&'■
/
MNICA.
EDINBURGH MEDICAL JOURNAL.
'This Day is Publijhed,
By ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO. Edinburgh, arid
JOHN MURRAY, 32. Fleet-Street, London,
Price ll. 4s. in 8 Numbers, or il. 5s. in Boards,
VOLUME I. & II. of
The EDINBURGH MEDICAL and SURGICAL JOURNAL*
For 1805—1806 ;
Exhibiting a Concife View of the lateft and moft important Difcoveries in
Medicine, Surgery, and Pharmacy.
(Publtfhed Quarterly.)
The objett of The Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal is, the irti-
provement of Medicine, by regiftering the moft important fadts connefted with Medical
science and Medical Pradtice, and by difFufing extenfively and fpeedily a knowledge of
Medical Literature-
After the experience of a fecohd year, the Editors have the fatisfaftion to find the
approbation of their Profefiionai Brethren become daily more decided.
In the departments allotted to Original Communications, and to Miscellantous Intilligenct
Q” Medical Sii/jsits, the I'efpedtabilky of the afhllanee which they have received has fur-
palled even thcii molt fanguine expectations, and continues to increafe with the increas¬
ing circulation of their work. That portion of it appropriated to Aledical Literature,
t ity have endeavoured to render more interefling and inflrudlive, by combining impar¬
tial ^nalj fis with original difquifition : the extent of their Continental connexions, and
t e number of valuable publications at home, at all times fnpply them with 1'uch ample
ftore of materials, that their principal difficulty confilts in feledtiom
CONTENTS of VOL. L
PART I.—ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.
No. I.
Cafes of Erythema Mercuriale, byDrSpens
— Cafes of Tumours in the Pelvis, grow¬
ing from the Satrofciatic Ligament, by
Dr Drew—On the Treatment of Chorea
Bandti Viti, by Mr M'Mullin—Cafes of
Difeafed Portions of the Tongue, by Dr
Inglis—Cafe of Malconformation of the
Urinary and Genital Organs,' by Mr
Coates—On the Deficiency of the Urina¬
ry Bladder, by Dr Duncan jnn.—Cafe of
Catalepfy, with Remarks, by Dr Lub¬
bock— Cafe of Enteritis, by Mr Rumfey.
No. II.
Cafe of Malconformation of the Urinary
and Genital Organs, by Mr Afliey
Ccopei—On the Deficiency of the U-
iinary Bladder, by Dr Duncan jun.-^—
Obfervations on the Yellow Fever, by
ProfefTor Stringham—On the Ufe of the
Muriate of Lime in the Cure of Scrofula,
by Dr Wood, NewcafHc—Cafe of an
Encyfled Tumour in the Brain, byv Dr
Bateman—Cafes illuflrating the Ufe of
Opium in Rheumatifm, by Dr De Ro¬
ches Cafes of 1 umour in the Breafl, by
Dr Reeve—Cafe of Cancer of the Tefii-
cles, by Mr LivingDcnr—On the Pneu¬
monic DiLafes of the Poor, by Dr Bad-
Bam—Hiftorica! and Critical Analyfis of
the Funftionsof the Ikin, by Dr Kellie—
•The Inquirer, No. I.; On the Treatment
of Ulcerated Legs.
, No- Iir-
*ICy on the Analyfis 0f Animal Fluids, by
Dr Bollock—On the D.-cafes of the 88th
Regiment in Bombay, by Dr M‘Gregor—-
Cafe of Amputation at the Shoulder-
joint, by Dr Watfon Robinlbm—Cafe of
Trihmis cured by Cold Affinfion, by‘Mr
Dalrymplt—Cafe of Tympanites, by Mr
Collins-—Cafe of Torpor from Cold, bjr
Dr Kellie-—DilleHions of Diabetes Mel-
lit us, by Dr Rutherford—Cafe of Pro-
trufion of the Tongue, by Dr Clanny—.
Cafe of Flatulent Colic, by Dr Rofs—.
The Inquirer, No/II. ; On the Inexiicdit
cncy of erecting Foundling Hofpitals.
No. IV.
Cafe of Hepatitis, followed by Bilious Fx*-
peroration, by Alexander Monro jnn.
M. D. & P.!—Account of a peculiar
Strruflure of the Membrane lining the
Urethra, by Dr Baiclay-—Cafe of a boney
H umour fuccefsftilly extrafled from the
Orbit of the Lye, by Mr l.ucas—Aha-4
l\fis of the Bone extraGed in the preced¬
ing Cafe, by Dr Duncan jun.—Drawings,
with the Defcription of an Infirument
vfor extracting Polypi from the Nofe, by-
Mr Robertfon—Cafe of a Bine Girl, with
Diffirion, by Dr Marcet—Cafe of Stric¬
tures of the Urethra, by Mr Carmichael*-—
Obferv au’ons on the Cure of thofe Unna¬
tural Articulations which are fometimes
the conftquence of FraChires of the Ex¬
tremities, with Cafes, by Dr Ingli:—The
Inquirer, No. III. ; Is there any Cwtaia-
ty in Medics! Sdkace?
R
and bloody fpirit of popery, Fordyce.
of Perth and Stirling. But
(ftonilhtnent were excited by
the folly, infamy, and mifery
rched before the general af~
Scotland in 1760. It contains
t with refpeft to defcription,
d was delivered with fuch un-
ation, and pathos, that it filled
rethren with aftonilhment, and
/ailed eminence among his cle-
iout this time he was compli-
of dodlor in divinity by the uni-
tbly on account of the fame he
tinary fermon.
dyce being moflly in London,"
itropolis to be the colleague of
if a refpectable congregation in
iofe death, which happened a
ordyce became once more fa-
oquence, always preaching to
This popularity he juftly de¬
left to the elegance of his corn-
tendency to imprefs the heart
nd religion. Yet even Dr For-
'opularity on the decline ; for
f worfhip from mere motives of
e and unftable minds, changing
do their drefs, loving to be
ing what others do, and of ad-
ire, for they have no tafte of
ed from another caufe, which
iger brother, an extenfive ban-
of the doftor’s conftant hear-
iporters. Although the doftor
blamed for the failure of his
1 that it brought a degree of
ily. Another caufe of the di-
was an unhappy difference he¬
ller his colleague, which hap-
and which ended in 3 divifion
ny refpeftable families follow¬
er place of worfhip. Soon af-
Hng as a minifler, the declin-
idering fuch a ftep neceffary.
"'ulpit eloquence which perhaps
vas delivered at the ordina-
A tion
r^nvtfUKUJti MEDICAL JOURNAL.
Contents 0/ Vol. I. continued.—PART II. CRITICAL ANALYSIS.
No. I.
Medical Reports, by fames Currie, M. D
dec.—An ElTay, Medical, Philofophical*
and Chemical, on Drunkennefs, by Tho¬
mas Trotter, M. D. &c.—Practical Oh-
fervations on the Treatment of Strictures
in the Urethra, by Everard Home Efq.
F. R S dec. Surgical Obfervations, by
John Abernethy Efq. F. R. S &c 
Nouveau DiCtionnaire d’Hiftoire Natu-
relle appliquee aux Arts, &c. par une
Societc de Naturaliftes et d’Agriculteurs  
Dupleffy, des Vegeteaux Refineaux, dec 
Memorie della Societa Medica di Emula-
zione di Genova.
No. II.
An Effay on Refpiration, by John Boftock,
M. D. dec.—A Diflertation on Gout, by
Robert Kinglake, M. D —An Account
of two Cafes of Gout, which terminated
in Death, in confeqnence of the external
Ufc of Ice and cold Water, by A. Edlin 
A Reply to Mr Ediin’s Cafes of Gout,
by Dr Kinglake—Obfervationes et Epi-
crifis de Corticis Peruviani falutari et pro-
ficuo ufu in Podagra; a Francifco Ta¬
vares—Traite des Maladies Goutreufcs,
par J. P. Barthez—An Improved Method
of treating Strictures in the Urethra, by
Thomas Whatley, &c—Morborum Pu-
erilium Epitome, AuCtore Gulielmo He-
berden, &c.—S. T. Soemmering, Abbil-
dungen des menfchlichen Auges Ac¬
count of a peculiar Arrangement of the
Arteries, by Anthony Carlille, &c. 
Practical Obfervations on Infanity, by
J. M. Cox, M. D.
No. III.
Les Lois eclairees par les Sciences Phyfiques,
par Fran5ois Fodere—Medecine Legale et
Police Medicale de P. A. O, Mahon—
FaCts intended to prove the Yellow Fever
not to be contagious, by Benjamin Rufh,
M. D.—Obfervations on Cancer, by E-
verard Home, &c.—The \^orks of Dr
John Brown—M. Dupuytren’s Account
of a Foetus found in the Abdomen of a
Boy—On the Difeafe in Corn called the
Blight, by Sir Jofeph Banks, Bart.—Ob¬
fervations fur Une Maladie de 1’Organ de
rOui'e guerie radicaiement par la Perfor¬
ation de la Membrane du Tympan, par
J. P. Mauneir—Surdite guerie par la
Perforation de la Membrane du Tympan
par P. C. Celliez.
No. IV.
Traite Pratique des Maladies des Yrux, par
A. Scarpa—An Inquiry into the Rot in
Sheep, and other Animals, by Edward
Harrifon, M. D. &c.—SuccinCta Defcri-
ptio Febris Malaga* nuper faevientis, A.D.
J. E. ab Arejula—Medecine eclairee par
1 Obfervation et 1'Ouverture des Corps,
par A. Prolt—The Principles of Botany
and Vegetable Phyfiology, tranflafed from
the German of Wilidenow—Cafes of two
extraordinary Polypi removed from the
Nofe, &c. by Thomas Whatley—Ele-
nients of Galvanifm, by C. H. Wilkin¬
son—Clinical Hilloryof Difeales, by John
Hay garth, M. D. &c—Anfwers to ail the
Objections again!! th® Cow-pock, by Jo-
^danisyM. D. Ac,—Pharmacopoeia
Collegii Medicorum Edinburgenfis Phar¬
macopoeia Nofocomii Regii Edinburgen-
fis—Tables of Materia Medica, &c. by
Jeremiah Kirby, M. D.
Contents of Vol. I continued.—PART III.
No. I.
Account of the Surgical Academy at Ber¬
lin—Account of the Fever Inftitution in
London—Quarterly Report of the Carey-
Street Difpenfary, London—Gn the An-
tivariolous Powers of Vaccination—On
Pulmonary Tubercles. 1 1
No. II.
Regulations for improving the Situation of
the Medical Officers of the Navy—Ditto
of the Arm}—Quarterly Report of the
Carey-Street Difpenfary—On the Ufe of
Sulphurated Potafh in Tinea Capitis, by
Mr Barlow—Antivariolous Power and
Progrcfs of Vaccination—Deicription of
Colonel Crichton’s Car for conveying lick
ynd wounded Troops—Mr Ruffid’s Ac¬
count of a lingular variety of Hernia 
Medical Works in the Prefs—Foreien
Medical Literature. S
No. III.
Board fi{ Health—New Medical and Surei-
MEDICAL INTELLIGENCE.
cal Society in London—Progrefs of Vac¬
cination—Quarterly Report of Carey-
Street Difpenfary—Lift of Medical Gra¬
duations at Edinburgh, 24th June 1805 
Regulations of the Uhivtrfity of Edin¬
burgh regarding the granting of Degrees
in Medicine.
No. IV.
Firft Report of the Board of Health—Of¬
fice-Bearers of the New Medical and Chi-
rurgicai Society in London—Refolutions
of the Royal Jennerian Society—Extraift
°f a Letter from a Correfpondenr in Lon¬
don, on the fudden Deaths in Dropfies,
Mixture of Variolous and Vaccine Mat¬
ters &c—Letter from Dr Caftels on the
B ack Drop-Letter from Fabbroni of
Florence on the Fever Epidemic at Leg-
icirn- Letter from Dr R. Pearfon on
the Cydopsdia and Muriate of Lime-
Lift of Graduations at Edinburgh, izth
September 1805—Leclures at the Uni
\
EDINBURGH MEDICAL JOURNAL.
TPrfity of Edinburgh—Lectures at the
Univerfity of Glafg >w—Regulations re-
ipefting Degrees at Glafgow—Lectures at
St George’s Hofpital—Account of Far¬
mer Jefty—Quarterly Report of C arey
Street Difpenfary—Lift of New Bookj—
Index.
4
CONTENTS
PART I.—ORIGINAL
No. V.
Qbferrations on the Formation and Struc¬
ture of the Human Ovum. By Mr John
Burns, Glafgow—On the degree to which
Exercife fhould be carried in fome varie¬
ties of Dyfpepfia. By Dr Faulkner—-On
the ufe of Sulphurated Hydrogen in Sto¬
machic complaints. By Mr Forbes. Peter¬
head—Account of DrRoufteau’s Experi¬
ments on Cutaneous Abforption. By
Dr Stock, Briftol—Anaiyfis of a Stea-
roid Tumour. By Dr Boftock, Liver¬
pool—Hiftory of a Cafe of Diabetes Mel-
litus. By Dr Frafer—Account of a Feet us
found in the Abdomen of a Woman 83
years of age. By M. Grivel, Drefden.
Communicated by Dr George Pearfon,
London—Cafe of an Oftihed Fcetus and
L terus in a Woman 60 years of age.
Ey Dr Caldwell, Preland, Londonderry
—Eftay on Erythema Mercuriale. By
Dr M'Mullin—Second Ellay on the A-
nalyfis of Animal Fluids. By Dr Bo¬
ftock, Liverpool—Medical Biography,
No. I. Dr Currie—Inquirer, No. IV.
On the Diagnolis between Hydrocepha¬
lus and Worms.
No. VI.
Cafe of Abfeefs in the Abdominal Mufcles,
which terminated fatally—Cafe of Sy¬
philitic Ulceration of the bkin, accom¬
panied with Caries'of the Tibia. By Ca-
IcbCrowther, M. D. Wakefield—Remarks
on the Internal Ufe of Cantharides. By
Mr Robert on—Remarkson thcDracuncu-
1ns or Guinea Worm, as it appears in the
Peninfulaof India. By Mr Ninian Bruce 
Cafes of Guinea Worm, with Obfervations.
By Mr Paton—Cafe of Encvfted Afcites,
with Hydatids. By Dr Macleay, Oban—
pefeription of the Koutam-ponlli, fbew-
ing, contrary to the commonly received
opinion, that it does not afford Gum-
Gamboge. By Dr White, Cananore- 
T.ie Inquirer, No. V. Obfervations on
Secondary Hemorrhage, and on the Li¬
gature of Arteries, after Amputation
and other Operations—Cafe of Teeth and
Hair* found in the richt Ovarium. By
Mr James Anderfbn—The Efficacy of Jn-
ocuiated Smail-Pox in Promoting the Po¬
pulation of Great Britain. By Dr Gil¬
lum—Effay on the External ufe of Oil.
By Mr Hunter—Cafe of Crural Hernia,
In ’•Vi,;ch £hc Dhturator Artery furround-
of VOL. II.
COMMUNICATIONS.
ed the Mouth of the Sac. By Mr Janjes
Wardrop.
No. VII.
Obfervations on the btru£lure of the parts
concerned in Crural Hernia. By Mr Al¬
lan Burns—Obfervations on the State of
the Venereal Difeafe in the South Sea
Elands. By Mr John Wilfon, R. N. 
Remarks on the Depopulation of Ota-
heite and Eimeo, with an Account of
fome of the moft common Difcafes. By
Mr John Wilfon, R. N.—Report of the
Phyfical and Mathematical Clafs of the
French National Inftitute, upon the quef-
tion, “ Are thole Manufadtories which
emit a difagreeable Smell prejudicial to
Health ? ” By M. M. Guyton-Morveau
and Chaptal—Obfervations by the Edi¬
tors on the Laws relating to Nuifances -
Hiftory of the Guinea Worm,and the Me¬
thod of Cure employed by the Hindoos.
By Mr Dubois, and Dr Anderlon, Madras
■—Cafe of Sphacelated Hernia. By Dr
Kellie—Cafe of Sphacelated Hernia. By
a Phyfician in Edinburgh—Cafe of a Tu¬
mour of the Tongue, cured by Calomel
and Cicuta. By G. Atkinfon—Cafe of
Tic Douloureux. By Mr Kitfon, Bath 
Account of Dr Gall’s Anatomical Dif-
coveries regarding the Strinfture of the
Brain. By Prof. Rofenmuller, Leipfic—
The Inquirer, No. VI. On Herpes.
No. VIII.
An account of the Illnefs and Death of
H. B de Sauflurc. By Profeflbr Odier—
Remarks on the White Indurations of
Organs. By Dr G. L. Bayle—Obferva¬
tions on Tubercles found in the Brain of
two Scrofulous Subjedfs. By Dr F. V.
Merat—Hiftory of a Cafe of Difeafed
Spleen, with the appearances on Dillec-
tion. By Dr Drake—Cafe of Chorea
Sandli Viti cured by Purgatives. By Dr
Kellie—On the Application of Galvan-
ifm in the Cure of Connate Deafncfs.
By Profeiibr Volta—Explanation of a
fuppofed Cafe of Smali-Pox after Vacci¬
nation. By Mr Johnfton—Cafe of Epi-
lepfy, cured by Trepanning the Skull.
By Mr H. Coates—Cafes of Idiopathic
Ictanus, with Obfervations. By Pro-
fefTor Murfinna—On the Plan for Medi¬
cal Reform. By Senex—The Inquirer.
No. VIII.; On the Study of Mental Pa¬
thology.
^NICA.
R
and bloody fpirit of popery, Fordyce.
. of Perth and Stirling. Eut if"
iftonilhment were excited by
the folly, infamy, and mifery
iched before the general af-
Scotland in 1760. It contains
n with refpeft to defeription,
nd was delivered with fuch un¬
nation, and pathos, that it filled
brethren with aftonifhment, and
tvalled eminence among his cle-
bout this time he was compli-
of dodlor in divinity by the uni-
’ably on account of the fame he
iinary fermon.
■rdyce being moflly in London,'
netropolis to be the colleague of
i of a refpectable congregation in
whofe death, which happened a
Fordyce became once more fa-
eloquence, always preaching to
This popularity he juftly de-
fpeft to the elegance of his com-
jy tendency to imprefs the heart
and religion. Yet even Dr For-
popularity on the decline ; for
of worfhip from mere motives of
kle and unftable minds, changing
ey do their drefs, loving to be
doing what others do, and of ad-
dmire, for they have no talde of
inned from another caufe, which
lounger brother, an extenfive ban-
any of the do&or’s conftant hear-
fupporters. Although the do£dor
aly blamed for the failure of his
ain that it brought a degree of
hmily. Another caufe of the di-
ers was an unhappy difference be-
Toller his colleague, which hap-
755, and which ended in a divifion
many refpeclable families follow-
mther place of worfhip. Soon af-
officiating as a minifder, the declin-
Ji rendering fuch a flep neceffary.
of pulpit eloquence which perhaps
pen, was delivered at the ordina-
A tion
* • EDINBURGH MEDICAL JOURNAL.
Contents of Vol. II. continued.—PART II. CRITICAL ANALYSIS.
No. V.
Defeription and Treatment of Cutaneous
Difeafc. By Robert Willan, M D. &c.—
A Treatife on Febrile Difeafes. By A-
lexander Philips Wilfon, M. D. &c.—
The Modern Pra£Hce of Phyfic. By E.
G. Clarke, M. D. &c—The Edinburgh
Pradfice of Phyfic—Olfervazioni Mediche
fulla Malattia Febrile di Livorno. Del
D. G. Palloni—Parere Medico fulla (tef-
fa Malattia. Del D. G. Palloni—Dr
Pulteney’s View of the Writings of Lin¬
naeus. By Dr Maton—Obfervations on
the Utility and Adminiftration of Pur¬
gative Medicines. By James Hamilton,
M. D.
No. VI.
Coup d’Oeil fur les Revolutions et fur la
Reforme de la Medecine. Par P- J. G.
Cabanis—Relation Hiftorique et Chirur-
gicale de 1’Expedition de 1’Armee d’Ori-
ent, en Egypte et en Syrie. Par D. J.
Larrey, &c.—A Treatife on the Procefs
employed by Nature in fupprefling the
Hemorrhage from divided and punriured
Arteries, &c. By J. F. D. Jones, M.D.
&c.—Chirurgical Obfervations relating to
the Eye, &c. By James Ware, Surgeon,
F. R. S.—Letters to Dr Rowley on his
Pamphlet entitled “ Cow-pock Inocula¬
tion no Security againfl Infection. ” By
Aculeus—The Anatomy and Surgical
Treatment of Inguinal and congenital
Hernia. By Aftley Cooper, F. R. S. &c.
Contents of Vol. II. continued—PART
NO. V.
Second Report of the Board of Health—
Refolutions of the Vaccine Pock In flit u-
tion, Broad-Street—Honours to the Me¬
mory of Bichat and Defl'ault—Intended
Publications—Repetition of Pacchioni’s
Experiments on the compofition of Mu¬
riatic Acid. By Biot-—Prize Queftions
from Wilna on Diabetes—Ditto on Plica
Polonica—Ditto on Difeafes of Vegetables
—Carey-Street Difpenfary Report—Let¬
ters on Vaccination, from Dodors Reeve
and De Caro, Vienna.
No. VI.
Affociation for Medical Reform—Report of
the Royal Jennerian Society—Report of
the Vaccine Inflitution at Edinburgh—
Quarterly Report of Carey-Street Dii-
peniary—Annual Report of the Liver¬
pool Difpenfary—Fourcroy on the Phof-
phate of Lime in Bones.
No. VII.
Medical Topography of Berlin—Dr R.
Pearfon’s Method of treating Hooping-
tough-—M. Wilkinfon on the Decompo-
D. Wuuson, P
No. VII.
Richerche fulla Quina. Di Giovanni Fab-»
broni—Medical Colledlions on the EfTefts
of Cold. By J. E. Stock, M. D.—Cafes
of Pulmonary Confumption treated with
Uva Urfi. By Robert Bourne, M. D.
&c.—On Epilepfy, and the Ufe of Vif-
cus Quercinus, in the Cure of that Dif-
eafe. By Henry Frafer, M. D.—Dar-
ftelling der Gallfchen Gehirn und Scha-
del Lehre. Von Dr C. H. BifchofF—
Bemerkungen fiber diefe Lehre. Von D *
C. W. Plufeland—Etwas fiber Dr Gall’s
Hirnfchadel Lehre. Von Prof. J. G.
Walter—Obfervations on Abortion. By
Mr John Burns—On'the Effcdfs of Car¬
bonate of Iron upon Cancer. By Mr R.
