire mountain formed of this ftone is found in Where
Lufatia, in which there are no petrifartions. It is alfo tound“ '
found in the Alps, interpofed between gneils and horn-
ftone. Schlendgenberg, a mountain in Saxony, is for
the moft part compofed of it, mixed with hornblende
and feldipar. Kirwan confiders it as the fame fub-
• fiance
z(5o GEOLOGY, . Chap. I.
Arrange- fiance winch Sauflure calls palaiopcire, which is com-
nle'lt» monly confidered as petrofilex.
terialsof’ FllIlty Aate is defcribed by Mr Jamefon as among
the Earth, the mineral fubdances found in Dumfriesfhire. He
v-—w-v—— particularly notices an immenfe rocky mafs ot it at the
entrance of the valley at Leadhills, by which the me-
* Mineralo- veins are completely interrupted *.
gy of jJutn- me);ais have been found in it.
Jnes, p. 04.
B. Secondary Compounds.
63
Secondary The fubflances wThich vtre are now to notice are
compounds, diftinguilhed from thofe which we have been defcrib-
ing, in containing more or lefs the remains of organiz¬
ed beings. As the inferior flrata of thefe fecondary
compounds ufually contain fewer organic • remains than
thofe above them, they are fometimes fubdivided into
two orders, one of which is confidered to be intermedi¬
ate between the primary and fecondary flrata. This is
Werner’s claffification, of which we ihall give an ac¬
count in the next chapter.
Sect. XVIII. Secondary Limejhone.
Secondary Under this title we (hall comprehend what Werner
limeftone cans tranfition limeftone, floetz limeftone, and limeftone.
defcribed. geconclary Hmeflone is a calcareous mafs, fometimes
granular, and fometimes compa£l, the former approach¬
ing to primitive limeftone. Its fra&ure is fcaly, and
it is fometimes femitranfparent. In colour it is very
various, fometimes red, or rather blackifh, with white
veins, confiding of calcareous fpar. It is often of a
grayifh call. It fometimes forms vaft block*, without
any appearance of ft ratification j at other times it is
evidently ftratified. It abounds with remains of marine
animals, and often contains nodules of agate, and other
limilar ftones.
A variety of calcareous ftone is dtfcribed by mine-
ralogifts under the name of fwineftone. It is either
compact, flaty, or porous, and is faid in general to con¬
tain no petrifaftions, though fome found in the moun¬
tain of Kinneculla contains many. It is confidered by
Kirwan as primeval limeftone, impregnated with pe¬
troleum.
Limeftone is fometimes found in oviform balls, com¬
monly containing a grain of fand in them.
There is a variety of limeftone that is very porous,
_and abounds in remains of vegetable matter, as impref-
64 fions of leaves, &c.
Where Secondary limeftone is very abundant in mod parts
found. 0f the WOrld, forming a confiderable part of many
mountains, and being often the principal ftratum to a
confiderable depth below the furface. The mountain
Iberg, in the Hartz, is compofed of vaft maffes of it,
irregularly rifted •, and mountains of a fimilar kind are
found in Siberia and in the Vivarais. In fome of thofe
mountains vaft caverns have been formed. Secondary
limeftone mountains always repofe on fome primitive
ftone j thus, in Siberia their bafe confifts of granite,
porphyry or hornblende \ in Saxony, of granite, or
granular limeftone, and fometimes of argillaceous
fchiftus ; in Switzerland, thefe mountains repofe on ar¬
gillaceous fchjftus or gneifs, or fometimes on calcareous
puddingftone. In the Crimea, there is an immenfe
extent of' fecondary limeftone, between Roflof and
3
Perekop, which is minutely defcribed by Pallas. Great Arrange-
part of the fummit of Mont Perdu, the higheft of the
Pyrenees, is compofed of fecondary limeftone, arranged teriajsof
in nearly vertical ftrata, and fo full of the remains of the Earth,
marine animals as in fome places to appear as if com- '
pofed of nothing elfe. Here it feems to repofe on gra¬
nular limeftone.
The bafe of Mount Ingleborough in Weftmoreland,
which is near 30 miles in circuit, confifts entirely of
limeftone, containing vaft quantities of fea fhells. This
ftone alfo forms the principal inferior ftrata through the
greater part of Derbyftiire, being arranged in beds of
various degrees of thicknefs, from a few inches to about
200 fathoms in fome places, not having been perforated j
and abounding with (hells, and other marine remains.
It is found in many quarries in Scotland diftindlly
ftratified. Mr Jamefon notices quarries of limeftone at
Clofeburn, and Barjarg, and at Kellhead in Dum-
friesftiire. _ 66
Secondary limeftone often contains metallic veins, Metals
efpecially in Derbyfliire, where it abounds with galena,founti in
blende, fulphur pyrites, and copper pyrites. Sulphur is
alfo fometimes found in it. Kirwan remarks, that in
the reft of Europe limeftone is feldom metalliferous. ^
The ftone commonly called alabajler, employed in Alabafter.
making ftatues and ornaments, is properly a carbonated
lime, nearly allied to marble; though it is ufually fup-
pofed to be a variety of gypfum or plafter ftone. There
is a gypfeous alabafter that will be noticed prefently.
Calcareous alabafter is not often white (though as
white as alabajler is a common proverb), but generally
tin&ured with iron of a yellow, brown, or reddiih caft.
It is femipellucid, and ufually fo foft as to be fcratched
by the nail.
It is commonly found in blocks, in marble quarries,
as in the ifland of Paros, and in feveral parts of Italy,
particularly in the territory of Volterra in Tufcany, in
Malta, &c. A variety is found in the form of ftalac-
tites of a conical or cylindrical form.
Sect. XIX. Gray Wache.
68
Gray wacke is a ftone compofed of fragments of Gray
quartz and argillaceous fchiftus, cemented by an argil*
laceous matter fimilar to the fchiftus, varying in (ize, c ‘1Je ’
from that of a hen’s egg, till th*y are fo minute as to
be no longer vifible. It lometimes contains a matter
fimilar to filiceous fchiftus.
There is a variety of this ftone, called by WTemer
gray wacke (late, which is a fimple ftaty ftone, which
bears a confiderable refemblance to argillaceous fchiftus.
From this, however, it is to be diftinguilhed, according
to Mr Jamefon, by the following chara&ers.
« It has feldom a greenifti or light yellowiih gray
colour, as is the cafe with primitive (late, but is ufually
a(h and fmoke gray. It does not (hew the filvery con¬
tinuous luftre of primitive clay flate, but is rather glim¬
mering, which originates from intermixed fcales of mi¬
ca. Quartz icarcely occurs in it in layers, but usually
traveries it in the form of veins. Further we do not
find cryftals of feldfpar, fchorl, talc, chlorite (late, or
magnetic iron ftone are to be obferved in it. It con¬
tains petrifactions, particularly thofe varieties that bor- ,Min(ral^
der on gray wacke. It alternates with gray wacke * • £y of Dum-
Thefe ftones are diftinCtly ftratified, but the direction/}-,a.
of
Arrange¬
ment, &c.
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
69
Where
lound.
Chap. I. G E O L
of their ftrata is not parallel to that of the other rocks
on which they he. They are very commonly found
covering limeftone, efpecially at the foot of mountains.
Gray wacke is found in Erzgebirge, at Braunfdorf,
Riefberg, and Averbach, in Vcegtland, in Tranfylvania,
on the banks of the Rhine, in Lahnthal, and fome
other places in Germany. It is alfo found in Britain j
and Mr Jamefcn notices it among the minerals of Dum-
friesfhire, where the gray wacke (late is found near Mof¬
fat, in the vicinity of Langholm, in the higher parts
of the valley of Elk, and behind Burnfwark. The
ftrata found in thefe places yield a very good Hate,
nearly free from mechanical mixture, and well adapted
to the roofing of houfes.
This fpecies of ftone is rich in metals 5 the greater
part of the veins of lead and filver in the Hartz, efpe¬
cially thofe of Claufthal and Zellerfeld, are in gray
wacke. In Tranfylvania, in Vorefpath, it contains
even rich mines of gold. The gray wacke ftrata on the
banks of the Rhine are alfo traverfed by fome metallic
veins, but thofe of Saxony contain nothing but blind
coal.
70
Metals
found in it.
Secondary
trap.
72
Amygda¬
loid or toad
ftone.
73
Globular
trap.
74
Grcen-
ftone.
Sect. XX. Secondary Trap,
Several varieties of trap occur among the fecondary
ftrata, and muft be here enumerated. They all confift
principally of greenftone, or that mixture of horn¬
blende and feldfpar, which conftitutes the primitive
traps, noticed in Se£lion XV. but in the traps we are now
to mention, the mixture is much more intimate, the
grains confiderably finer, and the mafs appears homo¬
geneous. We (hall here notice only three principal
varieties 5 the amygdaloid or toadftone, the globular
trap, and the greenftone, called by the Wernerians
tranfition greenftone.
1. The amygdaloid, called in Derfhylhire toadftone,
• and fometimes cat dirt, appears to confift of hornblende
flate in a ftate of decompofition, and appears very fimi-
lar to a kind of wacke, of a very fine grain. It is of a
blackifh colour, and very hard, and often contains a
number of bladder holes, which are fometimes entirely
empty, at others are partially or wholly filled with fpar.
It runs in immenfe folid beds,, without any appear¬
ance of ftratification or fifiure, of unequal thicknefs, ha¬
ving been feen from 6 feet to 600 thick. It commonly
alternates with the ftrata of fecondary limeftone, as in
Derbyftiire, and fometimes feems to penetrate the infe¬
rior ftratum of limeftone to a very confiderable depth.
It contains no metallic veins, and it is faid entirely to
intercept thofe which it paffes in the limeftone ftrata.
Saintfond affirms that lead ore is fometimes found in cat
dirt 5 but he feems to have been deceived by the vague-
nefs of the term, as the miners of Derby (hire give the
fame name to a greeniffi variety of limeftone, which is
fometimes traverfed by veins of lead ore.
2. Globular trap. This is a fchiftofe greenftone, par¬
tially decompofed, and alfo refembles a fine-grained
wacke •, but it appears in the form of large balls, coxn-
pofed of concentric layers, with a hard nucleus. It is
lound at Altenzulze in Voegtland, and fome other
places. It fometimes contains veins of copper and iron.
3. Greenftone. This is almoft entirely compofed of
feldfpar, ufually of a pale flefti-red colour, having fome¬
times imbedded in it grains of grayilh quartz, fcales of
Vol. IX. Part II.
O G Y. • 561
iron, blackifh mica, and cryftals of pale flefti-Coloured Arrange’
feldfpar. This rock may be confounded with porphy- &c'
ry, or with feldfpar; but is generally confidered as dif-
ferent from both. Mr .Tamefon found it in beds from the Earth,
three to twelve feet thick on the upper fide of the Sufan-
na vein in the valley of Leadhills, and in the moun¬
tain between Wamphray and Efkdalemuir.
Sect. XXL SandJIone, or Grit,
75
77
These terms, like many others which we meet with in Sandftone.
mineralogy, are very vague and indefinite, and are lifed
to denote three or four kinds of ftone j a calcareous, an
argillaceous, and a filiceous fandftone. We ffiall here
confider only two of them, the argillaceous and the fili¬
ceous.
1. Argillaceous fandftone. This is the fandjlein \rg\[\nrt.
of Werner, and the argillaceous grit of the ordinary ous fand-
miners. It is compofed of grains of quartz, and fome-^one*
times of filiceous fchiftus; more rarely of feldfpar.
'I hefe grains are of various fizes, and are cemented in
an argillaceous matter, commonly containing iron •,
whence this ftone is fometimes called ferruginous fand¬
ftone. From the coarfenefs or finenefs of the grains, it
receives the names of coarfe and fine fandftone. There
is a very coarfe kind found in Derby ftiire, containing a
confiderable quantity of quartz pebbles.
This fpecies of fandftone is found in immenfe beds,
fometimes above ico yards thick.
It is very diftinclly ftratified, and is commonly divid¬
ed by fiiTures, into the (hape of parallelepipeds. It
fometimes alternates with layers of compaft limeftone,
and often lies above a ftone which we are immediately
to mention, or freer.
Sandftone is fometimes formed into globular concre¬
tions, compofed of concentric lamellae.
Sandftone is one of the moft: abundant produ&s of Where
nature, occurring in almoft every country. In Britain found,
it forms the uppermoft ftratum in many parts of Derby-
ftiire $ and in the ifle of Arran there is an immenfe
feparate mafs of it, forming what is c-aMzh the cock*.^yamefin's
In the fame ifland it is found in Glenranza, repofing on M'tn- °f
fecondary limeftone. vo^ *•
The globular concretions of fandftone are unccm-P'^6
mon. Mr Jamefon oblerved them in the ifie of Skye, ^
near the harbour of Portree f ; and Reufs obferved the ‘ ^ g’,
fame in Bohemia j Mineral.
This fpecies of fandftone ufually contains many pe- Gcograpb.
trifaftions, but is generally not very abundant in me- 'von Bpbmen,
tals j it however fometimes contains veins of cobalt. vol.ii f.46.
2. Siliceous fandftone. This is a ftone of a fimilar siliceous
nature with the laft, except that the cementing mafs is fandftone.
alfo of a filiceous nature. It is found in the ports of
Domica and Cam para, in the ifle of Arbe, and on the
coaft of Dalmatia, where it contains petrifa&ions. The
hill of Platinburg confifts of fandftone, with a chalce¬
dony cement. Some fine fpecimens of filiceous fand¬
ftone are found in Salifhury Craigs at Edinburgh, con¬
taining ftiells which have aflumed the nature of chalce¬
dony. It does not appear to contain metals.
$ECT. XXII. Gypfum^ or Plajlerjione.
This is native fulphate of lime, and it appears in fe-Gypfuni.
veral forms. Six varieties are ufually enumerated 3 com-
4 B mon
«;62
GEOLOGY.
Arranpe-
mei.t, Stc.
oi the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
* Voyarr
auit ALpes,
tom. ii. p.
Lenticular.
8*
CryftalJi-
zed.
83
Fibrous.
* mji.Nat.
Miner.
tom iii. p.
at8.
84
Stalaftitic.
f PaXrin ut
fufra, p.
222.
8?
Gypseous
alubafter.
t Mineral.
*f DerbyJk.
V 84. '
mon gypfum, lenticular gypfum, cryftallized gypfum,
fibrous gypfum, ftalaclitic gypfum, and gypfeous ala-
bafter.
1. Common gypfum is a compact, granulated ftonc,
commonly of a grayifh colour, and mixed with impuri¬
ties, containing a confiderable quantity of carbonate of
lime. Its texture is feldom laminated, but it appears
like “coarfe loaf fugar. This kind is very abundant,
many hills being entirely formed of it. Of thefe the
moil remarkable arc the plafterhills in the neighbour¬
hood of Paris, thofe in the canton of Bern in Switzer¬
land, and others among the Alps. Hills of gypfum
occur alfo in Spain and Poland ; near the White fea •,
in Alia, where they are moftly in horizontal ftrata in
the north Archipelago, between Afia and America.
Sauuure found a mountain in Switzerland compofed of
gypfum, land, and clay *. This kind fometimes con¬
tains petrifa&ions, and often abounds with the impref-
fions of animal and vegetable matters ; feme.very curi¬
ous examples of which will be mentioned in a future
fedion. It contains few metals, although copper is
fometimes found in it, as are rock-felt and fulphur.
2. Lenticular gypfum is a curious variety, which
feems peculiar to Montmartre near Paris. In one of
the banks in this mountain, fpecimens of it are found
containing little lenticular bodies, diftind and diffemi-
nated through the ftony matter* fo as to form a great
part of its mafs. A fpecimen of this kind is figured by
Patrin, in his natui'al hiftory of minerals.
3. The cryfalli^ed gypfum is alfo found chiefly in
the environs of Paris, in cryftals that are decaedral, or
fometimes like a rhomboidal odaedron, with the pyra¬
mids truncated near the bafe.
4. Fibrous gypfum, compofed of fhort brittle threads
difpofed in bundles, is found in Derbyfhire, and near
Riom in Auvergne. Avery beautiful variety of a filky
feel, and reticulated texture, is defcribed by Patrin, as
found in Poland, in the fait mines of Wielitfka; in
Ruffia, near the jundion of the river Oka with the Wol-
ga ; in Spain j and in China.
. A variety of gypfum with the appearance of vegeta¬
tion is found in caverns near the baths at Matlock in
Derbyfhire. A beautiful fpecimen of it is figured by
Patrin *.
5. Gypfum is femetimes found hanging from the
fides and roof of caverns in the form of ftaladites, a
tranfverfe fedion of which thews their internal ftrudure
to be radiated. This variety is commonly called
fchlot f.
6. Gypfeous alabajler is very fimilar to true alabafler,
except that it does not, like that, effervefce with acids,
and is in general not fo flrong. It is found in great
abundance in Derbyfhire in large maffes, filling up ca¬
vities in argillaceous grit. It never forms a flratum,
but is generally attended 'with gravel, red clay, and
fhells. Mr Mawfe reprefents the lower portions as be¬
ing very flvong and compad, fo as to form columns
and pilafters This kind is alfe found in Tranche
Comte, and on the Marne about fix leagues from Paris
at Lagny.
Though from the ordinary form or fituation of gyp¬
fum, and the organic remains fe commonly found in it,
there can be no doubt of its being in mofl cafes a fe-
condary rock * yet frofei its having been found mixed
Chap. I.
with mica in St Gothard, it is enumerated by feme Anange-
among the primary compounds. cfth^.VT0*
teri ils of
Sect. XXIII. Fluor Spar. ,the£aith-
86
This beautiful fubftance, which is native fiuat o/"Fluo:*ipar
lime, is found either in large unformed mafles or blocks, d fcnbed.
or cryftallized in cubes or odaedrons. It is of different
colours : but the mofl prevailing varieties are that in
parallel zones, or bands of green, blue, yellow, and
white ; and that in which a white ground is veined
with a reddifh brown. Some fpecimens are fo fliaded
as to reprefent a geographical map ; but thefe are very
rare. It is fo foft as to be eafily turned in a lathe into
thofe vafes and other ornaments which are fe common¬
ly feen on chimney pieces. g,,
Fluor fpar is found in feveral countries of Europe,
but efpecially in France and Britain. According to found.
Patrin, there are mines of it in the primitive mountains
of Gyromagity, in the Vofges, in the neighbourhood of
Langeac in Auvergne, and at Forez near Ambierle,
that are inexhauflible §. It is alfo found in the § Hi/l. Nat
mountain of Pilat not far from Lyonsamong the * Miner.
recks that fkirt the valley of Chamouni in the Alps ; in 1 g™’ ni- P‘
the Altaifchian mountains of Afia j and in Greenland.
The moft produdive mines of this fubftance in Bri¬
tain are in a mountain near Caftleton in Derbyfhire.
Here there are two mines producing the beautiful com¬
pad fluor, called Blue John, which is found in pipe
veins running in various diredions. The fluor com¬
monly refts upon limeftone, and it frequently has this
ftone for a nucleus, round which it appears to have cry-
ftallized. Frequently, however, the centre is hollow.
In feveral parts of the mine the fluor is found in detach¬
ed maffes, in caves filled with clay and loofe adventiti¬
ous matter, having the appearance as if it had been
broken off from the limeftone on which it had been
formed j for every piece, in one part or other, feems as
if it had adhered to fomething, and been broken off.
Some of the pieces of fluor are a foot thick, and
have four or five different veins or zones: fuch large
pieces are however very rare, and in general they are
only three or four inches thick *. * Ma-we's
Saintfond, who has given an interefting account
the curiofities near Caftleton, fays, that fluor fpar would ' yn’
be the moft beautiful fubftance in nature, if it were but
a little harder.
It is alfo found in Northumberland, in a vein a-
mong the granite mountains of Aberdeenfhiref, and int Jamefons
one of the Shetland ifles, in a vein of bafalt %. /^7'vol"T
Fluor appears in feme cafes to be primitive. Thus ^ ^
it is found forming whole ftrata in the mountains of the ii. 277,
foreft of Thuringia, and in a vein of quartz in Upper
Hungary.
Sect. XXIV. Chalk.
88
Chalk is too well known to require a defcription. Chalk.
It is not always white, but is frequently coloured. It
is difpofed in horizontal beds that are often many yards
in thicknefs, and which always repofe on layers of
other calcareous ftone of a harder ftrufture. Thefe
beds are often of confiderable extent, and very comtnon-
Chap. J
Arrange¬
ment, 6tc.
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
Where
found.
J Palias'i
7ravels,
vol. ii. p.
84.
90
Clay.
9*
Indurated
clay.
9*
Llthomar-
ga-
93
Slate clay.
r. G E O L
ly contain flints, oviform limeftone, and vaft: quantities
of fliells.
Chalk, which is fo abundant in fome countries, is
fcarcely found in others. It is well known that the
fouth and fouth-eaftern parts of England, and the fouth
and fouth-weft: of France contain vaft cliffs and beds of
it; much of it is alfo found in Zealand. It is, we be¬
lieve, a rare production in Scotland, and in moff moun¬
tainous trafts. It has been remarked by Pennant, that
if a line be drawn from Dorchefter in the county of Dor-
fet, to the county of Norfolk, it would form the boundary
of the great chalky ftratum of England j no quantity ha¬
ving been found to the north or weft of that line.
There is a mountain of chalk between Tor and Ifium
on the banks of the Donetz in Ruffia, in which fome
Greek monks have excavated apartments to the length
of fifty fathoms J.
No metals are found in chalk, though it is faid that
in France martial pyrites has been difeovered in it.
Sect. XXV. Clay,
Clay is found in various ftates with refpeft to hard-
nefs or folidity, from the foft ductile clay ufed by the
potters and pipemakers to the perfedt flate (clay ftate,
or argillaceous fchiftus') already deferibed.
Soft clay is found in beds of various degrees of thick-
nefs, commonly not far below the furface, and alter¬
nating with harder clay, flates, fand, or limeftone. It
is generally very abundant, efpecially in thofe places
where coal or rock-falt is found.
Clay of a harder confiftence, commonly called indu¬
rated clay, or in the language of the miners clunch, is
ufually found below the fofter clay, or there is fome-
times a ftratum of flate or fimilar argillaceous matter
interpofed. It often alternates with limeftone, fandftone,
or gypfum. Petrifaftions and (hells are often found
in it, as are quartz, fulphur pyrites, martial ochre, com¬
mon fait, vitriol and alum.
A harder ftate of clay forms that fubftance which
is called by mineralogifts lithomarga (ftone clay.)
This is found in beds or ftrata often alternating with
the former, with flate or with limeftone, efpecially in
coal mines. It alfo forms nefts or balls in toadftone
and fimilar rock. It fometimes bears the impreflions of
reeds and other vegetable bodies.
The next degree of hardened clay, forms flate clay,
{Jchiefer thon oixht Germans.) This fubftance, how¬
ever is not very hard, but is eafily broken into angular
tabular fragments. Its internal appearance is ufually
dull, but fometimes glimmering from a flight intermixture
of feales of mica. Its colour is ufually a yellowifh
gray, with fpots or clouds of a pearl gray, or a cher-
>y red, but fometimes it inclines to black. It ufually
lies between beds of fandftone, and almoft always below
the fofter clays.
A kind of clay, of a ftill harder confiftence, forms
flate or fchiftus. This is ufually of a dark brown or
blackifh colour, and a laminated texture. It lies in
beds, fometimes of immenfe thicknefs, ufually below
fandftone, or alternating with this and limeftone. It
often contains impreflxons of organic remains, and there
are fometimes found in it veins of lead ore. It is a
very common ftratum in the Coal countries.
O G Y. 563
Nearly allied to this is what the miners call rubble Arrange-
ftone, which is a common variety of flate found in
fimilar fituations with flate; but often very rich in me- terials cf
tallic ores, efpecially iron, galena, bifmuth, and cobalt, the Eaith.
It alfo abounds with petrifa&ions. It is fometimes s——v—
found in primitive rocks. 95
r Rubble.
- - . ftone.
Sect. XXVI. Marl.
Marl is a fubftance chiefly compofed ox fand, clay, Marl
and calcareous matter, which is found in many places,
and forms one of the moft valuable natural manures
ufed in agriculture. This is alfo found of various
degrees of hardnefs, from a foft powder to a ftony con-
fiftence, in which laft ftate it forms what Kirwan
calls marlite. In colour it is ulually of a reddifti
white, fometimes verging upon red, and it is not un-
frequently found of a yellowifh brown or blackifti caft.
Marl is ufually difpofed in confiderable beds of various
degrees of thicknefs, in valleys and other low lands, efpe¬
cially among the coal ftrata. Indurated marl occurs» ‘jamefon's
in the coal ftrata of Mid Lothian*, and it is alfo found Dumfries,
in the ifland of Iflay. Powdery marl is feen in Skye. P-106.
Stony marl, or marlite, is found in Bavaria, alter¬
nating with fand and fandftone. Hills ot it occur
in Carniola, Carinthia, and the Venetian territory. It
is alfo found between ftrata of limeftone and argillaceous
fchiftus.
Sect. XXVII. Argillaceous Ironjlone,
• 97
This is fometimes called metal ftone, and is very Argiltace.
common in the coal countries. It is very heavy and oils iron,
compaft, and of various colours, from a dark brownftone>
to a blood red j the latter forms the haematites or
bloodftone, one cf the richeft iron ores. It often
contains in it fpherical balls like iron bullets. It is dif¬
pofed in ftrata alternating with indurated clay, flate
clay, marl, or fandftone, leldom far below the furface.
It feldom forms very extenfive beds, but is often con¬
fined to particular fpots.
Ironftone is found in great abundance in Cumber¬
land, #nd in moft parts of Scotland. It may be feen
in the cliffs all along the coaft of Fife, from Dyfart to
St Andrews.
Sect. XXVIII. Wache and Ba/alt.
We have already fpoken of feveral (tones uader the Whinftone.
name of traps, that are found both among primitive and
fecondary compounds. The two fubftances which we are
now to notice are nearly allied to the traps, and have been
claffed with them under the general name of •whnjlone.
This is a favourite term among the mineralogifts of
Scotland, of whom Sir James Flail employs it as a ge¬
neric name to denote trap, bafalt, wacke, grunftein, and
porphyry. * The term is convenient, but Profeffor * Edinburgh
Jamefon and others of the Wernerian fchool obje<51 to it Phil Tranf.
as too vague and indefinite. v* P- 4^*
Wacke, or wacken, differs from trap only in being w ^9
mere compaft and of a finer grain. It is heavy and
very hard, fo as often to ftrike fire with fteel $ it is
dull and opaque, and breaks with an even fra<fture. Its
colour is ufually a reddilh brown or gray of various
4 B 2 (hades,
Arrange¬
ment, See.
of the Ma¬
terials of
P- 32S-
Toivnf.
Trafls, p
204.
too
JBafalt.
564 .... G E
fliadcs, and fometimes it lias a greenilh cad.
ufually an earthy fmell, when breathed on. It is fome¬
times highly impregnated with iron, and often contains
the Earth, cryftals of hornblende, and very commonly thofc of
hexagonal black mica.
It often forms a confiderable part of mountains, either
in vaft blocks, as in the hill on which Edinburgh caflle
Hands, or in ftrata lying above Kmeftcne or fandftone,
or alternating with thefe, A great part of the Calton-
hill, of Salifbury craigs, and Arthur’s feat at Edin-
Dtirgh, is compofed of ftrata of this kind j and fknilar
.ppearances take place in the bed of the water cf Leith
near the town, and in the cliffs on the coaft of Fife,
efpecially at St Andrews. To the eye of the volcanic
Saintfond, all thefe beds appeared to be lava. We are
difpofed to think, with Mr Playfair, that the curious
inftance. of alternate ftrata of bafalt (as Saintfond calls
it) and litneftone, near Villcneuve de Berg, deferibed
and figured by that author, affords an example of whin-
ftone alternating with limeftone, fuch as are feen in
f Rcclercbts Scotland f. Several varieites of wacke are found in
/«r let Vdc. the hills near Edinburgh, and are deferibed by Dr
Townfon J. Pvlr Jamefon obferved wracke alternating
with porpyhry in Skye.
Bafalt has a finer grain, and is more compadl, than
even wacke, and is the moft denfe of all the whins or
traps. It is found either in large blocks, covering the
other ftrata, fometimes in the form of tables, or in re¬
gular prifmatic columns, either ftraight or bended. We
have already treated fo fully of the nature, properties,
and chief habitats of bafalt (fee Basaltes), that
little remains to be added here.
It is principally diftinguifhed from wacke, wEere it
is not in regular prifms, by very rarely containing cryf¬
tals of mica, which are fo common in the latter.
Saintfond in his fplendid work Sur les Vo/cans eteints
du Vivarais, &c. has figured fome examples of bafal-
tic pillars which rival thofe of Staffa and the Giants
Caufeway. A more romantic fituation is fcarcely to be
conceived than that dravra in his eleventh plate, of a
village placed in. the front of a bold hill covered with
bundles of fmall pillars lying in every diredlion, and
having detached perpendicular columns Handing at each
end, with a large cave dire&ly behind the houfes.
Large maffes of bafalt are feen in the north of Shetland,
Handing infulated, and affuming a very grotefque ap¬
pearance. Mr Jamefon deferibes one of thefe in the
jfie of Jura, that forms a natural arch. Wb remember
leerng two curious infulated rocks on the fhore at the
foot of Kmkeld braes at St Andrew’s, but do not re¬
coiled! whether they are of a bafaltic nature.
Several other fubftances, as fand, gravel, peat, Sec.
might here be noticed, but their Itrudlure and fitua¬
tion are too tvell known to render a particular notice
neceffary.
Many 01 the Hones which we have deferibed among
the primitive rocks, are alfo femetimes found among
the fecondary ftrata, as argillaceous fchiftus, hornftone,
hornblende, jafper, and efpecially puddingftone ; but
they are not lo important as to require a fecond exami¬
nation.
Before we conclude this general account of the ma¬
terials which compofe our globe, we muft briefly notice
two of the moft valuable mineral produdfions, viz. rook
O L O G
It has fait and coal,
petrifadlions.
Chap. I.
Y.
and muft fay fomething of fofiils and Arrange¬
ment, &e.
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
Sect. XXIX. Rock Salt.
lor
Rock fait or fal gem, (the Jlcivfnl of the Germans)
is the pureft muriate of foda that is found in nature, itRock faIt
being much lefs impregnated with foreign matters than
w hat is procured from fea water. It is very hard, and
generally very tranfparent, being fometimes as clear as
cryftal. It is ufually white, but often yellowifh, blue,
red, or violet, and now and then it is quite opaque.
This fait forms in the bowels of the earth horizontal
beds or banks, more or lefs thick, from a few inches
to many hundred fathoms; and fometimes extending
feveral miles round. It commonly alternates with clay
or gypfum. The beds are fometimes without any break
for a great extent. It is generally found a fetv fathoms
below the furface, and in fome places is found continued
to the depth of rooo feet. * ^
It is found in fome mountains; and in Algiers, near Where* •
the lake called Marks, there is a mountain almoft found,
wholly compofed of it. The famous fait mine of
Wielitflca in Auftrian Poland, about eight miles to
the fouth-eaft of Cracow, is in the northern extremity
of a branch of the Carpathian mountains. The fait
found here is of an iron gray colour, intermingled with
white cubes ; and fometimes large blocks of fait are
found imbedded in mark This famous mine has been
worked ever fince 1251, and it is pretended that its
excavations extend more than a league from eaft to
weft *. About five leagues to the louth-eaft of Cra- * To-wrfm’t
cow are the fait mines of Bofchnia, the depth of which Travels in
is nearly equal to thofe of Wielitfka (1000 feet) ; h\\\.Hu,,Sary>
the fait procured from them is lefs pure+. Mines of?’^"8' .
lalt, in horizontal undulated beds, occur at Thorda in Mines,
Tranfylvania, and in Upper Hungary. In the fide of 11*47.
a mountain, about two leagues from Halle, on the
banks of the Inn, to the north-eaft of Infpruck, rock
fait is found imbedded in layers of a flaty rock ; but
there is one part of the mountain in which there occurs
an immenfe body of fait, without any mixture of rock,
to which they pafs by a gallery 260 toifes in length,
clofed at the end with a locked door. This fait is very
impure J. There are three important fait mines in j <yar's ycya
Spain ; the firft near Mingranella, in a mountainous tom. iii. p.
trad!, between Valentia and Caftile, imbedded in lay- 328.
ers of gypfum; the fecond in Spanifti Navarre, in a
ridge of hills compofed of limeftone and gypfum ; and
the third that of Cardona in Catalonia, about 16 leagues
to the north-eaft of Barcelona, which is one of the moil
curious natural produdlions with which wre are acquaint¬
ed. It confifts of an immenfe folid rock of fait, eleva¬
ted 500 feet above the earth, and extending to a depth
that has not been afeertained. It is without crevices
or clefts, and has no appearance of llrata, and is near a
league in circuit. There is no plafter or gypfum found
in the neighbourhood, and the fait rock is as high as
any of the adjacent lulls J|. ^ ^ \\ Bowled*
Rock fait is found in ioveral places in England, par- Nat. Hijl.
ticularly at Northwdch in Cheftiire, at Droitwich \ncJ^Pa'in.
Worcefterfhire, and near Wefton in Staffordftiire ; but
the mines in Northwich are the moft produ6!ive. Salt gait mines
minesj in this fituation, tvere known to the Romans; at North-
but wich.
Chap. I.
G E -O L
Arrange- but the principal mine that is at prefent wrought, was
af Hie Ma" ^covere<^ t^e beginning of la It century. It forms
terials of' bnmenfe quarries, extending over feveral acres, which,
the Earth, with their huge eryftal pillars and glittering roof,
1    prefent a moft beautiful fpeftacle. The fait found here
is of a dark-brown colour, like brown fugarcandy, and
is fo hard that it is blalled with gunpowder to get it
from the mafs. It is difpofed in beds, alternating with
beds oi clay, gyplum, and llaty done. Salt is procured
at the greateft depth hitherto explored 5 and wherever
a fhaft is iunk in the neighbourhood, there is a certain¬
ty of finding fait *.
Refides thefe extenfive mines, rock fait is found in
the canton of Berne in Switzerland, in Siberia, in A-
rabia, in Tibet, and even in New Holland. It is alio
found in many parts of America, at a great height in
the mountains, efpecially thofe of Peru.
* Maive's
Mineralogy
nf Derbyjh,
ie6t xv.
Sect. XXX. Coal.
C'eal.
104
105
General
O G Y.
4. It is an obfervation which holds, almoit without
We have already, in the articles Coal and Coal-
ERY, treated of the nature of this fubftance, of the
ftrata that are ufually found connedled with it (accord¬
ing to the phrafeology of the miners), and of the me¬
thod of procuring it from the pits; and, in Minera¬
logy, wre (hall give a particular account of the feveral
varieties, and the diftinguifhing characters of each. A
few obfervations refpefting the principal collieries, with
the appearance of the coal found in them, and the
correfponding ftratification, fall to be made in this
place.
There are certain general circumftances that attend
the depofitions of coal in almoft every place where it is
found, and which we muft mention before noticing the
particular collieries. Thefe are as follows.
1. The beds in which coal is difpofed, ufually have
nrcumftan- their extremities near the furface of the ground, from
*nl ^bich they bend obliquely downwxards, the middle part
Strata. ^ bed being nearly horizontal, fo that a vertical
feflion of the bed nearly refembles the keel of a boat.
This figure is well expreffed in the firft and third plates
to Mr Jamefon’s Mineralogy of Dumfries. The loweft
part of the bed is ufually the thickeft (d).
2. A bed of coal is feldom found fingle ; but, in ge¬
neral, feveral ftrata occur in the fame place, of various
thicknefs, the upper being ufually very thin, and the
low'er veuy thick, with feveral ftony ftrata between each
two. Where there is only one bed, this is generally of
very confiderable thicknefs. At Whitehaven there are
found at leaft 20 coal ftrata below' the furface 5 and at
Liege, in France, there are no lefs than 60.
3. The ftrata that feparate the layers of coal are
nearly the fame in every colliery, and will be feen by
referring to the table given under Coalery, and by
thofe which will immediately be added. Thofe ftrata
which are in immediate ccntaft with the coal, are ei¬
ther whinftone, or more commonly an argillaceous flaty
mafs; and near this is fandftone, in layers that are fe-
parated by flaty clay,, mixed with particles of coal. .
0
Arrange
exception, that the flaty ftrata, and efpecially thofe
next the coal, bear the impreflion of vegetables, and tcrjafs 0f
often of exotic or unknown plants. the Earth.
Coal, in a greater or lefs quantity, but of very dif- 106
ferent qualities, has been found in moft countries, and vVhere
perhaps exifts in all. It is found in France, Holland,l0UQu*
Britain, Germany, Saxony, Portugal, Switzerland,
and Sweden •, in China, Japan, and in New Holland j
and much of it is worked in Virginia in America.
But France and Britain may be coniidered as the fa¬
vourite feats of this invaluable commodity, which may
juftly be put in competition with the treal’ures of Potoli
and Peru. - 107
It is ftated by Buftbn, that there are no few7er than ^oal mines
400 collieries worked in France ; and yet Saintfond re. ^ rance-
grets that his countrymen are not fo far advanced in
the ufe of this mineral as the inhabitants of Britain *. * Saint/md's
The moft confiderable coal mines in France, are thofe Travels,
tom. 1. p.
114.
in the Lyonnois, at Forez, Burgundy, Auvergne,
Languedoc, Franche Comte, and Liege.
The mines in the Lyonnois, and thofe of Forez, are
among the moft important in France. They are fitua-
ted in a valley, extending from the Rhone to the Loire,
in a direftion from north-eaft to fouth-weft, between
two chains of primitive mountains, and they occupy in
length a fpace of fix or feven leagues, from Rive-de-
Gier to Firmini. In one part of the valley, in tire
neighbourhood of Saint-Etienne, the ftrata are nearly
horizontal, and the medial thicknefs of the coal ftratum
is from three to fix feet 5 and near the Loire there are
from ij to 20 of thefe. At Rive de-Gier the ftrata
are almoft vertical, and their thicknefs is very un¬
equal, being feldom lefs than three feet, and fometimes
amounting to 40 or even 60. All the coal produced
by thefe mines is of an excellent quality, and its quan¬
tity is immenfe. Patrin ftate^, on the moft undoubt*
ed authority, that there are in the neighbourhood of
Rive-de-Gier, no lefs than 40 mines at work, w’hich
produced in one year 1,600,000 quintals of coal f. Nat ^7
The next in importance are the coal mines of Liege. MinerAQ>m.
The beds of coal in that country have a direction from v. p. 223.
eaft to weft j they commence about a league to the eaft
of the town, and extend to about a league and a half
to the weft of it. Here, after meeting with fome inter¬
ruption, they extend for feveral leagues farther. Their
breadth, from north to fouth, is about three-fourths of
a league. At Verbios, which is to the north-weft of the
city, there are, according to Jars, more than 40 ftrata
of coal, which.are feparated from each other by beds of
different kinds of fandftone, of from 30.10 100 feet in
thicknefs J. Gennete has counted 61 of thefe ‘Jan'Voy:
placed one above another; and he is of opinion, that Mctal.
the loweft penetrates to the depth of 4000 feet perpen- MeY; X1V‘
dicular. Though thele mines have been wrought fram‘d ‘
the 1 2th century, they have not yet reached to more
than the twenty-firft bed, at the . depth of a little more
than 1000. Englilh feel*, . § Patrin,
Thetom' v‘ P- '
330.
(d) Saintfond, in the feflion which he has of the coal ftrata at Newcaftle, deferibes them as if they wrere con¬
vex towdfcTs the upper furface. (See p. 1.34. of vol. i. of the Englifli Tranflation of his Travels in England, &c.)
Surely this is a miftake.
3
566 G E O L
Arrange- The principal collieries oF Britain are tliofe of New-
caftle and Whitehaven.
terials of" Newcaftle is furrounded by collieries to the diftance
the Earth, of fix or feven leagues, and may, perhaps, be confider-
—-v ed as the richeft coal diftridt in the rvorld. 1 here are
108 {n feveral of the Newcaftle mines not fewer than 16
Cilleries ^ec^s coa^ tvvo which are confiderably thicker
of Eng kid. ^an the reft, being each about a fathom in thicknefs.
Thefe are called the main coal, and are diftinguiftied
into the high main coal, and the lov.) main coal, fepara-
ted from each other by a confiderable number of ftony
ftrata. Goad coal, in fufficicnt quantity, is generally
. found at the depth of little more than I oo feet. The
bed is five feet thick in feme places, and lefs in others j
but, in general, it is eafily wrought, and large pieces
are brought up. This laft circumftance is of confider¬
able advantage, as thefe pieces are moft proper for
chamber fires, and eafily tranfported, which makes this
kind of coal fell at a higher price. Where the bed of
black and bituminous clay is penetrated, the coal is
found adhering to it : but this is not always the cafe,
for there are other mines in the neighbourhood where
freeftone is recovering, which, in the points of contaft,
is mixed with coal to the thicknefs of two or three
inches •, the latter running, as it were, in fplinters into
the ftone, and having a ligneous appearance, when at-
*Snintfend's tentively examined f.
Travels,?. Whitehaven, the beds of coal lie in a dire&ion
i. p. ^o. paranci to each other. Their inclination or dip is
nearly to the weft, and is from one yard in eight, to
one in twelve. The ftrata are frequently interrupted
by large fiffures, or dykes, fome of which remove the
ftrata upwards or downwards, I 20 feet. The courfe of
thefe fiffures is almoft eaft and weft. In a depth from
the furface of 165 and a half fathoms, there are, in
thefe collieries, feven large beds of coal, and 18 thin
O G Y. Chap. I.
beds, which cannot, at prefent, be rendered proii- Arrange-
table. _ ^theMa-
The ftrata fuperincumbent on the large beds of coal u,riais 0g
are, ift bed, Blue (late. 2d, Gray freeftone. 3d, the Earth-
Hard, white freeftone. 4th, Blue flate, ftriated or  y — /
fpeckied with freeftone. 5th, Gray ftate. 6th, Hard,
white freeftone.
The ftrata immediately beneath thefe large beds of
coal, are from one and a half to fix inches thick, and
confifts of a fpecies of argillaceous earth, or Jhahe.
As this earth is of a very foft or friable nature, the
weight of the fuperincumbent ftrata preffes the pillar of
coal through it. If the pillar defeends a few inches,
the roof not equally yielding at the fame time, crulhes,
or breaks into fmall pieces. When, under thefe cir-
cumftances, the thicknefs of the bed does not exceed
fix feet, nor the depth 30 fathoms, the furface of the
earth is fenfibly affe&ed *. * Diteen'f
There appear to be two principal belts of coal in this /,;ye 0j-]yr
ifland, extending from the eaftern to the weftern coaft j Broiunrigr^
one from Newcaftle to Whitehaven ; the other from the P- *°7*
eaft coaft of Scotland, acrofs the vale of Forth and
Clyde, to Ayrfture. Coal is indeed found in many other
parts of the ifland 5 but the quantity is very trifling.
The fimilarity of fituation, and the fimilar nature of
the coal at Whitehaven and Newcaftle, would natural¬
ly lead us to infer, that the coal at both places is from
the fame feam. But this is placed beyond difpute, by
a comparative examination of the ftrata in both fituations.
We (hall here give two tabular views of the ftrata, one
taken from Saintfond’s Travels, and the other from Dr
Joftma Dixon’s account of the Whitehaven mines, in his
literary life of Dr Brownrigg. Allowing for the dif¬
ferent names given by different miners to the fame fub-
ftances, and Dr Dixon’s greater minutenefs, there is 3
wonderful fimilarity between the two tables.
Table I. Strata in Reftoration Pit, St Anthon’s Colliery, Newcaflle, to the depth of 135 fathoms.
From Saintfond.
N0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
xo
11
12
13
*4
16
17
18
J9
20
Stratum.
Fath.
Feet. Inch
Soil and clay.
Brown freeftone,
Coal, I.
Blue metalftone,
White girdles,
Coal, II.
White and gray freeftone,
Soft blue metalftone,
Coal, III.
Freeftone girdles,
Whin,
Strong freeftone,
Coal, IV.
Soft blue thill,
Soft girdles mixed with whin,
Coal, V.
Blue and black ftone,
Coal, VI.
Strong ffeeftone,
Gray metalftone,
5
12
2
2
6
5
3
1
3
4't
Chap. I.
Arrange¬
ment, &c.
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Enth.
GEOLOGY
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
4^
49
5°
51
52
53
54
5-5
56
57
58
59
€0
61
62
63
64
65
66
68
69;
70
v
J 72
.73
Stratum.
Fath.
Coal, VII.
Cray port mixed with whin,
Gray girdles, .
Blue and black Hone,
Coal, VIII.
Gray metalflone,
Strong freeftone,
Black metalflone, with hard girdles,
High main coal, IX.
Gray metal,
Poll girdles,
Blue metal.
Girdles,
Blue metalllone,
Pell,
Blue metalflone,
Whin and blue metal,
Strong freeftone,
Brown poll with water,
Blue metalftone with gray girdles.
Coal, X.
Blue metalftone,
Freeftone,
Coal, XI.
|Strong gray metal, with poft girdles.
Strong freeftone,
'Whin,
^lue metalftone.
Gray metalftone, with poll girdles
Blue metalftone, with whin girdles,
Coal, XII.
Blue gray metal,
Freeftone,
Freeftone mixed with whin,
Freeftone,
Dark blue metal,
Gray metalftone and girdles,
Freeftone mixed with w'hin,
Whin,
Freeftone mixed with whin,
Coal XIII.
Dark gray metalftone,
Gray metal and whin girdles,
Gray metal and girdles,
Freeftone,
Coal XIV.
Blue and gray metal,
Coal XV..
Blue and gray metal,
1 Freeftone mixed with whin,
Gray metal,
Gray metal and girdles,
[Low main coal, XVI.
567
Feet.
Inch.
3
6
10
Arrange¬
ment, &c.
otthe Ma¬
terials of
the Earth
Table’
$6\
Arrange¬
ment, &c.
0/ the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
GEOLOGY.
'I ABLE II. Strata in Croft Pit at Prefton-Hows near Whitehaven., to the depth of iot Fathoms
From Dixon.
Chap. I,
Arrange,
ment, &c.
of the Ma¬
terials of |
the Earth'.
Nc
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
*4
if
16
J7
18
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
■27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
56
Stratum.
Fath. Feet. Inch
Soil and clay,
Brown foft limeftone,
Dark coloured litneftone, harder,
Yellowifh limeflone mixed with fpar,
Reddifli hard limeftone,
Hard dark-coloured limeftone, ,
\ ellowifti limeftone mixed with fpar,
Soft brown limeftone,
Soft brown and yellow limeftone mixed with freeftone,
Limeftone mixed with yellow freeftone,
Reddifti foft freeftone,
Red date, ftriated with freeftone in layers,
Red freeftone,
Soft red ftone,
Red flate ftriated with red freeftone,
Red Hate ftriated with freeftone,
Strong red freeftone, rather grayifti,
Lumpy red freeftone fpeckled with white freeftone,
Blue argillaceous fchiftus fpeckled with coal,
Red foapy flate,
Black flate with a fmall appearance of coal,
Alh-coloured friable fchiftus,
Purple-coloured flate,
The fame, and under it black flate,
Coal I.
Soft whitifli freeftone,
Blackifh flate, a little inclined to brown.
Coal II.
Blackifh ftiale intermixed with coal,
Whitilh freeftone,
Strong bluifti flate mixed with freeftone,
White ironftone,
Freeftone ftriated with blue flate.
White freeftone in thin layers,
Dark-blue flate,
Coal III.
Dark-gray ftiale,
Coal IV. .
Gray freeftone mixed with ironftone,
Hard white freeftone,
Coal V. . . .
Shale mixed with freeflone,
Olive-coloured flate adhering to black date fu'perincumbent
Coal VI.
Black ftiale mixed with freeftone, .
White freeftone mixed with flate,
Dark-blue flate,
Coal VII.
Black fhale mixed with freeftone,
Srong white freeftone,
Brown ironftone,
Dark-gray flate, . ’
Dark-gray ftiale with an intermixture of coal VIII,
Light-coloured flate mixed with freeftone,
Blue flate ftriated with freeftone,
Strong white freeftone a little tinged with iron.
coal,
2
11
10
6
6
I
9
8 :
4
1
8
4v
3
6
Chap. I.
Arrange¬
ment, 8tc.
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
N°
GEOLOGY.
Stratum.
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
6?
68
69
7^
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
99
100
101
102
IO3
04
05
106
107
108
109
I IO
I I X
II 2
II3
1x4
JI5
116
117
Very black lliivery (late,
Strong coal of a good quality, IX.
Soft gray Hate,
Very black coal X. burns well
Hard black date,
Coal mixed with pyrites, XI.
Argillaceous fchilfus, gray and brittle
Blue rough argillaceous fchiftus,
Fine blue date,
Freeftone mixed with ironllone,
Black duvery date,
Dark-blue date, very fine,
Dark-blue date, very brittle.
Coal, XII. . ;
Soft gray argillaceous fchidus,
Argillaceous fchiftus mixed with freeftone,
White freeftone with fine particles,
Blue date ftriated with white freeftone
Light-blue date,
Blue date a little mixed with ironftone
Black fhivery date,
Coal, XIII.
Brownifh hard date,
Strong blue date tinged with ironftone,
Dark-blue date rather inclined to brown,
Blue brittle date,
Coal, XIV.
Lightidi-gray, brittle foapy fchiftus,
Freeftone ftriated with blue date,
Fine blue argillaceous fchiftus ftriated with freeftone,
Black date, with hard, fharp, and fine particles,
Very light blue date, remarkably fine.
Coal, XV. . ’
Soft gray argillaceous fchiftus,
Black fhivery date,
Coal, XVI.
Strong lightifh-coloured fhale,
Blue date ftriated with white freeftone
Ironftone,
Gray date,
Strong white freeftone,
Freeftone ftriated with blue date,
White freeftone,
Freeftone ftriated with blue date.
Black date,
Freeftone ftriated with blue date,
Strong white freeftone,
f reeftone mixed with blue date,
Strong white freeftone,
Grayifh date of a fhivery nature,
Freeftone mixed with blue date,
Very ftrong white freeftone,
Fine blue date,
White freeftone ftriated with blue date
Fine blue date, ,
White freeftone,
Freeftone ftriated with blue date,
White freeftone, ,
White freed one in thin layers,
Fine blue date,
Coal, XVII. .
Fath.
Feet
Inch.
4
3
2
3
4
4
4
9
6
10
3
11
5
4t
4
4
5
4
1
10
4
5
1
10
5*59
Arrange¬
ment, .See.
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
Vol. IX. Part II,
57° .
Arrange¬
ment, Sec.
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
GEO
An in t ere (ling and valuable memoir on the fubjeft of
coal, written by M. Duhamcl the younger, was pie-
fented a fewT years fince to the Academy of Sciences at
Paris, who adjudged it the prize that had been offered
for the belt effay on the fubjedt. An ample abltract of
this memoir appeared in the 'Journal des Mines, i\0 vii.
In this pap r is given a table of the number of veins,
their direction and inclination, and the nature of the
llrata next the coal, and in the neighbourhood, in all
the principal mines in Europe.
Sect. XXXI. Of Foffils and Petrfa&ions.
Foffils. Those organic remains of vegetable and animal mat¬
ter which are found below the furface of the earth,
mixed with the ftony matters which are properly the
component parts of the earth, are generally called fof-
JUs, or extraneous foff Is. If they have entirely loft all
traces of vegetable or animal matter, and have affumed
a ftony earthy nature, they are called petrifactions.
Some of thefe organic remains, particularly thofe of
the vegetable kind, are found penetrated wdth a bitu¬
minous fubftance, fo as to be rendered highly inflam¬
mable. One of the moft curious circumftances attend¬
ing thefe foffil bodies is, that they are very commonly
natives of a different country from that in which they
are found, or are the remains of fpecies that are now
no longer known.
We may properly divide thefe fubftances into thofe
of the vegetable and thofe of the animal kingdom.
i. Vegetable foffls. Almoft every part of vegetables,
the trunks, branches, leaves, and fruits, have been found
in a folTil ftate, or impreftions of fome of them are feen in
various mineral lubftances, elpecially in the llaty ftone
which accompanies coal.
Fig. 6. reprefents a curious example of this, that was
found in the mines at Saint Etienne in France.
A, is a fruit relembling that of coffee.
B, is a portion of an unknown vegetable, apparently
of the verticillate tribe.
C, is a fpecies of fern, wdiich is very remarkable, as
it is furnilhed with frudlifications.
D, is part of a plant with verticillate leaves, proba¬
bly a fpecies of gallium.
E, is fome exotic fruit.
Whole trees are often found below7 the furface of the
earth, efpecially in bogs and moffes, fometimes retain¬
ing much of their vegetable nature, but more common¬
ly either impregnated with bitumen or completely pe¬
trified. Subterraneous trees are frequently dug up in
the ifle of Anglefea j and in the ifle of Man there is a
marfh fix miles long and three broad, in which fir trees are
found in great quantities ; and though they are 18 or 20
feet below the furface, they appear as if Handing firmly
upon their roots. Subterraneous trees, in various ftates,
are frequently found in Ireland, efpecially in the neigh¬
bourhood of Lough Neagh. Much has been written on
the fubjedl of thefe petrifadfions of Lough Neagh, by
Dr Boate, in his Natural Hiftory of Ireland; by Mr
Molyneux, in the Philofophical Tranfadlions, N° clviii.
and Dr Barton in his Lectures on Natural Philofophy.
* Parkin- some 0f thefe trees are reprefented as of an immenfe
fons^Orga- Qne 0f tke curious inftances of vegetable
LetteTviT/’fofftk} is that related by Rammazzir.i, as feen by him
LOGY. Chap. I.
at Modena in Italy. At the bottom of v/ells, that are Arrange-
dug there below iiony maffes, which appear to have mynt>
been the foundation of a former city, at the depth °h °t 7i*
near 30 feet, they find heaps of wheat entire, filbert the Earth.
trees, with their nuts, briars, See. They find, likewife, ' y——<
every fix feet, a layer oi earth, alternating with branch¬
es and leaves of trees.
At the depth ot 28 feet, or thereabouts, they find a
chalk that cuts very eafily. It is mixed with Ihells of
feveral lorts, and makes a bed of about 11 feet. After
this they find a bed of marfhy earth, of about two feet,
mixed with rulhes, leaves, and branches. Alter this
bed comes another chalk bed, of nearly the fame thick-
nefs with the former, which ends at the depth of 49
feet.
That is followed by another bed of marfhy earth like
the former ; after which comes a new chalk bed. Thefe •
fucceftive beds of marfhy earth and chalk are to be
found in the fame order, in whatever parts of the earth
they dig. The auger fometimes finds great trees, which
give the wmrkmen much trouble. They fee alfo fome¬
times at the bottom of thefe wells, great bones, coals,
flints, and pieces of iron f. f Pay's
Thefe vegetable fofiils are generally of a flinty ftruc- Difcourfa,
ture, being fometimes rough and fandy ; at others fo P- 223*
hard and compact as to admit of a fine polifh. Some
beautiful fpecimens of petrified wood, of the appearance
of agate, are to be feen in the cabinet of natural hiftory.
That of Biffon at Paris contains two examples of this
kind, which are figured at fig. 7 and 8. Fig. 7. is a
tranfverfe feflion of a piece of agatized wood, in which
the ligneous texture is moft completely preferved.
Fig. 8. is another more compact, and which has the
additional Angularity of containing feveral worms.
The white oval fpots are fuppofed to have been eggs,
from which the worms had iffued. Iro
Among the bituminous vegetable foflils, none have Bovey coal,
attracted more attention than what is called bovey coal,
a fubftance of an intermediate nature between wood
and pitcoal, which is dug up in a common near Chud-
leigh in Devonfliire. It is of a laminated texture, of a
chocolate, or fometimes of a fliining black colour, like
deal boards that had been half charred. It burns hea¬
vily, and confumes to light gray allies. It is regularly
ftratified among beds of land and clay, and the beds of
coal are fometimes of confiderable thicknefs. Mr Park- t Organic
infon has collected much information refpefling the
former and prefent ftate of this coal, in his entertaining ter‘XIi.
work on foflils J. in
2. Animal foffls. Foffils of animal matters are Hill Animal fof-
more common than thofe of vegetables. Shells andrils-
bones are found in almoft every bed of limeftone, and
in almoft every country, at the bottom of the deepeft
valleys, and at the tops of very confiderable moun¬
tains.
In the limeftone ftrata in Derbylhire are found many
of thofe foflils, which are far fanes wx^ferew-
fones, which appear to be the remains of marine ani¬
mals called encrini. Thefe are deferibed by White-
hurft, who has given figures of fimilar animals brought
entire from the Weft Indies 9* repreients one § ‘Theory of
of thefe ftones. # _ ^ Earth,
The ifle of Cherea in Dalmatia contains caverns in chap- xvii.
which are found prodigious quantities of foflil bones of
oxen,
Chap. I.
GEO
of the Ma
terials of
the Earth.
Arrange- oxen, horfes, and fiieep. Similar examples occur in
ment, &c. many places; but human bones are, we believe, never
found in a toiiu ftate.
roflil fliells are found on the Alps, on the top of
w Mount Cenis, on the Apennines, on the mountains of
Genoa, and in moft of the quarries of itone and marble
in Italy ; in moft parts of Germany and Hungary, and
indeed generally in all the elevated places in Europe.
We alfo find them in the uones whereof the moll an¬
cient edifices of the Romans w'ere conftrudled.
In Switzerland, Alia, and Africa, travellers have
obferved petrified fifh, in many places 5 for inftance, on
the mountains of Caftravan, there is a bed of white la¬
minated ftone, and each lamina contains a great num¬
ber and diverfity of fillies j they are, for the moil part,
very flat, and extremely comprelfed, in the manner of
foflil fern ; yet they are fo w-ell preferved, that the mi-
nutert marks of their fins and fcales are diflinguifhable,
and every other part, whereby one fpecies of fith is
known from another.
There are likewife many echenites and petrified fifli
between Iver and Cairo, and on all the hills and heights
of Barbary, moft of -which exadlly correfpond with the
like fpecies taken in the Red fea.
The long chain of mountains which extend from eafl:
to weft, from the lower part of Portugal to the moft
eaftern parts of China, thofe which ftretch collaterally
to the north and fouth of them, together with the moun¬
tains of Africa and America, which are now known to
us, all contain Jirata of earth and ftone, full of (hells.
The iflands of Europe, Afia, and America, w-herein
Europeans have had occafion to dig, wdiether in moun¬
tains or plains, all furnifti us with fliells, and convince
us that they have this particular in common with their
adjacent continents.
The glojjbptra, or the teeth of (harks and other fifties,
are found in the jaws, poliftied and worn fmooth at the
extremities, confequently muft have been made ufe of
during the animal’s life 5 and in fliells the very pearls
are found, which the living animals of the fame kind
produce.
It is well known that the purpura and pholades have
a long-pointed probofcis, which ferves them as a kind of
gimblet or drill, to pierce the (hells of living fifti, on
whofe flefti they feed. Nowq fliells thus pierced are
found in the earth, which is another inconteltable proof
that they heretofore inclofed living fifli, and that thefe
fifli inhabited places where the purpura and pholades
preyed on them.
In Holland fea fliells are found 100 feet below the
lurface } at Marly-la-Ville, fix leagues from Paris, at
75 } and in the Alps and Pyrenean mountains they are
found under beds of ftone of 100, nay even 1000
feet.
Shells are likewife found in the mountains of Spain,
France, and England, in all the marble quarries of
Flanders, in the mountains of Guelders, in all the hills
round Paris, in thofe of Burgundy and Champagne;
and, in ftiort, in all places wdiere the balls of the foil is
neither freeftone nor fandftone.
By fliells we would be underftood to mean, not only
thofe which are merely teftaceous, but the relics of the
cruftaceous fifties alfo j and even all other marine pro-
duflions; and we can venture to affert, that, in the ge-
LOGY- , 571
nerality of marbles, there is fo great a quantity of ma- ^rra 3-
rine productions, that they appear to furpafs in bulk the
matter whereby they are united. terials ot"
Among the many inftances of the multiplicity of the Earth.
oyfters, there are few more extraordinary than that im- ^
menfe bed which M. de Reaumur gives an account of,
which contains 130,630,000 cubic fathoms. This vaft
mafs of marine bodies is in Touraine in France, at up¬
wards of 36 leagues from the fea. Some of thefe (hells
are found fo entire, that their different fpecies are very
diftinguiftiable.
Some of the fame fpecies are found recent on the
coaft of Poiclou, and others are known to be natives of
more diftant parts of the wmrld. Among them are
likewflfe blended fome fragments of the more ftrong
parts of fea plants, fuch as madripores, fungi mar ini,
&c. The canton of Touraine contains full nine fquare
leagues in lurface, and furnilhes thefe fragments .of
(hells wherever you dig.
Near Reading in Berkfliire, a continued body of
oyfter (hells has been found : they lie in a ftratum of
greenifh fand, about two feet in thicknefs, and extend
over five or fix acres of ground ; they are covered by
ftrata o( fand and clay, upwards of 14 feet deep. Se¬
veral vrhole oyfters are found with both their valves or
(hells lying together, as oyfters before they are opened;
the ihells are very brittle ; and in digging them up,
one of the valves will frequently drop from its fellow.
Several are dug out entire ; nay, fome double oyfters
with their valves united.
In a quarry at the eaft end of Broughton in Lincoln-
(hire, innumerable fragments of the Ihells of (hell fiih,
of various forts, are found under a ftratum of ftone im¬
bedded in clay, with pieces of coral, and fometimes
■whole (hell fifli, with their natural Ihells and colours :
fome are moft miferably cracked, bruifed, and broken ;
others totally fqueezed flat by the incumbent weight of
earth.
Sharks teeth are dug up in the ifle of Sheppey, re¬
taining their natural colour, not petrified.
i he teeth of (harks have likewufe been taken out of
a rock in Hinderftielf park, neat Malton in York-
fliire.
In the ifle of Caldey, and elfewhere about Tenby in
Pembrokeihire, marine foflils have been found in folid
marble, on the face of the broken fea cliffs, 200 fa¬
thoms below the upper furface of the rocks. Nor were
they only obferved upon the face of thefe rocks, but
even more or lefs throughout the whole mafs or extent
of them. This is manifeft from divers rocks hewn
down by workmen for making of lime, and other pieces
cafually fallen from the cliffs.
Thoufands of foflil teeth, exaftly anfwering to thofe
of divers forts of fea fifli, have been found in quarries
and gravel pits about Oxford.
At T ame in Oxfordftiire, the be/emnites, or thunder¬
bolt fanes, are found in a ftratum of blue clay, wThich
(till retain their native ftielly fubftance.
The belemmtes found in gravel pits, have fuffered
much, by their being rubbed againft each other in the
fluftuation of waters.
The nautili and belemnites are frequently found at
Gorfing near Oxford *. * pin.
One of the moft extraordinary colle£lions of fliells is Tranf. vok
4 C 2 thatliY- P- 5-
572 GEO
iat late]y difcovered by Ramond on the fummit of
oftheMa- ^0n*' ^>er(:lu> the higheit of the Pyrenees, where there
terials of 21e tound vaft quantities of fea fhells and other marine
the Earth, fpoils, and even Ikeletons of animals, in a fofTd date.
Whole fkeletons of very large animals have been dif-
covered in a folhl date. Thofe of elephants have been
found buried in the plains of Siberia ; and bones of the
rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, and the tapir, have been
found in other places. A very large Ikeleton, nearly
complete, of an immenfe animal, dmilar to the rhino¬
ceros, is preferved in the cabinet of Madrid. It was
dug up at Paraguay in South America, at the depth of
ioo feet, in a fandy bed, on the banks of the river
de la Plata. A defcription and engraving of it are gi¬
ven by Cuvier, in the Annals of the National Mufeum,
NTO 29. It appears to be at lead 12 feet long, and the
bones are of an immenfe fize.
A prodigious quantity of foOils, both of marine ani¬
mals, and of quadrupeds, are found in the plader hills
of Montmartre near Paris. An account of thefe has
lately appeared in feveral numbers of the Annals of the
National Mufeum, by M. X.amarck, accompanied wuth
the anatomical illudrations of Cuvier. Thefe papers
are extremely curious, and contain engravings of mod
of the fodils defcribed, fome of which are the remains
of unknown animals. Our limits do not permit us to
prefent our readers with even an abdrad of thefe
accounts. We diall therefore feleft only one ex¬
ample.
Fig. 10. reprefents a block of gypfum, on the fur-
face of which is the fkeleton of an animal refembling a
moufe, or, according to Cuvier, oi*e of the opoflum
L O G Y. Chap. II.
tribe. The Ikeleton is nearly entire, and the head, General
the neck, the fpine, the pelvis, one of the fore and D'dribu-
hind legs, and part of the tail, are very didin£1.
There were two pieces of gypfum found together, Jfthe
which appear to have divided the Ikeleton between Earth.
them. The animal feems to have been crulhed or im- 1 v-—*
bedded in his natural fituation *. * de
We have now enumerated the principal materials Muf'Nai'
that compofe the external crud of our earth, and haveN° XX1X*
mentiorfed fome of the mod material circumdances re-F' i77‘
fpe&ing each. The metallic ores dill remain to be
conlidered, and they lhall be noticed in defcribing me¬
tallic veins. *
Chap. II. General Diftribution of the Materials of
the Earth.
The uppermod dratum of the earth, in low fitua-
tions, is, for the mod part, compofed of fand or clay,
or a mixture of thefe, forming beds that are either com-
poled of the fame mixture, or of alternate layers of the
two fubdances. Thefe beds vary in thicknefs, in dif¬
ferent places j but, in the fame place, they ufually pre-
ferve nearly the lame thicknels for a condderable ex¬
tent. Sometimes thefe beds of clay, fand, and earth,
with diells, extend to the depth of fome hundred feet.
See the annexed table, 1. (e).
Ihis table exhibits a view of the arrangement of
drata in feveral countries of Europe 5 and, with the
tables of coal drata, in the lad chapter, will give the
reader more information on this fubjeft than an elabo¬
rate detailed account.
(e) The following works are referred to in the table of drata.
* Varenii Geogr. Gener. lib. i. prop. vii.
f Buffon, Nat. Hid. vol. i. art. vii.
t Bergman, Defcript. Phyf. de Terre, fe&. viii.
j| Kirwan, Geolog. Eflays, p. 259.
$ Guettard, Atlas Mineral, de la France,
^ Whitehurd’s Theory of the Earth, fe£l. xvi.
**Ib. fea. xix.
Table
i
Table of the order of Strata in Various Parts of Europe.
Chap. II.
GEOLOGY.
573
574
General
Diftribu-
tion
Materials
of the
Earth
G E O L
In our fubfequent view of tVie diUnbutton of the
of the flon>r matters that compofe the earth, we fhall confider,
1. 1 he nature, difpofition, and ftructure, of moun¬
tains.
2. The nature, dire6fion, &c. of dykes.
3. The nature, direction, &c. of metallic veins.
112
Definition
of moun¬
tains.
*13
Sect I. Of Mountains.
There are no objects on the furface of the earth
which are fo well calculated to excite the attention of
mankind in general, and that of geologifts in particular,
as thofe ftupendous elevated malfes which we call
mountains. The term mountain has in general been
applied to thofe parts of the earth which are elevated
to a very confiderable height above the level furface j
and a mountain is in common language dillinguilhed
from a hill only by its fuperior elevation. But as it is
found neceffary in a fcientific point of view to render
this diftindtion more accurate and precife, various geo-
logills have given more corredl definitions. By Pini and
Mitterpachter every elevation whofe declivity makes
with the horizon an angle of at lead 130, and whofe
perpendicular height is not lefs than one-fifth of the
declivity is called a mountain. Werner diflinguifhes
mountains according to their height, into high, middle-
fixed, and low. A high mountain according to him is
that whofe perpendicular height exceeds 6000 feet;
when the height is not above 6000 nor below 3000 he
calls it middle fixed; and when its height is below 3000
feet, he calls it low.
Mountains are either Angle or in groups \ and thefe
groups either confift of feveral mountains (landing near-
each other fo as to occupy nearly the centre of a cert ain
fpace of ground, or they follow each other fo as to
form a ridge or chain running acrofs a country, or
along its (hores. Sometimes thefe chains run in a lon¬
gitudinal direction, as is the cafe with Mount Caucafus
and the Uralian mountains in Afia, the Cordilleras in
South America, &.c. but often they run in a curvilineal
direftion like a crefcenf, as the Carpathian mountains,
which feparate Hungary from the reft of the Auftrian ter¬
ritories. It has been fuppofed by fome theoretic writers,
that chains of mountains always run in nearly the fame
direftion, which has been conceived to be from eaft to
weft 5 but this is by no means exa61, as later obfervations
have (hewn that they affume different diredlions accord¬
ing to the form of the country where they are fituated.
Some writers have laid it down as a general rule, that
chains of mountains always extend in a direction nearly
parallel to the length of the country j but to this there
are alfo many exceptions. Thus the Uralian moun¬
tains, the Carpathians, the Pyrenees, the Grampians in
Scotland, and many others, run rather acrofs the coun¬
try. It often happens that mountains occupy nearly
the central parts of a country j and the land generally
Hopes with a gentle declivity towards one fide of the
chain, while towards the other it is confiderably deep¬
er. This circumftance of one fide of a chain of moun¬
tains being deeper than the other, has been lately ex¬
tended to mountains and hills in general; and Dr
Kirwan has written an excellent paper on the fubjecl,
from which we (hall here extra£t the moft important
obfervations,
O G Y. Chap. ir.
“ That one part of almofi. every high mountain or General
hill is deeper than another, could not have efcaped piftnbu-
the notice of any perfon who had traverfed fuch moun-
tains j but that nature in the formation of fuch decli- of the
vities had any regard to different afpedls or points of Earth,
the compafs, feems to have been firft remarked by the v——^
celebrated Swedifli geologift Mr Tilas, in the 2zd vol.K- ' G,
of the Pvlemoirs of Stockholm for 1760. Neither Va-obferva-*
renius, Lulolph, nor Buffon in his natural hidory pub-tionson the
lilhed in 1748, have noticed this remarkable circum-decdvities
fiance. ofmoun-
“ The obfervation of Tilas, however, relates only to1”"''^
the extreme ends, and not to the flanks of mountains jThe fteep
with refpeft to the former, he remarked that theJleep-h&z faces
efi declivity always faces that part of the country wheret'ie low
the land lies lowreft; and the gentleft, that part of thecountr^*
country where the land lies higheft : and that in the
fouthern and eaftern parts of Sweden they confequent-
ly face the eaft and fouth-eaft ; and in the northern the
weft. The effential part of this obfervation extends
therefore only to the general elevation or depreffion of
the country, and not to the bearings of their declivi¬
ties.
116
“ The difcovery that the different declivities of theWeftern
flanks of mountains bear an invariable relation to theirA'e
different a(pe61s, feems to have been firft publiihed byfteePed*
Mr Bergman in his Phyfical Defcription of the Earth,
of which the fecond edition appeared in 1773. He
there remarked, that in mountains that extend from
north to fouth, the wellern flank is thefieepefi, and the
eaftern the gentlefi. And that in mountains which run
eaft and welt the fouthern declivity is the (leepeft, and
the northern the gentleft. Vol. II. § 187.
“ This affertion he ground^ on the obfervations re¬
lated in his 1 ft vol. § 32, namely, that in Scandina¬
via, the Suevoberg mountains that run north and fouth,
feparating Sweden from Norway, the we^ern or Nor¬
wegian (ides are the fteepelt, and the eaftern or Sw'ediflr,
the moft moderate j the verticality or (teepnefs of the
former being to that of the latter as 40 or 50 to 4 or 2.
“ That the Alps are deeper on their weftern and
fouthern (ides than on the eaftern and northern.
“ That in America the Cordilleras are deeper on
the weftern fide, which faces the Pacific ocean, than on
the eaft err,. But he does not notice a few exceptions
to this rule in particular cafes which will hereafter be
mentioned. X1^
“ Buffon, in the firft volume of his Epfcchs of Na-Remarksof
ture, publithed in 1778, p. 185. is the next who notices ^ufton.
the general prevalence of this phenomenon, as far as
relates to the eaftern and wreiiern fides of the mountains
that extend from north to fouth 5 but he is filent wfith
refpebl to the north and fouth fides of the mountains
that run from eaft to w eft •, nay, he does not feem to
have had a juft comprehenfion of this phenomenon 5 for
he confiders it conjointly with the general dip of the re¬
gions in which thefe mountains exift. I hus he tells
us, vol. i. p. 185, that in all continents the general de¬
clivity, taking it from the fummit of mountains, is al¬
ways more rapid on the weftern than on the eaftern
fide j thus the fummit of the chain of the Cordilleras
is much nearer to the weftern fliore than to the eaftern ;
the chain which divides the wftiole length of Africa,
from the Cape of Good Hope to the mountains of the
Moon,
Chap. IL GEO
General Moon, is nearer, he foys, to the weftern than to the
piftribu- eaiiern feas j of this, however, he muft have been igno-
Mateual^ rant’ as t^at tra<^ ° country ^ unknown,
of the “ The mountains which run from Cape Comorin
Earth, through the peninfula of India are, he fays, much nearer
'— to the fea on the eafe than on the weft j he probably
meant the contrary, as the fa& is evidently fo, and fo
he ftates it in vol. ii. p. 295 •, the fame he tells us may
be obferved in iflands and peninfulas, and in moun¬
tains.
“ This remarkable circumftance of mountains was
notwithftanding fo little noticed, that in 1792 t‘!e
author of an excellent account of the territory of Carlf-
bad in Bohemia, tells us he had made an obfervation,
which he had never met with in any phyfical deferip-
tion of the earth, namely, that the fouthern declivity of
all mountains was much fteeper than the northern,
which he proves by inftancing the Erzgebirge of Sax¬
ony, the Pyrenees, the mountains of Switzerland, Savoy,
Carinthia, Tyrole, Moravia, the Carpathian and Mount
Haemus in Turkey. %. Bergm. Jour. 1792. p.385,
j j s in the note.
Of Her- “ Herman in his geology, publifhed in 17875 ?• 90,
man. has at leaft partial’y mentioned this circumftance j tor
he fays that the eaftern declivities of all mountains are
much gentler and more thickly covered with fecondary
ftrata, and to a greater height than the w’eftern flanks,
which he indances in the Swediih and Norwegian
mountains, the Alps, the Caucafian, the Appenine,
and Ouralian mountains •, but the declivities bearing a
fouthern or northern afpeft he does not mention.
Of Dela- “ Lametherie, in vol. iv. of his theory of the earth,
mttherie. of which the fecond edition appeared in 1797, a work
which abounds in excellent obfervations, p. 381, pro¬
duces numerous inftances of the inequality of the eaftern
and weftern declivities, but fcarce any of the northern
and fouthern, whofe difference he does not feem to have
noticed ; but he makes a remark which I have not feen
elfewhere, that the coafts of different countries prefent
flmilar declivities.
“ With regard to eaftern and weftern afpe£ls, he
thinks that a different law has obtained in Africa from
that which has been obferved in other countries; for
in that vaft peninfula he imagines the eaftern declivities
of mountains are the fteepeft, and the weftern the
gentleft. Of this, however, he adduces no other proof,
but that the greateft rivers are found on the weftern
fide : this proof feems infufficient, as, if mountains be
ixtuated far in land, great rivers may flow indiferiminate-
ly from any fide of them, and fometimes few rivers flow
even from the fide whofe defeent is moft moderate ; for
inftance, from the eaftern fide of the mountains of Sy¬
ria. The Elbe and the Oder, two of the greateft rivers
in Germany, take their courfe from the weftern Tides,
the firft of the Bohemian and the other of the Moravian
mountains, which yet are the fteepeft. Many origi¬
nate from lakes, as the Shannon with us 5 many take
fuch a winding courfe, that from a bare knowledge of
the place of their difemboguement it is impoflible to
judge from what fide of a mountain they iffue, if from
any ; their courfe at moft difeovers the depreflion of the
general level of the country.
“ In 1798, the celebrated traveller and circumna¬
vigator, John Reinhold Fofter, publilhed a geological
L O G Y. 575
tra<ft which merits fo much more attention, as all the General
fadls were either obferved by himfelf, or related to him pittribu-
by the immediate obiervers. In this he ftates as a fa<ft Materials
univerfally obferved, that the fouth and fouth-eaft fides 0fthe
of almoft every mountain are fteep, but that the north Earth,
and north-weft Tides are gently covered and connectedv 1 ‘
with fecondary ftrata, in which organic remains abound, 0 j,2° ,
which he ihuitrates by various mttances, lome or which (-outj1_ea^.
have been already, and others will prefently be men-fides of
tioned. mountains
At prefent this fa<ft attrafls the greateft attention, ^eel)e^'
being obvioufly conne£led wdth the original ftrudture
of the globe, and clearly proving that mountains are
not merely fortuitous eruptions unconnefted with tranf-
aftions on the furface of the earth, as has of late been
confidently advanced. 12J
“ I ftiall now Hate the principal obfervations relative Account of
to this objedft, that have been made in different parts of mountains,
the world.
In Europe.
122
1. The mountains that feparate SwTeden from Nor-In Europe,
way extend from north to foutb, their vveftern fides are
Jieep, and the eaftern gentle. 1. Berg. Erde Befchreib.
P- lSl'
2. The Carpathian mountains run from eaft to weft j
their fouthern fides towards Hungary are fteep, their
northern towards Poland moderate. Fo/ier, $ 46.
3. Dr Walker, profeffor of natural hiftory at Edin¬
burgh, obferved that the coafts and hills of Scotland are
fteeper and higher on the weflern fide than on the
eaftern. Jamefon’s Mineralogy of Scotland, p. 3.
However, Jamefon obferved, that the fouth fide of the
ifle of Arran is the loweft, and the north fide the high-
eft, p. 51.
4. The mountains of Wales are gentle on the eaftern
and fteep on the weftern Tides.
5. The mountains of Parthery, in the county of
Mayo, are fteep on the weftern fide.
6. The mountains which feparate Saxony from Bo¬
hemia, defeend gently on the Saxon or northern fide,
but are fteep on the Bohemian or fouthern fide. Char-
pente, p. 75. The fouthern declivity is to the north¬
ern as fix to tw'o. 2. Bergm. Journ. 1792, p. 384.
and 385.
7. The mountains which feparate Silefia from Bohe¬
mia run nearly from eaft to weft, yet are fteeper on
the northern or Silefian fide than on the oppofite Bohe¬
mian. yljfetnanni Silefia, 335. Such branches as run
from north-eaft to fouth-weft, have their weftern cover¬
ed with primordial ftrata, and confequently lefs fteep. -
4. New Roz. p. 157.
8. The Meiffener in Heflia is fteeper on the north
and eaft fides, which face the Warra, than on the fouth
and weftern. 1. Bergm. Journ. 1789, p. 272.
9. The mountains of the Hartz and Habifchtfwald
are fteep on the fouth, and gentle on the northern fides.
Fofer, § 46.
10. The Pyrenees, which run from eaft to weft, are
fteeper on the fouthern or Spanifli fide. Carbonieres,
xiii.
11. The mountains of Crim Tartary are gentle on
the northern, and fteep on the feuthern fides. Fofer,
ibid.
1h
GEOLOGY.
57°
Cenef&l
Diftribu-
•tion of the
•Materials
of the
Earth;
II.
123
I« Afia.
In ^fia.
11. The Ourals, which ftretch from north to fouth,
are far fteeper on the weftern than on the fouthern
fides. Herman Geologic, p. 90.} and, 2. Ural. Bef-
chreib, p. 389.
13. The mountain of Armenia, to the weft of the
Ourals, is fteep on its eaft and north Tides ; but gentle
on the fouthern and weftern. 1. Fallas Voy. p. 277.
14. The Altaifchan mountains are fteep on their
fouthern and weftern Tides, but gentle on the northern
and eaftern. Fojler, ibid, and Herman. 2. Ural Bef-
xhreib, p. 390. in the note.
15. So alfo are the mountains of Caucafus. 3. Schrift.
Bcrl. Gelafch. 471.
16. The mountains of Kamtfchatka are fteep on the
eaftern Tides. Pallas, 1. Aft. Petropol. 1777. p. 43.
17. The Ghauts in the Indian peninfula are fteep on
the wreftern fide.
18. The mountains of Syria, which run from north
to fouth, Ikirting the Mediterranean, are faid to be
fteeper on the weftern fide, facing the Mediterranean.
4. La Mctherie, p. 380.
G-nap,
General
Diftnbu-
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
In America.
“ The Cordilleras run from north to fouth 5 their
weftern flanks towards the Pacific are fteep, their eaft¬
ern defcend gradually.
In Guiana there is a chain of mountains that run
from eaft to tveft 5 their fouthern flanks are fteep, theirr 124
northern gentle. Voyages de Condamine, p. 140.” *. )"c.f mc‘
The theory according to which Dr Kirwan attempts * Nicholf.
to explain the appearances of mountains which are erm- J™™. Svc
merated above, will be given in the next chapter. vo1, *v-
We have already, under the article Barometer,P'
N° 44. fhewn the method of computing the height of Height of
mountains by means of that inftrument. The following mountains
table ftiews the height of the principal mountains in
the globe, chiefly according to this computation.
In this table the fecond column ftiews the height as
eftimated by the barometer, and the third the fame by
geometrical calculation. Where the numbers are pla¬
ced in the middle of thefe two fpaces, it denotes an un¬
certainty by what method the computation has been
made.
Table of the Heights of Mountains, according to the lateft computations.
Mountains.
Height by
Barom.
In Britain.
Ben Nevis,
Whirn,
Ben Lawers,
Ingleborough,
Do.
Ben More,
Pennygent,
Crofsfell,
Skiddaw,
Snowden,
Mount Battock,
Pendlehill,
Schehallion,
Helvellyn,
Hartfell,
Ben Wevis,
Ben Lomond,
Saddleback,
Ben Ledy,
In Ireland.
Slieve Donard,
Croagh Patrick,
Nephin,
Knock Meledown,
Mangerton,
Cumeragh,
In France,
Puy de Sanfi,
Plomb de Cantal,
Puy de Dome,
Height by
(Geometry.
Feet. Feet.
4350
4050
4015
3987 I
2377 I 2380
3903
3930 I
3839
3380 I 3530
3456 I
3465
34H |
3364
3324
33°°
3700
3240
3048
3°99
3150
2666
2640
2700
2160
2500
6300
6200
5000
Mountains.
Pyrenees.
Mont Perdu,
Canigou,
Alps.
Mont Blanc,
Schrekhorn,
Finfteraar,
Mount Titlis,
Mont Rofa,
Mont Cenis,
In the Tyrole.
Glochner,
Ortele,
Plaley Kogel,
Germany.
Stuben,
Brenner,
Lomnitz peak,
Kefmark peak, k Carpath.
Krivan^
Height by
Barom.
Fett.
11,000
9,000
^Etna,
Sicily.
In Denmark, Norway, and
Sweden.
Swukku,
Arelkutan,
Kinneculla,
Roetack,
Height by
Geometry.
Feet.
15,662
I3»000 +
I 2,000-f-
10,818
15,000
9,760
11,500 Fr.
13,000 Fr.
9,748 Fr.
4692
5ro9
8640
8508
8343
10,032
9000
6162
931
6000
Table
Chap, II.
General
Diftribu-
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
Mountains.
Pauda,
In Ruffia.
GEOLOGY.
Table of the Heights of Mountains, Continued.
Canary I/lands.
Peak of Teneriffe,
In North America.
Stony Mountains,
White Mountains,
Blue Mountains,
Height by
Bavom.
Height by
Geometry.
Feet.
Feet.
451 2
11,424
3000
4OCO
20CO
Mountains.
South America.
Chimborazo,
Do.
Cotopaxi,
Tunguragas,
In 'Jamaica.
Blue Mountains,
Height by
Larom.
Feet.
20,910
16,170
Height by
Geometry.
Feet.
20,280
18,600
7431
1
577
General
Brftribu-
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
1
Gaurfe of
mountains.
127
Compoli-
tion of
mountains.
128
DifUndlion
of primary
and fecon-
dary moun¬
tains.
The courfe of mountains is that direction of their
length in which they deicend and grow lower; or if a
river runs parallel to them, they are faid to have their
courfe in the direction of the ftream of the river. The
courfe of mountains is feldom uniform. It has been
laid down as a general maxim by Buffon, that when
there are two parallel chains of mountains, the falient
angle of one of the chains always correfponds with the
internal angle of the other •, but later geologifts have
afcertained that this circumltance does not generally
hold, except when a river runs between the two
chains.
It generally happens, that one particular mountain,
or chain of mountains, is compofed of thofe llony ma¬
terials which we have denominated primitive; wdhle
the reft is made up of the fecondary compounds. The
primitive fubftances occupy the bafe and central parts
of the mountain, and often extend to its very fummit ;
the fecondary cover thefe, and are generally found on
the flanks or fides of the mountain, though fometimes
they cover the top of the mountain. In a chain of
mountains there are commonly three, and often five pa¬
rallel ridges, of v/hich the central ridge is compofed of
primitive compounds, and thofe on each fide of it,
chiefly or entirely of fecondary compounds. Hence
mountains are ufually divided into primary or primeval,
and fecondary or epizootic \ the latter term being given
to the fecondary mountains from their being replete
with {hells and other remains of animal beings. The
fecondary mountains are alfo fometimes divided into
original and derivative, for a reafon that will appear
hereafter.
The primary mountains, befides their being in the
centre, and deftitute, or nearly fo, of organic remains,
may generally be diftinguiihed by the ruggednefs and
angular appearances arifing from the diflerent nature
and hardnefs of the fubftances of wdiich they are com¬
pofed ; the quartz and harder granite refilling the at¬
tacks of the air and weather, while the other fubftances
being fofter, gradually decay, and leave the harder in
the form of fpires and angles. Where, however, the
primitive compounds have been completely covered
with fecondary ftrata, thefe angular appearances feldom
take place $ and the mountain is only to be diftinguilh-
ed by its polition and the ftrudlure of its internal parts.
The fecondary mountains generally have their tops
Vol. IX. Part II.
rounded, and much fmoother than thofe of the primary
mountains.
In fome cafes a number of mountains appear united
at their tops into an extenfive plain or platform, from
which they feem to diverge and branch in every direc¬
tion. The moft remarkable inftance of this kind oc¬
curs in Tibet. (See Geography, N° 41.)
It is difficult to acquire a knowdedge of the interior
ftrudlure of mountains. The greater part of them is
hid from our view, and nature only expofes them in
a few- points by means of failures, caverns, and inter¬
mediate valleys.
“ The materials of which mountains confift are dif-
pofed either in irregular heaps, or piles varioufly 5n-
terfedled by rifts, or in beds or ftrata feparated from
each other by rifts, often horizontal, or varying from
that direclion by an angle of from 5 to 40 degrees, and
fometimes much more confiderably, approaching even
to a vertical polition. The ftrata of mountains are moll
frequently in the diredlion of their declivity, yet fome-
times their courfe is diredtly oppofite, or countercur¬
rent : the bell manner of determining the angles of their
courfe is by difcovering that of their rifts. It chiefly
depends on the unevennefs of the fundamental ground
that llipports them. According to 1 Sauff. 502. moft
of the elevated granitic mountains in Swifferland are
formed of immenfe vertical pyramidal laminse, parallel
to each other, that is, piles fomevvhat inclining from the
unequal diftribution of their weight, a difpofition that may
well be expedled from collateral cryftallizations; but
this difpofition is not univerfal, for they have been found
in Saxony, and in the Pyrenees, horizontally ftratified j
much lefs can it be faid, that this vertical pofition is
general, for the ftrata of gneifs are generally horizon¬
tal, and commonly very regular, difcovering no traces
of a violent Ihock. Mount Rofa, next to Mount Blanc,
the higheft in Europe, confifts alfo of gneifs, which
M. Sauffure found horizontally ftratified.
“ Shangin, who lately (1786) travelled over the
Altaifchan mountains, being confulted by Pallas, whe¬
ther he found any vertical layers or ftrata therein, an-
fwered, he had not; but that he found them perfectly
horizontal on the banks of the river Tfchary.
“ Mountains of primitive limeftone are frequently in
irregular piles, but often alfo horizontally ftratified.
Siliceous ichiftus is alfo often, horizontally ftratified.
4 D Many
Q
s7D
G E O L
General
Diftribu-
tioa of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
* Kirivan's
Geological
.EJfays, p.
2hl.
Equatorial
mountains
not the
higheft.
Many argillites, particularly roof flates, are generally
faid to have nearly a vertical pofition : but Voight
has ftiewn that it is only their lamellae that are fo fitu-
ated j their horizontal (earns, and their walls, difcover-
ing their true pofition ; their verticality ariling only
from the drain of the water, and, confequently, their
contraftion in that dire&ion : hence thofe that are moil;
lilicited, as they contradl lefs, difcover lefs verticali¬
ty. Sometimes Iwrizontal flrata overlap on both (ides.
Sometimes they are flanked on both (ides with vertical
ftrata.
“ Much confufion prevails in the ftru61ure of the Py¬
renees, and of the Grifon mountains, and thofe on the
borders of the Baikal, and other great lakes.
“ The perturbed (late of the ftrata often proceeds
from the decompofition of internal beds of pyrites, to
which rvater has had accefs j this appears to be the
caufe of the alterations obferved in the mountain of Ra-
benberg, on the frontiers of Saxony. In this moun-i
tain a double diredfion of the ftrata of gneifs is obler-
ved 5 between both the ftrata are vertical, and a large
intermediate (pace is filled with iron ore: but this
mountain contains beds of pyrites and vaft fwallorvs j
moft probably then the pyrites fwoll, uplifted the
whole, and the dillolved iron flowed into the va¬
cuity, from which the water afterw-ards drained off
on the fides.
“ In fecondary mountains, particularly the calcareous,
the greateft diforder often prevails, though in general
their {(ratification is horizontal.
“ The calcarecous mountains of Savoy are often arch¬
ed like a lambda, probably from the finking of the
intermediate ftrata, the intermediate remaining horizon,
t ab Sometimes they a (fume the form of the letters
Z. S. C. or of a disjointed DC, the convexities facing
each other. So alfo in the Pyrenees, they fometimes
overlap, from an unequal diftribution in their original
formation, and bend various ways'. They affume a
fpiral form, or that of a horfe-fhoe placed horizon¬
tally.
“ According to Lehman, moft fecondary ftrata pre-
fent hollows or moulds, (as they are called,) from in¬
ternal depreflion. But fometimes alfo elevations, from
an original elevation in the fundamental ftone.
“ In Scotland, all the fecondary ftrata in the vicinity
of primeval mountains, are nearly vertical j but at a
greater diftance they approach more to an horizontal
diredfion
We {hall now trace the courfe of the principal moun¬
tainous chains on the globe, and in accompanying us,
the reader may have before him a good map of the
world.
M. Buache places the moft elevated points of the
great chains of mountains under the equatorial line :
but, accordimg to Pallas, the fulleft and moft continuous
lands, and perhaps likewife the moft elevated, are to be
found at a diftance from the equator, and towards the
temperate zones. If, in fa&, we furvey the globe’s
furface, we fhall not be able to perceive that chain of
mountains, which running from eaft to weft, and divid¬
ing the earth into two portions, ought again to meet.
On the contrary, extenfive plains feem to accompany
the line through almoft its whole extent. In Africa,
the defects of Nigritia and thofe of Upper Ethiopia, are
on the one fide of the line 3 and on the other are the
O G Y. Chap. II.
Tandy plains of Nicoco, Caffraria, Monemugi, and Zan- General
guebar. from the eaftern {hores of Africa to the Sunda
iHands, is a fpace of 1500 leagues of fea with almoft ^ of.tIJe
no 1 Hands, except the Laccadive and Maidive iflands 3 if the
moft part of which have little elevation, and which run Earth.
from north to fouth. From the Molucca iflands and  v J
New Guinea, to the weftern borders of America, the
fea occupies a fpace of 3000 leagues. Though Chim¬
borazo and Pichincha in America, the two higheft
mountains which have been meafured, are near and
even under the line, yet from this no conclufion can
be drawn 3 becaufe on one fide thefe mountains run in
a direftion not parallel to the equator 3 the Andes or
Cordilleras attain a greater elevation as they remove
from the equator towards the poles ; and a vaft plain
is found exa&ly under the line, between the Oroonoko
and the river of the Amazons. Befides, the latter ri¬
ver, which takes its rife in the province of Lima about
the nth degree of fouth latitude, after crofting the
whole of South America from weft to eaft, falls’ into
the ocean exa&ly under the equator. This {hows that
there is a defeent for the fpace of 12 degrees or qco
leagues. From the mouth of the river of the Ama¬
zons, to the wertern {hores of Africa, the fea forms
another plain of more than 50 degrees.
From the few certain fads and accurate obfervations 130
which we have received from w ell informed travellers,
W'e might almoft affirm that the moft elevated land on
our globe is fituated without the tropics in the northern
and fouthern hemifpheres. By examining the courfe
of the great rivers, w^e in fad find that they are in ge¬
neral difeharged into three great refervoiVs, the one
under the line, and the other two towards the poles.
I his, however, we do not mean to lay down as univer-
fally true 3 for it is allowed, that, befides the two ele¬
vated belts, the whole furface of the earth is covered
wbth innumerable mountains, either detached from one
another or in a continued chain. In America, the O-
roonoko and the river of the Amazons run towards the
line, while the river St Lawrence runs towards the 50th
degree of north latitude, and the river de la Plata towards
the 40th degree of fouth latitude. We are ftill tco lit¬
tle acquainted with Africa, which is almoft all contain¬
ed within the tropics, to form any accurate conclufions
concerning this fubjett. Europe and Afia, which form
only one great mafs, appear to be divided by a more
elevated belt, which extends from the moft wefterly
{hores of France to the moft eafterly of China, and to
the iiland of Sagaleen or Anga-hata, Following pretty
nearly the 50th degree of north latitude. In the new
continent, therefore, we may conftder that chain where
the Milhflippi, the river St Lawrence, the Ohio, and
and the river de los Eftrechos, take their rife, as the
moft elevated fituation in North America 3 whence the
Mitliflippi flows towards the equator, the river St Law¬
rence towards the north-eaft, and the reft towards the
north-weft. In the old continent, the belt formerly
mentioned, and to which we may affign about 10 de¬
grees of breadth, may be reckoned from the 45th to
the 55th degree of north latitude : for in Europe the
Tagus, the Danube, the Dnieper, the Don, and the
Volga, and in Afia the Indus, the Ganges, the Meran,
the Mtcon, the Hoang-ho, and the Yang-tfe-Kiang,
defeending as it were from this elevation, fall into the
great refervoir between the tropics j whilft towards the
north
Chap.
IT. GEO
General north the Rhine, the Elbe, the Oder, the Viflula,
piftnbu- the* Oby, the Jenifei, the Lena, the Indigirka, and
m 11 °f t^e the Kowyma, are difcharged into the northern refer-
Judging from thofe mountains the height of which
has been calculated, and from the ixnmenfe chains with
which we are acquainted, we may infer that the
higheft mountains are to be found in this elevated belt.
The Alps of Swifferland and Savoy extend through
the 45th, the 46th, and the 47th degrees. Among
them we find St Gothard, Furca, Bruning, Rufs,
Whiggis, Scheidek, Gunggels, Galanda, and lailly,
that branch of the Swifs Alps which reaches Tirol by
the name of Arlenberg and Arula. In Savoy, we
meet with Mont Blanc, the Peak of Argentiere,
Cornero, Great and Little St Bernard, Great and Little
Cenis, Coupeline, Servin, and that branch of the
Savoyard Alps which proceeds towards Italy through
the duchy of Aoft and Montferrat. In this vafl
heap of elevated peaks, Mount Blanc and St Go¬
thard are particularly diftinguifhed. The Alps, leav¬
ing Swifferland and Savoy, and paffmg through
Tirol and Carniola, traverfe Saltzbourg, Stiria, and
Auflria, and extend their branches through Mo¬
ravia and Bohemia, as far as Poland and Pruflia.—
Between the 47 th and 48th degrees, we meet with
Grimming the highelt mountain of Stiria, and Priel
which is the highelt in Auftria. Between the 46th
and 47th degrees, the Bacher and the Reinfchnic-
ken, form two remarkable chains. The upper one,
which traverfes the counties of Trencfin, Arrava,
Scepus, and the Kreyna, feparates Upper Hungary
from Silefia, Little Poland, and Red Ruffia j the in¬
ferior one traverfes Upper Croatia, Bofnia, Servia,
and Tranfylvania, feparates Lower Hungary from
Turkey in Europe, and meets the upper chain behind
Moldavia, on the confines of Little Tartary. In thefe
mountains are fituated the rich mines of Schemnitz.
To form a general idea of the great height of this
Alpine belt, it is neceffary only to remark, that the
greateft depth of the wells at Schemnitz is 200 toifes ;
and yet it appears, from the barometrical calculations
of the learned M. Noda, that the greatell depth of
thefe mines is 286 toifes higher than the city of Vien¬
na. The granito-argillous mountains of Schemnitz,
and of the whole of this metallic diltri£l, are inferior,
however, to the Carpathian mountains. Mount Kri-
vany in the county of Arrava, and the Carpathian
mountains between Red Ruffia and the Kreyna, ap¬
pear by their great elevation to rule over the whole of
the upper Alpine chain. In the inferior chain we like-
wife meet with mountains of an extraordinary height ;
among others, Mount Mediednik, which gives its name
to a chain extending far into Bofnia ; and Mount He-
mus, celebrated even among the ancients. In Ihort,
this extenfive chain reaches into Alia, and is there con¬
founded with another chain no lefs famous, which,
following exaftly the 50th degree of latitude, runs
through the whole of Afia. This chain of mountains
is defcribed by Dr Pallas in the work above mention¬
ed •, and we (hall now trace its courfe in company with
this intelligent obferver.
This author places the head of the, mountains of
Oural, between the fources of the Yaik and the Bie-
laia, about the 53d degree of latitude, and the 47th of
579
General
Diftribc-
tion of toe
Materials
of the
Earth.
131
Uralian
chain.
LOG Y.
longitude. Here the European Alps, after having tra-
verfed Europe, and fent off various branches which
we ihall afterwards examine, lofe their name, which
is changed into that of the Ouralic or Uralian moun¬
tains, and begin their courfe in Afia. This lofty
chain, which feparates Great Bulgaria from the de~ —"'v—
ferts of Ifchimfka, proceeds through the country of
the Eleuths, follows the courfe of the river Irtis, ap¬
proaches the lake Telefkaia, and afterwards forms a
part of the fame fyftem of mountains with the Al¬
taic chain. There they give rife to the Oby, the Ir¬
tis, and the Jenifei, which begin their courfe about
the 50th degree of north latitude, and fall into the
Frozen ocean. 13*
The Altaic chain, after having embraced and united ^haic
all the rivers which fupply the Jenifei, is continuedc
under the name of Saianes, without the fmallelt inter¬
ruption, as far as the Baikal lake. The extenlion
of this chain to the fouth forms that immenfe and ele¬
vated plain which is loft in Chinefe Tartary, which
may be compared with the only plain in Quito, and
which is called Gobi or Chamo. The Altai afterwards
interpofing between the fource of the Tchikoi and of
the rivers which fupply the Amur or Sagaleen, rifes
towards the Lena, approaches the city Jakuck beyond
the 60th degree of latitude, runs from that to the fea
of Kamtfchatka, turns round the Ochockoi and Pen-
fink gulfs, joins the great marine chain of the Ku¬
rile iiles near Japan, and forms the fteep ftiores of
Kamtfchatka, between the 55th and 60th degrees of
latitude. After running in the fame parallel, and
giving rife to the Ohio, the Riviere Longue, the
river St Lawrence, and the Miflifiippi, they are loft in
Canada. From the eaftern ftiores of America to the
weftern ftiores of Europe, we find a vail interruption. 133
The European Alps produce three principal chains, Alpine
which run towards the equator, and feme fmaller ones c^aln*
running towards the pole. The firft fouthern chain
is fent out through Dauphine ; traverfes Vivarais, Ly-
onnois, Auvergne, Cevennes, and Languedoc; and,
after joining the Pyrenees, enters Spain. There it
divides into two or three ramifications, one of which
runs through Navarre, Bifcay, Arragon, Caftile,
Marche, and Sierra Morena, and extends into Portu¬
gal. The other, after traverfing Andalufia and the
kingdom of Granada, and there forming a number
of mountains, again makes its appearance, beyond the
ftraits of Gibraltar, in Africa, and coalls along its
northern ftiores under the name of Mount Atlas. 
The fecond principal |^iain of the Alps pafles out
through Savoy and Piedmont *, fpreads its roughneffes
over the ftates of Genoa and Parma; forms the belt
of the Apennines *, and after frequently changing its
name, and dividing Italy into tw’o parts, terminates
in the kingdom of Naples and hr Sicily, producing
volcanoes in every part of its courfe. The third chain
is fent off from Hungary, and fcatters innumerable
mountains over all Turkey in Europe, as far as the
Morea and the Archipelago at the bottom of the Me¬
diterranean fea. The northern branches, though fmaller
at firft, are no lefs clearly defined j and fome of them
even extend their ramifications as far as the Frozen
ocean. An Alpine branch, iiTuing from Savoy through
the country of Gex, proceeds though Franche Comte,
Suntgaw, Alface, the Palatinate, and Veterabia.—
4 D a Another
5 Bo
GEOLOGY.
Chap. II.
General
Diftribu-
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
Afiatic
Alps.
Lettres
fur les At-
lantides,
let. i6.
*35
Another iflues from the territory of Saltzbourg, paffes
along Bohemia, enters Poland, fends off a ramification
into Pruffia towards the deferts of Waldow, and after
having paffed through Ruffia is loll in the govern¬
ment of Archangel.
The Afiatic Alps fend forth in like manner feveral
branches both to the fouth and north. The Ouralic
mountains, between the fources of the Bieiaia and the
Jaik, produce three principal branches j the firft of
which, including the Cafpian fea in one of its divi-
fions, enters Circaffia through the government of A-
ftracan, paffes through Georgia under the name of
Caucafus, fends a vaft number of ramifications to the
weft into Aliatic Turkey, and there produces the
mountains Tfchilder, Ararat, Taurus, Argee, and
many others in the three Arabias) while the other
divifion, palling between the Cafpian fea and the lake
Aral, penetrates through Chorafan into Perfia. The
fecond branch, taking a more eaflerly dire<ffion, leaves
the country of the Eleuths ; reaches Little Bucharia 5
and forms the ramparts of Gog and Magog, and the ce¬
lebrated mountains formerly known by the name of Caf,
which M. Bailly has made the feat of the war between
the Lives and the Peris*. It traverfes the kingdoms of
Cafgar and Turkeftan, enters through that of Labor
into the Mogul territory, and, after giving rife to the
elevated defert of Chamo, forms the weftern penmfula
of India. While thefe two branches run towards the
fouth, the third branch of the Ouralic chain rifes to¬
wards the north, following almoft the 79th degree of
longitude, and forms a natural boundary between Eu¬
rope and Alia 5 without, however, bounding the im-
menfe empire of Ruffia. This chain, after coming
oppofite to Nova Zembla, divides into two confider-
able branches. The one, running to the north-eaft,
paffes along the Ar£lic ihores •, the other, proceeding
towards the north-wTeft, meets the northern European
chain, traverfes Scandinavia in the fhape of a horfe-
Ihoe, covers the low lands of Finland with rocks; and,
as is obferved by Lr Pallas, appears to be continued
from the North Cape of Norway through the marine
chain of Spitzbergen, fcattering iflands and ftielves
perhaps throughout the northern ocean, that, paffing
through the pole, it may join the northern and eaftern
points of Alia and North America.
The Ouralic, which in the country of the Mongols
becomes the Altaic chain, proceeds towards the equa¬
tor. After forming the mountains and caverns
wherein, as we are told, the afhes of the Mongol em¬
perors of the race of Gengis-Kan are depolited, to¬
gether with the vaft plain of Chamo, confifting of
arid fund, and the frightful rocks and precipices of
Thibet, which form the rayfterious and defert retreats
of the Grand Lama, it croffes the rivers Ava and Me-
nan; contains in its fubdivifions the kingdoms of
Ava, Pegu, Laos, Tonquin, Cochinchina, and Siam ;
fupports the peniniula of Malacca} and overfpreads
the Indian ocean with the ifles of Sunda, the Mo¬
luccas, and the Philippines. From the borders of the
Baikal lake and of the province of Selinginlkoy, a
branch is detached, which fpreads over Chinefe Tar¬
tary and China, is continued into Corea, and gives rife
to the iflands of Japan.
The great chain having extended to the north, near
the city of Jakuck, upon the banks of the Lena, fends
off one of its branches to the north-weft, which pal- General
ftng between the two Tungufta, is loft in marfhy [j'e
grounds lying in the northern parts of the province of [yiaterials
Jenniffeifkoy. The fame chain, after it has reached ot the
the eaftern part of Alia, is loft in the icy regions of Earth,
the north about Nos-Tfchalatlkoy, or the Icy Promon- ——v~—
tory, and Cape Czuczenlkoy. 156
It will be more difficult, perhaps, to trace the ele-Soutkern
vated belt in tbe fouthern hemifphere beyond the tro- W^ations.
pic of Capricorn, than it has been to diitinguiih that
towards the north. An immenfe extent of ocean feems
to occupy the whole Antarctic part of the globe.—
The greateft fouth latitude of the old continent is net
more than 34 degrees, and South America fcarceiy
extends to the 55th degree. In vain has the enter-
priftng Cook attempted to difeover regions towards
the pole : his progrefs was conftantiy interrupted by
tremendous mountains and fields of ice. Beyond the
50th degree no land and no habitations are to be found.
The iflands of New Zealand are the fartheft land in
thefe delert feas 5 and yet the fouth cape of Taral-
Poenamoo extends only to the 48 th degree : We do
not mention Sandwich-land, which is fituated in the
58th degree, becaufe it is too imali and toe low. It
muft be recollt&ed, however, that according to the
declarations of travellers, the Cordilleras become higher
as they advance fouthward to the ftraits ol Magellan ;
and that Terra del Fuego, which lies in the lati¬
tude of 55, is nothing but a mafs of rocks of prodi¬
gious elevation. America, however, exhibits to our
view elevated points, whence chains of mountains are
diftributed in dift’erent directions over the whole fur-
face of the new continent. There muft likewile be
great refervoirs, where the moft remarkable rivers
take their rife, and from which they neceffarily de-
feend towards their mouths. In the fouthern hemi¬
fphere, this elevated belt is nearer the equator 5 and
though it does not extend to the 50th degree, it is
evidently to be met with, and may be accurately traced,
between the 20th and 30th degrees. The high moun¬
tains of Tucuman and ol Paraguay, which interfeCl
South America about the 25th degree of latitude,
may be confidered as the American Alps. If we
look into the map of the world, we fhall be able to
diftinguiffi an elevated belt all along this parallel. In
Africa, Monomotapa and Caffraria are covered with
very high mountains, from wdrich pretty large rivers
defeend. In the Pacific ocean, we find New Hol¬
land, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, and the
Friendly and the Society iflands, under the fame pa¬
rallel. We may, therefore, with fufficient propriety,
diftinguifli this parallel by tbe name of the Southern
Alps, us we have already diftinguifhed the elevated
belt of the 30th degree of north latitude by that of
the Northern Alps. In America, the Rio de la Plata,
which after a courle of 500 leagues falls into the ocean
at the 35th degree of fouth latitude ; the Pavana,
which rifes from the mountains of the Arapes, and
falls into the Plata at Corriente; the great number
of rivers which flow into that of tbe Amazons, fuch
as the Paraba, which receives in its courfe the tribute
of more than 30 other rivers j the Madera, the Cuchi-
rara, the Ucayal, &c. &c. all defeend from thefe
fouthern Alps. From thefe Alps likewife three con-
fiderable branches of mountains are detached, which
g°
Chap. II. G E^ O I
General go by tnc common name of Andes or Cordilleras.—
Diftribu. -j'he firtt branch, which extends towards the 1’outh,
tion of the paffes out from Paraguay through Tucurnan, le-
1 oT the pa rates Chili from thefe provinces and from Chimito,
Earth, and is continued through Terra Magellanica as far
— gs Terra del Fuego. The fecond branch, direcHug
its courfe towards the equator, traverfes Peru, in vairt-
endeavouring to conceal treafures which the avarice
of men has taught them to difcover in its bowels }
bounds the Spaniih Miffions; enters Terra Firma
through Popayan ; and unites South and North Ame¬
rica by the ilthmus of Panama. The third divifion,
iffuing from Paraguay through Guayra and the terri¬
tory of Saint Vincent, traverfes Brazil, diftributes ra-
milications into Portuguefe, Irench, and Dutch Cub
ana, erodes the Oroonoko, forms the mountains ot
Venezuela, and near Carthagena meets the fecond
branch coming from Popayan.
Mountains We have already fuppofed, that the elevated belt
of North 0f North America was lituated about the 45th degree
America. Qf latitude ; and there we imagined we recog¬
nized the continuation of the northern Alps of the
old continent. 1 his chain likewife fends forth con-
liderable branches on both fides. One of them is de¬
tached acrois the fources of the MilTifiippi, the Belle
Riviere, and the Miffouii, and at the entrance of New
Mexico divides, in order to form California to the
weft, and the Apalachian mountains to the eaft.—
Thence proceeding through New Bifcay, the audi¬
ence of Guadalaxara, Old Mexico, and Cuatimala, it
meets at Panama the fouthern branch, which is part
of the Alps of Paraguay. The fecond branch, fol¬
lowing the courfe of the Miftiflippi, feparates Louift-
ana from Virginia \ ferves as a bulwark to the United
States of America ; forms the Apalachian mountains
in Carolina j and at laft, traverfing Eaft Florida, en-
clofes the gulf of Mexico with the Great and Little
Antilles. In the north, we can trace the branches of
the elevated belt *, on one fide obferve them proceed¬
ing towards Canada, dire&ing their courfe through
Labrador to Hudfon’s Straits, and at length con¬
founded with the rocks of Greenland, which are co¬
vered with eternal fr.ow and ice. On the other fide,
we fee them riling through the country of the Affi-
nipoels and the Kriftinos, as far as Michinipis and the
northern Archipelago.
In tracing the courfe and direflion of the Britilh
Sritilh mountains, we Ihall begin with the central chain, which
mountains, runs through the fouthern part of the illand from north
to fouth, commencing at Geltfdale, about 14 miles to
the fouth-eaft of Carlille, and ending at Land’s End in
Cornwall, or rather in the Scilly ifles to the weft of this.
This chain paffes from Geltsdale foreft through the
weftern diftricts of Durham and Yorklhire, forming the
hills called Kelton Fell, Stanmore, Widehill Fell, Wild-
bore Fell, Bow' Fell, Home Fell, Bun Hill, &c. A lit¬
tle to the weft of the chain ftand feveral detached
mountains, the principal of which is Skiddaw in Cum¬
berland. Faffing through Yorkftiire w^e find Craven,
Whurnfide, Ingleborough, and Pennygeift; and on the
eaft of Lancafter is Pendle. In this courfe there are
feveral miles of coal and lead. The chain next pro¬
ceeds through Derbyfnire, and in this part of the ridge
a great variety of valuable minerals are found, efpcci-
ally lead, copper, gypfurc, fluor, barytic earth'’, mar-
. O G Y. SSt
tial pyrites, iron ore, manganefe, and feveral ores of Generft
zinc. About this point the ridge ftretches a little in- t-,)noft}.;e
to Chelhire, and feerr.s to terminate 5 a central chain jvfaterrdis
of fomewbat lefs elevation may, however, lull be traced, 0f the
proceeding in a waving direction towards Salifbury, and ^
having three irregular branches, two to the eaft, v
another running to the fouth-weft into Cornwall. Hie
firlt eaftern branch proceeds towards NorfoL., to
this belong lome confiderable hills, efpeQiaky tnoie oi
Cog Magog in Cambridgefnire. xhe iecond branch
paffes into Kent, and diverges a little into Surry and
Hamplhire. The continuation of this chain is afforded
by the hills of Mendip, Polden, Ledgemoor, and Black-
down in Somerletfhire j the lores and YV ilds or Dait-
more in Devonlhire, and the upland Downs of Cornwall.
Malvern hills in Worcefterffiire deviate a little from
the chain, but thofe of Cotfwold in Gloucefterlhire ap¬
pear to be a continuation of it. The principal mineral
found in this ridge of mountains, after leaving Derby-
ffiire, is the tin ore of Cornwall.
Wales contains many mountains, efpecially in its 1.39
northern part, where Snowden is celebrated lor its height
and claffical fame. The top of this mountain is formed
almoit into a point, and commands an extenfive view,
not only of the neighbouring counties, but of part ot
Scotland and Ireland, and the ifles of Mann and An-
glefey. A line of mountains proceeds from Snowden
along the wTeftern coaft to Plinlimmon j and in this 1 ne
lie Urrou Seth, Caeridris, and Moyle Vadiau. A few
hills of little elevation proved towards Shropfhire, a-
mong which the V/rekin is the moft remarkable. An¬
other fmall chain proceeds fouth towards Cardiff, but
contains no hills of any eminence. I4c
Leaving England, and proceeding towards the north, Scotch
we find the Cheviot Hills, fo celebrated in the hiftory mountain?,
of the border Ikirmiflres. Thefe form a regular ridge,
running from fouth-weft to north-eaft, where they join
the hills of Galloway. In this part of Scotland there are
feveral mountainous ridges running in various diredlions,
generally north and fouth according to the courfe of
the rivers ; but there is, properly fpeaking, no uniform
chain. Dumfrieslhire contains leveral mountains, lome
of which are of a confiderable height, efpecially Hart-
fell in Annandale, from which proceeds the celebrated
chalybeate Ipaw 3 Fowther near Leadhills 3 Blacklavv
on the borders of Ayrflffre 3 Etrick Pen, in Eikdale
moor 3 Carnkinnow near Drumlanrigg 3 and Oueens-
berry hill, vyhich gives the title to the dukedom of that
name. Proceeding towards the north, we find Pent-
land hills, a little to the fouth-weft of Edinburgh, and
the romantic hills of Arthur’s feat and Salifbury Craigs,
in the immediate vicinity of that city. On the eaftern
coaft, before crofting the Forth, is North Berwick Law,
wftiich muft be confidered as doling the lift of fouthern
hills in Scotland. The principal part of thefe fouthern
hills confifts of calcareous earth, and argillaceous Ichil-
tus 3 and except in thofe of Galkway, granite and
other primitive rocks are very fparing. In the Lothian-
hills the calcareous ftrata are furmounted by vaft blocks
of trap, w'acke, and bafalt.
On the north of the Forth are the hills of Ochil, of
little elevation, but celebrated for affording large quan¬
tities of agates and chalcedonies. The hills ot Kin-
noul and Dunfinnan in the eaftern part of Perthshire,
are generally conftdered the laft ot the lowland lulls.
The
- 2 GEOLOGY. Chap. II.
Diftdln! The PfafIpal n0ldlern ■clia5n of mountains is are fuppofed to have been raifed by one caufe, and In Genera!
tion of tie that of tne GrarfiPian i1-3118, extending from Loch Lo- one certain manner; and the materials which compofe Dlltribu-
Materiais mona to Stonehaven, and forming the fouthern boundary them, to have been thrown out of their natural poll-^ ot
ofrbe of the Highlands ; and rifing by a gradual, tranfition tion. It is with reipect to this railing or difplacement ^fthe^
, Eait_ from the Sidlaw hills on the eaft, the Campfey hills on that geologills have imagined fo many different hypo- Earth.
v tlie weft, and the Ochils in the middle. The princi- thefes. <——
I»al mountains of this chain are Ben Lawers, Ben More, In the third general theory, thefe mountains are fup-
Schehallion, Ben Vorlich, Ben Lomond, and Ben Le- pofed to have become pre-eminent from the accidental
dy. Near Ben Lawers is Ben Nevis, the higheft lowering or removal of the materials which originally
mountain in Britain, and to the north-weft of this near furrounded them, whether this happened from tfie ma-
Fort Auguftus, is the long hill of Corri Allok. A- terials ccAnpofing thefe mountainous fituations havincr
Lout 30 miles to the eaft of this is the high mountain fuffered no difplacement, or that they had been them-
of Cairngorum, famous for the fpecimens of quartzofe felves removed. ^
Hones fcund there. Numerous mountains lie in the fe- M. Dolomieu is of opinion, that there are mountains
cond divilions of the Highlands, beyond Loch Linne, whofe fituation and ftnnfture favour each of thefe three
and Loch Nefs, efpecially on the wreftern ftiore, which hypothefes. * * Jour, de
is crowded with hills. Few of thefe are confiderable. * * Min. No.
I o the weft of Rofsfhire are feveral hills, among which
Ben Chat, Ben Chalker, and Ben Golich are the moft
remarkable. More inland ftands the high mountain of
Ben Wevis, nearly equal to Ben Nevis. In moft of
thefe mountains the primitive rocks prevail, and granite
is often very abundant. Few minerals, however, ex-
141 cePt ^ron ore’ are Pound.
Irifh moun- Ireland contains but few mountains, and none of any
tains. confiderable importance. They generally form fhort
lines, or appear in detached groups, one of the higheft
of which is that on the weft and fouth -of the lake of
Killarney, in which is the mountain of Mangerton. A
fmall line of hills called Shecky mountains runs on the
north-weft of Bantry Bay, palling towards the eaft.
To the northward of this ftands Sliblogher and Nagles,
and towards the eaft are the hills of Knockemdown.
In the county of Leinfter is a mountain of the fame
name, and to the fouth of Dublin are the Wicklow
hills, from '.vhich there were lately fuch great expe&a-
tions of golden treafure. In Ulfter ftand the moun¬
tains of Mour.ne, the higheft of which, Donard, is faid
to be nearly the height of Mangerton. The moft
mountainous part of Ireland is the weftern peninfula of
that ifland, towards which, in the county of M^yo,
ftands Nephin, one of the higheft in the kingdom!
On the fouth-eaft of Clewbay is the mountain of Croagh
Patrick, alfo in the county of Mayo, which is the laft
Iriftr hill of any importance.
We cannot here with propriety enter on the theory
of the formation of mountains. The hypothefis of the
principal geological writers with refpecft to this fubjett,
•will be feen from the general view of the theories to
be given in the next chapter. We may in this place
only remarK, that all the fyftems which have been con-
ftrucled, to explain the formation of the primitive moun¬
tains, with refpeft to which there is the moft difpute
may be reduced to three.
In the firft of thefe, mountains are fuppofed to have
been formed fuch as we now fee them, except that they '
have fuffered lome degradations and modifications, from
certain accidents pofterior to their original formation,
and that thefe mountains owed their elevation above the
places which furround them, to one fingle accidental
accumulation of more materials in one place than in an¬
other ; an accumulation which might have taken place
without that great precipitation which preceded and oc-
cafioned the confolidation of the cruft of our globe.
Jn the fecond hypothefis, all the primitive mountains
l
Sect. II. Of Dykes. xil1 P 42r*
142
We have defcribed dykes (N° 15.) to be thofe in-Hiltoryof
terruptions of the ftrata which are formed by perpendi-^'k6*-
cular fiffures filled with ftony fubftances. As thefe
ftony matters are frequently of that kind called whin-
ftone, thefe dykes are commonly called whin dykesy
and the hiftory of thefe is very important, as they form
one of the principal fubjefts in the principal theories of
the earth.
Dykes have received different denominations, defcrip-Names,
live, in fome meafurc, of the nature of the fubftances
of wftiich they are compofed ; or of the feeming effe&s
they have produced on the intexfedted horizontal ftrata.
They are called bafaltic veins, traf> dykes, whin dykes;
and in the coal countries of Scotland they are called
gaws, from the idea that they have occafioned the fe-
paration of the coal, and contiguous ftrata, through
which they run.
Thefe dykes have been more attentively obferved in
coal countries, than wdiere they occur elfewhere ; be-
caufe on the accurate knowledge of their courfe, in¬
clination and thicknefs, depend, in a great mealure,
the judicious and fuccefsful operations of the miner,
when his workings approach the dike, or render it ne«
ceffary to cut through it to reach the ftrata of coal on
the other fide. But, though lefs attended to, they have
been obferved and traced in other places, wdiere a great
extent of the horizontal ftrata have been expofed in the
beds of rivers, as in the bed of the Water of Leith,
above St Bernard’s Well, near Edinburgh, and on the
fea ftiore, efpecially on the weftern coafts of Scotland,
where the rocks are more abrupt and precipitous, and
wdiere the violence of the Atlantic ocean has removed
part of the horizontal ftrata, and left the vertical ftrata
remaining, like immenfe wTalls or dykes. Hence pro¬
bably the origin of the name; and as they often confift
of that fpecies of ftone called whinjione, this epithet
has been added.
The courfe, however, of the greater number which Courfe.
w^e have had the opportunity of examining, generally
lies between the points of the compafs S. and S. E.
and N. and N. W. This is moft frequently the courfe
of the whin dykes of May and Jura ; it is the courfe
of a remarkable dyke which traverfes the coal ftrata
at the village of Stevenfon, near Saltcoats, in Avr-
fhire ; part of which is feen on the furface, not many
hundred yards to the north of the weft end of that vil-
lage ;
Chap
General
Dilinbu-
tion of the
Material
ot the
Earth.
II. . G E 0 L
lage ) and it is the courfe of two dykes, ftill more re¬
markable, in the ifland of Great Cumbray, in the frith
of Clyde.
Geologifts, who have treated this fubjeft, do not
feem to have marked, with much attention, the courfe
1 "v—of the dykes. They have mentioned in general terms,
that they follow all direClions. More extenfive ob-
fervation may probably (hew, that the molt frequent
direclions of the principal dykes, is from north to
fouth, or a few points deviation from that courfe. And
if this be eflablithed, by a fuller and more accurate
hiilory of dykes, the analogy between them and me¬
tallic veins will be more complete *, for it is obferved
of the latter, that the molt powerful, that is, the molt
productive, run from north to louth.
Dykes do not always run in a Itraight line. In
their courfe they form certain fiexuolities. But, in
this winding courfe, the deviations are ufually fo fmall,
as to have little eifeCt on the general direction of the
dyke, which, upon the whole, may be confidered as
nearly the fame.
The continuity of dykes is fometimes interrupted,
exaCtly in the lame manner as frequently happens to
the horizontal ftrata, and which, in technical language
is termed a
In the iliand of May we have obferved two dikes
of this defcription, the one on the fouth fide of Loch-
in dal, near the point of Laggan 5 the other on the
fhorfe of the fouth-eaft part of the iliand, a little to the
fouth of the houfe of Ardmore. In both thefe dykes,
the extent of the reparation of the Hip was jufl equal to
the thicknefs of the dyke. The oppolite fides were
brought exaftly into the fame line.
After this feparation, thefe dykes, in fb far as they
could be traced, preferve the fame thicknefs, courfe, and
inclination as formerly.
A very remarkable dyke has been difcovered in the
coal field, in the diltriCl of Boulogne in France. It
runs in the form of a crefcent from north to weft.
Inclination. The direction of dykes downwards is feldom per¬
pendicular. This deviation from a line perpendicular
to the horizon is called their inclination. The in¬
clination of a dyke is ufually denominated the hade
or hading. See the article Coalery.
The inclination of different dykes, and even of the
fame dyke, is various, fometimes approaching to, and
fometimes deviating from the perpendicular. The ex¬
tent of dykes downwards, we believe, has not been
afcertained with any degree of accuracy, and the termi¬
nation of very few has yet been deteCted. The depth
to which refearches of this kind can be carried, is
comparatively fmall. With all the ardour, ingenuity,
and power of man, inveftigations to determine this
point, will probably always be limited by the extent
of his mining operations. The crefcent formed dyke
juft mentioned, which occurs in a coal-field in the dif-
tricl of Boulogne in France, which confifts of a fpecies
of marble, found in feveral quarries in the vicinity,
has been traced to the perpendicular depth of 600
feet, where it is fucceeded by a fchiftus rock, which
latter, with the fame courfe and inclination, continues
to interfedl the horizontal ftrata.
The extent of dykes in length has not been accu¬
rately determined. Indeed, it muft be extremely dif¬
ficult to trace them with any degree of certainty. For
146
Extent.
O G Y. 583
thofe which are obferved on the fea coaft, where they General
are moft confpicuous, foon difappear in the mountains,
on the one hand, or on the other lofe themfelves in
the fea. And, as the extent of the fame coal field 0fthe
rarely exceeds a few miles, they have feldom been fol- Earth,
lowed beyond its limits. In many cafes, the change —v—
in the nature and arrangement of the ftrata, renders it
alifioft impoflxble. Some, however, have been traced
to a very great extent j one in particular, on the banks
of the river Meufe in the Netherlands, has been fol¬
lowed in its direft courfe, to the diftance of four
leagues ; and of this dyke it is obferved, if purfued
through all its windings, the extent is not lefs than fix
leagueS* . . . . , 147
The thicknefs of dykes is various. Sometimes they ■pjjicknef?.
are obferved no thicker than a few inches. From that
they increafe to one foot, fix feet, and very often are
found from 10 to 20 feet. There is one in the ifland
of May, of the enormous thicknefs of 69 feet. This
immenfe dyke accompanies a lead vein, about a foot
thick, which is included between it and the hmeftone
ftrata. In this mining field, two whin dykes, one of
them 10 feet thick, have been difcovered, crofting the
metallic veins.
In going doivnwards, dykes are faid to decreafe in
thicknefs. This is particularly obferved of dykes of
fmaller magnitude. Of fmaller dykes it is alfo faid, that
they diminiih in thicknefs towards the extremities.
In one refpeft, feme whin dykes are exadlly analo¬
gous to metallic veins, in having branches, or in the
miners phrafe, Jirings going off and traverfing the con¬
tiguous ftrata, and forming in the courfe they take, an
acute angle with the principal dyke. A whiiTdyke of this
defcription has been obferved in the iiland of Jura, on the
fhore of the found. The diverging branch terminated
in a point among the horizontal ftrata, at the diftance
of a few feet from the great dyke, affuming altogether
a wedge-like form.
If wre include metallic veins in the account, the ver-jl(jateljai
ticaj ftrata may be faid to be compofed of every kind of
mineral fubftance, but almoft always different from the
interfered horizontal ftrata. By this laft circumftance
their occurrence is at once recognized. In general, the
dykes that are found in Scotland, whether in the coal
countries, or in the w^eftern coafts and iilands, where-
they are fo frequent, are of that fpecies of ftone which
comes under the denomination of trap or whinftone.
Dykes, confifting of other fpecies of ftone, have alfo
been found in Scotland. On the Mull of Kinouth,
which forms the fouthern headland, at the entrance of
Lochindaal, in May, we obferved a fmall dyke of gra¬
nite, crofting the headland, which is of granular quartz.
There are fome vertical ftrata of granite in the iftand
of Icolmkill, of pitchftone in the iftand of Arran, and
of ferpentine at Portfoy in Banffftnre.
Bergman, in his Phyfical Geography, fuppofes that
granite was never found to be a component part of
vertical ftrata. What has been already mentioned
proves the contrary. Granite dykes have alfo been dif¬
covered in other places. Beffon has obferved dikes of
this defcription on the great road between Limoges
and Cahors in France, travelling horizontal ftrata of
argillaceous fchiftus, a fpecies of ftone which has ge¬
nerally been confidered of later formation than gra¬
nite, Thefe dykes, he obferves, are from an inch to
fix
t
584 G £ C) L
General {lx feet in thicknefs, and tke quartz, feldipar, and mica,
piftribu- are 0f ]arger i\ze than are ufually found in the granite
°ktl;e of mountains. Dolomieu has made a fimilar obferva-
Ofthe tion, and confiders it as a difcriminative charafter, by
Earth, which the granite of mountains and that found in ver-
* " V~"’ ■ tical ilrata may be eafily dillinguiflied.^ _But ^1*s ^ n.°*
always to be admitted as a charafieriftic maik of d.i-
timflion. The granite dyke which has been already
mentioned, eroding the granular quartz, on the Mull
of Kinouth in lilay, is frhall grained, and others of this
latter defeription have been obferved in other places.
There is a very lingular dyke on the coaft of Ayr-
fbire, between Weems bay and Largs, near the houfe
of Kelly. It is about ten feet thick, traverfes the ho¬
rizontal ftrata, which conlift of plumb-pudding rock,
whofe cement is fandftone of a red colour, rrom north-
eaft' to fouth-weft, and erodes a larger dike of^ the
whinftone of this country, nearly at right angles. This
dike is compofed of different materials. Part is of the
common whinftone, and part of a plumb-pudding rock,
cemented by the matter of the ayke j and theie alter¬
nate with each other, both in the thicknefs of the dyke,
and lengthwife. On one fide, there are four teet thick
of whinftone , immediately in contadf with this there is
plum-pudding ftone three feet thick, and 10 on alter¬
nately, acrols the whole dyke. In tracing the dyke
lengthwife acrofs the whole line, there is found a few
yards of whinftone, which is fucceeded by a few yards
of plum-pudding ftone, and this is again fucceeded by
the whinftone.
But, for the general viewr which is here propofed,/ it
is net requilite to give a full account of all the mineral
fubftances which enter into the compofition of vertical
ftrata, or even a minute enumeration of all the varieties
that are found in whin dykes.
Peculiar One of the moft lingular circumftances pefpe&ing
itrufture of TVhin dykes, which feems to have been entirely over-
whin dykes. ]ooked by geol0giftS) ftiU remains to be confidered.
This is the peculiar ftruftiire or arrangement of the
parts of which they are compofed. Of this peculiar
arrangement it may be obferved in general, that it is
in all refpedls the reverfe of what takes place in the
horizontal ftrata.
When the dyke is of fmall magnitude, it is pretty
compact in all its parts ^ but if an attempt be made to
break or feparate any part of it, the frafture will, be
found to run moft readily in the perpendicular direftion.
But when the dyke is of more confiderahle thicknefs, it
ufually forms feveral divifions, marked by perpendicular
filfures, and there is often very great variety in the na¬
ture and qualities of the feveral divifions of the fame
dyke. The exterior divifion of one fide fometimes, and
fometimes the exterior divifion of both fides, are of a
fofter texture than the intermediate divifion ; and often
contain, in great proportion, fpecks of radiated zeolite
and calcareous fpar, while the middle divifions, as well
as being harder, are alfo more homogeneous. In other
cafes, the reverfe of this appears. The middle parts of
the dyke are the fofteft and leaft compadf, exhibiting
the greatefi: variety of heterogeneous fubftances.
Some whin dykes have a great tendency to affume,
when broken, the prifmatic form. This is the cale with
many, even of the moft compadt texture. In others,
where the fide of the dyke is expofed to view, and mi¬
nutely examined, fiffures may be traced, dtfeovering
O G Y. Chap. 11.
the ends of pretty regular prifms. But in fonie dykes General
in the iiland of Jura, the prifmatic columns are entirely
feparated, and lying loofe, are four, five, or fix-fided, Materja}s
jointed ; the perpendicular fiffures forming the joints, 0f the
and in all refpedfs fimilar to the perpendicular bafaltic Earth,
columns, except being in the horizontal pofition. In —--v—“~
one of the dykes in the iiland of Jura, the columns are
from 12 to 18 inches in diameter. In fome others on
the fea fnore, near the houfe of Mr Campbell of Jura,
and at the harbour of the fmall ifles, in the fame iiland,
there are columns of the enormous fize of i o and 1 2
feet diameter.
A dyke which traverfes the bafaltic ftrata of the
Giants Caufeway in the north of Ireland, exhibits^ftill
more remarkably this peculiarity of ftructure. Ihe
fmalleft maffes detached from it affume the columnar
form, and moft of them are perfectly regular. The
fra&ure invariably runs in the horizontal dire&ion ; the
columns confequently lie in the fame pofition, are three,
four, five, and fix-fided, and are generally of fmall
fize.
Sect. III. Of Metallic Veins.
ICO
The hiftory of metallic veins, although far from be-Metallic
ing fo full and fatisfaftory as could be wiibed, is more veuis*
complete than that of whin dykes, i he latter have excited
ho farther attention than as objedfs of curiofity to the
geologift, or as fingular fa£ts in eftablifhing a theory,
and when they come in the w^ay of the operations of
the miner, to difeover their connexion with'the conti¬
guous ftrata 5 while the wants and luxuries of man have
roufed ingenuity and exertion in exploring the former,
on account of the precious and ufeful metals with which
they are ftored. Thus, the fplendour and beauty of
fome metallic fubftances, and the utility of others, have
made them in all ages be efteemed and valued by man¬
kind 5 and confequently they have been the conftant
objefls of purfuit and inveftigation. It is obvious that
the beauty and utility of metals, on account o. which
they are fo much valued and fought after, excite great¬
er intereft in procuring them j on the one hand, the
refearches and obiervations of the philofopher in fur-
niihing the hiftory and general, principles, and, on the
other, the immediate application of this Knowledge,
and of thefe principles, in the pra&ice and operations
of the miner.
The hiftory of whin dykes is, in general, quite ana¬
logous to metallic veins j but, of the latter, from what
has been Hated, we can fpeak with more certainty and
precifion. _ , 151
Three different kinds of metallic veins have been de- Diftindaon
feribed by geological writers-, the perpendicular vein, of veins.
doe, pipe vein, and the fiat or dilated vein. We fnall
confider each of thefe in their order.. _ ^ jc2
1. Of the perpendicular vein.—'I his kind of metallic perpendicu-
vein occurs moft frequently. As may.be expeaed,. it Ur veins,
is various in its courfe or direaion, thickneiS, and in¬
clination. Metallic veins are found running in every
direaion-, but, in general, the moft powerful veins,
that is, the moft produaive, are obferved to run from
north to fouth, or at leaft a few points deviation from
that courfe ; and when any deviation happens, it is
ufually to the eaft of north, and to the weft of fouth. . Cou*j?e3oi
The courfe or direaion of a vein is called in techni- vej^St
cal
Chap. H.
GEO
Materials
of the
Earth.
*54 .
Inclination.
General cal language its hearing. The extent of a vein in the line
Diftribu- 0f bearing, we believe, rarely exceeds the range of
mountains in which it is difcovered. This is. the cafe
with the principal vein at Leadhills. It is limited to
the chain of mountains in which the operations are now
carried on j and although the mines of Wanlockhead
are not a mile diftant, new veins appear with galena or
lead ore, of quite a difterent quality, and all the ac¬
companying minerals, whether forming part of the vein,
or found in cavities, are alfo quite different from the
lead ore and other minerals found in the veins at Lead-
hills. _ _ .
The inclination of veins is various. Sometimes they
are nearly perpendicular 5 fometimes they deviate con-
fiderably', from a perpendicular line j fometimes the
fame vein in ks courfe downward, inclines to one
fide 5 fometimes it is perpendicular, and fometimes it
inclines to the other fide. When the deviation from
the perpendicular does not exceed io°, the vein is ftill
confidered as a perpendicular or vertical vein. When
a vein is inclined, the two ffdes which include the me¬
tallic fubftances are in very difterent pofitions, and have
confequently received from the miners different names.
That fide which fupports the metallic ore, or on which
it feems to lean, is called the ledger fide, or Amply the
ledger. The oppofite fide which covers the ore, or
which overhangs it, is denominated the hangingJldey
or limply the hanger. From the inclination of the vein
being varied in its courfe downwards, it muff appear
that the fame fides, according as the inclination varies,
muff change their polition and denomination. 1 his
will perhaps be more intelligible by the fecfion at
fig. 5. in which AA reprefents the vein ; BB, CC,
DD, EE, the ftrata interfered by it j 1. the hanger j
2. the ledger •, 3. the hanger \ and, 4. the ledger.
The thicknefs of veins, and indeed of the fame vein,
is alfo extremely various. Sometimes they are only a
few inches thick. From this they increafe to the thick¬
nefs of feveral feet. The veins which were wrought at
Leadhills, about feven years ago, were from, two to
fix feet within the fides j but fome years before that
time the principal vein in thofe mines, by the addition
of two firings or fmall veins, affumed the extraordinary
thicknefs of 14 feet of pure ore. This unufual appear¬
ance, both on account of its richnefs and grandeur,
excited fo much attention and admiration, that the
countefs of Hopetoun undertook a journey to thefe in¬
ferior regions, not lefs than 150 fathoms below the fur-
face of the earth, to witnefs the fplendour and brilli¬
ancy of this fubterraneous apartment. The uncommon
thicknefs and abundant riches of this vein are ftill talk¬
ed of at Leadhills with enthufiafm. But a thicker vein
was once wrought at Slangunog in Wales, bifteen feet
of clean ore were for fome time dug out of this vein.
Thefe Are, however, far exceeded by the copper veins
in the Parys mountain in Anglefea, which are defcrib-
ed by Mr Pennant in his Webb tour. The thicknefs
of one of thefe veins is 21 feet, and of another 66
feet.
The broadeft metallic vein, of which we have any
account, is, we believe, that of the E6I011 copper mine,
in Derbylhire. In this mine there was worked, at one
time, a heap of ore, of the aftoniftiing extent of 70
yards from fide to fide *.
The extent of veins downwards has in many cafes
Vol. IX." Part II.
.IS5 ,
Thicknef;.
Materials
of the
Earth.
* Maivi's
DerLyJhire,
p. 112.
LOG Y. 585
been afcertained. To the regret and difappointment of
the miner, they have been frequently intercepted and ^ of ?,“e
entirely cut oft by the horizontal ftrata. I.lie rich vein
of lead ore at Slangunog in Whales, which we have al¬
ready mentioned, was intercepted in this manner by a ,
ftratum of black fchiftus or ftiiver, the nature of which % Mineral
is not defcribed by WjJUams, who ftai.es the fact • Kingdom,
Their refearches to recover their loft wealth, which were voi.
profecuted for feveral years, proved altogether fruitiels. p. 274’
The fmalleft trace of this unufually productive vein was
never afterwards difcovered. *5^.
Two kinds of perpendicular mineral veins have been
obferved and defcribed. In the one cafe the relative curar vemj.
pofition of the ftrata which contain the metallic fub¬
ftances is exaftly fimilar to that of the coal ftrata when
they "are interfeCted by a whin dyke. On one fide of
the vein the ftrata are elevated or depreffed from their
former plane. This is illuftrated by fig. 5. where the
letters BB, CC, DD, EE, mark the correfponding
ftrata which have been deranged or difplaced.. In the
other kind of vein the mineral fubftances containing the
metallic ores are merely feparated without any eleva¬
tion or depreflion •, for each fide of the fiffure ftill re¬
maining in its former plane, the oppofite fides of the di¬
vided ftrata exaCtly correfpond to each other. The
mines at Strontian in Argylefhire are of this latter de-
fcription.
Veins of this kind have frequently fmaller veins, or,
as tliey are called in the language of the miners,
which run off at an acute angle, preferve their courfe
for fome diftancc, not, in general, very great,, gradual¬
ly diminifh in thicknefs, and at laft are entirely loft
among the contiguous ftrata. At the place of junCtion
the principal vein is always thicker, as has been alrea¬
dy noticed with regard to the unufual thicknefs of the
principal vein at Leadhills.
To this account of perpendicular veins we may add,
that fome veins are found crofting each other, and that
whin dykes have alfo been difcovered interfering me¬
tallic veins. Examples of the latter occur in the illand
of Way. . . .
2. Of thie pipe vein.—The perpendicular vein laft de- PlPe vein-
fcribed, interfected or cut the ftrata acrofs. What has
been denominated the pipe vein is extremely limited in
the line of bearing, but having the fame inclination as
the ftrata which include it. It may be confidered as in
fome meafure of a circular form, extremely irregular,
and always following the courfe of the ftrata between
which it is included, like the perpendicular veins j
fometimes as it dips downwards, it is enlarged ; fome¬
times it is diminiflied, and fometimes it is fo much con-
tradted, that the including ftrata come into clofe con-
tadt. In a word, this kind of vein is fubjedt to all the
irregularities of the veins formerly defcribed, only that
its inclination is invariably the fame with the accompa¬
nying ftrata. 158
3. The flat or dilated vein.—This kind of metallic Flat vein,,
vein, after what has been faid with regard to other
veins, will require but a fhort defcription. It is exadt-
ly fimilar to the pipe vein, only that it is more extend¬
ed in the line of bearing. It is included between the
horizontal ftrata 5 and therefore its inclination or dip
muff be the fame as the including ftrata. A vein of
this kind might with more propriety and accuracy be
regarded as a metallic horizontal ftratum,^were it nT>t
4 E that
O G Y.
536 GEO
General tliat it is always found varying in its dimeniions, and
tion of the e<lua^y irregular as the perpendicular veins which in-
Materials ter^e<^ the horizontal ftrata.
of the It is almoit needlefs to add, that the flat or horizon-
t Earth, tal veins are fubjefl to the fame derangement as the
y coal flrata, when they are interfered by a whin dyke.
1 he vein, along with the including flrata, is either ele¬
vated or depreffed, and the fame thing takes place
when they are traverfed by a metallic vein.
159 To finifh tl. e Iketch of the hiftory of metallic veins,
IGetalhc nVe have only to enumerate the different metallic ores
that occur in them, and to mention the places where
thefe are found in greatelf abundance. In this enume¬
ration we fiiall follow the arrangement of metals given
by Brcchant, in the fecond volume of his Traite Ele-
tnentaire de Minera/ogie.
In naming the feveral fpecies, we fliall adopt the no¬
menclature of Kirwan, adding the French and German
fynonyms to each. As it would far exceed our limits
to give even a curfory defeription of the feveral fpecies,
we refer the reader for that to the article Mineralo¬
gy in this work, or to the elementary treatifes of Kir¬
wan or Brochant, or the more extenflve treatife of
Haiiy.
160
Piatina
eres.
I. Platina
Has been found hitherto only in its metallic or native
flate, and it has as yet only been met with in South
America, efpecially at Choco in New Grenada. It is
found in the fand of rivulets, and probably comes from
the primitive mountains.
II. Gold.
Qcldores. Native gold.—This is found principally in primitive
mountains, fometimes in veins, and fometimes diffemi-
nated through the ifony matter. The fubftances which
moil commonly accompany it are quartz, feldfpar, cal¬
careous fpar, heavy fpar, pyrites, red iilver ore and
vitreous filver ore, and galena. Gold is ftill more com¬
monly met with in the fand waihed from certain rivers.
The countries where gold is chiefly found in rocky fub-
flances, are Hungary, Tranfylvania, Peru, Mexico,
Siberia, and Sweden. It has alfo been found in France,
Hear the town of Oifans, in the department of the Ifere j
but not in fufficient abundance to render the working
of the mine profitable. Among the rivers whofe fands
furnilh gold, we may enumerate the Rhine, the Da¬
nube, and the Araniofch in Tranfylvania.
Gold has been found in feveral parts of the Britiih
dominions, efpecially at Silfoe in Bedfordfiiire, in the
Wicklow hills in Ireland, and in the neighbourhood of
Leadhills in Lanarkfhire. It is faid that a jeweller,
who died lately in Dublin, often declared that gold,
to the value of 30,000!. had paffed through his hands,
which was brought from the Wicklow hills. This
mine is now in the hands of government, but we be¬
lieve does not anfwer the expedation that was firft form¬
ed as to its produce. General Dirom informs us, that
in the reign of James V. of Scotland, 300 men were
employed for feveral fummers in walking the fand near
Leadhills, for gold, of which they are faid to have col-
le&ed to the amount of ioo,ocol. flerling. It is faid
a tyaivci pieces °f an ounce in weight, have been
'$tru\jhir*, found at Leadhills, and that Lord Hopetcun has a
^ ‘v-y-, fi-ce ftili larger in his pcffeflion
L
Clap. IT,
III. Mercury. SX
Species I. Native Mercury, or ^uichftlver. Le Mer- t‘°11 of.tlje
cure natif. Gediegen Queckfilber.—This is found at ofthe
Idria in the Auflrian territories ; at Almaden in Spain, Earth.
at Stahlberg and Mofchellandlberg in the Palatinate,   v——
and a few other places. I<52
We are told by Mr Jamefon, that a quantity ofo1"01117
quickfilver was difeovered fome years ago in a peat
mofs, in the illand of May, and he thinks it probable
that veins of it may be Hill found there *. * Min. ef
Species 2. Natural dlmalgama. L’Amalgame na-*^ v°b
tif. Naturaliches Amalgam.—This confifts of mercury ’* P’ I53-
and filver, in very variable proportions. It is found at
Saldberg in Sweden j at Rofeneau in Hungary, and ef¬
pecially at Molchellandlherg in the duchy of Deux
Ponts, where it is found mixed with common ferrugi¬
nous clay, and with other ores of mercury.
Species 3. Mercury Mineralifed by the Sulphuric and
Muriatic Acids. Mercure Cornee ou Muriate. Queck¬
filber Hornerz.—This fpecies was difeovered about 30
years ago, in the mines of Mofchellandlberg, and at
Morefeld, in the duchy of Deux Ponts, by M. Woulfe,
mixed with ferruginous clay, quartz, lithomarga, na¬
tive quickfilver, and cinnabar. It has alfo been found
at Almaden in Spain, and at Herfowitz in Bohemia }
but it is very rare.
Species 4. Native Cinnabar. Le Cinnabre. Zinno-
ber.—This ufually forms a gangart for the other ores
of mercury. It occurs in the ftratiformed mountains,
pretty near the furface. This ore is found in a great
many parts of Europe, efpecially at Almaden in
Spain, Idria in the Aultrian territories, at Mofchel-
landfberg, in Bohemia, in Saxony, in Hungary, in
Tranfylvania, in the Palatinate, and in France j but in
this lalt it is found but in fmall quantity.
IV. Silver.
Species 1. Native Silver.—A particular variety ofsilvc/ores-.
this fpecies, mixed with gold, is very rare. It is prin¬
cipally found in Conigfberg in Noway, and Schlan-
genberg in Siberia. In the former of thefe places it is
found diffeminated through calcareous fpar, fluor fpar,
and rock cryftal, in a vein running through a rock of *
hornblende flate, and accompanied with blende, galena,
and pyrites. That of Siberia is found diftributed through
a mafs of heavy fpar.
Common native filver is found in conliderable quan¬
tity in Mexico and Peru. It is alfo met with in Sibe¬
ria, Saxony, France, Swreden, Norway, in the Hartz,
and in Bohemia. It is principally found in the primi¬
tive mountains, diflributed through maffes of heavy
fpar, quartz, calcareous fpar, fluor ipar, pyrites, blende,
cobalt, galena, red filver ore, and vitreous filver ore.
Silver has been found in ieveral parts of Britain, ef¬
pecially near Alva in Scotland. It is confidently af¬
firmed, that a mafs of capillary filver, weighing i6oz.
was found in the lead mines at Garthonefs in the ifle of
May, mixed with galena j-. f cy
Species 2. Antimoniaied Native Silver. L1 Argentvoi. i,.
Antimonial. Spiefglas Silber.—This fpecies hasL hi- lJ- 153<
therto been only found in the mine at St Wencefbs at
Altwolfach, and in the duchy of Wurtemberg, in a
vein mixed with calcareous fpar, heavy fpar, native fil¬
ver, and quartz.
Species
164
Copper
t*tes.
Chap. II. GEO
General Species 3. Arfenidted Native Silver. L’Argent Ar-
Diftribu- fenical. Arfenik. Silber.—This is alfo rare, having
tion of the j;)een foun(j on]y at Andreafberg, in the Hartz, and at
^ ^ Kaffala in Spain. In the Hartz it is mixed with na-
Earth. live arfenic, red filver ore, galena, blende, and calca-
4-—reous fpar. Confiderable quantities of filver, probably
of this fpecies of ore, are obtained from the lead ore of
Leadhills.
Species 4. Corneous Silver Ore, or Muriated Stiver.
L’Argent Cornee ou Muriate. Horn Erz.—This has
been found in Peru, Mexico, Saxony, France, Sibe¬
ria, and, as is affirmed, in Cornwall in England.
Species 5. Sooty Silver Ore. L’Argent Noir. Sil-
berfchwarze.—This is found in Saxony, France, and
Hungary, mixed with other ores of filver, and fometimes
with native filver.
Species 6. Vitreous Silver Ore. L’Argent Vitreux.
Silberglaferz.—This is found in Bohemia, Saxony,
Norway, Swabia, Siberia, and in Hungary, mixed
with other filver ores, and ufually accompanying cal¬
careous fpar, heavy fpar, and fluor fpar.
Species 7. Red Silver Ore. L’Argent Rouge. Roth-
gittegerz.—This is found in the Hartz, Bohemia,
Saxony, France, Swabia, and in Hungary, accompa¬
nying native arfenic, realgar, vitreous filver ore, ga¬
lena, calcareous fpar, and heavy fpar.
V. Copper.
Species 1. Native Copper.—-This is met with in Sibe¬
ria, the Uralian and Altaifchan mountains, Kamtfchat-
ka, Japan, Saxony, France, Sweden, Hungary, Palati¬
nate, and near Redruth in Cornwall, in England. It
ufually accompanies other ores of copper, efpecially
malachite and copper azure.
Species 2. Vitreous Copper Ore. Le Cuivre Vitreux.
Kupferglas.—This is found in Siberia, Hungary, Swe¬
den, Norway, Ruffia, Saxony, Silefia, Heffe, and in
Cornwall.
Species 3. Purple Copper Ore. La Mine de Cuivre
Violette. Buntkupfererz.-—This is always found in
the neighbourhood of other copper ores, efpecially with
the fpecies laft mentioned, and with copper pyrites. It
is found in Saxony, Bohemia, the Bannat in Tranfyl-
vania, the Hartz, Norway, Ruffia, Sweden, Hunga¬
ry, Heffe, and in Derbyffiire in England, efpecially in
the famous Eflon copper mine.
Species 4. Yellow Pyrites, or Yellow Copper Ore.
La Pyrite cuivreufe. Kupferkies.—This is the moft
common fpecies of copper ore, and is found both in primi¬
tive and fecondary mountains, fometimes in beds, and
fometimes in veins. It occurs moil abundantly in Bo¬
hemia, Saxony, Hungary, Sweden, France, Spain, and
efpecially in Britain, where it forms one of the princi¬
pal varieties of copper ores, found in the famous Parys
mine in the ille of Anglsfea.
Species 5. White Copper Ore. La Mine de Cuivre
Blanche. Weifskupfererz.—This fpecies is very rare,
but it has been found in Saxony in the mines of Frey-
berg, in Heffe, in Wirtemberg, and in Siberia, with
other copper ores.
Species 6. Gray Copper Ore. Le Cuivre Gris.
Fahlerz.—This again is a very common fpecies, and is
found in all thofe countries that poffefs mines of cop-
per.
Species 7. Black Copper Ore, Le Cuivre Noir.
L O G Y.
587
Kupferfchwarze.—This is found mixed with malachite General
and with green and blue copper ores in Saxony, Hun-
gary, in the Bannat, in Silefia, in Norway, in Ruffia, j^ater;alj
in Swabia, in Sweden, and in Siberia, It alfo occurs cf the
in the Parys mine of Anglefea. Earth.
Species 8. Florid Red Copper Ore. Mine de Cuivre  r—*
Rouge. Roth kupfererz.—This ufually accompanies
native copper, malachite, and brown earthy iron ore.
It is met with in Saxony, in the Bannat, in the Hartz,
in Norway, in Siberia, near Cologne, and in Corn¬
wall.
Species 9. Brick-red Copper Ore. Le Mine de Cuivre
couleur de Brique. Ziegelerz.—Found in fimilar fitu-
ations with the preceding.
Species to. Blue Calciform Copper Ore. L’Azur de
Cuivre. Kupperlazur.—Found in the Bannat, in
Heffe, in Saltzburg, in Poland, in Siberia, in Thurin¬
gia, and in the Tyrolefe. It is ufually imbedded in
ilaty marl, or in fandilone, not far below the furface
of the earth.
Species 11. Malachiteis always found mixed
with other copper ores, and occurs in molt of the cop¬
per mines that have been enumerated.
Species 12. Mountain Green. Le Vert de Cuivre.
Kupfergoun.—This commonly accompanies fpecies 4,
6, 9, 10, and 11. It is found in Saxony, in the
Hartz, in Norway, Silefia, Siberia, Hungary, Wir¬
temberg, and Britain, as at Leadhills and in Derby
{hire.
Species 13. Olive Copper Ore. Mine de couleur O-
live. Olwenerz.—This fpecies is extremely rare. It
has been found chiefly near Karrarach in Cornwall,
where it is accompanied by fpecies 11 and 12, and
brown iron ore in a gangart of yellow lithomarga mix¬
ed with quartz. It is faid to have been found alfo at
Jonfbach near Ruffeliladt in Silefia.
VI. Iron. l5s
Species 1. Native Iron.—This fpecies is very uncom-Inm
mon ; but it has been met with in feveral places, efpe¬
cially at Kamfdorf and Eibenftock in Saxony, at Kranf-
najarlk near Jenifei in Siberia, at Olumba near St Jago
in South America, and Oulle near Grenoble in France.
The two molt remarkable fpecimens of native iron are
thofe found in South America and in Siberia. The
former of thefe forms a mafs weighing at lealt 300
quintals, or 15 tons. It is foft and malleable, and in
every refpeft like the purell iron. That of Siberia is-a
fpheroidal mafs, weighing about 14 quintals, relting on
the furface of the earth, near the fummit of a moun¬
tain. Its texture is cellular, and its cavities are filled
with a tranfparent, greenilh, vitreous matter. No
mines or veins of iron are in the neighbourhood of ei-
ther.
Species 2. Martial Pyrites. Pyrite Martiale. Schwe-
felkies.—This fpecies is one of the moft common
ores of iron, and is found abundantly in every country
where there are any other ores of iron. There are
three varieties of it deferibed by Brochant, which are
lefs common, but thefe are alfo found in many places.
Species 3. Magnetic Pyrites. La Pyrite Magnetique.
Magnetkies.—This has been found only in primitive
rocks, efpecially in micaceous fchiftus, accompanied
by quartz, hornblende, &c. and ufually lying in beds
mixed with other pyrites, galena, and magnetic iron-
,4 E 2 ftotie.
588 GEO I
General {lone. It is found in. Saxony, Bavaria, Norway, and
tSifofThe Silt'fia‘
Materials Species 4. Magnetic Ironjlone. Le Fer Magnetique.
of the Magnetiicher Eil’enftein.—Of this there are three
Earth, varieties, the common magnetic ore, which is very com-
mon in primitive mountains, efpecially thofe that are
compofed of gneils and micaceous fchillus. It is often
in great abundance, forming large beds, or even whole
mountains. It is found in greateft quantity in Saxony,
Bohemia, Italy, Corfica, Silelia, Siberia, Norway, and
efpecially in Sweden. The fecond; variety, called fi¬
brous magnetic ironftone, is uncommon, but is found at
Biblburg in Sweden. The third, which Kirvvan calls
magnetic /and, is found in the banks of fome rivers,
particularly of the Elbe, as alfo in Sweden and Italy.
Species 5. Specular Iron-ore. Le Fer Speculaire.
Eifenglanz.—This is found in many places, often in con-
liderable quantity, efpecially in Saxony, Bohemia,
France, Normandy, Pruffia, Sweden, Siberia, Hungary,
Corfica, and the ifland of Elba. It is generally found
only in primitive mountains, fometimes in beds, fome-
times in veins, accompanied with quartz, hornftone,
martial pyrites, and magnetic iron ore.
Species 6. Redfcaly Iron-ore. La Mine de Fer Rouge.
Roth-Eifenilein.—This is rather rare, but is found in
feveral parts of Saxony, in the Hartz, in Naffau, in
Thuringia and Hungary. Another variety of the fame
fpecies, the compaft red irondone of Kirwan, is much
more common, being found in Saxony, Bohemia, the
* Hartz, Heffe, Siberia, and in France, fometimes in
veins, and fometimes in beds, commonly mixed with
the two following fpecies, and with argillaceous iron-
done, quartz, hornftone, and calcareous fpar.
A third variety, the common hematites or blood-
ftone, which is one of the moft produ£!ive iron ores, is
■always found accompanying the laft variety, and is of
courfe met with in moft of the fituations above enume¬
rated. It is procured in abundance in feveral parts of
England, as in Derbylhire, but more efpecially at
Ulverfton in Lancafhire, where there is one perpendi¬
cular vein of it 30 yards wfide, in a rock of limeftone.
Large quantities of it are carried to Carron, where it is
fmeited with the common Carron ironftone.
Species 7. Brown Iron ore. La Mine de Fer Brune.
Braun-eiftenftein.—Of this there are feveral varieties, of
which the compaft brown ironftone, and the brown haema¬
tites, are very common *, but the brown fcaly iron ore is
rather rare. The laft is found at Kamfdorf in Saxony,
at Klaufthel, in the Hartz, at Lauterick in the Palati¬
nate, and at Naila in the principality of Bareith.
Species 8. Calcareous iron ore. Le Fer Spathique.
Spathiger-eiftenftein.—This is found both in primary
and fecondary mountains, and there are few veins of
iron which do not contain it in greater or lefs quan¬
tity.
Species 9. Black Ironjlone. La Mine de Fer Noire.
Schwarz-eiiienftein.—This is found in the principality
of Bareith, in the Hartz, Saxony, Heffe, and Palati¬
nate.
The common argillaceous iron ore of Kirwan, is
ranked by Brochant as a variety of this. It is very
common in moft iron countries, and much of it is found
in Britain, efpecially in Colebrook-dale, Shropihire, and
in Dean foreft in Gloucefterfhire. The Carron ore is
principally of this kind.
O G Y. Chap. If.
Species 10. Lowland iron ore. La Mine de Fer de General
Gazon. Rafen-eifenftein.—There are feveral varieties of p'ftnbu-
this, all of which are found in low, humid fituations,
in very extenfive beds, alternating with fandftone, clay, 0f t}ie
&c. This fpecies is much more abundant in the north Earth,
than in the fouth of Europe, efpecially in the duchy c—-y-—-<1
of Brandenburg, in Courland, Lithuania, Livonia,
Pruflia, Pruflian Poland, and Luface.
Species 11. Blue Martial Earth. Le Fer Terreux
bleu. Blaue-eifenferde.—This is found imbedded in
clay and fimilar earths, and often accompanies the
laft fpecies. It occurs in Saxony, Silefia, Swabia, Ba¬
varia, Poland, Siberia, and the Palatinate.
Species 1 2. Green Martial Earth. Le Fer Terreux
vert. Grun-eifenerde.—-This fpecies is uncommon, hav¬
ing been found only at Braunfdorf, and- Schneeburg
in Saxony, in veins, accompanying quartz and fulphur
pyrites.
Species 13. Emery. L’Emeril. Schmirgel.—This
is found in Saxony, diftributed in a bed of hardened
fteatites, in fandftone. It is alfo found in Italy, Spain,
Peru, the ifle of Naxos in the Archipelago, where there
is a cape called by the Italians, Capo Smeriglio, or the
Emery Cape. It is often mixed with particles of mag¬
netic iron ore, whence fome have fuppofed the emery to
be magnetic.
VII. Lead.
Species 1. La Galeae Commune. Gemeiner-Blei-f
glanz.—This is the moft common and abundant ore of
lead, and is found both in primitive and fecondary ftra-
ta, in beds and veins, accompanied with quartz, fluor
fpar, calcareous fpar, fparry iron ore, barytic earths,
blende, pyrites, and feveral ores of filver. It is found
in great abundance at Leadhills and at Wanlockhead in
Dumfrieslhire, in Derbyftiire, Strontian in Scotland, and
in the Mendip hills in Somerfetftrire. A variety of
this, called corhpaft galena, is found in the fame fitua¬
tions, efpecially in Derbyftiire. It has often been con¬
founded with graphite, or plumbago.
Werner enumerates nearly 20 formations, as he calls
them, of galena, but Mr Jamefon thinks the galena
formation in Dumfriesfhire is different from any of thefe.
Species 2. Blue Lead Ore. La Mine de Plomb Bleue.
Blau-blei-erz.—This fpecies has as yet been found only
at Zfchopau in Saxony, accompanying fluor fpar, ba¬
rytic fpar, white and black lead, and malachite.
Species 3. Brown Lead Ore. La Mine de Plomb
Brune. Braun-bleierz.—This fpecies is alfo very rare,
but is found at the fame place with the laft, and alfo in
Bohemia, Britanny and Hungary.
Species 4. Black Lead Ore. La [Mine de Plomb
Noire. Schwarz-bleierz.—This is found in Saxony, at
Freyberg, at Zfchopau, in Cumberland, in fome parts
of Scotland, in Poland, and Siberia.
Species 5. White Lead Ore. La Mine de Plomb
Blanche. Weifs-bleierz.—This is not a very abundant
fpecies, but it is found in feveral lead mines, efpecially
in Bohemia, Saxony, the Hartz, France, Siberia, Hun¬
gary Carinthia, and in fome of the Britifli lead mines,
efpecially at Leadhills.
Species 6. Green Lead Ore. Phofphorated lead ore
of Kirwan. La Mine de Piomb Vert. Green-bleierz.
—This is found in veins, more commonly in the pri¬
mitive mountains. It is met with m Bohemia, Saxony,
„ Bavaria,
dt '
Chap. IL GEO
General Bavaria, Siberia, Brifgau, France, Peru, and at Lead-
Diftribu- }n Scotland.
tionot tne Species 7. Red Lead Spar. Le Plomb Rouge. Ro-
J Jf'th'e S thes-bleierz.—This is one of the rarelt ores of lead, be-
Earth. ing as yet only found at Ekatharenburg in Siberia.
—ySpecies 8. Yellow Lead Spar. Le Plomb jaune.
Gelbes-bleierz.—This has been known only for a few
years. It has been found at Bleiberg in Carinthia, in
a gangart of calcareous done. It has alfo been found
near Freyberg in Saxony, at Annaberg in Auttria, and
at Reczbanya in Hungary.
Species 9. Native Vitriol of Lead. Le Vitriol de
Plomb natif. Naturbiher-blei-vitriol.—This is found
- in the iile of Anglefea, in a vein of brown iron ore,
mixed with copper pyrites. It is alfo found at Lead-
hills in Scotland.
Species 10. Earthy Lead Ore.—Of this there are two
varieties, the friable and the indurated. Ihe former
is found in Saxony, in Lorraine, in Poland, and Si¬
beria, Bohemia, and Silelia. The latter is found in
mod lead mines. Mr Jamefon notices two varieties of
lead earth, which he calls white-lead earth, and friable
lead earth, as met with at Leadhills.
VIII. Tin.
Txno/es. Species 1. Tin Pyrites. La Py*ite d’Etain, Zinnkies.
This fpecies is very rare, and is, we believe, found only
in Cornwall, at Wheal rock, among copper pyrites.
Species 2. Common Tinfone. La Pierre d’Etain.
Zinndein.—This is is found chiefly in primitive rocks,
as in granite, gneifs, micaceous fchidus, and porphyry,
both in maffes and veins. It is the common ore of
Cornwall, and is found alfo in Saxony, Bohemia, and
the Ead Indies.
Species 3. Wood Tin Ore. L’Etain greret. Zin-
nerz.—This is found in Cornwall, in the parifhes of Co-
lomb, St Denis and Roach, accompanying the for¬
mer.
IX. Bismuth.
BLfmuth Species r. Native Bifmuth.—Bifmuth is a very rare
ores. metal, but is mod commonly found in its native date.
It is ufually in a gangart of quartz, calcareous fpar, and
and barytic fpar. It occurs in Bohemia, in Saxony, in
the territory of Hainault, in Suabia, in Sweden, and in
France, in the mines of Brittany.
Species 2. SulphuratedBt/muth. La Galene de Bif¬
muth. Wifmuth Glanz.—This is very rare. It com¬
monly accompanies the former, and is found at Joa-
chimdhal, in Bohemia, at JohannrGeorgen-dadt,
Schwarzenberg, and Altenberg in Saxony, and at Rid-
derhyttan in Sweden.
Species 3. Bifmuth Ochre. L’Ochre de Bifmuth.
Wifmuth Okker.—This is dill more rare than the lad,
and is chiefly found near Schneeberg in Saxony, and
at Joachimdhal in Bohemia.
X. Zinc.
Zincores, Species 1. Blende. This is fulphurated zlrtc, and is
one of the mod common ores of that metal. There
are three varieties j the brown, the yellow', and the
black. Of thefe the yellow is the mod rare, and is
found in Saxony, in Bohemia, in the Hartz, in Norway,
Tranfylvania, and Hungary. The brown and the
LOGY.
black are found in mod of thefe places, and beildes in
France and England, efpecially in Derbyfhire.
Species 2. Calamine. La Calamine. Galmel.—Of
this there are two varieties, compaEl and jlrioted. Both
occur only in particular dratiform rocks, often form¬
ing entire beds with indurated clay, and calcareous fpar.
The latter is ufually found in the cavities of the former.
Both occur in Bohemia, in Carinthia, and in mod of
the German lead mines. They are alfo found in Bri¬
tain, efpecially at Leadhills, Wanlock-head, and in
Derbyfhire.
589
General
Diftribu-
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
XL Antimony.
170
Species 1. Native Antimony.—This is very rare. It Antimony
was difcovered at Sahlberg in Sweden, in the yearoreSi
1748, in a gangart of fome calcareous done, and it
was alfo found fome years ago at Allemont in France,
accompanying other ores of antimony and of cobalt.
Species 2. Sulphurated Antimony. L’Antimoine
Gris. Grau-fpies glas-erz.—There are feveral varieties
of this, as the compatt fulphurated antimony, found at
Braunfdorf in Saxony; at Goldgronach in the princi¬
pality of Bareith j at Maguria in Hungary, and Au¬
vergne in France: foliated fulphurated antimony, found
at Braunfdorf and Goldgronach, and in the Hartz, and
Tranfylvania : driated fulphurated antimony, found in
Saxony, Hungary, France, Swabia, Tufcany, Sweden,
the Hartz, Spain, and in England: plumofe antimonial
ore, found at Freyberg in Saxony, at Braunfdorf and
Stahlberg, and at Chemnitz in Hungary. All thefe
varieties are ufually found in a quartzofe rock.
Species 3. Red Antimonial Ore. L’Antimoine Rouge. .
Roth-fpeis glas-erz.—This is found at Braunfdorf, at
Malalka and Kremnitz, in Hungary, and at Allemont
in France. It ufually accompanies the fird and fecond
fpecies, efpecially at Allemont, or the next fpecies,
which is the cafe at Braunfdorf.
Species 4. Muriated Antimony. Antimoine blanc. .
Weies-fpeis glas-erz.—White antimony is extremely
rare •, it is principally found at Przibran in Bohemia,
in quadrangular, fhining tables, difpofed in bundles •
upon galena. It is faid alfo to have been found at
Braunfdorf and Malalka.
Species 5. Antimonial Ochre. L’Ocre d’Antimoine.
Spies glas-okker.—This fpecies is alfo very rare ; it is
found at Braunfdorf, .near Freyberg, and in Hungary,
always accompanying the fecond and third fpecies.
XII. Cobalt. .
*71
Species 1. White Cohalt Ore. Le Cobalt blanc. Cobalt ores-,
Weiffer fpeis-kobolt.—This is found in Norway, Swe¬
den, at Anaberg in Saxony, in Swabia and Stiria ; but
it is very rare. In Saxony and in Norway, it occurs in
beds of micaceous fchillus, along with the 7th fpecies,
and with quartz, hornblende, and pyrites.
Species 2. Dull Gray Cobalt Ore. Le Cobalt gr
Grauer fpeis-kobolt.—This is found in Saxony, Bohe
mia, France, .Norway, Sw'abia, Hungary, Stiria, and in
a few' mines in England. It is fometimes mixed witn
ores of filver.
Species 3. Bright White Cobalt Ore. Le Cobalt E-
clatant. Glahz-kobolt.—This is the moll common oi
all the ores of cobalt, and almoft always accompai
the ores of nickel, and of lilver. It is found in
hernia,
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
11%
590 G E O L
General hernia, Saxony, Sllefia, the Hartz, Heffe, Sweden, Swa-
Diftnbu- Nortvay, Stiria, Spain, Thuringia, and in England.
It is found in beds in the primitive rocks, and in veins
in the fecondary.
Species 4. B/ack Cobalt Ochre. Le Cobalt Terreux
noir. Schwarzer-erd-kobolt.— This is found in Sax¬
ony, in Thuringia, Swabia, HelTe, the Palatinate, Saltz-
burg, and in the Tyrol, accompanying other ores of
cobalt, and feveral ores of filver, copper, and iron.
Species 5. Brown Cohalt Ochre. Le Cobalt Terreux
fcrun. Brauner-erd-kobolt.—This is found in confider-
able quantity at Saalfeld in Thuringia ; at Kamsdorf
in Saxony, and at Alperfpach in Wirtemberg, accom¬
panying other ores of cobalt.
Species 6. Tellbw Cobalt Ochre. Le Cobalt Terreux
iaunne. Geber-erd-kobolt.—This is one of the rareft
ores of cobalt. It is found at Saalfield in Thuringia, at
Alperfpach in Wirtemberg, and at Altemont in Dau-
phine in France.
Species 7. Red Cobalt Ore. Le Cobalt Terreux
rouge. Rnther-erd-kobolt. This is found in Saxony,
Thuringia, Heffe, Swabia, Bohemia, Allemont in
France, and in Nomay.
XIIL Nickel.
Nickel ores. Species 1. Sulphurated Nickel. Le Kupfer Nikel.
Kupfer Nikkei.—This is found in veins, both in primitive
and fecondary mountains, almoft always accompanying
feme of the ores of cobalt, to which it feems to bear
fome geological relation. It is alfo found in fome fil¬
ver mines. It is met with in Bohemia, Saxony, Thu¬
ringia, the Hartz, in Swabia, Heffe, Allemont in
France, Stiria, and in fome parts of Britain. Its ufual
gangart is quartz, barytic and calcareous fpar.
Species 2. Nickel Ochre. L’Ocre de Nikel. Nik-
kel-okker.—This is found in the fame fituations with the
laft, from a decompofition of which it appears to be
produced.
XIV. Manganese.
Species 1. Graij ore of Manganefe. Le Manganefe.
Manganefe Q.raLl braunftein.erz.—There are feveral varieties of
this, but they are all commonly found near each other,
in veins or in maffes, commonly in the primitive moun¬
tains.
They are found in confiderable quantity in many
mines in Saxony, Bohemia, Bavaria, and Hungary.
They are alfo met with in France, and in feveral parts
in Britain, as in Herbyfhire, Leadhills, and Wan-
lockhead $ in the Mendip hills, and the ifle of Jura.
Species 2. Red Manganefe ore. Le Manganefe
rouge. Roth-Cronftein-erz. This is very rare, but is
found at Katnick, Offenbanya, and efpecially at Nag-
yag in Tranfylvania, at which laft place it is found in a
gold mine.
XV. Molybdena.
M *74 Le Molybdene fulphure. Wafferbley.—This is found
na ores. Bohemia \ at feveral places in Saxony ; in Sweden *,
at Tillot in France, and at Chamouni at the foot of
Mont Blanc. It is commonly found in primitive rocks,
efpecially in tin mines.
XVI. Arsenic.
Species 1. Native Arfenic.—This is found in Bo-
Chap. II.
General
Diftrilra-
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
O G Y.
hernia, Saxony, the Hartz, Carinthia, Swabia, Tran¬
fylvania, and in France. It is always met w'ith in veins,
in primitive mountains, accompanied by realgar, gale¬
na, the ores of cobalt and nickel, and feveral ores of
filver.
Species 2. Arfenical Pyrites, or Marcafte. La Py-
rite Arfenicale. Arfenik-kies. This is found in Bo¬
hemia, Saxony, and Silefia, accompanying the common
tin ftone, and galena, with fome other minerals.
Species 3. Realgar. Le Realgar. Raufchgelb.—>
This is found in the Bannat, Bohemia, Saxony, Swa¬
bia, the Hartz, the Tyrol, Hungary, and in the neigh¬
bourhood of volcanoes, efpecially Ahtna and Vefuvius.
Orpiment, which Brochant makes a variety of real¬
gar, is found in feveral of the above places, and alfo in
Natolia, in Servia, Tranfylvania, and Wallachia, ufual-
ly accompanying quartz and clay.
Species 4. Native calx of Arfenic. L’Arfenic oxide
natif. Naturlechur-arfenik-kalk.—This is very rare,
but is found in a fmall quantity in Bohemia and Joachim-
fthal, in Saxony, at Rafchau, at Salatna, in Tran¬
fylvania, and in Hungary.
XVII. Tungsten.
A/ U
Species I. Tungften. Le Tungftene. Schiverftein.Tungfteu
—This is a very rare mineral, but is found at Schlack-o*65-
enwald in Bohemia, at Ehrenfriederdorf in Saxony, and
at Riddarkytten, Biftmrg in Sweden, ufually accom¬
panying quartz, mica, talc, and tin ore.
Species 2. Wolfram.—This is alfo pretty rare, but is
found in Bohemia, Saxony, and at Poldice in Com-
w'all.
176
XVIII. Uranium.
177
Species 1. Sulphurated Uranite. L’Urane noir. Be-Uranium
cherz.—This is found at Joachimfthal in Bohemia, and ores,
at Johann-Georgen-Stadt, and Schneiberg in Saxony,
accompanying the two following fpefcies, and lead and
copper ores.
Species 2. Micaceous Uranitic ore. L’Urane Micace.
Uran-glimmer.—This is found in the Bannat, Saxony,
Wirtemberg j near Autun in France, and near Karra-
rach in Cornwall.
Species 3. Uranitic ochre. L’Ocre d’Urane. Uran-
okher. This has been found at Joachimfthal in Bohe¬
mia, and at Johan-Georgen-Stadt in Saxony, but it is
uncommon.
XIX. Titanium.
I7S
A1 feme
Species 1. Menakanite.—This has been found chiefly Titanium
near Menakan in Cornwall. ores.
Species 2. Titamte. Le Ruthile. Ruthil.—This
is found at Boinik and Rhonitz in Hungary ; in New
Caftile in Spain j at Afchaffenbourg in Franconia j at
St Yrieux in France, and in Mount St Gothard, and
fome other places in the Alps.
Species 3. Titamtic Siliceous ore. Le Nigrine. Ni-
grin.—This has been found near St Gothard in the
Alps, at Ohlapian in Tranfylvania, &c.
XX. Tellurium.
Species 1. Sylvanite. Le Sylvane natif. _ GedIc'Xel^r9iutt
gen Sylvan.—This is found chiefly at Fatzeborg in Tran- ores>
fylvania, but is now become extremely rare. It occurs
O G Y.
Chap. III. GEO
Theories of in beds of gray wacke and fecondary (or tranfition)
the Karth. ]imeftone.
Species 2. Le Sylvane graphique. Shrifterz.
— Ibis is found at Offenbanya in Tranfylvania, in a
bed of porpbyritic fenete, and granular limeftone.
Species 3. Le Sylvane blanc. Weifs-Syl-
vanerz.—This was brought to Brocham from Freyberg
in Saxony.
Chap. III. Of the mojl Remarkable ^Theories of the
Earth.
180
Objecl of A late writer confiders the proper object of a theory
theories of of the earth, to be the tracing the feries of thofe revolu-
t e earth. tions which have taken place on the furface of the
earth j to explain their caufes, and thus to conneft to¬
gether all the indications of change that are found in the
mineral kingdom. He juftly obferves, that the forma¬
tion of fuch a theory requires an accurate and extenlive
examination of the phenomena of geology, and that it
is inconfiftent with any, but a very advanced date of
the phyfical fciences. There is perhaps no refearch in
thofe Iciences more arduous than this j none where the
fubjedt is fo complex, where the appearances are fo di-
verfified, or fo widely fcattered j and where the caufes
that have operated are fo remote from the fphere of or-
* Playfair's dinary obfervation *.
IUufrations. With fuch requifites, and under fuch difficulties,
it is not furprifing that fo many wh<3 have aimed
at conftru(fling theories of the earth, have failed in
the attempt. It certainly requires a prodigious ac¬
cumulation of fafls, together with a talent for obfer¬
vation, and for arrangement, which are feldom found
united. We ffiall prefently fee how far thofe theo¬
ries which have hitherto been framed to account for
the changes that the earth has undergone, have been
fuccefsful.
It is not, however, to be fuppofed, that a correfl
theory of the earth is impoffible, though fome may
think it an arrogant, if not a prefumptuous undertaking,
to attempt explaining how the prefent Hate of the globe
and the revolutions which it has undergone, were
brought about. The time is perhaps not far diftant
when the prefent prevailing hypothefis will be im¬
proved into a rational, and fo far as is confident with
the knowledge and acquirements of man, a perfefl
fydem.
Dr Kirwan has laid down certain laws of reafoning j
which fhould be adhered to inviolably in invedigations
of this kind. The fird is, that no effefl ihould be at¬
tributed to a caufe whofe known properties are inade¬
quate to its produ£lion. The fecond is, that no caufe
dmuld be adduced, whofe exidence is not proved either
by aflual experience or approved tedimony. Many na¬
tural phenomena have arifen or do arife, in times or
places fo didant, that well conditioned tedimony con¬
cerning them cannot, without manifed abfurdity, be re-
jecffed. Thus the inhabitants of the northern parts of
Europe, who have never felt earthquakes, nor feen vol¬
canoes, mud neverthelefs admit, from mere tedimony,
that the fird have been, and that the fecond do atlual-
ly exid. I he third is, that no powers Ihould be afcribed
to an alledged caufe, but thofe that it is knowm by
a£lual obfervation to poiTefs in appropriated circum-
Sances .
L
Sect. I. Theory of Burnet.
591'
Theories of
the Earth.
The fird who formed this amufement of earth-making
into a lydem, was the celebrated Thomas Burnet; a Burnet,
man of polite learning, and rapid imagination. His
facred theory, as he calls it, defcribing the changes*
which the earth has undergone, or diall hereafter un¬
dergo, is well known for the warmth witli which it is
imagined, and the weaknefs with which it is reafoned p
for the elegance of its dyle, and the meannefs of its
philofophy. The earth, fays he, before the deluge, was
very differently formed from what it is at prefent; it
was at fird a fluid mafs; a chaos compofed of various
fubdances, differing both in denfity and figure; thofe
which were heavied funk to the centre, and formed in
the middle of our globe a hard folid body ; thofe of a
lighter nature remained next ; and the waters, which -
were lighter dill, fwam upon its furface, and covered
the. earth on every fide. The air, and all thofe fluids
which were lighter than water, floated upon this a lib,
and in the fame manner encompaffed the globe ; fo that
between the furrounding body of waters, and the cir¬
cumambient air, there was formed a coat of oil, and o-
ther un&uous fubdances, lighter than water. However,
as the air was dill extremely impure, and mud have
carried up with it many of thofe earthy particles with
which it once was intimately blended, it foon began to
defecate, and to depofe thefe particles upon the oily
furface already mentioned, which foon uniting, the
earth and oil formed that crud which foon became an.
habitable furface, giving life to vegetation, and dwell¬
ing to animals.
This imaginary antediluvian abode was very different '
from what we fee it at prefent. The earth was light
and nch, and formed of a fubdance entirely adapted to
the feeble date of incipient vegetation ; it was a uni¬
form plain, everywhere covered with verdure, without
mountains, without feas, or the imalled inequalities. It
had no difference of iealons, fcr its equator was in the
plane of the ecliptic, or, in ether wmrds, it turned di-
redlly oppofite to the fun, lo that it enjoyed one perpe¬
tual and luxuriant ipring. However, this delightful
face of nature did not long continue in the fame date,
for, after a time, it began to crack and open in fiffures;
a circumdance which always fucceeds when the fun ex¬
hales the moidure from rich or marftiy fituations. The
crimes of mankind had been for Ibrne time preparing to
draw down the wrath of heaven ; and they at length
induced the deity to defer repairing thofe breaches in
nature. 7 hus the chafms of the earth every day be¬
came wider, and, at length, they penetrated to the
great abyfs*of waters, and the whole earth in a manner
fell in, Phen enfued a total diforder in the uniform
beauty of the fird creation, the terrene furface being
broken down ; as it funk, the waters gufhed out in its
place ; the deluge became univerfal; all mankind, ex¬
cept eight perfons,’were dedroyed, and their poderity
condemned to toil upon the ruins of defolated’nature.
It'remains to mention the manner in which he re¬
lieves the earth from this univerfal wreck, which would
Lem to be as difficult as even its fird formation,
I hefe great maffes of earth falling into the abyfs, drew
down with them vad quantities of air ; and by daih-
urg- agamd each other, and- breaking into fmall part*:
bjL
592 G E O L
Theories of by the violence c£ tbe fhock, they at length left be-
the Earth. jween them large cavities filled with nothing but air.
v 'pbefe cavities naturally offered a bed to receive the
influent waters •, and in proportion as they filled, the
face of the earth became once more vifible. Ihe
higher parts of its broken furface, now become the tops
of mountains, were the firft that appeared \ the plains
foon after came forward, and at length the whole globe
was delivered from the waters, except the places in the
Jo weft fituations ; fo that the ocean and the feas are
ftill a part of the ancient abyfs that have not had a
place to return to. Iflands and rocks are fragments of
the earth’s former cruft ; kingdoms and continents are
larger maffes of its broken fubftance *, and all the inequa¬
lities that are to be found on the furface of the prefent
earth, are owing to the accidental confufion into which
both earth and waters were then thrown.