Carmichael.
No. VIII.
Manuel de Medecine pratique. Par Louis
Odier, M. D. & P.—Obfervations on the
Utility and Adminiftration of Purgative
Medicines. By Dr Hamilton, ad edit.—
Practical Obfervations concerning Sea-
Bathing. By Dr Buchan—Surgical Ob¬
fervations. Part II. By Mr Abernethy
■—Inflitutions for the Education of Em¬
pirical PraBitioners, neceffary in the pre-
fent Bate of Society. By Profeffor Reil
—On the Cure of Intermittent Fever by
Gelatine. By Dr Gautieri and Profeflor
Bifchoff—Equinodtial Plants. By Hum¬
boldt and Bonpland.
III. MEDICAL INTELLIGENCE.
fition of Water by Galvanifm-—Queries
publifhed by the Inftitution for invefti-
gating the Nature and Cure of Cancer—
Lift of Graduations at Edinburgh, June
1806—Quarterly Report of the Carey-
Street Difpenfary—To Correfpondents.
No. VIII.
Advertiftment from the Royal College of
Phylicians in London-—Proceedings of
the Aflbciation for Medical Reform-
Account of the General Hofpital and
Medical Sltool at Vienna—Quarterly Re¬
port of the Carey-Strect Dbpenfary. By
Dr Bateman—Letter from Dr Jofeph
Frank, Profcflbr at Wilna—Ditto from a
Gentleman connedbed with the Univerfity
of Wilna—Ditto from Mr Elder, MiHion-
ary, Otaheitc-—Ditto from a Surgeon at
Madras—Refolutions of Original Vac¬
cine Pock Inftitution—Medical Gradua¬
tions at Edinburgh, September 1806—,
Medical Lcdimes at Edinburgh, Glalgow,
and London—Letter from Paris—Lift of
New Publications—-Index.
rintcr, Edinburgh.-
\
E NCYCLOPiEDIA BrITANNICA
FOR
Fordyce. TT’ORDYCE, David, an elegant and learned wri-
^r—1 Jj ter, was born at Aberdeen in the year 1711. Hav-
1 ing received the early part of his education at the gram¬
mar fchodl, at the age of 13 he was entered at the Greek
clafs in Marifchal college, Aberdeen 5 in 1728 he took
the degree of A. M. and was afterwards, in 1742, ad¬
mitted profeflbr of philofophy in the fame college. He
was originally deligned for the miniftry 5 to prepare
himfelf for which was the whole objefl of his ambition,
and for a courfe of years the whole purpofe of his ftu-
dies. How well he was qualified to appear in that cha-
radter, appears from his “ Theodorus, a dialogue con¬
cerning the art of preaching.” Having finifhed this
work, he went abroad in 1750 on his travels, in order
to obtain frefh Itores of knowledge : but after a fuccefs-
ful tour through feveral parts of Europe, he was, on
his return home, unfortunately call way in a ftorm on
the coaft: of Holland, in the 41ft year of his age. Be-
fides the above work, he wrote Dialogues on Educa¬
tion, 8vo, and a Treatife of Moral Philofophy, pub-
lilhed in the Preceptor. The third edition of his Theo¬
dorus was publiftied in London, in 1751, after his death,
by his brother James, the fubjed of the following ar¬
ticle. t
Fordyce, James, a Scotch divine, juilly efteemed
for his piety and ingenuity, as well as for his pulpit
eloquence, was born at Aberdeen in the year 1720.
He received his clafocal education at the public gram¬
mar fchool, and went afterwards to the Marifchal col¬
lege, where he went through the ufual courfe of ftudies
neceffary for a minifter of the gofpel. His natural abi¬
lities were excellent, and he improved to the utmoft the
favourable opportunities hev enjoyed at the univerfity,
which made him be confidered as well qualified for a
preacher of the gofpel at an early period of life. His
firft appointment was that of fecond miniiler in the
church of Brechin in the county of Angus, after which
he accepted of a call to Alloa near Stirling. The peo¬
ple of that parifii were prepofleffed in favour of another,
and prejudiced againft Mr Fordyce, which could not
fail to be a molt unpleafant circumftance ; yet by his
impreffive delivery, and indefatigable attention to every
part of his minifterial duty, he foon changed their pre¬
judice into efteem, and their efteem into admiration.
During his relidence at Alloa, he drew on him the
notice of the public by three excellent fermons j the firft
on the eloquence of the pulpit, the feco$d on the me¬
thod of promoting edification bv public inftitutions, and
Vol. IX. Part I.
FOR
the third on the delufive and bloody fpirit of popery, Fordyce.
preached before the fynod of Perth and Stirling. But v™*
ftill greater wonder and aftonilhment were excited by
his inimitable fermon on the folly, infamy, and mifery
of unlawful pleafure, preached before the general af-
fembly of the church of Scotland in 1760. It contains
fuch maflerly compofition with refpeft to defcription,
fpirit, and elegance, and was delivered with fuch un¬
common folemnity, animation, and pathos, that it filled
his learned fathers and brethren with aftonifirment, and
juftly raifed him to unrivalled eminence among his cle¬
rical cotemporaries. About this time he was compli¬
mented with the degree of do£lor in divinity by the uni¬
verfity of Glafgow, probably on account of the fame he
acquired by this extraordinary fermon.
The friends of Dr Fordyce being moftly in London,'
he was invited to that metropolis to be the colleague of
Dr Lawrence, minifter of a refpeclable congregation in
Monkwell-ftreet, on whofe death, which happened a
few months after, Dr Fordyce became once more fa¬
mous for his pulpit eloquence, always preaching to
overflowing audiences. This popularity he juftly de-
ferved, -whether -with refpedt to the elegance of his com-
pofitions, or their happy tendency to imprefs the heart
with the love of virtue and religion. Yet even Dr For¬
dyce lived to fee his popularity on the decline } for
fuch as attend a place of worfhip from mere motives of
curiofity muft have fickle and unftable minds, changing
their preachers as they do their drefs, loving to be
where others are, of doing what others do, and of ad¬
miring what others admire, for they have no tafte of
their own.
His pews wrere thinned from another caufe, which
was the failure of a younger brother, an extenfive ban¬
ker, which ruined many of the dodlor’s conftant hear¬
ers and moft liberal fupporters. Although the doftor
could not be reafonably blamed for the failure of his
brother, yet it is certain that it brought a degree of
odium on the whole family. Another caufe of the di¬
minution of his hearers was an unhappy difference be¬
tween him and Mr Toller his colleague, which hap¬
pened in the year 1755, and which ended in a divifion
of the congregation, many refpectable families follow¬
ing Mr Toller to another place of worfhip. Soon af¬
ter this he declined officiating as a minifter, the declin¬
ing ftate of his health rendering fuch a ftep necefiary.
The beft fpecimen of pulpit eloquence which perhaps
ever came from his pen, was delivered at the ordina-
A tion
FOR [
Fordyce. ^ tIon 0f ^|s f*ucceflbr Mr James Lindfay, and highly me¬
riting the attentive perufal of every clergyman. The
remainder of his valuable life he fpent chiefly at a re¬
tirement in Hamplhire in the vicinity of the earl of
Bute, with whom he lived in the greateil intimacy,
and to whofe valuable library he had unlimited accefs.
He afterwards went to Bath, where he fuffered much
from an afthmatic affection, but bore it with the heroic
fortitude of a Chriflian, and expired without a groan on
the fir ft of October 1796, in the 76th year of his
age-
_ The do&or’s writings difcover much genius and ima¬
gination, a correft tafte, extenfive knowledge of the
world, and a happy method of engaging the attention ;
full of ardent piety, and a zeal for the interefts of ge¬
nuine virtue. His religious fentiments were manly and
rational 5 in private life he was highly amiable, and de-
fervedly beloved by all who knew him. He was au¬
thor of Sermons to Young Women, in two volumes
12mo, which have been tranflated into feveral Euro¬
pean languages; A Sermon on the Charadler and
Conduft of the Female Sex ; Addrefles to Young Men,
in two volumes 1 2mo j Addreftes to the Deity ; A vo¬
lume of Poems ; A difcourfe on Pain, and Additions
to his brother’s Temple of Virtue.
Fordyce, George, a writer and ledlurer on medi¬
cine, was born in the year 1736, and ftudied at the
univerfity of Aberdeen, where he obtained the literary
degree of M, A. at the early age of 14, perhaps not
altogether owing to the fuperior caft of his genius, or
the extent of his acquirements, which could not be ex¬
traordinary in a boy of his years. He became appren¬
tice to an uncle who pradfifed furgery at Uppingham in
Kutlandfliire, when he was only 15, and afterwards
went to the univerfity of Edinburgh, where his dili¬
gence and progrefs attrafted the attention of Dr Cullen,
at that time profeffor of chemiftry, who very generoufly
prompted his improvement. He graduated in 1758,
when only 22 years of age j after which he refided one
winter at Leyden. The greater part of his patrimony be-
ing fpent on his education, he refolved to try his for¬
tune in London, where he fettled in the year 1759.
He commenced with a courfe of le&ures on chemiftry ;
and although his encouragement at firft was by no means
flattering, yet he fteadily and diligently perfevered, not-
withftanding fuch unfavourable appearances, till his li¬
terary merit began gradually to be difcovered and pro¬
perly appreciated. A number of young men who came
to ftudy in London did not think that their medical
courfe was complete, without availing themfelves of the
benefit of his courfe of leftures.
In the year 1768, he publilhed his Elements of the
Practice of Phyfic, which formed the text book of his
medical courfe, and were much read as a valuable epi¬
tome of medicine. His private praftice was very re-
fpeflable ; and in the year 1770 his medical reputation
was fo great, that he was chofen phyfician to the hofpi-
tal of St Thomas, although he had to contend againft
a gentleman with very powerful intereft 5 and his merit
as a man of fcience made him a member of the Royal
Society in 1776. He was chofen in 1787 a fellow of
the College of Phyficians; and his chemical knowledge
was of'Angular importance to that body for a new edi¬
tion of their Pharmacopoeia. By the influence of his
tonnections, but probably more fo by his literary repu-
! ] F O R
tation, he was appointed to furnifh the navy with four- Fore
krout, which we believe he executed with advantage II
both to himfelf and the public. ^ Foreigner.
His conftitution difcovered fymptoms of premature' 'v' *
decay, yet he continued to dilcharge his profeflional du¬
ties till lie fell a victim to an irregular gout, and a wa¬
ter in his cheft, on the 25th of June 1802, in the 66th
year of his age. If his leftures wanted the charms of
an eloquent delivery, he made ample compenfation by
the originality of his ideas and his fcientific informa¬
tion, and. by a memory which was uncommonly reten¬
tive. His works arc, Elements of Agriculture and
Vegetation ; Of the Pradice of Phyfic 5 A Treatife on
the Digeftion of Food j and Four Diflertations on Fe¬
ver.
FORE, applied to a fhip, denotes ail that part of a
ftiip’s frame and machinery which lies near the Item.
Fore and aft, is ufed for the whole Ihip’s length, or
from end to end.
r ORECASTLE of a Ship, that part where the
foremaft ftands. It is divided from the reft by a bulk¬
head.
FOREIGN, fomething extraneous, or that comes
from abroad. The word is formed from the Latin
fores, “ doors $” ox forts, “ out of doors or forum,
“ market,” &c.
Foreign minifter, foreign prince, foreign goods, &o.
are thofe belonging to other nations. See Minister
&c.
loreign to the purpofe, fignifies a thing remote or
impertinent.
_ Foreign, in the Englifh Law, is ufed in various fig-
nifications. Thus,
Foreign Attachment, is an attachment of the goods
of foreigners found within a city or liberty, for the fa-
tisfaclion of feme citizen to whom the foreigner is in¬
debted j or it fignifies an attachment of a foreigner’s
money in the hands of another perfon.
Foreign Kingdom, a kingdom under the dominion
of a foreign prince.
At the inftance of an ambaffador or conful, any of¬
fender againft the laws here may be fent for hither from
a foreign kingdom to which he hath fled. And,
where a ftranger of Holland, or any foreign coun¬
try, buys goods at London, for inftance, and there
gives a note under his hand for payment, and then
goes away privately into Holland; in that cafe, the
feller may have a certificate from the lord mayor, on
the proof of the fale and delivery of fuch goods, where¬
upon a procefs will be executed on the party in Hol¬
land.
Foreign Oppofer, or .Appofer, an officer in the ex¬
chequer that oppofes or makes a charge on all flieriffs,
&c. of their green wax ; that is to fay, fines, iffues,
amerciaments, recognizances, &c.
Foreign Flea, fignifies an objection to the judge of
the court, by refufing him as incompetent, becaule the
matter in queftion is not wfithin his jurifdidtion.
Foreign Seamen, ferving two years on board Bri-
tifh ftiips, whether of war, trade, or privateers, du¬
ring the time of war, Ihall be deemed natural-born fub-
je£Is.
FOREIGNER, the natural-born fubjefl to fome fo¬
reign prince.
Foreigners? though made denizens, or naturalized,
are
F O 11 [
are difabled to bear any office in government, to be of
tbe privy council, or members of parliament, &c.—
This is by the afts of the fettlement of the crown.—
Such perfons as are not freemen of a city or corpora¬
tion, are alfo called foreigners, to dilfinguifli them from
the members of the fame.
FOREJUDGER, in Law, fignifies a judgment
whereby one is deprived or put by a thing in queftion.
To be forejudged the court, is where an officer or at¬
torney of any court is expelled the fame for malprac¬
tice, or for not appearing to an adlion on a bill filed
againft him, &c. And where an attorney of the com¬
mon-pleas is fued, the plaintiff’s attorney delivers the
bill to one of the criers of the court, who calls the at¬
torney defendant, and folemnly proclaims aloud, that,
if he does not appear thereto, he will be forejudged :
likewife a rule is given by the fecondary for his appear¬
ance ; and if the attorney appears not in four days,
then the clerk of the warrants ftrikes fuch an attorney
off the roll of attorneys ; after which he becomes liable
to be arrefted like any other perfon j but where an at¬
torney is forejudged, he may be reftored on clearing
himfelf from his contumacy, and making fatisfaclion to
the plaintiff, &c.
FORELAND, or Foreness, in Navigation, a point
of land jutting out into the fea.
North Foreland, in the hie of Thanet, Kent, of
which it is the N. E. point, is the promontory afcer-
tained by adt of parliament to be the molt fouthern
part of the port of London, wdiich is thereby extended
N. in a right line to the point called the Nafe on the
coaft of Effex, and forms that properly called the
Mouth of the Thames. A fea-mark was eredted here
by the Trinity-houfe corporation at the public ex¬
pence, which is a round brick tower, near 80 feet high.
The fea gains fo much upon the land here by the
winds at S. W. that within the memory of feme that
are living about 30 acres of land have been loft in one
place. All veffels that pafs on the fouth fide of this
head-land are faid to enter the Channel, which is the
name for the narrow fea between England and France ;
and all the towns or harbours between London and this
place, whether on the Kentifh or Effex fhore, are called
members of the port of London.
South Foreland, in Kent, a head-lahd forming the
eaft point of the Kentilh ftiore j and called South, in
refpedt to its bearing from the other Foreland, which is
about fix miles to the north. Its fituation is of great
fecurity to the Downs, the road between both, wrhich
would be a very dangerous road for fhips, did not this
point break the fea off, that would otherwife come
rolling up from the weft to the Flats or banks of fand,
which for three leagues together, and at about a league
or a league and a half from the ftiore, run parallel with
it, and are dry at low water 5 fo that thefe two capes
breaking all the force of the fea on the S. E, and
S. W. make the Downs accounted a good road, except
when the wind blows exceffive hard from S. E. E. by
N. or E. N. E. wffien fliips in the Downs are driven
from their anchors, and often run afhore, or are
forced on the fands, or into Sandwich bay or Ramfgate
pier.
FORE-LOCKS, in the fea language, little flat
Wedges made of iron, ufed at the ends of bolts, to
keep them from flying out of their holes,
3 ] FOR
FOREMAST of a Ship, a large round piece of
timber, placed in her fore part or fcre-caftle, and car¬
rying the fore-fail and fore-top-fail yards. Its length
is ufually of the main-maft, and the fore-top-gallant-
maft is i the length of the fore-top.
Foremast Men, are thofe on board a ftrip that take
in the top-fails, fling the yards, furl the fails, bowfe,
trice, and take their turn at the helm, &c.
FOREST, in Geography, a huge wood } or, a large
extent of ground covered with trees. The word is form¬
ed of tbe Latin forefa, wThich firft occurs in the capi¬
tulars of Charlemagne, and which itfelf is derived from
the German frof, fignifying the fame thing. Spelman
derives it from the Latin foris refat, by reafon forefts
are out of towns. Others derive forejla from feris. q. d.
Forefa, quodft tutaJiatioferarum, as being a fafe fta-
tion or abode for wild beafts.
The Caledonian and Hercynian forefts are famous
in hiftory, The firft was a celebrated retreat of the
ancient Piets and Scots : The latter anciently occupied
the greateft part of Europe; particularly Germany,
Poland, Hungary, &c. In Csefar’s time it extended
from the borders of Alfatia and Switzerland to Tran-
fylvania ; and w7as computed 60 days journey long, and
9 broad : fome parts or cantons thereof are ftill re¬
maining.
The ancients adored forefts, and imagined a great
part of their gods to refide therein : temples were fre¬
quently built in the thickeft forefts 5 the gloom and
lilence wdiereof naturally infpire fentiments of devotion,
and turn men’s thoughts within themfelves.
For the like reafon, the Druids made forefts the place
of their refidence, performed their facrifices, inftrudled
their youth, and gave law7s therein.
Forest, in Law, is defined, by Manwood, a certain
territory of woody grounds and fruitful paftures, pri¬
vileged for wild beafts and fowls of foreft, chafe, and
warren, to reft and abide under the protection of the
king, for his princely delight; bounded with Unre¬
moveable marks and meres, either knowm by matter
of record or prefeription 3 repleniftied with wild beafts
of venery or chafe, with great coverts of vert for the
faid beafts 3 for prefervation and continuance whereof,
the vert and venifon, there are certain particular law’s,
privileges, and officers.
Forefts are of fuch antiquity in England, that, ex¬
cepting the New Foreft in Hampfhire, ereCted by Wil¬
liam the conqueror, and Hampton Court, erefted by
Henry VIII. it is faid, that there is no record or hi¬
ftory which makes any certain mention of their erec¬
tion, though they are mentioned by feveral writers and
in feveral of our laws and ftatutes. Ancient hiftorians
tell us, “ that New foreft was raifed by the deftruCtion
of 22 parifh churches, and many villages, chapels, and
manors, for the fpace of 30 miles together, whi»h was
attended with divers judgments on the pofterity of
William I. who erefted it : for William Rufus was
there (hot wdth an arrow’, and before him Richard the
brother of Henry I. 3 and Henry nephew to Robert,
the eldeft fon of the Conquereor, did hang by the hair
of the head in the boughs of the foreft, like unto Ab-
falom.” Blount.
Befides the New foreft, there are 68 other forefts in
England, 13 chafes, and more than 700 parks : the
four principal forefts are New foreft on the fea, Shire-
'A 2 wood
FOR [
veil, wood foreft on the Trent, Dean forell on the Severn,
aU(.| \Yindfor foreft on the Thames.
A foreft in the hands of a iubjedf is properly the
fame thing with a Chase ) being fubjeiSt to the common
law, and not to the foreft laws. But a chafe differs
from a foreft in that it is not enclofed : and likewife,
that a man may have a chafe in another man’s ground
as wTell as his ow n ; being indeed the liberty of keep¬
ing beafts of chafe, or royal game therein, protefled
even from the owner of the land, with a power of
hunting them thereon. See Park.
The manner of ereffing a foreft is thus: Certain com-
miftioners are appointed under the great feal, who view
the ground intended for a foreft, and fence it round ;
this commiflion being returned into chancery, the king
caufeth it to be proclaimed throughout the county
where the land lieth, that it is a foreft j and prohibits
all perfons from hunting there, without his leave.
Though the king may erefl a foreft on his own ground
and wafte, he may not do it on the ground of other
perfons without their confent; and agreements with
them for that purpofe ought to be confirmed by par¬
liament.
A foreft, ftri&ly taken, cannot be in the hands of
any but the king 5 for no perfon but the king has
powrer to grant a commiftion to be juftice in eyre of
5he fereft : yet, if he grants a foreft to a fubject, and
that cn requeft made in the chancery, that fubjeft and
his heirs fhall have juftices of the fpreft, in wdiich cafe
the fubject has a foreft in law\
A fecond property of a foreft is, the courts thereof.
' See Fcrkst Courts, infra.
A third property is the officers belonging to it, as
the juftices, warden, verderer, forefter, agiltor, regarder,
keeper, bailiff, beadle, &c. See the articles Agistor,
Bailiff, Forester, &c.
By the laws of the foreft, the receivers of trefpaffes
in hunting, or killing of the deer, if they know them
to be the king’s property, are principal trefpaffers.
L’kewife, if a trefpafs be committed in a foreft, and
the trefpaffer dies, after his death it may be punifhed
in the lifetime of the heir, contrary to common law.
Our Norman kings punilhed fuch as killed deer in any
of their forefts with great feverity 5 alfo in various man¬
ners $ as by hanging, lofs of limbs, gelding, and put¬
ting out eyes. By magna charta de forejla, it is or¬
dained, that no perion (hall lofe life or member for kill¬
ing the king’s deer in forefts, but fhall be fined ; and
if the offender has nothing to pay the fine, he ftiall be
imprifoned a year and a day, and then be delivered, if
he can give fecurity not to offend for the future, &c.
9 Hen. III. c. 1.
Before this ftatute, it was felony to hunt the king’s
deer; and by a late act, perfons armed and difguiied,
appearing in any foreft, &c. if they hunt, kill, or
Ileal any deer, &c. are guilty of felony. 9 Geo. I.
c. 22.
He who has any licenfe to hunt in a foreft or chafe,
&.c. is to take care that he does not exceed his autho¬
rity ^ otherwife he fhall be deemed a trefpaffer from
the beginning, and be punilhed for that fa(ftt as if he
had no licenfe. See further, the articles Game, and
Game-L/itv.
Beafts of the foreft are, the hart, hind, buck, doe,
boar, wolf, fox, h^re, Sec. The feafons for hunting
hi FOR
whereof are as follow, viz. that of the halt and buck Foreft.
begins at the feaft of St John Baptift, and ends at  v—
Holy-rood-day j of the hind and doe, begins at Ploly-
rood, and continues till Candlemas; of the boar, from
Chriftmas to Candlemas 5 of the fox, begins at Chrift-
mas, and continues till Lady-day 5 of the hare at Mi¬
chaelmas, and lafts till Candlemas.