Sect. II. Theory of Woodward.
Theory of The next who attempted a theory of the earth was
“Woodward. jV];r Woodward, who in his effay towards a natural
hiftory of the earth, endeavoured to give what he con-
fidered as a more rational account of its appearances
than had been given by any preceding writer. He was
indeed much better qualified for fuch an undertaking
than any of his predeceflbrs, as he was one of the moft
induftrious naturalifts of his time. Hence though his
fyftem muft be confidered as weak and untenable, his
work contains many important fafts relating to natural
hiftory.
Woodward fets out by aflerting that all terreftrial
fubftances are difpofed in beds of various natures, lying
horizontally, one over the other, like the coats of an
onion, and that they are replete with {hells and. other
marine productions •, thefe- {hells being found in the
deepeft cavities, and on the tops of the higheft moun¬
tains. From thefe obfervations, which were warranted
by the experience of naturalifts at that time, but which
we now know not to be univerfally correCl, he proceeds
to remark that thefe {hells and extraneous foflils are not
productions of the earth, but are all aCtual remains of
thofe animals which they are known to refembie ; that
all the beds of the earth lie below each other in the
order of their fpecific gravities, and that they are dif¬
pofed as if they had been left in this fituation by fub-
iiding waters. All this is affirmed with much earneft-
nefs, although many of the circumftances are contra¬
dicted by daily experience. Thus, we not unfrequent-
ly meet with layers of {tone above the lighteft foils,
and find the fofteft earth below a ftratum of hard ftone.
Woodward, however, having taken for granted, that
all the ftrata of the earth are arranged in the order of
their fpecific gravities, the lighteft at the'top, and the
heavieft near the centre, he deduces as a natural con-
fequence, that all the fubftances of which the earth is
compofed were once in an actual ftate of iolution. This
univerfal folution he conceives to have happened at the
time of the flood. He fuppofes that at that time a
body of water, which was then in the centre of the
earth, uniting with that which was found on the fur-
face, fo far feparated the terrene parts as to mix all to¬
gether in one fluid mafs ; the contents of which after¬
wards finking according to their refpeClive gravities,
produced the prefent appearances of the earth. Being
3
O G Y. Chap. 1IL
aware, however, of an objeclion that fofill fubffances Theories of
are not found diffolved, he exempts them from this the Earth.
univerfal diffblution, and for that purpofe, endeavours
to {hewr that the parts of animals have a ftronger cohe-
fion than thofe of minerals } and that, while even the
hardeft rocks may be difiblved, bones and {hells may
Hill continue entire.
Sect. III. Theory oflVhiJlon.
1S3
Of all the theories of the earth that have been Theory of
formed, previous to thofe of Hutton and Werner, none Whiftom
has been more applauded or more oppofed than that of
Whifton. Nor is this furprifing ; for this theory being
fupported with all the parade of mathematical calcula¬
tion, confounded the ignorant, and produced the ap¬
probation of fuch as defired to be thought learned,
fince it implied a confiderable knowledge of abflraft
fcience, even to be capable of comprehending what the
writer aimed at. It is not eafy to diveft this theory of
its mathematical garb, but the refult ol our philofo-
pher’s reafoning appears to be as follows.
He fuppofes the earth to have been originally a
comet, and he confiders the hiftory of the creation, as
given us in feripture, to have its commencement juft
when it was, by the hand of the Creator, more regular¬
ly placed as a planet in our folar fyftem. Before that
time, he fuppofes it to have been a globe without beau¬
ty or proportion j a world in diforder, fubjedf to all the
viciffitudes which comets endure j fome of which have
been found, at different times, a tboufand times hotter
than melted iron j at others, a thoufand times colder
than ice. I hefe alternations of heat and coid, conti¬
nually melting and freezing the furface 01 the earth, he
fuppofes to have produced, to a certain depth, a chaos
entirely refembling that deferibed by tne poets, fur-
rounding the folid contents of the earth, which ftill
continued unchanged in the midft, making a great
burning globe of more than tw7o thoufand leagues in
diameter. This furrounding chaos, however, w7as far
from being folid: be compares it to a denfe though fluid
atmofphere, compofed of fubftances mingled, agitated,
and {hocked againft each other ; and in this diforder
he deferibes the earth to have been juft at the eve ot
creation.
But upon its orbit being then changed, when it was
more regularly wheeled round the fun, every thing
took its proper place, every part of the. furrounding
fluid then fell into a fituation, in proportion as it was
light or heavy. The middle or central part, which.al¬
ways remained unchanged, ftill continued fo, retaining
a part of that heat which it received, in its primevai
approaches towards the fun j wThich heat he ^calculates,
may continue for about fix thoufand years. Next to this
fell the heavier parts of the chaotic atmofphere, which
ferve to fuftain the lighter j but as in defeending they
could not entirely be feparated from many watery parts
with which they were intimately mixed, they drew
down a part of thefe alfo with them •, and thele could
not mount again after the furface of the earth was con-
folidated j they therefore furrounded the heavy firft de-
feending parts, in the fame manner as thefe furround
the central globe. Thus, the entire body of the earth
is compofed internally of a great burning globe, next
which is placed an heavy terrene fiibftance that encom-
Chap. III. G E O L
Theories ofpafles it, round wliich alfo is circumfufed a body of
the Earth, water. Upon this body of water, the cruft of the
earth on which we dwell is placed, fo that, according
to him, the globe is compofed of a number of coats, or
fhells, one within the other, all of different denftties.
The body of the earth being thus formed, the air,
which is the lighteft fubftance of all, furrounded its
furface, and the beams of the fun darting through,
produced that light which, we are told, firft obeyed the
Creator’s command.
The whole economy of the creation being thus ad-
jufted, it only remained to account for the tilings and
depreflions on the furface of the earth, with the other
feeming irregularities of its prefent appearance. The
hills and valleys are conftdered by him as formed, by
their prefling upon the internal fluid, which fuftains the
outward fliell of earth with greater or lefs weight; thofe
parts of the earth which are heavieft, fink into the fub-
jacent fluid more deeply, and become valleys ; thofe
that are lighter, rife highelt upon the earth’s furface,
and are called mountains.
Such was the face of nature before the deluge *, the
earth was then more fertile and populous than it is at
prefent-, the life of man and animals was extended to
ten times its prefent duration j and all thofe advantages
arofe from the fuperior heat of the central globe, which
ever fince has been cooling. As its heat was then in
full power, the genial principle was alfo much greater
than at prefent $ vegetation and animal increafe were
carried on with more vigour j and all nature feemed
teeming with the feeds of life. But thefe phyfical ad¬
vantages were only productive of moral evil j the
warmth which invigorated the body, increafed the paf-
flons and appetites of the mind and as man became
more powerful, he grew lefs innocent. It was found
neceffary to puniftt this depravity } and all living crea¬
tures were overwhelmed by the deluge in univerfal de-
itruftion.
This deluge, which Ample believers are willing to
afcribe to a miracle, philofophers have been long de-
lirous to account for by natural caufes. They have
proved that the earth could never fupply from any re-
fervdir towards its centre, nor the atmofphere by any
difcharge from above, fuch a quantity of water as would
cover the furface of the globe to a certain depth over
the tops of our higheft mountains. Where, therefore,
was all this water to be found ? Whifton has found
enough, and more than a fufficiency, in the tail of a
comet -, for he feems to allot comets a very aCtive part
in the great operations of nature.
He calculates with great feeming precifion, the year,
the month, and the day of the week on which this
comet (whi«ih has paid the earth fome viftts fince,
though at a kinder diftance) involved our globe in its
tail. The tail he fuppofed to be a vaporous fluid fub-
. ftance, exhaled from the body of the comet, by the
extreme heat of the fun, and increafing in proportion
as it approached that great luminary. It was in this
that our globe was involved at the time of the deluge j
and as the earth ftill aCled by its natural attraClion,
it drew to itfelf all the watery vapours w-hich were in
the comet’s tail ; and the internal waters being alfo at
the fame time let loofe, in a very fhort fpace the tops
of the higheft mountains were laid under the deep.
The puniftvment of the deluge being thus completed
Vol. IX. Part II.
° G Y. v 593
and all the guilty deftroyed, the earth, which had been Theories of
broken by the eruption of the internal waters, was alfo the ■karth-i
enlarged by it j io that upon the comet’s recefs, there J
was found room fufficient in the internal abyfs for the
recefs of the fuperftuous waters, whither they all re¬
tired, and left the earth uncovered, but in fome refpedts
changed, particularly in its figure, which, from being
round, was now become oblate. In this univerfal
wreck of nature Noah furvived, by a variety of happy
caufes, to repeople the earth, and to give birth to a
race of men flow in believing ill-imagined theories of
the earth.
Sect. IV. Theory of Buffon.
184
Less abftra&ed and more popular than the theory of Theory of
Whifton, but equally fanciful and pompous, was the Buffon.
hypothefis of Buffon. This fyftem, which was receiv-.
ed with great admiration, depends principally on two
fa£ls which, though generally true, were by Buffon
extended much too far.
It had been long obferved, that fuch flinty or fili-
ceous bodies as form a part of the compofttion of glafs,
are among the moft abundant materials which compofe
the earth, and that many of them nearly refemble glafs
in colour, tranfparency, luftre, hardnefs, and fpecific
gravity. As glafs is produced by fufton in a ftrong
heat, it was inferred by Buffon, that the flinty bodies
found on the earth derived their origin from a limilar
fufton j and as no heat fufficient to produce fo great an
effedl, could be found on our globe, the author has
recourfe to the fun as its fource. He fuppofes the
planets, and the earth among the number, to have ori¬
ginally formed a part of the body of the fun. In this
fituation a comet falling in on that great body, might
have given it fuch a fhock, and (o fttaken its whole
frame, that fome of its particles might have been driven
off, like dreaming fparkles from red-hot iron j and each
of thefe ftreams of fire, though very fmall in comparifon
of the fun, might have been large enough to form a
planet much greater than our earth, or any other of
the planetary fyftem. In this manner the planets, to ¬
gether with the globe which we inhabit, might have
Seen driven off from the body of the fun by impulfton j
and in this way they would have continued to recede
from it for ever, had they not been arrefted by the fu¬
perior power of attraction, exerted on them by the fun j
and thus, by the combination of the centrifugal -and
centripetal forces, they were whirled round in the or¬
bits which they now defcribe.
After giving a number of reafons for the credibility, or
at leaft poflibility, of the foregoing fuppofition, the author
concludes that it is evident, that the earth affumed its
prefent figure when in a melted ftate. It is natural to
think, fays he, that the earth, when it iffued from the
fun, had no other form but that of a torrent of melted
and inflamed matter j that this torrent, by the mutual
attra&ion of its parts, took on a globular figure, which
its diurnal motion changed into a fpheroid; that, when
the earth cooled, the vapours, which were expanded like
the tail of a comet, gradually condenfed, and fell down
in the form of water upon the furface, depofiting at the
fame time a flxmy fubftance mixed with fulphur and
falts, part of which was carried by the motion of the
waters into the perpendicular fiffures of the ftiata, and
4 F produced
594 G E O I
Theories of produced metals, and the red remained on the furface,
the Eaith. ancj gave j-Jfe to the vegetable mould which abounds in
v different places, with more or lefs of animal or vege¬
table particles,, the organization of which is not obvious
to the fenfes.
Thus the interior parts of the globe were originally
compofed of vitrified matter, and probably they are fo
at prefent. Above this were placed thofe bodies which
had been reduced by the heat to the fmalleft particles,
as fand, which are only portions of glafs, and above
thefe pumice ftones, and the fcoriae of melted matter,
from which were afterwards produced the feveral kinds
of clay. The whole mafs was covered with water to
the depth of five or fix hundred feet, arifing from the
condenfation of the vapours when the earth began to
cool. This water depofited a ftratum of mud, mixed
with all thofe fubftances which were capable of being
fublimed, or exhaled by fire; and the air was formed
of the moft fubtile vapours, which, from their fmall fpe-
cific gravity, floated above the wTater.
Such was the condition of the eatth, when the tides,
the winds, and the heat of the fun, began to introduce
changes on its furface. The diurnal motion of the
earth, and that of the tides, elevated the waters in the
equatorial regions, and neceflarily tranfported thither
great quantities of llime, clay, and fand ; and by thus
elevating thofe parts of the earth, they perhaps funk
thofe under the poles about two leagues, or a 230th
part of the whole •, for the wTaters would eafily reduce
into pow'der pumice ftones, and other fpongy parts of
the vitrified matter upon the furface •, and by this means
excavate fome places and elevate others, which, in
time, would produce iflands and continents, and all
thofe inequalities on the furface, which are more con-
fiderable towards the equator than towards the poles.
The higheft mountains lie between the tropics and the
middle of the temperate zones, and the loweft from the
polar circles towards the poles. Indeed, both the land
'•> and fea have moft inequalities between the tropics, as is
evident from the incredible number of iflands peculiar
to thefe regions.
The other circumftance which forms a principal part
t of the balls of this theory, is derived from the compofi-
tion of fea fliells. It is well known, that thefe (hells
confift chiefly of an earth like that which conftitutes
V the principal part of limeftone or marble j and it was
hence inferred that, after a feries of ages, thefe {hells
being broken down into minute particles, produced
thofe immenfe mafles of calcareous fubftances which are
now found either in vaft mountains, or in ((ratified plains,
in almoft every part of the earth.
Buffon conceives very naturally, that the furface of
the earth muft, at the beginning, have been much lefs
folid than it is at prefent, and confequently the fame
caufes which at this day produce but (light changes,
muft then, on fo yielding abody, have been attended
with very confiderable effefts. There is, he thinks,
every reafon to fuppofe, that the earth was at that time
covered with the waters of the fea j and that thefe wa¬
ters were above the tops of our higheft mountains, fince,
even in fuch elevated lituations, we find (hells and other
marine prodmftions in very great abundance. It ap¬
pears alfo that the fea continued for a confiderable time
upon the face of the earth ; for as thefe layers of (hells
are found fo very frequently at fuch great depths, and ,
1 O G Y. Chap. III.
in fuch prodigious quantities, it (eems impoflible for'I'heories of
fuch numbers to have been fupported all alive at one tlie Eaitb*
time) fo that they muft have been brought there by ~Y~
fucceffive depofitions. Thefe fliells alfo are found in
the bodies of the hardeft rocks, where they could not
have been depofited all at once, at the time of the del-
luge, or at any fuch inftant revolution •, fince that would
be to fuppofe, that all the rocks in which they are found
were, at that inftant, in a (late of diffolution, which would
be abfurd to aifert. The fea, therefore, depofited them
wherever they are now to be found, and that by (low
and fucceflive degrees.
“ It will appear alfo, that the fea covered the whole
earth, from the appearance of its layers, which lying
regularly one above the other, feem all to refemble
the fediment formed at different times by the ocean.
Hence, by the irregular force of its waves and its cur¬
rents, driving the bottom into fand-banks, mountains
muft have been gradually formed within this univerfal
covering of waters j and thefe fucceflively railing their
heads above its furface, muft, in time, have formed the
higheft ridges of mountains upon land, together with
continents, ifiands, and low grounds, all in their turns.
This opinion wall receive additional weight by confi-
dering, that in thofe parts of the earth, where the power
of the ocean is greateft, the inequalities on the furface
of the earth are higheft ; the ocean’s pow'er is greateft
at the equator, where its winds and tides are moft con-
ftant ; and in fact, the mountains at the equator are
found to be higher than in any other parts of the world.
(Vid. N° 129.) The fea, therefore, has produced the
principal changes in our earth; rivers, volcanoes, earth¬
quakes, ftorms, and rain, having made but flight alter¬
ations, and only fuch as have affetted the globe to very
incohliderable depths.”
“ In the formation of this theory, fays Mr Kirwran, jgt;
genius (I mean genius in its primitive fenfe, the fu-
blime talent of fafeinating invention, and not the ener¬
getic power of patient, profound, and fagacious invelti-
gation,) unhappily prefided. Yet dazzled by the fplen-
did but delufive feenery, prefented by an ardent imagi¬
nation foarir.g to the fource of light, and rending from
its flaming orb the planetary maffes that fuiround it}
then marking with daring and overweening confidence,
fancied fucceffive epochs of the confolidatefl fabric of
the terraqueous globe ; the public attention was long
arrefted by the magical reprefentation, and the under-
ftanding nearly betrayed into a partial, if not a total, af-
fent to it.
“ This proud gigantic theory was, however, like an¬
other Goliath, foon demolilhed by a common flint or
pebble, the very fubftance it fprung from. Common
glafs effentially contains an alkaline fait, to which
alone it owes its fufibility 5 filiceous fubftances contain
none, and are abfolutely infufible when unaflociated
with any. Macquer found them infufible not only in
furnaces, but in the ftill incomparably fuperior heat of
inflamed oxygen. Hence the hypothefis grounded on
the affumed identity of thefe fubftances and common
glafs, vanilhed like the unembodied vifions of the night.
With refpett to limeftone, the other pillar on which
this theory refts, Cronited, Ferber, Born, Arduini, and
Bergman, demonftrated the exiftence of numerous and
immenfe mountains, in which not only no veftiges of
(hells could be traced, but whofe internal ftrufture of
pofition
Chap. III. G E O L
Theories ofpofitxon was incompatible with the fuppofition of an ori-
the Earth, gination thence derived.” *
Geological ' Sect. V. T/ieory of Whitehurjl.
EJfay's.
186 The firft perfon who founded a theory of the earth
Theory of on accurate and induftrious obfervation was the late
Whitchurft. Mr John Whitehurft, who, in an inquiry into the origi¬
nal ftate and formation of the earth, has advanced opi¬
nions which differ conliderably from thofe of preceding
naturalifts, and in feme meafures referable thofe which
are at prefent in greateft repute.
Mr Whitehurit fets out with dating his opinion, that
the terraquous globe, which we now inhabit, was origi¬
nally in a fluid date, and this, not from any folvent
principle or fubfequent folution, but owing to the fird
affemblage of its component parts j whence he prefumes
that the earth had a beginning, and has not exided
from eternity. He reds his proof of this original fluid
date of the earth on its fpheroidal form, which a fluid
globe in its revolution would naturally acquire, but
which could not eaflly be produced in a folid body.
The fluidity of the earth and the infinite divifibility
of matter, an opinion which generally prevailed at that
time, prove, according to him, that the component parts
of the elements were uniformly blended together, none
being heavier or lighter than another j hence they com-
pofe a uniform mafs of equal confidence throughout,
from the furface to the centre, and confequently the
new formed globe was not adapted to the fupport of
animal or vegetable life. It would therefore be abfurd
to fuppofe, that organized bodies were created during
the chaotic date of the earth j and there is a great
prefumption that mankind were not created till the
earth was become fuitable to the nature of their ex-
idence.
The component parts of the chaos were heterogene¬
ous, and endowed with peculiar chemical affinities,
whereby fimilar fubdances were difpofed to unite and
form feleft bodies of various denominations, and thus
the chaos was progreflively formed into a habitable
world.
The fird operation of nature which prefents itfelf to
our confideration is the production of the fpheroidal
figure of the earth, acquired from its diurnal rotation,
and the laws of gravity, fluidity, and centrifugal force.
When this form wTas once completed, the component
parts began to aft on each other according to their af¬
finities : hence the particles of earth, air, and water,
united to thofe of their own kind, and with their union
commenced their fpecific gravities j and the uniform fuf-
penfion which had hitherto prevailed throughout the
whole of the chaotic mafs, was dedroyed.
On the component parts feparating into homogeneous
mafles, thofe of the greated denfity began to approach
towards the centre of gravity, and thofe of the greated
levity afeended towards the furface. As the fpecific
gravity of air is fo much lefs than that of water, it
is prefumed that the former efcaped from the general
mafs fooner than the latter, and formed an impure at-
mofphere furrounding the newly-formed globe. Water
being next in levity, fucceeded the air, and formed one
vad ocean about the earth. In procefs of time thefe
elements became perfeftly pure, and fit for the preferva-
tion of animal and vegetable life.
O G Y. 59s
When the component parts of the chaos had been Theories of
thus progreflively feparated, and collefted into didinft the Earth
mafles, the following confequences are fuppofed to have l" v
enfued. The folids could not uniformly fubfide from
every part of the furface, and be equally covered by
water j for, as the fun and moon were coeval with the
chaos, in proportion as the feparation of the folids and
fluids increafed, fo, by the aftion of thofe bodies on the
fea, the tides became greater, and removed the folids from
place to place, without any order or regularity. Hence
the fea became unequally deep; and thofe inequalities
daily increafing, dry land gradually appeared, and di¬
vided the waters which had hitherto been univerfally
diffufed over the earth. The primitive iilands being
thus formed, gradually became firm and dry, and fit for
the reception of animals and vegetables,
The atmofphere, the fea, and the land, being thus
formed, Mr Whitehurft proceeds to confider the order in
which animal and vegetable bodies were feverally
created. He firft fuppofes that, as the ocean became
pure, and fit for animal life, before the formation of the
primitive iflands,r fifti were the firft animals produced,
and he fupports this opinion by many ingenious argu¬
ments and fafts. He obferves, that in every inftance
upon record, the fragments of fea-fhells are infinitely
more numerous than the bones and teeth of fiih. The
latter, too, are but rarely depolited in any other matter
than in beds of fand and gravel, and not in the folid
fubftance of limeftone, as the (hells of fifti generally are,
even'to the depth of many hundred yards, and difperfed
throughout the whole extent of the fecondary ftrata.
Hence it is probable, that fhell-fifh w7ere produced in
prodigious quantities, fooner than any other kind of
animal. The ocean being thus flocked with inhabi¬
tants, previous to the formation of the primitive iflands,
many of them became enveloped, and were buried in
the mud by the aftion of the tides 5 and this wTould
happen more, particularly to the fhell-filh, as they were
lefs able to extricate themfelves. Since the remains of
marine animals are thus imbedded at various depths in
the earth, there is fufficient proof that thefe marine
bodies were entombed at fucceflive periods of time,
and that they were likewife created before the primi¬
tive iflands, and confequently before any terreftrial
iflands.
That the earth has, at different times, fuffered very
violent convulfions, producing extenfive ruptures of its
folid parts, may reafonably be concluded from the
rugged and uncouth appearance of many of the moun¬
tainous parts of the world. We fee rocks in fome
places torn alunder, or appearing as if cut with a faw,
and we find, in various parts, fubftances both mineral
and organized, which are not generally met with, ex¬
cept in very diftant regions. Moft of the irregularities
of the earth’s furface are attributed by Mr Whitehurft
to the general deluge. This would, in fome inftances,
have the effeft of reducing large maffes of matter to a
fecond ftate of folution ; many eminences w’ould be le¬
velled, and fome of the valleys wmuld be filled up,
while fome parts which were before covered with w ater,
might receive fuch an acceflion of matter as to fill up
their cavities, and on the fubfiding of the v/aters become
a vaft level plain. On the other hand, thofe elevated
regions which wTere chiefly compofed of' the hardeft:
ftones, by having the lighter portions of earth wafhed
4 F 2 away
596 G E O JL
I'heories ofaway from their bails, would appear confiderably in-
the Earthy creafe(l in height. Mr Whitehurft attributes the pro-
^ dudlion of pit-coal alfo to the deluge, as it is difficult to
account for the depofition of fuch a quantity of vege¬
table matter (fuppofing pit-coal to be of vegetable
origin) below the furface of the earth, on any other
hypothefis. The animal matters found in a foffil ftate,
efpecially thofe remains of animals which are not now
found upon the earth, can only be accounted for, on the
fuppofition of a deluge.
Mr Whitehurft, however, is not content with attri¬
buting to the deluge molt of the changes which have
taken place on the furface of the earth, but he derives
from the fame fource the curtailed longevity of man,
and many of the evils incident to mankind. “ At that
dreadful era, fays he, and not before, the year became
divided into fummer and winter, fpring and autumn,
and the fpontaneous products of the earth no longer
fufficed the calls of human nature without art and la¬
bour *, wherefore he who fowed would expeft to reap,
and he who built an hut for his protection, would na¬
turally expeft to enjoy the fruits of his owm labour j
neceffity, therefore, was the parent of property, and
property created a thoufand imaginary wants, which its
poffeffors endeavoured to gratify, and their example ex¬
cited limilar ideas in thofe wdio had it not, but never-
thelefs Itudioufly endeavoured to gratify their artificial
wants by unjuftifiable means. Hence the neceffity of
laws, dominion, and fubordination, which had no exilf-
ence in the antediluvian world.”
“ To that great revolution in the natural world, wre may
therefore aferibe many of the evils incident to mankind;
for experience Ihews, that men wffio are born in rude and
favage climates are naturally of a ferocious difpofition j
and that a fertile foil, which leaves nothing to wifh
for, foftens their manners, and inclines them to hu¬
manity.”
The above is a general outline of Mr Whitehurll’s
theory, fome parts of wffiich are very ingenious, and are
corroborated by obfervation, while others are not a
little fanciful and improbable. In his luppofition that
the earth was originally in a fluid ftate, he agrees with
mort other theorifts, as this is a circumftance which ad¬
mits of little doubt j though, as Kiwan has (hewn, it is
not neceffary to fuppofe that the whole mafs of the
earth was fluid, but only thofe parts of it which are
near the furface. In his play of affinities, and confe-
quent feparation of the materials of the earth into ho-
g‘rV)an*t mogeneous maffes, Whitehurft has been followed by Dr
Geological ’ ^*rwan> w^° ^as framed a beautiful and ingenious fpe-
Effays, culation on the fucceffive changes that took place from
2£iTay i. the aClion of the materials on each other f:.
*87 Mr Whitehurft has been betrayed by his fondnefs for
a favourite theory, into feveral errors refpeCling the
ftratification of the earth, which require to be men¬
tioned. Thus, though the arrangement of the ftrata,
efpecially where it has not been difturbed by fome
evident and violent caufe, is extremely uniform} he has,
however, (extended this regularity farther than it really-
obtains. He tells us that the ftrata invariably follow
each other, q,s if it were in an alphabetical order, or a
Teries of numbers, whatever be their denomination.
Not that they are alike in all the different regions of
the earth, either in quality or in thicknefs, but that
theix order in each particular part, however they may
O G Y. Chap. III.
differ in quality ; yet they follow each other in regular Theories of
fucceffion, both as to thicknefs and quality, infomuch, t^ie -^art^*t
that by knowing the incumbent ftratum, together with y ’
with the arrangement thereof in any particular part of
the earth, we may come to a perfeft knowledge of all
the inferior beds, fo far as they have been previoufly
difeovered in the adjacent country. With refpedt to
the ftrata that accompany coal, fome inftances are ap¬
parently, but not really, contradi&ory to this rule.
We now know, however, that Mr Whitehurft’s ob-
fervations do not univerfally apply. In the old mines
in the valley of Planen, in Saxony, the ftrata, though v
they are near each other, vary confiderably in thicknefs,
from that of a few inches to feveral feet, and the ftratum
of coal, in particular, varies from twro to thirty-two feet.
Again, in Mount Salive, the ftrata of coal, though in a
calcareous mountain, vary confiderably j and Mr White¬
hurft himfelf informs us, that at Benfal moor, thofe
ftrata wdiich are in other places the lowreft, are found at
the furface. Even in Derbyfiiire, to which Mr White¬
hurft’s obfervations chiefly apply, we ate informed that
even when the arrangement is the fame, the thicknefs
of the ftrata varies confiderably.
Sect. VI. Theory of Dr Hutton.
xSS
The next theory which we have to confider, is that Theory of
propofed by Dr James Hutton, wffiich has become fo Hutton,
much the objetft of inquiry and debate, as to give name
to one of the two principal fedls into which geologifts
are now divided.
The leading principles of the Huttonian theory, as
concifely laid down by one of its greateft admirers and
fupporters, are the following.
1. The firft circumftance which Dr Hutton has
confidered as a general fa£t is, that by far the greater
part of the bodies wffiich compofe the exterior cruft of
our globe, bear the marks of being formed of the mate¬
rials of mineral and organized bodies, of more ancient
date. The fpoils or the wreck of an older world are,
he thinks, everywhere vifible in the prefent, and though
not found in every piece of rock, they are diffufed fo
generally as to leave no doubt that the ftrata which
now compofe our continents are all formed out of ftrata
more ancient than themfelves.
2. The prefent rocks, with the exception of fuch as
are not ftratified, having all exifted in. the form of
loofe materials collected at the bottom of the fea, muft
have been confolidated and converted into ftone by
virtue of fome very powerful and general agent. The
confolidating caufe which he points out is fubterrane-
ous heat, and the objections to this hypothefis have
been attempted to be removed, by the introduction of
a principle new and peculiar to himfelf. This prin¬
ciple is the compreffion which muft have prevailed in
that region wffiere the confolidation of mineral lub-
ftances was accomplithed. Under the wreight of a fu-
perincumbent ocean, heat, however intenfe, might be
unable to volatilize any part of thofe fubftances which,
at the furface, and under the lighter preffure of our
atmofphere, it can entirely confume. I he fame pref¬
fure, by forcing thofe fubftances to remain united,
which at the furface are eafily feparated, might occa-
fion the fufion of fome bodies which in our fires are
only calcined.
3. The
Chap. Ill, GEOLOGY. 597
Theories of 3. The third general circumftance which this theory
the Earth. js founded on is, that the ^ratified rocks, inftead of being
either horizontal or nearly fo, as they no doubt were
originally, are now found poflefling all degrees of ele¬
vation, and fome of ,them were perpendicular to the
horizon; to which we muft add, that thofe drata
which were once at the bottom of the fea are now
yaifed up, many of them feveral thoufand feet above
its furface. From this, as well as from the inflexions,
the breaking and feparation of the ftrata, it is inferred,
that they have been raifed by the a£tion of fome ex-
panlive force placed under them. This force, which
has burfl; in pieces the folid pavement on which the
ocean refts, and has raifed up rocks from the bottom of
the fea into mountains 15,000 feet above its furface,
exceeds any which we fee actually exerted, but feems
to come nearer to the caufe of the volcano or the earth¬
quake than to any other, of which the effects are di-
reftly obferved. The immenfe diiturbance, therefore,
of the ftrata, is in this theory aferibed to heat acting
with an expanfive power, and elevating thefe rocks
which it had before confolidated.
4. Among the marks of difturbance in which the
mineral kingdom abounds, thofe great breaches among
rocks, which are filled wfith materials different from the
rock on either fide, are among the moft confpicuous.
Thefe are the veins, and comprehend not only the me¬
tallic veins, but alfo thofe of whinftone, of porphyry,
and of granite, all of them fubftances more or lefs cryf-
tallized, and none of them containing the remains of
organized bodies. Thefe are of poilerior formation to
the ftrata which they interfedft, and in general alfo
they carry with them the marks of the violence with
which they have come into their place, and of the
difturbances which they have produced on the rocks
already formed. The materials of all thefe veins, Dr
Hutton concludes to have been melted by fubterrane-
ous heat, and, while in fufion, injected among the fif-
fures and openings of rocks already formed, but thus
difturbed, and moved from their original place.
This conclufion he extends to all the maffes of whin¬
ftone, porphyry, and granite, which are interfperfed
among the ftrata, or raifed up in pyramids, as they
often appear to be, through the midft of them. Thus,
in the fufion and injedlion of the unftratified rocks,
we have the third and laft great operation which fub-
terraneous heat has performed on mineral fubftances.
5. From this Dr Hutton proceeds to confider the
changes to which mineral bodies are fubjefl when raifed
into the atmofphere. Here he finds, without any ex¬
ception, that they are all going to decay •, that, from
the ftiore of the fea to the top of the mountain, from
the fofteft clay to the hardeft quartz, all are wafting
and undergoing a feparation of their parts. The bodies
thus refolved into their elements, whether chemical or
mechanical, are carried dowm by the rivers to the fea,
and are there depofited. Nothing is exempted from
this general law; among the higheft mountains and the
' hardeft rocks, its effefts are moft clearly difeerned j
TbU ^/ranf.2^^ on t^e objects rvhich appear the moft durable
vol. v. P. in.and fi-xed> that the chara&ers of revolution are moft
p. 52. deeply imprinted *.
It is not furprifing that this theory fhould have met
with many advocates among the more fuperficial obfer-
vers of nature. The production of a man in whom ge-
*
nius, obfervation and induftry were united, and who Theories 01
palled a confiderable part of a long life in chemical and tae ^rtrth:
geological refearches, was calculated to dazzle the ima¬
gination by the grandeur of its defign, and to captivate
the judgement by its appearance of regularity and con¬
fidence. It has been confidered as a peculiar excel¬
lence of this theory, that it aferibes to the phenomena
of geology an order fimilar to that which exifts in the
provinces of nature with which we are beft acquainted ;
that it produces feas and continents, not by accident,
but by the operation of regular and uniform cauies }
that it makes the decay of one part fubfervient to the .. ,
reftoration of another, and that it gives ftability to the iuuftratilns}
whole, not by perpetuating individuals, but by repro-p 12p.
ducing them in fucceflion *. 1&9
An hypothefis with fuch pretenfions could not fail of (-)kjec^n®
being minutely examined and feverely criticifed by the ^ ^ "
more enlightened part of geologifts, and accordingly 01.y
very ferious objections have been made to it by Kirwan
and others. We lhall ftate a few of what appear to us
to be the moft convincing arguments againft Dr Hut¬
ton’s theory, referring thofe who wilh to fee a more de¬
tailed refutation of it to the geological writings of Kir-
wan, and A Comparative View of the Huttonian and
Neptunian Theories. 193
Some of the ftrongeft arguments againft this theory From the
are drawn from the nature of caloric, and what wen^.urea^!
know of its aClion on other bodies. We know that^/^0
caloric is of fo diffufible a nature, that it is always com¬
municated, from that body or fet of bodies, in which it
is moft abundant, to that in which it is lefs fo, till an
equilibrium of temperature is produced. But Dr Hut¬
ton’s theory fuppofes a fubterraneous heat as conftantly
exifting, capable of fufing the moft obdurate rocks, and
of railing them by its expanfibility from the bottom of
the ocean, and yet incapable of extending its influence
through the fuperincumbent ftrata at all times, fo as to
fufe or evaporate fuperior bodies, and gradually expand
itfelf, fo as to acquire that equilibrium which is one of
its natural effeCts. Again, fuppofing fuch a fubterrane¬
ous heat to exift, it is furely extraordinary, that fub¬
ftances which we are incapable of fufing by the ftrong-
eft heat that we can excite, even in the greateft ftate of
divifion, Ihould, by this fubterraneous heat be fo com-
^pletely fufed, and in fuch vaft maffes, as to have af-
fumed the appearance under which they now prefent
themfelves. If the folar rays, in the utmoft: ftate of
concentration, if a united ftream of inflamed hydrogen¬
ous and oxygenous gaffes from the tube of a blow-pipe
or gazometer, cannot melt the fmalleft vifible portion of
calcareous fpar or rock cryftal, how can we conceive
that the immenfe mountains of limeftone and of quartz
which are met with in fo many places could have been
fufed into a ftate of perfect fluidity ? Or even if they
could be fufed, how is it poffible that the carbonic acid
of the limeftone fliould not have been diflipated by fo
ftrong a heat ? If we fuppofe with Dr Hutton, that
this fubterraneous heat afts with the afliftance of im-
menfe preffure from the fuperincumbent ftrata and wa¬
ters of the ocean, hence preventing the diflipation of
volatile matters, flill it ftiould aft uniformly, and Ihould
fufe all thofe bodies which come in its way, that are
capable of fufion. Now, we know that feldfpar, fchorl,
mica, and chlorite, are much more fufible than quartz,
and of courfe, when a mafs compounded of tbefe comes
under
*f> -
93
G E O L
theories of under die influence of djis heat, all thefe more fuhble
the Earth, fubftances Ihould be melted as well as the quartz. But
in fome flones in tvhich moft of thefe ingredients meet,
as in the granite of Portfoy, there is every reafon to
fuppofe that fome of them have been in a fluid flate,
while the others were folid or lei's fluid, as cryftals of
the latter are imprelfed on a bed of the former, viz. in
the inftance cited, cryitals of feldfpar in a mafs of
quartz. As it is certain, according to the advocates of
the Huttonian theory, that at leafl: the quartz was
fluid when it was moulded on the feldfpar, how happen¬
ed it that this comparatively fufible flone was not alfo
melted, and blended in one compadl mafs ivith the
quartz ? We alfo frequently find cryftals of quartz pe¬
netrated by fchorl and chlorite, which is a proof that
the latter muft have been hard while the former was
in a fluid ftate. Hence it is evident that thefe appear¬
ances could not have been the effeft of fufion by heat.
Again, we find feams of coal penetrated by thin lami¬
nae and cryftals of quartz, an effedl which, according to
this theory, muft have taken place while the quartz
was in a ftate of fufion. But, in this cafe, the ftrata of
(hale above and below the coal fhould alfo have been
fufed (fhale being much more fufible than quartz, and
thus the wdiole ihould have acquired a flaty texture j
and befides in this intenfe heat, the coal ihould have
been entirely charred and loft all its vegetable impref-
fions.
The very exiftence of fuch a fubterraneous heat, that
conftantly maintains itfelf without fuel, ready to aft on
any emergency, when a quantity of the old world has
been abraded and tranilated, fuffi'cient to furniih the
materials of a new one, is avowedly hypothetical, as we
have no proof that it exifts. Nay, we have direft proof,
as far as rational induftion can carry us, to the con¬
trary. It was long ago obferved, by Irving and For-
fter, that the heat of the fea diminifiies in proportion to
the depth to which we proceed in examining it, and
the fame has been more lately proved by Peron, by
* Jaum. de various trials in many different latitudes *. Now the
Phtf. tom. Contrary of this ought certainly to happen, (unlefs this
fubterraneous heat is entirely unlike common heat) if
there conftantly exifted in the bowels of the earth a
heat capable of fufing quartz and limeftone.
The ftrufture of whin dykes, detailed in Seftion II. of
laft Chapter, affords additional arguments in oppofition
to the Huttonian theory.
The evidence which Dr Hutton has adduced to
prove the fubterraneous eruption of dykes, is drawn
from the apparent derangement of the horizontal ftrata
at a place where they are interfefted by a dyke, and the
peculiar appearance of the coal in their immediate vici¬
nity, wThich he fuppofes to be in a ftate of calcination,
from having been in ccntaft with the ejefted matter
of the dyke in fufion. Let us firft attend to the effeft
of this eruption of a dyke, the apparent derangement
of the ftrata 5 and let us confider for a moment, what
muft be the mechanical operation of a mafs of this li¬
quid matter burfting upwards through the coal ftrata.
Suppofe a coal field of a mile fquare in extent j fuppofe
that the coal and concomitant ftrata are perfeftly re¬
gular, having a moderate dip or inclination to the
fouth * and fuppofe that this coal field is to be inter¬
fefted by a dyke, ejefted in a ftate of fufion from the
Rowels of the earth. Conlidering the nature of the ftrata
l
lx. p. 81.
191
From the
ftrufture
of whin
dykes.
O G Y. Chap. III.
which ufually accompany coal, fuch as fandftone, lime-t heories of
ftone, ironftone, &c. which are very hard and compaft, the E^rth.^
we muft allow, that the refinance from fuch lubftances v
would be very great. In this previous ftate of circum-
ftances, then, what would be the efleft of the eruption
of a dyke in the middle of the field, in a direftion from
north to fouth ? Can it even be imagined, that this
liquid mafs in its progrefs upwards through the fuper-
incurnbent ftrata to the furface of the earth, would
merely deltroy the continuity of thefe ftrata, and not in
its irreliftible courfe, carry along with it part of all the
fubftances compoling that ftrata through which it pnffed ?
But farther, one of the moft obvious confequenees of
fuch an eruption, would be the elevation of part of the
whole range of the ftrata on both tides of the dyke, and
the extent of this elevation will be in proportion to the
power or thicknefs of the dyke} and, not only is it na¬
tural to expeft this elevation of the ftrata to a certain
extent, but from the operation of an agent fo tremen¬
dous and irrefiftible, that the whole ftrata flrould be
broken, disjointed and confuted. But does this ftatp-
ment correlpond wuth the phenomena ? From the hi-
ftory of dykes traverfing coal ftrata, we know that it
does not. On the contrary, the whole of the ftrata, in
moft cafes, preferve the fame thicknefs, the fame paral-
leiil'm, and the fame inclination to the horizon on both
fides of the dyke. It is true, the half mile of coal field,
i&terfe&ed by a dyke, as we have fuppofed above, will
on one fide of it be elevated or depreffed. If the dyke,
which runs north and fouth in its courfe upwards, in¬
clines to the weft, the weftern divifion will be elevated.
But this is not a partial elevation only in the immedi¬
ate vicinity of the dyke. It extends over the whole
field on the weft fide of the dyke, and the ftrata con¬
tinue fair and regular, in all refpefts correfponding to
thofe from which they have been detached, till they are
interfefted by another dyke.
From this reafoning, we think the conclufion fair
and obvious, that dykes interfefting coal ftrata have not
been formed by fubterraneous eruption, and therefore,
that the elevation or depreflion of the ftrata is not ow¬
ing to this caufe. Dr Hutton’s theory, in this refpeft,
is oppofed by the fafts which it profeffes to explain, and
confequently it is untenable.
Let us now confider the argument drawn from the
fuppofed calcination of the coal which has been in con-
taft with the matter of the dyke in a ftate of fufion.
Here Dr Hutton feems to have overleaped the bounds
of his own theory, and loft fight of his own principles,
which fuppofe, that all the ftrata and ftony matters of
which the globe is compofed, have been confolidated
by means of heat; that the exhibition of the common or
ordinary phenomena of heat is not to be looked for in the
grand proceffes of nature ; becaufe thefe operations have
taken place at great depths in the bowels of the earth,
or under immenfe preffure at the bottom of the fea j
and this is the reafon that coal, and lime ftrata, for in¬
ftance, which have been fubjefted to this intenfe degree
of heat difcover no marks of calcination, the one being
deprived of its carbonic acid, and the other of its bitu¬
men. Now, granting this hypothetical argument to be
well founded, what is the reafon that the coal, which is in
contact with a dyke, has undergone the proceffes of cal¬
cination, when this coal is at as great a depth in the
bowels of the earth, under as immenfe preffure, and as
much
metallic
veins,
Chap. m. G E G L
Theories of much excluded from atmofpKeric air, as any coal at its
the .Larth. original formation. But all the coal in contact with a
* ” dyke, is not- in this flate. Clean coal is fometimes
found in immediate contact; and, in many places, clean
coal is alio found intercepted between regular ranges of
bafaltic columns, and this coal difcovers not the fmalleft
mark of calcination. On the other hand, coal in this .
fuppofed Hate of calcination, has been frequently dif-
covered, at a great diilance from any dyke or bafaltic
fubftance whatever. Maffes of this foul coal often oc¬
cur, to the regret and difappointment of the miner, in the
midfl of itrata otherwife perfedlly clean and regular.
This laft fa£t Ihews us, that we mult look for the caufe
of this fmgular phenomenon elfewhere than in the cir-
cumitance of the coal having been in contaft with a
dyke while in fulion ; for it appears that the eftedi does
not always follow in the fame circuraltances, and that
the fame effect is produced in very different circum-
ftances.
Thefe obfervations are probably fofficient to Ihew
that the above argument in proof of the fabterraneous
eruption of dykes, is equally unfatisfadtory in explain¬
ing the phenomena, and confequently equally untenable
with the former. Both, therefore, muff fall to the
192 ground.
From the The wedge-like form of dykes might be adduced as
metallic6 ^ anot^er argument againft their formation by fubterrane-
ous eruption ; for it is not eafy to conceive that a dyke
in a ftate of fulion Ihould, in its erupiive progrefs to¬
wards the furface of the earth, enlarge and become
thicker.
The hiftory of metallic veins furnilhes us with ftronger
objedlions againft Dr Hutton’s theory. If, according
to this theory, metallic veins have been formed by the
fubftances they contain being ignited in a Hate of fulion
from the bowels of the earth, it will naturally follow,
that the veins thus formed might be traced to the
greateft depths, and even to the lubterraneous furnace
from which they iffued. But we know that the fadt is
quite otherwife. The termination of many veins down¬
wards has been difcovered. Even the moft powerful and
produdlive have been unexpedfedly cut off by the hori¬
zontal 11 rata, and no vellige of them could ever be
traced. This was the cafe with the rich vein of lead
ore at Slangunog in Wales. It is the, cafe alfo with
many veins in their courfe downwards, to diminilh gra¬
dually in form of a wedge, and then they are loft for
ever. Now, this certainly could never have happened,
had they been formed by fubterraneous eruption. Some
trace of their progrefs, fome mark of their courfe
through the interfered Itrata, would Hill have remained.
But no foch indications, no fuch traces, are found. We
mult therefore conclude, that metallic veins have not
been formed in this way, and that this theory, which ap¬
pears to be fo much at variance with fadts, will not ac¬
count in a fatisfadtory manner for their formation.
The maifes of Hone of the fame fpecies with the
neighbouring fuperior Hrata, fometimes rounded and
worn by the action of water, which are found at great
depths in mineral veins, and organized fubHances, petri-
fadtions of vegetables and animals, prefent us with ano¬
ther objection to this theory, equally flrong and infur-
mountabie. Thefe fubHances are the productions of
the furface or the earth j and even fuppoflng them to
have exifled in the bowels of the earth, it is incon-
G g Y. 59-9
ceiveable that they Ihould have retained their primitive Theories of
form after they were fubjedted to fo high a temperature the Earth.
as is neceffary to hold metals in a Hate of fulion. '
Sect. VII. Theory of Werner,
The lateft, and perhaps mofl celebrated, theory that Theory of
has yet appeared, is that of Profeffor Werner of Frey- Werner,
berg, with an account of which, and fome obferva¬
tions on Mr Kirwan’s opinions, we fliall clofe this chap¬
ter.
We have faid already, (N0 1.) that the fubjedl of
which we are now treating is called by Werner geogno-
fy, and his pupils are commonly called geognojls.
Werner is of opinion, that our knowledge is already
fufficiently advanced to form a rational theory refpedt-
ing the formation of the exterior crujl of our globe j
for he does not deny that we cannot reafon with refpedf
to what is below this, iince we have no fadt which can
give us the leait notion with refpedt to it. We are on¬
ly certain that fome part of our globe has been in a
fluid Hate, as is proved by its fpheroidal form. The
cryitalline form of granite and other rocky fubflances
which conflitute the bafe of that part of the earth with
which we are acquainted, are, according to Werner,
fufficient proofs that this part at leafl has been in a flate
of minute diffolution. Again, the flratified appearance
of mofl mountains and rocks fhew that they are an ac¬
cumulation of precipitates or fediments which have been
depofited one over another. The numerous remains of
marine animals which are found imbedded in many
rocks, and of which fome fpecies are Hill found in our
feas, allow us to believe that this folution was aqueous j
that it was a vaft ocean which has covered our globe
to a very confiderable height. The exterior part of the
globe, then, has been entirely diffolved by the waters
which Jurrounded it, and from this folution certain che¬
mical precipitations took place, which have formed the
crujl that we now fee.
In framing his theory, Werner profeffes to banilh
every thing that is hypothetical, and only to draw from
general fadts fuch immediate confequences as he be¬
lieves it impoffible not to deduce from them, and on
thefe alone he founds his geognofy. The objedt of
this theory, according to one of his difciples (the tran-
flator of his book on metallic veins), is to acquire a
knowledge of the ftrudture of the folid cruft of the
terraqueous globe, and the relative difpofttion of the
materials which compofe it; the means of doing this are
to be derived from obfervation. Werner fets out with
Hating, that the chemical precipitates that took place
from the chaotic fluid, did not form a regular furface,
but that they colledted here and there fo as to produce
the primitive mountains. Thefe mountains he calls cha¬
otic, becaufe, fays he, they have been formed during the
period when the furface of the earth was a fort of chaos.
After the retreat of the waters, thefe elevated parts
were firft difcovered. They were expofed to the de-
flrudllve adlion of the elements, and the fhock of tides
and torrents. The valleys were hollowed out, and the
mountains acquired nearly the form in which we now-
fee them.
Obfervation has (hewn that the ftrata of which the
earth is compofed, may be divided into a certain num¬
ber of congeries, each of which is compofed of 3 cer¬
tain
6oo ^ E O L
Theories oftain (et of minerals tliat are nearly the fame m what-
the Earth. ever part 0f the world the congeries is found. I o thele
  congeries Werner has given the name of formations,
of which he diilinguilhes fix kinds or claifes, tour uni-
■verfal, being found all over the glone, and two partial,
found only in particular didrifls. Ihefe formations he
has arranged according to the order in which he Con¬
ceives them to have been produced, beginning with
that formation which lies next the folid nucleus of the
earth, and which may therefore be conceived to be the
oldelt, and ending with the moft fuperficial, which is
conlidered as the neweft formation.
The firfl of thefe claffes is called by Werner that
of primitive formations, which confift of a number
of formations lying above each other, being thofe
. which are fuppofed the oldelt, as in thefe no organic
remains have been difeovered. The fubitances confti-
tuting this clafs are granite, gneifs, micaceous fchijius,
argillaceous fchijius, primitive limejlone, primitive^ trap,
fenite, and porphyry. Of thefe the granite is the
lowed, and therefore is confidered as the oldelt j and
next this follow the others in the order in which we
have enumerated them, except that the primitive lime-
done, and primitive trap, are found in an uncertain or¬
der, alternating with gneifs, argillaceous fchiltus, or
micaceous fchidus •, and are therefore confidered as fub-
ordinate to thefe formations.
When the waters had fubfided, and the lummits of
the primitive mountains had been uncovered, organiz¬
ed bodies were produced j and part of thefe being in¬
tercepted among the chemical precipitations which were
dill going on, and the mechanical precipitations which
now began to take place, were carried with thefe to
the flanks of the primitive mountains, and the valleys
between them. Hence were produced a fecond feries
of formations, which are called by Werner tranftion
formations, or roch of tranftion, as he conlidered them
to be depofited during the period when the earth was
pafling from an uninhabited to an inhabited date. A-
mong thefe formations, however, the organic remains
are but few. The fubdances compofing this clafs, are
tranjition limefione, gray wacks, gray wade fate, tran¬
ftion trap, fliceous fchifus. Of thefe the two lad are
fubordinate, alternating with gray wacke and gray
wacke date.
The third formation is what Wemer calls foet% for¬
mation, or that, in which the beds or drata lie nearly
horizontal, appearing as if they had been depolited
from water. This formation comprehends mod of what
are ufually called fecondary drata. It is divided by
Werner into three fubformations, named from the va¬
riety or fituation of the fanddone, which forms a prin¬
cipal part of each 5 as i. Old red fanddone formation,
compofed of fioet% limefone, old red fandfone, and fo¬
liated gijpfum. 2. Second fanddone formation, compo¬
fed of fandfone, fioetK limefone, and fibrous gypfum.
o G Y . Chap. Ill,
3. Third fanddone formation, compofed of fandfone, Turones of
limefone, and chalk, &c. Of thefe, as before, the firft lhe ^afth-,
mentioned is the oldefl, and in this, fomewhere near
the gypfum, there is ufually found fait or fulphur. In
this formation, organic remains are fird feen in any
great quantities.
The fourth formation is called independent coal for¬
mation, becaufe in this coal is fird found, and becaufe
it is not univerfally fpread over the earth as the three
preceding, but is collected in infulated maffes, indepen¬
dent of each other. This is alfo divided into three, each
fucceflively more recent than the preceding. I he fird
feries of drata confid of fate clay, limejlone, marl, foft
fandfone, greenfone, argillaceous ironfone, fhale, and
coal; the fecond of indurated clay, marl, limefone, por-
phyritic fione, and coal; and the third of loofe fand¬
fone, conglomerate, (a variety oi fanditone), fate clay,
and coal.
The fifth is called floet-z trap formation, fo called be¬
caufe the beds of which it is compofed, confift of ma¬
terials that are moftly of the nature of trap, or whin-
ftone. The fubftances that compofe this formation are
gravel, fandfone, filiceous fandfone, clay, wacke, ba-
falt, greenfone, fchifofe porphyry, pitchfone, and gray-
flone. Coal is alfo found in this formation, fomewhere
among the beds of fliceous fandjlone, clay, wacke, and
bafalt, to which it is therefore confidered as fubordi¬
nate (f)
The fixth and laft formation is the alluvial forma¬
tion, or that which has arifen from the aflion of lakes
and rivers, waffling down part of the older ftrata.
This is divided into two feries of ftrata j the firft being
tbofe that have arifen from the a&ion of lakes newly
drained, comprehending marl, fand, clay, and coal;
and the fecond, thofe which have been produced from
the a&ion of rivers, comprehending mud, ironfone,
fand, peat, &.c. This formation is the moft recent of
any, but, like the fourth, it is only partial.
The above is an outline of Werner’s geognofy, which
is confidered as an improvement of what is called the
Neptunian theory, or that which explains geological ap¬
pearances by the adlion of water, in oppofition to what
is called the volcanic theory, or that which attributes
thefe appearances to an igneous origin. 194
One of the principal obje&ions to the Neptunian Objedtions
theory is drawn from the infolubility in water of many10
of the fubftances which compofe our globe j but this
the Neptunians endeavour to explain, by fuppofing that
at the very commencement of their exiftence thefe fub¬
ftances were in that ftate of minute divifion which a-
queous folutions require, but which no known exifiing
quantity would be able to effedf, after the fubftances
had acquired their utmoft confolidation, as it is well
known, that a folid fubftance may be kept in folution,
at lead for a fhort time, in a lefs quantity of fluid than
was originally requilite to diffolve it.
(f) We may here notice Werner’s opinion with refpeT to the formation and fituation of bafalt \ as this is the
only theory of importance refpefting it, that has not been mentioned under the article BasaltES. “ I am per-
feftly convinced (fays Werner in a late memoir) that all the varieties of bafalt have been produced in the humid
way, and that they are of a very recent formation j that they formerly compofed a great bed of immenfe extent,
covering both the primitive and fecondary ftrata j that time has anew deftroyed a confiderable part, and has left
snly the bafaltic eminences, which we now fee.” Vid» Jamefohs Mineralogy of Dumfries, p. 184.
3
Chap.
III. G E O L
Theories of A iccond objection h derived from the difficulty oi
the Earth, fuppofing that thefe fubftances could have been confoli-
' dated below water, or that the water could completely
(hut up the pores of a body, to the entire exclufion of it-
felf 5 fo that had the mineral fubflancfeS been confolidated
as here fuppofed,the folvent ought either to remain within
them in a liquid date, or, if evaporated, Ihould have lelt
the pores empty, and the body pervious to water.
Mr Playfair argues ilrenuoully againft the notion of
thefe fubtiances being precipitated from the chaotic
fluid, which has been fo ingeniouily fupported by Kir-
wan, who aferibes the folution of all fubftances in the
chaotic fluid to their being finely pulverifed, or created
in a ftate of the moft minute divifion ; and the lolvent
being then infufficient in quantity, he luppoies that, on
that account, the precipitation took place the more ra¬
pidly.
“ If, fays Mr Playfair, he means by this to fay, that
a precipitation without folution would take place the
fooner, the more inadequate the menflruum was to dif-
folve the whole, the propofition may be true, but will
be of no ufe to explain the cryliallizatien of minerals,
the very objeft he has in view •, becaufe to cryftalhza-
tion it is not a bare fubfidence of particles fufpended in a
fluid, but it is a paffage from chemical folution to non-
folution, or infolubility, that is required.
“ If on the other hand he meafis to fay, that the fo¬
lution a&ualJy took place more quickly, and was mere
immediately followed by precipitation, becaufe the
quantity of the menftruum was infufficient, this is to
aflert that the wreaker the caufe, the more inftantaneous
* Playfair s will be its effeft.*’ *
JUuf rations, Werner’s theory of dykes and veins requires a more
particular confideration.
This theory fuppofes, that the ipaces which are now
occupied by vertical ftrata, or dykes, including alfo me¬
tallic veins, were originally fiffures, formed by the ope¬
ration of different cauies.
1. The unequal height and denfity of mountains,
are confidered as the moft; general caufes of fiffures.
When the mountains were in a foft and humid Hate,
that fide which was leaf! fupported not only feparated
by its own weight, but the whole ftrata of the fide
gave way, and funk below their former plain. This
alfo feems to be the opinion of Sauffure, with regard to
the formation of fiffures. It is not to be expelled,
that events of this kind ihould be of frequent occur¬
rence, now that mountains have acquired fufficient
firmnefs and liability to refill the force of gravity, ope¬
rating in confequence of the inequality oi weight and
diverlity of the materials of which they are compofed.
Inllances, however, of the operation of fuch caufes are
not altogether wanting, even in modern times. After
a feafon of exceffive rains, in the year 1767, fimilar
fiffures were formed in mountains in Bohemia and Lu-
fatia.
2. Wben the water's covered the furface of the
earth, the unequal weight of the mountains was fup¬
ported by their preffure 5 but when the waters retreat¬
ed, this prefture was removed, the equilibrium was de-
llroyed, the unfupported fide of the mountain fepara¬
ted and funk •, and in this manner a fiffure was
formed.
3. The evaporation of the moifture, after the re¬
treat of the waters, and the confequent diminution of
Vol. IX. Part II,
O G Y.
60 T
161.
195
Werner’s
theory of
dykes and
veins.
bulk by contra£lion of the fubltances which enter into Theories of
the compofition of mountains, are aifo confidered as t'IC }'ai
the caufes of filfures.
4. Fiffures, too, derive their origin from other lo¬
cal and accidental cauies, and efpecially from earth¬
quakes. In the year 1783, when Calabria was afflift-
ed with this molt dreadful of all calamities which vilit
the earth, mountains were feparated, exhibiting fiffures
fimilar to thofe which are now occupied by vertical
llrata.
The fecond part of the theory is employed in prov¬
ing that the empty fpaces, occafioned by the operation
of one or other of the caufes which have been enume¬
rated, were filled from above •, that the different fub¬
ftances, of which the vertical llrata are compofed,
were held in folution by the waters which covered the
earth ; and that they were precipitated, by different
chemical agents, according to the order of chemical at-
finity, and depofited in the places wffiich they now oc¬
cupy. In fupport of the opinion, that thefe fiffures were
filled from above, Werner adduces fa£ls of angular and
rounded fragments of Hones of various fpecies, and orga¬
nized bodies, as marine Ihells and vegetables, having
been found in vertical llrata, at the immenfe depth of
150 and 200 fathoms. It may be doubted, on good
grounds, v/hether this theory, fupported by all the in¬
genuity and experience of its author, will account, in a
laiisfactory manner, for that regularity of pofition and
arrangement which are difeovered in the vertical llra¬
ta 3 for, notwithllanding the feeming diforder which a
luperficial vein may exhibit, they are not lefs regulat
and uniform than the horizontal llrata. And when our
refearches are extended beyond the narrow bounds
within which they are at prefent limited, when we arc-
better acquainted with their relative pofitions and con
nexions, this uniformity and regularity will become
more confpkuous. It may be doubted whether the
fortuitous operation of fuch caufes as have been Hated,
be equal to the effe£l of the formation of the vertical
llrata, as they now appear.
But, fiippofing that fiffures were produced by fome
of the caufes which have been mentioned, few of thefe
caufes could operate till the retreat of the waters left
the mountains uncovered. It was only then, that the
mountains, by the inequality of height and denfity,
being left unfupported, feparated, and funk from their
former fituation 3 it was then only that the procefs of
evaporation could take place, fucceeded by diminu¬
tion of bulk and confequent contraction. In ffiort,
none of the caufes which have been Hated, could have
any effeCl before the waters had retreated, excepting
earthquakes 3 of the operation of which there is no
proof previous to that period. The materials which
compofe the vertical flrata, it is faid, were formed by
depofition from the waters which covered the moun¬
tains, holding them in folution. But before the fiffuref
could be formed to receive thefe materials by precipi¬
tation and depofition, the waters had retired. A fe¬
cond deluge mull therefore have happened, from the
waters of which the various fubfiances which enter in¬
to the compolition of vertical flrata have been depofited.
This the theory does not fuppofe to have taken place 3
and, without fuch a fuppolition, it feems to be attended
with confiderable difficulty. But another difficulty Hill
remains. It does not appear how the peculiarity of
4 G .HruCture,
602 ' J G E o r.
Theories of ftrufture, whicli was mentioned m our account
the Earth dykes, Seft. II. of the lad chapter, can be accounted for
'-—v—' by the principleS 0f this theory. If it be granted, that the
horizontal ftrata were formed in the humid way, the
materials of which they are compofed mud have been
precipitated from the waters which held them in o u-
tion, by the laws of chemical affinity. But the verti¬
cal ftrata are fuppofed to have been formed in the fame
manner, and according to the fame procefs. Now,
this being the caih, What is the reafon that the verti¬
cal ftrata fliould exhibit a peculiarity of ftrufture and
arrangement, different from the horizontal ftrata ?
Some° of the whin dykes which have been already de-
fcribed, are very remarkable for this lingular ftrufture,
efpecially thofe which affume the form of prifmatic co¬
lumns. Thefe columns are in the horizontal pofiticn,
and, exceptingthe latter circuniftance, thefe dykes, m
every refpedl, refemble a bafaltic ftratum, in which tm
columns are perpendicular.
More arguments might be adduced in oppofition to
the theory of Werner j but we mull haften to conclude
this chapter, with mentioning a few of Dr Kirwan’s
jpfj peculiar opinions.
Kir wan’s Among thefe, the manner in which he accounts for
theory of the unequal declivities of the Odes of mountains, forms
the deciivi-one of the moft C0nfpiCU0Us obje&s *, and to this we
mountains. principally confine curfelves, and /hall give it in
his own words, as extrafled from his eflay on the decli¬
vities of mountains, to which we were obliged in the
firft fedlion of Chap. II.
“ To affign the caufes of this almoft univerfal allotment
of unequal declivities to oppofite points, and why the
created: are direfled to the w7eft and louth, and the
gentleft, on the contrary, to the eaft and north, it is
neceffary to confider,
“ i. That all mountains were formed while covered
with water.
“ 2. That the earth was univerfally covered with wa¬
ter at two different eras, that of the creation, and that
of the Noachian deluge.
“ 3. That in the firft era wemuft diftinguifti two dif¬
ferent periods, that which preceded the appearance of
dry land, and that which fucceeded the creation of fiffi,
but before the fea had been reduced nearly to its pre-
fent level. During the former, the primeval moun¬
tains were formed •, and during the latter, mold of the
fecondary mountains and ftrata were formed.
“ 4. That all mountains extend either from eaft to
weft, or from north to fouth, or in fome intermediate
direflion between thefe cardinal points, which need not
be particularly mentioned here, as the fame fpecies of
reafoning muft be applied to them, as to thofe to whofe
afpeft they approach moft.
“ Thefe preliminary circumftances being noticed, we
are next to obferve that, during the firft era, this vaft
mafs of water moved in two general dire&ions, at right
angles with each other, the one from eaft to weft,
which needs not be proved, being the courfe of tides
which ftill continue, but were in that ocean neceflarily
ftronger and higher than at prefent •, the other from
north to fouth, the water tending to thefe vaft abyffes
then formed in the vicinity of the fouth pole, as fhewn
in my former effays. Before either motion could be
propagated, a confiderable time muft have elapfed.
Now the primeval mountains formed at the com-
o G Y. Chap. in.
mcncement of the firft era, and before this double di-
redfion of the waters took place, muft have oppoied a
confiderable obftacle to the motion of that fluid in the
fenfe that croffed that of the direciion of thefe moun¬
tains. Thus the mountains that ftretch from north to
fouth muft have oppofed the motion of the waters from
eaft to weft •, this oppofition diminiihing the motion of
that fluid, difpofed it to fuffer the earthy particles with
which in thofe early periods it muft have been impreg¬
nated. to cryftallize or be depofited on thefe eaftern
flanks, and particularly on thofe of the higheft moun¬
tains, for over the lower it could ealily pafs •, thefe de-
pontions being inceffantly repeated at heights gradually
dimimfhmg as the level of the waters gradually lovver-
cd, muft have rendered the eaftern declivities or def-
cent, gentle, gradual, and moderate, while the weftem
fides receiving no fuch acceflions from depolitions, muft
have remained fteep and craggy.
“ Again, the primeval mountains that run from eaft
to weft, by oppofing a fimilar refiftance to the courfe or
the rvaters from north to foutn, muk have occafioned
fimilar depofitions on the northern fides of thefe moun¬
tains, asjainft which thefe waters impinged, ana thus
fmoothed them.
“ Where mountains interfeft each other in an oblique
direciion, the north-eaft fide of one range being conti¬
guous to the fouth-w eft flanks of another range, there
the influx of adventitious particles on the north-eaft fide
of the one, muft have frequently extended to the fouth-
weft fide of the other, particularly if that afflux were
ftrong and copious •, thus the Erzgebirge of Saxony,
which run from weft to eaft, have their north-eaft fides
contiguous to the fouth-weft fide of the Riefengebirge
that feparate Silefia from Bohemia, and hence thefe
latter are covered wdth the fame beds of gneiss, &c.
as the northern fides of the Saxon, and thereby are
rendered fmooth and gentle, comparatively to tne op¬
pofite fide, which, being ftieltered, remains fteep and
abrupt, wdiich explains the feventh obfervation.
“ The caufes here afligned explain why the covering
of adventitious ftrata on the higheft mountains is gene¬
rally thinneft at the greateft height, and thicKelt to¬
wards the foot of the mountain •, for the bulk of the water
that contained the adventitious particles being propor¬
tioned to its depth, and the mafs of earthy particles
with which it was charged being proportioned^ to the
bulk of the water that contained them, it is plain, that
as the height of w'ater gradually decreafed, the depofi¬
tions from it on the higher parts of the mountains muft
have been lefs copious than on the lower, where tney
muft have been often repeated.
“ Hence, 2. granite mountains, generally the moft
ancient, frequently have their northern or eaftern fides
covered wdth ftrata of gneifs or micaceous fchifius, and
this often with argillite or primeval fandftone, or fime-
ftone, thefe being either of foxnewhat later formation,
or longer fufpendible in water.
u Hence, 3. different fpecies of ftone are often found
at different heights of the fame flank of a mountain,
according as the water which conveyed thefe ipecies,
happened to be differently impregnated at different
heights. During the firft era its depofitions formed the
primitive ftony maffes} after which the creation of fiffi,
limeftotte, fandftone, (puddingstone) and fecondary argil¬
lites m which pifcine remains are found, were depofi-
Chap. IV. . GEO
Theories of ted. But during the fecond era, that of the Noachian
the Earth, deluge by reafon of the violence and irregularity of its
aggreflion, the depofitions were more mifcellaneous,
and are found at the greateft heights 5 yet in general
they may well be diflinguifhed by the remains of land
animals, or of vegetables, or of both, which they pre-
fent in their ftrata (or at leaft by the impreflions of ve¬
getables which they bear) as thefe muft have been con¬
veyed after the earth had been inhabited. But moun¬
tains regularly ftratified bearing fuch remains, for in-
ftance the carboniferous, cannot be deemed to have
been formed in a period fo tumultuous. During this
deluge the waters alfo held a dilferent courfe, proceed¬
ing at firft from fouth to north, and afterwards in both
oppolite directions, as {hewn in treating of that cata-
llrophe in my fecond eflay.
“ Hence, and from various contingent local caufes, as
partial inundations, earthquakes, volcanoes, the erolion
of rivers, the elapiion of itrata, dilintegration, the dif-
ruption of the lofty mounds by which many lakes were
anciently hemmed in, feveral changes were produced
in particular countries, that may at firft fight appear,
though in reality they are not, exceptions to the opera¬
tions of the general caufes already ftated.
“ Thus the mountains of Kamtfchatka had their eaftern
flanks torn and rendered abrupt by the irruption of the
general deluge, probably accompanied by earthquakes.
And thus the Meiflener had its eaft and north flanks
undermined by the river Warre, as Werner has {hewn ;
thus the eighth and fixteenth obfervations are accounted
ior, as is the thirteenth, by the vail inundations fo fre¬
quent in this country, (1. Pallas, p. 172 ), which un¬
dermined or corroded its eaft; fide, w’hile the weftern
were fmoothed by the calcareous depofitions from the
numerous rivers in its vicinity.
“ Hence, 4. we fee why on different fides of lofty
mountains different fpecies of ftones are found, as Pal¬
las and Sauffure have obferved, (2. Saujf. § 981.), acir-
cumftance which Sauffure imagined almoft inexplicable,
but which Dolomieu has fince happily explained, by
{hewing that the current which conveyed the calcare¬
ous fubftsnces to the northern, eaftern, and north-eaft-
ern fides of the Alps, for inftance, was flopped by the
height of thefe mountains, and thus prevented from
conveying them to the fouthern fides, and thus the
north-eaftern fides were rendered more gentle than the
oppofite, (3. New Roz. p. 423.), conformably to the
theory here given.
“ Hence, 5. where feveral lofty ridges run parallel to
each other, it muft frequently happen that the external
ftiould intercept the depofitions that do not furround
them, and thus leave the internal ridges fteep on both
fides.
“ Hence, 6. low granitic or other primitive hills are
frequently uncovered by adventitious ftrata on all fides,
as at Phanet in the county of Donegal, or are covered
on all fides ; the impregnated waters either eafily paf
fing over them, or ftagnating upon them, according to
the greater or lefs rapidity of its courfe, and the obfta-
cles it met with.”
Krrwan’s Hr Kirwan’s theory of the formation of whin dykes,
theory of is as follows.
He fuppofes that the dyke exifted in the fpot where
it is found previous to the formation of the horizontal
ftrata } that, during the formation of the latter by de-
L O G \. 60 j
pofition, their equal extenfion on each fide of the dyke Earth-
was obftrudfted by its height preventing the pailage of (luakes an“
the current of waters j that the ftrata on that fide of V 0lCam'ej;
the dyke which were firft formed, occafioned a much
more confiderable preffure than on the fide on which
the ftrata of latter formation repofe, and muft have
pulled the upper and more moveable extremity of the
flip gradually towards the fide on which there was leaft
preffure ; on that fide it muft therefore overhang : this
preffure being of earlier date than on the oppofite fide,
muft have had a more confiderable efteff in deprefling
each particular ftratum, and forcing their integrant
particles into clofer contact, than could have been pro¬
duced in thofe of later formation 5 and confequently
the ftrata muft be lower. The ingenious author has
added, with good reafon, that he is not fatisned with
this explanation. It is undoubtedly quite incompatible
with the phenomena w’hich it attempts to explain. For
it has been already obferved, that the coal and conti¬
guous ftrata are, in every refpedl, the fame on both
fides of a dyke, to whatever diftance they may have
been elevated or depreffed, which demonftrates clearly,
that their formation muft have been coeval. But, be-
fides, the fame derangement takes place in a flip where
there is merely a folution of contiguity of the horizon¬
tal ftrata, one fide being only elevated or depreffed
above or below the correfponding fide from which it
has been detached without having a vertical ftratum or
dyke interpofed.
Chap. IV. Of Earthquakes and Volcanoes.
In the preceding chapters w'e have given a ftiort ac- i5s
count of the materials which conftitute the globe of
the earth •, we have taken a view of the relative pofi¬
tion and connexion which fubfift among thefe materials,
fo far as they are known, and we have confidered fome
of the changes which are fuppofed to have taken place
in their arrangement and diftribution, and fome of the
theories which have been propofed to account for thefe
changes. We have hitherto contemplated nature in a
ftate of feeming repofe, conducing her operations by a
gradual and lilent procefs, and accomplilhing the moft
beneficial and wonderful effefts, unheeded and unobfer-
ved. We are now to take a view of thofe more terri¬
ble and fudden changes which are exhibited in the de-
vaflation and ruin which accompany the earthquake and
the volcano;—changes awful in the contemplation,
but dreadful and terrible in their tremendous effetfts.
Many of the phenomena which accompany earth¬
quakes and volcanoes, are common to both. Earth¬
quakes are frequently the forerunners, and fometimes
the attendants, of volcanic eruptions 5 but earthquakes
have often exifted, and their terrible effects have been
feverely felt, where no volcano was ever known.
In the prefent chapter, we propofe to confider the
phenomena, hiftory, and caufes of earthquakes and vol¬
canoes, which will form the fubjefts of the two follow¬
ing feftions. In the firft we {hall treat of earthquakes,
and in the fecond of volcanoes.
Sect. I. Of the Phenomena end Hi/lory of Earthquakes. j(J9
t? 1 . . Places
Earthquakes have been felt in moft countries of where
the world. There are, however, particular places, eartl1(luake5
4G2 which PrevaiL
6o4
Earth¬
quakes and
Volcanoes.
300
Phenomena
which pre¬
cede and
accompany
them.
G E O L
which feem to be more fubje& to this dreadful calami¬
ty than others •, and this does not feem to depend on
any local circumftances, with regard to particular re¬
gions of the earth. It may be obferved m general,
that earthquakes are more frequent within the tropics
but there are places within the torrid zone, which are
more rarely vifited by earthquakes than fome of the
more temperate, or even the colder regions of toe
earth. In the iflands of the Weft Indies, ana m fome
parts of the American continent which lie between
the tropics, the earthquake is more frequently felt than
in molt other regions of the earth. But the north¬
ern fhores of the Mediterranean, the kingdom of Por-
tugal, and fome other places without the tropics, have
been oftener the fcene of defolation, by tne effefts of
the earthquake, than many of the iflands and extenflve
continents within the torrid zone, from this circum-
ftance in the hiftory of earthquakes, it would appear
that they are not limited to particular regions, on ac¬
count of proximity to the equator or diftance from it,
on account of infular fltuation or extent of continent.
Particular iflands, however, and particular parts of
continents, have undoubtedly been oftener vifited by
earthquakes than others. Of all the iflands of the Weft
Indies, Jamaica has moft frequently experienced their
dreadful effefls. Indeed, fcarcely a year paffes? with¬
out feveral fhocks of an earthquake being felt in that
illand. Mexico and Peru in South America, are more
fubjeft to earthquakes than the other regions of the, A-
merican continent. Portugal has been often fliaken to
the very foundations, by terrible earthquakes, while
Spain, immediately adjoining, or it may be faid, in¬
cluding it, is, comparatively, almoft exempted from
their effe&s. It has been obferved, that earthquakes
have been lefs deftruftive in Italy than in Sicily, which
are in the immediate vicinity of each other, and are
both volcanic countries.
Obfervations on phenomena fo awful and terrible,
can fcarcely be expected to be very numerous. The
operation of the caufes which produce them is too ra¬
pid, the effefts are too hidden and unexpe&ed, to be
rendered the fubjeft of accurate or attentive philofophi-
cal inveftigation j or, perhaps, we might acknowledge
at once, that they are too extenfive and too obfeure for
the powers of man. '1 hey are beyond the gralp of the
human mind.
It has been already obferved, that earthquakes are
more frequent in volcanic countries than in any others.
In thefe regions they are oftener dreaded and expefled
than in other places. Where a volcano exifts, and
when it has ceafed to throw out flame and fmoke for
any long period, fliocks of earthquakes begin to be
dreaded. This has been very generally the cafe with
the principal volcanoes of the world, the events of
whofe hiftory have been recorded. An earthquake is
often the forerunner of an eruption, and the very firft
warning of its approach.
Earthquakes are often preceded by long droughts.
The earthquake, however, does not immediately fuc-
ceed the ceffation of the drought, or the fall of rain.
Some electrical appearances are obferved to take place
in the air, before the earthquake comes on. The au¬
rora borealis is frequent and brilliant, and bright me¬
teors are often feen darting from one region of the
Volcanoes.
O G Y. Chap. IV.
heavens to another, or from the atmofphere to the Earth-
, quakes and
earth.
Before the ftiock comes on, the waters of the ocean __
appear to be unufually troubled •, without the eflfeCl of “
wind, or any perceptible caufe, it fwells up with great
noife. Fountains and fprings are alfo greatly difturbed,
and their waters are agitated, and become muddy.
The air at the time of the (hock has been obferved to
be remarkably calm and ferene, but afterwards it be¬
comes dark and cloudy.
The noife which accompanies the ftiock of an earth¬
quake is fometimes like that of a number of carriages,
driving along the pavement of a ftreet vrith great ra¬
pidity. Sometimes it is like a rufliing noife, ftmilar to
that of wind, and fometimes it refembles the explofions
occafioned by the firing of artillery. The noife which
accompanied the earthquake, which was pretty general¬
ly felt over Scotland about three years ago, we recol-
le&, refembled that of a heavy perfon walking rapidly,
and barefooted, through an adjoining room.
The effeCt of earthquakes -on the furface of the earth
is various. Sometimes it is inftantaneoufly heaved up
in a perpendicular direction, and (ometimes affumes a
kind of rolling motion, from fi.de to fide. Sometimes
the ftiock commences with the perpendicular motion,
and terminates with the other.
Great openings or fiffures are made in the earth by the
(hock, and thefe in general throw out vaft quantities of
water, but fometimes fmoke and flame are alfo emit¬
ted. Flame and fmoke are often feen iffuing through
the furface of the earth, even where no chafni or fiffure
has been produced.
The effeCls of an earthquake on the ocean are not
lefs terrible than thofe on land. The fea fwells up to
a great height ; its waters fometimes feem to be entirely
feparated, and from the place of feparation, currents of
air, fmoke, and flame are difeharged. Similar effeCts
have been obferved to take place in lakes, ponds, and
rivers. Their waters are thrown into great agitation,
and are fometimes fwelied up. Places in which there
was a confiderable body of water, have become dry land,
and dry land has been converted into an extenfive lake
by the (hock of an earthquake.
The moft terrible earthquake that has yet vifited the
earth, has never been felt over its whole furface. Their
effeCts, however, extend to very diftant regions, from
the centre or principal fcene of defolation. The ex-
iftence of an earthquake is indicated much more exten-
fively by water than by land. Where its efteCts have
not been at all perceived on dry land, the agitation pro¬
duced on the waters in the ocean, or in lakes and rivei s,
has been often communicated to a very great dii-
The duration of the (hock of an earthquake rarely
exceeds a minute, and perhaps very few continue (or
near that length of time. But the (hocks aie fome¬
times repeated in rapid fucceflion ; and perhaps from the
effeCt on the fenfes, and the dread and alarm which aie
thus occafioned, it is fuppofed that their duration is much
longer than it really is.
But as no general account of the phenomena which
accompany an earthquake, from the difficulty or fcanti-
nefs of obfervation, can be complete, it will be render¬
ed much more intelligible and interefting, if we enter a
little
Cliap.
Volcanoes.
20:
Earthquake
in Calabria
in 1638.
IV. G E O L O G Y.
Earth- little more into the detail of the hi ft or y of particular from the confternation
quakes and earthquakesand in the account of forae of them which
T7„i -- we pr0pOfe to ]ay before our readers, it will be found
that molt of the appearances and effects which have
been enumerated, were obferved.
The firft earthquake, the hiftory of which we ihall
now detail, happened in Calabria, in the year 1638.
This earthquake is rather to be confidered as an excep¬
tion to what was laid with regard to their not taking
place in the neighbourhood of a volcano, foon after an
eruption. The volcanoes in that vicinity had experien¬
ced violent eruptions a very fliort time before. Five
years before, there had been an eruption of Pvlount \ em-
vius, and two years only had elapfed from the time that
a fimilar event had befallen /Etna. This mountain, in¬
deed, at the very time, threw out a great body of imoke,
which feemed to cover the whole iiland, and entirely
concealed the (bores from view. The air over the fea
at a little diftance was calm and ferene, and the fur-
face of the water was perfectly fmocth. Seemingly
without any caufe, it began to be flightly agitated, as
happens to the furface of water in a heavy Ihovver of
rain. A dreadful noife fucceeded, and the fmell of
fulphureous vapours was perceived. The noife, like the
rattling of chariots, grew more frequent and loud, and
the (hock at laft was terribly felt, when the earth was
heaved up, or rolled in the form of weaves. 1
This earthquake is particularly defcribed by Kircher,
the celebrated geographer. “ On the 24th of March,
(fays he), we departed in a fmall boat from the harbour
of Medina in Sicily, and the-fame day arrived at the
promontory of Pelorus. Our deftination was for the
city of Euphemia in Calabria, but unfavourable weather
obliged us to remain at Pelorus three days. Wearied
at length with delay, we determined to proceed on our
voyage, and although the fea feemed unufually agitat¬
ed, yet it did not deter us from embarking. As we
approached the gulf of Charybdis, the waters feemed
whirled round with fuch violence, as to form a large
hollow in the centre of the vortex. Turning my eyes
to Mount iEtna, I favv it throw out huge volumes of
fmoke, which entirely covered the ifland. This awful
appearance, with the dreadful noife, and the fulphureous
fmell which accompanied it, filled me with ftrong ap-
prehenfions that fome terrible calamity was approaching.
The fea itfelf exhibited a very unufual appearance, its
agitation refembling that of the waters of a lake which
is covered with bubbles in a violent fhower of rain.
My furprife was ftill increafed by the calmnefs and
fir.renity of the weather; not a breeze flirred, not a
cloud obfcured the face of the iky, which might be fup-
pofed to produce thefe dreadful commotions. I there¬
fore warned my companion, that the unufual phenome¬
na which we obferved, were the forerunners of an earth¬
quake. Soon after we flood in for the iliore, and land¬
ed at Tropaea ; but we had fcarcely arrived at the
Jefuits college in that city, when a horrid found, which
refembled the rattling wheels of an infinite number of
chariots, driven furioufly along, ftunned our ears. Soon
after a terrible ihaking of the earth began •, the ground
on which we flood feemed to vibrate, as if we were in
the fcale of a balance, which continued waving. The
motion foon grew morq violent 5 I could no longer keep
my legs, but was thrown proftrate upon the ground.
After fome time had elapfed, when I had recovered
605
nu.11 1.1^ , and finding that I was unhurt E rth-
amidft the general crafh, 1 refolved to make the beft of Y^anc)^.
my way to a place of fafety, and running as fall as I ^ - -, .
could, I reached the fhore. I foon found the boat in
which I had landed, as well as my companions; and
leaving this fcene of defolat’.on, we profecuted our voy¬
age along the toaft. Next day we arrived at Rochetta,
where we landed, although the earth ftill continued in
violent commotion. But we had fcarcely reached the
inn when we were again obliged to return to the boat.
In about half an hour we faw the greateft part of the
town, as well as the inn where we had flopped, levelled
with the ground, and moft of the inhabitants buried in
its ruins. As we proceeded onward, we landed at
Lopezium, which is a caftle about half way between
Tropaea and Euphernia, to which we were bound : and,
here, wherever I looked, nothing but feenes of ruin and
horror prefented themfelves. Towns and caftles were
levelled with the ground, and Stromboli at the diftance
of 60 miles threw out an immenfe body of flames, ac¬
companied with a noife which could be diftimftly heard.
But our attention was quickly drawn from more remote
to prefent danger. The rattling found which immedi¬
ately precedes an earthquake, again alarmed us; every-
moment it feemed to grow louder and louder, and to
approach nearer the place on ivhich we flood. A
dreadful Ihaking of the earth now began, fo that be¬
ing unable to (land, my companions and I caught
hold of whatever fhrub was next us, to fupport our-
felves. After fome time the violent commotion ceafcd,
and we flood up, and propofed to profecute our voy¬
age to Euphemia, which lay within fight, but in the
meantime, while we were preparing ourfelves, I turn¬
ed my eyes towards the city, but could fee nothing
but a thick, black cloud, which feemed to reft on the
place. This appeared an extraordinary circumftance, as
the fky all round was calm and ferene. We waited till
the cloud palled away, and then turning to look for the
city, it was totally funk, and where it formerly flood,
nothing remained but a dilmal and putrid lake.” 202
In the year 1693, an earthquake happened in Sicily, In Sicily ia
which not only (hook the whole ifland, but alfo reached l<593*
to Naples and Malta. Previous to the fhock, a black
cloud was feen hovering over the city of Catania, which
was deftroyed at this time. The fea began to be vio¬
lently agitated ; the (hocks fucceeded like the difeharge
of a great number of artillery ; the motion of the earth
was fo violent, that no perfons could keep their legs.
Even thofe who lay on the ground were tofled from
fide to fide, as on a rolling billow j high walls were
razed from their foundations, and were thrown to the
diftance of feveral paces. Almoft every building in
the countries which it vifited was thrown down; 54
cities and towns, befides a great number of villages,
were either greatly damaged, or totally deftroyed. A-
mong thofe which we have already mentioned, was the
city of Catania, one of the moft ancient and flourilhing
in the kingdom. After the thick cloud which remain¬
ed after the earthquake had diflipated, no remains of
this magnificent city could be feen. Of 18,900 inha¬
bitants, not fewer than 18,000 periftied by this dread¬
ful calamity. 20-
The terrible earthquake which vifited the ifland or in Jamaica*
Jamaica in 1692, affords us another example of almoft in 1092.
the whole of the phenomena which were enumerated
6c6 G E O I
Earth- as the forerunners or attendants of eardiquak.es. It
quakes and was on 0£ June, in that year, that this dread-
■ .volcanoes. ^ calamity, which in two minutes totally dellroyed
~ the town of Port Royal, on the ibuth fide of Jamaica,
and at that time the capital of the itland, took place.
The effedl of the fliock on the furface was immediately
preceded by a hollow rattling noife, like that of
thunder. The ftreets were heaved up like waves of
the fea, and then inftantly thrown down into deep pits.
All the wells difcharged their waters with prodigious
agitation ; the fea burfl: its bounds, and deluged a fmall
part of the town which was not entirely overwhelmed.
The fillures produced in the earth were fo great, that
one of the ftreets feemed twice as broad as formerly,
and in fome places the earth opened and clofed again
for fome time. A great many of thefe openings were
feen at once. In fome of them, the houfes and inhabi¬
tants, and every thing that was near, were fwallowed
up. Some perfons were fwallowed up in one of thefe
chafms, and what will appear moft extraordinary, and
indeed almoft incredible, were thrown out alive from
another. Whole ftreets funk in fome, and from others
an immenfe body of water was projected high into the
air. Smells which were extremely offenlive now fuc-
ceeded ; nothing but the diftant noife of falling moun¬
tains was heard, and the fky, which before the (hock
was ftill and ferene, aflumed a dull red colour.
The elTefts of this earthquake were not limited to
this fpot. It was feverely felt through the whole ifland,
which in many places fuftained very material damage.
Indeed there were few houfes which were not either in¬
jured or thrown down. In fome places the inhabitants,
houfes, trees, and whole furface, were fwallowed up in
the fame chafm ; and what was formerly dry land was
left a pool of water. The wells in almoft every corner
of the ifland, whatever was their depth, threw out their
water with great violence. The rivers were either en¬
tirely flopped, or ceafed to flow for 24 hours; and
many of them formed to themfelves new channels. At
the diftance of 12 miles from the fea, an immenfe body
of water fpouted out from a gap which was formed in
the earth, and was projedled to a great height in the
air. Such was the violence of the fhock, that many
perfons were thrown down on their faces, even in places
where the furface of the ground remained unbroken.
It was obferved that the fhock was moft feverely felt
in the immediate vicinity of the mountains. Could this
arife from the greater preflure, and confequently the
greater refiftance, or was it becaufe the force which
produced thefe terrible effe&s exifted near them ?
After the great (hock which deftroyed the town of
Port Royal, the inhabitants who efcaped went on
board fhips in the harbour, where many of them remain¬
ed for two months, during which time the {hocks were
repeated, and were fo frequent, that there were fome-
times two or three in the courfe of an hour. Thefe
were ftill accompanied with the fame rattling noife,
• like that of thunder, or like the rufhing noife occafion-
ed by a current of air in rapid motion. They were al-
fo attended with what are called brimjlone blafls.
Thefe, it is probable, were fulphureous vapours which
ilfued from the openings made by the earthquake.
The atmofphere, however, feemed to be loaded with
noifome vapours, for a very general ficknefs foon fuc-
, O G Y. Chap. IV.
ceeded, which in a short time fwept off not fewer than Earth-
3000 perfons. quakes and
But qf all the earthquakes, the hiftory of which is on ° "ancKS;
record, that which happened at Lifbon, in the year 2C.4
1755, was by far the moft; extenftve in its effe&s, and, At L.Sbou
from its recent occurrence, will probably be deemed’n 1755*
the moft interefting. In the year 1750, feveral {hocks of
earthquakes had been fenfibly felt. The four following
years were remarkable for exceftive drought. The fprings
which formerly yielded abundance of water, were to¬
tally dried up and loft ; the winds which chiefly pre¬
vailed were from the north and north-eaft. During
this period alfo there were flight tremors of the earth ;
the feafons in 1755, were unufually wet, and the fum-
mer, as the confequence of this, proved undfually cold.
But for the fpace of 40 days before the earthquake hap¬
pened, the fky was more clear and ferene. On the laft
day of October the face of the fun was confiderably ob-
fcured, and a general gloom prevailed over the atmo¬
fphere. The day following (the rft of November) a
thick fog arofe, but it was foon diftipated by the heat of
the fun. Not a Breath of wind was ftirring ; the fea
was perfectly calm, and the heat of the weather was
equal to that of June or July in this country. At 35
minutes after nine in the morning, without any previ¬
ous warning, excepting the rattling noife refembling
that of diftant thunder, the earthquake came on with
Ihort, quick vibrations, and ftiook the very foundation
of the city, fo that many of the houfes inftantly fell.
A paufe, which was indeed juft perceptible, fucceeded,
and the motion changed. The houfes were then toffed
from fide to fide, like the motion of a waggon driven
violently over rugged ftones. It was this fecond {hock
which laid great part of the city in ruin, and, as might
be expected, great numbers of the inhabitants were de¬
ftroyed at the fame time. The whole duration of the
earthquake did not exceed fis. minutes. When it be¬
gan, fome perfons in a boat, at the diftance of a mile
from the city, and in deep water, thought the boat had
ftruck on a rock, in confequence of the motion which
was communicated to it. At the fame time they per¬
ceived the houfes falling on both fides of the river.
The bed of the Tagus was in many places raifed to the
very furface of the water ; {hips were driven from their
anchors or moorings, and were toffed about with great
violence; and the perfons on board did not for fome time
know wrhether they wTere afloat or aground. A large
new pier with feveral hundreds of people upon it, funk
to an unfathomable depth, and not one of the dead
bodies was ever found. The bar of the river was at
one time feen dry from fide to fide ; but fuddenly the
fea came rolling in like a mountain, and in one part of
the river the water rofe in an inftant to the extraordi¬
nary height of 50 feet. At noon another {hock hap¬
pened ; the walls of fome houfes that remained were
feen to open from top to bottom, near a foot wide, and 1
were afterwards fo exaftly clofed, that fcarcely any
mark of the injury remained.
But what was the moft Angular circumftance attend-The Ouck
ing this earthquake wras, the prodigious extent to wfliich of this
its effedts reached. At Colares, 20 miles from Lifbon, eairth'Eiu^e
and tw’o miles from the fea, the weather was uncom- °*
monly warm for the feafon, on the laft day of October.
About four o’clock in the afternoon, a fog arofe which,
proceeding
I
Earth¬
quakes ami
Volcanoes.
2C.6
At Oporto.
207
Deftroys
St Ubes.
208
Felt in
Spain.
IV. G E O I
proceeding from the fea, covered the valleys. This was an
unufual occurrence at that feafon of the year ; but foon
after the wind fhifting, the fcg returned to the fea, col¬
lected over its furface, and became very thick and
dark ; and as the fog difperfed, the fea was violently
agitated, and with great noife. On the firft of Novem¬
ber, at the dawn of day, the (ky was fair and fertne •,
about nine o’clock the fun was overclouded, and be¬
came dim. Half an hour after, the rattling noife like
that of chariots was heard ; and this foon increafed to
fuch a degree, that it refembled the explofions of the
largeft artillery. The ihock of an earthquake was im¬
mediately felt, and was quickly fucceeded by a fe-
cond and a third. In theie (hocks it was obferved,
that the walls of buildings moved from eaft to weft.
From fome of the mountains dames were feen iiluing,
fomewhat refembling the kindling of charcoal ac¬
companied with a great deal of thick black fmoke.
The fa.oke which arofe from one mountain was at the
(ametime accompanied with noife, which increafed with
the quantity of fmoke. When the place from which
the fmoke iiTued was afterwards examined, no iigns of
fire could be perceived.
At Oporto, near the mouth of the river Douro, the
earthquake began at 40 minutes pa ft nine. The iky
was quite ferene when the hollow rattling noife was
heard, and it was immediately attended with a commo¬
tion of the earth. In the fpace of a minute or two,
the river rofe and fell five or fix feet, and continued
this motion for four hours. In fome places it feemed
to open, and difcharge great quantities of air. The fea
was alfo violently agitated, and indeed the agitation
was fo great, to the diftance of a league beyond the bar,
that it was (uppofed the difcharge of air from that place
rnuft alfb have been very confiderable.
St Ubes, a fea-port town twenty miles fouth of
Lilbon, was entirely fwallowed up by the repeated
(hocks of this earthquake, and the immenfe furf of the
fea which w'as produced. Large maffes of lock were de¬
tached from the promontory at the extremity of the
town. This promontory confifts of a chain of moun¬
tains compofed of a very hard ftone.
The fame earthquake was felt in almoft every part of
Spain. The only places which efcaped from its effects
were the provinces of Arragon, Catalonia, and Valen¬
cia. At Ayamonte, which is near the place where the
Guadiana falls into the bay of Cadiz, the earthquake
was not felt till a little before ten o’clock. It was
here alfo preceded by the hollow rattling noife. The
(hocks continued with intervals, for 14 or 15 minutes,
and did very confiderable damage. Scarcely half an
hour had elapfed from the time that the commotion
firft began, when the fea, the river, and canals, rofe
violently over their banks, and laid every place near
them under water. The fea rolled in in huge mountains,
n d carried every thing before it.
The earthquake began at Cadiz fome minutes after
nine in the morning, and lafted about five minutes.
The water in the ciilerns under ground was fo much
agitated, that it rofe in the form of froth. About ten
minutes after eleven, a hugh wave was feen coming
from the fea, at the diftance of eight miles, which was
fuppofed not to be lefs than 60 feet high, and burft in
upon the city. The w’ater returned with the fame vio¬
lence with which it approached, and places which were
a O G Y. 607
deep at low water were left quite dry. Similar W’aves Earth-
continued, but gradually lefiening till the evening. Vokanoe^
The earthquake was not felt at Gibraltar till after . .--J--'
ten o’clock. There it began with a tremulous motion
of the earth, which continued for about half a minute.
A violent (hock then followed j the tremulous motion
again commenced, and continued for five or fix feconds,
and then fucceeded a fecond (hock, but lefs violent than
the firft. The whole time did not exceed two minutes 5
the earth had an undulating motion j fome of the guns
on the batteries were (een to rife, and others to fink.
Many people, feized with ficknefs and giddmefs, fell
down. Some who were walking or riding, felt no
(hock, but were attacked with ficknefs. The fea had
an extraordinary flux and reflux j it ebbed and flowed
every 15 minutes •, it rofe fix feet, and then fell fuddenly
fo low, that a great many fiih and fmall boats were left
on the (bore.
The (hock was felt at Madrid nearly at the fame
time as at Gibraltar. It continued for fix minutes, and
the fame ficknefs and giddinefs prevailed. It was not
felt by thofe who walked fmartly, or who were in car¬
riages, and no accident happened excepting two per-
fons who were killed by the fall of a ftone crofs from
the porch of a church.
Malaga, a fea-port town on the Mediterranean, ex¬
perienced a violent (hock ; the bells were fet a ringing
in the fteeples, and the water of the wells overflowed,
and as fuddenly retired. St Lucar, at the mouth of
the Guadalquiver, fuffered much from a limilar (hock,
as 'well as from an inundation of the fea, which broke
in, and did great damage. At Seville, 16 leagues
above this, a number of houfes was thrown down j the
celebrated tower of the cathedral, called La Giralda,
opened in the four fides; the waters were thrown into
violent agitation, and the veffels in the river were driven
on (liore. 209
In iVfrica this earthquake was felt nearly as feverely In Africa,
as in Europe. Great part of the city of Algiers was
deftroyed. This happened about ten in the morning.
About the fame time at Arzilla, a town in the king¬
dom of Fez, the fea fuddenly rofe with fuch impetuo-
fity, that it lifted up a veftel in the bay, and forced it
on (bore with fuch violence that it was broken to '
pieces. A boat was alfo found within land, at the di¬
ftance of two mulket (hots from the fea. At Fez and
Mequinez, many houfes were thrown down, and num¬
bers of perfons were buried in the ruins.
Many people were deftroyed at Morocco by the fall- -
ing of houfes. Eight leagues from the city the earth
opened, and fwallowed up a village with all its inhabi¬
tants, to the number of 8,000 or 10,000, as well as all
their cattle. Soon after the earth doled, and they
were feen no more. The town of Sallee alfo fufFered
greatly ; a third part of the houfes were thrown down ;
the w?aters ruftied into the' ftreets with great violence,
and when they retired, they left behind them a large
quantity of fifh. The earthquake began at Tangier at
ten in the morning ; its whole duration was about ten
or twelve minutes. The fea came up to the walls with
great violence, and retired immediately with the fame
rapidity, leaving behind a great quantity of fifh. This
agitation of the water was repeated no lefs than 18
times, and continued till about fix o’clock in the even¬
ing. It began at the fame time at Tetuan, but its du¬
ration
i5c8
geology,
Chap. IV.
Earth- ration was only about feveh or eight minutes. Three of the
quakes and {^o^g were f0 violent as to excite great apprehenfions
■ ° c^noe5' that the city would be deftroyed. Similar effects were
produced by the fame earthquake at different places
210 along the African Tore of the Mediterranean.
In Madeira At the town of Funchal in Madeira, the firft fliock
and the . 0f t})j3 earthquake was fe’.t at 38 minutes part ninei It
Weft Indie .,vas precec]ecl by tbe rattling noife, which feemed to be
produced in the air j the ihock, it w^as fuppofed, con¬
tinued for more than a minute j the earth moved with
a vibratory, undulatihg xhotioh, and fome of the vibra¬
tions increafed greatly ih force. The noife in the air
which accompanied the (hocks, lafled fome feconds aftbr
the motion of the earth had fceafed. At three; quarters
paft eleven, the ddy bfeing calfh and ferene, the fea re¬
tired fuddcnly, then, without the leaf! noife, rofe with
a grfcat fwell, overfibv.ed the fhore, and entered the
city. It rbre 15 feet perpendicular above high-water¬
mark. Having thus fluftuatfcd four bt five times, it at
laft fubfxded, and refumed its former ftillnefs. In the
northern paft of the ifland, the inundation was flill
more violent. It firft retired to the diftance of 100
paces, and fuddenly r'etufning, overflowed the fhore,
broke down walls of magazines and ftoreheufes, and
left behind it great quantities of fifh in the ftreets of a
village. At this place the fea rofe only once beyond
the high-water mark, although it continued to flufiu-
ate much longer before it entirely fubfided than at Fun¬
chal.
Such were the effeffs of this earthquake, in thofe
places where it wras accompanied with conliderable dam¬
age. It was, however, perceptibly felt to a great dif¬
tance in every direftion, either, by a flight motion of
the earth, or by the agitation of the waters. At the
iiland of Antigua the fea rofe to fuch a height as had
never been beforfe known, and afterwards the water at
the wharfs, which ufed to be fix feet deep, was not more
than two inches. About two in the afternoon, the fea
ebbed and flowed at Barbadoes in a very unufual man¬
ner. It overflowed the wdiarfs, and rulhed into the
ftreets. This flux and reflux continued till 10 at
21* ni§ht' * . . r '
311 Fiance. Shocks were diftinftly felt in different parts of France,
as at Bayonne, Bourdeaux, and Lyons. The waters
were alfo obferved to be agitated in different places, as
at Angoulfeme, and Havre de Grace, but with a lefs
degree of violence than fome which have been men¬
tioned. At Angouleme, a fubterraneous noife like
thunder was heard, and foon after a torrent of water, mix¬
ed with red fand, was difeharged from an opening in the
earth. Moft of the fprings in the neighbourhood funk,
and continued dry for fome time.
In Ger- The effedls of this earthquake were alfo very per-
ceptible in many places of Germany. Throughout the
duchy of Holftein, the waters were greatly agitated,
particularly the Elbe and Trave. The w^ater of a lake,
called Libfec, in Brandenburg, ebbed and flowed fix
times in half an hour, and although the weather was
then perfectly calm, this motion was accompanied with
a great noife. A fimilar agitation took place in the
waters of the lakes called Mupelgaji and Net%o, but
here there was alfo emitted a moft offeniive fmell.
The fea was greatly agitated round the ifland of
Corfica, and many of the rivers of the ifland overflowed
their banks. The fame earthquake was felt in the city
Z
of Milan in Italy, and its neighbourhood. Turin in Sa- Ejf-th*
voy experienced a very fmart fhock. Volcanoes
Many of the rivers of Switzerland became all at . ^
once muddy, although there had been no rain. "I he 513
lake of Neufchatel rofe to the height of two feet aboVe In Switzers
its ufual level, and continued at this height for a fev/fan^*
hours. The wraters of the lake of Zurich were alfo
greatly agitated. 214
The commotion of the waters in Holland was ftiHIn Holland,
more remarkable. In the afternoon of the ift of No¬
vember, the waters of the Rhine at Alphen, between
Leyden and Woerden, were fo violently agitated,
that the buoys were broken from their chains, large
veffels parted from their cables, and fmaller ones wTere
thrown upon the dry land. At ia in the forenoon at
Amfterdam, when the air was perfectly calm, the wai¬
ters in the canals were thrown into great commotion, fo
that boats broke loofe from their moorings, chandeliers
were obferved to vibrate in the churches, although it is
faid no motion of the earth wTas perceptible. In the
forenoon at Haarlem, not only the water in the rivers,
canals, &c. but, it is aiferted, fmaller quantities of fluids *■
contained in velTels, were greatly agitated, and fome-
times dallied over the fides of the veffels. This con¬
tinued for about four minutes. Between 10 and 11 in
the forenoon, in fome of the canals at Leyden, the wa¬
ters rofe fuddenly, and produced \ery perceptible un¬
dulations. 215
The effefts of this earthquake ed as far north In Noiwajq
as Nonvay and Sweden : many of rivers and lakes Ste¬
in Norway were greatly agitated 5 fhocks were felt in
feveral of the provinces of Sweden, and commotions of
the waters, with the rivers and lakes, efpecially in
Dalecarlia, were obferved. The river Dala fuddenly
overflowed its banks, and as fuddenly retired ; and at
the fame time, a lake which is a league diftant from it,
bubbled up with great violence. Several fmart fhocks
were felt at Fahlun, a town in Dalecarlia. 2I6
In many places of Great Britain and Ireland, the In Britain,
agitation of the waters was very perceptible. At Eaton
bridge in Kent, near a pond of an acre in extent, fome
perfons heard a hidden noife, which they fuppofed was
occalioned by iomething falling intb the pond, for it
tvas then a dead calm, and ran to the fpot* where they
faw the pond open in the middle, while the wTater
dallied over a perpendicular bank two feet high. This
motion was repeated feveral times, and ftill accompanied
with a great noife.
At Cobham in Surry, between 10 and 11 o’clock
A. M. a perfon was watering a horfe at a pond, the
waters of which were derived from fprings. At the
moment the animal was drinking, the waters retired
from his mouth, and left the bottom of the pond dry.
It then returned with great violence, and when it re¬
tired, its progrefs was towards to the fouth. About
the fame time at Bufbridge, in the fame county, while
the weather was remarkably calm, the writers of a ca¬
nal 700 feet long and 58 broad, were greatly agitated,
and this was accompanied with an unufual noife. I he
waters rofe between two and three feet above the ufual
level, in the form of a heap or ridge, extending 30
yards in length. This ridge then heeled towards the
north fide, and flowed with great impetuofity over the
grafs walk 5 it then returned to the canal, again heaped
up in the middle, and then heeled to the fouth fide
with
Chap. IV. , G E O I
Earth- with ftill greater violence* flowing over the graft walk,
quakes and anc] leaving feveral feet at the bottom of the canal on
\ oicanoes. jjie pepfeclly dry. ihefe motions continued
'y for j j minutes, after which the waters refumed their
former tranquillity. During the agitation of the wa¬
ters, the fand and mud at the bottom were thrown up,
and mixed with them.
in Suffolk, the water of a pond at Dunftal rofe
gradually for feveral minutes in the form of a pyramid,
and then fell down like a water-fpout. In other ponds
in the fame neighbourhood, the waters of which were
left agitated, there was a fmooth flux and reflux from the
one extremity to the other.
At Earfycourt in Berkflnre* about i! o’clock, a
perfon ftanding near a fllh pond, felt a violent tremb¬
ling of the earth, which continued for*about a minute.
He obferved immediately after, the water move from
the fouth to the north end of the pond, leaving the
bottom of the fouth end quite dry, to the extent of fix
feet. It then returned, flowed at the fouth end, rofe
three feet up the bank, and immediately after returned
tq. the north bank, where it rofe to the lame height.
Between the ilux and reflux the waters formed a ridge
in the middle of the pond, 20 inches higher than the
level on each fide, and boiled up with great vio-
lencei
Similar p- •' wTere obferved about half after ten,
. near Durham. A perfon was alarmed with a fudden
• ruining noife, which feemed to proceed from a pond.
11 he water role gradually up without any fiudfuating
motion, flood fome inches higher than the ufual level;
it then fubfided and fvvelled again, and continued in
this manner rifing and falling for the fpace of fix or
feven minutes, riling four or five times in a minute.
The effecls of this earthquake in Derbylhire excited
coniiderable alarm. At Barlborough, between 11 and
12 o’clock, in a boathoufe on the well fide of a large
body of w7ater, called Pib/eij c/am, which is fuppoled
to cover not left than 30 acres of land, there was heard
a fudden and terrible noife 5 a fwell of water proceed-
, ing from the fouth, role two feet on the Hope dam head
at the north end. It then fubfided, but immediately
returned. The water continued thus agitated for 45
minutes, but'became gradually left violent. At Eyam
bridge in the Peak, an overfeer of the lead mines, fit¬
ting in his room about 11 o’clock, felt a fudden (hock,
by which the chair on which he fat was fuddenly raif-
ed, and fome pieces of plalter were broken off from
the fides of the room. The commotion was fo great
that he thought the engine lhaft had fallen together,
and he ran out to fee what was the matter, and" found
every thing in fafety. Some miners employei at the
time in a drift 120 yards deep, were gifeatly alarmed
firft with one ihock, and then with a fecond, which
feemed to be fo violent as to make the rocks grind
upon one another, Three other Ihocks fucceeded the
two firlt at intervals of a few minutes, and became
gradually weaker.
A little after 10 o’clock in the morning, the water
in a moat which furrounds Shireburn caftle in Oxford-
ffnre, exhibited a very unufual appearance. A thick
fog prevailed, the air was perfectly ftill, and the furface
oi the water quite fmooth. At one corner it was ob-
ferved to flow towards the ffiore, and then again to re¬
tire ; and this flux and reflux continued for fome time
Vol. IX. Part II.
O G Y. 6o9
quite regular. Every flux began flowly j but increaft Entil¬
ed in its velocity till near its full height, when it ruth- qaiikesand
ed with great impetuofity j and having remained for a ’o!t:iinoes*
fhort time ftationary, it then retired, at firft flowly, but v'~ J
at laft it funk with great rapidity. What will appear
moft Angular in this commotion of the water is, that
it was limited to one part of the moat. At a different
corner about 25 yards diftant no motion could be per¬
ceived. But in that part of the moat directly oppofite
to the place where the motion of the water was firit
obferved, the water rofe towards the flnore at the fame
time as at the other fide. In a pond at a little diftance
the waters were agitated in a fiihiiar manner, but the
rifings and finkings took place at different times from
thefe in the moat.
On the evening of the fame day, abo..L three quarters
after fix, and about the time of two hours ebb of the
tide, at White rock in Glamorganfhire, a great body
of water rufhed up accompanied with great noife. It
was in fuch quantity that it floated two veflels not left
than 200 tons burden earo, drove them from their
moorings, and carried them acroft the river. The
whole length of time of the rife and fall of this body of
water did not exceed xo minutes, fo that it feemed to
have burft from the earth at the fpot where it appeared.
It feems Angular, if the account of it be corredl, that on
this fpot the effecls of the earthquake ftiould be felt at
the diftance of feven or eight hours from the time it
w7as felt in other parts of the iiland.
I he waters of the lakes in Scotland were alfo great-jnScotland.
ly agitated from the fame caule. Half an hou/ after
nine in the morning, without the leaft breath of wind,
the water in Loch Lomond rofe fuddenly and violently
againff its banks. It immediately fell very lowq again
returned to the fhore, and in five minutes rofe as high
as at firft. This commotion continued till 15 minutes
after 10, with an alternate flux and reflux every five
minutes. From this time, till 11 o’clock, the height to
which the water role gradually diminilhed, till it relumed
its former tranquillity. But each flux and reflux con¬
tinued for a period of five minutes as at firft. Here
the violence of the ihock was fuch, that a large ftone
lying at fome diftance from the ftiore in fhallow wafer,
was moved from its place and carried to dry land, leav¬
ing a deep furrow in the ground along which it had
moved.
About the fame time the waters of Loch Neft in the
north of Scotland exhibited alfo a very unufual agita¬
tion. About ten o’clock the river Oich, which falls
into the head of the loch, fwelled very much, and ran
upwards from the loch wfith a high wave two or three
feet above its ufual level. The motion of the wave ivas
in a diretftion contrary to that of the wind, and it pro¬
ceeded with great rapidity up the river for the fpace of
200 yards, broke on a ftiallow, and overflowed the
banks. It then returned gently to the loch. This eb¬
bing and flowing continued for about an hour, the
height of the waves gradually diminifhing, till, about
ri o’clock, a wave higher than any of the former-
broke with luch violence on the bank on the fide of the
river, that it ran upwards of 30 feet from the bank. 2l3
Between two and three o’clock in the afternoon, at Jn Ireland.
Kinfale in Ireland, when the weather was perfedlly
calm and the tide nearly full, a great body of water '
fuddenly burft: into the harbour, and with fuch vio-
4H lence,
6io G JE Ox L
Earth- lence, tliat it broke the cables of two veffels, each
quake? ami moorecl witb two anchors, and of feveral boats which
,^c^nocs- lay near the town. The veffels were whirled round
feveral times by an eddy formed in the water, and t ^en
hurried back again with the fame rapidity as before.
Thefe motions wrere repeated different times j and
while the current ruffled up along one ffde of the har¬
bour, it ran down wdth the fame violence along the
other. The muddy bottom of the harbour was greatly
altered ; the mud was removed from fome places and
de.polited in others. At one place the height of the
water, where it w-as meafured, w^as found to be five
feet and a half in other places it is faid to have been
much higher, particularly where it flowed into the
market-place with fuch rapidity, that many perfons had
not time to efcape, but were immerfed, knee deep, in
the wTater. Thefe commotions extended ieveral miles
up the river, and were moft perceptible in ihallow
places. The alternate elevation and deprefiion of the
water continued about ten minutes, when the tide
returned to its ufual level. In the evening, between
fix and feven, the water rofe again, but with lefs vio¬
lence than before, and continued to ebb and flow till
three next morning. The rife of the waters was not at
firft gradual, but, accompanied with a hollow7 noife,
rofe fix or feven feet in a minute, and rufhed in like a
deluge, after which it as fuddenly fubffded. The wa¬
ters, too, became thick and muddy, emitting at the
fame time a moft offenfive fmell. Similar agitations of
the waters were obferved all along the coaft to the
weftward of Kinfale.
Effe&s at Such were the phenomena of this earthquake, as
fea. they were obferved on land in the different places
which have been mentioned. Its effedls were alfo fe-
verely felt at fea. A frigate oft' St Lucar received fo
violent a {hock, that it was fuppofed fhe had ftruck the
ground. Another, veffel in N. Lat. 36. 24. between
nine and ten in the morning, was fo much fhaken and
ffrained as if fhe had ftruck upon a rock. The feam
of the deck opened, and the compafs was overturned.
The fenfation experienced by fome perfons on board of
another veffel, wdfich was then in N. Lat. 250. W.
Long. 40°. w7ere fuch as if fhe had been fuddenly raifed
up and fufpended by a rope. One perfon looking out
at the cabin window, thought he law land about a mile
diftant ; but when he reached the deck, no land wTas to
be feen. A ftrong current was obferved crofting the
fhip’s way to leeward. The current returned in about
a minute with great violence •, and, at the diftance of
about a league, three craggy pointed rocks were feen
throwing up water of various colours, and feemingly
refembling fire. This appearance terminated in a thick
black cloud, which arofe heavily in the atmofphere.
Between nine and ten in the morning another ftiip,
40 leagues off St Vincent, received fo violent a fhock,
that the men an deck were thrown a foot and a half
above its furface, and the anchors, although they were
lathed down, bounced up. Immediately after the fhip
funk in the water fo low as the main chains. On heav¬
ing the lead a great depth cf water was found, and the
line was of a yellow colour, and gave out the fmell of
fulphur. The firft fhock was the moft; violent ; but
210 imaller ones were repeated for 24 hours.
On fpiirgs. The effefts of this earthquake on fprings were very
, O G Y. Chap. IV.
remarkable. On tbe afternoon of the 31ft of 0<ftober, the Earth-
water of a fountain at Colares was obferved to be great-
ly diminifhed. On the morning of the ift of Novem- ,  ,
ber, the day on which the earthquake happened, it be¬
came thick and muddy, but afterwards recovered its
ufual quantity and limpidity. In fome places fprings
appeared where there had been formerly no water, and
continued afterwards to flow. At Varge, on the river
Macaas, many fprings of water burft forth at the time
of the earthquake, and fome threw up their waters
mixed with fand of various colours, to the height of
18 or 20 feet. In Barbary, a ftream of water, which
wras as red as blood, burft forth from a mountain, which
was fplit in two. At Tangier all the fountains were
dried up during the whole of the day on which the
earthquake happened. The mineral wTaters of Toplitz,
a village in Bohemia, which have been celebrated fince
the year 1762, experienced a very remarkable change.
The principal hot ipring had continued to flow from
the time it was difcovered, of the fame temperature and
the fame in quantity. On the morning of the earth¬
quake, betw-een 11 and 1 2 ovlock, the waters of this
fpring increafed fo much in quantity, that all the baths
ran over in the fpace of half an hour. A fhort time
before the water increafed, it flowed from the fpring
thick and muddy ; and then having entirely flopped
•for about a minute, it burft out with great violence,
carrying before it a great quantity of reddifh ochre.
It afterwards became limpid, and flowed as former¬
ly ; but in larger quantity, and of a higher tempera¬
ture. At Angouleme in France the earth opened in
one place, and difeharged a great body of water, which
was mixed with reddith fand. Moft of the fprings in
the neighbourhood funk fo low, that for fome time it
Was fuppofed they had become quite dry.
Such were the extraordinary effefls of this terrible
earthquake, which extended over a fpace not lefs than
four millions of fquare miles. Other earthquakes, al¬
though of more limited extent, have produced effedls
not lefs deftrudlive, and particularly fome of. the earth¬
quakes which have vilited Italy and Sicily in modem
times •, accounts of which have been drawn up with ac¬
curacy and attention. Some of th?fe we {hall now de¬
tail. 221
One of the moft calamitous earthquakes was that Earthy
which befel Calabria in the year 1783. Of this earth-8uake in
quake Sir William Hamilton, who, foon after the *m
earthquake happened, viftted the feenes of defolation
which it left behind, has drawn up a particular ac¬
count. He obferves, that “ if on a map of Italy, and
with your compafs on the fcale of Italian-miles, you
were to meafure off 22, and then fixing the central
point on the city of Oppido, which feemed to be the
fpot where the earthquake had exerted its greateft force,
form a circle, the radius of wdiich will be 22 miles,
you will then include all the towrns, villages, &c. that
have been utterly ruined, and the fpots where the
greateft mortality happened, and where there have been
the moft vifibie alterations on the lace of the earth.
Then extend your compafs in the fame fcale to 72
miles, preferving the fame centre, and form another
circle, you will include the whole country that has any
mark-of having been affefted by the earthquake. A
gradation w7as plainly obferved in the damage done to
Chap. IV. G E O I
Eaith- the buildings, as alfo in the degree of mortality, in pro¬
quakes and portion as the countries were more or lefs diltant from
Volcanoes. fupp0fecl centre of the evil.”
' v This earthquake, it has been remarked, dilfered ve¬
ry conliderably from others in one circumftance, which
was this. Where it happened that two towns were (i-
tuated at the fame distance from the centre, one of
which was placed on a hill, and the other on a plain,
it was found that the town on the lowed; fituation al*
ways fuftained the greateft damage from the fhocks of
the earthquakes which are alluded to above.
That part of Calabria which moft feverely felt this
dreadful calamity, lies between the 38th and 39th de¬
grees of latitude, and the force of the earthquake ex¬
tended from the foot of the Appenines called Monte
Dijo, Monte Sacro, and Monte Caulene, as far to the
weftward as the Tyrrhene fea. By the flrock of the
5th of February, every torvn, village, and farm-houfe
neareft to the mountains, w’hether fituated on fome part
of the elevated ground or on the plain, wras left a heap
of ruins. In proportion to the diitance from the centre,
as has been already hinted, the damage fuflained was
more or lefs confiderable. But even the more diftant
towns and villages fuffered greatly from the fhocks
which happened on the 7th, 26th, and 28th of Fe¬
bruary, and on the ill of March. From the time the
firft (hock came on, the earth continued in a condant
tremor ; the fhocks were felt with different degrees of
force in different parts of the provinces which were the
fcene of this terrible calamity ; and the motion was ei¬
ther in a whirling direftion, as in a vortex, or horizon¬
tal, or pulfatory, the beatings proceeding from the bot¬
tom upwards. The apprehenfions and alarms of the
miferable inhabitants were terribly increafed by this va¬
riety of changing motions, dreading that every moment
the earth would open under their feet and fwallow
them up. That part of Calabria which fuffered from
this earthquake, w7as alfo drenched with long continued
and heavy rains, accompanied with frequent and furious
fqualls of wind. Thefe rains prevailed particularly on
the w'eftern fide, wdiere many fiflures had appeared in
the mountains. Some mountains had been lowered
greatly, and others had been entirely fwallowred up.
The roads were rendered impaffable by the deep chafrns
w'hich w’ere left by the fhock \ valleys were filled up
by the parts of mountains wdiich were fplit afunder ;
the courfe of rivers was changed ; fprings were dried
up, and new fprings burft out where none exiffed be¬
fore.
At Laureana in Farther Calabria, two houfes, fur-
rounded with extenfive plantations of olive and mul¬
berry trees, fituated in a valley, vrere removed by the
force of the earthquake, with all their trees, and car¬
ried to the diftance of a mile ; and on the fpot where
they formerly flood, hot water burft from the earth,
and w^as projedled to a confiderable height into the air.
The water was mixed with faud of a reddifh colour.
Some countrymen and (hepherds, who were employed
in rural affairs near this fpot, were fwallowed up, with
their teams of oxen, and their whole flocks of goats
and (beep. The number of inhabitants who loft their
lives in this calamity, exceeded, according to fome cal¬
culations, 3 2,000 3 but it is fuppofed by others, that,
including flrangers, the number wyas not lefs than
40,000.
; O G Y. 61 £
The inhabitants of the towrn of Scilla, on the firft Earth-
ftiock of the earthquake on the 5th of February, had quakes and
fled along with their prince to the fea fhore for fafety,, ^ jl^anoe7
and remained either on the ftrand or in boats near the
fhore. In the night time a tremendous wave overflow7-
ed the land to the diftance of three miles from the fhore,
and, in its return, fwept off near 3000 of the inhabitants,
among whom was the prince. This wrater was faid by
fome to have been boiling hot, fo that many of the peo¬
ple were fuppofed to have been fcalded with it. A
mountain, it is afferted, of 500 palms in height, and
1300 palms in circumference at its bafe, wras detached
from the place where it flood, and carried to the di¬
ftance of four miles. It was about the fame time that
the hill on wThich the town of Oppido flood, and which
extended three miles in length, wras fplit in two, and
filled up on each fide the bed of a river. Two great
lakes wTere formed by the current of the rivers being
flopped 3 and, as they increafed in extent, infedled the
air with their putrid and noifome exhalations.
Sir William Hamilton, who wras then refident at Na¬
ples as ambaffador from Britain, was indefatigable in
obtaining every kind of information wuth regard to the
effects of this earthquake. With this view he made an
extenfive tour over thofe parts of the country which had
been vifited by this calamity. Some of the accounts
which were firft publilhed feemed to have been fome-
what exaggerated, either from the love of the marvellous
in thofe who framed them, or from the exceflive alarms
of the furviving fufferers. On the 2d of May following
Sir William landed on the coaft of Nether Calabria.
The effeffs of the earthquake were firft perceived at
Cedraro. The inhabitants had quitted their houfes,
but it did not appear that the town had fuftained any
material damage. Moft of the inhabitants of St Lu-
cido were then living in barracks, and the baron’s
palace, as well as the church fteeple, had fuffered
greatly. He afterwards landed at the town of Pizzo
in Farther Calabria. This town flood on volcanic tufa.
It fuftained great injury from the fhock of the 5th Fe¬
bruary, but was completely deftroyed by that of the
28th. Flere he was informed, that Stromboli, a vol¬
canic mountain which is nearly oppofite, and in full
view, but 50 miles diftant, had ejedled much lefs mat¬
ter, and had thrown up lefs fmoke, during the time of
the earthquakes, than it had done for many years be¬
fore. Even at this time flight ihocks of earthquakes
were occafionally felt. One indeed happened the fame
night. The boat in which he flept received a fmart fhock,
and feemed to be lifted out of the water 3 but this fhock
was unaccompanied with noife.
The town of Monteleone is fituated on a hill which
overlooks fome fine rich plains and the fep below.
Thefe plains, formerly covered with numerous towns and
villages, now exhibited a gloomy fcene of utter defola-
tion. The town of Monteleone itfelf had not fuffered
materially from the firft fhock on the 5th of February 3
bnt it was confiderably damaged by fome of thofe which
took place afterwards. It was generally obferved, that
the fhocks of the earthquake came on with a rattling
noife, which feemed to proceed from the weftward.
They ufually began with a horizontal motion, and ter¬
minated with a whirling motion, during which moft of
the buildings in the province were thrown down. It
was generally obferved too, that previous to a ihock the
4 H 2 clouds
612 G E O I
Easth- clouds feemed to be unufually flill and motionlefs,
quakes and ancj a [jlocji quickly fucceeded a heavy (bovver of
Volcanoes. . 1 J
. rain.
Approaching the plain, it was obferved, according to
the general remark made above, that the towns and
villages were more or lefs defolated in ,proportion to
their vicinity to the plain. Of the town of Mileto,
which (food in a bottom, not a houfe remained. Sori¬
ano and the noble Dominican convent prefented a heap
of ruins. According to the fame general remark, all
the buildings- which itood upon the high grounds, the
foil of which is a gritty fandftone, fuftained leis da¬
mage than thofe (ituated in the plain, for the latter were
imiverfally thrown down. The foil of the plain is a
fandy clay of various colours, and full of fea (hells. It is
frequently interfetled by rivers and torrents which have
formed wide and deep ravines. Palling through St
Pietro, a towm in ruins, Sicily was feen and the lum-
mit of Mount fEtna, which at this time threw out a con-
(iderable quantity of fmoke. In a fvvampy plain through
which he paifed, Sir William examined a number of
fmall holes in the earth, of the fhape of an inverted
cone. Thefe holes were covered with find as well as
the furrounding foil. During the earthquake of the
5th of February, wTater mixed with Vud fpouted up to
a confiderable height from each of thefe openings.
The river, it was obferved, before thefe fountains buril
out, was dried up $ but foon after the waters returned,
and overflowed their banks. It appeared from more ex-
tenfive obfervation, that the fame thing had uniformly
happened to all the other rivers in the plain during the
(hock of the 5th of Febmary. This has been afcribed
to the firfl: impulfe of the earthquake proceeding from
the bottom upwards, and this feemed to be the general
opinion. The furface of the plain then riling fuddenly,
the rivers which are (hallow' naturally difappeared ; and
the plain returning with violence to its former level,
the rivers returned and overflow’ed from the hidden de-
preflion of the boggy grounds, which would naturally
force out the water under their furface.
The town of Rofarno, with the duke of Monteleone’s
palace, was a heap of ruins; fix feet high of the walls on¬
ly remained. It was fomewhat lingular, that the only
building which efcaped uninjured was the public jail.
At Laureana Sir William afcertained the truth of the
circumftance of the two tenements which w’ere faid to
have been removed from their fituations. Thefe (food
in a valley furrounded with high grounds. In the fame
valley wTere obferved hollows in the form of inverted
cones fimilar to thofe which he had formerly examined.
Between this place and the town ot Pohftene he did
not fee a (ingle houfe, after travelling four days through
a rich and beautiful country. Every thing prefented
the mod mdefcnbable mifery : the violence of the earth-
quake_ was fo great that all the inhabitants w'ere buried
in an inilant alive or dead in the ruins of their houfes.
This town was lituated between two rivers that were
occafiomjlly fubjeft to overflow their banks. Of fix thou-
fand inhabitants, more than two thoufirnd loft their lives
by the (hock on the 5th of February.
The princess Gerace Grimaldi, with four thoufand
of her fubjefts, periftied at Caial Nuova on the fame
day ; fome perfons w’ho were dug alive out of the ruins
obferved, that they felt their houfes fairly lifted up
Without any previous warning. An inhabitant of this
O G Y. Chap. IV.
town, being at that moment on a hill which overlooked Earth-
the plain, when he felt the (hock turned round towards !Tia|^fsanc*
the town, but he could fee nothing excepting a thick ^
white cloud of duft. So completely wras this town de-
ftroyed, that no veftige of houfe or ftreet remained ; all
lay in the fame confufed heap of ruins. Other towns
had fuffered in the fame manner, and now exhibited the
(ame fcene of defolation.
Terra Nuova fuffered feverely from the fame earths
quake. It is fituated between two rivers which had
formed deep and wide ravines in their courfe ; one of
thefe wras not lefs than 500 feet deep, and three quar¬
ters of a mile broad. In confequence of the great
depth of this ravine, and the violent motion of the
earth, two large maffes of the foil on which a great
part of the town, confiding of fome hundred houfes,
had been thrown into the ravine at the diftance of half
a mile from the place w'here they formerly flood.
Many of the inhabitants who had been carried along
with their houfes, were dug out of the ruins alive, and
even Come of them efcaped unhurt. Of 1600 inhabi¬
tants, 400 only remained alive. In other places in the
fame neighbourhood, great trails of land had been re¬
moved and carried to a confiderable diftance, with all
their plantations and crops, which continued to grow
and thrive in their new fituation as well as formerly.
The river here difappeared ;at the moment of the earth¬
quake ; but foon after returned, and covered the bottom
of the ravine to the depth of three feet. This water
was obferved to be fait like that of the fea.
The whole towm of Molochi di Sotto had been
thrown into the ravine, and a vineyard of many acres
lay near it in an inclined fituation, but had not fuffered
any other injury. In feveral parts of the plain, the foil,
with all its trees and crops of corn, to the extent of
many acres, had funk eight and ten feet below the
level of the plain ; and in other places it had rifen the
fame height. The foil of this plain, it is to be ob¬
ferved, is compofed of clay mixed with fand, which
readily affumes any form.
Sir William next proceeded to Oppido, wdnch, it will Deftruftion
be recolle&ed, was confidered as the central point on of Oppido.
which the greateft force of the earthquake was exerted.
This city (lands on a mountain of gritftone of a reddifti
colour. It is furrounded by two rivers, v;hich run in a
deep ravine. It had been reported, that the mountain
on which the city (lands, had been fplit in two, and
(lopped up the courfe of the rivers ; but it appeared on
examination, that huge maffes of the plain on the edge
of the ravine, had been detached into it, and had fo
far filled it up, as to (lop the courfe of the rivers, the
waters of which were collecling, and forming lakes to
a great extent. Part of the rock, it was found, on
which the city flood, was feparated, and with feveral
houfes upon it, was thrown into the ravine. Great
tradls of land, with plantations of vines and olives,
were tranfported from one fide of the ravine to the other,
to a diftance exceeding half a mile.
“ Having walked, (lays Sir William,) over the ruins
of Oppido, I defcended into the ravine, and examined
carefully the whole of it. Here I faw, indeed, the
wonderful force of the earthquake, which has produced
exadlly the fame effefts as thofe defcribed in the ravine
at Terra Nuova, but on a fcale infinitely greater. The
enormous maffes of the plain detached from each fide
of
Chap. IV. G E O I
Earth- of the ravine, lie fometimes in confufed heaps, forming
quakes and reai mountains, and having flopped the courfe of two
Volcanoes. rjverg ^one 0f which is very conflderable), great lakes
are already formed ; and if not aflifted by nature or art
fo as to give the rivers their due courfe, mufl infallibly
be the caufe of a general infection in the neighbour¬
hood. Sometimes I met with a detached piece of the
furface of the plain (of many acres in extent) with the
large oaks and olive trees, with corn or lupins under
them, growing as well and in as good order at the bot¬
tom of the ravine, as their companions from w-hence
they were feparated do on their native foil, at lead 500
feet higher, and at the diftance of about three quarters
of a mile. I met with whole vineyards in the - fame
order in the bottom, that bad likewdfe taken the fame
journey. As the banks of the ravine from whence
thefe pieces came are now bare and perpendicular, I
perceived that the upper foil was a reddiib earth, and
the under one a Tandy white clay, very compaft, and
like a foft done. The impulfe thefe huge maffes re¬
ceived, either from the violent motion of the earth
alone, or that affifted with the additional one of the
volcanic exhalations fet at liberty,* feems to have afled
with greater force on the lowrer and more compaft ftra-
tum than on the upper cultivated cruft : for I conftant-
ly obferved, where thefe cultivated lands lay, the
under ftratum of compaft clay had been driven fome
hundred yards farther, and lay in confufed blocks ;
and, as I obferved, many of thefe blocks were in a cu¬
bical form. The under foil, having had a greater im¬
pulfe, and leaving the upper in its flight, naturally
accounts for the order in which the trees, vineyards,
and vegetation fell, and remain at prefent in the bot¬
tom of the ravine.
“ In another part of the bottom of the ravine there
is a mountain compofed of the fame clay foil, and
which was probably a piece of the plain detached by
an earthquake at fome former period : it is about 250
feet high, and 400 feet diameter at its bafis. This
mountain, as is w^ell attefted, has travelled down the
ravine near four miles 5 having been put in motion by
the earthquake of the 5th of February. The abun¬
dance of rain which fell at that time, the great weight
of the freih detached pieces of the plain which I faw
heaped up at the back of it, the nature of the foil of
, which it is compofed, and particularly its fituation on
a declivity, account well for this phenomenon; where¬
as the reports which came to Naples of a mountain
having leaped four miles, had rather the appearance of
a miracle. I found fome Angle timber trees alfo with
a lump of their native foil at their roots, ftanding up¬
right in the bottom of the ravine, and which had been
detached from the bottom of the plain above mention¬
ed. I obferved alfo, that many confufed heaps of the
loofe foil, detached by the earthquake from the plains,
on each Ade of the ravine, had adftually run like a volca¬
nic lava (having probably been aflilted by the heavy
rain), and produced many effedts much refembling thofe
of lava during their courfe down a great part of the ra¬
vine. At Santa Chriftina, near Oppido, the like phe¬
nomena have been exhibited, and the great force of the
earthquake of the 5th of February feems to have been
exerted on thefe parts, and at Cafal Nuova, and Terra
Nuova.”
The next places which were viAted were the towns
, O G Y. 613
of Seminara and Palmi. Palmi is nearer the fea, and Earth-
had fuftered moft j not fewer than 1400 of the inhabi- ^1;ikesamt
tants having been deftroyed. In the courfe of his tour
in this part of the country, he was informed that the fea
was obferved to be hot, and Are was feen iffuing from
the earth.
At Reggio, although the Ihock had been much lefs
violent than in other places, no houfe was yet habi¬
table. During the earthquakes which viAted this place
in 1770 and 1780, near 17,000 inhabitants lived for
feveral months encamped in the Aelds, or in barracks.
Plaving examined the different places on the Cala¬
brian coaft, which had fuffered from this terrible earth¬
quake, Sir William Hamilton failed for Medina in Si- •
cily, to be informed of its eftecls there. He found that
the (hock had been very violent, but far lefs fo than on
the oppoAte ihores. Many of the houfes, even in the
lower part of the to war, were flanding, and fome of
them had furtained little damage ; but in the more ele¬
vated Atuations the fhocks feemed to have had fcarcely ,
any effedf. This ftill correfponds with the general re¬
mark, which w^as already made. A ftriking inftance
of this appeared in two convents, which are Atuated on
elevated places, and had fuffered nothing from the
earthquakes which had afflidled the country for four
months. It vTas faid that Are had been feen iffuing
from Affures of the earth near the fhore. The fliock of
the earthquake on the 5th of February, feemed to pro¬
ceed from the bottom upwards; but the fucceeding
fliocks came on with a horizontal or whirling motion.
A remarkable circumftance with regard to Aih, was
taken notice of at Meflina, and indeed the fame thing
was obferved along the coaft of Calabria, where the
effedfs of the earthquake had been moft fevere. A
fmall ftfti, fomewhat larger than the Englilh white bait,
but refembling it, and which ufually lies at the bottom
of the fea, buried in fand, had remained for feveral
months after the commencement of the earthquakes,
near the furface, and was taken in great abundance to
be the common food of poor people. Before the earth¬
quake, this Aih was extremely rare, and was conAdered
as a great delicacy. After the earthquake, indeed, it
was obferved, that Aih of all kinds were found in great¬
er abundance.
Thefe earthquakes, of which we have now given
fo detailed an account, continued for many months
afterwards j tremulous motions of the earth continued
to be felt, and they were not perfedtly fettled even in
the year 1784. _ . 223
The fouthern continent of America is often viAted Earth-
by earthquakes. In the year 1797, Peru was afflidtedquakesin
with this dreadful calamity, which perhaps in the ex-^eru*
tent of furface which experienced the dreadful fliock,
exceeds that of any earthquake, the hiftory of which is
on record. The following is a iliort account of this
earthquake, by M. Cavanilles. “ In the midft, (fays
he), of the moft profound calm, there is frequently
heard a dreadful bellowing noife, the forerunner of
earthquakes, to which this part of the world is often
expofed. After the year 1791, this noife was frequent¬
ly heard in the neighbourhood of the mountain of
Tunguragua. Antonio Pineda and Nee, the two na-
turalills employed in the expedition round the world,
when examining the declivity of this volcano, the lava
of which had been hardened more by the internal Are
than.
614 G E O I
t:arth- 'than by the ardour of the fun, were ftruck with terror
quakes and by the horrible found which they heard, and the ht'at
^ ° ' wbjcb they experienced. Pineda, that valuable mem¬
ber of fociety, whofe premature death is (till deplored
by the friends of fcience, foretold that a terrible erup¬
tion was preparing in the mountain of i unguragua ;
and his conjeflures were confirmed by the event. On
the 4th of February 1797, at three quarters paft feven
in the morning, the fummit of the volcano was more
free from vapours than ufual; the interior part of the
mountain was agitated by frequent fhocks, and the ad¬
jacent chains burft in fuch a manner, that in the fpace
of four minutes an immenfe tract of country was con-
vulfed by an undulating movement. Never did hiitory
relate the effects of an earthquake fo extraordinary,
and never did any phenomenon of nature produce more
misfortunes, or deftroy a greater number of human be¬
ings. A number of towns and villages were deftroy-
ed in a moment : fome of them, fuch as Riobamba,
Quero, Pelileo, Patate, Pillaro, were buried under the
ruins of the neighbouring mountains ; and others in the
jurifditflions of Harnbata, Latacunga, Guaranda, Rio¬
bamba, and Alaufi, were entirely overthrown. Some
fuftained prodigious lofs by the gulfs which were form¬
ed, and by the reflux of rivers intercepted in their
courfe by mounds of earth 5 and others, though in
part faved, were in fuch a {battered ftate as to threaten
their total ruin. The number of perfons who periflred
during the firfl and fucceeding (hocks is eftimated at
j 6,000. At ten o’clock in the morning, and four in
the afternoon, the fame day, (February 4.) after a
dreadful noife, the earth was again agitated with great
violence, and it did not ceafe to (hake, though faintly,
for the whole months of February and March ; but, at
three quarters paft two in the morning of the 5th of
April, the villages already ruined were again expofed
to fuch violent (hocks as would have been fufikient to
deftroy them. This extraordinary phenomenon was
felt throughout the extent of 140 leagues from eaft to
weft, from the fea as far as the river Napo •, and with¬
out doubt farther, for we are little acquainted with
thefe diftridls which are inhabited by the favages. The
diftance north-eaft and fouth-weft between Popayan and
Piura, is reckoned to be 170 leagues*, but in the cen¬
tre of that diftridt, 1 degree i6‘6 from thefe places, is
fttuated the part totally deftroyed, and which compre¬
hends 40 leagues from north to fouth between Guaran-
dam and Machache, and twenty leagues from eaft to
weft. But, as if an earthquake alone had not been fuf-
ficient to rqin this fertile and populous country, another
misfortune, hitherto unknown, was added. The earth
opened,_ and formed immenfe gulfs $ the fummits of the
mountains tumbled down into the valleys, and from
the fiffures in their fides there iffued an immenfe quan¬
tity of fetid water, which in a little time filled up
valleys a thoufand feet in depth and fix hundred in
O G Y. ' Chap. IV.
breadth. It covered the villages, buildings, and in- Earth-
habitants •, choaked up the fources of the pureft fprings, quakes and
and being condenfed by deiiccation, in the courfe of a ^ oh sucks.
few days into an earthy and hard pafte, it intercepted
the courfe of rivers, made them flow backwards for the
fpace of 87 days, and converted whole diftridts of dry
land into lakes. Very extraordinary phenomena, which
will doubtlefs be one day mentioned in hiftory, occurred
during thefe earthquakes j I (hall, however, content my-
felf with mentioning only two of them. At the (ame
moment that the earth (hook, the lake of Quirotoa,
near the village of Infiloc, in the jurifdidlion of Lata¬
cunga, took (ire, and the vapour which rofe from it fuf-
focated the cattle and flocks that were feeding in the
neighbourhood. Near the village of Pelileo, a large
mountain named Moya, which was overturned in an in-
ftant, threw out a prodigious ftream of the before-men¬
tioned thick fetid matter, which deftroyed and covered
the miferable remains of that city. Naturalifts will one
day find, in thefe ravaged countries, objefts worthy of
their refearches. Fragments of the minerals and earths
of Tunguragua are about to be tranfported to Spain :
but it is not in fuch fragments that we ought to fearch
for the caufe of thefe furpriling phenomena j we muft
vifit the country itfelf, where this conflift of the ele¬
ments took place, and where the ruins it occafioned are
ftill to be feen (g.)” 224
To the hiftory of earthquakes now given, wTe (hall Scotland,
only add the following account of the earthquakes
which have taken place at Comrie in Perthlhire, in
Scotland, which was communicated to the Royal So¬
ciety of Edinburgh, by Dr Finlayfon, in a letter from
Mr Taylor.
“ The earthquakes which have lately (January 1790)
taken place at Comrie (h) and its neighbourhood, are
certainly very deferving of attention I (hall therefore
cheerfully comply with your requeft, and give you as
particular a defcription. as I can of fuch of them as have
been moft remarkable. To give a particular account
of all the noifes or concuilions which, during the laft
half year, have been heard or felt at Comrie, and with¬
in a (hort diftance to the north, eaft, and weft of that
village, is beyond my power, and would indeed be of
little ufe. With regard to thefe fmall concuftions, it
will be fufficient to fay, that many of them have fome-
times been obferved to fuccied one another in the fpace
of a few hours j that they take place in all kinds of
weather j that they are thought by fome people to pro¬
ceed from north-weft to fouth-eaft, *and by others from
north-eaft to fouth-weft j that they have not been ob¬
ferved to affeft the barometer that they do not extend
in any diredlion above three or four miles from Comrie ;
and that towards the fouth they are bounded by the
Earn, which is in the immediate vicinity of the village.
The fame perfon, though bellowing the minuted atten¬
tion, is often uncertain whether they proceed from the
earth
(g) The volcano of Tunguragua occafioned an earthquake in 1557.
(h) Comrie is a village about 22 miles weft of Perth, fituated in the valley of Strathearn, and on the north
fide of the river Earn, about four miles below the place where it iffues from the lake. The remains of a Roman
camp on the oppofite fide of the river, have made the name of this village very well known to Scottifli anti¬
quaries.
1
Chap. IV. GEO
Earth- earth or from the air, fometimes believing them to come
quakes and from the one, and fometimes from the other $ neither
Volcanoes, do all agree with refpecf to the feat of any one of them.
“ After the ftriddeft inquiry, I find it impoflible to de¬
termine with accuracy the date of any of the concuf-
fions which took place before the 2d of September laft.
Some people in the neighbourhood of Killin affert pofi-
tively, that they heard unufual rumbling noifes in the
month of May •, but the impreffion which thefe noifes
made was fo faint, that they would probably have been
foon forgotten altogether, had they not been fucceeded
by concuflions of a lefs equivocal nature. Towards the
end of Auguft, tvco or three (hocks are faid to have
been felt at Dundurn, Dunira Lodge and Comrie 5 but
I have not been able to learn the precife day or hour
on which any of them happened. The truth is, the
concuflions hitherto obferved were feeble, and the
minds of the people feem not to have been roufed to
particular attention till the 2d of September. About
eleven o’clock that evening, a fmart (nock was felt at
Comrie. I myfelf heard here, for the firft time, a rum¬
bling noife, which I took for that of a large table,
dragged along the floor above (fairs, and which I pro¬
bably would never have thought of again, unlefs my
attention had been turned to it by the alarm which it
had excited in the neighbourhood. Many other fee¬
ble noifes or concuffions are faid to have been obferved
in Glen Leadnach and about Comrie during the months
of September and Offober. At that time, however, I
confeis I was difpofed to doubt the numerous reports of
earthquakes with which the country was filled, and to
afcribe them to the workings of an imagination, on
which the alarm of the 2d of September (fill continued
to be imprefled.
“ On the 5th of November, a concuflion took place
two or three minutes before fix o’clock P. M. which
was too violent to be milfaken. Some compared the
noife w'hich accompanied it to that of heavy loaded
waggons, dragged with great velocity along a hard
road or pavement, and thought, that it pafled under
their feet. To me it feemed as if an enormous weight
had fallen from the roof of the houfe, and rolled with
impetuofity along the floor of the rooms above 5 and it
mud have made a (imilar impreflion on the fervants, for
fome of them inflantly ran up (fairs to difcover what
had happened. Others -were fenflble of a tremulous
motion in the earth, perceived the flames of the candles
to vibrate, and obferved the mirrors and kitchen-uten-
fils placed along the wralls to (hake and clatter. There
is alfo reafon to believe, that the waters in the loch of
Monivaird, in the near neighbourhood of Ochtertyre,
fuffered unufual agitation, as the wild fowl then upon
the loch were heard to fcream and flutter. The noife
on this occafion, as far as I can judge, did not lad
above ten or twelve feconds. During the courfe of the
day, the mercury in the barometer rofe and fell feveral
times, and at fix o’clock it dood at 28^ inches. The
(ky.w’as then perfedfly ferene, and hardly a breath of
wind was to be felt ; but next morning, about fix
o’clock, a violent temped rofe, which raged without
intermidion for 24 hours.
“ At Glen Leadnach, Comrie and Lawers, this con-
cudion w?.s much more violent, and the noife that ac¬
companied it much more alarming. The inhabitants
of thefe places, and of Aberuchili and Dunira, declare,
LOG Y. 615
that they perceived didin&ly the earth heaving under Earth-
them, and the motion communicated to their chairs,
and other furniture. They imagined that the datesVu c^oes'J
and dories were .tumbling from their houfes, and many
of them ran out in the greated trepidation'from the
notion, that the roofs were falling in. Even the do-
medic animals were alarmed, and contributed, by their
howls and fcreams, to increafe the terrors of the people.
Though I have not been able to difcover whether Loch
Earn was ever agitated by thefe concudions, there is
little doubt, that the river near Comrie was afifedfed on
this occafion, as two men then on its banks heard the
dafliing of its waters. This great (hock was fucceeded
by a number of thofe (lighter rumbling noifes which
have been already mentioned. Not lefs than 30 of
them were counted in the fpace of two hours after it
happened } but they did not extend above two miles to
the ead, north and well of Comrie.
“ On the 1 Oth of November, at three o’clock P. M.
we had here another ffcock of much the fame length,
violence and extent, as that on the 5th. The mercury
in the barometer on this day was more dationary than
on the former, and at the time of the earthquake was
29 inches high. The weather was calm and hazy. It
was a market-day at Comrie •, and the people, who
were aflembled from all parts of the country, felt as if
the mountains were to tumble indantly upon their
heads. The hard-ware expofed for fale in the (hops
and booths (hook and clattered, and the horfes crowd¬
ed together with figns of unufual terror.
“ About one o’clock P. M. of the 29th December,
we had another pretty fmart (hock, during a violent
dorm of wind and rain, which continued the whole
day, and which was at its height during the time of
the earthquake. Indeed, as has been remarked al¬
ready, thefe concuflions feem to have no dependence
on the weather. According to the accounts of thofe
who live neared to the centre of the phenomena, rum¬
bling noifes, like thofe above defcribed, may be heard
in all dates of the atmofphere.
“ Though I mention no more of thefe earthquakes,
you are not to conclude, that many more have not
taken place, and fome of them perhaps equally violent
with thofe of the 5th and 10th of November. Several
(hocks have happened during the (tillnefs of the night,
which, even at this didance from Comrie, where their
centre feems to be, have been abundantly terrifying.
But the great refemblance, or rather the perfedl fimi-
larity of their edecls, and of the impreflion they make
on our minds, renders it unnecefiary for me trouble
you with a particular defcription of each of them.
“ The diredlion of all the noifes or concuflions I
have obferved, great as well as (mail, appeared to be
in the fame line from N. W. to S. E. Others defcribe
them as fometimes proceeding in that diredlion, and
fometimes as coming from N. E. to S. W. I have
not heard anyi other line of diredlion afcribed to
them.
“ Upon the fulled enquiry, I find, that thefe earth¬
quakes have been very limited in point of extent. The
greater diocks have been feebly felt at Loch Earn
head, about Killin, and at Ardonich, on the- fouthern
bank of Loch Tay. They do not appear to have ex¬
tended farther eadxvard on that lake •, and, what is •
more remarkable, they have not been felt in Glen Al-
. mond, >
G £ O L
iriond, or tne frnall glen through which the military
road from Crieff to Tay-bridge paffes. The farmer at
Auchnafree, (which lies at the head of Glen Almond,
and is feparated from Glen Leadnach only by the
mountain Benechoni, over the northern fide of which
his ilvepherds daily travel), has affured me, that neither
he, nbr any of his people, have been at any time fen-
fible of the leaf! extraordinary noife or concuffion.
Towards the caff, the two firff great fhocks extended
to Monzie, Cultoquhey and Dollary, about feven miles
diftant from Comrie. The Ihock of the 5th of No¬
vember reached flill farther, and was felt, though but
faintly, at Ardoch and Drummond Cattle towards the
S. E. In the direction of the fouth, however, the
banks of the Earn feem to be its general boundary, as
the noife of the moft violent concuflions was heard but
faintly at the manfe of Comrie, and along the ftrath
on the fouth fide of the river. The limits of the leffer
Cbncuffions, I am confident, do not extend above three
miles in any direction from their centre. They are
commonly obferved at Lawers on the eaft ; throughout
the whole of Glen Leadnach, at Dunira, Dalchonzie
and Aberuchill, on the north and weft ; and do not
reach fo far as the manfe, which is about three quarters
of a mile on the fouth of Comrie (1).”
In another communication, dated in 1793, from the
fame gentleman, he obferves, that “ there is no reafon
to believe that thefe phenomena are yet come to an
end. After temporary intermiflions, fometimes of fe-
veral months, they have returned, ever fince their firft
appearance in 1789, without any apparent difference
in their extent or force. The rumbling noifes or
{lighter concuffions, as ufual, are obferved at Comrie,
in Glen Leadnach, and the places in their near neigh¬
bourhood the more violent extend to much the fame
diftance as formerly deferibed. Having been only oc-
cafionally iti that country fince February 1791, I have
not been able to afeertain dates. On the 2d of Sep¬
tember 1791, at five minutes paft five in the afternoon,
a flight fhock wras felt at Ochtertyre. The barometer
was not in order, on which account the weight of the
atmofphere could not be afeertained. Its elettrical
ftate was tried by Sauffure’s eleftrometer, but no indi¬
cation of any thing uncommon was perceived. Since
that period, ftiocks have been obferved at different
times till within thefe few weeks paft.
“ From this account, it will be obferved, that all the
greater ftiocks have taken place in the feafon of autumn
or the beginning of winter 3 that this has been now re-
Earth-
quakesand
Volcanoes
225
O G Y. Chap. IV.
peated for more than four years; and that thole greater
ftiocks have been fucceeded at ihort intervals by rum¬
bling noifes or more feeble concuflions. It has alfo
been remarked, that they have in general been pre¬
ceded or followed by great rains or boifterous weather ;
but variations in the weather take place fo frequently
in our climate at that feafon of the year, that the con-
neclion between them and the phenomena above deferib¬
ed, is probably altogether accidental.”
After the view which we have given of the phene-Cautefof
mena and hiftory of earthquakes, v/e now’ proceed to earfS-
the confideration of the caufes, by the operation of^ua^e?'
which, according to the {peculations of philofophers,
thefe terrible convuliiom of nature, which fpread ruin
and defolation in fome of the faired portions of the
earth, are to be accounted for. Various opinions have
been formed, and various hypotheles have been propol-
ed, lor the explanation of thefe dreaded phenomena.
According to fome of the ancient philofophers, fubter-
raneous clouds exifted in the internal 'Cavities of the
earth, and thefe burfting into lightning, ftiook and de-
molithed the vaults which contained them. This was 226
the opinion of Anaxagoras. It was fuppofed by others, according
that earthquakes were owing to the falling in of im-t0 the an~
menfe arched roofs, which confined fubterraneous fires; cleilts’
the vaults or arches being weakened by the conftant
burning of thefe fires. Some aferibed earthquakes to
the vapour of w-ater which was produced, and greatly
rarefied, by means of internal fires, w'hile others, among
whom w’as Epicurus and fome of the peripatetic phi¬
lofophers, fought for the explanation of the phenomena
of earthquakes, in the explofion of certain inflammable
fubftances, wdiich were exhaled from the internal cavi¬
ties of the earth. 22y
Some of the modern philofophers, as Gaffendi, Kir- the mo-
cher, Varenius, Des Cartes, and others, have adopted ^era1>*
the laft hypothefis, according to which it is fuppofed,
that there are immenfe cavities in the earth, communi¬
cating wfith each other. Some of thefe cavities contain
W’ater, and others contain vapours and exhalations,
arifing from bituminous, fulphureous, and other in¬
flammable fubftances. Thefe combuilible materials be¬
ing kindled by fome fubterraneous {park, or by fome
affual flame, proceeding through narrow fiffures from
without, or by the heat evolved during the mixture of
different fubftances, and the formation of new ones,
produce commotions on the furface of the earth, ac¬
cording to the extent of the cavities, and the quantity
and active nature of the inflamed matter. Thofe who
fupport
15' . e trac "bicn the concuffions deferibed in this letter appear to have been confined, is a fpace of a
redangular*lonu, which extends from eaft to weft along the north fide of the Earn about 22 miles in length, by
.1 id e mo.v. t jan \e in breadth ; reckoning the utmoft length from about Monzie to the head of Loch Tay,
~h rea dom a idle fouth of the Earn northward to the ridge which feparates the branches of that river
tioin tiO - o tie - uiond. 1 he whole oi this trad; is mountainous, except toward the eaftern extremity, where
d jorn? die ow country, and on the banks of the river Earn on the fouth. It is interfeded by narrow’ glens or
wa eys, tie mo 1 con icera e o. which is Glen Leadnach, where the centre ox the concuffions feems to be placed.
. f Pau °: country has not hitherto been accurately examined; but it is known in general,
,na r C ?5-K ’ tne l)r!-triary ffhiftus,^ and in fome places granite ; that no mineral veins, nor any hot fprinsrs, have
Oven ount m it, an t at no volcanic appearances have been obferved. In the valleys, among the mountain^!
iron ore, o ic in t lat !s called bog ore, is faid to abound. Dr Hutton has remarked, that the line which
enuma es .u.s tacc on tne iouth eaft, .eems to be nearly the fame with that where the primary ftrata fink under
Uie lurface, and are covered by the fecondary or horizontal ftrata. Note by Mr Playfair.”
2
Chap. IV. G E O 1
Earth- fupport tills hypothecs tlilnk, tkat it receives illuftration
quakes and from a commoii experiment of mixing together iron
.Volcanoes- gjjngS an£j fulpllurj anci burying them in the earth j and
in confequence of the chemical aftion of thefe fubftan-
ces on each other, and the elaftic vapours thus produ-
ced, the lhaking of the earth is effedted.
Hypothefis A different hypothecs has been propofed by Dr
of Wood- Woodward. According to this hypothecs, water is
ward. continually raifed by means of fubterraneous heat, from
the abyl’s which he fuppofes to occupy the centre of
the earth, to furniih rain and dew. Obftrudtions may
take place in this procefs of nature, and whenever this
happens, a fwelling and commotion are occafioned by
the heat in the waters of the abyfs. This force is at
the fame time exerted again!! the incumbent llrata, and
thus the agitation and concullion, with the other phe-
nomena which accompany earthquakes, are produced.
Of Amor.- Another hypothelis, different from any of thefe, has
tons. been propofed by M. Amontons, of which the follow¬
ing explanation is given. The atmofphere being taken
at 45 miles high, and the denfity of the air increafing
in proportion to the abfolute height of the fuperincum-
bent column of fluid, it is (hewn that at the depth of
43,528 fathoms below the furface of the earth, the air
is but one-fourth lighter than mercury. But this depth
is only about one feventy-fourth of the femidiameter of
the earth. The immenfe fphere beyond this depth, the
diameter of which is 6,451,538 fathoms, may perhaps
be only filled with air : this air muff be here greatly
condenfed, and heavier than the heavieft bodies with
which we are at prefent acquainted. It is found by
experiment, that the more air is compreffed, the more
do equal degrees of heat increafe its elaftic force, and
the more capable it becomes of producing violent ef-
fe£ls. As, for inftance, the temperature of boiling wa¬
ter increafes the elafticity of the air beyond its natural
force in temperate climates, by a quantity equal to
one-third of the weight with which it is preffed. Hence
It is concluded, that a degree of heat which on the
furface of the earth produces only a moderate effe<ff,
may occaiion violent convulfions by the rarefaftion of
the denfer air at great depths j but if it be confidered
that this condenfed air may be expofed to much higher
degrees of heat than that of boiling water, the elaftic
force of the air thus produced, and aflifted by the great
weight of a high column, may be more than fufficient
to convulfe and break up the folid orb of 43,528
fathoms, the w-eight of which, comparing it with that
of the included air, would be trifling.
Thefe hypothefes, however infufficient they may ap¬
pear for explaining in a fatisfaftory manner the phe¬
nomena of earthquakes, were generally adopted till a-
bout the middle of the 18th century, when the know¬
ledge of eleflricity began to be cultivated and extend¬
ed. This principle was applied fucceflively in the ex¬
planation of many natural phenomena, and, among o-
thers, the phenomena of earthquakes were afcribed to
the fame principle. An earthquake which was felt at
London in the month of March, 1749, direfled the at-
2.0 tention of philofophers to this explanation. The firif
Of Stake- who made this attempt, we believe, was Dr Stukeley,
%• who had been much occupied about that time with
eleftrical experiments. The conftderation of the phe¬
nomena which accompanied this earthquake, led him
to fuppofe that it could not be occafioned by vapours
Vor.. IX. Part II.
, o G Y. 617
generated in the cavities of the earth, or by any pro- Earth-
cefs like fermentation, in which elaftic fluids are form-clualies anc*
ed and difengaged, to which fuch effedfts could be a- ^ olcanoej-<
fcribed. He is of opinion, that no evidence has yet
been brought to eftablifh the probability of the exiil-
ence of extenftve cavities within the earth. On the
contrary, he thinks there is good reafon to prefume,
that it is in a great meafure folid, fo that there is little
ipace for thofe changes which are fuppofed to be eftehl-
ed within the cavities, to take place. Coal pits, he
adds, which have been frequently known to be on fire,
and for a great length of time, never exhibited any of
the phenomena which accompany an earthquake on the
furface of the ground above.
The earthquake which vifited London and other
places of Britain, in March 1749, was felt in a circuit
of 30 miles diameter ; but there w’as no eruption of fire
or vapour, and it wras unattended w-ith fmoke or fmell.
From this coniideration alone, of the extent of furface
which felt the effedts of the earthquake, he fuppofes
that it could not be afcribed to the expanfive force of
fubterraneous vapours ; for, he obferves, fmall fire-balls
which are exploded in the air, emit a fulphureous fmell
to the diftance of feveral miles. Nowq it cannot be
imagined, that fo prodigious a force, adling inilanta-
neoufly, on fo great an extent of ground, fliould nei¬
ther break the furface, nor indicate its prefence either
by the fight or fmell. But if this effedt is to be afcribed
to fermentation, this procefs is not inftantaneous; it con¬
tinues many days, and the evaporation of fuch a quan¬
tity of inflammable matter would require a long fpace
of time. Such an effedl, therefore, can only be account¬
ed for on eledlrical principles, the operation of which is
always inftantaneous.
If earthquakes were occafioned by vapours and fub¬
terraneous fermentations, explofions and eruptions, fuch
proceftes would entirely deitroy fprings and fountains,
wherever they had once exifted. This, however, is con¬
trary to wftiat happens, for although fprings are flopped,
or otherwife changed, previous to an earthquake, or a-
bout the time it happens, they very often recover their
former ftate. In the great earthquake which happened
A. D. 17, in Afia Minor, and which fliook a mafs of
earth 300 miles in diameter, and deftroyed 13 great
cities, neither the fprings nor the face of the country
received any injury.
If it be conftdered, that a fubterraneous power capa¬
ble of moving 30 miles in diameter, as in the earth¬
quake mentioned above, which happened at London,
mull exift: and operate at leal! 15 or 20 miles under
the furface, the hypothefis of earthquakes being oc- '
cafioned by the force of vapours will be found totally
inapplicable, becaufe this force muft movd an inverted
cone of folid earth, the bafe of which is 30 miles in dia¬
meter, and the axis 15 or 20. This is an effe£f which
is impoffible to any known natural power, excepting that
of eledhicity.
But beftdes, no fubterraneous explofion can account
for the lingular effefts of an earthquake on flaps that
are far out in the ocean. It has been already obferved,
that they feem as if they ftruck on a rock, or as if fome
folid body ftruck againlt their bottom. Even fifties, it
is found, are particularly affefted by the flrock of an
earthquake 5 but a fubterraneous explofion could only
produce on the water a gradual fwell. It could not
4 I communicate'
6i8 G E O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
Earth- communicate to it that xmpulfe by which it produces ef-
quaics and fe^s? as ^ were a ftone projefted with great force a-
^ - . gam it iolicl bodies.
From the confideratxon of all thefe circmnftances,
Dr Stukeley is of opinion, that the phenomena of earth¬
quakes can only be fatisfadlorily explained on eleftrical
principles. Fie was particularly led to this opinion by
directing his attention to the phenomena which accom¬
panied the earthquakes which took place in England in
1749 and 1750. For five or fix months previous to
this time, the weather had been unufually warm ; the
wind wras from the fouth and fouth-weft, and there had
been no rain, fo that the earth w7as particularly prepared
to receive an eledrical Ihock. The flat country of Lin-
colnlhire had fuffered greatly from extreme drought,
and hence, as dry weather is favourable to eleftricity,
earthquakes and other fimilar phenomena are more fre¬
quent in fouthern regions of the world. Before the
earthquake at London, all vegetables had been unufual¬
ly premature, and it is well knowm how much eleftri-
city quickens vegetation. About the fame time the
aurora borealis had been very frequent. A very fhort
time before the earthquake, it had exhibited unufual
colours, and its motions were to the fouth, contrary to
the ordinary direftion. From thefe circtimftances an
earthquake was predicted by Italians and others who
had been accuflomed to the appearances which precede
them. During this year, too, meteors of different kinds,
as fire-balls, lightnings, and corufcations, had been com¬
mon ; and particularly it was obferved in the night pre¬
ceding the earthquake, and early in the morning on
the day'on which it happened, that corufcations wrere
very frequent. In thefe circumltances nothing wras
wanting to produce an earthquake, according to this
hypothefis, but the touch of a non-eleftric body. This
body muff be derived from the air or atmofphere ; hence
it is inferred, that if a non-eledfric could difeharge its
contents upon any part of the earth, in this prepared
and highly eledlrical ffate, a violent commotion or
earthquake muff be produced ; and as the difeharge
from an excited tube produces a fliock on the human
body, fo the difeharge of electric matter from an ex¬
tent of many miles of folid earth, muff produce an
earthquake. The rattling, uncouth noife which attends
it, is to be aferibed to the fnap which is occafioned by
the contaft.
Before the earthquake alluded to came on, a black
cloud fuddenly covered the atmofphere to a great ex¬
tent *, the difeharge of a lhow7er, according to this hy¬
pothefis, probably occafioned the fliock 5 and as the
eledirical fnap precedes the fhock, a found was obferved
to roll from the I hames towards Temple-bar, before
the motion of the houfes ceafed. This noife, which is
generally the forerunner of earthquakes, it is fuppofed
can only be accounted for on the principles of eleflri-
city. The contrary to this wmuld take place, were thefe
phenomena owing to fubterraneous eruptions. The
flames and fulphureous fraells which accompany earth¬
quakes, might, it is thought, be more eafily accounted
for on the fame principles, than by eruptions from the
bowels of the earth. The hidden concuffion, too, feems
to be produced by a motion which could only be ex¬
cited by eledtricity, not proceeding from any convul-
fion in the interior parts of the earth, but from a uni¬
form vibration along its furff.ee, like that of a muligal
firing, or like the vibratory motion of a glafs, when Kart ti¬
the edge is rubbed with the finger. From the circum-at,d
fiance that earthquakes are chietiy fatal to places near ^ olranoes.^
the fea coafts, along the courfe of rivers, and elevated
fituations, a farther proof is derived, that they depend
on the operation of eledlricity. The courfe or direc¬
tion which the earthquake above alluded to took, af¬
fords an illuftration of this point. Another argument
in favour of the eledlrical hypothefis, is drawn from the
eftedls of the earthquake, or the flate of the weather
at the time, on perfons of weak or nervous conflitu-
tions. To fome thefe diforders proved at that time fatal;
and its effedls, in general, were fimilar to thofe of arti¬
ficial eledlricity.
A fimilar hypothefis was propofed by Beccaria, toQfBecca-
account for the phenomena of earthquakes. He fup-m.
pofes that the eledlric matter to which thefe phenome¬
na are owing, is lodged deep in the earth, and that it
is this matter difeharged from the earth, to reftore the
equilibrium or deficiency which the clouds in the atmo¬
fphere have fuflained during thunder florms, by giving
out their eleftrical matter to another part of the earth.
This, he fuppofes, is confirmed by the noife refembling
thunder, and the flafhes of lightning which are perceived
during earthquakes.
Dr Prieftley propofes to conftruft, on the princx-Q^p^*^
pies of Stukeley and Beccaria, an hypothefis wdiich he ler.
thinks will explain the phenomena in a more fatisfac-
tory manner. For this purpofe he fuppofes the eleftric
matter to be fome w7ay or other accumulated on one
part of the furface of the earth, and on account of the
drynefs of the feafon, not ealily to diffufe itfelf. It
may, as Beccaria iuppofes, force its way into the high¬
er regions of the air, forming clouds in its paffage out
of the vapours which float in the atmofphere, and oc~
cafion a hidden Ihower, which may farther promote
the paffage of the fluid. The wThole furface thus un¬
loaded will receive a concuffion like any other conduft-
ing fubftance, on parting with or receiving a quantity
of the electric fluid. The ruffling noife w7ill likewife
fvveep over the wdiole extent of the country j and upon
this fuppofition alfo, the fluid, in its difeharge from the
country, will naturally follow the courfe of the rivers,
and alfo take the advantage of any eminences, to facili¬
tate its afeent into the higher regions of the air. In
making fome experiments on the paffage of the eledlri-
cal fluid over w^ater, he obferved that it produced a tre¬
mulous motion, and therefore he concludes that it muff
receive a concuflion refembling that which is given to
the waves of the fea by an earthquake. To try this
ftill farther, he immerfed his hands in water, while an
eledlrical flafli paffed over its furface, and he felt a
fudden concuflion, like that wEich is fuppofed to af-
fedt (hips at fea during an earthquake. The impulfe,
which was felt in different parts of the water, was
itiongeff near the place where the explofion wras made.
“ Pleafed with this refemblance of the earthquake,
he obferves, I endeavoured to imitate that great natu¬
ral phenomenon in other refpedls ; and it being froffy
weather, 1 took a plate of ice, and placed two flicks
about three inches high on their ends, fo that they w7ould
jull Hand with eafe ; and upon another part of the ice
I placed a bottle, from the cork of which w7as fufpend.
ed a brafs ball with a fine thread. Then making the
eledtrical flafli pafs over the furface of the ice, which it
v. did
Chap. IV. GEO
Earth- did with a very loud report, the nearer pillar fell down,
quakes and ^ }jiie the more remote flood, and the ball which had
^Volcanoes. hung nearly flill, immediately began to make vibra¬
tions, about an inch in length, and nearly in a right
line from the place of the Hafli.
“ I afterwards diverfified this apparatus, erecting
more pillars, and fufpending more pendulums, fome-
times upon bladders flretched on the mouth of open
veffels, and at other times on wet boards fwimming in
a veffel of water. This laft method feemed to anfwer
the beft of any ; for the board reprefenting the earth,
and the water the fea, the phenomena of them both
during an earthquake may be imitated at the fame time ;
pillars, &c. being ere&ed on the board, and the elec-
* &'/!. of trie flafti being made to pafs, either over the board, over
Eha. the water, or over them both
*33 The ingenious Dolomieu propofes to account for
niieu° °" thefe phenomena on different principles. On this fub-
jed he makes the following obfervations with regard
to the earthquakes which defolated Calabria in 1783,
and the caufes by which they were produced. “ The
lea, fays he, during the earthquakes of 1783, had little
fhare in the ffiocks on the main land. Tire mafs of wa¬
ter experienced no general movement, or fluduation,
or ofcillation j the waves did not rife above their or¬
dinary limits. Thofe which on the night of the 5 th
February beat againft the coaft of Sicily, and which
afterwards covered the point of the Faro of Meflina,
were only the effeds of a particular caufe. The fall
of a mountain into the fea raifed the waters, which re¬
ceived an undulating motion, as happens always in fi-
milar cafes. The undulation reached from the point
of Sicily beyond the cape of Rofacolmo, extending
in length along the coaft which runs to the fouth; but
always with a decreafe in elevation as it was more re¬
mote from Sicily. Whatever inquiries the author has
made, he has not been able to difeover, in all the de¬
tails which have been given him, any proofs of the ex-
iftence of eledrical phenomena ; no fpark, no difen-
gagement of the eledrical fluid, which the Neapo¬
litan naturalifts wifti to aflign as the caufe of earth¬
quakes.
“ The flate of the atmofphere rvas not the fame in
the whole range of earthquakes. While the tempefts
and the rain feemed to have confpired with them for
the deftrudion of Meflina, the interior part of Calabria
enjoyed very fine weather. A little rain fell in the plain
in the morning of the 5th of February j but the Iky
was clear during the reft of the day. This month and
that of March were not only pretty ferene, but likewife
warm. J here were fome ftorms and rain j but they
were the natural attendants of the feafon.
“ The. moving force feems to have refided under
Calabria itfelf, fince the fea which furrounds it had no
lhare in the ofcillations or vibrations of the continent.
This force feems alfo to have advanced along the ridge
of the Apennines in afeending from the fouth to the
north. But what power in nature is capable of pro¬
ducing fuch effeds ? I exclude eledricity, which can¬
not accumulate continually during the courfe of a year,
in a country furrounded with w^ater, where every thing
confpires to place this fluid in equilibrio. Fire remains
to be confidered. This element, by ading diredly
upon the folids, can only dilate them ; then their ex-
panfion is progreftive, and cannot produce violent and
k O G Y. ' 619
inftantaneous movements. When fire acts upon fluids, Earth-
fuch as air and water, it gives them an aftoniihing ex-ff^es and
panfion; and we know that then their elaltic force is Volcal10es■
capable of overcoming the greateft refillances, Thefe ~ V ^
appear the only means which nature could employ to
operate the effeds we fpeak of: but in all Calabria
there is no vellige of a volcano 5 nothing to point out
any interior combuftion ; no fire concealed in the centre
of mountains, or under their bafe-j a fire which could
nou exift without lome external figns. The vapours
dilated, the air rarefied by a heat conftantly adive,
mult have eicaped through fome of the crevices or
clefts formed in the foil j they moft there have formed
currents. Both flame and fmoke muft have iffued by
lome one or other of thefe paffages. Thefe once open¬
ed, the prellure would have ceafed ; the force not meet¬
ing with any more refiftance, would have loft its effed ;
and the earthquakes could have no longer continued.
None of thefe phenomena took place : we muft then
renounce the fuppofition of a combuftiona ding dired¬
ly under Calabria. Let us fee whether, having recourfe
to a fire at lome diftance from this province, and ad¬
ing upon it only as an occafional caufe, we fliall be able
to explain all the phenomena which have accompanied
the ftiocks. Let us take for example Aktna in Sicily,
and fuppofe large cavities under the mountains of Ca-
labiia ; a fuppofition which cannot be refufed- It iscer-
tain that immenle lubterraneous cavities do exift, fince
Aiana, in elevating itfelf by the accumulation of its ex-
plolions., muft leave in the heart of the earth cavities
proportioned to the greatnefs of the mafs.
“ I he autumn of 1782 and the winter of 1783 were
very rainy. I he interior waters, augmented by thofe
of the furface, may have run into thofe caverns which
form the focus of Aktna : there they muft have been
converted into vapour capable of the higheft degree of
ex.panfion, and muft have preffed forcibly againft everv
thing which oppofed their dilatation. If they foqnd ca"-
nals to condud them into the cavities of Calabria, they
could not fail to occafion there all the calamities of
which I have given the defeription.
“ Ifthe firlt cavity 3s feparated from the fecond by
a wall (fo to fpeak) br fome flight divifion, and this
feparation is broken down by the force of the elaftic
vapour, the whole force will ad againft the bottom
and fides of the fecond. The focus of the Ihocks will
appear to have changed place, and become weaker in
the fpace which was agitated moft violently by the firft
earthquake.
“ 1'he plain, rvhich was undoubtedly the moft flen-
der part of the vault, yielded moft eafily. The city
of Meflina, placed upon low ground, experienced a
fliock which the buildings on higher grounds did not.
'J he moving force ceafed at once as fuddenly as it ad-
ed violently. When, at the periods of the 7th of Fe¬
bruary and the 28th of March, the focus appeared
changed, the plain fcarce fuffered any thing. The
fubterraneous noife, which preceded and accompanied
the ftiocks, appeared always to come from the fouth-
w eft, in the diredion of Meflina. It feemed like thunder
unaer ground, which refounded beneath vaults.
Aktna, then has been the occafional caufe of
the earthquakes, it has alfo prepared, for fome time, the
misfortunes of Calabria, by gradually opening a paf-
fage along the coaft of Sicily to the foot of the Neptu-
4 I 2 man
234
Afcribed to
the force
qf fteam.
620 G E O L
E ,rth- nian mpuntains : ^or during the earthquakes of 17 80,
quakes and wh;ch diftnrbed Medina the whole fumnier, they felt, for
Volcanoes the whole ]en^th 0f that coaft, from I'aormina even to
the Faro, conliderable ftiocks •, but near the villages of
Alii and Flume de Nifi, which are fituated about the
middle of that line, (hocks fo violent were experienced,
that they dreaded left the mouth of a volcano (hould
open. Each (hock refembled the effort of a mine that
had not ftrength to make an explofion. It appears,
that then the volcano opened a free paffage for the ex-
panfion of its vapours, and that they have fince circu¬
lated without reftraint ; (ince in the year 1783 the
earthquake was almoft nothing upon that part of Sici¬
ly, at the time that Medina buried under its ruins the
half of its inhabitants.”
By others the phenomena of earthquakes have been
afcribed to the force of vapour or fteam,. which, no
doubt, is an agent fufficiently powerful, if it is con¬
fined fo, that its prodigious elaftic force may be exert¬
ed ; but it is denied by thofe who oppofe this hypothefis,
that earthquakes, though very frequent in regions where
(ubterranean fires are really known to exift, as in vol¬
canic countries, always happen in fuch places, and
therefore water cannot be converted into vapour. But,
befides, it is well known, that this vapour, even ad¬
mitting the poftibility of its produflion in fubterranean
cavities, would be re-converted into water, the mo¬
ment it came in contact with a cold body, wdiich would
deprive it of the principle of heat, in combination with
which water affumes the form of vapour.
Many objeftions might have been made to the hy-
pothefes which have been propofed to account for earth¬
quakes. Many of thefe wall probably occur to the at¬
tentive reader, who is a little acquainted with the na¬
ture and properties of the agents by which they are
fuppofed to be produced j but whatever may be the
caufe of thefe extraordinary phenomena, it appears that
it is very far from being clearly afcertained. Perhaps
all the agents w7hich have been dated as the caufe of
earthquakes, may have fonae influence in contributing
to the effedl, and may operate at different times, and
in different circumftances.
*65
Volcanoes
Sect. II. Of Volcanoes.
Volcanoes exift in almoft every part of the world,
>n every^ fr0m the north to the fouth pole. Hecla in Iceland,
M^orid ^ C an<^ a v°lcano which has been obferved in Terra del
Fuego, at the termination of the fouthern continent of
America, nearly comprehends the extremities of the
globe •, and having mentioned thefe boundaries, it is
^ unneceffary to obferve, that they exift in all climates.
Number of The number of volcanoes at prefent known, is not
tt’gm, lefs than 100. The volcanoes of Europe are well
known : thefe are Vefuvius in Italy, AEtna in Si¬
cily, and Hecla in Iceland. To thefe may be added
the volcanoes in the Alolian or Lipari iflands on the
coaft of Italy, of which Stromboli is remarkable for
having thrown out flames, without the eruption of other
volcanic matter, for more than 2000 years. In Afia
there is a volcano in Mount Taurus 5 five in Kamtf-
chatka, 10 in the iflands of Japan j one in the peak of
Adam in the ifland of Ceylon 5 four which have been
obferved in Sumatra 5 and fame others in different parts
of the Afiatic continent or iflands. There are alfo
fotne Volcanoes on the xYfrican continent^ as well as in
O G Y. Chap. IV,
fome of the iflands. Volcanoes exift alfo in the -Ame- Earth-
rican continent, and in many of the iilands which have 3“akes and
been difcovered in the South feas. 1 oicanoes.^
Almoft all volcanoes are in the immediate vicinity of
the fea. Mount Taurus, in the interior of Afia, and Are ail
fome of the volcanoes in the Andes, are the only ex- near
ceptions to this. ^ca’2 g
Another general remark which may be made with anc| m
regard to volcanoes is, that they always occupy the tops of
tops of mountains. No volcano was ever found burft- mountains,
ing out in plains. The exiftence of volcanoes at the
bottom of the ocean feems to be an exception 3 but it
is to be obferved, that thefe are alfo in the peaks of
mountains, which have been raifed up from great depths
at the bottom of the ocean. 239
The firft fymptom of an approaching emption is an Symptoms
increafe of the fmoke, if fmoke has been emitted, in cruP*
fair weather. This fmoke is of a whitilh colour 3 but,
after fome time, black fmoke is obferved to (hoot up
in the midft of the column of white fmoke. Thefe ap¬
pearances are ufually accompanied with explofions.
The black fmoke is then followed, at a (horter or
longer diftance of time, by a reddifti-coloured flame.
Showers of ftones are afterwards thrown out, and fome
of them are projected to great heights in the air, which
(hews that the force by which they are impelled is
very great. Along wfith thefe, afties are likewife eject¬
ed. Thefe phenomena, which daily increafe in fre¬
quency and violence, are alfo ufually preceded and
accompanied by earthquakes, and hollow noifes from
the bowels of the earth, fomething like thofe that precede
earthquakes unaccompanied with volcanic eruptions.
The fmoke, flame, and the quantity of ftones and allies,
increafe, and the ftones are at laft thrown out red hot.
The fmoke which iffues from the crater has been
obferved to be fometimes in a highly electrified (late.
The allies are ftrongly attracted, and carried up along
with the fmoke to great heights in the atmofphere,
forming a denfe black column of vaft height and fize.
Flaflies of lightning are feen darting in a zigzag direc¬
tion, through the column of fmoke and aflies 3 and this
lightning is fometimes attended with thunder. But
from fome obfervations which have been made, this
thunder and lightning are feemingly lefs intenfe than
atmofpheric eleCtricity. When thefe terrible appear¬
ances have continued for four or five months, or for a
longer or fliorter time, according to the nature of the
eruption, the lava begins to flow. This is a current of
melted matter, which fometimes boils over the top, and
fometimes, wdien the mountain is high, as is the cafe
with Attna, burfts out at the fide, and makes a paffage
for itfelf. The period of the duration of the eruption
is very different. Sometimes it continues to flow, at in¬
tervals, for the fpace of feveral wTeeks. 2^0
The matters ejeCted from volcanoes are lavas, which Matters
are either more or lefs confolidated 3 afties, flags of dif- thrown out
ferent kinds, and ftones which have undergone little
or no fufion. For an account of the nature and pro¬
perties of volcanic productions, fee Mineralogy.
Stones have been projected into the air from Mount
AEtna, to the height of 7000 feet. A (tone which
was ejeCted from Vefuvius, meafured r 2 feet long, and
45 feet in circumference 3 and even larger maffes have
been thrown out from Altna.
Water has.been frequently ejeCted from volcanoes.
This
Chap. IV. GE01
Eatth- This water is fometxmes cold, arid fometimes hot. E-
quak.es an«i rUptl0ns of water have taken place, both From Vefu-
Voxanoes. vjus an(j ^tna> one time fait water was ejected
from Mount Vefuvius. Different opinions have been
held concerning the origin of this water, or its Con¬
nexion wdth the volcano. This is founded on the cir-
cumftance already taken notice of in the general re¬
mark which was made, that almoft all volcanoes are in
the vicinity of the fea.
It feems to be a Angular circumftance in the hiftory
of volcanoes, that when once eruptions have commen¬
ced, they follow each other in rapid fucceffion } and
at other times that they ceafe for a long period. From
the year 1447, ^Etna ceafed to throw out any fire till
the year 1536, when a terrible eruption took place,
accompanied with fmoke, flame, afhes, and burning
flones. This conflagration continued to rage with great
violence for many weeks. The following year a river
fwelled and overflowed its banks to a great diftance j
furious fqualls of wind fucceeded, after which there
■was a terrible eruption from TEtna. The torrents of
flaming and fufed matter wThich flowed out, deftroyed
towns, villages, and vineyards, to a great extent. Af¬
ter the conflagration, the fummit of the mountain fell
in with a dreadful crafh. For 100 years after this pe¬
riod, the eruptions feemed to obferve fome kind of re¬
gularity, returning periodically every 25 and 30 years.
From the year 1686 to 1755, the fame year on which
the earthquake at Lifbon happened, for more than half
a century, Aitna enjoyed profound repofe.
The firfl: confiderable eruption of Vefuvius, the ac¬
count of which is recorded in hiftory, happened in the
year 79 of the Chriftian era. It was this eruption
which deftroyed Herculaneum and Pompeii 5 but this
was not the firft eruption of this mountain, for the
ftreets of thefe cities have been fince difcovered to be
paved with lava. Since that time, 30 different erup¬
tions have taken place. There was a very remarkable
24I one in 1538.