FoREsr-Courts, courts inftituted for the government
of the king’s forefts in different parts of the kingdom,
and for the punifhment of all injuries done to the king’s
deer or venifon, to the vert or greenfwerd, and to the
covert in which fuch deer are lodged. Thefe are the
courts of Attachments, of Regard, of Swein-
mote, and of Justice-seat. i. The court of attach¬
ments, wmodmote, or forty-days court, is to be held be¬
fore the verderers of the foreft once in every forty days j
and is inftituted to inquire into all offenders againft vert
and venifon : wdio may be attached by their bodies,
it taken with the mainour (ox mainceuvre, a tnanu) that
is, in the very a£l of killing venifon, or ftealing wood,
or in the preparing fo to do, or by frefh and immediate
purfuit after the adl is done j elfe they muft be attach¬
ed by their goods. And in this forty-days court the
forellers or keepers are to bring in their attachments, or
prefentments de viridi et venatione; and the verderers
are to receive the fame, and to enrol them, and to
certify them under their feals to the court of juftice-
feat or fweinmote : for this court can only inquire of,
but not convift, offenders. 2. The court of regard,
or furvey of dogs, is to be holden every third year for
the lawing or expeditation of maftiffs ; which is done
by cutting off the claws of the fore feet, to prevent
them from running after deer. No other dogs but
maftiffs are to be thus law'ed or expeditated, for none
other were permitted to be kept within the precinbls
of the foreft j it being fuppofed that the keeping of
thefe, and thefe only, was neceffary for the defence of
a man’s houfe. 3. The court of fweinmote is to be
holden before the verderers, as judges, by the lleward
of the fweinmote, thrice in every year; the fweins or
freeholders within the foreft compofing the jury. The
principal jurifdiblion of this court is, firft, to inquire
into the oppreffions and grievances committed by the
officers of the foreft ; “ de fuper-onefatione forefarorium,
et aliorum minijirorum forefee; et de eorum opprejfonibus
populo regis illatisand, fecondly, to receive and try
prefentments certified from the court of attachments
againft: offences in vert and venifon. And this court
may not only inquire, but convict alfo ; which con-
viftion {hall be certified to the court of juftice-feat un¬
der the feals of the jury, for this court cannot proceed
to judgment. But the principal court is, 4. The court
of juftice feat, which is held before the chief juftice in
eyre, or chief itinerant judge, capitalis jujiiciarius in iti- *
nere, or his deputy ; to hear and determine all trefpal-
fes wdthin the foreft, and all claims of franchifes, liber¬
ties, and privileges, and all pleas and caufes whatfoever
therein arifing. It may alfo proceed to try prefent¬
ments in the inferior courts of the ferefts, and to give
judgment upon convidlion of the fweinmote. And
the chief juftice may therefore, after prefentment
made or indictment found, but not before, iffue his
warrant to the officers of the foreft to apprehend the
offenders. It may be held every third year; and 40
days notice ought to be given of its fitting. This court
may..
FOR [ 5
For eft, may fine and imprifon for offences within the foreft, it
Fi; re-ft a ft. being a court of record : and therefore a writ of error
* lies from hence to the court of king’s-bench, to rectify
and redrefs any mal-adminiftrations of juft ice ; or the
chief juftice in . eyre may adjourn any matter of law
into the court of king’s-bench.
FoREST-Laws, are peculiar laws, different from the
common law of England. Before the making oi Char-
ta de Forefla, in the time of King John and his Ion
Henry III. confirmed in parliament by 9 Henry III.
offences committed therein were punilhed at the plea-
fure of the king in the fevered, manner. By this char¬
ter, many forefts were difafforefted and dripped of their
oppredive privileges, and regulations were made for
the government of thofe that remained ; particularly,
killing the king’s deer was made no longer a capital
offence, but only punilhed by fine, imprifonment, or
abjuration of the realm : yet even in the charter there
were fome grievous articles, which the clemency of la¬
ter princes have fince by datute though fit to alter
per ajjifasforejlce. And to this day, in trefpaffes relat¬
ing to the fored, voluntas reputabitur pro facfo ; fo that
if a man be taken hunting a deer, he may be arreded
as if he had taken a deer.
Forest-Towus, in Geography, certain towns of
Suabia in Germany, lying along the Rhine, and the
confines of Switzerland, and fubjesd-* to the houfe of
Audria. Their names are Rlunefield, Seckingen, Lau-
fenburg, and WaldJJjut.
FORE-staff, an indrument ufed at fea for taking
the altitudes of heavenly bodies. The fore-daff, called
alfo crofs-jlajf, takes its denomination hence, that the
obferver, in uiing it, turns his face towards the objeft j
in oppofition to the back-ftaff, where he turns his-back
to the object.
The fore or crofs-daff, confids of a draught fquare
daff, graduated like a line of tangents, and four erodes
or vanes, which Aide on it. The fird and Ihorted of
thefe vanes, is called the ten crofs, or vane, and belongs
to that fide of the indrument on which the divifions
begin at three degrees and end at ten. The next
longer vane, is called the thirty crofs, belonging to that
fide of the daff in which the divifions begin at ten de¬
grees and end at thirty, called the thirty feale. The
next vane is called the Jixty crofs, and belongs to the
fide where the divifions begin at twenty degrees and
end at fixty. The lad and longed, called the ninety
crofs, belongs to the fide where the divifions begin at
thirty degrees and end at ninety.
The ufe of this indrument is to take the height of
the fun and dars, or the didance of twro dars : and
the ten, thirty, fixty, or ninety croffes, are to be ufed
according as the altitude is greater or lefs j that is, if
the altitude be lefs than ten degrees, the ten crofs is to
be ufed ; if above ten, but lefs than thirty, the thirty
crofs is to be ufed, &c. Note, For altitudes greater
than thirty degrees, this indrument is not fo conveni¬
ent as a quadrant or femicircle.
To obferve an Altitude by this inftrument.—Apply the
dat end of the ftaff to your eye, and look at the upper end
of the crofs for the centre of the fun or liar, and at the
lower end for the horizon. If you fee the iky indead of
the horizon, Hide the crofs a little nearer the eye j and
if you fee the fea.indead of the horizon, Hide the crofs
farther from the eye 3 and thus continue moving till
] FOR
you fee exaclly the fun or dar’s centre by the top of Fjreftalfcr
the crofs, and the horizon by the bottom thereof. Then -pjj,u.
the degrees and minutes, cut by the inner edge of the -
crofs upon the fide of the daff peculiar to the crofs
you ufe, give the altitude of the fun or liar.
If it be the. meridian altitude you want, continue
your obfervation as long as you find the altitude m-
creafe, dill moving the crofs nearer to the eye. By
fubtra&ing the meridian altitude thus found from 90
degrees,, you will have the zenith didance. To work
accurately, an allowance mud be made for the height
of the eye above the furface of the fea, viz. for one
Englilh foot, 1 minute 3 for 5 feet, Fs 3 for 10 feet, 3 *-}
for zo feet, 5 ; for 40 feet, 7, &c. Thefe minutes
fubtradled from the altitude obferved, and added to the
zenith didance obferved, give the true altitude and
zenith diftance.
To obferve the di/lance of two fars, or the moon's di-
fance from a far, by the fore-faff.—Apply the indru¬
ment to the eye, and looking to both ends of the crofs,
move it nearer or farther from the eye till you fee the
two dars, the one on the one end, and the other on the
other end of the crofs 3 then the degrees and minutes
cut by the crofs on the fide proper to the vane in ufe
give the (tars diftance.
FORESTALLER, a perfon who is guilty of fore-
ftalling. See the next article.
FORESTALLING, in Law, buying or bargaining
for any corn, cattle, victuals, or merchandiie, in the
way as they come to fairs or markets to be fold, before
they get thither, with an intent to iell the fame again
at a higher price.
The punifhment for this offence, upon convidtion at
the quarter fedions by two or more witneffes, is, for
the firft time, two months imprifonment and the lofs
of the goods, or the value 3 for the fecond offence the
offender ftiall be imprifoned fix months, and lofe double
the value of the goods 3 for the third offence he fhall
fuffer imprifonment during the king’s pleafure, forfeit
all his goods and chattels, and Hand on the pillory :
but the ftatute does not extend to maltfters buying
barley, or to badgers licenfed.
FORESTER, a fworn officer of the foreft, ap¬
pointed by the king’s letters patent, to walk the fored
at all hours, and watch over the vert and venifon 3 al¬
fo to make attachments and true prefentments of all
trefpaffes committed within the foreft.
If a man comes into a foreft in the night, a ferefter
cannot lawfully heat him before he makes fome refift-
ance 3 but cafe fuch a perfon refifts the /orefter, he
may juftify a battery. And a forefter fhall not be que-
ftioned for killing a trefpaffer that, after the peace
cried to him, will not furrender himfelf, if it be not
done on any former malice 3 though, where trefpaffers
in a foreft, &c. do kill a perfon that oppofes them, it
is murder in all, becaufe they were engaged in an un¬
lawful a£l, and therefore malice is implied to the per¬
fon killed.
FORETHOUGHT FELONY, in Scots Law, figni-
fies premeditated murder. See Murdf.r.
FORFAR, a town of Scotland, and capital of the
county of that name, lituated in N. Lat. 56. 25.
W. Long. 2. 32. This town, with Dundee, Cupar,
Perth, and St Andrew’s, jointly fend one member
to the Britifli parliament. It hands in the great
valley
F O R
[
^ valley ol Strathmore that runs from Perth ncrth-eaft
to the fea, almoft in a flraight line, about 50 miles
long and betwixt four and five miles broad, bounded
on the fouth fide by gentle lulls, and on the north by the
Grampian mountains.
Forfar is a very ancient town, and was once a royal
refidence. Here Malcolm Canmore held his firft par¬
liament in 1057. The ruins of his palace are Hill to be
ieen on the top of an artificial mount of a circular form,
re ft mg upon a bafe of about three acres of ground, and
riling 50 feet high above the plain. The lake of For¬
far, ftretching two miles in length from eaft to weft,
and half a mile in breadth, and covering the palace on
the north, afforded not only a plentiful fupply of water
for eveiy yuipofe, but alfo added to the ftrength of the
place. Ihis lake which abounds with trout, pike, perch
and eel, has ^been greatly reduced by draining ; and
fine marl has been found in ftrata from two to fix and
eight feet deep, with mofs below ten feet deep.
Within this lake were formerly two iflands raifed
by art, with buildings on each 5 to which Margaret,
Malcolm Canmore’s queen, retired after the deceafe of
her hufband. Part of the ruins of thefe edifices are
ftill to be feen.
Little is known of Forfar till the middle of the 17th
century, except an adt paffed in the 13th parliament of
James \ I. 21ft July, 1593, in the following words,
which affords a fpecimen of the manners and language
or the cimes, il Our foveraine Lorde, underltand-
ing. that be afte and ordinance maid anent obfer-
vation of the Sabbath-daie within this realme* the
mercatte-daie of the burgh of Forfare, being the head
burgh of the fchire, quhilk was Simdaie, is taken from
them j and his hieneffe not willing that they in onie
waxes fuld be prejudged hereby, therefore his hieneffe,
with ad vile of the eftaites of this prefent parliament,
alteris and changis their faid mercatte-daie from Sun-
daie to Fridaie, and willis the famen Fridaie oukly to
their mercatte-daie to them in all times hereafter ^
and the famin to ftande with the like priveleges and
freedomes as the Sundaie did of before.” The mar¬
ket day has been long held on Saturday.
During the ufurpation of Oliver Cromwell, a de¬
tachment of his forces, after facking Dundee, came to
1 orfar and burnt all the public records of the place ;
and the only charter the town now has is one granted’
by Charles II. after his reftoration, confirming all its
ancient rights and privileges.
As an evidence of the ignorance and barbarity of
the times, it appears from the records of the trials kept
in the charter-cheft of Forfar, that nine perfons were
condemned and burnt here for witchcraft betwixt the
years. 1650 and .1662. Thefe innocent people were
all tried by a fpecial commiflion from the lords of the
privy council at Edinburgh ; and although the com¬
miflion exprefsly difcharged torturing them on purpofe
to extort a confeflion of their guilt, yet, as it was
then thought meritorious to obtain confeflion of guilt
by .whatever means, many inhuman cruelties were*" ex-
ercifed upon the unfortunate objecis; particularly, an
iron boot was drawn upon one of their legs, and a
wedge driven with great force between it and" the leer.
Another inftrumen.t, ftill carefully preferved here, was
likewife. ufed, and is called the witch bridle. It is made
of iron in the fhape of a dog’s collar, with two pikes
3
6 ] F G Pt
on the xnfide, about, four inches diftant and two and a
half long. I Ixeie pikes were put into the mouth, and
the collar afterwards buckled ftrait on the back of the '
head, to which was affixed an iron chain, whereby the
condemned perfons were led to the place of execution
caked the Play-Jield, about a quarter of a mile to the
northward of the town.
The ftreets of Fofar are rather irregular ; but many
of the houfes are neat and well built. Olnaburgs and
coar.le linens are manufactured here; and many of
the inhabitants are employed in making a coarfe kind
of ihoes.
FoRFAR-Shire, a county of Scotland, of which For¬
far is the capital. . Including Angus, Glenila, Glenefk,
and Glenproffin, it extends between 40 and 50 miles
fi’om eaft to weft, and 16 were broadeft, though in fome
places, the breadth does not exceed five miles. On the
north it is divided from the Erae of Mar by a ridge of the
Binchinnan. mountains ; it is bounded on the fouth by
the frith of Tay and the Britilh ocean, on the eaft by
Mearns, and on the weft by Perthftiire. Part of the
Grampian mountains runs through this county, which
is agreeably diyerfified with hill and dale. It producer
fome lead and iron, together with freeftone, flate, and
limeftone. Coarfe linens and fail-cloth are the chief
manufactures of the county. It is ■well watered with
lakes, rivers, rivulets, and fountains, ftxaded with
large forefts, roughened with brown mountains and
waved with green hills interfperfed with fields anc^
meadows, and adorned with fine feats and plantations.
Their heaths and woods abound with hart, hind, roe¬
buck, and moor game ; their ftreams are flocked with
trout and falmon. Their hills are covered with flocks
of fheep, and their fields afford plentiful harvefts of
wheat and all forts of grain. The mountains to the
weft and north are inhabited by Highlanders : but the
Lowlanders poffefs the towns and champaign coun¬
try, and are remarkable for their politenefs and hofpi-
tality.
I he population of this county in 1801 amounted to
97,778. But in the following table is exhibited a view
of its population, at two different periods.
Forfar-
lliire.
Parijhes.
I Aberbrothwick
Aberlemno
Airly
Arbirlot
5 Avchterhoufe
Barry
Brechin
Carmylie
Carraldftone
10 Coitachy
Craig’
Dun
Dundee
Dunnichen
15 Edzell
Effie and Nevay
Fearn
Fernell
Forfar
20 Glammis
Population
in I75S*
2098
943
1012
865
600
689
2181
745
269
i233
935
657
*2,477
653
862
500
coo
799
2450
1780
Population in
1790—1798.
4676
1033
865
io55
600
796
5000
700
260
1020
13I4
500
23,5oo
872
9^3
630
490
620
4756
2040 .
Glenifla
FOR
Forfar- n tl
flure, Parijhes.
Forfeiture.
Glenifla
Guthrie
Innerarity
Inverkeilor
25 Kettins
Kingoldrum
Kinnell
Kinnettles
Kirkden
30 Kirrymuir
Lentrathen
Lethnot
Liff
Lochlee
35 Logie Pert
Lunan
Mains
Maryton
Menmuir
40 Moneikie
Monifeith
Montrofe
Muirhoufe
Newtyle
45 Oathlavv
Panbride
Refcobie
Ruthven
St Vigeans
50 Strathmartine
Strickathro
Tannadyce
53 Tealing
Population
in l1SS*
1852
584
996
1286
1475
780
761
616
585
3409
1165
635
1311
686
696
208
709
633
743
I345
1421
4I5°
622
913
435
1259
798
280
1592
368
529
1470
755
68,297
Population in
179c—1798.
IOl8
571
929
1747
11 OO
600
830
621
727
4358
900
505
1790
608
999
291
876
529
900
1278
12x8
6194
462
594
43°
1460
934
220
3336
340
672
147°
802
91,001
68,297
Increafe, 22,704
FORFEITURE, originally lignifies a tranfgref-
fion or offence againft fome penal law. The word is
formed of the bafe Latin forisfaclura ; whence forfai-
tura and forfaicfura, and the French forfait. Fon's-
faSiura comes of forisfacere; which, according to Ifi-
dore, fignifies to “ hurt or offend,” facere contra ra-
tionem; and which is not improbably derived of foris
“ out,” and facere, “ to do,” q. d. an adlion out of
rule or contrary to the rules. Borel will have forfait
derived from the ufing of force or violence : Lobineau,
in his gloffary, will have fori fact a properly to fignify a
muldf or amend, not a forfeit; which latter he derives
from the Eas-Ereton forfed, “ a penalty.”
Eut, with us, it is now more frequently ufed for the
efteft of fuch tranfgreffion j or the lofing fome right,
privilege, ertate, honour, office, or effefts, in confequence
thereof ; than for the tranfgreffion itfelf.
h orfeiture differs from conffcation, in that the former
is-more general; while confifcatlon is particularly ap¬
plied to fuch things as become forfeited to the king’s
exchequer; and goods confifcated are faid to be fuch as
nobody claims.
Forfeitures may be either in civil or criminal cafes.
L With refpedt to the firft? a man that hath an
7 ] F O R
eftate for life or years, may forfeit it many ways, as well Forfeiture,
as by treafon or felony; fuch as alienation, claiming a 'w—*
greater eftate than he hath, or affirming the reverfion
to be in a ftranger, &c. When a tenant in tail makes
leafes not warranted by the ftatute; a copyholder
commits Wafte, refufes to pay his rent, or do fuit of
court; and where an eftate is granted upon condition,
on non-performance thereof, &c. they will make a for¬
feiture.
Entry for a forfeiture ought to be by him who is
next in reverfion, or remainder, after the ettate for¬
feited. As if a tenant for life or years commits a forfei¬
ture, he who has the immediate reverfton or remainder
ought to enter, though he has the fee, or only an eftate-
tail.
II. Forfeiture in criminal cafes is twofold j of real,
and perfonal eftates.
1. As to real eftates by Attainder in high trea¬
fon, a man forfeits to the king all his lands and tene¬
ments of inheritance, whether fee-fimple or fee-tail ■,
and alt his rights of entry on lands and tenements,
which he had at the time of the offence committed, or
at any time afterwards, to be for ever veiled in the
crown j and alfo the profits of all lands and tenements,
which he had in his own right for life or years, fo long
as fuch intereft ffiall fubfift. This forfeiture relate! Blaikjhmt't
backwards to the time of the treafon committed \ fo as Cummcnt.
to avoid all intermediate fales and encumbrances, but
not thofe before the fa£t: and therefore a wife’s join¬
ture is not forfeitable for the treafon of her huffiand j
becaufe fettled upon her previous to the treafon com¬
mitted. Eut her dower is forfeited, by the exprefs
provifion of ftatute 5 and 6 Edw. VI. c. 11. And yet
the hufband lhall be tenant by courtefy of the wife’s
lands, if the wife be attainted of treafon j for that is
not prohibited by the ftatute. But, though after at¬
tainder the forfeiture relates back to the time of the
treafon committed, yet it does not take effedl unlefs an
attainder be had, of which it is one of the fruits $ and
therefore, if a traitor dies before judgment pronounced,
or is killed in open rebellion, or is hanged by maptial
law, it works no forfeiture of his lands : for he never
was attainted of treafon. But if the chief juftice of the
king’s bench (the fupreme coroner of all England) in
perfon, upon the view of the body of him killed in open
rebellion, records it and returns the record into his own
court, both lands and goods (hall be forfeited.
The natural juftice of forfeiture or confifcation of
property, for treafon, is founded on this confideration :
That he who hath thus violated the fundamental prin¬
ciples of government, and broken his part of the ori¬
ginal contradl between king and people, hath abandon¬
ed his connexions with fociety, and hath no longer
any right to thofe advantages which before belonged
to him purely as a member of the community; among
which facial advantages, the right of transferring or
tranfmitting property to others is one of the chief.
Such forfeitures, moreover, whereby his pofterity muft
fufter as well as himfelf, will help to reftrain a man,
not only by the fenfe of his duty, and dread of perfonal
puniftiment, but alfo by his paffions and natural affec¬
tions ; and will intereft every dependent and relation
he has to keep him from offending : according to that
beautiful fentiment of Cicero, “ nec vero me fugit quam
ft acerbum, parentum feeler a fliorum pcenis lui; fed hoc
prceclare
FOR [ 8
Forfeiture, pt'cvchire Icegibus comparcitum efl, ut car it as iiberorum
—  amiciores parentes reipublica; redderet.” And therefore
Aulus Cafcellius, a Roman lawyer in the time of the
triumvirate, uled to boaft that he had two reafons for
defpifmg the power of the tyrants j his old age and
his want of children •, for children are pledges to the
prince of the father’s obedience. Yet many nations
have thought, that this pofthumous puniihment favours
of hardihip to the innocent j efpecially for crimes that
do not ftrike at the very root and foundation of fo-
ciety, as treafon againft the government exprefsly does.
And therefore, although confifcations were very fre¬
quent in the times of the earlier emperors, yet Arca-
dius and Honorius, in every other inftance but that of
treafon, thought it more juft, ibi ejje pcenam, ubi et noxa
eji; and ordered, that “ peccata fuos teneant auclores, nec
ulterius progrediatur mttus, quam rcpenatur dchclum
and Juftinian alfo made a law to reftrain the puniftiment
ef relations} which, direfts the forfeiture to go, except
in the cafe of crimen maje/Iatis, to the next of kin to the
delinquent. On the other hand, the Macedonian laws
extended even the capital puniftiment of treafon, not
only to the children, but to all the relations of the de¬
linquent 5 and of courfe their eftates muft be alfo for¬
feited, as no man was left to inherit them. And in
Germany, by the famous golden bull (copied almoft
’verbatim from Juftinian’s code), the lives of the fons of
fuch as confpire to kill an eleftor are fpared, as it is ex-
prefled, by the emperor’s particular bounty. But they
are deprived of all their effedls and rights of fucceflion,
and are rendered incapable of any honour ecclefiaftical
and civil: to the end that, being always poor and ne-
ceflitous, they may for ever be accompanied by the in-
, famy of their father; may languilh in continual indi¬
gence j and may find (fays this mercilefs edict) their
puniftiment in living, and their relief in dying.”
In England, forfeiture of lands and tenements to
the crown for treafon is by no means derived from the
feodal policy, but was antecedent to the eftablilhment
of that fyftem in this ifland •, being tranfmitted from
our Saxon anceftors, and forming a part of the ancient
Scandinavian conftitution. But in certain treafons relat¬
ing to the coin (which feem rather a fpecies of the
crimen falji than the crimen Ice fee majejlatisf it is pro¬
vided by feme of the modern ftatutes which conftitute
the offence, that it (hall work no forfeiture of lands,
fave only for the life of the offenders; and by all, that
it fiiall not deprive the wife of het dower. And, in
order to abolifh fuch hereditary puniftiment entirely, it
was enacted by ftatute 7 Ann. c. 21. that, after the
deceafe of the late pretender, no attainder for treafon
ftiould extend to the difinheriting of any heir, nor to
* the prejudice of any perfon, other than the traitor him-
felf. By which the law of forfeitures for high trea¬
fon wrould by this time have beep at an end, had not a
fubfequent ftatute intervened to give them a longer du¬
ration. The hiftcry of this matter is fomewhat lin¬
gular, and worthy obfervation. At the time of the
union, the crime of treafon in Scotland was, by the
Scots law, in many refpefts different from that of trea¬
fon in England 5 and particularly in its confequence
of forfeitures of entailed eftates, which was more pe¬
culiarly Englifti : yet it feemed neceffary, that a crime
fo nearly affefling government ftiould, both in its ef-
fence and conlequences, be put upon the fame footing
4
] FOR
in both parts of the united kingdoms. In new-mo-Forfeiture,
delling thefe laws, the Scots nation and the Englifti —
houfe of commons ftruggled hard, partly to maintain,
and partly to acquire, a total immunity from forfeiture
and corruption of blood : which the houfe of lords as
firmly refilled. At length a compromife was agreed
to, which is eftabliihed by this ftatute, viz. that the
fame crimes, and no other, ftiould be treafon in Scot¬
land that are fo in England 5 and that the Englifti for¬
feitures and conniption of blood ftiould take place in
Scotland till the death of the then pretender, and then
ceafe throughout the wdiole of Great Britain ; the lords
artfully propofing this temporary claufe, in hopes (it
is faid) that the prudence of fucceeding parliaments
would make it perpetual. This has partly been done
by the ftatute 17 Geo. II. c. 39. made in the year pre¬
ceding the late rebellion), the operation of thefe in¬
demnifying claufes being thereby llill farther liifpend-
ed till the death of the fons of the pretender.
In petit treafon and felony, the offender alfo for¬
feits all his chattel interefts abfolutely, and the profits
of all freehold eftates during life 5 and after his death
all his lands and tenements in fee fimple (but not thofe
in tail) to the crowm, for a very ftiort period of time :
for the king ftiall have them for a year and a day, and
may commit therein what wafte he pleafes; wdiich is
called the king’s year, day, and wafte. Formerly the
king had only a liberty of committing w^afte on the
lands of felons, by pulling down their houfes, extir¬
pating their gardens, ploughing their meadows, and
cutting down their woods. And a puniftiment of a
fimilar fpirit appears to have obtained in the oriental
countries, from the decrees of Nebuchadnezzar and
Cyrus in the books of Daniel and Ezra j which, bo¬
lides the pain of death inflicted on the delinquents
there fpecified, ordain, “ that their houfes (hall be made
a dunghill.” But this tending greatly to the prejudice
of the public, it was agreed in the reign of Henry I.
of England, that the king ftiould have the profits of
the land for one year and a day in lieu of the deftruc-
tion he was otherwife at liberty to commit : and there¬
fore magna charta provides, that the king ihall only hold
fuch lands for a year and a day, and then reftore them
to the lord of the fee, without any mention made of
wrafte. But the ftatute 17 Edward II. de prerogativa
regis, feerns to fuppofe, that the king ftiall have his year,
day, and wafte } and not the year and day injlead of
wafte : which Sir Edward Coke (and the author of the
Mirror before him) very juftly look upon as an en¬
croachment, though a very ancient one, of the royal
prerogative. This year, day, and wafte, are now u-
fually compounded for ; but otherwife they regularly
belong to the crowm : and after their expiration the
land would naturally have defeended to the heir (as in
gavelkind tenure it itill does) did not its feudal quality
intercept finch defeent, and give it by way of efeheat
to the lord. Thefe forfeitures for felony do alfo arife
only upon attainder ; and therefore a felo de fe forfeits
no lands oi inheritance or freehold, for he never is at¬
tainted as a felon. They likewife relate back to the
time the offence w'as committed as well as forfeitures
for treafon, fo as to avoid all intermediate charges and
conveyances. This may be hard upon fuch as have
unwarily engaged with the offender 3 but the cruelty
and reproach muft lie on the part, not of the law, but
of
FOR [
Forfeiture cf tire criminal : who has thus knowingly and diihon-
!1 eftly involved others in his own calamities.
Forge. . 2. The forfeiture of goods and chattels accrues in
v every one of the high kinds of offence ; in high treafon,
or mifprihon thereof, petit treafon, felonies of all forts
whether clergyable or not, felf murder or felony defe,
petty larceny, handing mute, &c. For flight alfo, on
an accufation of treafon, felony, or even petit larceny,
whether the party be found guilty or acquitted, if the
iury find the flight, the party fhall forfeit his goods
and chattels : for the very flight is an offence, carrying
with it a ftrong prefumption of guilt, and is at leafl: an
endeavour to elude and to ftifle the courfe of juflice
prefcvibed by the lawT. But the jury very feldom find
the flight : forfeiture being looked upon, fince the vail
increafe of perfonal property of late years, as too large a
penalty lor an offence to which a man is prompted by
the natural love of liberty.
There is a remarkable difference between the
forfeiture of lands and of goods and chattels. ,(i.)
Lands are forfeited upon attainder, and not before $
goods and chattels are forfeited by conviBion. Be-
caufe in many of the cafes w-here goods are forfeited,
there never is any attainder; which happens only where
judgment of death or outlawry is given : therefore, in
thole cafes, the forfeiture muff be upon conviftion, or
not at all; and, being neceffarily upon conviftion in
thofe, it is fo ordered in all other cafes, for the law
loves uniformity. (2.) The forfeiture of lands has
relation to the time the fa£f wTas committed, fo as to
avoid all fubfequent fales and encumbrances : but the
forfeiture of goods and chattels has no relation back¬
wards ; fo that thofe only which a man has at the time
of conviflion lhall be forfeited. Therefore a traitor
or felon may bona fide fell any of his chattels, real or
perfonal, for the fuftenance of himfelf and family be¬
tween the fad and convi&ion ; for perfonal property
is of fo fluctuating a nature, that it paffes through
many hands in a Ihort time j and no buyer could be
fafe, if he wrere liable to return the goods w'hich he
had fairly bought, provided any of the prior venders
had committed a treafon or felony. Yet if they be
collufively and not bona fide parted wfith, merely to
defraud the crown, the law (and particularly the fta-
tute 13 Fliz. c. 5.) will reach them 5 for they are all
the while truly and fubftantially the goods of the
offender : and as he, if acquitted, might recover them
himfelf, as not parted wfith for a good confideration •,
fo, in cafe he happens to be convifted, the law will re¬
cover them for the king.
FORFEX, in Roman antiquity, was a wray of
drawing up an army in the form of a pair of Iheers.
It w’as intended to receive the cuneus or wedge, if the
enemy fhould make ufe of that figure. For when the
forfex opened to admit the wedge, they had an opportu¬
nity of defeating their defign, and cutting them in pieces.
FORFICULA, the karwig, a genus of infedls be¬
longing to the order of coleoptera. See Entomology
Index.
FORGE, properly fignifies a little furnace, where¬
in fmiths and other artificers of iron or fteel, &c. heat
their metals red hot, in order to foften them and render
them more malleable and manageable on the anvil.
An ordinary forge is nothing but a pair of bellow's,
the nozzle of which is dire&ed upon a fmooth area,
VOL. IX. Part I.
) ] FOR
on which coals are placed. The nozzle of a pair of Forge
bellowTs may be alfo direded to the bottom of any fur- porJ|;t,r
nace, to excite the combuftion of the coals placed , —
there, by which a kind of forge is formed. In labo¬
ratories, there is .generally a fmall furnace confifting
of one cylindrical piece, open at top, which has at its
lower fide a hole for receiving the nozzle of a double¬
bellows. This kind of forge furnace is very conveni*
ent for fufions, as the operation is quickly performed,
■and with few coals. In its lower part, two inches
above the hole for receiving the nozzle of the bellows,
may be placed an iron plate of the fame diameter, fup-
ported upon twro horizontal bars, and pierced near its
circumference with four holes diametrically oppofite to
each other. By this difpofition, the wind of the bel¬
low's, puthed forcibly under this plate, enters at thefe
four holes j and thus the heat of the fire is equally dii-
tributed, and the crucible in the furnace is equally fur-
rounded by it. This contrivance is ufed in the forge-
furnaces for melting copper, with this difference on¬
ly, that thefe furnaces are fquare, which is a matter of
no confequence.
As the wind of bellows ftrongly and rapidly excites
the action of the fire, a forge is very convenient wdien
a great heat is to be applied quickly : but it is not
fuitable when the heat is to be gradually increafed.
The forge, or blalt of bellows, is tiled in feveral ope¬
rations in fmall •, as to fufe falts, metals, ores, &c. It
is alfo much ufed in w'orks in the great, which require
ffrong heat, without much management } and chiefly in
the fmelting of ores, and fufion of metallic matters.
Forge is alfo ufed for a large furnace, wherein iron
ore, taken out of the mine, is melted down : or it is
more properly applied to another kind of furnace,
wherein the iron-ore, melted down and feparated in a
former furnace, and then caff into lows and pigs, is
heated and fufed over again, and beaten afterwards
with large hammers, and thus rendered more foft, pure,
dudfile, and fit for ufe.
Forge, in the train of artillery, is generally called
a travelling forge, and may not be improperly called
a portable fmith’s Ihop : at this forge all manner of
fmith’s work is made, and it can be ufed upon a march
as well as in camp. Formerly they were very ill con¬
trived, with two wheels only, and wmoden fupporters to
prop the forge for working when in the park. Of late
years they are made with four wheels, which anfwers
their purpofe much better.
Forge for red-hot Balls, is a place w'here the balls
are made red hot before they are fired off: it is built
about five or fix feet below the furfate of the ground,
of ftrong brick-work, and an iron grate, upon which
the balls are laid, with a large fire under them.
FORGER, in Law, one guilty of forgery.
FORGERY (from the French forger, i. e. accudare,
fabricare, “ to beat on an anvil, forge, or form,’1) may
be defined at common law, to be “ the fraudulent
making or alteration of a writing, to the prejudice of
another man’s right for which the offender may fuf-
fer fine, imprifonment, and pillory. And alfo, by a
variety of ftatutes, a more fevere punilhment is inflidled
on the offender in many particular cafes, which are fo
multiplied of late as almoft to become general. We fliall
mention the principal inftances.
By ftatute 5 Eliz. c. 14. to forge or make, or knour-
B " ingly
FOR [ i
• ingly to publiili or give in evidence, any forged deed,
court-roll, or will, with intent to aftedl the right of real
property, eilner freehold or copyhold, is punilhed by
a forfeiture to the party grieved of double cods and
damages; by Handing in the pillory, and having both
his ears cut off, and his nollrils flit and feared ; bv
forfeiture to the crown of the profits of his lands, and
by perpetual imprilbnment. For any forgery relating
to a term of years or annuity, bond, obligation, ac¬
quittance, releafe, or difcharge of any debt or demand
of any perfonal chattels, the lame forfeiture is given to
the party grieved ; and on the offender is inffided the
pillory, lofs of one of his ears, and half a year’s im-
prifonment : the fecond offence, in both cafes, being
felony without benefit of clergy.
Belides this general aft, a multitude of others, fince
the Revolution (when paper credit was firft eftahlilhed),
have inflifted capital puuilhment on the forging, al¬
tering, or uttering as true when forged, of any bank
bills or notes, or other fecurities; of bills of credit
iffued from the exchequer 5 of South Sea bonds, &c. ;
ot lottery tickets or orders 5 of army or navy deben¬
tures •, of Faff India bonds j of writings under feal ef
the London or royal exchange aflurance j of the hand
of the receiver of the pre-fines, or of the accountant-
general and certain other officers of the court of chan¬
cery j of a letter of attorney or other power to receive
or transfer flock or annuities } and ■ n the perfonating
a proprietor thereof, to receive or transfer fuch annui¬
ties, flock or dividends: alfo on the perfonating, or
procuring to be perfonated, any feaman or other per-
fon, entitled to wages or other naval emoluments, or
any of his perfonal reprefentatives j and the taking, or
procuring to be taken, any falfe oath in order to ob¬
tain n probate or letters of adminiftration, in order to
receive fuch payments 5 and the forging, or procuring
to be forged, and likewife the uttering or publifhing,
as true, of any counterfeited feaman’s will or power :
to which may be added, though not ftriftly reducible
to this head, the counterfeiting of Mediterranean paf-
fes under the hands of the lords of the admiralty, to
proteft one from the piratical ftates of Barbary ; the
forging or imitating of any ffamps to defraud the
public revenue ; and the forging of any marriage re-
giffer or licenfe : all which are, by diftinft afts of par¬
liament, made felonies without benefit of clergy. By
ilatutes 13 Geo. III. c. 52. & 59. forging or counter¬
feiting any damp or mark to denote the ftandard of
gold and filver plate, and certain other offences of the
like tendency, are puniffied with tranfportation for 14
yeats. By flatute 12 Geo. III. c. 48. certain frauds
on the flamp-duties, therein defcribed, principally by
uhng the fame ffamps more than once, are made fingle
felony, and liable to tranfportation for leven years.
And the fame punilhment is inflifted by flatute 13
Geo. III. c. 38. 011 fueh as counterfeit the common
real of the corporation for manufafturing plate glafs
(thereby erefted), or knowingly demand money of the
company by virtue of any writing under fuch counter¬
feit feal.
There are alfo two other general laws with regard
to forgery the one 2 Geo. II. c. 25. whereby the firft
offence in forging or procuring to be forged, afting or
affifting therein, or uttering or publiftiing as true, any
forged deed, will, bond, writing obligatory, bill of ex-
Fork.
O ] FOR
change, promiffory note, indorfement or affignment Forgiag
thereof, or any acquittance or receipt for money or 11
goods, with intention to defraud any perfon (or corl
poration), is made felony without benefit of clero-y.
/^nd by ftatute 7 Geo. II. c. 22. it is equally penal to
forge, or caufe to be forged, or utter as true, a coun¬
terfeit acceptance of a bill of exchange, or the number
of any accountable receipt for any note, bill, or any
other fecurity for money, or any warrant or order for
the payment of money, or delivery of goods. So that
through the number of thefe general and fpecial pro-
vifions, there is now hardly a cafe poffible to be con¬
ceived, wherein forgery, that.tends to defraud, whether
in the name of a real or ficlitions perfon, is not made
a capital crime.
Forging, in Law, the aft of Forgery.
. Forging, in fmithery, the beating or hammering
iron on the anvil, after having firft made it red hot in
the forge,, in order to extend it into various forms, and
iafluon it into various works. See Forge.
There are two ways of forging and hammering iron.
One is by the force of the hand, in which there are
usually feveral perfons employed, one of them turning
the iron and hammering likewife, and the reft only
hammering. The other way is by the force of a wa¬
ter-mill, which raifes and works feveral huge hammers
beyond the force of man ; under the ftrokes whereof
the. workmen prelent large lumps or pieces of iron
vvhich are fuftained at one end by the anvils, and at
the other by iron chains faftened to the ceiling of the
forge. See Mill. 6
This laft way of forging is only ufed in the largeft
works, as anchors for Ihips, &c. which ufually wemh
feveral thoufand pounds. For the lighter works, a
iingle man ferves to hold, heat, and turn with one hand,
while he hammers with the other.
Each purpofe the work is defigned for requires its
proper heat ; for if it be too cold, it will not feel the
weight of the hammer, as the fmiths call it when it
will.not batter under the hammer j and if it be too hot"
it will red fear, that is, break or crack under the ham¬
mer.
. The feveral degrees of heat the fmiths give their
irons, are, firft, a blood-red heat j fecondly, a white-
flame heat ; and thirdly, a fparkling or welding heat
FORISFAMILIATION, in Law, WhenSa child
upon receiving a portion from his father, or otherwife’
renounces his legal title to any further {bare of his fa¬
ther s fucccflion, he is faid to be forisfamiliated.
FORK, a well known inftrument, confiftino- 0f a
handle and blade, divided at the end into two or more
points or prongs.
The pitchfork is a large utenfil of this conftruftion
employed in hay-making, &c.
. The table fork, an inftrument now fo indifpenfable
did not come into ufe in England till'the reign of
James I. as we learn from a remarkable paffage in Co-
ryat. The reader will probably, fmile at the folemn man¬
ner in which this important difcovery or innovation is
related: “ Here I will mention a thing that might have
been fpoken of before in difcourfe of the firft Italian
townes. I ohferved a cuftom in all thofe Italian cities
and townes through the which I paffed, that is not
uied in any other country that I faw in my travels
neither do I thinke that any other nation of Chriften-
dome
FOR [i
Forli dome doth ufe it, but only Italy. The Italians and al-
II fo moft ftrangers that are commorant in Italy, doe al-
orm' , ways at their meals ufe a little forke when they eat
their meate 5 for while with their knife which they
hold in one hand they cut the meate out of the dixh,
they faften the forke which they hold in the other
hand upon the fame difh, fo that whatfoever he be
that fitting in the company of any others at meale
fhall unadvifedly touch the diib of meat with his fin¬
gers from which all the table doe cut, he will give oc-
cafion of offence unto the company as having tranf-
grefled the lawes of good manners, infomuch that
for his error he ihall be at leaft brow-beaten if not re¬
prehended in wordes. This form of feeding I under-
iland is generally ufed in all parts of Italy, their forkes
for the moil part being made of yronn, fteele, and
fome of filver, but thofe are- ufed only by gentlemen.
The reafon of this their curiofity is, becauie the Ita¬
lian cannot by any means indure to have his di(h touch¬
ed with fingers, feeing all men’s fingers are not alike
cleane. Hereupon I myfelf thought good to imitate
the Italian fafhion by this forked cutting of meate,
not only while I wTas in Italy, but alfo in Germany,
and often times in England fince I came home : be¬
ing once quipped for that frequently ufing my forke,
by a certain learned gentleman, a familiar friend of
mine, Mr Lawrence Whitaker 5 who in his merry hu¬
mour doubted not to call me a table furcifer, only for
ufing a forke at feeding, but for no other caufe.”
FORLI, an ancient and confiderable town of Italy,
and capital of a territory of the fame name, in Ro¬
magna, w ith a bilhop’s fee. The public ftruftures are
very handfome \ and it is feated in a fertile, healthy,
and pleafant country, 10 miles fouth-eaft of Faenza,
and 45 north-eaft of Florence. E. Long. 12. 1, N.
Lat. 44. 28.
FORLORN-hope, in the military art, fignifies men
detached from feveral regiments, or otherwife appoint¬
ed, to make the firft attack in day of battle ; or, at a
fiege, to fcorm the counterfcarp, mount the breach, or
the like. They are fo called from the great danger
they are unavoidably expofed to j but the word is old,
and begins to be obfolete.
FORM, in P!iy/ics, denotes the manner of being pe¬
culiar to each body j or that which conflitutes it fuch
a particular body, and diftinguflhes it from every o-
ther.
Mr Harris ufes the term form likewife in another
fenfe, as an efficient animating principle ; to which he
fuppofes Ovid to refer in the firfl lines of his Metamor-
phofis,
In nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas,
Corpora. 
Thefe animating forms are of thdmfelves no objects
either of the ear or of the eye j but their nature or
character is underftood in this, that were they never to
exert their proper energies on their proper fubje&s,
the marble on which the fculptor exercifes his art
W’ould remain for ever fhapelefs, and the harp from
which the harper calls forth founds would remain for
ever filent.
Thus, alfo, the animating form of a natural body
is neither its organization nor its figure, nor any other
of thofe inferior forms which make up the fyftem of
1 ] FOR
its vifible qualities : but it is the power, which is yet Form,
able to produce, preferve, and employ thefe. It is the
power, which firlt moves, and then condudls that la¬
tent procefs, by which the acorn becomes an oak, and
the embryo becomes a man 5 by wdiich digeflion is
performed in plants and animals, and, which depart¬
ing, the body ceafes to live, and its members putrefy :
and by which every being produces another like itfelf,
and every fpecies is continued. In animals, it is that
higher faculty, which by employing the organs of
fenfe, peculiar to them as animals, diftinguifhes them
as fenfitive beings from vegetables ; and it is alfo that
more noble faculty, which by its own divine vigour,
unaflifted perhaps with organs, makes and denominates
him a being intelleftive and rational. So that Mr
Harris reckons two forts of forms, thofe which are
paflive elements, and thofe which are efficient caufes.
And all of them agree in this, that they give to every
being its peculiar and diftinftive charafter : and on the
whole he concludes, that form appears in part, to be an
element, and in part an efficient caufe, i. e. a caufe
which allociates the conftituent elements of natural
fubfiances, and which employs them, when affociated,
according to their various and peculiar charafters.
The philofophers generally allow two principles of
bodies : matter, as the common bafis or fubftratum of
all j and form, as that which fpecifies and diftinguifties
each; and which added to a quantity of common mat¬
ter, determines or denominates it this or that j wood,
or fire, or allies, &c.
Subftantial forms feem to have been firft broached by
the followers of Ariftotle, who thought matter, under
different modes or modifications, not fufficient to con-
ftitute different bodies j but that fomething fubftantial
was neceffary to fet them at a greater diltance : and
thus introduced fubftantial forms, on the footing of
fouls, which fpecify and diftinguiffi animals. What
led to this erroneous notion were the circumftances of
life and death : For obferving, that, as foon as the
foul was departed out of a man, all motion, refpira-
tion, nutrition, &c. immediately ceafed, they conclud¬
ed, that all thefe funftions depended on the foul,
and confequently that the foul was the form of the
animal body, or that which conftituted it fuch : that
the foul was a fubftance, independent of matter, no
body doubted 5 and hence the forms of other bodies
were concluded equally fubftantial. But to this it is
anfwered, that though the foul be that by v/hich a
man is man, and confequently is the form of the hu¬
man body, as human ; yet it does not follow, that it
is properly the form of this body of ours, as it is
a body ; nor of the feveral parts thereof, confidered as
diftinft from each other : For thofe feveral parts have
their proper forms fo clofely connefted with their mat¬
ter, that it remains infeparable therefrom long after
the foul has quitted the body ; thus flefh has the form
of flelh, bone of bone, &c. long after the foul is re¬
moved as well as before. The truth is, the body does
not become incapable of performing its accuftomed
functions becaufe the foul has deferted it j but the foul
takes its leave, becaufe the body is not in a condition
to perform its fun&ions.