Volcanoes It rvould appear that volcanoes feem to become quite
become ex- extindf, and are rekindled. Some of the Roman writ-
are rek'"^ CrS> aS ^0^0rus Siculus, Vitruvius, and others, fpeak
ie(j ‘ * of Vefuvius only as having been a volcano. After this
period it burnt for 1000 years, and again became ex-
tin£l, from 1136 to 1506. Pools of water had col-
lefted in the crater, and woods w^ere growing on its
fides, and even in the crater itfelf. Vefuvius has now
burnt for three centuries paft, as furioufly as ever j but
particularly, during the 18th century. Of 29 erup¬
tions w’hich have taken place from Vefuvius, fince the
reign of Titus, half of the number have happened in
the 18th century.
Befide the volcanoes, the hiftory of which we have
now briefly detailed, volcanoes are knorvn to exift at
the bottom of the ocean. Thefe are diftinguifhed by
Submarine name Qf Jubmarinc volcanoes. Excepting in fitua-
0 anoes. tjon^ p0 far as h}ftory 0f fubmarine volcanoes is
known, they refemble the volcanoes on land. It would
appear that they exift in the tops of mountains at the
bottom of the ocean, and eje6! immenfe burning maf-
fes of matter in whirlwinds of aftres and pumice, with
prodigious torrents of lava. Submarine volcanoes are
either very few in number, or the places where they
exift have not been afcertained. Thofe that are cer¬
tainly known are at Santorin, the Azores, and Ice-
o G Y. 621
land. The ifland of Santorin, formerly called Thera Earth-
and St Irene, wras denominated by the Greeks, in al-fluakes and
lufion to its origin, Kt&fum, or “ burnt.” According to Volcanoes-i
Pliny, there is a tradition that it rofe out of the fea, at v
a very remote but unknown period.
Without going far back into hiftory, to inquire con¬
cerning the early eruptions of this volcano, we ftiall
mention fome of a later date, the exiftence of which is
better afcertained. In 1457, an eruption took place,
at which time allies and red-hot rocks tvere ejected,
with a great quantity of lava. This event, with the
date of it, is recorded on a marble ftone, eredled near
the gate of Fort Scarus, in Santorin. An eruption
alfo took place in 1570. This produced a new ifland,
called the Little Kaminoi. In 1650, the agitations of
the volcanoes continued for the greater part of a year.
Smyrna and Conftantinople wrere incommoded with the
alhes, which rulhed from the ocean in whirlwinds of
flame. The fame volcano opened again in 1707. The
Little Kaminoi, mentioned, was increafed, and it is now
more than three leagues in circumference. A violent
eruption took place in 1767, which Ihook the earth
greatly for fome days, and raifed the fea in fuch a
manner, as to excite apprehenfions of the deftrudftion
of the illands in the neighbourhood. A thick black
fmoke darkened the air, which wras fo infedted with ^ •
ftrong fmell of fulphur, that many perfons and animals
w'ere fuffocated by it. Black afhes refembling gun¬
powder Tvere difperfed around, and torrents of flame
ilfuing from the fea, and waving above it, to the height
of feveral feet, lighted, at intervals, the horrid fcene.
At the end of 10 or 12 days the eruption began to be
more moderate 5 and a new ifland which had been
thrown up was difcovered. When it was examined,
many parts of it w'ere ftill burning ; but the next day,
thofe whom curiofity had drawn to the fpot, w'ere com¬
pelled to betake themfelves to flight. They felt the
new foil moving \ in fome parts it rofe, and funk in
others. The earth, fea, and Iky, foon refumed their
formidable appearance ; the boiling fea changed co¬
lour ; flames in rapid fucceftion iflfued as from a fur¬
nace, but accompanied with allies and pumice. The
frightful noife of fubterranean thunders was heard $ it
feemed as if enormous rocks, darting from the bottom
of the abyfs, beat againft the vaults above it, and were
alternately repelled and thrown up again. The repeti¬
tion of their blows feemed to be diftinflly heard. Some
of them finding a paflage, were feen flying up red hot
into the air, and again falling into the fea from which
they had been ejefted. Mafles wrere produced, held
together for fome days, and then difappeared. In this
general diforder, large portions of the Little Kaminoi
were fwallowed up. Meanwhile the labour of the vol¬
cano took a larger furface. Its eje£lions became pro-
digioufly abundant, and a new ifland was feen forming.
By focceflive additions continued for near four months,
it made a jun&ion with that produced in June. From
the colour of its foil it wras named the Blacli IJland. It
is larger than the Little Kaminoi, and is feparated from
it by a narrow ftrait. After frequent alarms for feve¬
ral months, the volcano opened again on the 15th of
April in the following year j but the eruption wras on¬
ly for a moment, \yhen it threwr out a multitude of
burning rocks, which fell at the diftance of twTo
miles.
Similar
243
<Mud vol-
622 G E O L
Smiilar fuLnraiiiie volcanoes have been obferved near
Vokanoes ^anc^ St Michael, one of the Azores or Weftern
faun iHands in the Atlantic ocean. In the year 1638, near
the iHand of St Michael, where tlie fea was known to
be 120 feet deep, there arofe, after an agitation of fe-
veral weeks, an illand about fix miles round. It was
again fwallowed up in about the fame fpace of time
that had elapfed during its formation. In the year
1691, this volcano was in great agitation for a month.
It convulfed the whole ifiand of St Michael, and by
the heat and violent commotion of the fea, as well as
by the eruption of flames, allies, and pumice, occafioned
great damage ; but in this cafe no ifiand appeared.
Similar eruptions were known in 1720, and in 1757.
-During the latter eruption, feme of the iflands were
fhaken to their foundations.
After this account of fubmarine volcanoes, of their
effects, and of the ifiands formed by them, it would
lie unneceffary to enter into any detail of the fubma¬
rine volcano which threw up an ifiand off the coaft
of Iceland, in the year 1783. This ifland, the exifl-
ence of which feemed to be fully afeertained, was
again fwallowed up in the ocean, and was feen no
more.
Volcanoes of a very different kind have been de-
feribed. I he volcanoes to which wTe allude, have re¬
ceived the name of mud vo/catwes, from ejecting a great
quantity of mud. Thefe, however, are fimilar to thofe
which have been already deferibed, in having volcanic
motions and convulfive eruptions. The firff volcano
of this kind W'hich w7as difeovered is in the ifland of
Sicily, near a place called Maccalouba, between Ar-
ragona and Girgenti. It is in a hill of a conical
fhape, truncated at the top, and 150 feet high. The
fiummit is a plain, half a mile round, and the whole
furface is. covered with thick mud. The depth of the
mud, which is fuppofed to be immenfe, is unknowm.
I here is not the flighteft appearance of vegetation upon
it. In the rainy feafon the mud is much foftened ; the
mrface. is even, and there is a general ebullition over
it,, which is accompanied with a very fenfible rumbling
noife. In the dry feafon, the mud acquires greater
confiftency, but without ceafing its motion. The plain
affumes a form fomewhat convex ; a number of little
cones are throwm up, which rarely rife to the height
of two feet. . Each of them has a crater, wdiere a black
mud is feen in conftant agitation, and inceffantly emit-
ting bubbles of air. With thefe the latter infenfibly
rifes, and as foon as the crater is full of it, it difgorges.
I he refidue finks, and the cone has a free crater until
a new7 emiffkm.
This hill is fometimes fubjeff to alarming convuifions.
Earthquakes are felt at the diftance of two or three
miles, accompanied with internal noifes, refembling
thunder. fhefe increafe for feveral days, and termi¬
nate in an eruption of a prodigious fpout of mud, earth
and ft ones, which rifes two or three hundred feet into
the air. I his explofion is repeated twice or thrice in
the courfe of 24 hours. Some years pafs over without
any eruption, but it generally happens that the erup¬
tions continue yearly for five years fucceffively. An
eruption from this mud volcano took place in 177-
Phenomena fomewhat fimilar have been deferibed by
Pallas, which he obferved partly in the peninfula of
the Kercha, the boundary of Europe to the fouth-eaft of
3
O G Y. Chap. IV,
Little 1. artary, now Taurida, and partly in the ifiand Earth-
of Taman, which is feparated from Kercha only by fitiakes aM
one of the mouths of the river Cuban. The ifland of VoIcarioes;
Taman is fituated in Afia. Thefe places, he obferves, * *
are in fiat countries where there are few hills, and tiiofe
very little railed above the level of the fea. The whole
is covered with beds of flime, mixed with fand, with
fome beds of marl and fea-ftrells. From this he con¬
cludes that no real volcanic pit can exift here. Copious
fprings of petroleum are found in feveral places, and aifo
pools or fyphons of various dimenfions, through moft
of which a briny mud is difgorged in bubbles. Pallas
obferved feveral of thefe pools, both in the peninfula
and in Taman. The lalt eruption which took place,
he obferves, was in 1794. This w as the greateft and
moft; copious that had been known. It proceeded
from the top of a hill at the north point of Taman.
The place where the new gulf opened was a pool,
where the fnow7 and rain water ufually remained for
a. long time. The explofion came on with a noife
like that of thunder, and with the appearance of a
mafs of fire in the form of a Iheaf. This lafted on¬
ly for about half an hour, and it w7as accompanied
with a thick fmoke j but the ebullition which threw
up part of the liquid mud, continued till the next day,
after which the mud ran flowly in ftreams down the
hill. The mud difeharged w7as of a foft clay, of a
bluilh afh colour, every where of the fame nature, and
mixed with brilliant fparks of mica, with a fmall quan¬
tity of marl, calcareous and fandy fragments of fchif-
tus, which feemed to have been torn from their beds.
Pallas fuppofes that a very deep coal mine had
been for ages on fire, under Kercha and Taman, and
that the .fea having accidentally broken Into the burn¬
ing cavities of the mine, the expanfion produced by
the water converted into fleam, and the ftruggle of the
different aeriform fubftances to get free, forced the up¬
per beds, broke them in pieces, and formed a paffage
to themfelves. The vapours, as they efcaped, carried
the mud along with them. But others have fuppofed
that thefe phenomena are not produced by fire 5 that
the appearance of the fheaf of fire muff have been ex¬
traneous, or, that it w7as only a quantity of inflammable
air, which exploded when it came to the furface 5 or,
perhaps it w7as altogether an illufion, from the appear¬
ance of the vapours which were emitted.
An account is given of a Angular phenomenon, fome-
wrhat fimilar to the above, which was obferved in 1711
at Bofely near Wenlock, in Shropfhire. After a great
hurricane, the inhabitants were awakened in the middle
of the night by. commotions of the earth, which were
accompanied with noife. Some perfons went to an
eminence from which the noife proceeded, and they
faw water oozing through the turf, while at the fame
time inflammable air was emitted. The water was not
hot. 1 his continued for fome time, but at laft it
ceafed to throw out any inflammable air for fome years,
previous to the year 1746, when a fecond eruption took
place, attended with fimilar circumftances.
We fhall not dwell longer on the hiftory of volca¬
noes. . For a particular account of the moft remarkable
eruptions of the principal volcanoes in the world, the
reader is referred to the hiftory given under ./Etna
Hecla, and Vesuvius. We fhall now proceed to
ftate fome of the opinions and conjeftures of philofo-
phers,
Chap. IV. GEO
Earth- phers, tvitli regard to the caufe of thefe extraordinary
quakes and phenomena.
yolcai.oe^ V0lcanic eruptions have been afcribed to the action
of the waters of the fea, burfting in upon an immenfe
Caufes of quantity of fufed or burning matter 5 to the a6tion of
volcanoes. central fires, and to the decompofition of different lub-
ftances, by which a great quantity of heat and inflam¬
mable fubttances is produced.
Water, according to fome philofophers, is abfolutely
neceffary for the formation of volcanoes. This opinion
is fupported by the circumftance of almoft all volca¬
noes being near the fea. According to this opinion, they
were all formed under the furface of the waters of the
ocean. The firft explofion at the formation of a volca¬
no, it is fuppofed, was preceded by an earthquake.
The firif eruptions would be extremely violent, and im¬
menfe quantities of matter would be ejefted. Torrents
of lava would continue to be difcharged for a long
leries of ages, and thus the foundations of the burning
mountain are laid in the bottom of the ocean. But it
becomes a queftion, in what way the internal fire was
preferved from extindlion by the incumbent waters of
the ocean ? To this M. Houel replies, that the fire
having difpofed the fubftances in fufion to make an
eruption, next laid open the earth, and emitted as much
matter as it could difcharge, with a force fufhcient to
overcome the refiftance of the column of water, which
■would oppofe its afcent 5 but as the ftrength of the fire
diminiflied, the matter difcharged wns no longer ex¬
pelled beyond the mouth 5 but, by accumulating
there, foon clofed up the orifice. Thus, only fmall
orifices would be left fufhcient for giving vent to the
vapours of the volcano, and from which only fmall bub¬
bles of air could afcend to the furface of the water, un¬
til new circumffances, fuch as originally give occafion
to the eruption of the volcano, again took place in the.
howels of the earth, and produced new eruptions, either
through the fame or other mouths. The appearance of
the fea over the new formed volcano, in its ftate of tran¬
quillity, would then be fimilar to what it is betwixt the
iflands of Bafilizzo and Pariaria. Columns of air bub¬
bles are there afcending at the depth of more than 30
feet, and burft on their arriving at the furface. This
air would continue to difengage itfelf with little difturb-
ance as long as it ilfues forth only in fmall quantity,
until, at the very inftant of explolion, when prodigious
quantities, generated in the burning focus, wTould make
their way at once, and the fame phenomena which
originally took place would again make their appear¬
ance.”
A volcano, vrhile under water, cannot aft precifely
as it does in the open air. Its eruptions, though equal¬
ly ftrong, cannot extend to fo great a diilance. The
lava accumulates in greater quantity round the crater ;
the fand, alhes, and pozzolana are not carried away
by the winds, but are depolited around its edges, and
prevent the marine fubllances which are driven that
way by the waters from entering. Thus they agglome¬
rate with thefe bodies, and thus a pyramidal mount is
formed of all the materials together.
In this manner M. Houel fuppofes that the mountain
v'as gradually raifed out of the fea by the accumulation
of lava, &c. at every eruption, and that the cavern of
the volcano was gradually enlarged, the-lava being dri¬
ven dotvn into the bottom of the cavern by the continued
LOGY. 623
aftion of the Hones which the volcano is conHantly Earth¬
throwing up ; that it was there fufed, and at lalt thrown qiiakes ami
out at the top of the mountain to accumulate on its tides. Vo*canoe!i*
M. Houel’s opinion about the volcanic fire we fitall give ~ v ^
in his own wTords.
“ We cannot form any idea of fire fubfifting alone,
without any pabulum, and unconnefted with any other
principle. We never behold it but in conjunftion with
fome other body, which nourilhes and is confumed by it.
The matter in fufion, which ilTues from the focus, is but
the incombultible part of that which nourifhes tlie fire,
and into the bofom of which that aftive principle pene¬
trates in fearch of pabulum. But as the fire afts only-
in proportion to the facility with which it can diliblve
and evaporate, I am of opinion, that it is only the bot¬
tom of the volcano on which it afts j and that its ac--
tion extends no farther than to keep thefe fubllances
which it has melted in a conllant Hate of ebullition.
That fufible matter being difcharged from the mouth
of the volcano, and hardening as it is gradually cooled
by the aftion of the air, produces that fpecies of Hones
which are diltinguilhed by the name of lavas. This
lava, even when in the focus, and in a Hate of fluidity,
muH alfo poffefs a certain degree of folidity, on account
of the gravity and denfity of its particles. It there¬
fore oppofes the fire with a degree of refinance which
irritates it, and requires, to put it into a Hate of ebul¬
lition, a powder proportioned to the bulk of the mafs.
“ That quantity of matter, when diflblved by the ac¬
tion of the fire, mufi confiantly refemble any other thick-
fubltance in a Hate of ebullition. Small explofions are
produced in various parts over the furface of every
fuch fubHance while in a Hate of ebullition ; and, by
the burlling of thefe bubbles, a great number of fmall
particles are fcattered around. This is the very pro-
cels carried on in the focus of a volcano, though on
a fcale immenfely more large; and the vail explofions
there produced expel every body which lies in their
W'ay with the utmoH violence ; nor is there any piece
of lava which falls down from the upper part of the
arch, of weight fufficient to refift this violent centrifu¬
gal force.
The pabulum by wdiich the internal fire is fupport--
ed, M. Houel thinks to be fubfiances contained in
the mountain itfelf, together with bitumen, fulphur, and
other inflammable materials, which may from time to
time flow into the focus of the volcano in a melted Hate
through the fubterraneous dufts, and the explofions he
aferibes to water making its w'ay in the fame manner.
The water is converted into fleam, which fills the cavern
and pulhes the melted lava out at the crater j this opi¬
nion is corroborated by the copious fmoke which always
precedes an eruption. But, combined wfith the w'ater,
there is always a quantity of other Jubflances, whole
eflefts precede, accompany, or follow the eruptions, and
produce all the various phenomena which they dilplay.
The eruption of water from 7Etna in the year 1775%
proceeded undoubtedly from this caufe. The fea, or
fome of the refervoirs in /Etna or the adjacent moun¬
tains, by fome means difcharged a valt quantity of
water into the focus of the volcano. That water
was inflantly refolved into vapour, which filled the
whole cavern, and illued from the mouth of the e vater.
As foon as it made its way into the open atmofp :ere, it
was condenfed again into water, which flreamed down
the
624.
Earth¬
quakes and
Volcanoes.
*' Hijl. Nat,
de Miner.
tom. v.
G E O L
trie Tides of the mountain in a dreadful and deftrudlive
torrent.
Others have attempted to account for the exiftence
of volcanic fire, on the fuppofition that it is derived
from central fires, and to thefe it is fuppofed that vol¬
canoes aft the part of chimneys 5 while others are of
opinion that they are owing to the chemical decompo-
fition of different fubftances, by which inflammable
matters are evolved, with a great deal of heat, and by
means of the latter the combultible materials are kin¬
dled, and exhibit the phenomena which are thus propo-
fed to be accounted for.
M. Patrin is one of the latefl: naturalifts who, with
the afliftance of modern chemiitry, has attempted to
account for the phenomena of volcanoes on the princi¬
ples of this fcience. For a full view of his theory, or
rather of his fanciful conjeftures on this fubjeft, we
mufi: refer the reader to the work i'tfelf. * But the fol¬
lowing is a recapitulation of the principles on which he
gives this explanation. All volcanoes, he obferves,
in a Hate of aftivity, are in the vicinity of the Tea, and
are never found but in thofe places where fea lalt is a-
bundant. The volcanoes of the Mediterranean ab-
ftraft the fait which the waters of the ocean hold in
folution, and are conftantly pouring in by the Traits of
Gibraltar. The ftrata of primitive fchiftus are the
great laboratories in which volcanic matters are prepa¬
red, by a conftant circulation of different fluids j but
according to this theory, thefe ftrata contribute no part
of their own fubftance. They fuffer no wafte in the
procefs.
The fphere of the aftivity of volcanoes may be far
extended in thefe ftrata, but they have no other outlet
befide fpiracles, by which the gafeous fubftances efcape,
of which one part is diflipated in the atmofphere, and
the other becomes concrete by its combination with
oxygen. The concretion of thefe fluids is fuppofed to
be analogous to the concretion of the primitive matters
of the globe, according to the theory of La Place j
and the eleftive attraftions determine, in the fame way,
the formation of ftony cryftals.
Volcanic eruptions are proportioned, in regard to
their violence and duration, to the extent of the ftrata
of fchiftus in which the volcanic fluids are accumulated.
Thefe fluids are,
1. Muriatic acid, which carries off the oxygen from
the metallic oxides of the fchiftus.
2. The oxygen of the atmofphere, which conftantly
replaces in the metals that which was carried off by
the muriatic acid.
3. Carbonic acid gas, which the water abforbs from
•the atmofphere, and conveys to the fchiftus, which al¬
ways abounds in carbone.
4. Hydrogen, which proceeds from the decompofition
of water. A part of this hydrogen is inflapied by e-
leftric explofions •, the other united to carbonic acid
forms oil, which becomes petroleum by its combination
with fulphuric acid j and it is to this petroleum that
the bitternefs of fea water is owdng.
5. The eleQric fluid, which is attrafted from the at¬
mofphere by the metals contained in the fchiftus. Sul¬
phur feems to be th« moft homogeneous portion of this
fluid, which has become concrete. Phofphorus is a
modification of it, and it contributes to the fixation of
oxygen. The fulphur formed in the fchiftus by means
3
nature of
the ftiata.
O G Y Chap. IV.
of the eleftric fluid, combines with the oxygen, and Earth-
forms fulphuric acid, which decompofes the fea fait. quakes and
6. The metalliferous fluid. This forms the iron m^70
lavas. It is the origin of metallic veins, and the co¬
louring principle of organized bodies. This fubftance
in its undecompofed ftate affords iron, but by decom¬
pofition it produces other metals. It is conjeftured to
be one of the principles of muriatic acid, and it con¬
tributes, along with phofphorus, to fix oxygen under
an earthy form.
7. The laft of the volcanic fluids is a%otic gas. To
this gas is owing the formation of the mafles of car¬
bonate of lime which, are ejefted by Vefuvius, and of
the calcareous earth contained in lavas.
Such are the materials with which the author pro-
pofes to form the different fubftances which are produ¬
ced in volcanoes, and by the operation of which he
propofes to explain the phenomena of volcanic erup¬
tions. Our readers will probably agree with us in
thinking, that the prefent ftate of chemical fcience,
even with the afliftance of fuch hypothetical fubftances
as the metalliferous fluids, is yet inadequate to give any
degree of fupport to fuch opinions, even in the form of
conjeclure. We lhall therefore difmifs it without far¬
ther remark. . 245
We fhall now conclude this fubjedl wnth fome inter-Obferva-
efting obfervations by M. de Luc, on the nature of the1’0115 011
1*1 -\ J • c 'iT riatiirp nr
ftrata in which volcanic fires exilt.
“ Volcanoes, he obferves, have been more numerous'
on the furface of our continents, when they were under
the waters of the ancient fea j and as this clafs of moun¬
tains, raifed by fubterranean fires, manifeft themfelves
ftill on the ftiores of the prefent fea, and in the middle
of its waters, it is of importance to geology and the
philofophy of the earth to obtain as juft ideas of them
as pofiible.
“ I have attended a great deal to this fubjeft from
my own obfervations j and I have Ihown, at different
times, the errors into wdiich feveral geologifts and na-
turalifts, in treating of it, have fallen.
“ This clafs of mountains, in particular, requires that
we ftiould fee them, that we fhould behold them during
their eruptions, that we ftiould have traced the progrefs
of their lava, and have obferved clofely their explo-
lions ; that we fhould have made a numerous colleftion
of the matters which they throw up under their diffe¬
rent circumftances, that we might afterwards be able
to ftudy them in the cabinet, and to judge of their
compofition according to the phenomena which have
been obferved on the I’pot.
“ This ftudy is highly neceffary when w’e apply it to
geology and the philofophy of the earth, in order that
we may avoid falling into thofe miftakes which make
us afcribe to fubterranean fires what does not belong to
them, or which leads us to refufe them what really be¬
longs to them.
“ We read in the Journal de Physique for January
1804, under the title, On the caufe of Volcanoes, the
following affertions :
‘ What is the nature of the matters which maintain
thefe fubterranean fires ? We have feen that Chimbo¬
razo, all thefe enormous volcanoes of Peru, and the
Peak of Teneriffe, are compofed of porphyry.
‘ The Puy-de-D6me is alfo compofed of porphyry,
as well as the Mont d’Or and the Cantab
‘ JEtnz.
Chap. IV. G E O
Earth- ‘ j^Etna, Sylfatara, and Vefuvlus, are alfo of the por-
^uakes and phyry kind.
Thefe fa«5ls prove that the moll confiderable volca-
Vulcanees-
noes with which we ai'e acquainted are of porphyry.’
“ Ihis opinion, that the fires of volcanoes have their
centres in fuch or fuch a rock, and that their lavas are
produced from thefe rocks, has always appeared to me
not to be founded on any certain data. Opinions alfo
on this fubjeft have varied; fome having placed the
Origin of lava in horn rock, others in granite or fchift,
and at prefent it is afiigned to porphyry*
“ I have always been of opinion that nothing certain
could be determined in regard to this point. It ever
remains uncertain whether the feat of the matters of
which lava is formed be in compadt rocks, or in llrata
in the date of foftnefs, pulverulent, and muddv.
“ Thole who fee lava iffue from a volcano in its date
of fulion and incandefcence, and in its cooling, are con¬
vinced that the nature of every thing is changed, that
it exhibits a pade in which nothing can be known, ex¬
cept the fubilances which the volcanic fires have not
seduced to fulion.
“ But thefe fubdances contained in the pade of lava,
and thofe which are the mod numerous, diow us, that
the drata from which they proceed cannot be fimilar to
thofe expofed to the view, nor even to the mod pro¬
found drata to which we can penetrate.
“ Admitting the hypothefis, that the drata from
which the lavas proceed are in a pulverulent and mud¬
dy date, containing elements of all thefe fmall cry dais,
one may conceive how they are formed there, infulated,
grouped, or folitary, and are found then in the lava in
that date of infolution.
“ The fragments of natural rocks thrown up by Ve-
fuvius are not of the fame kind as the matters of which
the lava is compofed. Mod of thefe fragments are mi¬
caceous rocks, with laminse of greater or lefs fize, and
of a kind of granite called fienite. I have found fome
compofed of white quartzy rock ; it is found fometimes
of calcareous rock.
“ The mod probable idea that can be formed in re¬
gard to the origin of thefe fragments is, that they have
been carried from the borders of the drata through
which the lava, that comes from great depths, has
opened for itfelf a paffage. Thefe fragments are car¬
ried to the furface of the lava as tar as the bottom of
the chimney of the crater, whence they have been
thrown out by explofions, mixed with fragments fepa-
rated, or rather torn, from the lava ; for it is not by
the lava that they have been brought forth to view, but
by explofions.
“ Some of thefe fragments of natural rocks have not
been attacked by the fire j others have more or lefs 5
which depends, no doubt, on the place which they oc¬
cupied in the volcano, and on the time which they re¬
mained in it. The mod of the latter have retained at
their furface a crud of lava, and this crud contains fub-
ftances which are not the fame as that of the fragment
it covers.
“ On Vefuvius the drata pierced by eruptions are
lower than the iurface of the foil; in Auvergne and fe-
yeral places of Germany they are above ; for this rea¬
son there are feen there in their place fchids or granites,
Vol. IX. Part II. 6 ’
LOGY.
which the eruptions have broken to form for them-
felves a paflage.
“ No volcano reds on natural drata: they fometimes
diow themfelves on the exterior; but they have been
opened by eruptions, and their edges have remained is
their place.
“ The focus of no volcano exids or has exided in the
cone wdiich appears above the furface of the ground.
They have been raifed by eruptions, which, proceeding
from great depths, have thrown them up through the
upper drata. When it is faid, therefore, that the vol¬
canic mountains of Auvergne red on granite, this is a
midake, and an incorreft expredion has been ufed by
thofe who have not formed a jult idea of the phenome¬
non. Lava may have dowed upon granite or any other
rock, and reded upon it; but this is never the cafe
with the volcano itfelf: its bales are below all the rocks
vifible.
“ It is from the bofoin even of the lava, wdien in a
date of fufion in the interior of the volcano, that all
the explofions proceed. In that date of fufion they
contain all the matters wdfich produce fermentations,
and the difengagement of expanfible fiuids.
“ I have been enabled to afeertain this on Vefuvius
as far as was podible. d he continual noife which w’as
heard through the two interior mouths of the crater
which I had before my eyes, was that of an ebullition,
accompanied with indammable vapours, and the gerbes
of burning matters which they threw up at intervals
were feparated pieces of the lava in its date of fufion.
I faw feveral of them in the air change their form, and
fometimes become fiat on the bodies which they druck
01 embraced in falling. And among the mod apparent
of thefe fragments there are always a multitude of fmall
Ones of the fize of peas and nuts, and dill fmaller ones,
which (how at their furface, by their afperities, all the
chara&ers of laceration.
I he name of fcorue has been given to thefe frag¬
ments, to didinguilh them from compadt lava, though
their compofition be the fame as that of the hardefi la¬
va j and it is for want of refiedling properly on this
point that it has been faid that it is the compadl part
only that wre mud obferve, in order to judge of their na¬
ture. The pieces w'hich I took from the flowing lava
with an iron hook, have at their furface the fame lacera¬
tions and the fame afperities as the fragments throwm up
by explofions, and both contain the fame fubdances.
“ This feparation, by tearing off the parcels of the
lava effected by fermentations and explofions which pro¬
ceed from their bofom, ferves to explain thofe columns,
fometimes prodigious, of volcanic fand, which rife from
the principal crater. When feen with a magnifying
glafs, this fand exhibits nothing but lava reduced very
fmall, the particles of which, rough with inequalities,
have the bright black colour and the varnifh of recent
lava.
“ Parcels of fubdances which exid in our drata, fuch
as fragments of quartz, feales of mica, and crydals of
feldfpar, are found fometimes in lava. Similar matters
mud no doubt be diffeminated in the compofition of our
globe, without there being reafon to conclude that the
drata from which they proceed are the fame as the ex¬
terior drata. It is neither in the granites, the porphy-
4 K riesg
fas
Earth¬
quakes and
Volcanoes.
626 G E O I
■Earth- vies, nor the horn rock, and ftill iefs in the fchifls and
quakes and calcareous rocks, that the fchorls of volcanoes, the leu-
yok.u oe-.. cites^ ancj perhaps oiivins, will be found. Thefe fmall
cryftals are brought to view by the lava, other wife they
would be unknown to us.
“ Thefe lavas contain a great deal of iron, which
they acquire neither from the granite nor porphyries.
Might not one fee in the ferruginous land which is
found in abundance on the borders of the fea near
Naples, and in the environs of Rome, fpecimens of
that kind of pulverulent ilrata from which lava pro¬
ceeds ?
“ I have here offered enough to prove that it cannot
be determined that lava proceeds from If rata fimilar to
thofe with which we are acquainted. The operations
of volcanoes, thofe valf laboratories of nature, will
always remain unknown to us, and on this fubjedf our
conjediures will always be very uncertain.
What is the nature of that mixture which gives
birth to thefe eruptions, that produce lava and throw
up mountains ? What we obferve as certain is, that
the introdudfion of the water of the fea is neceflary to
excite thefe fermentations, as containing marine acid
and other falts, which, united to the fulphuric acid,
the bales of which are contained in abundance in the
fubterranean Ifrata, determine thefe fermentations,
which produce the difengagement of fire and other
fluids, and all the grand effedfs that are the confe-
quence.
“ Several naturaliifs have believed, and Ifill believe,
that frefh or rain water is fufficient for this purpofe j
but they are milfaken : this opinion is contradidfed by
every fadt known. To be convinced of this, nothing
is neceffary but to take a Ihort viewr of them. I have
done it feveral times, as it is necellary to confider them
often. I (hall here enumerate the principal ones :—
No burning mountain exifts in the interior part of the
earth ; and all thofe which Itill burn are, without ex¬
ception, in the neighbourhood of the fea, or furround-
ed by its waters. Among the deliquefcent falts de-
pofited by the frnoke of volcanoes, we diftinguilh chiefly
the marine kilt, united to different bafes. Several of
the volcanoes of Iceland, and Hecla itfelf, fometimes
throw up eruptions of water, which depofit marine fait
in abundance. No extent of frelh w’ater, however vafl,
gives birth to a volcano. Thefe fadts are fuflicient to
prove that the concurrence of fea-water is abfolutely
neceffary to excite thofe fermentations which produce
■volcanoes.
1 (hall here repeat the diftindlion I have already
maue between burnt-out volcanoes and the ancient vol¬
canoes, that I may range them in two feparate claffes.
“ When we limply give the name of burnt-out or ex-
tinguijhed volcanoes to volcanic mountains which are in
, O G Y. CIicip.1V.
the middle of the continent's, it is to reprefent them as Earth¬
having burnt while the land was dry, and inhabited as fl'iakfcS
it is at prefent; which is not a juft idea. Thefe vol- VolcanofcS‘j
canoes have burnt when the land on which they are
railed v/as under the waters of the ancient fea, and
none of them have burnt fince our continents became
dry. It is even very apparent that moft of them were
extindl before the retreat of the fea, as we find by
numerous examples in the prefent lea.
“ Thofe which I denominate extindl volcanoes are
fuch as no longer burn, though furrounded by the fea,
or placed on the borders of it. They would ftill burn,
were not the inflammable matters by wdiich they were
raifed really exhaufted and confirmed. Of this kind
is the volcano of Agde, in Languedoc. Of this kind
alfo are many of the volcanic iflands which have not
thrown up fire fince time immemorial.
“ M. Humboldt, in his letters written from Peru,
fpeaks of the volcanoes which he vifited, but what he
fays is not fufficiently precife to enable us to form a juft
idea of them. He reprefents -Chimborazo as being
compofed of porphyry from its bottom to its fummit,
and adds, that the porphyry is 1900 toifes in thicknefs ;
afterwards, he remarks, that it is almolt improbable
that Chimboraco, as well at Pichincha and Antifana,
fhould be of a volcanic nature : 1 The place by which
we afeended, (fays he,) is compofed of burnt and fcori-
fied rock, mixed with pumiceftone, which refembles all
the currents of lava in this country.’
“ Here are two characters very different. If Chim¬
borazo be porphyry from the top to the bottom, it is
not compofed of burnt and fcorified rocks, mixed with
pumiceftone \ and if it be compofed of burnt rocks, it
cannot be porphyry. This expreflion, burnt endfcori-
Jied rods, is not even exaCl, becaule it excites the idea
of natural rocks, altered in their place by fire, and they
are certainly lava which has been thrown up by the
volcano. But the truth muft be, that Chimborazo,
and all the other volcanoes of Peru, are compofed of
volcanic matters, from their bafe at the level of the fea
to the fummit.
“ I have juft read in the Annales du Mufeum d'Hi-
Jloire Naturelle *, a letter of the fame traveller, written * ^ ° xv^*
from Mexico, on his return from Peru, where, fpeak-
ing of the volcanoes of Popayan, Pafto, Quito, and
the other parts of the Andes, he fays, ‘ Great maffes of
this foffil [objidian) have iffued from the craters 5 and
the fides of thefe gulfs, which we clofely examined,
confift of porphyry, the bafe of which holds a mean be¬
tween obfidian and pitchftone (pechjlein).'1 M. Hum¬
boldt therefore confiders obfidian, or black compaft
glafs, as a natural foffil or rock, and not as volcanic
glafs.”* * Je
6 Mines,
N°p5.
CORRIGENDA in GEOLOGY.
N 9. 2d par. read, Lehman was followed in his own country by Ferber, Gmelin, Born, and Werner ■ in Swe¬
den, by Bergman, Cronftedt, and Tilas j in Italy, by Arduini j &c.
N 11. xt was pi opoied at firft to divide the article into only three chapters j but from the length of what was in¬
tended as the firft, and tne number of fedlions which it contained, it was afterwards thought better to divide it
into two.
N° 65, For Ingleborough in Weftmoreland, read Ingleborough in Yorkfhire.
INDEX.
CrE OE O f>Y.
Elate C C X XXX'JIi .
.1
I
GE O L O G V
' 7/ P/-
*»M!»;:iti 1 mSX;3»■ >:i2!Hi;wS 'MiSS?!
:4^?3S^ SS^feS#
«rff «S5 jsjSfea^f^fi^S'
SSSSSSE iSaaaBgiiiaSi:
Sgssl»ass!||!S®
ifegaaga^Sias
s^^ssss^SsasSSs
•SSSS&£'SS SSSsSSsssisssS
$SSSSSUM: 1 !»'««h 1 '.'S !J<WK1|SmS£M&
s»>gaa^«!g!»
r
Pl»te CCXXX1X.
Index,
G E 0 L O G Y.
INDEX.
627
Alabaster defcribed, gy
gypfeous, 85
Amontons's theory of earthquakes, 229
Armj^da!oid defcribed, 7 2
Antimony, ores of, enumerated, 170
Arfenic, ores of, enumerated, 1 7 j
B.
Bafalt defcribed, i00
Werner’s opinion refpe&ing,
Note (f) p. 600.
Beccaria's theory of earthquakes, 231
Bifmuth, ores of, enumerated, 168
Breccia defcribed, Note (c) p. 556.
examples of,
Bujfon's remarks on mountains, 117
theory of the earth, 184
objedlions to, 185
Burnet's theory of the earth, i8i
Chalk,
C.
Clay,
vMiere found,
indurated,
date, defcribed,
88
89
90
9*
32
Coal, j
general circumftances attending, 1 o5
where found, I0g
mines of France, 107
England, 108
flrata at Newcaftle, table of, p. 566
Whitehaven, table of, 568
bovey, defcribed, N° u0
Cohalt, ores of, enumerated, 171
Copper, ores of, enumerated, 164
D.
Belametherie's remarks on the decli¬
vities of mountains,
Dolomieu's theory of earthquakes,
j Dykes, account of,
names of,
courfe of,
inclination of,
extent of,
thicknefs of,
materials of,
whin, peculiar ftru&ure of,
119
233
142
J43
144
M5
146
147
148
149
yarthquakes, account of, 198
xvhere mofl: prevalent, 199
phenomena preceding
and accompanying, 200
at Calabria, in 1635, re¬
lation of, 201
in Sicily, 202
Earthquakes, in Jamaica, N° 203
at Lhbon, 204
felt at Colares, 205
at Oporto, 206
defhoys St Ubes, 207
felt in Spain, 208
in Africa, 209
in Madeira, 210
in France, 211
in Germany, 212
in Switzerland, 213
in Holland, 214
in Norway, 215
in Britain, fig
effecls of, at fea, 219
in Calabria, in 1783, 221
deftruftion of Op-
pido, by, £22
in Peru, 223
in Scotland, 224
caufes of, 225
according to
the ancients, 226
according to
the moderns, 227
theory of, by Wood¬
ward, 228
by Amontons, 229
by Stukeley, 23 o
by Beccaria, 231
by Prieftley, 23 2
by Dolomieu, 233
afcribed to the force of
fleam, 234
F.
Fluor fpar defcribed,
where found,
Fojfds, vegetable,
animal,"
G.
Geognofy, definition of,
Geology, definition and objeff of,
divifion of,
importance of,
to naturalifts,
miners,
landed proprietors, 6
Chriftians, 7
difficulties attending the ftudy
of, not infurmountable, 8
principal improvers of, g
method of ftudying, IO
Gneifs defcribed, 24
■where found, 2y
metals found in, 2g
Gold, ores of, enumerated, igr
Granite defcribed, j g
its different dates, Xg
86
87
109
> 1 r
1
ib.
2
3
4
5
Granite, Gratified, indances of,
W’here found,
decay of,
metals found in,
Gray wacke defcribed,
date defcribed,
where found,
rich in metals,
Green/lone defcribed,
' Cypfum defcribed,
common,
lenticular,
cryftallized,
fibrous,
ftaladlitic,
H.
Herman's remarks on mountains,
Hornblende flate deicribed,
metals found in,
Hornjtone defcribed,
Houel s theory of volcanoes,
Hutton's theory of the earth,
objections to,
N° 2a
21
22
23
68
ib.
69
70
74
79
8r
ib.
82
83
84
11S
40
41
37
244
188
189
I.
Jafper defcribed,
where found,
Iron, ores of, enumerated, jg,-
Ironjlone, argillaceous, defcribed, 97
Ijiands formed by fubmarine volcanoes, 242
K.
Ktrwan's remarks on the declivities
of mountains, 114—124.
theory of do.
of dykes, jg^
Lead, ores of, enumerated, jgg
Limejlone, granular, defcribed, ^
w’here found.
55
metals found in, eg
fecondary, defcribed, g4
where found, g j
r -t metals found in, 66
JLit/iomarga,
Luc's (de) observations on the ftrata 92
in the neighbourhood of
volcanoes,
M.
Manganefe, ores of, enumerated,
Marl defcribed,
Materials compofing the earth, "
general diftribution of, I2
divifion of, _
Mercury, ores of, enumerated, jg2
Molybdena, where found, j ?
4 ^ 2 Mountains j
J
628
Mountains, definition of, N0 112
chains of, 113
declivities of, i 24
Kirwan’s observations on, 114
lleep fide of, faces the low
country, 115
weftern fide of, fteepeft, 116
remarks on by Buftbn, 117
by Herman, 11S
by Delame-
therie, 119
fouth and fouth-eaft fides
of, the fteepeft, 120
account of, in Europe, 122
in Afia, 123
in America, 124
height of, table of, p. 576
courfe of, N° 126
ftru6ture of, 1 27
primary and fecondary,
how diftinguifhed, 128
equatorial, not the higheft, I 29
Uralian, courfe of, 131
Altaic, courfe of, 132
Alpine, 133
Afiatic, 134
fouthern, 136
of North America,. 137
England, 138
Scotland, 140
Ireland, 141
N.
Nickel, ores of, enumerated, 172
Northwich, fait mines at, 103
O.
Ores, metallic, enumerated, 159—179
of platina, 160
gold, 161
mercury, 162
filver, 163
copper, 164
iron, 165
lead, , 166
tin, 167
bifmuth, 168
zinc, 169
antimony, 170
cobalt, 171
nickel,
manganefe, 173
molybdena, 174
arfenic, j 7 5
tungften, 176
uranium, • 177
titanium, 178
tellurium, 1,79
GEOLOGY.
p.
Pairings theory of volcanoes, N°
Pitch/lone defcribed,
where found,
Platina, where found,
Porphyry defcribed,
where found,
metals found in,
fchiftofe,
PrieJ1ley',s theory of earthquakes,
Puddingstone,
Q.-
Quartz, defcribed,
where found,
no metals found in,
S.
Salt rock defcribed,
where found,
mines at Northwich,
Sandjlone defcribed,
• argillaceous,
where found,
filiceous,
Schijlus, micaceous, defcribed,
where found,
metals found in,
argillaceous, defcribed,
where found,
244
38
39
160
44
45
46
47
232
50
.3°
ib.
31
101
102
103
u
77
78
27
28
29
32
33
metals found in, 34
filiceous, defcribed, 61
where found, 62
Sienite defcribed, 31
where found, 52
metals found in, 33
Silver, ores of, enumerated, .163
Slate, 94
clay, 93
Strata of the earth, 13
horizontal and vertical, 14
derangement of, 13
in general regular, 16
in various parts of Europe, ta-
ble of, p. 373
Stukeleifs theory of earthquakes, N° 230
T\
Tellurium, ores of, enumerated, 179
Theories of the earth, objedt of, 180
of Burnet, 181
of Woodward, 182
of Whifton, 183
of Buffon, 184
objedlions to, 185
of Whitehurft, 186
Index.
Theory of Hutton, N° 188
objedlions to, 189
of Werner, J93
Tin, ores of, enumerated, 167
Titanium, ores of, enumerated, 178
Toadjione defcribed, 72
Topaz rock defcribed, 60
Trap, primitive, defcribed, 37
where found, 58
metals found in, 39
fecondary, defcribed, 71-“74
globular, 72
Tungsten, ores of, enumerated, 176
U.
Uranium, or«s of, enumerated,
V.
Veins, metallic, account of,
diftindlion of,
perpendicular,
177
^50
151
152
two kinds of, 136
courfe of, 153
inclination of, 134
thicknefs of, 135
pipe, defcribed, 137
flat, defcribed, 138
Volcanic fluids, 244
Volcanoes exift almoft in every part of
the world, 233
number of, 236
all near the fea, 237
all on the tops of moun¬
tains, 238
fymptoms of the eruption
of, 239
matters thrown out by, 240
become extind, and are re¬
kindled, 241
fubmarine, 242
of mud, 243
caufes of difculfed, 244
W.
Wacke defcribed, 99
Werner's theory of the earth, 193
objeddions to, 194
opinion on the formation of
bafalt, Note (r) p. 600;
theory of veins, 193
Whinjlone, 98
Whiftori's theory of the earth, 183
WhitehurJPs theory of the earth, 186
objections to, 187
Woodward's theory of the earth, 182
Z.
objections to, 187 7.inc, ores of, enumerated,
GEOMANCY,
GEO C 629 ] GEO
GEOMANCY, Geomantia, a kind of divination, ftom to call: little pebbles on the ground, and tbence Geomam-y.
performed by means of a number of little points, or to form their conjeftures : inftead of the points after- y-—
dots, made on paper at random : and confidering the wards made ufe of.
various lines and figures which thofe points prefent j Polydore Virgil defines geomancy a kind of divina-
and thence forming a pretended judgment of futurity, tion performed by means of clefts or chinks made in
and deciding any quellion propofed. the ground j and takes the Perfian Magi to have been
The word is formed of the Greek yn, terra, “ earth the inventors thereof,
and pxviux, “ divination j” it being the ancient cu-
G E O M E T R Y.
INTRODUCTION.
THERE is reafon to believe that geometry, as well
as molt of the other fciences, was firft cultivated in
Egypt $ and, according to fome authors, it had its origin
in the necelfity there was of afligning to the inhabi¬
tants every year their particular fhares of land : for as
the country was annually overflowed by the Nile, it
has been taken for granted (perhaps without good rea¬
fon), that the land-marks would be obliterated, and the
pofl'effions rendered undillinguiArable from one another.
Such is faid to have been the origin of land-meafuring,
the form under which geometry was firlt known, and
from which it has taken its name j for geometry liter¬
ally fignifies the meafuring of the earth.
The hiflorkn Herodotus refers the origin of geome¬
try to the time wdren Sefojlris interfered Egypt by
numerous canals, and divided the country among the in¬
habitants j and this account of the beginning of the
fcience has been confidered by fome as very probable.
From Egypt geometry was carried into Greece by
Thales ad Miletus about 600 years before the Chriftian
aera. This celebrated philofopher is faid to have made
numerous difcoveries in geometry and in particular
to have firft obferved that any angle in a femicircle is
a right angle •, a difcovery which gave him great joy,
and for which he thanked the mufes by a facrifice.
Among the difciples of Thales were Anaximander
and Anaxagoras : the firft of thefe wuote an elemen¬
tary treatife or introduftion to geometry, the earlieft of
which there is any mention in hiftory j and the laft is
faid to have aGempted the quadrature of the circle, a
problem which has baffled the Ikill of mathematicians
of every age.
Pythagoras followed Thales, and had the merit of
difcovering one of the moft beautiful and important
propofitions of the whole fcience, namely, that the
fquare of the hypothenufe of a right-angled triangle
was equal to the fquares of the two other fides. He is
faid to have been fo tranfported with joy at this dif¬
covery, that he facrificed a hundred oxen to the gods
as a teftimony of his gratitude. The truth of this
anecdote has however been doubted, on account of the
philofopher’s moderate fortune and religious opinions
concerning the tranfmigration of fouls.
Zenodorus is the earlieft of the geometers whofe
writings have reached modern times, a part of them
having been preferved by Theon, in his commentary
on Ptolemy.
Hippocrates of Chios cultivated geometry, and dif-
tingyilhed himfelf by the quadrature of the curvilineal
fpace contained between half the circumference of latrcduc-
one circle, and the fourth part of the circumference of tl°n'
another circle, their concavities being both turned the
fame way, and the radius of the former to that of the
latter as 1 to fz. He alfo wrote elements of geome¬
try which are now loft.
The founding of the fchool of Plato forms one of
the earlieft and moft important epochs in the hiftory of
geometry ; for to that philofopher we are faid to be
indebted for the difcovery of the Geometrical Analyfis,
by which the fcience has been greatly extended, and
which is indeed abfolutely neceflary for the refolution
of problems of a certain degree of difflculty.
The Conic Se£lions, and the theory of Geometrical
Loci, are commonly reckoned among the improvements
which geometry received from his difciples’, and there
is reafon to fuppofe that thefe, as well as many other
important difcoveries which we have not room here to
enumerate, were firft fuggefted by the attempts of the
geometers of the Platonic fchool to refolve two cele¬
brated problems, namely, to trifeft, or divide into
three equal parts, a given angle ; and to conftruft a
cube which Ihould be the double of another cube;
which laft problem Hippocrates had fhewn to be equi¬
valent to the finding of two mean proportionals between
two given lines. The efteem in which Plato held the
fcience of geometry is fully evinced by the following
infcription over the door of his fchool: Let no one enter
here that is ignorant of geometry.
The fcience of geometry was likewife cultivated in
all its branches by the philofophers of the Alexandrian
fchool, among w’hom Euclid claims in a particular
manner our attention. This celebrated mathematician
lived about 300 years before the chriftian aera, and
probably ftudied geometry at Athens under the difciples
of Plato. From Greece he went to Alexandria, allur¬
ed thither no doubt by the fame of the celebrated
fchool of that city, and by the favours conferred by
the firft Ptolemy upon learned men. He compofed
elements of geometry in a fyftematic form, compre¬
hending in them fuch propofitions belonging to the firft
principles of the fcience as had been difcovered by
mathematicians previous to his time. This work has
had the Angular good fortune to preferve the higheft
reputation in all ages and in all countries where fcience
has been cultivated, and it has'ferved as the ground¬
work of innumerable other treatifes, few of which, If
any, have excelled it. Many commentaries have been
written on it, and it has been translated into almoft. all
the
the European and Oriental languages. Euclid is like-
wile known to have written other works on geometry :
oi thefe we. have his Data, which may be regarded "as
a continuation of his elements ; and an account of a
work of his on porifms (lee Porisms) preferved in the
writings of Pappus, but which has fuffered fo much
trom time as to be almoft unintelligible.
_ Aftei Euclid, lived yh'chitnedes, who cultivated and
improved all the branches of the mathematics known
at that period, and in a particular manner geometry.
He was the firlt that found nearly the ratio of the dia¬
meter of a circle to its circumference, and he fquared
the parabola. He likewife wrote treatifes on the Sphere
and Cylinder, on Spirals, on Conoids and Spheroids
belides others on mixt Mathematics. He alfo extend¬
ed and improved the Geometrical Analyfis, the prin¬
ciples of which had been eitablilhed in the fchool of
of the writings of Archimedes have been
Imtj but luch as remain prove him to have been one of
the greateft geometers that ever lived, and indeed the
-NEWTON of antiquity.
Apollonius of Perga was nearly contemporary with
Archimedes, that is, he flourilhed about the end of the
lecond century before the chriftian tera. He ftudied
geometry m the Alexandrian fchool under the fuccelTors
of Luchd and he greatly extended the theory of the
conic feftions (fee iiftroduHion to Conic Sections)
He alfo compoled treatifes on different parts of Geome¬
trical Analyfis, but of thefe only one has come down
to us entire J it is entitled de feltione rationis, and was
di.covered m the Arabic tongue, from which it has
been tranflated into Latin by Dr Halley. Such accounts
however are preferved m the mathematical colleclions of
t apf)US f ^ ?ther treatifes> that feveral of them have
been. reltored by. modern mathematicians. We may
mention in particular his treatifes de Locis Planis, de
ueAtone Spatn, de SeAione Determinata, de Taclionibus
each of which is divided into two books.
Having mentioned Archimedes and Apollonius, by
far the moft illulfnous mathematicians'of the period in
which they lived, we lhall pafs over feveral others who
contributed nothing to the improvement of the fcience '
and therefore are but little known to us. We lhall
bi'eflr not!fe TleoMus, who lived about 50
>ears A. C and who is the author of a work on
Sphencs which is confidered as one of the molt valu¬
able of the books on the ancient geometry.
/ appus and Theon of Alexandria deferve to be men¬
tioned as among the molt celebrated of the commen¬
tators and annotators of the ancient geometry. We
ters which bu, f„r the a ”™ he t 2^^
in his mathematical collection r wn m n , t lem
evetloft to^the^ticirSor™ I'eT
Produs the head of the Platonic fchool at Ath
-cultivated mathematics about the middle of
century; and although it does not app a that he ^
any difcovenes in the fcience vet hi ^ d.G
fome fervice by his example and inilruaion^Hr^ ^
a commentary on the firlt book of Euclid 'wifich 6
tains many curious obfervations refpe^n ’ he LC°n*
and metaphyfics of mathematics ? & h hlftory
We have now briefly noticed the principal epochs in
geometry.
the hiflory of geometry, and the moft celebrated men
who have contributed to its improvement from the
ear le periods of hiitory to the end of the fifth cen¬
tury ; but long before this time the ama of difeovery
feems to have been palt, and the fcience on the decline.
Sail however the Alexandrian fchool exilfed, and it
was pofnble that a Euclid or an Apollonius might again
anle m that lemmary. But the taking of Alexandria
1-y the Arabs m the year 641 gave a death-blow to
1 e Sciences not only in that capital, but throughout
the whole Greek empire. The library, a treafure of
infinite value, was burnt, and the llores of learning-
which had been accumulating for ages were annihilated
lor ever.
Although by this unfortunate event the fciences fuf-
cred. an irreparable lofs, it mufi: be attributed to the
anaticifm of the new religion which the conquerors
ad adopted rather than to national ignorance or bar-
banty ; for before that period, the fciences, when on
the decline in Greece, had found an afylum among
tnem and about 1 20 years after the death of Moham-
med they again took them under their proteftion.
fl V , S tranflated the greater part of the works
of the Greek geometers, and chiefly thofe introdnaory
to aftronomy. 1 hey even began to ffudy the more
°f ^ .ancientsJ for Apollonius'1 s
Conic Sedions became familiar to them, and fome of
the books of that work have only reached us in an
Aiabic verfion. They gave to Trigonometry its pre-
fent fimple and commodious form, and greatly fim-
of fll H 0PeratfI0tns uby the introduaion of fines inftead
ufed rfl°rdS °f d°uble arCS’ which had been formerly
fciWr gv1Tetry,-aSJWr11 aS itS kJndred mathematical
nces, had remained for feveral centuries under the
°f th; A-bs, it was again received into
i^on’ ^A 7’ andit le r?.ft°f Europe, about the year
40°. Among the earheft writers on the fubiea after
ns period, were Leonardus Pifanus, and Lucas Pa-
ciolus or de Pur go.
^ mull neceffarily confine
ever^ilf °f t le hlft0ry °f tl,e fc'ence> wil1 "Ob how-
ever allow us t0 enumerate a|, the iI>lpr,)vcmen[s
Eumne1' f35 "frT [mCe ‘hc rClto,;"'ion of letters in
tributeil’ m°r a hfti °/ th- names of thofe "ho have con-
tnbuted more or lefs to its extenfion, would include al-
ntoft every mathematman of note from the time of
Lecmardus.Pifanus to the prefent day.
nfi'ihe nWrrlngf °frthe ancIent geometers have been
affiduoufiy fought after, and held in great repute • for
n appears that as far as they carried fome^f Jheir
Ind of aJ67 eftl bUt VT^ r0°m f°r improvement,
Tf A W-e think the writings of Euclid
Apollonius, afford remarkable
r , S', 7ufkd s. eien)ents of geometry have been
1 ered, at lead m this country, as one of the beft
books that could be put into the hands of the mathe¬
matical flu dent, particularly that edition of its fid! fix
and eleventh and twelfth books which was given to the
world by the late Dr Slm/on. An excellent fvftem of
geometry, comprehending the firft fix books of the il
blook«Uk arT,nt’ t0get,,1Cf with three fupplementary
boolvs, has of late years been publifhed by Mr ProfefTor
lay fair, of the Univerfity of Edinburgh. We be-
leve no modern fyftem has excelled that of Euclid
GEO M
fiiil (as rciivTCu to its Original punty by Ji)r Simfon) in
‘ ‘^ rcfjicct of logical accuracy and iylternatic arrangement.
I here is one however, which we mult particularly
mention on account of its great excellence, and the
E T R Y.
ufe we have made of it in the
prcfent to our readers. It is
which we conlider as the moil
that has yet appeared.
r. 63i
lyltem we are now to Firit
that of Mr Legandre Principles,
complete and extenfive v”"" J
SECT. I. THE F
Definitions.
I. Geometry is a fcience which treats of the pro¬
perties and relations of quantities having extenfion, and
which are called magnitudes. Extenfion is dillin'milh-
ed into length, breadth, and thicknefs.
^ II. A Point is that which has pofition, but not mag¬
nitude.
III. A Line is that which has only length. Hence
the extremities of a line are points, and the interfedions
of one line with another are alfo points.
IT. A Straight ox Right Line is the fhorteft way from
one point to another.
V* Every line which is neither ftraight, nor com-
CCXL Pl°fcd of .llral8ht; Vmes: is * Curve Line. Thus AB is a
Fie i lb sight line, ACDB is a line made up of flraight lines,
g’ and AEB is a curve line.
\ I, A Superficies, or Suffice^ is that which has only
length and breadth. Hence the extremities of a fuper-
ficies are lines, and the interfedions of one fuperficies
with another are alfo lines.
\ II. A Plane Superficies is that in which any two
ppims being taken, the liraight line between them lies
wholly in that fuperBcies.
VIII. Every fuperBcies which is neither plane nor
comix)fed of plane fuperficies, is a Curve Superficies.
IX. A Solid is that which has length, breadth, and
thicknefs. IT nee the boundaries of a folid are fuper-
ncies; and the boundary which is common to two folids
which are contiguous, is a fuperficies.
X. A Plane ReclilinealAngle is the inclination of two
ftraight lines to one another, which meet together, but
are not in the fame ftraight line. The point in which
the lines meet one another is called the Vertex of the
angle.
Fig a. When there is only one angle at a point, it may be
expreffed by the letter placed at that point; thus the
angle contained by the lines EF and EG may be called
the angle E : if, however, there be feveral angles, as at
B, then each is expreiTed by three letters, one of which
is the letter that ftands at the vertex of the angle, and '
the others are the letters that Hand fomewhere upon the
lines containing the angle, the letter at the vertex being
placed between the other two. Thus the angle com
tained by the lines BA and BD is called the anp-1e
ABD or DAB. &
Angles in common with other quantities admit of
addition, fubtracf ion, multiplication, and divifion. Thus
the fum of the angles ABD and DBG is the angle
ABC; the difference of the angle ABC and ABIHs
the angle DBC.
XL When a llraight line handing on another ftraight
■fig. 3. line makes the adjacent angles equal to one another,
each of them is called a Right Angle, and the ftraight
hue which ftands on the other is called a Perpendicular
r PRINCIPLES.
to it. Thus, it DC meet AB, and make the angles
ACD, DCB equal to one another ; each of them is a
right angle, and DC is a perpendicular to AB.
. XII. An Ohtufie Angle is that which is greater than a *
right angle, and an Acute Angle is that which is lefs than
a right angle. Thus ABC being fuppofed a right angle,
EBC is an obtufe angle, and EEC an acute angle.
XHI. Parallel Straight Lines are fuch as are in the Fig. 5.
fame plane, and which being produced ever fo far both
ways, do not meet.
XIV. A Plane Tigure is a plane terminated every
where by lines.
If the lines be ftraight, the fpace which they en-Fig. L’
clofe is called a ReBilineal figure, or a Polygon, and the
lines themielves conftitute the Perimeter of the po-
Jygon.
XV. When a polygon has three fides (which is the
fmallcft number it can have) it is called a Triangle j
when it is has four, it is called a Quadrilateral; when
it has five, a Pentagon ; when fix, a Hexagon, &c.
XVI. An Equilateral triangle is that which hasFig. 7.8.5,u
three equal fides (fig. 7.); an Ifioficeles triangle is that
which has only two equal fides (fig. 8.); and a Sca¬
lene triangle is that which has all its fides unequal
(fig. 9.).
XVTI. A Right-angled triangle is that which has p.
a right angle ; the fide oppofite to the right angle is lg’ ^'
called the Hypolhenufie. Thus in the triangle ABC,
having the angle at B a right angle, the fide AC is the
hypothenufe.
XVIII. An Obtufe-angled triangle is that which haspjp.
an obtufe angle (fig. 9.); and an acute-angled trian.
gle is that which has three acute angles (fig. 11.).
XIX. Of quadrilateral figures, ayywcn? is that which
has all its hdes equal, and all its angles right angles
(fig. 12.). ARettangle is that which has all its angles 14 I5’ l6*
right angles, but nft all its fides equal, (fig. 13.). A
Rhombus is that which has all its fides equal, but its an-
gles are not right angles, (fig. 14.). A Parallelogram,
or Rhomboid, is that which has its oppofite fides parallel
(fig. 15.). A Trape%oid is that which has only two of
ns oppofite fides parallel, (fig. 16.).
XX. A Diagonal is a ftraight line, which joins the
vertices of two angles, which are not adjacent to each F'g'^
other; fuch is AC.
. Equilateral Polygon is that which has all
ns fides equal ; and an Equiangular Polygon is that
wmch has all its angles equal. If a polygon be both
equilateral and equiangular, it is called a Regular Po-
lygon.
r XXII. Two polygons are equilateral between them-
it ves, when the fides of the one are equal to the fides
01 the other, each to each, and in the fame order; that
E’ Vk . n 8°’n8 about each of the figures in the fame
dn eft ion, the firft fide of the one is equal to the firft
fide of the other; the fecond fide of the one is equal to *
the
s.
G E O M
Firft the fecotid ilde of the other j the third to the third, ana
Principles. f0 on< The fame is to be underftcod of two polygons
v which are equiangular between thenifelves.
Explanation of Terms*
An Axiom is a proportion, the truth of which is evi¬
dent at firft fight. . j
A Theorem is a truth which becomes evident by a pro-
fcefs of reaforiing called Demohf ration.
A Problem is a queftion propoied, which requires a
folution.
A Lemma is a fubfidiary truth employed in the
demonftration of a theorem, or the folution of a prob-
lem. _ # .
The common name of Propofttion is given indifferent¬
ly to theorems, problems, and lemmas.
A Corollary is a confequeiice which follows from one
or feveral propofitions.
A Scholium is a remark upon one or more propofi¬
tions that have gone before, tending to ftiew their con¬
nexion, their reftriftion, their extenfion, or the man¬
ner of their application.
A Hypothecs is a fuppofition made either in the enun¬
ciation of a propolition, or in the courfe of a demon-
flration.
Explanation of Signs.
That the demonftrations may be more concife, we
-fhall make ufe of the following figns borrowed from
Algebra*, and in employing them we ftiall take for
granted that the reader is acquainted with at leaft the
manner of notation and firft principles of that branch of
mathematics.
To exprefs that two quantities are equal the fign =± is
put between them; thus A B, fignifies that the quan¬
tity denoted by A is equal to the quantity denoted by B.
To exprefs that A is lefs than B, they are written
thus j A B.
To exprefs that A is greater than B, they are written
thus j A B.
The fign -{- (read pluf written between the letters
which denote two quantities, indicates that the quanti¬
ties are to be added together *, thus A+B means the
fum of the quantities A and B.
The fign — (read minus) written between two let¬
ters, means the excefs of the one quantity above the
other j thus A—B means the excefs of the quantity
■denoted by A above the quantity denoted by B. The
figns and will fometimes occur in the fame ex-
preflion *, thus A-{-C—D means that D is to be fub-
trafted from the fum of A and C, alfo A—D-j-C
means the fame thing.
The fign x put between two quantities means their
produft, if they be confidered as numbers 5 but if they
be confidered as lines, it fignifies a reftangle having
thefe lines for its length and breadth 5 thus A X B
means the produX of two numbers A and B j or elfe
a reXangle having A and B for the fides about one of
its right angles. We fhall likewife indicate the pro¬
duct of two quantities, in fome cafes, by writing the
letters clofe together *, thus m A will be ufed to exprefs
the produX of m and A, and fo on with other expref-
fions, agreeable to the common notation in algebra.
2
E T 11 Y.
Se£L L
The expreflion A1 means the fquare of the quantity
A, and A3 means the cube of A *, alfo PQ_% and PQ_3
mean, the one the fquare, and the other the cube, of a
line whofe extremities are the points P and £).
On the other hand, the fign A indicates a root to
be extraXed *, thus \/A X B means the fquare root
the produX cf A and B.
Fhft
Principles.
Axioms.
1. Two quantities, each of which is equal to a third,
are equal to one another.
2. The whole is greater than its part.
3. The whole is equal to the fum of all its parts.
4. Only one ftraight line can be drawn between two
points.
3. Two magnitudes, whether they be lines, fur*
faces, or folids, are equal, when, being applied the one
to the other, they coincide with one another entirely,
that is, when they exaXly fill the fame fpace.
6. All right angles are equal to one another.
Note.—-The references are to be underftood thus :
(y.) refers to the 7th propofition of the feXion in which
it occurs } (4. 2.) means the 4th propofition of the 2d
feXion ; (2. cor. 28. 4.) means the 2d corollary to the.
28th propofition of the 4th feXion.
Theorem I.
A ftraight line CD, which meets with another1 Fig \q.
AB, makes with it two adjacent angles, which,
taken together, are equal to two right angles.
At the point C let CE be perpendicular to AB.
The angle ACD is the fum of the angles ACE, ECD j
therefore, ACD-f-BCD is the fum of the three angles
ACE, ECD, BCD. The firft oi thefe is a right
angle, and the two others are together equal to a right
angle ; therefore, the fum of the two angles ACD,
BCD, is equal to two right angles.
Cor. I. If one of the angles is a right angle, the
other is alfo a right angle.
Cor. 2. Adi the angles ACE, ECD, DCF, FCB,Fig. iS.
at the fame point C, on the lame fide of the line AB,
are, taken together, equal to two right angles. For
their fum is equal to the two angles ACD, DCB.
Theorem II.
Two ftraight lines which coincide with each other
in two points, alfo coincide in all their extent,
and form but one and the fame ftraight line.
Let the points which are common to the two lines p- ^
be A and B *, in the firft place it is evident that they
imift coincide entirely between A and B ; otherwife,
two ftraight lines could be drawn from A to B, which
is impoffible (axiom 4.) Now let us fuppofe, if poili-
ble, that the lines when produced feparate from each
other at a point C, the one becoming ACD, and the
other ACE. At the point C let CF be drawn, fo as
to make the angle ACF a right angle *, then, ACE be¬
ing a ftraight line, the angle FCE is a right angle
(1. cor. 1.) j and becaufe AGD is a ftraight line, the
angle
Seft. I. G E O M
Firft angle FCD is alio a right angle, therefore the angle
Principles. is equal to FCD, a part to the whole, which is
impoflible •, therefore the ftraight lines which have the
common points A, B cannot feparate when produ¬
ced, therefore they mult form one and the fame itraight
line.
Theorem III.
Fig. 20. If two adjacent angles ACD, DCB make together
two right angles, the two exterior lines AC,
CB, which form thefe angles, are in the fame
ftraight line.
For if CB is not the line AC produced, let CE be
that line produced, then, ACE being a ftraight line,
the angles ACD, DCE are together equal to two
right angles (i.)j but, by hypothefis, the angles
ACD, DCB are together equal to two right angles,
therefore ACD-f DCE=rACD-f DCE. From thefe
equals take away the common angle ACD, and the
remaining angles DCB, DCE are equal, that is, a
part equal to the whole, which is impoftible, therefore
CB is the line AC produced.
Theorem IV.
I
Fig. 21. If two ftraight lines AB, DE cut each other, the
vertical or oppolite angles are equal.
For fince DE is a ftraight line, the fum of the
angles ACD, ACE is equal to two right angles (t.),
and fince AB is a ftraight line, the fum of the angles
ACE, BCE is equal to twTo right angles, therefore
the fum ACD-f-ACE is equal to the fum ACE-{-
BCE j from each of thefe take away the fame angle
ACE, and there remains the angle ACD equal to its
oppofite angle BCE.
In like manner, it may be demonftrated, that the
angle ACE is equal to its oppofite angle BCD.
Cor. i. From this it appears, that if two ftraight
lines cut one another, the angles they make at the
point of their interfeftion are, together, equal to four
right angles.
Cor. 2. And hence all the angles made by any
number of lines meeting in one point are, together,
equal to four right angles.
Theorem V.
Fig. 22. Two triangles are equal, when they have an
angle, and the two fides containing it of the
one equal to an angle, and the two fides con¬
taining it of the other, each to each.
Let the triangles ABC, DEF have the angle A
equal to the angle D, the fide AB equal to DE, and
the fide AC equal to DF ; the triangles lhall be equal.
For if the triangle ABC be applied to the triangle
DEF, fo that the point A may be on D, and the line
AB upon DE, then the point B ftiall coincide wnth
E, becaufe ABzrrDE; and the line AC (hall coincide
with DF, becaufe the angle BAC is equal to EDF $
and the point C ftiall coincide writh F, becaufe AC—
DF; and fince B coincides wnth E, and C with F,
the line BC (hall coincide with EF, and the tvro tri-
Vot. IX. Part II.
E T R Y. 633
angles ftiall coincide exa&ly, the one with the other j Firft
therefore they are equal (ax. 5.) Principles.
Cor. Hence it follow's, that the bafes, or third fides '~'~v '
BC, EF of the triangles are equal, and the remaining
angles B, C of the one are equal to the remaining
angles E, F of the other, each to each, namely, thole
to wThich the equal fides are oppofite.
Theorem VI.
Two triangles are equal, when they have a fide, Fig- 22*
and the two adjacent angles of the one equal to
a fide, and the two adjacent angles of the other,
each to each.
Let the fide BC be equal to the fide EF, the angle
B to the angle E, and the angle C to the angle Ff
the triangle ABC lhall be equal to the triangle DEF.
For if the triangle ABC be applied to the triangle
DEF, fo that the equal fides BC, EF may coincide j
then becaufe the angle B is equal to E, the fide BA
lhall coincide with ED, and therefore the point A lhall
be fomewhere in ED j and becaufe the angle C is
equal to F, the fide CA lhall coincide with FD, and
therefore the point A lhall be fomewhere in FD ; novr
the point A being fomewhere in the lines ED, and
ED, it can only be at D their interfeftion ; therefore
the two triangles ABC, DEF mull entirely coincide,
and be equal to one another.
Cor. Hence it appears that the remaining angles
A, D of the triangles are equal, and the remaining
fides AB, AC of the one are equal to the remaining
fides DE, DF of the other, each to each, viz. thole
to which the equal angles are oppofite.
Theorem VII.
Any two fides of a triangle are together greater Fig. i*.
than the third.
For the fide BC, for example, being the Ihorteft.
way between the points B, C, (kief. 4.) muft be Ids
than BA-f-AC.
Theorem VIII.
If from a point O, within a triangle ABC, there Fig. 23.
be drawn ftraight lines OB, OC to the extre¬
mities of BC one of its fides, the fum of thefe
lines lhall be lefs than that of AB, AC the two
other fides.
Let BO be produced to meet CA in D; becaufe
the ftraight line OC is lefs than OD-|-DC, to each of
thefe add BO, and BO-j-OC^lBO-f-OD-j-DC ; that
is BO + OC^LBD + DC.
Again, fince BD^BA-bAD, to each of thefe add
DC and we have BD + DC^lBA-f AC, but it has
been Ihewn that BO-j-OC^lBD + DC, much more
then is BO-f-OC^lBA-j-AC.
✓
Theorem IX.
If two fides AB, AC of a triangle ABC are equal Fig-14.
to two fides DE, DF of another triangle DEF, p1^-
each to each ; but if the angle BAC contained ‘s" *
4 L- by
Fig. 24.
Fl'g- 25-
Fig. 35.
Fig. 22.
Fig. 27.
G E O M
by the former is greater than the angle EDF
contained by the latter j the third fide BC of the
hrit triangle fhall be greater than the third fide
EF of the fecond.
Suppose AG drawn fo that the angle CAG—D,
take AG=:DE and join CG ; then the triangle GAG
is equal to the triangle EEF, (6.) and ‘therefore
GC=EF. Now there maybe three cafes, according
as the point G falls without the triangle BAG, or on
the fide BC, or within the fame triangle.
C>iSE I. Becaufe GC^lGl-j-iG, and AB^l
AI-flB, (7.J therefore GC-f-AB^dGI-l-AI-f-IG
+ IB, that is, GC-f. AB^lAG-f-BG, from each of
thele unequal quantities take away the equal quantities
AB, AG, and there remains GG —^ BG therefore
EF^iBG.
Case II. If the point G fall upon the fide BC,
then iu is evident that GC, or its equal EF, is lefs than
BC.
Case III. Laftly, if the point G fall within the
triangle BAG, then AG-J-GC^EAB-j-BC, (8.)
therefore, taking away the equal quantities AG, AB
there remains GC^rlBC or EF^lBC.
Com Hence, converfely, if EF be lefs than BC, the
angle EDF is lefs than BAG ; for the angle EDF can¬
not be equal to BAG, becaufe then (5.) EF would be
equal to BC ; neither can the angle EDF be greater
than BAC, for then (by the theor.) EF wrculd be greater
than BC.
Theorem X.
Two triangles are equal, when the three Tides of
the one are equal to the three Tides of the other
each to each. ’
FT R V. Sea.
and BD~DC,by conftruclion, therefore (preced. theor.)
the angle B is equal to the angle C.
Cor. Hence every equilateral triangle is alfo equis
gular.
Scholium.
Firft
Principles.
Let the fide ABrrDE, AC-DF, and BCrrEF :
then (hall the angle ArrD, BrrE, CzrF.
- f°r^the angle A were greater than D, as the Tides
f,7’ , ’ fe,eqUal to DE’ DF» each to each, it would
lullow, (9.) that BC would be greater than EF, and if
the angle A were lefs than the angle D, then BC would
be lefs than EF 5 but BC is equal to EF, therefore the
angle A can neither be greater nor lefs than the angle
D, therefore it muff be equal to it. In the fame man-
ner it may be proved, that the angle BrrE, and that
the angle C=:F. .
Scholium.
oak."’vi be,r<:mj‘rked. as in Theorem V. and The-
oqual fils'. the Cqual anSks a« °rpofite to the
Theorem XI.
In an ifofceles triangle the angles oppofite to the
equal Tioes are equal to one another.
Let the fide AB=AC, then fliall the angle C—B
Suppofe a ftraight line drawn from A theWT of
the triangle to D the m ddle of its bafe • , •
angles ABD. ACD have the thlee fide! ‘of .'fiT 0^
equal to the three fides of the other, each to each
tamely AD common to both, AB-AC, by hypothefis,’
From the equality of the triangles ABD ACD it
follows, that the angle BAD —DAC, and that’the
angle BDA= ADC j therefore thefe two laft are right
angles. Hence it appears, that a ftraight line drawn
from the vertex of an ifofceles triangle to. the mid¬
dle of its bafe is perpendicular to that bafe, and divides
tne vertical angle into two equal parts.
In a triangle that is not ifoiceles, any one of its three
fides may be taken indifferently for a bafe; and then its
vertex is that of the oppofite angle. In an ifofceles
tnangle, tne bafe is that fide which is not equ^l to the
others.
Theorem XII.
If two angles of a triangle are equal, the oppofite Fig. aS-
fides are equal, and the triangle is ifofceles.
Let the angle ABC—ACB, the fide AC fliall be
equal to the fide AB. For if the fides are net equal,
let AB be the greater of the two; take BDzrAC and
join CD; the angle DEC is by hypotheiis equal to
ACL and the two fides DB, EC are equal to the two
ivdV^’ each t0 eacJl ’ therefore the triangle
D.>_ is equal to the triangle ACB ; (5.) but a part
cannot be equal to the whole ; therefoie the fides AB
AD cannot be unequal, that is, they are equal, and the’
triangle is ifofceles.
Theorem XIII.
°i the two Tides of a triangle, that is the greater Fig. 2p.
W}i;ch 18 oppofite to the greater angle ; and con-
verfeiy, ot the two angles of a triangle, that is
the greater which is oppofite to the greater
First, let the angle C-^B, then fhall the fide AB
oppofite to C be greater than the fide AC oppofite to
15. c,uppofe CD drawn, fo that the angle BCD—B •
m the triangk BDC, ED is equal to DC, (12.) but
AD + DC-^AC, and AD-j-DC=AD-f DB—AB
therefore AB-^AC. ^ ’
Next, let fide AB^-AC, then fhall the angle
.C 0?P0llte^° AB’ be g^ter than the angle B, oppofite
hee^ d‘ a , than B’ then’ ^ wbat has
been demonflrated AB^lAC, which is contrary to
he hypothefis of the propofition, therefore C is not lefs
than Bi and if C were equal to B, then it would fol¬
low that AC AB, (12.) which is alfo contrary to the
hypothefis ; therefore C is not equal to B, therefore it is
greater.
Theorem XIV.
From a given point A without a ftraight line DE Fir. 3c.
no more than one perpendicular can be drawn
to that line.
For fuppofe it poflible to draw two, AB, and AC;
produce
Sed. T. G E O M
Firft produce one of them AB, fo that BF=r AB, and join
Principle'. CF. The triangle CBF is equal to the triangle ABC,
    for the angle CBF is a right angle, as well as CBA,
and the fide BF=B A •, therefore the triangles are equal,
(5.) and hence the angle BCFzrBCA; but the angle
BCA is by hypothefis a right angle \ therefore the
angle BCF is alio a right angle j hence AC and
CF lie in a ftraight line, (3.) and confequently two
ftraight lines ACF, ABF may be drawn between two
points A, F, which is impoflible, (ax. 4.) therefore it
is equally impoftible that two perpendiculars can be
drawn from the fame point to the fame ftraight line.
Theorem XV.
Pig. 30. If from a point A, without a ftraight line DE, a
perpendicular AB be drawn upon that line, and
alfo different oblique lines AE, AC, AD, &c.
to different points of the fame line.
Firft, The perpendicular AB {hall be ftiorter than
any one of the oblique lines.
Secondly, The two oblique lines AC, AE, which
meet the line DE on oppofite Tides of the per¬
pendicular, and at equal diftances BC, BE from
it, are equal to one another.
Laftly, Of any two oblique lines AC, AD,- or AE,
AD, that which i$ more remote from the per¬
pendicular is the greater.
Produce the perpendicular AB, fo that BF=:BA,
and join FC, FD.
1. The triangle BCF is equal to the triangle BCA ;
for the right angle CBF=CBA, the fide CB is com¬
mon, and the fide BFzzrBA, therefore the third fide
CF=AC, (5.) but AF^AC-j-CF, (7.) that is
2AB^l2AC therefore AB^lAC, that is, the per¬
pendicular is ftiorter than any one of the oblique lines.
2. If BErrBC, then, as AB is common to the two
triangles ABE, ABC, and the right angle A BE= ABC,
the triangles ABE, ABC ftiall be equal, (5.) and
AE=AC.
3. In the triangle DFA, the fum of the lines AD,
DF is greater than the fum of AC, CF, (8) that is,
2 AC 5 therefore ADq^AC, that is, the
oblique line, which is more remote from the perpendi¬
cular, is greater than that which is nearer.
Cor. 1. The perpendicular meafures the diftance of
any point from a ftraight line.
Cor. 2. From the fame point, three equal ftraight
lines cannot be drawn to terminate in a given ftraight
line for if they could be drawn, then', two of them
would be on the fame fide of the perpendicular, and
equal to each other, which is impoflible.
Theorem XVI.
Fig. 31. If from C, the middle of a ftraight line AB, a per¬
pendicular CD be drawn to that line. Firft,
Every point in the perpendicular is equally
diftant from the extremities of the line AB.
Secondly, Every point without the perpendi¬
cular is at unequal diftances from the fame ex¬
tremities A, B.
1. Let D be any point in CD, then, becaufe the two
E T R Y.
63?
oblique lines DA, DB are equally diftant from the
perpendicular, they are equal to one another (15.),
therefore every point in CD is equally diftant from the
extremities of AB.
2. Let E be a point out of the perpendicular 5 join
FA, EB, one of thefe lines muft cut the perpendicular
in Fj join BF, then AF=BF, and AE-BF-f- FE;
but BF-f-FF^BE, (7.) therefore AEt^’BF, that
is, E any point out of the perpendicular is at unequal
diftances from the extremities of AB.
Firlt
Principles,
Theorem XVII. ccxY
Two right-angled triangles are equal, when the Fig- 3**
hypothenufe and a fide of the one are equal to
the Lypothenufe and a fide of the other, each
to each.
Let the hypothenufe ACrrDF, and the fide
AB—DE ; the triangle ABC (hall he equal to DEF.
The propofition will evidently be true (10.), if the re¬
maining fides BC, EF are equal. Now, if it be poffible
to fuppofe that they are unequal, let BC be the greater,
take EG—EF, and join AG*, then the triangles AEG,
DEF, having the fide AB=I-)E, BG = EF, and the
angle B—E, will be equal to one another (5.), and will
have the remaining fide AG—DF 5 but by hypothefis
DFr=AC.j therefore AGzz AC 5 but AG cannot be
equal to AC (15.), therefore it is impoflible that BC
can be unequal to EF, and therefore the triangles
ABC, DEF are equal to one another.
Theorem XVIII.
Two ftraight lines AC, ED, v/hich are perpendi- Fig. 33.
cular to a third ftraight line AE, are parallel to
each other.
For if they could meet at a point O, then two per¬
pendiculars OA, OE, might he drawn from the fame
point O, to the ftraight line AE, which is impoffible
(14.).
In the next theorem, it is neceflary to aflume ano¬
ther axiom, in addition to thofe already laid down in
the beginning of this fe&ion.
Axiom
7. If two points E, G in a ftraight line AB are Fig. 34,
fituated at unequal diftances EF, GH from another
ftraight line CD in the fame plane, theie two lines,
when indefinitely produced, on the fide of the leaft
diftance GH, will meet each other.
Theorem XIX.
If two ftraight lines AB, CD be parallel, the per- Fig. 35.
pendiculars EF, GH to one of the lines, which
are terminated by the other line, are equal, and
are perpendicular to both the parallels.
For if EF and GH, which are perpendicular to CD,
were unequal, the lines AB, CD would meet each
other (by the above axiom) which is contrary to the
fuppofition that they are parallel. And if EF, GH be
4 L 2 not
j"
636 G E O M
Firft not perpendicular to AB, let EK be perpendicular to
Principles. meeting GH in K j then becaufe EK and FH are
v perpendicular to EF, they are parallel (i 8.), and there¬
fore, by what has been juft (hewn, the perpendiculars
EF, KH muft be equal; but by hypothefis EFrrGH,
therefore KH=GH, which is impoflible ; therefore EF
is perpendicular to AB } and in the fame way it may
be Ihewn that GH is perpendicular to AB.
Cor. Plence it appears, that through the fame point
E, no more than one parallel can be drawn to the lame
ftraight line CD.
£ T R Y.
Cor. If a ftraight line EF interfedling two other
ftraight lines AB, CD, makes the exterior angle GEB
equal to the interior and oppolite angle EFD on the
fame fide } or the two interior angles BEF, EFD on
the fame fide equal to two right angles 5 in either cafe
the lines are parallel. For, if the angle GEBzrEFD,
then alfo AEF-EFD, (4.) And if BEF+EFD=
two right angles, then, becaufe BEF-j-AEF~two
right angles (1.), BEF-f-EFDrzBEF-f-AEF, and
taking BEF from both, EFDzzAEF, therefore (by
the theorem) in each cafe the lines are parallel.
Theorem XX.
Theorem XXIII.
Fig. 35.
Fig. 37-
Straight lines AB, EF, which are parallel to the
fame ftraight line CD, are parallel to each
other.
For let HKG be perpendicular to CD, it will alfo
be perpendicular to both AB and EF (19.), therefore
thefe laft lines are parallel to each other.
Theorem XXI.
If a ftraight line EF meet two parallel ftraight
lines AB, CD, it makes the alternate angles
AEF, EFD equal.
Let EH and GF be perpendicular to CD, then
thefe lines will be parallel (18.), and alfo at right
angles to AB (19.), and therefore FH and GE are
equal to one another (19.), therefore the triangles
FGE, FHE, having the fide FGzrHE, and GErrFH,
and FE common to both, will be equal and hence the
angle FEG will be equal to EFH, that is, FEA wall
be equal to EFD.
Cor. 1. Hence if a ftraight line KL interfeft two
parallel ftraight lines AB, CD, it makes the exterior
angle KEB equal to the interior and oppofite angle
EFD on the fame fide- of the line. For the angle
xAEF—KEB, and it has been (hewn that AEF—EFD;
therefore KEBrrEFD.
Cor. 2. Hence alfo, if a ftraight line EF meet two
parallel ftraight lines AB, CD, it makes the two inte¬
rior angles BEF, EFD on the fame fide together, equal
to two right angles. For the angle AEF has been
Ihewn to be equal to EFD, therefore, adding the angle
FEB to both, AEF -f FEB = EFD -f FEB ; but
AEF-pFEB is equal to two right angles, therefore
the fum EFD-j-FEB is alfo equal to two right angles.
If a fide AC of a triangle ABC be produced to¬
wards D, the exterior angle BCD is equal to
both the interior and oppofite angles BAC,
ABC.
Let CE be parallel to AB, then the angle BrrBCE,
(21.) and the angle A—ECD, (1 cor. 21.) therefore
B + A=BCE -f-ECDrrBCD.
Cor. The exterior angle of a triangle is greater than
either of the interior oppofite angles.
Theorem XXIV.
The three interior angles of a triangle ABC taken
together are equal to two right angles.
For if AC be produced to D, then A-j-BzzBCD,
(23.); to each of thefe equal quantities add ACB, then
ftiall A + B +ACB-BCD+BCA; but BCD + BCA
two right angles, (1.) therefore A-[-B-j-ACB
— tw-o right angles.
Cor. 1. If two angles of one triangle be equal to
twro angles of another triangle, each to each j the
third angle of the one {hall be equal to the third angle
of the other, and the triangles {hall be equiangular.
Cor. 2. If two angles of a triangle, or their fum,
be given, the third angle may be found, by fubtradling
their fum from two right angles.
Cor. 3. In a right-angled triangle, the fum of the
two acute angles is equal to a right angle.
Cor. 4. In an equilateral triangle, each of the
angles is equal to the third part of two right angles, or
to two thirds of one right angle.
Theorem XXV.
Theorem XXII.
FlS’ 38* If a ftraight line EF, meeting two other ftraight
lines AB, CD, makes the alternate angles
AEF, EFD equal, thofe lines {hall be parallel.
For if AE is not parallel to CD, fuppofe, if poffible,
that fome other line KE can be drawn through E, pa¬
rallel to CD $ then the angle KEF muft be equal to
EFD (21.), that is (by hypothefis), to AEF, which is
impoffible; therefore, neither KE, nor any other line
drawn through E, except AB, can be parallel to CD.
The fum of all the interior angles of a polygon is
equal to twice as many right angles wanting
four as the figure has fides.
Let ABCDE be a polygon 5 from a point F within
it draw ftraight lines to all its angles, then the polygon
{hall be divided into as many triangles as it has fides j
but the fum of the angles of each triangle is equal to
two right angles, (24.) therefore the fum of all the
angles of the triangles is equal to twice as many right
angles as there are triangles, that is, as the figure has
fides j but the fum of all the angles of the triangles is
equal
Sea. I.
Firft
Principles.
 r—'
Fig- 39-
Fig. 40.
Fig. 41.
Sea. n.
G E O M
Of the
Circle.
equal to the fum of all the angles of the polygon, to¬
gether with the fum of the angles at the point F, which
lad fum is equal to four right angles, (2 Cor. 4.) there¬
fore the fum of all the angles of the polygon together
with four right angles, is equal to twice as many ng it
angles as the figure has fides, and confequently the um
of°the angles of the polygon is equal to twice as many
right angles, wanting four, as the figure has fides.
^OR. The four interior angles of a quadrilateral
are taken together equal to four right angles.
Theorem XXVI.
The oppofite fides of a parallelogram are equal,
and the oppofite angles are alfo equal.
Draw the diagonal BD ; the two triangles ADB,
DEC have the fide BD common to both, and AB,
DC being parallel, the angle ABD=BDC (21.) alfo,
AD, BC being parallel, the angle ADBrrDBC,
therefore the two triangles are equal (6.), and the fide
AB, oppofite to the angle ADB, is equal to DC, op¬
pofite to the equal angle DEC. In like manner the
third fide AD is equal to the third fide BC,^ therefore
the oppofite fides of a parallelogram are equal.
In the next place, becaufe of the equality ot the fame
triangles, the angle A is equal to the angle and alio
the angle ADC compofed of the two angles ADB,
BDC is equal to the angle ABC compofed of the
angles CBD, DBA ; therefore the oppofite angles of
a parallelogram are alfo equal.
E
If
TRY. a 7
Of the
Theorem XXVII. . t;ir;le- .
the oppofite fides of a quadrilateral ABCD are Frg. 42.
equal, fo that AB=: DC, and AD = BC •, then
the equal fides are parallel, and the figure is a
parallelogram.
Draw the diagonal BD. The two triangles ABD,
CDB have the three fides of the one equal to the three
fides of the other, each to each, therefore the triangles
are equal (10.) 5 and the angle ADB, oppofite to AB,
is equal to DBG oppofite to DC, therefore the fide AD
is parallel*to BC (22.). For a fimilar reafon AB is
parallel to DC ; therefore the quadrilateral ABCD 1*
a parallelogram.
Theorem XXVIII.
If two oppofite fides, AB, DC, of a quadrilateral Fig. 4^
are equal and parallel, the two other fides are
in like manner equal and parallel; and the
figure is a parallelogram.
Draw the diagonal BD. Becaufe AB is parallel
to CD, the alternate angles ABD, BDC are equal,
(2i.) ; now the fide AB=DC, and DB is common to
the triangles ABD, BDC, therefore thefe triangles are
equal, ( 5.) and hence the fide AD=BC, and the angle
ADB^rDBC, confequently AD is parallel to BC,
(22.) therefore the figure ABCD is a parallelogram.
SECT. II. OF THE CIRCLE.
Definitions.
43* I. A Circle is a plane figure contained by one line
which is called the circumference, and is fuch, that all
ilraight lines drawn from a certain point within the
figure to the circumference, are equal to one another.
And this point is called the centre of the circle.
II. Every ftraight line CA, CE, CD, &c. drawn
from the centre to the circumference, is called a radius
or femidiameter ; and every Ilraight line, fuch as AB,
which paffes through the centre, and is terminated
both ways by the circumference, is called a diameter.
Hence it follows that all the radii of a circle are equal,
and all the diameters are alfo equal, each being the
double of the radius.
III. An Arch of a circle is any portion of its cir¬
cumference, as FHG. *
The chord or fubtenfe of an arch is the Ilraight line
FG which joins its extremities.
IV. A Segment of a circle is the figure contained by
an arch, and its chord. If the figure be the half of
the circle it is called a Semicircle.
Note. Every chord correfponds to two arches, and
confequently to two fegments ; but in ipeaking ol thefe,
it is always the fmalleft that is meant, unlefs the con¬
trary be. expreffed.
V. A Settor of a circle is the figure contained by
an arch DE and the two radii CD, CE, drawn to the
extremities of the arch. If the radii be at right angles
to each other it is called a Quadrant.
VI. A Ilraight line is faid to be placed or applied in
a circle, when its extremities are in the circumference p]a1;e
of the circle as FG. ... CCXL1IF„
VII. A rettilineal figure is faid to be inferibed in^ a Fig. 115.
circle when the vertices of all its angles are upon the cir¬
cumference of the circle ; in this cale the circle is faid
to be circumfcribed about the figure.
VIII. A" Ilraight line is faid to touch a circle, or to
be a tangent to a circle, when it meets the circumference
in one point only ; fuch, for example, is BD, fig. 49*
The point A which is common to the ftraight line and
circle is called the Point oj Contact.
IX. A polygon is faid to be deferibed or Fig. 118,
feribed about a circle when all its fides are tangents to
the circle ; and in this cafe the circle is faid to be in¬
feribed in the polygon.
Theorem I. Plate
CCXLI.
Any diameter AB, divides the circle and its cir- Fig- 43-
cumference into two equal parts.
For if the figure AEB be applied to Ah B, fo that
the bafe AB may be common to both, the curve line
AEB muft fall exaftly upon the curve line AFB ;
othervvife there would be points in the one or the other
unequally diftant from the centre, which is contrary to
the definition of a circle.
Theorem .
O M
JL
658
Of the
Circle.
Fig. 44.
*rig. 45-
fig. 45.
G E O M
Tjieorem II.
Every chord is lefs than the diameter.
Let the radii CA, CD be drawn from the centre to
the extremities of the chord AD j then the ftraight
line AD is lefs than AC-fCD, that is AD^elAB.°
Theorem III.
A ftraight line cannot meet the circumference of
a circle in more than two points.
For if it could meet it in three, thefe three points
would be equally diftant from the centre, and there¬
fore three equal ftraight lines might be drawn from the
fame point to the fame ftraight line, which is impoflx-
ble (2 cor. 15. 1.).
Theorem IV.
In the fame circle, or in equal circles, equal arches
are fubtended by equal chords, and, converfely,
equal chords fubtend equal arches.
If the radius AC be equal to the radius EO, and
■ the arch AMD equal to the arch ENG; the chord
AD {hall be equal to the chord EG.
For the diameter AB being equal to the diameter
EF, the femicircle AMDB may be applied exablly
upon the femicncle ENGF, and then the curve line
AMDB {hall coincide entirely with the curve line
ENG!, but the arch AMD being fuppofed equal to
EINiG, the point D muft fall upon G, therefore the
chord AD is equal to the chord EG.
Converfely, if the chord AD=:EG, the arch AMD
is equal to the arch ENG.
For if the radii CD, OG be drawn, the two trian¬
gles ACD, EOG have three fides of the one equal to
three fides of the other, each to each, viz. AC—EO
CD—OG and ADrmEG, therefore thefe triangles are
equal, (10. 1.) and hence the angle ACD=EOG.
Now if the femicircle ADB be placed upon EGF be-
caufe the angle ACDrrEOG, it is evident that the
radius CD will fall upon the radius OG, and the point
D upon G, therefore the arch AMD is equal to the
arch ENG.
Theorem V.
In the fame circle, or in equal circles, the greater
arch is fubtended by the greater chord, and,
converfely, (if tne arch be lefs than half the cir’
cumference) the greater chord fubtends the
greater arch.
For let the arch AH be greater than AD, and let
the chords AD, AH, and the radii CD, CH be drawn.
The two fides AC, AH, of the triangle ACH are
equal to the two Tides AC, CD, of the triangle ACD •
,a,nd.t!le, ?;gleACH is greater ,h™ ACD? therefore
the third fide AH is greater than the third f de AD
(9. 1.) therefore the chord which fubtends the greater
arch is the greater. Converfely, if the chord AH be
greater than AD, it may be inferred (cor. 9 1 ) from
the fame triangles that the angle ACH is greater than
I
E T R Y.
Sea. II.
AS.
A.CD, and that thus the arch AH is greater than Of the
AD. Circle.
Note. Each of the arches is here fuppofed lefs than
half the circumference; if they were greater, the con¬
trary property would have place, the arch increafing as
the chord diminidies.
Theorem VI.
The radius CG, perpendicular to a chord AB, Fh
bifedds the chord (or divides it into two equal
parts), it alfo bifedts the arch AGB fubtended by
the chord.
i Draw the radii CA, CB ; thefe radii are two equal
oblique lines in refpedl of the perpendicular CD, there¬
fore they are equally diftant from the perpendicular
(15. 1.) that is AD—DB.
In the next place, becaufe CG is perpendicular to
the middle of AB, every point in CG is at equal di-
ftances from A and B, (16. 1.) therefore, if GA, GB
be drawn, thefe lines are equal, and as they are the
chords of the arches AG, BG, the arches are alfo
equal. (4.)
Scholium.
Since the centre C, the middle D of the chord AB,
and the middle G of the arch fubtended by that chord,
are three points fituated in the fame ftraight line per¬
pendicular to that chord; and that two points in a
ftraight line are fufticient to determine its pofition ; it
follows, that a ftraight line wThich pafles through any
tvyo of thefe points muft neceffarily pafs through the
third; and muft be perpendicular to the chord. It alfo
follows, that a perpendicular to the middle of a chord
paffes through the centre, and the middle of the arch
fubtended by that chord.
Theorem VII.
If three points A, B, C, be taken in the circum-Fig. 47
ference of a circle, no other circumference which
does not coincide with the former, can be made
to pafs through the fame three points.
Let the chords AB, BC be drawn, and let OD,
Ov be drawn from the centre, perpendicular to, and
confequently bifeding thofe chords. The centre of
every circle pafling through A and B muft neceffarily
be fomewhere in the perpendicular DO, (laft theor.)
and in like manner the centre of every circle pafting
through B and C, muft be fomewhere in the perpendi¬
cular OF, therefore the centre of a circle pafting
through A, B, and C, muft be in the interfedh’on of
tne perpendiculars DO, FO; and confequently can on¬
ly he at one and the fame point O; therefore, only one
circle'can be made to pafs through the fame three points
A, B, C.
Cor. One circumference of a circle cannot interfed
another in more than tivo points, for if they could have
three common points they v/ould have the fame centre
and confequently would coincide with each other.
Theorem VIII.
Two equal chords are equally diftant from theF;
centre,
Fig 48.
Sea.'ll. G E O M
Oi the centre ; and or unequal chords, that which is
Circie. nearer the centre is greater than that which is
' more remote.
Let the chord AB—BE, fuppofe the chords bi-
fedled by the perpendiculars CF, CG from the cen¬
tre, and draw the radii CA, CD. fhe right-angled
triangles CAF, CBG have equal hypothenufes CA,
CD *, the fide AF (=GAB) of the one is alfo equal
to the fide DG (rrlDE) of the other, therefore, their
remaining fides CF, CG ^which are the ditlances or
tire chords from the centre) are equal (17. 1.).
Next let the chord AH be greater than DE ; the
arch AKH ihall be greater than DIME. Upon the
arch AKH take ANB equal to DME; draw the
chord AB, and fuppofe COF drawn from the centre
perpendicular to AB, and Cl perpendiculai to AH.
It is evident that CF'^’CO, and (i C. 1.) CO'^'CIy
much more then is CFz^Cl 5 but CF—CG, becaufe
the chords AB, DE are equal-, therefore CG-^CI j
that is, the chord nearer the centre is greater than that
which is farther from it.
Theorem IX.
E T R Y. 639
be equal to the fum of the radii CA, BA, the Of the
circles ihall touch each other externally. . C'r^ e' ■
It is evident that they have a common point A j
but they cannot have more} for if they had two, then
the difiance of the centres mud neceffarily be lefs than
the fum of the radii.
Theorem XII.
If the diftance CB of the centres of two circles Fig. £5.
be equal to the difference of the radii, the two
circles ihall touch each other internally.
In the firft place, it is evident that the point A is
common to them both ^ they cannot, however, have
another ; for that this may happen, it is neceflary that
the greater radius AB be fmaller than the fum of the
radius AC and the diftance CB of the centre, (10.)
which is not the cafe.
Cor. Therefore, if two circles touch each other, ei¬
ther internally or externally, their centres and the
point of contait are m the fame ftraight line.
Theorem XIII.
Fig. 49-
D'g- 50-
am! 51.
The perpendicular BD, drawn at the extremity of
a radius CA, is a tangent to the circle.
For any oblique line CE is greater than the perpen¬
dicular CA, (15. I.) therefore the point E is without
the circle; therefore the line BD has but one point A
common with the circumference, and conlequently it is
a tangent to the circle. (Def. 8 ).
Scholium.
Through the fame point A, only one tangent, AD,
can be drawn to die circle. For if it be poflible to
draw another, let AG be that other tangent; draw
CF perpendicular to AG 5 then CF ihall be lefs than
CA, (15. 1.) therefore F mull be within the circle j
and confequently AF when produced muft neceffarily
meet the circle in another point befides A j therefore it
cannot be a tangent.
Theorem X.
If BC, the diftance of the centres of two circles,
be lefs than the fum of their radii; and alfo the
greater radius lefs than the fum of the diftance
of their centres and the lefler radius ; the two
circles interfecl each other.
For that the circles may interfetft each other in a
point A, it is necefiary that the triangle ABC be pof-
lible^ therefore, not only muft CB be lefs than CA
4-AB, but alfo the greater radius AB muft be lefs
than AC-f-CB j (7. 1.) and it is evident, that as of¬
ten as the triangle ABC can be conftru&ed, the cir¬
cumferences deferibed on the centres B, C, Ihall inter-
fe£t each other in two points A, D.
Theorem XL
If the diftance CB of the centres of two circles
In the fame circle, or in equal circles, equal an-*1^ S4*
gles ACB, DCE, at the centres, intercept up¬
on the circumference equal arches AB, DE.
And, converfely, if the arches AB, DE are
equal, the angles ACB, DCE are equal.
First, if the angle ACB be equal to DCE, the
one angle may be applied upon the other ; and as the
lines containing them are equal, it is manifeit that the
point A will fall upon D, and the point B upon E ;
thus the arch AB wall coincide with, and be equal to
the arch DE.
Next, if the arch. AB be equal to DE, the angle
ACB is equal to DCE j for if the angles are not
equal j let ACB be the greater j and let A Cl be taken
equal to DCE; then, by what has been already demon-
ftrated, the arch AIrrDE; but by hypothefis AB=DE;
therefore, AI=rAB which is impoflible ; therefore the
angle ACB—DCE.
Theorem XIV.
The angle BCD at the centre of a circle is double F;g. 55-
the angle BAD at the circumference, whenFls'i<5‘
both ftand on the fame arch BD.
First let the centre of the circle be within the an-Fig- 55*
gle BAD ; draw the diameter AE. The exterior an¬
gle BGE of the triangle BCA is equal to both the in¬
ward and oppofite angles BAC, CBA; (23.1.) but the
triangle BCA being ifofceles, the angle BAC—CBA;
therefore the angle BCE is double of the angle BAC.
For the fame reafon, the angle DCE is double of the
angle DAE, therefore the whole angle BCD is double
of the whole angle BAD.
Suppofe in the next place that the centre is with- ^
out the angle BAD ; then, drawing the diameter AE, ° J
it may be demonftrated, as in the firft cafe, that the an¬
gle ECD is double of the angle EAD, and that the
angle
Fig. 52.
fcp G E O M
Of Proper- angle 3i,CB, a part of tlie firft, is double the angle
tion. EAB a part of the other; therefore the remaining an-
-v' gie BCD is double the remaining angle BAD.
Theorem XV.
57- All angles BAt), BFD in the fame fegment BAFD
1§' 5 ‘ of a circle are equal to one another.
Big- 57* If the fegment be greater than a femicircle, from
the centre C draw CB and CD; then the angles BAD
and BFD being (by lad theorem) each equal to half
BCD; they mult be equal to one another.
Fig- S8. But if the fegment BAFD be lefs than a femicircle,
let H be the interfedion of BF and AD; the , the
triangles ABH and FDH having the angle AHB of
the one equal to FHD of the other, (4. 1.) and ABH
~FDH, (by cafe 1.) will have the remaining angles
of the one equal to the remaining angles of the other;
that is the angle BAHrrHFD, or BADrrBFD.
Theorem XVI.
■Fig. 59. The oppofite angles of any quadrilateral figure
ABCD deferibed in a circle are together equal
to two right angles.
Draw the diagonals AC, BD ; becaufe the angle
ABDzrACD, and CBDrrCAD, (laft theor.) the fum
ABD4 CBDrr ACD+C AD; or ABC=ACD+C A D;
to each of thefe equals add ADC, and ABC-f-ADC~
ACD-fCAD-f-ADC; but the lad three angles, being
the angles of the triangle ADC, are taken together equal
to two right angles, (24. 1.), therefore ABD-|-CBD—
two right angles. In the fame manner, the angles BAD,
BCD may be fiievvn to be together equal to two right
angles.
E T R' Y. Sea. HI.
Theorem XVII. oi Propo,.
. tion.
In a circle, the angle BAD in a femicircle is a ——v—j
right angle, but the angle ABD in a fegment Fig. 60.
greater than a femicircle is lefs than a right an¬
gle ; and the angle AED in a fegment lefs
than a femicircle is greater than a right angle.
Let C be the centre, join CA, and produce BA to
F. Becaufe CB=CA, the angle CAB=CBA ;
(11. 1.) and becaufe CDzzCA, the angle CAD
rzrCDA, therefore, the whole angle BAD=CBA
-fCDA ; but thefe twfo laft angles are together equal
to DAF, (23. j.) therefore the angle BAD=DAF;
and hence each of them is a right angle.
And becaufe ABD-}-ADB is a right angle, therefore
ABD, an angle in a fegment greater than a fenlicir-
cle, is lefs than a right angle.
And becaufe ABDE is a quadrilateral in a circle,
the oppoiite angles B and E are equal to two right an¬
gles (laft; tbeor.), but B is lefs than a right angle ; thei’e-
fore the angle E, which is in a fegment lefs than a fe¬
micircle, is greater than a right angle.
Theorem XVIII.
The angle B AC contained by AC, a tangent, and Fig. 61.
AB, a chord drawn from the point of contatt,
is equal to any angle ADB in the alternate feg¬
ment of the circle.
Draw the diameter AE, and join DE. The an¬
gles EAC, EDA, being right angles, (laft: theor.) are
equal to one another; and of thefe, EAB, a part of
the one, is equal to EDB, a part of the other, (15.)
therefore the remainder B AC, of the former is equal to
the remainder BDA, of the latter.
SECT. III. OF PROPORTION.
Definitions.
I. When one magnitude contains another a certain
dumber of times exaftly, the former is faid to be a mul¬
tiple of the latter, and the latter a part of the former
II. When feveral magnitudes are multiples of as ma¬
ny others, and each contains its parts the fame number
of times, the former are faid to be equimultiples of the
latter, and the latter like parts of the former.
III. Betwixt any two finite magnitudes of the fame
kind there fubfifts a certain relation in refpedf to quan-
tity, which is called their ratio. The two magnitudes
compared are called the terms of the ratio, the firft the
antecedent, and the fecond the confequent.
IV. If there be four magnitudes, or quantities, A, B,
C, D, and if A contain fome part of B juft as often
as C contains a like part of D, then, the ratio of A to
B is faid to be the fame with for equal to) the ratio of
C to D.
It follows immediately from this definition, that if A
contain B juft as often as C contains D, then the ratio
of A to B is equal to the ratio of C to D ; for in that
cafe it is evident that A will contain any part of B juft
s often as C contains a like part of D.
%
V. When twm ratios are equal, their terms are called
proportionals.
To denote that the ratio of A to B is equal to
the ratio of C to D, they are ufually wu'itten thus,
A : B :: C : D, or thus, A ; B r=: C : D, which is
read thus; A is to B as C to D ; fuch an expreflion is
called an analogy or a proportion.
' VI. Of four proportional quantities, the laft term
is called a fourth proportional to the other three taken
in order.
VII. Three quantities A, B, C, are faid to be pro¬
portionals, when the ratio of the firft A to the fe¬
cond B is equal to the ratio of the fecond B to the
third C.
VIII. Of three proportional quantities, the middle
term is faid to be a mean proportional between the other
tw-o, and the laft a third proportional to the firft and fe¬
cond.
IX. Quantities are faid to be continual proportionals,
when the firit is to the fecond, as the fecond to the third,
and as the third to the fourth, and fo on.
X. When there is any number of magnitudes
A, B, C, D, of the fame kind, the ratio of the firft A
to the laft D is faid to be compounded of the ratio of
A
Sea. HI. G E ° .M
Of Propor- A to B, and of the ratio of B to C, and of the ratio of
tion. C to D. ,
"v ' XL If three magnitudes A, B, C be continual pro¬
portionals ; that is, if the ratio of A to B be equal to
the ratio of B to C •, then the ratio of the firft A to
the third C is faid to be duplicate of the ratio ot the hrlt
A to the fecond B. Hence, fmce by the laft defini-
tion the ratio of A to C is compounded of the ratio ot
A to B and of B to C, a ratio which is compounded
of two equal ratios is duplicate of either of them. .
XII If four magnitudes A, B, C, D be continual
proportionals, the ratio of the firft A to the fourth D is
laid to be triplicate the ratio of the firft A to the fecond
B. Hence a ratio compounded of three equal ratios
is triplicate of any one of them.
XIII. Ratio of Equality is that which equal magni¬
tudes bear to each other. .
The next four definitions explain the names given by
geometers to certain ways of changing either the order
or magnitude of proportionals, fo that they ftill continue
to be proportional. .
XIV. Inverfe Ratio is when the antecedent is made
the confequent, and the confequent the antecedent.
See Theor. 3. . .
XV. Alternate proportion is when antecedent is com¬
pared with antecedent, and confequent with confequent.
See Theor. 2. _ f ,
XVI. Compounded ratio is when the fum ot the an¬
tecedent and confequent is compared either with the
antecedent, or with the confequent. See Theor. 4.
XVII. Divided ratio is when the ditrerence ot the
antecedent and confequent is compared either with the
antecedent or with the confequent. See Theor. 4.
E T R Y.
(Ax. 4.) then, if .v be put for one of tWe equal parts, of^°pQr’
we have —<
h—p x, Brry x,
and confequently, multiplying both by the fame num¬
ber m,
in A.—tnp x, in Bar m q x}
or, which is evidently the fame,
m A—p X m xf m B=y X ™ f •
Hence it appears that m A contains the quantitv m .v
as a part p times*, and that m B contains the lame
quantitv q times ; therefore the ratio of m A to m I*
is the fame as the ratio of the number /> to the number
q (Ax. 4.) *, but the ratio of A to B is aifo equal to
the "ratio of/> to 7, (by hypothefis), therefore the ratio
of m A to m B is equal to the ratio of A to B
Cor. Hence like parts of quantities have to each
. A B
other the fame ratio as the wholes : that is, m * •
A : B *, for A and B are equimultiples of — and
B
m
Theorem II.
If four quantities of the fame kind be proportion¬
als, they (hall alfo be proportionals by alterna¬
tion.
Let A, B, C, D be four quantities, of the fame
kind, and let A : B :: C : D j then ftiall A : C ::
Axioms.
1. Equal quantities have each the fame ratio to the
fame quantity *, and the fame quantity has the fame ratio
to each of any number of equal quantities.
2 Quantities having the fame ratio to one and the
fame quantity, or to equal quantities, are equal among
themfelves , and thofe quantities, to which one and the
fame quantity has the fame ratio, are equal. .
3. Ratios equal to one and the fame ratio, are alio
equal, one to the other. r j r
4. If tu*o quantities be divided into, or compofed ot
parts that are equal among themfelves, or all of the
fame magnitude, then will the whole of the one have
the fame ratio to the whole of the other, as the num¬
ber of parts in the one has to the number of equal parts
in the other.
Theorem I.
Equimultiples of any two quantities have to each
other the fame ratio as the quantities them¬
felves.
Let A and B be any two quantities, and, m being
ut to denote any number, let m A, in B be equimul-
rples of thofe quantities, m A ftiall have to in B the
rime ratio that A has to B. , .
ra Let the ratio of A to B be equal to the ratio
one number p to another number 7, that is, let
contain p fuch equal parts as B contains 7,
VOL. IX. Part II.
Let the equal ratios of A to B, and of C to D, be
the fame as the ratio of the number p to the number
7 ,* then A will contain p fuch equal parts as B con¬
tains 7, (Ax. 4.) and C will, m like manner, contain
p fuch equal parts as D contains 7 ; let each of the
equal parts thus contained in A and B be x, and lei
each of thofe contained in C and I) be ?/, then
A-px, B=7*, C—py, D—qy.
Now as Axzpx, and C—py; it is manifeft that A
and C are equimultiples of x and y, therefore the ratio
of V to C is equal to the ratio of a* to y, (1.) and as
B=7*, and D=7y, B and D are in like manner
equimultiples of * and y *, therefore the ratio of B to
D is equal to the ratio of a to y ,* therefore the ratio o-
A to C is equal to the ratio of B to D.
Cor. If the firft of four proportionals bes greater
than the third, the fecond is greater than the fourth j
and if the firft be lefs than the third, the Ifecond is leis
than the fourth.
Theorem III1
If four quantities be proportionals, they are alfo
proportionals by inverfion.
Let A : B :: C : D j then ftiall B : A :: D : C.
For let the equal ratios of A to B, and of C to D,
be the fame as the ratio of the number p to the number
<7, then as B will contain 7 fuch equal parts as A cqn-
v 4 M tams
642
tion^°r" tains/ B wiU be to A as y is to/>, and as
 v ' _ O will contain q fuch equal parts as C contains />, D
will be to C alfo as ^ to p, therefore the ratio of B to
A is equal to the ratio of D to C (Ax. 3.)
Theorem IV.
If four quantities be proportionals, they are alfo
proportionals by compofition, and by divifion.
Let A : B :: C : D, then will
A-f-B: A :: C-f-D: C, andA-fB:B:: C-}-D;D:
alfo A—B: A :: C—D: D, and A—B: B :: C—D : D.
Let us fuppofe, as in the two preceding theorems,
that the ratios of A to B, and of C to D are each
equal to the ratio of the number p to the number q, fo
that A contains p luch equal parts as B contains y,
and C contains p fuch equal parts as D contains q;
and let x as before denote each of the equal parts con¬
tained in A and B, and y each of the equal parts con- -
tained in C and D ; then, fince
A—px, lt*>~q x, C=pyy DTzqy,
therefore A + R=zp x-\-q x=(p-\~q)x ;
C -f D=P y 4-q y=(p 4- q)y.
Now as A-j-B contains x p-\-q times, and A contains
the fame quantity p times, and B contains it q times,
(by the 4th axiom),
A + B : A :: p-\-q : p, and A-f B : B :: p4-q ; q,
and as C-f-D contains y p-\-q times, and C contains
it/) times, and D contains it q times,
C + D : C ::/>+?-/>, and C-fD : D p+q : q.
'Thus it appears, that the ratios of A-f B to A, and of
C-f D to C, are equal to the fame ratio, namely, that
ot p4-q to />; therefore (Ax. 3.) A-fB : A :: C-f
D : C. It alfo appears that the ratios of A-f B to B
and C-f D to D are each equal to the ratio of
/>-f? to q; therefore (Ax. 3.) A 4-B • B C
+ D : D. o ; T . -u .. v
In the fame manner the fecond part of the theorem
may be proved, namely, that
A—B : A :: C—D C and A—B : B :: C D : D.
Theorem V.
If four quantities be proportionals, and there be
taken any equimultiples of the antecedents,
and alfo any equimultiples of the confequents ;
t'onals^tmS qUantities wiU ftiU be proper-
Let A 1 B ;; C ; D« and m \ f'' u •
multiple8 of the antecedeuts, and’»B, u D any equU
multiples of the confequents 5 then aswA-«B--
7/i C : «D • ..
The quantities/), y and y being fuppofed to ex¬
press the fame things as in the foregoing theorems; be-
A—p X, B=qxt Q~p y} D-yy,
therefore multiplying the antecedents by the number
% and the confequents by w,
GEOMETRY.
Seft. III.
m A—nip X, n q x,
m C —mp y, n D=/; q y,
and hence the ratio of m A to « B is equal to the ra¬
tio of the number mp to the number « y, (Ax. 4.)
and the ratio of m C to n D, is equal to the fame ra¬
tio of mp to nq, therefore (Ax. 3.) m A : n B ::
m C : n D.
Theorem VI.
If there be any niAnber of quantities, and as many
others, which, taken two and two, have the
fame ratio ; the firft fhall have to the laft of the
firft feries the fame ratio which the firft of the
other feries has to the laft.
Of Propor¬
tion.
—-v—■—J
A, B, Cy
H, K, L
A, B, C, I>,
H, K, L, M.
First, let there be three quantities A, B,C,
and other three H, K, L, and let A : B ::
H : K, and B : C :: K : L, then will A : C :: H .
For let the equal ratios of A to B, and of H to K,
be the fame with the ratio of a number p to another
number y, fo that x and y being like parts of A and
If, and alfo like parts of B and K, as in the former
theorems,
A=px, E=qx, H=py, Krrry y.
Alfo let C contain q equal parts, each equal to tr, and
let L contain q equal parts, each equal to fo that
C—q V, L=q 2; ;
then, becaufe B : C :: K : L, that is, q x : q v :: qy ;
q S5, and q x and y v are equimultiples of x and v
alfo q y and y 55 are equimultiples of y and 2;, therefore>
(1. & Ax.3.)x \ v y:-z, hence (by laft theorem)/)*;
qv r.py : q%, that is, (becaufe A—px, C=y y, H
-pij, L=y25) A:C;:H:L.
Next, let thefe four quantities, A, B,
C, D, and other four H, K, L, M,
fuch, that A : B :: H : K, and B : C ::
K ; L, and C : D :: L : M, then will
A : D :: H : M.
For, becaufe A : B :: H : K, and B : C :: K : L •
therefore, by the firft cafe, A : C :: H : L ; and be¬
caufe C : D :: L : M, therefore, by the fame cafe,
A : D :: H : M. The demonftration applies in the
tame manner to any number of quantities.
Cor. Hence it appears, that ratios compounded of
the lame number of like or equal ratios are equal to
one another.
Note.—When four quantities are proportionals in the
manner explained in this-theorem, they are faid to be
fo from equality of dijlance; and it is ufual for mathe.-
matical writers to fay that they are fo, ex cequali or ^
cequo*
Theorem VII.
If there be any number of quantities, and as many
others, which taken two and two in a crofs or¬
der have the fame ratio ; the firft fhall have to
the laft of the firft feries the fame ratio which
the firft has to the laft of the other feries.
First.
Se£i:. HI. G E O M
proportions First, let there he three quantities A, B,
@f Figures. Jq anj other three H, K, L, fuch that A:
B :: K : L, and B : C :: H : K j then will
A : C :: H : L.
For let the equal ratios of A to B, and of K to L
be equal to the ratio of the number /> to the number <7,
fo that as before
A, B, C
H, K, L.
A=/)X, B=qx, K~/> y, B—qy.
Alfo, let C be luppofed to contain q equal parts,
each equal to and let H contain p equal parts, each
equal to vr fo that
C—q %, H—/j v ;
Then, becaufe B : C :: H : K, that is, q x •. q ::
pv.py; therefore (1.& Ax. 3.) ^ : 2; :: n : y, and confe-
quently ($.') p x : q % p v : q y, that is (becaufe px
~ A, q X—C, p ■y—H, q y~ L) A : C r: H : L.
Next, let there be four quantities -r—rr——=-
A, B,C,D, and other four H, K, L, M, T ’
fuch, that A : B L : M, and B : C ::  
K : L, and C : D :: H : K, then will A : D H :
M *, for becaufe A : B :: L : M, and B : C :: K : L ;
by the foregoing cafe A : C :: K : M j and again
becaufe C : D :: H : K ; therefore, by fame cafe, A :
D :: H : M. The demonilration applies in the fame
manner to any number of quantities.
Note.—In this theorem, as in the laif, the four
quantities A, D, H, M, are faid to be proportionals
from equality of dijiance; but becaufe in this cafe the
proportions are taken in a crofs order, it is common to
’fay, that they are fo, ex cequali, in proportioneperturba-
or ex cequo inverfely.
Theorem VIII.
If to the two confequents of four proportionals
there be added any two quantities that have the
fame ratio to the refpe&ive antecedents, thefe
fums and the antecedents will ftill be propor¬
tionals.
Let A : B :: C : D
and A : B' :: C : D'
(where B' and D' denote two quantities diftindt from
^hofe denoted by B and D) j then will
A : B + B' :: C : D-fD'.
For fince A : B :: C : D, by inverlion, (3.) B : A ::
D : C, but A : B' :: C : D', therefore f6.) B : B' ::
D : D', and by compofition, (4.) and inverlion B :
B-f-B' :: D : D-f-TV, and fince A : B :: C : Dj
therefore (6.) A : B-f-B' :: C : D-f-Dh
Cor. 1. If inftead of two quantities B', D', there be
any number B', B", &c. and D', D", &c. which ta-
E T R Y. 6+3
ken two and two have the fame ratio to the antecedents Proportions’
A, C, that is, if of F‘gm-9^.
A :
A,
A :
B
B'
B"
C : D,
C : D',
C : D"
then will A : B+B'+B" :: C : C-j-D'-f D'h
For fince A : B-j-B' :: C : D-j-D' (by the theor.)
and A : B" :: C : D",
therefore, by the propofition,
A : B + B'+B" :: C : D+D'+I>".
Cor. 2. If any number of quantities of the fame
kind be proportionals, as one of the antecedents is to
it>s confequent, fo is the fum of all the antecedents to
the lum of all the confequents.
Let A : B :: C : D :: E : F,
then becaufe A : A :: B : B,
and A : C :: B : D,
and A : E :: B : F j
therefore, A : A-j-C-f- E :: B : B-fD-|-F $ and by
alternation,
A : B :: A-f C + E : B-fD+F.
In treating of proportion we have fuppofed that the
antecedent contains fome part of the confequent a cer¬
tain number of times exadlly, which part is therefore a
common meafure of the antecedent and confequent.
But there are quantities which cannot have a common
meafure, and which are therefore faid to be incommen*
fur able ; fuch, for example, are the fides of two fquares
one of which has its furface double that of the other.
Although the ratio of two incommenfurable quanti¬
ties cannot be exprefied in numbers, yet we can always
afiign a ratio in numbers which {hall be as near to that
ratio as we pleafe. For let A and B be any two quan¬
tities whatever, and fuppofe that x is fuch a part of A
that A—p x j then if q denote the number of times that
x can be taken from B, and d the remainder, we
have B — q x d, and q x = B — d; and becaufe
p : q :: p x : q x, therefore />: y A : B—d. Now as
d is lefs than v, by taking x fufficiently fmall d may be
lefs than any propofed quantity, fo that B—d may dif¬
fer From B by lefs than any given quantity j therefore
two numbers p and q may always be alfigned, fuch,
that the ratio of /» to lhall be the fame as the ratio of
A to a quantity that differs lefs from B than by any
given quantity, however fmall that quantity may be.
Hence we may conclude, that whatever has been de¬
livered in this feftion relating to commenfurable quan¬
tities, may be confidered as applying equally to fuch as
are incommenfurable.
SECT. IV. THE PROPORTIONS OF FIGURES.
Definitions.
I. Equivalent Figures are fuch as have eqVial fur-
faces-.
Two figures may be equivalent, although very dif-
fimiiar ; thus a circle may be equivalent to a fquare, &
triangle to a reftangle, and fo of other figures.
We lhall give the denomination of equal figures to
4 M 2 thoffc
644
Proportions
of Figures.
Fig. 6z.
Fig. 63.
Plate
ccxur.
Fig. 64.
Fig. 65.
G E O M
thofe wliicb, being applied the one upon tbe other, co¬
incide entirely } thus, two circles having the fame radi¬
us are equal; and two triangles having three !fides of
the one equal to three Tides ol the other, each to each,
are alfo equal.
II. Two figures are Jimilar, when the angles of the
one are equal to the angles of the other, each to each 5 and
the homologous Tides proportionals. The homologous
Tides are thoTe which have the Tame pofition in the two
figures ; or which are adjacent to the equal angles. The
angles themTelves are called homologous angles.
Two equal figures are always fimilar, but fimilar
figures may be very unequal.
III. In two different circles, fimilar feci or s, ftnilar
arches, fmilar fegments, are Tuch as correfpond to equal
angles at the centre. Thus the angle A being equal
to the angle O, the arch BC is fimilar to the arch DE,
and the Tedlor ABC to the Teftor ODE, &c.
IV. The Altitude of a parallelogram is the perpen¬
dicular which meaTures the diftance between the oppo-
fite fides or baTes AB, CD.
V. The Altitude of a triangle is the perpendicular
AD drawn from the vertical angle A upon the bafe
BC.
VI. The Altitude of a trapezoid is the perpendicular
EF drawn between its two parallel bafes AB, CD.
VII. The Area and the furface of a figure are terms
of nearly the fame fignification. The term area, howe-
ever, is more particularly ufed to denote the fuperficial
quantity of the figure in refpeft of its being meafured,
or compared with other furfaces.
Theorem I.
lig. Parallelograms which have equal bafes and equal
altitudes are equivalent.
Let AB be the common bafe of the parallelograms
ABCD, EBAF, which being fuppofed to have the
fame altitude, the fides DC, EE oppofite to the bafes
will lie in DE a line parallel to AB Now, from the
nature of a parallelogram, AD=BC, and AF=BE j
for the fame reafon DCrrAB, and FE~AB j there¬
fore, DC=FE, and taking away DC and FE from the
fame line DE, the remainders CE and DF are equal ;
hence the triangles DAF, CBE have three Tides of the
one equal to three Tides of the other, each to each j and
confequently are equal (10. t.). Now if from the qua¬
drilateral ABED, the triangle ADF be taken away,
there will remain the parallelogram ABEF ; and if
from the fame quadrilateral ABED, the triangle CBE,
equal to the former, be taken away, there will remain
the parallelogram ABCD •, therefore the two parallelo¬
grams ABCD, ABEF, which have the fame bafe, and
the Tame altitude, are equivalent.
Cor. Every parallelogram is equivalent to a re£I-
angle of the fame bafe and altitude.
Theorem II.
Ijv. 67. Every triangle ABC is the half of a parallelogram
ABCD, having the.Tame bafe and altitude.
For the triangles ABC, ACD are equal (28. 1.).
Cor. I. Therefore a tiiangle ABC is the half of a
-;*£tangle BCEF Oi the fame bafe and altitude.
E T R Y. Sea. IV.
Cor. 2. All triangles having equal bafes, and equal Proportions
altitudes, are equivalent. of Figures.
Theorem III.
Two reclangles of the fame altitude are to eacli Fig. 68.
other as their bafes.
Let ABCD, AEFD be two re&angles, which have
a common altitude AD; the reftangle ABCD Ihall
have to the re£lang4e AEFD the fame ratio that the
bafe AB has to the bafe AE.
I.et the bafe AB have to the bafe AE the ratio of
the number p (which we fliall fuppofe 7) to the num¬
ber q (which may be 4) that is, let AB contain p (7.)
fuch equal parts as AE contains q (4.), then, if perpen¬
diculars be drawn to AB and AE at the points of di-
vifion,the rectangles ABCD and AEFD will be divid¬
ed, the former into p, and the latter into q reftangles,
which will be all equal (1.) for they have equal bafes,
and the fame altitude j thus the reCIangle ABCD will
alfo contain p fuch equal parts as the rectangle AEFD
contains q; therefore, the reCtangle ABCD is to
AEFD as the number p to the number q (Ax. 4.3.}
that is, as the bafe AB to AE.
Theorem IV.
Any two re£tangles are to each other as the pro-pig, -f,
du£ts of any numbers proportional to their Tides.
Let the numbers m, n,p, q, have among themfelves
the fame ratios that the fides of the feCtangles A BCD,
AEFG have to each other 5 that is, let AB contain m
fuch equal parts, whereof AD contains «; and AE
contains p, and AF contains q; then fhall ABCD :
AEFG m n : p q.
Let the reftangles be fo placed that the fides AB,
A E may be in a ilraight line, then AD and AG will
alfo lie in a ftraight line (3.1.). Now (3.)
ABCD : AEHD :: AB : AE :: m :p,
but m \ p \\ n m \ np, { \. 3.)
therefore ABCD : AEHD :: n m : np.
Again, AEHD : AEFG :: AD : AG :: n : q;
but n q :: p n : p q ;
therefore, AEHD : AEFG v.pn'. pq\
and it was (hewn that
ABCD : AEHD :: n m : np or p n,
therefore, (6. 3.) ABCD : AEFG :: mn : pq.
Scholium.
Hence it appears, that the produCI of the bafe by the
altitude of a reClangle may be taken for its meaiure,
oblerving that by fuch produft is meant that of the
number of linear units in the bafe by the number of
linear units in the altitude. This meafure is however
not abfolute, but relative, for it muff be fuppofed, that
in comparing one reftangle with another, the fides of
both are meafured by the fame linear unit. For ex¬
ample, if the bafe of a reftangle, A, be three units,
and its altitude 10, the re&angle is reprefented by
3 X 10 or 305 this number confidered by itfelf has no
meaning.
Se£l. IV. G E O M
Proportions metmlng, but if tve have a fecond rettangle B, thebdi
of Figures. 0f which is twelve units, and altitude feven, this leco
v—  rectangle lhall be reprefented by the number I 2 X 7 °r
84 and hence it may be concluded that the two rett-
aneles are to each other as 3o to 84 1 therefore, it m
eftimating any fuperficies the rectangle A be ta en or
the meafuring unit, the rectangle B lhall ^have for its
abfolute meafure that is, it ftiall be To fuperficia
It is more common, as well as more fimple, to. take
for a fuperfkial unit a fquare, the fide of which is an
unit in length ; and then the meafure which we have
regarded only as relative becomes abfolute j tor ex¬
ample the number 30, which is the meafure of the
rectangle A, reprefents 30 fuperficial units or 30
fquares, each having its tide equal to an unit. Io it-
luftrate this fee fig. 7 2.
Theorem V.
Fig. 67. The area of any parallelogram is equal to the pro-
dudb of its bate by its altitude.
For the parallelogram ABCD is equivalent to the
reftaimle FBCE, which has the fame bale BC, and
the fame altitude AO (Cor. 1.) but the meafure of
the rectangle is BCx AO, (4 ) therefore the area ot
the parallelogram is BC X A.O.
Cor. Parallelograms having the fame bale, or equal
bafes, are to each other as their altitudes ; and parallelo¬
grams having the fame altitude are to each other as
their bafes : for in the former cafe put B for the com¬
mon bafe and A and A' for the altitudes, then the
areas of the figures are B X A and B X A' •, and it is
manifelt that BX A : BX A' :: A : A' -, and m the
latter cafe, putting A for the common altitude, and B
and B' for the bafes, it is evident that B X A : B X -ft-
:: B : B'.
Theorem VI.
Fig. 67.
The area of a triangle is equal to the produft of
its bafe by the half of its altitude.
For the triangle ABC is half of the parallelogram
ABCD, which has the fame bafe BC, and the fame al¬
titude AO (2.), but the area of the parallelogram is
BC X AO (5.), therefore that of the triangle is -5- BU
X AO, or BCx^AO. ■ 1
Cor. Two triangles of the fame altitude are to each
other as their bafes } and two triangles having the fame
bafe are to each other as their altitudes.
Theorem VII.
Fig. 73. The area of a trapezoid ABCD is equal to the
produa of its altitude EF by half the turn of its
parallel fides AB, CD.
Through the point I, the middle of BC, draw KL
parallel to the oppofite fide AD, and produce D^ to
meet KL. In the triangles IBL, ICK, IB is equal to
IC by conftruction, and the angle C1K=BIL, and the
angle ICK=TBL(2i. 1.) therefore thele triangles are
equal $ and hence the trapezoid ABCD is. equivalent
to the parallelogram ALKD, and has for its meamre
E T R Y.
ALXEF. But AL=DK, ^Ibec,auf?,th'!fTg”r
IBL is equal to the triangle KCI, *er<ide,BL—f  v '
therefore AB+CD= AL+DKpaAL 1 hence AL
is half the fum of the parallel “es AB, CD , and as
the area of the trapezoid is equal to FE X AL,
_ /AB+CD\
equal to FEx ^ “ )'
Theorem VIII.
If four ftraight lines AB, AC, AD, AE, be pro-Dg-
portionals ; the reftangle ABEE, contained by
the two extremes, is equivalent to the reftangle
ACGD contained by the means. And con-
verfely, if the reftangle contained by AB, AE,
the extremes, be equivalent to the reclang e
contained by AC, AD the means, the four lines
are proportionals.
Let the reflangles be fo placed as to have the com¬
mon angle A, and let BF, DG interfeft each other m
H. Becaufe the redangles ABHD, ACGD have the
fame altitude AD,
ABHD : ACGD : : AB : AC; (3),
and becaufe the re&angles ABHD, ABFE have the-
fame altitude AB, for the fame reafon
ABHD : ABFE : : AD : AE 5 •
but by hypothefis AB : AC : : AD : AE, therefore '
f Ax. 2. 3. ) ABHD : ACGD : : ABHD : ABFE,
therefore (Ax. 2. 3.) the reftangle ACGD_ABFE.
Next fuppofe that the reftangle ACGD—ABFE ,
then ABHD : ACGD :: ABHD : ABFE. (Ax. 1.3.)
but ABHD: ACGD : : AB : AC, (3) and ABHD :
ABFE : : AD : AE, therefore AB: AC : : AD : AE.
Cor. If three ftraight lines be proportionals, the
reftangle contained by the extremes is equal to the
fquare of the mean 5 and if the redangle contained by the
extremes be equal to the fquare of the mean, the three
ftraight lines are proportionals.
Theorem IX. '
If four ftraight lines be proportionals, and alfo Fig. 70*.
other four, the re&angles contained by the cor-
refnonding terms (hall be proportionals*, that is,
if AB : BC :: CD : DE, and BF : BG : : DH : *■
DI, then (hall reft angle AF : reel. BM :: reft.
CH: reel. DQ.
For in BG and DI, produced if neceffary, take
BF=BF, and DH=DH, and let FP be parallel to
BC, and HN to DE ; then (3.)
reel. AF: reft. BP : : A B : BC,
and reEl.. CH : re£l. DN: t CD : DE }
but AB : BC : : CD : DET, (by hypothefis) therefore,
retf. AF : reft. BP :: reEl. CH : reel. DN j
now fa.l reB. BP : reB. BM : : BE : BG, and reB.
DN : reB. D() : : DH : DI 5 but BF : EG : : DH ;
DI, (by hypoth.) therefore,
reB. BP : reB. BM : ; reB. DN ; reB. DQ^j
nnfr
G
646
E O M
Proportions but it lias been fliewh that
or Figures.
w—v ' reB. AF : reB. BP : ; rcB. CH ; reB. DN,
therefore (6. 3.)
rcB. AF : reB. BM : : reB. CII : reB. DQ^.
Cor. Hence the fquares of four proportional llraight
lines are themfelves proportionals.
E T R Y. Se£t. IV.
for BH—DP., and BK~FE j therefore, AKLErr Proportions
ABHE-f-EDGF j but thefe two parts conftitute the Figures.
excefs of the fquare ABIF above the fquare DHIG, v *
the former of which is the fquare upon AB, and the
latter the fquarc upon BC, therefore (AB-j-BOx
(AB—BC)=ABi—BCb
Theorem XIII.
Theorem X.
fo'g. 74. If a ftraight line AC be divided into any two parts
at B, the fquare made upon the whole line AC
fhall be equal to the fquares made upon the two
parts AB, BC, together with twiee the re£l-
angle contained by thefe two parts : which may
be exprefled thus, AC^AB^BC^aABxBC.
Suppose the fquare ACDE to be conftrudted 5
take AFrzrAB, draw FG parallel to AC, and BH
parallel to CD.
The fquare ACDE is made up of four parts *, the
firft ABIF is the fquare upon AB, becaufe AF=rAB ;
the fecond IGDH is the fquare upon BC, for AC—AE,
and AB±zAF, therefore AC—AB=rAE—AF, that
is BC—EF ; but BCizIG, and EFrrrDG, (26. I.)
therefore IGDH is the fquare upon BC, and the re¬
maining two parts are the two rectangles BCGI,
P"EHI, which have each for their meafure ABxBC,
therefore the fquare upon AC is equal to the fquares
Upon AB and BC, and twice the redtangle ABxBC.
Theorem XI.
Fig. 7S, If a ftraight line AC be the difference of two
ftraight lines AB, BC ; the fquare made upon
AC fhall be equal to the excefs of the two
fquares upon AB and BC above twice the Pedh-
angle contained by AB and BC; that is,
ACl=AB* -f BC1— 2 AB x BC.
Construct the fquare ABIF, take AErrAC, and
draw CG parallel to BI, and HK parallel to AB $ and
complete the fquare EFLK. The two redlangles
CBIG, GLKD have each AB x BC for their meafure j
and if thefe be taken from the whole figure ABILKEA,
that is from ABI4-BC1, there w’ill remain the fquare
ACDE, that is, the fquare upon AC.
Theorem XII.
Fig. 76. The redtangle contained by the fum and the dif¬
ference of two ftraight lines is equal to the dif¬
ference of the fquares upon thofe lines •, that is,
(AB-f BC) x (AB—BC)=rAB1—BC1.
Construct upon AB and AC the fquares ABIF,
ACDE; produce AB, fo that BE=BC, and complete’
the redtangle AKLE, The bafe AK of the reftangle
is the fum of the two lines AB, BC ; and its altitude
AE is the difference of the fame lines j therefore the
redtangle AKLE=r(AB-f-BC) ( AB—BC) ; but the
fame redtangle is compofed of twm parts A BHE-fBHLK
of which, BHLK is equal to the redtangle EDGE’
The fquare upon the hypothenufe of aright-angled .
triangle is equal to the fum of the fquares upon Fl“'
the two other Tides.
Let ABC be a right-angled triangle j having form¬
ed the fquares upon its three fides, draw a perpendicu¬
lar AD from the right angle upon the hypothenufe,
and produce it to E, and draw the diagonals AF, CH.
The angle ABF is evidently the fum of ABC and a
right angle, and the angle HBC is alfo the fum of
ABC and a right angle ; therefore the angle ABF=;
HBC $ now AB=AH, for they are fides of the fame
fquare, and BCrzrBF for the fame reafon, therefore the
triangles ABF, HBC have two fides, and the included
angle of the one equal to two fides and the included
angle of the other, each to each, therefore the triangles
are equal, (5. 1.) but the triangle ABF is the half of
the re3angle BDEF (which for brevity’s fake we fliall
call BE) becaufe it has the fame bafe BE, and the
fame altitude BD, (2.) and the triangle HBC is in like
manner half of the fquare AH, for the angles BAC,
BAL being both right angles, CA and AL conflitute
a flraight line parallel to BH, (3. 1.) and thus the
triangle HBC, and the fquare AH have the fame bafe
HB, and the fame altitude AB ; from which it follows
that the triangle is half of the fquare (2.). It has now
been proved that the triangle ABF is equal to the tri¬
angle HBC; and that the re&angle BE is double of
the former, and the fquare AH double of the latter;
therefore the reclangle BE is equal to the fquare AH.
It may be demonftrated in like manner that the re6f-
angle CDEG, or CE, is equal to the fquare AI ; but
the re&angles BE, CE make up the fquare BCGF,
therefore, the fquare BCGF upon the hypothenufe is
equal to the fquares ALHB, AKIC upon the other
two fides.
Theorem XIV.
In a triangle ABC, if tlie angle C is acute, the Fig. 7S0
fquare of the oppofite fide AB is lefs than the
fquares of the fides which contain the angle C;
and if AD a perpendicular be drawn to BG
from the oppolite angle, the difference lhall be
equal to twice the redangle BC x CD ; that is
AB*—AO-fCB1—2 BC x CD.
I iRst. Suppofe AD to fall within the triangle, then
®D2rBC—CD, and confequently (n.) BD1—BC*-f-
CE-—2BCXCD ; to each of thefe equals add AD1;
then, obferviftg that BD14- DA^BA*, and CD1-!-
DA*=CA1,
AB2= BC1 + CA1—2 BC X CD.
Next, fuppofe AD to fall without the trianule fo
that BD=CD—BC, and therefore ED^Cd’1-}-
BC1—2 BC X CD, (11.) to each of thefe add AD1 as
before*
Se£t. IV.
Proportions before,
of Figure'.
GEO
and we get
AB^BC’ + CA1—2 BC x CD,
M
Theorem XV.
Dg- 79- In a triangle ABC, if the angle C is obtufe, the
fquare of the oppofite fide AB is greater than
the fum of the fquares of the fides which con-
'tain the angle C ; and if AD a perpendicular
be drawn to BC from the oppofite angle, the
difference {hall be equal to tv/ice the re&angle
BC xCD, that is
AB*=AC1 + BCt+2 BC x CD.
E T R Y. ^ 647
therefore, becaufe of the common ratio in the two pro- Proportions
portions, we have (Ax. 3. 3.) of I igmes.
AD : DB : : AE : EC.
Cor. Hence by cQmpofition AB : AD : : AC : AE;
and AB : BD : : AC : CE.
Theorem XVIII.
Converfely, if two of the fides AB, AC of a tri- ^
angle are divided proportionally by the ftraight 's
line DE, fo that AD : DB ; : AE : EC, then
lhall the line DE be parallel to the remaining
fide BC.
For BD=BC 4 CD, and therefore (10.) BD,=
BCz-f-CDs-}-2 BCx'CD ; to each of thefe equals add
AD*, then, obferving that ADl-{-DBI=r:AB1, and
AD’-fDC’nrAC1,
AB*=BC*-f CA*-f 2 BC x CD.
Scholium.
It is only when a triangle has one of its angles a
right angle, that the fum of the fquares of two of its
fides can be equal to the fquare of the third fide ; for if
the angle contained by thofe fides be acute, the fum of
their fquares is greater than the fquare of the oppofite
fide, and if the angle be obtufe, that fum is lefs than
the fquare of the oppofite fide.
Theorem XVI.
Fig. 80. If a ftraight line AE be drawn from the vertex of
any triangle ABC to the middle of its bale BC ;
the fum of the fquares of the fides is equal to
twice the fquare of half the bafe, and twice
the fquare of the line drawn from the vertex
to the middle of the bafe ; that is, AB’+AOrz
2 BE1-f-2 AE1;
Draw AD perpendicular to BC, then
AB^BE^EA*—2BEXED, (14.)
and AC1=CE14EA*42CExED, (15.)
therefore, by adding equals to equals, and obferving
that BE=;CE, and therefore BE^CE1, and 2BEx
ED=2CExED,
ABz4 AC1=2. BE142 AE1.
Theorem XVII.
pig. 81. A ftraight line DE drawn parallel to one of the
fides of a triangle ABC divides the other twa.
fides AB, AC proportionally, fo that AD : DB
: : AE : EC.
Join BE and CD. The triangles BDE, CDE,
having the fame bafe DE, and the fame altitude, are
equivalent, (2.) and the triangles ADE, BDE, having
the fame altitude, are to one another as their bales, (6.)
that is, ADE: BDE : : AD : DB ; the triangles ADE,
CDE, having alfo the fame altitude, are to one ano¬
ther as their bafes ; that is ADE : C DE : : AE : EC,
but the triangle BDE has been proved equal to CDE;
For if DE is not parallel to BC, fuppofe fome
other line DO to be parallel to BC ; then, AB : BD : ;
AC : CO (17.) and fince by hypothefis AD : DB : :
AE : EC, and confequently, by compofition, AB :
BD : : AC : CE, therefore, AC : CO : : AC : CE;
therefore, CO=CE (2 Ax. 3.) which is impoflible ;
therefore DO is not parallel to BC.
Cor. If it be fuppofed that BA : AD : : CA :
AE, ftill DE will be parallel to BC; for by divifion
BD : AD : : CE : AE, this proportion being the
fame as in the Theorem, the conclufion muft be the
fame.
Theorem XIX.
A ftraight line AD, which bifetfs the angle BAG Fig.
of a triangle, divides the bafe BC into two feg-
ments proportional to the adjacent fides BA,
AC ; that is, BD : DC : : BA : AC.
Through the point C draw CE parallel to AD, fo
as to meet BA produced. In the triangle BCE, the
line AD is parallel to one of its fides CE, therefore
BD : DC : : BA : AE ; now the triangle CAE is
ifofceles, for, becaufe of the parallels AD, CE, the
angle ACErrDAC, and the angle AEC=BAD,
(21. I.) but by hypothefis DACrcrBAD ; therefore
ACE—AEC ; and confequently AE—AC, (12. 1.)
therefore, fubftituting AC inftead of AE in the above
proportion, it becomes BD 1 DC : : BA : AC.
Theorem XX.
If two triangles he equiangular, their homologous Fig, 84.
fuies are proportional, and the triangles are
ftmilar.
Let ABC, CDE be two equiangular triangles,
which have the angle BACrrCDE, ABC—DCE,
and ACB=DEC ; the homologous fides, or the fides
adjacent to the equal angles, fliall be proportional: that
is, BC : CE : : AB : CD : : AC : DE.
Place the homologous fides BC, CE-in the fame
dire&ion, and produce the fides B/\, ED, till they
meet in F. Becaufe BCE is a ftraight line, and the
angle BCA is equal to CED, the lines CA, EF are
parallel, (22. 1.) and in like manner, becaufe the angle
ABC=DCE, the lines Bf, CD are parallel; there¬
fore the figure .' CDF is a parallelogram, and hence
AF—CD, and C 1 —i>F (26. 1.), In the triangle
BEE the line AC is parallel to the fide FE, therefore
BC
64S
G £ O M
Proportions BC : CE : : EA : AFj or fince AFr=CD,BC : CE::
of Figures. : CD. Again, in the fame triangle, becaufe CD
is parallel to the fide BE, BC : CE : : ED : DE, or,
fince ED —AC, BC : CE : : AC : DE ; having now
fhewn that BC : CE : : BA : CD, and that BC .
CE : : AC : DE, it follows that BA : CD : : AC :
DE ^ therefore the equiangular triangles BAG, CDE
have their homologous -fides proportional, and hence
(def. 2.) the triangles are fimilar.
Scholium.
It is manifeft, that the homologous fides are oppofite
to the equal angles.
Theorem XXL
Fig. 83. If two triangles have their homologous fides pro¬
portional, they are equiangular and fimilar.
Suppose that BC : EE : : AB : DE : : AC : DF;
then (hall A~D, B=E, CnF. At the point E
make the angle FEG—B, and at the point F make
EFG—C ; then the third angle G {hall be equal to
the third angle A, and the two triangles ABC, GEE
* {hall be equiangular •, therefore, by the laft theorem
BC : EE : : AB :GE •, but by hypothefis BC : EE : :
AB : DE, therefore GErrDE (Ax. 2. 3.). In like
manner, becaufe by the fame theorem BC : EE : :
CA : EG •, and by hypothefis BC : EE : : CA : FDj
therefore FGirFD •, but it was {hewn that EG—ED,
therefore, the triangles GEE, DEF, having the fides
of the one equal to thofe of the other, each to each,
are equal, but, by conftrudlion, the triangle GEE is
equiangular to ABC, therefore alio the triangles DEF,
ABC are equiangular and fimilar.
Theorem XXII.
Two triangles which have an angle of the one
equal to an angle of the other, and the fides
about thefe angles proportional, are fimilar.
Let the angle ArrD, and let AB : DE : : AC :
DF, the triangle ABC is fimilar to DEF. Take
AG=DE, and draw GH parallel to BC, then the
angle AGHrrABC, (21. 1.) therefore the triangle
AGH is equiangular to ABC, and confequently (20.)
AB : AG : : AC : AH j but by hypothefis AB :
DE : : AC : DF, and by conftru£tion AG=DE,
therefore AHrrDF *, the two triangles AGH, DEF
are therefore equal, (5. 1.) but the triangle AGH is
fimilar to ABC, therefore DEF is fimilar to ABC.
Theorem XXIII. **
Hg. €6. In a right-angled triangle, if a perpendicular
AD be drawn from the right angle upon the
hypothenufe, then,
1. The triangles ABD, CAD on each fide of the
perpendicular are fimilar to the whole triangle
BAC, and to one another.
2. Each fide AB or AC is a mean proportional
between the hypothenufe BC, and the adjacent
fegment BD or DC.
E T It Y. Seft. IV,
3. The perpendicular AD is a mean proportional Proportions
between the two fegments BD, DC.
ignrei.
1. The triangles BAD, BAC have the common
angle B; befides, the right angle BAC is equal to the^
right angle BDA, therefore the third angle BAD of
the one, is equal to the third angle BCA of the other;
therefore, thefe triangles are equiangular and fimilar ;
and in the fame manner it may be {hewn, that the tri¬
angle DAC is equiangular and fimilar to BAC ; there¬
fore the three triangles are equiangular and fimilar to
each other.
2. Becaufe the triangle BAD is fimilar to the tri¬
angle BAG, their homologous fides are proportional.
Now the fide BD of the leiTer triangle is homologous
to the fide BA of the greater, becaufe they are oppo¬
fite to the equal angles BAD, BCA ; in like manner
BA, confidered as a fide of the Idler triangle, is homo¬
logous to the fide BC of the greater, each being oppo¬
fite to a right angle ; therefore, BD: B A : : BA : BC.
In the fame manner it may be {hewn that CD : CA : :
CA : CB, therefore each fide is a mean proportional
between the hypothenufe and the fegment adjacent to
that fide.
3. By comparing the homologous fides of the two
fimilar triangles A BD, A CD, it appears that BDfi
DA : : DA : DC ; therefore the perpendicular is a
mean proportional between the fegments of the hypo¬
thenufe.
Theorem XXIV.
Two tiiangles, which have an angle of the one Fig. 87.
equal to an angle of the other, are to each other
as the redangles of the fides which contain the
equal angles *, that is, the triangle ABC is to
the triangle ADE, as the redangle ABxAC
to the redangle AD x AE.
Join BE ; becaufe the triangles ABE, ADE have
a common vertex E, they have the fame altitude,
therefore ABE : ADE : : AB : AD, (Cor. to 6.)
but AB : AD : : ABxAE : ADxAE, (3.) there¬
fore,
ABE : ADE : : ABx AE : ADxAE.
In the fame manner it may be demonftrated that
ABC : ABE : : AB X AC : AB x AE ;
Therefore (6.3.) ABC: ADE :: AB X AC : AD X AE.
Cor. Therefore the two triangles are equivalent, if
the redangle ABx A C= ADxAE, or (8.) if AB :
AD : : AE : AC, in which cafe, the fides about the
equal angles are faid to be reciprocally proportional.
Scholium.
What has been proved of triangles is alfo true of
parallelograms, they being the doubles of fuch tri¬
angles.
Theorem XXV.
Two fimilar triangles are to each other as the Fig. S5.
fquares of their homologous fides.
3
Let
Sea. iv. G E 0 M
Proportions Let the angle A“D, the angle B=E, and there-
Figures. fQlQ the angle C=F,
' then ^20.) AB : I3E : : AC : DF $
now AB : DE t : AB : DE,
for the two ratios are identical, therefore, (9)
AB* : DE* t : ABxAC : DExDFj
but ABC : DEF : : AB x AC : DExDF, (24.)
therefore ABC : DEF : : AB* : DE*, (Ax. 3- 3‘)
therefore the two fimilar triangles ABC, DEF, are
to each other as the fquares of the homologous iides
AB, DE, or as the fquares of any of the other homo¬
logous lides.
Theorem XXVL
Similar polygons are compofed of the fame num¬
ber of triangles which are fimilar and fimilarly
fituated.
In the polygon ABCDE, draw from one of the
angles A the diagonals AC, AD to all the other
angles. In the polygon FGH1K, draw in like man¬
ner from the angle F, homologous to A, the diagonals
FH, FI to the other angles. . . -or, •
Becaufe the polygons are fimilar, the angle ABC is
equal to its homologous angle FGH (Def. 2.) alfo the
iides AB, BC are proportional to FG, GH, fo that
AB : FG : : BC : GH, therefore the triangles AHC,
FGH are fimilar ( 22.); therefore the angle BC ArrGHF,
and thefe being taken from the equal angles BCD,GHI,
the remainders ACD, FHI are equal; but the triangles
ABC, FGH being fimilar, AC : FH : : BC : GH,
belides, becaufe of the fimilarity of the polygons, BC :
GH : : CD : HI; therefore AC: FH : : CD : HI; now
it has been already {hewn that the angle ACD—FHI,
therefore the triangles ACD, FHI are fimilar (22.)
It may be demonftrated in the fame manner that the
remaining triangles are limilar, whatever be the num¬
ber of fides of the polygon ; therefore two fimilar poly¬
gons are compoied ct the fame number of triangles,
iimilar to each other, and fimilarly fituated.
Theorem XXVII.
Fig The perimeters of fimilar polygons are as the ho¬
mologous Tides, and the polygons themfelves
are as the fquares of the homologous Tides-.
For, fince by the nature of fimilar figures AB :
FG : : BC : GH : : CD : HI, &c. therefore,
(2. cor. 8. 3.) AB4-BC-fCD, &c. the perimeter of
the firft figure, is to FG + GH+HI, &c. the perime¬
ter of the fecond, as the fide AB to its homologous
fide FG. ^ .
Again, becaufe the triangles ABC, FGH are fimi-
lar, ABC : FGH : : AC* : FH* (25.), in like man¬
ner ACD : FHI : : AC* : FH*, therefore,
ABC : FGH : : ACD : FHI.
By the fame manner of reafoning,
ACD : FHI: : ADE : FIK,
Vol. IX. Part II.
E T II Y. 649
and fo on if there be more triangles; hence, from this Proportions
feries of equal ratios, it follows (2. cor. 8. 3.) that ^
ABC4-ACD + ADE, or the polygon ABCDE, is
to FGH-f FHI-f-FIK, or the polygon FGH IK, as
one of the antecedents ABC is to its confequent IGH,
or as AB* to FG* ; therefore, fimilar polygons are
to each other as the fquares of their homologous
fides.
CoR. I. If three fimilar figures have their homolo¬
gous fides equal to the three fides of a right-angled
triangle, the figure having the greateft fide Ihall be
equal to the two others; for thefe three figures are
proportional to the fquares of their homologous fides,
and the fquare of the hypothenufe is equal to the
fquares of the other two fides.
Cor. 2. Similar polygons have to each other the
duplicate ratio of their homologous fides. For let L
be a third proportional to the homologous iides AB,
FG, then (Def. II. 3.) AB has to L the duplicate ra¬
tio of AB to FG ; but AB : L : : AB* : AB x L
(3), or, fince ABxLrrhG*, (Cor. to 8 ) AB : L : :
AB* : FG* ; : ABCDE : FGH1K, therefore the figure
ABCDE has to the figure FGHIK, the duplicate
ratio of AB to FG.
Theorem XXVIII.
The fegments of two chords AB, CD, which cut Fig. 88.
each other within a circle, are reciprocally pro¬
portional, that is AO : DO :: CO : OB.
Join AC and BD ; and becaufe the triangles AOC,
BOD have the angles at O equal (4. I.), and the
angle A—D and the angle C=:B (15. 2.) the tri-
anples are fimilar ; therefore the homologous fides are
proportional, (20.) that is, AO : DO :: CO : BO.
Cor. Hence AO X BOrrCO X DO, (8.) that is,
the reftangle contained by the fegments of the one
chord is equal to the rectangle contained by the feg¬
ments of the other.
Theorem XXIX.
If from a point O without a circle, two flraight Fig. 90.
lines be drawn, terminating in the concave arch
BC ; the whole lines fhall be reciprocally pro¬
portional to the parts of them without the cir¬
cle, that is OB : OC :: OD : OA.
Join AC, BD ; then the triangles OAC, OBD
have the common angle O, alfo the angle BnC
(15. 2.), therefore the triangles are fimilar, and the
homologous fides are proportional, that is, OB : OC
:: OD : OA.
CoR. Therefore (8.) O A X OB:=rOC X OD, that
is, the rectangles contained by the whole lines, and the
parts of them without the circle, are equal to one ano¬
ther.
Theorem XXX.
If from a point O without a circle a ftraight line Fig. pii,
OA be drawn touching the circle, and alfo a
llraight line OC cutting it, the tangent fhall be
a mean proportional between the whole line
4 N whick
G E O M
which cuts the circle, and the part of it without
the circle, that is, OC : OA :: OA : OD.
For if AC, AD be joined, the triangles OAD,
OCA, have the angle at Q common to both, alfo the
angle ACD or ACO is equal to DAO (18. 2.), there¬
fore the triangles are limilar (20.) and confequently
CO : OA :: OA : OD.
Cor. Therefore (cor. to 8.) COxODrrOA2, that
is, the fquare of the tangent is equal to the redtangle
contained by the whole line which cuts the circle, and
the part of it without the circle.
Theorem XXXI.
In the fame circle, or in equal circles, any angles
ACB, DEF are to each other as the arches AB,
DF of the circles intercepted between the lines
which contain the angles.
E T R Y. - Sea. V.
Suppose the arch AB to have to the arch DF the Problems.
ratio of the number /> to the number q ; then the arch    
AB being fuppofed divided into equal parts Ag, gh,
h B, the number of which is />, the arch DF ihall con¬
tain q equal parts Dk, kl, 1m, mn, nF, each of which
is equal to any one of the equal parts into which AB
is divided. Draw ftrarght lines from the centres of the
circles to the points of divifion, thefe lines will divide
ACB into p angles and DEF into q angles, which are
all equal (13. 2.) therefore, the angle ACB has to
the angle DEF the ratio of the number p to the num¬
ber y, which ratio is the fame as that of the arch AB
to the arch DF.
Cor. Hence it appears that angles may be meafured
and compared with each other by means of arches of
circles defcribed on the vertices of the angles as centres,
obferving, however, that the radii of the circles mult
be equal.
SECT. V. PROBLEMS.
Problem I.
Plate To bife& a given ftraight line AB; that is, to dx-
V^e ^ ^uto tw0 eclua^ Parts*
From the points A and B as centres, with any radius
greater than the half of AB, defcribe arches, cutting
each other in D and D on each fide of the line AB.
Draw a ftraight line through the points D, D, cuttino-
AB in C ; the line'AB is bifefted in C.
For the points D, D, being equally diftant from the
extremities of the line AB, are each in a ftraight line
perpendicular to the middle of AB, (16. 1.), therefore
the line DCD is that perpendicular, and confequently
C is the middle of AB.
Problem II.
54- To draw a perpendicular to a given ftraight line
BC, from a given point A in that line.
Take the points B and C at equal diftances from A;
and on B and C as centres, with any radius greater
than BA, defcribe arches, cutting each other in D ;
draw a ftraight line from A through D, which will be
the perpendicular required. For the point D, being at
equal diftances from the extremities of the line BC,
muft be in a perpendicular to the middle of BC (ib.i.)’
therefore AD is the perpendicular required.
Problem III.
To draw a perpendicular to a given line BD
from a given point A without that line. ’ ’
Gn A as a centre, with a radius fufficiently great,
defcribe an arch, cutting the given line in two points fi’
D ; and on B and D as centres, with a radius greater
than the half of BD, defcribe two arches, cutting each
other in E; draw a ftraight line through the points A and
E, meeting BD in C ; the line AC is the perpendicular
required.
For the two points A and E are each at equal di¬
ftances from B and D ; therefore, a line palling
through A and. E is perpendicular to the middle of
BD, (16.1.).
Problem IV.
At a given point A, in a given line AB, to make Fig. 9<s.
an angle equal to a given angle K.
Ok K as a centre, with any radius, defcribe an arch
to meet the lines containing the angle K, in L and I ;
ynd on A as a centre, with the fame radius, defcribe an
indefinite arch BO ; on B as a centre, with a radius
equal to the chord LI, defcribe an arch, cutting the
arch BO in D ; draw AD, and the angle DAB ftiall
be equal to K.
For the arches BD, LI having equal radii and equal
chords, the arches themfelves are equal (4. 2.), there¬
fore the angles A and K are alfo equal (13. 2.).
Problem V.
To bifeft a given arch AB, or a given angle C. Fig. 97.
First. To bifeft the arch AB, on A and B as
centres, with one and the fame radius, defcribe arches
to mterfefl in D ; join CD, cutting the arch in E, and
the arch AE ftiall be equal to EB,
For, fince the points C and D are at equal diftances
from A, and alfo from B, the line which joins them.,
is perpendicular to the middle of the chord AB
(16. 1.), therefore, the arch AB is bife&ed at E.
(6.2.).
Secondly. To bifedl the angle C ; on C as a centre
with any diftance, defcribe an arch, meeting the lines
containing the angle in A and B ; then find the point
D
Se£t. V.
G E O M
Problems. D as before, and the line CD will manifeftly bifeft the
— angle C, as required.
E T R V.
Problem IX.
6zi
o
Problems.
Scholium.
By the fame conftruciion we may bifeft each of the
arches AE, EB •, and again we may bife£l each of the
halves of thefe arches, and fo on $ thus by fuccedive
fubdivifxons, an arch may be divided into four, eight,
fixteen parts, &c.
Problem VI.
To find the centre of a given circle, or of a cir-Fig. rot.
cle of which an arch is given.
Take any three points A, B, D, in the circumfer¬
ence of the circle, or in the given arch, and having
drawn the ftraight lines AB, ED, bife£l them by the
perpendiculars EG, FH; the point C where the per¬
pendiculars intefeft each other is the centre of the cir¬
cle, as is evident from Theorem VI. feci. 2.
Fig. 5)8. Through a given point A, to draw a ftraight line
parallel to a given ftraight line BC.
On A as a centre, with a radius fufficiently large,
defcribe the indefinite arch EO ; on E for a centre,
with the fame radius, defcribe the arch AF j in EO
take ED equal to AF, draw a line from A through
D, and AD will be parallel to BC.
For if AE be joined, the angle EAD is equal to
AEB (13. 2.), and they are alternate angles, there¬
fore, AD is parallel to BC, (22.1.).
Problem VII.
Fig. pp. To conftrutft a triangle, the fides of which may be
equal to three given lines A, B, C.
Take a ftraight line, DE, equal to one of the given
lines A ; on D as a centre, with a radius equal to
another of the lines B, defcribe an arch 5 on E as a
centre, with a radius equal to the remaining line C, de-
fcnbe another arch, cutting the former in F j join DF
and EF, and DEF will be the triangle required, as is
fufticiently evident.
Scholium.
It is necelfary that the fum of any two of the lines be
greater than the third line (7. 1.).
Problem VIII.
Fig. ic®. To conftru£l a parallelogram, the adjacent fides
of which may be equal to two given lines A, B,
and the angle they contain equal to a given
angle C.
Draw the ftraight line DErrA; make the angle
GDE~C, and take DGzrB 5 defcribe two arches,
one on G as a centre, with a radius GFzrDE, and the
other on E, with a radius EFrrDG 5 then DEFG
ftiall be the parallelogram required.
For by conftrudlion the oppofite fides are equal,
therefore, the figure is a parallelogram, (27. 1.) and
it is fo conftrudted, that the adjacent fides and the
angle they contain have the magnitudes given in the
problem.
Cor. If the given angle be a right angle, the figure
will be a redlangle •, and if the adjacent fides be alfo
equal, the figure will be a fquare.
Scholium.
By the very fame conftruflion a circle may be found
that fhall pafs through three given points A, B, C ; or
that ftiall be defcribed about a given triangle ABC.
Problem X.
To draw a tangent to a given circle through a Fig. 103,
given point A. I03*
If the given point, A, be in the circumference
(fig. 102.), draw the radius AC $ and through A,
draw AD perpendicular to AC, and AD will be a
tangent to the circle. (9.2.). But if the given point A
be without the circle, (fig. 103.) draw AC to the cen¬
tre, and bife£t AC in O, and on O as a centre, with
OA or OC as a radius, defcribe a circle wdrich will cut
the given circle in tw'o points D and D'; join AD
and AD', and each of the lines AD, AD', will be a
tangent to the circle.
For, draw the radii CD, CD', then each of the
angles ADC, AD'C is a right angle, (17.2.) ; there¬
fore AD and AD' are both tangents to the circle,
(9.2.).
Cor. The twro tangents AD, AD' are equal to one
another. (17. 1.).
Problem XI.
To infcribe a circle in a given triangle ABC. Fig. 104.
Bisect A and B any two angles of the triangle by
the ftraight lines AO, BO, which meet each other in
O ; from O draw OD, OE, OF, perpendiculars to its
fides $ thefe lines ftiall be equal to one another.
For in the triangles ODB, OEB, the angle ODB
rzOEB, and the angle OBD = OBE 5 therefore, the
remaining angles BOD, BOE, are equal 5 and as the
fide OB is common to both triangles, they are equal to
one another, (6, 1.), therefore the fide OD=OE 5 in
the fame manner it may be demonftrated, that OD
—OF ; therefore the lines OD, OE, OF, are equal to
one another, and confequently a circle defcribed on O
as a centre, with OD as a radius, will pafs through E
and I 5 and as the fides of the triangle are tangents to
the circle, (9. 2.) it will be infcribed in the triangle.
ft
Problem XII.
Upon a given ftraight line AB, to defcribe a feg-pig. ICK>
4 N 2 ment
/
652 GEO M
Problems. mcnt of a circle that may contain an angle equal
v ' 1 to a given angle C.
Produce AB towards D, and at the point B make
the angle DEE equal to the given angle C j draw BO
perpendicular to BE, and GO perpendicular to the
middle of AB, meeting BO in O j on O as a centre,
with OB as a radius, defcribe a circle, which will pafs
through A, and AMB fhall be the fegment required.
For fince FE is perpendicular to BO, FE is a tan¬
gent to the circle, therefore the angle EBD (which is
equal to C by conftrudlion) is equal to any angle
AMB in the alternate fegment (18. 2.).
Problem XIII.
Fig. 106. To divide a flraight line, AB, into any propofed
Flg* lc7‘ number of equal parts ; or into parts having to
each other the fame ratios that given lines have.
First, Let it be propofed to divide the line AB,
(fig. 106.) into five equal parts. Through the extre¬
mity A draw an indefinite line AG, take AC of any
magnitude, and take CD, DE, EF, and FG, each
equal to AC, that is, take AG equal to five times
AC •, join GB, and draw Cl parallel to GB, the line
Al ihall be one-fifth part of AB, and AI being taken
five times in AB, the line AB fhall be divided into
five equal parts.
For fince Cl is parallel to GB, the fides AG and
AB are cut proportionally in C and I j but AC is the
fifth part of AG; therefore AI is the fifth part of AB.
Next, let it be propofed to divide AB (fig. 107.) in¬
to parts, having to each other the ratios that the lines
P, £), R, have. Through A draw AG, and in AG
take AC—P, CD ~£), DE=R ; join EB, and draw
Cl and DK parallel to EB; the line AB fhall be
divided as required.
For, becaufe of the parallels Cl, DK, EB, the parts
AI, IK, KB, have to each other the fame ratios that
the parts AC, CD, DE, have, (17. 4.) which parts are
by conflru&ion equal to the given lines P, £) , R.
Problem XIV.
Fig. 108. To find a fourth proportional to three given lines,
A, B, C.
Draw two flraight lines DE, DF, containing any
angle; on DE take DA=A, and DBzrrB, and on
DF take DC:=C; join AC, and draw BX parallel to
AC ; then, BX fhall be the fourth proportional re¬
quired.
For, becaufe BX is parallel to AC, DA : DB ::
DC : DX (17. 4.) that is, A : B :: C : DX, there¬
fore DX is a fourth proportional to A, B, and C,
Cor. I ne fame conflru6lion ferves to find a third
proportional to two lines A and B ; for it is the fame
as a fourth proportional to the lines A, B, and B.
Problem XV.
Fig. icp. To find a mean proportional between two ftraight
lines, A, B.
Upon any flraight line DF take DE=A, and EF
E T K Y.
Sea. V.
—B ; and on DF as a diameter defcribe a femicircle Problems.
DGF; draw EG perpendicular to DF, meeting the v _ '-J
circle in G ; the line EG fhall be the mean proportion¬
al required.
For, if DG, FG, be joined, the angle DGP* is a
right angle, (17. 2.) therefore, in the right-angled tri¬
angle DGF, GE is a mean proportional between DE
and EF, (23. 4.).
Problem XVI.
To divide a given flraight line AB into two parts, Fg. no.
fo that the greater may be a mean proportional
between the whole line and the other part.
At B, one of the extremities of the line, draw BC
perpendicular to AB, and equal to the half of AB ;
on C as a centre, with CB as a radius, defcribe a cir¬
cle ; join AC, meeting the circle in D ; make AF—
AD, and AB fhall be divided at F in the manner re¬
quired.
For fince AB is perpendicular to the radius, it is a
tangent to the circle (9. 2.), and if AC be produced to
meet the circle in E, AB : AF :: AE : AB, (30. 4.) and
by divifion, AB—AF : AF :: AE—AB : AB ; but
AB—AF—BF, and fince DE=2BC—AB, therefore
AE—AB=AD=AF, therefore BF : AF :: AF :
AB.
Scholium.
When a line is divided in this manner it is faid to be
divided in extreme and mean ratio.
Problem XVII.
To make a fquare equivalent to a given parallelo-Fig. rui
gram or to a given triangle. FlS- Iz3-
First, let ABCD be a given parallelogram,
(fig. 1 1 2.) the bafe of which is AB, and altitude DE;
find XY a mean proportional between AB and DE,
(by problem 15.) and XY fhall be the fide of the
fquare required.
For fince by conflruflion AB : XY :: XY : DE,
therefore, XY1 ABxDE (8.4.) =: parallelogram
ABCD (5. 4.).
Next, let ABC be a given triangle (fig. 113.) BC
its bafe, and A D its altitude ; find XY a mean pro¬
portional between half the bafe and the altitude, and
XY fhall be the fide of the fquare required.
For fince ^B : XY :: XY : AD ; therefore (8. 4.)
XY2=r^BC X AD“triangle ABC (6. 4.).
Problem XVIII.
Upon a given line EF, to conflrucl a re&anglerig. 114.
EFGX equivalent to a given redlangle ABCD.
Find a fourth proportional to the three lines EF,
AB and AD; (by problem 14.) draw EX perpendi¬
cular to EF, and equal to that fourth proportional,
and complete the reftangle EFGX, which will have
the magnitude required.
For fince EF : AB :: AD : EX, therefore (8. 4.) .
EFxEX=ABx AD, that is, the redangle EFGX
is equal to the rectangle ABCD.
Problem
Sea. v.
Proo'ems.,
G E O M
Problem X!X.
Fig. in, jo make a triangle equivalent to a given polygon
ABCDE.
First, 'draw the diagonal CE, io as to cut off the
triangle CDE •, draw DG parallel to CE, to meet AE
produced in G; join CG, and the g.ven polygon
ABCDE (hall be equivalent to another polygon A KL U
which has one fide fewer. . •, r^Tr
For fince DG is parallel to CE, the triangle CGE
is equivalent to the triangle CDE, (2. cor. 2. 4.) to
each add the polygon ABCE, and the polygon
ABCDE fhall be equivalent to the polygon ALSU It.
In like manner, if the diagonal CA be drawn alio
BF parallel to CA, meeting EA produced, and C.b
be joined, the triangle CFA is equivalent to the tri¬
angle CBA, and thus the polygon ABCDE is trans¬
formed to the triangle CFG. • , , ,
In this way a triangle may be found equivalent to
any other polygon, for by transforming the figure into
another equivalent figure that has one fide fewer an
repeating the operation, a figure will at laid be found
which has only three fides.
Scholium.
As a fouare may be found equivalent to a triangle,
by combining this problem with Prob. XVII. a fquare
may be found equivalent to any reailmeal figure what¬
ever.
Problem XX.
Plate
CCXLII.
Fig. 89.
Upon a given line FC to conftru£t a polygon fimi-
lar to a given polygon ABCDE.
Draw the diagonals AC, AD •, at the point F,
make the angle GFH=BAC, and at the point G
make the angle FGH=ABC 5 thus a triangle FGH
will be conftru&ed fimilar to ABC. Again, on til
conllrua in like manner a triangle FIH, fimilar to
ADC and fimilarly fituated •, and on FI conftrua a
triangle FKI fimilar to A ED and fimilarly fituated j
and thefe triangles FGH, FHI, FIK (hall form a po-
lygon FGHIK fimilar to ABCDE (26. 4*)*
Problem XXI.
To infcribe a fquare in a given circle.
Draw trvo diameters AC, BD, fo as to interfea
each other at right angles j join the extremities of the
diameters A, B, C, D, and the figure ABCD fhall be
a fquare infcribed in the circle.
For the angles AOB, BOC, &c. being all equal, the
chords AB, BC, CD, DA are equal-, and as each of
the angles of the figure ABCD is in a femicircle, it is
a right angle, (17. 2.) therefore the figure is a fquare.
Problem XXII.
Fig. 116. To infcribe a regular hexagon and alfo an equila-
lateral triangle in a given circle.
From any point A in the circumference, apply AB
Plate
CCXLIII.
Fig. 115.
E T R Y. . . 653
and BC each equal to AO the radius j draw the three dia- ^°bletns^
meters AD, BE, CF, and join their adjacent extreme
ties by the lines AB, BC, &c. and the figure ABCDEF
thus formed is the hexagon required. .
For the triangles AOB, BOC being by condruc-
tion equilateral, each of the angles AOB, BOC is
one-third of two right angles, (4. cor. 24. 1.) and
fince AOB + BOC + COD= two right angles there¬
fore, COD= one-third of two right angles, therefore
the three angles AOB, BOC, COD, ^
as thefe are equal to the angles AOb, FOE, EOD ",
the fix angles at the centre are all equal} therefore,
the chords AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, FA are all equal;
thus the figure is equilateral. It is alfo equiangular,
for the angles FAB, ABC, &c. are in equal leg-
ments, each having for its bafe the chord of two-lixthS
of the circumference, therefore, the angles A, B, &c.
are equal ( 15. 2.) .
If ftraight lines be drawn joining A, C, E, the ver¬
tices of the alternate angles of the hexagon, there will
be formed an equilateral triangle infcribed in a circle )
as is fufficiently evident.
Scholium.
As the form of reafoning by which it has been (hewn
that an equilateral hexagon infcribed in a circle is alfo
equiangular, will apply alike to any equilateial poly¬
gon -, it may be inferred, that every equilateral poly¬
gon infcribed in a circle is alfo equiangular.
Problem XXIII.
To infcribe a regular pentagon in a given circle. Fig. 117-
Draw any radius AO, and divide it into two parts
AF. FO, fuch, that AO : OF :: OF : AF ; (16.)
from A place AG in the circumference equal to OF
join OG, and draw the chord AHB perpendicular to
OG, the chord AB {hall be a fide of the pentagon re¬
quired. . „ „ ,
Join GF, and becaufe AO : OF :: OF : AF, and
that AGmrOF, therefore, AO : AG :: AG : Ah ;
now the angle A is common to the two triangles O AG,
GAF, and it has been {hewn that the fides about that
angle in the two triangles are proportionals ; therefore
(22.4.) the triangles are fimilar, and the triangle
AOG being ifofceles, the triangle AGF is alfo ifo-
fceles ; fo that A GzrGF; but AG=¥Q, (by conftmc-
tion) therefore, GF=rFO, and the angle FOG=FGO,
and FOG + FGO =2 FOG ; but AFG = FOG -{-
FGO, (23. I.) and AFG=FAG, therefore, FAGrr
2 FOG ; hence in the ifofceles triangle AOG, each of
the angles at the bafe is double the vertical angle
AOG, therefore the fum of all the angles is equal to
five times the vertical angle AOG ; but the fum of all
the angles is equal to two right angles, (24. r.) there¬
fore the angle AOG is one-fifth of two right angles,
and confequently AO Brr 2 AOG~two-fifths of two.
right angles equal one-fifth of four right angles, there¬
fore the arch AB is one-fifth of the whole circumfer-
If we now fuppofe flraight lines BC, CD, DE,
ence.
to be applied in the circle each equal to AB, the
chord of one-fifth of the circumference, and AE to be
joined, the figure thus formed will be an equilateral
pentagon, and it is alfo equiangular (Schol. 22.)
Problem
G E O M
6S4
Of the
Quadrature
of the
Circle.
Fig. 118.
Problem XXIV.
• Having given ABCD, &c. a regular polygon in-
fcribed in a circle} to defcribe a regular polygon
of the fame number of Tides about the circle.
Draw GH a tangent to the circle at T the middle
of the arch AB ; do the fame at the middle of eacli of
the other arches BC, CD, &c. thefe tangents lhall
form a regular polygon GHIK, &c. defended about
the circle.
Join OG, OH, &c. alfo OT and ON. In the tri¬
angles OTH, ONH, the fide OT=:ON, and OH is
common to both,, and OTH, ONH, are right angles,
therefore the triangles are equal (17. 1.) and the
E T R Y. Se£t. VL
angles TOH-NOH j now B is the middle of the Of the
arch 1 N, therefore OH paffes through B 5 and in the Quadrature
lame manner it appears that I is in the fine OC produ- of ^
ced, &c. Now becaufe OT bifeds the arch AB it is C,rcle‘ '
perpendicular to the chord AB (6. 2.), therefore GH
is parallel to AB (9. 2. and 18. 1.), and PH to BC
therefore the angle GHOrr ABO, and IHOrrCBo’
and hence GHlrzABC ; and in like manner it ap¬
pears,. that HIK—BCD, &c. therefore the angles of
the circumfcnbed polygon are equal to thofe °of the
„rlbei-P0l^0n* becau{’e °f the parallels, GH •
AB :: OH : OB, and HI : BC :: OH : OB, there-
fore CH : AB :: HI : EC; but AB=BC \ there-
me fJH—HI. for the fame reafon hi—ik, &c:
therefore, the polygon is regular, and fimilar to the in-
lenbed polygon.
SECT. VI. OF THE QUADRATURE OF THE CIRCLE.
Axiom.
/Flg' I20, IF ABC be an arch of a circle, and AD, CD be
two tangents at its extremities, interfering each other
in D; the fum of the tangents AD, DC is greater
than the arch ABC.
‘S’ U8' CoR- Hence the perimeter of any polygon deferibed
about a circle, is greater than the circumference of the
circle.
Proposition I. Theorem.
r;S-n?- Equilateral polygons, ABCDEF, GHIKLM, of
the fame number of fides inferibed in circles are
fimilar, and are to one another as the fquares of
the radii of the circles.
. 4.s. ,of the Polygons is by hypothefis equilateral,
it will alio be equiangular (Schol. 22. 5.). Let us
fuppofe, for example, that the polygons are hexagons:
then, as the fum of the angles is the fame in both: viz
eight right angles (25. 1.), the angle A will be one-
fixth part of eight right angles, and the angle G will
bejhe fame ; therefore A=G j in like manner B-H,
TaTnd as tlle figtires are equilateral, AB :
GH :: BC : HI :: CD : IK, &c. therefore (2. def. 4.)
the figures are fimilar. Draw AO, BO, GP HP to
the centres of the circles 5 then, becaufe the angle
AUB is the fame part of four right angles that the arch
r Pw\wthe Wh°le, clrcumference; and the angle
tb! 1 ^ ^ °f f°Ur d§ht an§les that GH is of
e wnole circumference (13.2.) the angles AOB,
e ,each the fame Part of four right angles •
therefore they are equal* the ifofceles triangles AOB
AB GH heAenre r pllat (2f2' 4-) aRd cifequently
AB . GH :: AO : GP, therefore (9. and 27 a 1 no
lygon ABCDEF : polygon GHIKLM AO*: GP1.
Prop. II. Theorem.
Fig. m. A circle being given, two fimilar polygons may be
found,^ the one mfenbed in the circle, and the
other defenbed about it, which lhall differ from
each other by a fpace lefsthan any given fpace.
Let AG be the fide of a fquare equal to the given
fpace * and let AEG be fuch an arch of the given cir-
I
cle, that AG is its chord. Bifed the fourth part of
the circumference, (5. 5.) then bifeft one of its halves
and proceed in this manner, till, by repeated bifec-
tions, there will at length be found an arch AB lefs
tnan AG. As the arch thus found will be contained
in the circumference a certain number of times exadlv
its chord AB is the fide of a regular figure inferibed in
the circle 5 apply fines in the circle, each equal to AB
thus forming the regular figure ABC, &c. and defcribe
a regular figure DEF, &c. of the fame number of fides
about the circle. Then, the excefs of the circumfcri-
bed figure above the inferibed figure fliall be lefs than
the fquare upon AG. For draw fines from D and E
to O the centre ; thefe fines will pafs through A and
E (24. 5.)} alfo, a fine drawn from O, to H the
point of contaft of the fine DE, will bifect AB, and
be perpendicular to it* and AB will be parallel to
•u V DnUT, dlameter AE, and join BL, which
vi 1 be. parallel to HO (18. 4.). Put P for the cir-
cumicribed polygon, and p for the inferibed polygon •
then, becaufe the triangles ODH, OAK are evident^
ike parts of P and/, P : p :: ODH : OAK (1 3 V
but the triangles ODH, OAK being fimilar, ODH •
OAK OFF : OK* (25. 4.), and on account of
r^/imiTaA tnanSIes OAK> LAB, OA* or OH* :
TA* tiT LBI ^2°.‘ a"d 9> therefore, P :
t‘a • Lb*, and by divifion and inverfion, P : P 
f A* : 44*~LBJ, or AB*.* but LA*, that is, the
quare defenbed about the circle, is greater than the
equilateral polygon of eight fides deferibed about the
circle, becaufe it contains that polygon, and for the
ame reafon the polygon of eight fides is greater than
t e polygon of fixteen fides, and fo on * therefore LA*
, and as. it has been proved that P : P—p :: LA* :
AE* of which proportion, the firft term P is lefs than
the third LA* ; therefore (2. 3.) the fecond P—p is
lefs than the fourth AB*, but AB*^iAG*, therefore
P—/-=^AG*.
Cor. 1. Becaufe the .polygons P andp differ from
one another more than either of them differs from the
circle, the difference between each of them, and the
circle, is lefs than the given fpace, viz. the fquare of
AG. And therefore, however fmail any fpace may
be,
Sea. VI. G E O M
Of the be, a polygon may be infcribed in the circle, and ano-
QuiutrjCure t^er ciefcribed about it, each of which lhall differ from
Circle t^ie c^rc^e ^7 t1llan given 1’pace.
»,  ^ Cor. 2. A fpace which is greater than any polygon
that can be infcribed in a circle, but which is lefs than
any polygon that can be defcribed about it, is equal to
the circle itfelf.
Prop. III. Theorem.
Tig. izi. The area of any circle is equal to a re&angle con¬
tained by the radius, and a ftraight line equal
to half the circumference.