The ancient and modern corpufcular philofophers,
therefore, with the Cartefians, exclude the notion of
fubftantial forms} and fliow, by many arguments, that
B 2 the
FOR [ i
^ orm- tlis form is only tlie modus or manner of die body it is
inherent in. And as there are only three primary
modes of matter, viz. figure, reft, or motion, with
two others arifing therefrom, viz. magnitude and fitua-
tion, the form of all bodies they hold to confift there¬
in ; and fuppofe the variations thefe modes are capable
of, fufficient to prefent all the variety obfervable in bo¬
dies.
Forms are ufually diftinguiftied into ejfential and ac¬
cidental.
Ejfential. Though the five modes above mentioned,
generally taken, be adventitious ; yet to this or that
body, e. gr. to fire or water, they are eftential: thus,
it is accidental to iron, to have this or that magnitude,
figure, or fituation, fince it might exift in different
ones 5 yet to a knife or hammer, the figure, magni¬
tude, and pofition of parts, wrhich conftitute it a ham¬
mer or knife, are effential 5 and they cannot exift or
be conceived without them. Hence it is inferred,
that though there be no fubftantial, there are eft'en-
tial, forms, whereby the feveral fpecies of bodies be¬
come what they are, and are 'diftinguifhed from all
others.
Accidetital forms, are thofe really inherent in bodies,
but in fuch manner as that the body may exift in all
its perfection without them. Such as whitenefs in a
wall, heat in water, a figure of a man in w-ax, &cc.
Form is alfo ufed, in a moral fenfe, for the manner
of being or doing a thing according to rules : thus
we fay, a form of government, a form of argument,
Sec.
Form, in Law, the rules eftablifiied and requifite to
be obferved in legal proceedings.—The formal part of
the law, or method of proceeding, cannot be altered
but by parliament 5 for if once thefe outworks were
demoliftted, there w ould be an inlet to all manner of in¬
novation in the body of the law itlelf.
Form, in carpentry, is ufed to denote the long
feats or benches in the choirs of churches or in fchools,
for the priefts, prebends, religious, or fcholars, to fit
on. Du Cange takes the name to be derived from
hence, that the backs of the feats were anciently en¬
riched with figures of painting and fculpture, called in
Latin furmce et typi. In the life of St William of Rof-
child, we meet with forma as fignifying a feat for an
ecclefiaftic, or religious, in a choir j and in that of St
Lupicin, we have formula in the fame fenfe. In the
rule of the rnonaftery of St Caefarea, the man who pre-
fides over the choir is called primiceria, vclformari.
At fchools, the word form is frequently applied to
what is otherwife termed a clafs. See Class.
Form alfo denotes the external appearance or fur-
face of a body, or the difpofition of its parts as to the
length, breadth, and thicknefs.
Form is alfo ufed among mechanics, for a fort of
mould wherein any thing is faftiioncd or wrought.
Printers Form, an afiemblage of letters, words, and
lines, ranged in order, and fo difpofed into pages by
tjre compofitor j from which, by means of ink and a
prefs, the printed fheets are drawn.
F.very form is enclofed in an iron chafe, wherein it
is firmly locked by a number of pieces of wTood ; fome
long and narrow, and others of the form of wedges.
There are twq forms required for every fheet, one for
2 ] FOR
each fide ; and each form confifts of mere or fewer pages Form
according to the fize of the book. II
Hatter's Form, is a large block or piece of wood, of, Furman-
a cylindrical figure ; the top thereof rounded, and the
bottom quite flat. Its ufe is, to mould or fafhion the
crown of the hat, after the matter thereof has been
beaten and fulled.
Papermaker's Form, is the frame or mould wherein
the fheets are faflrioned. See Paper.
FORMA pauperis, in I^aw, is wThen a perfon has
juft caufe of fuit, but is fo poor that he cannot de¬
fray the ulual charges of firing at law or in equity; in
which cafe, on making oath that he is not worth 5I.
in the w'orld, on all his debts being paid, and produ¬
cing a certificate from fome lawyer that he has good
caufe of fuit, the judge will admit him to fue in forma
pauperis; that is, without paying any fee to ccninfci-
lors, attorneys, or clerk: the ftatute 11 Hen. VII.
c. 12. having enadled, that counfel and attorneys, &c.
fhall be aftigned to fuch poor perfons gratis. Where
it appears that any pauper has fold or contradfted for
the benefit of his fuit whilft it is depending in court,
fiich caufe flrall be thenceforth totally difmiffed ; and a
perfon firing in forma pauperis fhall not have a new trial
granted him, but is to acquiefce in the judgment of
the court.
FORMAL, fomething belonging to or conftituting
the form of a thing. See Form.
FORMALITY, the quality of a form, or formula j
or that which conftitutes and denominates them fuch.
Formality, as defined in the fchools, is any man¬
ner wherein a thing is conceived \ or a manner in any
objedf, importing a relation to the underftanding,
whereby it may be diftinguifhed from another object.
Thus, animality and rationality are formalities. The
Scottifts made great ufe of formalities, in oppofition to
the virtualities of the Thomifts.
Formalities, in matters of law, are frequently
ufed for the formulas themfelves, or the rules preferib-
ed for judiciary proceedings. In contrads of ftrict
law, all the form allies muft be ftridly obferved : an
omiflion of the leaft formality may ruin the whole con¬
vention. .
The term is alfo ufed for a certain order or deco*
rum to be obferved.
FORMAN, Andrew, archbifhop of St Andrew’s,
earl of Pittenw7eem, and of Cottingham in England,
one of the lords of the regency appointed by the ftates
during the minority of King James V. of Scotland,
legate a latere, primate of all the kingdom of Scot¬
land, and archbifhop of Bourges in France, wras de-
feended from the family of the Formans of Hutton in
the ftiire of Berwick, and is confidered to have been
one of the beft ftatefmen of the age in which he lived.
Fie wras employed in J50J, along with Robert Black-,
ader archbifhop of Glafgow and Patrick earl of Both-
wrell, to negotiate a match between Ja. IV. of Scotland
and Margaret eldeft daughter of Hen. VII. of England,
which next year wras ratified by the Scottifh ambafladors.
He w’as afterw’ards frequently employed as Scots am-
baffador to Rome, England, and France, upon the moft
important occafions. In 15M be w7as tranflated from
the fee of Moray, to which he had been appointed in
1502, to that of St Andrew’s. During the time of
(
F
his poffefling the former, he was
betwixt Pope Julius II. and Louis XII. of France, who
were at that time at variance ; and he happily fucceed-
ed in conciliating the difference. Having taken leave
of the Pope, heC paffed through France on his return
home, where he was kindly received by the king and
queen, who beftowed upon him the bilhopric of Bour-
ges in France, which annually brought him in 400
tons of wine, 10,000 franks of gold, and other fmaller
articles. Befides all this, he was moft liberally rewarded
by Pope Julius, who promoted him to the archbifhopric
of St Andrew’s, as has been already mentioned } con¬
ferred on him the two rich abbeys of Dunfermline and
Aberbrothic ; and made him his legate a latere. At
that time, however, there were two other candidates
for the archiepifcopal fee. The learned Gavin Dou¬
glas, bifhop of Dunkeld, having been nominated by
the queen, had actually taken poffelTion of it *, but
John Hepburn, a bold and factious man, having
been preferred by the monks, drove out the officers
of Gavin Douglas, and placed a ftrong garrifon
in the caffle. So great was the power of this man,
that when Forman was nominated by the Pope, no
perfon could be found who durft proclaim the bulls
for his ele£tion. At laft Lord Home, at that time the
moft powerful nobleman in Scotland, was induced, by
large promifes, befides fome gifts of great confequence,
among which was the donation of the abbacy of Cold-
ingham to his youngeff brother David, to undertake
the talk. It was executed at Edinburgh and St An¬
drew’s ; to which places Lord Home’s brother went
with 10,000 men 5 though the doing of it, contrary
to- Forman’s inclination, proved a fource of much
trouble to that nobleman afterwards. The quarrel be¬
twixt Hepburn and Forman, however, was at laft ter¬
minated by the latter furrendering the bifhopric of
Moray, as wTell as fome years revenue of the archbi¬
fhopric itfelf; paying Hepburn alfo 3000 French
crowns annually out of his ecclefiaftical revenues. On
the appointment of the duke of Albany to the regen¬
cy, Hepburn endeavoured to undermine the primate’s
credit with that nobleman, by reprefenting him as one
who had in a manner colle£led all the money in the
country, and who confequently might endanger the
tranquillity of the kingdom. Thefe infmuations, how¬
ever, were but little regarded by the regent j and For¬
man had the good fortune afterwards to make up a
difference between him and the nobility, which was
likely to be attended with much bloodfhed. In IJ1?*
the archbilhop vras appointed by the ftates one of the
lords of the regency, on occalion of the duke of Al¬
bany’s going to France. We have already mentioned
his embaffy to Pope Julius II. In M‘Kenzie’s Lives
we are informed, that in the colle&ion of the Letters
of the Scottiih Kings from the year 1505 till the year
1626, in the lawyers library, there is a letter from that
pope to King James IV. wherein he not only highly
commends Forman, but likewife promifes that at the
firft creation of cardinals he fliould be made one. This
letter is dated the 6th of May 1511 : but the pope
died before he had an opportunity of performing his
promife. In the fame collection there is a letter from
the duke of Albany to Leo X. Julius’s fucceffor,
wherein he preffes the pope to advance him to the dig-
nitj 'of a cardinal promifed him by his predecsffor,
' F O R
and to continue him his legate a latere. Archbilhop Formatk*i
Forman died in 1521, and was buried at Dunfermline. ForrJF
Dempfter fays that he wrote a book againft Luther, a
book concerning the Stoic Philofophy, and a Collec¬
tion out of the Decretals.
FORMATION, in Philofophy, an aft whereby
fomething is formed or produced, for the formation
of the foetus in the womb, fee Anatomy, N® 109.
110.
Form 4Tion of Stones. See Stone,
Formation of Metals and Minerals. See Metal-
and Mineral.
Formation, in Grammar, ftgnifies the manner of
forming one word from another 5 thus accountantfhip is
formed from accountant, and this laft from account.
FORMEDON, in Lavo, (breve deforma donationis)r
a writ that lies for a perfon who has a right to lands or
tenements, by virtue of any entail, ariling from the
ftatute of Weftm. 2. Ch. II.
This unit is of three kinds, viz. a defcender, remain¬
der, and revetter. Formedon in defcender, lies where a
tenant in tail infeoffs a ftranger, or is diffeifed and dies,
and the heir may bring this wuit to recover the lands.
Formedon in remainder, lies where a man gives lands,
&c. to a perfon in tail, and for default of iffue of
his body, the remainder to another in tail: here if the
tenant in tail die without iffue, and a ftranger abates
and enters into the land, he in remainder lhall have
this writ. Formedon in reverter, lies where lands are-
entailed on certain perfons and their iffue, with re¬
mainder over for wrant of iffue j and, on that remain¬
der failing, then to revert to the donor and his heirs :
in this cafe, if the tenant in tail dies without iffue,
and alfo he in remainder, the donor and his heirs,^
to whom the reveriion returns, may have this writ for
the recovery of the eftate, though the fame be aliena •
ted, &c.
FORMlAi, or Formia, in Ancient Geography, a ma¬
ritime town of the AdjeCfedor New Latium, to the fouth-
eaft of Cajeta 5 built by the Lacedaemonians, (Strabo) 5
called originally Hormice, on account of its commo¬
dious harbour. An ancient municipium. Formiam,
the people \ who were admitted to the liberty of the
city the very year in wffiich Alexandria was built ; but
not to the right of fuffrage till a long time after the
fecond Punic war, (Livy). Formhe at this day lies in
ruins, near a place now called Mala.
FORMICA, the ant, a genus of infers belonging
to the order of hymenoptera. See Entomology
Index.
The infefts called white ants, which abound in Afri¬
ca and the Eaft Indies, belong to the genus termes,
which fee in ENTOMOLOGY Index.
Formica Leo, the Ant lion, fo called from its de¬
vouring great numbers of ants. It is the caterpillar or
worm of a fly much refembling the libeliae or dragon fliesj
and feeds chiefly upon ants.
FORMING is ufed for the aft of giving being or
birth to any thing.
The wmrd is alfo Amply ufed for giving the figure ■
to any thing. The potter forms his veffels as he
pleafes. Geometry teaches how to form all kinds of
figures.
It is likewife ufed for the producing of a thiifig ;
thus, the lineaments of the face began to be formed.
Forming
o
[ 13
employed as mediator
"Forming,
Formofa.
>  
FOR [ i
'Forming of a Siege, is the making lines of circum-
^ vallation to fortify the camp, and difpofing things for
the attack of a place in form.
They alfo fay, to form a fquadron or battalion ;
meaning to range the foldiers in form of a fquadron,
&c.
Forming the Line, is drawing up infantry, cavalry,
and artillery, into line of battle. See Line.
Forming is alfo ufed in grammar, in fpeaking of
certain tenfes of verbs, which are made from others by
a change of certain letters. The prefent tenfe is formed
from the infinitive. Compound and derivative words
alfo, and even all that have any etymology, are faid to
be formed.
FORMOSA, an ifland in the Pacific ocean, be¬
tween 1190 and 1220 of E. Long, and 22° and 250
N. Lat. about 100 miles eaft of Canton in China. It
is fubjeft to the Chinefe \ who, however, notwithftand-
ing its vicinity, did not know of its exiftence until the
year 1430. It is about 85 leagues in length, and 25
in breadth. Along chain of mountains, which runs
from north to fouth, divides it into two parts, the
eaftern and weftern. The Dutch formed an eftablilh-
ment in the weftern part in 1634, and built the fort
of Zealand, which fecured to them the principal port
of the ifland *, but they were driven from thence in
1659 or JbSi by a celebrated Chinefe pirate, who made
himfelf mafter of all the weftern part, which afterwards
fubmitted in 1682 to the authority of Kang-he emperor
of China.
This weftern part of Formofa is divided into three
diftinfl governments, all fubordinate to the governor
J ai-ouan, the capital of the ifland, who is himfelf
fubjeft to the viceroy of the province of Fokien.
This ifland prefents extenfive and fertile plains, wa¬
tered by a great number of rivulets that fall from the
eaftern mountains. Its air is pure and wholefome 5 and
the earth produces in abundance, corn, rice, and the
greater part of other grains. Moft of the Indian fruits
are found here, liich as oranges, bananas, pine-apples,
guavas, papaws, cocoa nuts; and part of thofe of Eu-
rope, particularly peaches, apricots, figs, raifins, chef-
nuts, pomegranates, water melons, &c. Tobacco, fu-
gar, pepper, camphire, and cinnamon, are alfo common.
Horfes, flieep, and goats, are very rare in this ifland :
there are even few hogs, although thefe animals
abound in China. Domeftic poultry, fuch as fowls,
geefe, and ducks, are exceedingly plenty ; pheafants
alfo are fometimes feen ; and monkeys and flags have
multiplied fo much, that they wander through the coun¬
try in large flocks.
i he inhabitants of Formofa rear a great number of
•oxen, which they ufe for riding, from a want of horfes
and mules. They accuftom them early to this kind
of fervice, and by daily exercife train them to go as
well and as expeditioufly as the beft horfes. Thefe
oxen are furniflied with a bridle, faddle, and crupper.
A Chinefe looks as big and proud when mounted in
this manner, as if he were carried by the fineft Barbary
courfer.
Wholefome water fit for drinking is the only thino-
wanting in the ifland of Formofa. It is very extraor¬
dinary, that every kind of water in it is a deadly poi-
ion to ftrangers, for which no remedy has hitherto
been found. “ One of the governor’s fervants,” fays
4 ]
FOR
Father de Mailla, “ whom I had in my train fa ftronc Formofiu
and robuft man), trufting too much to the force of his 
conftitution, would not believe what had been told
him concerning this water : he drank feme of it; and
died in leis than five days, after every medicine and
antidote had been adminiftered without fuccels. There
is none but the water of the capital which can be
drunk : the mandarins of the place therefore always
took care to tranfport a fufficiency of it in carts for
our ufe.” Our author adds, that at the bottom of a
mountain a league diftant from Fong-kan-hien there is
a fpring that produces a ftream, the water of which is of
a whitifh blue colour, and fo noxious, that no one can
approach it.
There are few_ mulberry trees in Formofa, confe-
quently little filk is made in the country. Numerous
manufabfures, however, would foon be introduced in¬
to it, were the Chinefe permitted indifcriminatelv to
tranfport themfelves thither, and to form eftablifhments
in the ifland. Thofe who go to it muft be protected
by paflports from the Chinefe mandarins, and thefe
paflports are fold at a dear rate ; fecurities are befides
lequired. .Ihis is not all : when they arrive, money-
muft be given to the mandarins who are appointed to
examine thofe who enter or quit the ifland, and who
generally difeharge this duty with the moft rigid feve-
nty. If they give no prefent, or offer only a trifle,
they meet with little mercy; and are fure to be fent
back, whatever paffport they may have. The Chinefe,
through policy, connive at thefe exadHons, to prevent
too great a nnmber of people from emigrating to this
ifland, which is rendered a place of great importance
by its proximity to China. They fear, and with great
reafon (efpecially fince Tartar emperors have been on
the throne), that if any revolt ftiould happen in For¬
mofa, its influence might fpread and occafion great
difturbance in the whole empire. On this account, the
Tartars kept a garrifon there of 10,000 men: which
they take care to change every three years, or even
oftener if they judge it neceffary.
Befides the capital, the Chinefe have alfo two other
cities, and feme villages, where they inhabit alone j
for they do not permit the Indians, who are their fub-
jebts, to live among them; they fuffer none to remain
but thofe who are either their flaves or domeftics. 
Thefe Indians are united into 45 villages; 36 of which -
lie to the north, and 9 towards the fouth. The nor¬
thern villages are very populous, and the houfes are
built almoft after the Chinefe manner. The habita¬
tions of the fouthern iflanders are only heaps of huts
or cottages of earth. In thefe huts they have neither
chairs, benches, tables, beds, nor any piece of furni¬
ture the middle part is occupied by a kind of hearth
or chimney, raifed two feet high, and conftrudled of
earth, upon which they drefs their vibluals. Their
ordinary food is rice, other fmall grain, and the game
which they catch by courfing or kill with their arms,
i hefe iflanders run .with fuch furprifing fwiftnefs, that
they can almoft outftrip the fleeteft greyhound. The
Chineie attribute this agility to the precaution they
take of confining their knees and reins by a clofe ban¬
dage until the age of 14 or 15. Their favourite arms are
lances, which they dart to the diftance of 60 or 80 feet
with the greateft dexterity and precifion. They ufe
bows and arrows, and can kill a pheafant on wing with
«s
FOR [ 15 ] FOR
Formcfa. as much certainty as an European fportfman could witli
*" v'~‘ ’ a fufee. Thefe people are very dirty in their manner
of eating. They have neither plates, diflies, nor fpoons,
nor even the final 1 iticks ufed in China. Whatever
they drefs is placed on a plain board or mat, and
they make ufe of their fingers for conveying it to
their mouths. They eat flefli half raw ; and provided
it has been only prefented to the fire, it appears to
them excellent. Their beds are formed of frelh ga¬
thered leaves. They go almoft naked, and wear only
a piece of cloth which hangs from their girdle to their
knees. Thofe among them, who, according to the
judgment of the chiefs of the village, have borne away
the prize for agility in running or dexterity in the
chafe, obtain the honourable privilege of making on
their flcin, by a very painful operation, feveral fantalli-
cal figures of flowers, trees, and animals. All have
the right of blackening their teeth, and of wearing or¬
naments of bracelets and crowns made of fliells and
eryftal.
The iflanders who inhabit the northern part, where
the climate is fomething colder, clothe themfelves with
the fldns of the Hags which they kill in hunting. They
make a kind of drefs of them without fleeves, that
pretty much refembles a dalmatic, or veftment worn
at the altar by the Roman clergy. They wear on
their heads caps in the form of a cylinder, made of
palm leaves, and ornamented with feveral crowns
placed one above another, on the top of which they
fix plumes compofed of the feathers of a cock or
pheafant.
The marriage ceremonies of the inhabitants of For-
mofa approach near to the Ample laws of nature. They
neither purchafe, as in China, the women whom they
efpoufe, nor does intereft ever prefide over their unions.
Fathers and mothers are fcarcely ever confulted. If a
young man has a mind to marry, and has fixed his
affedtion on a young girl, he appears for feveral days
following near the place where Ihe lives with a mufical
inflrument in his- hand. If the young woman is fatis-
fied with the figure of her gallant, fhe comes forth and
joins him : they then agree and fettle the marriage
contract. After this they give notice to their parents,
who prepare a wedding dinner, which is always given
in the houfe where the young woman refides, and where
the bridegroom remains without returning again to
nis father. The young man afterwards confiders the
houfe of his father-in-law as his own. He becomes
the whole fupport of it, and he has no farther connec¬
tion with that of his father 5 like married women in
E-urope, who generally quit their paternal home in
order to live with their hulbands. Thefe iflanders
therefore feldom offer up vows for obtaining male
children : they prefer daughtefs, becaufe they pro¬
cure them fons-in-law, who become the fupports of their
old-age.
Although the Formofans are entirely fubjedted to
the Chinefe, they Hill preferve fome remains of their
ancient government. Each village choofes three or
four old men from among thofe who have the greatefl:
reputation for probity. By this choice they become
the rulers and judges of the reft of the hamlet. They
have the power of finally determining all differences;
and if any one fhould refufe to abide by their judge¬
ment, he would be immediately banilhed from the vil-
lage, without hopes of ever being able to re-entdr it, Formofa,
and none of the inhabitants would afterwards dare to   v  
receive him.
The natives pay in grain the tribute impofed on
them by the Chinefe. To regulate every thing that
concerns the laying on and col led! mg of this impoft,
government has eftablilhed a Chinefe in every village,
who is obliged to learn the language and adl as inter¬
preter to the mandarins. Thefe interpreters are molt
cruel extortioners to the miferable people, whom they
ought rather to protedl : they are fuch infatiable
leeches, that they can fcarcely ever be fatisfied. This
daily and domeftic tyranny has already caufed the de-
fedtion of three villages in the fouthern part of the
ifland, where formerly there were twelve. The inha¬
bitants of thefe villages revolted, expelled their inter¬
preters, refufed to pay tribute any longer to the Chinefe,
and have united themfelves to the independent nation
in the eaftern part of the ifland.
It was in the ifland of Formofa that John Struys
affirms to have feen with his own eyes a man who had
a tail more than a foot in length, covered with red
hair, and greatly refembling that of an ox. This man
with a tail faid, that his deformity, if it was one, pro¬
ceeded from the climate, and that all thofe of the
fouthern part of the ifland were born with tails like
his.—But John Struys is the only author who attefts
the exiftence of this extraordinary race of men ; no
other writer who has fpoken of Formofa makes the
leaft mention of them. Another circumftance, no lefs
lingular, and which appears to be little better authen¬
ticated, is, that in this ifland women Rre not permit¬
ted to bring forth children before they are 35, although
they are at liberty to marry long before that age.
Rechteren * thus expreffes himfelf concerning this# „ ,
ftrange cuftom : Dui<u
“ When women are firft married, they bring no chU- cZp«ny°
dren into tne world : they muft, before that is permit- Voyages,
ted, have attained the age of 35 or 37. When theyvo1, v* P’
are big with child, their priefteffes pay them a vifit,96'
and tread on their bellies with their feet, if it be necef-
fary, and make them mifcarry, with perhaps greater
pains than they wxmld have in being brought to bed.
It would be not only a fliame, but an enonnous crime,
to bring forth a child before the term prefcribed. I
have feen fome females who had already deftroyed the
fruit of their womb 15 or 16 times, and who were big
for the 17th when it was lawful for them to brino- forth
a Jiving child.” ^
To our defcription of Formofa we ffiall add the fol¬
lowing account of the dreadful difafter that lately be-
fel this unhappy ifland. Ihe details were conveyed by
a letter from Peking, addreffed to M. Berlin, and datsd
the 14th of July 1782.
V -I'he waters of the ocean have w^ell nigh deprived
China of one of its moft valuable maritime poffeffions.
Ihe ifland of Tay-ouan, known in Europe by the
name of Formofa, lias been almoft fwallowed up by
them. . It has been reported here, that part of the
mountain which divides the ifland has funk and difap-
peared ; that the reft has been overturned ; and that
the greater part of the inhabitants have periffied. Such
have been for fome days the popular reports in this
capital. Government, however, has put a flop to them,
by informing the public of the real truth ; foch as it h
has-'
FOR t ii
f'ormofa. has been announced to the emperor by the officers who
—have this imall portion of Ins territories under their ju-
rifdiclion. I cannot do better than tranfcribe what
. they have written. The defpatches of the Chinefe of¬
ficers, addreffed to the emperor, run thus :.
“ Bechen, governor-general of the provinces of Fo-
kien and Tche-Kyang-ya, viceroy of Fokien, and
others, make known to your majefty -the difafter
that has lately befallen the ifland of Tay-ouan. Mon-
ha-hon, and other principal officers of this ifland, have
acquainted us, that on the 2ift of the fourth moon
(May 22. 1782), a molt furious wind, accompanied
with heavy rain and a Iwell of the fea greater than ever
remembered, had kept them under continual apprehen-
hon of being fwallowred up by the waves, or buried in
the bowels of the earth, from the hour of ijn until the
hour oj,W(a). This dreadful tempeft feemed to blow
at the fame time from the four cardinal points of the
compafs, and continued with equal violence during the
above-mentioned time. The buildings where the tri¬
bunals were held, the public granaries, the barracks,
fait warehoufes, and works, have been totally deltroy-
ed, and every thing they contained is loft : warehoufes
and work {hops, as well as private houfes, for the moft
part, prefent nothing but ruins and heaps of rubbilh.
Of 27 ftiips of war which were in the harbour, 12 have
difappeared 5 two others have been dafhed to pieces,
and 10 are fhattered in fuch a manner that they are
rendered entirely unfit for fervice 5 other fmaller vef-
fels of different fxzes, above 100 in number, have
ihared the fame fate } eighty have been fwallowed up j
five others, which had juft taken in a lading of rice
for Fokien, have funk, and their cargoes, which
amounted to 100,000 bufhels, are wholly loft. With
regard to other veffels, whether fmall or great, which
had not entered the harbour, 10 or 12 of the largeft
are reckoned to have been fwallowed up •, thofe of in¬
ferior fize, as well as a prodigious number of barks,
boats, and other fmall veffels of different kinds, have
difappeared, wuthout leaving the leaft piece of wreck
behind them. As the whole iiland has been covered
wTith water, the provifions have been either fwept
away, or fpoilt fo as to render them prejudicial to the
health of thofe who ufe them in their prefent ftate.
The crops are entirely loft. When we ftiall have
been informed of particulars, we fhall not fail to give
your majefty the earlieft intelligence of them.—After
having received this letter from Mon-ha-hon, and the
other principal officers refiding at Tay-ouan, I em¬
ployed the utmoft diligence to give every affiftance
in my power to this unfortunate ifland j and I or¬
dered the travelling commiffary, and Trey-ouer, ge¬
neral of the province, to get particular information
of the number of thofe who have periftied, of the
houfes deftroyed, and of the quantity of fait and other
provifions that has been loft : I have like wife enjoined
them to rebuild with the utmoft expedition the tribu¬
nals, granaries, and other public edifices; to defpatch
proper perfons to fearch for the veffels and {hips that
have difappeared j to repair thofe which are not altoge-
, ] FOR
ther unfit for fervice, and to fend immediately to the Formofa,
neighbouring countries for fait and other neceffary pro- tomnna.
vifions : but above ali, to afcertain in the moft accurate
manner the different Ioffes fuftained by the inhabitants,
and the precife number of people that have periftied, in
order that I may be able to give the fulleft information
to your majefty.”
‘ The emperor of China caufed a particular detail of
thefe Ioffes to be publiihed, together with the following
letter :
“ Tchang-yu, &c. Tchem-hoei'-Thcn-Tfong-tou of
Fokien, and others, have informed me of the difmal
event that hath taken place in the iiland of lay-ouan,
which is a diftrifl of the province of Fokien. They
have written to me, that on the 21ft of the fourth
moon. [Here the emperor repeats what is contained
in the preceding letter, and continues thus] : I com¬
mand Tfong-tou to get the beft information he can of
the different Ioffes fuftained by the inhabitants of the
ifland, and to tranfmit the particulars to me, in order
that I may give them every affiftance to repair them.
My intention is, that all the houfes which have been
thrown down {hall be rebuilt entirely at my expence *,
that thofe be repaired which are only damaged j and
that provifions, and every thing which the people
{land in immediate want of, be fupplied them. I
ffiould feel much pain, were even one among them to
be neglefted : I therefore recommend the utmoft di¬
ligence and ftrifteft inquiry, a^ I am defirous that none
of my fubje&s fhould entertain the leaft doubt of the
tender affediion which I have for them 5 and that they
ffiould know that they are all under my eyes, and
that I myfelf will provide for their wants. With
regard to my {hips of war, tribunals, and public edi¬
fices, let them be reftored to their former ftate with
money taken from the public treafury, and let the
general account of the whole expence be laid before
me.”
The miffionary who fent this account farther fays.
From thefe letters it evidently appears, that this dif¬
after happened in confequence of an earthquake ; but
he adds, that the volcano which occafioned it muft be
at a prodigious depth below the fea. He does not pre¬
tend to give an explanation of it; he is contented with
obferving, that the fame fcene feems to have paffed at
the iiland of Formofa as at Lima and Lifbon.
FORMULA, or Formulary, a rule or model, or
certain terms prefcribed or decreed by authority, for
the form and manner of an a£l, inftrument, proceeding,
or the like.
Formula, in Church-Hijlory and Theology, fignifies
a profeffion of faith.
Formula, in Medicine, imports the conftitution of
medicines, either fimple or compound, both with re-
fpedt to their prefeription and confiftence.
Formula, a theorem or general rule, or expreffion,
for folving certain particular cafes of fome problem, &c.
f0 i-j-j-I^/is a general formula for the greater of
2 2
two
(a) The hours of the Chinefe are double ours : the hour yn begins at three in the morning and ends at five j
Quei begins at three in the afternoon and ends at five.
1
FOB [ i
Formulary two quantities whole fum is s, and difference d; and
!i , j
For.iua- _ ^ ^ js t|le formuia or general value, for the lefs
tion. 2 2 ’ o J
quantity. Alfo Vd x—xz, is the formula, or general
value, of the ordinate to a circle, whofe diameter is d,
and abfcifs x.
FORMULARY, a writing, containing the form or
formula of an oath, declaration, atteilation, or abjura¬
tion, &s. to be made on certain occafkms.
There are alfo formularies of devotion, of prayers,
&c. Liturgies are formularies of the public fervice in
moft churches.
FORNACALIA, or Fornicalia, in Roman an¬
tiquity, a feftival inftituted by Numa, in honour,
of Fornax, the goddefs of ovens; wherein certain
cakes were made, and offered in facrifice before the
ovens.
FORNICATION {Fornicatio, from the fornices in
Rome, where the lewd women proflituted themfelves
for money), is whoredom, or the a<5t of incontinency,
between fmgle perfons $ for if either of the parties is
married, it is adultery. Formerly court leets had power
to inquire of and punifh fornication and adultery ; in
which courts the king had a fine affeffed on the offend¬
ers, as appears by the book of Domefday.
In the year 1650, when the ruling powers found it
for their intereff to put on the femblance of a very ex¬
traordinary ftricffnefs and purity of morals, not only
inceft and wilful adultery were made capital crimes,
but alfo the repeated aft of keeping a brothel, or com¬
mitting fornication, were, upon a fecond conviftion,
made felony wnthout benefit of clergy. But, at the
Reftoration, when men, from an abhorrence of the hy-
pocrify of the late times, fell into a contrary extreme
of licentioufnefs, it was not thought proper to renew
a law of fuch unfafhionable rigour. And thefe offen¬
ces have been ever fince left to the feeble coercion of
the fpiritual court, according to the rules of the canon
law 5 a law which has treated the offence of inconti¬
nence, nay, even adultery itfelf, with a great degree of
tendernefs and lenity ; owing perhaps to the conftrain-
ed celibacy of its firft compilers. The temporal courts
therefore take no cognizance even of the crime of adul¬
tery otherwife than as a private injury. See Adul¬
tery.
The evils of fornication, which too many wifh to
confider as no fin, may be judged of from the following
particulars.
1. The malignity and moral quality of each crime is
not to be eftimated by the particular effect of one of¬
fence, or of one perfon’s offending, but by the general
tendency and confequence of crimes of the fame nature.
In the prefent cafe, let the libertine confider and fay,
what would be the confequence, if the fame licentiouf¬
nefs in which he indulges were univerfal ? or what
ftiould hinder its becoming uriiverfal, if it be innocent
or allowable in him ?
_ 2. Fornication fuppofes proftitution ; and by pro-
ftitution the viftims of it are brought to almoft cer¬
tain mifery. It is no fmall quantity of mifery in the
fg£regate> which, between want, difeafe, and infult,
is fuffered by thofe outcafts of human fociety who in-
feff populous cities j the whole of which is a general
confequence of fornication, and to the increafe and
Vol. IX. Part I.
7 ] FOR
continuance of which every aft and inffance of fornica- Fornica¬
tion contributes. b°n-
3. Fornication produces habits of ungovernable lewd-
nefs, which introduce the more aggravated crimes of
feduftion, adultery, violation, &x. The criminal in¬
dulgences between the fexes prepare an eafy admiffion
for every fin that feeks it: they are, in low life, ufual-
ly the firff; ftage in men’s progrefs to the moff defperate
villanies j and in high life, to that lamented diffolute-
nefs of principle, which manifefts itfelf in a profligacy
of public conduft, and a contempt of the obligations of
religion and moral probity.
4. Fornication perpetuates a difeafe, which may be
accounted one of the foreft maladies of human nature,
and the effefts of which are faid to vifit the conftitution
of even diftant generations.
The paflion being natural, proves that it was in¬
tended to be gratified ; but under what reftriftions, or
whether without any, muff be collefted from different
confiderations.
In the Scriptures, fornication is abfolutely and pe¬
remptorily condemned. ‘ Out of the heart proceed
evil thoughts, murders, adulteries, fornication, thefts,
falfe witnefs, blafphemies ; thefe are the things which
defile a man.’ Thefe are Chriff’s own words ; and one
word from him upon the fubjeft is final. The apoftles
are more full upon this topic. One well-known paf-
fage in the Epiftle to the Hebrew's may ftand in the
place of all others ; becaufe, admitting the authority
by which the apoftles of Chrift fpake and wrrote, it is
decifive. ‘ Marriage and the bed undefiled is honour¬
able amongft all men, but w’horemongers and adulter¬
ers God will judge j’ which w'as a great deal to fay, at
a time wrhen it wras not agreed even amongft philofo-
phers that fornication w'as a crime.
Upon this fubjeft Mr Paley adds the following cb-
fervations *. * Moral and
“ The Scriptures give no fanftion to thofe aufterities politieal
w hich have been fince impofed upon the world under Ph‘lof°t,hy' '
the name of Chrift’s religion, as the celibacy of the P’ 2^°’
clergy, the praile of perpetual virginity, the prohibitio
concubitus cum gravida uxore; but with a juft know¬
ledge of, and regard to the condition and intereft of the
human fpecies, have provided in the marriage of one
man with one woman an adequate.gratification for the
propenfities of their nature, and have reftrained them
to that gratification.
“ The avowed toleration, and in fome countries the
licenfing, taxing, and regulating of public brothels, has
appeared to the people an authorizing of fornication,
and has contributed, with other caufes, fo far to vitiate,
the public opinion, that there is no praftice of which
the immorality is fo little thought of or acknowledged,
although there are few in which it can more plainly
be made out. The legiilators who have patronized re¬
ceptacles of proftitution ought to have forefeen this
effeft, as well as confidered, that whatever facilitates
fornication, diminifties marriages. And as to the ufual
apology for this relaxed difcipline, the danger of great¬
er enormities if accefs to proftitutes were too ftriftly
watched and prohibited j it will be time enough to look
to that, after the laws and the magiftrates have done
their utmoft. The greateft vigilance of both will do
no more, than oppofe fome bounds and fome difficul¬
ties to this intercourfe. And after all, thefe pretended
C fears
FOR { if
Fornix fears are without foundation in experience. The men
I! are in all refpedfs the moft virtuous in countries where
^°^res‘ the women are moft chafte.
“ if fornication be criminal, all thofe incentives
which lead to it are acceffaries to the crime : as lafci-
vious converfation, whether expreffed in obfcene or
difguifed under modeft phrafes; alfo wanton fongs,
pi&ures, books 5 the writing, publifliing, and circula¬
ting of which, whether out of frolic or for fome piti¬
ful profit, is produftive of fo extenfive a mifchief from
fo mean a temptation, that few crimes within the
reach of private wickednefs have more to anfwer for,
or lefs to plead in their excufe.
“ Indecent converfation, and by parity of reafon all
the reft, are forbidden by St Paul, Eph. iv. 29. ‘ Let
no corrupt communication proceed out of your mouth
and again, Col. iii. 8. ‘ Put filthy communication out
of your mouth.’
“ The invitation or voluntary admiflion of impure
thoughts, or the fuffering them to get pofleflion of the
imagination, falls within the fame defcription, and Is
condemned by Chrift, Matt. v. 28. ‘ Whofoever look-
eth on a woman to luft after her, hath committed a-
dultery with her already in his heart.’ Chrift, by thus
enjoining a regulation of the thought, ftrikes at the
root of the evil.”
FORNIX, in Anatomy, is part of the corpus callo-
fum in the brain 5 fo called, on account of a diftant re-
fembfance to the arches of ancient vaults when viewed
in a particular manner.
FORRAGE, in the military art, denotes hay, oats,
barley, wheat, grafs, clover, &c. brought into the
camp by the troopers, for the fuftenance of their
horfes.
It is the bufinefs of the quartermafter general to
appoint the method of forrage, and poft proper guards
for the fecurity of the forragers.
FORRES, a parliament town of Scotland in the
county of Murray, clafling with Invernefs, Fortrofe,
and Nairn. It is a fmall well built town, pleafantly
fituated on an eminence near the river Findhorn. . The
country about it has a cheerful appearance,- having a
few gentlemen’s feats, with fome plantations about
them. On a hill weft of the town are the remains of
a caftle 5 and a melancholy view of a number of fand-
hills, that now cover that traft of land which was
formerly the eftate of a Mr Cowben in the parifii of
Dyke. This inundation was occafioned by the influx
of the fea and the violence of the wind. It had been
the cuftom to pull up the bent, a long fpiry grafs near
the ftiore, for litter for horfes, by which means the fand
was loofened, and gave way to the violence of the fea
and wind, which carried it over feveral thoufand acres
of land. The people having been prevented from pul¬
ling up any more of the grafs, the progrefs of the fand
is now nearly flopped, and the fea has retired j but the
wind has blown feme of the fand from the hills over
Colonel Grant’s land, and deftroyed near 100 acres.
A fand bank, which is all dry at low water, runs out
from this place for feveral miles into the Murray Frith.
Some of the land, which has been long forfaken by
the water, is now beginning to be ufeful again, and is
turned into grazing land. At Forres, coarfe linen and
fewing thread are made. Eaft from the town, and
on the left hand fide of the road, is a remarkable obe-
] FOR
lifk, faid to be the moft ftately monument of the Go- Forres
thic kind to be feen in Europe. It has been the fub-
jedt of many able pens ; but totally Overlooked by , „ *■
Dr Johnfon, who fays, “ At Forres we found good
accommodation, but nothing worthy of particular re¬
mark.”—It is thus deferibed by Mr Cordiner, in a let¬
ter to Mr Pennant: “ In the firft divifion, underneath
the Gothic ornaments at the top, are nine horfes with
their riders marching forth in order: in the next is a
line of warriors on foot, brandilhing their weapons,
and appear to be ftiouting for the battle. The import
of the attitudes in the third divifion is very dubious,
their expreflion indefinite. The figures which form a
fquare in the middle of the column are pretty complex
but diftindl j four ferjeants with their halberts guard a
canopy, under which are placed feveral human heads
which have belonged to the dead bodies piled up at
the left of the divifion j one appears in the chara&er of
executioner fevering the head from another body j be¬
hind him are three trumpeters founding their trum¬
pets, and before him two pair of combatants fighting
with fword and target. A troop of horfe next ap¬
pears, put to flight by infantry, whofe firft line have
bows and arrows \ the three following, fwords and tar¬
gets. In the lowermoft divifion now vifible, the horfes
leem to be feized by the viftorious party, their riders
beheaded, and the head of their chief hung in chains
or placed in a frame ; the others being thrown toge¬
ther befide the dead bodies under an arched cover.
The greateft part of the other fide of the obelilk,
occupied by a fumptuous crofs, is covered over with
an uniform figure, elaborately railed, and interwoven
with great mathematical exaflnefs. Under the crofs
are two auguft perfonages, with fome attendants, much
obliterated, but evidently in an attitude of reconcilia¬
tion } and if the monument was erefted in memory of
the peace concluded between Malcolm and Canute,
upon the final retreat of the Danes, thefe large figures
may reprefent the reconciled monarchs. On the edge
below the fretwork are fome rows of figures joined
hand in hand, which may alfo imply the new degree
of confidence and fecurity which took place, after the
feuds were compofed, which are characterized on the
front of the pillar. But to whatever particular tranf-
aCfion it may allude, it can hardly be imagined, that
in fo early an age of the arts in Scotland as it mull
have been raifed, fo elaborate a performance would
have been undertaken but in confequence of an event
of the moft general importance ^ it is therefore fur-
prifing, that no diftinfter traditions of it arrived at the
era when letters were known. The height of this
monument (called King Bueno's Jlone) above the ground
is 23 feet } befides 12 or 15 feet under ground. Its
breadth is 3 feet 10 inches by 1 foot 3 inches in
thicknefs.”
FORSKOHLEA, a genus of plants belonging to
-the decandria clafs. See Botany Index.
FOR ST ERA, a genus of plants belonging to tl*
gynandria clafs. See Botany Index.
FORT, in the military art, a fmall fortified place,
environed on all fides with a moat, rampart, and para¬
pet. Its ufe is to fecure fome high ground, or the paf-
fage of a river, to make good an advantageous poll, to
defend the lines and quarters of a fiege, &c.
Forts are made of different figures and extents, ac¬
cording
Vitrified
Forts.
FOR [i
cording as tire ground requires. Some are fortified with
baftionX others with demibaftions. Some again are
’ in form of a fquare, others of a pentagon. A fort dif¬
fers from a citadel) as this laft is built to command
fome town. .
Royal Fort, is one whofe line of defence is at lealt
26 fathoms long.
Star Fort, is a fconce or redoubt, conftituted by re¬
entering and falient angles, having commonly from
five to eight points, and the fides Hanking each other.
Vitrified ForTs, a very Angular kind of ftrucdures
found in the highlands and northern parts of Scotland,
in which the walls have the appearance of being melted
into a folid mafs, fo as to refemble the lava of a volcano,
for which indeed they have been taken by feveral perfons
who have vifited them.
Thefe wmlls were taken notice of by Mr Williams
an engineer, who wnote a treatile upon the i’ubjedl,
and was the firft who fuppofed them to be works
of art j other naturalifts having attributed them to a
Volcanic origin. Thefe works are commonly fituated
on the tops of fmall hills, commanding an extenfive
view of the adjacent valley or low country. The area
on the fummit, varying, as is fuppofed, according to
the number of cattle the proprietor had to protect, or
the dependents he was obliged to accommodate, is fur-
rounded with a high and flrong wall, of which the
Hones are melted, molt of them entirely 5 while others,
in which the fufion has not been fo complete, are funk
in the vitrified matter in fuch a manner as to be quite
enclofed with it •, and in fome places the fufion has
been fo perfeft, that the ruins appear like mafles of
coarfe glafs. Mr Williams has not only abfolutely de¬
termined the walls in queftion to be the works ol art,
but has even hazarded a conjecture as to the manner
in which they were conltrufted, and which, according
to him, was as follows. Iwo parallel dikes of earth
or fod being raifed, in the direction of the intended
wall, with a fpace between them fufficient for its thick-
nefs, the fuel was put in, and fet on fire. The Hones
befi adapted for the purpofe, called the plum-puddmg
Jlone, are everywhere to be found in the neighbour¬
hood. Thefe were laid on the fuel, and when melted,
were kept by the frame of earth from running off; and
by repeating the operation, the wall was raifed to a
fufficient height. This opinion of the Hones being
thrown in without any order, is thought to be con¬
firmed by the circumffance of there not being any-
wffiere a large one to be feen, nor a Hone laid in any
particular direction, nor one piece which has not in
fome degree been affedted by the fire. Mr Williams
mentions a faft tending to confirm his hypothefis,
viz. of a brick kiln fituated on the declivity of an
eminence, fo as to be expofed to the wind, which
happening to rife brilkly one time when the kiln was
burning, fo increafed the heat, that the bricks were
melted, and ran, like a lava, for a confiderable way
' down the hill.