Let ABC, &c. be any equilateral polygon infcrib¬
ed in the circle, and DEF, &c. a limilar polygon de¬
fcribed about it •, draw lines from the extremities of
AB and DE a fide of each polygon to O the centre j
and let OKH be perpendicular to thefe fides. Put P
for the perimeter of the polygon DEF, &c. and /> for
the perimeter of the polygon ABC, &c. and n for the
number of the fides of each. Then, becaufe //X^LE
=tP, « X IDE x OH=r ^ P X OH, but rc X t HE x
OH~/2 X triangle DOE— polygon DEE, &c. there¬
fore, 4 PxOH= polygon DEF, &c.; and in like
manner it appears, that 4/5 x OK = polygon ABC,
&c. Now let £) denote the circumference of the
circle, then, becaufe 4 Qp^i/>, and OHe^OK, there¬
fore 4Q,xOHt^4/>XOK, that is IQx OH is great¬
er than the infcribed polygon. Again, becaule 4Q
-£^4? (axiom), therefore 4Qx OH^4P X OH, that
^s> 4Q X OH is lels than the circumfcribed polygon :
Thus it appears that 4QxOH is greater than any po¬
lygon infcribed in the circle, but lefs than any polygon
defcribed about it 5 therefore, 4QxOH is equal to the
circle (2.)
Prop. IV. Theorem.
Fig. up. The areas of circles are to one another as the
fquares of their radii.
Let ABCDEF and GHIKLM be equilateral po¬
lygons of the fame number of fides infcribed in the cir¬
cles, and OA, PG their radii 5 and let Q be fuch a
fpace, that AO* : GP* :: circle ABD : then, be¬
caufe AO* : GP* :: polygon ABCDEF : polygon
GHIKLM, and AO* : GP* :: circle ABE : Q, there¬
fore polygon ABCDEF : polygon GHIKLM :: cir¬
cle ABE : Q ; but circle ABE^polygon ABCDEF,
therefore polygon GHIKLM j that is, Q is
greater than any polygon infcribed in the circle GHL.
In the fame manner it is demonffrated that Q is lefs
than any polygon defcribed about the circle GHL j
therefore Q is equal to the circle GHL (2.). And
becaufe AO* : GP* :: circle ABD : Q, therefore
AO* : GP* :: circle ABE : circle GHL.
Cor. 1. The circumferences of circles are to one ano¬
ther as their radii. Put M for half the circumference
of the circle ABE and N for half the circumference
of GKL ; then, circle ABE : circle GHL :: AO* :
GP* but 4M x AO— circle ABE, alfo 4N x GP—
circle GFL, (3.) therefore 4M X AO : 4NX GP ::
AO* : GP*, and by alternation 4rMxAO : AO* ::
4N xGP : GP*, therefore (3. 4.) 4M : AO :: 4N :
GP, and again by alternation 4 M : 4 N :: AO : GP
therefore M : N :: AO : GP.
E T R Y. 655
Cor. 2. A circle defcribed with the hypothenufe of a Of the
right-angled triangle as a radius, is equal to two circlesQlia<!rature
defcribed with the other two fides as radii. Let the fides
of the triangle be a, b and the hypothenufe and let the   ^ ' >
circles defcribed with thefe lines as radii be A, B and H.
becaufe A : H :: rf* : A*
and B : H :: £* : //*,
therefore A-j-B : H :: <7*4-/^* : h* (8.3.)
but rf*-J-£l—4* (13.4.), therefore A-f B—H.
Prop. V. Problem.
Having given the area of a regular polygon inferib-Fig. 122;
ed in a circle, and alfo the area of a fimilar po¬
lygon defcribed about it to find the areas of
regular infcribed and circumfcribed polygons,
each of double the number of fides.
Let AB be the fide of the given infcribed polygon,
arid EF parallel to AB that of the fimilar circumfcrib-
ed polygon, and C the centre of the circle *, if the chord
AM, and the tangents AP, BQbe drawn, the chord
AM Ihall be the lide of the infcribed polygon of double
the number of fides ; and PQ or 2PM that of the fimi¬
lar circumfcribed polygon. "Put A for the area of the
polygon, of which AB is a fide, and B for the area of
the circumfcribed polygon ; alfo a for the area of the
polygon of which AM is a fide, and b for the area of the
fimilar circumfcribed polygon 5 then A and B are by
hypothefis known, and it is required to find a and b.
L The triangles ACD, ACM, which have a com¬
mon vertex A, are to one another as their bafes CD,
CM ; befides,thefe triangles are to one another as the po-
lygons, oi which they form like parts, therefore A : ::
CD : CM. The triangles CAM, CME, which have
a common vertex M, are to each other as their bafes CA,
CE they are alfo to one another as the polygons a and
B, of which they are like parts ; therefore, a : B : : C A ;
CE ; but becaufe of the parallels DA, ME, CD : CM
: : C A : CE ^therefore, A: o : : a : B j therefore, the
polygon which is one of the two required, is a mean
proportional between the two known polygons A and
B, fo that azr ^/A x B.
II. The triangles CPM, CPE, having the fame alti¬
tude CM, are to one another as PM to PE. But as
CP bifedts the angle MCE, PM : PE : : CM : CE
(19. 4.) : : CD : CA : : A : a 5 therefore, CPM :
CPE : : A : a; and confequently CPM-}-CPE, or
CME : CPM : : A-fa : A, and CME : 2 CPM : :
A-f-a : 2 A; but CME and 2 CPM, or CMPA, are
to one another as the polygons B and b, of which they
are like parts ; therefore, A-j-a : 2 A : : B : b. Now
the polygon a has been already found, therefore by this
laft proportion the polygon b is determined : that is,
2 A X B
A-f-a
Prop. VI. Problem.
To find nearly the ratio of the circumference of a
circle to its diameter.
Let the radius of the circle —1, then, the fides of
the inlcribed fquare being the hypothenufe of a right-
angled triangle of which the radii are the fides, (fee
G E O M
fig. II5-) the area of the infcribed fquare tvill be 2j
(13. 4.) and the circumfcribed fquare, being the fquare
of the diameter, will be 4. Now, retaining the notation
of lall problem* if we make 2 and krr 4* tne formulae
a-^7A>^B,/-give us «=2.8284271, &c.
the area of the infcribed oflagon, and ^=3.3137 -85,
See. the area of the circumfcribed o&agon. by lublti-
tuting thefe numbers in the formula, inkead of A and
B, we fliall obtain the areas of the infcribed and circum-
fcribmg polygons of 16 fides ; and thence we may find
thofe of 3 2 fides, and fo on as in the following table :
N° ofJJes. Ins. Polygons. Circ. Polygons.
4 2.0000000 4 oocoooo
8 2.8284271 3 3137o85
t6 3.0614674 3.1825979
32 3.1214451 3.1517249
64 3.1365485 3.1441184
128 3.1403311 3.1432236
256 3.1412772 3.1417504
512 3.1415138 3.1416321
1024 3.1415729 3.1416025
4096 3.1:1 ij-q.4
8192 3.14159 3 3*,4I5928
16384 3-I4'5925 Z-'VSV2!
32768 3.14 5926 3,1415926
Hence it appears that areas of a regular polygon of
32768 fides infcribed in the circle, and of a fimi-
£ T B Y. Sed. VIL
lar polygon deferibed about it, differ fo little from
each other that the numbers which exprefs them
are the fame as far as the eighth decimal place.
And as the circle is greater than the one polygon, and
lefs than the other, its area will be nearly 3.1415926.
But the area is the produft of the radius and the half of
the circumference ^ therefore, the radius being unity
or half the circumference is 3.1413926 nearly ”, and the
radius is to half the circumference, or jthe diameter is
to the circumference, nearly as 1 to 3.1415926.
Scholium.
In this way the ratio of the diameter to the circum¬
ference may be found to any degree of accuracy j but
neither by this, nor any other method yet known, can
the ratio be exactly determined.
Archimedes by means of infcribed and circum¬
fcribed polygons of 96 fides, found that the diameter is
to the circumference as 7 to 2 2; nearly, which ratio is
nearer to the truth than can be exprefled by any fmalier
numbers; and Metius found it to be more nearly as
113 to 353. Both of thefe expreffions are convenient
on account of the fmallnefs of the numbers, but later
mathematicians have carried the approximation to a
much greater degree of accuracy. Thus, it has been
found that the diameter being 1, the circumference is
greater than 3.141 5926535897932, but lefs than the
fame numbei: having its laid figure increafed by unity 5
and fome have even had the patience to carry the
approximation as far as the 150th place of decimals.
SECT. VIL
Definitions.
I. A ftraight line is perpendicular, or at right angles, to
a plane, when it is perpendicular to every ftraight line
meeting it in that plane. The plane is alfo perpendi¬
cular to the line.
II. A line is parallel to a plane, when they cannot
meet each other, although both be produced. The plane
is alfo parallel to the line.
III. Parallel planes are fuch as cannot meet each
other, though produced.
IV. It will be demonftrated (Theor. 3.) that the com¬
mon fection of two planes is a ftraight line ; this be¬
ing premifed, the inclination of two planes is the angle
contained by two ftraight lines drawn perpendicular
to the line, wdfich is their common fe£lion, from any
point in it, the one perpendicular being drawn in the
one plane, and the other in the other plane.
This angle may be either acute or obtufe.
V. If it be a right angle the two planes are perpen¬
dicular to each other.
VI. A folid angle is that which is made by the meet¬
ing of more than two plane angles, which are not in
the fame plane, in one point. Thus the folid angle
S is formed by the plane angles ASB, BSC, CSD,
DSA.
Theorem I.
One part of a ftraight line cannot be in a plane
-and another part above it.
1
For from the definition of a plane (7. def. 1.) it is
manifeft that if a ftraight line coincide with a plane in
two points it mull be wholly in the plane.
Theorem II.
Two ftraight lines which cut each other in a plane Plate
determine its pofition j that is, the plane can
incide with thefe lines only in one pofition. 18'
Let the ftraight lines AB, AC cut each other in
A ; conceive a plane to pafs through AB, and to be
turned about that line, till it pafs through the point C j
and this it can manifeftly do only in one pofition j then,
as the points A and C are in the plane, the whole
line AC mull be in the plane j therefore there is on¬
ly one pofition in which the plane can coincide with
the fame two lines AB, AC.
CbR. Therefoie, a triangle ABC, or three points
A, B, C not in a ftraight line, determine the- pofition
of a plane.
Theorem III.
If two planes AB, CD interfe£l each other, their Fig. 123-
interfe£tion is a ftraight line.
Let E and F be two points in the line of common
leftion, and let a ftraight line EF be drawn between
them ; then the line EF xnuft be in the plane AB,
(7-
Sea. VIT. - G E O M
(7. clef. I.) and the fame line muft alfo be in the fame
plane CD, therefore it mull be the common fection of
them both.
Theorem IV.
PiV. 125. Jf a ftraight line AP is perpendicular to two
ftraight lines PB, PC at P the point of their
interfe&ion ; it will alfo be perpendicular to the
plane MN, in which thefe lines are.
Draw any other line PQ^ in the plane MN, and
from Q any point in that line draw (^D parallel to
PB ; make DCzrDP ; join CC), meeting PB in B ;
and join AB, Af), AC. Becaufe Df) is parallel to
PB, and PD=DC ; therefore B£)zr(^C, and BC is
bifefted in Q : Hence in the triangle BAC,
AB*+ACi=2A(^I + 2BQL% (16. 4.)
and in the like manner, in the triangle PBC,
PB* PC*~ 2PQ* -f" 2CQ* ;
therefore, taking equal quantities from equal quantities,
that is, fubtrafling the two lalt quantities, which are put
equal to each other, from the two firlt, and obferving,
that as APB, APC are by hypothecs right-angled tri¬
angles, Ab*—BP*=:AP*, and AC*—CP*r=AP*, we
have
AP*-f AP*= 2AQ*—2PQ*,
and therefore AP*—AQ*—PQ*, or AP*-f PQ*=AO* j
therefore the triangle AP£) is right-angled at P,
(fchol. 15. 4.) and confequently AP is perpendicular
to the plane MN (Def. 1,).
Cor. 1. The perpendicular AP is fliorter than any
oblique line AQ, therefore it meafures the diftance of
the point A from the plane.
Cor. 2. From the fame point P in a plane no more
than one perpendicular can be drawn. For if it be pof-
iible that there can be two perpendiculars, conceive a
plane to pafs through them, and to interfeft the plane
MN in the ilraight line PQj then thefe perpendiculars
will be in the fame plane, and both perpendicular to the
fame line P^), at the fame point P in that line, which is
impoffible.
It is alfo impoflible that from a point without a plane
two perpendiculars can be drawn to the plane j for if
the ftraight lines AP, At^ could be two fuch perpendi¬
culars, then the triangle AP£) would have two right
angles, which is impoflible.
Theorem V.
Fig. 126. If a ftraight line AP be perpendicular to a plane
MN, every Ilraight line DE parallel to AP is per¬
pendicular to the fame plane.
Let a plane pafs through the parallel lines AP, DE,
and interfelft the plane MN in the line PD ; through
D draw BC at right angles to PD ; take DC—DB,
and join PB, PC, AB, AC, AD. Becaufe DB—DC,
therefore PBrrPCj (cor. 5. 1.) and becaufe APIs per¬
pendicular to the plane MN, fo that APB, APC are
right angles, AB=AC, (cor. 5. 1.) therefore ABC is
an ifofceles triangle 5 and fince its bafe BC is bifedled at
D, BC is perpendicular to AD ; (fchol. 11.1.) but by
conftru&ion BC is perpendicular to PD j therefore (4.)
Vol. IX. Part II.
E T R Y. T 657
BC or BD is perpendicular to the plane palling through
the lines AD and PD, or AP and DE j hence LD is
perpendicular to DE, but PD is alfo perpendicular
to DE, ( 19 • 1 •) therefore DE is perpendicular to the
two lines DP, DB j and therefore it is perpendicular
to the plane MN palling through them.
Cor. 1. Converfely, if the ftraight lines AP, DE
are perpendicular to the fame plane MN, they are pa¬
rallel ; for if not, through D draw a parallel to AP ;
this parallel will be perpendicular to the plane MN,
(by the theorem) therefore, from the fame point D
two perpendiculars may be drawn to a plane, which is
impofftble (4.).
Cor. 2. Two ftraight lines A and B which are paral¬
lel to a third line C, though not in the fame plane, are
parallel to each other. For fuppofe a plane to be per¬
pendicular to the line C, the lines A and B parallel to
this perpendicular are perpendicular to the fame plane •,
therefore, by the preceding corollary they are parallel
between themfelves.
Theorem VI.
Two planes MN, PQ, perpendicular to the fame Fig. 127.
ftraight line AB, are parallel to each other.
For, if they can meet each other, let O be a point
common to both, and join OA, OB j then the line
AB, which is perpendicular to the plane MN, muft be
perpendicular to AO, a line drawn in the plane MN
from the point in which AB meets that plane. For
the fame reaibn AB is perpendicular to BO ; there¬
fore, OA, OB are two perpendiculars drawn from the
fame point O, to the fame ftraight line AB, which is
impoflible.
Theorem VII.
The interfe&ions EF, GH of two parallel planes Fig. 12S.
MN, PQ with a third plane FG, are parallel:
For if the lines EF, GH, fituated in the fame plane,
are not parallel, they muft meet if produced $ there¬
fore, the planes MN, PQ, in which they are, muft
alfo meet, which is contrary to the hypothefts of their
being parallel.
Theorem VIII.
Any ftraight line AB, perpendicular to MN one of Fig. 127.
two parallel planes MN, PO, is alfo perpendi¬
cular to PQ the other plane.
From B draw any ftraight line BC in the plane
PQ, and let a plane pafs through the lines AB, BC,
and meet the plane MN in the line AD, then AD
will be parallel to BC, (7.) and fince AB is per¬
pendicular to the plane MN, it muft be perpendicular
to the line AD, therefore, it is alfo perpendicular to
BC j (19. 1 .) hence (Def. 1.) the line AB is perpen¬
dicular to the plane PQ.
Theorem IX.
Parallel ftraight lines EG, FH, comprehended be-Fig. 128s
tween two parallel planes MN, PQ, are equal.
Let a plane pafs through the lines EG, FH, and
4 O meet
658
G E O M
meet tKe parallel planes in EF and GH; then EF
and GH are parallel (7.) as well as EG and FH 5
therefore, EGHF is a parallelogram, and EFGrrH.
Cor. Hence two parallel planes are everywhere at
the fame diftance from each other. For, if EF and
GH are perpendicular to the two planes, they are pa¬
rallel, (1. cor. 5.) therefore they are equal.
Theorem X.
Tig, 129. If two ftraight lines CA, EA, meeting one another,
be parallel to two other lines DB, FB, that meet
one another, though not in the fame plane with
the firft two j the firft two and the other two
fhall contain equal angles, and the plane palling
through the firft two fhall be parallel to the
plane paffing through the other two.
Take ACnBD, AE—BF, and join CE, DF, AB,
CD, EF. Becaufe AC is equal and parallel to BD,
the figure ABDC is a parallelogram ; therefore, CD
is equal and parallel to AB. For a fimilar reafon EF
is equal and parallel to AB 5 therefore alfo CE is equal
and parallel to DF (2 cor. 5. and 28. 1.); therefore
the triangles CAE, DBF are equal, (10. 1.) hence the
angle CAE=DBF.
In the fecond place, the plane ACE is parallel to
the plane BDF: For fuppofe that the plane parallel to
BDF, paffing through the point A, meets the lines CD,
EF in any other points than C and E (for example in
G and H,) then (9.) the three lines AB, GD, FH
are equal; but the three lines AB, CD, EF have been
fhewn to be equal; therefore, CD—GD, and FHrrEF,
which is abfurd, therefore the plane ACE is parallel to
BDF.
Theorem XI.
If a llraight line AP be perpendicular to a plane
‘Z-13°* MN, any plane APB, palling through AP, lhall
be perpendicular to the plane MN.
Let EC be the interfedlion of the planes AB, MN j
if in the plane MN the line DE be drawn perpendicular
to BP, the line AP, being perpendicular to the plane
MN, fhall be perpendicular to each of the llraight lines
BC, DE ; therefore the angle APD is a right angle ;
now' PA and PD are drawn in the planes AB, MN
perpendicular to their common feftion, therefore
(5. Def.) the planes AB, MN are perpendicular to each
other.
Scholium.
When three ftraight lines, fuch as AP, BP, DP, are
perpendicular to each other, each is perpendicular to the
plane of thetw'o other lines.
Theorem XII.
Fig. 130. If the plane AB is perpendicular to the plane MN;
and in the plane AB a llraight line PA be
drawn perpendicular to BP, the common inter-
fe£tion of the planes, then lhall PA be perpen¬
dicular to the plane MN. ^
For, if in the plane MN, a line PD be drawn per¬
pendicular to PB, the angle APD fhall be a right an¬
gle, becaufe the planes are perpendicular to each other
therefore, the line AP is perpendicular to the two
1
E *T It Y. Sed. VII.
lines PB, PD, therefore it is perpendicular to their
plane MN.
Cor. If the plane AB be perpendicular to the plane
MN, and from any point P, in their common inter-
ledtion, a perpendicular be drawn to the plane MN ; this
perpendicular (hall be in the plane AB ; for if it is not,
a perpendicular AP may be drawn in the plane AB
to the common interlediion BP, which wall be at the
fame time perpendicular to the plane MN ; therefore,
at the fame point P, there may be two perpendiculars
to a plane NM, wdiich is impoffible (4.).
Theorem XIII.
If two planes AB, AD are perpendicular to a third, Fig.
their common interfeclion AP is perpendicular
to the third plane.
For, if through the point P, a perpendicular be
drawn to the plane MN, this perpendicular lhall be in
the plane AB, and alfo in the plane AD, (cor. 12.)
therefore it is at their common interfeclion AP.
Theorem XIV.
If two flraight lines be cut by parallel planes, they pjg,,,,
fhall be cut in the fame ratio.
Let the line AB meet the planes MN, PQ, RS in
A, E, B; and let CD meet them in C, F, D, then
fhall AE : EB :: CF : FD. For draw AD meeting
the plane P£) in G, and join AC, EG, GF, BD ; the
lines EG, BD, being the common fedlions of the plane
of the triangle ABD and the parallel planes P£), RS,.
are parallel (7.) and in like manner it appears, that
AC, GF are parallel; therefore AE : EB AG : GD)
:: CF : FD.
Theorem XV.
If a folid angle be contained by three plane an- pig. 133
gles, the fum of any two of thefe is greater
the third.
It is evidently only neceffary to demonftrate the
theorem, when the plain angle which is compared with
the fum of the other two is greater than either of
them ; for, if it were equal to or lefs than one of them,
the theorem would be manifeft : therefore let S be -a
folid angle formed by three plane angles ASB, ASC,
BSC, of which ASB is the greateft. In the plane
ASB make the angle BSD—BSC ; draw any ftraight
line ADB, and having taken SC—SD, join AC, BC ;
the triangles BSC, BSD having two fides, and the in¬
cluded angle of the one equal to two fides, and the in¬
cluded angle of the other, each to each, are equal (5.1.),
therefore BD—BC ; now AB-s^lAC-j-BC, therefore,
taking BD from the firft of thefe unequal quantities,
and BC from the fecond, wre get AD^2-AC ■, and as
the triangles ASD, ASC have SDmSC, and SA com¬
mon to both, and AD^lAC, therefore (9. i.J the an¬
gle ASD^iASC ; and, adding DSB to the one, and
CSB to the other, ASB^ASC-fBSC.
Theorem XVI.
If each of two folid angles be contained by three Fig. 133.
plane
Sea. VIII. G E O M
Of Solids plane angles equal to one another, each to each,
bou ded by planes in which the equal angles are, have
. t>laJies' , the fame inclination to one another.
Let the angle ASBrrDIE, the angle ASC
=DTF, and the angle BSCzzETF j the two planes
ASB, ASC, (hall have to each other the fame inclina¬
tion as the two planes DTE, D 1 h.
Take A any point in SA, and in the two planes
ASB, ASC, draw AB and AC perpendiculars to AS,
then (def. 4.) the angle BAG is the inclination of
thefe planes ; again, take TD=SA, and in the planes
TDE, TDF draw DE and DF perpendiculars to TD,
and the angle EDF (hall be the inclination of thefe
other planes j join BC, EF. The triangles ASB,
DTE have the fide AS=rDT, the angle SABrrTDE
and ASB=rDTE, therefore the triangles are equal,
and thus ABirrDE, and SB=TE : In like manner it
appears that the triangles ASC, DTF are equal, and
therefore, that AC^rDF, and SCzzTF. Now the
triangles BSC, ETF,^having BSr^TE, SC—IF, and
E T H Y
659
the angle BSCzrETF, are alfo equal, and therefore Of Solids
BCrrrEF ; but it has been (hewn that AB=DE, and b°p"^by
that AC=:DF j therefore the triangles BAC, EDF
are equal, and conlequently the angle BACzrEDx1 j
that is, the inclination of the planes ASB and ASC is
equal to the inclination of the planes DTE and DFF.
In the fame manner it may be proved that the other
planes have the fame inclination to one another.
Scholium.
If the three plane angles which contain tne fohd
angles, are equal each to each, and if befides the angles
are alfo difpofed in the fame order in the two folid
angles, then thefe angles when applied to one another
will coincinde, and be equal. But if the plane angles
be difpofed in a contrary order, the folid angles will
not coincide, although the theorem is equahy true in
both cafes. In this'laft cafe the folid angles are called
Symmetrical angles.
SECT. VIII. OF SOLIDS BOUNDED BY PLANES.
Definitions.
I. A Solid is that which has length, breadth, and
thicknefs.
II. A Prifm is a folid contained by plane figures,
of which two that are oppofite are equal, fimilar, and
parallel \ and the others are parallelograms.
Fig 134. To conftrufl this folid, let ABCDE be any poly¬
gon •, if in a plane parallel to ABC there be drawn
ftraight lines FG, GH, HI, &c. equal and parallel to
the (ides AB, BC, CD, &c. fo as to form a polygon
FGHIK equal to ABCDE, and ftraight lines AF,
EG, CH, &c. be drawn, joining the vertices of the ho¬
mologous angles in the two planes } the planes or faces
ABGF, BCHG, &c. thus formed will be parallelo¬
grams ) and the folid ABCDEFGHIK contained by
thefe parallelograms and the two polygons, is the prifm
itfelf.
III. The equal and parallel polygons ABCDE,
FGHIK are called the Bafes of the prifm, and the
diftance between the bafes is its Altitude.
^ IV. When the bafe of a prifm is a parallelogram,
IS‘ I3S’ and confequently the figure has all its faces parallelo¬
grams, it is called a parallelopiped. A parallelepiped
is reBangular when all its faces are re£tangles.
V. A Cube is a re&angular parallelopiped contained
Plat<L by fix equal fquares.
CCXLV. yj. Pyramid Js a folid contained by feyeral
lg' I44‘ planes, which meet in the fame point A, and terminate
in a polygonal plane BCD.
VII. The polygon ABCDE is called the Bafe of
of the pyramid } the point S is its Vertex ; and a per¬
pendicular let fall from the vertex upon the bale is call¬
ed its Altitude.
VIII. Two folids are fitnilar, when they are con¬
tained by the fame number of fimilar planes, fimilarly
fituated, and having like inclinations to one another.
Theorem I. Plate
CCXLIV
Two prifms are equal when the three planes which Fig. 134*
contain a folid angle of the one are equal to
the three planes which contain a folid angle
of the other, each to each, and are fimilarly fi¬
tuated.
Let the bafe ABCDE be equal to the bafe abode,
the parallelogram ABGF equal to the parallelogram
abgf and the parallelogram BCHG equal to the
parallelogram bchg ; the prifm ABCI (hall be equal
to the prifm ab ci.
For let the bafe ABCDE be applied to its equal the
bafe abode, fo that they may coincide with each
other •, then, as the three plane angles which form the
folid angle B are equal to the three plane angles which
form the angle b, each to each, viz, KBCzzabc
ABGzzrabg, and GBC=§-Z>c, and as thefe angles are
fimilarly fituated, the folid angles B and b are equal
(15.7.) therefore the fide BG (hall fall upon the fide
b g ; and becaure the parallelograms ABGF, abgf are
equal, the fide FG (hall fall upon its equal/§•; in like
manner it may be (hewn, that GH falls upon gh,
therefore the upper bafe FGHIK coincides entirely
with its equal fg hi k, and the two folids coincide with
each other, or occupy the fame fpace, therefore the
prifms are equal.
Scholium.
A prifm is entirely determined, when its bafe
ABCDE is known, and its edge BG is given in mag¬
nitude and pofition j for if through the point G, GF be
drawn equal and parallel to AB, and GH equal and
parallel to BC, and the polygon FGHIK be defciib-
ed equal to ABCDE (20.5.), it is evident that the
4 O 2 points
66o
GEOMETRY,
Of Solids points FKI will have determinate politions j therefore
b°Plam-!>by any tvvo Prifms conftrudled with the fame data cannot
■ < be unequal.
Theorem II.
13S* In any parallelepiped the oppofite planes are equal
and parallel.
Sea. VIII.
Of Solids
Theorem IV. bounded by
Planes.
If two parallelepipeds AG, AL have a common
bafe ABCD, and have their upper bafes in thepjfr
fame plane, and between the fame parallel ° 3 ’
ftraight lines EK, HL, the two parallelepipeds
are equivalent to each other.
From the nature of the folid (4. def.) the bafes
ABCD, EFGH are equal parallelograms, and their
fides are parallel, therefore the planes AC, EG are
parallel ; and becaufe AD is equal and parallel to BC,
and AE is equal and parallel to BF, the angle DAE
rrCBF, and the plane DAE is parallel to the plane
CBF, (10. 7.) therefore alfo the parallelogram DA EH
is equal to the parallelogram CBFG. It may in like
manner be demondrated, that the oppolite parallelo¬
grams ABFE, DCGH are equal and parallel.
Cor. Hence, in a parallelepiped, any one of the fix
planes which contain it may be taken for its bafe.
Theorem III.
Fig. T36. The plane BDHF, which palfes through two pa¬
rallel oppofite edges BF, DH, of a parallele¬
piped AG, divides it into two triangular prifms
ABDHEF, GHFBCD, equal to one another.
For the triangles ABD, EFH, having their fides
equal and parallel, are equal, and the lateral faces
ABFE, ADHE, BDHF are parallelograms; there¬
fore the folid ABDHEF is a prifm j for like reafons
the folid GHFBCD is a prifm. Again, becaufe the
plane angles which contain the folid angle at G are
equal to thofe which contain the folid angle at A, viz.
the angle FGH=DAB, FGCrrDAE, and HGC
__BAE, the planes in which thefe angles are have the
fame inclination to one another, (16.7.) as, however
tneie angles are not difpofed in the fame order, but in
a contrary order, the folid angles cannot be made to
coincide with one another, and confequently the
mu S cannot ke proved equal by fuperpofition, as in
J heorem I. . Their equality may however be efiablilh-
ed by reafomng thus :
I he inclination of each of any two adjacent faces of
a prifm to the bafe, and the length of an edge beino-
given, the prifm is evidently refiri&ed to one determf-
nate magnitude ; and it will evidently have the fame
magnitude whichfoever .of the two fides of the bafe it
may Hand upon ; that is, whether it be conftruaed
above or below the bafe. Now if the upper bafe FGH
of t.ie one pnfm be applied to the lower bafe DAB of
r ?ilerV^ a thAatJhe fldeS FG’ GH’ FH ™y be upon
GHFBCDBB1?qUaI t0 them’ then the P^fm
GHI-BCD will have the pofition ABDHEF'- and
SC IT f“?lAB3r'EY ADH-E' of the prife below
t ie bafe will have each the fame inclination to it, as
the equivalent faces ABFE, ADHE of the prifm above
.he bafe , and the edge AE' is equal to the edge AE •
therefore the conditions which determine the magni-
tude ot both prifms are identical, and confequently the
prams are equal. 1 ^
Because AE is parallel to BF, and HE to GF
the angle AEIzrBFK, HEI^GFK, and HEA
rrGFB ; of thefe fix angles the three firlt form the
folid angle E, and the three others form the folid
angle F, therefore, fince the plane angles are equal
each to each, and fimilarly fituated, the folid angles E
and F are equal. . Now if the prifm AEIDHM be
applied to the prifm BFKCGE, fo that their bales
AEI, BPK, which are equal, may coincide with each
other, then, becaufe the lolid angle E is equal to the
folid angle F, the fide EH lhall fall upon FG, and
this is all that is neceflary to prove that the two prifms
coincide entirely, for the bafe AEI and the edge EH
determine the prifm AEM, and the bafe BEK and the
edge FG determine the prifm BEL; therefore the prifms
are equal. But if from the folid AEL, the prifm AEM
be taken away, here will remain the parallelepiped
AIL 5 and if from the fame folid AEL, the prilm
BP L be taken away, there will remain the parallele¬
piped AEG ; therefore the parallelepipeds AIL, AEG
are equivalent to each other.
Theorem V.
Parallelepipeds upon the fame bafe, and having the FjV. 13^,
fame altitude, are equivalent to one another.
Let ABCD be the common bafe of the two paral¬
lelepipeds AG, . AL, which, becaufe they have the
fame altitude, will have their upper bafes in the fame
plane j then, becaufe EF and AB are equal and parallel,
as alio IK and AB; EF is parallel to IK, (cor. 2. 5. 7.)
for a fimilar reafon GF is parallel to LK. Let the
fides EF, HG, as alfo the fides LK, IM, be pro¬
duced, fo as to form by their interfeftions the parallelo-
gi am NOPQ; it is manifeft that this parallelogram is
equal to each of the bafes EFGH, IKLM. Now, if
we fuppofe a third parallelepiped, which, with the fame
lower bafe ABCD, has for its upper bale NOPQ, this
third parallelepiped will be equivalent to the parallele¬
piped AG, (4.) for the fame reafon the third parallele¬
piped will be equivalent to the parallelepiped AL ;
therefore the two parallelepipeds AG, AL, which have
the fame bafe and the fame altitude, are equivalent to
one another.
Theorem VI.
Any parallelepiped AG is equivalent to a re£t-F;g413$
angular parallelepiped, having the fame altitude, 140.
and an equivalent bafe.
At the points A, B, C, D, let AI, BK, CL, DM,
be drawn perpendicular to the plane ABCD, and ter¬
minating in the plane of the upper bafe ; then, IK,
KL.
Sea- VIII. G E O M
Of Solids KL, LM, MI, being joined, a parallelepiped AL will
bounded by formed, which will manifeftly have its lateral
, Planes- faCes AK, BL, CM, DI reftangles ; and if the bafe
AC is alio a re&angle, the folid AL will be a rect¬
angular parallelepiped equivalent to the parallelepiped
AG. But if ABCD is not a redtangle, (fig. 140.)
draw AO and BN perpendicular to CD, and 0<^
and NP perpendicular to DC, meeting ML in
and P ; the folid ABNOIKPy) will manifellly be a
rectangular parallelepiped, which will be equal to the
parallelepiped AL, for they have the fame bafe ABKI,
and the fame altitude, viz. AO 5 therefore the rect¬
angular parallelepiped AP is equivalent to the paral¬
lelepiped AG, (fig. 139.) and they have the fame al¬
titude, and the bafe ABNO of the former is equiva¬
lent to the bafe ABCD of the latter.
Theorem VII.
Fig. 134- Any fe£tion NOPOR of a prifm, made by a
plane parallel to its bafe ABCDE, is equal to
the bafe.
For the parallels AN, BO, CP contained between
the parallel planes ABC, NOP are equal (9. 7O > and
thus all the figures ABON, BCPO, &c. are parallelo¬
grams*, hence the fide ON= AB, OP=BC, PQ.-CD,
&c. alfo, the equal Tides are parallel, therefore, the
angle ABC = NOP, the angle BCD := OPQ, &c.
therefore the two polygons ABCDE, NOPQR, have
their fides and angles equal, each to each ; therefore,
they are equal.
Plate Theorem VIII.
CCXLV.
Fig. 141. Two reChangular parallelepipeds AG, AL, which
have the fame bafe ABCD, are to each other as
their altitudes AE, AI.
Suppose that the altitudes AE, AI are to each
other as the numbers p and fo that AE will contain
p fuch equal parts as AI contains q. Let AE and AI
be divided into p and q equal parts refpeftively, and
let planes pafs through the points of divifion parallel to
the bafe ABCD ; thus the parallelepiped AG wall be
divided into p folids, which will alfo be parallelepipeds
having equal bafes (7.) and equal altitudes, there¬
fore, they will be equal among themfelves ; and in like
manner the parallelepiped AL wall be divided into q
equal folids ; and as each of the folids in AG is equal
to each of the folids in AL, the parallelepiped AG
will contain p fuch equal parts as the parallelepiped AL
contains q ; therefore the parallelepiped AG will be
to the parallelepiped AL as the number/* to the num¬
ber q, that is, as AE the altitude of the former to AI
the altitude of the latter.
Theorem IX.
F:g. 143. Two re&angular parallelepipeds AG, AK, which
have the fame altitude AE, are to each other as
their bafes ABCD, AMNO.
Let the two folids be placed, the one by the fide of
the other,, as reprefented in the figure, and let the plane
ONKL be produced, fo as to meet the plane DCGH
E T R Y. 661
in PO, thus forming a third parallelepiped AQ, which Of Solids
may be compared with each of the parallelepipeds AG, bounded by
AK. The two folids AG, A£), having the fame bafe ]>1^nes' .
ADHE, are to each other as their altitudes AB, AO,
(8.) and, in like manner, the twro folids AQ, AK,
having the fame bafe AOLE, are to each other as
their altitudes AD, AM j that is,
folid AG : fol. AO :: AB : AO
' fol. A£ : foL AK :: AD : AM j
but AB : AO :: bafe AC : bafe AP (3. 4.)
and AD : AM:: bafe AP : bafe AN,
therefore,
fol. AG : fol. Ap :: bafe AC : bafe AP,
fol. Ap : fol. AK :: bafe AP : bafe AN,
therefore (7. 3.)
fol. AG : fol. AK :: bafe AC : bafe AN.
Theorem X.
Rectangular parallelepipeds are to each other as Fig. 14s.
the products of the numbers proportional to
their bafes and altitudes, or as the products of
the numbers proportional to their three dimen-
fions.
Let AG be a parallelepiped, the three dimenfions
of which are expreffed by the lines AB, AD, AE, and
AZ another parallelepiped the dimenfions of wrhich are
expreffed by the lines AO, AM, AX. Let the twro
folids AG, AZ be fo placed, that their furfaces may
have a common angle B AE; produce fuch of the
planes as are neceffary fo as to form a third parallelepi¬
ped AK, having the fame altitude as the parallelepi¬
ped AG. By the laft propofition
fol. AG : fol. AK :: bafe AC : bafe AN,
and by the laft theorem but one,
fol. AK : fol. AZ :: AE : AX,
but, confidering the bafes AC, AN as meafured by
numbers, as alfo the altitudes AE, AX,
bafe AC : bafe AN :: AE X bafe AC : AE Y.bafe AN
and AE : AX :: AE X bafe AN : AX x bafe AN
therefore,
fol. AG : fol. AK :: AR^bafe AC : AEx bafe AN,
fol. AK : fol. AZ :: AE X bafe AN : AX x bafe AN,
therefore, (7. 3.)
fol. AG :>/. AZ :: AE xbafe AC : AX^bafe AN j
which proportion, by fubftituting for the bafes AC,
AN their numerical values AB x AD and AO X AM
becomes
fol. AG fol. AZ:: AB X AD x AE: AO X AM x AX.
Scholium.
Hence it appears that the produift of the bafe of a
redlangular parallelepiped by its altitude or the produft .
of its. three dimenfions^ may be taken for its numerical
meafure ;...
T R
662 GEO M
Of Solids meafure ; and it is upon tliis principle that all other fo-
'^Plfnes lidS are e^i1Tlated. When two parallelepipeds are com-
pared together by means of their bafes and altitudes,
their bafes muft be confidered as meafured by the fame
fuperficial unit, and their altitudes by the fame linear
unit j thus if fpaces P and O denote two parallelepi¬
peds, and the bafe of P contain three fuch equal fpaces
as that of (<) contains four ; and the altitude of P con¬
tains two fuch equal lines, as that of contains five,
then, P : 3 x 2 : 4 X 5 =: 6 : 20.
If all the dimenlions of each iolid are ufed in compar¬
ing them together, then the fame linear unit muif be
employed in eftimating all the dimenfions of both fo-
lids ; thus, if the length, breadth, and height of the
iolid P be four, three, and fix linear units, refpective-
ly ; and thofe of (^, feven, two, and five, of the fame
unit 5 then P: £ 4X3X6 : 7X2X5 :: 72: 70.
As lines are compared together by confidering how
often each contains fome other line taken as a meafur-
ing unit, and furfaces by confidering how often each
contains a fquare wbofe fide is that unit ; fo folids may
be compared, by confidering how^often each contains
a cube, the fide or edge of which is the fame linear
unit. Accordingly, the dimenfions of the parallelepi¬
peds P and £) being as we have juft now fuppofed, the
proportion P : 72 : 70 may be confidered as indi¬
cating that P contains 7 2 fuch equal cubes as Q con¬
tains 70. •
I he magnitude of a folid, its bulk, or its extenfion
conftitutes its folidity, or its content ; thus we fay, that
ihe folidity or the content of a rectangular parallelepi¬
ped is equal to the produCt of its bafe by its altitude j
or to the produCt of its three dimenfions."
Theorem XI.
The folidity of any parallelepiped, or in general
of any prifm, is equal to the produCt of its bafe
by its altitude.
1. Any parallelepiped is equivalent to a reCtangula
paiadelopiped of the fame altitude, and an equivalen
bafe (6.) ; and it has been fliewn, that the folidity o
fuch a parallelepiped is equal to the produft of its baf
and altitude.
. 2- Every triangular prifm is the half of a parallelo
piped of the fame altitude, but having its bafe doubh
that of the prifm (3.) j therefore, the folidity of th<
prdm is half that of the parallelepiped, or it is hal
the produft of the. bafe of the parallelepiped by its al
titude, that is, it is equal to the produd of the bafe o
the priim by its altitude.
3- Any other prifm may be divided into as mam
tiiangular priims as the polygon which forms its ball
can be divided into triangles, but the folidity of eacl
o. thefe.is equal to the produa of its bafe by their com
mon attitude * therefore, the folidity of the whole prifn
is equal to the produa of the fum of all their bafes b
the common akitude, or it is. equal to the produa o"
the bafe of the prnm, which is the fum of them all b'
Its altitude. ’ -
Cor Twoprifms having the fame altitude are t<
.each other as their bafes; and two prifms having th<
lame bale are to each other as their altitudes.
E
Y.
Sed. VITL
Theorem XII.
Similar prifms are to one another as the cubes of
their homologous Tides.
. Ot Solids
bciwided by
Planes.
Fig. MS-
Let AG, IP be two fimilar prifms, of which AB
IK are two homologous tides, the prifm AG is to the
prifm IP as the cube of AB to the cube of IK. Let
E and N be two homologous angles of the prifms, and
ES, NY perpendiculars to the planes of their bafes j
join IV 5 take IR—AE, and in the plane INV draw
RT perpendicular to IV; then RT ftiall be perpendi¬
cular to the plane IL (11. and 12. of 7.), alfo RT
fhall be equal to ES ; for if the folid angles A and I
were applied the one to the other, the planes which con¬
tain them would coincide (fchol. 16. 7.), and the point
E would fall upon the point R, aaad therefore the per¬
pendicular ES would coincide with the perpendicular
RT (2. cor. 4. 7.) Now the content of a prifm being
the produa of its bafe by its altitude (11.), it follows
that prifm AG : prifm IP :: ESx bafe AC :: NVx
bafe IL ; but bafe AC : bafe IL :: AB1 : IK1 (27. 4.)
and therefore, confidering the lines exprefled by num¬
bers, ES x %/e AC or RT X bafe AC : NV x bafe
IL :: Ri x AB* : NVXlK-1 (5. 3.), therefore, prifm
AG ■. prfm IP :: RT x AB* : NVx IK* 5 but RT :
NV :: RI or AE : NI (20. 4.) :: AB : IK (def. of
lira, figs.), and confequently Rl'xAB* : NVx IK* ::
AB3 : IK3 (5. 3.) j therefore,prfm AG : prifm IP
AB3 : IK3.
Cor.. Similar prifms are to one another in the tripli¬
cate ratio of the homologous fides. For let Y and Z
be two fuch lines that AB : IK :: IK : Y :: Y : Z
then the ratio of AB to Z is triplicate the ratio of Afi’
to IK (12. def. 3.). Now, fince AB : IK :: IK : Y
therefore AB* : IK* :: IK* : Y*, (9 4.) and, multi-
piying the antecedents by AB, and confequents by
IK, AB3 : IK3 :: AB x IK* : IKXY* :: AB X IK :
Y*, but Y*~IK X Z (8. 4.) j therefore AB3 :: IK3
AB X IK : 1K x Z :: AB : Z, but prifm AG : prfm
IP :: AB3 : IK3 therefore prifm AG : prifm IP :: AB :
Z, which laft ratio is triplicate the ratio of AB to IK.
Theorem XIII.
If a triangular pyramid ABCD be cut by a plane Fig. 144,
bed parallel to its bafe, the fedion b c d is fi¬
milar to the bafe BCD.
For becaufe the planes bed, BCD are parallel, their
interfedions b c, BC with a third plane BAG are pa¬
rallel (7. 7.) ; and, for a like reafon, cd is parallel to
CD, and db 10 DB j therefore the angle BCD,
ctfY—CDB, and i/Z'czrDBC (10. 7.) , hence the tri¬
angles bed, BCD are equiangular, and confequently
fimilar. J
Cor. 1. If two triangular pyramids ABCD, EFGH
which have equal bafes, and equal altitudes, be cut by
planes be d,fgh that are parallel to the bafes, and at
equal diftances from them, the fe&ions are equal. For
conceive the bafes of the pyramids to be in the fame
plane, then their vertices will be in a plane parallel to
their bafes, and the lections bcd,f g h will alfo be in
a plane parallel to their bafes, therefore, AB : AZ> ::
I
Se£L VIII. G E O M
Ot Solids EF : E f (14. 7.), but betaufe the triangles ABC,
bounded “'j c are iuniiar, AB : Kb :: BC : be, ar d, in like
. Plams- manner EF : E/ :: FG : fg, therefore, BC \ be \\
FG : fg, and BC* '.be3, :: FG* : fg* (p. 4.) •, but
BC* : be1 :: triangle BCE) : tnan. bed, and FG* :
fg1 :: trian. FGH : trian. fgh (2v 4.) j therefore,
Irian. BCD : trian. bed :: trian. FGH : trian. fg h,
but trian. BCD — trian. FGH (by hyp.) therefore
trian. b c d ~ trian. f g h.
Scholium.
It is eafy to fee that what is here demonftrated of tri-
- angular pyramids, is equally true of polygonal pyra¬
mids having equal bafes and altitudes.
Theorem XIV.
fig- idS- A feries of prifms of the fame altitude may be cir-
cumfcribed about any pyramid ABCD, fuch that
the fum of the prifms (hall exceed the pyramid
by a folid lefs than any given folid Z.
Let Z be equal to a prifm Handing on the fame bafe
with the pyramid, viz. the triangle BCD, and having
for its altitude the perpendicular drawn from a certain
point E in the line AC upon the plane BCD. It is
evident that CE multiplied by a certain number m
will be greater than AC j divide CA into as many
equal parts as there are units in m, and let thefe be
CF, FG, GH, EIA, each of which will be lefs than
CE. Through each of the points F, G, H, let planes
be made to pafs parallel to the plane BCD, making
with the tides of the pyramid the fedtions FP£), GRS,
HTU, which will be all timilar to one another, and
to the bafe BCD (13.) From the point B draw in the
plane of the triangle ABC the ftraight line BK paral¬
lel to CF, meeting FP produced in K. In like man¬
ner, from D draw DL parallel to CF, meeting FQ in
L ; join KL, and it is plain that the folid KBCDLF
is a prifm. By the fame conftrudlion let the prifms
PM, RO, TV be deferibed. Alfo let the ftraight
line IP, which is in the plane of the triangle ABC be
produced till it meet BC in h; and let the line MQ
be produced till it meet DC in g. Join hg, then h C g
? . OEP a Prifm 5 and is equal to the prifm PM
(cor. 11.) In thd fame manner is deferibed the prifm
m S equal to the prifm RO, and the prifm q U equal
to the prifm TV. The fum, therefore, of all the in-
feribed prifms h (), m S and y U is equal to the fum
of the prifms PM, RO and TV, that is, to the fum of
all the circumscribed prifms except the prifrn BE ;
wherefore, BL is the excefs of the prifms circumfcribed
about the pyramid above the prifms inferibed within it.
But the piifm BL is lefs than the prifn which has the
triangle BCD for its bafe, and for its altitude the per¬
pendicular from E upon the plane BCD, which prifm
is, by hypothelis, equal to the given folia Z ; therefore
the excefs of the circumfcribed above the inferibed
prifms is lefs than the folid Z. But the excefs of the
circumfcribed prifms above the inferibed is greater
than their excefs above the pyramid ABCD, becaufe
A.BCD is greater than the fum of the inferibed prifms;
much more therefore is the excefs of the circumfcribed
prifms above the pyramid lefs than the folid Z. A fe¬
ries of prifrns of the fame, altitude has therefore been
E T R Y. 663
circumferibed about the pyramid ABCD exceeding it Of Solids
by a folid lefs than the given folid Z. bounded by
: 6 Planes.
Theorem XV.
Pyramids that have equal bafes and altitudes are Fig. 146.
equal to one another.
Let ABCD, EFGH be two pyramids that have
equal bafes BCD, FGH, and alfo equal altitudes ; the
pyramid ABCD is equal to the pyramid EFGH.
If they are unequal, let the pyramid EFGH exceed
the pyramid ABCD by the folid Z. Let a feries of
prifms of the fame altitude be circumfcribed about the
pyramid ABCD that ftiall exceed it by a folid lefs than
Z, (1 4.) and let another feries equal in number to the
former, and having all the fame altitude, be deferibed
about the pyramid EFGH ; then, becaufe the pyramids
have equal altitudes, the altitude of each of the prifms
deferibed about the one pyramid is equal to the altitude
of each of the prifms deferibed about the other py¬
ramid ; therefore the fedtions of the pyramids which
are the bafes of the correfponding palms will be at
equal diltances from the bafes of the pyramids, and
hence thefe leclions will be equal; (1. cor. 13.) and
becaufe the prifms have all the fame altitude, the cor-
reiponding prifms wall be equal, and the fum of the
prilins deferibed about the pyramid ABCD wall be
equal to the fum of the prifms deferibed about the
pyramid EFGH. Let the pyramid EFGH be denot¬
ed by P, and the pyramid ABCD by/>, and put Q
for the fum of the prifms deferibed about P, and q for
the prifms deferibed about />: Then by hypothelis
Z=zP—/>, and by conilrutlion 7j~p^q—/>, therefore
P——/>, and confequently P-^q, but it has
been ihewn that therefore P^£), that is, the
pyramid EFGH is greater than the fum of the prifm
deferibed about it, which is impofiible, therefore the
pyramids ABCD, EFGH are not unequal, that is,
they are equal.
Theorem XVI.
Every prifrn having a triangular bafe may be di- Fig. 147.
vided into three pyramids that have triangular
bafes, and that are equal to one another.
Let ABC, DEE be the oppodte bafes of a trian¬
gular prifm. Join AE, EC, CD ; and becaufe ABED
is a parallelogram, of which AE is the diameter, the
triangle ADE is equal to the triangle ABE ; there¬
fore the pyramid of which the bafe is the triangle
ADE and vertex the point C, is equal to the pyramid
of which the bafe is the triangle ADE, and vertex
the point C. But the pyramid of which the bafe is
the triangle ABE and vertex the point C, that is the
pyramid A BCE, is equal to the pyramid DEFC,
(15.) for they have equal bafes, viz. the triangles
ABC, DEE, and the fame altitude, viz. the altitude
of the prifm ABCDEF. Therefore, the three pyra¬
mids ADEC, ABEC, DFEC are equal to one another ;
but thefe pyramids make up the whole prifm ABCDEF;
therefore, the prifm ABCDEF is divided into three
equal pyramids.
Cor, I. From this it is manifeft that every pyra¬
mid
664 G E O M
Of Cylln- t«‘d is the third part of a prifm which has the fame
^atid^the^* anc^ ^aine altitude with it 5 for if the bale
Sphere t^ie Prlfm be any other figure than a triangle, it
~ may be divided into prifijis having triangular bafes.
SetTi,
IX.
E T R Y.
Cor. 2. Pyramidshaving equal altitudes are to one Of Cylin-
another as their bafes j becaufe the prifms upon the ^ers’^r‘es«
fame bafes, and of the fame altitude, are to one another ^
as their bales. . ‘ ~~ .
SECT. IX. OF CYLINDERS, CONES, AND THE SPHERE.
Definitions.
I. A Cylinder is a folid figure defcribed by the revo¬
lution of a right-angled parallelogram about one of its
fides, wdiich remains fixed.
The j4xis of the cylinder is the fixed ftraight line
about which the parallelogram revolves.
The Bafes of the cylinder are the circles defcribed
by the two revolving oppofite lides of the parallelo¬
gram.
II. A Cone is a folid figure defcribed by the revo¬
lution of a right-angled triangle about one of the lides
containing the right angle, which fide remains fixed.
The Axis of the cone is the fixed line about w^hich
the triangle revolves.
The Bafe of the cone is the circle defcribed by that
fide containing the right angle which revolves.
III. A Sphere is a folid figure defcribed by the re¬
volution of a femicircle about a diameter.
The Axis of a fphere is the fixed line about which
the femicircle revolves.
The Centre of a fphere is the fame with that of the
femicircle. "
The Diameter of a fphere is any ftraight line which
palfes through the centre, and is terminated both ways
by the fuperficies of the fphere.
IV. Similar cones and cylinders are thofe which
have their axes and diameters of their bafes propor¬
tional.
Theorem I.
Tig. 148. If from any point E in the circumference of the
bafe of a cylinder ABCD, a perpendicular EF
be drawn to the plane of the bafe AEB, the
ftraight line EF is wholly in the cylindric fuper¬
ficies.
Let HG be the axis, and AGHD the re&angle,
which by its revolution defcribes the cylinder. Becaufe
HG is perpendicular to AG in every pofition of the
revolving redangle, it is perpendicular to the plane of
the circle defcribed by AG 5 and becaufe AD, the line
which defcribes the cylindric fuperficies, is parallel to
GH, it is alfo perpendicular to the plane of that cir-
cle. (5.7.) Now when by the revolution of the reftangle
AGHD the point A coincides with the point E, the
line EF win coincide with AD, and thus will be whol¬
ly in_ the cylindric fuperficies-, for otherwife tw*o per¬
pendiculars might be drawn to the fame plane, from
the fame point, which is impoflible (2 cor. 4. 7.).
Theorem II.
Tig. 145. A cylinder and a parallelepiped having equivalent
bafes and the fame altitude are equal to one ano¬
ther.
Let ABCD be a cylinder, and EF a parallelepiped
having equivalent bafes, viz. the circle AGE and the
parallelogram EH, and having alfo equal altitudes ; the
cylinder ABCD is equal to the parallelepiped EF. If
not, let them be unequal 5 and firft let the cylinder be
lefs than the parallelepiped EF; and from the paral¬
lelepiped EF let there be cut off a part EQ by a plane
1*0, parallel to NF, equal to the cylinder ABCD,
In the circle AGB inferibe the polygon AGKBLM
that ftiall differ from the circle by a fpaefe lefs than
the parallelogram PH, (1 cor. 2. 6.) and cut off from
the parallelogram EH a part OR equal to the polygon
AGKBLM, then it is manifeft that the parallelogram
OR is greater than the parallelogram OP, therefore the
point R will fall between P and N. On the poly -'
gon AGKBLM let an upright prifm be conftituted
of the fame altitude with the cylinder, which will there¬
fore be lefs than the cylinder, becaufe it is within it j
(1.) and if through the point R a plane RS parallel to
NF be made to pafs, it will cut off the parallelepiped
ES equal to the prifm AGBC, becaufe its bafe is
equal to that of the prifm, and its altitude is the fame.
But the prifm AGBC is lefs than the cylinder ABCD,
and the cylinder ABCD is equal to the parallelopi-
ped EQ, by hypothefis; therefore, ES is lefs than E£),
and it is alfo greater, which is impoflible. The cy¬
linder ABCD therefore is not lefs than the parallele¬
piped EF; and in the fame manner it may be fhewn
not to be greater than EF, therefore they are equal.
Theorem III.
If a cone and cylinder have the fame bafe and the Fig. x«o(
fame altitude, the cone is the third part of the &
cylinder.
Let the cone ABCD, and the cylinder BFKG
have the fame bafe, viz. the circle BCD, and the fame
altitude, viz. the perpendicular from the point A upon
the plane BCD ; the cone ABCD is the third part
of the cylinder BFKG. If not, let the cone ABCD
be the third part of another cylinder LMNO having
the fame altitude with the cylinder BFKG; but let the
bafes BCD, LIM be unequal, and firft let BCD be
greater than LIM. Then, becaufe the circle BCD is
greater than the circle LIM, a polygon may be in-
feribed in BCD that {hall differ from it lefs than LIM
does, (1. cor. 2. 6.) and which therefore will be great¬
er than LIM. Let this be the polygon BECFD ,
and upon BECFD let there be conftituted the pyramid
ABECFD, and the prifm BCFKHG. Becaufe the
polygon BECFD is greater than the circle LIM, the
prifm BCFKHG is greater than the cylinder LMNO
for they have the fame altitude, but the prifm has the
greater bafe. But the pyramid ABECFD is the third
part of the prifin BCFHG (16. B.) ; therefore it is
greater
Sea. IX. G E O M
OfCylin- greater tlian the third part of the cylinder LMNO.
der% tones, jvjow cone ABECFD Is by hypothefis the third
-fhe part of the cylinder LMNO, therefore, the pyramid
. t)u”e' ABECFD is greater than the cone ABCD, and it is
alfo lefs, becaufe it is infcribed In the cone, which is
impoffible. Therefore the cone ABCD is not lefs
than the third part of the cylinder BFKG. And in
the fame manner, by circumfcribing a polygon about
the circle BCD, it may be fhewn, that the cone ABCD
is not greater than the third part of the cylinder BFKG ;
therefore, it is equal to the third part of the cylin¬
der.
Theorem IV.
Fig«i5t. If a hemifphere and cone have equal bafes and
altitudes, a feries of cylinders may be infcribed
in the hemifphere, and another feries may be cir-
cumfcribed about the cone, having all the fame
altitudes with one another, and fuch that their
fum fhall differ from the fum of the hemi¬
fphere and the cone by a folid, lefs than any
given folid.
Let ADB be a femicircle, of which the centre is C,
and let CD be at right angles to AB; let DB and DA
be fquares defcribed on DC, draw CE, and let the fi¬
gure thus conftruited revolve about DC: then the qua¬
drant BCD will defcribe a hemifphere having C for its
centre, and the triangle CDE will defcribe a cone
having its vertex at C, and having for its bafe the cir¬
cle defcribed by DE, equal to that defcribed by BC,
which is the bafe of the hemifphere. Let W be a
given folid, a feries of cylinders may be defcribed in
the hemifphere ADB, and another defcribed about the
cone EC I, fo that their fum fhall differ from the fum
of the hemifphere and cone, by a folid lefs than the
folid W.
Upon the bafe of the hemifphere let a cylinder be
eonftituted equal to W, and let its altitude be CX.
Divide CD into fuch a number of equal parts, that
each of them lhall be lefs than CX; let thefe be CH,
HG, GF and FD. Draw FN, GO, HP parallel to
CB, meeting the circle in K, L, and M, and the
flraight line CE in (,), R, and S. Draw Kyj hg, M/$,
perpendicular to GO, HP, and CB •, and draw Qq,
Rr, S r perpendicular to the fame lines. It is evident
that the figure being thus conftrufted, if the whole re¬
volve about CD, the rediangles Ff, Gg, HA will de¬
fcribe cylinders that will be circumfcribed by the hemi¬
fphere BDA j and that the redtangles DN, F y, G
H r will alfo defcribe cylinders that will circumfcribe
the cone ICE. Noxv it may be demonflrated, as was
done of the prifms infcribe'd in a pyramid (14. 8.), that
the hemifphere exceeds the fum of all the cylinders de¬
fcribed within it, by a folid lefs than the cylinder ge¬
nerated by the rediangle HB, that is, by a folid lefs
than W. In the fame manner it may be demonftrated,
that the fum of the cylinders circumfcribing the cone
ICE is greater than the cone by a folid lefs than the
cylinder generated by the redtangle DN, that is, by a
folid lefs than W. Therefore, fince the fum of the
cylinders infcribed in the hemifphere together with a
fblid lefs than W, is equal to the hemifphere; and
Vol. IX. Part II.
E T It Y. 66s
fince the fum of the cylinders defcribed about the cone Of Cylin-
is equal to the cone together wdth a folid lefs than W; der?» Ccncs»
adding equals to equals, the fum of all the cylinders Snlln-e"
together with a folid lefs than W is equal to the hemi- « t ‘ f
fphere and cone together with a folid lefs than W;
therefore, the difference between the wrhole of the cy¬
linders, and the fum of the hemifphere and the cone,
is equal to the difference of twTo folids, each of which
is lefs than W : but this difference muff alfo be lefs
than W; therefore the difference between the twro feries
of cylinders, and the fum of the hemifphere and cone
is lefs than the given folid W.
Theorem V.
The fame things being fuppofed as in lafl theorem, pj^ I5t,
the fum of all the cylinders infcribed in the he¬
mifphere, and defcribed about the cone, is equal
to a cylinder having the fame bafe and altitude
with the hemifphere.
For, the fame conftruftion being fuppofed as in laff
theorem, let L be the point in which GO meets the
circle ADB, then becaufe CGL is a right angle, if
CL be joined, the circles defcribed with the radii CG
and GL are equal to the circle defcribed with the ra¬
dius CL or GO (2. cor. 4. 6.). Now CG~GR, be¬
caufe CDnDE, therefore, the circles defcribed by the
revolution of the radii GR and GL about the point
G are together equal to the circle defcribed by the re¬
volution of the radius GO about the fame point G ;
therefore alfo the cylinders that Hand upon the two firlt
of thefe circles having the common altitude GH are e-
qual to the cylinder wdiich (lands upon the remaining
circle, and which has the fame altitude GH. The cy¬
linders defcribed by the revolution of the rectangles
G^ and G r are therefore equal to the cylinder de¬
fcribed by the reftangle GP. And as the fame may be
(hewm of all the reft, the cylinders defcribed by the
reftangles H/^, G^, Ff, and by the reCtangles Hr,
G r, F q, DN, are together equal to the cylinder de¬
fcribed by DB, that is, to the cylinder having the fame
bafe and altitude with the hemifphere.
Theorem VI.
Every fphere is two thirds of the circumfcribingFiS-
cylinder.
Let the figure be conftruCted as in the two lafl; the-
oiems, and if the hemifphere defcribed by the quadrant
BDC be not equal to two thirds of the cylinder defcribed
by the reCtangle BD, let it be greater by the folid W.
Then as the cone defcribed by CDE is one-third of the
cylinder defcribed by BD, the cone and the hemifphere
together will exceed the cylinder by W. But that cylin¬
der is equal to the fum of all the cylinders defcribed by
the reCIangle H A, Gg, Ff, H r, G r, Fy, DN; there¬
fore, the hemifphere and the cone added together ex¬
ceed the fum of all thefe cylinders by the folid W,
which is ablurd; for it has been (hewn (4.) that the he-
milphere and the cone together differ from the fum of
thefe cylinders by a lolid lefs than W. The hemifphere
is therefore equal to two thirds of the cylinder de-
4 P fcribed
666 G E O M
XtfCylin- fcribed by the re^angle ED 5 and therefore the whole
1 an^ ^?^ere ^wo thirds of the cylinder defcribed by twice
Spher e. the. yeftangle ED, that is to two thirds of the circum-
Up—fcribing cylinder.
E T R Y. Sea. IX.
We here conclude the Elements of Geometry . Their Of Cylin-
application, conllituting what is fometimes called ers> ^one5t
tical Geometry, will be given under the article Men- ftthe
SURATION. , SPhere- .
1
A T^ble fhewing the^Theorem of the foregoing Treatife, that correfponds to each of the mod ma.
terial Propofitions in the firfl fix, and in the eleventh and twelfth, books of Euclid's Elements.
GEO
George.. GEORGE I. II. and III. kings of Great Britain.
—George I. the fon of Erneft Auguftus, duke of
Brunfwick Lunenburgh, and cleftor of Hanover j fuc-
ceeded to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, in vir¬
tue of an act of parliament, paffed in the latter part
of the reign of King William III. limiting the fuccef-
fion of the crown, after the demife of that monarch,
and Queen Anne (without iffue), to the princefs Sophia
of Hanover, and the heirs of her body, being Prote-
ftants.—George II. the only fon of the former, fuc-
ceeded him in 17 27, and enjoyed a long reign of glory •
dying amidlt the molt rapid and extenfive conquelts in
the 77th year of his age. He was fucceeded by his
grandfon George III. our prefent fovereign. Eor par¬
ticulars, fee Britain, N° 374—701,
GEO
George, or Knights of St George, has been the de¬
nomination of feveral military orders, whereof that of ■
the garter is one of the mod illuftrious. See Garter,
and St George, below.
King George^s Iflands, are two iflands in the South
fea, lying in W. Long. 144. 56. S. Lat. 14. 28. They
wTere firft difcovered by Commodore Byron in 1765,
and have fince been vilited by Captain Cook in 1774.
Commodore Byron’s people had an encounter with the
inhabitants, which proved fatal to fome of the natives j
but Captain Cook was more fortunate. A lieutenant
and two boats well-armed were fent on ftiore by Cap¬
tain Cook j and landed without oppolition. As foon
as the gentlemen landed, the iflanders embraced them
by touching nofe£, a mode of civility ufed in New Zea¬
land,
Plnte ('(’ XI, ! .
,
J '
.
/
GEO [ 6(37 ] GEO
Gaorge. land, winch is 900 leagues diftant, and the only place
''“’’“'v ~ beddes this where the cuftom has been obferved to pre¬
vail. Notwithftanding this ; ceremony, however, very
little real friendfhip feemfd to take place on the part
of the iilanders. They crowded about the boats as the
people were ftepping into them, and feemed in doubt
whether they fhould detain them or let them go ; at laft,
however, not thinking themfelves futhciently itrong,
they feemed contented with their departure, and aflilled
them in puihing off their boats ; but fome of the moft
turbulent threw ftones into the wTater, which fell very
near them, and all feemed to glory that they had
as it were driven them off-. The Britilh brought, off
five dogs of a white colour with fine long hair, with
which the ifland leemed to be plentifully fupplied.
Thefe they purchafed with fmall nails, and fome ripe
bananas which had been brought from the Marquefas.
On this ifland Mr Forfter found a kind of fcurvy-
grafs, which the natives informed him they were wont
to bruife and mix with Ihell fifli j after which, they
threwT it into the fea whenever they perceived a Ihoal of
fifli. This preparation intoxicates them for fome time j
and thus they are caught on the furface of the water
without any other trouble than that of taking them
out. The name of this plant among the natives is
enow. The large!! ifland, which they call Tiookea, is
fomething of an oval fliape, and about xo leagues in
circuit j the other iiland, which lies twm leagues to the
wrefiward of Tiookea, is four leagues long from north-
eaft to fouth-weft, and from three to five miles broad.
The foil of both is extremely fcanty ; the foundation
confifls of coral, very little elevated above the furface
of the wTater.
George, St, or George of Cappadocia *, a name
whereby feveral orders, both military and religious, are
denominated. It took its rife from a faint or hero
famous throughout all the Eaft, called by the Greeks
MeyatAo/uetflvg, q. d. great martyr.
On fome medals of the emperors John and Manuel
Comneni, we have the figure of St George armed, hold¬
ing a fvvord or javelin in one hand, and in the other a
buckler, with this infcription j an O, and therein a little
P
A, and TE—FIOC, making O ATIOZ TEOPriOS, Oholy
o
George. He is generally reprefented on horfeback, as
being fuppofed to have frequently engaged in combats
in that manner. He is highly venerated throughout
Armenia, Mufcovy, and all the countries wfliich ad¬
here to the Greek rite : from the Greek, his worfhip
has long ago been received into the Latin church •, and
England and Portugal have both chofen him for their
patron faint.
Great difficulties have been raifed about this faint
or hero. His very exiftence has been called in quef-
tion. Dr Heylin, who wrote fir!! and moft about
him, concluded with giving him entirely up, and fup-
pofing him only a fymbolical device 5 and Dr Pet-
tingal has turned him into a mere Bafilidian fymbol of
* Vol. i. viclory. Mr Pegg, in a paper in the Arch&eologia *,
p. 1. has attempted to reftore him. And, finally, Mr Gib-
vo^'r" k°n ^ ^as ^unk him into an Arian bifliop in the reigns
p. 404. Conftantius nnd Julian.—The bifhop alluded to,
George the Cappadocian, was fo furnamed, according
to our author, from his parents or education 3 and was
born at Epiphania in Cilicia, in a fuller’s fliop. “ From George,
this obfcure and fervile origin he raifed himfelf by the
talents of a parafite : and the patrons, whom lie af-
fiduoufly flattered, procured for their worthlefs depen¬
dent a lucrative commiffion, or contract, to fupply
the army with bacon. His employment xvas mean :
he rendered it infamous. He accumulated wealth by
the bafeft arts of fraud and corruption ; but his mal-
verfations were fo notorious, that George vras com¬
pelled to efcape from the purfuits of juftice. After
this difgrace, in which he appears to have faved his
fortune at the expence of his honour, he embraced, with
real or affefted zeal, the profeffion of Arianifm. From
the love, or the oftentation, of learning, he colledled
a valuable library of hiftory, rhetoric, philofophy, and
theology 3 and the choice of the prevailing faftion pro¬
moted George of Cappadocia to the throne of Athana-
fius.” His conduft in this ftation is reprefented by
our hiftorian as polluted by cruelty and avarice, and
his death confidered as a juft puniftiment for the enor¬
mities of his life, among which Mr Gibbon feems to
rank his “ enmity to the gods.”
The immediate occasion of his death, however, as
narrated by ecclefiaftical writers, wall not probably ap¬
pear calculated to add any rtain to his memory.
“ There was in the city of Alexandria a place in wffiich
the heathen priefts had been ufed to offer human facri-
fices. This place, as being of no ufe, Conftantius gave
to the church of Alexandria, and George the bifhop
gave orders for it to be cleared, in order to build a
Chriftian church on the fpot. In doing this they dif-
covered an immenfe fubterraneous cavern, in which
the heathen myfteries had been performed, and in it
•were many human fkulls. Thefe, and other things
which they found in the place, the Chriftians brought
out and expofed to public ridicule. The heathens,
provoked at this exhibition, fuddenly took arms and
ruftiing upon the Chriftians, killed many of them with
fwords, clubs, and ftones: fome alfo they ftrangled,
and feveral they crucified. On this the Chriftians pro¬
ceeded no farther in clearing the temple 3 but the hea¬
thens, purfuing their advantage, feized the biftiop as
he was in the church, and put him in prifon. The
next day they defpatched him 3 and then faftening the
body to a camel, he was dragged about the ftreets all
day, and in the evening they burnt him and the
camel together. This fate^ Sozomen fays, the bi!hop
owed in part to his haughtinefs while he was in favour
with Conftantius, and fome fay the friends of Atha-
nafius were concerned in this maffacre 3 but he afcribes
it chiefly to the inveteracy of the heathens, whofe fuper-
ftitions he had been very adlive in abolifhing.
This George, the Arian bifliop of Alexandria,
was a man of letters, and had a very valuable library,
which Julian ordered to be feized for his own ufe 3
and in his orders concerning it, he fays that many of •
the books wrere on philofophical and rhetorical fub-
jedls, though many of them related to the dodlrine
of the impious Galileans (as in hi$ fneering contemp¬
tuous way he always affedled to call the Chriftians).
‘ Thefe books (fays he) I could wifh to have utterly
deflroyed 3 but left books of value ftiould be deftroy-
ed along with them, let thefe alfo be carefully fought
for.’
But Mr Gibbon gives a different turn to the affair
4 P X of.
GEO [ 668 j GEO
George. 0f George’s murder, as well as relates it with dif-
ferent circumilances. “ The Pagans (fays he) excited
his devout avarice ; and the rich temples of Alexandria
were either pillaged or infulted by the haughty pre¬
late, who exclaimed, in a loud and threatening tone,
‘ How long will thefe fepulchres be permitted to
Hand ?’ Under the reign of Conftantius, he was ex¬
pelled by the fury, or rather by the juiiice, of the
people : and it was not without a violent flruggle,
that the civil and military powers of the Hate could
reltore his authority, and gratify his revenge. The
meflenger who proclaimed at Alexandria the accelhon
of Julian, announced the downfal of the archbiHtop.
George, with two of his obfequious minifters, Count
Diodorus and Darcontius mailer of the mint, was
ignominioufly dragged in chains to the public prifon.
At the end of 24 days, the prifon was forced open by
the rage of a fuperflitious multitude, impatient of the
tedious forms of judicial proceedings. The e?ie?nies
gods and men expired under their cruel infults ; the
lifelefs bodies of the archbifliop and his aflbciates were
carried in triumph through the flreets on the back of a
camel j and the ina&ivity of the Athanafian party was
efleemed a fliining example of evangelical patience.
The remains of thefe guilty wretches were thrown
into the fea ; and the popular leaders of the tumult
declared their refolution to difappoint the devotion of
the ChriHians, and to intercept the future honours of
thefe martyrs, who had been puniHied, like their pre-
decefiors, by the enemies of their religion. The fears
of the Pagans were juft, and their precautions ineffec¬
tual. The meritorious death of the archbilhop obli¬
terated the memory of his life. The rival of Athana-
ftus was dear and facred to the Arians, and the feem-
ing converfion of thofe feftaries introduced his wor-
fliip into the bofom of the Catholic church. The
odious ftranger, difguifing every circumftance of time
and place, affumed the malk of a martyr, a faint, and
a Chriftian hero 5 and the infamous George of Cappa¬
docia has been transformed into the renowned St
George of England, the patron of arms, of chivalry,
and of the garfer.”
Knights of St Georgh. See Garter. There have
been various other orders under this denomination, moll
of which are now extindl j particularly one founded by
the emperor Frederic III. in the year 1470, to guard
the frontiers of Bohemia and Hungary againft the
Turks 5 another, called St George of Alfama, founded
by the kings of Arragon 5 another in Auftria and Ca-
rinthia ; and another in the republic of Genoa, ftill
fubfifting, &c.
Religious of St George. Of thefe there are di¬
vers orders and congregations ; particularly canons re¬
gular of St George in Alga, at Venice, eftablilhed by
authority of Pope Boniface IX. in the year 1404. The
foundation of this order was laid by Bartholomew Co-
lonna, who preached, in 1396, at Padua, and fome
other villages in the Hate of Venice. Pope Pius V.
in 1570, gave thefe canons precedence of all other re¬
ligious. Another songregation of the fame inftitute
in Sicily, &c.
St George del Mina, the capital of the Dutch
lettlements on the Gold coaft of Guinea, fituated fe-
■ven or eight miles weft of Cape-coaft caftle the capi¬
tal of the Britilh fettlements there. W. Long, f and George.
N. Lat. 5.0 ° * 
St George, a fort and town of Alia, in the penin-
fula on this fide the Ganges, and on the coaft of Coro¬
mandel, belonging to the Britilh ; it is otherwife call¬
ed Madras, and by the natives Chi/ipatam. It fronts
the fea, and has a fait water river on its back fide, which
hinders the frelh rvater fprings from coming near the
town, fo that they have no good w'ater within a mile
of them. In the rainy feafons it is incommoded by in¬
undations 5 and from April to September, it is fo fcorch-
ing hot, that if the fea breezes did not cool the air,
there would be no living there. There are two towns,
one of which is called the White Town, which is w alled
round, and has feveral bulwarks and baftions to defend
it : it is 400 paces long and 150 broad, and is divided
into regular ftreets. Here are two churches, one for
the Proteftants, and the other for the Papifts; as alfo
a good hofpital, a towrn hall, and a prifon for debtors.
They are a corporation, and have a mayor and aider-
men, wdth other proper officers. The Black Town is
inhabited by Gentoos, Mahometans, and Portuguefe
and Armenian Chriftians, and each religion has its
temples and churches. This, as well as the White
Town, is ruled by the Engliffi governor and his coun¬
cil. The diamond mines are but a week’s journey
from this place, which renders them pretty plentiful,
but there are no large ones fince that great diamond
was procured by Governor Pitt. This colony produces
very little of its own growth or manufacture for fo¬
reign markets, and the trade is in the hands of the Ar¬
menians and Gentoos. The chief things the Britiftr
deal in, befides diamonds, are calicoes, chintz, muf-
lins, and the like. This colony may confift: of 80,000
inhabitants in the towms and villages, and there are
generally 400 or 500 Europeans. Their rice is brought
by fea from Gangam and Orixa, their wffieat from Su¬
rat and Bengal, and their fire wood from the illands
of Diu $ fo that an enemy, with a fuperior force
at fea, may eafily diftrefs them. The houfes of the
White Town are built with brick, and have lofty
rooms and Hat roofs; but the Black Town confifts
chiefly of thatched cottages. The military power is
lodged in the governor and council, who are alfo the
laft refort in civil caufes. The Company have tw7o chap¬
lains, who officiate by turns, and have each look a-
year, befides the advantages of trade. They never at¬
tempt to make profelytes, but leave that to the Popifli
miffionaries. The falaries of the Company’s writers
are very fmall : but, if they have any fortune of their
own, they may make it up by trade 5 wffiich muft ge¬
nerally be the cafe, for they commonly grow rich. It
was taken by the French in 1746, who reftored it at
the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.
St George's, the largeft of the Bermuda or Summer
illands. W. Long. 65. 10. N. Lat. 32. 30.
Crofs of St George, a red one in a field argent,
which makes part of the Britifti ftandard.
George, a lake in Eaft Florida, alfo denomina¬
ted Great lake, about 15 miles broad, and 20 feet
deep. There are lome beautiful iflands in it, the
largeft of which is about two miles broad, commanding
a delightful and very extenfive profpefl. There are
manifeft traces of a large town of the Aborigines, and
GEO [ 669 ] GEO
George * tlie ifland itfelf appears to have been the favourite re-
town, fidence of an Indian prince. It lies to the 1’outh of Lake
Georgia. Champlain, and its waters lie about 100 feet higher.
It abounds with filhes of a luperior quality, fuch as the
Ofwego bafs, and fpeckled trouts of confiderable mag¬
nitude. The French at one period called it Lake Sa¬
crament, as they were at the trouble to bring from it
their water for facramental purpofes, to the churches
they had planted in Canada.
GEORGETOWN, the name of feveral towns in
America, fuch, for initance, as Georgetown in Mary¬
land, about 65 miles S. W. of Philadelphia *, George¬
town in the county of Lincoln, and diftridl of Maine,
lying on both Tides of Kennebeck river, 148 miles
S. W. of Philadelphia, where the Roman Catholics
have a very flourilhing college : it is the name of a
village in Fayette county, Pennfylvania, where a num-
^ her of boats are annually built; and of a poll town in
the diftrift of the fame name, where the Epifcopalians,
Baptills, and Methodifts, have each a place of worlhip,
although the number of houfes in it does not much
exceed 300, which are conftrufled chiefly of wood. It
lies 127 miles S. W. of Wilmington, and 681 from
Philadelphia.
GEORGIA, a country of Alia, bounded on the
north by Circaflia, on the eaft by Dagheftan and
Shirvan, on the fouth by Armenia, and on the weft
by the Euxine or Black fea j comprehending the
greatefl: part of the ancient Colchis, Iberia, and Alba¬
nia. About the etymon of the name of this country,
authors are not agreed. The moft probable opinion
is, that it is a corruption by foftening of Kurgia,
from the river Kur j whence alfo it is liippofed that
the inhabitants are called by the Perfians indifferently
Gurgi and Kurgi; and the country Kurgijlan and Gur-
giftan : It is divided by a ridge of mountains into eaft-
ern and weftern ; the former of which is again fubdi-
vided into the kingdoms of Caket, Carduel or Car-
thuel, and Goguetia ; and the latter into the provin¬
ces of Abcaflia, Mireta or Imeretia, and Guriel. Ano¬
ther divifion is into Georgia Proper, Abcaflia, and
Mingrelia. A third divifion will be afterwards men¬
tioned.
“ Georgia (fays Sir George Chardin) is as fertile a
country as can be feen j the bread is as good here as
in any part of the world ; the fruit of an exquifite fla¬
vour, and of different forts : no place in Europe yields
better pears and apples, and no place in Alia better
pomegranates. The country abounds with cattle, ve-
nifon, and wild fowl, of all forts j the river Kur is well
flocked with fifli; and the wine is fo rich, that the king
of Perfia has always fome of it for his own table. The
inhabitants are robuft, valiant and of a jovial temper j
great lovers of wine, and efteemed very trufty and
faithful ; endowed with good natural parts, but, for
want of education, very vicious. The wromen are ge¬
nerally fo fair and comely, that the waves and concu¬
bines of the king of Perfia and his court are for the
moil part Georgian women. Nature has adorned them
with graces nowhere elfe to be met with : it is im-
poflible to fee them without loving them 5 they are of
a good fize, clean limbed, and well lhaped. Another
traveller, however, of no mean character, thus expreffes
himfelf with refpedt to the women : “ As to the Geor¬
gian women, they did not at all furprife us.) for we
expefted to find them perfedl beauties. They are, in¬
deed no way dilagreeable 5- and may be counted beau¬
ties, if compared with the Curdes. They have an air
of health that is pleafing enough j but, after all, they
are neither fo handfome nor lo wrell fhaped as is re¬
ported. Thofe wFo live in the towns have nothing
extraordinary more than the others) fo that I may, I
think, venture to contradift the accounts that have
been given of them by moft travellers.”
This country formerly abounded with great cities, as
appears not only from its hiftory, but from the ruins of
many of them ftill vifible, which ftiow that they muff
have been very large, opulent, and magnificently built.
Thefe were all deftroyed by the inundations of northern
barbarians from Mount Caucafus, as the Alans, Huns,
Suevi, and fome others, fo much noted in hiffory for
their (Length, courage, and conquefts.
The lateff divifion of this country is into nine pro¬
vinces ) five of which are fubjedl to the famous prince
Heraclius, forming what is commonly called the king¬
dom of Georgia) and four are under the dominion of
David, compofing the kingdom or principality of Ime¬
retia. See Imeretia.
This wFole country is fo extremely beautiful, that
fome fanciful travellers have imagined they had here
found the fituation of the original garden of Eden.-
The hills are covered with forefts of oak, afh, beech,
chefnuts, wralnuts, and elms, encircled with vines,
growdng perfeflly wild, but producing vafl: quantities
of grapes. From thefe is annually made as much wine
as is neceffary for the yearly confumption ) the re¬
mainder is left to rot on the vines. Cotton grows
fpontaneoufly, as well as the fined: European fruit
trees. Rice, wheat, millet, hemp, and flax, are raifed
on the plains, almoft without culture. The valleys
afford the fined padurage in the world ) the rivers are
full of fi(h) the mountains abound in minerals, and the
climate is delicious) fo that nature appears to have la-
viflred on this favourite country every production that
can contribute to the happinefs of its inhabitants.
On the other hand, the rivers of Georgia, being fed by
mountain torrents, are at all feafons either too rapid or
too (hallow for the purpofes of navigation : the Black
fea, by which commerce and civilization might be in¬
troduced from Europe, has been till very lately in the
exclufive poffeflion of the Turks : the trade of Geor¬
gia by land is greatly obdrufted by the high moun¬
tains of Caucafus) and this obdacle is dill increafed
by the fwarms of predatory nations, by which thofe
mountains are inhabited.
It is faid, that in the 15th century, a king of Geor¬
gia divided among his five fons the provinces of Car-
duel and Caket, Imeretia, Mingrelia, Guriel, and
Abcaflia. Thefe petty princes were too jealous to
unite for their common defence, and too weak fingly
to refid a foreign enemy, or even to check the en¬
croachments of their great vaffals, who foon became
independent. By forming a party among thefe nobles,
the Turks" gradually gained poffeflion of all the weit-
ern provinces, while the Periians occupied the govern¬
ments of Carduel and Caket. Since that period the
many unfuccefsful attempts o the Georgians to reco¬
ver their liberty have repeatedly produced the devaf-
tation ot their country. Abbas the Great is lard to
have carried off in one expedition from the provinces
of
Georgia.
a E O [ 67° 1 GEO
Georgia, of Carduel and Caket no lefs than 80,OOO families j a
number which, probably, exceeds the whole aftual po¬
pulation of thofe provinces. The moft horrible cruel¬
ties were again exercifed on the unhappy people, at
the beginning of the prefent century, by the mercilefs
Nadir • but thefe were trilling evils, compared with
thofe arifing from the internal diffenlions of the great
batons. This numerous body of men, idle, arrogant,
and ferocious, pofleffed of an unlimited power over the
lives and properties of their vaffals, having no employ¬
ment but that of arms, and no hopes of aggrandizing
themfelves but by the plunder of their rivals* were
conftantly in a date of warfare ; and as their fuccefs
was various, and the pealants of the vanquilhed were
conftantly carried off and fold to the Turks or Per-
fians, every expedition increafed the depopulation of
the country. At length they invited the neighbour¬
ing mountaineers, by the hopes of plunder, to take
part in their quarrels; and thefe dangerous allies, be¬
coming acquainted with the country, and being fpec-
tators of the weaknefs of its inhabitants, foon com¬
pleted its defolation. A few fqualid wretches, half
naked, half flarved, and driven to defpair by the mer¬
cilefs exaftions of their landlords, are thinly difperfed
over the moft beautiful provinces of Georgia. The
revolutions of Perfta, and the wreaknefs of the Turks,
have indeed enabled the princes of the country to re¬
cover their independence ; but the fmallnefs of their
revenue has hitherto difabled them from reprefting ef¬
fectually the tyranny of the nobles, and relieving the
burdens of the peafants.
The capital of Georgia is Teflis, where Prince He-
*aclius refides (See Teflis.) Of this prince, fo
celebrated for his exploits and fuccefs in lhaking off
the Ottoman yoke, we have the following account by
the late Profeffor Guldenftaedt when he travelled into
thefe parts in 1770. “ Heraclius, or, as he is called,
the Tzar Iracli, is above 60 years old, of a middle
fize, wdth a long countenance, a dark complexion,
large eyes, and a Imall beard. He paffed his youth-at
the court and in the army of the celebrated Nadir
Shah, where he contradled a fondnefs for Perfian cu-
ftoms and manners, which he has introduced into his
kingdom. He has feven fons and fix daughters. He
is much revered and dreaded by the Perfian khans
his neighbours; and is ufually chofen to mediate be¬
tween them in their difputes with each other. When
they are at war, he fupports one of the parties with a
tew troops, who diffufe a fpirit and courage among the
reft, becaufe the Georgian foldiers are efteemed the
braveft of thofe parts j and Prince Heraclius himfelf is
renowned for his courage and military {kill. When
on horfeback he has always a pair of loaded piftols at
his girdle, and, if the enemy is near, a mulket flung
over his ftioulder. In all engagements he is the fore-
moft to give examples of perfonal bravery ; and fre¬
quently charges the enemy at the head of his troops
with the fabre in his hand. He loves pomp and ex¬
pence j he has adopted the drefs of Perfta ; and regu¬
lates his court after the manner of that country. From
the example of the Puffian troops, who were quartered
in Georgia during the laft Turkifti war, he has learnt
the ufe of plates, knives, and forks, dilhes and houfe-
liold furniture, &c.”
The fubje&s of Heraclius are eftimated at about
3
60,000 families 5 but this, notwithftanding the prefent Georgia,
desolated ftate of the country, is probably an under —v~“
valuation, ihe peafants belonging to the queen, and
thofe of the patriarch, pay no tax to the prince, and
therefore do not appear on the books of the revenue
officers. Many fimilar exemptions have like wife been
granted by the prince to his fons-in-law, and his fa¬
vourites. Iodides, as the impoft on the peafants is not
a poll-tax, but a tax on hearths, the inhabitants of a
village, on the approach of the colle&ors, frequently
carry the furniture of feveral huts into one, and deftroy
the remainder, which are afterwards very eaftly repla¬
ced. It is probable, therefore, that the population of
Georgia does not fall fliort of 350,000 fouls. The
revenues may be eftimated at about 150,000 rubles,
or 26,250!. I hey conftft of, 1. The cuftoms, farmed
at 1750I.—2. Rent paid by the farmers of the mint,
at,Teflis, 1750I.—3. The tribute paid by the khans
of Erivan and Ganftia, 7000I.—and, 4. The hearth
money levied on the peafants, amounting to 15,7501.
Ihe common coins here are the abaffes, of about i5d.
value, and a fmall copper coin, ftamped at the mint at
Teflis. Befides thefe, a large quantity of gold and fil-
ver money is brought into the country from Perfia
and Turkey, in exchange for honey, butter, cattle,
and blue linens.
The government of Georgia is defpotic j but, were it
not for the affiftance of the Ruffian troops, the prince
would be frequently unable to carry his decrees into
execution. The puniffiments in criminal cafes are
Shockingly cruel 5 fortunately they are not frequent,
becaufe it is feldom difficult to efcape into fome of the
neighbouring countries, and becaufe the prince is more
enriched by confifcating the property of the criminal,
than by putting him to torture. Judicial combats are
confidered as the privilege of nobility, and take place
when the caufe is extremely intricate, or when the
power and intereft of two claimants are fo equal, that
neither can force a decifion of the court in his favour.
This mode of trial is called an appeal to the judgment
of God.
The drefs of the Georgians nearly refembles that of
the Coffacks ; but men of rank frequently wear the ha¬
bit of Perfia. T hey ufually dye their hair, beard, and
nails with red. The Georgian women employ the
fame colour to {lain the palms of their hands. On
their heads they wear a cap or fillet, under which their
black hair falls on their forehead : behind, it is braid¬
ed into feveral treffes. Their eyebrows are painted
with black, in fuch a manner as to form one entire line,
and their faces are perfeftly coated with white and
red. Their robe is open to the girdle, fo that they
are reduced to conceal their brearts with their hands.
1 heir air and manner are extremely voluptuous. Be-
ing generally educated in convents, they can all read
and write; a qualification which is very unufual among
the men, even of the higheft rank. Girls are be¬
trothed as foon as poffible, often at three or four years
of age. In the ftreets the women of rank are always
veiled, and then it is indecent in any man to accoft:
them. It is likewife uncivil in converfation to inquire
after the wives of any of the company. Thefe, how¬
ever, are not ancient cuftoms, but are a confequence of
the violences committed by the Perfians, under Shah
Nadir.
Travellers
GEO
Georgia.
Travellers accufe the Georgians of drunkennefs, fu-
penlition, cruelty, lloth, avarice, and cowardice } vices
which are everywhere common to flaves and tyrants,
and are by no means peculiar to the natives of this
country. The defcendants of the colcnifls, carried off
by Shah Abbas, and fettled at Peria, near Ifpahan,
and in Mafanderan, have changed their character with
their government j and the Georgian troops, employed
[ 671 ]
GEO
they accordingly began and built a fmall fort, and a Georgia,
number of fmall huts for their defence and accommoda- ■—y—-
tion. Such of the fettlers as were able to bear arms were
embodied, and well appointed with officers, arms
and ammunition. A treaty of friendffiip was con¬
cluded between the fettlers and their neighbours the
Creek Indians, and every thing wore the afpedt of
peace and future profperity. But the fundamental
. - • ri i a rr i ^ r ’ r--/— r   . ajut me lunaamentai
in Periia agamit the Affghans, were advantageoufly di- regulations eftabliffied by the truftees of Georgia were
itingUlihed DV their docility, their Hifrinlme anrl ill  Jl  1 r'. • 6 ^ .
ftinguiffied by their docility, their difcipline, and their
courage.
The other inhabitants of Georgia are Tartars, Offi,
and Armenians, called in the Georgian language So-
makhi. Thefe latl are found all over Georgia, fome-
times mixed with the natives, and fometimes in vil¬
lages of their own. They fpeak among themfelves
their own language, but all underhand and can talk
the Georgian. Their religion is partly the Armenian,
and partly the Roman Catholic. They are the moft
oppreifed of the inhabitants, but are Hill diftinguifhed
by that inflindfive induftry which everywhere charac¬
terizes the nation.
Be/ides thefe, there are in Georgia confrderable num¬
bers of Jews, called, in the language of the country,
Uria. Some have villages of their own } and others
are mixed with the Georgian, Armenian, and Tartar
inhabitants, but never with the Offi. They pay a fmall
tribute above that of the natives.
Georgia, one of the United States of America,
lying between South Carolina and Florida. It ex¬
tends 120 miles upon the fea-coaft, and 300 miles
irom thence to the Apalachian mountains, and its
boundaries to the north and fouth are the rivers Sa¬
vannah and Alatamaha. The whole coaft is bordered
with iflands •, the principal of which are Skidaway,
Waffaw, Offabaw, St Catherine’s, Sapelo, Frederica,
Jekyl, Cumberland, and Amelia.
The fettlement of a colony between the rivers Sa¬
vannah and Alatamaha was meditated in England in
2732> the accommodation of poor people in Great
Britain and Ireland, and for the further fecurity of
Carolina. Private compaffion and public fpirit con-
fpired to promote the benevolent defign. Humane
and opulent men fuggefted a plan of tranfporting a
number of indigent families to this part of America
free of expence. For this purpoie they applied to
tne king, George II. and obtained from him letters pa¬
tent, bearing date June 9. 1732, for legally carrying
into execution what they had generouily proje&ed.
They called the new province Gejigia, in honour of
who encouraged the plan. A corporation,
confiding of 21 perfons-, was conllituted by the name
of, The Truftees for fettling and eftabliffiing the colo¬
ny of Georgia.
_ 1° November 1732, 116 fettlers embarked for Geor¬
gia to be conveyed thither free of expence, furniffied
with every thing requifite for building and for culti-
ating the foil. Mr James Oglethorpe, one of the
'ruftees, and an aflive promoter of the fettlement, em¬
barked as the head and direftor of thefe fettlers.
i hey arrived at Charleftown early in the next year.
Mr Oglethorpe, accompanied by William Bull, fhortly
aAei his arrival, vifited Georgia ; and after furveying
the country, marked the fpot on which Savannah now
Hands, as tne fitteft to begin thexr fettlement. Here
ill adapted to the circumftances and fituation of the
poor fettlers, and of pernicious eonfequences to the
profperity of the province. Yet although the truftees
were greatly miftaken with refpeft to their plan of
fettlement, it muft be acknowledged their views were
generous. Like other diftant legillators, who framed
their regulations upon principles of fpeculation, they
were liable to many errors and miftakes ; and however
good their defign, their rules were found improper and
imprafticable. Thefe injudicious regulations and re-
ftri&ions, the wars in which they were involved with
the Spaniards and Indians, and the frequent infurrec-
tions among themfelves, threw the colony into a ftate
of confufion and wretchednefs too great for human
nature long to endure. Their opprelfed fituation was
reprefented to the truftees by repeated complaints ; till
at length finding that the province languiffied under
their care, and weary with the complaints of the
people, they in the jear 1752 furrendered their charter
to the king, and it was made a royal government.
—In the year 1740, the Rev. George Whitefield
founded an orphan houfe academy in Georgia about
I 2 miles from Savannah. Mr Whitefield died at New¬
bury port, in New England, in Odtober 1770, in the
56th year of his age, and was buried under the Pref-
byterian church in that place. From the time Geor¬
gia became a royal government in 1752 till the peace
of Paris in 1763, ftie ftruggled under many difficulties,
arifing from the want of credit and friends, and the
frequent moleftations of enemies. The good effefts of
the peace were fenfibly felt in the province of Georgia..
From this time it began to flouriffi under the fatherly
care of Governor Wright. To form a judgment of the
rapid growth of the colony, we need only attend to
its exports. ^ In the year 1763, they confifted of 7500
barrels of rice, 9633 pounds of indigo, 1 250 buftiels of
Indian corn, which, together with deer and beaver
fkins, naval ftores, provifions, timber, &c. amounted to
no more than 27,021k fterling. Ten years after¬
wards, in 1773, they amounted to 121,677k fterling.
The chief articles of export from this ftate are, rice,
tobacco, indigo, fago, lumber of various kinds, naval
ftores, leather, deer fkins, fnake-root, myrtle, bees wax,
corn, live ftock, &c.
During the American war, Georgia was overrun by
the Britiffi troops, and the inhabitants were obliged to
Hee to the neighbouring ftates for fafety. Since the
peace the progrefs of the population of this ftate is faid
to have been aftonifhingly rapid ; though it has been a
good deal checked within thele few years by the hoitile
irruptions of the Creek Indians, who continually harafs
tue frontiers of the ftate. Treaties have been held, and
a ceflation of hoftilities agreed to, between the parties,.
but all have hitherto proved ineffedlual to the accom-
pliffiment of a peace.
Ihefe Indians inhabit the middle parts of the ftate,
and.
GEO [ 672 ] GEO
a*id are the moft numerous tribe of Indians of any
within the limits of the United States. Their whole
number is 17,280, of wTich 5860 are fighting men.
Their principal towns lie in latitude 3 2° and longitude
ii° 20' from Philadelphia. They are fettled in a hilly
but not mountainous country. The foil is fruitful in
a high degree, and wrell watered, abounding in creeks
and rivulets, whence they are called the Creeh In¬
dians. The Seminolas, a divifion of the Creek na¬
tion inhabit a level fiat country on the Apalachicola
and Flint rivers, fertile and well watered. The Chac-
taws or Flatheads inhabit a very fine and extenfive traft
of hilly country, with large and fertile plains inter¬
vening, between the Alabama and Miflifiippi rivers, in
the w'efiern part of this flate. This nation have
43 towns and villages, in three divifions, containing
1.2,123 fouls, of which 4041 are fighting men. The
Chicalaws are fettled on the head branches of the Tom-
beckbe, Mobile, and Yazoo rivers, in the north-weft;
corner of the ftate. Their country is an extenfive
plain, tolerably wTell watered from fprings, and of a
pretty good foil. They have 7 towns, the central
one of which is in latitude 340 23', and longitude 140
30' weft. The number of fouls in this nation, have
been reckoned at 1725, of which 575 are fighting
men.
That part of Georgia which has been laid out in
counties is divided into the following, viz. Chatham,
Effingham, Burke, Richmond, Wilkes, Liberty, Glynn,
Camden, Walhington, Greene, Franklin j and the chief
towns are, Savannah, Ebenezer, Wayneffiorough and
Louifville, Augufta, Walhington, Sunbury, Brunfwick,
St Patrick’s, Golphinton, Greenfburg.—Savannah was
formerly the capital, and is itill the largeft town (fee
Savannah). But the prefent feat of government in
this ftate is Augujia, lituated on the fouth-weft bank of
Savannah river, about 134 miles from the fea, and 117
north-weft of Savannah. The town, which contains
not far from 200 houfes, is on a fine large plain ; and
as it enjoys the belt foil, and the advantage of a cen¬
tral fituation between the upper and lower countries,
is riling fait into importance. Louifville, however, is
ciefigned as the future feat of government in this ftate.
It has lately been laid out on the bank of Ogeechee
uiver, about 70 miles from its mouth, but is not yet
built.
Savannah river forms a part of the divifional line
which leparates this ftate from South Carolina. It
is formed principally of two branches, by the names of
Tagulo and Keowee, which fpring from the mountains.
Ogeechee river, about 18 miles fouth of the Savannah,
is a fmaller river, and nearly parallel wdth it in its
courfe. Alatamaha, about 60 miles fouth of Savannah
river, is formed by the junftion of the Okonee and
Okemulgee branches. It is a noble river, but of dif¬
ficult entrance. Like the Nile, it difcharges itfelf by
feveral mouths into the fea. Befides thefe, there is
Turtle river, Little Sitilla, Great Sitilla, Crooked ri¬
ver, and St Mary’s, which form a part of the fouthern
boundary of the United States. The rivers in the
middle and weftern parts of this ftate are the Apalachi¬
cola, which is formed by the Chatahouchee and Flint
rivers, Mobile, Pafcagoula, and Pearl rivers. All
thefe running fouthwardly, empty into the gulf of
Mexico.
In the grand convention at Philadelphia in 1787, Gcorgi
the inhabitants of this ftate were reckoned at 90,000,
including three-fifths of 20,000 negroes. Buc from
the number of the militia, which has been afcertained
with a confiderable degree, of accuracy, there cannot
be at moft more than half that number. No general
character will apply to the inhabitants at large. Col-
leifted from different parts of the world, as intereft, ne-
ceffity, or inclination led them, their character and
manners muft of courfe partake of all the varieties
which diftinguiffi the feveral ftates and kingdoms from
whence they came. There is fo little uniformity, that
it is difficult to trace any governing principles among
them. An averfion to labour is too predominant, ow¬
ing in part to the relaxing heat of the climate, and
partly to the want of neceftity to excite induftry. An
open and friendly hofpitality, particularly to ftrangers,
is an ornamental charadleriftic of a great part of this
people.
In regard to religion, politics, and literature, this
ftate is yet in its infancy. In Savannah is an Epifco-
pal church, a Prefbyterian church, a fynagogue, and a
German Lutheran church, fupplied occafionally by a
German minifter from Ebenezer, where there is a large
convenient ftone church, and a fettlement of fober in-
duftrious Germans of the Lutheran religion. In Au¬
gufta they have an Epifcopal church. In Midway is
a fociety of Chriftians eftabliflred on the congrega¬
tional plan. Their anceftors emigrated in a colony
from Dorchefter, near Bofton, about the year 1700^
and fettled at a place named Dorchefter, about 2C miles
fouth-weft of Charleftown, South Carolina. In 1752,
for the fake of a better climate and more land, almoft
the whole fociety removed and fettled at Midway.—
They, as a people, retain in a great meafure that lim-
plicity of manners, that unaffedted piety and brotherly
love, which charadlerized their anceftors, the firft fet^
tiers of New England. The upper countries are fup¬
plied pretty generally by Baptift and Methodift mini-
fters} but the greater part of the ftate is without mini-
fters of any denomination.
The numerous defedfs in the late conftitution of
this ftate, induced the citizens pretty univerfally to
petition for a revifion of it. It was accordingly re-
vifed, or rather a new one was formed, in the courfe
of the year 1789, nearly upon the plan of the confti-
tution of the United States, wffiich has lately been
adopted by the ftate.
The charter containing the prefent fyftem of edu¬
cation in this ftate was paffed in the year 1785. A
college, wdth ample and liberal endowments, is infti-
tuted in Louifville, a high and healthy part of the
country, near the centre of the ftate. There is alfo
provifion made for the inftitution of an academy in
each county in the liate, to be fupported from the
fame funds, and confidered as parts and members of
the fame inftitution, under the general fuperintendance
and diredlion of a prelident and board of truftees, ap¬
pointed for their literary accompliftiments from the
different parts of the ftate, and invefted with the cu-
ftomary powers of corporations. The inftitution thus
compofed is denominated the nmverfity of Georgia.—
The funds for the fupport of this inftitution are prin¬
cipally in lands, amounting in the whole to about
50,000 acres, a great part of which is of the beft qua-
3
G E R [ 673 ] G E R
Georgia iity, and at prefent very valuable. There are alfo
II . nearly 6000I. fterling in bonds, hcufes, and town lots
Oerarde. t^e town Augufta. Other public property to
the amount of 1000I. in each" county has been fet a-
part for the purpofes of building and furnilhing their
refpective academies. The funds originally defigned
for the fupport of the orphan houfe are chiefly in rice
plantations and negroes.
Georgia, a townfhip in the county of Franklin, con¬
taining about 400 inhabitants. It is fituated on Lake
Champlain, oppoflte to the north end of South Hero
ifland.
Georgia, a clufter of barren iflands in the South
fea, to the eaftward of the coaft of Terra del Fuego,
in lat. 540 35' S. and long. 36° 30' W. One of thefe
iflands is from 150 to 180 miles in length.
GEORGIC, a poetical compofltion upon the fub-
jeft of hufbandry, containing rules therein, put into a
pleafing drefs, and fet off with all the beauties and em-
belliffiments of poetry. The word is borrowed from
the Latin georgicus, and that of the Greek ytu^/txo?,
of ytf, terra, “ earth,” and i^yx^opxi, opera, “ I work,
or labour,” of opus, “ work.” Heflod and Virgil
are the two greatelt mafters in this kind of poetry.—
The moderns have produced nothing in this kind, ex¬
cept Rapin’s book of Gardening j and the celebrated
poem entitled Cyder, by Mr Philips, who, if he had
enjoyed the advantage of Virgil’s language, would have
been fecond to Virgil in a much nearer degree.
Georgium Sidtis. See Astronomy Index.
GEPIDAL, Gepides, or Gepidi, in Ancietit Geo¬
graphy, according to Procopius, were a Gothic people,
or a canton or branch of them ; fome of whom, in the
migration of the Goths, fettled in an ifland at the mouth
of the Viftula, which they called Gepidos after their
own name, which denotes lazy or flothful; others in
Dacia, calling their fettlement there Gepidia.
GERANIUM, crane’s bill, in Botany, a genus
of plants belonging to the monadelphia clafs ; and in
the natural method ranking under the 14th order,
Gruinales. See Botany Index.
GERAR, or Gerara, in Ancient Geography, the
fouth boundary of Canaan near Berfeba ; fituated be¬
tween Cades and Sur; two deferts well known, the
former facing Egypt, the latter Arabia Petraea.
GERARDE, John, a furgeon in London, and
the greateft botanift of his time, was many years chief
gardener to Lord Burleigh 5 who wras himfelf a great
lover of plants, and had the beft colle&ion of any
nobleman in the kingdom, among which were a great
number of exotics introduced by Gerarde. In 1597
he publiffied his Herbal, which was printed at the ex¬
pence of J. Norton, who procured from Francfort the
fame blocks in wood as wrere ufed in the herbal of Ta-
bernsemontanus. In 1663, Thomas Johnfon, an apo-
thecarv, publilhed an improved edition of Gerarde s
book { which met with fuch approbation by the univer-
fity of Oxford, that they conferred on him the degree
ofdo'Sor of phyfic. The defcriptions in the herbal are
plain and familiar 5 and both thefe authors have labour¬
ed more to make their readers underftand the charac¬
ters of the plants, than to inform them ^ that they
themfelves underftood Greek and Latin. The herbal
of Gerarde is now to be confidered only as a literary
curiofity. The figures in general exprefs very ac-
Vol. IX. Part II.
curately the characters of the plants they are intended Gerardia
to reprefent. !i
GERARDIA, a genus of plants belonging to the Gen-iai-)r,<
didynamia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 40th order, Perfonatce. See Botany Index.
GERFALCON. See Falco, Ornithology In¬
dex.
GERGESA, in Ancient Geography, a Transjordan
town, no otherwife known than by the Gergefeni of St
Matthew, and Gergefcei of Mofes •, fuppofed to have
flood in the neighbourhood of Gadara and near the fea
of Tiberias. The Gergefcei, one of the feven ancient
people of Canaan, lefs frequently mentioned than the
reft, appear to have been lefs confiderable and more
obfcure : their name is from Girgaf, one of Canaan’s
Tons. See Girgashites.
GERIZIM. See Garizim.
GERM, in vegetation. See Germen.
GERMAN, in matters of genealogy, fignifies whole,
entire, or own. Germani, quaji eadem Jlirpe geniti;
(Fell.) Hence,
Brother German, denotes a brother both by the
father’s and mother’s fide, in contradiffin&ion to ute¬
rine brothers, &c. who are only fo by the mother’s
fide.
Coufins German, are thofe in the firft or neareft de¬
gree, being the children of brothers or fillers.
Among the Romans we have no inftance of mar¬
riage between coufins german before the time of the
emperor Claudius, when they were very frequent.
Theodofius prohibited them under very fevere penal¬
ties, even fine and profcription. See Consanguinity.
German, or Germanic, alfo denotes any thing be¬
longing to Germany ; as the German empire, German
flute, &c.
GERMANDER. See Teucrium, Botany Index.
GERM A NIC US Gesar, the fon of Drufus, and
paternal nephew to the emperor Tiberius, who adopted
him; a renowned general, but ftill more illuftrious for
his virtues. He took the title of Germanicus from his
conquefts in that country j and though he had the mo¬
deration to refufe the empire offered to him by his
army, Tiberius, jealous of his fuccefs, and of the uni-
verfal efteem he acquired, caufed him to be poifoned,
A. D. 29, aged 34. He was a proteClor of learning j
and compofed fome Greek comedies and Latin poems,
fome of which are ftill extant.
GERMANTOWN, in the county of Philadelphia,
Pennfylvania, in North America, about feven miles from
the city of Philadelphia. It was once effeemed the fe¬
cond town in the country, till many inland towns in
a ftiort time rofe fijperior to it, both for the extent
of their eftablilhrnents and number of inhabitants.
The knitting of cotton, thread, and worfted dockings,
is carried on in it to a confiderable extent. The prin¬
cipal congregation of the people called Mennonifts is
in Germantown, who derive their name from one Men*
no Simon, a learned man of Witmars in Germany.
Although inimical to the dodlrine of general falvation,
they will not Iwear, fight, bear any civil office, go to
law, or take intereft for money. Germantown is alfo
memorable for a bloody battle wThich was fought in it
on the 4th of OHober, 1777.
GERMANY, a very extenfive empire of Europe,
but which, in different ages of the wmrld, has had
4 Q. very
G E R [ 674 ] G E R
ccordlng to the moft low it on the banks of the Danube were the kingdoms Germany.
of Noricum and Pannonia. The firft of thefe was di- 
vided into Noricum Rlpenfe and Mediterraneum. It
contained a great part of the provinces of Auftria,
Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, Bavaria, and feme others
ot lefs note. I he latter contained the kingdom of
Hungary, divided into Upper and Lower; and ex¬
tending from lllyricum to the Danube, and the moun¬
tains Caetii in the neighbourhood of Vindebona, now
V.'cnna. ^
Upper or High Germany lay beyond the Rhine and Nations iu-
the Danube. Between the Rhine and the Elbe were
Limits of
ancient
Germany
Germany, very different limits. Its name, o
probable conjecture, is derived from the Celtic words
Ghar man, Signifying a warlike man, to which their
other name, Allman, or Aleman, like wife alludes.
The ancient hiftory of the Germans is altogether
wrapped up in obfeurity; nor do we, for many ages,
know any thing more of them than what may be learn¬
ed from the hiifory of their wars with the Romans.
The firlf time we find them mentioned by the Roman
hiltorians, is about the year 211 B. C. at which time
Marcellus fubdued Infubria and Liguria, and defeated
the Gsefatae, a German nation fituated on the banks
of the Rhine. From this time hiflory is filent with
regard to any of thefe northern nations, till the irrup¬
tion of the Cimbri and Teutones, who inhabited the
mod northerly parts of Germany. The event of their
enterprife is related under the articles Ambrones,
Cimbri, and Teutones. We muft not, however,
imagine, becaufe thefe people happened to invade
Italy at the fame time, that therefore their countries
were contiguous to one another. The Cimbri and
Teutones only dwelt beyond the Rhine; while the
Ambrones inhabited the country between Switzerland
and Provence. It is indeed very difficult to fix the li¬
mits of the country called Germany by the Romans.
The fouthern Germans were intermixed with the Gauls,
and the northern ones with the Scythians ; and thus
the ancient hiflory of the Germans includes that of the
Dacians, Huns, Goths, &c. till the deftruClion of
the wredern Roman empire by them. Ancient Ger¬
many, therefore, we may reckon to have included the
northern part of France, the Netherlands, Holland,
Germany fo called at prefent, Denmark, Pruffia, Po¬
land, Hungary, part of Turkey in Europe, and Muf-
covy.
The Romans divided Germany into two regions ;
Belgic or Low er Germany, which lay to the fouth-
ward of the Rhine ; and Germany Proper, or High
Germany. The firft lay between the rivers Seine and
the Rhine; and in this we find a number of different
nations, the moft remarkable of which were the fol¬
lowing.
1. The Ubii, whofe territory lay between the Rhine
and the Mofa or Maefe, and whofe capital was the ci¬
ty of Cologne. 2. Next to them were the Tungri,
fuppofed to be the fame whom Caefar calls Eburones and
Condruji; and whofe metropolis, then called Attuatica,
has fmee been named Tongres. 3. Higher up from
them, and on the other fide of the Mofelle, were the
Ireviri, whofe capital was Augufta Trevirorum, now
Triers. 4. Next to them were the Tribocci, Nemetes,
and Vangiones. The former dwelt in Alface, and had
Argentoratum, now Sira/burg, for their capital; the
others inhabited the cities of Worms, Spire, and
Mentz. 5. The Mediomatrici were fituated along the
Mofelle, about the city of Metz in Lorrain : and above
them were fituated another German nation, named
Raurici, Rauraci, or Rauriaci, and who inhabited that
part of Helvetia, or Switzerland, about Bafil. To the
weftward and fouthward of thefe were the Nervii, Suef-
liones, Silvane&es, Leuci, Rhemi, Lingones, &c. who
inhabited Belgic Gaul.
Between the heads of the Rhine and Danube was
feated the ancient kingdom of Vindelicia, whofe cani-
tal was called Augujla Vindelicorum, now Augsburg. Be-
the following nations. 1. The Chauci, Upper and ma^y. er
Nations in¬
habiting
Lower Gtr
many.
Lower ; who were divided from each other by the river
Vilurges, nowr the IVefer. Their country contained
what is now called Bremen, Lunenburg, Friesland, and
Groninghen. The Upper Chauci had the Cherufci, and
the lower the Chamavi on the fouth-eaft, and the Ger¬
man ocean on the north-weft. 2. The Frifii, Upper
and Lower, were divided from the Lower Chauci by the
river Amifia, now the Ems; and from one another by
an arm of the Rhine. Their country ftill retains the
name of Friejland, and is divided into eaft and weft ;
but the latter is now difmembered from Germany, and
become one of the Seven United Provinces. 3. Be¬
yond the Ifela, now the Ifel, which bounded the coun¬
try of the Frifii, w'ere fituated the Brucleri, who inha¬
bited that trabh now called Broecmorland; and the
Mar 11, about the river Luppe. On the other fide of that
river were the Ufipii or LJfipetes; but thefe were famed
for often changing their territories, and therefore found
in other places. 4. Next to thefe were the Juones, or
inhabitants of JulierS, between the Maefe and the
Rhine. 5. The Catti, another ancient and warlike
nation, inhabited Heffe and Thuringia, from the Hait-
zian mountains to the Rhine and Wefer : among whom
were comprehended the Mattiaci, whofe capital is bv
fome thought to be Marpurg, by others Baden. 6. Next
to thefe were the Sedufix bordering upon Suabia ; the
Norifci, or the ancient inhabitants of Northgow, whofe
capital was Nuremberg ; and the Marcomanni, whofe
country anciently reached from the Rhine to the head
of the Danube, and to the Neckar. The Marcoman¬
ni afterwards went and fettled in Bohemia and Mora¬
via, under their general or king Maroboduus: and fome
of them in Gaul, whence they drove the Boii, who
h'ad feated themfelves there. 7. On the other fide of
the Danube, and between the Rhine and it, were the
Flermunduri, who poffeffed the country now called
Mifnia in Upper Saxony; though fome make their
territories to have extended much farther, and to have
reached quite to, or even beyond, the kingdom of Bo¬
hemia, once the feat of the Boii, whence its name.
8. Beyond them, on the north of the Danube, was
another feat of the Marcomanni along the river Albis,
or Elbe. 9. Next to Bohemia were fituated the Qua-
di, whofe territories extended from the Danube to Mo¬
ravia, and the northern part of Auftria. Thefe are
comprehended under the ancient name of Suevi; part
of whom at length forced their way into Spain, and
fettled a kingdom there. 10. Eaftward of the Ouadi
were fituated the Baftarnse, and parted from them by
the Granna, now Gran ; a river that falls into the Da¬
nube, and by the Carpathian mountains, from them
called Alpes Bajlarnicrt. The country of the Baftarnse
indeed
G E ' R [ 67s ] G E R
Germany, indeed made part of the European Sarmatia, and fo
'"““■"V—~ was without the limits of Germany properly fo called ;
but we find thefe people fo often in league with the
German nations, and joining them for the deftru&ion
of the Romans, that wre cannot but account them as
one people.
Between thofe nations already taken notice of, feat-
ed ^alfo on the other fide of the Danube and the Hercy-
nian foreft, wTere feveral others whofe exaft fituation is
uncertain, viz. the Martingi, Burii, Borades, Lygii or
Logiones, and fome others, who are placed by our
geographers along the foreft above mentioned, between
the Danube and the Viftula.
On this fide the Hercynian foreft, 'were the famed
Rhaetii, now Grifons, feated among the Alps. Their
country, which was alfo called Wejlern Ilhjricum, was
divided into Rhaetia Prima or Propria and Secunda *,
and was then of much larger extent, fpreading itfelf
towards Suabia, Bavaria, and Auftria.
On the other fide of the Hercynian foreft wrere,
I. The Suevi, who fpread themfelves from the Viftula
to the river Elbe. 2. The Longobardi, fo called accord¬
ing to fome on account of their wearing long beards,
but, according to others, on account of their confid¬
ing of two nations, viz. the Bardi and Lingones.
Thefe dwelt along the river Elbe, and bordered fouth-
ward on the Chauci above mentioned. 3. The Bur-
gundi, of whofe original feat we are uncertain. 4. The
Semnones $ who, about the time of Tiberius, were feat¬
ed on the river Elbe. 5. The Angles, Saxons, and
Goths, were probably the defendants of the Cimbri j
and inhabited the countries of Denmark, along the
Baltic fea, and the peninfula of Scandinavia, containing
Norway, Sweden, Lapland, and Einmark. 6. The
Vandals were a Gothic nation, who, proceeding from
Scandinavia, fettled in the countries now called Meck-
lenburgh and Brandenburgh. 7. Of the fame race wrere
tiie Dacians, who fettled themfelves in the neighbour¬
hood of the Palus Maeotis, and extended their territo¬
ries along the banks of the Danube.
Thefe were the names of the German nations who
performed the moft remarkable exploits in their wars
Wars^of the with the Romans. Befides thefe, however, we find
Scordifci mention made of the Scordifci, a Thracian nation,
with the who afterwards fettled on the banks of the Danube.
Romans. About the year 113 B. C. they ravaged Macedon, and
cut off a whole Roman army fent againft them ; the
general, M. Porcius Cato, grandfon to Cato the cen-
for, being the only perfon who had the good fortune to
make his efcape. After this, they ravaged all Thef-
faly •, and advanced to the coafts of the Adriatic, into
which, becaufe it flopped their farther progrefs, they
difcharged a fhower of darts. By another Roman ge¬
neral, however, they were driven back into their own
country with great flaughter j and foon after, Metel-
lus fo weakened them by repeated defeats, that they
were incapable, for fome time, of making any more
attempts on the Roman provinces. At laft, in the
confuhhip of M. Livius Drufus and L. Calpumius Pi-
fb, the former prevailed on them to pafs the Danube,
which thenceforth became the boundary between the
Romans and them. Notwithftanding this, in the time
of the Jugurthine wrar, the Scordifci repaffed the Da¬
nube on the ice every winter, and being joined by the
Triballi a people of Lower Maefia, and the Daci of
Upper Maefia, penetrated as far as Macedon, commit- Germany,
ting everywhere dreadful ravages. So early did thefe '
northern nations begin to be formidable to the Ro¬
mans, even when they wTere moft renowned for warlike
exploits. 5
Till the time of Julius Caefar, however, we hear Expedition
nothing more concerning the Germans. About c8Ju!lus
o o# *^( ajlar into
years B. C. he undertook his expedition into Gaul •, Germany*
during which, his affiftance wras implored by the vEi-
dui, againft Arioviftus, a German prince who op-
preffed them. Caefar, pleafed with this opportunity of
increafing his power, invited Arioviftus to an inter¬
view ; but this being declined, he next fent deputies,
defiring him to rellore the hoftages he had taken from
the Htdui, and to bring no more troops over the
Rhine into Gaul. To this a haughty anfwer wras re¬
turned } and a battle foon after enfued, in which Ario-
viftus was entirely defeated, and with great difficulty
made his efcape.
In 55 B. C. Caefar having fubdued the Sueffiones,
Bellovaci, Ambiani, Nervii, and other nations of Bel-
gic Gaul, haftened to oppofe the Ufipetes and Tench-
theri. Thefe nations having been driven out of their
own country by the Suevi, had croffed the Rhine with
a defign to fettle in Gaul. As foon as he appeared,
the Germans fent him a deputation, offering to join
him, provided he would affign them lands. Caefar re¬
plied, that there was no room in Gaul for them ; but
he would defire the Ubii to give them leave to fettle
among them. Upon this, they defired him to retreat
with the Ubii j but in the mean time fell upon fome
Roman fquadrons : which fo provoked Caefar, that he
immediately marched againft them, and coming unex-
pedtedly upon them, defeated them with great daugh¬
ter. They fled in the utmoft confufion •, but the Ro¬
mans purfued them to the conflux of the Rhine and
the Maefe, where the flaughter -was renewed with fuch
fury, that almoft 400,000 of the Germans periflied.
After this, Caefar being refolved to fpread the terror of
the Roman name through Germany, built a bridge
over the Rhine, and entered that country. In this
expedition, however, which was his lart in Germany,
he performed no remarkable exploit. A little before
his death, indeed, he had projecled the conqueft of
that, as well as of a great many other countries $ but
his affaflination prevented the execution of his de-
figns. Nor is there any thing recorded of the Ger¬
mans till about 17 B. C. when the Tenchtheri made an
irruption into Gaul, and defeated M. Lollius, procon-
ful of that province. At laft, however, they were re-
pulfed, and forced to retire with great lofs beyond the
Rhine. 5
Soon after this the Rhaetii invaded Italy, where they Rhaetii in-
committed the greateft devaftations, putting all the va^e
males they met to the fword, without diftindlion of
age : nay, we are told, that when they happened
to take w^omen with child, they confulted their au¬
gurs to know whether the child was a male or female ;
and if they pronounced it a male, the mother was im¬
mediately maflacred. Againft thefe barbarians was
fent Drufus-, the fecond fon of Livia, a youth of ex¬
traordinary valour and great accomplifliments. He
found means to bring them to a battle $ in which the
Romans proved vidtorious, and cut in pieces great
numbers of their enemies, with very little, lofs on their
4 £) 2 own
G E R
[ 676 ]
G E R
They are
fubduecl,
together
with the
Vindelici
3
and the
Pannoni-
ans.
Germany, own iide. Thofe who efcaped the general {laughter,
y——/ being joined by the Vindelici, took their route towards
Gaul, with a defign to invade that province. But
Auguftus, upon the firft notice of their march, de-
fpatched againft them Tiberius with feveral chofen le¬
gions. He was no lefs fuccefsful than Hrufus had
been j for having tranfported his troops over the lake
Brigantium, now Conftance, he fell unexpeftedly on
the enemy, gave them a total overthrow, took moil of
their ftrong holds, and obliged the whole nation to
fubmit to fuch terms as he chofe to impofe upon them.
Thus were the Vindelici, the Rhsetii, and Norici, three
of the moft barbarous nations in Germany fubdued.
Tiberius, to keep the conquered countries in awe,
planted two colonies in Vindelicia, and opened from
and Norici, thence a road into Rhaetia and Noricum. One of the
cities which he built for the defence of his colonies, he
called, from his father Drufus, Drufomagus ; the other
by the name of Auguftus, Augujla Vindelicorum ; which
cities are now known by the names of Mimminghen and
Augsburg. He next encountered the Pannonians, w-ho
had been fubdued by Agrippa, but revolted on hear¬
ing the news of that great commander’s death, which
happened x 1 years B. C. Tiberius, however, with
the affiftance of their neighbours the Scordifci, foon
forced them to fubmit. They delivered up their
arms, gave hoftages, and put the Romans in poffeflion
of all their towns and ftrong holds, Tiberius fpared
their lives j but laid wafte their fields, plundered their
cities, and fent the beft part of their youth into other
countries.
In the mean time, Drufus having prevented the
Gauls from revolting, which they were ready to do,
prepared to oppofe the Germans wdio dwelt beyond the
Rhine. They had colledled the moft numerous and
formidable army that had ever been feen in thofe parts •,
with which they w*ere advancing towards the Rhine, in
order to invade Gaul. Drufus defeated them as they
attempted to crofs that river j and, purfuing the ad¬
vantage he had gained, entered the country of the Uii-
petes, now Re/inchvfeny and from thence advanced
againft the Sicambri in the neighbourhood of the
Lyppe and Yffel. Them he overthrew7 in a great
battle, laid wafte their country, burnt moft of their
cities, and following the courfe of the Rhine, ap¬
proached the German ocean, reducing the Frilii and
the Chauci between the Ems and the Elbe. In thefe
marches the troops buffered extremely for want of pro-
viftons j and Drufus himfelf was often in great danger
of being drowned, as the Romans who attended him
were at that time quite unacquainted with the flux and
reflux of the ocean.
The Roman forces w7ent into Eaft Friefland for their
winter quarters; and next year (10 B. C.) Drufus
marched againft the Tenchtheri, whom he eafily fub¬
dued. Afterwards, pailing the Lupias, now the Lyppe,
he reduced the Catti and Cherufci, extending his con-
qi efts to the banks of the Vifurgis or Wefer; which
he w7ould have paffed, had he not been in w7ant of pro-
vifions, the enemy having laid w7afte the country to a
confiderable diftar.ce. As he w7as retiring, the Ger¬
mans unexpeftedly fell upon him in a narrow paffage ;
and having furrounded the Roman army, cut a great
many of them in pieces. But Drufus having animated
his men by his example, after a bloody confiidf, which
Exploits of
Drufus in
Germany.
lafted the whole day, the Germans were defeated wdth Germany.
fuch flaughter, that the ground w7as ftrewed for feveral -—v——'
miles with dead bodies. Drufus found in their camp a
great quantity of iron chains which they had brought
for the Romans; and fo great was their confidence,
that they had agreed beforehand about the divilion of
the booty. The Tenchtheri w7ere to. have the horfes, the
Cherufci and Sicambri the baggage, and the Ufipetes
and Catti the captives. After this vidlory, Drufus
built two forts to keep the conquered countries in awTe ;
the one at the confluence of the Lyppe and the Alme,
the other in the country of the Catti on the Rhine.
On this occaflon alfo he made a famous canal, long af¬
ter called in honour of him Fq/J'a Dn/Jtana, to convey
the waters of the Rhine into the Sala or Sale. It ex¬
tended eight miles; and was very convenient for con¬
veying the Roman troops by water to the countries of
the Frilii and Chauci, which v,7as the defign of the un¬
dertaking.
The following year (9 B. C.) Auguftus, bent on
fubduing the whole of Germany, advanced to the banks
of the Rhine, attended by his two ions-in-law Tibe- •
rius and Drufus.. The former he fent againft the
Daci, who lived up to the fouth of the Danube ; and
the latter to complete the conqueft he had fo fuccefs-
fully begun in the w7eftern parts of Germany. The
former eafily overcame the Daci, and tranfplanted
40,000 of them into Gaul. The latter, having paffed
the Rhine, fubdued all the nations from that river to
the Elbe ; but having attempted in vain to crofs this
laft, he fet out for Rome : an end, however, wras put
to his conquefts and his life by a violent fever, with
which he was ieized on his return.
After the death of Drufus, Tiberius again overran
all thofe countries in which Drufus had fpent the pre¬
ceding fummer ; and ftruck fome of the northern na¬
tions with fuch terror, that they fent deputies to fue
for peace. This, however, they could not obtain up¬
on any terms ; the emperor declaring that he would
not conslude a peace with one, unlefs they all defired
it. But the Catti, or according to fome the Sicambri,
could not by any means be prevailed upon to fubmit;
fo that the war was ftill carried on, though in a lan¬
guid manner, for about 18 years. During this period,
fome of the German nations had quitted their forefts,
and begun to live in a civilized manner under the pro-
teclion of the Romans; but one Quindfilius Varus be¬
ing fent to command the Roman forces in that coun¬
try, fo provoked the inhabitants by his extortions, that
not only thofe who ftill held out refufed to fubmit, but
even the nations that had fubmitted were feized with
an eager defire of throwing off the yoke. Among
them was a young nobleman of extraordinary parts 1CJ
and valour, named Arrninius. He was the fon of Si-Armimus
gimer, one of the moft powerful lords among the heads the
Catti, had ferved with great reputation in the Ro-
man armies, and been honoured by Auguftus with the
privileges of a Roman citizen and the title of knight.
But the love of his country prevailing over his grati¬
tude, he refolved to improve the general difeontent
which reigned among his countrymen, to deliver them
from the bondage of a foreign dominion. With this
view he engaged, underhand, the leading men of all
the nations between the Rhine and the Elbe, in a con-
fpiracy againft the Romans. In order to put Varus
off
G E R [ 677 ] G E R
Germany, of? his guard, he at the fame time advifed him to (how
— himfelf to the inhabitants of the more diftant provinces,
adminifter juitice among them, and accuftom them,
by his example, to live after the Roman manner, which
he faid would more effectually fubdue them than the
Roman fword. As Varus was a man of a peaceable
temper, and averfe from military toils, he readily con¬
tented to this infidious propolal, and, leaving the neigh¬
bourhood of the Rhine, marched into the country of
the Cherufci. Having there fpent feme time in hear¬
ing caufes and deciding civil controverfies, Arminius
perfuaded him to weaken his army, by fending out
detachments to clear the country of robbers. When
this was done, fame diftant nations of Germany rofe
up in arms by Arminius’s directions ; while thofe
through which Varus was to pafs in marching againft
them, pretended to be in a ftate of profound tran¬
quillity, and ready to join the Romans againft their
enemies.
Cuts’off On the firft news of the revolt, Varus marched a-
Vams with gainft the enemy with three legions and fix cohorts; but
his army, being attacked by the Germans as he paffed through
a wood, his army wTas almoft totally cut off, while he
himfelf and moft of his officers fell by their own hands.
Such a terrible overthrow, though it raifed a general
ccnfternation in Rome, did not, however, diftiearten
Auguftus, or caufe him to abandon his enterprife. A-
bout two years after (A. I). 12.), Tiberius and Ger-
manicus were appointed to command in Germany.
The death of Auguftus, however, which happened
foon after, prevented Tiberius from going on his ex¬
pedition ; and Germanicus was for fome time hindered
from proceeding in his, by a revolt of the legions, firft
in Pannonia, and then in Germany. About the year
15, Germanicus having brought over the foldiers to
their duty, laid a bridge acrofs the Rhine, over which
he marched 12,000 legionaries, 26 cohorts of the al¬
lies, and eight alee (fquadrons of 300 each) of horfe.
With thefe he firft traverfed the Coefian foreft (part
of the Hercynian, and thought to lie partly in the duchy
of Cleves, and partly in Weftphalia), and fome other
woods. On his march he was informed that the Marfi
I2 were celebrating a feftival with great mirth and jol-
Exploits of lity. Upon this he advanced with fuch expedition,
Germani- that he furprifed them in the midft of their debauch ;
rus* and giving his army full liberty to make uffiat ba-
vock they pleafed, a terrible maffacre enfued, and
the country was deftroyed wdth fire and fword for 50
miles round, without the lofs of a fingle man on the
part of the Romans—This general ruaffacre roufed
the BruCteri, the Tubantes, and the Ufipetes ; who,
befetting the paffes through which the Roman army
was to return, fell upon their rear, and put them in¬
to fome diforder; but the Romans foon recovered
themfelves, and defeated the Germans with confider-
able lofs.
The following year (A. D. 16.), Germanicus tak¬
ing advantage of fome inteftine broils wffiich happened
among the Catti, entered their country, where he put
great numbers to the fword. Moft of their youth,
how'ever, efcaped by fwimming over the A drana, now
the Oder, and attempted to prevent the Romans frorxl
laying a bridge over that river: but being difappointed
!n this, fome of them fubmitted to Germanicus, while
the greater part, abandoning their villages, took re¬
fuge in the woods; fo that the Romans, without oppo- Germany,
fition, fet fire to all their villages, towns, &c. and v—J
having laid their capital in allies, began their march
back to the Rhine.
Germanicus had fcarce reached his camp, when he
received a meffage from Segeftes, a German prince,
in the intereft of the Romans, acquainting him that
he was befieged in his camp by Arminius. On this
advice, he imiantly marched againft the befiegers; en¬
tirely defeated them ; and took a great number of
prifoners, among whom was Thufneldis, the wife
of Arminius, and daughter of Segeftes, wffiom the
former had carried off, and married againft her father’s
will. Arminius then, more enraged than ever, for
the lofs of his wife, whom he tenderly loved, ilirred
up all the neighbouring nations againft the Romans.
Germanicus, howrever, without being difmayed by
fuch a formidable confederacy, prepared himfelf to op-
pofe the enemy with vigour: but, that he might not
be obliged to engage fuch numerous forces at once,
detached his lieutenant Caecina, at the head of 40 co¬
horts, into the territories of the Brufteri; while his
cavalry, under the command of Pedo, entered the
country of the Frifii. As for Germanicus himfelf, he
embarked the remainder of his army, confiiting of
four legions, on a neighbouring lake ; and tranfported
them by rivers and canals to the place appointed on
the river Ems, where the three bodies met. In their
march they found the fad remains of the legions con-
dudfed by Varus, which they buried wdth all the cere¬
mony their circumftances could admit. After this
they advanced againft Arminius, who retired and poll¬
ed himfelf advantageoufly clofe to a wrood. The Ro¬
man general followed him ; and coming up with him,
ordered his cavalry to advance and attack the enemy.
Arminius, at their firft approach, pretended to lly ;
but fuddenly wheeled about, and giving the fignal to a
body of troops, whom he had concealed in the wood,
to rulh out, obliged the cavalry to give ground. The
cohorts then advanced to their relief; but they too were
put into diforder, and would have been pulhed into a
morafs, had not Germanicus himfelf advanced with
the reft of the cavalry to their relief. Arminius did
not think it prudent to engage thefe frelh troops, but
retired in good order ; upon which Germanicus alfo
retired towards the Ems. Here he embarked with
four legions, ordered Caecina to recondu6l the other
four by land, and fent the cavalry to the fea fide, with
orders to march along the Ihore to the Rhine. Though.
Caecina was to return by roads well known, yet Ger¬
manicus advifed him to pafs, with all poffible Ipeed, a
caufeway, called the /ong bi'idges, which led acrofs vaft
rnarlhes, furrounded on all fides with woods and hills
that gently rofe from the plain.
Arminius, however, having got notice of Caccina’s
march, arrived at the long bridges before Caecina, and
filled the woods with his men, who, on the approach *
of the Romans, rulhed out, and attacked them with
great fury. The legions, not able to manage their
arms in the deep waters and flippery ground, were ob¬
liged to yield ; and would in all probability have been
entirely defeated, bad not night put an end to the
combat. The Germans, encouraged by their fuc-
cefs, inftead of refreftung themfelves with deep, fpent
the whole night in diverting the courfes of the fprings
whichh
G E R [ ^78 ] G E R
German)’. %vliich rofe in the neighbouring mountains ) fo that,
before day, the camp which the Romans had begun
was laid under water, and their works were overturned.
Cascina was for fome time at a lofs what to do ; but
at laft refolved to attack the enemy by daybreak, and,
having driven theip to their woods, to keep them there
in a manner belieged, till the baggage and wounded
men lliould pafs the caufeway, and get out of the
enemy’s reach. But when his army 'was drawn up, the
legions polled on the wings, feized with a fudden pa¬
nic, deferted their llations, and occupied a field beyond
the marlhes. Gcecina thought it advifable to follow
them j but the baggage ftuck in the mire, as he at¬
tempted to crofs the marlhes, which greatly embarraf-
fed the foldiers. Arminius perceiving this, laid hold
of the opportunity to begin the attack j and crying
out, “ Ihis is a fecond Varus, the fame fate attends
him and his legions,” fell on the Romans V.ith inex-
prelhble fury. As he had ordered his men to aim
chiefly at the horfes, great numbers of them were
killed ; and the ground becoming llippery with their
blood and the flime of the marfh, the reft either fell
or threw their riders, and, galloping through the ranks,
put them in diforder. Caecina diftinguilhed himfelf
in a very eminent manner 5 but his horfe being killed,
he would have been taken prifoner, had not the firft
legion refcued him. The greedinefs of the enemy,
however, faved the Romans from utter deftrudfion 5
for juft as the legions vrere quite fpent, and on the
point of yielding, the barbarians on a fudden abandon¬
ed them in order to feize their baggage. During this
refpite, the Romans ftruggled out of the marlh, and
having gained the dry fields, formed a camp with all
poflible fpeed, and fortified it in the bell manner they
could.
The Germans having loft the opportunity of de-
ftroying, the Romans, contrary to the advice of Ar¬
minius, attacked their camp next morning, but were
repulfed with great llaughter ; after which they gave
Caecina no more moleftation till he reached the banks
of the Rhine. Germanicus, in the mean time, having
conveyed the legions he had with him down the river
Ems into the ocean, in order to return by fea to the
river Rhine, and finding that his veffels were overload¬
ed, delivered the fecond and 14th legions to Publius
Vitellius, defiring him to condufl them by land. But
this march proved fatal to great numbers of them •, who
were either buried in the quickfands, or fwallowed up
by the overflowing of the tide, to which they were
as yet utter ftrangers. Thofe who efcaped, loft their
aims, utenfils, and provifions) and paffed a melan¬
choly night upon an eminence, which they had gained
by wrading up to the chin. The next morning the
land returned with the tide of ebb; when Vitellius,
by a hafty march, reached the river Ufingis, by feme’
thought to be the Hoerenfter, on which the city of
Groningen Hands. There Germanicus, who had reach¬
ed that river with his fleet, took the legions again on
board, and conveyed them to the mouth of the Rhine,
whence they all returned to Cologne, at a time when
it was reported they were totally loft.
Ihis expedition, however, coft the Romans very
dear, and procured very few advantages. Great num¬
bers of men had periftied ; and by far the greateft part
thofe who had efcaped fo many dangers returned
l
without arms, utenfils, horfes, &c. half naked, lamed, Germany,
and unfit for fervice. The next year, however, Ger-
manicus, bent on the entire reduftion of Germany, G
made vaft preparations for another expedition. Hav- expedition
ing confidered the various accidents that had befallen 1
him during the war, he found that the Germans were
chiefly indebted for their fafety to their woods and
marlhes, their ftiort fummers and long winters ; and
that his troops fuffered more from their long and te¬
dious marches than from the enemy. For this reafon
he refolved to enter the country by fea, hoping by
that means to begin the campaign earlier, and furprife
the enemy. Having therefore built with great de-
fpatch, during the winter, 1000 veflels of different forts,
he ordered them early in the fpring (A. D. 16.) to
fall down the Rhine, and appointed the ifland of the
Batavians for the general rendezvous of his forces.
When the fleet was failing, he detached Silius one of
his lieutenants, with orders to make a fudden irrup¬
tion into the country of the Catti ; and* in the mean
time, he himfelf, upon receiving intelligence that a
Roman fort on the Luppias was befieged, haftened
with fix legions to its relief. Silius was prevented, by
fudden rains, from doing more than taking fome fmall
booty, wdth the wife and daughter of Arpen king
of the Catti; neither did thofe who befieged the fort
w’ait the arrival of Germanicus. In the mean time,
the fleet arriving at the ifland of the Batavians, the
provifions and w-arlike engines vrere put on board and
fent forward ; fln'ps were affigned to the legions and
allies; and the whole army being embarked, the fleet
entered the canal formerly cut by Drufus, and from
his name called FoJ/a Drujiana. Hence he failed pro-
fperoufly. to the mouth of the Ems ; where, having
landed his troops, he marched direffly to the Wefer,
v’here he found Arminius encamped on the oppofite
bank, and determined to difpute his paffage. The
next day Arminius drew out his troops in order of
battle ; but Gennanicus, not thinking it advifable to
attack them, ordered the horfe to ford over under the
command of his lieutenants Stertinius and Emilius ;
who, to divide the enemy’s forces, croffed the river in
two different places. At the fame time Cariovalda,
the leader of the Batavian auxiliaries, croffed the river
where it is moft rapid : but being drawn into an
ambufeade, he was killed, together with moft of the
Batavian nobility ; and the reft would have been totally
cut. off, had not Stertinius and Emilius haftened to
their afliftance. Germanicus in the mean time paffed
the river without moleftation. A battle foon after
enfued; in which the Germans were defeated with fo
great a {laughter that the ground was covered with
arms and dead bodies for more than 10 miles round :
and among the fpoils taken on this occafion, were found,
as formerly, the chains with which the Germans had
hoped to bind their captives.
In memory of this fignal victory Germanicus raifed
a mount, upon which he placed as trophies the arms of
the enemy, and inferibed underneath the names of the
conquered nations. This fo provoked the Germans,
though already vanquifhed and determined to abandon
their country, that they attacked the Roman army
unexpectedly on its march, and put them into fome
diforder. Being repulfed, they encamped between a
river and a large foreft furrounded by a marfti except
on
G E R [ 67
Gsrnjany. on one fide, where it was enclofed by a broad rampart
*—”v——' formerly raifed by the Angrivarii as a barrier between
them and the Cherufci. Here another battle enfued j
in which the Germans behaved with great bravery, but
in the end wTere defeated with great flaughter.
After this fecond defeat, the Angrivarii fubmitted,
and were taken under the prote6tion of the Romans,
and Germanicus put an end to the campaign. Some
of the legions he lent to their winter quarters by land,
14 while he himfelf embarked with the reft on the river
His fleet Ems, in order to return by lea. The ocean proved at
difpetfed by very Calm, and the wind favourable: but all of a
aftorm. fudden a ftorm arifing, the fleet, confifting of icoo
veffels, was difperfed : fome of them were fwallowed
up by the waves ; others were dallied in pieces againft
the rocks, or driven upon remote anck inhofpitable
xflands, where the men either perilhed by famine, or
lived upon the fleih of the dead horfes with which the
Ihores foon appeared ftrewred ; for, in order to lighten
their veffels, and difengage them from the ftvoals, they
had been obliged to throw overboard their horfes and
beafts of burden, nay, even their arms and baggage.
Moll of the men, however, wTere faved, and even great
part of the fleet recovered. Some of them were driven
upon the coaft of Britain ; but the petty kings who
reigned there generoully fentthem back.
On the news of this misfortune, the Catti, taking
new courage, ran to arms 3 but Caius Silius being de¬
tached againft them with 30,000 foot and 3000 horfe,
kept them in awe. Germanicus himfelf, at the head
of a numerous body, made a fudden irruption into the
territories of the Marfi, where he recovered one of
Varus’s eagles, and having laid wafte the country, he
returned to the frontiers of Germany, and put his
troops into wdnter quarters ; whence he wTas foon recal¬
led by Tiberius, and never fuffered to return into Ger¬
many again.
After the departure of Germanicus, the more north¬
ern nations of Germany were no more molefted by
the Romans. Arminius carried on a long and fuc-
cefsful war with Maroboduus king of the Marcomanni,
whom he at laft expelled, and forced to apply to the
Romans for afliftance; but, excepting Germanicus, it
feems they had at this time no other general capable
o! oppofing Arminius, fo that Maroboduus was never
15 reftored. After the final departure of the Romans,
Death of however, Arminius having attempted to enflave his
Arminnis. country? fen by the treachery of his own kindred.
The Germans held his memory in great veneration •,
and Tacitus informs us, that in his time they ftill cele¬
brated him in their fongs.
Nothing remarkable occurs in the hiftory of Germa¬
ny from this time till the reign of the emperor Clau¬
dius. A wrar indeed is faid to have been carried on
by Lucius Domitius, father to the emperor Nero.
But of his exploits we know nothing more than that
he penetrated beyond the river Elbe, and led his army
farther into the country than any of the Romans had
ever done. In the reign of Claudius, however, the
German territories were invaded by Cn. Domitius
Corbulo, one of the greateft generals of his age. But
when he was on the point of forcing them to fubmit to
the Roman yoke, he was recalled by Claudius, who
was jealous of the reputation he had acquired.
In the reign of Vefpafian, a terrible revolt happened
9 ] G E R
among the Batavians and thofe German nations who Germany,
had fubmitted to the Romans j a particular account of v f
which is given under the article Rome. The ^voltersrpj^1^^
were with difficulty fubdued j but, in the reign ofans invade
Domitian, the Dacians invaded the empire, and proved the Roman
a more terrible enemy than any of the other German empire,
nations had been. Afterffieveral defeats, the emperor
was at laft obliged to confent to pay an annual tri¬
bute to Decebalus king of the Dacians j which con¬
tinued to the time of Trajan, But that warlike prince
refufed to pay tribute •, alleging, when it was de¬
manded of him, that “ he had never been conquered
by Decebalus.” Upon this the Dacians paffed the
Danube, and began to commit hoftilities in the Ro¬
man territories. Trajan, glad of this opportunity to
humble an enemy whom he began to fear, drew to¬
gether a mighty army, and marched with the utmoft
expedition to the banks of the Danube. As Dece-
balus was not apprifed of his arrival, the emperor
pnfled the river without oppofition, and entering Dacia,
laid w'afte the country with fire and fword. At laft
he was met by Decebalus with a numerous army. A
bloody engagement enfued, in which the Dacians were
defeated \ though the vitftory coft the Romans dear :
the wounded were fo numerous, that they wanted-
linen to bind up their wounds j and to fupply the
defesft, the emperor genesoufly devoted his own ward¬
robe. After the viftory, he purfued Decebalus from
place to place, and at laft obliged him to confent to a
peace on the following terms : 1. That he (hould
furrender the territories which he had unjuftly taken
from the neighbouring nations. 2, That he fliould
deliver up his arms, his warlike engines, with the ar¬
tificers who made them, and all the Roman deferters.
3. That for the future he fhould entertain no deferters,
nor take into his fervice the natives of any country
fubject to Rome. 4. That he {hould difmantle all his
fortrefles, caftles, and ftrong holds. And, laftly, That
he ihould have the fame friends and foes with the people
of Rome.
With thefe hard terms Decebalus was obliged to
comply, though fore againft his will ; and being intro¬
duced to Trajan, threw himfelf on the ground before
him, acknowledging himfelf his vaflal; after which the
latter, having commanded him to fend^deputieS to the
fenate for the ratification of the peace, returned to
Rome.
This peace was of no long duration. Four years
after (A. D. 105.), Decebalus, unable to live in fer-
vitude as he called it, began, contrary to the late
treaty, to raife men, provide arms, entertain deferters,
fortify his caftles, and invite the neighbouring nations
to join him againft the Romans as a common enemy.
The Scythians hearkened to his folicitations ; but the
Jazyges, a neighbouring nation, refufing to bear arms
againft Rome, Decebalus invaded their country. Here -
upon Trajan marched againft him •, but the Dacian,
finding himfelf unable to withftand him by open force,
had recourfe to treachery, _ and attempted to get the
emperor murdered. His defign, however, proved
abortive, and Trajan purfued his m-wch into Dacia.
That his troops might the more readily pafs and re-
pafs the Danube, he built a bridge over that river j * see
which by the ancients is ftyled the moil magnificent andf£/Vftfvr*:
wonderful of all his works *. To guard the bridge, H° 133-
he
G E II
*7
They are
fubdued by
Trajan.
iS
Marco-
manni and
Quadi for¬
midable to
the empire.
19
Roman em
pire de-
llroyed by
the Heiuli.
20
Hidory of
Germany
fince the
time of
Charle¬
magne.
lie orderd two caftles to be built ; 'one on this fide
the Danube, and the other on the oppofite fide ; and
all this was accomplifhed in the fpace of one fummer.
Trajan, however, as the feafon was now far advanced,
did not think it advifable to enter Dacia this year,
but contented himfelf with making the neceflary pre¬
parations.
In the year 106, early in the fpring, Trajan fet out
for Dacia ; and having pafled the Danube on the bridge
he had built, reduced the whole country, and would
have taken Decebalus himfelf, had he not put an end
to his own life, in order to avoid falling into the hands
of his enemies. After his death the kingdom of Da¬
cia was reduced to a Roman province} and feveral
caflles were built in it, and garrifons placed in them,
to keep the country in awe.
Alter the death of Trajan, the Roman empire be¬
gan to decline, and the northern nations to be daily
more and more formidable. The province of Dacia
indeed was held by the Romans till the reign of Gal-
lienus 5 but Adrian, who fucceeded Trajan, caufed the
arches of the bridge over the Danube to be broken
down, left the barbarians fhould make themfelves ma¬
ilers of it, and invade the Roman territories. In the
time of Marcus Aurelius, the Marcomanni and Qua¬
di invaded the empire, and gave the emperor a terrible
overthrow. He continued the war, however, with
better fuccefs afterwards, and invaded their country in
his turn. It was during the courfe of this war that the
Roman army is faid to have been faved from deftru&ion
by that miraculous event related under the article
Christians, p. 70. col. 2.
In the end, the Marcomanni and Quadi were, by
repeated defeats, brought to the verge of deftnuftion;
infomuch that their country would probably have been
reduced to a Roman province, had not Marcus Aure¬
lius been diverted from purfuing his conquefts by the
revolt of one of his generals. After the death of
Marcus Aurelius, the Germanic nations became every
day more and more formidable to the Romans. Far
trom being able to invade and attempt the conqueft of
thefe northern countries, the Romans had the greateft
difficulty to reprefs the incurfions of their inhabitants.
Rut for a particular account of their various invafions
of the Roman empire, and its total deftrudlion by them
at laft, fee the article Rome.
I he immediate deftroyers of the Roman empire
vyere the Heruli j who, under their leader Odoacer, de-
tnroned Auguftulus the laft Roman emperor, and pro¬
claimed Odoacer king of Italy. The Heruli were
foon expelled by the Oftrogoths ; and thefe in their
turn were lubdued by .Tuftinian, who reannexed Italy to
the eallern empire. But the popes found means to
obtain the temporal as well as fpiritual jurifdidlion over
a conliderable part of the country, while the Lom¬
bards fubdued the reft. Thefe laft proved very trouble-
fome to the popes, and at length befieged Adrian I.
in his capital. In this diftrefs he applied to Charles
the Great, king of France ; who conquered both Italy
and Germany, and was crowned emperor of the weft
in 800.
I he pofterity of Charlemagne inherited the empire
of Germany until the year 880 ; at which time the dif¬
ferent princes afluined their original independence, re¬
jected the Carlovingian line, and placed Arnulph king
[ 680 ]
G E R
of Bohemia on tne throne. Since this time Germany Germ
has ever been confidered as an eleCtive monarchy.  v
Princes of different families, according to the preva- \
lence of their intereft and arms, have mounted the
throne. Of thefe the moft confiderable, until the Au-
ftriaa line acquired the imperial power, were the hou-
fes of SaXony, Franconia, and Suabia. The reigns
of thefe emperors contain nothing more remmkable
than the contefts between them and the popes) for an
account of which fee the article Italy. From hence,
in the beginning of the 13th century, arofe the fac¬
tions of the Guelphs and Gibellines, of which the for¬
mer was attached to the popes, and the latter to the
emperor; and both, by their virulence and inveteracy,
tended to difquiet the empire for feveral ages. The em¬
perors too were often at war with the infidels 5 and
fometimes, as happens in all eleClive kingdoms, with
one another, about the fucceffion.
But what more deferves our attention is the progrefs
of government in Germany, which was in fome meat-
fure oppofite to that of the other kingdoms of Europe.
When the empire railed by Charlemagne fell afunder,
all the different independent princes affumed the right
of election ; and thofe now diftinguidied by the name
of eleEiors had no peculiar or legal influence in ap¬
pointing a fucceffor to the imperial throne ; they were
only the officers of the king’s houfehold, his fecretary,
his fteward, chaplain, marfhal, or mafter of his
horfe, &c. By degrees, however, as they lived near
the king’s perfon, and had, like all other princes, in¬
dependent territories belonging to them, they increafed
their influence and authority j and in the reign of Otho
III. 984, acquired the foie right of eleCting the em¬
peror. Thus, while in the other kingdoms of Europe,
the dignity of the great lords, who were all originally
allodial or independent barons, was diminifhed by the
power of the king, as in France, and by the influ¬
ence of the people, as in Great Britain 5 in Germany,
on the other hand, the power of the electors was
raifed upon the ruins of the emperor’s fupremacy,
and of the people’s jurifdiftion. In 1440, Frederic
III. duke of Auftria was eleCIed emperor, and the
imperial dignity continued in the male line of that fa¬
mily for 300 years. His fucceffor Maximilian mar¬
ried the heirefs cf Charles duke of Burgundy j where¬
by Burgundy and the 1 7 provinces of the Netherlands
were annexed to the houfe of Auftria. Charles V.
grandfon of Maximilian, and heir to the kingdom of
Spain, was eleCIed emperor in the year 1519. Under
him Mexico and Peru were conquered by the Spa¬
niards j and in his reign happened the Reformation
in feveral parts of Germany 5 which, however, was not
confirmed by public authority till the year 1648, by
the treaty of Weftphalia, and in the reign of Ferdi¬
nand III. The reign of Charles V. was continually
difturbed by his wars with the German princes and the
French king Francis I. Though fuccefsful in the begin¬
ning of his reign, his good fortune towards the con-
clufion of it began to for fake him ; which, with other
reafons, cccafioned his abdication of the crown. See
Charles V.
His brother Ferdinand I. who in 1558 fucceeded
to the throne, proved a moderate prince with regard
to religion. He had the addrefs to get his Ion Maxi¬
milian declared king of the Romans in his own life¬
time,
G E R [ 681 ] G E 11
Germany, time, and died in 1564. By his laft will he ordered,
* that if either his own male ilfje, or that of his brother
Charles, (liould fail, his AulL—a 1 eilates fhould revert
to his fecond daughter Anne, wife to the deflor of
Bavaria, and her ifiue. We mention this deftination,
as it gave rile to the late oppolition made by the houfe
of Bavaria to the pragmatic fandlion, in favour of the
emprefs queen of Hungary, on the death of her father
Charles VI. 'I he reigq of Maximilian II. was diilurb-
ed with internal commotions, and an invafion from the
Burks: but he died in peace in 1576. He was fnc-
ceeded by his fon Rodolph $ who was involved in wars
with the Hungarians, and in differences with his bro¬
ther Matthias, to whom he ceded Hungary and Auf-
tria in his lifetime. He was fucceeded in the empire
by Matthias ; under whom the reformers, who went
under the names of Lutherans and Calvinijts, were fo
much divided among themfelves, as to threaten the
empire with a civil war. 'Bhe ambition of Matthias
at laft tended to reconcile them ; but the Bohemians
revolted, and threw the imperial commiiTaries out of
a window at Prague. This gave rife to a ruinous
war, which lafted 30 years. Matthias thought to have
exterminated both parties •, but they formed a confe¬
deracy, called the Evangelic League, which was coun¬
terbalanced by a Catholic league.
Matthias dying in 1618, was fucceeded by his cou-
iin Ferdinand II.; but the Bohemians offered their
crown to Frederic the eledfor Palatine, the moil power¬
ful Proteftant prince in Germany, and fon-in-law to
his Britannic majefty James I. That prince was incau¬
tious enough to accept of the crown : but he loft it,
by being entirely defeated by the duke of Bavaria and
the imperial generals at the battle of Prague ; and he
was even deprived of his electorate, the belt part of
which was given to the duke of Bavaria. The Pro¬
teftant princes of Germany, however, had among them
at this time many able commanders, wTho wrere at the
head of armies, and continued the war with wonderful
obitinacy : among them were the margrave of Baden
Durlach, Chriftian duke of Brunfwick, and count
Mansfeld \ the laft was one of the beft generals of the
age. Chriftiern IV. king of Denmark declared for
them; and Richelieu, the French minifter, was not
fond of feeing the houle of Auftria aggrandized. The
emperor, on the other hand, had excellent generals j
and Chriftiern, having put himfelf at the head of the
evangelic league, was defeated by Tilly} an Imperi-
alift of great reputation in war. Ferdinand made fo
moderate a ufe of his advantages obtained over the
Proteftants, that they formed" a frelh confpiracy at
Leipfic, of which the celebrated Guftavus Adolphus
king of Sweden was the head. An account of his
glorious victories is given under the article SWEDEN.
At laft: he was killed at the battle of Lutzen in 1632.
But the Proteftant caufe did not die with him. He
had brought up a fet of heroes, fuch as the duke of
Saxe Weimer, Torftenfon, Banier, and others, who ftiook
the Auftrian power } till under the mediation of Sweden,
a general peace was concluded among all the belligerent
powers, at Munfter, in the year 1648 : which forms the
bafts of the piefent political fyftem of Europe.
Ferdinand II. was fucceeded by his fon Ferdinand
III. ihis prince died in 16575 and was fucceeded
by the emperor Leopold, a fevere, unamiable, and not
Von. IX. Part II.
very fortunate prince. He had two great powers to Germany.
contend with, France on the one fide, and the Turks v^
on the other 5 and was a lofer in his war with both.
Louis XIV. at that time king of France, ivas happy
in having the two celebrated generals Conde and Tu-
renne in his fervice. The latter had already diftin-
guiihed himfelf by great exploits againft the Spaniards 5
• and, on the acceffion of Leopold, the court of France
had taken the opportunity of confirming the treaty 'of
Munfter, and attaching to her intereft feveral of the
independent princes of Germany. The tranquillity
which now took place, however, was not eitabliihed
upon any permanent bafts. War with Spain was re¬
fumed in the year 1668 5 and the great fucceffes of
lurenne in the Netherlands ftimulated the ambition
of the prince of Conde to attempt the conqueit of
Franche Compte, at that time under the protection of the
houfe of Auftria. This -was accomplilhed in three
weeks: but the rapid fuccefs of Louis had awakened
the jealoufy of his neighbours to fuch a degree, that a
league was formed againft him by England, Holland,
and Sweden 5 and the French monarch, dreading to
enter the lifts with iuch formidable enemies, confentcd
to the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which, among
other articles, Franche Compte was reftored. The
flames of war, however, were renewed by the infatiable
ambition o! the French monarch 5 who, having enter¬
ed into an alliance with Charles II. of England, aim¬
ed at nothing lefs than the total overthrow of the
Dutch republic. The events of that war are related
under the article United Provinces ; here it is
fufficient to obferve, that the misfortunes of the
Dutch excited the compaflion of the emperor and
court of Spain, who now openly declared themfelves
their allies. Turenne was oppofed by the prince of
Orange in conjundlion with the celebrated Imperial
general Montecuculi, whofe artful conduft eluded
even the penetration of Turenne, and he fat down
fuddenly before the city of Bonne. Here he was
joined by the prince of Orange, who had likewife
found means to elude the vigilance of the French ge¬
nerals. Bonne furrendered in a fliort time, and
feveral other places in Cologne fell into the hands of
the allies 5 who likewife cut oft the communication
betwixt France and the United Provinces; fo that
Louis was loon obliged to recal his armies, and aban¬
don all his conquefts with greater rapidity than they
had been made. In 1674 he was abandoned by his
ally Charles II. of England, and the bilhop of Munfter
and ele&or of Cologne were compelled to renounce
their allegiance to him 5 but notwithftanding thefe
misfortunes, he continued everywhere to make head
againft his enemies, and even meditated new conquefts.
With a. powerful army he again invaded Franche
Compte in perfon, and in fix weeks reduced the whole
province to his obedience. In Alface, Turenne de¬
feated the Imperial general at Sintzheim, and ravaged
the palatinate. Seventy thoufand Germans were fur-
pnfed 5 a confiderable detachment was cut in pieces at
Mulhaufen 5 the eleftor of Brandenburg, who had
been intruded with the chief command, was routed
b7 _ 1 urenne near Colmar j a third body met with a
fimilar fate at Turkherm j and the whole German
forces were obliged at laft to evacuate the province and
repafs the Rhine.
4R
In
G E R
Germany. In confequence of thefe difafters the Imperial general
Montecueuli was recalled to a£t againft Turenne. The
military ikill of the two commanders feemed to be nearly
equal ; but before the fuperiority could be adjudged to
either, Turenne was killed by a cannon ball as he was
reconnoitring a fituation for erefting a battery. By
his death the Imperialifts obtained a decided fuperiority.
Montecuculi penetrated into Alface ; and the French,
under De Lorges nephew to the deceafed general, were
happy in being able to efcape a defeat.
Part of the German army now fat doxvn before
Treves, where they were oppofed by Marefchal Crequi;
but the negligence of that general expofed him to' fuch
a dreadful defeat, that he was obliged to fly into the
city with only four attendants. Here he endeavoured
in vain to animate the people to a vigorous defence.
The garrifon mutinied againft his authority; and,
_ ■when he refufed to fign the capitulation they made,
delivered him up prifoner to the enemy. Louis in the
mean time had taken the field in perfon againfi: the
prince of Orange ; but the difaflrous ilate of affairs in
Germany induced him to recal the prince of Conde
to make head againft Montecuculi. In this campaign
tire prince feemed to have the advantage. He com¬
pelled the Germans to raife the fieges of Hagenau and
Saverne 5 and at laft to repafs the Rhine without ha¬
ving been able to force him to a battle.
This was the laft campaign made by thefe celebrated
commanders j both of them now, contented with the
fame they had acquired, retiring from the field to
Jpend the remainder of their days in peace. The ex¬
cellent difcipline, however, which the two great French
generals had introduced into their armies, ftill conti¬
nued to make them very formidable, though it did
not always enfure them of viftory. In Germany, the
duke of Lorrain, who had recovered Philipfburgh, was
repeatedly defeated by Marefchal Crequi, who had
been ranfomed from his captivity, and become more
prudent by his defeat. In Flanders, the prince of
Orange was overmatched by the duke of Orleans and
Marfhal Luxemburg. A peace was at length con¬
cluded at Nimeguen in 1679, ^7 which the king of
i ranee fecured himfelf Franche Compte with a great
many cities' in the Netherlands ; while the king of
Sweden was reinftated in thofe places of wdiich he had
been ftripped by the Danes and Germans. This tran¬
quillity, however, was of no long duration. Louis
employed every moment in preparations for new con-
quefts; poffeffed himfelf of the imperial city of Straf-
burg by treachery 5 and difpoffeffed the eleftor Pala¬
tine and the eleftor of Treves of the lordfhips of Fal-
kemburg, Germanfheim, and Valdentz. On the moft
frivolous pretences he had demanded Aloft from the
Spaniards ; and on their refufal, feized upon Luxem¬
burg. His conduct:, in fhort, w'as fo intolerable, that
the prince of Orange, his inveterate enemy, found
means to unite the whole empire in a league againft
him. Spain and Holland became parties in the fame
eaufe and Sweden and Denmark feemed alfo inclined
to accede to the general confederacy. Notwithftand-
tng this formidable combination, however, Louis feem¬
ed ftill to have the advantage. He made himfelf ma¬
iler of the cities of Philipfburgh, Manheim, Franken-
dal, Spires, Worms, and Oppenheim : the fruitful
[ 682 ]
G E R
country of the palatinate was ravaged in a dreadful man- Germany,
ner ; the towns w^ere reduced to allies j and the people,
driven from their habitations, wrere everywhere left to
perifti through the inclemency of the weather and
W’ant of provifions. By this ciuelty his enemies u^ere
rather exafperated than vanquilhed : the Imperialifts,
under the conduft of the duke of Lorrain, refumed
their courage, and put a flop to the French conquefts.
At length all parties, weary of a deftruftive war, con-
fented to the treaty of Ryfwick in 1697. By this
treaty Louis gave up to the empire, Fribourg, Bri-
fac, Kheil, and Philipfburg ; he confented alfo to de-
ftroy the fortifications of Strafburg. Fort Louis and
Traerbach, the works of which had exhaufted the
fkill of the great Vauban, with Lorrain, Treves, and
the Palatinate, were refigned to their refpeftive
princes; infomuch that the terms to which the French
monarch now confented, after fo many vidlories, were
fuch as could fcarce have been expected under the
preflure of the greateft misfortunes. The views of
Louis, however, in confenting to this apparently hu¬
miliating treaty, were beyond the views of ordinary
politicians. The health of the king of Spain was in
fuch a declining wTay, that his death appeared to be at
hand ; and Louis now refolved to renew his preten-
llons to that kingdom, which he had formerly by
treaty folemnly renounced. His defigns in this re-
fpedl could not be concealed from the vigilance of
William III. of Britain ; of which Louis being fen-
fible, and knowing that the emperor had claims of the
fame nature on Spain, he thought proper to enter into
a very extraordinary treaty with William. This was
no lefs than the partition of the whole Spanifti domi¬
nions, which were now to be diftributed in the follow¬
ing manner. To the young prince of Bavaria were to
be afligned Spain and the Eaft Indies j the dauphin,
fon to Louis, was to have Naples, Sicily, and the pro¬
vince of Guipufcoa j while the archduke Charles, fon
to the emperor Leopold, was to have only the duchy
of Milan. By this fcandalous treaty the indignation
of Charles was roufed, fo that he bequeathed the whole
of his dominions to the prince of Bavaria. This
fcheme, however, was difconcerted by the fudden death
of the prince j upon which a new treaty of parti¬
tion was concluded between Louis and William. By
this the kingdom of Spain, together with the Eaft
India territories, were to be beftowed on the arch¬
duke Charles, and the duchy of Milan upon the duke of
Lorrain. The laft moments of the Spanifh monarch
were diflurbed by the intrigues of the rival houfes of
Auftria and Bourbon j but the haughtinefs of the Au-
ftrian minifters fo difgufted thofe of Spain, that they
prevailed upon their dying monarch to make a new
will. By this the whole of his dominions were be¬
queathed to Philip duke of Anjou, grandfon to the
king of France 5 and Louis, prompted by his natural
ambition, accepted the kingdom bequeathed to his
grandfon, excufing himfelf to his allies in the beft man¬
ner he could for departing from his engagements with
them. For this, however, he was made to pay dear.
His infatiable ambition and his former fucceffes had
alarmed all Europe. The emperor, the Dutch, and the
king of England, entered into a new confederacy
againft him 3 and a bloody war enfued, which threatened
to
\
G E R r 683 ] G E R
Germany, to overthrow the French monarchy entirely, While
this war (of which an account is given under the article
Britain) was carried on with fuch fuccefs, the empe¬
ror Leopold died in the year 1705.
He was fucceeded by his fon Jofeph, who put the
electors of Cologne and Bavaria to the ban of the em¬
pire y but being ill ferved by Prince Louis of Baden
general of the empire, the French partly recovered
their affairs, notwdthftanding their repeated defeats.
The duke of Marlborough had not all the fuccefs he
expedted or deferved. Jofeph himfelf was fufpe£led of
a deiign to fubvert the Germanic liberties 5 and it was
plain by his conduft, that he expefted England Ihould
take the labouring oar in the war, which was to be en¬
tirely carried on for his benefit. The Englifh wyere
difgufted at his flownefs and felfifhnefs : but he died in
1711, before he had reduced the Hungarians*, and
leaving no male iffue, he was fucceeded in the empire
by his brother Charles VI. wdiom the allies wTere
endeavouring to place on the throne of Spain, in oppofi-
tion to Philip duke of Anjou, grandfon to Louis XIV.
When the peace of Utrecht took place in 1713,
Charles at firft made a fhow as if he would continue the
1 war; but found himfelf unable, now that he was for-
faken by the Englifh. He therefore was obliged |o
conclude a peace with France at Baden in 1714, that
he might attend the progrefs of the Turks in Hun¬
gary 5 wrhere they received a total defeat from Prince
Eugene at the battle of Peterwaradin. They receiv¬
ed another of equal importance from the fame gene¬
ral in 1717, before Belgrade, which fell into the hands
of the Imperialifts j and next year the peace of Paffaro-
witz, between them and the Turks was concluded.
Charles employed every minute of his leifure in mak¬
ing arrangements for increafing and preferving his he¬
reditary dominions in Italy and the Mediterranean.
Happily for him, the crowm of Britain devolved to the
houfe of Hanover ; an event which gave him a very
decifive weight in Europe, by the connexions between
George I. and II. and the empire. Charles was fen-
frble of this j and carried matters with fo high a hand,
that, about the years 1724 and 1725, a breach enfued
between him and George I. and fo unfleady rvas the
fyftem of affairs all over Europe at that time, that the
capital powers often changed their old alliances, and
concluded new ones contradiffory to their interefl.
Without entering into particulars, it is fufheient to ob-
ferve, that the fafety of Hanover, and its aggrandize¬
ment, was the main objedl of the Britifh court; as that
of the emperor was the eftablifhment of the pragmatic
fanclion in favour of his daughter the (late emprefs
queen), he having no male ilfue. Mutual conceffions
upon thofe great points reflored a good underflanding
between George II. and the emperor Charles: and the
eleflor of Saxony, flattered with the view of gaining
the throne of Poland, relinquifhed the great claims he
had upon the Auftrian fucceflion.
The emperor, arter this, had very bad fuccefs in a
war he entered into with the Tui’ks, which he had un¬
dertaken chiefly to indemnify himfelf for the great fa-
crifices he had made in Italy to the princes of the houfe
of Bourbon. Prince Eugene was then dead, and he
had no general to fupply his place. The fyflem of
France, however, under Cardinal Fleury, happened at
that time to be pacific j and fhe obtained for him, from
the Turks, a better peace than he had reafon to ex- Germany.
pe6E Charles, to keep the German and other powers r*-”^
eafy, had, before his death, given his eldeft daughter,
the late emprefs queen, in marriage to the duke of
Lorrain, a prince who could bring no acceffion of
power to the Auftrian family.
Charles died in 1740 j and was no fooner in the
grave, than all he had fo long laboured for muft have
been overthrown, had it not been for the firmnefs of
George II. The young king of Pruffia entered and
conquered Silefla, which he faid had been wrongfullv
difmembered from his family. The king of Spain and
the eleftor of Bavaria fet up claims diredUy incompa¬
tible with the pragmatic fandtion, and in this they w7ere
joined by France j though all thofe powers had folemn-
ly guaranteed it. The imperial throne, after a confi-
derable vacancy, was filled up by the eledlor of Bava¬
ria, who took the title of Chavles VII. in January
1742. The French poured their armies into Bohemia,
where they took Prague ; and the queen of Hungary,
to take off the weight of Pruflia, w*as forced to cede to
that prince the molt valuable part of the duchy of Si-
lefia by a formal treaty.
Her youth, her beauty, and fufferings, and the
noble fortitude with which (he bore them, touched
the hearts of the Hungarians, into whofe arms (lie
threw herfelf and her little fon ; and though they had
been always remarkable for their difaffedtion to the
houfe of Auftria, they declared unanimoufly in her
favour. Her generals drove the French out of Bo¬
hemia 5 and George II. at the head of an Englifli and
Hanoverian army, gained the battle of Dettingen, in
1743. Charles VII. was at this time miferable on
the imperial throne, and would have given the queen
of Hungary almoft her own terms ; but (he haughtily
and impolitically rejedted all accommodationj, though
advifed to it by his Britannic majefty, her beft and
indeed only friend. This obltinacy gave a colour for
the king of Pruflia to invade Bohemia, under pretence
of fupporting the imperial dignity j but though he
took Prague, and fubdued the greateft part of the
kingdom, he was not fupported by the French ; upon
which he abandoned all his conquefts, and retired into
Silefia. This event confirmed the obftinacy of the
queen of Hungary ; who came to an accommodation
with the emperor, that (he might recover Silefia.
Soon after, his Imperial majefty, in the beginning of
the year 1745, died; and the duke of Lorrain, then
grand duke of Tufcany, confort to the queen of Hun¬
gary, after furmounting fome difficulties, was chofen
emperor.
The bad fuccefs of the allies againft the French and
Bavarians in the Low Countries, and the lofs of the
battle of Fontenoy, retarded the operations of the
emprefs queen againft his Pruflian majefty. The lat¬
ter beat the emperor’s brother, Prince Charles of Lor¬
rain, who had before driven the Pruflians out of Bo¬
hemia ; and the conduct of the emprefs queen was
(uch, that his Britannic majefty thought proper to
guarantee to him the poffeflion of Silefia, as ceded by
treaty. Soon after, his Pruflian majefty pretended
that he had difeovered a fecret convention winch had
been entered into between the emprefs queen, the em¬
prefs of Ruffia, and the king of Poland as eleftor of
Saxony, to ftrip him of his dominions, and to divide
4 & 3 them
A
G E R [ 684 ] G E R
Germany, them among themfelves. Upon this his Pruflian
majefly, very fuddenly, drove the king of Poland out
of Saxony, defeated his troops, and took poffeflion
of Drefden ; which he held till a treaty was made un¬
der the mediation of his Britannic majefty, by which
the king of Pruffia acknowledged the duke of Lor-
rain, great duke of Tufcany, for emperor. The
war, however, continued in the Low Countries, not
only to the difadvantage, but to the difcredit of the
Aullrians and Dutch, till it was finifhed by the treaty
of Aix-la-Cbapelle, in April 1748. By that treaty
Silelia was once more guaranteed to the king of Pruflia.
It was not long before that monarch’s jealouhes were
renewed and verified j and the emprefs of Ruffia’s
views falling in with thofe of the emprefs queen and
the king of Poland, who were unnaturally fupported
by France in their new fchemes, a frefh war was
kindled in the empire. The king of Pruffia declared
againlt the admiffion of the Ruffians into Germany,
and his Britannic majefly againft that of the French.
Upon thofe twTo principles all former differences be¬
tween thefe monarchs were forgotten, and the Britifh
parliament agreed to pay an annual fubiidy of 670,000!.
to his Pruffian majefty during the continuance of the
war.
The dames of war now broke out in Germany with
greater fury and more defLudtive violence than ever.
The armies of his Pruffian majefly, like an irrefiflible
torrent, burff in Saxony j totally defeated the imperial
general Brown at the battle of Lowofitz ; forced the
Saxons to lay dowm their arms, though almoft impreg-
nably fortified at Pirna ; and the elector of Saxony fled
to his regal dominions in Poland. After this, his Pruf¬
fian majefty was put to the ban of the empire j and the
French poured, by one quarter, their armies, as the
Ruffians did by another, into the empire. The con-
du£t of his Pruffian majefty on this occafion is the moft
amazing that is to be met wfith in hiftory; for a parti¬
cular account of which, fee the article Prussia.
At laft, however, the taking of Colberg by the Ruf¬
fians, and of Schweidnitz by the Auftrians, wras on the
point of completing his ruin, when his moft formidable
enemy, the emprei’s of Ruffia, died, January 5. 1762 ;
George II. his only ally, had died on the 25th of Oc¬
tober 1760.
The deaths of thofe illuftrious perfonages were fol¬
lowed by great confequences. The Britiffi miniftry
of George III. fought to finiih the war wfith honour,
and the new emperor of Ruffia recalled his armies.
His Pruffian majefty was, notwithftanding, fo very
much reduced by his Ioffes, that the emprefs queen,
probably, would have completed his deftruflion, had
it not been for the wife backwardnefs of other Ger¬
man princes, not to annihilate the houfe of Branden¬
burg. At firft the emprefs queen rejefted all terms
propofed to her, and ordered 30,000 men to be added
to her armies. The vifible backwardnefs of l^er gene¬
rals to execute her orders, and new fucceffes obtained
by his Pruffian majefty, at laft prevailed on her to agree
to an armiftice, which was foon followed by the treaty
of Hubertfburgh, which fecured to his Pruffian majefty
the poffeffion of Silefia. Upon the death of the empe¬
ror her hufband, in 1765, her fon Jofeph, who had
been crowned king of the Romans in *764, fucceeded
him in the empire.
This prince fhowed an aftive and reftlefs difpo- Germany,
fition, much inclined to extend his territories by con- " ■' v"’"
quell, and to make reformations in the internal policy
of his dominions, yet without taking any proper me¬
thods for accomplilhing his purpofes. Hence he was
almoft always difappointed 5 infomuch that he wrote
for himfelf the following epitaph : “ Here lies Jofeoh
unfortunate in all his undertakings.” In the year 1 788*
a war commenced betwixt him and the king of Pruffia j
in which, notwithftanding the impetuous valour of that
monarch, Jofeph adled with fuch caution that his ad-
verfary could gain no advantage over him 5 and an ac¬
commodation took place without any remarkable ex¬
ploit on either fide. In 1781 he took the opportunity
of the quarrel betwixt Britain and the United Provin¬
ces, to deprive the latter of the barrier towns which
had been fecured to them by the treaty of Utrecht.
Ihefe indeed had frequently been of great ufe to the
houfe of Auftria in its ftate of weaknefs ; but Jofeph,
confeious of his owm ftrength, looked upon it as dero¬
gatory to his honour to allow fo many of his cities to
remain in the hands of foreigners, and to be garrifoned
at his expence. As at that time the Dutch were unable
to refill, the. imperial orders for evacuating the barrier
towns were inftantly complied wfith ; nor did the court
of France, though then in friendihip with Holland,
make any offer to interpofe. Encouraged by this fuc-
cefs, Jofeph next demanded the free navigation of the
Scheldt ; but as this wmuld evidently have been very
detrimental to the commercial interefts of Holland, a
flat refufal was given to his requifitions. In this the
emperor was much difappointed ; having flattered him¬
felf that the Hollanders, intimidated by his powder,
would yield the navigation of the river as eafily as they
had done the barrier. Great preparations were made
by the emperor, wftiich the Dutch, on their part, feem-
ed determined to refill. But while the emperor appear¬
ed fo much fet upon this acquifition, he fuddenly aban¬
doned the projeft entirely, and entered into a new
fcheme of exchanging the Netherlands for the duchy of
Bavaria. This was oppofed by the king of Pruffia ;
and by the interference of the court of France, the em¬
peror found himfelf at laft; obliged alfo to abandon his
other fcheme of obtaining the navigation of the Scheldt.
A treaty of peace was concluded, under the guarantee
of his moft Chriftian majefty. The principal articles
were, that the ftates acknowledged the emperor’s fove-
reignty over the Scheldt from Antwerp to the limits of
Seftingen j they agreed to demolifti certain forts, and
to pay a confiderable fum of money in lieu of fome
claims.which the emperor had on Maeftricht, and by
way of indemnification for laying part of his territories
under water.
The treaty with the Dutch was no fooner concluded
than a quarrel with the Turks took place, which ter¬
minated in an open war. It does not appear that the
emperor had at this time any real provocation, but
feems to have a£led merely in confequence of his en¬
gagements with Ruffia to reduce the dominions of the
Grand Signior. All thefe foreign engagements, how¬
ever, did not in the leaft retard the progrefs of reforma¬
tion which the emperor carried on throughout his do¬
minions wfith a rapidity fcarcely to be matched, and
which at laft produced the revolt of the Auftrian Ne¬
therlands. In the courfe of his labours in this way, a
complete
G E R
[ 68
Germany, complete code of laws was compiled. Thefe were at
—/"•— firit greatly commended for their humanity, as exclud-
ing almoft entirely every fpecies of capital punifhment •,
yet, when narrowly confidered, the commutations were
found to be fo exceedingly fevere, that the rnoft cruel
death would, comparatively fpeaking, have been an aft
of mercy. Even for fmaller crimes the punifhments
were fevere beyond meafure ; but the greateii fault of
ail -was, that the modes of trial wrere very defective,
and the punilhments fo arbitrary, that the mod perfeft
and innocent character lay at the mercy of a tyrannical
iudge. The innovations in ecclefiaftical matters were,
however, molt off’enlive to his fubjefts in the Nether¬
lands. Among the many changes introduced into this
department, the following were fome of the moft re¬
markable. i. An abridgment of divine fervice. 2. A
total fuppreflion of vocal performers in choirs. 3. The
introduction of the vernacular language inltead of the
Latin in adminiftering the facraments. 4. The prohi¬
bition of chanting hymns in private houfes. c;. The
fappreflion of a great number of religious houfes, and
the reduftion of the number of the clergy. 6. The to¬
tal abolition of the papal fupremacy throughout the im¬
perial dominions. The fame fpirit of innovation dif-
played itfelf even in the moil minute matters. Many
favours were bellowed upon the Jews ; and in 1786 the
emperor wrote with his own hand to the different han¬
dicraft and trading corporations in Vienna, requeiling
that their youths might be received as apprentices in
that city. Severe laws againit gaming were enabled
and put in execution with equal rigour. Heavy reilric-
tions were alfo laid on all the focieties of free mafons in
Germany, while thofe in the Netherlands were totally
fuppreffed.
The great number of innovations in religious mat¬
ters were highly refented by the inhabitants of the Ne¬
therlands, who have always been remarkable for their
attachment to the Romilh religion in its moft fuperfti-
ticus form. Indeed the alterations in the civil confti-
tution were fo great, that even thofe who were leall bi-
gotted in this refpeft began to fear that their liberties
were in danger, and an univerfal diffatisfaftion wTas
excited. The emperor behaved at firft in a very
haughty manner, and refufed to yield the fmalleft point
to the folicitations of his fubjefts. Finding, howT-
ever, that a general revolt w7as about to take place,
and being unable at that time, on account of the Turk-
iih war, to fpare fuch a force as would be neceffary to
reduce the provinces to obedience, he thought proper, in
the autumn of 1787, to promife a reiforation of their
ancient conflitution and privileges. His promifes, how¬
ever, were found to be fo delufive, and his conduft wras
fo arbitrary and capricious, that in the end of the year
1789 the Hates of all the provinces in the Auftrian Ne¬
therlands came to a refolution of entirely throwing off
the yoke. Articles of a federal union were drawm up,
and a new republic was formed under the title of the
Belgic Provinces. The lituation of the emperor’s affairs
at that time did not allow him to take the meafures ne¬
ceffary for preventing this revolt; to which perhaps his
his ill ftate of health alfo contributed. About the be¬
ginning of February 1790 his diftemper increafed to
fuch a degree as to be thought dangerous ; and continu-
ipg daily to grow worfe, he funk under it on the 20th
5 ] G E R
of the fame month, in the 40th year of his age, and 26th Germany ^
of his reign. ‘”-'v
The leaders of the Auftrian revolution, however,
foon became fo difagreeable to their countrymen, that
they were obliged to dy ; and the congrefs, which had
been eltabliihed as the fupreme legillative body, beha¬
ved with fuch tyranny, that they became generally de-
teffed. Meantime, the late emperor was lucceeded
by his brother Peter Leopold Jofeph, grand duke of
Tufcanyj under whofe adminiffration matters have
taken a more favourable turn. Ey his witdom, mode¬
ration, and humanity, he has already in a great meaiure
retrieved the bad confequences of his predeceffor’s con¬
duft, having made peace with the Ottomans, and re¬
gained the allegiapce of the Netherlands j and upon the
whole feems to be aftuated not more by a fenfe of his
own rights, than by a regard to the rights and happinefs
of his fubjefts.
At prefent, Germany is bounded on the north by
the Baltic fea, Denmark, and the German ocean j
on the eaft, by Pruffia, Hungary, and Poland; and on
the welt, by the Low Countries, Lorrain, and Franche
Compte : fo that it now comprehends the Palatinate of
Cologne, Triers, and Liege, wdiich formerly belonged
to the Gauls •, and is difmembered of Frielland, Gronin¬
gen, and Overyffel, which are now incorporated with
the Low Countries. 2I
Since the time of Charles the Great, this country has Situation,
been divided into High and Low Germany. The firft extent, &c.
comprehends the Palatinate of the Rhine, Franconia,
Suabia, Bavaria, Bohemia, Moravia, Auftria, Carin-man^"
thia, Carniola, Stiria, the Swifs, and the Grifons. The
provinces of Lowt Germany are, the Low Country of
the Rhine, Triers, Cologne, Mentz, Weftphalia, Hefle,
Brunfwick, Mifnia, Lufatia, High Saxony upon the
Elbe, Low Saxony upon the Elbe, Mecklenburg, Lu¬
nenburg, Brandenburg, and Pomerania. 22
Monarchy was firft eftablifhed in Germany by CIo- Conftitu-
dovick: after him Charlemagne extended his power . f t^c
and his dominions j and fo great had the empire be-em^ire
come, that during his reign, and that of his fon, go¬
vernment was adminiftered in the provinces by perfons •
veiled with power for that purpofe under the title of
Dukes. In the diftrifts of thefe provinces, juftice was
diftributed By a conies or count, which officer was in
Germany called Graf. But from their courts lay an
appeal to that of the emperor, before a prelident ftyfed
Comes Palatinus, that is, “ Count Palatine, or of the
palace,” in German denominated Pfahgraf. The
frontiers or marches Mere governed by a marquis,
ftyled by the Germans Markgraf fimilar to our lord
tvarden. Generally the centre of the empire was ruled
by an officer who poffeffed a fimilar pou-er, but a greater
extent of dominion, than the Grave, under the title of
Landgrave. Towns and caftles, which were occafion-
ally honoured with the refidence of the emperor, were
governed by a Burggraf. It may be remarked, that
the fignification of the above-mentioned titles, and the
extent of power which they conferred upon the perfons
honoured Mrith them, differ according to the fucceffive
ages and the gradual developement of the German con-
ftitution.
By reafon of family broils in the imperial houfe, and
civil wars in their dominions, the dignity of the fove-
reign.
G E R [6
,Gcr^any-, reign ms deprefied, and a new form in the govern¬
ment raifed up. The dukes exalted themfelves above
the power of the emperor, and fecured for their fons a
fucceflion to their greatnefs } while the intereil of
the fovereign, in order to ftrengthen the bond of per-
fbnal attachment, ratified to others and their defeend-
ants that fway which had been formerly delegated
and dependant on his will. Hence arofe the modern
conftitution of difiinft principalities, acknowledging
one head in the perfon of an emperor. But thortly
after the eleclion of Conrade duke of Franconia to the
throne, this new-gained authority of the princes be¬
came doubtful. However, after moll violent difturb-
ances and confufions, the regulations yielded to by
Albert II. and his luccefibrs, particularly by Frede¬
rick III. laid the foundation of the German conllitu-
tion ; but the powTer and form of which were after¬
wards improved by Maximilian. Before Charles V.
mounted the throne, on the death of Maximilian, the
Cieflors formed a bulwark again!! the Imperial power,
by an inftrument called the capitulation; to which ar¬
ticles of government he and all emperors defied fince
have [worn, previous to their inveftiture with the Impe-
rial dignity.
Of the elec- Yvhen the German monarchy received an eleflive
form, the right of eleflion was not limited to the great
officers of date, for other princes participated of this
privilege. But the empire being governed by four
dukes, the princes under their authority, in order to
court their favour, gave to them the difpofal of their
votes, and of thofe of their vaffals. The three arch-
biffiops alfo, who were neceffarily prefent at the coro¬
nation, obtained the elefloral dignity. However, be-
fide this origin of the modern eleflors, the high da-
lions about court procured their poffeffors an influence
over other members, and their general refidence there
gave them a folid advantage in their condant and early
prefence at the diet of eledion. For in times of turbu¬
lence feveral emperors were defied, when the princes had
not an opportunity to attend. And hence fprung up
a fanflion to that right, which the high officers of the
houfehold had affumed, of elefling without any con-
fultation of the other members of the empire. Pope
Gregory X. too, either conceiving that they did pof-
fefs, or willing that they fliould acquire, this right, ex¬
horted them in a bull to terminate the troubles of Ger¬
many by elefling an emperor. And fince that period
they have been held as the foie eleflors. But the pof-
feffion of this high power was drengthened by a league
amongd themfdves, called the eleEloral union, which
received additional confirmation from the emperor Louis
of Bavaria, and was formally and fully ratified by that
famous conditution of Charles IV. termed the golden
bull; accoiding to which, the territories and the high
officers by which the defloral dignity is conveyed,
mud defeend according to the right of primogeniture
and are indivifible.
The golden bull declares the following number and
titles of the eleflors: The archbifliop of Mentz as
great chancellor of the German empire j the eleflor of
Cologne as great chancellor of the empire in Italy ;
the eleflor of Triers as great chancellor of the empire
in Gaul and Arles; the king of Bohemia as cup¬
bearer ; the count Palatine as high deward j the duke
of Saxony as grand marffial; the margrave of Branden-
l
86 ] G E It
Lurg as grand chamberlain. The number originally Germany.
was ieven, but the emperor Leopold created the duke  v——
of. Lunenburg, ancedor to our prefent Britifli fove-
reign, an eleflor 5 to whom the pod of arch-treafurer
was afterwards given ; and thus Hanover forms the
eighth deflorate. But this number cannot be increa-
fed by the emperor without a previous eleflion by the
eleflors themfelves j who, thus capable ofeledingand
of being elected, may dyle themfelves Coimperantes; and
they exercife part of the imperial authority, if a vacan- 24
cy of the throne happen. But when or before this Election of
occurs, the eleflion of the emperor is proceeded to af-theemPe-
ter the following manner: The eleflor of Mentz, be-rOT‘
fore the hofe of a month after the death of the empe¬
ror, fummons, as great chancellor of the empire, the
red of the eleflors to attend on fome fixed day within
the fpace of three months from the date of the ffimmons.
The eleflors generally fend their ambaffiadors to the
place of eleflion, which is held at Frankfort on the
Mayne; but faving the right of the city of Frankfort,
it may be held elfewhere.
When the diet of eleflors is affembled, they proceed
to compofe the capitulation, to wffiich the emperor
when defied is to fwear. The capitulation being ad-
jufled, the deflor of Mentz appoints a day for the
deflion. When this day arrives, the gates of the city
are ffiut, and the keys delivered to the eleflor of Mentz.
The eleftors or their ambaffadors, Protedants except¬
ed, repair in great pomp to mafs 5 and after its cele¬
bration they take a folemn oath to choofe, unbiafled
and uninfluenced, the perfon that appears mod proper
for the imperial dignity. After this they repair to
the facridy, where, the eleflor of Mentz fird aiks, if
there be any impediment known againd their proceed-
ing at prefent to an eleflion ; and next he obtains a
promife, that the perfon defied by the majority ffiall
be received as emperor. The declarations of the elec¬
toral ambaffadors, in refpefl to thofe two points, are
recorded by two notaries of the empire. Then all
witneffes withdraw ; and the eleflor of Mentz collefl-
ing the fuftrages, which are viva voce, and giving his
own lad, the witneffes are recalled, and he declares the
perfon wffiom the eleflors have chofen. But the elec¬
tion is not complete, nor is the new' emperor pro¬
claimed, until the capitulation be fworn to either by
himfelf or by his ambaffadors if he be ab(ent. From
this time he is dyled king of the Romans until the co¬
ronation takes place $ wffiich ceremony confers the
title of emperor. According to the golden bull, it
fliould ..be celebrated at Aix-la-Chapelle, out of re¬
fpefl. to Charlemagne, who redded there; but faving
the right to Aix-la Chaplle, it may take place dfe-
where. The coronation is performed by the archbilhop
of Mentz or eleflor of Cologne. And, when he is
feated on his throne, the duke of Saxony delivers in¬
to his hand the fword of Charles the Great, with
which he makes fome knights of the holy Roman em¬
pire, and is alfo obliged to confer that honour upon
fuch others as are nominated by the refpeflive elec¬
tors. When he proceeds to dinner in the great hall,
he is feated at a table elevated two deps higher than
that of the eleflors, and is ferved by counts of the em¬
pire. The eleflors, each of whom has alfo his table,
are attended by the gentlemen of their refpeclive
courts. Thefe eleflors, who affiff perfonally at the ce-
remouv
G E R [ 687 ] G E R
Germany, rernony, fit and eat at their own tables} but thofe who
v are reprefented by aipbalTadors have only their tables
covered out of form with plates, at which the ambaifa-
dors do not fit.
lor the benefit of the empire during the reign of
an emperor, his prefumptive lucceflbr may be ele&ed
king of the Romans. Rut this eleftion confers at firft
a mere title j for by an expreis article in his capitula¬
tion, the king of the Romans fwears not to interfere with
the government during the life of the emperor j but on
his deceafe, the coronation confirms him emperor with¬
out a fecond eleflion.
Should there not be a king of the Romans, and the
throne become vacant, the government is adminiftered
by vicars of the empire, who are the ele&ors Palatine
and of Saxony, as count palatine and arch-marfhal of
the empire. Each has his dillridl and tribunal of the
vicariate 5 and by the golden bull it is eftablilhed, that
all a£ts of the vicars are valid •, but they are all fully
confirmed by the emperor; which confirmation, by an
article of his capitulation, he is bound to give.
There are alio vicars of the emperor. Thefe officers
are conftituted by a delegation of the imperial power
from the emperor to any prince of the empire, when
he is unable to execute his authority himfelf. But
thefe vicars {land accountable to the emperor j their
adds may be annulled and their offices revoked, all de¬
pendent on the will of the emperor, and determinable
at his pleafure.
When the race of Charlemagne ceafed to govern in
Germany, the princes and fiates afibciated to continue
the empire ; and that its majelfy might be vilible, and
its laws enforced, they agreed to choofe an emperor.
From this emperor all eleddors and princes except thofe
before 1582 receive inveftiture of their dominions; counts
and free cities from the Aulic council. But this in¬
veftiture is no more than a fign of fubmiflion to the ma-
jefty of the empire, which is depoftted in the emperor.
For as the conftituted members of the empire are de¬
pendent on that coliedive union from which they de-
% rive protedion, they therefore fhow this dependence on
the emperor, bpcaufe he reprefents the majefty of that
union or of that empire 5 but in all other refpeds they
are independent and free.
Thefe princes or fovereigns may even wage war
with the prince wearing the imperial crown, as pof-
feffed of other titles and dominions unconneded with
his imperial ftation. Nor can the fovereignty of any
member be aflFeded fo long as be remains loyal to the
empire j which loyalty ccnftitutes his duty, and fecures
him its protedion. But fhould he be guilty of any
violation againft the emperor, as head of the empire,
fijch a crime would commit him to the punilhment of
its laws, and he would be put under the ban. For
this crime would be againft that coliedive body of fo¬
vereigns whofe union conftitutes the empire 5 and there¬
fore any violation of that union is juftly punilhed with
deprivation of thefe territories which render fuch fo-
vereigns members of the empire. Nor can this pu¬
nilhment of the ban derogate from the dignity of thofe
princes who derive their fovereignty from this confti-
tiition, and whofe fubjedion is an ad of their own
confent. However, no member of the empire can at
prefent be put under the ban without- being firft heard,
and without the concurrence of the eledors, princes, Germany,
and ftates, being previoufly obtained. —
The emperor is endowed with many privileges, and p0WefS 0f
his power partly appears in the exercife of his referved the empe-
rights, or the peculiar prerogatives annexed to the im- mr.
perial dignity. He grants to princes the inveftiture of
their dominions j but to this he is bound as the laws
dired. He confers titles, but promifes that they
ftiall be beftowed only on fuch perfons as will maintain
their dignity, and can fupport their rank. Befide, he
can give merely the title ; for the power or privilege
of prince or count can be obtained only from their re-
Ipedive bodies. But in fome inftances, even titles are
of high importance. For the defcendants of a prince
are incapable of fucceflion, if their mother be of in¬
ferior rank to their father ; but the conferring of a title
ennobles her and removes the bar, if the collateral line
confents.
The emperor can alfo make cities, found univer-
fities, grant the privilege of fairs, &cc. He can alfo
difpenfe with the tedious terms of minority, and em¬
power princes to affume at an earlier age_the govern¬
ment of their own dominions. He decides all rank
and precedency, and has a power of prim a: preces, that
is, of granting lor once in every chapter of the em¬
pire a vacant feat. But he is not above the law j for
eledors have not only chofen but depofed emperors.
However, the influence of the capitulation is to pre¬
vent fuch rigorous proceedings : but Ihould the capi¬
tulation be violated, the college of eledors might pro¬
ceed to remonftrance j and if thefe remonftrances (hould
be without elfed, in conjundion witli the diet, they
might refbrt to more forcible remedies.
The diet is that affembly of the ftates in which the Diet of the
legillative power of the empire refides 5 and is compof- empire,
ed of the eledors, princes, prelates, counts, and free
cities of the empire. It has fat fince 1663, and
is held ufually at Ratiftxm. The emperor, when pre¬
fent, prelides in perfon 5 when abfent, by his commif-
fary, whofe communication of propofals from the
emperor to the alfembly is called the commiflbrial de¬
cree. The eledor of ]\ientz, as chancellor of the
empire, is diredor of the diet 5 and to his chancery
are all things addrefted that are to be fubmitted to
the empire 5 the reading of which by his fecretary to
the fecretaries of the other minifters at the diet is de¬
nominated per didlaturam, and conftitutes the form of
tranfmitting papers or memorials to the didature of
the empire.—The diet is compofed of three diftind:
colleges, each of which has its particular diredor.
The firft college is that of eledors ) of which the arch-
bilhop of Mentz is diredor as firft eledor. The fecond
college is that of princes. It confifts of princes, arch-
biihops, and bifhops; and of prelates, abbots, and
counts, who are not confidered as princes. Each prince
fpiritual and temporal has a vote, but prelates and
counts vote by benches. The prelates are divided in¬
to two benches, the counts into four ; and each bench
has only one vote. The archduke of Auftria and the
archbilhop of Saltzburg are alternately diredors of
the college of princes. The third college is that of
the free cities of the empire 5 the diredor of which
is the mirifter of the city in which the diet happens
to fit.
Ili *
G E R [ 688 ] G E R
• In all thefe colleges, the fentiments of the majority
are conclufive, except in refpeft of fundamental laws,
which affect the whole empire, or fuch matters as relate
to religion. In thefe they mull be unanimous.
Where religion is intereffed, the proceedings are
alfo different. The colleges are then conlidered as
confiding of two bodies, the evangelic and the catho¬
lic ; and if any religious point be propofed, it muft
meet not only the unanimous concurrence of the pro-
poling body, but mud have the majority of the other
to cdablifh it. I his didincHon aroie from a conjunc¬
tion called the evangelic body ; which was formed by
the Protedant dates and princes to guard the Pro-
tedant intercd in Germany, by watching over the
laws for the fecurity of their religion, and, in cafe
of violation, by obtaining redrefs from the imperial
throne. For in any part of the empire, as in the pa¬
latinate, where.the count is a Papid and the fubjefts
are Proteftants, diould opprellions arife, application
would be made to the evangelic body through the di¬
rector. 7 he eleCtor of Saxony is director of the evan¬
gelic body, though he is a Papid : but therefore his
reprefentations in favour of the Protedants have more
force 5 and befide, lliould he abufe an office which in¬
verts him with confderable weight and influence, he
could be inftantly deprived of it.
The firft two colleges are dyled fuperior, and in ef-
feCf conditute the diet: for all points that come be¬
fore the diet, are generally fird deliberated in the col¬
lege of electors, and pafs from that to the college of
princes; in which, if any objection arife, a free con¬
ference takes place between the directors of each col¬
lege. And ffiould they, in confequence of this free
conference, concur, they invite the third college to
accede to their joint opinion ; which invitation is ge¬
nerally complied with : but diould this College return a
refufal, the opinion of the other two colleges is in fome
few cafes engrofled in the chancery, and delivered to
the emperor’s commiflary as the opinion of the empire.
The opinion of the third college is merely mentioned
at the clofe. However, though the fuperior colleges
do in effeCl conftitute the diet; yet the received maxim
m, that no two colleges conditute a majority, that is,
the majority of voices at the diet ; .nor can the empe¬
ror confirm the opinion of two colleges as an opinion
of the diet. By the peace of Wedphalia, a decifive
vote was recognized as a right of the imperial cities,
which the two fuperior colleges ffiould not infringe
upon ; their vote being, by the fundamental law, of
equal weight with that of the electors and princes.
After a meafure is approved of by the colleges, it
is fubmitted to his Imperial majedy to receive Ins ne¬
gative or confirmation. Should he approve the point,
it is publiffied in his name as the refolution of the em¬
pire, which dates are exhorted to obey, and tribunals
defired to confider as fuch.
'The diet not only makes and explains laws, but de¬
cides ambiguous cafes. It mud alfo be confulted be¬
fore war is made ; appoints the field marfiial who is to
command the army, and afligns him his council of
war. The diet alfo enters into and makes alliances,
but ufually empowers the emperor to negotiate them ;
and foreign dates have their ambafiadors at the diet
but the diet fends no minifters to foreign courts.
2
In the origin of the empire, juftice was adminirtered Germany,
in the diftridts of the provinces by counts, and appeals “—v—■"'*
lay from their courts to that of the emperor before the , 27.
count palatine. But as civil broils ffiook the power ftVa?ion of
of the emperor, they interrupted alfo the courfe ofiuftice, &e.
juftice. . The confequent inconveniences caufed feveraf
felicitations to be preferred from the ftates to different
emperors for the eftablithment of a court of juftice,
which diould take cognizance oc great as well as fmall
caufes. And at length fuch a court was creeled by
Maximilian I. under the title of the Imperial Chamber
at Worms, in the year 1495; but was removed to
Spires in 1533, and to Wetzlar in 1696, where it is
now held. The members of this court are a judge of
the chamber and 25 affeffors, partly Proteftants partly
Bapifts. The prefident is appointed by the emperor,
the aileffors by the ftates. The court receives appeals
from inferior jurifdidrions, and decides dubious titles ;
and all caufes before it between prince and prince, or
princes and private perfons, are adjudged according to
the laws of the refpedtive parties, or according to the
Imperial law. The tribunal is under the infpcdHon
of vifitors appointed by the ftates ; and, during their
vifitation, the fentences of the court are fubjecl to re-
vifion. Appeals lie afterwards alfo from the judgment
of the vifitors to that of the diet.
The emperors finding themfelves deprived of many uj.25
of their powers, wiftied to raife their prerogatives cpU 1C C(nin''
by forming a tribunal, of which they Ihould name the
judge, and before whom caufes in the laft refort fhould
come. But Maximilian forefaw, in refpedt to the
new tribunal, that though a confcioufnefs of its im¬
portance made the ftates ftruggle for its eredtion, the
expences of its eftabliihment would make them negledl
its lupport; and the event bore witnefs to his fagacity.
But when, through the omiffions and negligence of
the ftates, there happened to be a ceffation in the di-
ftribution of juftice by the Imperial chamber, he re¬
vived his court of the count Palatine, or Aulic coun¬
cil. And in order to gain the quiet acquiefcence of
the ftates, under the malk of a partition of power, and
of generous moderation, he defired them to add eight
to the number of affeffors, and the falaries of all ffiould
be difeharged by him. The ftates fwallowed the bait,
but foon perceived that they had loft part of their li¬
berty.
'The emperor, by keeping the tribunal always open,
by filling its feats with men of firft-rate talents, and
by having its fentences duly and fpeedily executed,
drew all caufes before it. The ftates remonftrated,
declaring, that the Imperial chamber ought to be not
only the fupreme, but foie tribunal of that kind. The
emperor anfwered, that he had erected the Imperial
chamber in confequence of their folicitations ; but as
they had not fupplied the tribunal with judges, he pro¬
vided for that deficiency by a conftant adminiftration
of juftice in the eftabliffiment of another.
The Aulic council now fabfifts with equal authority,
each receiving appeals from inferior jurifdidtions ; but
neither appealing to the other, as the dernier refort from
both muft be had to the diet. However, to the Aulic
council belong the referved rights of the emperor ; and
to the Imperial chamber alfo are annexed peculiar
powers. The Imperial chamber fubfifts during a va¬
cancy
C, E R
Germany, cancy of tlie tlirone under the authority of the vicars
of the empire ; whereas the Aulic council does not
exift until appointed by the fucceeding emperor.
1 he Aulic council confilts of a prefident, vice prefi-
dcnt, and i y aileffors, of whom fix are Proteftants.
The vice chancellor of the empire is alfo entitled to a
feat; and all decrees iffuing from the council pafs
through his hands to thofe who are to execute them.
I his tribunal obtains for the emperor, through the ap¬
peals from the courts of other princes, a new authority
befide that which he pofleffes from his referved rights;
but electors and fome princes, as thofe of Hanover,
Auftria, Brunfwick, Swedifii Pomerania, Heffe, are free
from this dependence on the emperor, to whofe Aulic
council their fubjedls cannot appeal; nor can it take
cognizance of ecclefiaftical or criminal caufes, both of
w^hich appertain to territorial juftice ; which we ftiall
prefently confider when we have furveyed the executive
inftrument of Imperial juftice.
The divifion of the empire into circles is a regula¬
tion coeval with the eftablifhment of the Imperial
chamber by Maximilian, in order to ftrengthen the
arm of juftice with vigour to enforce its decrees. The
original divifion was into fix circles, which are called
the ancient circles ; and are, Bavaria, Franconia, Suabia,
Lower Saxony, the Upper Rhine, and Weftphalia;
but the powerful princes, who at firft declined bring¬
ing their dominions under the form of circles, were
led by a political finefte of the emperors to adopt the
regulation, and increafe the number to ten, by forming
the four new circles of Auftria, Burgundy, the Ele&o-
rate circle, and Upper Saxony.
_ Over thefe circles prefide directors, to whom the
tribunals of juftice commit the execution of their de¬
crees. The fix old circles have two dire&ors each
the four new have one each. The office of direftor is
permanent and hereditary, as it belongs always to the
firft prince in the circle, upon wffiom it confers high au¬
thority ;. for all the decrees of the Imperial chamber
and Aulic council are of no avail unlefs the dire&or will
execute them.
_L he diredlors of the circles are not only inftruments
of w-ar but of peace: for in cafe of an Imperial w7ar,
they are to colleft the troops of the circle ; and if any
ftate or prince of their refpeaive circles fuffers violation
from others, they are to yield proteftion and enforce
the peace ; or Ihould there be any tumultuous uprifings
°^r^be people, the fuppreffion of luch belongs to them.
The emperor is the executive inftrument of the
whole empire; the dire&ors are fuch of the conftitu-
tive parts called circles. The profperity and fecurity
of which being at flake, the dire&ors, as prefidents,
muft hold frequent diets in their refpedlive circles, in
order to confult on and adopt falutary meafures for
their fafety and welfare : but as the interefts of thofe
near to us are generally fo intimately blended with our
own, that the good of either cannot be purfued with¬
out the mutual concurrence of both, there arife nego¬
tiations on particular points between the diets of dif¬
ferent circles, which are therefore jtyled confederate
circles; and thefe negotiations being more frequent
amongft the. circles of the Upper and Lower Rhine,
or Weftphalia, they are denominated the correlponding
circles. 5
Every prince is fovereign in his own country ; and
Vol. IX. Part II, ?
r 689 ]
(5 E R
may enter into alliances, and purfue by all political GewKsny?
meafures his owm private intereft, as other fovereigns  
do; for if even an imperial war be declared, he may p 29 ..
remain neuter if the fafety of the empire be not at flake. the^Ger-
Each ft ate or fovereign appoints in general three man prin-.
colleges for its government. The firft is the geheimde- ces*
rath, or privy council; the fecond is the regierung, or
regency; the third the rcnthcammer, or chamber of
finances. Each of thefe has a prefident; and a mem¬
ber of the firft college is always prefident of the fe¬
cond..—The geheimderath reprefents the prince, and
fuperintends the other two. The regierung regulates
limits of territories, holds conferences with other prin¬
ces, and is in moft countries a court of juftice : how¬
ever, in fome ftates there is alfo a court of juftice call-
jujlit% department. And befides the right of confe¬
rences affigned to the regierung by the fovereign, when
there are difputes between princes, there is alio an au-
frage, or arbitration appointed in order to decide them.
Attention muft be paid to this privilege of princes,
who muft be called on to appoint an auftrage before
refort be had to the Imperial tribunal, but to which
there ftiH lies an appeal from the judgment of the au¬
ftrage.. The renthcammer attends to\he regulation of
domains and eftates, to the territorial revenues, and
management of the taxes.
Every fovereign or prince is arbitrary in laws of po¬
licy, but . not of revenue ; for no new tax or impoft
can be laid on his country without the confent of the
nobles and fubjecls. For this purpofe, on the land
tag, or . day on which his fubjedts are to be convened,
which is once in the period of four or five years, and
at no other time can he affemble them, he calls toge-
tner the nobles and commiflaries or deputies of the
towns of his dominions. The nobles ufually attend
in perion, but may fend reprefentatives. To this af-
fembly the prince propofes the taxes, &c. and a majo-
rity_ of voices difpofes of the meafures.
n Villages, though confiderable, fend no deputies to
this aflembly.; becaufe they are either already repre-
fented by their refpe<5tive lords, or becaufe they rank
too low, being in a ftate of vafialage when compared
to towns : for their inhabitants muft mend highways,
and can be impreffed as foldiers ; from both of which
inhabitants of towns are exempt.
On the land tag, the refpe&ive quotas alfo of each
place are fixed, in order to difeharge the prince’s con¬
tingent in cafe of an Imperial war.
There is no fixed Handing army of the empire ; but c
the various ftates furnifti their quotas purfuant to the Miliury
agreement of .1681, w hen called upon by the diet in force and
cafe of war, viz.  1 ~
Upper Saxony
Lower Saxony
Weftphalia
Upper Rhine
Lower Rhine
Burgundy
Franconia
Auftria -
Bavaria
Suabia
Fact.
2707
2707
2707
2853
2707
2707
1902
5507
1494
2707
Horfe.
1321
1321
1321
491
6op
1321
980
2521
80 a
1321
annual re«
venue.
Total
4S
27,998 11,997
The
G E R [ 690 J G E R
Gemiany. The whole number of forces in the fervice of the feve-
» ral German princes has been ftated at half a million j
others calculate, that the ecclefiaftical princes can fur-
nilh 74,500 men, the temporal princes 379,000, and
the emperor 90,000, as head of the houfe of Auftria.
Total 543,500.
The revenue accruing to the emperor as fuch in
time of peace, is very trifling, only about 20,000
crowns, being the contributions of a few imperial
towns } but in cafe of wTar, extraordinary aids, called
Roman Months, laid on by the diet, are contributed by
the different circles at the following rate for railing
Bullions of florins, viz.
31
Produc¬
tions and
fGuamerce.
^ 32
CfKaradter
of the an¬
cient Ger¬
mans.
Upper Saxony
Lower Saxony
Weftphalia
Upper Rhine
Lower Rhine
Burgundy
Franconia
Auftria
Bavaria
Suabia
Flevins.
156,360
156,360
156,360
101,41 1
105,654
156,360
113,481
306,390
91,261
156,36°
Xtr.
*5
15
3°
5
'5
25
20
5
*5
Total 1,499,997 40
The actual revenue of all Germany has been calculated
at nearly 18,000,000!. fterlirg, or 100 millions of dol¬
lars.
From the great extent of the empire, every variety
of foil is to be met with ; but it is upon the whole
more fertile than otherwife. The middle parts are
molt produftive in corn and cattle ; the fouthern abound
with excellent wines and fruits. The northern parts,
from their coldnefs, are rather unfavourable to vege¬
tation j however, agriculture throughout improves ex¬
ceedingly. Their mines, though early explored, Hill
continue great fources of wealth. They produce, ex¬
cepting tin, almoft every mineral. Of quickfilver, one
mine alow.e is computed to yield 50,000 pounds weight
a-year. They furnilh the fineft fort of clay for porce¬
lain, and have excellent and extenfive fait works.
From the central fituation of Germany, its com¬
merce with the reft of Europe is very extenfive. Its
minerals are decidedly the firft native articles for trade;
after which its medicinal waters, fait, hemp, flax, linen,
lilk, wines, fruits, corn, cattle, fluffs, cloths, timber,
porcelain, wrought iron and fteel, drugs, oil, and co¬
lours, are the principal. The artizans furnilhed by
the revocation of the edi& of Nantz, enable Germany
no longer to ftand in need of the wrought filks of other
countries. Great commercial fairs ftill exift in Ger¬
many, and it is confidered upon the whole that the
balance of trade is in its favour.
With regard to the chara&er of the ancient Ger¬
mans, they are defcribed to us by the Greek and Ro¬
man waiters as referabling the Gauls •, and differing
from other nations by the largenefs of their ftature,
ruddy complexion, blue eyes, and yellow buftiy hair,
haughty and threatening looks, ftrong conftitutions,
and being proof againft hunger, cold, and all kinds of
hard (hip.
Their native difpofition difplayed itfelf chiefly in
their martial genius, and in theix lingular fidelity.
The former of thefe they did indeed carry to fuch an Germany,
excefs as came little fhort of downright ferocity j —
but, as to the latter, they not only valued themfelves
highly upon it, but were greatly efteemed by other
nations for it j infomuch that Auguftus, and feveral
of his fucceffors, committed the guard of their per-
fons to them, and almoft all other nations either court¬
ed their friendlhip and alliance, or hired them as auxi¬
liaries 5 though it muft be owned, at the fame time,
that their extreme love of liberty, and their hatred of
tyranny and oppreffion, have often hurried -them to
treachery and murder, efpecially when they have
thought themfelves ill ufed by thofe wTho hired them ;
for in all fuch cafes they were eafily ftirred up, and
extremely vindi&ive. In other cafes, Tacitus tells us,
they w^ere noble, magnanimous, and beneficent, with¬
out ambition to aggrandize their dominions, or invad¬
ing thofe from whom they received no injury ; rather
choofing to employ their ftrength and valour defenlive-
ly than offenfively j to preferve their own, than to ra¬
vage their neighbours.
'iheir friendlhip and intercourfe was rather a com¬
pound of honeft bluntnefs and hofpitality, than of
wit, humour, or gallantry. All ftrangers were fure
to meet with a kind reception from them to the ut-
moft of their ability : even thofe who wfere not in a
capacity to entertain them, made it a piece of duty
to introduce them to thofe wdio could j and nothing
was looked upon as more fcandalous and deteftable,
than to refufe them either the one or the other. They
do not feem, indeed, to have had a tafte for grand and
elegant entertainments ; they affeded in every thing,
in their houfes, furniture, diet, &c. rather plainnefs
and fimplicity, than fumptuoufnefs and luxury. If
they learned of the Romans and Gauls the ufe of money,
it was rather becaufe they found it more convenient
than their ancient way of bartering one commodity for
another ; and then they preferred thefe ancient coins
which had been ftamped during the times of the Ro¬
man liberty, efpecially fuch as wTere either milled or cut
in the rims, becaufe they could not be fo eafily cheated
in them as in fome others, which were frequently no¬
thing but copper or iron plated over with filver. This
laft metal they likewife preferred before gold, not
becaufe it made a greater fhow, but becaufe it was more
convenient for buying and felling : And as they be¬
came in time more feared by, or more ufeful to, the
Romans j fo they learned how to draw enough of it
from them to fupply their whole country, befides what
flowed to them from other nations.
As they defpifed fuperfluities in other cafes, fo
they did alfo in the connubial way : every man wras
contented with one wife, except fome few of their
nobles, who allowTed themfelves a plurality, more for
fliow than pleafure j and both were fo faithful to each
other, and chafte, true, and difinterefted, in their
conjugal affe6Hon, that Tacitus prefers their manners
in this refpeft to thofe of the Romans. The men
fought not dowries from their wives, but beftowed
them upon them. Their youth, in thofe cold climes,
did not begin fo foon to fed the warmth of love as
they do in hotter ones : it was a common rule with
them not to marry young ; and thofe wrere moft
efteemed who continued longed in celibacy, becaufe
they looked upon it as an effectual means to make
them
rail.
GEE. [69
Germany, t^em grow tall and flrong •, and to mErry, or be eon-
' cemed with a woman, before they were full 20 years
old, was accounted fhameful wantonnefs. The wo¬
men *'{hared with their hufbands not only the care
of the family, and the education of their children,
but even the hardihips of war. They attended them
in the held, cooked the victuals for them, dreffed
their wounds, ftirred them up to fight manfully agamft
their enemies, and fometimes have, by their courage
and bravery, recovered a victory when it was upon
the point of being fnatched from them. In a word,
they looked upon luch conftant attendance on them,
r.ot as a fervitude, like the Roman dames, but as a
duty and an honour. But what appears to have been
ftill a harder fate upon the ancient German dames
was, that their great Odin excluded all thofe from
his valhalla or paradife, who did not, by fome violent
death, follow their deceafed hufbands thither. Yet
notwithflanding their having been anciently in fuch
high repute for their wifdom and fuppofed fpirit of
prophecy, and their continuing fuch faithful and ten¬
der helpmates to their hufbands, they funk in time fo
low in their efteem, that, according to the old Saxon
law, he that hurt or killed a woman was to pay but
half the fine that he (hould have done, if he had hurt
or killed a man.
Yh«or fune- There is fcarcely any one thing In which the Ger¬
mans, though fo nearly allied in molt of their other
cuftoms to the Gauls, were yet more oppofite to them
than in their funerals. Thofe of the latter were per¬
formed with great pomp and profufion 5 thofe of the
former were done with the fame plainnefs and fimplicity
which they obfe.rved in all other things} the only gran-
d«ur they affedted in them was, to burn the bodies of
their great men with fome peculiar kinds of wood 5 but
then the funeral pile was neither adorned with the clothes
and other fine furniture of the deceafed, nor perfumed
with fragrant herbs and gums : each man’s armour,
that is, his fword, fhield, and fpear, were flung into
it, and fometimes his riding horfe. The Danes, in¬
deed, flung into the funeral pile of a prince, gold,
filver, and other precious things, which the chief
mourners, who walked in a gloomy guife round the
fire, exhorted the by Handers to fling liberally into it
in honour of the deceafed. They aft rwards depofited
their allies in urns, like the Gauls, Romans, and other
nations} as it plainly appears, from the vail numbers
which have been dug up all over the country, as well
as from the fundry diflertations which have been writ¬
ten upon them by feveral learned moderns of that na¬
tion. One thing we may obferve, in general, that
whatever facrifices they offered for their dead, whatever
prefents they made to them at their funerals, and
whatever other fuperftitious rites they might perform
at them, all was done in confequence of thofe excel¬
lent notions which their ancient religion had taught
them, the immortality of the foul, and the blifs or mi-
fery of a future life.
Their belief It is impoflible, indeed, as thev did not commit any
of a future thing to writing till very lately, and as none of the an-
tUte. cient writers have given us any account of it, to gue/s
how foon the belief of their great Odin, and his para¬
dife, was received among them. It may, for aught
tfe knowj have been older than the times of Tacitus,
1 1
GEE
34
and he have known nothing of it, by reafon of their German/^
fcrupulous care in concealing their religion from- llran- v
gers : but as they conveyed their do&rines to pofterity
by fongs and poems, and molt of the northern poets
tell us that they have drawn their intelligence from
thofe very poems which were ftill preferved among
them we may rightly enough fuppofe, that whatever
doctrines are contained in them, were formerly profeff-
e,d by the generality of the nation, efpecially fince we
find their ancient practice fo exactly conformable to it.-
Thus, fince the fureft road to this paradife was, to
excel in martial deeds, and to die intrepialy in the
field of battle j' and fince none were excluded from it
but bafe cowards, and betrayers of their country } it is
natural to think, that the fignal and exceffive bravery
of the Germans flowed from this ancient belief of
theirs : and, if their females were fo brave and faithful
as not only to lhare with their hufbands all the dangers
and fatigues of wTar, but at length to follow them by a
voluntary death, into the other world \ it can hardly
be attributed to any thing elfe but a ftrong perfuafion
of their being admitted to live with them in that place
of blifs. This belief, therefore, whether received ori¬
ginally from the old Celtes, or afterwards taught them
by the fince deified Odin, feems, from their general
practice, to have been univerfally received by all the
Germans, though they might differ one from anotner
in their notions of that future life.
The notion of a future happinefs obtained by mar¬
tial exploits, efpecially by dying fword in hand, made
them bewail the fate of thofe who lived to an old age,
as difhonourable here, and hopelefs hereafter : upon
which account, they had a barbarous W'ay of fending
them into the other world, willing or not willing.
And this cuftom lafted feveral ages after their receiving
Chriftianity, efpecially among the Pruflians and Veni-
di; the former of whom, it feems, defpatched by a
quick death, not only their children, the fick, fervants,
&c. but even their parents, and fometimes themfelves :
and among the latter we have inftances of this horrid
parricide being praiftifed even in the beginning of the
14th century. All that need be added is, that, if thofe
perfons, thus fuppofed to have lived long enough, either
defired to be put to death, or at leaft feemed cheerful¬
ly to fubmit to what they knew they could not avoid,
their exit was commonly preceded with a faft, and their
funeral with a feaft \ but if they endeavour ed to fhu it,
as it fometimes happened, both ceremonies were per¬
formed with the deepeft mourning. In the former, they
rejoiced at their deliverance, and being admitted into
blifs ; in the latter, they bewailed their cowardly ex¬
cluding themfelves from it. Much the fame thing was
done towards thofe wives who betrayed a backward-
nefs to follow their dead hufbands.
We muft likewife obferve, that, in thefe funerals, as Remark-
well as in all their other feafts, they were famed for able for
drinking to excefs ; and one may fay of them, above ^^”21$-
all the other defeendants of the ancient Celtes, that
their hofpitality, banquets, &c. confifted much more
in the quantity of ftrong liquors, than in the elegance
of eating. Beer and ftrong mead, which were their na¬
tural drink, were looked upon as the chief promoters of
health, ftrength, fertility, and bravery •, upon which
account, they made no fcruple to indulge themfelves to
4 S 2 the
G E R [ ^9
Germany, the vttmort in them, not only in their feafts, and efpe-
ciaily before an engagement, but even in their common
meals.
]
G E R
3«
Ghara<^er
1. he modern Germans in their perfons are tall and
dern G™0" ^ronS huilt. The ladies have generally fine complexions j
mans. ^ ant^ ^ome -hem, efpecially in Saxony, have all the
delicacy of features and (hape that are fo bewitching in
a certain ifland of Europe.
Both men and women affedt rich dreffes, which in
fafhion are the fame as in France and England ; but
the better fort of men are exceffively fond of gold and
filver lace, efpecially if they are in the army. The la¬
dies at the principal courts differ not much in their
drefs from the French and Englifli, only they are not
fo exceflively fond of paint as the former. At fome
courts they appear in rich furs ; and all of them are
loaded with jewels, if they can obtain them. The fe¬
male part of the burghers families, in many German
towns, drefs in a very different manner, and fbme of
them inconceivably fantaftic, as may be feen in many
prints publilhed in books of travels ; but in this re-
fpeft they are gradually reforming, and many of them
make quite a different appearance in their drefs from
what they did 30 or 40 years ago. As to the peafan-
try and labourers, they drefs as in other parts of Eu¬
rope, according to their employments, conveniency,
and opulence. In Weftphalia, and moil other parts of.
Germany, they deep between two feather beds, or ra¬
ther the upper one of down, with flieets flretched to
them, w'hich by me becomes a very comfortable prac¬
tice. The moil unhappy part of the Germans are the
tenants of little needy princes, who fqueeze them to
keep up their owm grandeur $ but, in general, the cir-
cumfiances of the common people are far preferable to
thofe of the French.
The Germans are naturally a frank, honed, hofpi-
tab!e people, free from artifice and difguife. The
higher orders are ridiculouily proud of titles, ancedry,
and fhow. j he Germans, in general, are thought to
want animation, as their perfons promife more vigour
and activity than they commonly exert even in the
field of battle. But when commanded by able gene¬
rals, efpecially the Italians, fuch as Montecuculi and
Prince Eugene, they have done great things, both
againit the lurks and the French. The Imperial arms
have feldom made any remarkable figure againd either
of thofe two nations, or againd the Swedes or Spaniards,
when commanded by German generals. This podibly
might be owing to the arbitrary obdinacy of the court
of Vienna j for in many wars the Audrians have exhi¬
bited prodigies of military valour and genius.
Indudry, application, and perfeverance, are the
great charableridics of the German nation, efpecially
the mechanical part of it. Their works of art would
be incredible were they not vilible, efpecially in watch
and clockmaking, jewellery, turnery, fculpture, draw¬
ing, painting, and certain kinds of architecture. The
Germans have been charged with intemperance in eat¬
ing and drinking •, and perhaps not unjudly, owing
to the vad plenty of their country in wine and pro-
vifions of every kind. But thofe pra&ices feem now
to be wearing out. At the greated tables, though
the guefts drink pretty freely during dinner, yet the
repad is commonly finidred by coffee after three or
&ur public toads have been drank, But no people
have more leading at marriages, funerals, and birth- Germany,
days. w—y—a«,
1 he German nobility are generally men of fo much
honour, that a (harper in other countries, efpecially in
England, meets with more credit if he pretends to be
a German, than of any other nation.
The merchants and tradefmen are very civil and ob-
liging. All the Ions of noblemen inherit their father’s
titles, which greatly perplexes the heralds and ge-
nealogids of that country. This perhaps is one of
the reafons why the German huibands are not quite fo
complaifant as they ought otherwife to be to their la¬
dies, who are not entitled to any pre-eminence at the
table 5 nor indeed do they feem to affedl it, being far
from either ambition or loquacity, though they are faid
to be fomewhat too fond of gaming. From wrhat has
been premifed, it may eafily be conceived, that many
of the German nobility, having no other hereditary
edate than a high founding title, eafily enter into
their armies, and thofe of other fovereigns. Their
fondnefs for title is attended with many other inconve¬
niences. Their princes think that the cultivation of
their lands, though it may treble their revenue, is be¬
low their attention ; and that, as they are a fpecies of
beings fuperior to labourers of every kind, they would
demean themfelves in being concerned in the improve¬
ment of their grounds.
The domedic diverfions of the Germans are the fame AmufL
as in England j billiards, cards, dice, fencing, dan-merits,
emg, and the like. In dimmer, people of fafliion re¬
pair to places of public refort, and drink the waters.
As to their field diverfions, befides their favourite one
of hunting, they have bull and bear baiting, and the
like. The inhabitants of Vienna live luxurioufly, a
great part of their time being fpent in feading and ca-
roufing j and in winter, when the feveral branches of
the Danube are frozen over, and the ground covered
wath {how, the ladies take their recreation in dedges
of different fhapes, fuch as griffins, tygers, fwans.
icollop-ffiells, &c. Here the lady fits, dreffed in vel¬
vet, lined with rich furs, and adorned with laces and
jewels, having on her head a velvet cap; and the
dedge is drawn by one horfe, dag, or other crea¬
ture, fet off with plumes of feathers, ribands, and
bells. As this ffiverfion is taken chiefiy in the night¬
time, fervants ride before the fledge with torches, and
a gentleman fitting on the fledge behind guide?, the
horfe.
I he Reformation fird fpread in Germany to mod Religion
advantage; and fince the religious peace of iccr amlleam-
there have been edabliflied the Roman Catholic, pre-inS»
vailing modly in the fouth ; the Lutheran in the north;
and the Calyinid, called alfo the Refoi'med^ near the
Rhine. Civil wTars conliderably deranged this fettle-
ment: it was, however, edabliffied by the celebrated
peace of Wedphalia, that the religion of the Seven
States ffiould remain as in 1624. The Romiffi fupe¬
rior clergy confid of 8 archbifhops, 40 biffiops, and
many abbots. The Protedant clergy are governed by
confidories under the fovereign of each date, The
Corpus Catholicorum is under the direction of the arch-
bilhop, eleftor of Mentz ; and the Corpus Evangelico-
rum, or Protedants, under the elebfor of Saxony ; who
have the care of the public concerns of their refpe&ive.
bodies,
Literature-
♦r -
iy s
ry_  ]
G E R
•Cermen
Literature is in a very advanced date throughout ai¬
med all Germany, but particularly in the Proteftant
dates. It is but about half a century fmee the German
language has been purified and cultivated j fince which
various works of tade and elegance, as well as fuperior
productions in the different walks of fcience, have ap¬
peared in it. There are 38 univerlities in Germany j
19 Protedant, 17 Catholic, and two which partake of
both -, befides a number of literary focieties and acade¬
mic inditutions : and education in general is particular¬
ly attended to even in the very lowed ranks.
We have laid nothing of the part which the dates of
Germany, either individually or as a body, naturally
took in the late revolution in France. It would indeed
be only an uimeceffary repetition of the hidory of tranf-
a&ions already detailed under France and Britain. Of
the changes in the government of particular dates, or
rather in the names of the rulers, we lhall fay nothing.
Thefe changes, made at the indigation of France, will
probably not fatisfy the inordinate ambition and grow¬
ing power of her prefent ruler, and therefore will not
be permanent.
GERMFN, the feed bud j defined by Linnaeus to
be the bafe of the pidillum, which contains the rudi¬
ments of the feed 5 and, in progrefs of vegetation,
Iwells and becomes the feed veffel.
In affimilating the vegetable and animal kingdoms,
Linnaeus denominates the feed bud the ovarium or
uterus of plants; and affirms its exidence to be chief¬
ly at the time of the difperfion of the male dud by the
antherae ; as, after its impregnation, it becomes a feed
veffel. See Botany.
Germen, by Pliny and the ancient betanids, is ufed
to fignify a bud containing the rudiments of the leaves.
See Gemma.
GERMINATION, among botanids, comprehends
the precife time which the feeds take to rife after they
have been committed to the foil.—The different Ipecies
of feeds are longer or ffiorter in rifing according to the
degree of heat which is proper to each. Millet, wheat,
and feveral of the grades, rife in one day 5 blite,
fpinach, beans, mudard, kidney beans, turnips, and roc¬
ket, in three days $ lettuce and dill, in four; cucum¬
ber, gourd, melon, and crefs, in five 5 radiffi and beet,
in fix; barley, in feven ; orach, in eight; purllain, in
nine 5 cabbage, in ten j hyiiop, in thirty j parfley, in
forty or fifty days \ peach, almond, walnut, chefnut,
peony, horned poppy, hypecoum, and ranunculus fal-
catus, in one year j rofe buffi, cornel tree, hawthorn,
medlar, and hazel nut, in two. The feeds of fome
fpecies of orchis, and of fome liliaceous plants, never
rife at all. Of feeds, fome require to be fowed almod
as foon as they are ripe, otherwife they will not fprout
or germinate. Of this kind are the feeds of coffee and
fraxinella. Others, particularly thofe of the pea-bloom
flowers, preferve their germinating faculty for a feries
of years. Mr Adanfon afferts, that the fenfitive plant
retains that virtue for 30 or 40 years.
Air and water are the agents of germination. The
humidity of the air alone makes feveral feeds to rife
that are expofed to it. Seeds tod are obferved to rife
m water, without the intervention of earth j but wa¬
ter without air is infufficient. Mr Homberg’s experi¬
ments on this head are decilive. He put feveral feeds
1 693 ]
G E R
under the exhaufted receiver of an air pump, with a
view to ellablilh fomething certain on the caufes of ger¬
mination. Some of them did not rife at all; and the
greateft part of thofe which did, made very weak and
feeble produftions. Thus it is for want of air that feeds
which are buried at a_ very great depth in the earth,
either thrive but indifferently, or do not rife at all.
They frequently preferve, .however, their germinating
virtue for many years within the bowels of the earth j
and it is not unufual, upon a piece of ground being
newly dug to a confiderable depth, to obferve it foon
after covered with feveral plants, which had not been
reen there in the memory of man. Were this precau¬
tion frequently repeated, it would doubtlefs be the
means of recovering certain fpecies of plants which art*
regarded as loft j or which perhaps, never coming to
the knowledge of botanifls, might hence appear the re-
fult of a new creation. Some feeds require a greater
quantity of air than others. Thus purftain which does
not rife till after lettuce in the free air, rifes before it
m vacuo; and both profper but little, or periffi al¬
together, while creffes vegetate as freely as in the open
air. r
GERONTES, in antiquity, a kind of judges, ov
magiftrates, in ancient Sparta, anfwering to what the
Areopagites were at Athens. See Areopagus.
1 he woid is formed of the Greek yggay, which figni-
fies “ old man.” Whence alfo the words gerotiticy.
fomething belonging to an old man ; and Geronicon, T
famous book among the modern Greeks, containing*
the lives of the ancient monks. The fenate of gerontel
was called^era/fo, that is, affembly or council of old men.
The gerontes were originally inftituted by Lycur-
gus : their number, according to feme, w^as 28 $ and,
according to others, 32. They governed in conjunc¬
tion with the king, whole authority they were intend¬
ed to balance, and to watch over the interefts of the
people. Polybius defines their office in few words
when he fays, per ipfos, et cum ipjisy omnia adminijirari^
None were to be admitted into this office under 60
years of age, and they held it for life. They were fuc«-
ceeded by the ephori.
GEROPOGON, a genus of plants belonging to the.
fyngenelia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compojitee. See Botany Index,
GERRE TZ. See Rembrandt.
GERVAISE, or Gervase, of Tilbury, a famous
Englilh writer of the 13th century ; thus named from,
his being born at Tilbury on the Thames. He was ne¬
phew to Henry II. king of England j and was in great
credit with Otho IV. emperor of Germany, to whom
he dedicated a Defcription of the World, and a Chro¬
nicle. He alfo compoled a Hiitory of England, that
of the Holy Land, and other works.
GERUND, in Grammar, a verbal noun of the neu¬
ter gender, partaking of the nature of a participle, de¬
clinable only in the Angular number,, through all the
caies except the vocative ; as nom. amandum, gen. a~
mandi, da*, amando, accuf. amandurn, abl. atnando. The-
word is formed of the Latin gerundivus, and that from
thf verb gerere, “ to bear.”
The gerund expreffes not only the time, but alfo the
manner, of an a&ion ; as, “ he fell in running poft.”—,
It differs from the participle, in that it expreffes the time,
which
Gerortcs
II
Gerund.
Oernnda,
Gefner.
0 E S [ 604. ] O E S
wlikli the participle does not; and from the tenfe pro¬
perly fo called, in that it expreffes the manner, which
the tenfe does not. See Grammar.
GERUND A, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
-Aufetani, in the Hither Spain, on the fouth or right
fide of the river Sambroca. Gerundenfes, the people,
Now Gironne in Catalonia, on the I er. E. Long. 2.
35. N. Lat. 42.
GESNER, Conrad, a celebrated phyfieian and
naturalift, was born at Zurich in 1516. Having fi-
nhhed his Rudies in France, he travelled into Italy,
and taught medicine and philofophy in his own coun¬
try with extraordinary reputation. He was acquaint¬
ed with the languages *, and excelled fo much in natu¬
ral hiftory, that he was furnamed the Pliny of Germany.
Fie died in 1 564, leaving many works behind him ;
the principal of which are, !. A hiflory of animals,
plants, and foffils; 2. Bibliotheca Univerfalis. A Greek
and Latin lexicon. This author is by Boerhaave em¬
phatically ftyled Mon/lrum Eruditionis, “ a prodigy of
learning.” Thefe indeed (as Mr Coxe obferves in his
Letters on Switzerland) “ who are converfant with the
works of this great fcholar and naturalift, cannot reprefs
their rvonder, and admiration at the amplitude of his
knowdedge in every fpecies of erudition, and the varie¬
ty of his difcoveries in natural hiftory, wLich was his
peculiar delight. Their wonder and admiration is ftiil
further augmented, when they confider the grofs igno¬
rance of the age which he helped to enlighten, and
the fcanty fuccours he poffeffed to aid him in thus ex¬
tending the bounds of knowledge 5 that he compofed
his works, and made thofe difcoveries which would
have done honour to the moft enlightened period, un¬
der the complicated evils of poverty, ficknefs, and do-
meftic unealinefs.”
Gesner, Solomon, the celebrated author of the
Death of Abel and many other admired works in the
German language, was born at Zurich in the year
1730. In his early years he ftiowed very few figns of
fuperior abilities \ and his progrefs in the rudiments
of education wTas fo flow, that his mafter gave him up
as incapable of any greater attainments than writing
and the four firft rules of arithmetic. Upon this he
was placed under a clergyman in the neighbourhood,
a relation of his father’s, and who ftiowed himfelf bet¬
ter acquainted with the art of difcovering the natural
inclinations of his pupils. This gentleman often car¬
ried young Gefner with him into the fields, where he
made him obferve the beauties of nature ; and find-
in-/ that he took greater pleafure in fuch leffons, and
feemed to liften to them with peculiar attention, he
eccafionally repeated fome of the moft linking paf-
fages of the ancient authors, who have written on
thefe fubje6!s, in the moft agreeable and pleafing man¬
ner. By this ingenious artifice, the mind of young
Gefner began to open, and its powers to expand ; and
it is, perhaps, owing to this chcumlfance, that he be¬
came fo fond of the language of Virgil and Theocritus.
When he arrived at a proper age to think of pur-
fuing fome line of bufinefs, Mr Gefner made choice of
that of a book feller, Avhich was the profeflion of his
father, and in fome meafure of his family. Of five
houfes at Zurich in the printing and bookfelling bufi¬
nefs, two were occupied by tlefners : one belonged
to two brothers of that name y and the other, that in
3
which our poet had a fhare, was known by the firm
of Orel, Gefner, and Company. It was known alio oy
the extent of its correfponder.ee, and by the choice
and elegance of the works which it gave to the public.
Though Mr Gefner was a bookleller, he did notj
however, damp his genius, by fubmitting to the drud¬
gery of bulinefs. He indulged himfelf fieely in pur-
filing his favourite ohjedt, and Ins partners never en¬
vied him. that time which he devoted to meditation
and to ftudy. In 1752, he made a tour through Ger¬
many, not fo much for the purpofe of extending his
commerce, as to fee and be acquainted with thofe au¬
thors who have done honour to their country. The
follow'ing circumftance, which occurred during this
tour, deferves to be mentioned, as it is ftnkingly cha-
raUeriftic of that timidity which often accompanies-
true genius. When Mr Gefner was at Berlin, he was
admitted into a literary fociqtv, of which Gleim and
Lefling were members. Each of the authors who
compofed it ufed to read in turn fome pieces of their
own compofition, and Mr Gefner was very defirous of
fubmitting to thefe able critics a fmall work, which was
his firft attempt ; but was far from refembling thofe
poets, whom Horace and other latirifts have ridiculed,
and who ftun every one they meet by reciting their
verfes before them. As each of the members had done
reading, Gefner wTas obferved to move his hand wdth a
kind of tremor towards his pocket, and to draw it back
again without the manufeript which he ought to have
produced. Having not as yet publilhed any thing,
none of the company could guefs the caufe of a motioa
which his modefty prevented him from explaining.
The work which he had not the courage to fhowq was
his fmall poem, entitled Night, which he publilhed on.
his return to Zurich in 171,3. It was confidered as an
original, of which no model is to be found among the
moderns •, but in the opinion of the author, it was
only a piece of imaginary painting, or, to ufe an ex-
preflion of his own, in one of his letters to Mr Huber
who has tranflated his works, “ A caricature com¬
pofed in the moments of folly or intoxication.” In
this little poem he has introduced a Ihort epifode on
the origin of the glow-worm, containing a poetical
explanation of this natural phofphorus, w-hich has all
the beauty of Ovid’s Metamorphofes without their pro¬
lixity. The fuccefs of this eflay emboldened the too
timid mufe of our young bookfeller, and he publilhed
a paftoral romance, called Daphnis, in three cantos.
The applaufe that was defervedly bellowed upon this
performance induced the author to publifti, fome time
after, his Idylls and fome other rural poems in imi¬
tation of thofe of Theocritus. Paftoral poetry, which
at this time was little knowrn in Germany but by
tranflations from foreign poets, began to find many
partizans, and to be preferred to every other kind.
Delirous, therefore, of tracing out a new path for him-
felf, our noet thought that he could not do a more
accentable fervice to his countrymen, than to paint
the felicity of innocence and rural life, and the tender
emotions of love and gratitude. The only author
worthy of notice who had preceded Mr Gefner in this
career, was Mr Roll of Leipfick, whofe paftoral poems
appeared for the firft time in 1744* This writer po-
lift ed the language of the German Ihepherds j he had
addrefs enough to unite fpirit and fimplicity in a kind
Gefner.
Geiner.
G E S [ 605 ] G E S
of writing winch appears infipid without the former,
and which becomes unnatural and difguftjng if it is
too abundant. He fometimes throws a delicate veil over
thofe images which are deficient in decency, but it is
to be regretted that it is often too light. Such was
the antagonilt againft whom Gefner had to contend.
Our poet, however, purfaed a different courfe. In-
ftead of placing, like Rod, his fcenes in modern times,
he goes back with Theocritus to the golden age, that
happy age which we are fond of reviewing when our
paflions are calm, and when freed from thofe anxious
cares which hurry us beyond ourfelves, we contem¬
plate amidit tranquillity the beauties and fertility of
the country. The chara£ters of Gefner’s Idylls, there¬
fore, are taken from thofe focieties which exift no
longer but in the remembrance, or rather the imagina¬
tion. His fhepherds are fathers, children, and huf-
bands, who blufh not at thefe titles fo dear to nature,
and to whom generofity, beneficence, and refpect for
the Deity are fentiments no lefs familiar than love.
Thefe Idylls were the principal and favourite objeft of
his purfuit, and that part of his work which acquired
him the greateft reputation, efpecially among his coun¬
trymen. His death of Abel, which is well known, was
publithed for the firft time in 1758. It is written,
like the reft of his pieces, in poetical profe *, and was
fo much fought after, that it went through no lefs
than three editions in the fpace of a year, without
fpeaking of the fpurious ones which appeared in Hol¬
land, at Berlin, and in France. The French edition
was followed by feveral others. One came out in Ita¬
lian ; another in the Dutch language; a fourth in the
Danilh : and laftly, two in Englifti, one of them in
profe and the other in verfe. Among the pieces which
Mr Gefner publilhed after the Death of Abel was his
Firft Navigator, a poem in three cantos, which many
people in Germany confider as his mailerpiece. He
made an attempt alfo in the paftoral drama, but not
with the fame fuccefs as in other kinds of rural poetry.
He produced likewife, in the fame ftyle, Evander and
Alcimne, in three a&s j and Eraftus, a fmall piece of
one a£i, which was reprefented with fome applaufe in
feveral focieties, both at Leipfick and Vienna.
But though poetry was Gefner’s darling purfuit,
and though he enriched the literature of his country
with works which will render his name immortal, he
did not confine himfelf to one manner of imitating na¬
ture } he in turns took up the pencil and the pen, and
his active genius equally directed them both. In his
infancy he had received a few leiTons in drawing, and
he had aftenvards purfued this ftudy, but without any
intention of becoming an artift. At the age of thirty
he felt that violent delire, which may be confidered as
the voice of genius ; and this was in fome meafure ex¬
cited by the fight of a beautiful colledlion-formed by
Mr Heidegger, whofe daughter he had married. To
pleafe his father-in-law, he ftudied this treafure, com-
pofed principally of the beft pieces of the Flemilh
fchool; and to this new tafte he had almoft facrificed
every other. Mr Gefner at firft ventured only to de¬
lineate fome decorations for the frontifpieces of curious
books printed in his office ; but by little and little
he had the courage to make other attempts. In 1765,
he publilhed 10 landfcapes etched and engraved by him¬
felf, and dedicated them to his friend Mr Watlet. Mr Gefner.
Gefner owed him this mark of refpefl for the care —y—
which he took to ornament with beautiful vignettes
Mr Huber’s tranftation of his Idylls. Twelve other
pieces appeared in 1769; and after thefe attempts, Mr
Gefner executed ornaments for many works which
came from his preffes, among which w7ere nis own
works, a German tranftation of Swift, and feveral
others.
Were we to judge from Mr Gefner’s enthuliafm for
his favourite purfuits, and from the time and atten¬
tion which he bellowed upon them, we Ihould be apt
to conclude, that he found little leifure for difcharging
his duty as a citizen. The contrary however, was
the cafe, for he pafl'ed almoft the half of his life in the
firft employments of the ftate. In 1765 he was called
to the grand council, in 1767 to the lefler. In 1768
he was appointed bailiff of Elibach, that of the four
guards in 1776, and in 1781 fuperintendant of waters,
which office in 1787 was continued to him for fix
years. In all thefe ftations Mr Gefner difcharged his
duty with the moft fcrupulous fidelity ; and died of a
paralytical diforder, lamented by his countrymen and
by thofe who had the pleafure of his acquaintance, on
the 2d of March 1788, at the age of 56.
As a pattoral poet, Gefner undoubtedly is entitled
to a very diftinguilhed rank : and we may juftly fay,
that if he has been equalled by any, he has been excel¬
led by none. It is commonly believed, that paftoral
poetry is very limited and confined ; but thofe who
read the works of Gefner will be convinced, that it is
fufceptible of much variety when treated of by the
hand of a mafter. His paftoral romance of Daphnis is
not inferior in natural fimplicity to the celebrated work
of Longus ; but it furpaffes it far in variety of images
and incident. Eraftus and Evander are inftrudlive and
interefting poems, on account of the contrail between
the world and nature which reigns throughout them ;
and his Firft Navigator unites the mildeft philofo-
phy to all the fplendour and imagery of Fairy Land.
If we analyze his dramatic poems, we Ihall find in
them interefting fi&ions, characters well delineated,
and fituations replete with novelty. His language is
that of the Graces, and the chalteft ears might liften
to the love which he has created. If he has fometimes
the humour of Sterne and Fontaine, it is without their
licentioufnefs. The fevereft tafte can find in his writ¬
ings, no lacuna to fupply, no phrafe deferving repre-
henfion, nor could a more ingenious choice of expref-
fions be fubrtituted in the room of thofe which he has
adopted.—Gefner’s charadter as a man, appears to be
no lefs amiable. In whatever point of view we confi¬
der him, whether as a hufband, a father, a friend, a
magiftrate, or a citizen, his virtues are equally con-
fpicuous. He was naturally of a melancholy turn, but
he was no enemy to rational and well-timed mirth ;
while the mildnefs and affability of his temper rendered
his company always engaging, and endeared him to
thofe who had the pleafure of his acquaintance. Pof-
feffed of that noblenefs of fentiment, united with great
modefty, which is the ufual attendant of true genius,
he was limple in his external appearance, as well as in
his converfation. His language was lively and animat¬
ed 5 but Ins referve before ftrangers refembled timidity.
Gefnerla
II.
Gethtn.
GET [ 696 ]
and it was only in tlie prefence of thofe with whom he ral education
was acquainted, that his real character appeared in its
_ full luftre,
Mr Gefner’s reputation and virtues were known even
to the remoteft parts of Europe. The emprefs of Ruilia
Catharine II. prefented him with a gold medal as a mark
of her efteem. Strangers of all nations gave him no lefs
flattering teftimonies of their admiration *, and travellers
thought they had feen only the half of Switzerland, if
they had not been in the company of Gefner, or pro¬
cured fome of his landfcapes or drawings. In this lad
way he- had acquired fo much reputation, that he was
ranked among the bed artids of Germany; and Mr Fuef-
lin, his countryman, who was himfelf a painter, in the
preface to the third volume of the new edition which
he publidred of his ‘ Hidorical eflay on the painters,
engravers, archite&s, and fculptors, who have done
honour to Switzerland,’ gives a didinguidred place to
Mr Gefner, though then living.
. GESNERIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 40th order, Perfonatce. See Botany Index.
GESSORIACUM, in Ancient Geography, a port’and
dation for fhips of the Morini in Belgica. In CaTar’s
time, according to Dio, there was no towm ; but Floras
fpeaks of it as one : and the Gefforiacenfes Muri are
mentioned by Eumenius in his panegyric. The au¬
thor of 1 abula 1 heodofiana, commonly called Peutin-
ger's t?iap, fays exprefsly, that Gefforiacum was in his
time called Bonoma. Now Boulogne in Picardy. E.
Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 50. 40.
GESTATION, among phydcians. See Preg¬
nancy.
GESTRICIA, a province of Sweden, bounded by
Helfingia on the north, by the Bothnic gulf on the
ead, by Upland on the fouth, and by Dalecarlia on
the wed.
GESTURE, a motion of the body, intended to
dgmfy fome idea or paflion of the mind. It confids
principally in the adlion of the hands and face j and may
be defined, a fuitable conformity of the motions of the
countenance, and of feveral parts of the body, in fpeak-
ing, to the fubjeft matter of the difcourfe. See Decla¬
mation and Oratory.
GEI A, Septimius, a fon of the emperor Severus,
nrother to Caracalla. In the eighth year of his age,
he was moved with compadion at the fate of fome of
the partizans of Niger and Albinus who were to be
executed, and his father druck with his humanity re¬
traced the fentence. After Severus’s death he reign¬
ed at Rome conjointly with his brother; but Caracalla,
who envied his virtues and was jealous of his popula¬
rity, ordered him to be poifoned j and when this
could not be effeCed, he murdered him in the arms of
his mother Julia, who in the attempt of defending the
-utal blows from his body received a tvound in her arm,
from the hand of her fon, A. D. 212. Geta had not
vet reached the 23d year of his age, and the Romans
had reafon to lament the death of fo virtuous a prince,
wEile they groaned under the cruelties and opprefiion
of Caracalla.
GETHIN, Lady Grace, an Englilh lady of un¬
common parts, was the daughter of Sir George Nor¬
ton of Abbots-Leigh in Somerfetfhire, and born in
hhe year 1676. She had all the advantages of a libe-
3
G H E
. stid became the wifi? of Sir Richard
Get run, of Gethin Grott in Ireland. She was mi-
ftrels of great accomplilhments, natural and acquired,
but did not live long enough to difplay them to the
world ; for ihe died in the 21ft year of her age. She
vvas buried in Weftminfter abbey, where a‘beautiful
monument with an infcription is eredled over her j and,
mr perpetuating her-memory, provifion was made for
a fermon to be preached in Weftminfler abbey yearly
on Alh Wedneiday for ever. She wrote, and left be¬
hind her, in loofe papers, a work which, foon after
her death, was methodized, and publiiked under the
title Oi “ Rehqmce Gethimonce; or, Some remains of
the moil ingenious and excellent lady, Grace, ladv
Gethm, lately deceafed. Being a colledion of choice
difcourfes, pleafant apophthegms, and witty fentences.
Written by her, for the moft part, by way of eflav,
and at fpare hours.” Lond. 1700, qto ; with her pic¬
ture before it.
. GE1HSEMANE, in Ancient Geography, a village
in the mount of Olives, whither Jefus Chriit fometimes
retreated in the night time. It was in a garden be¬
longing to this village that he fuffered the agony in
v. .rich he fweated drops of blood j and here he was ar-
refted by Judas and the reft who were conduaed by
this traitor. The place is by Maundrel defcribed as
an even plot of ground, not above 57 yards fquare, ly¬
ing between the foot of Mount Olivet and the brook
Cedron.
G ETHYL LIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
dodecandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the ninth order Spathacece. See Botany Index.
GEUM, A yens, or Herb Bennet, a genus of plants
belonging to the icolandria clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 35th order, Senticofce. See
Botany Index.
. GHENT, a city of the Auftrian Netherlands, ca¬
pital of the province of Flanders. It is feated on four
navigable rivers, the Scheldt, the Lys, the Lieve, and
t le Moere, w-hich run through it, and divide it into
canals. T hefe form 26 little ifles, over wdiich there
are 300 bridges : among which there is one remark¬
able for a ftatue of brafs of a young man who wras ob¬
liged to cut oft his father’s head 5 but as he was going
to ftrike, the blade flew into the air, and the hilt re¬
mained in his hand, upon which they were both par¬
doned. There is a pi&ure of the whole tranfaftion in
the townhoufe. Ghent is furrounded with w'alls and
other fortifications, and is tolerably ftrong for a place
of its circumference. But all the ground within the
■walls is not built upon. The ftreets are large and well
paved, the market places fpacious, and the houfes built
with brick. But the Friday’s market place is the lar-
geft, and is remarkable for the ftatue of Charles V.
wdiich Hands upon a pedeftal in the imperial habit.
That of Cortere is remarkable for a fine walk under
feveral rows of trees. In 1737 a fine opera houfe
was built here, and a guard houfe for the garrifon.
Near the towm is a very high tower, with a handfome
clock and chimes. The great bell weighs 11 ,ooq
pounds.
This towm is famous for the pacification figned here,
in 15 26, for fettling the tranquillity of the Seventeen
Provinces, which was afterwards confirmed by the
king of Spain. It was taken by Louis XIV. in 1678,
who
Gethfe-
mane
II
Ghent.
G H O [
Ghoft. who afterwards reftored it. The trench toon peiTel-
{ion of it again after the death of Charles IT. of Spain.
In 1706, it was taken by the duke of Marlborough *,
and by the French in 1708 ; but it wras retaken the
{Time year. Laft of all, the French took it by iur-
prife after the battle of Fontenoy *, but at tne peace
Aix-la-Chapelle, it was rendered back. It was alfo
taken by the French in 1 794* ^his is the birth-place
of John of Gaunt. It is very well feated for trade, on
account of its rivers and canals. It carries on a great
commerce in corn ; and has linen, w^oollen, and ulk
manufactures. The number of inhabitants is about
70,000. E. Long. 4. o. N. Lat. 51. 24.
GHOST, an apparition, or fpirit of a perion de-
The ancients fuppofed every man to be pofleffed of
three different ghoits, which after the diffolution of
the human body were differently difpofed of. I lie.e
three phofts are diftinguifhed by the names of Manes,
Spiritus, Umbra. The manes, they fancied, went down
into the infernal region $ the fpintus afcended to the
{kies j and the umbra hovered about the tomb, as being
unwilling to quit its old connexions. ^ Thus Dido
(Virg. JEu. iv. 384.) threatens yEneas after death that
(he will haunt him with her umbra, whilft her manes
rejoices in his torments below. This idea of a threefold
foul is very clearly expreffed in thefe lines, which have
been attributed to Ovid.
Bis duofunt homini: Manes, Caro, Spiritus, Umbra .
^uatuor ifta loci bis duo fufcipiunt.
Terra tegit Carnem, tumu/um circumvolat Umbra,
Orcus habet Manes, Spiritus ajlra petit.
The moft ftriking outlines of the popular fuperfti-
tions refpefting ghofls among us, are thus humorouily
collefted by Captain G*ofe in his Provincial Gloffary :
“ A gholl is fuppofed to be the fpirit of a perion de-
reafed, who is either commiffioned to return for fome
fpecial errand, fuch as the difcovery of a murder, to
procure reftitution of lands or money unjuftly withheld
from an orphan or widow—or, having committed fome
injuftice whilft living, cannot reft tiU that is redreffed.
Sometimes the occaiion of fpirits revifiting this world,
is to inform their heir in what fecret place, or private
drawer in an old trunk, they had hidden the title deeds
of the eftate ; or where, in troublefome times, they
buried their money or plate. Some ghofts of mur¬
dered perfons, whofe bodies have been fecretly buried,
cannot bb at eafe till their bones have been taken up,
and depofited in confecrated ground with all the rites of
Chriftian burial. #
“ Sometimes ghofts appear in confequence or an
agreement made, whilft living, with fome parthular
friend, that he who firft died ihould appear to the fur-
vivor. . r i 1
“ Glanvil tells us of the ghoft of a perion who had
lived but a diforderly kind of life, for which it was
condemned to wander up and down the earth, in the
company of evil fpirits, till the day of judgment.
“ In moft of the relations of ghofts, they are iup-
pofed to be mere aerial beings, wdthout fubftance, and
that they can pafs through walls and other folid bo¬
dies at pleafure. A particular inftance of this is given,
697 ] G H O
Connor, u'as for a long time haunted by tne appan- ^
tion of an old woman, whom he was by a secret im-
nulfe obliged to follow whenever jhe appeared, which
he fays he did for a confiderable time, even if m bed
with his wife: and becaufe his wife could not hold
him in his bed, ftre would go too, and walk after him
till day, though (he faw nothing ; but his hide dog
was fo well acquainted with the apparition, that he
would follow it as well as his mafter. If a tree ftood
in her walk, he obferved her always to_ go through it.
Notwithftanding this feeming immatenauty, this very
ghoft was not without fome fubftance for having per¬
formed her errand, (he defired Hunter to lift her from
the ground -, in the doing of which, he fays (he (elt
iuft like a bag of feathers. We fometimes alfo read oi
ghofts ftriking violent blows-, and that, if not made
way for, they overturn all impediments, like a furious
whirlwind. Glanvil mentions an inftance of this, m
relation 17th, of a Dutch lieutenant who had the fa¬
culty of feeing ghofts and who, being prevented mak¬
ing way for one which he mentioned to fome friends
as coming towards them, was, with his companions,
violently thrown down, and forely bruifed. Vv e further
learn, by relation 16th, that the hand of a ghoft is as
cold as a clod.’ * , . , •
“ The ufual time at which ghofts make their appear¬
ance is midnight, and feldom before it is dark : though
fome audacious fpirits have been faid to appear even by
day light : but of this there are few inftances, and
thofe moftly ghofts who have been laid, perhaps in the
Red fea (of which more hereafter), and whofe times of
confinement were expired : thefe, like felons confined
to the lighters, are faid to return more troubleiome and
daring than before. No ghofts can appear on Chnit-
mas eve \ this Shakefpeare has put into the mouth Oi.
one of his chara&ers in HamleG
“ Ghofts commonly appear in the fame drels they
ufually wore whilft living, though they are fometimes
clothed all in white-, but that is chiefly the church¬
yard ghofts, who have no particular bufinefs, but leein
to appear pro bono publico, or to fcare drunken nifties
from tumbling over their graves. .
“ I cannot learn that ghofts carry tapers m their
hands, as they are fometimes depi&ed,^ though the
room in which they appear, if without fire or candle,
is frequently faid to be as light as day. Dragging
chains is not the faftiion of Enghfli ghofts ; chains and
black veftments being chiefly the accoutrements ot fo¬
reign fpeftres feen in arbitrary governments : dead or
alive, Englifti fpirits are free. One inftance, however,
of an Englifti ghoft dreffed in black is found in the ce¬
lebrated ballad of William and Margaret, in the fol¬
lowing lines :
G’.iofi.
And clay cold was her lily hand
That held her fable proud.
This, however, may be confidered as a poetical hcenfe,
ufed, in all likelihood, for the fake of the oppofition oi
lily to fable. . . , .
“ If, during the time of an apparition, there is a
lighted candle in the room, it wrill burn extremely blue .
this is fo univerfally acknowledged, that many eminent
philofophers have bufied themfelves in accounting or
r . .r ... .1 foA liners.
dies at pleafure. A particular inltance or tms is given, f , f o -p
in relation the 27th, in Glanvil’s colleftion, where one it, without once doubting the truth of f ^ ^
David Hunter, neat-herd to the biihop of Down and too, have the faculty of feeing fpints,
Vol. IX. Part II. * 4 A
Choft.
G H 0 f ]
' tlaI1?1rHSnterS reiadon ^bove cluoted 5 Lut In that cafe to foim
they ufually (how figns of terror, by whining and creep-
ing to their maiter for prote&ion j and it is generally
uppofed that they often fee things of this nature when
tneir owner cannot; there being fome perfons, particu-
fpints™0*6 b°rn °n 3 Chriftmas eve> who cannot fee
Ihe coming of a fpirit is announced fome time
before ns appearance, by a variety of loud and dread-
tul nodes; fometimes rattling in the old hall like a
coach and fix, and rumbling up and down the llair-
ca.e hke the trundling of bowls or cannon balls. At
length the door flies open, and the fpeftre ftalks flowly
llerlfiUr b,ed.lS f00t’ rand- °Pening the curtains, looks
f dfa% ft the perfon m bed by whom it is feen :
a ghoft being very rarely vifible to more than one per-
™ fe^' i". comPany- - here
G H O
necefl-ary to obferve, that it has been uni£rfaUy‘fomS
■y expenence, as well as affirmed by diverfe appari-
-n^^tha, a ghoft has not the powe? "o
i ' 1111 " has been firit fpoken to; fo that, notivith-
Itandmg the urgency of the bufinefs on which it may
raTfi m • g muft ftand ftI11 1111 the P^fon vifited
fufClent couraSe to fpeak to it: an event that
metimes does not take place for many years It has
tTan tTf gh°fts are -re Muacious
ed by “ W eX’ b0t'1 being e1Ualll'
Ji^ !p0de °f addreffipg a ghoft is bycommand-
mg it in the name of the Three Perfons of the Trinity,
to tell you who it is, and what is its bufinefs : this it
k will6 t°rePeat three times i after which
tinn U1- 3 l0rW fnd h°lloW Voice’ declare its fatisfac-
tmn at being fpoken to, and defire the party addref-
f.ng ft no, ,0 be afraid, for i, will do him no harm.
Ibis bemg premifed, „ commonly enters into its nar-
tive, which being completed, and its requeft or
commands given, with injunflions that they be imme-
of,;7te“C“e,d-’ u Vr’"h‘S away’ frequently in a flalh
ot light, in which cafe, fome ghofts have been fo con-
tofhmth5 •t° derirer the •Party to whom they appeared
wdth dir w7ieS: fret,meS itS depasture is attended
bufinefs aS I n mUfC-, the n™u" of its
ulmeis, a ghoft muft by no means be interrupted bv
queftmnsofanykmd; fo doing is ex,remerdange-
“he fn hT diOUbt,.ar,fe,’ ,lKy be ftated after
Z:Pm\uaS« d°ner ltS tale* Q.acftions refpefting its
are offenf v6 ^ °{ ^c°l their f°rmer acquaintance,
are ottenfive, and not often anfwered : fpirits perhans
prifon houfe111^ f}VXi¥n8 the fecrets of their
-as, ^remnant of the major, profelfiona, du“/
“ It is fomewhat remarkable that ghofts ^
go about their bufinefs like the perfonsff this “orM
In cafes of murder, a ghoft, inftead of going to the
next juftme of the peace and laying its information, or
10 the neareft relation of the perfon murdered, appears
poor labourer who knows none of the parties
draws the curtains of tome decrepit nurfe o^ almj
deuofited°r tT? PlaCe where body is
depofited. The fame circuitous mode is purfued with
efpea to redreffing injured orphans or widows j when
t feems as if the ffiorteft and moft certain way would
be, to go to the perfon guilty of the injuftice and
haunt him continually till he be terrified into a reftitu-
^on. Nor is the pointing out loft writings generally
managed in a more fummary way 5 the ghoft fommon^
ly applying to a third perfon ignorant of the whole
affair, and a ftranger to all concerned. But it is pre-
iumptuous to ferutmize too far into thefe matters •
themfe!ves“ Und°ubtcdly forms and uuftoms peculiar to
, , “ If; after t,'e firft appearance, the perfons employ-
ed negled or are prevented from, performing the mef-
iage or buiinefs enmm ^ 6 :
Ghoft.
fage or bufinefs committed to thXman^renrthe
ghoff appears continually to them, at firft with a dif
contented, next an angry, and at length with a furious
countenance, threatening to tear them in pieces if the
themes ?0ti°rth™th executed j fometimes terrifying
them, as in Glanvil’s relation 26th, by appearing in
many formidable ffiapes, and fometimes even ftriking
lem a violent blow. Of blows given by ghofts there
are many mftances, and fome whfrein they have bee"
followed with an incurable lamenefs.
“ It ftiould have been obferved, that ghofts, in deli¬
vering their commiffions, in order to enfure belief
communicate to the perfons employed fome fecret’
known only to the parties concerned and themfelves’
tendedatlTl,0f|,'rh,Cr u’"33'8 Produc« the etfect in’
wfth . 'cl,lhf ,b"finefsbe”,g cornPleted. gbofts appear
tvith a cheerful countenance, faying they (hall now be
at reft, and will never more difturb any one; and
oThe"grthe‘rhagent8; by Way of reward communicate
win rverTeveah8 ' t0 th'mrelVeS’ Khich th'y
“ Sometimes ghofts appear, and difturb a houfe
without deigning to give any reafon for fo doing : with
et’them ^ h to -orc^ -S
eject them or, as the vulgar term is, lay them. For
his purpofe there muft be two or three clergymen, and
heceremonymuft be performed in Latin j a language
A h oft “ l T?, pUdactous gboft with tfrror.
A ghoft may be kid for any term lefs thaa 100
years, and in any place or body, full or empty : as a
(olid oak—the pommel of a fword—a barrel'of beer
if a yeoman or Ample gentleman—or a pipe of wine"
f an efquire or a juftice. But of all places the moft
common and what a ghoft leaft likes, is the Red
ea , it being related, m many inftances, that ghofts
have moft earneftly befought the exorcifts not uf con-
ne them m that place. It is neverthelefs confidered as
an indifputable faft, that there are an infinite number
laid there, perhaps from its being a fafer prifon than
any ot er nearer at hand j though neither hirtory nor
tradition gives us any inftance of ghofts efcaping or re¬
turning from this kind of tranfportation before their
“ Another fpecies of human apparition may be here
noticed, though it does not come under the ftridt de-
fcnption of a ghoft. Thefe are the exaft figures and
refemblances of perfons then living, often feen not only
by their friends at a diftance, but many times by them¬
felves $
G I A
[ 699 ]
G I A
Giagh
Giant.
felves j of vvliich there are feveral inftances in Aubery’s
Mifcellanies : one of Sir Richard Napier, a phyfician
of JLondon, who being on the road from Bedfordihire
to vifit a friend in Berk (hire, faw at an inn his own ap¬
parition lying on his bed as a dead corpfe j he never-
thelefs went forward, and died in a (hort time : ano¬
ther of Lady Diana Rich, daughter of the earl of
Holland, who met her own apparition walking in a
garden at Kenfington, and died a month after of the
imallpox. Thefe apparitions are called fetches; in
Cumberland,yu’cr/z^j-; and in Scotland, xvraiths : they
moft commonly appear to diftant friends and relations,
at the very inftant preceding the death of the pierfon
whofe figure they put on. Sometimes, as in the inftan¬
ces above mentioned, there is a greater interval between
the appearance and death.” For a philofophical in¬
quiry into the fubjedt of apparitions in general, fee the
article Spectre.
GIAGH, in Chronology, a cycle of 12 years j in
ufe among the Turks and Cathayans.
Each year of the giagh bears a name of fome ani¬
mal : the firft that of a moufe j the fecond that of a
bullock j the third of a lynx or leopard 5 the fourth
of a hare j the fifth of a crocodile j the fixth of a fer-
pent; the feventh of a horfe } the eighth of a ftieep j
the ninth of a monkey j the tenth of a hen j the
eleventh of a dog ; and the twelfth of a hog.
They alfo divide the day into 12 parts, which they
call giaghs, and diftinguifti them by the name of fome
animals. Each giagh contains two of our hours, and
is divided into eight kehs, as many as there are quar¬
ters in our hours.
GIALLOLINO, in Natural Hiflory, a fine yellow
pigment, much ufed under the name of Naples Yel¬
low.
GIANT, a peffon of extraordinary bulk and fta-
ture.
The romances of all ages have furnilhed us with fo
many extravagant accounts of giants of incredible bulk
and ftrength, that the exiftence of fuch people is now
generally dilhelieved. It is commonly thought, that
the ftature of men hath been the fame in all ages 5 and
fome have even pretended to dernonjlrate the impoflibi-
lity of the exiftence of giants mathematically. Of
thefe our countryman M‘Laurin hath been the moft
explicit. “ In general (fays he) it will eafily appear,
that the efforts tending to deftroy the cohefion of
beams arifing from their own gravity only, increafe iii
the quadruplicate ratio of their lengths : but that the
oppofite efforts tending to preferve their cohefion, in¬
creafe only in the triplicate proportion of the fame
lengths. From which it follows, that the greater beams
muft be in greater danger of breaking than the leffer fi-
milar ones; and that though a leffer beam may be firm
and fecure, yet a greater fimilar one may be made fo
long, that it will neceffarily break by its own weight.
Hence Galileo juftly concludes, that what appears very
firm, and fucceeds very well in models, may be very
weak and infirm, or even fall to pieces by its own
weight, when it comes to be executed in large dimen-
fions according to the model. From the fame princi¬
ple he argues, that there are neceffary limits in the ope¬
rations of nature and art, which they cannot furpafs in
magnitude. Were trees of a very enormous fize, their
branches would fall by their own weight. Large ani¬
mals have not ftrength in proportion to their fize ; and Giant,
if there were any land animals much larger than thofe v—“—
we know, they could hardly move, and would be per¬
petually fubjed: to the moft dangerous accidents. As
to the animals of the fea, indeed, the cafe is different;
for the gravity of the water in a great meafure fuftains
thofe animals; and in fad thefe are known fometimes
to be vaftly larger than the greateft land animals. Nor
does it avail againft this dodrine to tell us, that bones
have fometimes been found which were fuppofed to have
belonged to giants of immenfe fize $ fuch as the Ikele-
tons mentioned by Strabo and Pliny, the former of
which was 60 cubits high, and the latter 46 : for na-
turalifts have concluded on juft grounds, that in fome
cafes thefe bones had belonged to elephants j and that
the larger ones were bones of whales, which had been
brought to the places where they were found by the
revolutions of nature that have happened in paft times.
Though it muft be owned, that there appears no rea-
fon why there may not have been men who have ex¬
ceeded by fome feet in height the talleft we have
feen.”
It will eafily be feen, that arguments of this kind
can never be conclufive ; becaufe, along with an in¬
creafe of ftature in any animal, we muft always fuppofe
a proportional increafe in the cohefion of the parts of
its body. Large wTorks fometimes fail when conftrud-
ed on the plan of models, becaufe the cohefion of the
materials whereof the model is made, and of the large
wrork, are the fame j but a difference in this refpeft
will produce a very remarkable difference in the ulti¬
mate refult. Thus, fuppofe a model is made of fir-
wood, the model may be ftrong and firm enough ; but
a large work made alfo of fir, when executed according
to the plan of the model, may be fo weak that it will
fall to pieces by its own weight. If, however, we
make ufe of iron for the large work inftead of fir, the
whole will be fufficiently ftrong, even though made ex¬
actly according to the plan of the model. The like
may be faid with regard to large and fmall animals.
If wre could find an animal whofe bones exceeded in
hardnefs and ftrength the bones of other animals as
much as iron exceeds fir, fuch an animal might be of a
monftrous fize, and yet be exceedingly ftrong. In
like manner, if we fuppofe the flefti and bones of a
giant to be greatly fuperior in hardnefs and ftrength
to the bones of other men, the great fize of his body-
will be no obje£Hon at all to his ftrength. The whole
of the matter therefore concerning the exiftence of
giants muft reft on the credibility of the accounts we
have from thofe who pretend to have feen them, and
not on any arguments drawn a priori.
In the Scripture we are told of giants, who wrere
produced from the marriages of the fons of God with
the. daughters of nienf. This paffage indeed has been f See .<*«/,>
differently interpreted, fo as to render it doubtful whe-diluvium,
ther the word tranfiated giants does there imply any
extraordinary ftature. In other parts of Scripture,
howrever, giants, with their dimenfions, are mentioned
in fuch a manner that w'e cannot poflibly doubt; as in
the cafe of Og king of Baftian, and Goliath. In a
memoir read before the Academy of Sciences at Rouen,
M. Le Cat gives the following account of giants that
are faid to have exifted in different ages.
“ Profane hiftorians have given feven feet of height
4 T 2 to
Chcft.
G H O
r
“he fpLfi,7 drbts-ar!fe’ m“‘i ■>«
nl / .l '”, d°ne, ",s taIe- a^ftions refpeainj; its
are offaiflve ^ of anyfof th'ir fo™er acquaintance,
are oSenflve, and not often anfwered : fpirits perhaos
prifo! houfemeo fT f,!";¥.nS ‘h<= berets of their
this fword did not ufe to i"’ caPtain>
when it was mine.' This ma‘Ln to tU "attTf
T/n i™”™ °f the prffeiTional dot/
18 ,r°.ir^wllat remarkable that ghofts do not
go about their bufinefs like the perfons^f this world
In cafes of murder, a ghoft, inftead of going to the
next juftme of the peace and laying its information, or
J ' j£ neareft relation of the perfon murdered, appears
A glioit may be laid for any term lefs thaa 100
years, and in any place or body, full 0r empty ; as a
johd oak—the pommel of a fword—a barrel'of beer
if a yeoman or fimple gentleman—or a pipe of wine"
if an elquire or a juftice. But of all places the moft
common and what a ghoft leaft likes, is the Red
ea , it being related, in many inllances, that ghofts
have moft parneftly befought the exorcifts not ufcon-
ne them m that place. It is neverthelefs confidered as
an indifputable fad, that there are an infinite number
laid there, perhaps from its being a fafer prifon than
any other nearer at hand ; though neither hiftory nor
tradition gives us any inftance of ghofts efcaping or re¬
turning from this kind of tranfportation before their
“ Another fpecies of human apparition may be here
noticed, though it does not come under the ftrid de-
fcnption of a ghoft. Thefe are the exad figures and
refemblances of perfons then living, often feen not only
by their friends at a diftance, but many times by them-
felves j
<598 ] g h o
drawrtW la,b0Urerflv,;° k"^ ol the parties, Ghoft
draws the curtains of iome decrepit nurli or alms r-
depofited01 TlieT 0Ut e PlaCe Whe,'e h!s ^ is
depolited. I he lame circuitous mode is purfued with
refped to redrefting injured orphans or widows 5 when
t feems as if the fhortert and moft certain way’would
be, to go to the perfon guilty of the iniuftice and
don* C0.nl2UaUy-m he be terdfied a rkitu-
tion. Nor is the pointing out loft writings generally
managed in a more fummary way j the ghoft common¬
ly applying to a third perfon ignorant of the whole
affair and a ftranger to all concerned. But it is pre-
iumptuous to fcrutmize too far into thefe matters •
themfelves? Undoub,edly &rms a"d cuflom, peculiar to
^ U Ifi aftC1 the firft aPPearance, the perfons employ-
negled, or are prevented from, performing the mef-
fage or buhnefs committed to their management, the
ghoft appears continually to them, at firft with a dif
contented, next an angry, and at length with a furious
countenance, threatening to tear them in pieces if the
matter is not forthwith executed ; fometimes terrifying
them, as in Glanvil’s relation 26th, by appearing in
many formidable ftiapes, and fometimes even ftriking
them a violent blow. Of blows given by ghofts there
are many inftances, and fome wherein they have been
followed with an incurable lamenefs,
“ It Ihould have been obferved, that ghofts, in deli¬
vering their commiflions, in order to enfure belief
communicate to the perfons employed fome fecreV
known only to the parties concerned and themfelves’
tended ^Th0!^1^^378 produces the effed in!
wfth f'd lhf !buinefs bemg comPleted» ghofts appear
Tt reft cheerful ^tenance, %ing they lhall now be
at reft, and will never more difturb any one ; and
to themSftheitrvaSentSi’ ^ Way °f rCWard communicate
to them fomething relative to themfelves, which they
vviil never reveal.
„ •“ &“etimes S1’011' appear, and diflurb a houfe
without de,g„lng tD give any reafon for fo doing: with
It’them rte‘l al’d " to and
eject them , or, as the vulgar term is, lay them. For
h,s purpoie there mull be two or three clergymen, and
the ceremonv mnft  j • r • ’ ana
^ Davia Hunter s relation above quoted ; but in that cafe
they ufually Ihow figns of terror, by whining and creep¬
ing to their mailer for protedion ; and it is generally
uppofed that they often fee things of this nature when
tueir owner cannot; there being fome perfons, particu-
fpirL^0^ b°rn °n 3 Chriftmas eve> who cannot fee
1 he coming of a fpirit is announced fome time
betore jts appearance, by a variety of loud and dread-
tul noiies; fometimes rattling in the old hall like a
coach and fix, and rumbling up and down the ftair-
cale like the trundling of bowls or cannon balls. At
length the door flies open, and the fpedre ftalks flowly
ftPrtf°4le bed’S f00t’rand °Pening the curtains, looks
ftediaftjy at the perfon m bed by whom it is feen :
a ghoft being very rarely viftble to more than one per!
on, although there are feveral in company. It is here
neceffary to obferve, that it has been univerfally found
,y:“ie’ aS iWe11 aS affirmed b7 diverfe appari-
ZA tbe,n?feluves» that a ghoft has not the power to
fpeak till it has been firft fpoken to ; fo that, notwith-
ftandmg the urgency of the bufinefs on which it may
aTI ng muft ftand fti11 1111 the V^on vifited
fomebmIU?Clent C°U!'age1t0 fPeak t0 h : an evcnt that
etimes does not take place for many years. It has
SI irf Tlthat femca,e «h°‘ls are loquacious
ed by “ hw. mak ^ b°th bei"S usually reftrain-
ofaddreffing a ghoft is by command-
ng it m the name of the Ihree Perfons of the Trinity,
o tell you who it is, and what is its bufinefs ; this it
it wift •IleC^irary ^ ,rePeat three times ; after which
t- ^ ,m. a lo;v and hollow voice, declare its fatisfac-
tion at being ffpoken to, and defire the party addref-
T g ‘h no, ,0 be afraid, for i, will do him L him.
lh,s being premifed, it commonly enters into its nar-
comm.’ 7 Ch bel"S COraplcKd’ and "s requell or
commands given, with injunflions that they be imme-
of hvhtff’ U Vanlfl!es away> frequently in a flafli
ot light, in which cafe, fome ghoils have been fo con-
o rut'thlii 1- tbe part? t0 "hom they appeared
iith dir h,fy.eS : frCUmes ,ts departure is attended
bufinefs, ,ggSl 11° by no m'elst ZT", 11 ^ ^ be",wo ‘oVThlee ZZ'Zn Z
queftions of any kind ; fl doil Ss ex, “me t'h tTT"^ 1“““ b\Pprf<".ned in Latin ; Yw’uie
ous: if any doubts arife thL —a , gG that ftrikes the moft audacious ghoft with ternm.
G I A
[ 699 ]
G I A
Giagh
Giant.
felves} of which there are feveral inftances in Aubery’s
Mifcellanies : one of Sir Richard Napier, a phyfician
of h-ondon, wrho being on the road from Bedfordihire
to vifit a friend in Berkfhire, faw at an inn his own ap¬
parition lying on his bed as a dead corpfe } he never-
thelefs went forward, and died in a fhort time : ano-
_ ther of Lady Diana Rich, daughter of the earl of
Holland, who met her own apparition walking in a
garden at Kenfington, and died a month after of the
fmallpox. Thefe apparitions are called fetches; in
Cumberland,yu’ar^j-; and in Scotland, wraiths : they
molt commonly appear to diftant friends and relations,
at the very inftant preceding the death of the 'perfon
whofe figure they put on. Sometimes, as in the inltaii"
ces above mentioned, there is a greater interval between
the appearance and death.” For a philofophical in¬
quiry into the fubje£t of apparitions in general, fee the
article Spectre.
GIAGH, in Chronology, a cycle of 12 years j in
ufe among the Turks and Cathayans.
Each year of the giagh bears a name of fome ani¬
mal : the firft that of a moufe $ the fecond that of a
bullock j the third of a lynx or leopard ; the fourth
of a hare ; the fifth of a crocodile j the fixth of a fer-
pent j the feventh of a horfe $ the eighth of a (heep j
the ninth of a monkey 5 the tenth of a hen j the
eleventh of a dog ; and the twelfth of a hog.
They alfo divide the day into 12 parts, which they
call giaghs, and ditfinguifh them by the name of fome
animals. Each giagh contains two of our hours, and
is divided into eight kehs, as many as there are quar¬
ters in our hours.
GIALLOLINO, in Natural Hiftory, a fine yellow
pigment, much ufed under the name of Naples Yel¬
low.
GIANT, a peffon of extraordinary bulk and fta-
ture.
The romances of all ages have furnifiied us with fo
many extravagant accounts of giants of incredible bulk
and ftrength, that the exiftence of fuch people is now
generally dilhelieved. It is commonly thought, that
the ftature of men hath been the fame in all ages; and
fome have even pretended to demonjlrate the impoffibi-
lity of the exiftence of giants mathematically. Of
thefe our countryman M'Laurin hath been the moft
explicit. “ In general (fays he) it will eafily appear,
that the efforts tending to deftroy, the cohefion of
beams arifing from their own gravity only, increafe in
the quadruplicate ratio of their lengths : but that the
oppofite efforts tending to preferve their cohefion, in¬
creafe only in the triplicate proportion of the fame
lengths. From which it follows, that the greater beams
muft be in greater danger of breaking than the leffer fi-
milar ones j and that though a leffer beam may be firm
and fecure, yet a greater fimilar one may be made fo
long, that it -will neceffarily break by its own weight.
Hence Galileo juftly concludes, that what appears very
firm, and fucceeds very well in models, may be very
wreak and infirm, or even fall to pieces by its own
weight, wdien it comes to be executed in large dimen-
fions according to the model. From the fame princi¬
ple he argues, that there are neceffary limits in the ope¬
rations of nature and art, which they cannot furpafs in
magnitude. Were trees of a very enormous fize, their
branches would fall by their awn wreight. Large ani¬
mals have not ftrength in proportion to their fize ; and Giant,
if there were any land animals much larger than thofe
w7e know, they could hardly move, and would be per¬
petually fubjebf to the moft dangerous accidents. As
to the animals of the fea, indeed, the cafe is different;
for the gravity of the water in a great meafure fuftains
thofe animals ; and in fa£l thefe are known fometimes
to be vaftly larger than the greateft land animals. Nor
does it avail againft this dodlrine to tell us, that bones
have fometimes been found which were fuppofed to have
belonged to giants of immenfe fize 5 fuch as the Ikele-
tons mentioned by Strabo and Pliny, the former of
W'hich was 60 cubits high, and the latter 46 : for na-
turalifts have concluded on juft grounds, that in fome
cafes thefe bones had belonged to elephants j and that
the larger ones were bones of whales, which had been
brought to the places wdiere they wrere found by the
revolutions of nature that have happened in paft times.
Though it muft be owned, that there appears no rea-
fon why there may not have been men who have ex¬
ceeded by fome feet in height the tailed we have
feen.”
It will eafily be feen, that arguments of this kind
can never be conclufive j becaufe, along with an in¬
creafe of ftature in any animal, we muft always fuppofe
a proportional increafe in the cohefion of the parts of
its body. Large works fometimes fail when conftruft-
ed on the plan of models, becaufe the cohefion of the
materials whereof the model is made, and of the large
work, are the fame j but a difference in this refpecT
will produce a very remarkable difference in the ulti¬
mate refult. Thus, fuppofe a model is made of fir-
wood, the model may be ftrong and firm enough j but
a large work made alfo of fir, when executed according
to the plan of the model, may be fo weak that it will
fall to pieces by its own weight. If, however, we
make ufe of iron for the large work inftead of fir, the
whole will be fufficiently ftrong, even though made ex¬
actly according to the plan of the model. The like
may be faid with regard to large and fmall animals.
If we could find an animal whofe bones exceeded in
hardnefs and ftrength the bones of other animals as
much as iron exceeds fir, fuch an animal might be of a
monftrous fize, and yet be exceedingly ftrong. In
like manner, if we fuppofe the flelh and bones of a
giant to be greatly fuperior in hardnefs and ftrength
to the bones of other men, the great fize of his body
will be no objection at all to his rtrength. The whole
of the matter therefore concerning the exiftence of
giants muft reft on the credibility of the accounts wre
have from thofe who pretend to have feen them, and
not on any arguments drawn a priori.
In the Scripture we are told of giants, who wTere
produced from the marriages of the fons of God with
the daughters of r/ienf. This paffage indeed has beenf See dnte-
differently interpreted, fo as to render it doubtful whe- dlluvians.
ther the word tranfiated giants does there imply any
extraordinary ftature. In other parts of Scripture,
howrever, giants, with their dimenfions, are mentioned
in fuch a manner that w?e cannot poflibly doubt j as in
the cafe of Og king of Balkan, and Goliath. In a
memoir read before the Academy of Sciences at Rouen,
M. Le Cat gives the following account of giants that
are faid to have exifted in different ages.
“ Profane hiftorians have given feven feet of height
4 T 2 to
G I A [ 700 ] G I A
Giant, to Hercules their firft hero ; and in our days we have
' 1 feen men eight feet high. The giant who was fliown
in Rouen in 1735, meafured eight feet fome inches.
The emperor Maximian was of that fize \ Shenkius and
Platerus, phyficians of the laft century, faw feveral of
that ftature j and Goropius faw a girl who was ten
feet high.—The body of Oreftes, according to the
Greeks, was eleven feet and a hall; the giant Galba-
ra, brought from Arabia to Rome under Claudius
Ctefar, was near ten feet \ and the bones of Secondil-
la and Pufio, keepers of the gardens of Sallull, were
but fix inches Ihorter. Funnam, a Scotfman, who liv¬
ed in the time of Eugene II. king of Scotland, mea¬
fured eleven feet and a half*, and Jacob le Maire, in
his voyage to the Straits of Magellan, reports, that on
the 17th of December 1615, they found at Port De¬
fire feveral graves covered with Hones 5 and having the
curiofity to remove the Hones, they difcovered human
Ikeletons of ten and eleven feet long. The chevalier
Scory, in ids voyage to the peak of Teneriffe, fays-,
that they found in one of the fepulchral caverns of that
mountain the head of a Guanche which had 80 teeth,
and that the body was not lefs than 15 feet long. The
giant Ferragus, flam by Orlando nephew of Charle¬
magne, was 1 8 feet high. Rioland, a celebrated ana-
tomifl, who wrote in 1614, fays, that fome years be¬
fore there was to be feen in the fuburbs of St Germain
the tomb of the giant Iforet, who was 20 feet high.
In Rouen, in 1509, in digging in the ditches near
the Dominicans, they found a Hone tomb containing a
Ikeleton whole Ikull held a bufhel of corn, and whofe
fhin bone reached up to the girdle of the tallefl man
there, being about four feet, long, and confequently
the body muH have been 17 or 18 feet high. Upon
the tomb was a plate of copper, whereon was engrav¬
ed, “ In this tomb lies the noble and puiffant lord,
the chevalier Ricon de Vallemont, and his bones.”
Platerus, a famous phyfician, declares, that he faw at
Lucerne the true human bones of a fubjeft which mufl
have been at leafl 19 feet high. Valence in Dauphine
boafls of poffefling the bones of the giant Bucart, ty¬
rant of the Vivarais, who was flain with an arrow by
the count de Cabillon his vafl’al. The Dominicans
had a part of the Hiin bone, with the articulation of
the knee, and his figure painted in frefco, with an in-
fcription, fliowing that this giant was 22 feet and a
half high, and that his bones were found in 1705, near
the banks of the Morderi, a little river at the foot of
the mountain of Crufibl, upon which (tradition fays)
the giant dwelt.
“ January 11. 1613, fome mafons digging near the
ruins of a caflle in Dauphine, in a field which (by tra¬
dition) had long been called the giant's fields at the
depth of 18 feet difcovered a brick tomb 30 feet long,
I 2 feet wide, and 8 feet high 5 on which was a gray
Hone, with the words Theutobochus Rex cut thereon.
When the tomb wras opened, they found a human Ike¬
leton entire, 2 5 feet and a half long, 10 feet wide a-
Crofs the flioulders, and five feet deep from the breaH
bone to the back. His teeth xvere about the fize each
of an ox’s foot, and his fliin bone meafured four feet.
—-Near Mazarino, in Sicily, in 1516, was found a giant
30 feet high j his head was the fize of an hogfliead,
and each of his teeth weighed five ounces. Near Pa¬
lermo, in the valley of Mazarra, in Sicily, a Ikeleton of
a giant 30 feet long was found, in the year 1548 *, Giant
and another of 33 feet high, in 1550 j and many cu- —v~
rious perfons have preferved feveral of thefe gigantic
bones.
“ The Athenians found near their city two famous
ikeletons, one of 34 and the other of 36 feet high.
“ At Totu, in Bohemia, in 758, was found a ikele¬
ton, the head of which could fcarce be encompafled by
the arms of two men together, and whofe legs, which
they Hill keep in the caflle of that city, were 26 feet
long. The ikull of the giant found in Macedonia, Sep¬
tember 1691, held 210 pounds of corn.
“ The celebrated Sir Hans Sloane, who treated this
matter very learnedly, does not doubt thefe fafts j but
thinks the bones were thofe of elephants, whales, or
other enormous animals.
“ Elephants bones maybe Hiorvn for thofe of giantsj
but they can never impofe on connoiffeurs. Whales,
which, by their immenfe bulk, are more proper to be
fubflituted for the largefl giants, have neither arms
nor legs 3 and the head of that animal hath not the leafl
refemblance to that of a man. If it be true, there¬
fore, that a great number of the gigantic bones which
we have mentioned have been feen by anatdmifls, and
by them have been reputed real human bones, the exifl-
ence of giants is proved.”
With regard to the credibility of all or any of
thefe accounts, it is difficult to determine any thing.
If, in any cafile of Bohemia, the bones of a man’s,
leg 26 feet in length are preferved, we have indeed a
decifive proof of the exiflence of a giant, in comparifon
of whom mofl others w-ould be but pigmies. Nor in¬
deed could thefe bones be fuppofed to belong to an
elephant: for an elephant itfelf would be but a dwarf
in comparifon of fuch an enormous monfler. But if
thefe bones were really kept in any part of Bohemia,
it feems Hrange that they have not been frequently vi-
fited, and particular defcriptions of them given by the
learned who have travelled into that country. It is
certain, however, that there have been nations of men
confiderably exceeding the common flature. Thus, all
the Roman hiflorians inform us, that the Gauls and
Germans exceeded the Italians in fize *, and it appears
that the Italians in thofe days were of much the fame
Hature with the people of the prefent age. Among
thefe northern nations, it is alfo probable, that there
would be as great differences in flature as thefe are
among the prefent race of men. If that can be al¬
lowed, we may eafily believe that fome of the bar¬
barians might be called giants, without any great im¬
propriety. Of this fuperiority of fize, indeed, the
hiflorian Florus gives a notable inftance in Teutobo-
chus, above mentioned, king of the Teutones : who
being defeated and taken prifoner by Marius, was car¬
ried in triumph before him at Rome, when his head
reached above the trophies that were carried in the
fame proceflion.
But whether thefe accounts are credited or not, we
are very certain, that the ftature of the human body
is by no means abfolutely fixed. We ourfelves are
a kind of giants in compai-ifon of the Laplanders 3 nor
are thefe the mofl diminutive people to be found upon
the earth. The Abbe la Chappe, in his journey into
Siberia in order to obferve the laft tranfit of Venus,
paffed through a village inhabited by people called
IVotiachs,
G I A [ 7°
Wotlach neither men nor women of whom were above
"high. The aceounta of the Patagomans a io
—' which cannot be entirely difcredited, render y
probable, that foraewbere in South America tieie is
Trace of people very confklerably exceeding the com¬
mon fize of mankind, and confequently that we can¬
not altogether difcredit the relations of giants handed
down tog us by ancient authors; though what degree
of credit we ought to give them, is not eafy to be de
termined. See Patagonia.
Rebe/ Giants, in ancient mythology, were the fens
of Ccelus and Terra. According to Heifed, they
• fprang from the blood of the wound which Ccelus re¬
ceived from bis fen Saturn, and Hyginus calls them
fens of Tartarus and Terra. They are reprefented as
men of uncommon ftature, with ifrength Foportioned
to their gigantic fee. Some of them as Cottus, Bri-
areus and Gyges, had each 50 heads and 100 arms,
and ferpents fnftead of legs. They were of a terrible
afpecl, their hair hung loofe about their ^ldeg a«d
their beard was fuffered to grow unmolefted.^ Pallene
and its neighbourhood was the place of their refidence.
The defeat of the Titans, to whom they v
were nearly
Ltie aerear 01 me ^ , , A
related, incenfed them agamft Jupiter, ^nd they al
confpired to dethrone him. Accordingly they reared
Mount OiTa upon Pelion, and Olympus upon Ofe ,
and from thence attacked the gods with huge rocks,
feme of which fell into the fea and became lilands,
and others fell on the earth and formed mountains.
Jupiter fummoned a council of the gods j when being
informed that it was neceffary to obtain the aiTiftance
of feme mortal, he by the advice of Pallas called up his
fen Hercules; and with the aid of this hero he ex¬
terminated the giants Enceladus, Polybotes, AltTon>
Porphyrion, the two fens of Alceus, Ephialtes, Ot us,
Eurytus, Clytius, Tithyus, Pallas, rfippohtus, Agnus,
Thoon, and Typhon; the laft of whom it was more
difficult to vanquiffi than all the others. Jupiter hav¬
ing thus gained a complete victory, call _ the rebels
down to Tartarus, where they were to receive the full
puniffiment of their enormous crimes : _ according to
the accounts of feme of the poets, he buried them alive
under Mount ^.tna and dffierent illands.
Giants Caufeway, a vaft colie6bon of bafaltic pil¬
lars in the county of Antrim, on the north coaft ot Ire¬
land. See Basaltes. r
The principal cr grand caufeway confifts of a mo
regular arrangement of many hundred thoufands ot co¬
lumns of a black kind of rock, very hard : almoft all of
them are of a pentagonal figure, but to clofeiy an
compaftly fituated on their fides, though perfedlly
diftina from top to bottom, that fcarce any thing can
be introduced between them. The columns are of an
unequal height and breadth; feme of the highefi, v-
fible above the furface of the ftrand, and at the 00
of the impending angular precipice, may be about 20
feet • they do not exceed this height, at leaft none o
the principal arrangement. Plow deep they are fixed
in the ftrand, was never yet ddcovered. Phis grand
arrangement extends nearly 200 yards vifible at low
water; how far beyond is uncertain: from its declin¬
ing appearance, however, at low water it is probable
it does not extend under water to a diftance any thing
equal to what is feen above. I he. breadth of the
principal caufeway, which runs out m one continued
x ] G I A
range of columns, is, m general, from 20 to 30 feet;
at one place or two it may be neaily 40 toi a ew   _
vards. In this account are excluded the broken and
(battered pieces of the fame kind of conftruebon, that
are detached from the ftdes of the grand .caufeway, as
they do not appear to have ever been contiguous to the
principal arrangement, though they have frequemly
been takbn into the width : which has been the came
of fuch wild and diffimilar reprefentations of. this caufe¬
way, which different accounts have exhibited. I he
hibheft part of this caufeway is the narroweft, at toe
very foot of the impending cliff from whence the
whole projefts, where, for four or five yards, it is not
above ten or fifteen feet wide. The columns of this
narrow part incline from a perpendicular a little to the
weftward, and form a flope on their tops, by the very
unequal height of the columns on the two fides, by
which an afeent is made at the foot of the cliff, from
the head of one column to the next above, gradatim,
to the top of the great caufeway, which, at the di¬
ftance of half a dozen yards from the cliff, obtains a
perpendicular pofition, and lowering m its general
height, widens to about 20 or between 20 and 30 feet,
and for 100 yards nearly is always above water. Ihe
tops of the columns for this length being nearly of an
equal'height, they forma grand and ftngular parade,
that may be eafily walked on, rather inclining to. the
water’s edge. But from high water mark, as it is
perpetually walked by the beating furges on every
return of the tide, the platform lowers conftderably,
and becomes more and more uneven, fo as not to be
walked on but with the greateft care. At the diftance
of 150 yards from the cliff, it turns, a little to the ealt
for 20 or 30 yards, and then finks into the fea. Ihe
figure of thefe columns is almoft unexceptionably pen¬
tagonal, or compofed of five fides ; there are but i ery
few of any other figure introduced : feme few there
are of three, four, and fix fides, but the generality of
them are five-fided, and the fpeaator muft look very
nicely to find any of a different conftrubfion • . yet
what is very extraordinary, and particularly curious,
there are not two columns in ten thouland to be found,
that either have their fides equal among thenruelvcs,
or whofe figures are alike. Nor is the compofiti.on of
thefe columns or pillars lefs deferving the attention of
the curious fpeftator. They are not of one fehd ftone
In an upright pofition ; but compoled of feveral fhoit
lengths, curioully joined, not with fiat furfaces, but
articulated into each other like ball and fecket, ot
like the joints in the vertebrae of feme of the larger
kind of fifii, the one end at the joint having a cavity,
into which the convex end of the oppofite is exactly
fitted. This is not vifible, but by disjoining the two
ftones. The depth of the concavity or convexity is
generally about three or four inches. And what is
ftill farther remarkable of the joint, the convexity, and
the correfpondent concavity, is not conformed to the
external angular figure of the column, but exaftly
round, and as large as the fize or diameter of the co¬
lumn will admit ; and consequently as the angles of
thefe columns are in general extremely unequal, the
circular edges of the joint are feldom-coincident vith
more than two or three fides of the pentagon, and
from the edge of the circular part of the joint to the
exterior fides and angles they are quite plain. It is
itiii.
G 1 A
C'aufeway. fart,ler vfr.vi. lemarkabk, HKewilc, mat the :
cuiations or thofe joints are frequently inverted ; in
iome the concavity is upwards, in others the reverfe.
J his occafions that variety and mixture of concavities
and convexities on the tops of the columns, which is
obfervable throughout the platform of this caufeway,
yet without any difcoverable delign or regularity with
Jefpedd to the number of either. The length alfo
of thefe particular Hones, from joint to joint, is va¬
rious : in general, they are from 18 to 24 inches long 5
and, for the moll: part, longer toward the bottom "of
the columns than nearer the top, and the articulation
of the joints fomething deeper. The fize or diameter
likewife of the columns is as different as their length
and. figure ; in general, they are from 15 to 20 inches
in diameter. 1 here are really no traces of uniformity
or defign difcovered throughout the whole combina¬
tion. excent in the fm-m nf th» MM* : 
riably by an articulation of the convex into the con¬
cave of the piece next above or below it; nor are there
any traces of a finilhing in any part, either in height,
length, or breadth, of this curious caufeway. If there’
is here and there a fmooth top to any of the columns
above water, there are others juft by, of equal height,
that are more or lefs convex or concave, which Ihow
them to have been joined to pieces that have been
walhed, or by other means taken off. And undoubt¬
edly thofe parts that are always above water have,
irom time to time, been made as even as might be ;
C 7°2 ] gib
hkewife, that the arti- ening on either hand in view, they have obtained the
appellation of organs, from a rude likenefs in this par¬
ticular to the exterior or frontal tubes of that inftru-'
ment j and^ as there are few broken pieces on the
ftrand near it, it is probable that the outfide range of
columns that now appears is really the original exte¬
rior line, to the feaward, of this colleaion. g But how-
far they extend internally into the bowels of the in
cumbent chff, is unknown. The very fubftance, in-
deed, of that part of the cliff which projefts to a point
between the two bays on the eaft and weft of the
caufeway, feems compofed of this kind of materials •
tor befides the many pieces that are feen on the fides
ot the cliff that circulate to the bottom of the bavs
particularly the eaftern fide, there is, at the very poinj
ot the cliff, and juft above the narrow and higheft part
ot the caufeway, a long colleftion of them feen, whofe
ra the remaining furfaces of the joints muft naturally n^fX“ 117” <*«-
haee been worn fmoother by the conftant friaion of oritrinallv from tl e AgJL I,7,J “iSE*? '.° C°.me
  & ui. me junus inuu naturally
have been worn fmoother by the conftant friaion of
weather and ^walking, than where the fea, at every
tide, is beating upon it and continually removing
iome of the upper ftones and expofing frefti joints.
And tarther, as thefe columns preferve their diameters
trom top to bottom, in all the exterior ones, which
have two or three fides expofed to view, the fame may
with reafon be. inferred of the interior columns whole
tops only are vifible. . Yet what is very extraordinary,
and equally curious, in this phenomenon, is, that not-
withftanding the univerfal diftimilitude of the columns,
both as to their figure and diameter, and though per-
fettly diftina from top to bottom, yet is the whole
arrangement fo clofely combined at all points, that
hardly a knife can be introduced between them either
on the lides or angles.
I he cliffs at a great diftance from the caufeway, ef-
pecially in the bay to the eaftward, exhibit at many
places the fame kind of columns, figured and jointed in
all refpefts like thofe of the grand caufeway : fome of
them are. feen near to the top of the cliff, which in
general, in thefe bays to the eaft and weft of the caufe-
way IS near 300 feet in height; others again are feen
about midway, and at different elevations from the
ftrand. A very confiderable expofure of them is feen
in the very bottom of the bay to the eaftward, near a
hundred roods from the caufeway, where the earth has
evidently fallen away from them upon the ftrand, and
exhibits a moft curious arrangement of many of thefe
pentagonal columns, in a perpendicular pofition fup-
poiting, m appearance, a cliff of different ftrata of earth
clay, rock &c. to the height of 150 feet or more, above!
plainly Ihow them to oe in an oblique pofition, and
about half way between the perpendicular and hori¬
zontal. 1 he heads of thefe, likewife, are of mixed
urfaces, convex and concave, and the columns evident¬
ly appear to have been removed from their original up-
tl c I? their ?r1e/ent i"clining or oblique pofition, by
the finking or falling of the cliff. ^
GIBBET, or Gibet, a machine in manner of a gal¬
lows, whereon notorious criminals, after execution, are
hung in irons or chains, as fpedtacles m /errors. See
Galeows. The word in French, gifa, properly de-
Prill GrsilInTire • r, r 1
. . Ao * . • *>• 13 luppoieu ro come
onginaUy from the Arabic .pfo/, <> mount or elevation
t ground; by reafon gibas are uftially placed on hills
or eminences.
GIBBON, Edward, a hiftorian of diftinguilhed
eminence, was born at Putney in the year 1727 He
was the fon of a gentleman of fortune and family dif-
incftion, who fat as a member in two feparate parlia¬
ments. Edward when a boy, was of fuch an extreme¬
ly delicate conftitution, that his life was frequently
defpaired of. W hen at the fchool of Weftminfter, his
progrefs was often retarded by repeated Ihocks of bad
health. After being for a long time under the ma¬
nagement of the beft medical practitioners, his confti¬
tution was radically changed for the better, which in¬
duced his father to place him in Magdalen college as
a gentleman commoner, that he might be puffed into
"rT- n^111^1005, ■1'his was Prior t0 tlle completing
ot his fifteenth year. Before this time his reading had
been of fuch a. nature as to ftore his mind with much
r! k,n?wlcdge> ^though his grammati¬
cal and philofophical knowledge at this time was not fo
extenfive as that of fome others at the fame period of
ite. He fays ot himfelf; I arrived at Oxford with a
itock of erudition that might have puzzled a dodor,
and a degree of ignorance of which a fchool-boy would
have been affamed. Under fuch circumftances he was
but ill.prepared to. receive the benefits of an univerfity
education, and. this was no doubt the reafon why he
exclaimed fo bitterly againft the public and private in-
ftruchons at Oxford.
He was fond of polemical divinity from his infancy
and during his leifure moments he turned his attention’
when farther n rl XT rt 1-, s* ~ 4- 4-U.rv  A. 1 *
Some of thefe columns are between 20 and 40 feethGh' 3 p dU?ng, his 1^ifure moments he turned his attention,’
from the top of the floping bank" below them • and’ b^ failhe" adva"ced» to the celebrated controverfy
being longeft in the middle of the arrangement ’ffnrt’ ib ^een Papjfls and Proteftants j and as he had not
° G arranSetnent, ffort- then acquired talents fuffeient to enable him to combat
error
Gibbet,
Gibbon.
GIB [ 7=3 ] GIB
GiBbon. error and defend the truth, he fell a vl&im to the fo-
phiftry of the church of Rome. His father, with a
view to reclaim him from the love of what he confider-
ed as the molt deftruttive of all errors, lent him to
Laulanne in Switzerland, and put him under the care
of Mr Pavilliard, a clergyman of the Calviniftic per-
fualion. This gentleman called his pupil Edward,
“ A little thin figure, with a large head, difputing,
and urging with the greateft ability, all the beft ar¬
guments that had ever been ufed in favour of Popery.”
The mafterly exertions of Mr Pavilliard, who had’ to
deal with a young man of folid reafon and matured re-
fie&ion, accomplilhed the recantation of Mr Gibbon,
and he received the facrament in the Proteftant church
on the 25th of December 1754. At Laufanne, too,
he made great progrels in many branches of knowledge
which he had hitherto negle&ed, and acquired a regu¬
lar habit of itudy. He became mailer of the French
and Latin languages, and was a profound logician.
He gave full fcope to the exercife of reading excellent
authors, which was his ruling paffion. He did not
appear fond of mathematics, and therefore foon relin-
quithed the lludy of them. At Laufanne he fell in
love with a young lady, the daughter of a village cler¬
gyman, but he was fruftrated in his hopes, and the
jady became afterwards the wife of the celebrated
Necker.
On his return home in April 1758, his father re¬
ceived him with every mark of tendernefs and affedlion,
and his mother-in-law found means to conciliate his
good opinion and his confidence. It is a lingular cir-
curailance that he Ihould have taken a captain’s com-
million in the army, a profelhon, one would have ima¬
gined, for which he was very ill calculated. Indeed
he foon evinced the truth of this, for his tent and quar¬
ters were frequently encumbered with the odd furni¬
ture of Greek and Latin authors. On the event of
peace he refigned his commiflion, and paid a vilit to
Paris in the year 1763, where he refided a few months,
and afterwards went to Laufanne, where he remained
about a year, in order to prepare for a journey into
Italy, which he accomplilhed in 1765. He thus fpeaks
on the occalion of his entering Rome : “ After a lleep-
lefs night, I trod, with a lofty Hep, the ruins of the
forum j each memorable fpot, where Romulus Hood, or
1 ully fpoke, or Caefar fell, was aj once prefent to my
eye } and feveral days of intoxication were loll or en¬
joyed before I could defcend to a cool and minute in-
veftigation.” On the 15th of OeHober, he informs us,
the idea of writing the decline and fall of Rome firft
came into his mind, when the bare-footed friars were
finging vefpers in the temple of Jupiter.
In the year 1770 Mr Gibbon loll his father, and
fucceeded to an eflate which was very much involved }
yet he confidered his circumflances as very well adapted
to the great and extenfive work he had undertaken to
accomplilh, which in his own opinion he had probably
never finilhed, if he had been either poorer or richer
than he was. He had an extensive circle of acquaint¬
ance in London, but the time neceffarily devoted to
their company, he made up by early rifing and intenfe
application. In the year 1774 he was chofen member
of parliament for the borough of Lilkeard, by the in¬
fluence of Lord Elliot, which threatened to give his
fludies a very ferious interruption. He fat eight years
in the houfe of commons without having the courage fo Gibbon,
much as once to open his mouth, notwithftanding he Gibbous’,
was fuch an elegant writer. When the firft volume of '•—-'v—-
his “ Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire”, made its
appearance in 1776, it met with a greater degree of
applaule than he expected ; but by no praife was he fo
highly gratified as by that which the two great hifto-
rians of Scotland, Hume and Robertfon, beftowed upon
him. For his two chapters which relate to the fpread
of chriftianity he met with many antagonifts, to whom
he made no reply but to a Mr Davis, which was con¬
fidered as a mafterpiece. There can be no doubt that
Gibbon was a real enemy to revelation in the difguife
of a believer, a conduft not fo abominable as at firft
fight may appear, fo long as penal laws exift againft
an open declaration of opinion.
Soon after the publication of the firft volume of his
hiftory, he paid another vifit to Paris, and did not ap¬
pear to be in much hafte to complete his extenfive
work. In 1781, however, the fecond and third vo¬
lumes of his hiftory were given to the world 5 and, al¬
though in the eftimation of many competent judges
they were inferior to the firft, they ftill were allowed
to pofiefs fuificient merit to fupport his reputation.
Having loft his feat for Lilkeard, the influence of
miniftry brought him in as reprefentative for Lyming-
ton, and on the difiblution of Lord North’s miniftry-,
he loft his office as one of the lords of trade, which was
a ferious diminution of his income. He again deter¬
mined to vifit his favourite Laufanne, where he com¬
pleted the remaining volumes of his hiftory; but when
the revolutionary mania began to rage on the conti¬
nent, he quitted Laufanne, and fought for an afylum
in England. He mortally hated innovations of every
kind, whether neceflary or not, as appears from the
following exclamation : “ I beg leave to fubfcribe my
aflent to Mr Burke’s creed on the revolution of France.
I admire his eloquence, I approve his politics, I adore
his chivalry, and can almoft excufe his reverence for
church eftablifhments.”
During his confoling vifit to Lord Sheffield, who
had met with a trying domeftic lofs, his attention was
called to the rapid progrefs of a diftemper which had
fubfifted for about 30 years. A mortification at laft
enfued, which terminated his exiftence on the 16th of
January 1794, in the 67th year of his age. Mr Gib¬
bon gives himfelf a charaffer which is perhaps pretty-
near the truth. “ I am endowed with a cheerful tem¬
per, a moderate fenfibility, and a natural difpofition to
repofe rather than to adlivity : fome mifchievous appe¬
tites and habits have perhaps been corredled by philo-
fophy or time. The love of ftudy fupplies each dayrf
each hour, with a perpetual fource of independent and
rational pleafure.” Mr Gibbon poffelfed the manners
and fentiments of a gentleman in an eminent degree 3
he was eafy in fociety, of which he was extremely fond5,
and beloved by all w7ho had the pleafure of intimately
knowing him.
GIBBOUS, a term in medicine, denoting any pro¬
tuberance or convexity of the body, as a perfon hunch¬
ed or hump-backed.
Infants are much more fubjedl to gibbofity than adults,
and it oftener proceeds from external than internal
caufes. A fall, blow, or the like, frequently thus dif-
torts the tender bones of infants. When it proceeds
from
G 1 B
[ 7°4 1
G I B
Gibbous from an internal oaufe, it is generally from a relaxa-
tl tion of the ligaments that fuftain the fpine, or a caries
Gibeor.
of its vertebrae ; though the fpine may be inflefted for¬
ward, and the vertebrae thrown out by a too ftrong
and repeated a£Hon of the abdominal mufcles. This,
if not timely redreffed, grows up and fixes as the bones
harden, till in adults it is totally irretrievable : but
when the diforder is recent, and the perfon young,
there are hopes of a cure. The common method is
bv a machine of pafteboard, wood, or fteel, which is
made to prefs principally on the gibbous part ; and
this by long wearing may fet all right. The furgeons,
however, have a difterent inftrument, which they call
a crofs, much more efficacious, though not quite fo
convenient in the wearing. By the ufe of this, the
parts are always prevented from growing any worfe,
and are often Cured. During the application of thefe
afliftances, the parts (hould be at times rubbed with
Hungary water, fpirit of lavender, or the like, and de¬
fended with a ftrengthening plafter.
Gibbous, in AJlronomy, a term ufed in reference to
the enlightened parts of the moon, whilft fhe is moving
from the firft quarter to the full, and from the full to
the laft quarter : for all that time the dark part ap¬
pears horned or falcated j and the light one hunched
out, convex, or gibbous.
GIBE AH, a city in the tribe of Benjamin, lying
north of Jerufalem about 20 or 30 furlongs, and built
upon a hill, as its name imports.—This city gave birth
to Saul, the firff king of Ifrael, for which reafon it is
frequently called Gibeah of Saul, or Gibeah the native
countiy of Saul.
GIBELINS, or Gibellins, a famous fedlion in
Italy, oppofite to another called the Guelphs.
Thofe two factions ravaged and laid wafte Italy for
a long feries of years ■, fo that the hiftory of that coun¬
try, for the fpace of two centuries, is no more than a
detail of their mutual violences and {laughters. The Gi-
belins flood for the emperor againft the pope : but con¬
cerning their origin and the reafon of their names we
have but a very obfcure account. According to the
generality of authors, they rofe about the year 1240,
upon the emperor Frederick II.’s being excommuni¬
cated by Pope Gregory IX. Other writers main¬
tain, that the two faftions arofe ten years before,
though Hill under the fame pope and emperor. But
the moft probable opinion is that of Maimbourg, who
fays, that the two fadlions of Guelphs and Gibelins
arofe from a quarrel between two ancient and illuftri-
ous houfes on the confines of Germany, that of the
Henries of Gibeling, and that of the Guelphs of
Adorf.
GIB EON, a city feated on an eminence about 40
furlongs from Jerufalem northward, and not far from
the city of Gibeah. See Geba.
This was the capital city of the Gibeonites, who
took the advantage of Joffua’s oath, and of that which
the elders of Ifrael likewife fvvore to them, upon an
artificial reprefentation which they made of their be¬
longing to a very remote country, and their defire of
making an alliance with the Hebrews. Joffiua (ix. 3.
4, et feq?) and the elders inconfiderately entered into
a league with thefe people ; but foon difcovered their
miftake. Upon this, fending for the Gibeonites, they
reproached them with their fraud; and without revok¬
ing the promife which they had made to them, of
giving them their lives, they condemned them to carry
wood and water to the tabernacle of the Lord, as {laves
and captives taken in war j in which {late of fervitude
they remained till the ruin and entire difperfion of the
Jewifh nation.
The Gibeonites were defcendcd from the Hivites,
the old inhabitants of that country •, and poiTeffed four
cities, whereof Gibeon was the capital. The cities were
Chephirath, Beeroth, Kirjathjearim, and Gibeon, Join,
ix. 17. Thefe cities were afterwards given to the tribe of
Benjamin, except Kirjathjearim, which tell to the tribe
of Judah. The Gibeonites continued ever alter {abject
to thofe burdens which Joihua bad impofed on them,
and were very faithful to the Ifraelites.
GIBLETS, the offals or entrails of a godle ; includ¬
ing the heart and liver, with the feet, gizzard, See. The
word is fuppofed to be formed of goblets ; from tne h Tench
gobeait) “ mouthful.”—Giblets make a confiderable ar¬
ticle in cookery : they boil giblets, itew giblets, make
ragouts of giblets, giblet pies, &c.
GIBRALTAR, a famous promontory, or rather
peninfula, of Spain, lying in N. Lat. 36. 6. W.
Long. 5. 17. To the ancients it was known by the
name of Calpe, and was alfo called one of the Ptl/ars oj
Hercules; by the Arabians it is called Gcbel Tarek, that
is, “ the mouth of Tarek,” from Tarek the name of the
Saracen general who conquered Spain in the beginning
of the eighth century. The whole is an immenfe rock,
riling perpendicularly about 440 yards, meafuring
from north to fouth about two Englifh miles, but
not above one in breadth from eaft to weft.— The town
lies along the bay on the weft fide of the mountain on
a declivity •, by which, generally fpeaking, the rains
pals through it, and keep it clean. The old town was
confiderably larger than the new, which at prefent con-
lifts of between 400 and 500 houfes. Many of the ftreets
are narrow and irregular: the buildings are of difter-
ent materials 5 fome of natural ftone out of the quar¬
ries, fome of a fadfitious or artificial ftone, and a few
of brick. The people are fupplied with frefh provi-
fions chiefly from the coaft of Barbary, with fruit,
roots, and vegetables of all forts from thence, or from
their own gardens. Beiides what is properly called the
town, there are feveral fpacious and commodious pub¬
lic edifices eredled,; fuch as barracks for the foldiers,
with apartments for their officers, magazines of dif¬
ferent kinds, ftorehoufes for provifions, &c. The in¬
habitants, exclufive of the Britifti fubjedls dependent
on the garrifon, or who relide there from other motives,
confift of lome Spaniards, a few Portugueie, a conlider-
able number of Genoele, and about as many Jews}
making in the whole, according to Dr Campbell, be¬
tween two and three thoufand, without reckoning the
garrifon; though fome make them much fewer. . This
town may be faid to have two ports; the firft lying to
the north, and is proper only for Imall veiTels ; the
other is ve *y commodious for large veftels, and has a
fine ftone quay. The bay is very beautiful and capaci¬
ous, being in breadth about five miles, and in length
eight or nine, with feveral fmall rivers running into it.
It is very advantageous to the place. There is no ground
to be found in the middle of it at 100 fathoms depth,
fo that a fquadron may lie there in great fafety ; the
breezes from it are very refrelhing ; and it contributes
likewife
GibfeCs,"
Gibraltar.
GIB [ ?
eitoa'tar. litcwife to the fubfiftence of the inhabitants, by fupply-
^—v  ing them with plenty of filh.
The ftrait of Gibraltar, through which the ocean
pafi’es into the Mediterranean, thereby dividing Europe
from A frica, runs from weft to eaft about 13 leagues.
In this ftrait there are three remarkable promontories
or capes on the jSpamQi ftde, and as many oppofite to
them on the Barbary fide. , "l he firft ot thefe, on the
fide of Spain, is Cape Trafalgar, oppofite to which is
Cape Spartel; and in the neighbourhood of this ftood
the fortrefs of Tangier, once in the pofleflion of the
Britilh. The next on the Spanifti fide is Tariffa } and
over againft it lies hlalabata, near the town 01 A.icaf-
far, where the ftraits are about five leagues broad. Laft-
ly, Gibraltar facing the mountain of Abyla, near the
fortrefs and town of Ceuta, which make the eaftern en-
x try of the ftraits.
Fortrefs This important fortrefs feems to have been firft parti-
fir ft ereAed cuiar}y noticed as a place of confequence in the year
fey the Sa- ^ j ^ tJjne the general of the caliph A1 \Y a-
racens. landed with an army of I 2,000 men on the ifthmus
between Mount Calpe and the continent 5 and that he
might fecure an intercourle with Africa, ordered a
caftle to be built on the face of that hill. Part of the
building ftill remains; and, from an infoription difco-
vered above the principal gate, appears to have been
finiihed in 725. It continued in the poffeflion of the
2 Saracens till the beginning of the 14th century, when it
Various re- was recovered by Ferdinand king of Caftile. In 1333*
Volutions, however, it was obliged to furrender to the fon of the
emperor of Fez, who came to the affxftance of the IVIoor-
iih king of Granada. An attempt was made upon it in
1349 by Alonfo king of Caftile ; but when the fortrefs
had been reduced to the laft extremity, a peftilential le¬
ver broke out in the Spanilh camp, which carried off the
king himfelf, with great part of his army 5 after which
the enterprife was abandoned.
The fortrefs continued in the poffeftion of the Sa¬
racen defcendants of the prince of Fez until the year
1410, when it was taken poffeffion of by Jofeph III.
king of Granada. A defign of attacking it was form¬
ed by Henry de Gufman in 1435 } but the enterprife
having mifcarried through his imprudence, he was de¬
feated and {lain. However, it was at length taken
after a gallant defence by his fon Jonn de Guiman in
1462 ) fince which time it has remained in the hands
of the Chriftians. In 1540. it was furprifed and pil¬
laged by Piali Hamet, one of Barbaroffa’s cprfairs *,
but the pirates having fallen in with (ome Sicilian gal¬
leys, were by them defeated, and all either killed or
, taken.
Its ibrthica- In the reign of Charles V. the fortifications of Gib-
tions inx- raltar were modernized, and luch additions made as to
proved and renjer tfigm almoft impregnable. It was taken by the
Itrengthen- however, in the reign of Queen Anne, and
fince that time has remained in their poffeftion 5 and
probably will always do fo, unlefs ceded by treaty, as
it appears altogether itnpoflible to reduce it by any
force of artillery, let it be ever fo great. In the year
1704, in confequence of the refolution adopted by the
court of Britain to affift the archduke Charles in his
pretenfions to the Spanifh crown, Sir George Rooke
was lent with a powerful fleet into ,the Mediterranean.
His orders being limited, nothing of confequence was
done for fome time, until at laft an attempt on Gibral-
Vol. IX. Part II.
4
Taken by
Sir George
Rooke in
1704.
5 1 G 1 B
tar was refolvcd Upon ; not fo much on account of the CtbsaUn
importance of the conqueff, as to prevent any^ rellec-
tions againft the admiral for inadlivity. On the 21ft
of July that year, 1800 troops were landed upon the
ifthmus, under the command of the prince of Heffe
Darmftadt •, and on the refufal of the governor to fur-
render, preparations were made for attacking the place.
Early in the morning of the 23^* a cannonade was
begun from the fleet, and kept up fo brifkly, that in
five or fix hours the Spaniards were driven from many
of their guns, efpecially at the new mole head. I he
admiral perceiving, that, by gaining this part 01 the
fortification, the reduction of the reft v/ould be faci¬
litated, ordered out fome armed boats to take poffef-
fion of it. On their approach the Spaniards fprung a
mine, which demolifhed part of the vvorksj killed twro
lieutenants and 40 private foldiers, wTounding about
60 more. Notwilhftanding this difafter, the affailants
kept poffeffion of the work, and took a ftnall baftion,
now the eight-gun battery, half way between the mole
and the town. On this the governor thought proper
to capitulate, and the prince of Heffe took poffeffion
of the gates on the 24th. The garrifon, conufting at
moft of 150 men, marched out with the honours of
war j and the Spaniards who chofe to remain were al¬
lowed the fame privileges they had enjoyed under the
reign of Charles II. The works were found very ftrong,
and the place well provided with ammunition and mi¬
litary ftores.
This conqueft ivas atchieved with the lofs of about
60 killed and 216 wounded on the part of the Eng-
lith. The prince of Heffe remained governor', and 18
men of war were left at Lifbon under the command
of Sir John Leake, to fuccour the garrifon if there
fliould be occafion. Fhe lols ot fuch an important
fortrels, however, having alarmed both the courts of ^
Madrid and Paris, orders were fent to the Marquis de Befieged
Villadarias, a Spanifti grandee, to lay fiege to it, in the fame
which he was to be afliited by a navaMorce from Tou-jJamuis de
Ion. The prince immediately applied to Sir J°hn Vj]j^ariaSj
Leake for afliftance; but before the latter had time
to comply with his requeft, a French fleet arrived,
and debarked fix battalions to the afliftance of the
Spaniards j after which they proceeded to the weft-
ward, leaving only fix frigates in the bay. Ihe
trenches were opened on the 1 ith of Odlober, about
which time Sir John arrived with 20 fail of Englifti
and Dutch {hips; but hearing that the French were
about to attack him with a fuperior force, he judged
it proper to return and refit. Having very prudently
left orders fit Lilbon to make preparations for this
purpofe in his abfence, he wras enabled to accomplifli
the work with fuch expedition, that on the 29th of
the fame month, he returned, and furprifed in the bay-
three frigates, a fire ftiip, two Englifti prizes, a tar- 6
tan, and a ftore (hip. After this exploit he landed The garri-
fome reinforcements, fupplied the garrifon with fix^f^P:^
months provifion and ammunition j at the fame time
detaching on ftiore a body of 500 failors to aflift in re- ments and
pairing the breaches which had been made by the ene-provifions
my’s fire. _ ^ S^r John
Thus the Spaniards were difappointed in their hopesLca e*
of fuccefs from an attack which had been projedled
that very night, and for which purpofe 200 boats had
been collected. Still, however, they did not defpair ;
4 U and
GIB [7
C.ibra.tar, and fuppofing that the garrifon •uouid be off their
guard and fecure on account of the vicinity of their
fleet, they formed the raih defign of attempting to
,, 7 iurprife the place, though the Britifh admiral was ftiil
at tempt ^.e^ore this mad attempt 500 volunteers affo-
fome Spa- taking the facrament never to return unlefs
mfli volun- they accompliflied their purpofe. They were conduct-
teers. ed by a goat-herd to the fouth fide of the rock near
the cave guard, at that time called the pafs of Iccujl
trees. This they mounted, and lodged themfelves the
firif night in the cave of St Michael: the next they
fcaled Charles V.’s Wall • furprifed and maffacred the
guard at Middle hill; where afterwards, by ropes and
ladders, feveral hundreds of the party defigned to fup-
port them were hauled up : but being difcovered, they
were attacked by a ftrong party of grenadiers, and all of
them at laid either killed or taken. Thefe brave ad-
They are
ail killed or
taken,
9
The liege
itill conti-
fii'.ed.
venturers were to have been fupported by a body of
French troops, and fome feints were propofed to draw
off the attention of the garrifon ; but, through the dif-
agreement of the commanding officers, thefe propofals
were not put in execution, and thus the volunteers were
left to their fate.
Notwithftanding thefe misfortunes, the Spaniards ftiil
continued the fiege, and fitted out a ftrong fquadron
from Cadiz, with a defign to intercept the convoys of
provifions which might be fent to the garrifon ; flat¬
tering themfelves at the fame time, that, on the ar¬
rival of their fleet, Sir John would be obliged to re¬
tire, and the garrifon of confequence to furrender to
their united attacks. They continued their fire there-
iore with additional fury, difmounted many of the can¬
non, and did eflential injury to the works in feveral
different places. The prince of Heffe, however, was
by no means deficient in his endeavours to difappoint
their expeftations. As it was probable that an at¬
tempt might be made to ftorm the curtain, a cuvette
was dug in the ditch, which was filled by the tide, and
a double row of palil'ades placed parallel to the works.
The chambers of the mine under the glacis were load¬
ed, and all means taken to defeat fuch an attempt •, but
on a fudden the Spaniards feemed to have altered
their defign, and threatened an attack on the lines
which the garrifon had on the declivity of the hill
. to flank the glacis, and overlook their advanced
fon^ein^1 wor^s* WWle affairs remained in this fituation, part
of the fuccours they had long expected arrived in the
bay, December 7. 1704, and in two days after, the re¬
mainder came in with near 2000 men, along with a
proportionable quantity of ammunition and provifions.
"1 hefe had failed from Cape Spartel under convoy of
foui fugates j but were in imminent danger of falling
into the hands of tne enemy, whofe fleet they miftook
for their own ; however they efcaped by the fortunate
circumftance of being becalmed, fo that they could not
get up to them.
Sir John Leake having thus powerfully reinforced
the garrifon, thought his prefence in the bay no longer
neceffary, and therefore fet fail for Liffion, where he
arrived about the end of the year. In the beginning of
January 1705 the Spaniards were reinforced by a con-
fiderable body of infantry, and on the 11th of the
month made an attack on the extremity of the Kino’s
Lines, but were repulfed. The attack was renewed
next day with 600 grenadiers, French and Walloons,
fon rein
forced.
it
"Vigorou'
attack by
the Spa¬
niards.
06 ] GIB
fupported by 1 ooo Spaniards, under Lieutenant General Gibraltar,
buy. ihey diipoled themlelves in luch a manner as v"" ^
fhowed an intention to ftorm a breach wffiich had been
made in the Round 1 ower at the extremity of the
King’s Lines, and another in the intrenchment on the
hill. The retrenchment which covered the latter
breach, with part of the intrenchment joining the pre¬
cipice of the rock, was defended at night by a captain
three fubalterns, and 90 men ; but it was cuftomary
for the captain to withdraw, with two fubalterns and
60 men, at daybreak. The Round Tower was de¬
fended by 180 men, commanded by a lieutenant-colo¬
nel. The marquis, by deferters from the garrifon, had
obtained intelligence of the ftrength of thefe polls, and
planned his attack accordingly. The detachment for
the upper breach mounted the rock at midnight, and
concealed themfelves in the clifts until the captain had
withdrawn *, after which, advancing to the point of the
intrenchment, they threw grenades on the fubaltern
and his party, fo that they W'ere obliged to leave the
place. At the fame time 300 men rtormed the Round
Tower, where Lieutenant Colonel Bar made a vigo¬
rous defence, though the enemy, having paffed the
breach above, annoyed them on the flanks with great
ftones and grenades. Obferving, however, the Spa¬
niards marching down to cut off his retreat from the
town, he retired ; and, by .getting over the parapet of
the King’s Lines, defcended into the covered way,
where the Engliffi guards were polled. Thus the gar¬
rifon w'ere alarmed ; all the regiments w’ere affembled
at their proper polls ; and Captain Fiffier endeavoured
to Hop the progrefs of the enemy with 17 men, but r2
they were repulfed, and himfelf taken prifoner. At They arc
laft, however, the Tower was retaken by Lieutenant rePnlfet1,
Colonel Moncal at the bead of 400 or 500 men, after
it had been in the poffeffion of the enemy upwards of
an hour.
The garrifon was now farther reinforced by fix com¬
panies of Dutch troops and 200 Engliffi foldiers, toge- x,
ther with fome provifions and ftores. The affailants, The fiege
however, were ft ill determined to go on. The mar-carr*e(l on
quis de Villadarias was fuperfeded by Marifchal Teffe, fre0'
a Frenchman, with whom Admiral Pointis was defired ar^°Ur’
to co-operate in blocking up the place. The marifchal
therefore joined the army with four frelh battalions, be-
fides eight companies which had been fent before ; the
ordnance, which had been greatly injured by conftant
ufe, was exchanged for others, and the works, as they
then Hood, put into the bell repair. On the part of
the Engliih, a reinforcement was ordered under the
command of Sir Thomas Dilkes and Sir John Hardy,
to join Admiral Leake at Lilbon : which juntlion be¬
ing effedled, the whole fleet, conlilling of 28 Engliffi,
4 Dutch, and 8 Portuguefe men of war, having on
board two battalions of land forces, fet fail from Lif- rq
bon. Happily for the befieged, however, the inceffant The French
rains and ftorms about this time had retarded the ope-j?e.e! c*1*l'er’
rations of the land forces, and greatly diftrefled the fleet (toni/ a
of the enemy. Eight fliips of the latter were forced
from their anchors by the ftrong wefterly wind, and.
obliged to drive aloft. At this critical period Sir John
Leake, with the allied fleet, entered the ftraits. On
his approach the few remaining French ftups put out to
fea and the Britifti admiral difcovering five fail mak¬
ing out of the bay, and a gun fired at them from the
garrifon.
GIB
[ 7°7 1
G I B
Gibraltar.
TS
The. fiege
garrifon,* immediately gave chafe. Three French men
of war were taken, and the admiral’s fhip and another
driven on Ihore, where they were burnt. The reft, on
hearing the report of the guns, had made the belt of
their way to Toulon.
a nr. ucg-- The garrifon was now fo well fupplied, that Mam-
turned into chal Tefle withdrew his troops from the trenches, and
a blockade, formed a blockade, drawing an intrenchment acrofs the
Jaded ifthmus to prevent the garrifon from ravaging the
country. The prince of Heffe remained for fome time
in the place, where he repaired the batteries, and made
fome additions to the fortifications j after which he
]’oined the archduke Charles at Lilbon. As the latter,
however, was refolved to try his fortune with the earl
of Peterborough in Valencia and Catalonia, the prince
was fent back to Gibraltar to prepare part of^ the gar¬
rifon for embarkation, and foon after was followed by
the whole fleet. Major General Ramos was now ap¬
pointed governor of Gibraltar, in ivhich only two new
battalions were left, as nothing was to be feared from
A the enemv. The new governor, however, brought with
him 400 men for the greater fecurity of the place j but
foon refigned his government to Colonel Roger Llliot,
during whofe time Gibraltar was made a free port by
a fpecial order from the queen.
Colonel Elliot was fucceeded by Colonel Congreve
before the year 1714, and he by Colonel Cotton a
16 fhort time after. In 1720 the Spaniards feem to have
A new at- threatened another attack. Ceuta, a Spanifh fortiels
tack threat-jn Barbary, had been for many years befieged by the
emd.by the Moors. and a powerful armament, commanded by the
iiTiTio. * marquis de Lada, was now affembled jn Gibraltar bay,
under pretence of relieving the African fortrefs, but
with a fecret defign of firft furprifing Gibraltar } for
which purpofe they had provided fealing ladders, &c.
The armament, however, had not been fitted out with
fuch fecrecy, but that the Britifh miniftry had intelli¬
gence of it. On this they fent orders to Colonel Kane,
governor of Minorca, to embark with part of his gar¬
rifon for Gibraltar under convoy of the fleet in the Me¬
diterranean. On his arrival he found the place in a
critical fituation. The garrifon confifted only of three
weak battalions under Major Hetherington, befides
whom there was only one other field officer, Major
Batteroux, in the place, and no more than 14 day*
provifions remaining. The pofture of affairs, however,
wras altered by the arrival of Colonel Kane with 500
men, with provifions and ammunition *, which rein-
17 forcement, together with the fpirited behaviour of the
The defign Britiffi commodore, induced the Spaniffi commander to
given up. abandon his defign, though he remained of opinion that
the fortrefs might then have been carried by a general
iS aflault. . . . ,
Another at- Notwithftanding this difappointment, the Spaniards
continued to keep a watchful eye over Gibraltar 5 and,
in the latter end of the year 1726, aflembled an army
in the neighbourhood of Algefiras, encamping, on the
20th of January following, on the plain below St
tempt in
1736.
Roch, -and erecting a battery on the beach to protect ^
their camp. Though Admiral Hopfon was then at an¬
chor in the bay of Gibraltar, yet, as he had received
no intelligence of the aftual commencement of honill-
ties between Britain and Spain, he wras obliged to al¬
low the boats of the latter to pafs wdth proviiicns, arms,
and ammunition, between Algefiras and the camp, ai
the fame time that colonel, afterwards Brigadier Kane,
who had been a fecond time fent from Minorca, lay un¬
der fimitar embarraffments. The operations of the Spa¬
niards, however, feemed fo evidently to tend towTard^
an attack, that the governor thought proper to or¬
der fuch of that nation as were in the town to leave
it, and to forbid their galleys to anchor under his
guns (a). < .
The count de las Torres commanded the opannh
forces, amounting to near 20,000 men *, and foon af¬
ter forming his camp, he advanced within reach of the
garrifon. The brigadier then defired him to keep out
of his reach, otherwife he ihould do his utmoft to force
him } but to this the Spanifh commander replied, ihat.
as the garrifon could command no more than they had
power to maintain, he fhould obey his Catholic najc-
fty’s orders, and encroach as far as pofiible. Ho if in-
ties, however, were not commenced until the icth ot
February 1727, when the Spaniards, having brought
materials for batteries to the old windmill on the neu¬
tral ground, it was determined in a council of war,
that the Spanifh general had commenced hoftilities by
encroaching fo far on the liberties of the ganifon.
Still, however, the governor fent to the count to know
the reafon of breaking ground before the garrifon 5 but
received for anfwer, that “ he was in his mailer’s terri¬
tories, and was not anfwerable to any other perfon for
his condua.” On this the governor opened the batte¬
ries of the Old Mole and thofe of Willis upon the Spa-
nifh workmen : however, they perfifted on carrying on
their operations, and at night marched a party down to
the Devil’s Tower, where they, immediately broke
ground, and began a communication with their otner
works. The governor was now informed by lome de-
ferters, that the enemy were forming a mine in a cave
under Willis’s Battery, with a defign to blow it up :
but the plot being thus happily difeovered, a party was
immediately ftationed to cut off the communication.
On the 22d of February the Spaniards opened on the
garrifon with 17 pieces of cannon befides mortars 5 and
the day following Brigadier Kane left Gibraltar to fend
a reinforcement from Minorca. On the 3d of Marco
the enemy opened a new battery of 2 2 guns, on the Old
Mole, and on the 8th another of 15 guns, bearing alfo
upon the fame mole, the guns of which had annoyed
the weftern flank of their approaches.
All this time the garrifon had kept up a conftant
and well direaed fire from the batteries which bore
upon the works of the enemy j but the ordnance, in
general being old, were frequently burfting j by which
they fuffered more than from the fire of the befiegers.
4 U 2 • The
(-0 At this time the fortifications of Gibraltar were confiderably different from what they had been in 1705.
Several works were erefted on the heights above the lines called Willis's Batteries; the L™es « '
extended to the extremity of the rock, and an inundation was formed out of the morafs m fiont o. the g..
battery.
gib
'Gibraltar The latter were alfo greatly diftreffed by the fleet un¬
der Admiral Ilopfon and Sir Charles Wager, who, fince
the beginning of the fiege, had intercepted their home-
bound Ihips, and at the fame time greatly benefited the
garrifon by bringing the prizes into the bay. Finding
the Spaniards, however, obftinately bent on their en-
terprife, they formed a defign, on "the 2d of April, to
bomoard Algebras, from whence the befiegers were
Applied with various articles of ammunition j but the
fleet happening to be becalmed, the defign was after¬
wards unaccountably abandoned 5 and on the arrival of
a 1 ein(Orcement from lYlinorca, they failed to the wefl-
ward, leaving the garrilon to defend themfelves the belt
way they could.
The enemy continued to augment their batteries,
and ereft new ones, until they amounted at lafl to 60
cannon befides mortars j and, on the 3d of May, the
governor received intelligence that a general affault was
intended j to repel which he took every proper precau¬
tion. ' The enemy, however, dill added to their ap-
*9 proac ies, and confiderable reinforcements v/ere receiv-
Gefiation of ed by both ^ parties. Hoftilities, however, ceafed on
the 1 2th, when news arrived that the preliminaries of
a general peace were figned j from which time to the
year 1779, no farther attempts were made on Gibral¬
tar. . In the courfe of thefe two fieges the Jofs of the
Spaniards was very confiderable 5 that of 1705 coifing
them not lefs than 10,000 men, including thofe who
died of ficknefs; and in that of 1727 their lofs was
computed at near 3000, befides cafualties, which could
not be afceitained. lhat of the garrifon amounted in
1705 to 400 ; and in 1727 10 300 ; a very fmall num¬
ber, confidering that during the fiege 70 cannon and
30 mortars burft on the batteries.
The hoflile manifefto prefented by the Spanilh am-
in 17*70.court of London at the commencement
of the late war, was loon followed by an interruption
of communication betwixt Spain and the fortrefs of
Gibraltar. No direct intention of attacking or diftref-
fing it, however, was 'manifeifed till the 16th of July,
when the port was completely blocked up by a fqua-
dron of two 74 gun (hips, feveral frigates, galleys, &c.
len days after they began to form a camp on the plain
below St Roch, three miles from the fortrefs. The
garrifon at this time confided of 5382 men, including
officers, with a company of engineers and artificers j
but the greatefl expeffations were formed from the abi¬
lities and varour of General Elliot the governor. As
;oon as the breaking off the communication wdth Spain
indicated approaching hoifilities, the governor took
every precaution that could be fuggefted by military
wifdom ; but though informed of the rupture betwixt
the two courts having adually taken place, and though
a-r • ^hcld the hoffile operations of the enemy, no means
o™rtdXT^eV,d,,0hiHer•'UP, tT *m,tl,'T 'fh °f
when the batteries of Green’s Lodge, Willis, and
Queen Charlotte, were opened for a few hours, with a
view to diflurb the workmen.
From this time to the beginning of the year 1780
the enemy continued the blockade both by fea and
5 land, but without doing any damage to the works or
A woman garrifon, and it was not until the 12th of January
firft wound- that a fingle perfon was wounded. This happened to
ed in the be a woman, who, palling near one of the houfes was
foitrefs, flightly hurt by a ffiot from the enemy. In the mean
[ 7°8 1
G I B
hoftilities.
20
Great lofs
of the Spa
niards in
their at¬
tempts.
21
-Gibraltar
22
bv the gar
rifon.
time, however, the ufual Applies of provifions being Gibraltar,
cut oil, the garrifon began to feel all the horrors of ' v" ■'
famine. All the neceffaries of life were very fcarce, 24
and to be procured only at exorbitant prices. Veal, Exceffive
mutton, and beef, fold from half a crown to four (hil- dearn,'fs
lings per pound ; frelh pork from two to three ftiillings 5 Provifion3‘
faked beef and pork fifteenpence j fowls eighteen flfil-
bngs per couple ; ducks a guinea 5 fire wood, five Ihil-
lings per hundred weight; a pint of milk and water
fifteenpence $ a fmall cabbage coll five Ihillings, and a
fmall bunch of outer leaves fivepence } Irilh butter
half a crown per pound j candles as much j and eggs
fixpence each. As the rock, however, is almofl fur-
rounded by the fea, it was natural to fuppofe, that in
iuch a fcarcity of other provifions great benefit would
have been derived from the ocean ; but the filhermen,
being all foreigners, and under no regulation, took ad¬
vantage of the prefent fcarcity of provifions in the gar¬
rifon to exadl a moil exorbitant price for the fiih they
Applied. 2 „
Had matters remained long in this ftate, it is plain The Spa-
that the fortrefs, however ftrong, muft have fallen into nidl fleet
the hands of the enemy. They were, however, effec- <^a^d
tualiy relieved in coiffequence of the vi&ory gained by admiral^
Admiral Rodney over the Spanith fieet commanded by taken by
Hon Juan de Langara. The former had been Arniili-^-odney*
ed with a ftrong fquadron, in order to relieve this im¬
portant fortrefs j with which having fet fail, he in a
few days fell in with a Spanifti fleet of 16 tranfports
bound from Bilboa to Cadiz, and laden with provilions
and naval ftores, convoyed by a man of war of 64 guns,
four frigates, and two armed veffels. Of thefe only a
fingle tranfport efcaped, the reft being all captured on
the 8th of January 1780 ; and the lofs of them, at the
fame time that it promifed to be very ferviceable to the
garrifon, was equally detrimental to the enemy, who
were now in great want both of provifions and materials
for their {hipping.
This advantage was Aon after followed by a much
greater. On the 16th of the fame month a Spanifti
fquadron of 11 fail of the line was difeovered off Cape
St Vincent; and the Britilh admiral having taken the
proper methods to come up with them as quickly as
poffible, an engagement took place about four in the
afternoon. At this time the headmoft {hips of the
Britiffi line clofed in with the neareft of the enemy,
and in half an hour one of the Spaniards, mounting 70
guns, and having on board 600 men, blew up, and all
on board periffied. In two hours more another Spa-
nifii fifip of the line was taken ; notwithftanding which
the fight continued with great vigour till two in the
morning, when the headmoft {hip of the enemy ftruck
to the Sandwich ; after which the firing ceafed. The
weather throughout the night was fo tempeftuOus that
it was with the utmoft difficulty the Britilh could take
poffeffion of thofe Ihips w'hich Arrendered. Thefe
were fix in number, but two of them drove affiore and
were loft, only four being brought fafe into Gibraltar.
Thefe were the admiral’s fliip of 80 guns and 700 men,
with three others of 70 guns and 600 men. The en¬
gagement, however, happened fo near the ftiore, and
the Britiih were fo eager in fecuring the lee gage to
prevent the enemy’s efcape, that. Admiral Rodney’s
{hip, together with fome of the largeft in the fleet, were
in great danger of running on the flboals of St Lucar;
nor
G
forced.
GIB [ 7°9 ]
Gibraltar, nor could ttiey be got into deep water again without that the batteries on thei
U- much labour and the exertion of great naval ikiil. . It
was the opinion of ail who were prelent in the action,
that had this engagement happened in the day time,
or had the weather been lefs boifterous, not one of the
Spanilh Ihips could have efcaped j and even as it was,
thofe which got off were fo eilentially damaged as to
^ be unfit for fervice.
The earn- Tlx news of this important viclory arrived at Gib-
fon relieved raltar on the evening of the day after it was fought;
and rein- an(] jn tWo days more the garrifon rvas completely re¬
lieved by the arrival of the fleet and convoy, at the lame
time that they were farther reinforced by a regiment
of Highlanders, confifting of 1051 men, officers in-
eluded. A.n opportunity was alio taken of fending
away with the fleet all the invalids and women m the
garrifon ; with whom they fet fail on the loth of Fe¬
bruary, leaving in the bay only the Fdgar and Panther
fliips of the line, with two frigates.
On the departure of the Britilh fleet the blockade
was immediately refumed ; and notwithftanding the
ample fupplies lately received, the garrifon foon began
again to experience the inconveniency of wanting frelh
provilions. It had hitherto received thefe in abun¬
dance from the coaft of Barbary ; but an unaccount¬
able alteration had now taken place, fo that the friend-
fhip of the emperor of Morocco was transferred from
Great Britain to Spain in a manner totally unprece¬
dented. His partiality towards the latter was the
more furprifing, as Britain had given no provocation,
and the enmity between Spain and Morocco feemed to
be in a manner conftitutional, and founded upon fuch
The garri- caufes as could never ceafe to operate. Thus, how-
fon again ever, the garrifon became daily more and more dif-
redaced to from being obliged to make conllant ufe of
their fait provilions, and even this with the llrifleft
economy. The induftry and refolution of the Britilh
feamen and officers, indeed, fometimes overcame all
obftacles, fo that they found means to procure the ne-
ceffary refrelhments ; though in fo doing they were
certainly expofed to the utmoft danger froin the enemy.
At the fame time the defence of the garrifon was fo
vigorous, that while it continued to be fupplied even
in this fcanty manner, the Spaniards began to lofe all
hope of reducing it; for wffiich reafon they formed a
proje£l of burning all the Britilh Ihipping in the bay.
Unfuccefs- The night appointed for putting this fcheme in exe-
ful attempts cution was the 6th of June i78°> when 10 fire-lhips,
to burn the favoured by an uncommon darknefs, Hood over from
fll!p*the Spanilh to the Britilh fide of the bay. Their de¬
lign was to fet fire to the ftorehoufes neareft to the
water fide, as well as to the {hipping there; but hav¬
ing been too precipitate in firing their Ihips, and
being received alfo by a very heavy cannonade, the at¬
tempt was fruitrated. On this occafion the Ikill and
intrepidity of the Britilh feamen -were eminently dif-
played. Having manned their boats, they grappled
the fire ihips already in flames ; and, notwithftanding
their dreadful appearance and the danger of their ex¬
ploding, towed them clear of the veffels under the
walls, and extinguilhed them.
The failure of this projedl was a grievous djfap-
pointment to Don Barcelo the Spanilh admiral, who
lay ready with his fquadron to intercept the Britilh
velTels that might attempt to cfcape; at the fame time
ftraits.
18
ping.
I B
• lines were in readinefs to Gibraltar,
bombard the town, if the fire-lhips had fucceeded in v
caufing any conflagration on Ihore. The failure of the
prefent attempt, however, was foon followed by other 20
difafters. As foon as they had, with great labour,
puihed forward their new works, and conftruiSled new ^.r0yecg
batteries, they were certainly deftroyed by the be-
fieged ; and their mortification on thele occaflons was
the greater, as it was ufual for the governor to allow
them to complete their works before he commenced
his deftrudlive operations. Thus the labour of many
days was often loft in a few hours, and afterwards was
to be refumed with as little profpedt of fuccefs as be-, 1 S3 .
fore. The garrifon was now confiderably annoyed by
the Spaniik gun boats, to which indeed the Ihipping
were equally expofed with themfelves. ihefe were vef-spanifli
fe!s from 30 to 40 tons burden, conftrudled fo that they gun boat?,
lay low in the water, which rendered them difficult to
be aimed at. They had 15 oars on a fide, carried 40 or
50 men, with a 2,6 pounder on the prow ; and, from
the facility of managing them, two were deemed, in
calm weather to be a match for a frigate of moderate
fize. All their efforts, however, could ftill do no
more than to reduce the garrifon to great ftraits for
want of provifions ; and to this dreadful inconvenience
the Britilh fubmitted with the greateft cheerfulnefs.
From the time of Admiral Rodney’s departure in the
month of February 1780 to the month of Oilober,
almoft the only provifions in the garrifon were fuch as
tended to produce the feurvy; which accordingly
raged in fucll a manner, as to threaten the moft fatal
confequences. An antidote, however, was happily 31
procured by the capture of a Danifli dogger from Tbe feurvy^
Malaga laden with lemons and oranges, which the go- g^ifon.
vernor immediately purchafed for the ufe of the gar-J
rifon and diftributed among them. “ At this time
(fays Captain Drinkwater) the feurvy had made dread¬
ful ravages in our hofpitals, and more were daily
confined: many however, unwilling to yield to its
firft attacks, perfevered in their duty to the more ad¬
vanced ftages. It was therefore not uncommon, at
this period, to fee men, who, fome months before,
were hale, and capable of enduring any fatigue, fup-
porting themfelves to their polls upon crutches, and
even with that affiftance fcarcely able to move along.
The moft fatal confequences in Ihort were to be appre¬
hended to the garrifon from this terrible diforder,.
when this Dane was happily dire&ed to our relief.” 32
According to Mr Cairncrofs, an eminent furgeon, Cairncrofs’3
who was iprefent during this fiege, “ the feurvy which *CC0U|A 01
now raged in Gibraltar, differed in no refpe£t from
that difeafe ulually contra&ed by failors in long fea
voyages ; and of which the immediate caufe feemed to
be the fubfifting for a length of time upon faked pro¬
vifions only, without a fufficient quantity of vegetables
or other acefeent foods. The circumftances related in
the voyage of that celebrated circumnavigator Lord
Anfon of confolidated fradtures difuniting, and the
callofity of the bone being perfedlly diffolved, occur-
ed frequently in our hofpitals, and old fores and
wounds opened anew from the nature of the diforder.
Various antifcorbutics were ufed without fuccefs, fuch
as acid of vitriol, four crout, extradl of malt, effence of
fpruce, &c.; but the only fpecifics were frelh lemons
and oranges given liberally ; or, when they could not
be
G 1 B r 7
■Gibraltar, be procured, the preferved juice in fuch quantities,
from one to four ounces per day, as the patient could
bear. Whilft the lemons were found, from one to
three were adminiftered each day as circumflances di-
re6ted. The juice given to thofe in the moil: malig¬
nant Hate was fometimes diluted with fugar, wine, or
fpirits; but the convalefcents took it without dilu¬
tion. Women and children were equally affe&ed ; nor
were the officers exempted from this dreadful diforder.
It became almoft general at the commencement of the
winter feafon, owing to the cold and moiiture, and in
33 the beginning of fpring when vegetables were fcarce.
Methhd of The juice was preferved by adding to 6o gallons of
pieferving exprefled liquor about five or ten gallons of brandy,
eruonjuice, kept it in fo wholefome a ilate, that feveral
calks were opened in good condition at the clofe of
the liege. The old juice, however, was not fo fpeedi-
ly efficacious as the fruit, though by perfevering longer
in its ufe it feldom failed.
Till this month the allowance of fait provifions had
24
I he gai ri
fon diftref.
fed for want continued undiminiffied 5 but now it was judged necef-
ofprovi- fary to reduce the allowance of bread and meat, and
rfions. to make fome other regulations in order to enforce the
ilriilell economy with regard to food. Every thing
of this kind that could be pra£iifed, however, feemed
infufficient to preferve the garrifon from abfolute
want. In the beginning of the year 1781 provifions
became exceedingly fcarce, by reafon of the almolt to¬
tal expenditure of what was contained in the public
ilores, and the vigilance of the enemy’s cruifers. A-
bout the middle of February the town bakers left off
work for want of flour; and many of the poorer fort
wanted bread. The price of freih provilions again
rofe to a moll enormous height. Small pigs fold at
two guineas; turkeys at three *, geefe at 30 Ihillings j
fowls and ducks at 10 Ihillings j damaged bifcuit a
Dulling the pound j peafe 18d ; and all other neceffa-
ries in proportion 5 at the fame time the fcarcity of fuel
was fuch, that it was fometimes fcarcely procurable in
35 quantity fufficient to drefs the viifluals.
The garri- The garrifon had hitherto derived affiflance occa-
fon entire- fionap[y from the gardens on the neutral ground, though
of the ufe va^ °f vegetables had been removed thence
of the neu- hy the enemy. Towards the end of the month of
traJ ground. 0£lober 1780, however, the Spaniards determined to
expel the Britilh from the gardens entirely : and this
they accompliihed in fpite of all that could be done to
prevent them. From this time the refources with re¬
gard to vegetables depended entirely upon the atten¬
tion paid to cultivation 5 which, happily for the garri-
fon, was attended with fuch liiccefs, especially during
36 the winter months, that the produce came at laft to be
f“PPiSnynearly e(lualto t^le demand. At laft, on the 12th of
April 1781, fupplies were brought by the Britiffi fleet
under Admirals Darby, Digby, and Rofs, though they
could not be got in without great difficulty. The
gun boats already mentioned were now much increafed
in number and ftrength of conftru&ion j infelling the
bay in fuch a manner as greatly to interrupt the de¬
barkation of the ftores. As no veffels of the fame
kind had been prepared to oppofe them, they could
fcarce be prevented from effefling their purpofe of burn¬
ing the ftore ffiips. With this view they had approach¬
ed them every morning in hazy weather to the num-
J
the Britifli
fleet.
10 ] GIB
ber of between 20 and 30, feveral of them carrying Gibraltar,
mortar-pieces ; and as they ufed both fails and cars, —5
they eluded all purfuit, by withdrawing on the rife of
any breeze. To keep off thefe troublefome guefts, fe¬
veral flout frigates were obliged to ftation themfelves
along the bay for the protection of the {hipping ; but
even this did not prevent them from continuing their
moleftation ; and notwithftanding the vigilance and
aClivity of the Britifti Tailors, it was feldom that they
could come near enough to do them any damage. In
fpite of all their endeavours, however, the garrifon was --
effectually relieved : an exploit which fo exceedingly The Spa-
irritated the court of Spain, that they determined to™artb re¬
exert the utmoft force of the kingdom rather than fail
in the execution of their favourite projeCt. The works fe]ves t0"
before the town wrere therefore carried on with more the utmofl.
vigour than ever, and the molt tremendous prepara¬
tions made to caufe the obftinate garrifon feel the re-
fentment of an exafperated enemy. Their batteries
wrere now mounted with guns of the heavieft metal,
and with mortar pieces of the largeit lize ; the number
of the former augmented to near 200, and of the latter
to upwards of 80. For three weeks this prodigious
artillery continued to pour forth an almolt inceflant
fhower of Ihot and ffiells, infomuch that, in the time
juft mentioned, they had confumed ioo,ooolb. of
gunpowder, and thrown into the town four or five
thoufand (hot or {hells every 24 hours. 33
By fuch an immenfe bombardment the town w7as al-The town
molt totally laid in ruins. The inhabitants, computed ‘te¬
at more than 3000 in number, experienced every dif- r°ye
ficulty that could arife from the deftruction of their ha¬
bitations : feveral of them were killed, and all forced
to leave the town, and take {belter under tents with
what accommodation could be provided for them in
fuch feenes of horror and confufion. Numbers took
the opportunity of retiring with the fleet j wffiile many
that remained were now reduced from a ftate of opu¬
lence to the greateft diftrefs. The conduCt of Gover¬
nor Elliot was very humane and compaflionate to fuch
as were inclined to depart-, allowing them a free paffage
to England, and fupplying them with provifions for
the voyage.
During this bombardment, not only the greateft
part of the effects belonging to the inhabitants were
deftroyed, but the fortifications were in many places
greatly injured -, and the worft was, that the remainder Diforderly
were deftroyed by the foldiers, who had arrived at fuch befaxiour
a pitch of licentioufnefs, that they neither regarded
nor would obey their officers. T hey were incited to
this deftru<5tive fcheme by the avarice of fome of the
inhabitants who had hoarded up and concealed a quan¬
tity of neceffary articles, in order to procure an advan¬
ced price. They now, therefore, kept no bounds in
diflipation, wafte, and extravagance ; a remarkable in-
Itance of which is given by Captain Drinkwater, in
their roafting a pig by a fire made of cinnamon. To
put a flop to thefe atrocious proceedings, rigorous mea-
fures were of neceffity adopted 5 and it was intimated,
that any foldier convifted of being drunk or afleep upon
his poit, or found marauding, fliould be immediately
executed. The lofs of human lives during this dread¬
ful bombardment was lefs than could have been expect¬
ed j but many remarkable circumflances are taken
notice
G I B
[
711
]
G I B
ox vv
Inch
Gibraltar, notice of by Captain Drinkwater, force
w—reiatecl in the note (fi.)
By the beginning of June the enemy had re¬
laxed cor.fiderably in their firing, feldom exceeding
600 flxot in a day ; and continued gradually to dimi-
nilh this number lo remarkably, that towards the end
of Augufl they ieldom fired in the day, and only dif-
charged fix or feven, and fometimes not above three,
{hot in the night. The batteries at land, however,
were fucceeded by the gun boats j which renewed their
attacks every day, keeping the garrifon in continual
alarm, and never failing to do more or lefs execution.
To rettrain them, therefore, a battery ot guns capable
of throwdng their (hot to a great difiance was erefted
as near as poflible to the enemy 5 and as it reached
their very camp, it was determined to open it upon
them as often as the gun boats made their attacks j
wlv ch being foon perceived, they thought it prudent
4o to defiil in fome meafure from that mode of hoftility.
The works They continued ftill, however, to improve their works,
■oi the ene- for purpofe employed the belt engineers both
rny brought
to the ut-
moft per-         
fedtion.
of France and Spain ; fo that by the latter part of No- Gibraltar.
vember 1781, they had brought them to fuch a Hate ‘ 1
of perfection as filled both kingdoms with the moft
fanguine expectations of iuccels. Governor Elliot,
however, far from being dilmayed at thefo formidable
bulwarks, fullered tbem to proceed without moleilation
to the end of their fcheme, that he might as. in a mo¬
ment deilroy the labour of fo many months, and thus ^ 41
render the difappointment the greater. In the night Jnhtfrye]ar^
of the 27th of November, a chofen party of 2000 men (tl0yed'>
was detached, in order to deftroy the enemy’s works
and batteries ; and their fuccefs was equal to their
molt fanguine expectations. They marched out in
great order and lilence about two o’clock in the morn¬
ing, under the command of Brigadier General Rofs y
after wdiich they proceeded with the fame circumfpec-
tion, but with the utmolt celerity, to the enemy’s
works, which they llormed and overthrew with a-
ftoniihing rapidity. The Spaniards were inftantly
thrown into confufion, and fled on every fide* the
guns and mortars on the batteries were all fpiked up *
and
(b) Two boys belonging to the artificer company wxre endowed with fuch wonderful ftrength of vifion, that-
they could fee the {hot of the enemy in the air almoft as foon as it came from the mouth of the gun * and
were therefore conhantly placed upon fome part of the works to give notice to the foldiers of the approaching
danger. During the time of the hotteft fire, however, the men were fo habituated to the fall of fliells and fliot
around them, that they contraCfed an infenfibility of danger, and almoft required to be cautioned by their offi¬
cers to avoid the explolion of a Ihell when lying with the fufee burning at their feet. _ In confequence of this
inattention, they frequently negleded the advice of the boys above mentioned and their negleft could not but
be produ&ive of fatal effeas. An inftance of this happened on the Pnncefs Amelia’s battery, where a fliot
thus difregarded came through one of the capped embrafures, carried oft one of the legs from three fiddlers,
and wounded a fourth in both. In other cafes, in which the perfons themfelves have obferved the {hot or {hells
coming towards them, they have been fafeinated by its appearance, and unable to move irom the fpot, as
fmall birds are faid to be by the rattlefnake. “ This hidden arreft of the faculties (fays our author) was
nothing uncommon : feveral inftances occurred to my own obfervation, where men, totally free, have had their
fenfes fo engaged by a {bell in its defeent, that though fenfible of their danger, even fo far as to cry for aflift-
ance, they have been immoveably fixed to the place. But what is more remarkable thefe men have fo infta.-
taneoufly recovered themfelves on its fall to the ground, as to remove to a place of fafety before the Ihell burit.
In this manner Lieutenant Low^e of the I 2th regiment was fafcinated by a loot which he faw coming, out had
not power to remove from the place before it fell upon him and took oft his leg. . n. j jr 1
Where thefe {hells burft they produced inftant and certain deftrudion, mangling m the moft dreadml man¬
ner. The following are fome inftances : A matrofs had the misfortune of breaking his thigh by fome acci¬
dent 1 and being a man of great fpirit, could fcarce bear the confinement neceffary for its reunion. In confe¬
quence of this he went abroad too foon, and thus unfortunately broke the bone a fee on d time. _ Being now
confined to bed, a {hell happened to fall into the room where he was, and, rebounding, lodged itfelf direftly
upon him. The convalefcents and fick inftantly fummoned all their ftrength, and crawled out of the room,
while the poor matrofs lay below the ftiell, kept down by its weight, and utterly unable to ftir In a lew k-
conds it burft, and took off both his legs, and fcorched him in a dreadful manner. He furvived the explofion,
was fenfible to the laft moment, and died regretting that he had not been killed on the batteries. . inecae
of a foldier of the 73d regiment {hows, that even in the moft dangerous cafes we ihould never delpair ot reco¬
very while life remains. This unfortunate man had been knocked down by the wind of a {hell, which, inftantly
burfting, killed his comnanion, and mangled himfelf in a {hocking manner. His {kull was dreadfully iractured,
his left arm broken in two places, one of his legs {battered, the {km and mutcles torn off from part of his right
hand the middle finger broken to pieces, and his whole body moft feverely brmfed and marked with gun¬
powder' He prefented fo horrid an objeft to the furgeons, that they had not the leaft hopes of laving his
life and were at a lofs what part to attend to firft. He was that evening trepanned * a lew days aftenvards
his leg was amputated, and other wounds and fraftures were dreffed. Being poffeffed of a moft excellent conihtu-
tion, nature performed wonders in his favour, and in 11 weeks hk cure was completely effected.. On the
18th of September a (hell from the lines fell into a houfe where the town major Captain Burke, with Majors
Mercier and Vignoles of the 39th regiment were fitting. It took off Major Burke’s thigh * afterwards fell
through the floor" into the cellar: there it burft, and forced the flooring with the unfortunate major up to the
ceiling. When affiftance came, they found him almoft buried in the ruins of the room. He was.inltantly convey¬
ed to' the hofpital, where he died foon after the wounded part had been amputated. Majors Mercier and
GIB [71
Gibraltar, ar.d the artillerymen, artificers, and failcrs, exerted
themfelvcs fo vigoroully, that in the fpace of an hour
the magazines were blown up, the ftorehoufes of arms,
ammunition, and military implements of every kind, and
all the works that had been conftrudied, were fet on fire,
and totally confirmed; the whole damage done on this oc-
cafion being eftimated at upw ards of two millions fterling.
For feveral days after this difafter the Spaniards
continued inadlive, without even making any attempt
to extinguiftr their batteries, W'hich ftill continued in
flames 3 but in the beginning of December, as if fud-
denly aroufed from tbeir reverie, upwards of 1000
men wrere fet to work in order to prepare a great
number of fafcines, from whence it was concluded that
they defigned to repair their works. In this they
proceeded with their ufual perfeverance and diligence j
but as the former methods of attack had confiantly
failed, it was evident, that if the place could be reduced
at all, it muft be by fome means hitherto unattempted 3
and for the reduction of this Angle fortrefs, the Spa-
niih monarch, after the conqueft of Minorca, deter¬
mined to employ the whole flrength of his empire.
Among the various projedts formed at this time, that
of the chevalier D’Arcon, a French engineer of di-
flindlion, proved the moll acceptable to the court of
theTheva^ ®Pa’n i anc^ though the expence attending it was irn-
lier D’Ar- men^e» this feemed in the prefent circumflances to be
but a matter of fmall conlideration. His plan was to
conflrudl fuch floating batteries as might neither be
liable to be funk nor fet on fire. With this view their
bottoms were made of the thickefl: timber, and their
fides of wood and cork long foaked in water, with a
layer of wet fand betwixt them. Their thicknefs w'as
fuch, that they were impenetrable to cannon fhot 3
and to prevent the effedls of red-hot balls, a num¬
ber of pipes were contrived to carry water through
every part of the veffel, and pumps fufficient to fur-
nilh a conftant fupply for the purpofe. The people
at the batteries were flickered from the bombs by a
rope netting, made Hoping that they might roll off,
and fpread with wet Ikins to prevent fire. Ten of
thefe batteries were conflrudled out of the hulls of large
4.2
Floating
batteries
con
2 ] GIB
veflels, fome of 50 or Co guns, cut down for that put- Gibraltar.
pofe, and carrying from 10 to 28 guns each, with ' 
about half as many in referve in cafe of accidents.
Fach gun was ferved by 36 artillery men 3 and thefe
floating batteries were to be feconded by 80 large
boats carrying guns and mortars of heavy metal 3 a
great number of Ihips of force and frigates, with fome
hundreds of fmall craft, were to accompany.them with
troops, for the inftant execution of what might be
judged necefiary. On this occafion upwards of 1000
pieces of artillery and 80,000 barrels of gunpowder
were provided. A body of 12,000 of the heft troops
of France were now added to the Spanifli army before
the place 3 the body of engineers was the heft that both
kingdoms could produce 3 and numbers of volunteers,
of the beft families in both, attended the fiege. Num¬
bers of military gentlemen alfo came from every part
of Europe to be witnefies of what paffed at this ceE-
brated fiege, which was now compared to the moft fa¬
mous recorded in hiftory. The condudling of it was
committed to the duke de Crillon, who had diftin-
guilhed himfelf by the coiiqueft of Minorca. Two
princes of the blood royal of France, the count of Ar¬
tois brother to the king, and the duke of Bourbon his
coulin, came to be witneffes of this extraordinary en-
terprife. Thefe behaved with the greateft politenefs
both to the governor and garrifon. The count of Ar¬
tois tranfmitted a packet of letters for various indivi¬
duals in the garrifon, which had been intercepted and
carried to Madrid, and which he requefted that he
might be the means of conveying to thefe for whom
they were defigned. Both he and the duke of Bour¬
bon fignilied to General Elliot the high regard they
had for his perfon and character 3 and the duke de
Crillon himfelf took this opportunity of exprefling
the fame fentiments, and to entreat him to accept of
fome refreihments. General Elliot returned a polite
anfwer, but accepted of the prefent with reludance,
and requefted him for the future not to confer any fa¬
vours of that kind upon him. 43
Such a prodigious armament raifed the confidence Prodigious
of the befiegers i'o high, that they looked upon thearmanlent
r r brought be-
conqueft foret\efor-
trefs.