The opinion of Mr Williams has been embraced by
feveral other authors •, particularly Mr Freebairn and
Dr Anderfon, the latter having publiffied two treatifes
tipon thefe buildings in the Arch&ologia. In the fame
work, how?ever, wre meet with a paper by the Hon.
Daines Barrington, in which the author expreffes quite
different fentiments. He obferves, that Mr Williams,
9 ] FOR
and the other antiquaries, who fuppofe the Walls in
queffion to be works of art, imagine that the reafon
of their being conffrucled in this manner was the
ignorance of cement, which in there remote ages p.e-
vailed in Scotland : but with refpect to this circum-
ftance, he fays, that if one fide of the wall only wras
heated, and that to any confiderable height, the
matter in fufion would in all likelihood drop down to
the bottom, without operating as any cement to the
loofe Hones thrown in amongit it. This circumffance
of the walls being vitrified only on one fide, is indeed
remarkable, and takes place in moil of the forts of this
kind to be met with at prefent: but with regard to
it, Mr Barrington obferves, that he himfelf has been
twice in the Highlands of Scotland, and has found
very few hills of any height which were clothed with
wood the trouble therefore of carrying it up to the
top of fuch a mountain would be very confiderable.
But to this it might eafily be replied, that we cannot
by any means argue from the prefent Hate of the hills
in the Highlands to their Hate in a very remote period
of antiquity. At that time, it is neither impoffible,
nor in the leafl improbable, that moH of the hills in
Scotland were overgrown with wood ) or at any rate,
there undoubtedly was plenty of peat, which is Hill
ufed as fuel in Scotland, and which affords fuch a flrong
heat as to be advantageoufly employed in fmelting
iron, as we are informed by M. Magellan. A third
particular mentioned by Mr Williams is, that thefe en-
clofures were intended as places of defence 5 and in
fupport of this opinion he alleges, that there are dried
wells found within mofl of them. But on this Mr
Barrington obferves, that flrelter from the weather was
alfo neceffary, “ upon the top of a bleak Scotch hill,
whilfl whilky (or a fuccedaneum for it) would be often
in greater requeff than the bare element of water.’’
This objeblion, however, as well as the lafl, is evidently
very frivolous; for thefe buildings might have roofs as
well as any other $ and whatever necelfity there might
be for whilky occafionally, water Was certainly an in-
difpen fable requifite.
Mr Barrington having thus given his reafons for
diffenting from the opinion of Mr Williams and the
antiquaries juff mentioned, proceeds to Hate his own.
He tells us, that having travelled for 21 years the moH
mountainous circuit in Wales, he has frequently ob-
ferved enclofures of dry Hones, particularly a long tradt
in the weflern part of Merionethffiire, called in the
language of the country Duffryn, i, e. the vale. On
firfl viewing thefe fmall encloiures made with walls
of thick Hones, he was at a lofs to imagine how it
could be worth while to conflruct fuch ffrong fences
for fo inconfiderable a piece of ground as they encloied j
but, on examining the adjacent country, he found it
almofl entirely covered with Hones of a fimilar kind ;
and, of confequence, the fmaller the fpace to be cleared,
the lefs expenfive would be the removal. “ For the
fame reafon (fays he), fuch dry walls are often of a
great thicknefs, and fometimes the corners of the en¬
clofures are filled with Hones to a great width, this
being the only poffible means of procuring paiture.”
To a practice of the fame kind our author would afcribe
the origin of the works in queflion : but the objection
occurs very Hrongly, that the walls in Scotland are
vitrified, and it is not to be fuppofed that fuch trouble
C 2 would
lifif-d
orts-
F O R [ 20
would be taken with fences made in luch a fortuitous
j manner. This objecfion, our author owns, would indeed
be unanfwerable, on the fuppohtion that the vitrification
was made on purpofe to itrengthen .the walls of the
fortrefs; but (fays he) may not the vitrification have
been occafioned by volcanoes, or by what are called
bloomeries ? The fame efl'e£l may be produced like-
wife on dry walls of ftone by lightning paffing along
them. The loofe {tones in either cafe would not be
rejected becaufe they were glaffy, and would be piled
up in the fence of the enclofure : as the great point
upon thefe occafions is to clear the ground, and remove
the encumbering {tones to the fmalleft diftance. One
ot the advocates for the defigned and1 not fortuitous
vitrification, fays, that the pieces he had procured did
not refemble what is called lava. But every volcano
is not neceffarily an Etna or a Vefuvius 5 and confe.
quently the matter difgorged from the crater muft per¬
petually vary both in fubitance and form. Vitrified
maffes, larger or imaller, will likewife be produced by
the fame means. It may be contended, indeed, that
pafture ttius procured, by clearing the ground, would
be more convenient at the bottom or on the fides,
than on the top of the hill: but to this I anfwer, that
in rocky countries you muft get what pittance you can
oi toil, and often it will happen that the only detached
and removeable ftones are on the fummit. When fuch
enclofures have been made, they became very conveni¬
ent for putting cattle into j and hence perhaps fome of
the wells which Mr Williams hath mentioned.”
Our author concludes his differtation on this fubjecl
by obferving, that if vitrification anfwered the purpofe
of cement, it is very extraordinary that the ancient in-
haoitants of Scotland did not apply it to the houfes
or huts in which they conftantly lived, but referved
this troublefome and expenfive procefs merely for a
fortification, which might not perhaps be ufed in half
a century againft an enemy. On this it is almoft fu-
perfluous to obferve, that in the ages of barbarity and
bloodlhed, in which thefe enclofures, whether natural
or artificial, were fuppofed to be ufed as fortreffes,
war was fo frequent, that a defence againft an enemy
might feem to be necelTary every day, inftead of once
in half a century. Before we proceed further in the
argument, however, it will be neceffary to give fome
account of the fituation and appearance of thefe for-
treftes.
According to Mr Cardonnell, the largefi: of them
is fituated on the hill of Knockfarrill, to the fouth of
the valley of Strathpeffer, two miles weft from Ding¬
wall in Rofsfhire. The enclolure is 120 feet long and
40 broad within the walls ; ftrengthened on the out-
fide with works at each end. A range of habitations
feems to have been ere&ed againft, or under, the {hade
of the outward wall j of which thofe on the fouth fide
feem to have been higher and larger than thofe on the
north. There are two wells in the middle, which,
on being cleared out, filled with water. On the
{kirts of the hill to the fouth are many detached build¬
ings j which, from the ftratum of dung found on re¬
moving the ruins, appear plainly to have been ufed for
fecuring the cattle. This place feems to have been
anciently of confequence, and the refidence of fome
powerful chief, from a road which leads through the
hills to the. ncithwcft fea. To the eaft of the works
1
F O R
{ Edln. Phil,
are a number of vitrified ruins, extending fora confi-
derable way along the ridge of the hill. The end
next the fort feems to have joined the outer wall, and
connfted either of two parallel walls, clofed above, with
a paftage between them under cover, or a high wall
broad enough to walk on. In this wTall there is the
veftige of a break about the middle, over which a
bridge has been laid, to be drawn up or removed as
occafion might require.
The fort next in confequence to that of Knock-
farril is fituated on the hill of Craig-Phadrick near In-
vernefs, “ wdrich (fays Mr Cardonnel) has this pecu¬
liar circumftance, that there appears to have been two
vitrified walls quite round the area. The inner one
feems to have been very high and ftrong j the outer
wall but low : probably the fpace between was intend¬
ed for fecuring their cattle, as there are no remains of
dry-ftone buildings, fuch as are found near the reft.
Several parts of this outer wall appear quite entire,
flicking to the firm bare rock, where it was firft run.
The area within the inner rvall is near 80 paces long
and 27 broad.” Of this we have an account J by.
Alexander Frafer-Tytier, Efq. profeffor of civil hiftory ^Pranfaa.
in the univerfity of Edinburgh, who vifited it in the Vol. II.
year 1782. The hill itfelf is a fmall conical eminence, CEf* In¬
forming the eaftern extremity of that ridge of moun-Alf,ir’
tains which bounds Loch Nefs on the north-weft fide.
It is fituated about a mile to the north of Invernefs,
and is acceflible on two different quarters, viz. the
weft and fouth-eaft; the former affording entrance by
a narrow level ridge joining the hills on Loch Nefs,
and the latter by an eafy afcent from the high ground
above Invernefs. On approaching the hill from the
weft, we firft meet with a road cut through the rock
from the bottom to the top, in moft places 10 feet
broad and nearly as deep •, winding, for about 70 feet,
with an eafy ferpentine direftion, by which we gain
an afcent over a fteep rock otherwife quite inacceftible
from that quarter. This road, in our author’s opi¬
nion, is undoubtedly the wmrk of art, and the vitrified
matter on the top is the only thing which indicates
the effefl of fire; there being neither an appearance
of pumice-ftone, lava, nor bafaltes, about the hill other-
wife. There is indeed plenty of plum-pudding ftone j
■which fome have fuppofed to be of the nature of vol¬
canic tufa; but this opinion is rejected by our author
as erroneous. “ But the circumftance (fays he)
which in my apprehenfion evinces, in the moft fatis-
faftory manner, that thefe appearances of the effeft
of fire on the fummit of this hill are not the opera¬
tion of nature but of art, is the regular order and dif-
polition of thofe materials, the form of the ground,
and the various traces of {kill and contrivance wThich
are yet difcernible, though confiderably defaced either
by external violence or the obliterating hand of time.”
To inveftigate this matter regularly, he begins with the
winding road already mentioned, and which is evi¬
dently cut through the rock for the purpofe of gain¬
ing an eafy afcent from the level ridge to the fummit,
which would otherwife have been imprafticable. In
afcending by this road, there appears,, towards the
middle, on the right hand, a fmall platform overhang¬
ing the paffage, and inclining by a very gentle declivity
to the very edge of the rock. Four enormous ftones
are placed upon the platform, and on the edge and
extremity
F O R [2
Vitrifitcl extremity of it, which have evidently been guided by
Fo-ts. art into that pofition •, it being impoffible that they
 v-—-; could have refted there, had they been rolled down
from the higher parts. The obvious reafon for placing
them in fuch a pofition has been, that on an alarm of
danger they might be projedted into the path below,
which could be done by the efforts of a very few men :
and when this was done, the paffage would be entirely
obftrudled, or at leaft rendered fo difficult that it could
be defended by a few againft any number of affailants.
Some other large ftones are placed on an eminence to
the left,, probably with a view to block up a hollow
channel, by which an enemy might have attempted to
afcend. When we come to the top of the hill, a few
feet below the rampart which crowns the whole, there
appears an outward wrall, approaching on the fides of
'the hill fo near the upper rampart, as to have only a
trench of 10 or 12 feet wide between them. This
outward wall is in fome places fo low as to be almoft
level with the rock, though in other places it rifes to
the height of two or three feet; but even where
lowed, it may be traced by a line of vitrified matter
flicking faff to the rock all along, and nearly of the
fame breadth, w’hich is about nine feet. The remains
of this wall are flrongly vitrified, except in one place
on the north fide, where, for about 70 yards, the
rampart is formed Only of dry ftones and earth. At
the eafl fide, where the hill is more acceffible, there
is a prodigious rngund of vitrified matter, extending
itfelf to the thickne'fs of above 40 feet. At the fouth-
eaft corner, and adjoining to this immenfe mound,
is an outwork, confiding of two femicircular vitrified
walls, wuth a narrow pafs cut through them in the
middle ; which appears to have been another, and per¬
haps the principal, entry to the fort.
The inner wall, furrounding the fummit of the hill,
enclofes an oblong level area of about 75 yards long
and 30 broad, rounded at each of the ends like the
outward wall. It is of confiderable height, and near¬
ly of the fame thicknefs with the outward one.—-It
has fome appearance of having been defended wuth
four turrets or badions: but the traces are fo imper-
fe£l, that Mr Tytler does not lay much drefs on his
obfervations in this refpedl \ a number of fmall tumuli
of earth, with a done in the centre, were more dif-
cernible. On the ead fide a portion of the internal
fpace appears feparated from the red by two ranges of
dones fixed drongly in the earth, and forming a right-
angled parallelogram. “ This feparation (fays our
author) is immediately difcernible by the eye, from
this circumdance, that the whole of the enclofed fum¬
mit has been mod carefully cleared from dones, of
which there is not one to be feen, unlefs thofe that
form tips divifion, and the fingle one in the middle
of the circle of tumuli above mentioned. What has
been the defign of this feparated fpace, it is difficult to
conjedlure. It might perhaps have marked the refi-
dence of thofe of a higher rank, or ferved as a temple
for the purpofes of devotion.” On the ead end of
the large area on the fummit is a well of about fix
feet in diameter, which has probably been funk very
deep in the rock, though now it is filled up with rub-
bidi to within a yard of the top.
The other fortified hills mentioned by Mr Cardon-
nel are thofe of Tun-Evan in the fhire of Naira 3 Tor-
1 ] FOR
dun cadle, near Fort Augudus 3 and another on the ^
wed fide of Gleneves in Lochaber, three miles to the
fouth of Fort William. The Cadle hill of Finhaven,
in the county of Angus, has likewife fome confiderable
ruins of the lame kind.
Tun-Evan and the hill of Finhaven have likewife
been vifited by Mr Tytler, who gives an account of
them in the paper already quoted 3 of which the fol¬
lowing is an abdracl. “ On the fummit of the hill
of Dun-Evan, whofe name implies that it had been
originally a place of defence, are the remains of two
walls furrounding an oblong fpace like that of Craig
Phadrick already defcribed, but fomewhat fmaller in
fize. [Mr Cardonnel fays that it is about 70 paces
long and 30 broad]. There are likewife the traces
of a well in the enclofed area 3 and at the ead end are
the remains of a prodigious mafs of building, much
more extenfive than that on Craig Phadrick.” Here,
however, our author could not perceive any marks of
fire 3 and Mr Williams owms that the vitrified ruins
here are more waded than on Knockfarril or Craig
Phadrick. But with regard to the vitrifications here,
our author is inclined to fuppofe Mr Williams to have
been entirely in a midake. On the Cadle hill of
Finhaven, however, the vitrified remains are very
vifible all round the fummit, which is cleared of dones
and levelled, unlefs at one end, where there is a great
hollow fpace feparated from the red of the area, and
probably dedined exclufively for the keeping of cattle.
The enclofed area is about 140 yards long, and upwards
of 40 broad.
Befides thefe fortifications, the hill of Noth affords
a remarkable appearance of the fame kind : of which
Mr Cordiner gives the following defcription, not from
his own obferyation, but thofe of a gentlemen of cre¬
dit who vifited the place. “ On the top of the hill
there is an oblong hollow, as I could guefs, of about
an Englidi acre, covered with a fine fward of grafs :
in the middle toward the ead end of this hollow is a
large and deep well. The hollow is furrounded on all
fides with a thick rampart of dones. On three fides
of this rampart, from 8 to 12 feet thick, is one ccm-
pa£l body of dones and minerals which, have been in a
date of fufion, refembling a mixture of done and
iron-ore, all vitrified, calcined, and incorporated. On
the north fide, the rampart confids of broken pieces of
rock, which have the appearance of having been torn
to pieces by fome extraordinary violence. If the cal¬
cined compadh wall exids under them, it is not at pre-
fent vifible.”
Such are the defcriptions of the mod remarkable of
thefe curious fortifications, which of late feem to have
engaged the attention of the learned in a confiderable
degree. We have already taken notice, that by fome
they are fuppofed to be the works of art, by others
the produdlions of a volcano. Mr Cardonnel adopts
the opinion of Mr Williams as the mod probable, both
with refpedl to their ufe and manner of condrudlion,
Mr Tytler takes notice of the remarkable difference
of opinion among thofe who have viewed the places -
in quedlon. “ It is curious to remark (fays he)
how the fame appearances, to different obfervers, lead
to the mod oppofite opinions and conclufions. The
two gentlemen above mentioned (Mr Williams and
Dr Anderfon) fcem not to have entertained the fmall-
eft
FOR [ 22 ] FOR
Vitrified eft ^donbt, that the vitrified materials ort the tops of
t t°rts- thefe hills tvere the veftiges of v/orks of art, and the
v remains of ftruftures reared for the purpofes of fecu-
rity and defence. The biftiop of Derry, when on a
tour to the north of Scotland, vifited the hill of Craig
Phadrick near Invernefs, and expreffed his opinion,
that the mounds of vitrified matter were not the re¬
mains of any artificial work, but the traces of an an¬
cient volcano. In the Phil. Tranf. of the Royal So¬
ciety of London for 1777, Part II. N° 20. is an account
of Creek Fat crick, there termed a Volcanic hill near bi-
‘vernefs, in a letter from Thomas Weft, Efq. to Mr
Law*, F. R. S. in which the writer does not hefitate
to pronounce this hill an extinguilhed volcano ; and
having fent fpecimens of the burnt matter for the in-
fpeclion of the Royal Society, the fecretary fubjoins
a note to the paper, intimating, that thefe fpecimens
having been examined by fome of the members well
acquainted with volcanic productions, were by them
judged to be real lava. Such was like wife the opinion
of the late Andrew' Crolhie, Efq. w'ho, in an account
which he gave to the Philofophical Society of Edin¬
burgh in 1780, offered fome very curious conjedtures
with regard to the procefs of nature, by which he fup-
pofed the w’hole of this hill to have been thrown up
from the bottom of the fea by the operation of inteftine
fire.
Mr Tytler agrees with thofe who think the vitrified
ftrudlures to be artificial works : but he differs from
Mr Williams and others, who think that they wmre
vitrified on purpofe for cementing the materials toge¬
ther. His reafon for this is, that the number of forts
that Ihow' marks of vitrification, is confider&ble when
compared wfith thofe that do not. He therefore con-
fiders the vitrification as accidentaland that it muft have
been accomplilhed in the following manner. In the rude
ftate in which v?e muft fuppofe Scotland to have been
in early times, it is very ptobable that their buildings,
both for habitation and defence, wmuld be frequently
conftrudled of loofe ftones of an irregular fliape j of
w'bich, by themfelves, it would fcarce be poflible to fa¬
bricate a wmll of any tolerable ftrength. Hertce it
became neceffary to ufe wrood as wTell as ftone in their
conftrudlion. This kind of building, then, in our au¬
thor’s opinion, was begun by raifing a double row of
pallifades or ftrong flakes in the form of the intended
ftrufture, in the fame way as in that ancient mode of
building deferibed by Palladio under the name of rient-
piuta a cajfa, or coffer-work. Thefe flakes were pro¬
bably warped acrofs by boughs of trees laid very clofe-
ly together, fo as to form two fences running parallel
to each other at the diftance of fome feet, and fo clofe
as to confine all the materials of whatever fize that
were thrown in between them. Into this intermediate
fpace Mr Tytler fuppofes were throvra boughs and
trunks of trees, earth and ftones of all fizes, large or
fmall as they could quarry or collect them. Very little
care would be neceffary in the difpofition of thefe ma¬
terials, as the outward fence would keep the mound
in form. In this way it is eafy to conceive that a very
ftrong bulwark might be reared with great defpatch •,
which, joined to the natural advantage of a very inac-
cefiible fituation, and that improved by artful contri¬
vances for increafing the difficulty of accefs, would
form a llrufture capable of anfwering every purpofe of
3
fecuvity or defence. The moft formidable attack a- Vitrified
gainft fuch a building would be fire, which would Ports,
no doubt be always attempted, and often with fuccefs, x—~sra->
by an enemy who undertook the fiege. If the befiegers
prevailed in gaining an approach to the ramparts, and,
furrounding the external wall, fet fire to it in feveral
places, the conflagration muft fpeedily have become
univerfal, and the effedt may be eafily imagined. If
there happened to be any wind at the time to increafe
the heat, the ftony parts could not fail to come into
fufion ; and as the wood burnt away, finking by their
own weight into a folid jmafs, there W'ould remain a
wreck of vitrified matter tracking the fpot where the
ancient rampart had flood ; irregular, and of unequal
height, from the fortuitous and unequal diftribution
of the ftony materials of which it had been compofed.
This conjecture appears very probable from their ap¬
pearance at this day. They do not feem to have ever
been much higher than they are at prefent, as the
fragments that have fallen from them, even where the
wall is lowert, are very inconfiderable. The durable
nature of the materials would prevent them from fuf-
fering any changes by time 5 though from the gradual
increafe of the foil, they muft in fome places have loft
confiderably of their apparent height, and in others
been quite covered. Mr Williams, in making a cut
through the ramparts at Knockfarril, found in many
places the vitrified matter covered with peat mofs half
a foot thick.