Vignoles had time to efcape before the {hell burft 3 neverthelefs they were flightly wounded by the fplinters, as
were a ferjeant and his daughter, who happened to be in the cellar when the fhell entered.
The following are related as inftances of very extraordinary efcapes from the deftrublive power of thefe en¬
gines, and which indeed it feems difficult to account for.—A corporal had the muzzle of his firelock doled,
and the barrel twifted like a French horn, by a (hell, without any injury to his perfon. A (hell happened to
iall into a tent where twm foldiers were afleep, without awakening them by its fall. A ferjeant in an adjacent
tent heard it, and ran near 40 yards to a place of fafety, when he recolleded the fituation of his comrades.
Thinking the iheil had fallen blind, he returned and awakened them 3 both immediately rofe, but continued
by the place, debating on the narrow efcape they had had, when the {hell exploded, and forced them with *
great violence againft a garden wall, but, “ miraculoufly” did no further mifehief than deilroying every thing
in the tent. On the new year’s day of 177an officer of artillery obferved a {hell falling towards the place
where he flood, and got behind a traverfe lor proteblion. This he had fcarcely done, wdien the {hell fell into
the traverfe, and inftantly entangled him in the rubbilh : one of the guard, named Martin, obferving his diftrefs,
generoufly rifked his own life in defence of his officer, and ran to extricate him : but finding his own efforts in-
effeblual, called ror affiftance 3 when another oi the guard joining him, they relieved the officer from his fituation 3
and aim oft at the fame inftant the fhell burft, and levelled the traverfe writh the ground. Martin was afterwards
promoted, and rewarded by the governor 3 who at the fame time told him, that “ he Ihould equally have noti¬
ced him for attending to his comrade.” A {hell happening to fall into the room where Enfign Mackenzie of the
73d regiment was fitting, carried away part of his chair, and fell into the room below, where it burft, lifting
him and the chair from the floor without further injury.
2
Cibt altar.
%
G 1 B [ yt
conqucft of tlie place as an abfolute certainty. They
be^an to be impatient at the delays which arole in
bringing matters to the utmoft point of perfedlion ;
and the commander in chief was thought by far too
model!, when he faid that the garrifon might hold
out for a fortnight. “ It appeared (fays Captain
Drinkwatfer) that they meant, previous to them final
efforts, to flrike if poflible a terror through their op¬
ponents, by difplaying an armament more powerful
than had probably ever been brought before any for-
trefs. Forty-feven fail of the line, including three in¬
ferior two-'deckers j ten battering Ihips, deemed per¬
fect in defign, and efteemed invincible, carrying 2 12
guns } innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb ketches,
cutters, gun and mortar boats, and imaller craft for
difembarking men, were affembled in tne bay. On
the land fide W'ere moll ftupendous and ftrong batteries
and works, mounting 200 pieces of heavy ordnance,
and protected by an army or near 40,000 men, com¬
manded by a victorious and aftive general, and anima¬
ted by the immediate prefence of two princes ot the
blood royal of France, with other dignified perfonages,
and many of their own nobility. In their certainty
of fuccefs, however, the enemy feemed entirely to have
overlooked the nature of that force which was oppo-
fed to them ; for though the garrifon fcarcely con-
filted of more than 7000 effe&ive men, including the
marine brigade, they forgot that they were now ve¬
terans in this fervice, had long been habituated to the
effects of artillery, and were. by degrees prepared for
the arduous conflidt that awaited them. W e were at
the fame time commanded by ofticers of approved cou¬
rage, prudence, and aftivity j eminent for all the ac-
complilhments of their profeflion, and in whom we had
unbounded confidence. Our fpirits too v>ere not a
little elevated by the fuccefs attending the firing of
red-hot (hot (c), which in this attack we hoped would
enable us to bring our labours to a conclufion, and
relieve us from the tedious cruelty of a vexatious
blockade.”
As a prelude to the dreadful ftorm which was about
to be poured forth on this devoted garriion, the ene¬
my, on the 9th of September 178.2, opened a battery
of 64 of their largeft cannon, which was fhortly ac¬
companied with a terrible fire from other batteries,
"and a great number of mortars. On this and the fol¬
lowing day an attack was made upon the batteries
created on Europa Point (fo called from being the
moft foutherly point of the continent of Eirope),
which at that time w7ere entirely under the manage¬
ment of Captain Curtis of the Brilliant frigate, who
had diftinguifhed himfelf during the fiege, and now
commanded a brigade of Teamen by whom the batteries
were ferved. By thefe the fire of the Spaniards was
fo warmly returned, that they not only could make no
imprefiion, but were forced to retire, after having re¬
ceived fo much damage, that two of their principal
Ihips w7ere obliged to withdraw to the oay of Algefiras
©ppofite to Gibraltar, in order to refit. On the 1 2th
Vol. IX. Part II.
3 1 GIB
the enemy made preparations for the enfumg day, Gura t;^
which was allotted for their grand and decifive attack. ~ v
Accordingly, on the morning of the ^en [)ecp(te at
floating batteries came forward, under the command the
Don Buenventura de Moreno, a Spaniih officer ot great
gallantry, and who had fignalized himfelf at the taking tember
of Minorca. Before ten o’clock they had all got into 1782.
their proper llations, anchoring in a line about a thou-
fand yards diftant from the flrore. As foon as they
were properly arranged, they began a heavy cannonade,
and w’ere feconded by all the cannon and mortars in
the enemy’s lines and approaches, at the fame time
that the garrifon opened all its batteries both with
hot and cold (hot from the guns, and ihells from the
howfitzers and mortars. This terrible fire continued
on both fides without intermiliion until noon *, when
that of the Spaniards began to ilacken, and the fire
of the garrifon to obtain a fuperiority. About two
o’clock the principal battering fliip commanded by
Don Moreno wTas obferved to emit fmoke as ii on fire,
and feme men were ieen bufy upon the roof fearching
from w'hence it proceeded, ihe fire from the garnlon
was now kept up without the leaf! difcontinuance or
diminution, while that from the floating batteries w'as
perceived fenfibly to decreafe 5 fo that about feven in
the evening they fired but few guns, and that only at
intervals. At midnight the admiral’s ftiip was plainly
feen to burn, and in an hour after was completely in
flames. Eight more of thefe batteries took fire fuc-xerribie
ceflively ; atid on the fignals of diftrefs made by them, deftruftion
the multitude of feluccas, launches, and boats, with 0f rtf spa-
which they were furrounded, all came to their affiftance,niards*
and began to take the men out of the burning veffels.
Captain Curtis, who lay ready with the gunboats to
take advantage of any favourable circumftance, came
upon them at two in the morning, and forming a line
on the enemy’s flank, advanced upon them with fuch
order and expedition as to throw them into immediate
confufion. At this fudden and unexpefted attack
they were fo aftoniffied and difconcerted, that they fled
precipitately with all their boats, totally abandoning
the floating batteries to be burnt, and all who were
in them to periffi in the flames. This would undoubt¬
edly have been their fate, had not Captain Curtis ex¬
tricated them from the fire at the imminent danger of
his own life and that of his men. In this work he was
fo eager, that while his boat was alongfide of one of
the largeff batteries, it blew up, and the fragments of
the wreck fpreading all around to a vaft diftance, fome
heavy pieces of timber fell into his boat and pierced
through its bottom, killing one man and wounding
feveral others. He efcaped with difficulty out of this
boat, which was funk, as well as another, by the fame
accident. The floating batteries were every one con-
fumed ^ and the violence with which they exploded was
fuch that doors and windows at a great diftance on
(bore were burft open. About 400 people were faved
from them; many of whom were picked up floating on
rafts and pieces of timber. Indeed the blowing up of
4 X the
(c) This was fuggefted by Lieutenant Governor Boyd, and had been attended with remarkable fuccefs, Sep¬
tember 8th, when the enemy’s advanced works were almoft deftroyed by it.
~\
Gibraltar
46.
Inndtivity
of the com
bined fleet
47
The bloc¬
kade conti
mied.
GIB [71
tue batteries as the flames reached their powder rooms,
and the difcharge of the guns in fucceflion as the metal
became heated by the fire, rendered any attempt to
fave them very dangerous.
This terrible catadrophe took place in fight of the
combined fleets of France and Spain. It had been pro-
pofed that they fhould co-operate upon this important
occafion, by attacking the garrifon at Europa Point,
and fuch places as appeared moft expofed to an attempt
by fea. This, it was afterwards faid, muft have occa-
fioned a material diverfion of the garrifon’s force, and,
by dividing it, have weakened confiderably the vigor¬
ous means of defence ufed in thofe parts which were
a&ually attacked. The reafon afi'igncd for this inac¬
tivity was the want of wind.
i hough this terrible repulfe effectually convinced
• the Spaniards that Gibraltar could not be taken by
force, fome hope flill remained, that, without any fur¬
ther exertions on their part, the garrifon wrould be
obliged to furrender from want of ammunition and
provifions. With this view they continued to blockade
it clofely, and to cut off all communication, flattering
themfelves that Britain wmuld not be able to colledl a
naval force furhcient to drive their fleet from the bay
before the fortrefs was reduced to extremity 5 and this
they imagined muft be the cafe in a few days. Such
diligence, hovvever, had been ufed on the part of the
Tritifli, that a fleet was already affembled at Portf-
mouth, confifting of 35 fail of the line, in excellent
condition, and filled with the bell officers and failors in
Europe. The command was given to Lord Howe,
who wras accompanied in the expedition by Admirals
.Barrington, Milbank, Hood, Sir Richard Hughes, and
Commodore Hotham, all of them men eminent in their
profeflion. At the fame time alfo it fortunately hap¬
pened, that a large Britiffi fleet of merchantmen had
juft arrived in fafety from the Baltic •, and that a Dutch
fquadron, which had been cruifing on their own coafts,
not being able to penetrate fouthward$ in order to join
the Irench, had retired into port, and given up the in¬
tention of effedling any jundlion for that feafon.
At this time the Britilh nation wTas in the utmoft
anxiety about the fate of Gibraltar. The progrefs of
the {hips was delayed by contrary winds, and it wras not
until they had gained the fouthern coaft of Portugal
that they received information of the defeat of the
enemy’s attempt on the 13th of September. On the
I ith of Odlober Lord HowTe entered the Straits, and
feveral of the ftore fhips deltined for Gibraltar came
fafe to anchor under the cannon of the fort without any
molellation from the enemy. The combined fleet in
the mean time had been much damaged by a ftorm j
two (hips of the line were driven affiore near Algefiras j
two more w^ere driven out of the bay into the Mediter¬
ranean * others loft their mails, and moft of them fuf-
fered confiderably. One in particular, a (hip of 70
guns, w^as carried by the ftorm acrofs the bay, and ran
aground under the works of Gibraltar, where ftie wxas
taken by the garrifon, with her wfliole complement of
men, confifting of 700. Notwithftanding the endea¬
vours of the enemy to deftroy her, Ihe w?as fafely got
off, and properly repaired. The combined fleet, how¬
ever, put to fea on the 13th, with a view to prevent
the remaining ftorelhips that had overlhot the bay to
the eaft from making good their entrance into it; and
4 ] GIB
at the fame time to rejoin the two (hips that had been Gibraltar,
feparated from the main body by the ftorm. Having —v——
the advantage of the wind, they bore down upon the
Britilh fleet, which drew up in order of battle to re¬
ceive them} but notwithftanding their fuperiority,
they declined coming to an engagement. On the wind
becoming more favourable next day, Lord Howe took
the opportunity to bring in the ftorelhips that were in
company ; and the day following the remainder were
conveyed to Gibraltar, the troops for the reinforcement
of the garrifon were landed, with a large fupply of
powder, and ample provifion in every other refpedl.
As they returned through the ftraits they were threa¬
tened with an engagement by the combined fleets 5 but
though the latter had a fuperiority of 12 Ihips of the
line, they kept a wary diftance. Some firing indeed
took place, but it was attended with little effedf on
either fide.
48
This laft relief proved entirely decifive ; for though The garri-
the blockade continued till news arrived of the prelimi-*°n finaliy
naries of peace being figned, in the beginning of Fe-reitcve^*
bruary 1783, no other attack was made. The news of
the pacification were received with the utmoft joy by
the Spaniards. Mutual civilities paffed between the
commanders in chief, and the Duke de Crillon paid
many handfome compliments to the governor and gar¬
rifon for their noble defence ; declaring that he had ex¬
erted himfelf to the utmoft of his abilities, and though
he had not proved fuccefsful, yet he was happy in hav¬
ing his fovereign’s approbation of his conduft.
The polieffion of Gibraltar is efteemed of very great importance
confequence to Britain. It not only gives us the com-0f Gibial-
mand of the Straits, and their navigation 5 but affordstar-
refrefliment and accommodation to our fleets in time of
war, and to our merchantmen at all times ; which, to
a maritime power, is of very great advantage. From
its fituation, it divides both the kingdoms of France
and Spain; that is, it hinders a ready communica¬
tion by fea between the different parts of thefe king¬
doms. This, of courfe, hinders the conjunction of
their fleets and fquadrons with each other, or at leaft
renders it fo difficult as to be a perpetual check upon
thefe ambitious powers. It awes alfo the piratical
ftates of Barbary, and in like manner the emperor of
Morocco infjmuch, that our commerce is more fafe
than that of any other European power, which gives
us great advantages in point of freight. It is other-
wife highly favourable to our trade in the Mediterra¬
nean and Levant. It procures us the refpedl of the Ita¬
lian and other powers ; who, though far dill ant from
Britain, muft confider this as an inftance of her power
to hurt or affift them. It alfo faves us the expence of
fquad rons or convoys, upon any difputes or difturb-
ances that may happen among thele powers, and
which would otherwife be neceflary for the proteClion
of our navigation.
“ The form of this mountain is (fays Major Imrie)
oblong 5 its fummit a fliarp craggy ridge j its diredlion
is nearly from north to fouth ; and its greateft length,
in that direction, falls very little Ihort of three miles.
Its breadth varies with the indentations of the fhore, but
it nowhere exceeds three quarters of a mile. The line
of its ridge is undulated, and the two extremes are fome-
what higher than its centre. ^
“ The fummit of the Sugar Loaf, which is the point Natural
ofhiftory,
GIB [ 71
Gibraltar, of its greateft elevation towards the fouth, is 1439 feet;
—y—« t}ie Rock Mortar, which is the lugheft point to the
north, is 1350 ; and the Signal Houfe, which is nearly
the central point between thefe two, is 1276 leet above
the level of the fea. The weftern fide of the mountain
is a feries of rugged dopes, interfperfed with abrupt pre¬
cipices. Its northern extremity is perfectly perpendi¬
cular, except towards the north-weft, where what are
called the Lines intervene, and a narrow pailage ot Hat
ground that leads to the ifthmus, and is entirely cover¬
ed with fortification. The eaftern fide of the moun¬
tain moftly confifts of a range of precipices but a bank
of fand, riling from the Mediterranean in a rapid accli¬
vity, covers a third of its perpendicular height. Its
fouthern extremity falls, in a rapid Hope from the ium-
mit of the Sugar Loaf, into a rocky flat of confiderable
extent, called Windmill Hill. # rn c
“ The principal mafs of the mountain rock conn Is ot
a grav, denfe (what is generally called primary) mar¬
ble •, the different beds of which are to be examined m
a face of 1350 feet of perpendicular height, which it
prefents to Spain in a conical form. I hefe
beds, or
ftrata, are of various thicknefs, from 20 to upwards ot
40 feet, dipping in a direction from eaft to weft, near y
at an angle of 3 5 degrees. In fome parts of the fohd
mafs of this rock are found teftaceous bodies entirely
tranfmuted into the condiment matter of the rock, and
their interior hollows filled up with calcareous fpar; but
thefe do not occur often in its compofition, and its beds
are not feparated by any intermediate ftrata.
“ The caves of Gibraltar are many, and lorne of them
of great extent. That which moft deferves attention and
examination is called St Michael’s Cave, which is fitu-
ated upon the fouthern part of the mountain, almoft
equally diftant from the Signal Tower and the Sugar
Loaf. Its entrance is 1000 feet above the level of the
fea: This entrance is formed by a rapid Hope of earth,
which has fallen into it at various periods, and which
leads to a fpacious hall, incrufted with fpar, and appa¬
rently fupported in the centre by a large maffy ftalafti-
tical pillar. To this fucceeds a long feries of caves of
difficult accefs. In thefe cavernous receffes, the forma¬
tion and procefs of ftalaftites is to be traced, from the
flimfv quilt-like cone, fufpended from the roof, to the
robu'ft trunk of a pillar, three feet in diameter, which
rifes from the floor, and feems intended by Nature to
fupport the roof from which it originated.
“ The only inhabitants of thefe caves are bats, fome
of which are of a large fize. The foil, in general, upon
the mountain of Gibraltar is but thinly fown } and in
many parts that thin covering has been wafhed oft by
the heavy autumnal rains, which have left the fupern-
ues of the rock, for a confiderable extent, bare and
open to infpedtion. In thofe fituations, an obferving
eye may trace the effects of the flow, but conftant, de-
compofition of the rock, caufed by its expofure to the
air, and the corrofion of fea-falts, which, in the heavy
gales of eafterly winds, are depolited with the fpray on
every part of the mountain. Thofe uncovered parts ot
the mountain rock alio expofe to the eye a phenomenon
worth} of fome attention, as it tends clearly to demon-
ftrace, that, however high the furface of this rock may
now' be elevjmd above the level ot the fea, it has once
been the bed of agitated waters. This phenomenon is
U> be obferved in many parts of the rock, and is con-
5 1 G 1 B
ftantly found in the beds of torrents. It confifts of pot- Gibrdtar.
like holes, of various fizes, hollowed out of the fohd "
rock, and formed apparently by the attrition of gravel
or pebbles, let in motion by the rapidity of rivers or
currents in the fea. . .
“ Upon the weft fide of the mountain, towards its
bafe, fome ftrata occur, which are heterogeneal to the
mountain rock : tne firft, or higheft, foims the egment
of a circle ; its convex fide is towards the mountain,
and it Hopes alfo in that direction. This ftratum con¬
fifts of a number of thin beds j the outward one, being
the thinneft, is in a ftate of decompofition, and is moulder¬
ing down into a blackifti brown or ferruginous coloured
earth. The beds, inferior to this, progreflively incrcafe
in breadth to 17 inches, where the ftratification reft-
upon a rock of an argillaceous nature.
“ This lait bed, which is 17 inches thick, confifts ot
quartz of a blackifli blue colour, in the fepta or cracks
of which are found fine quartz cryitals, colourlels, and
perfeaiy tranfparent. Thefe cryftals are compofed of 18
planes, difpofed in hexangular columns, terminated at
both extremities by hexangular pyramids. The largeft
of thofe that Major Imrie faw did not exceed one-
fourth of an inch in length : They, in general, adhere
to the rock by the fides of the column, but are de¬
tached without difficulty. Their great degree of tranf-
parency has obtained them the name of Gibraltar
“ In the perpendicular fiflures of the rock, and in fome Qf
of the caverns of the mountain (all of which afford jock,
dent proofs of their former communication with the
furface), a calcareous concretion is found, of a reddifli
brown ferruginous colour, with an earthy fratfure, and
confiderable induration, inclofing the bones of vanous
animals, fome’of which have the appearance of being
human. Thefe bones are of various fizes, and lie in all
direftions, intermixed with ffiells of fnails, fragments^ of
the calcareous rock, and particles of fpar } all of which
materials are ftill to be feen in their natural uncombined
ftates, partially fcattered over the furface of the moun¬
tain. Thefe have been fwept, by heavy rains at dif¬
ferent periods, from the furrace into the fituations above
deferibed, and having remained for a long feries of years
in thofe places of reft, expofed to the permeating aftion
of water, have become enveloped in, and cemented by,
the calcareous matter which it depofits.
“The bones, in this compofition, have not the fmalleft
appearance of being petrified 5 and if they have uuuer-
gone any change, it is more like that of calcination than
that of petrifaction, as the moft fohd parts of them ge¬
nerally admit of being cut and feraped down with the
fame eafe as chalk.
“ Bones combined in fuch concretions are not pecu¬
liar to Gibraltar : they are found in fuch large quanti¬
ties in the country of Dalmatia and upon its coafts, in
the iflands of Cherfo and Ofero, that fome naturalifts
have been induced to go fo far as to affert, that there has
been a regular ftratum of fuch matter in that country,
and that its prefent broken and interrupted appearance
has been caufed by earthquakes, or other convulfions,
experienced in that part of the globe. But, of late
years, a traveller (Abbe Alberto Fortis) has given a
minute defeription of the concretion in which the bones
are found . in that country : And by his account it ap¬
pears, that with regard to fit nation, -compofition, and
4X2
colour.
GIB [7
Gibraltar, colour, it is perfectly fimilar to that found at Gibraltar.
, ~ ' ' -By his defcription, it alfo appears that the two moun¬
tain rocks of Gibraltar and Dalmatia confift of the fame
fpecies of calcareous (tone 5 from which it is to be pre¬
fumed, that the concretions in both have been formed
in the fame manner and about the fame periods.
“ Perhaps if the fiffures and caves of the rocks of Dal¬
matia were flill more minutely examined, their former
communications with the furface might yet be traced
as in thofe defcribed above ; and, in that cafe, there
would be at lead a ftrong probability, that the materials
of the concretions of that country have been brought
together by the fame accidental caufe wdiich has pro¬
bably collected thofe found in the caverns of Gibraltar,
ivlajor Imrie traced, in Gibraltar, this concretion, from
the lowed part ol a deep perpendicular fidhre, up to
the furface of the mountain. As it approached to the
furface, the concretion became lefs firmly combined,
and, when it had no covering of the calcareous rock, a
fmall degree of adhefion only remained, which was evi¬
dently produced by the argillaceous earth, in its com-
pofition, having been moidened by rain and baked by
the fun.
“ I he depth at which thefe materials had been pene¬
trated by that proportion of dala&itical matter, capable
°f _giving to the concretion its greated adhefion and fo-
lidity, he found to vary according to its fituation, and
to the quantity of matter to be combined. In fidures,
narrow and contradled, he found the concretion podef-
fing a great degree of hardnefs at fix feet from the fur¬
face ; but in other fituations, more extended, and where
a larger quantity of the materials had been accumula¬
ted, he found it had not gained its greated degree of
adhefion at double that depth. In one of the caves,
where the mafs of concretion is of conliderable fize, he
perceived it to be divided into different beds, each bed
being covered with a crud of the daladlitical fpar, from
one inch to an inch and a half in thicknefs, which feems
to indicate, that the materials have been carried in at
various periods, and that thofe periods have been very
remote from each other.
“ At Rofia bay, upon the wed fide of Gibraltar, this
concretion is found in what has evidently been a cavern,
originally formed by huge undiapely maffes of the rock
which have tumbled in together. The fiffure, or ca¬
vern, formed by the difruption and fubfidence of thofe
maffes, has been entirely filled up with the concretion,
and is now expofed to fulkview by the outward mafs
having dropped down in confequence of the encroach¬
ments of the fea. It is to this fpot that drangers are
generally led to examine the phenomenon ; and the
compofition, having here attained to its greated degree
of hardnefs and folidity, the hady obferver, feeing the
bones inclofed in what has fo little the appearance of
having been a vacuity, examines no further, but imme¬
diately adopts the idea of their being incafed in the fo-
lid rock. The communication from this former chafm,
to the furface from which it has received the materials
of the concretion, is dill to be traced in the face of the
lock, but its opening is at prefent covered by the bafe
of the line wall of the garrifon. Here bones are found
that are apparently human; and thofe of them that ap¬
pear to be of the legs, arms, and vertebrae of the back,
are fcattered among others of various kinds and fizes,
eve^ t0 Wiled bones of fmall birds. Major
16 ] GIB
Imrie found here the complete jaw-bone of a dieep j it Cibraltaft
contained its full complement of teeth, the enamel of  —v"-*"-'
which was perfect, and its whitenefs and ludre in no
degree impaired. In the hollow parts of fome of the
large bones was contained a minute crydallization of
pure and colourlefs calcareous fpar 5 but, in mod, the
interior part confided of a fparry crud of a reddidi co¬
lour, fcarcely in any degree tranfparent.
“ At the northern extremity of the mountain, the con¬
cretion is generally found in perpendicular fiffures. The
miners there employed upon the fortifications, in exca¬
vating one of thofe fiffures, found, at a great depth from
the lurface, two ilculls, which were fuppofed to be hu¬
man ; but, to the Major, one of them, if not both, ap¬
peared to be too fmall for the human fpecies. The bone
of each was perfeftly firm and folid 5 from which it is
to be prefumed, that they were in a date of maturity
before they were inclofed in the concretion. Had they
appertained to very young children, perhaps the bone
W'ould have been more porous, and of a lefs firm tex¬
ture. The probability is, that they belonged to a fpe¬
cies of monkey, which dill continues to inhabit, in con-
fiderable numbers, thofe parts of the rock which are to
us inaccedible.
“ This concretion varies, in its compofition, accord¬
ing to the fituation in which it is found. At the extre¬
mity of Prince’s Lines, high in the rock which looks
towards Spain, it is found to confid only of a reddidi
calcareous earth, and the bones of fmall birds cemented
thereby. The rock around this fpot is inhabited by a
number of hawks, that, in the breeding feafon, nedle
here and rear their young: the bones in this concretion
are probably the remains of the food of thofe birds.
At the bafe of the rock, below King’s Lines, the con¬
cretion confids of pebbles of the prevailing calcareous
rock. In this concretion, at a very confiderable depth
under the furface, was found the under parts of a glafs * AW.
bottle, uncommonly draped, and of great thicknefs j
the colour of the glafs was of a dark green*.” vo1' 1(v‘
The fubterraneous galleries are very extendve^uht^rane-
pierce the rock in feveral places and in various direc-ous galle-
tions, and at various degrees of elevation *, all of themries*
have a communication with each other, either by Rights
of deps cut in the rock, or by wmoden dairs where the
paffages are required to be very perpendicular.
“ I he centinels may now be relieved during a fiege
from one pod to another in perfect fafety ; whereas, pre-
vioully to the condru&ing of thefe galleries a vad num¬
ber of men were killed by the Spaniards while march¬
ing to their feveral dations. The width of thefe gal¬
leries is about twelve feet, their height about fourteen.
1 he rock is broken through in various places, both for
the purpof'e giving light and for placing the guns to
bear on the enemy. In different parts there are fpa-
cious recedes, capable of accommodating a confiderable
number of men. To thefe recedes they give names,
fuch as St Patrick’s Chamber, St George’s Hall, &c.
The whole of thefe lingular druflures have been form¬
ed out of the folid rock by blading with gunpowder.
Through the politenefs of an officer on duty, a place
called Smart’s Refervoir was opened for our injpeftion,
which is a great curiofity,. and not generally, permitted
to be diewn. It is a fpring at a confide^able depth in
the body of the rock, and is above 700 feet above the
level of the feaj we defcended into tjje cayern that con¬
tains
GIB [ 71'
Gibraltar, tains it by a rope ladder, and with the aid of lighted
Gibfon. candles proceeded through a narrow pallage over cryital-
w v  ^zecj protuberances of the rock till we came to a hollow,
which appears to have been opened by fome convulhon
of nature. Here, from a bed of gems, ariles the falu-
tary fount, clear as the brilliant of the eaft, and cold as
the icicle. We hailed the nymph of the grot, and, pro-
11 rating oirrfelves, quaffed hygean ne&ar from her fparry
urn. When reftored to the light of day, we obtained,
through the medium of the fame gentleman, the key of
gt George’s Hall, at which we arrived by a very intri¬
cate and gloomy path to the fpacious excavation, which
is upwards of an hundred feet in length, its height near-
lv the fame. It is formed in a iemicircular part of
the rock} fpacious apertures are broken through, where
cannons of a very large calibre command the iHlimus,
the Spanifh lines, and a great part of the bay. 1 he
top of the rock is pierced through, fo as to introduce
fufficient light to enable you to view every part of.it.
It appears almoft incredible that fo large an excavation
could be formed by gunpowder, without blowing up
the whole of that part of the rock, and dill more fo,
that they fhould be able to direft the operations of fuch
an inftrument, fo as to render it fubfervient to the pur-
pofe of elegance. We found in the hall a table, pla¬
ced, I fuppofe, for the conveniency of thole who are
traverfing the rock. The cloth was fpread, the wine
went round, and we made the vaulted roof refound with
* Month accents of mirth and the fongs of conviviality .
1798. GIBSON, Richard, an Engliih painter, com-
" ' monly called the Dwarf, was onginally.page to a la¬
dy at Mortlake; who, obferving that his genius led
him to painting, had the generofity to get him m-
ilru&ed in the rudiments of that art. He devoted him-
felf to Sir Peter Lely’s manner, and copied his pi Bures
to admiration, efpecially his portraits : his paintings
in water colours were alio elteemed. He was in great
favour with Charles I. who made him his page of the
* back flairs 5 and he had the honour to mftruct in draw¬
ing Queen Mary and Queen Anne when they were
orincelfes. He married one Mrs Anne Shepherd, who
was alfo a dwarf; on which occafion King Charles I.
honoured their marriage with his prefence, and gave
away the bride. Mr Waller wrote a poem on this oc¬
cafion, entitled “ The Marriage of the Dwarfsin
which are thefe lines :
Defign or change makes others wive.
But nature did this match contrive ;
Eve might as well have Adam fled,
As (he deny’d her little bed
To him for w’hom heav’n ieem’d to frame
And meafure out this only dame.”
Mr Fenton, in his notes on this poem, obferves that
he had feen this. couple painted by Sir Peter Lely;
and that they were of an equal ftature,. each being
three feet ten inches high. They had nine children,
five of whom arrived at maturity, thefe were well
proportioned, and of the ufual ftandard of mankind.
But what nature denied this couple in ftature, flie gave
then in length of days : for Mr Gibfon died m the
» 75tk year of his age; and his wife, having furvived him
almoft 20 years, died in 1709, aged 89.
Gibeo>t, Dr Edmund, biihop of London, v, as born
7 ] GIB
in Weftmorland, in 1669. He applied himfelf early ^
and vigoroufly to learning, and difplayed his know¬
ledge in feveral writings and tranflations, which, re¬
commended him to the patronage of Archbifhop
nifon. He was appointed domeftic chaplain to Ins
Grace; and we foon after find him. reBo.r of Lam¬
beth, and archdeacon of Surry. Becoming t.ius a
member of the convocation, he. engaged in a
verfy, which was carried on with great warmth by
the members of both boufes, and defended his pa¬
tron’s rights, as prefident, in eleven pamphlets; ho
then formed and completed his more comprehenfive
fcheme of the legal duties and rights of the Engliih
clergy, which was at length publiihed under the
of Codex Juris Ecclefiajlici Anglicani, in .folio. . Arch-
biihop Tennifon dying in 1715? and Dr W1 acke biihop o
Lincoln being made archbiftiop of Canterbury, Dr Gib¬
fon fucceeded the latter in the fee of Lincoln, and in
1720 was promoted to the bifhoprick of London. He
now not only governed his diocefe with the moft exaA
regularity, but by his great care promoted the fpiritual
affairs of the church of England colonies in the Well
Indies. He was extremely jealous of the leaft of the
privileges belonging to the church; and therefore,
though he approved of the toleration of the Proteftant
Diflenters, he continually guarded againfi: all the at¬
tempts made to procure a repeal of the corporation
and teft afts ; in particular, his oppofition to thofe li¬
centious affemblies called mafquerades, gave great um¬
brage at court, and effeBually excluded him from all
further favours. He fpent the latter part of. his life
in writing and printing pafloral letters, vilitation-
charges, occafional fermons, and traBs againft the
prevailing immoralities of the age. His paftoral let¬
ters are juftly efteemed as the molt mafterly productions
againft infidelity and enthufiafm. His molt celebrated
work, the Codex, has been already mentioned. HL
other publications are, I. An edition of Drummond s
Polemo-Middima, and James V. of Scotland s Can¬
tilena Ruflica, with notes. 2. The Chronicon Saxont-
cum, with a Latin tranflation, and notes. 3. fc‘l-
quice Sp elm a nnianee, the pofthumous works of . Sir
Henry Spelman, relating to the laws and antiquities
of England. 4. An edition of Quintilian de Arte
Oratorio, with notes. 5. An Engliih tranllation of
Camden’s Britannia, with additions, two volumes fo¬
lio : and, 6. A number of fmall pieces, that have been
colleBed together and printed in three volumes folio. »
His intenfe application to ftudy impaired his health ;
notwithftanding which, he attained the age of 79. He
expired in September 1748, after an epifeopate of near
33 years.—With regard to Biihop Gibfon’s private life
and charaBer, he was in every refpeB a perfect econo-
mift. His abilities were fo well adapted to difeharge
the duties of his facred funBion, that during the in¬
capacity of Archbilhop Wake, the tranfaBion of ec-
elefiaftical affairs was committed to the biihop of Lon¬
don. He was a true friend to the eftablilhed church
and government, and as great an enemy to perlecu-
tion. He was ufually confulted by the moll learned
and exalted perfonages in church and ftate, and the
greateft deference was paid to his judgment. He
poffeffed the focial virtues in an eminent degree ; hit
beneficence was very extenlive; and he had fuch gene-
rofity.
Gid eon
GIG [7
rofity, that he freely gave two thoufand five hundred
Giggle- Poun^s> him by Dr Crow, who was once his chap-
wick. lain, to Crow’s own relations, who were very poor,
y—- GIDEON the fon of Joaih, of the tribe of Manaf-
feh. He dwelt in the city of Ophrah ; and had a very
< extraordinary call to deliver the Ifraelites from the op-
preflion of the Midianites, to which they had be¬
come fubjeft after the death of Barak and Deborah.
Having eft'efted their deliverance by fupernatural aid,
he was chofen judge of Ifrael in the year of the world
2759, and died in 2768. (See Judges, chap. vi. vii.
and viii.)
GIFT, Donum, in Law, is a conveyance which
palleth either lands or goods •, and is of a larger ex¬
tent than a grant, being applied to things moveable
and immoveable •, yet as to things immoveable, when
taken ftriftly, it is applicable only to lands and tene¬
ments given in tail 5 but gift and grant are too often
confounded.
New Year's Gifts, prefents made on new year’s
day, as a token of the giver’s good will, as well as by
way of prefage of a happy year.
This practice is very ancient, the origin of it among
the Romans being referred to Tatius king of the Sa¬
bines, who reigned at Rome conjointly with Romu¬
lus, and who having coniidered as a good omen a pre-
fent of lome fprigs of vervain gathered in a wood con-
fecrated to Strenia the goddefs of ftrength, which he
received on the firft day of the new year, authorized
this cuftom afterwards, and gave to thefe prefents the
name of Strenae. However this may be, the Romans
on that day celebrated a feflival in honour of Janus,
and paid their refpe£ts at the fame time to Juno ; but
they did not pafs it in idlenefs, leit they Ihould become
indolent during the reft of the year. They fent pre-
lents to one another of figs, dates, honey, &c. to fhow
their friends that they wilhed them a happy and agree¬
able life. Clients, that is to fay, thofe who were un¬
der the protedtion of the great, carried prefents of
this kind to their patrons, adding to them a fmall
piece of filver. Under Auguftus, the fenate, the
knights, and the people, prefented fuch gifts to him,
and in his abfence depofited them in the Capitol. Of
the fucceeding princes fome adopted this cuftom, and
others abolilhed it, but it always continued among the
people. The early Chriftians condemned it, becaufe
it appeared to be a relick of Paganifm, and a fpecies
of fuperftition j but when it began to have no other
objedt than that of being a mark of veneration and
efteem, the church ceafed to difapprove of it.
GIGG, Giga, or Jig, in Mujic and Dancing, a
gay, brilk, fprightly compofition, and yet in full mea-
lure, as well as the allemand, which is more ferious.
Menage takes the word to arife from the Italian giga,
a mufical inftrument mentioned by Dante. Others
fuppofe it to be derived from the Teutonic gieg, or
ghiighe, “ a fiddle.” This is a favourite air in moft
nations of Europe: its charadteriftic is duple time,
marked or r-g? : it confifts of two ftrains, without
.any determinate number of bars.
GIGGLEWICK, a town in the weft riding of
Yorkfhire, half a mile from Settle, ftands on the river
Ribble, where, at the foot of a mountain, is a fpring,
the mo i noted in England for ebbing and flowing
Sometimes thrice in an hour, and the water fubfides
8 ] GIL
three quarters of a yard at the reflux, though the lea Gihon
is 30 miles off. At this town is an eminent free gram- ||
mar fchool; and in the neighbourhood are dug up Gilbert,
flags, flate, and ftone. 1 v—
GJHON, in Ancient Geography, one of the rivers
of Paradife ; according to Wells, the eaftern branch
of the Euphrates, into which it divides after its con-
jundtion with the Tigris.
GILAN, or Ghilan, ar' confiderable province of
Perfia, on the fide of the Cafpian fea, to the fouth-
tveft. It is fuppofed to be the Hyrcania of the an¬
cients. It is very agreeably lituated, having the fea
on one fide and high mountains on the other $ and
there is no entering in but through narrow paffes,
which may eafily be defended. The fides of the
mountains are covered with many foits of fruit trees,
and in the higheft parts of them there are deer,
bears, wolves, leopards, and tygers 5 which laft the
Perfians have a method of taming, and hunt with
them as w^e do with dogs. Gilan is one of the moft
fruitful provinces of Perfia, and produces abundance
of filk, oil, wine, rice, and tobacco, befides excellent
fruits. The inhabitants are brave, and of a better
complexion than the other Indians, and the women
are accounted extremely handfome. Relht is the capi¬
tal town.
GILBERT, or Gileerd, William, a phyfician,
was born at Colchefter in the year 1540, the eldeft
fon of the recorder of that borough. Having fpent
fome time in both univerfities, he went abroad ; and
at his return fettled in London, where he pradlifed
with confiderable reputation. He became a mem¬
ber of the College of Phyficians, and phyfician in or¬
dinary to Queen Elizabeth, who, w^e are told, gave
him a penfion to encourage him in his ftudies. From
his epitaph it appears that he was alfo phyfician to
King James I. He died in the year 1603, aged 63 ;
and w as buried in Trinity church in Colcheftcr, where
a handfome monument was ereifed to his memory. His
books, globes, inftruments, and foffils, he bequeath¬
ed to the College of Phyficians, and his pifture to the
fchool gallery at Oxford. He wnote, 1. De Magnete,
niagneticifque corporibus, et de magno magnete tellure,
physiologia nova ; London 1600, folio. 2. De mun-
do nojlro fublunariphilofophia nova : Amfterdam 1651,
4-to. He was alfo the inventor of twro mathematical in¬
ftruments for finding the latitude at fea without the
help of fun, moon, or flars. A defeription of thefe
inftruments was aftemards publiftied by Thomas Blon-
deville in his Theoriques of the Planets.
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, a brave officer and Ikil-
ful navigator, was born about the year 1539, in
Devonfliire, of an ancient and honourable family.
Though a fecond fon, he inherited a confiderable for¬
tune from his father. He wras educated at Eton, and
afterwards at Oxford ; where probably he did not con¬
tinue long. It feems he wras intended to finifti his ftu¬
dies in the Temple ; but being introduced at court
by his aunt Mrs Catharine Affiley, then in the queen’s
fervice, he was diverted from the ftudyr of law, and
commenced foldier. Having diftingufthed himfelf
in feveral military expeditions, particularly that to
Newhaven in 1563, he w'as fent over to Ireland to
affift in fuppreffing a rebellion ; where, for his fignal
ferviceSj he was made commander in chief and gover-
por
GIL [ 71
nor of Hurdler, and knighted by the lord deputy, Sir
Henry Sidney, on the firfl: day of the year 1570.
He returned foon after to England, where he married
a rich heirefs. Neverthelefs, in I 572» faiie(^ rvitn
a fquadron of nine dnps to reinforce Colonel Morgan,
who at that time meditated the recovery of Flufhing.
Probably on his return to England he refumed his
cofmographical lludies, to which he was naturally in¬
clined : for, in the year 15?^’ publilhed his book
on the north-weft pafiage to the Eaft Indies •, and as
Martin Frobiftier failed the fame year, probably it was
in confequence of this treatife. In 1578, he obtained
from the queen a very ample patent, empowering him
to difeover and poftefs in North America any lands then
unfettled. He failed to Newfoundland, but foon re¬
turned to England without fuccefs j neverthelefs, in
1 ^83, he embarked a fecond time with five (hips, the
largeft of which put back on account of a contagious
diftember on board. Our general landed on New¬
foundland on the third of Auguft, and on the fifth
took pofieflion of the harbour of St John’s. By vii-
tue of his patent, he granted leafes to feveral people j
but though none of them remained there at that time,
they fettled afterwards in confequence of thefe leafes ;
fo that Sir Humphry deferves to be remembered as
the real founder of the vaft American empire. On tne
20th of Auguft he put to fea again, on board a imatl
Hoop *, which on the 29th foundei'ed in a hard gale of
wind. Thus periftied Sir Humphrey Gilbert; a man
of quick parts, a brave foldier, a good mathemati¬
cian, a fkilful navigator, and of a very enterprifing
genius. We learn alfo, that he was remarkable^ for
his eloquence, being much admired for his patriotic
fpeeches both in the Englifh and Irilh parliaments. He
wrote “ A difeourfe to prove a paffage by the north-
weft to Cathaia and the Eaft Indies, printed London
1576.” This treatife, which is a mafterlv performance,
is preferved in Hakluyt’s Colledlion of Voyages, voi.
iii. p. 11. The ftyle is fuperior to moft, if not to all,
the w riters of that age ; and fhows the author to have
been a man of confiderable reading. He mentions,
at the clofe of this wmrk, another treatife on naviga¬
tion, which he intended to publifh : it is probably
loft.
GILBERTINES, an order of religious, thus call¬
ed from St Gilbert of Sempringham, in the county of
Lincoln, who founded the fame about the year 1148 :
the monks of which obferved the rule of St Auguftine }
and wTere accounted canons : and the nuns that of St
BenedidL
The founder of this order eredled a double monafte-
ry, or rather two different ones, contiguous to each o-
ther, the one for men, the other for women, but parted
by a very high wall. .
St Gilbert himfelf founded 13 monaftenes of this
order, viz. four for men alone, and nine for men and
women together, which had in them 700 brethren
and 1500 lifters. At the diffolution there were about
2y houfes of this order in England and Wales.
GILBOA, in Ancient Geography, mountains of Sa¬
maria, ftretching out from weft to eaft, on the confines
of the half tribe of Manaffeh, and of the tribe of Iffa-
char, and to the fouth part of the valley of Jezreei be¬
ginning w’eltvvard at the city of Jezreei, fituated at the
foot of thefe mountains, reaching almoft quite to the Jor-
9 ] G 1 ■
dan lying at the diftance of fix miles from Scythopo- Gdchnft
lis. Famqus for the death of Saul and his fon Jona- Gildas>
than, and the defeat of the Ifraehtes by the Phihl- v 
tines. . ^ o t
GILCHRIST, Dr Ebexezer, an eminent Scots
phyfician, was born at Dumfries in 1707.. He began
the ftudy of medicine at Edinburgh^ which he after¬
wards profecuted at London and Paris. He obtained
the decree of doftor of medicine from the umverfity ol
Rheims *, and in the year 173 2 he returned to the place
of his nativity, where he afterwards conftantly relided,
and continued the praftice of medicine till his death.
It may with iuftice be faid, that few phyficians ol the
prefent century have exercifed their profeflion in a man¬
ner more refpeaable or fuccefsful than Dr Gilchrift 5 and
few have contributed more to the improvement of the
healing art. Having engaged in bufinefs at an early
period of life, his attention was wholly devoted to ob-
fervation. Endowed by nature with a judgment acute
and folid, with a genius aftive. and inventive, he foon
diftinguilhed himfelf by departing, in various important
particulars, from eftabliftied but unfuccefsful _modes ol
pradlice. Several of the improvements which he in¬
troduced have procured him great and deferved reputa¬
tion both at home and abroad. His. pracftce, in or¬
dinary cafes, was allowed to be judicious, and placed
him high in the confidence and efteem of the inhabi¬
tants of that part of the country where be lived. But
his ufefulnefs was not confined to his own neighbour¬
hood. On many occafions he was confulted by letter
from the moft diftant parts of the country. . In differ¬
ent colleftions are to be found feveral of his perform¬
ances, which prove that he had fomething new and
ufeful to offer upon every fubjeft to which he applied
himfelf. But thofe writings which do him the greateft
honour, are two long diflertations on Nervous Fevers,
in the Medical Effays and Obfervations publilhed by a
Society in Edinburgh 5 and a treatife on the ufe of Sea
Voyages in medicine, which firft made its appearance in
the year I757> nud was afterwards reprinted in 1771*
By means of the former, the attention of phyficians was
firft turned to a fpecies of fever which is now. found to
prevail univerfally in this country } and the libeial ule
of wine, which he was the firft among the modems to
recommend, has fince been adopted in thefe fevers by
the moft judicious phyficians of. the prefent age, and
has probably contributed not a little to the lucceis o
their praftice. His treatife on Sea Voyages points out in
a manner lo clear, and fo much on the lure footing of
experience, their utility in various diftempers, particu¬
larly in confumptions, that there is now a profpea: of
our being able to employ a remedy in this uutra&able
difeafe much more efficacious than any hitherto in me.
Dr Gilchrift died in 1774-
GILD, or Guild. See Guild.
GILDAS, furnamed the Wife, was born in Wales
in the year 311. Where he was educated is uncer¬
tain \ but it appears from his own writings that he
was a monk. Some writers fay that he went over to
Ireland 5 others, that he vifited France and Italy.
They agree however in afferting, that after his 1 eturn to
England he became a celebrated and moft aftiduous
preacher of the gofpel. Du Pin fays he. founded a
monaftery at Venetia in Britain. Gildas is the on y
Britiih author of the fixth century whofe works are
•nrintpn °
hiding.
t
Gilding
when firft
introduced
at Rome.
Ancient
gilding in¬
ferior to
the mo-
-dern.
f'alfe gild¬
ing with la-
quer or
>Dutcl) leaf.
G I L
printed} they are therefore valuable
their antiquity, and as containing the only informa¬
tion we have concerning the times of wdiich he wr<)te.
His Hiftory of Britain is, however, a very flimfy per¬
formance, and his llyle obfcure and inelegant.
GILDING, the art of fpreading or covering a
tiling over with gold, either in leaf or liquid* The
art of gilding was not unknown among the ancients,
though it never arrived among them at the perfedfion
to which the moderns have carried it. Pliny allures
us, that the firft gilding feen at Rome was after the
deftruftion of Carthage, under the cenforfhip of Lucius
Mummius, when they began to gild the ceilings of
their temples and palaces y the Capitol being the firft
place on which this enrichment wras beftowed. But
he adds, that luxury advanced on them fo haftily, that
in a little time you might fee all, even private and
poor perfons, gild the very walls, vaults, &c. of their
houfes.
We need not doubt but they had the fame method
with us, of beating gold, and reducing it into leaves y
though it fliould feem they did not carry it to the
fame height, if it be true which Pliny relates, that
they only made 750 leaveS of four fingers fquare out of
a whole ounce. Indeed he adds, that they could make
more y that the thickeft were called bra&ecv VrceneJHnce,
by reafon of a ftatue of the goddefs Fortune at Prae-
nefte gilt with fuch leaves •, and that the thiniier fort
was called braclecc quejiorite.
The modern gilders do alfo make ufe of gold leaves
of divers thickneffes y but there are fome fo fine, that
a thoufand do not weigh above four or five drachms.
The thickeft are ufed for gilding on iron and other
metals; and the thinneft on wood. But we have ano¬
ther advantage over the ancients in the manner of ufing
or applying the gold : the fecret of painting in oil,
difcovered of late ages, furnifhes us with means of gild¬
ing works that ftiall endure all the injuries of time and
weather, which to the ancients was impra&icable*-*—
They had no way to lay the gold on bodies that
would not endure the fire but with whites of eggs or
fize, neither of which wall endure the w^ater y fo that
they could only gild fuch places as were ftieltered from
the moifture of the weather.
The Greeks called the compofition on which they ap¬
plied their gilding on wood leucophccum or leucophorum ;
which is defcribed as a fort of glutinous compound
earth, ferving in all probability to make the gold flick
and bear polifiring. But the particulars of this earth,
its colour, ingredients, &c. the antiquaries and natural-
ifts are not agreed upon.
The luftre and beauty of gold have occafioned feve-
ral inquiries and difeoveries concerning the different
methods of applying it to different fubftances. Hence
the art of gilding is very extenfive, and contains many
particular operations and various management.
A colour of gold is given by painting and by var-
• nifties, without employing gold ; but this is a falfe kind
of gilding. Thus a very fine golden colour is given
to brafs and to filver, by applying upon thefe metals a
gold-coloured varnifh, which, being tranfparent, Ihows
all the brilliancy of the metals beneath. Many orna¬
ments of brafs were varniftied in this manner, which is
called gold laquering, to diftinguiflr them from thofe
which are really gilt. Silver leaves thus varniftied are
t 720 ] GIL
on account of put upon leather, which is then called gilt leather. S^e Giidifi?*
LAQUER. " "  v'-—>
Amongft the falfe gilding may alfo be reckoned
thofe which are made with thin leaves of copper or
brafs, called Dutch leaf. In this manner are made all
the kinds of what is called gilt paper.
In the true gilding, gold is applied to the furface of
bodies. The gold intended for this purpofe ought in
general to be beat into thin leaves, or otherwife divided
into very fine parts.
As metals cannot adhere well merely by contaft to Gilding
any but to other metallic fubftances, when gold is to with fizc.
be applied to the furface of fome unmetallic body, that
furface muft be previoufly covered with fome gluey and
tenacious fubftance by which the gold ftiall be made
to adhere. Thefe fubftances are in general called Ji%es.
Some of thefe are made of vegetable and animal glues,
and others of oily, gluey, and drying matters. Up¬
on them the leaves of gold are applied, and preffed
down with a little cotton or a hare’s foot y and when
the whole is dry, the work is to be finifhed and polilh-
ed with a hard inftrument, called a dog's tooth, to give
luflre. 1 ^
When the work is required to be capable of refill-With oil*
ing rain or moifture, it ought to be previoully covered
with a compofition of drying oil and yellow ochre
ground together y otherwife a water fize may be ufed,
which is prepared by boiling cuttings of parchment or
white leather in water, and by mixing with this fome
chalk or whiting : feveral layers of this fize muft be
laid upon the wood, and over thefe a layer of the fame
lize mixed with yellow ochre. Laftly, Another mix¬
ture, called gold fixe, is to be applied above thefe y up¬
on which the gold leaves are to be fixed. This gold
fize, the ufe of which is to make the gold leaf capable
of being burnifiied, is compofed of tobacco-pipe clay,
ground with fome ruddle or black lead, and tempered
wdth a little tallow or oil of olives. The edges of glaffes
may be gilt by applying firft a very thin coat of var-
nilh, upon which the gold leaf is to be fixed y and when
the varnilh is hardened, may be burnifibed. This var-
niftr is prepared by boiling powdered amber with linfeed
oil in a brafs veffel to which a valve is fitted, and by
diluting the above folution with four or five times its
quantity of oil of turpentine j and that it may dry fooner,
it may be ground with fome white lead. ’
ft he method of applying gold upon metals is entirely Of gilding
different, ft'he furface of the metal to be gilt is firftmeta!s*
to be cleaned y and then leaves are to be applied to it,
which, by means of rubbing with a poliftied blood-
ftone, and a certain degree of heat, are made to ad¬
here perfectly well. In this manner filver leaf is fixed
and burnifhed upon brafs in the making of what is call¬
ed French plate, and fometimes alfo gold leaf is burnifh-
ed upon copper and upon iron.
Gold is applied to metals in feveral other ways.
One of thefe is by previoufly forming the gold into a
pafte or amalgam with mercury. In order to obtain
a 1’mall amalgam of gold and mercury, the gold is firft
to be reduced into thin plates or grains, which are
heated red hot, and thrown into mercury previoufly
heated, till it begins to fmoke. Upon ftirring the
mercury with an iron rod, the gold totally difappears.
The proportion of mercury to gold is generally as fix
or eight to one. *
With
GIL [ 72
o',|,ling. With this amalgam the furface of the metal to be
L.—v—rrilded is to be covered ; then a fufficient beat is to be
applied to evaporate the mercury : and the gold is hil¬
ly to be burnilbed with a blood-ftone. . . t • ri
1 This method of gilding by amalgamation is chiefly
ufed for gilding copper, or an alloy of copper,_ with a
fmall portion of zinc, which more readily receives the
amalgam •, and is alfo preferable for its colour, which
more refembles that of gold than the colour of cop¬
per. When the metal to be gilt is wrought or chafed, it
ought to be previoufly covered with quickfilver before
the amalgam is applied, that this may be ealier fpread :
but when the furface of the metal is plain, the amalgam
may be applied dire&ly to it. The quickfilver or amal¬
gam is made to adhere to the metal by means of a little
aquafortis, which is rubbed on the metallic iuiface at the
fame time, by which this furface is cleanled horn any
ruft or tarnifli which might prevent the union or adhe-
fion of the metals. But the ufe of the nitrous acid m
this operation is not, as is generally fuppofed, confined
merely to cleanfe the furface of the metal to be gilt
from any ruft or tarnifli it may have acquired ; but it
alfo greatly facilitates the application of the amalgam
7 to the furface of that metal, probably in the following
Ufe of the manner : It firft diffolves part of the mercury of the
nitrous acid ami am . an^ when this folution is applied to the
in gilding. COpper^ latter metal having a Aronger affinity
for nitrous acid than the mercury has, precipitates
the mercury upon its furface, in the fame mannei as
a poliflred * piece of iron precipitates copper upon
its furface from a folution of blue vitriol. When
the metal to be gilt is thus covered oyer with a thin
precipitated coat of mercury, it readily receives the
amalgam. In this folution and precipitation of mer¬
cury, the principal ufe of the nitrous acid in the pro-
cefs of gilding appears to coiffift. The amalgam be¬
ing equally fpread over the furface of the metal to be
oik by means of a brufli, the mercury is then to be
evaporated by a heat juft fufficient for that purpofe ;
for if it be too great, part of the gold may alfo be ex¬
pelled, and part of it will run together, and leave fome
of the furface of the metal bare : while the mercury is
evaporating, the piece is to be from time to time
taken from the fire, that it may be examined, that the
amalgam may be fpread more equally by means of a
brufli, that any defe&ive parts of it may be again co¬
vered, and that the heat may not be too fuddenly ap¬
plied to it : when the mercury is evaporated, which is
known by the furface being entirely become of a dull
yellow colour, the metal muft then undergo other ope¬
rations, by which the fine gold colour is given to
it. Firft, The gilded piece of metal is rubbed with a
fcratch brufti (which is a brufli compofed of brafs wire)
till its furface is made fmooth j then it is covered over
with a compofition called gilding wax, and is again ex-
pofed to the fire till the wax be burnt off. This wax
is cotnpoied of bees wax, fometimes mixed with fome
of the following fubftances •, red ochre, verdigrife, cop-
pei fcales, alum, vitriol, borax : but according to Dr
Lewis, the falme fubftances alone are fufficient, with¬
out any wax. By this operation the colour of the gild¬
ing is heightened j and this effe£t feems to be produ¬
ced by a perfeft diffipation of fome mercury remaining
after the former operation. This diffipaticn is well el-
fedled by this equable application of heat. Lhe gilt
Vol. IX. Part II.
Gilding-
i ] GIL
furface is then covered over with a faline compoiition,
confifting of nitre, alum, or other vitriolic fait, ground ' v
together, and mixed up into a pafle with water or mine.
The piece of metal thus covered is expoled to a certain
degree of heat, and then quenched in water. By this
method its colour is further improved, and brought
nearer to that of gold. This effeil feems to be produ¬
ced by the acid of nitre (which is ffifengaged by the
vitriolic acid of the alum, or other vitriolic lalt, during
the expofure to heat) adding upon any particles of cop-
ger which may happen to lie on the gilded fur race.
Laftly, Some art ills think that they give an additional
luftre to their gilt woik by dipping it in a liquor
prepared by boiling fome yellow materials, as fulphur,
orpiment, or turmeric. The only advantage of this
operation is, that a part of the yellow matter, as the
fulphur or tumeric, remains in fome of the hollows o
the carved work, in which the gilding js apt to be
more imperfedl, and to which it gives a rich and folid
appearance. > . .
Iron cannot be gilt by amalgamation, unlefs, as it is
faid, it be previoufly coated with copper by dipping in
a folution of blue vitriol. Iron^ may alfo receive a
golden coat from a faturated folution oi gold in aqua-
regia, mixed with fpirit of wine, the iron having a great¬
er affinity with the acid, from which it therefore pre¬
cipitates the gold. Whether any of thele two methods
be applicable to ufe, is uncertain : but tne method com¬
monly employed of fixing gold upon iron is that a-
bove mentioned, of burnilhing gold leaf upon this me¬
tal when heated fo as to become blue ^ and the opera¬
tion will be more perfect 'if the furface has been pie-
vioufly fcratched or graved.
Another method is mentioned by authors of gilding
upon metals, and alfo upon earthen ware, and upon
glafs 5 which is, to fufe gold with regulus of antimo¬
ny, to pulverize the mafs which is iufficiently brittle
to admit that operation, to fpread this powder upon
the piece to be gilt, and expofe it to fuch a file that
the regulus may be evaporated, while the gold re¬
mains fixed. The inconveniences of this method, ac¬
cording to Dr Lewis, are, that the powder does not
adhere to the piece, and cannot be equally fpread \
that part of the gold is diiiipated along with the i<?gu-
lus } that glafs is fufible with the heat neceffary for the
evaporation of regulus of antimony \ and that copper
is liable to be corroded by the regulus, and to ha\e its
furface rendered uneven. # 8
On this fubjefl of gilding by amalgamation Dr Lewds Improve-
has the following remarks. “ There are two principal
inconveniences in this bufineis : One, that the work-
men are expofed to the fumes of the mercury, and gene- 0j-^rts.
rally, fooner or later, have their health greatly impaired
by them : the other, the lofs of the mercury j for though
part of it is faid to be detained in cavities made in the
chimney for that purpofe, yet the greateft part of it is
loft. From fome trials I have made, it appeared that
both thefe inconveniences, particularly the firft and
mod confiderable one, might in good mcafure. be a-
voided, by means of a furnace of a due conftrudlion. If
the communication of a furnace with its chimney, m-
ftead of being over the fire, is made under the grate,
the afti-pit door, or other apertures beneath the grate-,
clofed, and the mouth of the furnace left open $ the
current of air, which other wile would have entered be-
4 Y neatk,
GIL [7
_ Giving, neath, enters now at the top, and pafllng down through
r ' _ the grate to the chimney, carries with it completely
both the vapour of the fuel and the fumes of fuch mat¬
ters as are placed upon it: the back part of the fur¬
nace fhould be railed a little higher above the fire than
the fore part, and an iron plate laid over it, that the air
may enter only at the front, where the workman Hands,
who will be thus effeftually fecured from the fumes and
from being incommoded with the heat, and at the lame
time have full liberty of introducing, infpefting, and
removing the work. If fuch a furnace is made of
Hrong forged (not milled) iron plate, it will be fuffi-
ciently durable : the upper end of the chimney may
reach above a foot and a half higher than the level of
the fire : over this is to be placed a larger tube, leav¬
ing an interval of an inch or more all round between
it and the chimney, and reaching to the height of 10
or 1 2 feet, the higher the better. The external air,
palling up between the chimney and the outer pipe,
prevents the latter from being much heated, fo that the
mercurial fumes will condenfe againll its fides into run-
ning quickfilver, which, falling down to the bottom,
is there catched in a hollow rim, formed by turning in¬
wards a portion of the lower part, and conveyed, by a
a pipe at one fide, into a proper receiver.
V- du Fay’s “ Mr Hellot communicates, in the Memoirs of the
^ffjn°d ° m ?renC^ Academy f°r t^le year i745j a method of mak-
figures.^0 ° raided figures of gold on works of gold or filver,
found among the papers of M. du Fay, and of which
M. du Fay himfelf had feen feveral trials. Fine gold in
powder, fuch as relhlts from the parting of gold and
filver by aquafortis, is diretted to be laid in a heap on
a levigating Hone, a cavity made in the middle of the
heap, and half its weight of pure mercury put into
the cavity 5 fome of the fetid fpirit obtained from
garlic root by dillillation in a retort, is then to be ad¬
ded, and the whole immediately mingled and ground
with a muller till the mixture is reduced into an uni¬
form gray powder. The powder is to be ground with
lemon juice to the confiltence of paint, and applied on
the piece previoully well cleaned and rubbed over with
the fame acid juice ; the figures drawn with it may be
raifed to any degree by repeating the application. The
piece is expofed to a gentle fire till the mercury is eva¬
porated fo as to leave the gold yellow, which is then to
be preffed down, and rubbed with the finger and a
little fand, which makes it appear folid and brilliant j
after this it may be cut and embellifhed. The author
obferves, that being of a fpongy texture, it is more ad-
vifable to cut it with a chiffel than to raife it with a
graver 5 that it has an imperfeflion of being always
pale j and that it would be a defirable thing to find
means of giving it colour, as by this method ornaments
might be made of exquifite beauty and with great fa¬
cility. As the paleneis appears to proceed from a part
of the mercury retained by the gold, I apprehend it
might be remedied by the prudent application of a
little warm aquafortis, which diffolving the mercury
from the exterior part, would give at leaft a fuperficial
high colour : if the piece is filver, it muft be defend¬
ed from the aquafortis by covering it with wax. In-
Hruments and ornaments of gold, llained by mercury
sphere the gold is connected with fubftances incapable
of bearing fire, may be reftored to their colour by the
faiijp means.
22 J GIL
“ Ihe foregoing procefs is given entirely on the Gilding
authority 01 the French writer. I have had no expe- ' ~*“
rience of it mylelf, but have feen very elegant figures a
of gold raifed upon filver, on the fame principle, by a method*"
difterent procedure. Some cinnabar was ground, not
with the crifhlled fpirit, but with the exprefled juice of
garlic, a fluid remarkably tenacious. This mixture
wras fpread all over the polilhed filver ; and when the
firlf layer is dry, a fecond, and after this a third, was
applied. Over thefe were fpread as many layers of
another mixture, compofed chiefly of afphaltum and
linfeed oil boiled down to a due confiftence. The whole
being dried with a gentle heat on a kind of wire
grate, the figures wrere traced and cut down to the fil¬
ver fo as to make its furface rough : the incifions wTere
filled with an amalgam of gold, raifed to different
heights in difterent parts according to the nature of the
defign 5 after which a gentle fire, at the fame time that
it evaporated the mercury, deftroyed the tenacity of
the gummy juice, fo that the coating, which ferved to
confine the amalgam, and as a guide in the application
of it, was now eafily got off. The gold was then
prefled down and embelliflred as in the former method j
and had this advantage, that the furface of the filver
under it having been made rough, it adhered more
firmly, fo as not to be in danger of coming off, as
M. du Fay fays the gold applied in his way fometimes did.
1 he artift, howrever, found the procefs fo troublefome,
that though he purchafed the receipt for a confiderable
fum, he has laid the praflice alkie.”
Finally, Some metals, particularly filver, may be gilt
in the following manner :
Let gold be diffolved in aqua regia. In this folu-j^f ”e
tion pieces of linen are to be dipt, and burnt to black thod ofgild
alhes. Fhefe alhes being rubbed on the furface of the ing filver.
filver by means of a wet linen rag, apply the particles
of gold which they contain, and which by this method
adhere very well. The remaining part of the alhes is
to be. waftied off j and the furface of the filver, W’hich
in this ftate does not feem to be gilt, is to be burnilh-
ed wdth a blood-ftone, till it acquire a fine colour of
gold. This method of gilding is very eafy, and con-
fumes a very fmall quantity of gold. Mott gilt orna¬
ments upon fans, fnuff boxes, and other toys of much
Ihow and little value, are nothing but filver gilt in this
manner.
Gold may alfo be applied to glafs, porcelain, and Methods
other vitrified matters. As the furface of thefe matters of gilding
is very fmooth, and confequently is capable of a verygl3^*
perfect contafl with gold leaves, thefe leaves adhere to
them with fome force, although they are not of me¬
tallic nature. This gilding is io much more perfedf,
as the gold is more exactly applied to the furface of
the glais. I he pieces are then to be expofed to a cer¬
tain degree of heat, and burnifhed (lightly to give them
luftre.
A more fubftantial gilding is fixed upon glafs, ena¬
mel, and porcelain, by applying to thefe fubftances
powder of gold mixed with a folution of gum arabic,
or with fome effential oil, and a fmall quantity of bo¬
rax j after which a fufficient heat is to be applied to fof-
ten the glafs and the gold, which is then to be burnilh-
ed. With this mixture any figures may be drawn.
The powders for this purpofe may be made, By.
grinding gold leaf with honey, which is afterwards
C I L t 723 ] GIL
Gilead to be wailied away with water. 2. By diftilling to
G!!, drynefs a lolution of gold in aqua regia. 3. By eva-
. porating the mercury from an amalgam of gold, taking-
care to ftir well the mafs near the end of the procefs.
4. By precipitating gold from its folution in aqua re¬
gia, by applying to it a folution of green vitriol in wa¬
ter, or fome copper, and perhaps fome other metallic
fubftances.
GILEAD, the fon of Machir, and grandfon of
Manaffeh, had his inheritance allotted him in the moun¬
tains of Gilead, from whence he took his name. The
mountains of Gilead were part of that ridge which
runs from Mount Lebanon fouthward, on the eait of
the Holy Land ; gave their name to the whole country
which lies on the eafl of the fea of Galilee, and inclu¬
ded the mountainous region <?alled in the New Teila-
inent TracJwnitis. Jeremiah (xxii. 6.) ieems to fay,
that Gilead begins from Mount Libanus. * Thou art
Gilead unto me, and the head of Lebanon.’ Jacob,
at his return from Mefopotamia, came in fix days to
the mountains of Gilead (Gen. xxxi. 21. &c.) where
this patriarch, with Laban his father-in-law, raifed a
■heap of ftones, in memory of their agreement and co¬
venant, and called it Galeed, i. e. “ an heap of wit-
neffes,” and which Laban called Jegar-fahadutha. Thefe
mountains were covered with a fort of trees abounding
with gum, called the bal?n of Gilead, wdfich the Scrip¬
ture commends much (Jer. viii. 21. xlvi. 11 li. 8). The
merchants who bought Jofeph came from Gilead, and
were carrying balm into Egypt, (Gen. xxxvii. 25.)
The Gileadites being invaded by the Ammonites,
■&.c. chofe Jephthah for their general, who vanquilhed
all their enemies.
Balm of Gilead. See Amyrjs, Botany Index.
GILGAL, in Ancient Geography, a place between
Jericho and Jordan, noted for the fir ft encampment of
the Ifraelites on this fide Jordan, about a mile from Je¬
richo. It fometimes alfo denotes Galilee, (Jolhua
xii, 23.)
GILL, John, D. D. a Proteftant diffenting mini-
£ler of the Baptift denomination, and the fon ol Edwrard
and Elizabeth Gill, was born at Kettering in North-
mnptonfiiire, Nov. 23. 1697. At a very early period
of life, his father, who was a deacon of the Baptift
church at Kettering, difeovered in him an uncommon
capacity for learning j and his ability for literary pur¬
suits afterwards appeared by the rapid progrefs in what¬
ever became the obje£l ot his ftudy. He was fent to a
grammar fchool in the neighbourhood •, where he foon
furpaffed thofe boys who w7ere much his feniors in age
and as pupils. At this fchool he continued till he ar¬
rived at his nth year; where he read moft of the La¬
tin claffics, and made confiderable proficiency in the
Greek language.
Mr Gill’s celebrity as a fcholar, and his ftrong at¬
tachment to books, were foon obferved by the neigh¬
bouring clergy, who frequently met and converfed with
him at a bookfeller’s {hop, to which he reforted for the
purpofe of reading ; and indeed fuch wras his applica¬
tion to books, that it became a proverbial faying among
the common people, “ Such a thing is as certain, as
that John Gill is in the bookfeller’s (hop.”
He left the grammar fchool, however, early in life.
This was occafioned by the imperious condudft of his
tuafter, who infilled that the children of difi'enting pa¬
rents Ihould, with other fcholars that belonged to the
eftablifhment, attend him to church on week days du¬
ring the performance of divine fervice. The diifenters
confidered this requifition as a ftretch of power to
which his engagements with them gave no claim ; and
as it w’as virtually making conformity a teft by which
his pupils wrere to expeft the benefits of tuition, they
refented his conduct ; and the children of thofe parents
that were in affluent circumftances were removed to fe-
minaries where the fame advantages might be obtained
without being fubjeft to the impoiitions of clerical bi¬
gotry. But as the parents of Mr Gill had it not in
their power to confer on him the fame privilege, the
fame Iteps could not be taken to facilitate his advance¬
ment in learning. To pave the way, however, for the
completion of his ftudies, efforts were made by feveral
minifters, of different denominations, to get him upon
one or other of the funds in London. For this purpofe
fpecimens of his progrefs in the different branches of li¬
terature were tranfmitted to the metropolis : in anfwer
to which it wras objedted, “ that he was too young, and
that fhould he continue, as it might be expedled he
would, to make fuch rapid advances in his ftudies, he
would go through the common circle before he would
be capable of taking care of himfelf, or of being em¬
ployed in any public fervice.” But thele formidable
objedlions wTere of no weight with our young fcholar :
his love of learning was unconquerable. Infuperable
difficulties, it is true, obftrudled the way in which lite¬
rary eminence is ufually acquired ; but thefe difficulties
could neither reprefs his ardent defire of knowledge,
nor damp the zeal and application that had marked his
former ftudies. For though his time was daily devoted
to the bufinefs of his father ; yet he had fo far improved
the hours of leifure, as to be able, before he arrived at
his 19th year, to read all the Greek and Latin authors
that fell in his way." He ftudied logic, rhetoric, moral
and natural philofophy ; and learnt the Hebrew lan¬
guage fo as to read it with eafe, without any other af-
fiftance than Buxtorf’s grammar and lexicon.
Neither the purfuit of learning, however, nor the
other neceffary avocations incumbent on Mr Gill, could,
eradicate thofe religious impreftions received in early
life. On November 1. 1716, he made a public pro-
feflion of his faith before the Baptift church at Ketter¬
ing, and was baptized the fame day by Mr Thomas
Wallis. Of this church Mr Gill had not been long a
member before he was called to the work of the mini-
ftry : foor. after which, he removed to Higham-Ferrers,
with a view to purfae his ftudies under the dire<ftion of
Mr Davis ; but his ftay at this place was foon inter¬
rupted by an invitation from London in 17 i 9, to preach
to the Baptift church in Horftydown, over which he
was the fame year, being the 22d of his age, ordain-
ed paftor ; which office he fuitamed upwards of 51
years.
Mr Gill had not been long in London, before rabbi¬
nical learning, of which he had before confiderable
knowledge, became an objeff of purfuit. To facilitate
his progrefs through the intricacies of this labyrinth,
he contrafled an acquaintance with one of the moft:
learned Jewifh rabbies. He read the Targums, the
Talrauds, the Rabbot, their ancient commentaries,
the book Zohar, and whatever elfe of this kind he was
able to procure. Of the oriental languages he made
4 Y 2 bimfelf
GIL [ 724 ] GIL
b’mfelf a complete mafter: in fliort, there was no
branch of knowledge that could either enlarge or en¬
rich Biblical learning, which, however diihcult, was
not attempted and attained : and it may be truly avert¬
ed, that in this line he had but few equals, and that
the annals of literature do not exhibit a character by
whom he was excelled.
In 1748 Mr Gill publifhed a commentary on the
New Teifament in three volumes folio. The immenfe
reading and learning difcoverable in this arduous work,
attrafled the attention of the Marifchal College and
Univerlity of Aberdeen ; and procured for him, with¬
out either his folicitation or his knowledge, a diploma,
creating him doftor in divinity. This intelligence
was communicated to the doctor in the molt hand-
Ibme terms by the profeffors Ofborn and Pollock ; who
declared, “ that on account of his knowledge of the
Scriptures, of the Oriental languages, and of Jewilh
antiquities, of his learned defence of the Scriptures
again!! Deifts and Infidels, and the reputation gained
by his other works j the univerfity had, without his
privity, unanimoufly agreed to confer on him the de¬
gree of do£lor in divinity.”
Dr Gill’s fentiments, as a divine, were throughout
talviniftic : “ And perhaps no man (fays the Rev.
Mr Toplady, a minifter in the church of England)
fince the days of Auftin, has written fo largely in de¬
fence of the fyftem of grace j and certainly no man
has treated that momentous fubject in all its branches,
more clofely, judicioufly, and fuccefsfully. What was
faid of Edward the Black Prince, that he never fought
a battle which he did not win 5 what has been remark¬
ed of the great duke of Marlborough, that he never
undertook a fiege which he did not carry , may be
juftly accommodated to our great philofopher and di-
wine ; who, fo far as the ditfinguilhing doclrines of the
gofpel are concerned, never befie'ged an error which
he did not force from its ftrong holds, nor ever en¬
countered an adverfary whom he did not baffle and
fubdue. His learning and labours, if exceedable,
were exceeded only by the invariable fan£lity of his
life and converfation. From his childhood to his en¬
trance on the minillryq and from his entrance on the
miniilry to the moment of his diflolution, not one of
his moft inveterate oppofers was ever able to charge him
with the leaf! fhadow of immorality. Himfelf, no lefs
than his writings, demonffrated that the doftrine of
grace does not lead to licentioufnefs. Thofe who had
the honour and happinefs of being admitted into the
number of his friends, can go flill farther in their tefti-
mony. They know that his moral demeanor was more
than blamelefs : it was from, firi! to laf! confiflently* ex¬
emplary. And indeed an undeviating confitfency, both
in his views of evangelical truths, and in his obedience
as a fervant of God, was one of thofe qualities by which
his call of charabler was eminently marked. He was in
every refpeb! a burning and a ihining light : Burning
with love to God, to truth, and to fouls \ fhining
as an example to believers, in word, in faith, in
purity } a pattern of good works, and a model of all
holy converfation and godlinefs ; and while true religion
and found learning have a- frngle friend remaining in
the Britifh empire, the works and name of Gill will be
precious and revered.”
He died at Camberwell, Oclober 14, 1771, ad 73
years 10 months and 10 days. In 1718 the Doflor
married Mrs Elizabeth Negus *, by whom he had many
children, two of whom only furvived him. Mrs Gill
died in 1764.
His works are, A Commentary on the Old and New
Tellament in 9 vols folio. A Body of Divinity in 3
vols quarto. The Caufe of God and Truth, 4 vols 8vo.
A Treatife concerning the Prophecies of the Old Tef-
tament refpefling the Mefliah. A Didertation on the
antiquity of the Hebrew Language, Letters, Vowel
Points, and Accents. Sermons on the Canticles, fo¬
lio 5 betides a great number of fermons and controver-
fial pieces on different lubjefts.
Gill, a meafure of capacity, containing a quarter of
an Englifh pint.
GILLS or Branchiae of fiflies. See Anatomy
Index.
GILLINGHAM, a parifh in Dorfetfhire, on the
river Stour, near the foref! of its own name 5 where,
anno 1016, King Edmund Ironfide vanquiflied the
Danes. It is one of the large!! parifhes in the county,
being 41 miles in circuit, containing 64,000 acres. It
lies on the borders of Wilts and Somerfet, four miles
north-weft of Shaftihury. It has a manufa£Iure of li¬
nen, but the chief produce is grazing and the dairies.
Near it are the traces of an ancient reftdence of Norman
or Saxon kings, 3 20 feet long and 240 broad, fur-
rounded by a rampart of earth. Henry I. refided here,
and King John repaired it at the expence of the coun¬
ty. Edward I. fpent his Chriftmas here in 1270 j but
the whole of the materials are removed, and the foun¬
dation of the houfe only can be traced, which was in
the form of the letter L, in length 180 feet by 80
broad, and the foot of the letter 48 by 40 } the area
of the houfe containing 168,000 fquare feet. It flood
half a mile from the church, on the road to Shaftonj
encompaiTed by a moat, now dry, in fome places nine
feet deep and 20 broad. The rampart appears to have
been 30 feet thick. Here is a free fchool, a large old
building, and a workhoufe, as well as two ftone
bridges. In 1694 it received damage of near 4000I.
by a fire. Near it is Gillingham foreft, four miles
long and one mile broad. The church is a large ancient
fabric.
Gillingham, a parifh of Kent, three miles below
Chatham, and on the fame fide of the Medway. Part
of Chatham dock is in this parifh; and here is a caftle
well furnifhed with guns that commands the river, there
being no lefs than 170 embrafures for cannon ; which
would flop the progrefs of any enemy that fhould hap¬
pen to make way by Sheernefs fort, before they could
reach Chatham. Here are alfo copperas works. At
this place 600 Norman gentlemen, who came over in
the retinue of the two princes Alfred and Edward,
were all barbaroufly murdered by Earl Godwin. It
was in remote times the property of the archbifhop of
Canterbury, who had here an elegant palace, the old
hall of which is now converted into a barn 5 it is built
Gilis
i!
Gilolo.
principally of flint, but the windows are filled up with
brick. Near it are the remains of the chapel, See. and
a great part of the whole of its original outer walls may
be traced.
GILOLO, a large ifland of the Pacific ocean, ly¬
ing between i0 S. Lat. and 2e N. Lat. and between
1250 and 128° E, Long. It belongs to the Dutch-,
but
GIL
L 725 3
GIL
Gilpin.
but does not produce any of the fine fpices, though it
1 lies in the neighbourhood of the ipice lilands. 1 ne
natives are fierce and cruel favages.
GILPIN, Bernard, rector of Houghton, dutin-
puiflied bv his extraordinary piety and hofpitality, was
defcended from an ancient and honourable family in
Weftmorland, and born in 1517. As he was bred m
the Catholic religion, fo he for feme time detended it
againit the reformers, and at Oxford held a deputation
with Hooper afterward bilhop of Worcelter and a mar¬
tyr for the Proteftant faith j but was ftaggered in ano¬
ther difputation with Peter Martyr, and began ferioully
to examine the contefted points by the belt authorities.
•Thus, being prefented to the vicarage of Norton in the
diocefe of Durham, he foon refigned it, and went a-
broad to confult eminent profeffors on both fides and
after three years abfence returned a little before the
death of Queen Mary, fatisfied in the general doctrines
of the reformation. He was kindly received by his
uncle Dr Tonftall, bilhop of Durham *, who foon atter
gave him the archdeaconry of Durham, to which the
reftory of Effington was annexed. When repairing to
his parilh, though the perfecution was'then at its height,
he boldly preached againft the vices, errors, and cor¬
ruptions of the times, efpecially in the clergy, on which
a charge confiding of 13 articles was drawn up againlt
him, and prefented in form to the bifhop. But Dr
Tonitall found a method of difmifiing the caufe in luch
a manner as to proteft his nephew, without endanger¬
ing himfelf, and foon after prefented him to the rich
living of Houghton le Spring. He was a fecond time
accufed to the bilhop, and again protefted • when his
enemies, enraged at this fecond defeat, laid their com¬
plaint before Dr Bonner, bilhop of London-, who im¬
mediately gave orders to apprehend him. Upon which
Mr Gilpin bravely prepared for martyrdom ) aud or¬
dering his houfe ftewardito provide him a long garment
that he might make a decent appearance at the Itake,
fet out for London. Luckily, however, he broke his
leg on the journey, which protrafted his arrival until
the news of the queen’s death freed him from all fur¬
ther apprehenfions. Being immediately fet at hoerty,
he returned to Houghton, where he was received by
his pariihioners with the fincereft joy. _
Upon the deprivation of the Popilh bifhops, he was
offered the fee of Carlitle, which he declined ; an(J c0"'
fining his attention to his redfory, difeharged all tue
duties of his fundion in the molt exemplary manner.
To the greatell humanity and courtefy, he added an
unwearied application to the inftruction of thole under
his care. He was not fatisfied with the advice he gave
in public, but ufed to inftruct in private ;_and brought
his pariihioners to come to him with their doubts and
difficulties. He had a mod engaging manner towards
thofe whom he thought well difpofed : nay, his very
reproof was fo condufted, that it feldom gave offence j
the becoming gentlenefs with which it was urged made
it always appear the effed of friendffiip. I bus, with
unceafing affiduity, did he employ himfelf m admoniih-
ing the vicious, and engaging the well-intentioned by
which means, in a few years, he made a greater change
in his neighbourhood than could well have eea
imagined. A remarkable inftance, what reformation
a fingle man may effect, when he hath it earneLly at
heart l
Gilpin.
But his hopes were not fo much in the prelent gene¬
ration, as in the fucceeding. It was an eafier talk, he
found, to prevent vice, than to correft itto form the
young to virtue, than to amend the bad habits of the
old. He employed much of his time, therefore, m
endeavouring to improve the minds of the younger part
of his pa'riffi ’, differing none to grow up in ^^gno-
rance of their duty ; but prefling it as the wifeft part
to mix religion with their labour, and amidfl the cares
of this life to have a conftant eye upon the next. He
attended to every thing which might be oi fervice to
his pariihioners. He was very afliduous in preventing
all law fuits among them. His hall is faid to have
been often thronged with people, who came to him
about their differences. He was not indeed much ac¬
quainted with law but he could decide equitably, and
that fatisfied: nor could his fovereign’s commiffion
have given him more weight than his own charaitei
^ His hofpitable manner of living was the admiration
of the whole country. He fpent in his family every
fortnight 40 buffiels of corn, 20 buffiels of malt, and
a whole ox -, befides a proportionable quantity of other
kinds of provifion. Strangers and travellers found a
cheerful reception. All were welcome that came
and even their beafts had fo much care taken of them,
that it was humoroufly faid, “ If a horfe was turned
loofe in any part of the country, it would immediately
make its way to the reftor of Houghton’s.”
Every Sunday, from Michaelmas till Eafter, was a
fort of public day with him. During this, fealon he
expected to fee all his pariffiioners and their lamilies.
For their reception, he had three tables well covered :
the firft was for gentlemen, the fecond for huibandmen
and farmers, and the third for day labourers. This
piece of hofpitality he never omitted, even when Ioffes,
or a fcarcity of provifion, made its continuance rather
difficult to him. He thought it his duty, and that
was a deciding motive. Even when he was ablent from
home, no alteration was made in his family expences -,
the poor were fed as ufual, and his neighbours enter-
But notwithftanding all this painful induff ry, and the
large fcope it had in fo extended a parith, Mr Gilpin
thought the fphere of his benevolence yet too. confined.
It grieved him extremely to fee everywhere, in the pa¬
rishes around him, fo great a degree of ignorance and
fuperftition, occafioned by the iharaeful negled of the
paftoral care in the clergy of thofe parts, i hele bad
confequences induced him to fupply, as far as he could,
what was wanting in others. For this purpofe, every
year he ufed regularly to vifit the
riffies in Northumberland, Yorkflnre, Cherture, WefL
morland, and Cumberland 5 and that his own parith in
the mean time might not fuffer, he was at t‘'ie c^*
pence of a conrtant affiftant. In each place he (ta‘d
two or three days-, and his method was, to call. the.
people about him, and lay before them,, in as plain a
way as poflible, the danger of leading wicked or even
carelefs lives j explaining to them the.nature of true re¬
ligion-, inftruding them in the duties they owed. to.
God, their neighbour, and themfel.ves j and fhowing
them how greatly a moral and religious condud .would
contribute to their prefent as well as future haPHne *
As Mr Gilpin had all the warmth, of an en-lm ^
G 1 L [ 72
n1' under the direction of a very calm and fober
judgment, he never wanted an audience, even in the
wildeft parts j where he roufed many to a fenfe of reli¬
gion, who had contrafted the mod inveterate habits of
inattention to every thing of a ferious nature. And
wherever he came, he ufed to vifit all the gaols and
places of confinement; few in the kingdom having at
that time any appointed minifter. And by his labours,
and affeftionate manner of behaving, he is faid to
have reformed many very abandoned perfons in thofe
places. . He would employ his interell likewife for
fuch criminals whofe cafes he thought attended with
any hard circumftances, and often procured pardons
for them. r
There is a traft of country upon the border of Nor¬
thumberland, called Rcadf-dale and Tine-dale> of all
barbarous places in the north at that time the mod
barbarous. Before the Union, this place was called
the debateable land, as fubjeft by turns to England and
Scotland, and the common theatre where the two na¬
tions were continually afting their bloody fcenes. It
was inhabited by a kind of defperate banditti, rendered
fierce and afHve by conftant alarms : they lived by
theft, ufed to plunder on both fides of the barrier ; and
what they plundered on one, they expofed to fale on
the other; by that means efcaping juftice. And in
tms dreadful country, where no man wrould even travel
that could help it, Mr Gilpin never failed to fpend
lome part of every year.
He generally chofe the Chridmas holidays for his
journey, becaufe he found the people at that feafon
mod dilengaged, and mod eafily affembled. He had
fet places for preaching, which were as regularly at¬
tended as the aflize towns of a circuit. If he came
where there was a church, he made ufe of it : if not,
of barns, or any other large building ; where great
crowds .of people were fure to attend him, fome for his
indrudhons, and others for his charity. This w’as a
very difficult and laborious employment. The country
was fo poor, that what provifion he could get, extreme
hunger only could make palatable. The inclemency
ot the weather, and the badnefs of the roads through a
mountainous country, and at that feafon covered with
mow, .expofed him likewife often to great harddiips.
bometimes he was overtaken by the night, the country
..ang m many places defolate forfeveral miles together
and obliged to lodge out in the cold. At fuch times!
we are told, he would make his fervant ride about with
his horfes, whilft himfelf on foot ufed as much exercife
as is age and the fatigues of the preceding day would
?er1mir' .AH this he cheerfully underwent; efteeming
men fervices well compenfated by the advantages which
e hoped might accrue from them to his uninftru&ed
fellow creatures.
The difinterefted pains he took among thefe barba-
rous people, and the good offices he was always ready
o do them, drew from them the warmeft and fincereft
expreffions of gratitude. Indeed, he was little lefs than
adored among them, and might have brought the whole
country almolt to what he pleafed. One inftance that
is related fiiows.how greatly he was revered. By the
careleffnefs of his fervants, his horfes were one day
ftolen. Ihe news was quickly propagated, and every
one expreffed the higheft indignation at the fa<B. The
thief was rejoicing over his prize, when, by the report
3
6 1 G I L
of the country, he found whofe horfes he had taken,
l emfied at what he nad done, he inftantly came trem-
mg back, confefied the faft, returned the horfes, and
declared he believed the devil would have feized him
dnectly, had he carried them off knowing them to
have been Mr Gilpin’s.
We have already taken notice of Mr Gilpin’s un¬
commonly generous and hofpitable manner of living.
The value of his re&ory was about 400I. a year: an
income, inaeed, at that time very confiderable, but yet
in appearance very difproportionate to the generous
things he did : indeed, he could not have done them;
un.lels his frugality had been equal to his generofity!
His friends, therefore, could not but wonder to find
him,.amidff his many great and continual expences, en¬
tertain the defign of building and endowing a gram¬
mar fchool : a defign, however, which his exaft eco¬
nomy foon enabled him to accompliffi, though the ex¬
pence of it amounted to upwards of 500I. His fchool
was no fooner opened, than it began to flouriffi ; and
there was fo great a refort of young people to it, that
in a little time the town was not able to accommodate
t7.e^n\ Put himfelf, therefore, to the inconvenience
of nttmg up a part of his own houfe for that purpofe,
where he feldom had fewer than 20 or 30 children.
Some of thefe were the fons of perfons of diftin&ion,
whom he boarded at eafy rates : but the greater part
were poor children, whom he not only educated, but
clothed and maintained : he w^as at the expence like¬
wife of boarding in the town many other poor children.
He ufed to bring feveral every year from the different
parts where he. preached, particularly Readf-dale and
line-dale; which places he was at great pains in ci¬
vilizing, and contributed not a little towards rooting
out that barbarifm which every year prevailed left
among them.
. As to his fchool, he not only placed able mailers in
it, whom he procured from Oxford, but himfelf like¬
wife conllantly infpefled it.. And, that encouragement
might quicken the application of his boys, he always
took particular notice of the molt forward: he would
called them ownfcholars, and wmuld fend for them
often into his ffudy, and there inflrua them himfelf.
One method ufed by him to fill his fchool wras a little
lingular. Whenever he met a poor boy upon the road,
he V'ould make trial of his capacity by a few queltions,
and if he found it fuch as pleafed him, he would pro!
vide for his. education. And befides thofe whom he
fent from his own fchool to the univerfities, and there
wholly maintained, he would likewife give to others,
who wTere in circumftances to do fomething for them-
felves, wffiat farther aftiftance they needed. By which
means he induced many parents to allow their children
a liberal education, who otherwfife would not have done
it. And Mr Gilpin did not think it enough to afford
the means only of an accademical education to thele
young people; but endeavoured to make it as benefi¬
cial to them as he could. He ftill confidered himfelf
as their proper guardian ; and feemed to think himfelf
bound to the public for their being made ufeful mem¬
bers of it, as far as it lay in his power to make them
fo. With this view he held a pundlual correfpond-
ence with their tutors; and made the youths them-
felves frequently write to him, and give him an ac¬
count of their ftudies. So folicitous indeed was he
about.
GIL [ 727 ] GIN
Gilpin, about them, knowing the many temptations to which
' their age and fituation expofed them, that once every
other year he generally made a journey to the univer-
fities to infpeft their behaviour. And this uncommon
care was not unrewarded ; for many of his fcholars be¬
came ornaments to the church, and exemplary inftances
of piety.
To the account that hath been already given of Mr
Gilpin’s hofpitality and benevolence, the following par¬
ticulars may be added. Every Thurfday throughout
the year, a very large quantity of meat was drefled
wholly for the poor j and every day they had what
quantity of broth they wanted. Twenty-four of the
pooreft were his conftant penfioners. Four times in
the year a dinner was provided for them ; when they
received from his fteward a certain quantity of corn,
and a fum of money : and at Chriftmas they had al¬
ways an ox divided among them.
Whenever he heard of any in diftrefs, whether of
his own parith or any other, he wTas fure to relieve
them. In his wTalks abroad, he would frequently bring
home with him poor people, and fend them awray
clothed as well as fed. He took great pains to inform
himfelf of the circumftances of his neighbours, that the
modefly of the fufferer might not prevent his relief.
But the money bell laid out was, in his opinion, that
which encouraged induftry. It w7as one of his greated
pleafures to make up the Ioffes of his laborious neigh-
hours, and prevent their linking under them. If a poor
man had loft a beaft, he would fend him another in its
room : or if any farmer had had a bad year, he would
make him an abatement in his tythes. Thus, as far
as he wTas able, he took the misfortunes of his parilh
upon himfelf j and, like a true Ihepherd, expofed him¬
felf for his flock. But of all kinds of induftrious poor,
be was moft fonvard to aflift thofe who had large fami¬
lies j fuch never failed to meet with his bounty, when
they wanted to fettle their children in the world.
In the diftant pariflies where he preached, as well as
in his own neighbourhood, his generolity and benevo¬
lence were continually Ihowing themfelves } particular¬
ly in the defolate parts of Northumberland. “ When
he began his journey,” fays an old manufcript life of
him, “ he would have 10 pounds in his purfe $ and,
at his coming home, he would be 20 nobles in debt,
which he would always pay wdthin a fortnight af¬
ter. In the gaols he viftted, he was not only care¬
ful to give the prifoners proper inftrudlions, but ufed
to purchafe for them likewife what neceffaries they
wanted.
Even upon the public road, he never let flip an op-
portunity of doing good. He has often been known
to take off his cloak, and give it to a half naked tra¬
veller : and when he has had fcarce money enough in
his pocket to provide himfelf a dinner, yet would he
give away part of that little, or the whole, if he found
any who feemed to ftand in need of it. Of this bene¬
volent temper, the following inftance is preferved. One
day returning home he faw in a field feveral people
crowding together j and judging fomethmg more than
ordinary had happened, he rode up, and found that
one of the horfes in a team had fuddenly dropped
down, which they were endeavouring to raife ; but in
vain, for the horfe was dead. The owner of it feemed
much dejefled with his misfortune ; and declaring how
grievous a lofs it would be to him, Mr Gilpin bade him Gilthead
not be diftieartened : “ I’ll let you have (fays he), Gin^jro
honeft man, that horfe of mine,” and pointed to his in^ir°‘
fervant’s.—“ Ah ! mafter (replied the countryman),
my pocket will not reach fuch a beaft as .that.”
“ Come, come (faid Mr Gilpin), take him, take him j
and when I demand my money, then thou {halt pay
me.”
This worthy and excellent divine, rvho merited and
obtained the glorious titles of the Father of the Poor,
and the Apojile of the North, died in 1583, in the 66th
year of his uge.
GILTHEAD. See Sparus,Ichthyology/«*&*.
GIN. See Geneva.
Gin, in mechanics, a machine for driving piles,
fitted with a windlafs and winches at each end, where
eight or nine men heave, and round which a rope is
reeved that goes over the wheel at the top : one end
of this rope is feized to an iron monkey, that hooks-
to a beetle, of different weights, according to the piles
they are to drive, being from eight to thirteen hun¬
dred wreight 5 and when hove up to a crofs piece, near
the wheel, it unhooks the monkey, and lets the beetle
fall on the upper end of the pile, and forces the fame
into the ground : then the monkey’s own weight over¬
hauls the windlafs, in order for its being hooked again
to the beetle.
GINGER, the root of a fpecies of amomum. Sec
Amomum, Botany Index.
GINGIDIUM, a genus of plants, belonging to the-
pentandria clafs. See Botany Index.
GINGIRO,or Zindero, a fmall territory of Africa, _
to the fouth of Abyflinia, being feparated from it by
the river Zebee, by which it is alfo almoft entirely fur-
rounded. This river is extremely large, having more
water than the Nile, and being much more rapid 3 fo
that, during the rainy feafon, it would be altogether
impaffable, were it not for the large rocks which are
in its channel. . The extreme difficulty which occurs
in pafling this river, however, is^the means of preferv-
ing the kingdom of Gingiro, which would otherwife
be conquered in a Angle feafon by the Galla.
The moft remarkable particular with regard to this
kingdom is, that the fovereign is a profeffed votary of
the devil. “ This fuperftition (fays Mr Bruce) reaches
down all the weftern fide of the continent on the At¬
lantic ocean, in the countries of Congo, Angola, and
Benin. In fpite of the firmeft foundation in true
philofophy, a traveller, who decides from the informa¬
tion and inveftigation of fads, will find it very difficult
to treat thefe appearances as abfolute fictions, or as
owing to the fuperiority of cunning of one man in
overreaching another. For my own part, I confefs,
I am equally at a lofs to affign reafons for difbelieving
the fiflion on which their pretenfions to fome preter¬
natural information are founded, as to account for them
by the operation of ordinary caufes.”
In this kingdom every thing is conduced, or pre¬
tended to be conduced, by magic 3 and all thofe
flaves, which in other African countries are fold to
Europeans, are here facrificed to the devil, human
blood being a neceffary part in all their accurfed fo-
lemnities. “ How far (fays Mr Bruce) this reaches to
the fouthward, I do not know 3 but I look upon this
to be the geographical bounds of the reign of the
dwil-.
CIO [ *728 ] G I II
Gin giro devil on the north fide of the equator in the peninfula
of Africa.”
—ly- , With regard to this country, very little farther is
known, than fome of the cuftoras of the people
tranfiently picked up by the Jefuit miflionaries in
Abyflinia. From them we learn, that the kingdom is
hereditary in one family, though it does not regularly
defeend to the eldell Ion, the king being chofen by
the nobles ; in which they refemble their neighbours
the Abyffinians. When the king dies, his body is
wrapped in a fine cloth, and a cow is killed. The
body fo wrapped up is next enclofed in the cow’s ikin $
and all the princes of the royal family lly and hide
themfelves in the buflres, while thofe who are intruded
v\ith the eleflion enter the thickets, beating about
■everywhere as if for game. At lad a bird of prey,
called in their language liber, appears, and hovers over
the perfon dedined to be king ; crying and making a
great noife wi hout quitting his dation. By this
means the perfon dedined to be elected is found out,
furrounded, as is reported, by lions, tigers, panthers,
and other wild beads; all which are fuppofed to be
brought by the power of magic or of the devil.—
After the king is found, he dies upon thofe who came
in qued of him with great fury, killing and wound¬
ing as many as he can reach, until at lad he is dragged
to the throne whether he will or not. One particular
family have the privilege of conducing him to the
throne ; and if they diould not happen to find him at
fird, they have a right to take him out of the hands of
thofe who did fo ; and thus another battle enfues be¬
fore the vacant throne can be filled. Ladly, Before
he enters his palace, two men mud be killed ; one at
the foot of a tree by which the houfe is fupported ;
and the other at the threlhold of the door, which is
befmeared with the blood of the viftim. It is the
particular privilege of one family to afford thefe vic¬
tims ; and fo far are they from leeking to avoid this
fate, that they glory in the occafion, and willingly
offer themfelves to meet it. This lad particular, Mr
Bruce fays, he had in Abyffmia from people coming
from Gingiro.
GINGIVAE, the gums. Set Gums.
GINGLYMUS, in Atiatomij, one of the fpecies of
articulation. It is that jointure of the bones where
each bone mutually receives the other; io that each
bone both receives and is received. See Anatomy
Index.
GINKGO, the maiden-hair tree. See Mauri-
tia, Botany Index.
GIN ORA, a genus of plants belonging to the do-
decandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index.
GINSENG. See Panax, Botany and Materia
Medica Index.
GIOIA, Flavio, of Amalfi, in the kingdom of
Naples, the celebrated mathematician ; wrho, from his
knowledge of the magnetic powers, invented the ma¬
riner’s compafs, by which the navigation of the Eu¬
ropeans was extended to the mod didant regions of
the globe : before this invention, navigation was con¬
fined to coading. The king of Naples being a younger
branch of the royal family of France, he marked the
north point with a fleur-de-lis, in compliment to that
3
country. It is faid the Chinefe knew the compafs Giordans
long before; be this as it may, the Europeans are in- . P
debted to Gioia for this invaluable difeovery. He flou-.
rilhed A. D. 1300.
GIORDAN*!, Luca. See Jordano.
GIORGIONE, fo called from his comely afpeeff,
was an illudnous Venetian painter, born in 1478. He
received his fird inltruftions from Giovanni Bellino ;
but fludying afterwards the works of Leonardo da
Vinci, he loon furpaffed them both, being the fird
among the Lombards who found out the admirable
effedts ot drong lights and fhadowTs. Titian became
his rival in this art; and was fo careful in copying the
life, that he excelled Giorgione in difeovering the de¬
licacies of nature, by tempering the boldnefs of his
colouring. The mod valuable piece of Giorgione in
oil is that of Chrid carrying his crofs, now in the
church of San Rovo in Venice ; where it is held in
great veneration. He died of the plague young, in
1511.
GIRAFFE. See Cervus, Mammalia Index.
GIRALD, Barry, or Giraldus Cambrenjis. Sec
Barry.
GIRALDI, Lilio Gregorio, an ingenious critic,
and one of the mod learned men that modem Italy
has produced, w?as born at Ferrara in 1479* -^-e was
at Rome when it was plundered by the emperor
Charles V.; and having thus lofl all he had, and being
tormented by the gout, he druggled through life with
ill fortune and ill health. He wrote, neverthelefs, 17
performances, which were collefted and publiflred at
Bafil in 2 vols. folio in 1580, and at Leyden in 1696.
Authors of the firfl rank have beflow'ed the higheft
eulogies on Giraldus; particularly Cafaubon and
Thuanus.
GlRALDI, ’join Baptifl Cintio, an Italian poet of
the fame family with the foregoing Lilio, was bom
in 1504. He wTas lecretary to the duke of Ferrara,
and afterwards became profeffor of rhetoric at Pavia.
He died in 1573. His works, which confid chiefly of
tragedies, were collefted and publilhed at Venice by his
fon Celfo Giraldi, in 1583 ; and fome fcruple not to
rank him among the bed tragic waiters Italy has pro¬
duced. ,
GIRARDON, Francis, a celebrated French ar-
chiteft and fculptor, born at Troyes in 1627. Louis
XIV. being informed of his great talents, fent him to
Rome wdth a penfion of 1000 crowns. At his return
into France, he laboured for the royal palaces and
the gardens of Verfailles and Trianon ; where there
are many of his works executed in bronze and in mar¬
ble, from the defigns of Charles le Brun. The mau-
foleum of Cardinal de Richelieu, in the Sorbonne, and
the equeflrian itatue of Louis XIV. at the Place de
Vendome, w’here the ffatue and horfe are cad in one
piece, pafs for his mod excellent performances. Gi-
rardon was profeffor, redlor, and chancellor, of the
Academv of Painting and Sculpture ; and had the pod
of infpeftor general of all the works done in fculpture.
He died in 1715.
GIRDERS, in ArchiteBure, the larged pieces of
timber in a floor. T heir ends are ufually fadened in¬
to the fummers, or bred fummers; and the joifls are
framed at one end to the girders.
By the datutfr for rebuilding London, no girder is
te
G I R
Girdle to be lefs than ten inches into the wall
.11 .to be always laid in loam, &c.
Girgenti. GIRDLE (Cingu/us or Zoua), a belt or band of
T V leather or other matter, tied about the reins, to keep
that part more firm and tight.
It vras anciently the cuftom for bankrupts and other
infolvent debtors to put off and furrender their girdle
in open court. The reafon of this was, that our an-
ccftors ufed to carry all their necelfary utenfils, as
purfe, keys, &.c. tied to the girdle \ whence the girdle
became a fymbol of the ftate. Hiflory relates that
the widow of Philip I. duke of Burgundy, renounced
her right of fuccefiTxon by putting off her girdle upon the
duke’s tomb.
The Romans always wore a girdle to tuck up the
tunica when they had occafion to do any thing : this
cuftom w'as fo general, that fuch ts went without
girdles, and let their gowns hang loofe, were reputed
idle ditiolute perfons.
Maiden's or Virgin's Girdle. It was a cuftom among
the Greeks and Romans for the hufband to untie his
bride’s girdle. Homer, lib. xi. of his Odyffey, calls the
girdle maid's girdle. Feftus relates, that
it was made of iheep’s wool, and that the bulband un¬
tied it in bed $ he adds, that it was tied in the Her-
culanean knot } and that the hufband unloofed it, as a
happy prefage of his having as many children as Her¬
cules, who at his death left feventy behind him.
The poets attribute to Venus a particular kind of
girdle called cejhts, to which they annexed a faculty of
infpiring the paflion of love.
GIRGASHITES, or Gergesenes, an ancient
people of the land of Canaan, whofe habitation was
beyond the fea of Tiberias, where we find fome foot-
fteps of their name in the city of Gergefa, upon the
lake of Tiberias. The Jewith doftors inform us, that
when Jofhua firft came into the land of Canaan, the
Girgafhites took a refolution rather to forfake their
country than fubmit to the Hebrews, and accordingly
retired into Africa. Neverthelefs, it is certain that a
good number of them ft aid behind, fince Jcfhua
(xxiv. 11.) informs us that he fubdued the Girgafhites,
and they vrhom he overcame were certainly on this
fide Jordan.
GIRGENTI, a town of Sicily, which occupies part
of the fite of the ancient Agrigentum. It has only one
ftreet fit for carriages. It is inhabited by I 5,000 per¬
fons \ but has no remarkable buildings or works of art
that delerve mention : the only antiquities to be feen
were a Latin infeription of the time of the Antonines,
as is pretended, relative to fome aifociation between
Agrigentum and Lilybseum ; and a piece of ancient
mafonry in the foundations of a church pretended
to be the remains of a temple of Jupiter. At fome
diftance, on the old ground in the vale, Hands the
cathedral, a clumfy building patched up by barba¬
rous architects with various difeordant parts. This
church is enriched with no works of modern paint¬
ers or fculptors that claim any title to praife, but
the baptifmal font is made out of an ancient farcopha-
gus faced with very beautiful baffo relievos. This
fee is the richeft in Sicily, but has the character of be¬
ing lefs enlightened and polilhed than the reft of the
illand. Among the curiofities belonging to the cathe-
dr ! is an Etrufcan vafe of rare fize and prefervation.
Vol. IX. Part II,
G’ronne
[ 729 1 G I s
and their ends There are alfo fome golden pateras of extreme rarity.
The monaftery of San Nicolo ftands on a little emi- 11
nence in the centre of the old city, admirably fi- 1 ”GU§ /
tuated. The range of hills towards the fouth-eaft
finks gradually, fo as to admit a noble reach of fea
and of plain, terminated on each fide by thick groves
of fruit trees. Above appear the remains or ancient
grandeur, wonderfully contrafted with the humble
11 raw cottages built at their feet. In the orchard of
this convent is a fquare building with pilafters, which
is fuppofed to have been part of the palace of . the Ro¬
man praetor.
Girgenti has the convenience of a port; for which,
however, it is lefs indebted to its natural fituation
than to the recent afliltance of art. The harbour is
formed by means of a pier carried out in three lides
of an o&agon, with a battery at the head •, the light-
houfe is to be erefted on the cliffs on ftiore, as there is
no poflibility of raifing it high enough on the mole
w ithout danger of finking. The wmrk is admirable as
to ftrength and neatnefs, but the intention of creating
a fafe and complete haven has not been fully anfwered j
the Sirocco commands it entirely, and drives in great
quantities of fand, which it is feared will in time choke
up the port j even mw Ihips of burden find it difficult
to get in, but the Caricature is confiderable, and
the magazines in the rocks along the Ihore are very
fpacious.
GIRONNE, or Gironny, in Heraldry, a coat of
arms divided into girons, or triangular figures, meeting
in the centre of the Ihield, and alternately colour and
metal.
GIRT, the fituation of a (hip which is moored fo
ftrait by her cables, extending from the hawfe to two
diftant anchors, as to be prevented from fwinging or
turning about according to any change of the wind or
tide, to the current of which her head wmuld otherw'ife
be directed. The cables are extended in this manner,
by a ftrong application of mechanical powers within
the Ihip $ fo that wrhen (he veers, or endeavours to fwing
about, her fide bears upon one of the cables, which
catches on her heel, and interrupts her in the aft of
traverfing. In this pofition fhe muff ride with her
broadfide to the w ind or current, till one or both of the
cables are fiackened.
CISCO, fon of Himilco the Carthaginian general,
was banilhed from Carthage by the influence of his ene¬
mies. Being afterwards recalled, he was made general
in Sicily againft the Corinthians, about 309 years be¬
fore the Chriftian era, and by his fuccefs and intrepi¬
dity he obliged the enemies of his country to fue for
peace. See Carthage.
GISBOROUGH, a town of England, in the weft
riding of Yorklhire, on the road from Whitby to
Durham, 224 miles from London, and four miles from
the mouth of the Tees, where is a bay and harbour for
fliips. It had formerly an abbey, which w^as once the
common burial place of the nobility of thefe parts, and
its church by the ruins feems to have been equal to the
beft cathedrals in England. The foil, befides its fer¬
tility in pafture and a conftant verdure adorned with
plenty of field flowers almoft all the year, has earths
of fundry colours, fome iron, and mines of alum, which
were firft difeovered in the reign of King James I. and
have been fince very much improved. Sir Paul Pin- -
4 Z dar,
G L A [ 730 ] G L A
Gittith dar, who ih-ft farmed them, paid rents to the king
Glaciers 12j5c°k to the Eail Mufgrave 1640I. and to Sir
..■A William Penniman 600I. and had moreover 800 men
by fea and land in conllant pay ; yet he was a confi-
derable gainer, becaufe there was then fcarce any other
to be had, and the price was 26I. a ton; but novV
there are feverJd other alum works in this county,
which have taken a great part of the trade from hence 5
fo that the works here have for fome years lain ne-
gleiled.
GITTITH, a Hebrew word occurring frequently
in the Pfalms, and generally tranflated winepreffes. The
conjeflures of interpreters are various concerning this
word. Some think it fignifies a fort of mufical inftru-
ment 5 others, that the pfalms with this title wrere
lung after the vintage ; laftly, others, that the hymns
of this kind were invented in the city of Gath. Cal-
met is rather of opinion, that it was given to the clafs
of young women or fongftreffes of Gath to be fung by
them, Pfal. viii. 1. Ixxxi. 1. Ixxxxiv. 1. Dr Hammond
thinks that the pfalms with this title were all fet to
the fame tune, and made on Goliath the Gittite.
GIULA, a flrong town of Upper Hungary, on
the frontiers of Tranfylvania. It was taken by the
Turks in 1566, and retaken by the Imperialifts in
1695. It is feated on the river Kereihlan, in E. Long.
21. 1. N. Lat. 46. 25.
GIUSTANDEL, a large and ftrong town of Tur¬
key in Europe, and in Macedonia, with a Greek arch-
bifhop’s fee. It is feated near the lake Ochrida, in
E. Long. 20. 50. N. Lat. 41. 10.
GLACIERS, a name given to fome very extenlive
fields of ice among the Alps. Mr Coxe obferves of
thefe mountains in general, that they are compofed of
many parallel chains, the higheft of which occupy the
centre, and the others gradually diminilh in proportion
as wre recede from thence. The central chain appears
covered with pointed rocks *, all parts of which, that
are not abfolutely perpendicular, lie hid under perpe¬
tual fnow and ice even in fummer. On each lide of
this ridge are fertile and cultivated valleys, interfperfed
with numerous villages, and watered by numerous
ilreams. The elevated peaks of the central chain are
covered with fnow : but their declivities, excepting
thofe that are extremely deep, have all a covering of
ice as well as fnow *, the intermediate parts being filled
with vaft fields of ice, terminating in the cultivated
valleys above mentioned. The fame phenomena, though
on a fmaller fcale, occur in thofe chains that are at a
diftance from the principal one : In thofe which are
molt remote, no ice, and fcarcely any fnow, is obferved,
unlefs upon fome of the molt elevated fummits ; and
the mountains diminilhing in height and ruggednefs,
appear covered with verdure, until at lalt they termi¬
nate in fmall hills and plains.
Thus the glaciers may be divided into two forts \
one occupying the deep valleys fituated in the bofom
of the Alps, and diftinguilhed by the name of Ice val¬
leys j the others are thofe which clothe the declivities
and fides of the mountains. Thefe two kinds of gla¬
ciers are diftinguilhed by Mr Coxe into the upper and
lower glaciers.
The lower glaciers are by far the moft confiderable ;
fome of them extending feveral leagues in length.
They do not communicate with each other, as has been
generally fuppofed, few of them being parallel to the Glaciers,
central chain j but, llretching moftly in a tranfverfe di- 1 11 ■v'""'
region, are bordered at the higher extremity by inac-
ceffible rocks, and at the lower extending into the cul¬
tivated valleys. The thicknefs of the ice varies in dif¬
ferent parts. In the glacier des Bois, which extends
more than 15 miles in length, and upwards of three in
breadth, M. Sauffure found it generally from 80 to
100 feet; but he was credibly informed, that in fome
places it was not lefs than 600 feet, and even more.
Thefe vaft maffes of ice ufually reft on an inclined plane}
where, being pulhed forward by their own weight, and
but wreakly fupported by the rugged rocks beneath
them, they are interfered by large crevices, and have
an appearance of walls, pyramids, Sic. according to the
polition of the eye in viewing them. In thofe parts,
however, where they lie upon even ground, or fuch as
has only a gentle inclination, the furface of the ice is
nearly uniform, the crevices being few and narrow, and
the glacier being crofted by travellers on foot without
any difficulty. The furface of the ice is rough and gra¬
nulated, fo that people may walk upon it, excepting fuch
places as have a fteep defeent. It is opaque, full of
fmall bubbles about the fize of a pea, very porous, and
greatly refembles a mixture of fnow and water congeal¬
ed. A vaft: quantity of ftones and earth falls down
from the mountains upon the glaciers, and are by them
thrown off on each fide according to the defeent of the
ice, as will be afterwards explained. The place on
which thefe reft is more hard and elevated than the reft;
of the ice, and is very difficult to walk upon} the earth
is likewife laid upon them in fuch regular heaps, that
it appears to have been done by art. This collection
of earth and ftones is termed by the natives the Mo¬
raine.
Mr Coxe, who vifited the glacier des Bois, informs
us, that the appearance of it at a diftance was fo tremen¬
dous, that it feemed impracticable to crofs it. Numer¬
ous and broad chafms interfected it in every direction j
but entering upon it, the company found that courage
and aCtivity were only required to accomplifti the talk.
They had large nails in their ftioes, and fpiked flicks j
which on this occafion were found to be particularly
ferviceable. Having paffed the moraine, and deicend-
ed upon the glacier itfelf, they found the ice foftened
by a wrarm wind which rendered it lefs flippery than
ufual. Having walked acrofs it for about a quarter of
an hour, they came again to the moraine, along which
they continued their journey for half an hour, and then
entered upon the great body of the glacier. “ Here
(fays Mr Coxe) it was curious to obferve the numerous
little rills produced by the collection of drops occa-
fioned by the thawing of the ice on the upper part of
the glacier : thefe little rills hollow out fmall channels,
and, torrent-like, precipitate themfelves into the chafms
with a violent noife, increafing the body of wraters form¬
ed by the melting of the interior furface, and finding
an outlet under the immenfe arch of ice in the valley
of Chamouni, from which the Arveron ruffies.” As
our traveller proceeded on his journey, he was lur-
prifed by the noife of a large fragment of rock which
had detached itfelf from one of the higheft needles, and
bounded from one precipice to another with great ra¬
pidity } but before it reached the plain, it was almoft
reduced to duft. “ Having proceeded about an hour
(^ys
Glaciers.
G L A
[ -731 ] G L A
(fays lie) we were aftoniflied with a view more magnifi¬
cent than imagination can conceive : hitherto the gla¬
ciers had fcarcely anfwered my expe&ations, but _ now
they far furpaffed them. Nature had clad herfelf in all
her terrors. Before us was a valley of ice 20 miles in
extent, bounded by a circular glacier of pure unbroken
fnow, named Takul, which leads direftly to the foot
of Mount Blanc, and is furrounded by large conical
rocks, terminating in {harp points like the toweis on an
ancient fortification •, to the right rofe a range of mag¬
nificent peaks, the intervals filled with glaciers ; and
far above the reft, the magnificent fummit of Mount
Blanc, his higheft point obfcured with clouds. He ap¬
peared of fuch immenfe magnitude, that, at his pre¬
fence, the circumjacent mountains, however gigantic,
feemed to (brink before him, and hide their diminijhed
heads. In half an hour we arrived at the moraine,
which forms a boundary of the valley, crofted it, and
proceeded upon a body of ice about three quarters of a
mile broad. Here the ice was more even and free from
chafms than in the great valley. We then paffed a fe-
cond moraine, and beyond that another mafs of ice to
a third moraine: defcending from thence we came upon
the laft ridge of ice, broader confiderably than the two
former, and full of large chafms \ it is feparated from
the rock only by a very narrow moraine. Thefe mo¬
raines contain great quantities of cryftal.” .
They continued to afcend the valley of ice, the fcene
conftantly increafing in magnificence and horror j ^and
having walked about five miles on the ice, they arrived
at laft’at the foot of the eminence named Couvercle,
where they were obliged to quit the ice. 1 he doing
this was extremely dangerous, and at one place very tre¬
mendous. It was a bulging fmooth rock, with a pre¬
cipice of confiderable depth terminated by a vaft crevice
in the ice, which feemed to flop all further progrefs:
a fmall hollow in the middle, however, afforded room
for one foot; and having fixed this, they fprung over to
the other fide, being helped and directed by the guides
who went over firft. Having gained the top of the
Couvercle, they had a view of three of the glaciers, viz.
that of Talefre to the left, /’ Echaut in front, and Ta¬
kul on the right ; all uniting in that .great, one called
the Glacier de Bois. The Couvercle itfelf is a moft ex¬
traordinary rock, having the appearance of a large ir¬
regular building with many fides ; the fubftance of
which is granite. Having reached the top, they were
furprifed with a thunder ftorm, from which they took
ftielter under an impending rock. The view was ex¬
ceedingly magnificent j the glaciers appearing like a
rugged expanfe of frozen fea bounded by gigantic rocks,
and terminated by Mount Blanc. A fingle rock ap¬
peared of a triangular figure covered with Alpine plants j
and which by reafon of its contrail with the rugged and
fnowy mountains in the neighbourhood, has obtained
the name of the Garden. During this, as well as other
excurfions among the Alps, Mr Coxe had occafion to
obferve that the colour of the Iky was of a much deeper
blue than in the lower regions.
The upper glaciers may be fubdivided into thofe
which cover the fummits, and thofe which extend along
theiides of the Alps. Thofe on the very fummit, how¬
ever, though they have the appearance of ice, are not
fo in reality, but confift entirely of fnow hardened by
the extreme cold. M. Sauffure fo;md that which co¬
vered the top of Mount Blanc to be penetrable, though Gkc
with difficulty, by a flick; but below this hard cruft u-’^v
was a foft fnow without coherence. The fides are co¬
vered with a mixture of ice and fnow *, by reafon of the
fuperior powTer of the fummer fun to diflolve the fnow,
which afterwards congeals into hard ice.
Several conjeftures have been made concerning the
formation of thefe extraordinary bodies of ice. Mr
Coxe agrees with M. Gruner in opinion, that they are
produced by the continual diffolution of the fnow’ in
fummer, and its congelation by the fucceeding frofts.
Hence, on the fummits of the mountains where the fun
has very little power, the glacier is foft, and contains
no ice : as we defcend the mountains the confiftence
becomes firmer, becaule there is a confiderable mixture
of fnow water, the congelation of which augments the
hardnefs; and in the valleys, the glacier is hardeft.of
all, becaufe the portion of w^ater is there much fuperior
to that of the fnowx Hence it feems plain that the
glaciers derive their origin from the melting of the fnow
on the upper parts of the mountains, and the congela¬
tion of the water as it advances : and to this caufe
M. Sauffure adds the quantity of fnow' which often
rolls down into the valleys, and congeals along with the
wTater juft mentioned.
Another queftion concerning the glaciers naturally
occurs, namely, Whether they are to be confidered as
in a ftate of increafe or diminution ? Mr Coxe is of opi¬
nion, that they occafionally increafe and decreafe j in
proof of which he adduces the following obfervation :
“ The borders of the glacier of Montanvert are moftly
Ikirted with trees : towards its bafe a vaft arch of ice
rifes to near 100 feet in height ; under wffiich the river
Arveron ruffles with conliderable force, and in a large
body of water. As we approached the ice, wfe paffed
through a wTood of firs : thofe trees which ftand at a
little diftance from the arch are abouU 80 feet high,
and are undoubtedly of a very great age. Between
thefe and the glacier the trees are of a later growth 5 as
is evident from their texture and inferior fize. Others,
ftill fmaller, have been overturned and enveloped in the
ice : there feems to be a kind of regular gradation in
the age of thefe feveral trees, from the largeft which
are {landing to the fmalleft that lie proftrate.”—Hence
our author concludes, that the glacier once extended
as far as the row of fmall firs •, but that upon its gra¬
dual diffolution, a number of trees ffiot up on the fpot
it had occupied j fince which time the ice has again ad¬
vanced, and overturned the laft grown trees before they
had attained to any confiderable height.—This he
thinks alfo confirmed by the following fa<5l.—“ Large
ft ones of granite are ufually found at a fmall diftance
from the extremities of the glacier. Thefe ftones have
certainly fallen from the mountains upon the ice j have
been carried on in its progrefs j and have tumbled into
the plain upon the diffolution or finking of the ice which
fupported them. Thefe ftones, which the natives call
Moraine, form a kind of border tOvvards the foot of the
valley of ice, and have been puihed forward by the gla¬
cier in its advances : they extend even to the place oc¬
cupied by the larger pines.”
In oppofition to thofe wrho maintain that there is a
conftant accumulation of ice and fnow in the Alpine
regions, our author makes the following remarks:
1. Between the years 1776 and 1785 glacier of
4 Z 2 Grindeievald
G L A [ 732 ] G L A
Glaciers. Grmdelevald liad diminiflied to fucli a degree, that the
——y-—jpp0t extremity occupied in the former year,
was at lead; 400 paces from that occupied by it in the
latter. 2. In the year 1785 the Murailles de Glace,
which in 1776 he had deicribed as forming the border
of the glacier of Boffbn, no longer exilted ; and young
trees had (hot up in the parts which were then covered
by the glacier of Montanvert. Still, however, it may
be urged, that thefe changes only take place in the
valleys where the power of the fun is confiderable j
and that from thence we cannot form any adequate
idea of what paffes in the more elevated regions, v^here
in all probability more fnow falls than can be diffolved.
In fupport of this opinion, it is alleged, that the cold
produced by the mafs of ice already formed ought to
augment it dill more; and that within the memory of
the prefent generation, many places have been covered
with ice which were not fo before. To thefe argu¬
ments, howTever, Mr Coxe replies, that the caufes,
which diminifh the ice in the upper regions, are no
lefs powerful than the cold which tends to augment
it. Thefe are, 1. Rain or fleet j which falling upon
the lower glaciers, thaw the ice, increafe the rills on
its furface, excavate channels, and in many ways tend
to diminifh its quantity. 2. Evaporation, which takes
place even from the furface of the ice itfelf, a&S Hill
more powerfully ; and its a£Hon is not confined to any
particular feafon. 3. The falling of the fnow and
ice) both that which comes gradually from the
clouds, and that which defcends from the mountains in
great maffes, called by the natives avalanches. When
thefe laft fall down into milder regions, though fome-
times they may refift the influence of the fun and
form ice valleys, yet they generally difiblve. They
are moil common in the upper glaciers, though fome-
times they defcend upon the lower, while the gradual
defcent of fnow from the clouds, which chiefly takes
place in the lower, contributes very much to leffen the
mafs. 4. All the lower glaciers or valleys of ice reft
on an inclined plane, are hollow, and undermined by
torrents which are conftantly flowing from the upper
glaciers, as well as from their own lowermoft furface.
Their foundation being thus conftantly diminiftiing,
the lowTer glaciers are carried imperceptibly forward
into the cultivated fields, where an end is neceflfarily put
to their progrefs by the heat of the fun. Hence we
may fee the reafon of that ftrange phenomenon taken
notice of by Mr Coxe, that wdth one hand he could
touch ripe corn, and wdth the other folid ice. This
defcent of the glacier is demonftrable from the trees
overturned by it, and the moraine always obferved at
the bottom of the lower glaciers. 5. The heat of the
fun is an evident caufe of the diminution of the gla¬
ciers. lo this Mr Coxe adds another caufe lefs gene¬
rally known, viz. the warm winds which blow by night
as well as by day both in the upper and lower glaciers.
“ Thefe warm winds (fays hej are during fummer fo
common in thofe parts, that I never crofted a glacier
without feeling in fome particular pofitions a w-armth
fimilar to the air of a hot bath.” 6. Another caufe
is the mean temperature of the earth itfelf j which,
where it is not expofed to the piercing cold of the at-
mofphere, is found to have a temperature always above
the freezing point. As the vaft thicknefs of the fu-
perincumbent ipe, therefore, is in the prefect cafe abun¬
dantly fufficient to prevent the accefs of the atmo- Glacis
fphere, it is plain that the lower furface of it muft, by jl
being in contact wdth the earth, continually decay.— Gladlators«y
With regard to the other argument drawn from the V
knowm increafe of the ice in fome places, Mr Coxe
does not deny it; but infills, that there is no continual
increafe of the whole, but that if it increafes in fome
places, it diminifties in others j and his opinion in this
refpeft was confirmed by thofe who frequent the
mountains.
GLACIS, in building, an eafy infenfible flope or'
declivity.
The defcent of the glacis is lefs fleep than that of the
talus. In gardening, a defcent fometimes begins in ta¬
lus, and ends in glacis.
The glacis of the corniche, is an eafy imperceptible
flope in the cymatium, to promote the defcent and
draining off the rain w7ater.
Glacis, in Fortification, that mafs of earth wdiich
ferves as a parapet to the covered way, doping eafily to¬
wards the champaign or field.
GLADE, in Gardening and Agriculture, an open¬
ing and light paffage made through a wood, by lopping
oft the branches of trees along that way,
GLADIATORS, in antiquity, perfons w'ho fought,
generally in the arena at Rome, for the entertainment
of the people.
The gladiators wrere ufually flaves, and fought out of
neceflity ; though fometimes freemen made profeflion
thereof, like our prize-fighters, for a livelihood.
The Romans borrowed this cruel diverfion from the
Afiatics : fome fuppofe that there was policy in the
praftice, the frequent combats of gladiators tending to
accuftom the people to defpife dangers and death.
The origin of fuch combats feems to be as follow's :
From the earlieft times with which we have any ac¬
quaintance in profane hiftory, it had been the cuftom
to facrifice captives, or prifoners of war, to the manes
of the great men who had died in the engagement j
thus Achilles, in the Iliad, lib. xxiii. facrifices twelve
young Trojans to the manes of Patroclus ; and in Virgil,
lib. xi. ver. 81. ./Eneas fends captives to Evander, to
be facrificed at the funeral of his fon Pallas.
In courfe of time they came alio to facrifice flaves
at the funerals of all perfons of condition : this was
even efteemed a neceffary part of the ceremony; but
as it would have appeared barbarous to have maffacred
them like beafts, they were appointed to fight with
each other, and endeavour to fave their owm lives,
by killing their adverfary. This feemed fomewhat lefs
inhuman, becaufe there was a poflibility of avoiding
death, by an exertion of (kill and courage.
This occafioned the profeflion of gladiator to become
an art : hence arofe matters of the art, and men learned
to fight and exercife. Thefe mafters, whom the
Latins called lanfice, bought them flaves to be trained
up to this cruel trade, whom they afterwards fold to
fuch as had occalion to prefent the people with fo horr
rible a (how.
Thefe exhibitions wrere at firft performed near the
fepulchre of the deceafed, or about the funeral pile j
but wTere afterwards removed to the circus and amphi¬
theatres, and became ordinary amufements.
The firlt (how of gladiators, called munus gladiatorium,
was exhibited at Rome, according to Valerius Maximus,
by
G L A [7
Gladiators, by M. and D. Brutus, upon the death of their father, in
'■“■“v the year of the c: y 490. On this occ i.Ion there were
probably only three pair of gladiators. In 537, the three
Ions of M. /Emilius Lenidus the augur, who had been
three times conful, entertained the people with the cruel
pleasure of feeing 22 gladiators fight in the forum. In
5 17, the firft Africanus diverted his army at New Car¬
thage with a fhow of gladiators, which he exhibited in
honour of his father and uncle, who had begun the re-
duidion of Spain. In procefs of time, the Romans
became fb fond of thefe bloody entertainments, that
not only the heir of any great and rich citizen lately
deceafed, but all the principal magiftrates, prefented
the people with fhows of this nature, to procure their
afieclion. The aediles, praetors, conluls, and, above
all, the candidates for offices, made their court to the
people, by entertaining them frequently with thefe
fights. and the prieits were fometimes the exhibitors
of the barbarous (how's ; for we meet wdth the ludipon-
tificales in Suetonius, Auguif. cap. 44. and with the
/udi facerdotales, in Pliny, Epiit. lib. vii. As for the
emperors, it was fo much their intereft to ingratiate
themfelves with, the populace, that they obliged them
wdth combats of gladiators almotl upon all occafions j
and as thefe increafed, the number of combatants in-
creafed likewife. Accordingly, Julius Csefar, in his
seddeffiip, diverted the people with 320 couple Titus
exhibited a Ihow of gladiators, wild beafts, and repre-
fentations of (ea fights, which lafled 100 days j and
'3'rajan continued a folemnity of this nature for 123
days ; during which time he brought out 1000 pair of
gladiators. Before this time, under the republic, the
number of gladiators wras fo great, that when the con-
fpiracy of Catiline broke out, the fenate ordered them
to be difperfed into the garrifons and fecured, left they
Ihould have joined the difaffe&ed party. See Gladia¬
tors War.
Thefe fports were become fo common, and their
confequences in a variety of refpects fo dangerous-,
that Cicero preferred a law that no perfon fliould ex¬
hibit a fhow of gladiators within two years before he
appeared candidate for any office. Julius Cuefar order¬
ed, that only a certain number of men of this profef-
fion ffiould be in Rome at a time j Auguftus decreed,
that only two ftiows of gladiators Ihould be prefented
in a year, and never above fixty couple of combatants
in a ftiowr; and Tiberius provided by an order of fe¬
nate, that no perfon ftiould have the privilege of gra¬
tifying the people with fuch a folemnity unlefs he was
worth 400,000 fefterces. They were alfo confiderably
regulated by Nerva.
The emperor Claudius reftrained them to certain
occafions; but he fcon afterwards annulled wdiat he
decreed, and private perfons began to exhibit them
at pleafure as ufual 5 and fome carried the brutal fatis-
fa<51ion fo far as to have them at their ordinary feafts.
And not Haves only, but other perfons, wmuld hire
themfelves to this infamous office.
The mafter of the gladiators made them all firft fwear
that they would fight to death ; and if they failed, they
were put to death either by fire, Or fwords, clubs,
whips, or the like.
It was a crime for the wretches to complain when
they were wounded, or to afk for death or feek to
avoid it when overcome 5 but it was ufual for the em-
3 ] G L A
peror or the people to grant them life when they gave Gladiators.
no figns of fear, but waited the fatal ftroke with cou-  v~—
rage and intrepidity : Auguftus even decreed that it
ffiould always be granted them.
From liaves and freedmen the inhuman fport at
length ‘pread to people of rank and condition ; fo that
Auguftus was obliged to iifue a public edict that none
oi the fenatorian order ihould become gladiators and
foon after he laid the fame reftraint on the knights ;
neverthelefs Nero is related to have brought upwards
of 400 fenators and 600 Roman knights upon the
arena ; though Lipfius takes both tliefe numbers to be
falfified, and not without reafon reduces them to 40
fenators and 60 knights: yet Domitian, that other
monfter of cruelty, refined upon Nero, exhibiting com¬
bats of women in the night time.
Conftantine the Great is faid to have firft prohibited
the combats of gladiators in the Eaft. At lead he for¬
bade thofe who w’ere condemned to death for their
crimes to be employed j there being an order ftill ex¬
tant to the prcefeciusprcetorii rather to fend them to work
in the mines in lieu thereof: it is dated at Berytus in
Phoenicia, the firft of Oitober 325.
The emperor Honorius forbade them at Rome on oc-
cafion of the death of Telemachus, who coming out
of the Eaft into Rome at the time of one of thefe fpec-
tacles, went down into the arena, and ufed all his en¬
deavours to prevent the gladiators from continuing the
fport ; upon which the fpedlators of that carnage, fired
with anger, ftoned him to death. It muft be obferved,
however, that the pra&ice was not entirely abolilhed,
in the Weft before Theodoric king of the Oftrogoths.
Honorius, on the occafion firft mentioned, had prohibit¬
ed them ; but the prohibition does not feem to have
been executed. Theodoric, in the year 500, aboliffied
them finally.
Some time before the day of combat, the perfon who
prefented the people with the ftiows gave them notice
thereof by programmas or bills, containing the names
of the gladiators, and the marks whereby they wrere
to be diftinguiilied : for each had his feveral badge j
which was molt commonly a peacock’s feather/ as
appears from the fcholiaft of Juvenal on the 158th
verfe of the third fatire, and Turnebus Adverf. lib. ii.
cap. 8. They alfo gave notice how Jong the Ihows
would laft, and how many couples of gladiators there
were ; and it even appears, from the 5 2d verfe of the
feventh fatire of the fecond book of Horace, that they
fometimes made reprefentations of thefe things in paint¬
ing, as is pra&ifed among us by thofe who have any
thing to ffiow at fairs.
The day being come, they began the entertainment
by bringing two kinds of weapons; the firft were
ftaves or wooden foils, called rudes; and the fecond
were effe&ive weapons, as fwords, poniards, &c.
The firft were called arma luforia, or exercitoria ; the
fecond decretoria, as being given by decree or fentence
of the praetor, or of him at whofe ex pence the fpec-
tacle was exhibited. They began to fence or ficir-
mifli with the firft, which was to be the prelude
to the battle j and from thefe, when well warmed,
they advanced to the fecond at the found of the
trumpets, with which they fought naked. Then
they were faid vertere arma. The terms of ftriking
were peterc et rebetere; of avoiding a blow, exin:;
and
G L A [ 734 ] G L A
Gladiators, and when one of the combatants received a remark-
s . y—™, aye vvounj^ jjjg adverfary or the people cried out,
IIabet, or Hoc habet. The fir ft part of the engagement
was called ventilare, prceludere; and the fecond, dimicare
ad cerium, or verjis armis pugnare: and fome authors
think, with much probability, that it is to thefe two
kinds of combat that St Paul alludes in the paffage
j Cor. ix. 26, 27. “ I fight, not as one that beateth
the air 5 but I keep my body, and bring it into fub-
jeftion.”
If the vanquiftied furrendered his arms, it was not
in the vigor’s power to grant him life; it was the
people during the time of the republic, and the prince
or people during the time of the empire, that were
alone empowered to grant the boon. The reward
of the conqueror wTas a branch of palm tree, and
a fum of money, probably colledled among the fpec-
tators: fometimes they gave him his conge, or dif-
miffed him by putting one of the wooden foils or
rudes in his hand j and fometimes they even gave
him his freedom, putting the pilaeus on his head.
The fign or indication, wrhereby the fpeflators {bow¬
ed that they granted the favour, w7as premere pollicem,
which M. Dacier takes to be a clenching of the fingers
of both hands between one another, and fo holding
the two thumbs upright clofe together ; and, w7hen
they wmuld have the combat finifhed and the vanquifti¬
ed ftain, verterunt pollicetn, they bent back the thumb;
which wre learn from Juvenal, Sat. iii. ver. 36. The
gladiators challenged or defied each other, by lhowr-
ing the little finger; and, by extending this, or fome
other, during the combat, they owned themfelves
vanquiftied, and begged mercy from the people : Vicii
q/lenfam digiti veniam a populo pojlulabant, fays the old
icholiaft on Perfius.
There w ere various kinds of gladiators, diftinguiftied
by their weapons, manner, and time of fighting, &c.
as, The andabatce, mentioned under Andabatte. The
catervarii, who always fought in troops or companies,
number againll number ; or, according to others, who
fought promifcuoufiy, without any certain order. The
dimachce, who fought armed with two poniards or fwords,
or with fvvord and dagger. The ejjedarii, who fought in
cars. The ffcales, or Ccefariani, wrho belonged to the
emperor’s company ; and who, being more robuft and
-dexterous than the reft, were frequently called for,
and therefore named alfopqflulatitii. Several other kinds
are mentioned in the ancient authors.
Gladiators War (helium Gladiatorium or Sparta-
cum), called alfo the fervile war, was a wrar which the
Romans fuftained about the year of their city 680.
Spartacus, Crinus, and Oenomaus, having efcaped, with
other gladiators to the number of feventy-four, out
of the place where they had been kept at Capua, ga¬
thered together a body of flaves, put themfelves at
their head, rendered “themfelves mafters of all Campa¬
nia, and gained feveral victories over the Roman prae¬
tors. At length they wxre defeated in the year 682,
at the extremity of Italy ; having, in vain, attempted
to pafs over into Sicily.
This war proved very formidable to the Romans.
Craffus was not able to finilh it: the great Pompey
was forced to be fent as general.
The Dying Gladiator, a moft valuable monument
of ancient fculpture, which is now preferved in the pa.-
x
lace of Chighi. This man, when he had received the
mortal ftroke, is particularly careful utprocumbat honefte,
“ that he might fall honourably.” He is feated in a re¬
clining pofture on the ground, and has juft ftrength
fufticient to fupport himfelf on his right arm : and in
his expiring moments it is plainly feen, that he does
not abandon himfelf to grief and dejedlion ; but is fe¬
licitous to maintain that firmnefs of afpeft which the
gladiators valued themfelves on preferving in this fea-
fon of diftrefs, and that attitude which they had learnt
of the mafters of defence. He fears not death, nor
feems to betray any tokens of fear by his countenance,
nor to flied one tear : quis mediocris gladiator ingemuit,
quis vultum mutavit unquam, quis non niodo Jfetit, verum
etiam decubit turpiter, fays Cicero, in that part of his
Tufculan where he is deferibing the aftonilhing firm¬
nefs of thofe perfons. We fee, in this inftance, not-
withftanding his remaining ftrength, that he has but
a moment to live ; and wTe view him with attention,
that we may fee him expire and fall : thus the ancients
knew how to animate marble, and to give it almoft
every expreftion of life.
GLADIOLUS, Corn flag, a genus of plants
belonging to the triandria clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the fixth order Enfatce. See Bo¬
tany Index.
GLAIR of eggs, is the fame as the white of eggs,
and is ufed as a varnifti for preferving paintings. For
this purpofe it is beat to an unftuous confiftence, and
commonly mixed with a little brandy or fpirit of wine,
to make it work more freely, and with a lump of fu-
gar to give it body and prevent its cracking : and then
fpread over the pidlure or painting with a brufti.
GLAMORGANSHIRE, a county of South
Wales, faid to have derived its name from a contrac¬
tion of the Welfti words Gwald Morgan, or “ the
county of Morgan,” and fuppofed to have been thus
called from a prince of this part of the country, faid
to have been killed 800 years before the birth of
our Saviour : but fome other writers derive the name
from the word Mor, which in the Britifti tongue
fignifies the fea ; this being a maritime county. It is
bounded on the fouth, and part of the weft, by Brif-
tol channel; on the north-weft, by Caermarthenfliire ;
on the north, by Brecknockihh'e ; and on the eaft, by
Monmouthfhire. It extends 48 miles in length from
eaft to weft, 27 in breadth from north to fouth, and
is 116 in circumference. It it divided into 10 hun¬
dreds, in which are one city, 7 market towns, 118 pa-
rifties, about 10,000 houfes, and 58,000 inhabitants.
It is in the diocefe of Llandaff. This county, in the
time of the Romans, was part of the diftrift inhabited
by the Silures, and had feveral Roman ftations. Thus
Boverton, a few miles to the fouth of Cow’bridge, is
fuppofed to be the Eovium of Antoninus : Neath to be
his Nidum; and Loghor, to the wreft of Sw-anfey, to
be his Leucarum. The principal rivers of this county
are the Rhymny, the Taff, the Ogmore, the Avon,
the Ciedaugh, and the Tave. The air, in the fouth
part, towards the fea, is temperate and healthful; but
the northern part, which is mountainous, is cold and
piercing, full of thick woods, extremely barren, and
thin of inhabitants. The mountains, however, ferve
to feed herds of cattle, and fend forth ftreams which
add greatly to the fertility of the other parts of the
county :
Gta'.liolus
II
Glamor-
ganfhire.
G L A
Glamour county : they have likewife coal and lead ore. The
H. fouth part is fo remarkably fertile, pleafant, and po-
C1'^r's' , pulous, that it is generally Ilyled the garden of Wales;
but it has no manufatture. This county was former¬
ly full of caftles, moll of which are now fallen to de¬
cay. It has many fmall harbours on the coaft for
exporting coals and provifions. Of the former it
fends large quantities both to England and Ireland ;
but of the latter, to England almoll folely, efpecially
butter. It fends two members to parliament, one
for the {hire, and one for the borough of Cardiff the
capital.
GLAMOUR, or Glamer, an old term of popu¬
lar fuperllition in Scotland, denoting a kind of ma¬
gical mill bolieved to be raifed by forcerers, and which
deluded their fpe&ators with vifions of things which
had no real exiftence, altered the appearance of thofe
which really did exit!, &c.—The ealtern nations have
a fimilar fuperllition, as we may learn from the Ara¬
bian Nights Entertainments and other works of orien¬
tal fiffion.
GLAND, in Anatomy. See Anatomy Index.
GLANDERS. See Farriery Index.
GLANDORE, a town of Ireland, fituated in the
county of Cork and province of Munlter, near the har¬
bour of that name.
Glandore. Harbour, fituated two leagues wed of the
Galley-head in the county of Cork, province of Mun-
fter, N. Lat. 51. 22. W. Long. 8. 56. Eetween this
harbour and Rofs the coaft continues high and bold,
with only two fmall coves; that to the eaft called
Millcove, and that to the weft Cowcove. This harbour
lies three miles weft of Rofs ; and though fmall, is an
exceeding good one; near it is a caftle of the fame
name, and on the upper end is a deep and dangerous
glin, called the Leap. Glandore gives title of earl to
the family of Crolbie.
GLANDUL7E Renales. See Anatomy Index.
GLANS, in Anatomy, the tip or button of the pe¬
nis, or that part covered with the prepuce, called alfo
balanus. See Anatomy Index.
Glans is alfo ufed to denote the tip or extremity
of the clitoris, from its refemblance, both in form
and ufe, to that of the penis. See Anatomy Index.
GLANVIL, Joseph, a learned and ingenious, but
fanciful and credulous, writer in the 17th century, was
born at Plymouth in 1636, and bred at Oxford. He
became a great admirer of Mr Baxter, and a zealous
perfon for a commonwealth. After the Reftoration, he
publiftied The Vanity of Dogmatizing; was chofen a
fellow of the Royal Society ; and, taking orders in
1662, was prefented to the vicarage of Frome-Selwood
in Somerfetfhire. The fame year he publilhed his
Lux Orientalis : in 1665, his Scepjts Scientifica ; and in
the year following, Some Philofophical Confiderations
touching the being of Witches and Witchcraft, and other
pieces on the fame fubjeft. In 1660, he publiftied
P/us ultra; or, The Progrefsand Advancement of Know¬
ledge fince the Days of Ariftotle. He likewife publiflied
A feafonable Recommendation and Defence of Reafon ;
and Philofopkia Pia, or A Difcourfe of the Religious
Temper and Tendencies of the Experimental Philofb-
phy. In 1678 he was made a prebendary of Worcef-
ter, and died in 1680.
GLARIS, one of the cantons of Swifferland, is
G L A
bounded on the eaft, partly by the Grifons, and part- GlanV,
ly by the territory of Sargans ; on the north, by the Glafgow.
bailiwick of Gafter, and by the lake Wahleftatt;
on the eaft, by the canton of Schwits ; and on the
fouth, by part of the canton of Uri, and part of the
league ot the Grifons. It is a mountainous country,
being entirely within the Alps.
Claris, a town of Swifierland, capital of the can¬
ton of the fame name, is feated in a plain, at the
foot of high craggy mountains. The ftreets are large,
and the houfes kept in good repair. It has fome pu¬
blic buildings ; among which are two churches, one in
the middle of the town, and the other without upon
an eminence. In this eminence there is a cavern,
with grotefque figures formed by the water that drops
therein. The general affemblies of the country were
formerly held on the firft Sundays in May, where all the
males above the age of fixteen wpre obliged to appear.
Both the Calvinifts and the Roman Catholics are to¬
lerated in this town, and they have divine fervice by
turns in the fame church. It is feated on the river
Lint, E. Long. 9. 13. N. Lat. 47. 6.
GLASGOW, a large city of Lanerkthire or
Clydefdale in Scotland, fituated in Wr. Long. 4. 30.
N. Lat. 55. 50.
Concerning the foundation of this city we have no
authentic records. The word in the Gaelic language
fignifies a pray fmith; from whence it has been in¬
ferred, that fome Ipot in the m@ft ancient part of the
city was originally the refidence of fome blackfmith
who had become eminent in his profeftion, fo that the
place went by his name. t
In the year 560, a biftiopric is faid to have-been Bilhopric of
founded here by Saint Mungo, or Kentigern, fuppof- G!afgow,
ed to be the fon of Thamates, daughter of Loth king ,
of the Pi£ts; but in what ftate the town at that time °UU 6
was, is altogether uncertain. Moft probably the priefts
and difciples who attended St Kentigern would con¬
tribute confiderably towards its advancement; the aged
and infirm, who were unfit for the purpofes of war, or
fuch as were religioufly inclined, would come and
fettle round the habitation of the holy man, in order to
have the benefit of his prayers ; and as a number of
miracles were faid to have been wrought at his tomb,
the fame caufes would ftill contribute to the increafe
of the town. »
Hiftory has not informed us of the name of the
prince who founded and endowed the biftiopric of Glaf-
gow in favour of St Kentigern. But from an abftraft
of the life of Kentigern (contained in Mr Innes’s Criti¬
cal^ Elfay on the Ancient Inhabitants of Scotland),
which was written in the 12th century, we learn, that
the faint being ill ufed by Marken or Marcus, one of
the kings of the Britons, retired into Wales. On the
invitation of Roderic, however, one of Marken’s fuc-
ceffors, he returned to Glafgow, and enjoyed the fee
tdl 601, when he died. He was buried in the church
of Glafgow, where his monument is ftill to be feen ;
and we find him marked among the faints in the Ro¬
man kalendar, January 13. 577.
I he immediate fucceffbrs of Kentigern were Bal-
orede and Conwal. The firft; eftablilhed a religious
houfe at Inchinnan ; the fecond went into Lothian to
preach to the Saxons ; and both of them are ranked as
iuints in the Roman kalendar, Baldrede on the 6th of
March
t 735 3
%
G L A [ 730 ] G L A
Glafgow. March 608, and Conwal on the 18th of May 612.
v ^ From this time, however, till the 1115, we ^ave no
a diitincl accounts concerning the city or bilhopric of
Barbarity Gkfgow. We find then, that David I. king of Scot-
of the peo- land made an attempt to retrieve the people from a
pie in the ftate 0f grofs barbarity into which they were fallen,
David I an cl re do red to the church thofe lands of which (lie had
been robbed. The only account we have ol the tranl-
aflions with regard to Glafgow, during that period, is
in the inquifition made by David concerning the
church lands of Glafgow, and is as follows.—“ This
church, by the divine appointment, admitted St Ken-
tigern into the bilhopric, who furniihed large draughts
of knowledge to thofe thirfting after heavenly things,
See. But a fraudulent deftroyer, employing his common
wiles, brought in, after a long feries of time, unac¬
countable fcandals into the Cumbrian church. For‘af¬
ter St Kentigern and many of his fucceflbrs were re¬
moved to heaven, various difturbances everywhere arif-
ing, not only deftroyed the church and her poffefiions,
but, wafting the whole country, drove the inhabitants
into exile. Thefe good men being deftroyed, various
tribes of different nations flocking in from feveral
quarters, pofleffed the foreiaid deferted country j but
being of different origins, and varying from each
other in their language and cuftoms, and not eafily
agreeing among themfelves, they followed the manners
of the Gentiles, rather than thofe of the true faith.
The inhabitants of which unhappy and abandoned
country, though living like brutes, the Lord, who
choofes that none ftiould perifti, vouchfafed to vilit in
mercy,” &c.
From the year x 116 to the Reformation, the records
of the bifhopric are tolerably complete. The moft re¬
markable particulars furniftied by them are the follow-
ing- . .
In 1136, John Achaius, chofen biftiop of Glafgow
by David I. built and adorned a part of the cathedral,
which he folemnly confecrated on the 9th of July. The
king was prefent at the ceremony j and bellowed on the
church the lands of Perdeyk, now Patrick. This pre¬
late alfo divided the diocefe into the two archdeanries
of Glafgow and Teviotdale ; and eftablilhed the offices
of dean, fubdean, chancellor, treafurer, facrift, chan-
• tor, and fucceffor j and fettled a prebendary upon
each of them, out of the donatives he received from the
king.
In 1174, Joceline, abbot of Melrofe, was ele£led
biftiop, and confecrated by Elkilus, biffiop of Lunden
in Denmark, the pope’s legate for that kingdom, on
the ill of June 1173. He rebuilt the cathedral, or ra¬
ther made an addition to the church already built by
John Achaius. He alfo procured a charter from Wil-
Glafaow ^am °f Scotland, erefling Glafgow into a royal
erected borough, and likewife a charter for a fair to be held
into a royal there annually for eight days.
borough. In 1335, John Lindfay, bifliop of Glafgow, was
killed in an engagement at fea with the Englilh, as he
was returning home from Flanders. His fuccefl'or,
William Rae, built the Hone bridge over the Clyde.
In the time of Matthew Glendoning, who was elecled
biffiop in 1387, the great fpire of the church, which
had been built only of wood, was confumed by light¬
ning. The biffiop intended to have built another of
ftone : but was prevented by death, in 1408, from ac-
2
compliffimg his purpofe. His fucceffbr, William Lau- Glafgow.
cler, laid the foundation of the veftry of the cathedral,  v—*1 1
and built the great tower of ftone as far as the firft
battlement. The great tower of the epifcopal palace
was founded about the year 1437, on which Biffiop
Cameron expended a great deal of money. ^
In 1447, William Turnbull, a fon of the family ofGlafgow
Bedrule in Roxburghfhire, was chofen biffiop. Fleeredled into
obtained from King James II. in 1450, a charter ereft-i^^^*'
ing the town and the patrimony of the bifirops into umveifity
a regality. He alfo procured a bull from Pope Ni-ibundea.
cholas V. for eredling an univerfity within the city,
which lie endowed, and on which he alfo beftowed
many privileges^ He died in 1454, leaving behind
him a moft excellent character. The eftabliihment
of the college contributed more than any thing that
had been formerly done towards the enlargement of
the town. Before this time the town feems to have
been inconfiderable. Mr Gibfon * is of opinion, that * cf
the number of its inhabitants did not exceed \ Glafgovu,
But though the eftabliftiment of the univeriity greatly P 74*
increafed the number of inhabitants, it in fail deftroyed ^
the freedom of the town. Biftiop Turnbull feems to Which de-
have made a point of it with King James II. that theftroysthe
city of Glafgow, with the biffiop’s foreft, ftiould betree^?mOT
eredted into a regality in his favour $ which was accord-
ingly done at the time above mentioned ; and this at
once took away all power from the citizens, and tranf-
ferred it to the biftiop. As the powers of the biftiop,
however, were reckoned by Turnbull infufficientto con¬
vey to the members of the univerfity all that freedom
which he wiffied to beftow upon them, he therefore ob¬
tained from the king a great many privileges for them j
and afterwards he himfelf, with the confent of his
chapter, granted them many more. g
The good effedts of the eftabliffiment of the college Population
were very foon obvious in Glafgow. The number ofGkfgow
inhabitants increafed exceedingly ; the high ftreet,
from the convent of the Black Friars, to where the verfity.
crofs is now placed, was very foon filled up ; the ancient
road which led to the common being too far diftant
for the conveniency of the new inhabitants, the Gal¬
lows-gate began to be built. Soon after, the collegiate
church of the blefled Mary (now the Tron church) be¬
ing founded by the citizens, occafioned the Trongate
ftreet to be carried to the weftward as far as the church.
The reft of the city increafed gradually towards the
bridge, by the building of the Saltmarket ftreet. The
borough roads, and the cattle that grazed on the com¬
mons, were now found infufficient to maintain the in¬
creafed number of inhabitants j for which reafon a
greater degree of attention than formerly was paid to
the fiftiing in the river. Many poor people fublifted
themfelves by this occupation j they were incorporated
into a fociety \ and in order that they might be at hand
to profecute their bufinefs, they built a confiderable
part of the ftreet now called the Bridge-gate, but at
that time Fiji)ers-gate.
Notwithftanding all this, however, the city of Glaf¬
gow did not for a long time attain the rank among the
other towns of Scotland which it holds at prefent. In
1556, it held only the nth place among them, as ap¬
pears by Oueen Mary’s taxation. The intioduilion
of the reformed religion proved for fome time preju¬
dicial to the opulence of the city. The money which
had
G L A
[ 737 J
G L A
n'.afgow. had formerly been expended among the citizens by the
— bilhop and his clergy, was now diverted into other
channels : the advantages refulting from the univerfity
were alfo for a time loit ; for as the reformers generally
defpifed human learning, the college was in a manner
^ defected.
Great paw In the time of the civil wars, Glafgow fuffered fe-
of the town vere]y> 'p0 tnifchief attending inteitine difcord,
deftroyed
by a f;re.
were added a peililence and famine j and to complete
their misfortunes, a violent fire broke out in June 1652,
which delfroyed the greatefl part of the Saltmarket,
Trongate, and High Itreet. The fronts of the houfes
at that time were moftly of wood, fo that they became
an eafy prey to the dames. The fire continued with
great violence for the fpace of 18 hours; by which a
great many of the inhabitants were ruined, the habi¬
tations of almofl: 1000 families being totally deltroyed.
On this account collections were made through differ¬
ent parts of the country ; and to prevent fuch accidents
for the future, the fronts were built with freeltone,
which abounds in the neighbourhood.
By the charter given to Bifhop Turnbull in 1450,
the citizens had been deprived of the power of electing
their own magiftrates, which was thenceforth exercifed
by the bifhop ; which, however, was not done with¬
out fome refiftance on the part of the inhabitants. Af¬
ter the Reformation tvas introduced into Scotland, we
find this power exercifed by the citizens, the bilhop,
the earl of Lennox, and others. The idea that the town
was a bifhop’s borough, and not a royal free borough,
gave occafion to this unfettled manner of appointing
the magiftracy; and though, in 1633, they were de¬
clared to be a royal free borough by the parliament, yet
their freedom of eleftion was afterwards diiiurbed by
the privy council, by Cromwell, and the duke of York.
But on the 4th of June 1690, the town was declared
free by a charter of William and Mary ; and in confir¬
mation of this charter it was inferted in the ad! of par¬
liament, dated June 14th the fame year, that they
fhould have power to eledt their own magillrates as fully
and freely, in all refpedts, as the city of Edinburgh or
any other royal borough within the kingdom ; which
freedom of eledlion Hill continues.
By the afTeffment of the boroughs in 1695, we find
the city of Glafgow reckoned the fecond in Scotland
in point of wealth, which place it Hill continues to hold.
To account for this great increafe of wealth, we mui!
creafe of its obferve, that for a long time, even before the reftora-
wealth. tjon 0p charies nt the inhabitants of Glafgow had
been in polfeffion of the fale both of raw and refined Ui¬
gurs for the greateft part of Scotland ; they had a pri¬
vilege of dillilling fpirits from their molafles, free of
all duty and exciie ; the herring fiftiery was alfo carried
on to what was at that time thought a very confiderable
extent; they were the only people in Scotland who made
foap ; and they fent annually fome hides, linen, &c. to
Briftol, from whence they brought back in exchange,
a little tobacco, fugar, and goods, of the manufadture
of England, with which they fupplied a confiderable
part of the kingdom. From the year 1707, however,
in which the union betwixt Scotland and England
took place, we may date the profperity of Glafgow.
By the union, the American trade was laid open to the
inhabitants : and fo fenfible were they of their advan¬
tageous fituation, that they began almoil inllantly to
VOL. IX. Part II.
Glafgow
declared
free by
William
and Mary.
9
Great in.
profecute that commerce ; an affiduous application to Ohfgrnv.
which, ever lince, hath greatly contributed to raife the v
city to the pitch of affluence and fplendor which it at
prefent enjoys. The city was now greatly enlarged ; and
as the community were fenfible of the inconvenience that
attended the want of a fufficiency of water in the river
for carrying on their commerce, they refolved to have
a port of their own nigher the mouth of the river. At
firll, they thought of making their harbour at Dum¬
barton : but as this is a royal borough, the magiilrates
oppofed it ; becaufe they thought that the influx ot
failors and others, occafioned by the harbour, would be
lo great, that a fcarcity of provifions would be occa- i3
fioned. The magiftrates and town council of Glafgow, Ere&ion of
therefore, purchafed fome lands on the louth fide of the f:>C)rt
river Clyde for this purpofe ; and fo expeditious were
they in making their harbour, and rearing their town,
that in 1710 a bailie was appointed for the government
of Port-Glafgow. It is now a very confiderable pariftt,
and lies 21 miles nigher the mouth of Clyde than Glal-
gow.
In 1725, Mr Campbell, the member of parliament
for Glafgow, having given his vote for having the malt
tax extended over Scotland, a riot enfued among the
lower clafs of people. In this difturbance, Mr Camp¬
bell’s furniture was deftroyed, and fome excifemen were
maltreated for attempting to take an account of the rr
malt. General Wade, who commanded the forces in Diflurbancfc
Scotland, had fent two companies of foldiers, under ah°“t the
the command qf Captain Bufhel, to prevent any dif-exc^e ’
turbance of this kind. Captain Bufhel drew up his
men in the ftreet, where the multitude pelted them
with ftones. He firft endeavoured to difperfe the mob
by firing with powder only : but this expedient failing,
he ordered his men to load their pieces with ball; and,
without the fanflion of the civil authority, command¬
ed them to fire four different ways at once. By this
difcharge about 20 perfons were killed and wounded ;
which enraged the multitude to fuch a degree, that ha¬
ving procured fome arms, they purfued Bufhel and
his men to the caftle of Dumbarton, about 14 miles di-
ftant. General Wade being informed of this tranfac-
tion, affembled a body of forces, and being accompa¬
nied by Duncan Forbes, lord advocate, took pofleffion
of the town : the magiftrates were apprehended and
carried prifoners to Edinburgh ; but on an examination
before the lords, their innocence clearly appeared, up¬
on which they were immediately difraiifed. Bufiiel
was tried for murder, convidled, and condemned ; but,
inftead of fuffering the penalties of law, he was indul¬
ged with a pardon, and promoted in the fervice. Mr
Campbell petitioned the houfe of commons for an in¬
demnification of his Ioffes : a bill was paffed in his fa¬
vour ; and this, together with fome other expences
incurred in the affair, coft the town 9000I. fter-
lin£-
During the time of the rebellion in 1745 ; the citi¬
zens of Glafgow gave proof of their attachment to re¬
volution principles, by railing two battalions of 600
men each, for the fervice of government. This piece
of loyalty, however, had like to have coft them dear.
The rebels, in their journey fouth, took a refolution to
plunder and burn the city : which would probably have
been done, had not Mr Cameron of Lochiel threaten¬
ed, in that cafe? to withdraw his clan. A heavy con-
5 A tribution,
12
Change of
manners
G L A [
Gkfgow. tribution, however, was laid on. The city was com-
^ pelled to pay 5000I. in money, and 500I. in goods j
and on the return of the rebels from England, they
were obliged to furnifh them with 12,000 linen Ihirts,
6000 cloth coats, 6000 pairs of (lioes, 6000 pairs of
hole, and 6000 bonnets. Thefe goods, with the mo¬
ney formerly paid them, the expence of raifing and
fubfifting the two city battalions, and the charge of
maintaining the rebel army in free quarters for ten days,
cod the community about 14,000!. fterling •, 1 o,oool.
of vvhich they recovered in 174QJ by an application to
parliament.
About the year 1750, a very confiderable change
and method t0°^ P^ace in the manner of living among the inhabi-
oi Imng. tants Glafgow. Till this time, an attentive in-
duftry, and a frugality bordering upon parfimony,
haa been their general charafleriftic j the feverity of
the ancient manners prevailed in its full vigour;
.iiut now, when an extenfive commerce and increafed
manufactures had produced wealth, the ideas of the
people were enlarged, and fchemes of trade and im¬
provement were adopted which people would formerly
have been denominated madmen if they had under-
taken ; a new ftyle was introduced in living, drefs,
building, and furniture 5 wheel carriages were fet up,
public places of entertainment were frequented, and
an affembly-room, ball-room, and playhoufe, were
built by fubfcription ; and from this time we may
date all the improvements that have taken place, not
only in Glafgow, but all over the weft of Scotland.
1 ne . beft method, however, of eftimating the grow¬
ing improvement of any town, is by the frequency
of their applications for afliftance to parliament 5 we
fhall therefore enumerate the ads of parliament which
A Cl5*0f ^aVC k6en Pa^"ec^ 111 favour of the city of Glafgow fince
parliament tj16 year 1750. In 1753, an a<^ paffed for repairing
in favour of evera^ roads leading into the city of Glafgow. In
the city. 1756, an act for erefting and fupporting a light-
houle in the iiland of Little Cumray, at the mouth
of the Clyde, and for rendering the navigation of
the frith and river more fafe and commodious. 
In 1759, an .aCt for improving the navigation of
the river Clyde to the city of Glafgow, and for
building a new bridge acrofs the river.—In 1767,
the * people of Glafgow having propofed to make
a fmall cut or canal from the frith of Forth to
that of Clyde, for the conveniency of their trade to
ti'ie. e&ftern fide of the iiland, feveral gentlemen at
Edinburgh, and throughout different parts of the
kingdom, propofed that this canal fhould be executed
upon a much larger fcale than what had been original-
Pr°jeaed- aa was accordingly obtained, and
and the canal executed in the manner defcribed under
the article Canal—In 1770, another aft was obtain-
ed for improving the navigation of the river, building
thejmdge, &c. being an amendment of the former aft
for theie purpofes. In 1771, an aft for making and
widening a paflage from the Saltmarket to St Andrew’s
church -7 for enlarging and completing the churchyard
of that church, and likewife for building a convenient
exchange or fquare in the city *, alfo for amending and
explaining the former aft relative to the navigation of .
the Clyde. An aft for making and maintaining a na¬
vigable canal and waggon way from the collieries in
the parifhes of Old and New Monkland, to the city of
738 1 G L A
Glafgow. This lift canal, which was undertaken with
a view to reduce the price of coals, has not been at¬
tended with the defired effeft j but the other im-
piovements have been produftive of very great advan¬
tages.
Glafgov
i ne moft ancient part of the city ftands on a rifing Defcription
ground. The foundation of the cathedral is 104 feet01 the
higher than the bed of the river; and the defcent from
the high ground reaches to about 100 yards below the
college. The reft of the city is built chiefly upon a
plain, bounded fouthward by the Clyde, and north¬
ward by a gentle ridge of hills lying in a parallel di-
reftion with that river. Thefe grounds, till lately,
confifted of gardens and fields ; but are now covered'
with buildings, in confequence of the increaling wealth
and population of the city. The ftreets are all clean
and well paved 5 and feveral of them interfefting one
another at right angles, produce a very agreeable ef~
left. The four principal llreets, crofling one another
in that manner, divide the city nearly into four equal
parts 5 and the different views of them from the crofs,
or centre^ of interfeftion, have an air of great magnifi¬
cence. The houfes, confifting of four or five floors in
height, are built of hewn ftone, generally in an exceed-
ing good tafte, and many of them elegant. The molt
remarkable public buildings are,
1. T/ie Cathedral, or High Church, is a magnificent Of the ca-
buildmg, and its fituation greatly to its advantage, asthedral.
it ftands higher than any part of the city. It has been
intended to form a croi's, though the traverfe part has
never been finilhed. The great tower is founded upon
four large maffy pillars, each of them about 30 feet in
circumference.^ The tower itfelf is 25^ feet fquare
within ; and is furrounded by a, balluftrade, within
which nfes an oftangular fpire terminated by a vane.
The tower upon the weft end is upon the fame level,
but appears not to have been finiflied, though it is co¬
vered over with lead. In this tower is a very large bell
11 feet four inches in diameter. The principal entry
was from the weft ; the gate 11 feet broad at the bafe,
and 17 feet in height. The weft end of the choir is
now appropriated for a place of divine worfhip ; and is
divided from the remaining part by a ftone partition,
which is enclofed by another ftone wall parting it from
the nave. It is impofiible to form an adequate idea of
the awful folemnity of the place occafioned by the lof-
tinefs of the roof and the range of pillars by which the
whole is fupported.
1 he nave of the church rifes four fteps higher than
the choir ; and on the weft fide flood the organ loft,
formerly ornamented with a variety of figures, but
now defaced. The pillars here are done in a better
tafte than thofe in the choir, and their capitals are or¬
namented with fruits. Ihe arched roof of the altar
is lupported by five pillars, over which was a fine ter¬
race walk, and above it a large window of curious
workmanfhip, but now fhut up. On the north fide of
the altar is the veftry, being a cube of 28 feet, the
roof arched and vaulted at top, and fupported by one
pillar in the centre of the houfe. Arched pillars from
every angle terminate in the grand pillar, which is 19
feet high. The lower part of the fouth crofs is made
ufe of as a burying place for the clergy of the city ;
and is by much the fineft piece of workman fliip in the
whole building. It is 55 feet long, 28 broad, and
*5
G L A [7.
Glafgo’.v. 15 liigli j arched and vaulted at top, and fuppprted
v—" by a middle range of pillars, with their capitals highly
ornamented •, correfponding to which are Columns ad¬
joining to the walls, which, as they rife, fpring into
femi-arches, and are everywhere met at acute angles
by their oppofites, and are ornamented with carvings
at the doling and eroding of the lines. At the ealt
end of the choir you defeend by flights of fleps upon
each fide into paflages which, in former times, were the
principal entries to the burying vault which is imme¬
diately under the nave. It is now made ufe of as a
parilh church for the barony of Glafgow } and is full of
pillars, fome of them very malfy, which fupport the
arched roof: but it is a very uncomfortable place for
devotion. The fpace under the altar and veftiy,
though now made ufe of as a burying place by the he¬
ritors of the barony, was formerly, according to tradi¬
tion, employed for keeping of the relicks } and indeed,
from the beautiful manner in which this place is finifli-
ed, one would imagine that it had not been deftined
for common ule. Here is fhowm the monument of St
Mungo, or Kentigern, with his figure lying in a cum-
bent pofture.
The whole length of the cathedral within the walls
is 284 feet, its breadth 65 *, the height of the choir,
from the floor to the canopy, 90 feet j the height
of the nave, 85 feet} the height of the middle toiver,
220 feet. This fabric wTas begun by John Achaius in
1123, anc^ confecrated in 1136 : and continued by fuc-
ceeding bifliops till fuch time as it was finiflied in the
manner in which it ftands at prefent. The w'ealth of
the fee of Glafgow, however, was not fufficient for fo
great an undertaking, fo that they were obliged to have
recourfe to all the churches of Scotland for afliftance
in it.
This venerable edifice wTas in danger of falling a
victim to the frenzy of fanaticifm in 1579 j and ow ed
its prefervation to the fpirit and good fenfe of the
tradefmen, who, upon hearing the beat of drum for
colledting the workmen appointed to demolifli it, flew
to arms, and declared that the firft man who. pulled
down a Angle ftone ftiould that moment be buried un¬
der it.
Near the cathedral are the ruins of the bifliop’s pa¬
lace or cattle, enclofed with a wall of heivn Itone by
Archbithop James Beaton •, the great tower built by
l6 Archbithop Cameron in 1426.
St An- 2. St Andrew's Church was begun by the commu-
drew’s nity in 17395 and finithed in 1756* It is the fineft
piece of modern architedture in the city } and is built
after the model of St Martin’s in the Fields, London,
wdiofe architedt w’as the famous Gibbs. The length of
the church is 104 feet, and its breadth 66. It has a
fine arched roof, w^ell ornamented with figures in ftuc-
co, and fuftained by ftone columns of the Corinthian
order. Correfpondent to the model, it has a place for
the altar on the eaft, in which is a very ancient Vene¬
tian w indow7} but the altar place being feated, makes
this end appear to no great advantage. I he fronts of
the galleries and the pulpit are done in mahogany in a
very elegant manner. The fpire by no means corre-
fponds with the reft of the building \ and, inftead of
being an ornament, difgraces this beautiful fabric. Its
height is 170 feet.
Befides the cathedral (wThich contains three congre-
Glafaon
17
church.
39 ] ^ ^ ^
gations) and St Andrew’s church, there is a number
of others, as the College church, Ram’s-horn, Tron,
Wynd, &c. together with an Engliih chapel, Highland
church, feveral feceding meeting-houfes, and others for
fedtaries of various denominations.
3. The College.—The front of this building extends ^he co.-
along the eaft; fide of the high ftreet, and is upwards of °e
330 feet long. The gate at the entrance is decorated
with ruftics, and over it are the king’s arms, ihe
building confifts of two principal courts or fquares.
The firft is 88 feet long and 44 broad. Ihe wTeft fide
is elevated upon ftone pillars, on which are placed pila-
fters fupporting the Doric entablature, and ornamented
with arches forming a piazza. Above thefe is the
public hall; the afeent to which is by a double flight of
fteps enclofed by a handfome ftone balluftrade, upon
the right of which is placed a lion, and on the left an
unicorn, cut in freeftone. The fpire ftands on the
eart fide, is 335 feet high, and has a very good clock.
Under this is the gateway into the inner and largeft
court, which is 103 feet long and 79 broad. Over the
entry, in a niche, is a ftatue of Mr Zacharias Boyd,
who was a benefactor to the univerfity. On the eaft
fide of the court is a narrow paffage leading into a
handfome terrace walk, gravelled, 122 feet long by
64 feet broad. This walk is enclofed to the eaft by an
iron pallifade, in the centre of which is a gate leading,
into the garden. This laft confifts of feven acres ox
ground, laid out in walks for the recreation of the ftu-
dents \ and there is alfo a botanic garden. On the
fouth fide of the walk ftands the library ; a very neat
edifice, well conftruifted for the purpofe intended, and
containing a very valuable collection of books. Under¬
neath are preferved in cafes all the Roman inferiptions
found on Graham’s Dike, together with altars and
other antiquities colleifted from different parts of Scot¬
land.—Adjoining there is an obfervatory, well furnifh-
ed with aftronomical inftruments. The college alfo pof-
feffes, by bequeft, the late Dr Hunter’s famous anato¬
mical preparations, library, and mufeum. A building
is now (1806) preparing for its reception. iS
4. The Tolbooth, or Town-Houfe, is a magnificentTown-^
and extremely elegant building. The front is adorned hoa(e>
with a range of Ionic pilafters j and is elevated on
ftrong rufticated pillars with arches, forming a piazza
for merchants and others to fhelter themfelves from the
weather when met upon bufinefs. One of the apart¬
ments wTas the affembly hall ; a neat room, 47 feet long,
and 24 in breadth and height, finifhed in a good tafte,
though too fmall for the city. The towm hall is a very
fpacious and lofty apartment, 52 feet long by 27 broad,
and 24 in height. It is finiflied in a very grand man¬
ner •, the ceiling is divided into different compartments
vrell ornamented. In it are full length portraits of
King James VI. and VII. Charles I. and II. William
and Mary, Queen Anne, King George I. II. and III.
and Archibald duke of Argyll in his jufticiary robes.
The two laft are by Ramfay. Oppofite to the front of
this building is the exchange walk, which is 'well paved
with freeftone, and enclofed from the ftreet by ftone
pillars. In the middle of this area is an equeftrian fta¬
tue of King William III. placed upon a lofty pedeftal,
and furrounded with an iron rail.—In 1781, the ex¬
change under the piazzas was greatly enlarged, by tak¬
ing down the lower part of the town hall and affembly
5 A 2 room j
G L A
[ 74o ]
G L A
.19
Guild hall
Town’s
hofjjital.
21
Grammar
fchool.
Glafgow. room j and at the fame time, by a tontine fcheme en-
tered into by the inhabitants, a inoft elegant coffee
room was added, with a fuite of buildings adjoining for
the purpofes of a tavern and hotel, affembly room, and
offices for notaries and underwriters. The alfembly
room, however, being found to be ftill too frnall, a
fubfcription of above 5000I. has been raifed by a fimi-
lar plan of a tontine for building a new one, which is
propofed to be eredted in the north corner of one of
the new llreets which join Ingram flreet to Argyll
Ilreet.
5. The Guild Hall or Merchants Houfe. This build¬
ing is lituated upon the fouth fide of Bridgegate flreet}
and is in length 82 feet, in breadth 31. The great
hall, which is the whole length and breadth of the
building, is fo capacious, that it is better adapted for
the reception of great and numerous affemblies than
any other in the city. This houfe is adorned with a
very elegant fpire 200 feet high.
6. The Town's Hofpital is a very neat building, con¬
fining of two wings and a large front : the length 156
feet, the breadth of the centre 30 feet, and the depth
of the wings 68 feet. Behind the building is an infir¬
mary 127 feet long by 25 feet broad, the afcent to
which is by a flight of fleps. The lower part of this
building is appointed for the reception of lunatics.
The area between the buildings is large, which, with
the agreeable open fituation of the hofpital on the river,
muff conduce to the health of the inhabitants.
7. The Grammar School is fituated in the new part
of the town, to the north-weft, and was built in 1787.
It is a very handfome building, containing a large hall,
and fix airy commodious teaching rooms. In this
fchool there are four clafles, the courfe being. four
years : each clafs is carried on the wffiole four years by
the fame mafter; fo that, there being no redlor, each
mafter is head of the fchool one year in rotation. It is
under the direction of a committee of the town coun¬
cil 5 who, affifted by the profeffors, clergy, and other
perfons of learning, frequently vifit it during the fef-
fion *, and at an annual examination, prizes of books are
diftributed to the fcholars according to their refpeflive
merits. The number of fcholars is above 300.—The
building is not yet entirely finiftied ; and the rooms
which are not occupied by the Latin clafles are intend¬
ed for teaching writing, arithmetic, drawing, &c.
8. The New Bridge is built in an elegant manner.
It is 3 2 feet wide 5 with a commodious footway for
paflengers, five feet broad, on each fide, raifed above
the road made for carriages, and paved with freeftone.
This bridge is about 500 feet in length ; and confifts
of feven arches, the faces of wffiich are wrought in ruf-
tic, with a ftrong block cornice above. 'The arches
fpring but a little way above low water mark j which,
though it renders the bridge ftronger than if they
fprung from taller piers, diminifties its beauty. Be¬
tween every arch there is a fmall circular one : thefe
break the force of the water when the river rifes to a
flood, and add to the ftrength of the whole. The pa¬
rapet wall or breaftwork is cut out in the Chinefe
tafte : and the two ends are finilhed off with a fweep.
This bridge was begun in 1768, and finiffied in 177 2.
Markets, 9. The Markets in King's Street are juftly admired,
as being the completed: of their kind in Britain. They
are placed on both irdes of the ftreet. That on the
2*
New
Bridge.
eaft fide, appropriated entirely for butcher meat, is 112 Glafgow.
feet in length, and 67 in breadth. In the centre is a V"*—'
fpacious gateway, decorated on each fide with coupled
Ionic columns, fet upon their pedeftais, and fupport-
ing an angular pediment. At the north end is a very
neat hall belonging to the incorporation of butchers,
the front ornamented with ruftics and a pediment. The
markets upon the weft fide of the ftreet conlift of three
courts, fet apart for fiffi, mutton, and cheefe. 'The
whole of the front is 1 73 feet, the breadth 46 feet $ in
the centre of which, as on the oppofite fide, is a very
fpacious gateway of the Doric order, fupporting a pedi¬
ment. This is the entry to the mutton market. Each
of the other two has a well proportioned arch faced
with ruftics for the entrance. All thefe markets are
well paved with freeftone ; have walks all round them)
and are covered over for {belter by roofs Handing upon
Hone piers, under which the different commodities are
expofed to fale. They have likewife pump wells with¬
in, for cleanfing away all the filth j which render the
markets always fweet and agreeable. Thefe markets
were eredled in 1754.
1 o. The Herb Market is neat and commodious) and
the principal entry is decorated with columns. It is
fituated in the Candleriggs, and is laid out in the fame
manner with the markets in King’s Street.
II. The Guard Hoi/fe is a very handfome building,Guarcf
with a piazza formed by arches, and columns of the iioufe.
Ionic order fet upon their pedeftais. It was originally
fituated on the High ftreet, at the corner of the Candle-
riggs ftreet : but has lately been carried near half way
up the Candleriggs, where it occupies the ground on
which the weigh-houfe formerly ftood, and is made
larger and more commodious than it was before. An
excellent new weigh-houfe has been eredfed at the head
of the Candleriggs : And at the foot of the Candle-
riggs, or corner next the High ftreet, where the guard-
houfe was formerly fituated, a fuperb new hotel has
been built, containing 75 fire rooms,
The moft remarkable public charities in Glafgow
are,
1. Muir head's or St Nicholas's Hofpital. This was Public5 ch a-
originally appointed to fubfift 12 old men and a chap-rities.
lain : but its revenues have, from fome unknown caufes,
been loft ; fo that no more of them now remains than
the paltry fum of 139I. 2s. jd. Scots money, 128!.
of which is annually divided among four old men, at
the rate of 2I. 13s. 4d. fterling each.
2. Hutchefon's Hofpital, was founded and endowed
in 1639 by George Hutchefon of Lamb-hill, notary
public, and Mr Thomas Hutchefon his brother, who
was bred a preacher, for the maintenance of old men
and orphans. The funds of this hofpital were increafed
by James Blair merchant in Glafgow in 1710, and by
fubfequent donations. From the lale of fome of their
lands which lay convenient for building, and the rife of
the reft, the income is now above 1400I. which is di¬
ftributed in penfions to old people from 3I. to 20I. and
in educating about 50 children.
3. The Merchant's Houfe likewife diftributes in pen¬
fions and other charities about 800I. yearly.
4. The Town's Hofpital, above deferibed, was open¬
ed for the reception of the poor on the 15th of Novem¬
ber 1733. The funds whence this hofpital is fubfift-
ed are, the geneial feflion, the town council, the trades
houfe
G L A [ 741 ] G L A
Olafgow. houfe and merchants houfe, the intereft of money be-
u—y—ionging to their funds, which are fums that have been
mortified for the ufe of the houfe. Thefe fupplies,
however, are found infufficient to defray the expences
of the houfe •, for which reafon an affeflment is annual¬
ly made upon the inhabitants in the following manner.
he magillrates nominate 1 2, I4» °r fometimes more
gentlemen of known integrity and character, who have
a lift laid before them of all the inhabitants in town..
This lift they divide into 16 or 18 columns. Each of
thefe columns contains the names of fuch inhabitants as
carry on trade to a certain extent, or are iuppoled to
be well able to pay the firm affixed to the particular
column in which their names are inferted. It it is ne-
ceffary to raife 500I. for inftance, then each name, in
every teparate column, is valued at as much as the for¬
tunes of the perfons in each particular column are fup-
pofed to be. If loool. or more is to be raifed, it is
only continuing a proportional increafe through the
whole of the columns. The higheft fum that ever was
thus raifed, was 12s. 6d. upon every thoufand pounds
that each perfon w^as iuppofed to be worth. J.he num¬
ber of people maintained in this hofpital are about
620.
5. Wilforfs Charity for the education of boys, was
founded by George Wilfon, who in 177^ 3000^
for that purpofe. This fund is now confiderably in-
creafed, and gives education and clothing to 48 boys,
who "each continues four years, fo that 12 are admitted
annually.
JBefides thefe, there are many public fchools for the
education of children ; as well as many inftitutions of
private focieties for the purpofe of relieving the indi¬
gent and in ft rafting youth, fuch as Graham's Society,
Buchanan's Society, the Highland Society, &c. Thefe
hft put annually 20 boys apprentices to trades, and
during the firft three years give them clothing and edu-
26 cation.
Members The univerfity of Glafgow ow^es its origin, as we
of the uni- have already obferved, to Bilhop Turnbull. The in-
verfity. ftjtution confifted at firft; of a reclor, a dean of faculty,
a principal wrho taught theology, and three profeffors
of philofophy j and, foon after this, the civil and ca¬
non lawTs were taught by fome clergymen. From the
time of its eftablifhment in 1450 1° the Reformation in
1560, the college was chiefly frequented by thofe who
were intended for the church •, its members wrere all
ecclefiaftics, and its principal fupport was derived from
the church. The Reformation brought the univerfity
to the verge of deftruftion : mafters, ftudents, and fer-
vants, all forfook it. The magiftrates were fo fenlible
of the lofs which the community had fuftained by this
defertion, that they endeavoured to reftore it in 1572,
by beftowing upon it confiderable funds, and prefcrib-
ing a fet of regulations for its management. Thefe,
however, proved infufficient j for which reafon King
James VI. erected it anew, by a charter called the Nova
EreSiio, 1577, and bellowed upon it the teinds of the
parifti of Govan. The perfons who were to compofe
the new univerfity were, a principal, three profefl'ors of
philofophy, four ftudents burfars, one oeconomus, a
principal’s fervant, a janitor, and cook.
Since the year 1577, the funds of the univerfity have
been confiderably increafed by the bounty of kings and
the donations of private perfons. The profellbrs have
therefore alfo been increafed : fo that at prefent the O’afgo
univerfity of Glafgow confifts of a chancellor, reftor, ’v“"
dean of faculty, principal, and 14 profeffors (fix of
them in the gift of the crown), together with burfars,
&c. The archbiihop of Glafgow was formerly chan¬
cellor of the univerfity ex officio ; at prefent, the chan¬
cellor is cholen by the reftor, dean of faculty, princi¬
pal, and mafters.
The chancellor, as being the head of the univerfity,
is the fountain of honour, and in his name are all aca¬
demical degrees bellowed. The office of reftor is to
exercife that academical jurifdiftion in difputes among
the iludents themfelves, or between the ftudents and
citizens, which is bellowed upon the greater part of the
univerfities in Europe. He is chofen annually in the
comitia ; that is, in a meeting in which all the ftudents,
as well as the other members of the univerfity, have a
voice. Irnmtdiately after his admiffion, he has been in
ufe to choofe certain perfons as his affeilors; and coun-
fellors in his capacity of judge j and, in former periods,
it was cuftomary to name the minifters of Glafgow, or
any other gentlemen who had no connexion with the
univerfity j but, for a great wffiile pall, the reftor has
conftantly named the dean of faculty, the principal,
and mafters, for his affeffors; and he has always been,
and Hill is, in the daily praftice of judging in thecaufes
belonging to him, with the advice of his affeffors. Be-
fides thele powers as judge, the reftor lummons and
prefides in the meetings of the univerfity for the elec¬
tion of his fucceffor j and he is likewife in ufe to call
meetings of the profeflbrs for drawing up addreifes to-
the king, elefting a member to the general affembly,
v and other bufinefs of the like kind.
The dean of faculty has, for his province, the giv¬
ing direftion with regard to the courfe of ftudies j the
judging, together with the reftor, principal, and pro¬
feffors, of the qualifications of thofe who defire to be
created mafters of arts, doftors of divinity, &c. j and'
he prefides in meetings which are called by him for
thefe purpofes. He is chofen annually by the reftor,
principal, and mafters.
The principal and mafters, independent of the reftor
and dean, compofe a meeting in which the principal
prefides ; and as they are the perfons for whofe behoof
chiefty the revenue of the college was eftablilhed, the
adminiftration of that revenue is therefore committed to
them. The revenue arifes from the teinds of the parilh
of Govan, granted by King James VI. in 1557 j from
the teinds of the pariihes of Renfrew and Kilbride,
granted by the fame monarch in 1617, and confirmed'
by King Charles I. on the 28th of June 1630 j from
the teinds of the pariihes of Calder, Old and New
Monkland, conveyed to them by a charter from
Charles II. in 1670; from a tack of the archbithop-
ric j and from feveral donations conferred by private
perfons.
The college of Glafgowq for a very confiderable
time after its ereftion, followed the mode of public
teaching wdiich is common even to this day in Oxford
and Cambridge, and in many other univerfities through¬
out Europe } that is, each profeffor gave a few leftures
every year, gratis, upon the particular fcience which
he profeffed : but, in place of this, the profeffors have,
for a great while pall, adopted the mode of private
teaching : that is, they lefture and examine two hours.-
. every
G L A [ 742 ]
Glafgow. every day during the fefiion, viz. from the 10th of Oc- dent one.
tober to the 10th of June ; a method which comes much
cheaper to the ftudent, as he has it in his power, if he
is attentive, to acquire his education without being un¬
der the neceflity of employing a tutor. They have alfo
private claffes, in which they teach one hour per day.
The number of ftudents who have attended this college
for feveral years paft, has been upwards of 500 each
47 feafon.
Hiftory of Xhe trade of Glafgow is faid to have been flrft pro-
G'ai^ow 0^moted by one Mr William Elphinltone in 1420. This
^ " trade was mod probably the curing and exporting of
ialmon j but the firft authentic document concerning
Glafgow as a trading city is in 1546. Complaints hav¬
ing been made by Henry VIII. king of England, that
feveral Englilh flaps had been taken and robbed by vef-
fels belonging to Scotland, an order of council was if-
lued, difeharging fuch captures for the future j and
among other places made mention of in this order is the
city of Glafgow. The trade which at that time they
carried on could not be great. It probably confided of
a few fmall veffels to France loaded with pickled fal-
mon; as this fifhery was, even then, carried on to a
confiderable extent, by Glafgow, Renfrew, and Dum¬
barton. Between the years 1630 and 1660, a very
great degree of attention feems to have been paid to in¬
land commerce by the inhabitants of Glafgow. Prin¬
cipal Baillie informs us, that the increafe of Glafgow
arifing from this commerce was exceedingly great.
The exportation of falmon and of herrings was alfo
continued and increafed. In the war between Britain
and Holland during the reign of Charles II. a privateer
was fitted out in Clyde to cruife againd the Dutch.
jShe was called the Lion of G/afgow, Robert M‘Allan
commander 5 and carried five pieces of cannon, and 60
hands.
A fpirit of commerce appears to have arifen among
the inhabitants of Glafgow between the years 1660 and
I 707. The citizens who didinguidied themfelves mod
during this period were Walter Gibfon and John An-
derfon. Gibfon cured and packed in one year 300
lads of herrings, which he fent to St Martin’s in France
•on board of a Dutch veflel called the St jugate of 450
tons burden ; his returns were brandy and fait. He
was the fird who imported iron from Stockholm into
Clyde. Anderfon is faid to have been the fird who
imported white wines.
Whatever their trade was at this time, it could not
be confiderable: the ports to which they were obliged
to trade lay all to the eadward : the circumnavigation
of the ifiand would therefore prove an almod unfur-
mountable bar to the commerce of Glafgow ; and of
confequence the people on the ead coad would be pof-
feffed of almod all the commerce of Scotland. The
union with England opened a field for commerce for
which the fituation of Glafgow, fo convenient in refpedl
to the Atlantic, was highly advantageous. Since that
time the commerce of the ead coad has declined, and
that of the wed increafed to an amazing degree. No
iooner was the treaty of union figned, than the inhabi¬
tants of Glafgow began to profecute the trade to Vir¬
ginia and Maryland j they chartered Aeflels from
Whitehaven, fent out cargoes of goods, and brought
back tobacco in return. The method in which they
at fird proceeded in this trade was certainly a very pru-
I
G L A
A fupercargo went out with every velTel. Glafgovr.
He bartered his goods for tobacco, until fuch time as
he had either fold off his goods, or procured as much
tobacco as was fufficient to load his veffel. He then
immediately fet out on his return 5 and if any of his
goods remained unfold, he brought them home with
him. While they continued to trade in this way, they
were of great advantage to the country, by the quan¬
tity of manufaftures which they exported ; their own
wealth began to increafe ; they purebafed drips of their
own ) and, in 171 8, the fird veffel of the property of
Glafgow croffed the Atlantic. Their imports of to¬
bacco were now confiderable, and Glafgow began to
be looked upon as a confiderable port j the tobacco
trade at the ports of Bridol, Liverpool, and Whiteha¬
ven, was obferved to dwindle awray ; the people of
Glafgow began to fend tobacco to thefe places, and to
underfell the Englifh even in their own ports. Thus
the, jealouly of the latter was foon excited, and they
took every method in their power to dedroy the trade
of Glafgow. The people of Bridol prefented remon-
drances to the commidioners of the cudoms at London
againd the trade of Glaigow, in 1717. To thefe re-
monltrances the merchants of Glafgow lent fuch anfwers
to the commidioners, as convinced them that the com¬
plaints of the Bridol merchants were without founda¬
tion. But in 1721, a mod formidable confederacy was
entered into by almod all the tobacco merchants in
South Britain againd the trade of Glafgow. Thofe of
London, Liverpool, and Whitehaven, prefented feve-
rally to the lords of the treafury, petitions, arraigning
the Glafgow merchants of frauds in the tobacco trade.
To thefe petitions the Glafgow people gave in replies ;
and the lords of the treafury, after a full and impartial
hearing, were pleafed to diimifs the caufe with the fol¬
lowing fentence : “ That the complaints of the mer¬
chants of I.ondon, Liverpool, and Whitehaven, were
groundlefs 5 and that they proceeded from a fpirit of
envy, and not from a regard to the intered of trade, or
of the king’s revenue.”
But the efforts of thefe gentlemen did not dop here.
They brought their complaints into the houfe of
commons. Commidioners were fent to Glafgow in
1722, who gave in their reports to the houfe in 1723.
The merchants fent up didinfl and explicit anfwers to
thefe reports ; but fuch was the intered of their adver-
faries, that thefe anfwers wrere difregarded. New of¬
ficers were appointed at the ports of Greenock and
Port Glafgow, whofe private indruclions feem to have
been to ruin the trade if podible, by putting all ima¬
ginable harddiips upon it. Hence it languilhed till the
year 1735 j but after that time it began to revive,
though even after its^revival it was carried on but dow-
ly for a conliderable fpace of time.
At lad, however, the aflive and enterprifing fpirit
of the merchants, feconding the natural advantages of
their fituation, prevailed over all oppofition ; and the
American trade continued to fiouriih and increafe until
the year 1775, infomuch that the importation of to¬
bacco into Clyde that year from the provinces of Vir¬
ginia, Maryland, and Carolina, amounted to 57,143
hogdieads. But fince the breach with America, this
trade has now greatly fallen off", and very large firms
are faid to remain due to the merchants from that
quarter of the world.
With
Glafgow.
28
Manufac¬
tures of
Giafgow.
G I. A [
With regard to the manufactures of Glafgow,
' Gibfon is of opinion that the commerce to America
firil: fuggefted the idea pf introducing them, in any
confiderable degree at leait. The firlt attempts in this
way were about the year 1725, and their increafe for
fome time was very flow, nor did they begin to be
confiderable till great encouragement was given by the
legiilature to the linen manufacture in Scotland. The
firfl: caufes of the fuccefs of this manufacture were the
aCl of parliament in 1748, whereby the wearing of
French cambrics was prohibited under fevere penalties ;
that of 1751, allowing weavers in flax or hemp to
iettle and exercife their trades anywhere in Scotland
free from all corporation dues •, and the bounty of
three halfpence per yard on all linens exported at and
under i8d. per yard. Since that time a fpirit of ma¬
nufacture has been excited among the inhabitants of
Glafgow } and great variety of goods, and in very
great quantity, have been manufactured. Checks, li¬
nen, and linen and cotton, are manufactured to a great
extent. Printed linens and cottons were begun to be
manufactured in 1738 } but they only made garments
till 1754, when handkerchiefs were firfl: printed.
Incles were firfl: made here about the year 173 2.—
The engine looms ufed at that time were fo inconve¬
nient, and took up fo much time in making the goods,
that the Dutch, who were the only people pofleffed of
the large incle looms, were almoft folely in poffeflion
of this manufacture. Mr Hervey, who began this
branch in Glafgow, was fo tenfible of the difadvanta-
ges under which it laboured, that he went over to Hol¬
land 5 and in fpite of the care and attention which the
Dutch took to conceal their methods of manufacturing,
he brought over with him from Haerlem two of their
looms, and one of their workmen. This Dutchman
remained fome years in Glafgow ; but on fome difgurt
he went to Manchefter, and inftruCted the people there
m the method of carrying on the manufacture.
In 1757, carpets were begun to be made, and are
now carried on to a confiderable extent. Hunters
cloths, blankets, and other goods of the fame kind, are
alfo made.
Befides thefe, a great variety of articles are manu¬
factured at Glafgow, of which our limits will not per¬
mit us to enter into a detail, fuch as foap, refining of
Uigar, ironmongery, brafs, jewellery, glafs both com¬
mon and white, pottery, &c. Types for printing are
made in this city by Dr Wilfon and Sons, equal,
if not fuperior, in beauty to any others in Britain.
Printing of books was firfl: begun here by George An-
derfon about the year 1638. But there was no good
printing in Glafgow till the year 1735, when Robert
Urie printed feveral books in a very elegant manner.
The highelf perfection, however, to which printing
hath yet been carried in this place, or perhaps in any
other, was by the late Robert and Andrew Foulis,
(who began in the year 1740) 5 as the many cbrreCt
and fplendid editions of books printed by them in
different languages fufficiently teftify. Some of their
dailies, it is faid, are held in fuch high efleem abroad,
as to fell nearly at the price of ancient MSS. The
fame gentlemen alfo eftabliflied an academy of paint¬
ing *, but the wealth of Scotland being unequal to the
undertaking, it has been fince given up.
Since the ffagnation of the American trade, already
743 ] G L A
Mr noticed, the merchants of Glafgow have turned their Glafgow.
attention more to manufactures, which have of late,--v—
efpecially that of cottons and muflins, increafed in a
very rapid degree, and bid fair for putting the city in
a more flourilhing condition than ever it was before.
The manufacturing houfes, the influx of people for
carrying on the manufactures, the means and encou¬
ragement. which thefe afford to population, and the
wealth thence derived by individuals as well as accru¬
ing to the community, have all tended lately to in¬
creafe, and are daily increafing, the extent of the city,
and the elegance of the buildings. Befides various im¬
provements in the old ftreets, feveral handfome new
ones as well as new fquares have been added. The
file of thefe new buildings is the trad of riling
ground already mentioned as the north boundary of,
the town previous to its late extenfion. The vveltern
part of it, which is perfeClly level, is occupied by a
fpacious fquare, denominated George's Square; two
lides of which are built and inhabited, and a third be¬
gun. The grafs plot in the middle is enclofed with a
handfome iron railing. The fquare is deficient in re¬
gularity ; the houfes on the weft fide being a ftory
higher than thofe of the eaft $ but in other relpeCls it is
very neat. To the eaft of this fquare are feveral
new ftreets laid out and paved, and fome of them al¬
moft completely built on. The principal, though as
yet the moft incomplete of thofe ftreets, is Ingram
Street, which runs from eaft to weft. From this the
others begin j fome of them being carried northward
up the hill, others going fouthward and joining the
main llreet of the town. One of the fineft of thefe
crofs ftreets is Hutchefon Street.
.The fouth boundary of the city was mentioned toThe river; -
be the Clyde. Over this river j:here are two bridges.
One of them, the Old Bridge, built about 400 years
ago by Archbilhop Rae, but fince repaired and partly
rebuilt, confifts of eight arches ; and connefts the fub-
urb of Gorbals, fituated on the oppofite fide of the
river, with the city. The other is the New Bridge,
deferibed above.—On the banks of the river, eaftvvard,
is the Green, a fpot appropriated to the ufe of the
inhabitants, with conveniences for walhing and drying
linens, and with agreeable and extenfive walks for re¬
creation.
On the fame or fouth fide of the town, weft ward,
is the Broomielaw, where the quay is fituated. Till
within thefe few years, the river here and for feveral
miles diftance, was fo (hallow and fo obftrufred by
flioals, as to admit only of fmall craft from Greenock,
Port Glafgow, and the Highlands} but of late it has
been cleared and deepened fo as to admit veffels of con¬
fiderable burden 5 and it is intended to make the depth
as nearly equal as pofiible to that of the canal, in
order that the veffels from Ireland and the weft coail
may not be induced excluflvely to afeend the \veft'
end of the canal and deliver their goods at Canal bafon,
but may come up Clyde and unload at the Broomie¬
law.
r ' 30
The government of the city of Glafgow is veiled in-Govern-
a provoft and three bailies, a dean of guild, deacon,Tieilt> reve-
conveener, and a treafurer, with a common council of''1,lle’,?cc■ oi'
13 merchants and 12 mechanics. The provoft: and1 C Clty'
two of the bailies muft, by the fet of the borough, be
ele&ed from the merchant rank, and the other bailie
from-'
G L A
from t’ne trades rank, i. e. the mechanics. -
volMs from courtefy and cuftom, ftyled lord />rovoJ7.
HeVs properly lord o^f the police of the city, prehdent
" ^community, -and is « a jttft.c. of the
peace for both the borough and county. .
“ Ly of the inhabitants of Glafgow were convmced
of the .Leffity of a new fyflem of police, a number of
years before the fanaion of parliament was obtained for
that purpofe, which was granted in the year 1800.
Xhe let veiled the management of the police in t e
lord provoft, bailies, dean of guild deacon conveener
and 24 commiff,oners, one being chofen out of each
ward into which the city is divided, iheobjeft of
the bill was to procure an extenfion ot the roya y,
pave, light, and clean the ftreets, for regulating the
police, and nominating officers and watchmen, appomt-
L commiflioners, railing funds, and granting certa n
powers to the magiftrates and council, town and dean
of guild courts, and for feveral other purpo.es.
In the framing of this fyftem of police, it has been
wifely provided that the commifftoners lhall not enjoy
the office for Iffe; nor even for a long period, but upon
the fuppofition of being re^lefted, and that every per-
fon properly qualified may have a chance for the of-
fice, and by confequence be entit ed to a voice m the
management of the funds, and m the direa.on of
every thing which refpefts the xnttitution.
In order to raife funds for defraying tne expence of
the police eftablifhment, the lord provoft, magiftrates
and commiflioners, on the firft Monday of September,
annually affefs all occupiers, renters or poffeffors of
dwelling houfes, cellars, ftiops, warehoufes, and other
buildings within the royalty, in proportion to the rent
of the different fubjeds, of which the following table
gives an accurate ftatement.
On the yearly rent of fubjeas valued at
41. and under 61. fterling annually, 40. per pound.
At 61. and under 10I. 6d. do.
At iol. and under 15!. ^0*
At 15I. and upwards, too- do*
As foon as the aa paffed, thofe gentlemen who'were
appointed to carry it into execution began the dif-
charge of their duty according to the fpirit of laid aa,
and the following office-bearers were nominated for that
purpofe 5 a mafter of police, a clerk of ditto, colkaor,
treafurer, furveyor, together with other 15 officers^ of
police, and 74 watchmen. Thefe have power to bring
to iuftice perfons guilty of ftreet robberies, houfe-break-
ings, affaults, thefts, {hop-lifting, picking pockets, fre¬
quenters of diforderly houfes ; to fupprefs mobs and
riots } to affift in extinguiffiing fires, in guarding and
watching the ftreets, and in affifting the magiftrates in
every thing which relates to the police, peace, and good
order of the city. Thefe officers have hitherto given
general fatisfa&ion in the difeharge of their duty, by
feeing that the flreets are kept clean, well lighted and
guarded. In a word, property and perfonal fafety are
put beyond the reach of danger, and the inftitution
promifes to be of the moft unfpeakable advantage to
the inhabitants at large.
Many wffiole and elegant ftreets have of late years
been added to it, fo that its rapid extenfion, increafing
population, and flouriffiing commerce, juftly entitle it
[ 744 ] G L A;
The pro- to rank with fome of the firft cities in Scotland, or per- Glafgov^
haps in the Britilh empire. —y—j
The revenue of the town arifes from a duty upon all
prain and meal brought into the city (which tax is de-
hominated the ladles') ; from the rents of lands and
houfes the property of the community ; from an import
of two pennies Scots upon every Scots pint of ale or
beer brewed, inbrought, or fold within the city ; from
certain duties payable out of the markets from the
rents of the feats in churches j from the dues of cra¬
nage at the quay, at the weigh-houfe, &c. As to the
tonnage on the river, the pontage of the Driage, and
ftatute work 5 thefe, making no part of the city leve-
nue, are kept feparate and diftindt under the manage¬
ment of comtniffioners appointed by adt of parliament. 31
About the time of the Union, the number of inha-Number of
bitants in Glafgow was reckoned about 14,000.
176^, when a new divifion of the pariihes took place,
they were eftimated at 28,000. In 1785, when an
accurate furvey was made, the number was about
36,0003 befides the fuburbs, containing the Calton,
Gorbals, and Anderfton, reckoned about 1000. Since
that time new buildings, as above noticed, have been
ere&ed, and the city has become confiderably more
populous, but no exadf eftimate has been made 3
though it is generally thought that the number of inha¬
bitants cannot at prefent (1806) be computed at much
lefs than 86,630, and accordingly they are more than
doubled fince 1791, at which time they only amounted
to 41,777.
The climate of Glafgow, fimilar to that of moft other
parts of the bland, is variable 3 but there are fome cir-
cumflances peculiar to its local fituation which tend to
affeft it more than that of fome other places nearer the
middle of the country. That part of the county in
which Glafgow is fituated, is ahfnoft in the narroweft
part of the ifthmus betwixt the Forth and Clyde, from
which pofition the air is frequently refrelhed by tem¬
perate breezes from the fea. The wind is louth-weft
and weft for nearly two-thirds of the year, which is fatu-
rated with vapour in its paS&ge acrofs the Atlantic 3
and the fky being frequently clouded with it, the heats
of fummer are not fo intenfe as in fome other places.
Fogs are not fo common as in the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, and fevere frofts are feldom of long con¬
tinuance, nor are fnows either very deep, nor do they lie
long. Thunder and lightning are rare about Glafgow,
and feldom deftrudtive.
The foil in the vicinity is partly a rich clay and part¬
ly a light fand. The grain raifed round the city is not
fufficient for the confumpt of the inhabitants, but vaft
quantities are brought from Ireland, Ayrffiire, and the
eaft country. While digging the foundation for the.
Tontine buildings in the midft of the city, a piece of
a boat was found feveral feet below the furface of the
ground, imbedded in fand and gravel, trom. which it
would appear that the channel of the river had once
run in that direaion. In Auguft 1801, while repair¬
ing a divifion of the cathedral, below the pavement op-
pofite to the pulpit, about two feet deep, part of a hu¬
man Ikeletcn was found, and a gold chain about 30
inches long lying above the bones of the leg. The date
on the ftone was IS99- ^ut ^le ^kriptkm in the Saxon
chara£ter was wholly effaced.
The
inhabi¬
tants.
2
G I. A
[ 745 1
G L A
Glafe. The general chara&er of the people is that of xn-
r , > duitry and attention to bufinefs, by which many of them
have arifen to a ftate of independence. . They were for¬
merly faid to be remarkable for feverity and apparent
fanclity of manners but at prefent they are not more
diftinguilhed in this refpeft than any ot their neigh¬
bours. The crimes of robbery and houfe-breaking
were much more frequent at a former period than they
are now •, but as thefe were for the moil part commit¬
ted' by ft rangers, it would be uncandid on that account
to attach blame to the inhabitants \ the recent regula¬
tions, however, refpefting the internal police of the city,
have nearly put a flop to iuch depredations.
GLASS, a trailfparent, brittle, factitious body, pro¬
duced from fand melted in a ftrong rue with fixed
alkaline falts, lead, flags, &c. till the whole becomes
perfeCHy clear and fine. The word is formed of the
Latin glajlum, a plant called by the Greeks ifatis, by the
Romans vitrum; by the ancient Britons guadum, and^
by the Englifli wood. We find frequent mention ot
this plant in ancient writers, particularly Cselar, \ itiu-
vius, Pliny, &c. who relate, that the ancient Britons
painted or dyed their bodies with glaftum, guadum, vi¬
trum, &c. i. e. wuth the blue colour procured from this
plant. And hence, the faaitious matter we are (peak¬
ing of came to be called glafs; as having always fome-
t what of this bluithnefs in it.
HPtory of At what time the art of glafs-making was firft in-
glafs-ma- vented, is altogether uncertain. Some imagine it to
Ling- have been invented before the flood : but of this, we
have no dired proof, though there is no improbability
in the fuppofition ; for wTe know, that it is almoft im-
poflible to excite a very violent fire, fuch as is neceflary
in metajlurgic operations, without vitrifying part of the
bricks or ftones wherewith the furnace is built. Ibis
indeed might furnHh the firft hints of glafs-making j
• though it is alfo very probable, that fuch imperfeCl vi¬
trifications would be obferved a long time before people
thought of making any ufe of them.
Neri traces the antiquity of glafs as far back as the
time of Job. That writer, fpeaking of the value of wif-
dom (chap, xxviii.verfe 17 ), fays, that gold and cryjlal
cannot equal it. But this word, which Neri will have
to fignify faditious glals, is capable of a great many
different interpretations, and properly fignifies only
whatever is beautiful or tranfparent. Dr Merret will
have the art to be as ancient as that of pottery or the
making of bricks, for the reafons already given, viz.
that by all vehement heat fome imperfeCt vitrifications
are produced. Of this kind undoubtedly was the foflil
glafs mentioned by Ferant. Imperator. to have been
found under ground where great fires had been. But
it is evident, that fuch imperfea vitrifications might have
paffed unnoticed for ages; and confequently we have
no reafon to conclude from thence, that the art of glals-
making is of fuch high antiquity.
The Egyptians boaft, that this art was taught them
by their great Hermes. Anftophanes, Ariftotle, A-
lexander Aphrodifeus, Lucretius, and St John the
divine, put it out of all doubt , that glafs was ufed in
their days. Pliny relates, that it was firit dftcovered
accidentally in Syria, at the mouth of the river Belus,
by certain merchants driven thither by a ftorm at fea.j
who being obliged to continue there, and drefs their
viCluals by making a fire on the ground, where there
Vgl. IX. Part II.
G'af;-
was great plenty of the herb kali; that, plant, burning
to allies, its falts mixed and incorporated with the fand,
or ftones fit for vitrification, and thus produced glafs }
and that, this accident being known, the people of Si-
don in that neighbourhood effayed the work, and brought
glafs into ufe j fince which time the art has been contin¬
ually improving. Be this as it will,however,the firft glafs-
houfes mentioned in hiftory were ereCted in the city of
Tyre, and here was the only ftaple of the rpanufa&ure
for many ages. the fand which lay on the Ihore for
about half a mile round the mouth of the river Be¬
lus was peculiarly adapted to the making of glafs, as
being neat and glittering ', and the wide range of the
Tyrian commerce gave an ample vent for the produc-
tioiis of the furnace.
Mr Nixon, in his obfervations on a plate of glafs
found at Herculaneum, which was deftroyed A. D.
80, on which occafion Pliny loft his life, offers feveral
probable conjectures as to the ufes to which fuch
plates might be applied. Such plates, he luppofes,
might ferve foxjpecula or looking glafies j for Pliny, in
fpeaking of Sidon, adds, fiquidtm etiam fpecula excogita-
<verat: the reflection of images from thefe ancient fpe-
cula being effeCted by befmearing them behind, or
tinging them through with fome dark colour. An¬
other ufe in which they might be employed, was for
adorning the walls of their apartments, by way of
wainfcot, to which Pliny is fuppofed to refer by his
vitrece earner/?, lib. xxxvi. cap. 25. § 64. Mr Nixon
farther conjectures, that thele glafs plates might be
ufed for windows, as well as the lamina of lapis fpecu-
laris and phengites, which were improvements in luxury
mentioned by Seneca and introduced in Ins time,
Ep. xc. However, there is no pofititive authority re¬
lating to the ufage of glafs windows earlier than the
clofe of the third century: Manifejlius eji (fays LaClan-
tius *), mentem e/Je, qua- per oculos ea quee funt oppofita, * Dc opif-
tranfpiciat, quafi per fenejlras lucent e vitro aut fpeculanDd,^. s
lapide obduSias.
The firft time we hear of glafs made among the
Romans was in the reign of I iberius, when Pliny re¬
lates that an artift had his houfe demolilhed for mak¬
ing glafs malleable, or rather flexible •, though Pe-
tronius Arbiter, and fome others, allure us, that the
emperor ordered the artift to be beheaded for his in¬
vention.
It appears, however, that before the conqueft of
Britain by the Romans, glafs-houfes had been erefted
in this ifland, as well as ih Gaul, Spain, and Italy.—
Hence, in many parts of the country are to be found
annulets of glafs, having a narrow perforation and thick
rim, denominated by the remaining Britons gleineu naid-
reedh, or glafs adders, and which were probably in for¬
mer times ufed as amulets by the druids f. It can f See An-
fcarcely be queftioned that the Britons were fufficientlyjwW* r
well verfed in the manufacture of glafs, to form out0,ww-
of it many more ufeful inftruments than the glafs beads.
Hiftory indeed affures us, that they did manufacture a
confiderable quantity of glafs veffels. Thefe, like their
annulets, were molt probably green, blue, yellow, or
black, and many ot them curioufly ftreaked with other
colours. The procefs in the manufacture would be
nearly the fame with that of the Gauls or Spaniards.
The fand of their fhores being reduced to a fufficient
degree of finenefs by art, was mixed with three-tourtns
5 B of
G L A [
GlafK of its weight of their nitre (much the fame with our
kelp), and both were melted together. The metal was
then poured into other veffels, where it rvas left to
harden into a mafs, and afterwards replaced in the fur¬
nace, where it became tranfparent in the boiling^ and
w’as afterwards figured' by blowing, or modelling in
the lath, into fuch veffels as they wTanted.
It is not probable that the arrival of the Romans
would improve the glafs manufadlure among the Bri¬
tons. The taffe of the Romans at that time was juft
the reverfe of that of the inhabitants of this ifland. The
former preferred filver and gold to glafs for the com-
pofition of their drinking veffels. They made indeed
great improvements in their own at Rome, during the
government of Nero. The veffels then formed of-this
metal rivalled the bowls of porcelain in their dearnefs,
and equalled the cups of cryftal in their tranfparency.
But thefe wrere by far too coftly for common ufe } and
therefore, in all probability, were never attempted in
Britain. The glafs commonly made ufe of by the Ro¬
mans was of a quality greatly inferior ; and, from the
fragments which have been difcovered at the ftations or
towns of either, appear to have confifted of a thick,
fometimes white, but moftly blue green, metal.
According to venerable Bede, artificers {killed in
making glafs for window's were brought over into Eng¬
land in the year 674, by Abbot Benedift, who were em¬
ployed in glazing the church and monaftery of Were-
mouth. According to others, they were firft brought
over by Wilfrid, biihop of Worcefter, about the fame
time. Till this time the art of making fuch glafs was
unknown in Britain 5 though glafs window's did not
begin to be common before the year 1180; till this
period they were very fcarce in private houfes, and con-
fidered as a kind of luxury, and as marks of great mag¬
nificence. Italy had them firft, next France, from
whence they came into England.
Venice, for many years, excelled all Europe in the
finenefs of its glaffes j and in the thirteenth century, the
Venetians w'ere the only people that had the fecret of
making cryftal looking glaffes. The great glafs works
w'ere at Muran, or Murano, a village near the city,
which furniihed all Europe with the fineft and largeft
glaffes.
The glafs manufa&ure was firft begun in England in
I557: hner fo^ was made in the place called
Crutched Friars, in London ; the fine flint glafs, little
inferior to that of Venice, was firft made in the Savoy
houfe, in the Strand, London. This manufa&ure ap¬
pears to have been much improved in 1635, when it
was carried on with fea coal or pit coal inftead of wood,
and a monopoly was granted to Sir Robert Manfell’
who was allowed to import the fine Venetian flint glaffes
foi drinking, the art of making w'hich was not brought
to perfedion before the reign of William III. But the
firft glafs plates, for looking glaffes and coach windows,
were made, 1673* Latnbeth, by the encouragement
of the duke of Buckingham •, w'ho, in 1670, introduced
the manufadure of fine glafs into England, by means
of Venetian artifts, with amazing fuccefs. So that with¬
in a century paft, the French and Englifti have not on¬
ly come up to, but even furpaffed the Venetians, and
we are now no longer fupplied from abroad.
The French made a confiderable improvement in the
art of glafs, by the invention of a method to call very
746 ] G L A
large plates, till then unknown, and fcarce pradifed yet Glaft.
by any but themfelves and the Englifti. That court  v—^
applied itfelf with a laudable induftry to cultivate and
improve the glafs manufadure. A company of glafs-
men was eftabliftied by letters patent ; and it was pro¬
vided by an arret, not only that the working in glafs
Ihould not derogate any thing from nobility, but even
that none but nobles rtiould be allow'ed to w'ork there¬
in.
An extenfive manufadory of this elegant and valu¬
able branch of commerce w'as firft eftablilhed in Lan-
caihire, about the year 1773, through the fpirited ex¬
ertions of a very refpedable body of proprietors, who
W'ere incorporated by an ad of parliament. From
thofe various difficulties conftantly attendant upon new
undertakings, when they have to contend w'ith power¬
ful foreign eftablifhments, it was for fome time con-
fiderably embarraffed ; but government, of late, having
taken off fome reftridions that bore hard upon it, and
made fome judicious regulations relative to the mode
of levying the excife duty, it now bids fair to rival, if
not furpafs, the moft celebrated continental manufac¬
tures, both with refped to the quality, brilliancy, and
fize of its produdions. 2
With regard to the theory of vitrification, wTe are Tt.eory of
almoft totally in the dark. In general, it feems to be vitrification
that ftate in which folid bodies are, by the vehement Ulicerta'n*
adion of fire, fitted for being diflipated or carried off
m vapour. In all vitrifications there is a plentiful eva¬
poration : and if any folid fubftance is carried off in
vapour by the intenfe heat of a burning fpeculum, a
vitrification is always obferved previoully to take place. ^
1 he difference, then, between the ftate of fufion and
vitrification of a folid body we may conceive to be,
that in the former the element of fire ads upon the
parts of the folid in fuch a manner as only to disjoin
them, and render the fubftance fluid 5 but in vitrifica- •
tion the fire not only disjoins the particles, but com¬
bines with them in a latent ftate into a third fubftance;
which, having now as much fire as it can contain, can
receive no further change from that element except
being carried off in vapour.
But though w'e are unable to effed this change up¬
on folid bodies without a very violent heat, it is other-
wife in the natural proceffes. By what wre call ci'yjlal-
lixatwn, nature produces more perfed glaffes than we
can make with our furnaces. Thefe are called precious
Jlones; but in all trials they difcover the eflential pro¬
perties of glafs, and not of ftones. The moft diftin-
guiftiing property of glafs is its refilling the force of
fire, fo that this element cannot calcine or change it
as it does other bodies, but can only melt it, and
then, carry it off in vapours. To this laft all the
precious ftones are fubjed. The diamond (the hard-
eft of them all) may be diflipated in a lefs degree of
heat than what would diflipate common glafs. Nor
can it be any objedion to this idea, that fome kinds
of glafs are capable of being converted into a kind
of porcelain by a long-continued cementation with cer¬
tain materials. This change happens only to thofe
kinds of glafs which are made of alkaline fait and
fand ; and Dr Lewis hath ftiown that this change is
produced by the diflipation of the faline principle,
W'hich is the leaft fixed of the two. Glafs, therefore,
we may ftill confider as a fubftance upon which the fire
has
Glafs.
G L A [ 747 1 , G
has no other effea than either to melt or difiipate it in his principles of percuffion.
3
Remark¬
able pro¬
perties of
glals.
vapour.
The other properties of glafs are very remarkable,
fome of which follow :
1. It is one of the moft elaftic bodies in nature. If
the force with which glafs balls itrike each other be
reckoned 16, that wherewith they recede by virtue of
their elafticity will be nearly 15.
2. When glafs is fuddenly cooled, it becomes ex¬
ceedingly brittle; and this brittlenefs is fometimes
attended with very furprifmg phenomena. Hollow balls
made of unannealed glafs, with a fmall hole in them,
will fly to pieces by the heat of the hand only, if the
hole by which the internal and external air communi¬
cate be flopped with a finger. Some veffels, however,
fragility"of made of fuch unannealed glafs have been difeover-
unannealed ed, which have the remarkable property ^of refilling
Surprifing
glafs.
Attempts
to account
for it.
very hard ftrokes given from without, though they
driver to pieces by the fhocks received from the. fall of
very light and minute bodies dropped into their cavi¬
ties. Thefe glafies may be made of any fhape : all
that needs be obferved in making them is, that their
bottom be thicker than their fides. I he thicker the
bottom is, the eafier do the glaffes break. One whofe
bottom is three fingers breadth in thicknefs flies with
as much eafe at leaft as the thinneft glafs. Some of
thefe veffels have been tried with llrokes of a mallet
fufficient to drive a nail into wood tolerably hard, and
have held good without breaking. They have alfo
refilled the fhock of feveral heavy bodies, let fall into
their cavities, from the height of two or three feet;
as mufket balls, pieces of iron, or other metal pyrites,
jafper, wood, bone, &c. But this is not furprifing,
as other glaffes of the fame fliape and fize will do the
fame : but the wonder is, that taking a fliiver of flint
of the fize of a fmall pea, and letting it faB into the
glafs only from the height of three inches, in about
two feconds the glals flies, and fometimes at the very
moment of the ftrock j nay, a bit of flint no larger
than a grain, dropped into feveral glaffes fucceffively,
though it did not immediately break them, yet when
fet by, they all flew7 in lefs than three quarters of an
hour. Some other bodies produce the fame effe& with
flint; as fapphire, diamond, porcelain, hard temper¬
ed fteel j allb marbles fuch as boys play with, and like*
wife pearls.
Thefe experiments were made before the Royal
Society j and fucceeded equally when the glaffes were
held in the hand, when they were relied on a pillow7,
put in water, or filled with w7ater. It is alfo remark¬
able, that the glaffes broke upon having their bottoms
flightly rubbed with the finger, though forne of them
did not fly till half an hour after the rubbing. If the
glaffes are everywhere extremely thin, they do not
break in thefe circumftances.
Some have pretended to account for thefe pheno¬
mena, by faying, that the bodies dropped into the
veffels caufe a concuflion which is llronger than the
cohefive force of the glafs, and confequently that a
rupture mull enfue. But why does not a ball of iron,
gold, filver, or copper, which are perhaps a thoufand
times heavier than the flint, produce the lame eft’efl ?
It is becaufe they are not elallic. But finely iron is
more elallic than the end of one’s finger. Mr Euler
has endeavoured to account for thefe appearances from
L A
   ^ He thinks that this ex- Glafs.
periment entirely overthrow’s the opinion ot thofe who “-y—
meafure the force of percuffion by the vis vivo, or ab-
folute apparent ftrength of the ftroke. According
to his principles, the great hardnefs and angular fi¬
gure of the flint, which makes the fpace of contact
with the glafs extremely fmall, ought to caule an im-
preflion on the glafs vaftly greater than lead, or any
other metal j and this may account ior the hint s
breaking the veffel, though the bullet, even falling
from a confiderable height, does no damage. Hollow7
cups made of green bottle glafs, fome of them three
inches thick at the bottom, were inftantly broken by a
Driver of flint weighing about two grains, though they
had refilled the fliock of a mulket ball from the height
of three feet.
That Mr Euler’s theory cannot be conclufive more
than the other, mull appear evident from a very flight
confideration. It is not by angular bodies alone that
the glaffes are broken. The marbles with which chil¬
dren play are round, and yet they have the fame effefl
with the angular flint. Befides, if it was the mere
force of percuffion which broke the glafles, undoubt¬
edly the frafture would always take place at tlm \ers
inllant of the llroke j but we have leen that this did
not happen fometimes till a very confiderable Ipace ot
time had elapfed. It is evident, therefore, that this
effedl is occafioned by the putting in motion fome
fubtile fluid with which the fubllance of the glafs is
filled ; and that the motions of this fluid, when once
excited in a particular part of the glafs, foon propagate
themfelves through the whole or greatell part of it, by
which means the cohefive power becomes at lall too
weak to refill them. I here can be little doubt that
the fluid juft now7 mentioned is that of ele&ricity. It
is known to exift in glafs in very great quantity ; and
it alfo is known to be capable of breaking glaffes even
when annealed with the greateft Care, if put into too
violent a motion. Probably the cooling of glafs haftily
may make it more eledlric than is confiftent with its
cohefive pow*er, fo that it is broken by the Ic^ff
creale of motion in the eleftric fluid by frnflion or
otherw’ife. This is evidently the cafe when it is bro¬
ken by rubbing with the finger; but why it ftiould
alfo break by the mere contaft of flint and the other
bodies above mentioned, has not yet been fatisfaflorily
accounted for. # , 5
A moft remarkable phenomenon alfo is produced m Rotation of
glafs tubes placed in certain circumftances. When thefe tubes
are laid before a fire in a horizontal pofition, having ^e°rea
their extremities properly fupported, they acquire a
rotatory motion round their axis, and alfo a progref-
five motion towards the fire, even when their fupports
are declining from the fire, fo that the tubes will move
a little w7ay up hill towards the fire. W hen the pro- _
greffive motion of the tubes towards the fire is flopped
by any obftacle, their rotation ftill continues. When
the tubes are placed in a nearly upright pofture, leaning
to the right hand, the motion will be from eaft to weft ;
but if they lean to the left hand, their motion will be
from weft to eaft , and the nearer they are placed to the
perfedlly upright pofture, the lefs will the motion be
either w7ay. *
If the tube is placed horizontally on a glafs pane,
the 'fragment, for inftance, of coach window-glafs, in-
^ B 2 ftead
G L A [ 748 ] G L A
* N° 476.
§ l-
Attempts
to account
for it.
p. 663.
Glafs. ftead of moving towards tlie fire, it will move from it,
"■■“v and about its axis in a contrary direffion to what it
had done before ; nay, it wall recede from the fire, and
move a little up hill when the plane inclines towards
the fire. Thefe experiments are recorded in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfadtions *. They fucceeded bell with
tubes about 20 or 22 inches long, which had in each
end a pretty llrong pin fixed in cork for an axis.
The reafon given for thefe phenomena, is the fwell-
ing of the tubes towards the fire by the heat, which
is known to expand all bodies. For, fay the adopters
of this hypothefis, granting the exifience of fuch a
fwelling, gravity mull pull the tube down when fup-
ported near its extremities; and a frefh part being ex-
pofed to the fire, it muft alfo fwell out and fall down,
and fo on.— But without going farther in the expla¬
nation of this hypothefis, it may be here remarked,
that the fundamental principle on which it proceeds is
falfe ; for though fire indeed make bodies expand,
it does not increafe them in weight ; and therefore the
fides of the tube, though one of them is expanded by
the fire, mulf ffill remain in equilibria ; and hence wre
muft conclude, that the caufes of thefe phenomena re¬
main yet to be difcovered.
4. Glafs is lefs dilatable by heat than metalline
fubftances, and folid glafs flicks are lefs dilatable than
tubes. This was firft difcovered by Col. Roy, in ma¬
king experiments in order to reduce barometers to a
greater degree of exa&nefs than hath hitherto been
found pra&icable ; and fince his experiments wrere
made, one of the tubes 18 inches long, being compa¬
red with a folid glafs rod of the fame length, the for¬
mer was found by a pyrometer to expand four times
as much as the other, in a heat approaching to that
of boiling oil.— On account of the general quality
which glafs has of expanding lefs than metal, M. de
Luc recommends it to be ufed in pendulums : and he
fays it has alfo this good quality, that its expanfions
are always equable, and proportioned to the degrees
of heat • a quality which is not to be found in any other
fubftance yet known.
5. Glafs appears to be more fit for the conden-
fation of vapours than metallic fubftances. An open
glafs filled with water, in the furnmer time, wdll ga¬
ther drops of water on the outfide, juft as far as the
water in the infide reaches; and a perfon’s breath
blown on. it manifeftly moiftens it. Glafs alfo be¬
comes moift with dew, wdren metals do not. See
Dew.
6. A drinking, glafs partly filled with water, and
rubbed on the brim with a wet finger, yields mufical
notes, higher or lower as the glafs is more or lefs full :
and will make the liquor frilk and leap. See Har¬
monica.
7. Glafs is poffeffed of very great elearical virtues.
See Feectricity, pajfim
Materials for Mating of Glass. The materials where-
m glais is made, we have already mentioned to be fait
and fand or ftones.
1. 1 he fait here ufed is procured from a fort of alhes
brought from the Levant, called polverine, or rochet,a •
which allies are thofe of a fort of water plant called
fola, Botany ^ f’• the fu™mer> in the fun, and
Mcx. burnt m heaPs> either on tbe ground or on iron grates •
the alhes falling into a pit, grow into a hard mafs or
Ibid.
vol. Ixviii.
F 474-
Materials
for glafs.
f See Sal-
ftone, fit for ufe. It may alfo be procured from com¬
mon kelp, or tne allies of the ficus veficu/ofus. See
Kelp.
J. o extraff the fait, thefe allies, or polverine, are
powdered and fifted, then put into boiling water, and
there kept till one third of the water be confumed ;
the whole being ftirred up from time to time, that
the alhes may incorporate with the fluid, and all its
falts be extra&ed : then the veffel is filled up with
new wrater, and boiled over again, till one half be
confumed ; what remains is a fort of ley, ftrongly im¬
pregnated with fait. I his ley, boiled over again in
frelh coppers, thickens in about 24 hours, and flioots
its fait; which is to be ladled out, as it flioots, into
earthen pans, and thence into wooden vats to drain
and dry. This done, it is grofsly pounded, and thus
put in a fort of oven, called calcar, to dry. It may
be added, that there are other plants, belides kali and
fucus, which yield a fait fit for glafs : fuch are the
common way thiftle, bramble, hops, wormwood, woad,
tobacco, fern, and the whole leguminous tribe, as peafe,
beans, &c.
t earl allies form a leading flux nuthe manufadlure
of glais, and moftly fupply the place of the Levant
allies, the barillas of Spain, and many other kinds,
which were formerly brought here for making both
glafs and foap.
There are other fluxes ufed for different kinds of
glafs, and for various purpofes, as calcined lead, nitre,
fea fait, borax, arfenic, fmiths clinkers, and wood-
afties, containing the earth and lixiviate faits as pro¬
duced by incineration. With regard to thefe feveral
fluxes, we may obferve, in general, that the more
calx of lead, or other metallic earth, enters into the
compofition of any glafs, fo much the more fufible,
foft,. coloured, and denfe this glafs is, and reciprocally.
The colours given to glafs by calces of lead, are
ftiades of yellow : on the other hand, glaffes that con¬
tain only faline fluxes partake of the properties of falts ;
they, are lefs heavy, lefs denfe, harder, whiter, more’
brilliant, and more brittle than the former ; and glaf¬
fes containing both faline and metallic fluxes do alfo
partake of the properties of both thefe fubftances.
Glaffes. too falin.e are eafily fufceptible of alteration by
the action of air and water : efpecially thole in which
alkalies prevail ; and thefe are alfo liable to be injured
by acids. Thofe that contain too much borax and
arfenic, though at firft they appear very beautiful,
quickly tarnifti and become opake when expofed to
air. By attending to thefe properties of different
fluxes, phlogiftic or. faline, the artift may know how
to adjuft the proportions of thefe to fand, or powdered
flints, for the various kinds of glafs. See the article
Vitrification.
2. T he fand or ftone, called by the artifts tarfo, is
the fecond ingredient in glafs, and that which gives it
the body and firmnefs. Thefe ftones, Agricola ob-
ferves, muft be luch as will fufe ; and of thefe fuch as
are white and tranfparent are beft ; fo that cryftal
challenges the precedency of all others.
At Venice they chiefly ule a fort of pebble, found
in the river Tefino, refembling white marble, and cal-
Itd cuogolo. Indeed Ant. Neri allures us, that all ftones
tvhich will ftrike fire with fteel, are fit to vitrify ; but
Dr Morret ftxows, that there are fome exceptions from
this
G L A
Glafs. tliis rule. Flints are admirable
■—v—powdered, and fearced, make a pure white cryftalline
metal : but the expence of preparing them makes the
mailers of our glafs-houfes fparing of their ufe. Where
proper ftones cannot be fo conveniently had, fand is
ufed. The beft for this purpofe is that which is white,
final!, and ihining ; examined by the microfcope, it
appears to be fmall fragments of rock cryilal. For
green ghafs, that which is of a foft texture, and more
gritty •, it is to be well wafhed, which is all the prepa¬
ration it needs. Our glafs-houfes are furniihed with
white fand for their crytlal glafies from Lynn in Nor¬
folk and Maidilone in Kent, and with the coarfer for
green glafs from Woolwich.
Some mention a third ingredient in glafs, viz. man-
ganefe, a kind of pfeudo loaddone, dug up in Ger¬
many, Italy, and even in Mendip hills in Snmerfetfhire.
But the proportion hereof to the reil is very inconfi-
derable 5 belide, that it is not ufed in all glafs. Its
office is to purge off the natural greenifh colour, and
give it fome other tinflure required.
For this purpofe it fhould be chofen of a deep co¬
lour, and free from fpecks of metalline appearance,
or a lighter call ; manganefe requires to be well calcined
in a hot furnace, and then to undergo a thorough levi-
gation. The effe6l of manganefe in deftroying the co¬
lours of glafs, and hence called the foap of glafs, is ac¬
counted for by M. Montamy, in his Traite des Couleurs
pout' la Peinture en Email, in the following manner :
the manganefe deftroys the green, olive, and blue colours
of glafs, by adding to them a purple tinge, and by the
mixture producing a blackilh brown colour ; and as
blacknefs is caufed merely by an abforption of the rays
of light, the blackifh tinge given to the glafs by the
mixture of colours, prevents the refleftion of fo many
rays, and thus renders the glafs lefs coloured than be¬
fore. But the black produced by this fubftance fug-
gefts an obvious reafon for ufing it very fparingly in
thofe compofitions of glafs which are required to be
very tranfparent. Nitre or faltpetre is alfo ufed with
the fame intention 5 for by deflroying in a certain de¬
gree the phlogifton which gives a ftrong tinge of yel¬
low to glafs prepared with lead as a flux, it ferves to
free it from this coloured tinge } and in faline glafles,
nitre is requifite in a fmaller proportion to render them
fufficiently tranfparent, as in the cafe of looking glafs
and other kinds of plates.
Kinds of Glass. The manufaflured glafs now in
ufe may be divided into three general kinds j white
tranfparent glafs, coloured glafs, and common green or
bottle glafs. Of the firfl kind there is a great variety ;
as the flint glafs, as it is called with us, and the Ger¬
man cryflal glafs, which are applied to the fame ufes $
the glafs for plates, for mirrors, or looking glaffes j the
glafs for windows and other lights ; and the glafs for
phials and fmall veflels. And thefe again differ in the
fubllances employed as fluxes in forming them, as well
as in the ccarfenefs or finenefs of fuch as are ufed for
their body. The flint and cryftal, mirror and belt
window glafs, not only require fuch purity in the
fluxes, as may render it practicable to free the glafs
perfedly from all colour ; but for the fame reafon
likewife, either the white Lynn fand, calcined flints,
or white pebbks, fliould be ufed. The others do not
demand the fame nicety in the choice of the materials}
[ 749 1 G L A
and when calcined, though the fecond kind of window glafs, and the beff
kind of phial, will not be fo clear as they ought, if
either too brown fand or impure falts be fuffered to
enter into their compofition.
Of coloured glafs there is a great variety of forts,
differing in their colour or other properties according
to the occafions for which they are wanted. The
differences in the latter kind depend on the accidental
preparation and management of the artiils by whom
they are manufactured, as will be afterwards ex¬
plained.
Furnaces for the Making of Glass. In this manufac¬
ture there are three forts of furnaces 5 one called cal¬
car is for the frit; the fecond is for working the
glafs} the third ferves to anneal the glafs^ and is call¬
ed the leer. See Plate CCXLVII.
The calcar refembles an oven ten feet long, feven
feet broad, and two deep ; the fuel, which in Britain
is fea coal, is put into a trench on one fide of the fur¬
nace j and the flame reverberating from the roof upon
the frit calcines it. The glafs furnace, or working
furnace, is round, of three yards diameter, and two
high : or thus proportioned. It is divided into three
parts, each of which is vaulted. The lower part is
properly called the crown, and is made in that form.
Its ufe is to keep a brifk fire, which is never put out.
The mouth is called the bocca. There are feveral holes
in the arch of this crown, through which the flame
paffes into the fecond vault or partition, and reverbe¬
rates into the pots filled with the ingredients above
mentioned. Round the infides are eight or more pots
placed, and piling pots on them. The number of pots
is always double that of the boccas or mouths, or of
the number of workmen, that each may have one pot
refined to work out of, and another for metal to refine
in while he wmrks out of the other. Through the
working holes the metal is taken out of the pots, and
the pots are put into the furnace \ and thefe holes are
flopped with moveable covers made of lute and brick,
to fcreen the workmen’s eyes from the fcorching flames.
On each fide of the bocca or mouth is a bocarella or
little hole, out of which coloured glafs or finer metal
is taken from the piling pot. Above this oven there
is the third oven or leer, above five or fix yards long,
where the Veffels or glafs are annealed or cooled :
this part confifls of a tow^er, befides the leer, into
wdiich the flame afcends from the furnace. The tower
has two mouths, through which the glaffes are put in
with a fork, and fet on the floor or bottom : but they
are drawn out on iron pans called fraches, through the
leer, to cool by degrees j fo that they are quite cold
by the time they reach the mouth of the leer, which
enters the farofel or room where the glaffes are to be
flowed.
But the green-glafs furnace is fquare ; and at each
angle it has an arch for annealing or cooling glaffes.
The metal is wrought on tw7o oppofite fides, and on
the other two they have their colours, into which are
made linnet holes for the fire to come from the fur¬
nace to bake the frit, and to difcharge the fmoke.
Fires are made in the arches to anneal the work, fo
that the whole procefs is done in one furnace.
Thefe furnaces muff not be of brick, but of hard
fandy flones. In France, they build the outfide of
brick ) and the inner part, to bear the fire, is. made of a
foft
Glafs.
/
G LA [ 750 ] G L A
-Giafs. fort of fullers earth, or tobacco-pipe clay, or which
earth they alfo make their melting pots. In Britain
the pots are made of Stourbridge clay.
Mr Blancourt obferves, that the vvorft and roughed:
work in this art is the changing the pots when they
are rvorn out or cracked. In this cale, the great
working hole muft be uncovered ; the faulty pot muft
be taken out with iron hooks and forks, and a new
one mud be fpeedily put in its place, through the
ilames, by the hands only. For this work, the man
guards himfelf with a garment made of fkins, in the
fhape of a pantaloon, that covers him all but his eyes,
and is made as wet as podible; the eyes are defended
with a proper fort of glafs.
Injlruments for Making of Glass, I he indruments
made ufe of in tjiis work may be reduced to thefe
that follow. A blowing pipe, made of iron, about
twro feet and a half long, wdth a wooden handle. An
iron rod to take up the glafs after it is blown, and
to cut off the former. Sciffars to cut the glafs when
it comes off from the fird hollow iron. Shears to cut
and fhape great glaffes, &c. An iron ladle, with the
end of the handle cafed wdth wood, to take the metal
out of the refining pot, to put it into the workmen’s
pots. A fmall iron ladle cafed in the fame manner,
to fkim the alkalic fait that fwims at top. Shovels,
one like a peel, to take up the great glaffes ; another
like a fire-fhovel, to feed the furnace with coals. A
hooked iron fork, to dir the matter in the pots. An
iron rake for the fame purpofe, and to dir the frit. An
iron fork, to change or pull the pots out of the fur¬
nace, &c.
Compoftions for White and Cryfal Glass, i. To
make cryfalg/afs, take of the whited tarfo, pounded
fmall, and fearced as fine as flour, 200 pounds •, of the
fait of polverine 130 pounds ; mix them together, and
put them into the furnace called the calcar^ fird heat¬
ing it. For an hour keep a moderate fire, and keep
dirring the materials with a proper rake, that they may
incorporate and calcine together j then increafe the fire
for five hours’, after which take out the matter j wdrich
being now fufhciently calcined, is called frit. From
the calcar put the frit in a dry place, and cover it up
from the dud for three or four months. Now7 to make
the glafs or crydal: take of this crydal frit, called alfo
bollito ; fet it in pots in the furnace, adding to it a due
quantity of m&gnefia or manganefe : when the two are
fufed, cad the fluor into fair wrater, to clear it of the
fait called fandiver ; which would otherwife make the
crydal obfcure and cloudy. . This lotion mud be re¬
peated again and again, as often as needful, till the
crydal be fully purged •, or this fcum may be taken off
by means of proper ladles. Then fet it to boil four,
five, or fix days j which done, fee whether it have man¬
ganefe enough $ and if it be yet greenilh, add more
manganefe, at difcretion, by little and little at a time,
taking care not to overdofe it, becaufe the manganefe
inclines it to a blackilh hue. Then let the metal clarify,
till it becomes of a cl^ar and Ihining colour $ which
done, it is fit to be blowai or formed into veffels at plea-
fur e.
2. Flint glafs, as it is called by us, is of the fame
general kind with that which in other places is called
crydal glafs. It has this name from being originally
made with calcined flints, before the ufe of the white
1
fand w7as underflood 5 and retains the name, though no
flints are now ufed in the compofition of it. This
flint glafs differs from the other, in having lead for its
flux, and white fand for its body ; whereas the fluxes
ufed for the crydal glafs are falts or arfenic, and the
body cOnfifts of calcined flints or white river pebbles,
tarfo, or fuch flones. To the white fand and lead a
proper proportion of nitre is added, to burn away the
phlogiflon of the lead, and alfo a fmall quantity of
magnefia } and in fome works they ufe a proportional
quantity of arfenic to aid the fluxing ingredients. The
mod perfedt kind of flint glafs may be made by fufing
with a very ffrong fire 120 pounds of the wThite fand,
50 pounds of red lead, 40 pounds of the bed pearl
afhes, 20 pounds of nitre, and five ounces of magnefia.
Another compofition of flint glafs, w'hich is laid to
come nearer to the kind now made, is the following:
120 pounds of fand, 54 pounds of the bed pearl allies,
36 pounds of red lead, 1 2 pounds of nitre, and 6 ounces
of magnefia. To either of thefe a pound or twro of ar¬
fenic may be added, to increafe the flux of the compo¬
fition, A cheaper compofition of flint glafs may be
made with 120 pounds of wdiite fand, 35 pounds of
the bed pearl affies; 40 pounds of red lead, 13 pounds
of nitre, 6 pounds of arfenic, and 4 ounces of magnefia j
or indead of the arfenic may be fubflituted 15 pounds
of common fait ; but this will be more brittle than
the other. The cheapefl compofition for the word
kind of flint glafs confifls of 120 pounds of white land,
30 pounds of red lead, 20 pounds of the bell pearl allies,
10 pounds of nitre, 15 pounds of common fait, and fix
pounds of arfenic. The bed German cryflal glafs is
made of 120 pounds of calcined flints or white fand, 70
pounds of the bed pearl allies, 10 pounds of faltpetre,
half a pound of arfenic, and five ounces of magnefia.
And a cheaper compofition is formed of 1 20 pounds of
calcined flints or white fand, 46 pounds of pearl affies,
7 pounds of nitre, 6 pounds of arfenic, and 5 ounces of
magnefia.
A glafs much harder than any prepared in the com¬
mon way, may be made by means of borax in the fol¬
lowing method : Take four ounces of borax, and an
ounce of fine fand } reduce both to a fubtile powder,
and melt them together in a large clofe crucible fet in
a wind furnace, keeping up a drong fire for half an
hour 5 then take out the crucible, and when cold break
it, and there will be found at the bottom a pure hard
glafs capable of cutting common glafs like a diamond.
This experiment, duly varied, fays Dr Shaw, may lead
to feveral ufeful improvements in the arts of glafs, en¬
amels, and faftitious gems, and fhows an expeditious
method of making glafs, without any fixed alkali, which
has been generally thought an effential ingredient in
glafs, and it is not yet known whether calcined crydal
or other fubdances being added to this fait indead of
fand, it might not make a glafs approaching to the na¬
ture of a diamond.
There are three principal kinds of glafies, didin-
guiffied by the form or manner of working them j viz.
I. Round glafs, as thofe of our veffels, phials, drinking
glaffes, See. II. Table or window glafs, of which there
are divers kinds ; viz. crown glafs, jealous glafs, &c.
III. Plate glafs, or mirror glafs.
I. Working or Blowing Round Glass. The working
fumace? we have obferved, is round, and has fix boccas
or
Glafe.
G LA f 7
Clr.ft. or apertures: at one of thefe, called the greet bocca, the
“""v furnace is heated, and the pots of frit are at this fet in
the furnace j two other fmall holes, called bocareilas,
ferve to lade or take out the melted metal, at the end
of an iron, to work the glafs. At the other holes they
put in pots of fulible ingredients, to be prepared, and
at lall emptied into the lading pot.
There are fix pots in each furnace^ all made of to¬
bacco-pipe clay, proper to fuftain not only the heat of
the fire, but alfo the effedd of the polverine, which pe¬
netrates every thing elfe. There are only two of thefe
pots that work : the relt ferve to prepare the matter
tor them. The fire of the furnace is made and kept up
with dry hard wood, carl in without intermiflion at fix
apertures.
When the matter contained in the two pots is fuf-
ficiently vitrified, they proceed to blow or falhion it.
For this purpofe the workman dips his blowing pipe
into the melting pot ; and by turning it about, the
metal flicks to the iron more firmly than turpentine.
This he repeats four times, at each time rolling the
end of his inftrument, with the hot metal thereon, on
a piece of plate iron ; over which is a vefiel of water
which helps to cool, and fo to confolidate and to dif-
pofe that matter to bind more firmly with what is to
be taken next out of the melting pot. But after he has
dipt a fourth time, and the workman perceives there
is metal enough on the pipe, he claps his mouth im¬
mediately to the other end of it, and blows gently
through the iron tube, till the metal lengthens like a
bladder about a foot. Then he rolls it on a marble
flone a little while to polifh it ; and blows a fecond
time, by which he brings it to the fliape of a globe of
about 18 or 20 inches diameter. Every time he blows
into the pipe, he removes it quickly to his cheek ;
otherwife he would be in danger, by often blowing, of
drawing the dame into his mouth : and this globe may
be flattened by returning it to the fire ; and brought
into any form by ftamp irons, which are always ready.
When the glafs is thus blown, it is cut off at the collet
or neck •, which is the narro\y part that ftuck to the
iron. The method of performing this is as follows :
the pipe is refted x>n an iron bar, clofe by the collet 5
then a drop of cold water being laid on the collet, it
will crack about a quarter of an inch, which, with a
flight blow or cut of the ihears wall immediately fepa-
rate the collet.
After this is done, the operator dips the iron rod
into the melting pot, by which he extradls as much
metal as ferves to attract the glafs he has made, to
which he now fixes this rod at the bottom of his work,
oppofite to the opening made by the breaking of the
collet. In this pofition the glafs is carried to the great
bocca or mouth of the oven, to be heated and fcald-
ed ; by which means it is again put into fuch a foft
ftate, that, by the help of an iron inftrument, it can
be pierced, opened, and widened, without breaking.
But the veffel is not finiftied till it is returned to the
great bocca •, where being again heated thoroughly,
and turned quickly about with a circular motion, it
will open to any fize, by the means of the heat and
motion.
If there remain any fuperfluities, they are cut off
with the fhears \ for till the glafs is cool, it remains in a
foft flexible ftate. It is therefore taken from the bocca,
■51 ] . G L A
and carried to an earthen bench, covered with brands, Olafs.
which are coals extinguifhed, keeping it turning j be- v~“'
caufe that motion prevents any fettling, and preferves
an evennefs in the face of the glafs, where, as it cools,
it comes to its confiftency ; being firft cleared from
the iron rod by a flight ftroke by the hand of the work¬
man.
If the veffel conceived in the workman’s mind, and
whofe body is already made, requires a foot, or a han¬
dle, or any other member or decoration, he makes them
feparately ; and now effays to join them with the help
of hot metal, which he takes out of the pots with his
iron rod : but the glafs is not brought to its true hard-
nefs till it has paffed the leer or annealing oven, deferib-
ed before.
II. Working or blowing of Window or Table Glazs.
The method of working round glafs, or veffels of any
fort, is in every particular applicable to the working of
window or table glafs, till the blowing iron has been
dipt the fourth time. But then inftead of rounding it,
the workman blows, and fo manages the metal upon the
iron plate, that it extends two or three feet in the form
of a cylinder. This cylinder is put again to the fire,
and blown a fecond time, and is thus repeated till it is
extended to the dimenfions required, the fide to which
the pipe is fixed diminifhing gradually till it ends in a
pyramidal form ; fo that, to bring both ends nearly to
the fame diameter, while the glafs is thus flexible, he
adds a little hot metal to the end oppofite the pipe, and
draws it out with a pair of iron pincers, and immediate¬
ly cuts off the fame end with the help of a little cold
water as before.
The cylinder being now open at one end, is carried
back to the bocca ; and there, by the help of cold wa¬
ter, it is cut about eight or ten inches from tlie iron
pipe or rod ; and the whole length at another place, by
which alfo it is cut off from the iron rod. Then it is-
heated gradually on an earthen table, by which it opens
in length •, while the workman, with an iron tool, al-'
ternately lowers and raifes the two halves of the cylin¬
der ; which at laft will open like a (beet of paper, and
fall into the fame flat form in which it ferves for ufe j
m which it is preferved by heating it over again, cool¬
ing it on a table of’copper, and hardening it 24 hours
m the annealing furnace, to which it is carried upon
forks. In this furnace an hundred tables of glafs may
lie at a time, without injury to each other, by feparat-
mg them into tents, with an iron ftiiver between, which
diminifhes the weight by dividing it, and keeps the
tables flat and even.
Of window or table glafs there are various forts,
made in different places, for the ufe of building. Thofe
moft known among us are given us by the author of the
Builder’s Dictionary, as follows :
1. Ct'own, of which, fays Neri, there are two kinds,
diftinguifhed by the places where they are wrought j viz.
Ratcliff crown glafs, which is the heft and cleareft, and
was firft made at the Bear garden, on the Bank fide,
Southwark, but fince at Ratcliff: of this there are 24
tables to the cafe, the tables being of a circular form,
about three feet fix inches in diameter. The other kind,
or Lambeth crown glafs, is of a darker colour than the
former, and more inclining to green.
r.I he beft window or crown glafs is made of white
fand 60 pounds, of purified pearl afhes 30 pounds, of
faltpetre
<
G L A t 75
Glafs. Taltpetre 15 pounds, of borax one pound, and of ane-
—v   nic half a pound. If the glals diould prove yellow,
•’magnefia mull be added. A cheaper compofition for
window glafs coniifts of 60 pounds of white fand, 25
pounds of unpurified pearl adies, 10 pounds of common
fait, 5 pounds of nitre, 2 pounds of arfenic, and one ^
ounce and a half of magnefia. The common or green
window glafs is com poled of 60 pounds of white land,
30 pounds of unpurified pearl afhes, 10 pounds of com¬
mon fait, 2 pounds of arfenic, and 2 ounces of magne¬
fia. But a cheaper compofition for this purpofe con-
fifts of 120 pounds of the cheapefl white fand, 30
pounds of unpurified pearl afhes, 60 pounds of wood
afhes, wrell burnt and fifted, 20 pounds of common fait,
and 5 pounds of arfenic.
2. French glafs, called alfo Ncrmandij glafs, and for¬
merly Lorraine glafs, becaufe made in thofe provinces.
At prefent it is made wholly in the nine glafs works ;
five whereof are in the foreft of Lyons, four in the
county of Eu j the laft at Beaumont near Rouen. It
is of a thinner kind than our crown glafs ; and when
laid on a piece of white paper, appears of a dirtyifh
green colour. There are but 2 5 tables of this to the
cafe.
3. German glafs is of tw-’o kinds, the white and the
green : the fir ft is of a whitifti colour, but is fubjeft to
thofe fmall curved ftreaks obferved in our Newcaftle
glafs, though free from the fpots and blemifhes thereof.
The green, befides its colour, is liable to the fame
ftreaks as the white, but both them are ftraighter and
lefs w'arped than our New caftle glafs.
4. Dutch glafs is not much unlike our Newcaftle
glafs either in colour or price. It is frequently much
warped like that, and the tables are but fmall.
5. Newcajlleglafs is that moft ufed in England. It
is of an afti colour, and much fubjedd to fpecks, ftreaks,
and other blemifhes j and befides is frequently warp¬
ed. Leybourn fays, there are 45 tables to the cafe,
each containing five fuperficial feet : fome fay there
are but 35 tables, and fix feet in each table.
6. Fhial glafs is a kind betwixt the flint glafs and
the common bottle or green glafs. The beft kind
may be prepared with 120 pounds of white fand, 50
pounds of unpurified pearl afhes, 10 pounds of com¬
mon fait, 5 pounds of arfenic, and 5 ounces of magne¬
fia. The compofition for green or common phial glafs
confifts of 120 pounds of the cheapeft white land, 80
pounds of wmod allies well burnt and fifted, 20 pounds
of pearl allies, 15 pounds of common fait, and 1 pound
ot arfenic.
The common bottle or green is formed of fand of
any kind fluxed by the allies of burnt wood, or of any
parts of vegetables 5 to which may be added the fcorite
or clinkers of forges. When the fofteft fand is ufed,
200 pounds of wood alhes will fuffice for 100 pounds
of fand, which are to be ground and mixed together.
The compofition with the clinkers confifts of 170
pounds of wood allies, too pounds of fand, and 50
pounds of clinkers or fcoriee, wThich are to be ground
and mixed together. If the clinkers cannot be ground,
they muft be broke into fmall pieces, and mixed with
the other matter without any grinding.
III. Working of Plate or Mirror Glass, i. The
materials of which this glafs is made are much the
2 ] G L A
fame as thofe of other works of glafs, viz. an alkali, Gh f-
falt and fand. y—.
The fait, however, ftjould not be that extracted from
polverine or the allies of the Syrian kali, but that from
barilla, growing about Alicant in Spain. It is very
rare that we can have the barilla pure ; the Spaniards
in burning the herb make a practice of mixing another
herb along with it, which alters its quality *, or of
adding fand to it to increafe the weight, which is
eafily difeovered if the addition be only made after
the boiling of the afiies, but next to impoilible if made
in the boiling. It is from this adulteration that thofe
threads and other defects in plate glafs arife. To
prepare the fait, they clean it well of all foreign mat¬
ters ; pound or grind it with a kind of mill, and finally
fift it pretty fine*
Pearl allies, properly purified, will furnilh the alkali
fait requifite for this purpofe ; but it will be neceffary
to add borax or common fait, in order to facilitate the
fufion, and prevent the glals from ftiffening in that,
degree of heat in which it is to be wrought into plates.
For purifying the pearl allies, diflblve them in four
times their weight of boiling water, in a pot of call
iron, always kept clean from ruft. Let the folution
be removed into a clean tub, and remain there 24 hours
or longer. Having decanted the clear part of the
fluid from the dregs or fediment, put it again in the
iron pot, and evaporate the water till the falts are left
perfectly dry. Preferve them in ftone jars, well fecu-
red from air and moifture.
Pearl allies may alfo be purified in the higheft de¬
gree, fo as to be proper for the manufacture of the
moft tranfparent glafs, by pulverizing three pounds of
the belt; pearl allies with fix ounces of faltpetre in a
glafs or marble mortar, till they are wrell mixed *, and
then putting part of the mixture into a large crucible,
and ex poling it in a furnace to a ftrong heat. When
this is red hot, throw in the reft gradually j and when
the whole is red hot, pour it out on a moiftened ftone
or marble, and put it into an earthen or clean iron pot,
with ten pints of water.j heat it over the fire till
the falts be entirely melted *, let it then Hand to cool,
and filter it through paper in a pewter cullender. When
it is filtered, put the fluid again into the pot, and eva¬
porate the fait to drynefs, which will then be as white
as fnow ) the nitre having burnt all the phlogiftic mat¬
ter that remained in the pearl alhes after their former
calcination.
As to the fand, it is to be fifted and walhed till
fuch time as the wrater come off very clear *, and wdren
it is well dried again, they mix it with the fait, paf-
fing the mixture through another fieve. This done,
they lay them in the annealing furnace for about two
hours 5 in which time the matter becomes very light
and ivhite : in this ftate they are called frit or fritta ;
and are to be laid, up in a dry clean place, to give
them time to incorporate : they lie here for at leaft a
year.
When they would employ this frit, they lay it for
fome hours in the furnace, adding to fome the frag¬
ments or fhards of old and ill made glaffes ; taking
care firft to calcine the lhards by heating them red
hot in the furnace, and thus calling them into cold
water. To the mixture muft likewife be add¬
ed
2
G L A
mangatiefe, to promote tlie fufion
The beft compoution for looking glafs plates conftfts
of 60 pounds of white fand cleanfed, 25 pounds of
purified pearl allies, 15 pounds of faltpetre, and 7
pounds of borax. If a yellow tinge fhould affed! the
glafs, a fmall proportion of magnefia, mixed with an
equal quantity of arfenic, fhould be added. An ounce
of the magnefia may be firft tried ; and it this proves
infufficient, the quantity fhould be increafed.
A cheaper compofition for looking glafs plate con-
fids of 60 pounds of the white fand, 20 pounds of
pearl allies, 10 pounds of common fait, 7 pounds of
nitre, 2 pounds of arfenic, and 1 pound of borax. I he
matter of which the glaffes are made at the famous
manufacture of St Gobin in France, is a compofition
of folder and of a very white fand, which are carefully
cleaned of all heterogeneous bodies ) afterwards wafhed
for feveral times, and dried fo as to be pulverized in a
mill, confiding of many pedles, which are moved by
horfes. When this is done, the fand is lifted through
lilk fieves and dried.
The matter thus far prepared is equally fit for plate
glafs, to be formed either for blowing or by calling.
The larged glades at St Gobin are run j the middle
fized and fmall ones are blown*
2. Blowing the plates. The workhoufes, furnaces,
&.c. ufed in the making of this kind of plate glafs, are
the fame, except that they are fmaller, and that the
carquaides are difpoied in a large covered gallery, over
againd the furnace, as thofe in the following article,
to w'hich the reader is referred.
After the materials are vitrified by the heat of the
fire, and the glafs is fufficiently refined, the workman
dips in his blowing iron, fix feet long, and two inches
in diameter, fharpened at the end which is put in the
mouth, and widened at the other, that the matter may
adhere to it. By this means he takes up a fmall ball
of matter, which dicks to the end of the tube by con-
flantly turning it. He then blows into the tube, that
the air may {well the annexed ball; and carrying it
over a bucket of water, which is placed on a fupport
at the height of about four feet, he fprinkles the end
of the tube to which the matter adheres, with water,
dill turning it, that by this cooling the matter may
coalefce with the tube, and be fit for fudaining a
greater weight. He dips the tube again into the fame
pot, and proceeds as before ; and dipping it into the pot
a third time, he takes it out, loaded with matter, in
the diape of a pear, about ten inches in diameter, and
a foot long, and cools it at the bucket; at the fame
time blowing into the tube, and with the adidance of
a labourer, giving it a balancing motion, he caufes the
matter to lengthen j which, by repeating this opera¬
tion feveral times, affumes the form of a cylinder, ter¬
minating like a ball at the bottom, and in a point at
the top. The adidant is then placed on a dool three
feet and a half high ; and on this dool there are two
'uprigkt pieces of timber, with a crofs beam of the
fame, for fupporting the glafs and tube, which are
kept in an oblique pofition by the adidant, that the
mailer wwkman may v ith a puncheon fet in a wooden
handle, and with a mallet, make a hole in the mafs :
this hole is drilled at the centre of the ball that termi¬
nates the cylinder, and is about an inch in diameter.
Voi*. IX. Part II.
[ 753 ] . G L A .
and purifica- When the glafs is pierced, the defe&s of it are per- ^
ceived ; if it is tolerably perfefl, the workman lays
the tub$ horizontally on a little iron treffel, placed on
the fupport of the aperture of the furnace. Having
expofed it to the heat for about half a quarter of an
hour, he takes it away, and with a pair of long and
broad drears, extremely fharp at the end, widens the
glafs, by infinuating the fhears into the hole made
with the puncheon, w'hild the adidant, mounted on the
dool, turns it round, till at lad the opening is fo large
as to make a perfect cylinder at bottom. Wken this
is done, the workman lays his glafs upon the treflels
at the mouth of the furnace to heat it : he then gives
it to his adidant on the dool, and with large fhears
cuts the mafs of matter up to half its height. There
is at the mouth of the furnace an iron tool called/>orcA/,
which is now heating, that it may unite and coalefce
with the glafs jud cut, and perform the office which
the tube did before it was Separated from the glafs.
This pontil is a piece of iron fix feet long, and in the
form of a cane or tube, having at the end of it a fmall
iron bar, a foot long, laid equally upon the long one,
and making wath it a T» This little bar is full of the
matter of the glafs, about four inches thick. This
red hot pontil is prefented to the diameter of the
glafs, which coalefces immediately with the matter
round the pontil, fo as to fupport the glafs for the
following operation. When this is done, they fepa-
rate the tube from the glafs, by driking a few blow’s
writh a chiffel upon the end of the tube which has been
cooled j fo that the glafs breaks dire£tly, and makes
this feparation, the tube being difcharged of the glais
now adhering to the pontil. They next prefent to the
furnace the pontil of the glafs, laying it on the treflel
to heat, and redden the end of the glafs, that the
w’orkman may open it w’ith his diears, as he has al¬
ready opened one end of it, to complete the cylinder $
the adillant holding it on his dool as before. For the
lad time, they put the pontil on the treffel, that the
glafs may become red hot, and the wmrkman cuts it
quite open with his (hears, right over &gaind the fore-
mentioned cut; this he does as before, taking care that
both cuts are in the fame line. In the mean time,
the man who looks after the carquaiiTes comes to re¬
ceive the glafs upon an iron (hovel two feet and a
half long without the handle, and twro feet wide, with
a fmall border of an inch and a half to the right and
left, and towards the handle of the (hovel. Upon
this the glafs is laid, flattening it a little with a fmall
dick a foot and a half long, fo that the cut of the
glafs is turned upwards. They feparate the glafs from
the pontil, by driking a few gentle blows between the
two with a chiffel. The glafs is then removed to the
mouth of the hot carquaiffe, where it becomes red hot
gradually ; the wmrkman, with an iron tool fix feet
long, and widened at the end in form of a club at cards
four inches long, and two inches wide on each lide,
very flat, and not half an inch thick, gradually lifts
up the cut part of the glais to unfold it out of its form
of a flattened cylinder, and render it fmooth, by turn¬
ing it down upon the hearth of the carquaiffe. The
tool already defcribed being infinuated wdthin the cy¬
linder, performs this operation by being pulhed hard
againd all the parts of the glafs. When the glafs is thus
made quite fmooth, it is pufhed to the bottom of the
5 C carquaiffe
Glafs.
G L A r 754 ] G L A
©lafs. carquaHTe or annealing furnace with a finall iron i-aker,
^ anc} ranged there wdth a little iron hook. When the
carquaiffe is full, it is flopped and cemented as in the
cafe of run glaffes, and the glafs remains there for a
fortnight to be annealed ; after which time they are
taken out to be poliihed. A workman can make but
one glafs in an hour, and he works and refls for fix
hours alternately.
Such was the method formerly made ufe of for blow¬
ing plate glafs, looking glafles, &c. j but the work¬
men, by this method, could never exceed 50 inches in
length, and a proportional breadth, becaufe what w'ere
larger were always found to w'arp, which prevented
them from refle&ing the objefts regularly, and wanted
fubftance to bear the neceffary grinding. Thefe im-
perfeflions have been remedied by the following inven¬
tion of the Sieur Abraham Thevart, in France, about
the year 1688.
3. Cajling or Running of Large Mirror Glass Plates.
The furnace is of a very large dimenfion, environ-
Plate ed with feveral ovens, or annealing furnaces, called
tCXLVII. carquaiffes, befides others for making of frit and cal¬
cining old pieces of glafs. This furnace, before it
is fit to run glafs, cofts 3500I. It feldom lafts above
three years, and even in that time it muft be refitted
every fix months. It takes fix months to rebuild it, and
three months to refit it. The melting pots are as big as
large hoglheads, arjd contain about 2000 weight of metal.
If one of them burftsin the furnace, the lofs of the mat¬
ter a..^ time amounts to 250I. The materials in thefe
pots are the fame as defcribed before. When the furnace
is red hot, thefe materials are put in at three different
times, becaufe that helps the fufion 5 and in 24 hours
they are vitrified, refined, fettled, and fit for cafting. A
is the bocca, or mouth of the furnace ; B is the cif-
tern that conveys the liquid glafs it receives put of the
melting pots in the furnace to the cafting table. Thefe
cifterns are filled in the furnace, and remain therein fix
hours after they are filled; and then are hooked out
by the means of a large iron chain, guided by a pulley,
placed upon a carriage with four wheels marked C, by
two men. This carriage has no middle piece j fo that
when it has brought the ciftern to the cafting table D,
they flip off the bottom of the ciftern, and out nifties
a torrent of flaming matter upon the table : this mat¬
ter is confined to certain dimenfions by the iron rulers
EE, which are moveable, retain the fluid matter, and
determine the width of the glafs ; while a man, with
the roller F refting on the edge of the iron rulers, re-
duceth it as it cools to an equal thicknefs, which is
done in the fpace of a minute. This table is fupport-
ed on a wooden frame, with truffles for the convenience
of moving to the annealing furnace j into which, ftrew-
ed with land, the new plate is ftioved, where it will
harden in about 10 days.
What is naoft furprifing throughout the whole of this
operation, is the quicknefs and addrefs wherewith fuch
maffy cifterns, filled with a flaming matter, are taken
out of the furnace, conveyed to the table, and poured
therein, the glafs fpread, &c. The whole is incon¬
ceivable to fuch as have not been eye witneffes of that
furprifing manufa£ture.
As fall as the cifterns are emptied, they carry them
back to the furnace and take frefti ones, wEich they
empty as before. Thus they continue to do fo long as
there are any full cifterns laying as many plates in each Glafs.
carquaiffe as it will hold, and flopping them up with 1 r
doors of baked earth, and every chink with cement, as
foon as they are full, to let them anneal, and cool again,
which requires about 14 days.
The firlt running being difpatched, they prepare an¬
other, by filling the cifterns anew from the matter in
the pots j and after the fecond, a third ; and even a
fourth time, till the melting pots are quite empty.
The cifterns at each running Ihould remain at leaft
fix hours in the furnace to whiten 5 and when the firft
annealing furnace is full, the cafting table is to be car¬
ried to another. It need not here be obferved, that
the carquaiffes, or annealing furnaces, muft firft: have
been heated to the degree proper for them. It may
be obferved, that the oven full, or the quantity of mat¬
ter commonly prepared, fupplies the running of 18
glaffes, which is performed in j8 hours, being an hour
for each glafs. The workmen work fix hours, and are
then relieved by others.
When the pots are emptied, they take them out, as
well as the cifterns, to fcrape off what glafs remains,
wdrich otherwife would grow green by continuance of
fire, and fpoil the glaffes. They are not filled again in
lefs than 36 hours *, fo that they put the matter into the
furnace, and begin to run it every 54 hours.
The manner of heating the large furnaces is very An¬
gular } the two tifors, or perfons employed for that
purpofe, in their fhirts, run fwiftly round the furnace
without making the leaft flop : as they run along, they
take two billets, or pieces of wmod, which are cut for
the purpofe : thefe they throw into the firft tiffart j
and continuing their courfe, do the fame for the fecond.
This they hold without interruption for fix hours fuc-
ceflively j after which they are relieved by others, &.c.
It is furprifing that two fuch fmall pieces of wmod,
and which are confumed in an inftant, ftiould keep the
furnace to the proper degree of heat; which is fuch,
that a large bar of iron, laid at one of the mouths of
the furnace, becomes red hot in lefs than half a mi¬
nute.
The glafs, when taken out of the melting furnace,
needs nothing farther but to be ground, poliftied, and
foliated.
4. Grinding and Polijhing of Plate Glass. Glafs is
made tranfparent by fire } but it receives its luftre by
the fldll and labour of the grinder and polifher j the for¬
mer of whom takes it rough out of the hands of the
maker.
In order to grind plate glafs, they lay it horizontal¬
ly upon a flat ftone table made of a very fine grained
freeftone •, and for its greater fecurity they plafter it
down with lime or ftucco •, for otherwdfe the force of
the workmen, or the motion of the wheel with wdiicb
they grind it, would move it about.
This ftone table is fupported by a ftrong frame A,
made of wood, with a ledge quite round its edges, rif-
ing about two inches higher than the glafs. Upon this
glafs to be ground is laid another rough glafs not above
half fo big, and fo loofe as to Aide upon it •, but ce¬
mented to a wmoden plank, to guard it from the injury
it muft otherwife receive from the fcraping of the
wheel to which this plank is faftened, and from the
weights laid upon it to promote the grinding or triture piate
of the glaffes. The whole is covered wTith a wheel B, CCXLVIL
made
^'/s/. / /nr
t' r
CtLAS s.
Plate CCXLAn.
r S/s/. f </’///r//.
7-
A
///
4-
t
4
/.
G L A
Oiais. made of hard light wood, about fix inches in diameter,
v'*""' by pulling of which backwards and forwards alternate¬
ly, and fometimes turning it round, the workmen,
who always Hand oppofite to each other, produce a
conftant attrition between the two glaffes, and bring
them to what degree of fmoothnefs they pleafe, by firft
pouring in water and coarfe fand 5 after that, a finer
fort of fand, as the work advanceth, till at laft they
mull pour in the powder of fmalt. As the upper or in¬
cumbent glafs polifhes and grows fmoother, it mull be
taken avray, and another from time to time put in its
place.
This engine is called a mill by the artills, and is ufed
tonly in the largefi: fized glades ; for in the grinding of
the lelfer glailes, they are content to work without a
wheel, and to have only four wooden handles faltened
to the four corners of the Hone which loads the upper
plank, by which they ivork it about.
When the grinder has done his part, who finds it very
difficult to bring the glafs to an exadl plainnefs, it is
turned over to the polilher ; who, with the fine powder
of tripoli Hone or emery, brings it to a perfect evennefs
and luftre. The inftrument made ufe of in this branch
is a board, e c, furnilhed with a felt, and a fmail roller,
which the workman moves by means ot a double handle
at both ends. The artilf, in working this roller, is af-
fiffed with a wooden hoop or fpring, to the end of which
it is fixed : for the fpring, by conlfantly bringing the
roller back to the fame points, facilitates the a<5!ion of
the workman’s arm.
Colouring of Glass. That the colours given to glafs
may have their full beauty, it mull be obferved, that
every pot when new, and firft ufed, leaves a foulnefs
in the glafs from its own earthy parts 5 fo that a co¬
loured glafs made in a new pot can never be bright or
perfeftly fine. For this reafon, the larger of thefe,
when new, may be glazed with white glafs ; but the
fecond time of ufing the pots lofe this foulnefs. The
glazing ma) be done by reducing the glafs to powder,
and moift^ning the infide of the pot with water; while
it is yet moift, put in fome of the powdered glafs, and
fhake it about, till the whole inner furface of the pot
be covered by as much as will adhere to it, in confe-
quence of the moifture. Tfirow out the redundant part
of the powdered glafs 5 and the pot being dry, fet it
in a furnace fufticiently hot to vitrify the glafs adhering
to it, and let it continue there fome time } after which,
care muft be taken to let it cool gradually. Thole
pots which have ferved for one colour muft not be ufed
for another ; for the remainder of the old matter will
fpoil the colour of the new. The colours muft be very
carefully calcined to a proper degree ; for if they are
calcined either too much or too little, they never do
well; the proper proportion, as to quantity, muft alfo
carefully be regarded, and the furnaces muft be fed with
dry hard wood. And all the procefles fucceed much
the better if the colour be ufed dividedly, that is, a part
<6f it in the frit, and the reft in the melted metal.
A hard glafs, proper for receiving colours, may be
prepared by pulverizing 12 pounds of the beft fand*
eleanfed by walking in a glafs or Hint mortar, and mix¬
ing feven pounds of pearl allies or any fixed alkaline
fait purified with nitre, one pound of faltpetre, and
half a pound of borax, and pounding them together.
A glafs lefs hard may be prepared of twelve pounds
[ 755 1
G L A
of white fand cleanfedj feven pounds of pearl allies pu¬
rified with faltpetre, one pound of nitre, half a pound
of borax, aiid four ounces of arfenic prepared as be¬
fore.
Amethjjl colour. See Purple below', and the article
Amethyst.
Palcis colour. Put into a pot cryftal frit, thrice walk¬
ed in water ; tinge this with manganefe, prepared into
a clear purple ; to this add alumen cativum, fifted fine*
in fmail quantities, and at feveral times : this will make
the glafs grow yellowilh, and a little reddilh, but not
blackilh, and always diftipates the manganefe. The
laft time you add manganefe give no more of the alu-
men cativum, unlefs the colour be too full. Thus udll
the glafs be exactly of the colour of the balas ruby.
See Ruby Glass.
The common black colour. The glafsmakers take old
broken glafs of different colours, grind it to pow'der^
and add to it, by difterent parcels, a fufficient quantity
of a mixture of two parts zaller and one part man¬
ganefe : when \Vell purified, they work it into veO
fels, &c.
Glafs beads are coloured with manganefe onlv.
Black velvet colour. To give this deep and fine colour
to glafs, take of cryftalline and pulverine frit, of each
20 pounds ; of calx of lead and tin, four pounds; fet
all together in a pot in the furnace, well heated ; when
the glafs is formed and pure, take fteel well calcined
and pow’dered, ^ ales of iron that fly off from the
fmith’s anvil, of 1 ^ n'’1 quantity ; powrder and
mix them wrell; the*. x ounces of this powder to
the above defenbed ...etal while in fufion : mix the
whole thoroughly together, and let them all boil ftrong-
ly together 5 then let it Hand in fufion 1 2 hours to pu¬
rify, and after this work it. It will be a moll elegant
♦elvet black.
There is another w'ay of doing this, which alfo pro¬
duces a very fair black. It is this : take a hundred
weight of rochetta frit, add to this two pounds of tar¬
tar and fix pounds of manganefe, both in fine powder ;
mix them well ; and put them to the metal while in
fufion, at different times, in feveral parcels; let it
ftand in fufion after this for four days, and then wrork
it.
A glafs perfectly black may alfo be formed to ten
pounds of either of the compofitions for hard glafs
above deferibed, one ounce of zafter, fix drachms of*
manganefe, and an equal quantity of iron ftrongly cal¬
cined.
Blue colour. A full blue may be made by adding
fix drachms of zaffer and tw'o drachms of manganefe to
ten pounds of either of the cofnpofitions for hard glafs,
deferibed above. For a very cool or pure blue glafs,
half an ounce of calcined copper may be ufed inftead of
the manganefe, and the proportion of zaffer diminished
by one half. Glafs refembling fapphire may be made
vrith ten pounds of either of the compofitions for hard
glafs, three drachms and one fcruple of zaffer, and one
drachm of the calx cajfti or precipitation of gold by tin ;
or, inftead of this latter ingredient, two drachms and tw'O
fcruples of manganefe. Or a fapphire-coloured glafs
may be made by mixing with any quantity of the hard
glafs one eighth of its weight of fmalt. A beautiful
blue glafs is alfo produced from the oxide of cobalt.
V'-netian brown, with gold fpangles, commonly called
? C 2 thy
Glafi
*
G L A [ 756 ] G L A
the p/dlofopher's Jlone, may be prepared in tbe following
manner : take of the fecond compofition for hard glafs
above defcribed, and of the compolition for pafte, of
each five pounds, and of highly calcined iron an ounce j
mix them well, and fufe them till the iron be perfectly
vitrified, and has tinged the glafs of a deep tranfparent
yellow brawn colour. Powder this glafs, and add to
it two pounds of powdered glafs of antimony •, grind
them together, and thus mix them well. Take part
of this mixture, and rub into it 80 or 100 leaves of the
counterfeit leaf gold called Dutch gold; and when
the parts of the gold feem futficiently divided, mix the
powder containing it wdth the other part of the glafs.
Fufe the whole with a moderate heat till the powder
run into a vitreous mafs, fit to be wrought into any of
the figures or veifels into wdiich it is ufually formed j
but avoid a perfeft liquefaction, becaufe that in a
Ihort time deftroys the equal dififufion of the fpangles,
and vitrifies, at leaft in part, the matter of which they
are compofed ; converting the whole into a kind of
tranfparent olive coloured glafs. This kind of glafs
is ufed for a great variety of toys and ornaments
with us, who at prefent procure it from the Vene¬
tians.
Chalcedony. A mixture of feveral ingredients with
the common matter of glafs, will make it reprefent the
femi-opake gems, the jafpers, agates, chalcedonies, &c.
'I he way of making thefe feems to be the fame
with the method of making marbled paper, by feveral
colours diiTolved in feveral liquors, which are fuch as
will not readily mix with one another when put in¬
to water, before they are call upon the paper which
is to be coloured. There are feveral w'ays of making
thefe varioully coloured glalfes, but the bell; is the fol¬
lowing.
Diffblve four ounces of fine leaf filver in a glafs vef-
fel in ftrong aquafortis \ flop up the velfel, and fet it
afide In another veffel, dilfolve five ounces of quick-
filver in a pound of aquafortis, and fet this afide.—
In another glafs veffel, diflolve in a pound of aquafortis
three ounces of fine filver, firft calcined in this manner:
amalgamate the filver wfith mercury, mix the amal¬
gam with twice its weight of common fait w’ell puri¬
fied ; put the mixture in an open fire in a crucible, that
the mercury may fly off, and the filver be left in form
of pawder. Mix this powder with an equal quantity
of common fait w^ell purified, and calcine this for fix
hours in a ilrong fire ; when cold, wafh off the fait by
repeated boilings in common w7ater, and then put the
filver into the aquafortis. Set this folution alfo afide.
' another veffel, diffolve in a pound of aquafortis
three ounces of fal ammoniac j pour off the folution and
diffolve in it a quarter of an ounce of gold. Set this
alfo afide. In another veffel, diffolve three ounces of
!al ammoniac m a pound of aquafortis j then put into
the folution cinnabar, crocus martis, ultramarine, and
ferretto of Spain, of each half an ounce. Set this alfo
afide.—In another veffel, diffolve in a pound of aqua¬
fortis three ounces of fal ammoniac $ then put into it
crocus martis made with vinegar, calcined tin, zaffer,
and cinnabar, of each half an ounce ; let each of thefe
be powdered very fine, and put gently into the aqua¬
fortis. Set this alfo afide.—In another veffel, diffolve
dnee ounces of fal ammoniac in a pound of aquafortis,
and_ add to it brais calcined with brunffonej brafs thrice
calcined, manganefe, and fcales of iron which fall from Glafs.
the fmith’s anvil, of each half an ounce ; let each be
wrell powdered, and put gently into the veffel. Then
fet this alfo afide.—In another veffel, diffolve two oun¬
ces of fal ammoniac in a pound of aquafortis, and put
to it verdigrife an ounce, red lead, crude antimony,
and the caput mortuum of vitriol, of each half an
ounce •, put thefe well powdered leifurely into the vef¬
fel, and fet this alfo afide.—In another veffel, diffolve
two ounces of fal ammoniac in a pound of aquafortis,
and add orpiment, W7hite arfenic, painters lake, of each
half an ounce.
Keep the above nine veffels in a moderate heat for
15 days, {baking them well at times. After this pour
all the matters from thefe veffels into one large veffel,
well luted at its bottom; let this Hand fix days, {baking
it at times } and then fet it in a very gentle heat, and
evaporate all the liquor, and there w7ill remain a powder
of a purpliih green.
When this is to be wrought, put into a pot very
clear metal, made of broken cryllalline and w7hite glafs
that has been ufed ; for with the virgin frit, or fuch
as has never been wrought, the chalcedony can never
be made, as the colours do not {tick to it, but are
confumed by the frit. To every pot of 20 pounds of
this metal put two or three ounces of this powder at
three feveral times •, incorporate the powder wrell w7ith
the glafs ; and let it remain an hour between each time
of putting in the powders. After all are in, let it
Hand 24 hours ; then let the glafs be well mixed, and
take an affay of it, which will be found of a yellowilh
blue j return this many timbs into the furnace \ when
it begins to grow cold, it will ftiow many waves of dif¬
ferent colours very beautifully. Then take tartar eight,
ounces, foot of the chimney two ounces, crocus mar¬
tis made with brimftone, hall an ounce } let thefe be
well powdered and mixed, and put them by degrees
into the glafs at fix times, waiting a little while be¬
tween each putting in. When the whole is put in, let
the glafs boil and fettle for 24 hours; then make a
little glals body of it j which put in the furnace many
times, and fee if the glafs be enough, and whether it
have on the outfide veins of blue, green, red, yellow,
and other colours, and have, befide thefe veins, w7aves-
like thofe of the chalcedonies, jafpers, and oriental
rigates, and if the body kept within looks as red as
fire.
When it is found to anfwer this, it is perfect, and.
may be worked into toys and veffels, which will always
be beautifully variegated: thefe mull be well annealed,
which adds much to the beauty of their veins. Maffes
of this may be polifhed at the lapidary’s wheel as natu¬
ral Hones, and appear very beautiful. If in the work¬
ing the matter grow tranfparent, the work muff be
Hopped, and more tartar, foot, and crocus martis, mull
be put to it, which will give it again the neceffary body
and opacity, without which it does not ftiow the co¬
lours well.
Chryfolite colour may be made of ten pounds of either
of the compofitions for hard glafs defcribed above, and
fix drachms of calcined iron.
Red cornelian colour may be formed by adding one
pound of glafs of antimony, two ounces of the calcin¬
ed vitriol calledfcarlet ochre, and one drachm of manga-r
nefe or magne.fia, to two pounds of either of the comr
pofitions :
G L A [ 757 G L A
Clafs. pofitions for hard glafs. The glafs of antimony and
—^ ' magnefia are firit fufed with the other glafs, and then
powdered and ground with the fcarlet ochre: the whole
mixture is afterwards fufed with a gentle heat till all
the ingredients are incorporated. A glafs refemblinp’
the white cornelian may be made of two pounds of ei¬
ther of the coropoiitions for hard glafs, and two drachms
of yellow ochre well walhed, and one ounce of calcined
bones : grind them together, and fufe them with a gen¬
tle heat.
Emerald colour. See Green below.
Garnet colour. To give this colour to glafs, the work¬
men take the following method. They take equal
quantities of cryftal and rochetta frit, and to every
hundred weight of this mixture they add a pound of
manganeie and an ounce of prepared zaffer : thefe are
to be powdered feparately, then mixed and added by
degrees to the frit while in the furnace. Great care is
to be taken to mix the manganefe and zaffer very per-
feftly ; and when the matter has flood 24 hours in fufion,
it may be worked.
Glafs of this kind may be made by adding one pound
°f glafs of anttmony, one drachm of manganefe, and the
lame quantity of the precipitate of gold by tin, to
two pounds of either of the compolitions for hard
glafs ; or the precipitate of gold may be omitted, if the
quantities of the glafs of antimony and manganeie be
doubled.
Gold colour. This colour may be produced by ta¬
king ten pounds of either of the compofitions for hard
glafs, omitting the faltpetre $ and for every pound add¬
ing an ounce of calcined borax, or, if this quantity doth
not render the glafs fufficiently fufible, two ounces \ ten
ounces of red tartar of the deepeft colour ; two ounces
of magnefia \ and two drachms of charcoal of fallow,
or any other folt kind. Precipitates of filver baked on
glafs will ftain it yellow, and likewife give a yellow co¬
lour on being mixed and melted with 40 or 50 times,
their weight of vitreous compofitions ; the precipitate
from aquafortis by fixed alkali feems to anfrver beft.
Yellow glaffes may alio be obtained with certain prepa¬
rations of iron, particularly with Pruflian blue. But
Dr Lewis obferves, that the colour does not conftantly
lucceed, nor approach to the high colour, of gold, with
filver or with iron. The neareft imitations of gold
which he has been able to produce have been effedfied
with antimony and lead. Equal parts of the glafs of
antimony, of flint calcined and powdered, and of mi¬
nium, formed a glafs of a high yellow •, and with two
parts of glafs of antimony, two of minium, and three
of pow'dered flint, the colour approached ftill more to
that of gold. The laft compofition exhibited a multi¬
tude of fmall fparkles interfperfed throughout its whole
fubfiance, which gave it a beautiful appearance in the
mafs, but were really imperfections, owing to air bub¬
bles.
Neri diredls, for a gold yellow colour, one part of red
tartar and the fame quantity of manganefe, to be mixed
with a hqndred parts of frit. But Kunckel obferves,
that thefe proportions are faulty •, that one part, or one
and a quarter, of manganefe, is lufficient for a hundred
of frit; but that fix parts of tartar are hardly enough,
unlefs the tartar is of a dark red colour, almofl blackifh ;
and that he found it expedient to add to the tartar a-
bput a fourth of its weight of powdered charcoal. He
adds, that the glafs fwells up very much in melting, and Glaf*.
that it muft be left unftirred, and worked as it ftands in v~“
fufion. Mr Samuel More, in repeating and varying
this procefs in order to render the colour more perfe£t,
found that the manganefe is entirely uneffential to the
gold colour ; and that the tartar is no otherwife of ufe
than in virtue of the coaly matter to which it is in part
reduced by the fire, the phlogifton or inflammable part
of the coal appearing in feveral experiments to be the
direct tinging fubftance. Mr Pott alfo obferves, that
common coals give a yellow colour to glafs •, that dif»
ferent coaly matters differ in their tinging power •, that
caput mortuum of foot and lamp black anfwer better
than common charcoal; and that the fparkling coal,
which remains in the retort after the reflification of the
thick empyreumatic animal oils, is one of the moft ac¬
tive of thefe preparations. This preparation, he fays,
powdered, and then burnt again a little in a clofe veffel,
is excellent for tinging glafs, and gives yellow, brown,
reddilh, or blackiih colours, according to its quantity j
but the frit muft not be very hard of fufion, for in this
cafe the ftrong fire wall deftroy the colouring fub¬
ftance before the glafs melts: and he has found the fol¬
lowing compofition to be nearly the beft j viz. fand
two parts, alkali three parts 5 or fand two, alkali
three, calcined borax one j or fand two, alkali twro,.
calcined borax one: and though faltpetre is hardly ufed
at all, or very fparingly, for yellow glaffes, as it too
much volatilizes the colouring fubftance j yet here for
the moft part a certain proportion of it, eafily deter¬
mined by trial, is very neceffary ; for without it the
concentrated colouring matter is apt to make the glafs
too dark, and even of an opake pitchy blacknefs. It
does not certainly appear that there is any material di-
verfity in the effefts of different coals, the difference be¬
ing probably owing to the different quantities of the
inflammable matter which they contain ; fo that a little
more fhall be required of one kind than of another for
producing the fame degree of colour in the glafs. Nor
does the foftnefs or fufibility of the frit appear to be in
any refpeft neceffary.
Gold-coloured fpangles may be diffufed through the
fubftance of glafs, by mixing the yellow talcs with pow¬
dered glafs, and bringing the mixture into fufion.
Green. This colour may be imparted to glafs by add¬
ing three ounces of copper precipitated from aquafortis,
and two drachms of precipitated iron to nine pounds of
either of the compofitions for hard glafs. The fineft
method of giving this beautiful colour to glafs is this :
Take five pounds of cryftalline metal that has been puf¬
fed feveral times through water, and the fame quantity
of the common white metal of polverine, four pounds
of common polverine frit, and three pounds of red.
lead ; mix the red lead well with the frit, and then
put all into a pot in a furnace. In a few hours the
whole mafs wrill be well purified : then call the whole
into water, and feparate and take out the lead ; then
return the metal into the pot, and let it ftand a day long¬
er in fufion *, then put in the powder of the refiduum
of the vitriol of copper, and a very little crocus martis,
there will be produced a moft lively and elegant green,
fcarce inferior to that of the oriental emerald. There
are many ways of giving a green to glafs, but all are-
greatly inferior to this.—To make afea green, the fineft
cryftalline glafs only muft be ufed, and no manganefe
mu ft .
✓
Clafs.
,1—
G L A [ 753 1 G L A
muft bt added at firft to the metal. The cryftal frit
mull be melted thus alone and the fait, which fwims
like oil on its top, muft be taken off with an iron ladle
very carefully. Then to a pot of twenty pounds of
this metal add fix ounces of calcined brafs, and a fourth
part of the quantity of powdered zaffer : this powder
mufl: be well mixed, and put into the glafs at three
times } it will make the metal fwell at firft, and all muft
be thoroughly mixed in the pot. After it has flood in
fufion three hours, take out a little for a proof: if it be
too pale, add more of the powder. Twenty-four hours
after the mixing the powder the whole will be ready to
•work *, but mutt be well ftirred together from the bot¬
tom, left the colour ftiould be deepeft there, and the me¬
tal at the top lefs coloured, or even quite colourlefs.
Some ufe for this purpofe half cryftal frit and half ro-
chetta frit, but the colour is much the fineft when all
cryftal frit is ufed.
Lapis lazuli colour. See Lapis Lazuli.
Opal colour. See Opal.
Purple of a deep and bright colour may be produced
by adding to ten pounds of either of the compofitions
for hard glafs, above defcribed, fix drachms of zaffer and
one drachm of gold precipitated by tin •, or to the fame
quantity of either compofition one ounce of manganefe
and half an ounce of zaffer. The colour of amethyft
may be imitated in this way.
Red. A blood red glafs may be made in the fol¬
lowing manner : Put fix pounds of glafs of lead, and ten
pounds of common glafs, into a pot glazed -with white
glafs. When the whole is boiled and refined, add by
Imall quantities, and at fmall diftances of time, copper
calcined to a rednefs as much as on repeated proofs is
found fufficient : then add tartar in powder by Imall
quantities at a time, till the glafs is become as red as
blood j and continue adding one or other of the ingre¬
dients till the colour is quite perfefl.
Ruby. The way to give the true fine red of the ruby,
with a fair tranfparence, to glafs, is as follows : Calcine
in earthen veffels gold diffolved in aqua regia j the men-
ftruum being evaporated by diftillation, more aqua re¬
gia added, and the abftradbion repeated five or fix
times, till it becomes a red powder. This operation
will require many days in a hot furnace. When the
powder is of a proper colour, take it out : and when it
is to be ufed, melt the fineft cryftal glafs, and purify it
by often catting it into water ; and then add, by fmall
quantities, enough of this red powder to give it the true
colour of a ruby, with an elegant and perfect tranfpa¬
rence.
I he procefs of tinging glafs and enamels by prepara¬
tions of gold was firft attempted about the beginning
of the laft century. Libavius, in one of his trafls en¬
titled Alchymia, printed in 1606, conjedtures that the
colour of the ruby proceeds from gold, and that gold
diffolved and brought to rednefs might be made to
communicate a like colour to fadlitious gems and glafs.
On this^ principle Neri, in his Art of Glafs, dated in
1611, gives the procefs above recited. Glauber in 1646
publilhed a method of producing a red Colour by gold,
in a matter which is of the vitreous kind, though not
perfedl glafs. For this purpofe he ground1 powdered
flint or fand with four times its weight of fixed alkaline
fait • this mixture melts in a moderately ftrong fire,
and when cool looks like glafs, but expofed to the air
3
runs into a liquid ftate. On adding this liqilor to folu-
tion of gold in aqua-regia, the gold and flint preci¬
pitate together in form of a yellow powder, which by
calcination becomes purple. By mixing this powder
with three or four times its weight of the alkaline fo-
lution of flint, drying the mixture, and melting it in a
ftrong fire for an hour, a mafs is obtained of a tranfpa-1
rent ruby colour and of a vitreous appearance ; which
neverthelefs is foluble in water, or by the moitture of
the air, on account of the redundance of the fait. The
Honourable Mr Boyle, in a work publiftied in 1680,
mentions an expenment in which a like colour was in¬
troduced into giafs without fufion •, for having kept
a mixture of gold and mercury in digeftion for fome
months, the fire was at laft immoderately increafed, fo
that the glafs burft with a violent explofion \ and the
lower part of the glafs was found tinged throughout of
a tranfparent red colour, hardly to be equalled by that"
Glafs.
of rubies.
About the fame time Caffius is faid to have difcover-
ed the precipitation of gold by tin, and that glafs
might be tinged of a ruby colour by melting it with
this precipitate •, though he does not appear, fays Dr Commtne tSf
Lewis, from his treatife De Aufo, to have been the 171.
difcoverer of either. He defcribes the preparation6,41 •
of the precipitate and its ufe j but gives no account
of the manner of employing it, only that he fays one
drachm of gold dulyT prepared will tinge ten pounds of
glafs.
This procefs was foon after brought to perfection by
Kunckel 5 who fays, that one part of the precipitate is
fufficient to give a ruby colour to 1-280 parts of glafs,
and a fenfible rednefs to upwards of 1900 parts; but
that the fuccefs is by no means conftant. Kunckel alfo
mentions a purple gold powder, refembling that of Neri;
which he obtained by infpiflating folution of gold to
drynefs; abftra&ing from it frelh aqua-regia three of
four times, till the matter appears like oil; then preci¬
pitating with ftrong alkaline ley, and walking the preci¬
pitate with water. By diffolving this powder in fpirit of
lalt and precipitating again, it becomes, he fays, ex¬
tremely fair; and in this ftate he dire£ts it to be mixed
with a due proportion of Venice glafs.
Orfchal, in a treatife entitled Solfine Ve/ie, gives the
following procefs for producing a very fine ruby. He
direfts the purple precipitate made by tin to be ground
with fix times its quantity of Venice glafs into a very
fine powder, and this , compound to be very carefully
mingled with the frit or vitreous compofition to be
tinged. His frit confifts of equal parts of borax, nitre,
and fixed alkaline fait, and four times as much calcined
flint as of each of the falts; but he gives no directions
as to the proportion of the gold precipitate or mode of
fufion. Hellot defcribes a preparation, which, mixed
with Venice glafs, was found to give a beautiful purple
enamel. This preparation confifts of equal parts of
folution of gold and of folution of zinc in aqua-regia
mixed together, with the addition of a volatile fait pre¬
pared from fal ammoniac by quicklime, in fufficient
quantity to precipitate the two metals. The precipi¬
tate is then gradually heated till it acquires a violet
colour. However, though a purple or red colour, ap¬
proaching to that of ruby, may, by the methods above
recited, be baked on glafs of enamels, and introduced
into tire mafs by fufion, the way of equally diffuling
fuch *
Cx L A [ 759 1 G L A
Glafs. fuch a colour through a quantity of fluid glafs is ftill,
—/—• fays Dr Lewis, a lecret. The following procefs for
making the ruby glafs was communicated to Dr Lewis
by an artift, w7ho afcribed it to Kunckel. The gold
is directed to be diffolved in a mixture of one part of
fpirit of fait and three of aquafortis, and the tin in a
mixture of one part of the former of thefe acids with
two of the latter. The folution of gold being pro¬
perly diluted with water, the folution of tin is added,
and the mixture left to Hand till the purple mattcr
has fettled to the bottom. The colourlefs liquor is then
poured off, and the purple fediment, while moift and
not very thick, is thoroughly mixed with powdered
flint or fand. This mixture is well ground with pow¬
dered nitre, tartar, borax, and arfenic, and the compound
melted with a fuitable fire. The proportions of the
ingredients are 2560 parts of fand, 384 oitre, 240 of
tartar, 240 of borax, 28 of arfenic, five of tin, and five
of gold.
To/>a% Colour. Glafs refembling this ftone may be
made by pulverizing ten pounds of either of the com-
pofitions for hard glaffes with an equal quantity of the
gold-coloured glafs, and fufing them together.
White op ale ■xad. femit ranfparent glafs may be made of
ten pounds of either of the compofitions for hard glafs,
and one pound of well calcined hom, ivory, or bone 5
or an opake wdiitenefs may be given to glafs by adding
one pound of very white arfenic to ten pounds of flint
glafs. Let them be well powdered and mixed by grind¬
ing them together, and then fufed with a moderate heat
till they are thoroughly incorporated. A glafs of this
kind is made in large quantities at a manufactory near
London ; and ufed not only for different kinds of vef-
fels, but as a white ground for enamel in dial plates and
fnuff boxes, which do not require finilhing with much
fire, becaufe it becomes very white and fufible with a
moderate heat.
Yellow. See Gold colour above.
Painting in Glass. The ancient manner of painting
in glafs was very fimple : it confifted in the mere arrange¬
ment of pieces of glafs of different colours in fome fort
of fymmetry, and conftituted what is now called mofaic
work. See Moasic.
In procefs of time they came to attempt more regular
defigns, and alfo to reprefent figures heightened wdth all
their (hades : yet they proceeded no farther than the
contours of the figures in black wdth w7ater colours, and
hatching the draperies after the fame manner on glaffes
of the colour of the objeft they defigned to paint. For
the carnation, they ufed glafs of a bright red colour ;
and upon this they drew the principal lineament of the
face, &c. with black.
At length, the tafte for this kind of painting improv¬
ing confiderably, and the art being found applicable to
the adorning of churches, bafilics, &c. they found out
means of incorporating the colours in the glafs itfelf,
by heating them in the fire to a proper degree \ having
firft laid on the colours. A French painter at Marfeilles
is faid to have given the firfl: notion of this improvement,
upon going to Rome under the pontificate of Julius II. *,
but Albert Durer and Lucas of Leyden were the firft
that carried it to any height.
This art, however, has frequently met wdth much
interruption, and foraetimes been almoft totally loft $ of
which Mr Walpole gives us the following account, in Glafs.
his Anecdotes of Painting in England.
“ The firft interruption given to it was by the refor¬
mation, which banhhed the art out of churches ; yet it
was in fome meafure kept up in the efcutcheons of the
nobility and gentry in the windows of their feats. To¬
wards the end of Queen Elizabeth’s reign it was omit¬
ted even there ; yet the praftice did not entirely ceafe.
The chapel of our Lady at Warwick was ornamented
anew by Robert Dudley earl of Leicefter, and his coun-
tefs, and the cipher of the glafs-painter’s name yet re¬
mains, with the date 1574: and in fome of the chapels
at Oxford the art again appears, dating itfelf in 1622,
by the hand of no contemptible mafter.
“ I could fupply even this gap of 48 years by many
dates on Flemiih glafs; but no body ever fuppofed that
the fecret was loft fo early as the reign of James I. and
that it has not periftied fince will be evident from the
following feries, reaching to the prefent hour.
“ The portraits in the window's of the library at
All Souls, Oxford. In the chapel at Queen’s College
there are twelve windows dated 1518. P. C. a cipher
on the painted glafs in the chapel at Warwick, 1574.
The window's at Wadham’s College •, the drawing pret¬
ty good, and the colours fine, by Bernard Van Linge,
1622. In the chapel at Lincoln’s Inn, a window, with
the name Bernard, 1623. This was probably the pre¬
ceding Van Linge. In the church of St Leonard,
Shoreditch, two windows by Baptifta Sutton, 1634.
The windows in the chapel at Univerfity College, Hen,
Giles pinxit, 1687. At Chrift Church, Ifaac Oliver,
aged 84, 1700. Window in Merton Chapel, William
Price 1700. Windows at Queen’s New College, and
Maunlin, by William Price, the fon, now7 living, whofe
colours are fine, whofe drawing is good, and whofe tafte
in ornaments and mofaic is far fuperior to any of his
predeceffors j is equal to the antique, to the good
Italian mafters, and only furpaffed by his own Angular
modefty.
“ It may not be unwelcome to the curious reader to
fee fome anecdotes of the revival of tafte for painted
glafs in England. Price, as we have faid, was the only
painter in that ftyle for many years in England. Af¬
terwards one Rowell, a plumber at Reading did fome
things, particularly for the late Henry earl of Pem¬
broke } but Rowell’s colours foon vaniihed. At laft
he found out a very durable and beautiful red} but he
died in a year or tw7o, and the fecret with him. A man
at Birmingham began the fame art in 1756 or 1757,
and fitted up a window for Lord Lyttleton, in the
church of Hagley} but foon broke. A little after
him, one Peckitt at York began the fame bufinefs, and
has made good proficiency. A few lovers of that art
collefted fome difperfed panes from ancient buildings,
particularly the late Lord Cobham, who eredled a Go¬
thic temple at Stowe, and filled it with arms of the
old nobility, &c. About the year 17 ;3, one Afciotti,
an Italian, who had married a Flemifh woman, brought
a parcel of painted glafs from Flanders, and fold it for
a few guineas to the Honourable Mr Batemen, of Old
Wundfor. Upon that I fent Afciotti again to Flan¬
ders, who brought me 450 pieces, for which, including
the expence of his journey, I paid him thirty-fix gui¬
neas. His wife made more journeys for the fame pur-
p/e r ■
G L A [ ?6o ] G L A
lfs- pofe ; and fold her cargoes to one Palmer a glazier in
St Martin’s lane, who immediatedly raifed the price to
one, two, or five guineas for a fingle piece, and fitted
up entire windows with them, and with mofaics of
plain glafs of different colours. In 1761, Paterfon,
*an auctioneer at Effex houfe in the Strand, exhibited
the two firft au&ions of painted glafs, imported in
like manner from Flanders. All this manufa&ure
confified in rounds of Scripture ftories, llained in black
and yellow, or in finall figures of black and white j
birds and flowers in colours, and Fiemifh coats of
arms. t
The colours ufed in painting or ftaining of glafs are
very different from thofe ufed in painting either in wha¬
ler or oil colours.
For black, take fcales of iron, one ounce } fcales of
copper, one ounce; jet, half an ounce : reduce them
"to powder, and mix them. For blue, take powder
of. blue, one pound j fal nitre, half a pound : mix
them and grind them well together. For carnation,
take red chalk, eight ounces ; iron fcales, and litharge
of filver, of each two ounces ; gum arabic, half an
ounce : diffolve in water grind all together for half an
hour as ftiff as you can *, then put it in a glafs and ftir
it well, and let it ftand to fettle 14 days. For green,
take red lead one pound 3 kales of copper, one pound 3
and flint, five pounds : divide them into three parts 3
and add to them as much fal nitre 3 put them into a
crucible, and melt them with a ftrong fire 3 and when
it is cold, powder it, and grind it on a porphyry. For
gold colour, take filver, an ounce 3 antimony, half an
ounce : melt them in a crucible 3 then pound the mafs
to powder, and grind it on a copper plate 3 add to it
yellow ochre, or brick duff calcined again, 15 ounces;
and grind them well together with water. For purple,
take minium, one pound 3 brown flone, one pound 3
white flint, five pounds : divide them into three parts,
and add to them as much fal nitre as one of the parts 3
calcine, melt, and grind it as you did the green. For
red, take jet, four ounces 3 litharge of filver, two oun¬
ces 3 red chalk, one ounce : powder them fine, and
mix them. For white, take jet, two parts 3 white flint,
ground on a glafs very fine, one part : mix them For
yellow, take Spanifh brown, ten parts 3 leaf filver, one
part 3 antimony, half a part : put all into a crucible,
and calcine them well.
_ ^ In the windows of ancient churches, &c. there are
tali to be feen the mofl: beautiful and vivid colours imagi-
t nable, wdiich far exceed any of thofe ufed by the mo¬
derns, not fo much becaufe the fecret of making thofe
colours, is entirely loft, as that the moderns will not go
to the charge of them, nor be at the neceffary pains,
by reafon that this fort of painting is not now fo much
in efteem as formerly. Thofe beautiful works which
were made in the glafs houfes were of two kinds.
In fome, the colour was diffufed through the whole
fubftance of the glafs. In others, which were the more
common, the colour was only on one fide, fcarce pene¬
trating within the fubftance above one third of a line 3
though this was more or lefs according to the nature of
the colour, the yellow being always found to enter the
deepeft. Thefe laft, though not fo ftrong and beauti¬
ful as the former, were of more advantage to the work¬
men, by reafon that on the fame glafs, though already
coloured, they could ftiow other kinds of colours where
there was occafion to embroider draperies, enrich them Glaft.
with foliages, or reprefent other ornaments of gold, fil- v—”
ver, &c.
In order to this, they made ufe of emery, grinding
or wearing down the furface of the glafs till fuch time
as they were got through the colour to the clear glafs.
This done, they applied the proper colours on the other
fide of the glafs. By thefe means, the new colours were
hindered from running and mixing wdth the former,
when they expofed the glades to the fire, as will appear
hereafter.
When indeed the ornaments were to appear white,
the glafs was only bared of its colour with emery, with¬
out tinging the place with any colour at all 3 and this
was the manner by which they wrought their light and
heightenings on all kinds of colour.
The firft thing to be done, in order to paint or ftain
glafs, in the modern way, is to defign, and even colour,
the whole fubjedl on paper. Then they choofe iuch
pieces of glafs as are clear, even, and fmooth, and pro¬
per to receive the feveral parts 3 and i'roceed to diftri-
bute the defign itfelf, or papers it is drawn on, into
pieces fuitable to thofe of the glafs 3 always taking care
that the glaffes may join in the contours of the figures
and the folds of the draperies 3 that the carnations, and
other fiikr parts, may not be impaired by the lead with
which the pieces *hre to be joined together. The di-
Itribution being made, they mark all the glafles as well
as papers, that they may be known again : wftiich done,
applying every part of the defign upon the glafs intend¬
ed for it, they copy or transfer the defign upon this
glafs with-the black colour diluted in gum water, by
tracing and following all the lines and ftrokes as they
appear through the glafs with the point of a pencil.
When thefe ftrokes are well dried, which wull hap¬
pen in about two days, the work being only in black
and white, they.give a flight walh over with urine, gum
arabic, and a little black 3 and repeat it feveral times,
according as the lhades are defired to be heightened j
with this precaution, never to apply a new walh till the
former is fufficiently dried.
7 his done, the lights and rifings are given by rub¬
bing off the colour in their refpe«5five places with a
wooden point, or the handle of the pencil. ’
As to the other colours above mentioned, they are
ufed with gum watef, much as in painting in minia¬
ture 3 taking care to apply them lightly, for fear of
effacing the outlines of the defign 5 or even, for the
greater fecunty, to apply them on the other fide ;
efpecially yellow, which is very pernicious to the
other colours, by blending therewith. And here too,
as in pieces of black and white, particular regard
murt always be had not to lay colour on colour, or
lay on a new lay, till fuch time as the former are well
dried.
It may be added that the yellow7 is the only colour
that penetrates through the glafs, and incorporates
therewith by the fire 3 the reft, and particularly the
blue, which is very difficult to ufe, remaining on the
furface, or at leaft entering very little. When the
painting of all the pieces is finifhed, they qre carried to
the furnace or oven to anneal or bake the colours.
The furnace here ufed is fmall, built of brick, from
18 to 30 inches fquare. At fix inches from the bot¬
tom is an aperture to put in the fuel and maintain the
fire*
G L A
[ /61 ]
G L
fire. Over this aperture is a grate made of three fquare
bars of iron, which traverfe the furnace, and divide it
into two parts. Two inches above this partition is
another little aperture, through which they take out
pieces to examine how the coition goes forward. On
the grate is placed a fquare earthen pan, fix or feven
inches deep, and five or fix inches lefs every way than
the perimeter of the furnace. On the other fide here¬
of is a little aperture, through which to make trials,
placed direitly oppofite to that of the furnaces deftined
for the fame end. In this pan are the pieces of glafs to
be placed in the following manner : Firft, The bottom
of the pan is covered with three ftrata or layers of
quicklime pulverized ; thole ftrata being feparated by
two others of old broken glafs, the defign whereof is to
fecure the painted glafs from the too intenfe heat of the
fire. This done, the glaffes are laid horizontally on
the laft or uppermoft layer of lime.
The firft row of glafs they cover over with a layer
of the fame powder an inch deep j and over this they
Jay another range of glaffes, and thus alternately till
the pan is quite full *, taking care that the whole heap
always end with a layer of the lime powder.
The pan being thus prepared, they cover up the fur¬
nace with tiles, on a fquare table of earthen ware,
clofely luted all round j only leaving five little aper¬
tures, one at each comer, and another in the middle,
to ferve as chimneys. Things thus difpofed, there re¬
mains nothing but to give the fire to the work. The
fire for the two firft hours muft be very moderate, and
muft be increafed in proportion as the coition advances,
for the fpace of ten or twelve hours; in whieh time
it is dually completed. At laft the fire, which at
firft was charcoal, is to be of dry wood, fo that the
flame covers the whole pan, and even iffues out at the
chimneys.
During the laft hours, they make effays, from time
to time, by taking out pieces laid for the purpofe
through the little aperture of the furnace and pan, to
fee whether the yellow be perfeit, and the other colours
in good order. When the annealing is thought fuffici-
ent, they proceed with great hafte to extinguifh the
fire, which otherwife would foon burn the colours, and
break the glaffes.
Gljss Ba//s, which are circular, or otherwife fhaped
hollow veffels of glafs, may be coloured within, fo as to
imitate the femipellucxd gems. The method of doing
it is this : make a ftrong folution of ichthyocolla, or
ifinglafs, in common water, by boiling ; pour a quan¬
tity of this while warm into the hollow of a white glafs
veffel 5 lhake it thoroughly about, that all the iides may
be wetted, and then pour off the reft of the moifture.
Immediately after this, throw in red lead, ihake it
and turn it about, throw it into many places with a
tube, and the moifture will make it ftick and run in
waves and pretty figures. Then throw in fome of the
painters blue fmalt, and make it run in waves in the
ball as the red lead; then do the fame with verdigrife,
next with orpiment, then with red lake, all well ground j
always calling in the colours in different places, and
turning the glafs, that the moifture within may run
them into the waves. Then take fine plafter of Paris,
and put a quantity of it into the ball; fluke it alfo
nimbly about; this will everywhere ftick firmly to the
glafs, and give it a ftrong inner coat, keeping all the
Vol. IX. Part II.
A
Thefe are
efteemed
colours on very fairly and ftrongly.
frames of carved wood, and much
tnents in many places.
Glass Drop. See Rupert's Drops.
Engraving on Glass. Profefior Beckmann has pro¬
ved, that fo early as the year 1670 the art of etching
upon glafs was difeovered by Henry Schwanhard, fon
of George Schwanhard, who wTas a celebrated glafs-
cutter, patronized by the emperor Ferdinand III. about
the middle of the laft century. At the time of his
death, 1667, the father praclifed his art at Prague
and Ratilbon. Whether the fon followed the fame bu-
finefs at the fame towns, or removed to Nuremberg, is
not very evident j but in the year above mentioned,
fome aqua regia (nitro-muriatic acid) having acciden¬
tally fallen on his fpedlacles, he was furpriied to find
the glafs corroded by it, and become quite foft. He
thus, it is faid, found himfelf in poffeflion of a liquid by
which he could etch writing and figures upon plates of
glafs.
But it is probable, as Beckmann feems to think, that
he had difeovesed the fluoric acid itfelf •, for in the year
17 25 there appeared in a periodical work the following
receipt for making a powerful acid, by which figures
of every kind can be etched upon glafs.
“ When the fpiritus mtn per dijldlationem has paffed
into the recipient, ply it with a ftrong fire, and when
well dephlegmated, pour it, as it corrodes ordinary
glafs, into a Weldenburg flaik. Then throw into it a
pulverifed green Bohemian emerald, otherwife called
hefphorus (which, when reduced to powder, and heat¬
ed, emits in the dark a green light), and place it in
warm fand for 24 hours. Take a piece of glafs well
cleaned, and freed from all greafe by means of a ley ;
put a border of wax round it, about an inch in height,
and cover it all over with the above acid. The longer
you let it ftand fo much the better *, and at the end of
fome time the glafs will be corroded, and the figures
which have been traced out with fulphur and varnifh
will appear as if raifed above the pane of glafs.”
That the Bohemian emerald or hefphorus mentioned
in this receipt is green fparry fluor, cannot, fays the
profeflbr, be doubted j and he feems to have as little
doubt of the receipt itfelf having paffed from Schwan¬
hard and his fcholars to the periodical work of I725»
from which it was inferted in the CEkonomifche Ency¬
clopedic of Krunitz. This fuppofition certainly acqui
a confiderable degree of probability from the fimilaaty
of Schwanhard’s method of etching to that which
here recommended, and which is fo different from what
is now followed. At prefent, the glafs is covered with
a varnifti either of ifinglafs diffolved in water, or of
turpentine oil mixed with a little white lead, through
which the figures to be etched are traced as on copper j
but Schxvanhard, when he had drawn his figures, co¬
vered them with varnifti, and then by his liquid cor¬
roded the glafs around them. His figures, therefore,
when the varnifti was removed, remained fmooth and
clear, appearing raifed from a dim or dark ground j
and M. Beckmann, who perfuaded fome ingenious ar-
tifts to make trial of this ancient method of etching,
declares, that fuch figures have a much better effedt
than thofe which are cut into the glaft.
Foliating of Glass. See Foliating and Looking-
ilafs'
5 D Gilding
G L A [
Glafs. Gilding of Glass. See GlLDING.
'.-r—^ InpreJJions of antique Gems taken in Glass. See
Gems.
Glass of Lead, a glafs made with the addition of a
large quantity of lead, of great ufe in the art of making
counterfeit gems. The method of making it is this :
Put a large quantity of lead into a potter’s kiln, and
keep it in a Hate of fufion with a moderate fire, till it
is calcined to a gray loofe powder 5 then fpread it in
the kiln, and give it a greater heat, continually ftirring
it to keep it from running into lumps j continue this fe-
veral hours, till the powder become of a fair yellow ;
then take it out, and lift it fine : this is called calcined
lead. Take of this calcined lead 15 pounds, and cry*
iialline or other frit 1 2 pounds j mix thefe as wrell as
pofhble together 5 put them into a pot, and fet them
in the furnace for ten hours 5 then caft the whole, which
will be now perfedfly melted, into water ; feparate the
loofe lead from it, and return the metal into the pot;
and after Handing in fufion 12 hours more, it will be
fit to work. It is very tender and brittle, and muff be
worked with great care, taking it Howdy out of the
pet, and continually wetting the marble it is wrought
upon.
It is well knowm that cerufe or white lead, minium,
litharge, and all the other preparations and calces of
lead, are eafily fufed by a moderate fire, and formed
into a tranfparent glafs of a deep yellow colour. But
this glafs is fo penetrating and powerful a flux, that it
is neceffary to give it a greater confiftence, in order to
render it fit for ufe. With this view, two parts of calx
of lead, e.g. minium, and one part of land or powdered
flints, may be put into a crucible of refractory clay,
and baked into a compaCt body. Let this crucible,
well doled with a luted lid, be placed in a melting
furnace, and gradually heated for an hour or an hour
and a half j and afterwards let the heat be increafed fo
as to obtain a complete fufion, and continued in that
Hate for the fame time : let the crucible remain to cool
in the furnace ; and when it is broken a very tranfpa¬
rent yellow coloured glafs wall be found in it. Some
add nitre and common fait to the above mixture, be-
caufe thefe falts promote the fufion and the more equal
diftribution of the fand. This glafs of lead has a con-
fiderable fpecific gravity, and its kwefl: part is always
the heavieft. It is an important flux in the affays of
ores to facilitate their fcorification.
Glafs of lead is capable of all the colours of the gems
in very great perfeCKon. The methods of giving
them are thefe : for green, take pulverine frit 20
pounds, lead calcined 16 pounds; fift both the pow¬
ders very fine ; then melt them into a glafs, feparating
the unmixed lead, by plunging the mafs in water ; af¬
ter this return it into the pot, and add brafs thrice cal¬
cined fix ounces, and one pennyweight of crocus martis
made with vinegar ; put this in at fix different times,
alvyays carefully mixing it together, and take a proof
of it; w hen the colour is right, let it Hand eight hours,
and then wrork it. If inftead of the calcined brafs the
fame quantity of the caput mortuum of the' vitriolum
veneris be ufed, the green is yet much finer.
lor topaz colour, take cryftal frit 15 pounds, cal¬
cined lead 12 pounds ; mix them well together, by
lifting the powders through a fine fieve ; then fet them
in a furnace not too hot, and feparate the fuperfluous
62 ] G L A
unmixed lead, by calling the whole into water ; repeat Glafs.
this twice r then add half gold yellow glafs, and let   v—
them incorporate and purify, and they will be of the
true and exact colour of the oriental topazes.
For fea green, take cryftal frit 16 pounds, calcined
lead jo pounds; mix and fift them together, and fet
them in a pot in a furnace ; in 12 hours the whole
will be melted ; then caft it into wuter, and feparate it
from the loofe lead ; put them into the furnace again
for eight hours; then feparate the loofe lead by walh-
ing a lecond time, and return it to the pot for eight
hours more.
Mufcovy Glass. See Mica, Mineralogy Index.
Painting on Glass by means of Prints. See Back-
painting.
Gl ass Porcelain, the name given by many to a mo¬
dern invention of imitating the chinaware with glafs.
The method given by M. Reaumur, who w^as the firft
that carried the attempt to any degree of perfedlion,
is Ihortly this ; The glafs velfels to be converted into
porcelain are to be put into a large earthen veffel, fuch
as the common fine earthen difnes are baked in, or in¬
to fufficiently large crucibles; the veffels are to be fill¬
ed wdth a mixture of fine wdfite fand, and of fine gyp-
fum or plafter ftone burnt into what is called pi after
of Paris, and all the interftices are to be filled up wdth
the fame powder, fo that the glafs velfels may nowdrere
touch either one another, or the fides of the veffel they
are baked in. The veffel is to be then covered down
and luted, and the fire does the reft of the work ; for
this is only to be put into a common potter’s furnace,
and w’hen it has flood there the ufual time of the bak¬
ing the other veffels, it is to be taken out, and the
W’hole contents wdll be found no longer glafs, but con¬
verted into a white opaque fubftance, which is a very
elegant porcelain, and has almoft the properties of that
of China.
The powrder which has ferved once will do again as
w'ell as ire Hi, and that for a great many times : nay, it
feems, ever fo often. The caufe of this transformation,
fays Macquer, is probably that the vitriolic acid of the
gypfum quits its balls of calcareous earth, and unites
wdth the alkaline fait and faline earth of the glafs, with
which it forms a kind of fait, different from the calca¬
reous felenite, by the interpofition of which matter the
glafs acquires the qualities of porcelain.
Glass Pots, the veffels in the glafs trade ufed for
melting the glafs. Thofe for the white glafs works are
made of a tobacco pipe clay, brought from the ifle of
Wight, which is firft wTell w-aflied, then calcined, and
afterwards ground to a fine powder in a mill ; wftich
being mixed with w7atcr, is then trod wdth the bare
feet till it is of a proper confiftence to mould wdth the
hands into the proper lhape of the veffels. Wheii thefe
are thus made, they are afterwards annealed over the
furnace. Thofe for the green glafs work are made of
the nonfuch, and another' fort of clay from Stafford-
ftiire ; they make thefe fo large as to hold three or four
hundred w’eight of metal. .And befides thefe, they have
a fmall fort called piling pots, which they fet upon the
larger, and wdiich contain a finer and more nice metal
fit for the niceft works.
The clay that is ufed for this purpofe fliould be of
the pureft and moft refra&ory kind, and wTell cleanfed
from all fandy, ferruginous, and pyritous matters; and
to
G L A
[ 7fi3 ]
G L A
GWs. to this it will be proper to add ground crucibles, white
—/ ' fand, calcined flints duly levigated, or a certain propor¬
tion of the fame clay baked, and pounded not very
finely. The quantity of baked clay that ought to be
mixed with the crude clay, to prevent the pots from
cracking when dried, or expofed to a great heat, is not
abfolutely determined, but depends on the quality oi the
crude clay, which is more or lels fat. M. D Antic,
in a memoir on this fubjeft, propofes the following
method of afcertaining it: The burnt and crude clay,
beino- mixed in different proportions, ftiould be iormed
into cakes, one inch thick, and four inches long and
wide. Let thefe cakes be flowly dried, and expoled to
a violent heat, till they become as hard and as much
contraded as poflible, and in this ftate be examined *,
and the cake, he fays, which has fuffered a diminution
of its bulk equal only to an eighteenth part, is made of
the bell proportions. He obferves, m general that
moft clays require that the -proportion of the burnt
fhould be to the frefli as four to five.
Tin Glass, the fame with Bifmuth. See Bismuth,
Chemistry Index. _ f
Glasses are diftinguiflied, with regard to their torm,
ufe, &c. into various kinds, as drinking glafles, optical
glaffes, looking glaffes, burning glaffes, &c.
Drinking Glasses, are Ample veffels of common glais
or cry dal, ufually made in form of an inverted cone.
Each glafs confifts of three parts, viz. the bowl, the
bottom, and the foot; which are all wrought or blown
fenaratelv.
Nothing can be more dexterous and expeditious than
the manner of blowing thefe parts : two of them open¬
ed and all three joined together. An idea is only to
be’had thereof, by feeing it adually done, bor the
method of gilding the edges of drinking glaffes, lee
Gilding on Enamel and Giafs.
Optical Glasses. See Optics. .
The improvements hitherto made in telefcopes by
means of combining lenfes made of different kinds of
glafs, though very great, are yet by no means adequate
to the expectations that might roafonably be formed
2. Hence it happens, that the rays of light, when 
refraCted by a common lens, do not all unite in one fo¬
cus, but in reality form as many different foci as there
are colours ; and hence arife the prifmatic comuis, oi
irifes, which appear towards the borders of the image
formed by the common convex lenfes, and which ren¬
der the vifion extremely indiftinCt.
3. The indiftinCtnefs of vifion produced by this caufe,
which is fenfible in telefcopes of a fmall aperture, in-
creafes in fo great a proportion, viz. as the cubes of the
diameters, that it feemed impoflible. to increate the
power of dioptric telefcopes greatly, without extending
them to a very inconvenient length, unlefs tnis coiuu-
fion of colours could be corre&ed. _
4. It was known that different tranfparent bodies poi-
feffed different degrees of refraaive power j and until
Mr Dollond difoovered the contrary, it was fuppofed,
that the refraaions of the coloured rays were always m
a determined ratio to one another. On this fuppofition
it feemed impoflible to correa the faults of refraamg
telefcopes : for it was fuppofed, that if the difperfion of
light produced by a convex lens were counteiaaed by
another lens or medium of a concave form, the refrac¬
tion would be totally deftroyed j and this indeed would
be the cafe, if the two mediums were made of the fame
matter ; and from fome experiments made by Sir liaac
Newton, this was fuppofed to be aaually the cafe in all
fubftances whatever.
5. From confidering that t*hc eyes of animals are
formed of mediums of different colours, it occurred firll
to Mr David Gregory, the celebrated profeffor of aftro-
nomy at Oxford, and then to Mr Euler, that, by a
combination of mediums which had different iefra<ffive
powers, it might be poflible to remedy the imperlec-
tions of dioptric telefcopes. It does not, however, ap*
pear, that either of thefe gentlemen underftood the true
principle on which thefe phenomena depend. Mi Euler
executed his idea by forming a compound objeiff lens
from two glafs lenfes with water interpofed, but his at*
tempt was not attended with fuccefs. Mr Dollond, how¬
ever, was led by fome arguments adduced by Mr Klin-
Glafs.
to the. expe~^a|^°”® p*eces getiierna of Sweden, to repeat one of Sir Ifaac Newton’s
ffopttcianscouidfanon any method ot obtain mg P 8 ^ ^ had induced even that great pin-
of glafs fufficiently large for purfuing the advantages
of Mr Dollond’s difcovery. Unfortunately, however,
‘though the board of longitude have offered a confider-
able reward for bringing this art to the requihte per-
feftion, no attempt of any confequence has hitherto
been made. Mr Keir is of opinion, that the accom-
pliffiment of this is by no means an eafy talk ; as it re¬
quires not only a competent knowledge of the proper¬
ties of glafs fitted for the purpofe (the faults not being
evident to common infpeftion), but a confiderable de¬
gree of chemical knowledge is alfo neceffary in order to
invent a compofition by which thefe faults may be
avoided ; and laftly, a kind of dexterity in the execu¬
tion of the work, which can only be acquired by prac-
tice. Our author> however, thinks, that if the fubject
were more generally underltood, and the difficulties
more fully pointed out, for which purpofe he makes
the following remarks, the end may be more eafily ac¬
compli (bed. r ,
x. The rays of light paffing through a glals lens or
prifra, or through any other mediupi ol unequal thick-
nefs, are refracted •, but not in an equal manner, the
blue, violet, &c. being more refrafled than the red.
experiments, and which had induced even that great phi-
lofopher himfelf to fuppofe that the improvement after¬
wards executed by Mr Dollond was inapoffible. Phis
experiment was made by Sir Ifaac Newton, by placing
a glafs prifm within a prifmatic veffel filled with water,
in fuch a manner that the rays of light which were re-
frafted by the glafs prifm Ihould pafs through and be
refrafted in a contrary direction by the water prifm.
In this manner the refraftion of the light was entiiCiy
deftroyed. But when IVtr Dollond repeated the ex¬
periment, he found, that, contrary to his own expecta¬
tions, when the angles of the two prifms were fo pro¬
portioned that they counteracted each other’s mean re-
fraCtion, then colours appeared j and on the other
hand, when they were fo proportioned that the diiper-
fion of the coloured rays was counteracted, the mean re-
fraaion Hill fubfilted ; which evidently proved, that the
mean refraaive and difperfive powers oY glafs and wa¬
ter were not proportional to one another.
6. To apply this to the propofed improvement, Mr
Dollond examined feveral kinds of glafs. Crown glafs
was found to poffefs the fmalleft difpetfive power m
proportion to its refraaion while flint glafs poilelled
5 D 2 the
G!ars.
G L A [764
tlie grcateft difperfive power in proportion to its re¬
fraction, which was alfo very great. On comparing
thefe twb exaftly together, he found, that a wedge of
white flint glafs whofe angle was about 25 degrees, and
another of crown glafs whofe angle was 29 degrees,
refrafted very nearly alike. He found alfo, that, when
the wedges were ground to fuch angles, the refrac¬
tion produced by the flint glafs was to that produced
by the crown glafs nearly as two or three ; the refraft-
cd light rvas then free from colour. On meafuring the
general refrafting powers of thefe two glaffes, he found,
that in flint glafs, the fine of incidence of the rays was
to the fine of mean refraction as 1 to 1.583 ; and that
in crown glafs, the fine of incidence was to the fine of
mean refraCtion as 1 to 1.53.
The methods of determining the different refraCtive
powers of glafs are given under the article Optics.
Here we fliall only obferve, that two kinds of glafs are
neceffary for the conftruction of achromatic telefcopes j
one of which fhall poffefs as fmall, and the other as
great, diiperfive powrers, relative to their mean refraCting
powers, as can be produced. The difference of glaifes
in this refpeCl depends on the quality of the ingre¬
dients employed in their compofition. Crown glafs,
which is compofed of fand melted by means of the
afhes of fea weeds, barilla, or kelp, both which fluxes
are known to confift of vegetable earth, alkali, and
neutral fait, is found to give the fmalleft difperfive
powrer. Plate glafs, which confifts of fand melted by
means of fixed vegetable alkali, with little or no vege¬
table earth, gives a greater difperfive power 3 but both
thefe give much lefs than flint glafs, which confiifs of
fand melted by means of minium and fixed alkali. It
appears, therefore, that the difperfion of the rays is
greateft when minium, or probably other metallic" cal¬
ces, are made ufe of 3 and that alkalies give a greater
power of difperfion than vegetable or other earths. Mr
Zieher of Peterfburgh, howrever, informs us, that he
has made a kind of glafs, much fuperior in this refpeft
to flint glafs 3 but it does not as yet appear whether
it be more fit for optical purpofes than that commonly
made ufe of. There feems no difficulty in augmenting
the difperfive power, as that is found to depend on
the quantity of minium or other flux : but thus we un¬
fortunately increafe alfo the capital fault to which
flint glafs and all compofitions of that kind are fubjeft 3
namely, the being fubjeft to veins or fmall threads
running through it. By thefe, even when fo fmall as
toi be imperceptible to the naked eye, the rays which
fail on them are diverted from their proper direftion,
and thereby render the images confufed. This is ow-
ing. to the greater denfity of the veins, as appears by
their image being received on white paper, when the
glafs is held between the paper and the fun or a candle
at a proper diftance. The rays of light being then
made to converge by the fuperior denfity of the veins,
their images will appear as bright lines bordered with
obfeure edges on the paper. Flint glafs is fo much
fubjeft to this kind of imperfection, that it is with dif¬
ficulty the opticians can pick out pieces of the fize
commonly ufed from a large quantity of the glafs. It
is farther to be regretted, that the minium which pro¬
duces the greateft difperfive power, is likewife the
very fubftance wffiich renders flint glafs much more
lubjeft to thefe imperfections \than any other. The
] G L A
leafon is, that the fand and earthy matters mix uni¬
formly in fufion 3 and having not only a confiderable
degree of affinity towards each other, but alfo being
not much different from each other, they are not apt to
leparate. On the other hand, when fuch a heavy
fubftance as minium is added to thefe earthy fubftances
though it has a pretty ftrong tendency to unite with the
earthy fubftances, it has none with the fixed alkali, which
is another ingredient in this glafs. Hence fome parts of
the glafs will contain more metallic matter than the reft 5
particularly that near the bottom of the pot, which is fo
full of large veins as to be applied only to the making
of wares of little value. The veins in this cafe are
formed, by the defeent of the minium at the bottom,
which in its paffage forms threads or veins by dragging
other parts of the glafs along with them.
The. correfHon of this fault appears therefore to be
very difficult. M. Macquer informs us, that he had
in vain tried to remove it by very long fufion and a
fierce fire 3 which indeed others have found by expe¬
rience not to correCt, but to augment the evil. Mr
Keir is of opinion that fome new compofition muft be
discovered, which, along with a fi;fficient refraCtive
power, ffiould poflefs a greater uniformity of texture 3
but he is likewife of opinion, that fcarce any alteration
in this refpeCt could be made without injuring the colour
of the glafs. For optical purpofes, however, our author
does not think that an alteration in the colour of the
ingredients would be very detrimental. “ I am con .
vinced (fays he), that glafles fenfibly tinged with co¬
lour, might tranfmit as much or more light than the
beft flint glafs. For the colourlefs appearance of flint
glafs is an optical deception. The minium gives it a
conftderable tinge of yellow, and the alkali inclines it to
a bluiffi caff, beftdes the colour ariftng from a greater
or lefs impurity of the materials 3 fo that the glafs
would aClually be very fenfibly coloured, unlefs by the
addition of manganefe, which is known to give a pur-
plifti red. i hus the other tinges are counteracted, but
not effaced or deftroyed as has been frequently imagined.
By the mixture of the three principal colours, red,
yellow, and blue, more or lefs exaCtly counterpoifed, a
certain dark ihade is introduced, in which, as not any
one of the colours predominates, no coloured tinge ap¬
pears, but the effeCt is merely a diminution of the tranf-
parency of the glafs, which, however, is too fmall for
ordinary obfervation.” Mr Keir is even of opinion,
that a certain tinge of yellow would in many cafes be
of fervice, becauie it would exclude fome of the blue
rays, which being molt refrangible are molt injurious to
the diftinCtnefs of vifion.
Very confiderable difficulties, however, muft arife
in attempting improvements of this kind 3 as the expe¬
riments muft: all be tried on a very large feale. This
is not only attended with a very heavy expence in itfelf
on account of the quantity of materials employed, but
from the heavy duty of excife which is rigorouflv ex¬
acted whether the glafs be manufactured into faleable
articles or not. It is obferved in the manufacture of
every kind of glafs, that the glafs in the middle of the
area or tranfverfe feCtion of a pot is much purer and
freer from veins and other imperfections than the part
which is near the ftdes, and that the glafs at the bot¬
tom is the worft of all. Confequently it is chiefly in
forge pots, fuch as are ufed in manufactures, that there
is
Glaf,.
G L A
[ 765 ]
G L A
Glafe, is a probability of fuccefs. Very fine and beautiful
Glafton- glaffes, called pajle and artificial gems, may be made in
buJV fmaller pots or crucibles j but this glafs is fuffered to
cool and fubfide in the veffel, by which means the con¬
tiguous parts are more uniform in their texture than
can be expeifled in a piece of glafs taken out of the pot
while hot in the common way, by making it adhere
and twill round an irod rod or pipe. But although
the method of allowing the glafs to cool in the pots is
very advantageous for the purpofes of the jeweller, it is
by no means applicable to thofe of the optician. Glafs
cooled in that gradual manner, buffers lome degree of
cryllallization or peculiar arrangement of its parts 5 the
confequence of which is, that the rays of light under¬
go certain refraftions independent on the form of the
glafs, which greatly affedl the diftin&nefs of vilion in
telefcopes.
See Harmonica.
See Looking Glafs, Mirror, and
Mufical Glasses
Looking Glass.
Foliating.
Burning Glass.
Weather Glass.
Cupping Glass.
Hour Glass.
Watch Glass.
See Burning Glafs.
See Barometer.
See Surgery.
See Hour Glafs.
See Watch.
Glass Wort. See Salsola, Botany Index.
GLASTONBURY, a town of Somerfetfhire in
England ; feated in W. Long. 2. 46. N. Lat. 51. 15.
-—It is noted for a famous abbey, fome magnificent
ruins of which Hill remain. The curious ftruflure call¬
ed the Abbot's kitchen is Hill pretty entire. The monks
pretend that it was the refidence of Jofeph of Arima-
thea, and of St Patrick. The king of the Well
Saxons ere&ed a church here, which he and the fuc-
ceeding kings enriched to fuch a degree, that the abbot
lived like a prince, had the title of lord, and fat
among the barons in parliament 5 and no perfon, not
even a bilhop or prince, durft fet foot on the ille of
Avalon, in which the abbey Hands, without his leave.
The revenue of the abbey was above 40,000!. per ann.
befides feven parks well Hocked with deer. The lafi ab¬
bot (Richard Whiting), who had 100 monks, and 300
domeflics, was hanged in his pontificals, with two of
bis monks, on the Tor, a high hill in the neighbour¬
hood, for refufing to take the oath of fupremacy to
Henry VIII. and furrender his abbey when required.
Edgar and many other Saxon kings were buried here j
and, as fome will have it, Arthur the Britifli king.
Every cottage here has part of a pillar, a door, or a
window of this fabric j of which there Hill remain the
ruins of the choir, the middle tower and the chapels.
The walls that remain of the abbey are overgrown with
ivy, and the afpedl of the whole is both melancholy
and venerable. Here are two parifli churches. This
town, while under the proteftion of its abbots, was a
parliamentary borough, but it lofl that and its privilege
of a corporation \ the latter of which was, however, re-
ffored by Queen Anne, who granted it a new charter for
a mayor and burgeffes. The only manufadlory here is
flockings. At a little diHance from the old church,
and facing the monk’s churchyard, are two remarkable
pyramids, with infcriptions, that are in charadlers un¬
intelligible, and an image in biflrop’s vellments. The
ffory of the Glafionbury thorn, and of its budding upon
• Chrifimas day, is well known. This is not correftly
true; but if the winter is mild, it always buds about
the latter end of December, but later if the weather is
fevere.
GLATZ, a ffrong town of Bohemia, capital of a
county of the fame name, feated on the river Neiffe j
and well fortified with a cafile. The county was ced¬
ed to the king of Piudia by the queen of Hungary
in 1742; and is about 49 miles in length, and 25 in
breadth. It has mines of pit coal, filver, and iron y
good quarries, plenty of cattle, and fine fprings of mi¬
neral water. The town is fituated in E. Long. 15. 16.
N. Lat. 50. 25.
GLAUBER, John Rhodolphus, a celebrated Ger¬
man chemifl, who flourilhed about the year 1646. He
wrote a great number of different treatifes on chemi-
flry, fome of which have been tranflated into Latin and
French. All his works have been collected into one
volume, entitled Glauberus concentratus, which was
tranfiated into Englifli, and printed at London, in folio,
in 1689.
Glauber's Salts, or Sulphate of Soda. See Chemi¬
st Rt Index.
GLAUCOMA, in Medicine and Surgery,, the name
of a difeafe in the eye, wherein the cryltalline humour
is turned of a bluilh or greenifh colour, and its tranf-
parency hereby diminilhed.—The word comes from
yKctvxo?, ccefus, “ fea green. Iky coloured, or grayilh.”
Thofe in whom this diforder is forming, difcover it
hence, that all objects appear to them as through a cloud
or mill 5 when entirely formed, the vifual rays are all
intercepted, and nothing is feen at all.
It is reckoned incurable, when inveterate, and in
aged perfons : and even under other circumllances, is
very difficult of cure, externals proving of little fervice.
The internals beff fuited to it, are thofe ufed in the
gutta ferena. Jul. Caefar Claudinus, Conful. 74. gives
a remedy for the glaucoma.
The glaucoma is ufually diflinguilhed from the cata-
ra£t or fuffufion, in this, that in the cataradf the white-
nefs appears in the pupil, very near the corner j but it
Rows deeper in the glaucoma. See Surgery Index,
GLAUCUS, a marine god, or deity of the fea.
There are a great many fabulous accounts of this divi¬
nity : but the poetical hiflory of him is, that before
his deification, he was a fiffierman of the town of An-
thedon, who having one day taken a confiderable num¬
ber of fiflres, which he laid upon the bank, on a Hidden
perceived, that thefe filhes, having touched a kind of
herb that grew on the Ihore, received new Hrength, and
leaped again into the fea : upon the fight of which ex¬
traordinary accident, he was tempted to taffe of the
herb himfelf, and prelently leaped into the fea after
them, where he was metamorphofed into a Triton, and
became one of the fea gods.
GLAUX, a genus of plants belonging to the pen-
tandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the 17th order, Calycanthemce. See Botany Index.
GLAZIER, an artificer who works in glafs.—The
principal part of a glazier’s bufinefs confifls in fitting
panes of glafs to the faihes and window frames of houfes,
pictures, &c. and in cleaning the fame.
GLAZING, the cruHing over earthen ware with a
vitreous fubHance, the bafis of which is lead. See
Glass of I.ead.
The- workers of common earthen ware, however, are
nei-
Glattf
II
Glazing.
G L A [
Glazing, not at tlie trouble of thus previoufly making a pure
glafs of lead. Their ufual compofition for glazing their
ware is formed of white fand 40 pounds, of red lead 20
pounds, of pearl allies 20 pounds, and of common fait
12 pounds. Powder the fand by grinding it, and then
add it to the other ingredients .and grind them to¬
gether : after which calcine them for fome time with a
moderate heat, and when the mixture is cold, pound it
to powder ; and when wanted for ufe temper it with
water. The proportion of thefe ingredients may be oc-
cafionally varied. The ware after being turned on the
wheel and dried in the open air, is covered over with the
above compolition by means of a brufh ; and when fet
in the furnace the violent heat foon reduces it to a per-
fe£t glafs, covering the whole internal and external fur-
face of the veffel.
We may obferve, how'ever, in general, that lead ought
-to be excluded from the compofition of glazings, and
other fluxes fubftituted in its Head. A tranfparent
glazing may be prepared without lead, by calcining 40
pounds of white fand, 25 pounds of pearl allies, and 15
pounds of common fait 5 and proceeding as before : and
a more perfect tranfparent glazing may be made of
Jand 40 pounds, of wood allies perfectly burnt yo
pounds, of pearl allies 10 pounds, and of common fait
l 2 pounds. The following receipts are taken for the
mofl: part from Kunckel, who fays, that they are the
true glazings ufed at Delft and other Dutch manu-
faftories.
Black is made of eight parts of red lead, iron filings
three, copper alhes three, and zafter two meafures.
ihis when melted will make a brown black j and if you
want it blacker, add more zafter to it.
Blue is thus prepared : Take lead alhes or red lead
one pound, clear fand or powdered flints two pounds,
common fait twTo pounds, white calcined tartar one
pound, Venice or other glafs half a pound, zaffer half
a pound j mix them well together and melt them for
feveral times, quenching them always in cold water.
If you would have it fine and good, it will be pro¬
per to put the mixture into a glafs furnace for a day
or two.
_ Another blue glazing may be formed of one pound
of tartar, a quarter of a pound of red lead, half an
ounce of zaffer, and a quarter of a pound of powdered
flints, which are to be fufed and managed as in the laft
receipt. Or, take two pounds of calcined lead and tin,
add five pounds of common fait, five pounds of powr-
dered flints, and of zaffer, tartar, and Venetian glafs,
each one pound. Calcine and fufe the mixture as be¬
fore. Or, again, take of red lead one part, of fand
three parts, and of zaffer one part* For a violent blue
glazing, take four ounces of tartar, two ounces of red
lead, five ounces of powdered flints, and half a drachm
of manganefe.
Bt'own is made of red lead and flints of each t 4
parts, and of manganefe two parts fufed ; or of red
lead 12 parts, and manganefe one part fufed. A brown
glazing, to be laid on a white ground, may be made
of manganefe two parts, and of red lead and white
glafs of each one part, twice fufed.
Flefi coloured is made of 1 2 parts of lead allies, and
one of white glafs.
Gold coloured. Take of litharge three parts, of fand
of calcined flint one part; pound and mix thefe very
I
766 ] G L A
well together, then run them into a yellow glafs with
a ftrong fire. Pound this glafs, and grind it into a
fubtiie powder, which moiften with a well faturated
folution of filver j make it into a pafte, which put in¬
to a crucible, and cover it with a cover. Give at firlt
a gentle degree of fire ; then increafe it, and continue
it till you have a glafs, wftiich will be green. Pound
this glafs again, and grind it to a fine powder ; moiften
this powder with fome beer, fo that by means of a
hair pencil you may apply it upon the veffels or any
piece of earthen ware. The veffels that are painted or
covered over with this glazing muft be firft well heated,
then put under a muffle 5 and as focrn as the glafs runs,
you muft Imoke them, by holding them over burning
vegetables, and take out the veflels. Mr Heinfius of
Peterlburgh, who fent this receipt to the Royal Society,
ufes the words affiare dcbes fumum, which is rendered
fmoke them, in the Tranfailions. Phil. Tranf. N° 465.
£ 6.
Kunckel gives feveral preparations for a gold co¬
loured yellow glazing. This may be produced by fuf-
ing. a mixture of three parts of red lead, two parts of
antimony, and one part of faffron of Mars 5 by again
melting the powfflered mafs, and repeating the opera¬
tion four times, or by fufing four or five times a com¬
pofition of red lead and antimony of each an ounce,
and of fcales of iron half an ounce : or by calcining
and fufing together eight parts of red lead, fix parts of
flints, one part of yellow ochre, one part of antimony,
and one part of white glafs. A tranfparent gold-
coloured glazing may be obtained by twice fufing
red lead and white flints, of each 12 parts, and of
filings of iron one part.
Green may be prepared of eight parts of litharge or
red lead, eight parts of Venice glafs, four parts of
brafs dull; or filings of copper; or of ten parts of li¬
tharge, twelve of flint or pebble, and one of ces ujlum
or copper affles.—A fine green glazing may be pro¬
duced by fufing one part of the Bohemian granate,
one part of filings of copper, one part of red lead, and
one part of Venetian glafs j or by fufing one part of
white glafs, the fame quantity of red lead, and alfo of
filings of copper j powdering the mafs, and adding
one part of Bohemian granate to two parts of this pow¬
der. A fine green may be obtained by mixing and
grinding together any of the yellow- glazings w-ith
equal quantities of the blue glazings j and all the (hades
and teints of green will be had by varying the propor¬
tion of the one to the other, and by the choice of the
kind of yellow and blue.
Sea green is made of five pounds of lead afties, one
pound of tin afties, three pounds of flint, three quar¬
ters of a pound of fait, half a pound of tartar, and half
a pound of copper duft.
Iron colour is prepared of 15 parts of lead afties or
red lead, 15 of white fand or flints, and five of cal¬
cined copper. This mixture is to be calcined and
fufed.
Liver colour is prepared of 12 parts of litharge,
eight of fait, fix of pebble or flint, and one of manga¬
nefe.
Purple brown confifts of lead afties 15 parts, clean
fand or powdered flints 1 8 parts, manganefe one part,
and white glafs 15 meafures, to which fome add one
meafure of zafter.
Red
G L A [7<J7] G L E
Glazing. Reel is made of antimony three pounds, litharge or
red lead three, and ruit of iron one : grind ' them to a
fine powder. Or, take two pounds of antimony, three
of red lead, and one of calcined faixron of Mars, and
proceed as before.
White. The white glazing for common ware is
made of 40 pounds of clear fand, 7 j pounds of litharge
or lead alhes, 26 of pot alhes, and ten pounds of fait :
thefe are three times melted into a cake, quenching
it each time in clear cold water. Or it may be made
of 50 pounds of clean fand, 70 of lead allies, 30 of
■wood alhes, and 12 of fait.
For a fine white : Take two pounds of lead and one
of tin ; calcine them to alhes : of this take two parts,
calcined flint, white fand, or broken white glafs, one
part, and fait one part ; mix them well together and
melt them into a cake for ufe. The trouble of cal¬
cining the tin and lead may be prevented by procuring
them in a proper date.
A very fine white glazing may be obtained by cal¬
cining two parts of lead and one part of tin j and
taking one part of this mafs, and of flints and common
fait of each one part, and fufing the mixture.
A white glazing may be alfo prepared by mixing
100 pounds of mafticot, 60 pounds of red lead, 20
pounds of calcined tin or putty, and 10 pounds of
common fair, and calcining and powdering the mix¬
ture feveral times.
Yellow is prepared of red lead three pounds ; cal¬
cined antimony and tin, of each two pounds ; or, ac¬
cording to fome, of equal quantities of the three in¬
gredients. Thefe muft be melted into a cake, then
ground fine j and this operation repeated feveral times •,
or it may be made of 15 parts of lead ore, three parts
of litharge of filver, and 15 parts of fand.—A fine
yellow glazing may be procured by mixing five parts
of red lead, twro parts of pow-dered brick, one part of
fand, one part of the w'hite glazings, and twm parts of
antimony, calcining the mixture and then fufing it.
Or, take four parts of white glafs, one part of anti¬
mony, three parts of red lead, and'one part of iron
feales, and fufe the mixture ; or fufe 16 parts of flints,
one part of iron filings, and 24 'parts of litharge. A
light yellow glazing may be produced with ten parts
of red lead, three parts of antimony, and three of
glafs, and two parts of calcined tin. See Gold colour,
above.—A citron yellow is made of fix parts of red
lead, feven parts of fine red brick dull, and twro parts
of antimony. This mixture muft be calcined day and
night for the fpace of four days, in the alh hole of a
glafs-houfe furnace, and at laft urged to fufion.
For the glazing of Delft ware, Porcelain, Stone¬
ware, &c. fee the articles Delft Ware, Porcelain,
and Pottery.
The Romans had a method of glazing their earthen
vefiels, which in many refpedfts appears to have been
fuperior to ours. The common brown glazing eafily
feales off, cracks, and in a Ihort time becomes dif-
agreeable to the eye. Befides, it is very eafily de-
ftroyed by acids •, nor can veffels glazed in this man¬
ner be even employed to hold water, without part of
it oozing through their pores. Lead is alfo very de-
ftruftive to the human body ; and if acids are unwa¬
rily put into veffels glazed with lead, the liquors will
receive a very dangerous impregnation from the me¬
tal. The Roman glazing, which is yet to be feen
upon urns dug up in feveral places, appears to have
been made of fome kind of varnifti; and Pliny Jgives
us a hint that it was made of bitumen. He tells us 1
that it never loft its beauty, and that at length it be¬
came cuftomary to glaze over ftatues in this manner.
As this varniih funk deep into the fubftance of the
ware, it was not fubjedl to thofe cracks and flaws which
disfigure our veffels j and as it was not liable to be
corroded by acids, it could not be fubjedt to any of
the accidents W'hich may enfue from the ufe of veffels
glazed with lead.
GLEAD, or Glade, a name ufed in the northern
parts of the kingdom for the kite. See Falco, Orni¬
thology Index.
GLEAM is popularly ufed for a ray or beam of
light. Among falconers a hawk is faid to gleam when
ftie cafts or throws up filth from the gorge.
GLEANING, the adl of gathering or picking up
the ears of corn left behind after the field has been
reaped and the crop carried home. By the cuftoms
of fiome countries, particularly thofe of Melun and
Eftampes, all farmers and others are forbid, either by
themfelves or fervants, to put any cattle into the fields,
or prevent the gleaning in any manner whatever for
the fpace of 24 hours after the carrying off the corn,
under the penalty of confifcation.
GLEBE, among miners, fignifies a piece of earth
in which is contained fome mineral ore.
Glebe, in Law, the land belonging to a parifti
church befides the tithes.
GLECHOMA, ground ivy, a genus of plants
belonging to the didynamia clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 42d order, Verticillatce. See
Glead
11
Glenda-
lagh.
Botany Index.
GLEDITSIA, triple thorned acacia, or Ho¬
ney Locujl, a genus of plants belonging to the polyga-
mia clafs, and in the natural method ranking under the
33d order, Lomentaceee. See Botany Index.
GLEET, in Medicine, the flux of a thin limpid hu¬
mour from the urethra. See Medicine Index.
GLENDA LAGH, otherwife called the Seven
Churches, anciently a celebrated town of Ireland,
fituated five miles north-weft of Rathdrum, in the
county of Wicklow, and province of Leinfter. The
name fignifies “ the valley of the tfvo lakes.” In
this valley, furrounded by high and almoft inaccel-
fible mountains, St Kevin or Cavan, called alfo St
Coemgene, about the middle of the 6th century, found -
ed a monaftery, which in a ftiort time from the fanc-
tity of its founder was much reforted to, and at
length became a biflioprick and a religious city. St
Kevin died 3d June 618, aged 120 j and on that
pay annually numbers of perfons flock to the Seven
Churches t‘o celebrate the feftival of that venerated
faint. During the' middle ages the city of Glen-
dalagh, called by Hovedon Epifcopatus Bi/fagnienjts,
was held in great efteem, and received feveral valuable
donations and privileges, its epifcopal jurifdidtion ex¬
tending to the walls of Dublin.—About the middle
of the 1 2th century, on fome account or other, it w’as
much neglefted by the clergy j and became, inftead of
a holy city, a den of thieves, wherefore Cardinal Pa-
piro, in 1214, united it to the fee of Dublin, which u-
nicn was confirmed by King John. The O’Tools, chiefs
G L I [ 768 1.
gh of Krthual, however, by the afliftance of the Pope, repertis
continued long after this period to eleft biihops and
abbots to Glendalagh, though they had neither reve¬
nues or authority, beyond the didrict of Tuathal,
which was the weftern part of the county of Wicklow j
in confequence of which the city was iuffered to decay,
and had become nearly a defert, in 1497, when Den¬
nis White, the laft titular biihop, furrendered his right
in the cathedral church of St Patrick, Dublin. From
the ruins of this ancient city dill remaining, it ap¬
pears to have been a place of confequence, and to have
contained feven churches and religious houfes ^ fmall
indeed but built in a neat elegant dyle, in imitation
of the Greek architecture : the cathedral, the walls of
which are yet danding, was dedicated to St Peter and
St Paul. South of the cathedral dands a fmall church
roofed with done, nearly entire j and in feveral parts
of the valley are a number of done erodes, fome of
which are curioufly carved, but without any inferip-
tions. In the north-w’ed corner of the cemetery be¬
longing to the cathedral dands a round tower, 95
feet high, and 15 in diameter 5 and in the cemetery of
a fmall church, on the fouth fide of the river, near
the great lake, called the Rkefeart church, are fome
tombs, with Iridi inferiptions, belonging to the
O’Tools. In a perpendicular projefting rock on the
fouth fide of the great lake, 30 yards above the fur-
face of the water, is the celebrated bed of St Kevin,
hewn out of the rock, exceedingly difficult of accefs and
terrible of profpe<d. Amongd the ruins have been dif-
covered a number of dones, curioufiy carved, and con¬
taining inferiptions in the Latin, Greek, and Iriffi
languages. As this city was in a valley, furrounded
•on all lides, except the ead, by high, barren, and in-
acceffible mountains, the artificial roads leading there¬
to are by no means the lead curious part of the re¬
mains j the principal is that leading into the county
of Kildare through Glendafon. This road for near
two miles is yet perfect, compofed of dones placed on
their edges, making a firm and durable pavement, a-
bout 10 feet broad. At a fmall didance from St Ke¬
vin’s bed, on the fame fide of the mountain, are to be
feen the ruins of a fmall done building called Saint Ke¬
vin's cell.
GLENOIDES, the name of two cavities, or fmall
depreffions, in the inferior part of the fird vertebra of
the neck.
GLIMMER, or Glist. See Mica, Mineralo¬
gy Index.
GLINUS, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging
to the decandria clafs j and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 22d clafs, Caryophyllece. See Botany
Index.
GLIRES, the name of Linnaeus’s fourth order of
mammalia. See Mammalia Index.
GLISSON, Francis, a learned Engliffi phyfician
in the 17th century, was educated at Cambridge, and
was made regius profeffor of that univerfity. In 1634
he wTas admitted a fellow of the College of Phyficians in
London. During the civil w^ars, he pradtifed phyfic
at Colcheder, and afterwards fettled in London. He
greatly improved phyfic by his anatomical diffe&ions
and obfervations, and made feveral new difeoveries of
lingular ufe towards eftabliffiing a rational practice. He
wrote, 1. De rachitide, &c. 2. Dc lymphccduSHs nuper
2
G L O
with the Analomica prolego‘nena, et Anatomia
hepatis. 3. De naturae fubjlantia energitica ; feu de via
vita: nature?, ejufque tribusprimis facultatibus, Stc. quar¬
to. 4. DraBatus deventriculo etintefinis, &c. The world
is obliged to him for the capfula communis, or vagina
porta.
GLISTER, in Surgery. See Clyster.
GLOBE A, a genus of plants belonging to the mo-
nandria clafs. See Botany Index.
GLOBE, in Geometry, a round or fpherical body,
more ufually called a Sphere. See Sphere.
Globe is more particularly ufed for an artificial
fphere of metal, plaiter, paper, or other matter; on
whofe convex furface is drawn a map,. or reprefenta-
tion either of the earth or heavens, with the feveral
circles conceived thereon. See Geography.
Globes are of two kinds, terrejlrial and celejlial; each
of very confiderable ule, the one in afironomy, and the
other in geography, for performing many of the opera¬
tions thereof in an eafy obvious manner, fo as to. be
conceived without any knowledge oi the mathematical
grounds of thofe arts.
The fundamental parts, common to both globes, are
an axis, reprefenting that of the world; and a fpherical
ffiell, or cover, which makes the body of the globe, on
the external furface of which the reprefentation is
drawn. See Geography Index.
Globes, we have obferved, are made of different ma¬
terials, viz. filver, brafs, paper, plafter, &c. Thofe
commonly ufed are of plafter and paper. For the con-
ftruction of globes, fee Geography Index.
For the ufes, &c. of the globes, fee Geography
and Astronomy.
Globk Animal. See Animalcule.
Globe Fijh. See Ostracion, Ichthyology In¬
dex.
GLOBULARIA, globular blue daisy ; a ge
nus of plants, belonging to the tetrandria clafs; and
in the natural method ranking under the 48th order,
Aggregate?. See Botany Index.
GLOBULE, a diminutive of globe, frequently
ufed by phyficians in fpeaking of the red particles of
the blood. See Blood.
GLOCESTER, the capital of Glocefterftiire in
England, 101 miles from London. It is an ancient
city; and by Antoninus is called Clevum, or Glevum,
which Camden thinks was formed from the Britiffi
Caer-G/owe, fignifying “ a fair city.” It was one of the
28 cities built by the Britons before the arrival of
the Romans, who made it one of their colonies, and
in the eighth century it was efteemed one of the
nobleft cities in the kingdom. It has fuffered con-
fiderably by fire at different periods. It ftands upon
a hill; and from the middle of the city, where the four
principal ftreets meet, there is a defeent every way,
which makes it not only clean and healthy, but adds to
the beauty of the place. Forging of iron feems to have
been its manufafture fo early as the time of William
the Conqueror. King Henry VIII. made it the fee of
a biffiop, with a dean and fix prebends. Its caftle
which was ere£ted in the time of William the Conquer¬
or, is very much decayed ; part of it is leafed out by
the crown ; and the reft ferves for a prifon, one of the
beft in England. In its cathedral, which is an ancient
but magnificent fabric, and has. a tower reckoned
one
G L O
[ 769 ]
G L O
Glocefter. one of the n'.oit curious pieces of archite&ure in Eng-
 land, are the tombs of Robert duke of Normandy,
Ion to William the Conqueror, and of Edward II. and
there is a whifpering place like to that of St Paul’s
at London. In the chapter houfe lies Strongbow
who conquered Ireland, ihere are 1 2 chapels in it,
with the arms and monuments of many great per-
fons. King John made it a borough to be go-
- verned by two bailiffs. Henry III. who was crowned
here, made it a corporation. By its prelent charter
from Charles I. it is governed by a fteward, who is ge¬
nerally a nobleman, a mayor ^ a recorder j 1 2 aldermen,
out of whom the mayor is chofen j a town clerk •, two
fheriffs, chofen yearly out of 26 common councilmen •,
a fword-bearer 5 and four ferjeants at mace. Here are
12 incorporated trading companies, whoie mailers at¬
tend the mayor on all public occalions, &c. Belides
the cathedral, there are five parilh churches in. this
city , which is likewile well provided with hofpitals,
particularly an infirmary upon the plan of thofe at
London, Winchelter, Bath, &c. Here is a good Hone
bridge over the river Severn, with a quay, wharf, and
cuftomhoufe; but moft of its bufmefs is engroffed by
Briftol. King Edward I. held a parliament here in
1 272, wherein fome good laws w’ere made, now called
the Statutes of Glocejler; and he eredfed a gate on the
fouth fide of the abbey, ftill called by his name, though
aimoft demoldhed in the civil wars. King Richard II.
alfo held a parliament here : and King Richard III. in
confideration of his having (before his acceffion to the
crown) borne the title of Duke of Glocefer, added the
two adjacent hundreds of Dudfton and King’s Barton
to it, gave it his fword and cap of maintenance, and
made it a county of itfelf by the name of the county
of the city of Glocejler. But after the Reftoration the
hundreds were taken away by a£t of parliament, and
the walls pulled down •, becaufe the city ftmt the gates
again ft Charles I. w’hen he befieged it in 1643 i
which, though the fiege was railed by the earl of Ef-
fex, it had fuffered 20,000k damage, having 241
houfes deftroyed, which reduced it fo much that it
has fcarce recovered its former fize and grandeur. Be¬
fore that time it had 11 parifli churches, but fix of
them were then demolifhed. Here are abundance of
croffes, and ftatues of the Englifti kings, fome of whom
kept their Chriftmas here ; feveral market houfes fup-
ported with pillars 5 and large remains of monafteries,
which were once fo numerous, that it gave occafion to
the monkiih proverb, As fure as God is in Glocefer.
Here is a barley market; and a hall for the. affixes, cal¬
led the Booth Hall. Its chief manufafture is pins. Un¬
der the bridge is a water engine to fupply the town,
and it is ferved with it alfo from Robin Hood’s well,
to which is a fine walk from the city. Camden fays,
that the famous Roman way, called Ermin^ Street,
which begins at St David’s in Pembrokeftiire, and
reaches to Southampton, paffes through this city. Sad-
mead in the neighbourhood is noted for horfe races.
Here is a charity fchool for above 80 children, of
whom above 70 are alfo clothed j and a well endow¬
ed blue coat fchool. The city fends two members to
parliament.
Glocester is alfo the name of two counties and
of feveral towns m America 3 fuch as the county of
Glocefter in New Jerfey, bounded on the north by
VOL. IX. Part II.
Burlington, on the fouth by Salem and Cumberland, Glorefter-
on the eaft by the Atlantic ocean, and on the weft by , ,
the river Delaware. It contains 13,172 inhabitants,
befides 191 flaves. Glocefter in Virginia is a well culti¬
vated and fruitful county, about 55 miles long and 30
broad, with a population of 13 >49^ f°uls5 among whom
are included 7°^ 3 haves*
GLOCESTERSHIRE, a county of England,
is bounded on the weft by Monmouthfture and Here-
fordfhire, or. the north by Worcefterlhire, on the eaft
by Oxfordlhire and Warwickftiire, and on the fouth
by Wiltlhire, and part of Somerfetftiire. It is fixty
miles in length, twenty-fix in breadth, and one hun¬
dred and fixty in circumference 3 containing 1,100,000
acres, 26,760 houfes, 162,560 inhabitants, 290 pa-
riihes, 1 40 are impropriations, 1 229 villages, 2 cities,
and 28 market towns. It fends only 8 members to
parliament, 6 for three towns, viz. Glocefter, Tewkef-
bury, and Cirencefter 5 and two for the county. Its
manufaftures are woollen cloths of various Kinds, men s
hats, leather, pens, paper, bar iron, edge tools, nails,
wrire, tinned plates, brafs, &.c. : and of the principal ar¬
ticles of commerce of the county, it exports cheefe
800c tons 3 bacon, grain, cyder, 5000I. worth 3 perry,
fifti, 4000I. worth, &c. It lies in the diocefe that
takes its name from the capital, and in the Oxford
circuit. The air of the county is very wholefome, but
the face of it is very different in different parts : for
the eaftern part is hilly, and is called Coitefwo/d; the
weftern w7oody, and called the Yoref^ of Dean ; and the
reft is a fruitful valley, through which runs the river
Severn. This river is in fome places between two and
three miles broad 3 and its courfe through the country,
including its windings, is not lefs than feventy miles.
The tide of flood, called the Boar, rifes very high, and
is very impetuous. It is remarkable, that the greateft
tides are one year at the full moon, and the other at
the new ; one year the night tides, and the next the
day. This river affords a noble conveyance for goods
and merchandife of all forts to and from the county 3
but it is watered by feveral others, as the Wye, the
Avon, the Ifis, the Leyden, the Frome, the Stroud,
and Windrufh, befides leffer ftreams, all abounding
with fifti, the Severn in particular with falmon, con¬
ger eels, and lampreys. The foil is in general very
fertile, though pretty much diverfified, yielding plen¬
ty of corn, pafture, fruit, and wood. In.the hilly
part of the county, or Cottefwold, the air is (harper *
than in the lowlands 3 and the foil, though not fo fit
for grain, produces excellent pafture for (beep 3 fo that
of the four hundred thoufand that are computed to be
kept in the county, the greater part are fed here. . Of
thefe flieep the wool is exceeding fine 3 and hence it is
that this (hire is fo eminent for its manufa&ure of
cloth, of which fifty thoufand pieces are faid to have
been made yearly, before the pra&ice of clandeftinely
exporting Englifti wool became fo common. In the
vale, or lower part of the county, through which the
Severn paffes, the air and foil are very different from
thofe of the Cottefwold: for the former is much, warmer,
and the latter richer, yielding the moft luxuriant paf-
tures; in confequence of which, numerous herds of
black cattle are kept, and great quantities of that ex¬
cellent cheefe, for which it is fo much celebrated, made
in it. The remaining part of the county, called the
5 E rare#
Cloehidon
G L O [ 770 j G L O
Forcjl of Dean, was formerly aim oft entirely overrun
with wood, and extended 20 miles in length, and 10 in
breadth. It was then a neft of robbers, efpecially to¬
wards the Severn j but now it contains many towns
and villages, confiding chiefly of miners, employed in
the coal pits, or in digging for or forging iron ore,
with both which the foreft abounds, Thefe miners
have their particular laws, cuftoms, courts, and judges :
and the king, as in all royal forefts, has a fwaimmote
for the prefervation of the vert and venifor*. This fo¬
reft was anciently, and is ftill noted for its oaks, which
thrive here furprifingly ; but as there is a prodigious
confumption of wood in the forges, it is continually
dwindling away. A navigable canal is made from
Stroud to Framilode, forming a jundlion between the
Severn and Thames. Its chalybeate fprings are, St
Anthony’s well, in Abbenhall parifti ; at Barrow and
Maredon, in Bodington parifti; at Alh-church, near
'J ewke&ury j at Dumbleton, near Winchcomb ; at
Eafington, near Durfley j and at Cheltenham. Its an¬
cient fortifications, attributed to the Romans, Saxons,
or Danes, are Abfton and Wick, and at Dointon,
Dixton, Addlefthorp, Knole, Over Upton, Hanham
Bodington, and Bourton on the Water.
GLOCHIDON, a genus of plants, belonging to
the monoecia clafs. See Botany Index.
GLOGAW, a flrong town of Germany, in Silefia,
and capital of a duchy of the fame name. It is not
very large, but is well fortified on the fide of Poland.
It has a handfome caftle, with a towTer, in which feve-
ral counfellors were condemned by Duke John, in 1498,
to periih with hunger. Befides the Papifts, there are
a great number of Proteftants and Jew’s. It was taken
by alfault, by the king of Pruflia, in 1741, and the
garrifon made prifoners. After the peace in 1742, the
king of Pruflia fettled the fupreme court of juftice
here, it being, next to Breflaw, the moft populous
place in Silefia. It is feated on the river Oder, in
E. Long. 15. 13. N. Eat. 51. 40.
Gi.ogaw the Less, a towm of Silefia, in the duchy
of Opelen, now in the pofleflion of the king of Pruflia.
It is tw’o miles fouth-eaft of great Glogawr, and 43
north-weft of Breflaw. E. Lon. 16. I c. N. Lat u.
38.
GLORIA Patri, among ecclefiaftical writers. See
Doxorogy.
GLORIOSA, superb lily, a genus of plants, be-
longmg to the hexandria clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the nth order, Sannentofce. See
Botany Index.
GLORY, renown or celebrity. The love of
nown, or defire of fame and reputation, appears to
one of the principal fpnngs of aftion in human focie
Glory, therefore, is not to be contemned, as fome
the ancient philofophers affedled to teach : but it i
ports us to regulate our purfuit after it by the dicla
of reafon; and if the public approbation will not f
low us in that courfe, w’e muft leave her behind.
We ought to have our judgments well inftruded
to what adions are truly glorious; and to rememb
that m every Important enterprife, as Seneca obferv
ReBe fa&i feciffe metres ejl; officii fruttus, ipfum t
cium eft: “ The reward of a thing well done, is to hi
done it; the fruit of a good office, is the office itfel
Thole who by other methods fcatter their names ii
many mouths, fhow they rather hunt after a great re- Glory,
putation than a good one, and their reward is oftener ' ■—" v~—
infamy than fame.
Men generally, and almoft inftindively, affix glory
only to fuch adions as have been produced by an in¬
nate defire for public good ; and we meafure it by that
degree of influence which any thing done has upon the
common happinefs.
If the adions of the hero condud fooneft to glory
and with the greateft fplendour, and if the vidorious
general is fo great after a fignal engagement; it is be-
caufe the fervice he has done is for the moment, and
for all; and becaufe we think without refleding, that
he has faved our habitations, our wealth, and our chil¬
dren, and every thing that attaches us to life. If the
man of fcience, wflio in his ftudy has difeovered and
calculated the motions of the heavenly bodies, who in
his alembics has unveiled fome of the fecrets of nature,
or who has exhibited to mankind a new art, riles to
fame with lefs noife ; it is becaufe the utility which
he procures is more widely diffufed, and is often of
lefs fervice to the prefent than to fucceeding genera¬
tions. f
The confequences, therefore, of thefe two advan¬
tages are as oppofite as the caufes are different j and
while the benefits procured by the w’arrior appear to
have no more influence, and while his glory becomes
obfeure, that of a celebrated waiter or inventor ftill in-
creafes, and is more and more enlarged. His works
every day bring back his name to that age which ufes
them, and thus ftill add to his celebrity and fame.
1 his pofthumous fame indeed has been decried by
fome writers. In particular, the author of the Religion
of Nature delineated has treated it as highly irrational
and abfurd. “ In reality (fays he) the man is not
known ever the more to pofterity, becaufe his name is
tianfmitted to them .■ He doth not live, becaufe his
n.ime does. When it is find, Julius Caefar fubdued
Gaul, conquered Pompey, &c. it is the fame thing as
to lay, the conqueror of Pompey was Julius Ctefar;
i. e. Csefar and the conqueror of Pompey is the fame
thing 5 Cariar is as much known by one defignation as
by the other. The amount then is only this, that the
conqueror of Pompey conquered Pompey; or fome-
body conquered Pompey; or rather, fince Pompey is
as little known now as Caefar, fomebody conquered
fomebody. Such a poor bufinefs is this boafted immor¬
tality ! and fuch is the thing called glory among us !
To difeerning men this fame is mere air, and what they
defpife if not ffiun.”
But furely it were to confider too curioufly (as Ho¬
ratio lays to Hamlet) to confider thus. For (as the
elegant author, of Fitzoflborne’s Letters obferves) al¬
though fame wflth pofterity Ihould be, in the ftrifit ana-
lyfis of it,, no other than what is here deferibed, a mere
umntereftnig propofition, amounting to nothing more
than that fomebody afted meritorioully ; yet it would
not neceffarily follow, that true philofophy would ba-
nilh the defire of it from the human breaft: for this paf-
fion may be (as moft certainly it is) wiferly implanted
in our fpecies, notwuthftanding the correfponding ob¬
ject Ihould in reality be very different from wffiat it ap¬
pears in imagination. Do not many of our moft refin¬
ed and even contemplative pleafures ow'e their exiftence
to our xniftakes ? It is but extending fome of our fenfes
to
G L O [ 77i ] G. L <*)
Glory to a higher degree of acutenefs than we now poffefs
H them, to make the faireft views of nature, or the nobleft
^ 'produdlions of art, appear horrid and deformed. To fee
things as they truly and in themfelves are, would not
always, perhaps, be of advantage to us in the intellec¬
tual world, any more than in the natural. But, after
all, who (hall certainly allure us, that the pleafure of
virtuous fame dies with its poffellbr, and reaches not to
a farther fcene of exiftence ? There is nothing, it Ihould
feem, either abfurd or unphilofophical in fuppoling it
pollible at leall, that the praifes of the good and the ju¬
dicious, the fweeteft mufic to an honefl: ear in this world,
may be echoed back to the manlions of the next; that
the poet’s defcription of Fame may be literally true,
and though Ihe walks upon earth, Ihe may yet lift her
head into heaven.
To be convinced of the great advantage of cherilh-
ing this high regard to poilerity, this noble defire of
an after- life in the breath of others, one need only
look back upon the hiftory of the ancient Greeks
and Romans. For what other principle was it which
produced that exalted drain of virtue in thofe days,
that may well ferve, in too many refpe£b, as a model
to thefe ? Was it not the confentiens laus bonorum, the
incorrupta vox bene judicantium (as Tully calls it),
“ the concurrent approbation of the good, the uncor¬
rupted applaufe of tire wife,” that animated their moft
generous purfuits ?
In ihort, can it be reafonable to extinguilh a paflion
which nature has univerfally lighted up in the human
breaft, and which we conftantly find to burn with molt
ftrength and brightnefs in the noblelt and belt formed
bofoms ? Accordingly revelation is fo far from endea¬
vouring to eradicate the feed which nature has thus
deeply planted, that Ihe rather feems, on the contrary,
to cherilh and forward its growth. To be exalted
with honour, and to be had in everlafting remembrance,
are in the number of thofe encouragements which the
Jewilh difpenfation offered to the virtuous j and the
perfon from whom the facred Author of the Chriftian
lyftem received his birth, is herfelf reprefented as re.
joicing that all generations Jbould call her blejjed.
GLOSS, a comment on the text of any author, to
explain his fenfe more fully and at large, whether in
the fame language or any other. See the article
Commentary.—The word, according to fome, comes
from the Greek yXuarci, “ tongue the office of a glojs
being to explain the text, as that of the tongue is to
difeover the mind.
Gloss is likewife ufed for a literal tranilation, or an
interpretation of an author in another language word
for word.
Gloss is alfo ufed in matters of commerce, &.c. for
the luftre of a filk, Huff, or the like.
GLOSSARY, a fort of dictionary, explaining the
obfeure and antiquated terms in fome old author j
fuch are Du Cange’s Latin and Greek Gloffaries,
Spelman’s Gloffary, and Kenneths Gloffary at the end
of his Parochial Antiquities.
GLOSSOPETRA, or glottopetra, in Natural
Hi/lory, a kind of extraneous foil'd, fomewhat in form
of a ferpent’s tongue ; frequently found in the illand
of Malta and other places.
The vulgar notion is, that they are the tongues of
ferpents petrified j and hence their name, which is a
compound of yXncrrtt, “tongue” and “ fidrte.”6lolt‘ope(‘rs
Hence alfo their traditionary virtue in curing the bites 11
of ferpents. The general opinion of naturalifts is,; Glovc-
that they are the teeth of fiihes, left at land by the
waters of the deluge, and fince petrified.
The feveral fizes of the teeth of the fame fpecies,
and thofe of the feveral different fpecies of lharks, af¬
ford a vaft variety of thefe foffil fubftances. Their
ufual colours are black, bluiih, whitiffi, yellowiffi, or
brown j and in fiiape they ufually approach to a trian¬
gular figure. Some of them are fimple $ others are
tricufpidate, having a fmall point on each fide of the
large one : many of them are quite llraight j but they
are frequently found crooked, and bent in all direc¬
tions ; many of them are ferrated on their edges, and
others have them plain; fome are undulated on their
edges, and fiightly ferrated on thefe undulations. They
differ alfo in fize as much as in figure j the larger be¬
ing four or five inches long, and the fmaller lefs than
a quarter of an inch.
They are molr ufually found with us in the ftrata of
blue clay, though fometimes alfo in other fubftances,
and are frequent in the clay pits of Richmond and
other places. They are very frequent alfo in Ger¬
many, but nowhere fo plentiful as in the ifland of
Malta.
The Germans attribute many virtues to thefe foffii
teeth ; they call them cordials, fudorifics, and alexi-
pharmics : and the people of Malta, where they are
extremely plentiful, hang them about their children’s
necks to promote dentition. They may poffibly be of
as much fervice this way as an anodyne necklace j and
if fufpended in fuch a manner that the child can get
them to its mouth, may, by their hardnefs and fmooth-
nefs, be of the fame ufe as a piece of coral.
GLOTTIS, in Anatomy, the narrow flit at the
upper part of the afpera arteria, which is covered by
the epiglottis when we hold our breath and when we
fwallow. The glottis, by its dilatation and contrac¬
tion, modulates the voice. See Anatomy, N° 183.
GLOVE, £ covering for the hand and wrift.
Gloves, with refpeft to commerce, are diftinguiflted
into leathern gloves, filk gloves, thread gloves, cotton
gloves, worfted gloves, &c. Leathern gloves are made
of chamois, kid, lamb, doe, elk, buff, &c. Gloves
now pay a duty to the king, which increafes according
to their value.
To throw the glove, was a pradlice or ceremony
very ufual among our forefathers •, being the challenge
whereby another was defied to fingle combat. It is
ftill retained at the coronation of our kings j when
the king’s champion calls his glove in Weftminfter
hall. See Champion.
Favyn fuppofes the cuftom to have arifen from the
eaftern nations, who in all their fales and deliveries of
lands, goods, &c. ufed to give the purchafer their
glove by way of livery or inveftiture. To this eft'edl
he quotes Ruth iv. 7. where the Chaldee paraphrafe
calls glove what the common verfion renders by Jhoe.
He adds, that the Rabbins interpret by glove that
paffage in the cviiith Pfalm, In Idumeam extendam cal-
ceamentum meutn, “ Over Edom will I call out my ffioe.”
Accordingly, among us, he who took up the glove,
declared thereby his acceptance of the challenge ; and
as a part of the ceremony, continues Favyn, took the
5 E a glove
G L O t 77
Glover, clove off his own right hand, and call it upon the
—v 1 ground, to be taken up by the challenges I his had
the force of a mutual engagement on each fide, to meet
at the time and place which fhould be appointed by the
king, parliament, or judges. The fame author aiierts,
that the cuftom which ftill obtains of bleffing gloves
in the coronation of the kings of France, is a remain
of the eaftern pradice of giving poffeflion with the
glove, lib. xvi. p. 1017, &c.
Anciently it was prohibited the judges to wear
gloves on the bench. And at prefent in the ftables of
moft princes, it is not fafe going in without pulling off
the gloves.
GLOVER, Richard, the author of Leonidas and
feveral other eifeemed works, was the fon of Richard
Glover, a Hamburgh merchant in London, and was
born in St Martin’s lane in the year 1712. He very
early fhowed a flrong propenfity to and genius for
poetry ; and while at fchool, he wrote, amongu other
pieces, a poem to the memory of Sir Ifaac Newton,
prefixed to the view of that incomparable author’s
philofophy, publifhed in 4to, in 1728, by his intimate
friend Dr Pemberton. But though poffeffed of talents
which were calculated to excel in the literary world, he
was content to devote his attention to commerce, and
at a proper period commenced a Hamburgh merchant.
He flill, however, cultivated literature, and affociated
with thofe who were eminent in fcience. One of his
earlieft friends was Matthew Green, the ingenious but
obfcure author of fome admirable poems, which in
1737, after his death, were collected and publifhed by
Mr Glover. In 1737, Mr Glover married Mifs Nunn,
with whom he received a handfome fortune •, and in
the fame month publifhed Leonidas, a poem in 4t°>
which in this and the next year pafied through three
editions. This poem was infcribed to Lord Cobham j
and on its firft appearance was received by the world
with great approbation, though it has fince been un¬
accountably negledled. Lord Lyttelton, in a popular
publication called Common Senfe, and in a poem ad-
dreifed to the author, praifed it in the warmeft terms j
and Dr Pemberton publifhed, Obfervations on Poetry,
efpecially epic, occafioned by the late poem upon Leoni¬
das, 1738, 1 2mo, merely with a view to point out its
beauties. In 1739, Mr Glover publilhed “ London,
or the Progrefs of Commerce,” 410 j and a ballad en¬
titled, Hofier’s Ghoft. Both thefe pieces feem to have
been written with a view to incite the public to refent
the mifhehaviour of the Spaniards ; and the latter had
a very confiderable effecf. The political diffenfions at
this period raged with great violence, and more efpe¬
cially in the metropolis *, and at different meetings of
the livery on thofe occafions, Mr Glover was always
called to the chair, and acquitted himfelf in a very able
manner, his conduft being patriotic and his fpeeches
mafterly. His talents for public fpeaking, his know¬
ledge of political affairs, and his information concern¬
ing trade and commerce, foon afterwards pointed him
out to the merchants of London as a proper perfon to
conduct their application to parliament on the fubjeft
of the negledt of their trade. He accepted the office 5
and in fumming up the evidence gave very ftriking
proofs of his oratorical powers. This fpeech was pro¬
nounced Jan. 27. 1742.
In the year 1744 died the duchefs of Marlborough,
2 ] ' G L O
and by her will left to Mr Glover and Mr Mallet 500I.
each, to write the Hiftory of the Duke of Marlbo¬
rough’s Life. This bequeft, however, never took place.
It is fuppofed that Mr Glover very early renounced his
ffiare of it j and Mallet, though he continued to talk
of performing the talk almoft as long as he lived, is
now known never to have made the lead progrefs in it.
About this period Mr Glover withdrew a good deal
from public notice^and lived a life of retirement. He
had been unfuccefsful in his bufinefs j and with a veiy
laudable delicacy had preferred an obfcure retreat to
popular obfervation, until his affairs fhould put on a
more profperous appearance. He had been honoured
with the attention of Frederick prince of Wales, who
once prefented him with a complete fet of the cialTics,
elegantly bound 5 and, on his abfenting himfelf for
fome time on account of the embarraflment in his cn-
cumftances, fent him, it is faid, 500I. Ihe piince
died in March 1751 •, and in May following Mr Glo¬
ver was once more drawn from his retreat by the im¬
portunity of his friends, and flood candidate#for the
place of chamberlain of London. It unfortunately
happened that he did not declare himfelf until moil of
the livery had engaged their votes j by which means
he loft his eledlion.
In 17^3, Mr Glover produced at Drury Lane his tra¬
gedy of Boadicea j ■which was a£led nine nights, in the
month of December. It had the advantage of the
performance of Mr Garrick, Mr Moifop, Mrs Cibber,
and Mrs Pritchard. From the prologue, it feems to
have been patronized by the author’s friends in the
city ; and Dr Pemberton w-rote a pamphlet to recom¬
mend it.—In 1761, Mr Glover publifhed. Medea, a
tragedy written on the Greek model j but it was not
added until 1767, when it appeared for the firft time
on the itage at Drury Lane for Mrs Yates’s benefit.
At the acceffion of his prefent majefty, he appears to
have furmounted the difficulties of his iituation. In
the parliament which wTas then called, he was chofen
member for Weymouth, and continued to fit .as fuch
until the diffolution of it. He, aoout this time, in-
terefted himfelf about India affairs, at one of Mr Sul¬
livan’s eledlions *, and in a fpeech introduced the fable
of the man, horfe, and bear 5 and drew this conclufion,
that, whenever merchants made ufe of armed forces to
maintain their trade, it would end in their deftruttion.
In 1770, the poem of Leonidas requiring a new
edition, it was republiffied in two volumes 12mo, cor-
re&ed throughout, and extended from nine books to
twelve. It had alfo feveral new charafters added, be-
fides placing the old ones in new fituations. Ihe im¬
provements made in it were very confiderable; but we
believe the public curiofity, at this period, was not fuf-
ficiently alive to recompenfe the pains bellowed on this
once popular performance. The calamities arifing from
the wounds given to public credit, in June 1772> by
the failure of the bank of Douglas, Heron, and Co. in
Scotland, occafioned Mr Glover’s taking a very adive
part in the fettling thofe complicated concerns, and
in flopping the diftrefs then fo univerfally felt. In Fe¬
bruary 1774, he called the annuitants of that banking-
houfe together, at the King’s Arms tavern, and laid
propofals before them for the fecurity of their de¬
mands, with which they were fully fatisfied. He alio
undertook to manage the interefts of _the merchants
and
Glover,
%
C L U [ 773 ] G L U
Glcvx’-
worm
II
Glue.
and traders of London concerned in the trade to Ger
many and Holhnd, and of the dealers in foreign linens,
in their application to parliament in May 1774. Both
the fpeeches made on thefe occafions were publifhed in
a pamphlet in that year. In the fucceeding year
he engaged on behalf of the Weft India merchants
in their application to parliament, and examined
the witneffes and fummed up the evidence in the
fame mafterly manner he had done on former occa¬
fions. For the aflitlance he afforded the merchants in
this bufinefs, he was complimented by them with a
fervice of plate, of the value of 300I. The fpeech
which he delivered in the houfe was in the fame year
printed. This, we believe, was the laft opportunity he
had of difplaying his oratorical talents in public. Ha¬
ving now arrived at a period of life which demanded a
recefs from buftnefs, Mr Glover retired to eafe and in¬
dependence, and wore out the remainder of his days
■with dignity and wdth honour. It is probable that
he ftill continued his attention to his mufe, as we are
informed that, beftdes an epic poem of confiderable
length, he has left fome tragedies and comedies behind
him in manufcript. After experiencing for fome time
the infirmities of age, he departed this life 25th No¬
vember 1785 j leaving behind him a moft eftimable
chara&er as a man, a citizen, and a writer.
GLOW-worm. See Lampyris, Entomology///^.
GLUCINA, in ChemiJlnj, an earthy fubftance which
was difcovered by Vauquelin in 1798, in analyzing the
emerald of w’hich it forms a component part. For an
account of its properties and combinations. See Che-
MiSTRY, N° I 165.
GLUCKSTADT, a ftrong and confiderable town
of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and duchy
of Holftein, with a llrong caftle, and fubjedl to Den¬
mark. It is feated on the river Elbe, near its mouth.
E. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 52. 53.
GLUE, among artificers, a tenacious vifcid matter,
which ferves as a cement to bind or conneft things to¬
gether.
Glues are of different kinds, according to the vari¬
ous ufes they are defigned for, as the common glue,
glove glue, and parchment glue ; whereof the two laft
are more properly called Ji%e.
Hamel du Monceau has written one of the beft works
on the fubjeft of glue. According to this author, glue
was at firft principally prepared from the membranous,
tendinous, and cartilaginous parts of animals, and after
being dried, they wxre melted into tablets. It is cer¬
tain, how’ever, that every animal fubftance containing
jelly, may be ufed in the manufadhire of glue j and,
according to Du Hamel himfelf, a ftrong, but black-
coloured glue may be obtained from bones and hartf-
horn, after they are diffolved in Papin’s digefter. Of
the truth of this fact Papin himfelf likewife affures us,
for he prepared a jelly from bones, and even from ivo¬
ry, by which he glued together fome pieces of broken
glafs; and fubfequent experiments made by other che-
mifts, have confirmed his affertion.
To the information contained on this fubje£l in the
works of Papin, Spielman has added many valuable re¬
marks. He not only extradited glue from bones, but
alio from all the folid parts of animals, by boiling alone,
as well as from the teeth of the fea horfe, the wild
boar, the wood-loufe, and the viper.
The glue manufactured in Europe is of different
kinds ; but that which is made in England is efteemed L
the beft. Its colour is of a brownifti rea. The Flan¬
ders glue is confidered as of an inferior quality to that
made in England, while the glue manufaddured in
France is not fo good as either. The reafon affigned
for this difference of quality is, that bones and finews
are made ule of by the Flemilh and French in the ma¬
nufacture of this article, while the Engliih employ Ikins,
which yield a much ftronger glue. Dr Lewis informs
us that the Englilh fteep and walh the cuttings of the
hides in water, then boil them in freih water till the
liquor becomes of a proper confiftence, after which
they ftrain it through balkets, allow it to fettle, then
expofe it to further evaporation, and pour it into fiat
moulds, where it unites. When thoroughly cooled, it
is converted into folid cakes, which are cut into pieces,
and dried on a kind of net.
Grenet for many years turned his attention to the
manufacturing of glue. Having made a number of ex¬
periments on every fubftance formerly employed for'
this purpole, he found that bones afford the moft abun¬
dant quantity of glue, and yield it with facility. Ha¬
ving deprived them of the fat they contain, he procu¬
red a jelly by limply boiling them, which, when dried,
and thus changed into glue, he found fuperior to that
which was prepared in France, and nearly equal to the
beft glue of commerce.
From the experiments of Parmentier, it appears that
fix pounds of button-makers rafpings yielded a pound of
excellent glue, not inferior to that which is manufac¬
tured in England. The glue which he obtained from
the filings of ivory was equally as good, but more
highly coloured. The filings of horn yielded none of
this fubftance.
To obtain glue as colourlefs as poffible, a very fmall
quantity of water fhould be employed for extracting
the jelly, by which means it may be concentrated with¬
out long evaporation, as expofure to heat has always-a
greater or lefs influence on the colour in proportion to
the time. The whitenefs and tranfparency of the Flan¬
ders glue are faid to originate from an adherence to this
plan.
In their confiftence, colour, tafte, fmell, and folubi-
lity, glues are found to differ from each other. Some
glues will diffolve by agitation in cold water, while
others are only foluble at the point of ebullition. It is
generally admitted that the beft glue is tranfparent, of
a brownifh yellow colour, and having neither tafte nor
fmell. It is perfectly foluble in water, forming a vif-
cous fluid, wLich, wdien dry, preferves its tenacity and
tranfparency in every part, and has more folidity, co¬
lour, and vifcidity, in proportion to the age and
ftrength of the animal from wdiich it is produced.
For the followung account of the manufacture of glue
we are indebted, to Mr JohnClennel of Newcaftle. “The
improvement (he obferves) of any manufacture depends
upon its eafy accefs to men of fcience, and a prudential
theorift can never be better employed than in attempting
to reduce to regularity or to fyftem the manufactures that
may fall under his attention. In conformity to the firit
principle, I made fome notes whilft vifiting a glue ma¬
nufactory a few years ago in Southwark, and thofe, in¬
terwoven with the remarks on that fubjeCt of fome che-
mifts of the firft refpeCtability, I take the liberty of
fending
Glue.
G L U [ 774 ] G L U
Glue, fending you : at the fame time I mull beg of you, or
*~’'v 1 your correfpondents, that where it may be corrected in
any manner, it may be done, and I lhall feel myfelf
obliged by the attention.
“ Glue is an infpilTated jelly, made of the parings of
hides or horns of any kind, the pelts obtained from fur¬
riers, and the hoofs and ears of horfes, oxen, calves,
fiieep, See. quantities of all which are imported in ad¬
dition to the home fupply, by many of the great manu-
fafturers of this article : thefe are firll digeiled in lime
water, to cleanfe them as far as it can from the greafe
or dirt they may have contradled j they are then lleep-
ed in clean water, taking care to llir them well from
time to time 5 afterwards they are laid in a heap, and
the fuperabundant water prefled out 5 then they are
boiled in a large brafs caldron with clean water, Ikim-
ming off the dirt as it rifes, and further cleanfed by put¬
ting in, after the whole is diffolved, a little melted
alum or lime finely powdered, which, by their deterfive
properties, ftill further purge it : the Ikimming is con¬
tinued for fome time, when the mafs is ffrained through
balkets, and fuffered to fettle, that the remaining im¬
purities, if any, may fubfide ; it is then poured gently
into the kettle again, and further evaporated by boiling
a fecond time, andlkimming, until it becomes of a clear
but darkifh brown colour : when it is thought to be
ftrong enough (which is known either by the length of
time a certain quantity of w^ater and materials have
boiled, or by its appearance during ebullition), it is
poured into frames or moulds of about fix feet long,
one broad, and two deep, wdiere it hardens gradually
as the heat decreafes : out of thefe troughs or receivers
jt is cut, when cold, by a fpade, into fquare pieces or
cakes, and each of thefe placed within a fort of wood¬
en box, open in three divifions to the back j in this the
glue, as ^et foft, is taken to a table by women, where
they divide it into three pieces (a) with an inftrument
not unlike a bow, having a brafs wire for its firing j
with this they ftand behind the box and cut by its
openings, from front to back : the pieces thus cut are
taken out into the open air, and dried on a kind of
coarfe net work, faftened in moveable (beds of about
four feet fquare, which are placed in row's in the glue-
maker’s field (every one of which contains four or five
row's of net work) j w'hen perfeftly dry and hard, it is
jit for fale.
“ That is thought the bed; glue w'hich fw'ells confi-
derably without melting, by three or four days immer-
fion in cold water, and recovers its former dirqenfions
and properties by drying. Glue that has got froft, or
that looks thick and black, may be melted over again
and refined, with a fufficient quantity added of frefh to
overcome any injury it may have fuftained ; but it is
generally put into the kettle after what is in it has
been purged in the fecond boiling. To know good
from bad glue, it is neceffary for the purchafer to hold
it between his eye and the light, and if it appears of a
flrong dark brown colour, and free from cloudy or
black fpots, the article is good.”
A glue that is colourlefs and of fuperior quality, is
obtained from the fkins of eels, and known by the name
of/f&f. It is even procured from vellum, parchment,
and fome of the white fpecies of leather ; but for com¬
mon purpofes this is by far too expenfive, and is only
made ufe of in thofe cafes of delicate workmanlhip
where glue would be too grofs. The fkins of the rab¬
bit, hare, and cat, are made ufe of in the manufac¬
turing of fize, by thofe who are employed in gilding
gold, polifhing, and painting, in various colours.
From the experiments of Mr Hatchett it appears
that membrane yields different quantities of gelatine, the
folutions of which evaporated to drynefs, afforded him
an opportunity of obferving the different degrees of vif-
cidity and tenacity of mucilage, fize, and glue. Fie alfo
found that the more vifeid glues are obtained with
greater difficulty than fuch as are lefs fo. When a
cake of glue has been fteeped three or four days in cold
water, it is confidered of the bell quality, if it fwell
much w'ithout being diffolved, and if, wffien taken out,
it recovers its original figure and hardnefs by dry-
ing.
On comparing the fkins of different animals, Mr
Hatchett found, that fuch as were moft flexible more
readily yielded their gelatine, and that produced from
the fkin of the rhinoceros was by far the moft vifeid of
any. The true fkin of any animal was moft affe6led
by long boiling ; but the hide of the rhinoceros was
the moft infoiuble.
He found that hair wasmot fo much affefled as fkin;
but the cartilages of the joints, when boiled long in
water, w'ere as perfectly foluble as the cutis, w'hich is
not the cafe with the other cartilages, as they afford
little or no gelatine. The horns of the ox, ram, and
goat, are very different from thofe of the flag ; and
the fmall quantity of gelatine they are found to contain,
is produced more gradually, and with greater diffi¬
culty.
According to Hatchett, the effetts of diluted nitric
acid on the fubftances commonly employed in the ma-
nufatturing of glue, were exaftly analogous to thofe of
boiling water, and were alw'ays moft powerful on thofe
fubftances which contained the greateft quantity of ge¬
latine. Almoft all animal fubftances are convertible
either into glue or foap, with this additional advantage,
that thofe parts of them which wmuld not be employed
in making the one, are the moft proper in the manu-
fafture of the other.
Another fine fpecies of glue, known by the name of
ijinglafs, is the produce of certain fifti, very common
in the Ruffian feas, found on entering the rivers Wol-
ga, Lyak, Hon, and Hanube. In Mofcovy it is pre¬
pared of xkxe jiurgeon and the Jlorled, w-hich yield the
moft beautiful ifinglafs. The fifti from freflt water are
efteemed the bell, as they afford an ifinglafs more flex¬
ible and tranfparent than any other.
When the bladder is extrafled, it is walked in water
to free it from the blood, if any adheres to it, but not
otherwife. It is then cut longitudinally, and the outer
membrane taken off, the colour of which is brown,
while the other membrane is fo fine and white as to be
with
. When the women, by miftake, cut only two, that which is double the fize is called a bijhop, and thrown
sMfto the kettle again. ' j n
Giume
II
Gluttony
G L U [ 775 ] G M E
with diihculty feparated from the firti. They are form¬
ed into rolls of the lize of the finger, with the fine
membrane in the middle, and hung in the air to drv
by degrees. Good ifinglafs is white, perfectly dry,
femitranfparent, and without fmell. It is foluble in
water with a gentle heat, but is eafiily difiblved in al¬
cohol, in which it differs efientially from common glue.
That which is made from different parts of fea wolves,
fea cows, fharks, and whales, is employed in the clari¬
fying of different wines and other liquors. Ifinglafs is
of all (hades of colour, from pure tranfparency to black ;
but fuch as are large and yellow are reckoned the
worft. They are opaque, and their fmell is difagree-
able.
From 500 grains of ifinglafs Mr Hatchett obtained
56 grains of coal, from which ji grain of earthy reti-
duum were obtained by reducing it to allies. Of con-
fequence there were only 54.5 grains of pure coal, and
the remaining 1.5 he found to be phofphate of foda,
with an extremely fmall proportion of phofphate of
lime.
GLUME (gluma'), among botanifts, a fpecies of ca¬
lyx, confifting of two or three membranous valves,
which are often pellucid at the edges. This kind of
calyx belongs to the graffes.
GLUT, among falconers, the flimy fubftance that
lies in a hawk’s paunch.
GLUT A, a genus of plants belonging to the gy-
nandria clafs. See Botany Index.
GLUTiEUS, a name common to three mufcles
■whofe office it is to extend the thigh. See Anatomy,
Table o f the Mufcles.
GLUTTON. See Mustela, Mammalia Index.
GLUTTONY, a voracity of appetite, or a propen-
fity to gormandizing.
There is a morbid fort of gluttony, called fames ca-
nina, “ dog-like appetite,” which fometimes occurs,
and renders the perfon feized with it an object of pity
and of cure as in other difeafes: (fee Bulimy).—But
profeffed habitual gluttons may be reckoned amongft
the monfters of nature, and deemed in a manner puniih-
able for endeavouring to bring a dearth or famine into
the places where they live. For which reafon, people
think King James I. was in the right, when a man be¬
ing prefented to him that could eat a whole (heep at
one meal, he aiked u What he could do more than an¬
other man ?” and being anfwered “ He could not do fo
much, faid “ Hang him then ; for it is unfit a man
Ihould live that eats fo much as 20 men, and cannot do
fo much as one.”
The emperor Clodius Albinus would devour more
apples at once than a bufirel would hold. He would
eat 500 figs to his breakfall, 100 peaches, 10 melons,
20 pound weight of grapes, 100 gnat-fnappers, and
400 oylters. “ Fye upon him (faith Lipfius) j God
keep fuch a curfe from the earth.”
One of our Danilh kings named Hardiknute was fo
great a glutton, that a hiftorian calls him Bacca de Por-
co, “ Swine’s mouth.” His tables were covered four
times a-day with the moft coltly viands that either the
air, fea, or land, could furnilh j and as he lived he
died j for, revelling and caroufing at a wedding ban¬
quet at Lambeth, he fell down dead. His death was
fo welcome to his fubjedfs, that they celebrated the day
with (ports and pallimes, calling it Hock tide, which
fignifies fcorn and contempt. With this king ended Glycine
the reign of the Danes in England. II _
One Phagon, under the reign of the emperor Au- , ^meiin‘ ,
relianus, at one meal, ate a whole boar, 100 loaves of
bread, a fheep, a pig, and drank above three gallons of
wine.
We are told by Fuller *, that one Nicholas Wood, * Worthier
of Harrifon in Kent, ate a whole fheep of 16s. price P'8^
at one meal, raw •, at another time 30 dozen of pi¬
geons. At Sir William Sidley’s in the fame county,
he ate as much vicluals as would have fufficed men.
At Lord Wotton’s manfion houfe in Kent, he devour¬
ed at one dinner 84 rabbits ; wdiich, by computation,
at half a rabbit a man, would have ferved 168 men.
He ate to his breakfaft 18 yards of black pudding. He
devoured a wdiole hog at one fitting down; and after
it, being accommodated with fruit, he ate three pecks
of damofins.
A counfellor at law, whofe name wras Mallet, well
known in the reign of Charles I. ate at one time an
ordinary provided in Weftminfter for 30 men at 1 2d.
a-piece. His praftice not being fufficient to fupply
him with better fort of meat, he fed generally on of¬
fals, ox livers, hearts, &c. s He lived to almoft 60
years of age, and for the feven laft years of his life ate
as moderately as other men. A narrative of his life
was publiihed.
GLYCINE, KNOBBED-ROOTED LIQUORICE-VETCH
a genus of plants belonging to the diadelphia clafs 5
and in the natural method ranking under the 3 2d or¬
der, Papilionaceee. See Botany Index.
GLYCIRRHIZA, liquorice 5 a genus of plants
belonging to the diadelphia clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 3 2d order, Papilionacece.-
See Botany and Materia Medica Index.
GLYNN, a county in the lower diftridl of Georgia,
in America, bounded on the eail by the ocean, on the
north by the river Alatamaha, by which it is feparated
from Liberty county, and on the fouth by Camden.
It contains 413 people, of wdiich 215 are Haves. The
chief town is Brunfvvick.
GLYPH, in Sculpture and ArcluteElure, denotes
any canal or cavity ufed as an ornament.
GMELIN, John George, M. D. public lecturer
on botany and phyfic at Tubingen, member of the
Royal Society of Gottingen, and of the Academy-of
Sciences at Stockholm, was born on the 12th of Au-
guft 1709, at Tubingen, where his father was an apo¬
thecary. Such wras his diligence while at fchool, that
he was qualified to attend the academical le&ures at
the age of 14, and was created doftor of medicine
when only 19. He paid a vifit about this time to the
metropolis of the Ruffian empire, that he might have
the pleafure of feeing fome of his former teachers.
There he became acquainted with Blumentroft, direc¬
tor of the academy, who introduced him to the meet¬
ings of the members, and procured for him an annual
penfion. At Peterfburgh he was fo much elleemed,
that wdien he intimated a wifii in 1729 to return to
Tubingen, he was honoured with a place among the
regular members of the academy, and chofen profeffor
of chemiftry and natural hiftory in the year 1731*
order to carry into execution a plan which had been
formed by Peter the Great, for exploring a paffage to
China and Japan along the coaft of the Ruffian empire,
Gmelin
G M E [ 77<5 1
Gtneliti. Gmelin was feleflcd along with two others, as properly families
“—V"-—1 qualified for that undertaking, and likewife to alcertam
the boundaries of Siberia. The department of natural
hiftory was affigned to our author. He had with him
and his companions, fix Undents, two draftfmen, two
hunters, two miners, four land-furveyors, and 12 lob-
diers, with a ferjeant and drummer. 1 hey began their
Tourney on the 19th of Auguft. 1733 j and in 1736,
Steller and a painter joined their fociety, in order to
ailift Gmelin in his arduous labours.
By exploring Kamtfchatka, they hoped to accom-
plifii their miffion in a fatisfa&ory manner, lor which
purpofe Steller proceeded to this place, and the reft of
the fociety continued their travels through Siberia. In
February 1743 Gmelin returned to Peterlburgh in fafe-
ty after a dangerous journey which lafted nine years
and a half, but proved of the utmoft importance to va¬
rious branches of fcience. He refumed the offices which
he had filled before 4 and having paid a vifit in 1747 to
his native country, he was chofen profeffor, while ab-
fent, in the room of Bachmeiftet deceafed. He was
feized with a violent fever in May I7^5» which put a
period to his valuable life, in the 45^ y5ar 0 ri’s afe*
He was undoubtedly one of the moft eminent botanifts
of the laft century, and has rendered his name immor¬
tal by his flora Sibirica, feu hiforia plantarum Siberia-,
in four parts, large quarto. He determined the boun¬
daries between Europe and Afia, which every celebra¬
ted geographer has adopted fince his day. ! hrough
all his works the traces of great modefty, a facred re¬
gard to truth, and the moft extenfive knowledge of na¬
ture, are remarkably confpicuous.
Gmelin, Dr Samuel, W'as born in 1743 at; Tubin¬
gen, where he alfo ftudied, and became dodlor in me¬
dicine in 17^3* Fie was afterw'ards admitted a mem¬
ber of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St Peterf-
burg. He commenced his travels in June 1768 ; and
having traverfed the provinces of Mofcow, Voronetz,
New Ruffia, Azof, Cafan, and Aftracan, he vifited,
in 1770 and 1771, the different harbours of the Caf-
pian, and examined with peculiar attention thole parts
cf the Perfian provinces which border upon that fea, of
which he has given a circumftantial account in the three
volumes of his travels already publiffied. A&uated by
a zeal for extending his obfervationS, he attempted to
pafs through the weftern provinces of Perfia, which
are in a perpetual ftate of warfare, and infefted by nu¬
merous banditti. Upon this expedition, he quitted, in
April 1772, Einzillee, a fmall trading place in Ghi-
lan, upon the fouthern ftiore of the Cafpian } and, on
account of many difficulties and dangers, did not, un¬
til December 2. 1773, reach Sallian, a town fituated
upon the mouth of the river Koor. Thence he pro¬
ceeded to Baku and Kuba, in the province of Shirvan,
where he met with a friendly reception from Ali Feth
Khan, the fovereign of that diftrift. After he had
Been joined by 20 Uralian Coffacks, and when he was
only four days journey from the Ruffian fortrefs Kiflar, he
•and his companions were, on the 5th of February 1774,
arrefted by order of Ufmdi Khan, a petty Tartar prince,
through whofe territories he was obliged to pafs. Uf-
rniei urged as a pretence for this arreft, that 30 years
ago feveral families had efcaped from his dominions,
and had found an afylum in the Ruffian territories ;
adding, that Gmelin ftiould not be releafed until thefe
G N O
were reftored. The profeffor was removed Gmebtu
from prifon to prifon •, and at length, wearied out with Gno|:rS
continued perfecutions, he expired, July 27th, at Ach-
met-Kent, a village of Mount Caucafus. His death
was occafioned partly by vexation for the lofs of leveral
papers and colle&ions, and partly by diforders contra6f-
ed from the fatigues of his long journey. Some of his
papers had been fent to Kiftar during his imprifon-
ment, and the others were not without great difficulty
refcued from the hands of the barbarian who had
detained him in captivity* I he arrangement of thefe
papers, which will form a fourth volume oi his travels,
was at firft configned to the care of Guildenftaedt, bui.
upon his death has been transferred to the learned
Pallas.
GMELINA, a genus of plants belonging to the di-
dynamia clafs j and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 40th order, Perfonata. See Botany Index.
GNAPHALIUM, cudweed, goldy-locks, e-
TERNAL flower, &.c. •, a genus of plants belonging
to the fyngenefia clafs j and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 49^ order, Compofta. See Botany
Index.
GNAT. See Culex, Entomology Index.
GNESNA, a large and ftrong town of Great Po¬
land, of which it is capital, and in the palatinate of
Caliih, with an archbifliop’s fee, whofe prelate is pri¬
mate of Poland, and viceroy during the vacancy of the
throne. It was the firft town built in the kingdom,
and formerly more confiderable than at preient. E.
Long. 18. 20. N. Lat. 52. 28.
GNETUM, a genus of plants belonging to the mo-
noecia clafs. See Botany Index.
GNIDIA, a genus of plants belonging to the oc-
tandria clafs. See Botany Index.
GNOMES, Gnomi, certain imaginary beings, who,
according to the cabbalifts, inhabit the inner parts of
the earth. They are fuppofed fmall in ftature, and the
guardians of quarries, mines, &c. See Fairy.
GNOMON, in Dialling, the ftyle, pin, or cock of
a dial, which by its (hadow ffiows the hour of the day.
The gnomon of every dial reprefents the axis of the
earth: (See Dial and DiALLiNG.)--The word is
Greek, yw/x*r, which literally implies fomething that
makes a thing known , by reafon that the ftyle or pin
indicates or makes the hour known.
Gnomon, in AJlronomy, a ftyle ere£led perpendicu¬
lar to the horizon, in order to find the altitude of the
fun. See Astronomy.
By means of a gnomon, the fun’s meridian altitude,
and confequently the latitude of the place, may be
found more exatftly than with the fmaller quadrants.
See Quadrant. #
By the fame inftrument the height of any objea
may be found : for as the diftance of the obferver’s eye
from the gnomon, is to the height of the ftyle j fo is
the diftance of the obferver’s eye from the obje<!ft, to its
height.
For the ufes and application of gnomons, fee Geo¬
graphy.
Gnomon of a Globe % the index of the hour circle.
GNOMONICS, the art of dialling. See Dial-
LING'
GNOSTICS, ancient heretics, famous from the firit
rife of Chriftianity, principally in the eaft.
G N O
[ 777 J
G N O
Gnoftks. It appears from feveral palTages of the facred wnt-
ings, particularly I John ii. »8. I. Tim. vi. 20. and
Col. ii. 8. that many perfons were infefted with the
Gnoftic herefy in the firft century; though the feft did
not render itfelf confpicuous, either for number or re¬
putation, before the time of Adrian, wnen fome wri¬
ters erroneoufly date its rife.
The name is formed of the Latin gnofhcus, and that
of the Greek ywriw, “ knowing,” of “ }
know j” and was adopted by thoie of this fed!, as ir
they were the only perfons wrho had the true know
ledge of Cbriftianity. Accordingly, they looked on
all other Chriftians as fimple, ignorant, and barbarous
perfons, who explained and interpreted the facred
writings in a too low, literal, and unedifying figmfica-
110 At firft the Gnoftics were only the philofophers and
wits of thofe times, who formed for themfelves a pe¬
culiar fyftem of theology, agreeable to the philofophy
of Pythagoras and Plato ^ to which they accommodat¬
ed all their interpretations of Scripture. But
Gnostics afterwards became a general name, com-
'prehending divers fefts and parties of heretics, who rofe
in the firft centuries, and who, though they diftered
among themfelves as to circumftances, yet all agreed in
fome common principles. They were fuch as corrupt¬
ed the dodlrine of the gofpel by a profane mixture of
the tenets of the oriental philofophy, concerning the
origin of evil and the creation of the worldwith its
divine truths. Such were the Valentinians, SimonianS,
Carpocratians, Nicolaitans, &c.
Gnostics was fometimes alfo more particularly at¬
tributed to the fucceffors of the firft Nicolaitans and
Carpocratians, in the fecond century, upon their lay¬
ing afide the names of the firft authors.^ Such as would
be thoroughly acquainted with all their doclrines, re¬
veries, and vifions, may confult St Irenseus, J ertullian,
Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, and St Epiphamus j
particularly the firft of thefe writers, who relates their
\ fentiments at large, and confutes them at the fame time,
indeed, he dwells more exprefsly on the Valentinians
than any other fort of Gnoftics j but he fhowrs the ge¬
neral principles whereon all their miftaken opinions
were founded, and the method they followed in ex¬
plaining foripture. He accufes them of introducing
into religion certain vain and ridiculous genealogies,
i. e. a kind of divine proceflions or emanations, which
had no other foundation but in their own wild imagi¬
nations. „ ^ , r
In effedl, the Gnoftics confeffed, that theie asons or
emanations were nowhere exprefsly delivered in the fa¬
cred writings * but infilled at the fame time, that Jefus
Chrift had intimated them in parables to fuch as could
underftand him. They built their theology not only
on the gofpels and the epiftles of St Paul, but alfo on
the law of Mofes and the prophets. Thefe laft laws
were peculiarly ferviceable to them, on account of the
allegories and allufions with wJiich they abound, which
are capable of different interpretations : Though their
doftrine, concerning the creation of the woild by one
or more inferior beings of an evil or imperfecl nctm e,
led them to deny the divine authority of the books of
the Old Teftament, which contradfoled this idle fic¬
tion, and filled them w’ith an abhorrence of Mofes and
the religion he taught j alleging, that he was actuated
Vol. IX. Part II.
by the malignant author of this world, who confultcd
his own glory and authority, and not the real advan¬
tage of men. Their perfuafion that evil refid- d in mat¬
ter, as its centre and fource, made them treat the body
wTith contempt, difcourage marriage, and reject tne
doctrine of the refurrection of the body and its re-union
with the immortal fpirit. T heir notion, that malevo¬
lent genii prefided in nature, and occaiioned diieafes
and calamities, wars, and defolations, induced them to
apply thcmfelves to the ftudy of magic, in order to wea¬
ken the powers or fufpend the influence of their malig¬
nant agents.
The Gnotlics confidered Jefus Chnft as the Son or
God, and confequently inferior to the Father, who
came into the world for the refoue and happineis of mi-
ferable mortals, oppreffed by matter and evil beings ;
but they rejefted our Lord’s humanity, on the prin¬
ciple that every thing corporeal is effentially and in-
trinfically evil-, and therefore the greateft part of
them denied the reality of his fufferings. They
fet a great value on the beginning of the goipel of St
John, where they fancied they faw a great deal of their
eeons, or emanations, under the Word, the Life,
Light, &c. They divided all nature into three kinds
of beings, viz. hylic, or material j pfychic, or ^ animal j
and pneumatic, or fpiritual. On the like principle they
alfo diftinguiflied three forts of men j material, animal,
and fpintual. T he firft, who were material and inca¬
pable of knowledge, inevitably periihed, both foul and
body; the third, fuch as the Gnoftics themfelves pre¬
tended to be, w-ere all certainly faved ; the pfychic, or
animal, who were the middle between the other two,
were capable either of being faved or damned, accord¬
ing to their good or evil aftions.
With regard to their moral do&rines and conduft,
they were much divided. The greateft part of the feci
adopted very auftere rules of life, recommended rigo¬
rous abftinence, and prescribed fevere bodily mortifica¬
tions, with a view of purifying and exalting the mind.
However, fome maintained, that there was no moral
difference in human aflions; and thus, confounding
right with wrong, they gave a loofe rein to all the paf-
fions, and afferted the innocence of following blindly
all their motions, and of living by their tumultuous
didlates. They fupported their opinions and pra&ice
by various authorities : fome referred to fi&itious and
apocryphal .writings of Adam, Abraham, Zoroafter,
Chrift, and his apoftles ; others boafted, that they had
deduced their fentiments from fecrct dodtrines of Chrift,
concealed from the vulgar; others affirmed, that they
arrived at fuperior degrees of vvifdom by an innate vi¬
gour of mind ; and others afferted, that they were in-
ftrudled in thefe 'myfterious parts of theological fcience
by Theudas, a difciple of St Paul, and by Matthias,
one of the friends of our Lord. 1 he tenets of the
ancient Gnoftics were revived in Spain, in the fourth
century, by a fedl called the Prifcilhani/ls.
The appellation Gnojlic fometimes alfo occurs in a
good fenfe, in the ancient ecclefiaftical writers, and
particularly Clemens Alexandrinus, who, in the perfon
of his Gnoftic, deferibes the charafters and qualities of
a perfeft Chriftian. This point he labours in the fe-
venth book of his Stromata, where he foows that none
but the Gnoftic, or learned perfon, has any tru^ rek*
gion. He affirms, that were it poflible for the know-
S 5 F ledge
Gnoftics.
o O A [ 778 ] GOD
Gnu, ledge of God to be feparated from etenaal falvation, the
^a' , Gnoftic would make no fcruple to choofe the know¬
ledge 5 and that if God would promife him impunity
in doing of any thing he has once fpoken againft, or of¬
fer him heaven on thofe terms, he would never alter a
whit of his meafures. In this fenfe the father ufes
Gnollies, in oppofition to the heretics of the fame
name; affirming, that the true Gnoflic is grown old in
the ftudy of the holy fcriptures ; and that he preferves
the orthodox dodlrine of the apoftles and of the church ;
whereas the falfe Gnoflic abandons all the apoflolical
traditions, as imagining himfelf wifer than the apoftles.
At length the name GnoJHc, which originally was the
mod glorious, became infamous, by the idle opinions
and diffolute lives of the perfons who bore it.
GNU, or Gnou. See Capra, Mammalia Index.
GOA, a large and flrong town of Afia, in the pe-
ninfula on this fide the Ganges, and on the Malabar
coaft. It was taken by the Portuguefe in 1508, and
is the chief town of all their fettlements on this fide
the Cape of Good Hope. It Hands in an ifland of the
fame name, about 12 miles in length, and fix in breadth;
And the city is built on the north fide of it, having the
conveniency of a fine falt-water river, capable of re¬
ceiving ffiips of the greatefl burden, where they lie
within a mile of the town. The banks of the river
are beautified with a great number of handfome flruc-
turesj fuch as churches, caflles, and gentlemen’s houfes.
The air wdthin the towm is unwhofefome, for wffiich
reafon it is not fo well inhabited now as it was for¬
merly. The viceroy’s palace is a noble building; and
Hands at a fmall diftance from the river, over one of
the gates of the city, which leads to a fpacious flreet,
terminated by a beautiful church. This city contains
a great number of handfome churches, convents, and
cloifters, with a ftately large hofpital ; all well endow¬
ed, and kept in good repair. The market place takes
up an acre of ground; and in the ffiops about it may
be had the produce of Europe, China, Bengal, and
other countries of lefs note. Every church has a fet
of bells, fome of which are continually ringing.
There are a great many Indian converts ; but they
generally retain fome of their old cufloms, parti¬
cularly they cannot be brought to eat beef. The
clergy are very numerous and illiterate; but the
churches are finely embellifhed, and have great num¬
bers of images. In one of thefe churches, dedicated to
Bon Jefus, is the chapel of St Francifco de Xaviere,
whofe tomb it contains : this chapel is a mod fuperb
and magnificent place; the tomb of the faint is entire¬
ly of fine black marble brought from Lilhon ; on the
four fides of it the principal aftions of the life of the
laint are mod elegantly carved in baflb relievo ; thefe
reprefent his converting the different nations to the
Catholic faith : the figures are done to the life, and
iftod admirably executed : it extends to the top in a
pyramidical form, which terminates with a coronet of
mother-of-pearl. On the fides of this chapel are ex¬
cellent paintings, done by Italian maders ; the fubjefts
chiefiy from Scripture. This tomb and the chapel ap¬
pertaining to it, mud have cod an immenfe fum of mo¬
ney ; the Portuguefe judly edeem it the greated rarity
ffi the place. ^ The houfes are large, and make a fine
i'how : but within they are but poorly furnifhed. The
inhabitants are contented with greens, fruits, and
roots ; which, with a little bread, rice, and fiffi, is Goal
their principal diet, though they have hogs and fowls II
in plenty. The river’s mouth is defended by feveral, Go(1-
forts and- batteries, well planted wfith large cannon on
both fides; and there are feveral other forts in different
places.
Goa is the refidence of a captain general, who lives
in great fplendour. He is allb commander in chief of
all the Portuguefe forces in the Eaft Indies. They
have here twm regiments of European infantry, three
legions of fepoys, three troops of native light horfe,
and a militia ; in all about five thoufand men. Goa
is at prefent on the decline, and in little or no edima-
tion with the country powers ; indeed their bigotry
and fuperditious attachment to their faith is fo gene¬
ral, that the inhabitants, formerly populous, are now
reduced to a few thinly inhabited villages ; the chief
part of whom have been baptized ; for they will not
fuffer any Muffulman or Gentoo to live within the
precimffs of the city : and thefe few are unable to car¬
ry on the hufbandry or manufablures of the country.
The court of Portugal is obliged to fend out annually
a very large fum of money, to defray the current ex-
pences of the government ; which money is generally
fwallowed up by the convents and foldiery.
There was formerly an inquifition at this place, but
it is now abolidied ; the building dill remains, and by
its black outfide appears a fit emblem of the cruel and
bloody tranfa&ions that paffed within its walls ! Pro-
vifions are to be had at this place in great plenty and
perfection. E. Long. 74. o. N. Lat. 1 c. 31.
GOAL. See Gaol.
GOAT. See Capra, Mammalia Index.
Goat's Beard. See Tragopogon, BoTany Index.
GoAT-Sucker. See Caprimulgus, Ornithology
Index.
GOBELIN, Giles, a celebrated French dyer, in the
reign of Francis I. difcovered a method of dyeing a
beautiful Icarlet, and his name has been given ever fince
to the fined French fcarlets. His houfe, in the fuburb
of St Marcel at Paris, and the river he made ufe of,
are dill called the Gobelins. An academy for drawing,
and a manufactory of fine tapedries, were erected in
this quarter in 1666; for which reafon the tapedries
are called the Gobelins.
GOBI US, a genus of fidtes belonging to the order
of thoracici. See Ichthyology Index.
GOBLET, or Gobelet, a kind of drinking cup,
or bowl, ordinarily of a round figure, and without ei¬
ther foot or handle. The word is French, gobelet;
which Salmafius, and others, derive from the barba¬
rous Latin cupa. Budeus deduces it from the Greek
xt/wsAAev, a fort of cup.
pOU, one of the many names of the Supreme
Being. See Christianity, Metaphysics, Moral
Philosophy, and Theology.
God is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the falfe deities of
the heathens, many of which were only creatures to
which divine honours and worfhip were fuperditioufly
paid.
Iffie Greeks and Latins, it is obfervable, did not
mean by the name God, an all-perfect being, whereof
eternity, infinity, omniprefence, &c. were effential at¬
tributes ; with them, the word only implied an excel¬
lent and fuperior nature; and accordingly they gave
tlie
GOD [7
Cod the appellation gods to all beings of a rank or clafs
II higher and more perfe£t than that of men •, and efpe-
Goddard.^ cjajjy to th0fe vv}10 Were inferior agents in the divine
adminiilration, all fubjeft to the one Supreme. Thus
men themfelves, according to their fyftem, might be¬
come gods after death j inafmuch as their fouls might
attain to a degree of excellence fuperior to what they
Were capable of in life.
The firft divines, Father Boflu obferves, were the
poets : the two funflions, though now feparated, were
originally combined j or, rather, were one and the fame
thing.
Now the great variety of attributes in God, that is,
the number of relations, capacities, and circumftances,
wherein they had occafion to conlider him, put thefe
poets, &c. under a neceffity of making a partition, and
of feparating the divine attributes into feveral perfons 5
becaufe the weaknefs of the human mind could not
conceive fo much power and action in the fimplicity
of one Angle divine nature. Thus the omnipotence of
God came to be reprefented under the perfon and
appellation of Jupiter j the wifdom of God, under
that of Minerva ) the jullice of God, under that of
Juno.
The firft idols or falfe gods that are faid to have been
adored, were the ftars, fun, moon, Sec. on account of
the light, heat, and other benefits, which we derive
from them. Afterwards the earth came to be deified,
for furnithing fruits neceflary for the fubfiftence of men
and animals ; then fire and water became objefts of di¬
vine worlhip, for their ufefulnefs to human life. In
procefs of time, and by degrees, gods became multi¬
plied to infinity : and there was fcarce any thing but the
weaknefs or caprice of fome devotee or other elevated
into the rank of deity j things ufelefs or even deftruc-
tive not excepted. See Mythology.
GODALMING, a town of England, in the coun¬
ty of Surrey, fituated on the river Wye, 35 miles from
London. Here is a manufa&ory of mixed and blue
kerfeys, and of ftockings ; the place is alfo famous for
liquorice, and ftore of peat that burns better than pit-
coal : in 1739, the fmall-pox carried off above 500 per¬
fons here in three months, which was more than a third
of the inhabitants.
GODDARD, Jonathan, an eminent phyfician and
chemift, and one of the firft promoters of the Royal
Society, was born about the year 1617. He was ele£t-
ed a fellow of the college of phyficians in 1646, and
appointed reader of the anatomical lefture in that col¬
lege in 1647. As he took part againft Charles I. ac¬
cepted the wardenlhip of Merton-college, Oxford, from
Oliver Cromwell when chancellor, and fat foie repre-
fentative of that univerfity in Cromwell’s parliament,
he was removed from his wardenfhip in a manner dif-
graceful to him by Charles II. He was however then
profeffor of phyfic at Grefham college, to which he re¬
tired, and continued to attend thofe meetings that gave
birth to the Royal Society •, upon the firft eftablifliment
of u'hich he w7as nominated one of the council. Being
fully perfuaded that the preparation of medicines was
no lefs the phyfician’s duty than the preferibing them,
he conftantly prepared his own*, and in 1668 publiftied
u treatife recommending his example to general prac¬
tice. He died of an apoplectic fit in 1674; and his
memory was preferved by the drops that bore his name,
9 ] GOD
otherwife called Guttce Anglicance, the fecret of which Goddeis
he fold to Charles II. for 5000I. and which Dr Lifter Go(,[l]iani
affures us was only the volatile fpirit of raw filk reCti- defter?*
fied with oil of cinnamon or fome other effential oil.
But he claims more particular regard, if what Biftiop
Seth Ward fays be true, that he w7as the firft Englilh-
man who made that noble aftronomical inftrument, the
telefcope.
GODDESS, a heathen deity of the female fex.
The ancients had almoft as many goddeffes as gods :
fuch wrere, Juno the goddefs of air, Diana the goddefs
of woods, &c. and under this charafter were reprefented
the virtues, graces, and principal advantages of life J
truth, juftice, piety, liberty, fortune, victory, &c.
It was the peculiar privilege of the goddeffes to be
reprefented naked on medals •, for it was fuppofed that
the imagination muft be aw7ed and reftrained by the
confideration of the divine charaCter.
GODFATHERS and Godmothers, perfons wdio,
at the baptifm of infants, anfwer for their future con-
dud, and folemnly promife that they will renounce the
devil and all his works, and follow a life of piety and
virtue; and by this means lay themfelves under an in-
difpenfable obligation to inftruct them, and w'atch over
their conduA.
This cuftom is of great antiquity in the Chriftiatl
church and w7as probably inftituted to prevent chil¬
dren being btought up in idolatry, in cafe their parents
died before they arrived at years of diferetion.
The number of godfathers and godniothers is re¬
duced to two, in the church of Rome and three, in
the church of England : but formerly they had as
many as they pleafed.
GODFREY of Bouillon, prince of Lorrain, a
moft celebrated crufader, and victorious general. He
Was chofen general of the expedition which the Chri-
ftians undertook for the recovery of the Holy Land,
and fold his dukedom to prepare for the war. He
took Jerufalem from the Turks in 1099 j but his pie¬
ty, as hiftorians relate, would not permit him to w7ear
a diadem of gold in the city w'here his Saviour had
been Crowned with thorns. The fultan of Egypt after¬
wards fent a terrible army againft him 5 which he de¬
feated, wTith the daughter of about 100,000 of the ene¬
my. He died in 1160.
GODMANCHESTER, a town of Huntingdon-
fliire 16 miles from Cambridge, and 57 from London.
It has a bridge on the Oufe, oppofite to Huntingdon j
was formerly a Roman city, by the name of Durofi-
ponte, where many Roman coins have been often dug
Up •, and according to old writers, in the time of the
Saxons it was the fee of a bilhop, and had a caftle built
by one Gorman a Danifh king, from which the town
was called Gontianchejler. It is reckoned one of the
largeft villages in England, and is feated in a fertile
foil, abounding with corn. It is faid that no town in
England kept more ploughs at work than this has done.
The inhabitants boaft they formerly received our kings
as they made a progrefs this way, with nine fco"
ploughs at a time, finely adorned with their trappings
&c. James I. made it a corporation by the name of
two bailiffs, 12 afiiftants, and the commonalty of the
borough of Godmanchefter. Here is a fchool, called
the Free Grammar-School of Queen Elizabeth. On
the weft fide of the towrn is a noble though ancient feat
5 F 2
GOG [ ?8o ] G O L
fjoditow of die ear! of Sandwich. Near this place, in the Lon-
II don road between Huntingdon and Caxton, is a tree
, G°g‘ , well known to travellers by the name of Beggar’s
Bulk.
GODSTOW, a place north-weft of Oxford, in a
fort of iftand formed by the divided ftreatns of the Ifis
after being joined by the Evenlode. It is noted for
catching of liftr and drefling them $ but more fo for
the ruins of that nunnery which fair Rofamond quit¬
ted for the embraces of Henry II. The people fhow
a great hole in the earth here, where they fay is a fub-
terraneous paftage,. which goes under the river to
Woodftock, by which ftie ufed to pafs and repafs.
Little more remains at prefent than ragged walls, fcat-
tered over a conliderable extent of ground. An arched
gateway, and another venerable ruin, part of the tower
of the conventual church, are ftill Handing. Near the
altar in this church fair Rofamond was buried, but the
body w7as afterwards removed by order of a bifliop of
Lincoln, the vifitor. The only entire part is fmall,
formerly a private chapel. Not many years fince a ftone
coffin, faid to have been Rofamond’s, who, perhaps,
was removed from the church to this place, w7as to be
feen here. The building has been put to various ufes,
and at prefent ferves occafionally for a liable.
GODWIN, Francis, fucceffively biihop of Lan-
daff and Hereford, tvas born in 1567. He vras emi¬
nent for his learning and abilities ; being a good mathe¬
matician, an excellent philofopher, a pure Latinift, and
an accurate hiftorian. He underftood the true theory of
the moon’s motion a century before it wras generally
known. He firft ftarted thofe hints afterwards purfued
by Biihop Wilkins, in his “ Secret and fwift meffen-
ger and publilhed “ A catalogue of the lives of En-
glilh biftiops.” He has nevertheleft been accufed as a
great fimoniac, for omitting no opportunity of difpofing
of preferments in order to provide for his children. He
died in 1648.
Godwin or Goodwin Sands. See Goodwin Sands.
GODWIT. See Scolofax, Ornithology Index.
GOES, or Tlr Goes, a ftrong and conliderable
town of the United Provinces, in Zealand, and capital
of the ifland of South Beverland. It communicates
with thefea by a canal j and is 10 miles eaft of Mid-
dleburgh, and 30 north of Ghept. E. Long. 3. 50.
N. Lat. 51. 33.
GOG and Magog, two names generally joined to¬
gether in fcripture, Ezek. xxxviii. 2, 3, &c. xxxix.
1, 2, &c. Rev. xx. 8.) Mofes fpeaks of Magog the
fon of Japhet, but fays nothing of Gog, (Gen. x. 2.
1 Chr. i. 5.). Gog was prince of Magog, according
to Ezekiel. Magog fignifies the country or people,
and Gog the king ol that country. The generality of
the ancients made Magog the father of the Scythians
and Tartars 5 and leveral interpreters difcovered many
footfteps of their name in the provinces of Great Tar¬
tary. Others have been of opinion that the Perfians
were the defendants of Magog 5 and fome have ima¬
gined that the Goths were defended from Gog and
Magog •, and that the wars def ribed by Ezekiel, and
undertaken by Gog againft the faints, are no other
than thofe which the Goths carried on in the fifth age
againft the Roman empire.
Eochart has placed Gog in the neighbourhood of
Cauc^fus.. He derives the name of this celebrated
mountain from the Hebrew Gog chafan “ the fortrefs of Goggles
Gog.” He maintains that Prometheus, faid to be ^
chained to Caucaius by Jupiter, is Gog, and no other. , L ^
There is a province in Iberia called the Gogarene.
Laftly, the generality believe, that Gog and Ma¬
gog, mentioned in Ezekiel and the Revelation, are to
be taken in an allegorical fenfe, for fuch princes as were
enemies to the church and faints. Thus many by Gog
in Ezekiel underftand Antiochus Epiphanes, the per-
fecutor of the Jews who were firm to their religion j
and by the perfon of the fame name in the Revela¬
tions, they fippofe Antichrift to be meant, the great
enemy of the church and faithful. Some have endea¬
voured to prove that Gog, Ipoken ef in Ezekiel, and
Cambyfes king of Perfia, were one and the fame perfon ;
and that Gog and Magog in the Revelation denote all
the enemies of the church, who ftiould be perfecutors of
it to the confummation of ages.
GOGGLES, in Surgery, are inftruments ufed for
curing fquinting, or that diftortion of the eyes which
occafions this diforder. They are ftiort conical tubes,
compofed of ivory ftained black, with a thin plate of
the fame ivory fixed in the tubes near their anterior
extremities. Through the centre of each of thefe
plates is a fmall circular hole, about the fize of the pu¬
pil of the eye, for the tranfmiflion of the rays of light.
Thefe goggles muft be continually worn in the day¬
time, till the mufcles of the eye are brought to aft re¬
gularly and uniformly, fo as to direfl the pupil ftraight
forwards; and by thefe means the cure will be fooner
or later effefted.
GOGMAGOG HILLS, are hills fo called, three miles
from Cambridge, remarkable for the intrenchments and
other works cart up here : whence fome fuppofe it
was a Roman camp j and others, that it wras the work
of the Danes.
GOGUET, Antony-Yves, a French writer, and
author of a celebrated work, intitled, UOrigine des
Loix, des Arts, des Sciences, & de leur Progres chess
ies anciens Peuples, 1758, 3 vols 410. His father
was an advocate, and he wTas born at Paris in 1716.
He was very unpromifing as to abilities, and reckoned
even dull, in his early years \ but his underftanding de¬
veloping itfelf, he applied to letters, and at length pro¬
duced the above wmrk. The reputation he gained by
it was great; but he enjoyed it a very fhort time *, dy¬
ing the fame year of the fmall-pox, which diforder, it
feems, he always dreaded. It is remarkable, that Con¬
rad Fugere, to whom he left his library and his MSS.
wras fo deeply affefled with the death of his friend, as
to die himfelf three days after him. The above work
has been tranllated into Englilh, and publifhed in 3
vols 8vo.
GOITO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mantua,
taken by the Germans in 1701, and by the prince of
Heffe in 1706. It is feated on the river Mincio, be¬
tween the lake of Mantua and that of Garda, 10
miles north-weft of Mantua. E. Long. 11. o. N. Lat.
45- iG. ' .
GOLCONDA, a kingdom of Afia, in the penin-
fula on this fide the Ganges. It is bounded on the
north by that of Orixa, on the w7eft by that of Ba-
lagate, on the fouth by Bifnagar, and on the eaft
by the gulf of Bengal. It abounds in corn, rice,
and cattle; but that which renders it moft remark¬
able .
G O L
[ 78i 3
G O L
able are tbe diamond-mines, they being tbe moft con-
fiderable in tbe world : they are ufually pur chafed oi
the black merchants, who buy parcels or ground to
fearch for thefe precious Hones in. They iometimes
fail in meeting with any, and in others they find im-
menfe riches. They have alfo mines of fait, fine iron tor
fword-blades, and curious callicoes and chintzes. it
is fubieft to the Great Mogul; and has a town ot the
fame name, feated at the foot of a mountain being
one of the largeft in the Eaft Indies. It is about fix
miles in circumference } and was formerly tne refidence
of the kings, till it was conquered by the Great Mogul.
It is now much frequented by the European merchants.
E. Long. 70. 10. N. Lat. 16. 30> . r
GOLD, the moll valuable of all the metals, is ot a
bright yellow colour when pure, but becomes more or
-lefs white in proportion as it is alloyed with other me¬
tals. It is the heavieft of *11 known bodies, platina
only excepted. See Chemistry and Mineralogy
Method of Recovering Gold from Gilt Works. The
folubility of gold, and the indiffolubility of filver, m a-
qua regia, affords a principle on which gold may be le-
parated from the furface of filver ; and, on this foun¬
dation, different proceffes have been contrived, of which
the two following appear to be the beft.—Some pow¬
dered fal ammoniac, moiffened with aquafortis, into t e
confiftence of a pafte, is fpread upon the gilt filver,
and the piece heated till the matter fmokes and be¬
comes nearly dry : being then thrown into water, it is
rubbed with a fcratch brufli compofed of fine brafs wire
bound together 5 by which the gold eafily comes oil.
The other way is, by putting the gilt filver into com¬
mon aqua regia, kept fo hot as nearly to boil, and
turning the metal frequently till it becomes all over
black j it is then to be waihed with a little water, and
rubbed with the fcratch bruih, to get off what gold the
aqua regia may have left. 1 his laft method appears
preferable to the other as the fame aqua regia may be
made to ferve repeatedly till it becomes faturated with
the gold, after which the. gold may be recovered pure
by precipitation with fulphate of iron.
For feparating gold from gilt copper, fome direct a
folution of borax to be applied on the gilt parts, but
nowhere elfe, with a pencil, and a little powdered iul-
phur to be fprinkled on the places thus moiftened j the
principal ufe of the folution of borax feems to be to
make the fulphur adhere ; the piece being then made
red hot, and quenched in water, the gold is laid to be
fo far loofened, as to be wiped off with a bruih. Ci¬
thers mix the fulphur with nitre and tartar, and form
the mixture with vinegar into a palle, which is ipread
upon the gilt parts.
Schlutter recommends mechanical means, as being
generally the leal! expenfive, lor feparating gold from
the furface both of filver and copper. If the gilt veffel
is round, the gold is conveniently got oft oy turning
it in a lathe, and applying a . proper tool,, a 1km being
placed underneath for receiving the {havings . e ays
it is eafy to collecl into two ounces of lhaungs a t e
gold of a gilt veffel weighing thrice as many pounds.
Where the figure of the piece does not admit oi this
method, it is to be properly fixed, and fcrapers ap¬
plied of different kinds according to lts fize and fi¬
gure j fome large, and fumifhed with two handles,
Gi
one at each end ■, others fmall and narrow, for pene¬
trating into depreffed parts. If the gold cannot be
got off by either of thefe ways, the file muff be had
recourfe to, which takes off more of the metal un¬
derneath than the turning tool or the fcraper, parti¬
cularly than the former: The gold fcrapings or filings
may be purified from the filver or copper they con¬
tain, by the methods defcribed under the article Me¬
tallurgy. . . 1 , r
The editors of the Encyclopedic give a method ot re¬
covering the gold from wTood that has been gilt on a
water-fize : this account is extrafted from a memoir on
the fame fubjea, prefented to the Academy of Sciences
by M. de Montamy. The gilt wood is ileeped for a
quarter of an hour in a quantity of water fuflicient to
cover it, made very hot: the fize being thus foftened,
the wood is taken out, and fcrubbed piece by piece,
in a little warm water, with ftiort ftiff briftle bruihes of
different fizes, fome fmall for penetrating into the car¬
vings, and others large for the greater difpatch in flat
pieces. The whole mixture of water, fize, gold, &c.
is to be boiled to drynefs, the dry matter made red hot
in a crucible to burn off. the fize, and the remainder
ground wuth mercury, either in a mortar, or, where
the quantity is large, in a mill.
GoLD-CoaJl. See Guinea.
Gold-Wire, a cylindrical ingot of filver, fuperficially
gilt or covered with gold at the fire, and afterwards
drawn fucceflively through a great number of little
round holes, of a wire-drawing iron, each lefs than the
other, till it be fometimes no bigger than a hair of the
head. See WiRE-Drawing. .
It may be obferved that, before the wire be reduced
to this exceflive finenefs, it is drawn through above
140 different holes •, and that each time they draw.it,
it is rubbed afrefti over with new wax, both to facili¬
tate its paffage, and to prevent the filver’s appearing-
through it. . ,
GoLD-Wire flatted, is the former wire flatted be¬
tween two rollers of polilhed Heel, to fit it to be fpun
on a flick, or to be ufed flat, as it is, without fpin-
uing, in certain fluffs, laces, embroideries, &c. See
Stuff
GoLD-Thread, or Spun-gold, is flatted gold, wrapped
or laid over a thread of filk, by twilling it with wheel
and iron bobbins. r .
To difpofe the wire to be fpun on filk, they pals it
between two rollers of a little mill : thefe rollers are of
nicely polilhed Heel, and about three inches in diame¬
ter. They are fet very clofe to each other, and turn¬
ed by means of a handle faftened to one of them, which
gives motion to the other. The gold wire in palling
between the two is rendered quite flat, but without lo-
fing any thing of its gilding} and is rendered fo ex¬
ceedingly thin and flexible, that it is eafily fpun on filk-
thread, by means of a hand-wheel, and fo wound on a
fpool or bobbin. See Winn-Drawing. .
GoiD-Leaf, or Beaten Gold, is gold beaten with a
hammer into exceeding thin leaves, lo that it is com¬
puted, that an ounce may be beaten into 1600
leaves, each three inches fquare, in which ftate it takes
up more than 159,052 times its former .furface. _
The preparation of gold leaf, according to Dr Lewis,
is as follows : , , , , , , • ,
11 Xhe gold is melted in a black-lead crucible, with
b * fome
G O L [78
r:0^' , ^°me borax, in a wind furnace, called by tbe workmen
a wind hole: as foon as it appears in perfeft fufion, it
is poured out into an iron ingot mould, fix or eight
inches long, and three quarters of an inch wide, pre-
■ vioully greafed, and heated, fo as to make the tallow'
run and fmoke, but not to take flame. The bar of
gold is made red hot, to burn off the un&uous matter,
and forged on an anvil into a long plate, which is fur¬
ther extended, by being palfed repeatedly between
poliflied fteel rollers, till it becomes a ribbon as thin
as paper. Formerly the whole of this extenfion was
procured by means of the hammer, and fome of the
French workmen are ftill faid to follow the fame
practice : but the ufe of the flatting mill both abridges
the operation, and renders the plate of more uniform
thicknefs. Ihe ribbon is divided by compaffes, and
cut with Iheers into equal pieces, wdiich confequently
are of equal weights: thefe are forged on an anvil till
they are an inch fquare ; and aftenvards wTell nealed,
to corre61 the rigidity which the metal has contrafted
in the hammering and flatting. Tw'O ounces of gold,
or 960 grains, the quantity which the workmen ufual-
ly melt at a time, make 150 of thefe fquares, wrhence
each of them weighs fix grains and two fifths j and
as 902 grains of gold make a cubic inch, the thick¬
nefs of the fquare plates is about the 766th part of an
inch.
. “ 1° order to. the further extenfion of thefe pieces
into fine leaves, it is neceffary to interpofe fome fmooth
body between them and the hammer, for foftening its
blowq and defending them from the rudenefs of its
immediate action : as alfo to place betwreen every two
of the pieces fome proper intermedium, which, while
it prevents their uniting together, or injuring one
another, may fuffer them freely to extend. Both thefe
ends are anfwered by certain animal membranes.
I he goldbeaters ufe three kinds of membranes;
for the outfide cover, common parchment made of
Iheep {kin; for interlaying with the gold, firft the
fmootheft and clofeft vellum, made of calf Ikin ; and
afterwards the much finer Ikins of ox gut, ftript off
from the large ftraight gut flipt open, curioufly pre¬
pared on purpofe for this ufe, and hence called go/d-
beater'sfkin. .The preparation of thefe laft is a diilind
bufinefs, pradtifed by only two or three perfons in the
kingdom, fome of the particulars of which I have not
fatisfa&orily learned. ^1 he general procefs is faid to
confift, in applying one. upon another, by the fmooth
fides, in. a moift flate, in which they readily cohere
and unite infeparably j firetching them on a frame,
and carefully fciaping off the fat and rough matter fo
as to. leave only the fine exterior membrane of the gut :
beating them between double leaves of paper, to force
out what unftuofity may remain in them ; moiftening
them once or twice with an infufion of warm fpices •
and laftly,. drying and prefling them. It is faid. that
{ome calcined gypfum, or plafter of Paris, is rubbed
with a hare’s foot both on the vellum and the ox gut
{kins, which fills up fuch minute holes as may happen
in them, and prevents the gold leaf from flicking as
it would do to the Ample animal membrane. It is
obfervable, that, notwdthftanding the vaft extent to
which the gold is beaten between thefe {kins, and the
great tenuity of the {kins themfelves, yet they fufiain
continual repetitions of the procefs for feveral months
3
]
G O L
without extending or growing thinner. Our work-
men find, that, alter 70 or 80 repetitions, the {kins
though they contract no flaw, will no longer permit
the gold to extend between them ; but that they may
be again rendered fit for ufe by impregnating them
with the virtue which they have loft, and that even
holes in them may be repaired by the dexterous appli¬
cation of frefli pieces of {kin : a microfcopical exami¬
nation of fome {kins that had been long ufed plainly
{bowed, thefe repairs. The method of reftoring their
viitue is faid in the Encyclope'die to be, by interlaying
them with leaves of paper moiftened with white wine
vinegar, beating them for a whole day, and after¬
wards rubbing them over as at firft with plafter of
Paris. The gold is faid to extend between them more
eafily, after they have been ufed a little, than when
they are new.
“ Ihe beating of the gold is performed on a fmooth
block of black marble, weighing from 200 to 600
pounds, the heavier the better j about nine inches
fquare on the upper furface, and fometimes lefs, fitted
into the middle of a wmoden frame, about two feet
fquare, fo as that the furface of the marble and the
frame form one continuous plane. Three of the fides
are furnilhed with a high ledge ; and the front, wdiich
is open, has a leather flap faftened to it, which the
gold-beater takes before him as an apron, for preferv-
ing the fragments of gold that fall off. Three ham¬
mers are employed, all of them with two round and
fomewhat convex faces, though commonly the work¬
man ufes only one of the faces : the firft, called the
cutch hammer, is about four inches in diameter, and
weighs 15 or 16 pounds, and fometimes 20, though
few workmen can manage thofe of this laft fize : the
fecond, called.the Jljoddering hammer, weighs about 12
pounds, and is about the fame diameter: the third
called the gold hammer, or Jini/hing hammer, weighs 10
or 11 pounds, and is nearly of the fame width. The
French ufe four hammers, differing both in fize and
ftiape from thofe of our workmen : they have only one
face, being in figure truncated cones. The firft has
very little convexity, is' near five inches in diameter
and weighs 14 or 15 pounds : the fecond is more con-
vex than the firft, about an inch narrower, and fcarcely
half its weight: the third, ftill more convex, is only
about two inches wide, and four or five pounds in
weight: the fourth or finiftnng hammer is near as
heavy as the firft, but narrower by an inch, and the
moft convex of all. As thefe hammers differ fo re¬
markably from ours, I thought proper to infert them
leaving the workmen to judge what advantage one fet
may have above the other.
. “ 4 hundred and fifty of the pieces of gold are
interlaid with leaves of vellum, three or four inches
quare, one vellum leaf being placed between every
tv. o of the pieces, and about 20 more of the vellum
eaves on the outfides 5 over thefe is drawn a parch¬
ment cafe, open at both ends, and over this another in
a contrary dire&ion, fo that the affemblage of gold
and vellum leaves is kept tight and clofe on all fides.
I he whole is beaten with the heavieft hammer, and
every now and then turned upfide down, till the* gold
is ftretched to the extent of the vellum ; the cafe being
from time to time opened for difeovering how the ex¬
tenfion goes on, and the packet, at times, bent and
rolled
Gold.
G O L [ 783 ] G O L
. rolled as it were between the hands, for procuring fuf-
ficient freedom to the gold, or, as the workmen fay,
to make the gold -work. The pieces, taken out from
between the vellum leaves, are cut in four with a fteel
knife ; and the 600 divifions, hence refulting, are in¬
terlaid, in the fame manner, with pieces of the ox-gut
Ikins five inches fquare. The beating being repeated
with a lighter hammer till the golden plates have again
acquired the extent of the Ikins, they are a fecond
time divided in four : the inftrument ufed for this di-
vifion is a piece of cane cut to an edge, the leaves be¬
ing now fo light, that the moifture of the air or breath
condenfing on a metalline knife would occafion them
to flick to it. Thefe lafl divifions being fo numerous,
that the Ikins neceffary for interpofing between them
would make the packet too thick to be beaten at
once, they are parted into three parcels, which are
beaten feparately, with the fmalleft hammer, till they
are flretched for the third time to the fize of the
fkins: they are now found to be reduced to the great-
ell thinnefs they will admit of’, and indeed many of
them, before this period, break or fail. The French
workmen, according to the minute detail of this pro-
cefs given in the Encyclopedic, repeat the divifion and
the beating once more ; but as the fquares of gold,
taken for the firft operation, have four times the area
of thofe ufed among us, the number of leaves from an
equal area is the fame in both methods, viz. 16 from
a fquare inch. In the beating, however fimple the
procefs appears to be, a good deal of addrefs is requi-
iite, for applying the hammers fo as to extend the
metal uniformly from the middle to the fides : one im¬
proper blow is apt not only to break the gold leaves,
but to cut the fkins.
“ After the laft beating, the leaves are taken up by
the end of a cane inltrument, and, being blown flat on
a leather culhion, are cut to a fize, one by onej with a
fquare frame of cane made of a proper lharpnefs, or
with a frame of wood edged with cane : they are then
fitted into books of 25 leaves each, the paper of which
is well fmoothed, and rubbed with red bole to prevent
their flicking to it. The French, for fizing the leaves,
ufe only the cane knife 5 cutting them firft ftraight on
one fide, fitting them into the book by the ftraight
fide, and then paring off the fuperfluous parts of the
gold about the edges of the book. The fize of the
French gold leaves is from fomewhat lefs than three
inches to three and three quarters fquare ; that of ours,
from three inches to three and three-eighths.
“ The procefs of gold-beating is confiderably in¬
fluenced by the weather. In wet weather, the Ikins
grow fomewha^ damp, and in thi^ ftate make the ex-
tenfion of the gold more tedious: the French are faid
to dry and prefs them at every time of ufing 5 with
care not to overdry them, which would render them
unfit for farther fervice. Our workmen complain
more of froft, which appears io affeiff the metalline
leaves tbemfelves : in froft, a gold leaf cannot eafily
be blown flat, but breaks, wrinkles, or runs together.
“ Gold leaf ought to be prepared from the fineft
gold ; as the admixture of other metals, though in too
fmall a proportion to affedl fenfibly the colour of the
leaf, would difpofe it to lofe of its beauty in the air.
And indeed there is little temptation to the workman
*9 ufe any other; the greater harduefs of alloyed gold
occafioning as much to be loft in point of time and
labour, and in the greater number of leaves that break,
as can be gained by any quantity of alloy that would
not be at once difcoverable by the eye. All metals
render gold harder and more difficult of extenfion.
Even nlver, which in this refpedt feems to alter its qua¬
lity lefs than any other metal,, produces with gold a
mixture fenfibly Harder than either of them feparately,
and this hardnefs is in no art more felt than in the
goldbeater’s. I he French are faid to prepare what
is called xEz green gold leaf, from a compofition of one
part of copper and two of filver with eighty of gold.
But this is probably a miftake : for fuch an admixture
gives no greennefs to gold: and I have been informed
by our workmen, that this kind of leaf is made from
the fame fine gold as the higheft gold-coloured fort,
the greenifh hue being only a fuperficial teint indu¬
ced upon the gold in fome part of the procefs : this
greenifh leaf is little otherwife ufed than for the gild¬
ing of certain books.
. though the goldbeater cannot advantageoufly
diminifti the quantity of gold in the leaf by the ad¬
mixture of any other fubftance with the gold, yet
means have been contrived, for fome particular pur-
pofes, of faving the precious metal, by producing a
kind of leaf called party-gold, whofe balls is filver,
and which has only a fuperficial coat of gold upon one
fide : a thick leaf of filver and a thinner one of gold,
laid flat on one another, heated and preffed together,
unite and cohere; and being then beaten into fine
leaves, as in #the foregoing procefs, the gold, though
its quantity is only about one fourth of that of the
filver, continues everywhere to cover it, the exten¬
fion of Bie former keeping pace with that of the
latter.
But it is obferved by Mr Nicholfon, that pure
gold is too duflile to be worked between the gold¬
beaters Ikin. I he neweft Ikins will work the fineft
gold, and make the thinneft leaf, becaufe they are the
fmootheft. Old Ikins, being rough or foul, require
coarfer gold. The finer the gold, the more dutffile j
infomuch that pure gold, when driven out by the ham¬
mer, is too loft to force itfelf over the irregularities,
but would pafs round them, and by that means become
divided into narrow flips. The fineft gold for this pur-
pofe has three grains of alloy in the ounce, and the
coarfeft twelve grains. In general, the alloy is fix
grains, or one-eightieth part. That which is called
pale gold contains three pennyweights of filver in the
ounce. The alloy of leaf, gold is filver, or copper, or
both, and the colour is produced of various tints ac¬
cordingly.^ Two ounces and two pennyweights of
gold is delivered by the mafter to the workman, who,
if extraordinarily Ikilful, returns two thoufand leaves,
or eighty books of gold, together with one ounce and
fix pennyweights of wafte cuttings. Hence one book
weighs 4.8 grains •, and as the leaves meafure 3.3 inches
in-the fide, the thicknels of the leaf is one two hundred
and eighty-two thoufandth part of an inch.
The yellow metal called Dutch gold is fine brafs.
It is faid to be made from copper plates, by cementa¬
tion with calamine, without fubfequent fufion. Its
thicknefs, compared with that of leaf gold, proved
as 19 to 4, and under equal furfaces it is confiderably
more than twice as heavy as the gold. "Jour, vol. i.
It,
Gold.
G O L [ 784 ] G O L
Cold, It muft be obferved, however, that gold is beaten
Golden. more or lefs> according to the kind or quality of the
work it is intended for •, that for the gold-wire-drawers
to gild their ingots withal, is left much thicker than
that for gilding the frames of pictures, &c. See
Gilding.
Gold Brocade. See Brocade.
Fulminating Gold. See Chemistry Index.
Mofaic Gold, is gold applied in pannels on a proper
ground, diflributed into fquares, lozenges, and other
compartments ; part of which is lhadowed to raife or
heighten the reft. See Mosaic.
Gold Plates for Enamelling are generally made of
ducat gold, whofe finenefs is from 23 .x to 23I. carats •,
and the fineft gold is the beft for this purpofe, unlefs
where fome parts of the gold are left bare and unpolifh-
ed, as in watch-cafes, fnuff-boxes, &:c. for which pur¬
pofe a mixture of alloy is neceflary, and filver is pre¬
ferred to copper, becaufe the latter difpofes the plates
to tarnifh and turn green. See Enamelling.
Shel 1-Gold is that ufed by the gilders and illuminers,
and with which gold letters are written. It is made
by grinding gold leaves, or gold-beaters fragments,
with a little honey, and afterwards feparating the ho¬
ney from the powdered gold by means of water. When
the honey is walhed away, the gold may be put on
paper or kept in {hells; whence its name. When it
is ufed, it is diluted with gum-water or foap-fuds.—
The German gold-powder, prepared from the Dutch
gold-leaf in the fame manner, is generally ufed $ and
when it is well fcoured with varnilh, anfwers the end
in japanners gilding as well as the genuine.
Gold Size for Surniftied gilding is prepared of one
pound and a half of tobacco-pipe clay, half an ounce
of red chalk, a quarter of an ounce of black lead,
forty drops of fweet oil, and three drams of pure tal¬
lowy grind the clay, chalk, and black lead, feparately,
very fine in water ; then mix them together, add the
oil and tallow, and grind the mixture to a due conflu¬
ence.
Gold fize of japanners may be made by pulverizing
gum animi and afphaltum, of each one ounce $ red lead,
litharge of gold, and umber, of each one ounce and a
half, mixing them with a pound of linfeed oil, and
boiling them, obferving to ftir them till the whole be
incorporated, and appears on growing cold of the con-
ftftence of tar : ftrain the mixture through a flannel,
and keep it flopped up in a bottle for ufe. When it
is ufed, it muft be ground with as much vermilion as
will give it an opake body, and diluted with oil of
turpentine, fo that it may be worked freely with the
pencil. A Ample preparation confifts of one pound
of linfeed oil and four ounces of gum animi •, powder
the gum, and mix it gradually with the boiling oil j
let it continue to boil till it becomes of the conflftence
of tar ; ftrain it through a coarfe cloth j keep and ufe
it as the other.
GoiD-Finch. See Fringilla, Ornithology Index.
GoLD-Filh. See Cyprinus, Ichthyology Index.
GOLDEN, fomething that has a relation to gold
or confifts of gold.
GoLDEN-Calf was a figure of a calf, which the
Ifraelites caft in that metal, and fet up in the wilder-
nefs to worftiip during Mofes’s abfence in the mount;
and which that legillator at his return burnt, grinded
3
to powder, and mixed with the water the people were Golden,
to drink of j as related in Exod. xxxii. The com-
mentators have been divided on this article : the pul¬
verizing of gold, and rendering it potable, is a very
difficult operation in chemiftry. Many, therefore,
fuppofe it done by a miracle 5 and the reft, who allow
of nothing fupernatural in it, advance nothing but
conjectures as to the manner of the procefs. Mofes
could not have done it by Ample calcination, nor
amalgamation, nor antimony, nor calcination ; nor is
there one of thofe operations th^t quadrates with the
text.
M. Stahl has endeavoured to remove this difficulty.
The method Mofes made ufe of, according to this au¬
thor, was by diflblving the metal with hepar fulphuris;
only, inttead of the vegetable alkali, he made ufe of
the Egyptian natron, which is common enough through¬
out the eaft.
GoLDEN-Fleece, in the ancient mythology, v/as the
Ikin or fleece of the ram upon which Phryxus and
Kella are fuppofed to have fwam ov^r the fea to Colchis;
and wdtich being facrificed to Jupiter, was hung upon
a tree in the grove of Mars, guarded by two brazen-
hoofed bulls, and a monftrous dragon that never flept;
but was taken and carried off by Jafon and the Argo¬
nauts.
Many authors have endeavoured to ftiow that this
fable is an allegorical reprefentation of fome real hif-
tory, particularly of the philofophers ftone. Others
have explained it by the profit of the wool trade to
Colchis, or the gold which they commonly gathered
there with fleeces in the rivers. See Argonauts.
Order of the Golden Fleece, is a military order infti-
tuted by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1429.
It took its denomination from a reprefentation of the
golden fleece, borne by the knights on their collars,
which confifted of flints and fteels. The king of
Spain is now grand-mafter of the order, in quality of
duke of Burgundy : the number of knights is fixed
to thirty-one.
It is ufually laid to have been inftituted on occafion
of an immenfe profit which that prince made by wool;
though others will have a chemical myftery couched
under it, as under that famous one of the ancients,
which the adepts contend to be no other than the fe-
cret of the elixir, wrote on the fleece of a ftieep.
Oliver de la Marche writes, that he had fuggefted
to Philip I. archduke of Auftria, that the order wras
inftituted by his grandfather Philip the Good duke
of Burgundy, with a view to that of Jafon ; and that
John Germain biftiop of Chalons, chancellor of the
order, upon this occafion made him change his opi¬
nion, and aflured the young prince that the order had
been inftituted with a view to the fleece of Gideon.
William bilhop of Tournay, chancellor likewife of the
order, pretends that the duke of Burgundy had in
view both the golden fleece of Jafon and Jacob’s
fleece ; i. e. the {peeked flreep belonging to this patri¬
arch, according to agreement made with his father-in-
law Laban. Which fentiment gave birth to a great
work of this prelate, in twm parts : in the firft, under
the fymbol of the fleece of Jafon, is reprefented the
virtue of magnanimity, which a knight ought to pof-'
fefs ; and under the fymbol of the fleece of Jacob he
reprefents the virtue of juftice.
Paraffin
I
G O L [78
balden Paradin is of the fame mind ; and tells us, that the
II duke defigned to infinuate that the fabulous conqueft
troldoni. w}jjch Jafon is faid to have made of the golden tleece in
tu'”T" ^ ~ Colchis, was nothing elfe but the conquelf of virtue,
which gains a viftory over thole hotrible monders ^ ice
and our evil inclinations.
Golden dumber, in Chronology, a number Ihowing
what year of the moon’s cycle any given year is. See
Chronology* N° 27—30.
Golden Rod,, in Botany. See Solidago* Botany
Index.
Golqrn Rofe. The pope annually eonfecrates a
golden rofe on the fourth Sunday in Lent, which is
lent to princefles, or to lome church, as a mark of his
peculiar affeftion.
Golden Rule, in Arithmetic, a rule or praxis, of
great ufe and extent in the art of numbers j wher'e-
we find a fourth proportional to three quantities
given.
The golden rule is alfo called the Rule of 2 hree and
Rule of Proportion. See its nature and ule under the
article Arithmetic, N° 13.
GOLDENGEN, a town of Poland in the duchy
of Courland, with a handfome caftle, feated on the ri¬
ver Weia, in E. Long. 22i 31. N. Lat. 56. 48*
GOLDONI, Charles, a comic writer of confider-
able eminence* was born at Venice in the year I7D7>
in wLich city his father a&ed in the capacity of phyfi-
cian. His attachment to the drama became confpi-
cuous even in childhood* wdiich his father w7as fond of
countenancing, erecting a theatre in his owm houfe,
where young Goldoni and fome of his companions were
the aftors. It is faid that he even drew the outlines of
a comedy of his owh invention when he was no more
than 8 years of age,—a mod extraordinary indication
of his future eminence. He ftudied rhetoric at Perugia,
in the college of the Jefuits, and profecuted his philofo-
phical ftudies at Rimini. The ftage, however had too
many charms to allow him to pay much attention to
Ariftotle or Quintilian, and he eloped from Rimini with
a company of comedians when they removed to Chiox-
?.a. In vain did his father attempt to make him fall in
love with phyfic, or the ftudy of the law j yet his ar¬
dent imagination was lo forcibly ftruck with a particu¬
lar church-ceremony, that he formed the refolution of
commencing capuchin* but the diflipation of Venice
foon deftroyed this refolution. After the demife of his
father, he wras prevailed upon by his furviving parent
to take up the profeflion of the law for immediate fup-
port, but fome unknown reafons induced him to quit
the bar, after which he went to Milan* where he was
appointed fecretary to the Venetian relidenL
At Milan he brought out his firrt performance, un¬
der the title of II Gondoliere Vene%iano. He removed
afterwards to Verona, where he joined himfelf to a
company of players •, and here too he entered into a
date of wedlock. He compofed a number of pieces for
the players to whom he attached himfelf. M hile at
Venice, he formed the laudable refolutiou of reforming
the Italian ftage, which at that time was difgraced by
contemptible farce and low7 buftoonery. He made him¬
felf acquainted with the true nature of comedy, and
•kept within the limits of nature and decorum. Such
was the fertility of his genius, and fuch his indefati¬
gable induftry, that he produced no fewer than lixteen
Vol. IX. Part II.
5 1 g o l 
comedies and 42 other theatrical pieces in the courfe ofGoldimiti^
twelve months ! And what is moft aftoniftiing, feme of ^
thefe hafty performances are deemed his mafterpieces.
His works in 10 vols. 8vo. were firft printed in 1753,
and in 1761 his new pieces amounted to 59. About
this time he was invited to Paris by the manager of the
Italian theatre in that city, to compofe pieces for the
ftage, of which invitation he accepted. His firft at¬
tempt w7as unfuccefsful, becaufe he had to contend with
the pantomime drollery, which was moft agreeable to
the depraved tafte of the times. When about to leave
Paris on the expiration of his engagement, he was in¬
troduced to the court, and appointed teacher of the
Italian language to the princefles. He had lodgings
in Verfailles, but his penfion w7as not fufficient to keep
him from writing for the ftage. When 62 years old,
he ventured to compole in a iofeign language, his La
Bourru Bienfaifant, which was received in the court
theatre with extraordinary applaufe. He was deprived
of his penfion in confequence of the revolution, and re¬
duced to indigence. It ought to be confefled, howT-
ever, that this verfatile nation was juft about to make
him amends when he expired in 1792, and in the 8310
year of his age. It the rapidity with which Goldoni
compofed was fuch as to prevent him from ranking
with authors of the firft clafs, it cannot be denied that
his talent for comedy was very great. Some have given
him the appellation of the Mohere of Italy, but this
perhaps is too flattering a title. His whole works were
printed at Leghorn about the years 1788 and I79,»
in 3 1 volumes 8vo.
GOLDSMITH, or, as fome choofe to exprefs it,
Jilverfmith, an artift who makes veflels, utenfils, and
ornaments, in gttld and filver.
The goldfmith’s work is either performed in the
mould, or beat out with the hammer or other engine.
All works that have raifed figures are call in a mould,
and afterwards polilhed and finiftied 5 plates or
diflies, of filver or gold, are beat out from thin flat
plates ^ and tankards, and other veflels of that kind,
are formed of plates foldered together, and their
mouldings are beat, not caft, I he bufinefs of the
goldfmiths formerly required much more labour than
it does at prefent j for they were obliged to hammer
the metal from the ingot to the thinnefs they wanted *,
but there are now invented flatting-mills, which reduce
metals to the thinnefs that is required, at a very fmall
expence. The goldfmith is to make his own moulds >
and for that reafon, ought to be a good defigner, and
have a tafte in fculpture: he ought alfo to know enough
of metallurgy to be able to aflay mixed metals, and to
mix the alloy.
The goldfmiths in London employ feveral hands
under them for the varioua. articles of their trade 5 fuch
are the jeweller, the fnuff-box and toy-maker, the fil-
ver-turner, the gilder, the burnilher, the chafer, the re¬
finer, and the gold-beater.
Goldfmiths are fuperior tradefmen; their wares
muft be aflayed by the wardens of the company of
this name in London, and marked j and gold is to be
of a certain touch. No goldfmith may take above one
Ihilling the ounce of gold, befides what he has for the
faftiioning, more than the buyer may be allowed for
it at the king’s exchange 5 and here any falfe metal
(hall be feized and forfeited to the king. I he cities
5 G of
r
G O L
Goldfmith. of York, Exeter, Briftol, &c. are places appointed
' for affaying wrought plate of goldfmiths j alfo a
duty is granted on lilver plate of lixpence an ounce,
&.c. Plate made by goldimiths (hall be of a particuiar
finenels, on pain of forfeiting 10I. and if any parcel
of plate fent to the affayers is difcovered to be of a
coarfer alloy than the refpeclive ilandards, it may be
broken and defaced 5 and the fees for allaying are par¬
ticularly limited.
Goldsmith, Oliver, a celebrated Englilh writer,
was born at Rofcommon in Ireland in the year 1731.
His father, who poffefi’ed a fmall eftate in that county,
had nine fons, of whom Oliver was the third. He
was originally intended for the church ; and with that
view, after being well inftrufted in the claflics, was,
with his brother the Rev. Henry Goldfmith, placed
in Trinity-college, Dublin, about the latter end of the
year 1749. In this feminary of learning he conti¬
nued a few years, when he took a bachelor’s degree :
but his brother not being able to obtain any prefer¬
ment after he left the college, Oliver, by the advice
of Dean Goldfmith of Coik, turned his thoughts to
the ftudy of phyfic •, and, after attending fome courfes
01 anatomy in Dublirr, proceeded to Edinburgh in the
year 1751, where he ftudied the feveral branches of
medicine under the different profeffors in that univer-
ffty. His beneficent difpofition foon involved him in
unexpected difficulties \ and he was obliged precipi¬
tately to leave Scotland, in confequence of engaging
himfelf to pay a conliderable fum of money for a
fellow-ftudent.
A few days after, about the beginning of the year
1754, he arrived at Sunderland, near Newcaffle,
where he was arrefted at the fuit of a taylor in Edin¬
burgh, to whom he had given fecurity for his friend.
By the good offices of Laughlan Maclane, Efq. and
Dr Sleigh, who were then in the college, he was
foon delivered out of the hands of the bailiff; and
took his paffage on board a Dutch ffiip to Rotterdam,
where, after a fliort flay, he proceeded to Bruffels;
he then vifited great part of Flanders j and after paf-
fing fome time at Straiburg and Louvain, where he
obtained a degree of bachelor of phyfic, he accompa¬
nied an Englilh gentleman to Berne and Geneva.
It is undoubtedly fact, that this ingenious unfortu¬
nate man travelled on foot moft part of his tour. He
had left England with very little money j and being
of a philofophical turn, and at that time poffeffing a
body capable of fuftaining every fatigue, and a heart
not eafily terrified at danger, he became an enthufiaff
to the defign he had formed of feeing the manners of
different countries. He had fome knowledge of the
French language and of mufic, and he played tolerably
well on the German flute ; which, from an amufe-
ment, became at fome times the means of fubfiftencc.
His learning produced him a hofpitable reception at
moft of the religious houfes ; and his mufic made him
welcome to the peafants of Flanders and other parts of
Germany. “ Whenever I approached,” he ufed to
fay, “ a peafant’s houfe towards night-fall, I played
one of my moft merry tunes ; and that procured me
not only a lodging, but fubfiftence for the next day :
but in truth (his conftant expreffion), I muft own,
whenever I attempted to entertain perfons of a higher
sank, they always thought my performance odious,
[ 7S6 ]
G O L
and never made me any return for my endeavours to Goldfmitfi.
pleale them.”
On Mr Goldfmith’s arrival at Geneva, he was re¬
commended as a proper perfon for a travelling tutor
to a young man, who had been unexpeftedly left a
coniiderable lum of money by his uncle Mr £> >
formerly an eminent pawnbroker near Holborn. This
youth, who had been articled to an attorney, on re¬
ceipt of his fortune determined to fee the world j
and, on his engaging with his preceptor, made a
provifo that he Ihould be permitted to govern him¬
felf ; and Goldfmith foon found his pupil underftood
the art of direbting in money-concerns extremely well,
as avarice was his prevailing paffion. His queftions
were ufually howr money might be faved, and wdiich
was the leaft expenfive courfe of travelling; w hether any
thing could be bought that would turn to account
w'hen difpofed of again in London ? Such curiofities
on the W'ay as could be feen for nothing he was ready
enough to look at j but if the fight of them w’as to
be paid for, he ufually afierted that he had been told
they wjere not worth feeing. He never paid a bill
that he would not obferve how amazingly expenfive
travelling wTas j and all this, though he was not yet
twenty-one. During Goldfmith’s continuance in Swit¬
zerland, he affiduoufly cultivated his poetical talent,
of which he had given fome ftriking proofs while at
the college of Edinburgh. It wras here he fent the
firft Iketch of his delightful poem called the Traveller,
to his brother the clergyman in Ireland, who, giving
up fame and fortune, had retired with an amiable wife
to happinefs and obicurity, on an income of only 40I.
a-year.
From Geneva Mr Goldfmith and his pupil vifited
the fouth of France; w here the young man, upon
fome difagreement with his preceptor, paid him the
fmall part of his falary which was due, and embarked
at Marfeilles for England. Our wanderer was left once
more upon the world at large, and palled through a
variety of difficulties in traverfing the greateft part of
France. At length his curiofity being fatiated, he
bent his courfe towards England, and arrived at Dover
the beginning of the winter 1758. When he came to
London, his ftock of caffi did not amount to two livres.
An entire ftranger in this metropolis, his mind was.
filled wdth the moft gloomy reileblions on his embar-
raffed lituation. With fome difficulty he dilcovered
that part of the towm in which his old acquaintance
Dr Sleigh refided. This gentleman received him with
the warmeft affeblion, and liberally invited him to
fliare his purfe till iome eftabliftiment could be procu¬
red for him. Goldimith, unwilling to be a burden to
his friend, a ftiort time after eagerly embraced an of¬
fer wdiieh was made him to alfift the late Rev. Dr
Milner in inftrubling the young gentlemen at the aca¬
demy at Peckham j and acquitted himfelf greatly to
the Dodlor’s fatisfablion for a fliort time : but having
obtained fome reputation by the criticifms he had
written in the RIonthly Review, Mr Griffith, the pro¬
prietor, engaged him in the compilation of it; and,
refolving to purfue the profeffion of writing, he return¬
ed to London, as the mart where abilities of every kind
W’ere fure of meeting diftinftion and reward. As his
finances were by no means in a good ftate, he deter¬
mined to adopt a plan of the ftrifleft economy : and
, took
G O L
f 787 1
G O L
Goldfmith. took lodgings in an obfcure court in the Old Bailey,
' "l,r“v 1 where he wrote feveral ingenious little pieces. The
late Mr Newberry, who at that time gave great en¬
couragement to men of literary abilities, became a
kind of patron to our young author ; and introduced
him as one of the waiters in the Public Ledger, in
wdiich his Citizen of the World originally appeared,
under the title of Chinefe Letters.
Fortune now feemed to take fome notice of a man
(he had long neglefted. The fimplicity of his charac¬
ter, the integrity of his heart, and the merit of his
produdlions, made his company very acceptable to a
number of refpedlable families ; and he emerged from
his lhabby apartments in the Old Bailey to the politer
air of the Temple, where he took handfome chambers,
and lived in a genteel llyle. The publication of his
Traveller, and his Vicar of Wakefield, was followed by
the performance of his comedy of the Good-natured
Man at Covent Garden theatre, and placed him in the
firft rank of the poets of the prefent age.
Among many other perfons of diftin£lion who were
defirous to know him was the duke of Northumber¬
land *, and the circumftance that attended his intro-
dudlion to that nobleman is wmrthy of being related,
in order to (how a linking trait of his character. “ I
wras invited,” faid the Do£for (as he was then univer-
fally called) by my friend Mr Piercy, to wait upon
the duke, in confequence of the fatisfadlion he had
received from the perufal of one of my produdtions.
I dreffed myfelf in the bell manner I could j and,
after ftudying fome compliments I thought neceflary
on fuch an occalion, proceeded to Northumberland-
houfe, and acquainted the fervants that I had parti¬
cular bufinefs with his Grace. They Ihowed me into
an antichamber j wdiere, after waiting fome time, a
gentleman very genteellv dreffed made his appearance.
Taking him for the duke, I delivered all the fine
things I had compofed in order to compliment him on
the honour he had done me •, when, to my great alfo-
nifhment, he told me I had millaken him for his mailer,
who wmuld fee me immediately. At that inllant the
duke came into my apartment •, and I wras fo confufed
on the occafion, that I wanted words barely fufilcient
to exprefs the fenfe I entertained of the duke’s polite-
nefs, and went away extremely chagrined at the blun¬
der I had committed,”
Another feature of his charafter wTe cannot help
laying before the reader. Previous to the publication
of his Deferted Village, the bookfeller had given him
a note for one hundred guineas for the copy, which
the Do£lor mentioned a few hours after to one of his
friends : who obferved, it w'as a very great fum for fo
Ihort a performance. “ In truth,” replied Goldfmith,
“ I think fo too •, I have not been eafy fince I received
it •, therefore I will go back and return him his note
which he abfolutely did •, and left it entirely to the
bookfeller to pay him according to the profits produced
by the fale of the piece, which turned out very conli-
derable.
During the laft rehearfal of his comedy intitled She
{loops to Conquer, which Mr Coleman had no opinion
would lucceed, on the Doctor’s objetbng to the repeti¬
tion of one of Tony Lumkin’s fpeerhes, being appre-
henlive it might injure the play, the manager with
great kecnnefs replied, “ Plha, my dear Doctor, do not
be fearful of fquibs, when we have been fitting almofl Goldfmkin
thefe two hours upon a barrel of gunpowder.” The
piece, howrever, contrary to Mr Coleman’s expectation,
was received with uncommon applaufe by the audience 5
arid Goldfmith’s pride was fo hurt by the feverity of
the above obfervation, that it entirely put an end to his
friendthip for the gentleman that made it.
Notwithftanding the great fuqpefs of his pieces, by
fome of which it is afferted, upon good authority, he
cleared 1800I. in one year, his circumftances were by
no means in a profperous fituation \ which was partly
owing to the liberality of his dilpofition, and partly
to an unfortunate habit he had contrafted of gaming ;
the arts of which he knew very little of, and conie-
quently became the prey of thofe who were unprinci¬
pled enough to take advantage of his fimplicity.
Juft before his death he had formed a defign for ex¬
ecuting an Univerfal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences,
the profpeCtus of which he aClually publiihed. In
this wmrk feveral of his literary friends (particularly
Sir Joftiua Reynolds, Dr Johnfon, Mr Beauclerc, and
Mr Garrick), had undertaken to furnifli him with ar¬
ticles upon different fubjeCts. He had entertained the
moft fanguine expectations from the fuccefs of it. I he
undertaking, however, did not meet with that encou¬
ragement from the bookfellers which he had imagined
it would undoubtedly receive ) and he ufed to lament
this circumftance almoft to the lart hour of his ex-
iftence.
He had been for fome years afflicted, at difterent
times, with a violent ftrangury, which contributed not
a little to embitter the latter part of his life ; and which,
united with the vexations which he fuftered upon other
occafions, brought on a kind of habitual defpondency.
In this unhappy condition he was attacked by a nervous
fever, which, being improperly treated, terminated in
his diffolution on the 4th of April 1774-
As to his charaCler, it is ftrongly illuftrated by Mr
Pope’s line,
In wit a man, fimplicity a child.
The learned leifure he loved to enjoy was too often
interrupted by diftreffes which arofe from the liberality
of his temper, and which fometimes threw him into
loud fits of paflion : but this impetuofity was correct¬
ed upon a moment’s reflection *, and his fervants have
been known, upon thefe occafions, purpofely to throw
themfelves in his way, that they might profit by .it im¬
mediately after ; for he who had the good fortune to
be reproved, was certain of being rewarded for it.
The univerfal efteem in which his poems wete held,
and the repeated pleafure they give in the perufal, is a
ftriking left of their merit. Pie was a ftudious and cor-
reCt obferver of nature •, happy in the feleftion of his
images, in the choice of his fubjefts, and in the har¬
mony of his verfification *, and, though his embarraffed
fituation prevented him from putting the laft hand to
many of his productions, his Plermit, his Iraveller,
and his Deferted Village, bid fair to claim a place
among the moil finiihed pieces in the Engliih lan¬
guage.
Befides the works already mentioned, he wrote, r .
Plillory of the earth and animated nature, 6 vols 8vo.
2. Hiftory of England, 4 vols 8vo. 3. Hiftory of
Rome, 2 vols. 4. Abridgments of the two laft, lor
r G 2 the
G O L [ 788 ] GO L
Golf, the ufe of fchools. 5. A view of experimental philofo-
Goims. ^ vols 8vo *, a pollhumous work, not efteemed.
6. Mifcellanies, &c.
GOLF, the name of a certain game among the
Scots, and faid to be peculiar to their country.—
Among them it has been very ancient} for there are
ftatutes prohibiting it as early as the year 1457, left it
ihould interfere with the fport of archery. It is com¬
monly played on rugged broken ground, covered with
ihort grafs, in the neighbourhood of the fea fhore. A
held of this fort is in Scotland called Unis. The game
is generally played in parties of one or two on each
fide. Each party has an exceeding hard ball, fome-
what larger than a hen’s egg. This they ftrike with a
ilender and elaftic club, of about four feet long, crook¬
ed in the head, and having lead run into it, to make it
heavy. The ball being itruck with this club, will fiy
to the diftance of 200 yards, and the game is gained
by the party who puts his ball into the hole with the
feweft ftrokes. But the game does not depend folely
upon the linking of the longelt ball, but alfo upon mea-
furing the llrength of the ftroke, and applying it in
fuch direction as to lay the ball in fmooth ground,
whence it may be ealily moved at the next llroke. To
encourage this amufement, the city of Edinburgh,
A. D. 1744, gave to the company of golfers a filver
club, to be played for annually by the company, the
vi£lor to append a gold or filver piece to the prize.
It has been played for every year lince, except the
years 1746 and 1747. For their better accommoda¬
tion, 22 members of the company fubfcribed 30I. each
in the year 1768, for building a houfe, where their
meetings might be held. The fpot chofen for this pur-
pofe w’as the fouth-weft corner of Leith Links, where
an area was taken in feu from the magilfrates of E-
dinburgh, and a commodious houfe and tavern built
upon It.
GOLIUS, James, a celebrated profeflbr of Arabic
and the mathematics at Leyden, wras defcended from a
very honourable family, and born at the Hague in the
year 1 $96. He was put to the univerfity of Leyden,
rvhere he fludied under Erpinius; and having made
himfelf mailer of - all the learned languages, applied
himfelf to the mathematics, phyfic, and divinity. He
afterwards travelled into Africa and Alia ; and became
greatly efteemed by the king of Morocco, and the ful-
tan of the Turks. He at length returned to Leyden,
loaded with manufcripts •, and in 1624, fucceeded Er¬
pinius in the Arabic chair. As he had been an eye-
witnefs of the wretched Hate of Chrillianity in the Ma¬
hometan countries, he was filled with the compaffion
of a fellow-chrifiian •, and none ever folicited fpr a
place of honour and profit with greater eagernefs, than
he for procuring a new edition of the New Tellament,
in the original language, with a tranllation into the
vulgar Greek, by an Archimandrite 5 and as there are
feme of thefe Chriilians who ufe the Arabic tongue in
divine fervice, he alfo took care to have difperfed a-
mong them an Arabic tranllation of the Confeffion of
the Protellants, together with the Catechifm and Li-
turgy. In 1626, he w’as alfo chofen profeffbr of ma¬
thematics •, and difeharged the fundlions of both pro-
fefforfhips with the greateil applaufe during 40 years.
He was likewife appointed interpreter in ordinary to the
Hates for the Arabic, Turkilh, Perfian, and other eail-
ern languages, for which he had an annual penfion, Goltzius.
and a prefent of a gold chain, with a very beautiful■'v
medal, which he wore as a badge of his office. He
publiihed, 1. The life of Tamerlane, written in Ara¬
bic. 2. The hiftory of the Saracens, written by El-
macin. 3. Alferganus’s Elements of Aftronomy, with
a new verfion, and learned commentaries. 4. An ex¬
cellent Arabic lexicon. 3. A Perfian Dictionary. Pie
died in 1667.
GOLTZIUS, Henry, a famous engraver and pain¬
ter, born in 1558, at Mulbreck in the duchy of Juliers.
He’ was taught the art of engraving by Theodore Cue-
renhert ; and fucceeded very wonderfully in it, not-
withftanding the difad vantage of a lame hand, which
was occafioned by his falling into the fire whillt young.
He was firlt employed by his mailer, and afterwards he
worked for Philip Galle. Domeltic troubles and ill
health occafioned him to travel. Pie went through
Germany into Italy ; and palled under a feigned name,
that his Itudies might not be interrupted. He vilited
Bologna, Florence, Naples^ and Venice, conftantly
applying himfelf to drawing from the antique ftatues,
and the works of the great mailers. At Rome he re-
fided the longelt j and there he produced feveral excel¬
lent engravings from Polidoro Raphael, arid other emi¬
nent painters. On his return to his native country he
eltablilhed himfelf at Haerlem, where he engraved ma¬
ny of the drawings which he had made during his abode
in Italy. He died at Haerlem in 1617, aged 59. He
is faid to have been 40 years old before he began to
paint : yet his pictures are fpoken of with great com¬
mendation 5 but as he did not produce any great num¬
ber of them, they are rarely to be met with. As an
engraver, he deferves the highelt commendation. No
man ever furpafied, and few have equalled, him in the
command of the graver and freedom of execution. He
copied the Ityle of Albert Durer, Lucas of Leyden,
and other old mailers, wTith altonilhing exaCtnefs. Some¬
times his engravings are neat in the extreme 5 at other
times they are performed in a bold opeu manner, with¬
out the lealt reltraint. He alfo engraved feveral of his
own defigns on wood, in that manner which is diltin-
guiffied by the appellation of chiaro-fcuro. Of his
prints, which are very numerous, it may here fuffice to
fpecify twro or three of the molt celebrated : 1. Six
large upright plates, known by the name of his mqfter-
pieces. Thefe, it is faid, he engraved to convince the '
public that he was perfectly capable of imitating the
Ityles of Albert Durer, Lucas Van Leyden, and other
matters, whofe works were then held in higher eltima-
tion than his own : for he had adopted a new manner,
which he purfued becaufe he thought it fuperior, and
not becaufe he was incapable of following the others.
It is reported that with one of them, the Circumcilion,
which he fmoked to give it the more plaufible air of
antiquity, he aCtually deceived fome of the molt capi¬
tal connoiffeurs of the day j by one of whom it was
bought for an original engraving of Albert Durer.
The fubjeCts of thefe plates are, The Annunciation of
the Virgin ; the Meeting of the Virgin with Elizabeth,
called the Vifitation ; the Nativity of Chriit j the Cir-
cumcifion of Chrift , the Adoration of the Wife Men j
the Holy Family. 2. The Judgment of Midas, a large
plate length wife. 3. The Venetian Ball, a large plate
lengthwife, from Theodore Bernard. 4. The Boy and
Dog,
*
G O M
GombauM, Dog, a middling fized upright plate, from a delign of
Gombroon. Pjjj own . an admirable print. 5. The Necromancer,
~ v a middling-lized upright oval print, in chiaro-fcuro.
6. Night in her Chariot, the fame.
GOMBAULD, John Ogier de, one of the heft
French poets in the 1 'yth century, and one of the firft
members of the French academy, was born at St Juft
de Luffac. He acquired the efteem of Mary de Medi-
cis, and of the wits of his time. He was a Proteftant,
and died in a very advanced age. He wrote many
works in verle and profe. His epigrams, and fome of
his fonnets, are particularly efteemed.
GOMBROON, by the natives called Bander Ahafli^
a city of Perlia, lituated in N. Lat. 27. 40. F. Long.
55. 30. The name of Gombroon, or Comerong, Cap¬
tain Hamilton tells us, it had from the Portuguefe j
becaufe it was remarkable for the number of prawns
and fhrimps caught on its coafts, by them called come-
rorig. This city owes its wealth and grandeur to the
demolition of Ormus, and the downfal of the Portu¬
guefe empire in the Eaft Indies. It is now juftly ac¬
counted or^ of the greateft marts in the Eaft, was
built by the great Shah Abas, and from him, as fome
think, obtained the name of Bander Abqfli, which fig-
nifies the court of Abas. It ftands on a bay about
nine leagues to the northward of the eaft end of the
ifland of Kilhmifti, and three leagues from the famous
Ormus. The Engliih began to fettle here about the
year 1631, when, in confideration of their fervices
againft the Portuguefe, Shah Abas granted them half
the cuftoms of that port. This was confirmed by a
phirmaund, and duly regarded, till the Engliih began
to neglecft the fervices they had ftipulated. Whether
the company has any emolument from the cuftoms at
prefent, is what we cannot pretend to afcertain. The
town is large, but its fituation bad ; wanting almoft
every thing that contributes to the happinefs and even
fupport of life. Towards the land it is encompaffed
by a fort of wall ; and towards the fea are feveral fmall
forts, with a platform, and a caftle or citadel, mounted
with cannon to fecure it and the road from the at¬
tempts of an enemy by fea. The houfes in moft of
the ftreets are fo out of repair, fome half down, others
in a heap of rubbifh, that a ftranger would imagine
the town had been facked and ravaged by a barbarous
people } not a veftige of the wealth really contained
in the place appearing in viewn The bazars and (hops
round them are kept, for the moft part, by Banians,
whofe houfes are generally in good order. Moft; of
the houfes are built with earth and lime, but fome of
the beft with ftone. Many of them have a fort of
ventilators at top, which contributes greatly to the
health of the inhabitants in the hot feafons of the
year. The moft: fickly months here are April, May,
September, and Oflober. With fiih and mutton the
inhabitants are well fupplied. Rice is imported from
India 5 and w heat is fo plenty, that the poor fubfift
chiefly on bread and dates. The country hereabouts
abounds in the moft delicious fruits, as apricots, peach¬
es, pomegranates, pears, mangoes, grapes, quavas,
plums, fweet quinces, and water melons. The apricots,
however, are fmall, and extremely dangerous if eaten
to excefs.
Thofe conveniences are more than overbalanced by
the fcarcity of frefh water, with which the inhabitants
[ 789 1
G O M
are fupplied from Afleen, a place feven miles diftant,Gombroon,
there not being a fpring or well in the town. Perfons Gomera.
of condition keep a camel conftantly employed in
bringing frefli and wholefome wrater. Captain Hamil¬
ton gives it as his opinion, that one caufe of the un-
wholefomenefs of this city is the refle<ftion of the rays
of light from a high mountain to the north of it.
He fays, that W’hen the beams are reflefted from this
mountain, they almoft fire the air, and, for two or
three months in the year, render the fituation intole¬
rable. For this reafon the people of condition retire
into the country, to pafs the heats of June, July, and
Auguft. The very fea, during this feafon, is affected,
infomuch that the ftench is no lefs difagreeable than
that of putrid carcafes ; and this is increafed by the
quantities of fhell-fiih left on the ftiore, from which an
exhalation arifes that tarnilhes gold and filver, and is
lefs tolerable than the bilgewvater of a tight (hip. At
Afleen the Englifli fadtory have a country houfe and
gardens, to which they retire occafionally. Here they
have w'hole groves of Seville orange trees, which,
though not natural to the country, thrive very well,
and are alwrays verdant, bearing ripe and green fruit,
wdth blofibms, all at the fame time. They have like-
wife tanks and ponds of fine freftr water, with every
thing elfe that can moderate the heat of the climate,
and render life agreeable and elegant. About 10 miles
from Affeen is a place called Alinoa, where are cold
and hot natural baths, reckoned infallible in the cure
of all fcrophulous diforders, rheumatifms, and other dif-
eafes, by bathing.
Gombroon is extremely populous, on account of the
commerce carried on by the Dutch and Engliih fadlo-
ries, as well as the natives. The Englifti faftoryis clo'e
by the fea, at fome diftance from the Dutch, which is
a commodious and fine new building. A great part of
the company’s profits arifes from freights. As the na¬
tives have not one good (hip of their own, and are ex¬
tremely ignorant of navigation, they freight their goods
for Surat, and other Indian marts, in Engliih and
Dutch bottoms, at an exorbitant rate. The commodi¬
ties of the Gombroon market are, fine wines of differ¬
ent kinds, raifins, almonds, kifh-mifties, prunellas, dates,
piftachio-nuts, ginger, filks, carpets, leather, tutty,
galbanum, ammoniac, affafoetida, tragacanth, with
other gums, and a variety of (hop medicines. Thefe
are in a great meafure the produce of Carmania, which
they bring to Gombroon in caravans. The Englilh
company had once a fmall factory in the province of
Carmania, chiefly for the fake of a fine wool produced
there, and ufed by the hatters. The faid company had
once a project of carrying a breed of the Perfian goats
to St Helena ; but whether it was executed, or what
fuccefs it met with, we cannot fay. Although the
company pay no cuftoms, yet they ufually make a pre¬
fent to the ftrabander, to avoid the trouble he has it in
his power to give them. All private traders with the
company’s paffes, enjoy the fame privileges, on paying
twro per cent, to the company, one to the agent, and
one to the broker. All private trade, either by Euro¬
pean or country (hips, has long been engroffed by the
company’s fervants.
GOMERA, one of the Canary iflands, lying be¬
tween Ferro and Teneriffe. It has one good town of
the fame name, with an excellent harbour, where the
Spanifh*
G O N t 790 ] G O N
Gomorrah Spanifh fleet often take in refrefliments. They have
i! corn fuihcient to fupply the inhabitants, with one fu-
■ Gondar. ^ gar.wor{,> anc} great plenty of wine and fruits. It is
iubjeft to the Spaniards, who conquered it in 1445.
W. Long. 17. 10. N. Lat. 28. O.
GOMORRAH, in Ancient Geography, one of the
cities of the plain or of the vale of Siddim in Judaea,
deftroyed together with Sodom by fire from heaven, on
account of the wickednefs of the people. To deter¬
mine its particular fituation at prefent, is impoflible.
GOMOZIA, a genus of plants belonging to the te~
trandria clafs. See Botany Index.
GOMPHOSIS, in Anatomy, that kind of articula¬
tion by which the teeth are fixed in the jaw-bone.
See Anatomy, N° 2.
GOMPHRiENA, globe amaranth j a genus of
plants belonging to the pentandria clafs ; and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 54th order, Mifcellanecc.
See Botany Index.
GONAQUA, the name of a nation inhabiting
-about the Cape, and fuppofed by Dr Sparrman to
be a mixture of Hottentots and Caffres. See Hotten¬
tots.
GONDAR, the capital of Abyflinia 5 fituated, ac¬
cording to Mr Bruce’s obfervations, in latitude I 2. 34.
north, and longitude 37. 33. eaft from Greenwich.
It lies upon the top of a hill of confiderable height,
and confifts of about 10,000 families in times of peace.
The houfes are chiefly of clay, with roofs thatched in
the form of cones. At the weft end of the town is the
king’s palace } formerly, as Mr Bruce informs us, a
ftrudure of confiderable confequence, being a large
fquare building four ftories high, flanked with fquare
towrers, and affording from the top of it a magnificent
view of all the country fouthward to the lake Tzana.
It w^as built in the time of Facilidas, by mafons from
India, and by fuch Abyflinians as had been inftru&ed
in architetture by the Jefuits before their expulfion.
Great part of it is now in ruins, having been burnt
at different times \ but there is ftill ample lodging in
the two loweft floors, the audience chamber being above
120 feet long. By the fide of this ftrufture there have
been built by different kings apartments of clay only,
in the falhion of their own country. The palace, with
all its contiguous buildings, is furrounded by a double
ftone wall thirty feet high and a mile and a half in
circumference, with battlements upon the outer wall,
and a parapet roof between the outer and inner, by
which you can go along the whole and look into the
ftreet. The hill on which the town is built rifes
in the middle of a deep valley, through which run two
rivers : one of which, the Kakha, coming from the
Mountain of the Sun, flanks all the fouth of the
towm •, while the other, called the Angrab, falling from
the mountain Woggora, encompaffes it on the north
and north-eaft *, and both rivers unite at the bottom of
the hill about a quarter of a mile fouth of the town.
TJpon the bank oppofite to Gondar, on the other fide
of the river, is a large towm of Mahometans a great
part of whom arc employed in taking care of the
king’s and nobility’s equipage, both when thev take
the field and when they return from it. They are
formed into a body under proper officers ; but never
fight on either fide, being entirely confined to the
.occupation juft mentioned, in w'hich by their care and
I
dexterity in pitching and ftriking the tents, and in
leading and conduding the baggage-wraggons, they
are of great fervice.—The valley of Gondar is de-
fcribed as having three outlets j one fouth, to Dem-
bea, Maitftia, and the Agows ; another on the north-
wmft, towards Sennaar, from which it is diftant 180
miles, over the Mountain of the Sun j and the third
north, leading to Woggora, over the high moun¬
tain Lamalmon, and fo on through Tigre to the Red
fea.
GONDI, John Francis Paul, Cardinal de Retz,
w7as the fon of Philip Emanuel de Gondi, Count de
Joigny, lieutenant-general, Stc. and was born in 1613.
From a dodor of the Sorbonne, he firft became co-
Gondi
0
Goniome-'
adjutor to his uncle John Francis de Gondi, wftiom he
fucceeded in 1654 as archbifhop of Paris j and was
finally made a cardinal. This extraordinary perfon
has drawn his own chara&er in his memoirs with im¬
partiality. He was a man wffio, from the greatefl:
degree of debauchery, and ftill languifhing under its
confequences, made himfelf adored hy the people as a
preacher. At the age of 23, he was at the head of
a confpiracy againft the life of Cardinal Richelieu j he
precipitated the parliament into cabals, and the people
into fedition : he w7as (fays M. Voltaire) the firft bi-
ftiop who carried on a civil w7ar without the maik of
religion. However, his intrigues and fchemes turned
out fo ill, that he was obliged to quit France 5 and he
lived the life of a vagrant exile for five or fix years,
till the death of his great enemy Cardinal Mazarin,
when he returned on certain ftipulated conditions.
After affiiling in the conclave at Rome, which chofe
Clement IX. he retired from the wmrld, and ended
his life like a philofopher in 1679 ; which made Vol¬
taire fay, that in his youth he lived like Catiline, and
like Atticus in his old age. He wuote his Memoirs
in his retirement $ the beft edition of which is that of
Amfterdam, 4 vols I 2mo, 1719.
GONDOLA, a flat boat, very long and narrow7,
chiefly ufed at Venice to row on the canals. The
word is Italian, gondola. Du Cange derives it from
the vulgar Greek KovfhXit?, “ a bark,” or “ little {hip j”
Lancelot deduces it from ycvDv, a term in Athenaeus for
a fort of vafe.
The middle-fized gondolas are upwards of thirty
feet long and four broad : they always terminate at
each end in a very (harp point, which is raifed perpen¬
dicularly to the full height of a man.
The addrefs of the Venetian gondoliers, in palling
along their narrow canals, is very remarkable : there
are ufually two to each gondola, and they row by pufli-
ing before them. The fore-man refts his oar on the
left fide of the gondola : the hind-man is placed on the
ftern, that he may fee the head over the tilt or co¬
vering of the gondola, and refts his oar, which is very
long, on the right fide of the gondola.
Gondola is alfo the name of a paffage-boat of fix
or eight oars, ufed in other parts of the coaft of Italy.
GONIOMETRY, a method of meafuring angles,
fo called by M. de Lagny, who gave feveral papers, on
this method, in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy an.
1724, 1725, 1729. M. de I.agny’s method of gonio-
metry confifts in mcafuring the angles with'a pair of
compaffes, and that without any fcale whatever, except
an undivided femicircle. Thus, having any angle
drawn
GOO
r^rea diaTvn upon paper, to be meafured j produce one of the
^ hdes of the angle backwards behind the angular point 5
—— t”en vv*th a pair of fine compafi.es defcribe a pretty
large femicircle from the angular point as a centre, cut¬
ting the fides of the propofed angle, which will inter¬
cept a part of the femicircle. Take then this intercepted
] ait very exactly between the points of the compafles,
and turn them fucceffively over upon the arc of the fe¬
micircle, to find how often it is contained in it, after
which there is commonly iome remainder : then take
tu's remainder in the compaffes, and in like manner
find how often it is contained in the laft of the integral
parts of the finl arc, with again feme remainder : find
in like manner how often this laft remainder is contained
in the foimer j and loon continually, till the remainder
become too fmall to be taken and applied as a meafure.
By this means he obtains a feries of quotients, or frac¬
tional parts, one of another, which being properly re¬
duced into one fraction, give the ratio of the firft arc to
the femicircle, or of the propofed angle to two right
angles, or 180 degrees, and cortfequently that angle it-
felf in degrees and minutes. Hutton's Moth. Did?.
G0NOR R hiA, an efflux of white, greeniih, or
differently-coloured matter, from the urethra ; moil
commonly owing to venereal infeftion. See Medicine
and Surgery Index.
GONZAGA, Lucretia, was one of the mod il-
luftrious ladies or the 16th century ; and much cele¬
brated for her wit, her learning, and her delicate ftyle.
Hoitenfio Lando wrote a beautiful panegyric upon
her, and dedicated to her his dialogue of moderating
the paftions. Her beautiful letters have been colle&ed
with the greateft care. We learn from thefe, that her
marriage with John Paul Manfrone was unhappy. 
She was married when ftie was not 14 years of ao-e,
and his conduit afterwards gave her infinite uneafi-
nefs. He engaged in a confpiracy againft the duke
of Ferrara j was detected and imprifoned by him 5
but, though condemned by the judges, nt>t put to
death. She did all in her power to obtain his en-
largement, but in vain ^ for he died in prifon, having
ftiown fuch impatience under his misfortunes, as made
it imagined he had loft his fenfes. She never would
liften afterwards to any propofals of marriage, though
feveral w^ere made to her. All that came from her
pen was fo much efteemed, that a colle&ion was made
even of the notes Ihe writ to her fervants ; feveral
of which are to be met with in the edition of her
letters.
GOOD, in general, whatever is apt to increafe
plealure, to diminifti pain in us ; or, wfflich amounts to
the fame, whatever is able to procure or preferve to us
the pofleffion of agreeable fenfations, and remove thbfe
of an oppofite nature.
Moral Good, denotes the right conduct of the fe-
\eial fenfes and paffions, or their juft proportion and
accommodation to their refpedlive obiefts and relations.
See Morals.
Good Abearing {bonus gejlus), fignifies an exa£l car¬
riage or behaviour of a fubject towards the king and
t ne people, whereunto fome perfons upon their mifbe-
haviour are bound : and he that is bound to this, is
faid to be more ftriaiy bound than to the peace : be-
caule where the peace is not broken, the furety de bono
t 791 1
GOO
gejlu may be forfeited by the number of a man’s com-GoodHdpe.
pany, or by their weapons. —>
Good Behaviour, in Law, an exaift carriage and be¬
haviour to the king and his people.
A juftice of the peace may, at the requeft of ano¬
ther, or where lie himlelf lees caufe, demand furety
for the good behaviour ; and to that end the juftice
may iffue out his Warrant againft any perfons whatib-
ever, under the degree of nobility ; but when it is a
nobleman, complaint is to be made in the court of
chancery, or king’s bench, where fuch nobleman may
be bound to keep the peace. Infants and feme-coverts,
who ought to find furety by their friends, may be bound
over to their good behaviour; as alfo lunatics, that
have fometimes lucid intervals, and all others who break
the peace, or being fufpe&ed to do it by affrays, af-
faults, battery, wounding, fighting, quarrelling, threat¬
ening, A perfon may be likevvife bound to his
good behaviour for a fcandalous way of living, keeping
bawdy-houfes, gaming houfes, &c. and fo may com¬
mon drunkards, whoremongers, common whores, cheats,
libellers, &c. He who demands furety for the peace,
on any violence offered, muft take an oath before the
juftice, that he goes in fear of his life, or fome bodily
harm, &c. and that it is not out of malice, but from a
regard to his own fafety.
Good Breeding. See Good Manners.
Good Friday, a fall of the Chriftian church, in me¬
mory of the fufferings and death of Jefus Chrift. It is
obferved on the Friday in holy or pajjion week ; and it
is cidled, by way of eminence, good, becaufe of the
blefied effects of our Saviour’s fufferings, wdiich were
a propitiatory or expiating facrifice for the fins of the
world. The commemoration of our Saviour’s fufferings
has been kept from the very firft ages of Chriftianity,
and was always obferved as a day of the ftricleft faftinu
and humiliation. Among the Saxons it was called
Long-Friday; but for what reafon, except on account
of the long fallings and offices then ufed, is uncertain.
On Good Friday the pope fits on a plain form : and,
after fervice is ended, when the cardinals wait on him
back to his chamber, they are obliged to keep a deep
filence, as a teftimony of their forrow. In the night
of Good-Friday, the Greeks perform the obfequies of our
Saviour round a great crucifix, laid on a bed of ftate,
adorned with flowers ; thefe the bilhops, dillribute a-
rnong the afliilants when the oflice is ended. The
Armenians, on this day, fet open a holy fepulchre, in
imitation of that of Mount Calvary.
Good Hope, or Cape of Good Hope, a promontory of
Africa, where the Dutch have built a good town and fort.
It is fituated in the country of the Hottentots : for an
account of whom, and of the country at large, with its
firll difeovery, fee the article Hottentots.
The Cape of Good Hope has been generally elleem-
ed the moll foutherly point of Africa, though it is not
truly fo. In Phillips''s Voyage to Botany Bay *, we are'
told, that the land which projects fartheft to the fouth
is a point to the call of it, called by the Englilh Cape
Lagullus; a name corrupted from the original Portu-
guHt das Agulhas, which, as w'ell as the^French ap¬
pellation des Aiguilles, is deferiptive of its form, and
would rightly be tranllated Needle cape.
Qn approaching the cape, a very remarkable emi¬
nence
P. 3S.
GOO
r 792 ]
G O O
Good Hope, nence may in clear weather be difcovered at a confider-
’ able diftance j and is called the Table-mountain trom its
appearance, as it terminates in a flat horizontal lurlace,
from which the face of the rock defcends almoft per¬
pendicularly. In the mild or fummer feafon, which
commences in September, and continues till March,
the Table Land or Mountainj is fometimes luddenly
capped with a white cloud* by feme called the
of the Table-cloth. When this cloud feems to. roll
down the fteep face of the mountain, it is a hire indi¬
cation of an approaching gale of wind from the louth-
eaft ; which generally blows with great violence* and
fometimes continues a day or more, but in common is
of fliort duration. On the firft appearance ot this
cloud, the (hips in Table Bay begin to prepare for it,
by linking yards and top-mafts* and making every
thing as fnug as poflible.—A little to the weftward of
the table Land, divided by a fmall valley* Hands on
the right hand flde of Table Bay a round hid* call¬
ed the Sugar Loaf; and by many the Lion's Heae/f as
there is a continuance from it contiguous to the lea,
called the Lion's Rump ; and when you take a general
view of the whole, it very much refembles that animal
with his head erefl. The Sugar Loaf or Lion s Head,
and the Lion’s Rump, have each a flag Half on them,
bv wdiich the approach of Ihips is made known to the
governor, particularizing their number, nation* and the
quarter from which they come. Lo the eaflward* le-
parated by a fmall chalm from the 1 able Land, hands
Charles’s Mount, well known by the appellation of the
Devil's Tower, or Devil's Head; and io called from
the violent gufts of wind fuppofed to iffiie fro™ ^
when it partakes of the cap that covers the 1 able
Land, though thefe gufts are nothing more than a de¬
gree of force the wind acquires in coming through the
chafttn When this phenomenon appears in the morn¬
ing, which is by no means fo frequent as in the even¬
ing,5 the failors have a faying, as the Devil’s Tower is
almoft contiguous to the I able Land, that the old
gentleman is going to breakfaft •* if in the middle of
the day, that he is going to dinner} and if in the even¬
ing, that the cloth is fpread for fupper. Table-moun¬
tain rifes about 3567 feet above the level of the fea ;
the Devil’s Tower, about 3368 } and the Lion’s Head,
2764. In the neighbourhood of the latter lies Conjlantia,
a diftria confifting of two farms, wherein the famous
wines of that name are produced.
The above defcribed high lands form a kind of am¬
phitheatre about the Table-valley, where the Cape¬
town ftands. This is fituated at the bottom of the
middle height, or Table-mountain*, and almoft in the
centre of the Table Bay, fo called fron# that moun¬
tain.—This bay, it is obferved in Phillips’s Voyage,
“ cannot properly be called a port, being by no means
a ftation of fecurity j it is expofed to all the vio¬
lence of the winds which fet into it from the fea j
and is far from fufficiently fecured from thofe which
blow from the land. The gulls which delcend from
the fummit of Table-mountain are fufticient to force
fhips from their anchors, and even violently to annoy
perfons on the (bore, by deftroying any tents or other
temporary edifices, which may be ere£ted, and railing
clouds of fine duft, which produce very troublefome
effedfls. A gale of this kind, from the fouth-eaft, blew
for three days fuccellively when Captain Cook ray here
in his firft voyage ; at which time* he ihforms us, the Good Hop^
Refolution was the only ft'.ip in the harbour that had
not dragged her anchor. The ftorms from the fea
are ftill more formidable; fo much fo* that Ihips
have frequently been driven by them from their anchor¬
age, and wrecked at the head of the bay. But thefe
accidents liappeh chiefly In the quaade mouffon, or win¬
ter months* from May 14th to the fame day of Auguft ;
during which time few {hips venture to anchor here.
Our fleet arriving later* lay perfe&.ly unriiojefted. as
long as it was neceflary for it to remain in this ftation.
Falfe Bay, on the fouth-eaft fide of the Cape, is more
fecure than Table Bay during the prevalence of the
north-weft winds, but ftill lefs fo in ftrong gales from
the foUth-eafti It is* however, lefs frequented,^ being
24 miles of very heavy road diftant from Cape I own,
whence almoft all neceflfaries muft be procured. Il.e
meft (heltered part of Falfe Bay is a recefs on the weft
fide, called Simon's Bay."
Mr White, in his Journal of a Voyage to New South
Wales* thus deferibes Cape Town. From the {hip¬
ping* he dbferves*, the town appears pleafantly fituated, * page ^
but at the fame time fmall j a deception that arifes from
its being built > in a valley with fuch ftupendous moun¬
tains direftly behind it. On landing, however, you
are furprifed, and agreeably difappointed, to find it not
only extenfive, but tvell built, and in a good ftyle j
the ftreets fpacious, and interfedling each other at right
angles with great precifion. I his exa£lnels in tne for¬
mation of the ftreets* when viewed from the Table
Land, is obferved to be very great. The houfes in ge¬
neral are built of ftone, cemented together with a glu¬
tinous kind of earth which ferves as mortar, and after¬
wards neatly plaftered and whitewTaftied with lime. As
to their height they do not in common exceed two fto-
nes, on account of the violence of the wind* which at
fome feafons of the year blows with great ftrength and
fury. For the fame reafon thatch has been ufually pre¬
ferred to tiles or ftiingles } but the bad effefts that have
proceeded from this mode when fires happen, has induced
the inhabitants in all their new buildings to give the pre¬
ference to flates and tiles. The lower parts of the houtes,
according to the cuftom of the Dutch nation, are not
only uncommonly neat and clean in appearance* but they
are really fo ; and the furniture is rather rich than ele¬
gant But this is by; no means the cafe with the bed¬
rooms or upper apartments 5 which are very barely and
ill furnilhed. The ftreets are rough, uneven, and un¬
paved. But many of the houfes have a fpace flagged
before the door 5 and others have trees planted before
them, which form a pleafant (hade, and give an agree¬
able air to the ftreets.
The only landing-place is at the eaft end of the town,
where there is a wooden quay running fome paces into
the fea, with feveral cranes on it for the convenience or
loading and unloading the fcoots that come alongfide.
To this place excellent water is conveyed by pipes, which
makes the watering of {hips both eafy and expeditious*
Clofe to the quay, on the left hand, ftands the caftle
and principal fortrefs ; a ftrong extenfive work having
excellent accommodations for the troops, and for many
of the civil officers belonging to the company. Within
the gates, the company have their principal ftores *,
which ar e fpacious as well as convenient. This fort
covers a nd defends the eaft part of the town and har¬
bour
GOO [ 793 ] GOO
Gootl Hope.bour, as Amfterdam fort does the weft part. The hit- turn, they admit of liberties that would be thought re-Good Hope.
ter, which has been built fxnce Commodore Johnfton’s prehenfible in England, though perhaps they as feldom  >
expedition, and whereon both French and Dutch overleap the bounds of virtue as the women of other
judgment have been united to render it effetlual and countries.
ilrong, is admirably planned and calculated to annoy The heavy draft work about the Cape is mollly per-
and harais thips coming into the bay. Some fmaller formed by oxen j which are here brought to an un¬
detached fortifications extend along the coaft, both to common degree of ufefulnefs and docility. It is not
the eaft and weft, and make landing, which was not uncommon to fee 14, 16, and fometimes 18, in one of
the cafe before the late war, hazardous and difficult. their teams j when the roads are heavy, they fome-
In a word, Cape Town is at this time fortified with times, though rarely, yoke 20 5 all which the Hotten-
ftrength, regularity and judgment. tots, Malays, and Cape Haves, have in the moft perfeft
. 1 he governor’s houfe is delightfully fituated, nearly fubje&ion and obedience. One of thefe fellows places
m the centre of an extenfive garden, the property of himfelf on the fore part of the waggon, or, when loaded
the Dutch Eaft India company, ufefully planted, and on the top of the load, and with a tremendous long
at the lame time elegantly laid out. The governor’s whip, which from its fize he is obliged to hold in both
family make what ufe they pleafe of the produce of his hands, manages thefe creatures with inexpreffible ad-
the garden, which is various and abundant; but the drefs. When he finds expedition needful, he can make
origin d intention of the company in appropriating fo them keep whatever pace he choofes, either trot or gal-
extenfive a piece of ground to this purpofe was, that lop, (a gait performed or kept up with difficulty by
their hofpital, which is generally pretty full when their European oxen), and that with as much cafe as if he was
ihips arrive after long voyages, may be well fupplied driving horfes. They likewife manage horfes with the
i\ith fruits and vegetables, and likewife that their fhips fame dexterity 5 and to fee one of them driving three,
may receive a fimilar fupply. 1 his garden is as public four, five, and fometimes fix pair, in hand, with one of
as St James’s park •, and for its handfome, plealant, thefe long whips, would make the moft complete ma-
and well-lhaded walks, is much frequented by perfons fter of the whip in England cut a defpicahle figure,
of every delcriptlon, but particularly by the faffiionable Carriages are not very numerous at the Cape, as the in-
and gay. At the upper end of the principal walk is a habitants in general travel in covered waggons, which
Imall fpace walled in for the purpofe of confining fome better fuit the roughnefs of the country. The governor
large oftriches and a few deer; and a little to the right and fome few of the principal people keep coaches,
of this is a fmall menagery, in which the company have which are a good deal in the Englilh ftyle, and always’
half a dozen wild animals and about the fame number drawn bv fix horfes.
of curious birds. The Cape of Good Hope was taken by the Britifti
There are two churches in the town; one large, on 17th Auguft 1796, with little or no difficulty, and
plain, and unadorned, for the Calvinifts, the prevail- afterwards given up at the peace of 1801. It has been
ing fed; and a fmaller one for the Lutherans. The fince retaken, and is at prefent (1806) in the poffeffion
hofpital, which is large and extenfive, is fituated at the of the Britifti.
upper end of the town, dole to the company’s garden ; When the news of the capture of this important
where the convalefcents reap the benefit of a wholefome fettlement reached England, it was confidered as of
p^ure air, perfumed with the exhalations of a great va- incalculable value to the Eaft India Company in parti-
riety of rich fruit trees, aromatic ftirubs, and odorous cular, forming a barrier or grand outwork to their im¬
plants and flowers ; and likewife have the ufe of every menfe pofleffions in India. They obtained the uncon-
produ&ion of it. . ditional grant of fupplying the Cape with India and
Befides their hofpital, the Dutch Eaft India com- China goods, and care was taken to defeat every at-
pany have feveral other public buildings, which tend to tempt that could be made to undermine their intereft.
improve the appearance of the town. I he two princi- Aware of its great importance, it was the refolution of
pal of thefe are, the ftables and a houfe for their Haves. miniftry, “ that no foreign power, direflly or indireftly,
The former is a handfome range of buildings, capable ffiould obtain polfeffion of the Cape of Good Hope, for
of containing an incredible number of horfes. Thofe that it was the 'phyfical guarantee of the BritiHi terri-
they have at the Cape are Imall, ipirited, and full of tories in India.” While all were convinced of its po-
life. T. he latter is a building of coniiderable extent, litical importance, none difputed its commercial advan-
where the Haves, both male and female, have feparate tages.
apartments, in a very comfortable ftyle, to refide in af- Its geographical pofition on the globe is fo comman-
ter the fatigues and toil of the day ; and there are feve- ding a feature, that the mere looking at a map, inde-
ral officers placed over them, who have commodious pendent of any other information, muft ftiew its value
apartments, and treat them humanely. and importance in various refpefts. Its diftance from
.The inhabitants of the Cape, though in their per- the coaft of Brazil is a month’s voyage; from the Dutch
Tons large, ftout, and athletic, have not all that phlegm colonies of Surinam, Berbice, and Eflequibo, it is a
about them which is the charafteriftic of Dutchmen in voyage of fix weeks ; it is about equally diftant from
general. I he phyfical influence of climate may in fome the Red fea, and two months from Coromandel and
degree account for this; for it is well known that in all Malabar. It is half way between Britain and India,
fouthern latitudes the temper and difpofition of the peo- in a temperate climate, and produdlive of every fpecies
pie are more gay, and that they are more inclined to of refreffiment in great abundance,
luxury and amufements of every kind, than the inhabi- Confidered in the light of a naval ftation, the im-
tants of the northern hemifphere. T. he ladies are lively, portance of the Cape is equally confpicuous. It may
good natured, and familiar; and from a peculiar gay ferve as a port for refreffiing and refitting the ftiips of
Vol. IX. Part II. 5 H the
GOO [ 794 ] G O R
Good Hope.tlie Eaft India Company 5 a flation, for fliips of war
‘ v—~' keeping the entrance into the Indian feas, and afford¬
ing by its geographical pofition, a ready communica¬
tion with every part of the globe. There is no place,
in the homeward bound voyage from India, fo proper
or convenient for the valuable deets of the Eaft India
Company, to aiTemble at for convoy, as the Cape of
Good Hope. Their crews might be refrelhed with
fruits, vegetables, and frefh provifions, at a very reafon-
able rate. Salt beef for the remainder of the voyage
might there be laid in. An eftabliftiment for curing
fait provifions, would be an incalculable faving to the
Company, as well as a Angular convenience. The
moderate expence at which a fleet could here be main¬
tained, is a circumftance that deferves attention. At
the Cape a failor may be furnifhed his ration of frelh
beef or mutton, bifcuit and wine, for one-fourth of
what the fame ration of fait beef cods the government
when fent out from Britain. Me can have a pint of
wine for threepence, and were it not for the monopoly
of that article, he might purchafe it for half the fum-
If a naval eftabliihment was formed at Saldanha
bay, many coafting veffels and fifhing fliips would be
conftrudled in it, as it abounds with every convenience
that could be required for building (hips, which would
be the means of very much increafing the coafting
trade.
To what extent the Cape might have been rendered
advantageous to the Britifti empire as an emporium of
eaftern produce, as furnifliing articles of export for
confumption in Europe and the Weft Indies, and tak¬
ing articles of Britifti growth and manufa&ure in ex¬
change for colonial produce, it may be proper to en¬
quire. The chief objedtion againft this ufe of the
Cape is the prejudice it would occafion to the fales of
Leadenhall ftreet, and the diminution of his majefty’s
cuftoms; for though the Eaft India Company might
be made refponfible to the crown for the duties on the
amount of its fales at the Cape, yet the intention of
the emporium would be entirely defeated, if the duties
demanded there fo far enhanced the value of the Indian
commodities, as to make it equally eligible for foreign
{hipping to proceed to India, or to refort to the London
market. The Eaft India Company could fupply their
emporium at the Cape with the produce and manufac¬
ture of Great Britain to any amount, and at fo cheap a
rate as to underfell any other nation.
Should the Cape become a commercial depot in the
hands of the Eaft India Company, the confumption in
Spanifti and Portuguefe America, of eaftern produce,
would increafe to a very great extent, for all which
they would pay in fpecie, of which the Company ftand
in the greateft need for their China trade.
A new branch of traffic might be opened between
the Cape and New South Wales, the latter fupplying
the former with coals, of which they have abundant
mines, in exchange for cattle, butter, wine, and articles
of clothing.
The Cape may alfo be confidered as of advantage to
the Britifti nation, by furnifhing articles of export for
general confumption in Europe and the Weft Indies.
Thefe are grain and pulfe, wine and brandy, wool,
hides, and fluns, whale oil and bone, dried fruits, fait
provifions, foap and candles, aloes, ivory, and tobacco.
Were a depot for the fouthern whale fifhery eftablifli-
ed at the Cape, it might be attended with beneficial Good
confequences. By promoting navigation, the ftrength Manners
and fecurity of the Britifti empire are alfo promoted, Gor(1ianu)i.
and its very exiftence as an independent nation is owfing —y——1
to the fuperiority of its navy. A nation of fiftiermen
implies a nation of feamen, a race ot bold and hardy
W'arriors. The cultivation of the fiftieries would afford
a never-failing fupply of men fo inftru&ed, increafe our
convenienpy, and promote our commerce.
The colony of the Cape comprehends at leaft 120,000
fquare miles, yet the whole population of whites, blacks,
and Hottentots, does not exceed 60,ooo fouls, or a
Angle individual for every two fquare miles. The
upper regions of the mountains are maffes of fandftone,
and where the waters break out in fprings upon the
furface of the plains, vegetation is very luxuriant. In
the vicinity of the Cape, where the foil is coloured with
iron, or oxide of iron combined with clay, the moft
luxuriant crops of grapes are produced. The climate
in general is friendly to vegetation, but being within
the influence of the periodical winds, the rains are very
unequal.
The chief rivers on the fouth coaft are the Gaurit?,
Knyfna, Keurboom, Camtoos, Zwartkops, Sunday,
and Great Filh rivers, and the twro principal rivers on
the weftern coaft are the Berg, or mountain river,
and the Oliphant river, which falls into the Southern
Atlantic in 310 30' S. Lat. * * Barreiv's
Good Manners. See Manners. Travels in
GOOINGS, in fea-language, are clamps of iron
bolted on the ftern-poft of a Ihip, whereon to hang
the rudder and keep it fteady ; for which purpofe there
is a hole in each of them, to receive a correfpondent
fpindle bolted on the back of the rudder, which turns
thereby as upon hinges.
GOOSE. See Anas, Ornithology Index. The
goofe wTas held in great efteem amongft the Romans, for
having faved the Capitol from the invafion of the Gauls
by cackling and clapping its wings. Geefe were kept
in the temple of Juno; and the cenfors, when they en¬
tered upon their office, provided meat for them. There
was alfo an annual feaft at Rome, at which they car¬
ried a filver image of a goofe in ftate j and hanged a
dog, to punilh that animal becaufe he did not bark at
the arrival of the Gauls.
GoosK-Ander, See Mergus, Ornithology Index.
GoosE-Ben-y. See Rises, Botany Index.
Goose-Neck, in a ftiip, a piece of iron fixed on the
one end of the tiller, to which the laniard of the
whip-ftaff or the wheel-rope comes, for fleering the
fhip.
GoosR-lVing, in the fea language. When a ftiip
fails before, or with a quarter-wind on a frefti gale,
to make the more hafte, they launch out a boom and
fail on the lee-fide j and a fail fo fitted is called a
goofe-wing.
GORCUM, a towm in South Holland, which car¬
ries on a confiderable trade in cheefe and butter. It is
fituated on the rivers Ligne and Maefe, in E. Long.
4. 55. N. Lat. 51. 49.
GORDIAN US I. (a Roman general), was for his
valour and virtues chofen emperor by the army in the
reign of Maximinus, A. D. 237? but his fon, whom
he had affociated with himfelf in the throne, being
flain by Capellian, the governor of Mauritania for
Maximinus,
G O U
f 795 J
G O R
Goidianus Maximinus, Gordianus killed himfelf the fame year.
H See Rome.
or on. GoRDIANUS III. (grandfon of the former), a re¬
nowned warrior, and ftyled The guardian of the Roman
commonwealth. He was treacheroufly affaflinated by
Philippus, an Arabian, one of his generals j who, to
the eternal difgrace of the Romans of that era, fuc-
ceeded him in the empire, A. D. 244. See Rome.
GORDIAN-KNOT, in antiquity, a knot made in
the leathers or harnefs of the chariot of Gordius king
of Phrygia, fo very intricate, that there was no find¬
ing where it began or ended. The inhabitants had a
tradition, that the oracle had declared, that he who
untied this knot fhould be matter of Afia. Alexander
having undertaken it, was unable to accomplifh it j
when fearing left his not untying it fhould be deemed
an ill augury, and prove a check in the way of his
conquefts, he cut it afunder with his fword, and thus
either accomplifhed or eluded the oracle.
GORDIUS, the hair-worm, a genus of infers
belonging to the clafs of verities inlejlina. See Hel¬
minthology Index.
Gordius, king of Phrygia, and father of Midas,
was a poor hufbandman, with two yokes of oxen,
wherewith he ploughed his land and drew his wain.
An eagle fitting a long while upon one of his oxen,
he confulted the foothfayers j a virgin bid him facrifice
to Jupiter in the capacity of king. He married the
virgin, who brought forth Midas. The Perfians in-
ftrufted by the oracle to fet the firft perfon they met
in a wain upon the throne, met Gordius, and made him
king. Midas for this good fortune dedicated to Jupi¬
ter his father’s cart. Thfc knot of the yoke, they fay,
was fo well twitted, that he who could unloofe it was
promifed the empire of Afia \ hence the proverb of the
Gordian knot had its original. See Gordian Knot.
GORDON, Alexander, an excellent draughtfman
and a good Greek fcholar, who refided many years in
Italy, vifited moft parts of that country, and had
alfo travelled into France, Germany, &c. w^as fecre-
tary to the Society for Encouragement of Learning:
and afterwards to the Egyptian Club, compofed of
gentlemen wrho had vifited Egypt (viz. Lord Sandwich,
Dr Shaw, Dr Pococke, &c.) He fucceeded Dr
Stukeley as fecretary to the Antiquarian Society, w'hich
office he refigned in 1741 to Mr Jofeph Ames. He
went to Carolina with governor Glen, where, belides a
grant of land, he had feveral offices, fuch as regifter of
the province, &c. j and died a juftice of the peace,
leaving a handfome eftate to his family. He publiftied,
I. Itinerarium Septentrionale, or a Journey through moft
parts of the Counties of Scotland, in two parts, wdth 66
copperplates, 1726, folio. 2. Supplement to the Itine¬
rarium, 173 2, folio. 3-The Lives of Pope Alexander VI.
and his fon Cgefar Borgia. 4. A complete Hiftory of
the ancient Amphitheatres, 1730, 8vo. afterwards en¬
larged in a fecond edition. 5. An Eflay towards ex¬
plaining the hieroglyphical figures on the Coffin of the
ancient Mummy belonging to Capt. William Lethieuller,
1737, folio, with cuts. 6. Twenty-five Plates of all the
Egyptian Mummies and other Egyptian Antiquities in
England, 1739, folio.
Gordon, Thomas, noted for his tranflations and
political writings, w’as born at Kirkcudbright in North
Britain. He came young to London; wffiere he fup-
ported himfelf by teaching languages, until he 1 rocu-
red employment under the earl of Oxford in Queen v,
Anne’s time, but in wThat capacity is not now known.
He firft diftinguilhed himfelf in the defence of Dr
Hoadley in the Bangorian controverfy ; wdiich recom¬
mended him to Mr Trenchard, in conjun&ion with
whom he w-rote the well-known Cato’s Letters, upon
a variety of important public fubjefls. Thefe wrere
followed by another periodical paper, under the title
of the Independent Whig •, which was continued fome
years after Mr Trenchard’s death, by Gordon alone,
againft the hierarchy of the church •, but with more
acrimony than w7as fhown in Cato’s Letters. At length
Sir Robert Walpole retained him to defend his admi-
niftration, to which end he wrote feveral pamphlets.
At the time of his death, July 28th 1750, he was firft
commiflioner of the wine licences, an office which he
had enjoyed many years. He was twice married. His
fecond wife wras the widow of his great friend Tren¬
chard, by whom he had children.—He publilhed En-
glifti tranflations of Salluft and Tacitus, with additional
difcourfes to each author, which contain much good
matter. Alfo, twm colleftions of his trails have been
preferved : the firft entitled, A Cordial for Low-
fpirits, in three volumes: and the fecond, The Pil¬
lars of Prieftcraft and Orthodoxy fhaken, in two vo¬
lumes. But thefe, like many other pofthumous things,
had better have been fupprefied. In his tranflations as
W’ell as his other works he places the verbs at the ends
of fentences, according to the Latin idiom, in a very
ftiff and affe&ed manner.
GORDONIA, a genus of plants, belonging to the
monadelphia clafs. See Botany Index.
GORE, in Heraldry, one of the abatements, which,
according to Gullim, denotes a coward. It is a figure
conlifting of two arch lines drawn one from the finifter
chief, and the other from the finifter bafe, both meet¬
ing in an acute angle in the middle of the fefs point.
See Heraldry.
GOREE, a fmall ifland of Africa, near Cape de
Verd, fubjeft to the French. It is a fmall fpot not
exceeding two miles in circumference, but its impor¬
tance arifes from its fituation for trade fo near Cape
Verd, and it has been therefore a bone of contention
between European nations. It w7as firft pofiefled by
the Dutch, from whom, in 1663, it was taken by the
Englifli; but in 1665 it was retaken by the Dutch,
and in 1677 hibdued by the French, in whofe poflef-
fion it remained till the year 1759, wiien tlle
arms were every where triumphant; and it was redu¬
ced by Commodore Keppel, but reftored to the French
at the treaty of peace in 1763. It was retaken by
the Englifh in the laft war, but again reftored at the
peace of 1783. E. Long. 17. 20. N. Lat. 14. 43.
Goree, the capital town of an ifland of the fame
name in Holland, eight miles fouth of Briel. E.
Long. 3. 50. N. Lat. 51. 55.
GOREY, a borough, fair, and poft-town in the
county of Wexford, province of Leinfter, otherwdfe
called Newhorough. It ftands about 18 miles north of
Wexford town, and 45 from Dublin. N. Lat. 52. 40.
W. Long. 6. 30. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment 5 patronage in the family of Ram.
3 H 2 GORGE,
Gordonia
11
Gorey.
G O II [79<5] G O R
Gorge GORGE, in ArchiteElure, the narrovveft part of the
li . Tufcan and Doric capitals, lying between the aflra-
Gor^or.ut., above the fhaft of the pillar, and the annulets.
Gorge, in Fortification, the entrance of the plat¬
form of any work. See Fortification.
GORGED, in Heraldry, the bearing of a crown,
coronet, or the like, about the neck of a lion, a fwan,
&c. and in that cafe it is faid, the lion or cygnet is
gorged with a ducal coronet, &c.
Gorged is alfo ufed when the gorge or neck of a
peacock, fwan, or the like bird, is of a different colour
or metal from the red.
GORGET, a kind of breaft-plate like a half-moon,
with the arms of the prince thereon ; worn by the of¬
ficers of foot. They are to be either gilt or filver,
according to the colour of the buttons on the uni¬
forms.
Gorget, or Gorgeret, in Surgery, is the name
which the French give to the concave or cannuiated
condudlor, ufed in lithotomy. See Surgery Index.
GORGON A, a fmall illand of Italy, in the fea of
Tufcany, and near that of Corfica, about eight miles
in circumference $ remarkable for the large quantity of
anchovies taken near it. E. Long. 10. o. N. Lat.
43. 22.
Gorgona, a fmall ifland of the South fea, 12 miles
weft of the coal! of Peru, in America. Itds indiffer¬
ent high land, very woody, and fome of the trees are
very tall and large, and proper for mails. It is about
IO miles in circumference, and has feveral fprings and
rivulets of excellent w’ater, but is fubjedl to conllant
rains. W. Long. 3. S. Lat. 30.
GORGONIA, in Natural Hifiory, a genus of zoo¬
phytes, which formerly wrere called ceratophytons, and
are known in Englifh by the names offea-fans,fea-fea-
thers, and fea-whips. Linnaeus and Dr Pallas confider
them as of a mixed nature in their growth, between
animals and vegetables j but Mr Ellis Iliows them to
be true animals of the polype kind, growing up in a
branched form refembling a Ihrub, and in no part vege¬
table. They differ from the frefh wrater polype in
many of their qualities, and particularly in producing
from their own fubftance a hard and folid fupport, ferv-
ing many of the purpofes of the bone in other animals.
1 his is formed by a concreting juice thrown out from a
peculiar fet of longitudinal parallel tubes, running a-
long the internal lurface of the flelhy part: in the coats
of thefe tubes arc a number of fmall orifices, through
which the olfeous liquor exudes, and concreting, forms
the. layers of that hard part of the annular circles,
which fome, judging from the conliftence rather than
the texture, have erroneoufly denominated wood. The
runace of the gorgonia is compofed of a kind of fcales,
fo well adapted to each other as to ferve for defence
from external injuries: and the flelh, or, as fome have
called it, the bark or cortex, conlifts of proper muf-
cles and tendons for extending the openings of their
cells j for fending forth from thence their polype fuc¬
kers in fearch of food } and for drawnng them in fud-
denly, and contrafting the fphinfter mufcles of thefe
Harry cells, in order to fecure thefe tender parts from
danger j and alfo of proper fecretory duds, to furnilh
and depofit the offeous matter that forms the Hem
and branches as well as the bafe of the bone. Mr El¬
lis affirms, that there are ovaries in thefe animals, and
2
thinks it very probable that many of them are vivi- Gorgon*
parous. See Corallines. I|.
GORGONS, in Antiquity and Mythology. Au-. 'r'ltz-
thors are not agreed in the account they give of the
Gorgons. The poets reprefent them as three lifters,
whom names were Stheno, Euryale, and Medufa; the
latter of whom was mortal, and, having been dellower-
ed by Neptune, wras killed by Perfeus 5 the two for¬
mer were fubjed neither to age nor death. They are
defcribed with wings on their Ihoulders, with ferpents
round their heads, their hands v'ere of brafs, and their
teeth of a prodigious fize, ft# that they were objeds of
terror to mankind. After the death of Medufa, her
fillers, according to Virgil, were appointed to keep
the gate of the palace of Pluto.
Multaque preeterea variorum monfira ferarum—
Gorgones, Harpyictque 
Diodorus Siculus will have the Gorgons and Amazons
to have been two warlike nations of women, who in¬
habited that part of Libya which lay on the lake Tri-
tonidis. The extermination of thefe female nations
was not effeded till Hercules undertook and performed
it.
Paufanias fays, the Gorgons were the daughters of
Phorbus \ after whofe death Medufa, his daughter,
reigned over the people dwelling near the lake Tri-
tonidis. The queen w^as paffionately fond of hunting
and war, fo that ffie laid the neighbouring countries
quite wafie. At laft, Perfeus having made war on
them, and killed the queen herfelf, when he came to
take a viewr of the field of battle, he found the queen’s
corpfe fo extremely beautiful, that he ordered her
head to be cut off, which he carried with him to Ihowr
his countrymen the Greeks, who could not behold it
without being ftruck with aftonilhment.
Others reprefent them as a kind of monftrous wto-<
men, covered with hair, who lived in wToods and forelfs.
Others, again, make them animals, reiembling wild
Iheep, whofe eyes had a poifonous and fatal influence.
GORITIA, or Goritz, a ilrong town of Germa¬
ny, in the circle of Auftria, and duchy of Carniola,
with a caftle ; feated on the river Lizonzo, 20 miles
north eaft of Aquileia, and 70 north-eaft of Venice.
E. Long. 13. 43. N. Lat. 46. 12.
GORLALUS, Abraham, an eminent antiquary,
was born at Antwerp, and gained a reputation by col-
le£ling medals and other antiques. He was chiefly
fond of the rings and feals of the ancients, of which
he publilhed a prodigious number in 1601, under this
title, DaByliotheca ; five Annulorum Sigillarium, quorum
apud prifcos tam Greecos quam Romanos ufius ex ferro,
cere, argento, et auro, Promptuarium. This was the
firft part of the work : the fecond was entitled, Varia~
rum Gemmarum, quibus antiquitas in fignando uti folita
fculpturce. This wrork has undergone feveral editions,
the bell of which is that of Leyden, 1695 : for it not
only contains a vail number of cuts, but alfo a ffiort
explication of them by Gronovius. In 1608, he pub-
liftied a colleftion of medals: which, however, if we
may believe the Scaligerana, it is not fafe always to trull.
Gorlaeus pitched upon Delft for the place of his refi-
dence, and died there in 1609. His colledlions of an¬
tiques w’ere fold by his heirs to the prince of Wales.
GORLITZ, a town of Germany, in Upper Lufatia^
fubjedt '
G O S C 797 ] GOT
Gorteria fubje& to tlie eledlor of Saxony. It Is a handfome
I! ftrong place, and feated on the river Neiffe, in E,.
Gofl;nier- Long. 15. 15. N. Lat. 51. ;o.
GORTERIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compofitcv, See Botany Index.
GOSHAWK. See Falco, Ornithology/Wear.
GOSHEN, in Ancient Geography, a canton of
Egypt, which Jofeph procured for his father and his
brethren when they came to dwell in Egypt. It was
the moft fruitful part of the country : and its name
feems to be derived from the Hebrew, Gefhem, which
fignifies “ rain becaufe this province lying very near
the Mediterranean, was expofed to rains, which were
very rare in other cantons, and more efpecially in Up¬
per Egypt. Calmet does not queftion but that Gofhen,
which Jofhua (x. 41. xi. 16. xv. 51.) makes part of
the tribe of Judah, is the fame as the land of Goflien,
which was given to Jacob and his fons by Pharaoh
king of Egypt j (Gen. xlvi. 28). It is certain that
this country lay between Paleftine and the city of Ta-
nais, and that the allotment of the Hebrews reached
fouthward as far as the Nile, (Jofh. xiii. 3.).
GOSLAR, a large and ancient town of Lower
Saxony, and in the territory of Brunfwick : it is a free
imperial city, and it was here that gunpowder was firft
invented, by a monk as is generally fuppofed. It is a
large place, but the buildings are in the ancient tafte.
In 1728, 280 houfes, and St Stephen’s fine church,
were reduced to afhes. It is feated on a mountain,
near the river Gofe, and near it are rich mines of iron.
The inhabitants are famous for brewing excellent beer.
E. Long. 3. 37. N- Lat. 51. 55.
GOSPE.L, the hiftory of the life, actions, death,
refurreftion, afcenfion, and dodlrine of Jefus Chrift.—
The word is Saxon, and of the fame import with the
Latin term evangelium, which fignifies “ glad tidings,”
or “ good news.”
This hiftory is contained in the writings of St Mat¬
thew, St Mark, St Luke, and St John 5 who from
thence are called cvangelijlf. The Chriftian church
never acknowledged any more than thefe four gofpels
us canonical} notwithftanding which, feveral apocryphal
gofpels are havded down to us, and others-are entirely
loft.
GOSPORT, a town of Plampflnre, 79 miles from
London, in the parifh of Alverftock. It has a ferry
over the mouth of the harbour to Portfmouth, and is
a large town and of great trade, efpecially in time of
war. Travellers choofe to lodge here, where every
thing is cheaper and more commodious for them than
at Portfmouth. The mouth of the harbour, which is
not fo broad here as the Thames at Weftminifter, is
fecured on this fide by four forts, and a platform of
above 20 cannon level with the water. Here is a
noble hofpital built for the cure of the fick and wound¬
ed failors in the fervice of the navy 5 befides a free
fchool.
GOSSAMER is the name of a fine filmy fubftance,
like cobwebs, which is feen to float in the air, in clear
days in autumn, and is more obfervable in ftubble-
fields, and upon furze and other low bullies. This is
probably formed by the flying fpider, which, in tra-
verfing the air for food, (hoots out thefe threads from
its anus, which are borne down by the dew, &c.
GOSSYPIUM, or Cotton, a genus of plants be-GofFypium,
longing to the monadelphia clafs, and in the natural Gotha:,. i
method ranking under the 37th order, Columniferuc. ' ' y
See Botany Index.
The American iflands produce cotton flirubs of va¬
rious fizes, which rife and grow up without any cul¬
ture ; efpecially in low and marftiy grounds. Their
produce is of a pale red j fome paler than others 5 but
fo Ihort that it cannot be Ipun. None of this is brought
to Europe, though it might be ufefully employed in
making of hats. The little that is picked up, ferves
to make matraffes and pillows.
The cotton-lhrub that fupplies our manufactures, re¬
quires a dry and ftony foil, and thrives belt in grounds
that have already been tilled. Not but that the plant
appears more flourilhing in frelh lands than in thofe
which are exhaufted; but while it produces more
wood, it bears lefs fruit.
A weftern expofure is fitteft for it. The culture of
it begins in March and April, and continues during the
firft fpring-rains. Holes are made at feven or eight
feet diftance from each other, and a few feeds thrown
in. When they are grown to the height of five or fix
inches, all the Items are pulled up, except two or three
of the ftrongeft. Thefe are cropped twice before the
end of Auguft. This precaution is the more neceffary^
as the wood bears no fruit till after the fecond pru¬
ning ^ and, if the Ihrub was fuffered to grow more than
four feet high, the crop would not be the greater, nor
the fruit fo ealily gathered. The fame method is pur-
fued for three years j for fo long the ihrub may conti¬
nue, if it cannot conveniently be renewed oftener with
the profpedl of an advantage that will compenfate the
trouble.
This ufeful plant wall not thrive if great attention is
not paid to pluck up the wreeds that grow about it. Fre¬
quent rains will promote its growth 5 but they muft
not be inceffant. Dry weather is particularly neceflary
in the months of March and April, which is the time
of gathering the cotton, to prevent it from being difco-
loured and fpotted.
When it is all gathered in, the feeds mull be picked
out from the wool with which they are naturally mix¬
ed. This is done by means of a cotton-mill; which is
an engine compofed of two rods of hard wood, about
] 8 feet long, 18 lines in circumference, and fluted
two lines deep. They are confined at both ends, fo as
to leave no more diftance between them than is necef-
fary for the feed to flip through. At one end is a
kind of little millftone, which, being put in motion
with the foot, turns the rods in contrary diredtions.
They feparate the cotton, and throw out the feed con¬
tained in it.
GOTHA, a town of Germany, in the circle of Up¬
per Saxony, and capital of the duchy of Saxe-Gotha,
in E. Long. 10. 36. N. Lat. 51. Some fancy this
town had its name from the Goths, and that they forti¬
fied it in their march to Italy 5 but it was only a village
till furrounded with w-alls by the bilhop of Mentz in
964. It is fituated in a fine plain on the river Leina,
well built and ftrongly fortified. Here are two hand¬
fome churches and a very good hofpital. Its chief
trade is in dyers wood, of which they have three crops,
but the third growrs wild. The neighbouring countr).
produces a vaft deal of corn. The caftle or ducal palace
of
GOT [793] GOT
GotharJ of Gotha was rebuilt in the 16th century by duke
11 Erneft, furnaraed the Pious, who caufed both that and
Gjths- , the town to be encompaffed with ditches and ramparts;
and gave it the name of Priedenjlein, or the Cajile of
Peace, in oppofition to its ancient name of Grimmer-
ftein, or the Cajlle of the Furies. It is fituated on a
neighbouring eminence, from whence there is a valf
prolpeft of a fruitful plain. In one of the apartments
there is a colleftion of valuable rarities, and a noble
library.
The dukedom of Saxe Gotha is about 30 miles
long, and 12 broad. The reigning duke is Lewis
Erneft, born in 1745, and married to the princefs
Maria Charlotte of Saxe Meningen, by whom he has
iffue. He is the head of the Erneftine line of Saxony,
defcended from the eledlor John Frederick the Magna¬
nimous, who was deprived of the ele&orate by the em¬
peror Charles V. in 15745 fince which the youngeft
branch called the libertine has enjoyed it. He has feve-
ral other principalities belides that of Saxe Gotha; and
his revenues are computed at 200,000!. a-year, with
which he maintains about 3000 regular troops. As
he is the moft powerful of all the Saxon princes of the
, Erneftine branch ; fo of all the courts of Saxony, next
to that of Drefden, he has the moft numerous and the
xnoft magnificent. His guards are well clothed, his li¬
veries rich, and his tables ferved with more elegance
than profufion. And yet by the prudent management
of his public finances, his fubjedts are the leaft bur¬
dened with taxes of any ftate in Germany. The reli¬
gion is Lutheran.
GOTHARD, one of the higheft mountains of
Switzerland j and from the top, where there is an hof-
pital for monks, is one of the fineft profpedls in the
world. It is eight miles from Aldorf.
GOTHEBORG, Gothenburg, or Gottenburg.
See Gottenburg.
GOTHIC, in general, whatever has any relation to
the Goths : thus we fay, Gothic cuftoms, Gothic ar-
chite&ure, &.c. See Architecture.-
GOTHLAND, the moft fouthern province of
Sweden, being a peninfula, encompaffed on three fides
by the Baltic Sea, or the channel at the entrance of it.
It is divided into feveral parts, wdiich are, Eaft Goth¬
land, Weft Gothland, Smaland, Halland, Bleaking,
and Schonen. It w7as a long time in the poffeflion of
the kings of Denmark, but was ceded to Sweden in
1654. The principal towns of Gothland are Calmar,
Landfcroon, Chriftianople, Daleburg, Gothenburgh,
Helmftat, Lunden, Malmone, and Vexio.
GOTHS, a warlike nation, and above all others
famous in the Roman hiftory, came originally out of
Scandinavia (the name by which the ancients diftin-
guiftied the prefent countries of Sweden, Norway, Lap-
land, and Finmark). According to the moft probable
accounts they were the firft inhabitants of thofe coun¬
tries ; and from thence fent colonies into the iflands of
the Baltic, the Cimbrian Cherfonefus, and the adja¬
cent places yet deftitute of inhabitants. The time of
their firft fettling in Scandinavia, and the time when
they firft peopled with their colonies the above-men¬
tioned ifiands and Cherlonefus, are equally uncertain ;
though the Gothic annals fuppofe the latter to have hap¬
pened in the time of Serug the great grandfather of
Abraham. This firft migration of the Goths is faid to
have been conduced by their king Eric ; in which all v
the ancient Gothic chronicles, as well as the Danilh and
Swedilh ones, agree. Their fecond migration is fup-
pofed to have happened many ages after ; when, the
above-mentioned countries being overftocked with
people, Berig, at that time king of the Goths, went
out with a fleet in queft of new7 fettlements. He landed
in the country of the Ulmerugians, now Pomerania,
drove out the ancient innabitants, and divided their lands
among his followers. He fell next upon the Vandals,
whofe country bordered on that of the Ulmerugians,
and overcame them ; but inftead of forcing them to
abandon their country, he only made them ihare their
poffellions with the Goths.
The Goths who had fettled in Pomerania and the
adjacent parts of Germany being greatly increaied, in-
fomuch that the country could no longer contain them,
they undertook a third migration in great numbers,
under Filimer furnamed the Great, their fifth prince
after leaving Scandinavia ; and taking their route eaft-
ward, entered Scythia, advanced to the Cimmerian
Bofphorus, and driving out the Cimmerians, fettled
in the neighbourhood of the Palus Mamtis. I hence
in procefs of time, being greatly increafed in Scy¬
thia, they refolved to feek new fettlements ; and, ac¬
cordingly taking their route eaftward, they travelled
feveral countries, and at length returned into Ger¬
many.
Their leader in this expedition was the celebrated
Woden, called alfo Voden, Othen, Oden, Godan, and
Guadan. Of this Woden many wonderful things are
related in the Sueo-gothic chronicles. He was king of
the Afgardians, whom the northern writers will have
to be the fame with a people called Afpurgians men¬
tioned by Strabo and Ptolemy. By Strabo they are
placed near the Cimmerian Bofphorus. Alpurgia was
the metropolis of a province wdrich Strabo calls AJja ;
and Woden and his followers are ftyled by the ancient
Gothic w’riters Afce, Afiance, and Afiotce. I he kings
of Afpurgia were mafters of all that part of Scythia
which lay to the weftward of Imaus, and was by the
Latins called Scythia mtra hnaum, or “ Scythia within
Imaus.”
At what time Woden reigned in this country, is
quite uncertain ; but all hiftorians agree, that he W’ent
out in queft of new fettlements with incredible num¬
bers of people following him. He firft entered Roxo-
lania, comprehending the countries of Pruflia, Livo¬
nia, and great part of Mufcovy. From thence he went
by fea into the north parts of Germany ; and having
reduced Saxony and Jutland, he at laft fettled in Swe¬
den, where he reigned till his death, and became fo fa¬
mous that his name reached all countries, and he wras
by the northern nations worfhipped as a god. He is
fuppofed to have brought with him the Runic charac¬
ters out of Afia, and to have taught the northern nations
the art of poetry; whence he is ftyled the father of
the Scaldi or Scaldri, their poets, who defcribed in
verfe the exploits of the great men 01 their nation, as
the bards did among the Gauls and Britons.
The Romans diftinguiihed the Goths into two claf-
fes ; the Oftrogoths and Vifigoths. Thefe names they
received before they left Scandinavia, the Vifigoths be-
ing
i
I
G O T ^ [ 799 ] GOT
ing foftened by the Latins from Wejlerogotht, or thofe
who inhabited the weftern part of Scandinavia, as the
Oftrogoths were thofe ,who inhabited the eaftern part
of that country. Their hiftory affords nothing of mo¬
ment till the time of their quarrelling with the Ro¬
mans j which happened under the reign of the emperor
Caracalla, fon to Severus. After that time their hittory
becomes fo clofely interwoven with that of the Ro¬
mans, that for the molt remarkable particulars of it
wre muff refer to the article Rome. After the deffruc-
tion of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Oftro¬
goths, under their king Theodoric, became mafters of
the greateft part of Italy, having overcome and put to
death Odoacer king of the Heruli in 494. They re¬
tained their dominion in this country till the year 55’3 ;
when they w^ere finally conquered by Narfes, the em¬
peror Juftinian’s general. See (Hiftory of) Italy.
The Vifigoths fettled in Spain in the time of the em¬
peror Honorius, where they founded a kingdom which
continued till the country wras fubdued by the Saracens.
See Spain.
The Goths were famous for their hofpitality and
kindnefs to ftrangers, even before they embraced the
Chriftian religion. Nay, it is faid, that from their
being eminently good, they were called Goths by the
neighbouring nations; that name, according to Gro-
tius and moft other writers, being derived from the
German word goten, which ftgnilles “ good.” They
encouraged, fays Dio, the ftudy of philofophy above
all other barbarous or foreign nations, and often chofe Goths,
kings from among their philofophers. Polygamy was -\r"“
not only allowed but countenanced among them j every
one being valued or refpe&ed according to the number
of his wives. By fo many wives they had an incre¬
dible number of children, of whom they kept but one
at home, fending out the reft in queft of new fettle-
ments 5 and hence thofe fwarms of people which over¬
ran fo many countries. With them adultery wras a ca¬
pital crime, and irremiflibly puniftied with death. This
feverity, and likewife polygamy, prevailed among them
when they were known to the Romans only by the
name of Get eg (their moft ancient name) ; as appears
from the poet Menander, who was himfelf one of that
nation 5 and from Horace, who greatly commends the
chaftity of their women. Their laws fell little fhort of
thofe of the ancient Romans. Their government was
monarchical j their religion was much the fame with
that of the ancient Germans or Celtes j and their drefs
is deferibed by Apollinaris Sidonius in the following
words : “ They are ftrod (fays he) with high (hoes
made of hair, and reaching up to their ankles $ their
knees, thighs, and legs, are without any covering j
their garments of various colours fcarce reaching to the
knee j their fleeves only cover the top of their arms 4-
they wear green caffocks with a red border j their belts
hang on their (boulder ; their ears are covered with:1
twifted locks; they ufe hooked lances and miflile we^
pons.”
END OF THE NINTH VOLUME.
Errata.—Page 332 col. 1. lines 19 and 31, for iron wire, read zinc wire.
339 col. I. lines 27 and 30, for iron wire, read zinc wire.
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vol, IX.
Part I.
Plate CCXXI.—CCXXIII. to face
CCXXIV.
CCXXV.—CCXXVII.
CCXXVIII.
CCXXIX.
Part II.
CCXXX.—CCXXXVII. - 544
CCXXXVIII. CCXXXIX. ■» 626
CCXL.—CCXLV. 666
CCXLVI. - - 692
CCXLVII. - 754
Page 32
208
3°4
320
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