In confirmation of this opinion, our author likewife
urges that in the fortification on Craig Phadrick, a
large portion of the outward rampart bears no marks
of vitrification. The reafon of this feems to be, that the
fteepnefs of the hill on that fide renders a low fence of
ftones and turf fufficient; and no wood had probably
been employed in its conftru£lion. “ It appears there¬
fore highly probable (concludes our author), that the
effedft of fire upon thefe hill fortifications has been en¬
tirely accidental ; or to fpeak more properly, that fire
has been employed not in the conftruftion, but to¬
wards the demolition of fuch buildings: and for the
latter purpofe it would certainly prove much more ef¬
ficacious than for the former. It is much to be doubt¬
ed, whether it would be at all poflible, even in the pre¬
fent day, by the utmoft combination of labour and of
Ikill, to furround a large fpace of ground with a double
rampart of ftones compared by fire, of fuch height
and folidity as to anfwer any purpofe of fecurity or de¬
fence againft an enemy. Any ftruflure of this kind
muft have been irregular, low, fragile, eafily fealed,
and quite infecure 5 a much weaker rampart, in fhort,
than a fimple wall of turf or wooden pallifade. The
veftiges yet remaining, as I have already obferved, give
no room to fuppofe that the vitrified mound has ever
been much more entire than it is at prefent. The ef-
fe£t of fire upon ftruftures reared in the manner I have
fuppofed them to have been, will account moft per-
feftly for their prefent appearance. It was from ne-
ceflity that the builders of thefe fortifications betook
themfeh'es to a mode of ftrufture fo liable to be de-
ftroyed by fire. In thofe parts where ftones could be
eafily quarried, of fuch fize and form as to rear a ram¬
part by themfelves of fufficient ftrength and folidity,
there was no occafion to employ wood or turf in its
conftrudlion ; and it was therefore proof againft all af-
faults
F O R
t 23 3
FOR
Vitrified faults by fire. Such are tlie ramparts which appear on
Forts, the hill of Dun-Jardel, Dun-Evan, and many others,
' * ' on which there is not the fmalleft appearance of vitri¬
fication. But on Craig Phadrick, and the other hills
above defcribed, where, from the nature of the rock,
the Hones could be procured only in irregular and ge¬
nerally fmall fragments, it was neceffary to employ
fome fuch mode of conitruaion as I have fuppoled >
and thefe ramparts, though folid and well calculated
for defence againft every attack by force or ftratagem,
were not proof againft an affault by fire.
Mr Cordiner is of opinion, that the vitrifications in
queftion cannot have been the works of art, and ridi¬
cules the contrary hypothefis j though without addu¬
cing any argument againft it. I he Hill of Noth is
by him fuppofed to have been a volcano. He de-
fcribes it as “ a moft majeftic mountain, in general
brown, with mofs and heath, interfperfed with bare
rock, in many places crumbling down. The higheft
part of it is a circular hill, whofe verdure, as well as
height, diftinguifties it from the reft of the mountain.
This is called the Top of Noth ; and bears the ftrongeft
refemblance to every defcnption of a volcanic mount.
At the diftance of many miles, one can diftinguilh
thofe ridges which are the boundaries of the crater, in¬
dicating the hollow in the top.” The gentleman from
whom Mr Cordiner received the account of the vitrifi¬
cations on the fummit, informs us, that on firft feeing
fpecimens of them, he imagined that they had been pie¬
ces of ftone calcined by the burning down of a caftle ;
as he had found fomething very like them on the
caftle-hill at Cullen, in parts where the fvvard of grafs
was broken ; but on reaching the top, and viewing
the appearances on it already defcribed, he altered, his
opinion. “ That men hardly befet (fays he) might
climb up with fome provifions to this as a place of re¬
fuge, is probable : but that, on a barren mountain
top, far from cultivated ground, half a. day’s journey
from the plain 5 that there, in any period of fociety,
man ftiould have been tempted to build that amazing
rampart, is not to be imagined : they have found it a
natural and extenfive fortrefs, and in critical circum-
ftances have made ufe of it accordingly, lhat it has
been occupied as a place or ftrength and of refuge, is
very evident j for, fome hundred yards lower down on
the hill, there are the remains of another rampart or
wall, confifting of loofe ftones piled together without
any cement, carried quite round the hill, ihis laft has
been built for an additional defence to thofe who made
their abode on the top. The top of Noth, for two-
thirds downwards, is covered with a green fward 5 be¬
low that, it is brown with heath : this is the very re-
verfe of the adjacent mountains 5 and the greater ver¬
dure of the upper part I imputed to a new foil created
by the allies of the volcano. The opening, called a
•well, I fuppofe to have been the lateft crater. About
a mile fouth, down towards the lower grounds of the
Cabroci, there is a very pretty regular green hill,
which I afcribe to a later eruption than thofe which
may have formed the contiguous hills now covered
with heath. There is an extraordinary luxuriant fpring
of water rullies out at once from the fide of the hill of
Noth} which is likewife fome confirmation of the
opinion that a volcano has fome time, exifted there,
which has occafioned great hollows and refervoirs of
water in the heart of the mountain. And the wild ir- u
regularities of nature through all the Cabrock, the hi¬
deous and ftrange projedlion of rocks from the fides
of the hills, would feem to indicate fome vaft con-
vulfions which the earth, muft have fuffered in thefe
parts.
“ The traces of ancient volcanoes (fays Mr Cor¬
diner) are far from being unfrequent in Scotland.
The hill of Finhaven is one inftancej and not only
abundant in this fpecies of lava, but with tarras, or
the pulvis puteolanus, an amalgama, as Condamine calls
it, of calcined ftones mixed with fcorias and iron ruft
reduced to powrder. The hill of Beregonium, near
Dunftaffnage caftle, is another, yielding vaft quantities
of pumice or fcoria of different kinds 5 many of w’hich
are of the fame fpecies with thofe of the volcanic Ice¬
land. The noble affemblage of bafaltic columns at
Staffa, thofe in the Ifle of Sky, and the rock Humble,
are but fo many evidences of the ancient volcanoes of
this country. And finally, the immenfe ftratum of pu-
mex vitreus or Iceland agate, on the hill of Dun-fuin
in Arran, is the laft proof I lhall bring in fupport of
the queftion.”
On this difpute we can only obferve, that wdiatever
fide we embrace, the difficulties leem to be very great,
nay almoft infur mountable. When we confider the
great thicknefs of the walls on the top of Noth, from
8 to 12 feet, and the vaft mound of vitrified matter, no
lefs than 40 feet in breadth, mentioned by Mr lytler,
we can fcarce conceive it poffible that lefs than a vol¬
canic fire could be able to form them. We may eafily
allow, that, in the way this gentleman mentions, there
might be confiderable vitrifications formed j but that
fuch immenfe maffes Ihould be brought into perfect fu-
fion by the fmall quantity of fuel which could be put
round them in pallifades, or intermixed with the mate¬
rials themfelves, will be incredible to every one ac¬
quainted with the extreme difficulty with which ftones
of any magnitude are brought into complete fufion. We
fee even in the infides of furnaces, though lometimes
built of no more infufible materials than common
brick, no fuch effeds follow. There is a flight vitri¬
fication indeed, but it fcarcely ever penetrates to the
depth of an inch or two, though very violent fires are
kept up for a much longer time than we could fuppofe
the wood furrounding thofe walls to require for its be¬
ing confumed. In conflagrations, where houfes are
confumed, which are the only fimilar examples we
have, no fuch efted is perceived. Even in the great
fire at London in 1666, where fo many buildings were
deftroyed, we do not hear of their walls being vitri¬
fied, though the materials of many of them were un¬
doubtedly as fufible as the rocks and ftones of Craig
Phadrick, or the Top of Noth. If, on the other
hand, we rejedl this, and adhere to the volcanic hypo¬
thefis, our difficulties are equally great. For where
fhall we find, in any other part of the world, an ex¬
ample of volcanoes ejecting lava in the form of walls
enclofing a regular area ? i his would be attributing
fuch a Angularity to the volcanoes of Scotland as the
moft extravagant imagination cannot admit. We muft
therefore conclude, that though thele ruins are cer¬
tainly the works of art, we have not yet fufficient data
to
Vitrified
Forts.
FOR
^Forts^ t? ^ec^‘e t^e queflion with refpecl
°il8 t!01h but tliat fubjcCt requires a farther inveftioa-
Fortefcue. tion.
^ the paper already quoted, Mr Tytler obferves, that
thefe ancient fortifications preient a more curious and
interelxing objeft of fpeculation, than thofe uncertain
and indeed fruitlefs conjedures as to the mode in which
they have been reared.’’ This, he juffly obferves, mult
have been before the ufe of mortar was known j for as
the countiy abounded in limeftone, and the build¬
ers certainly would exert all their powers in giving
taem a proper degree of ftrength, it would undoubted¬
ly have been ufed. Hence we are led to afcribe to
tneie a very confiderable degree of antiquity ; for as
the Tritons were taught the ufe of mortar by the Ro¬
mans, it is probable that we muft date the origin of
tne ftrudures in queflion before the time of the inva-
hon of that people, or at leaft foon after it 5 fo that
we muff look upon them to be more than 1650 years
old $ but how far beyond that period we are to fearch
for their origin, does not appear. “ All that we can
conclude with certainty (fays our author) is, that they
He Inner tn o   i i • r 1
 w autlJUl
belong to a period of extreme barbarifm. They muft
oave been conftruded by a people fcarcely removed
;;oni tn5 hate of favages, who lived under no impref-
iion of fixed or regulated property in land j whofe only
appropriated goods were their cattle 5 and whofe foie
ecunty, in a life of conftant depredation, was the re-
treat^ to the fummits of thofe hills of difficult accefs,
whicn tney had fortified in the beft manner they could.
As the fpace enclofed was incapable of containing a
great number of m<5h, efpecially if occupied in part by
w>„t e, it is prefumable, that thefe retreats were form¬
ed chiefly for the fecurity of the women and children
«f the canton and of their herds. They could be de¬
fended by a few men, while the reft of the tribe were
engaged wdth their enemies in the field.”
Our author concludes his differtation with a conjec¬
ture, that the forts in queftion were conftrufled, not only
before the Roman invafion, but before the introduc¬
tion of the rites of the Druids into Britain •, as “ there
appears no probability that the inhabitants either liv-
ed under fuch a government as we know' to have pre¬
vailed under the influence of the Druids, or had any
acquaintance with thofe arts which it is certain they cul¬
tivated.”
r FPRTA¥C*‘, Scots Laiv, fignified anciently a
mall place of ftrength, originally built for the defence
° the country 5 and which on that account wras for-
mer y reckoned inter regalia, and did not go along with
the lands upon which it was fituated without a fpecial
grant from the crown. Now, fortalices are carried by
a general grant of the lands j and the word is become
lynonymous with manor-place, meffuage, &c.
A FvRF\SCL[E SlR JoHX’ M chief juftice of
. e, m§ .s Tench, and lord high chancellor of England
m the reign of King Henry VI. was defeended6 from
lie ancient family of Fortefcue, in the county of De-
T°-n’ th<: municiPal laws of England in
.incomes °f ^Tich he was made one of the go¬
vernors m the fourth and feventh years of the reign of
King Henry VI. In 1430 he was called to the degree
o a^ierjeant at law, and in 1441 was conftituted the
forjeant. The following year he was made lord
chief juftice of the King’s Bench; in which honourable
4
f 24 1 FOR
to their conftruc- ftation he continued till near the end of that kino’s
ieign, who ftiowed him many particular marks of his
favour, and advanced him to the poll of lord High
chancellor of England. During the reign of King Ed¬
ward IV. he followed the fortunes of the houfe of Lan-
cafter, and was many years in exile with Queen Mar¬
garet and Prince Edward her fon. At length, they
having a profpea of retrieving their defpemte for¬
tunes, the queen and prince returned to England, and
Sir John Fortefcue, with many others, accompanied
them : but foon after the deciflve battle of Tewkeffiury,
he was thrown into prifon and attainted, with other
Lancaftrians ; but found means to procure his pardon
from Edward IV. He wrote, 1. A learned com¬
mentary on the politic law* of England, for the ufe of
Prince Edward 5 to one edition of which Mr Selden
wrote notes. 2. I he difference between an abfolute
and limited monarchy, as it more particularly regards
the Enghfti conftitution (which was publiihed, with
ffime remarks, by John Fortefcue, afterwards Lord
F°uve£CUf’ p ^vo’ I7I4 ? and a fecond edition was
pubhftied, with amendments, in 1719) : And feveral
Forth.
works, which ftill remain in manufeript. He died near
90 years of age; and was buried in the parifh church
ol Ebburton, where a monument w^as erefted to his
memory, in 1677, by one of his defeendants.
. FORTH, one of the moft noble and commodious
rivers in Scotland. It takes its rife near the bottom
ol Ben-Lomond; and running from wxft to eaft, receives
in its paffage many confiderable ftreams, deriving their
waters from the eminences in the midland counties of
North Britain. Between Stirling and Alloa, the Forth
winds in a moft beautiful and furprifing manner ; fo
that, though it is but four miles by land, it is 24 by
water between thofe two places. Below Alloa the
river expands itfelf to a great breadth between the
counties of Lothian and Fife, till at Queens-ferry it
is contra (fled by promontories fhooting into it from
. ot“ coafts 5 f° that, from being four or five, there it
is not above two miles broad. In the middle of the
channel lies a fmall ifland called Inchgarvy, wffiich has
a fpnng of frefti water : upon the ifland there is an
ancient fort,. w’hich has been lately repaired ; and if
there were, either forts or blockhoufes on the oppofite
promontories, that part of the river which lies between
Alloa and Queen’s-ferry wrould be as fecure and conve¬
nient a harbour as could be defired. A little below
this, near the north fhore, lies Inchcolm, on which
are the remains of an ancient monaftery ef confiderable
extent; and oppofite to Leith Hands the ifland of
Inchkeith, formerly fortified, but now in ruins. Be¬
low Queen’s-ferry the north and fouth ffiores receding,
the body of the wrater gradually enlarges till it be¬
comes two or three leagues broad, affording feveral
fafe harbours on both fides, and excellent roads through¬
out, unembarraffed with latent rocks, flioals, or fands *
and allowing fecure anchorage to the largeft fliips with¬
in .a league of the coaft in almoft any part of the
Frith, and to veffels of a fmaller fize within a mile or
lefs. The Firth, or (as it is commonly written) the
Frith, of Forth, is, at the mouth of it, from North
Berwick to Fifenefs, full five leagues broad ; having the
little ifland of May (on which there is a lighthoufe,
and there might alfo be a fort) in the middle of it, and’
to the weft of this the rocky ifland of Bafs; notwith-
ftandino-
Forth.
# View of
the Britijh
Empire,
vol ii.
p. 518.
F O R [
(landing winch, the larged fleet may enter and fair up
it many miles with the utmofl facility and in the great-
eft fafety. In 1781, Admiral Parker’s fleet lay fome
weeks oppoflte to Edinburgh, accompanied by 500 fail
of merchantmen, the whole in full view of the city and
The Forth was known to the ancients by the name
of Bodotria, or (as Ptolemy calls it Boderia, and has
been ever famous for the number of its havens . fome
of which are, indeed, in their prefent condition, fcarce
worthy of that name. It is navigable for merchantmen
as high as Alloa, 50 miles from the fea 5 and for coaft¬
ers as far as Stirling, 24 miles further by water, though
only four by land in a direft line, as already obferved.
The tide flows only a full mile above Stirling to a
place called Craigforth, where the proprietor intercepts
the paflage of the falmon-by a cruive or wear, very in¬
jurious to the large tra£l of country which ftretches
as far as Lomond weftward. The river from Stir¬
ling to the bridge of Aberfoil, at the entrance into the
Weft Highlands, is only paffable for man or horfe at
few places, and thefe in dry feafons. It glides gently
through a dead flat, from Gartmore eaftward j “ and
on thefe accounts (fays Mr Knox *) it might be made
navigable for barges, at a trifling expence to the pro¬
prietors of the lands, an improvement much wanted in
a rich, extenflve, and populous valley, without market
towns, coal and lime. Suppofing this work to be ex¬
ecuted, of which there is fome probability, the whole
extent of navigation on the Forth, will, including all
its windings, exceed 200 miles, through a coaft of
nearly 100 miles j fertile^ populous, induftrious j and
from Stirling eaftward, almoft lined with towns, an¬
ciently the feats of commerce and navigation,^ till they
were ruined by the Englilh depredations ; m which
miferable ftate fome of them {till remain, while others
begin to refume the appearance of bufinefs.. The prin¬
cipal objeft of thefe towns was the fiflieries} which
5 ] F O R
they profecuted with great vigour as far as Iceland,
till the time of the Union, from which period the eaft-
ern filheries gradually dwindled away } and the poor
filhermen, unable to fubiift themfelves upon air and
water, took up the trade of fmuggling ; but fo foon
as the fithery laws (hall be amended, the fait duties
abolilhed, and an adequate bounty extended to boats
as well as bufles, thefe people will readily fall into the
track of their anceftors, live by honeit induftry, and
add new vigour to our naval ftrength. Many of the
ports ai'e nearly choaked up, others want repairs,
which neither the individuals nor the corporations of
thofe decayed places can accomplifh. Though the
harbours on the Forth are in general fmall, the depth
of water might be made fuflacient for veffels of 200
tons burden, which fully anfwers the purpofes of their
coafting and Baltic trade j but to obtain this, or even
a lefs depth of water, an aid of 50,000!. would be re-
quifite.”
By this river and the Clyde, Scotland is almoft di¬
vided into two parts. The Forth falls into the eaft fea
below Edinburgh, and has an eafy communication with
the whole eaftern coaft of Great Britain ; with France,
Oftend, Holland, Hamburgh, Pruflia, Dantzic, Ruftia,
Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and Greenland. The Clyde
falls into the Atlantic ocean below Glafgowq and com¬
municates with the weftern coaft of Great Britain } witn
Ireland, the fouth of France, Portugal, Spain, the Me¬
diterranean, America, and the Weft Indies. Fhele
two rivers, thus falling in oppoflte dire&ions into the
two feas which environ our ifland, and the neck of
land between them amounting fcarcely to 24 miles,
gave rife to the idea of a junflion, fo as to open a
communication acrofs the kingdom, and thereby cut
off the long dangerous navigation by the Land’s End
and the Pentland Frith : an objeft of vaft utility, and
which has been happily accomplilhed. See Canal.
FORTIFICATION;
HTHE art of fortifying a towm, or Other place j or
of putting it in fuch a pofture of defence, that
every one of its parts defends, and is defended by,
fome other parts, by means of ramparts, parapets,
moats, and other bulwarks \ to the end that a fmall
number of men within may be able, tp defend them¬
felves for a confiderable time againft the affaults of a
numerous army without, fo that the enemy in attack¬
ing them muft of neceflity fuffer great lofs.
The origin and rife of fortifleation is undoubtedly
owing to the degeneracy of mankind. In the firft ages
of the world, men w'ere difperfed up and down the
countries in feparate families, as we are told in the hi-
ftories of the Jews and Scythians, who wandered from
one place to another, for the fake of finding pafture
for their cattle. Thefe families became in time fo nu¬
merous as to form large communities, which fettled all
together in a place ; from whence villages and towns
had their origin and rife : but they found it was ne-
ceffary, for the common fecurity, to furround thofe
towns with walls and ditches, to prevent all violences
Vol. IX. Part I.
from their neighbours, and fudden furprifes. This was
fuffleient for fome time, till offenfive weapons were in¬
vented, and conquering became a fafhion. Then walls
with loop holes were made at proper diftances, in or¬
der to fereen the defenders againft the arrows of the
affailants : but finding that, as foon as the enemy got
once clofe to the walls, they could from no part be
difeovered or repulfed 5 for this reafon they added fquare
towers at proper diftances from each other, fo that
every part of the wall might be defended by the adja¬
cent fides of the tow’ers. This manner of enclofing
towns, Iviftvbver, was found to be imperfedl, becaufe
there remained ftill one of the faces of the towers
which fronted the field that could not be feen from any
other point, and therefore could not be defended. To
remedythis, they made the towers round inftead of
fquare, imagining this figure to be the Itrongeft to re¬
fill the battering engines, as likewife to be better de¬
fended from the other parts of the wall.
Notwithftanding the fuperiority of this method a-
bove the former, there remained yet a part of thefe
D towers
25
Vauban’s towers unfeen and incapable of being defended 5 which
, Method.^ macje c}iange the figure of the towers again ;
that is, they made them fquare as before 5 but, inftead
of prefenting a face to the field as formerly, they pre-
fented an angle ; by this means they effeftually found
out fuch a difpofition of their works that no part could
be attacked without being feen or defended by fome
other part.
This laft method was in ufe a lonjfwhile 5 and would
in all probability have continued to this day, if gun¬
powder had not been found out; but the violence of
the guns and mortars foon convinced the world, that
fuch towers and walls were but a wTeak defence again!!:
thefe thundering engines j and befides, as the nature
of the attack was entirely changed, it was alfo necef-
iary to change that of fortifying likewife.
From that time ramparts were added to the walls,
the towers enlarged into baftions, and all forts of out¬
works have been added, fuch as ravelins, counter¬
guards, horn and crown works, and others of the like
nature, in order to render the defence in fome meafure
equivalent to the attack.
Notwithflanding all the improvements which have
been made in the art of fortifying fince the invention
of gunpowder, that of attacking is Hill fuperior to it $
engineers have tried in vain to render the advantages of
a fortification equal to thofe of the attack ; the fupe-
riority of the befiegers fire, together, with the greater
number of men, obliges generally, fooner or later, the
befieged to fubmit.
I he greateff improvement made in the ait of at¬
tacking happened in the year 1697, w^en M. Vauban
made firft ufe of ricochet firing at the fiege of Ath,
whereby the befieged placed behind the parapets were
as much expofed to the fire of the befiegers as if there
had been none ; whereas, before, they had been fe-
cure as long as the parapet was not demolifhed j and
the world is, that there can be no remedy found to
prevent this enfilading, without falling into inconve¬
niences almolt as bad as thofe which w'e endeavour to
avoid.
Fortification is either regular or irregular. Re-
gular fortification, is that built in a regular polygon,
the fides and angles of which are all equal, being com¬
monly about a mu/ket fhot from each other. Irregular
fortification, on the contrary, is that wdiere the fides
and angles are not uniform, equidiftant, or equal j
which is owing to the irregularity of the ground, valleys,
rivers, hills, and the like.
Sf.ct. I. Of Regular Fortification.
Although authors agree as to the general form in
the prefent manner of fortifying, yet they moftly differ
in particular conftrudlions of the parts. As it would
be both needlefs and fuperfluous to treat of all the dif¬
ferent methods hitherto propofed, wTe fhall content
ourfelves with explaining thofe only which are mol!
efteemed by the berf judges, and have been moftly put
in practice.
ConflruBion of M. Vavban's Method.
This method is divided into little, mean, and great;
the little is chiefly ufed in the conftru&ion of citadels,
F O R T 1 F I C A T I O N.
the mean in that of all forts of towns, and the great in
particular cafes only.
We (hall give the confiruftion of the mean, as being
mol! ule/ul $ and refer the reader to the table hereaf¬
ter, for thofe ditnenfions which are different in thefe fe-
veral fortifications.
Infcribe in a circle a polygon of as many fides as the
fortification is defigned to have fronts 5 let AB (fig. 1.)
be one of the fides of half an hexagon, which bifedt by
the perpendicular CD ; divide half AC of it into nine
equal parts, and one of thefe into ten others 5 then
thefe divifions will ferve as a fcale to conftrudf all the
parts of the fortification, and each of them is fiippof-
ed to be a toife or fathom, that is, fix French feet j
and therefore the whole fide AB is fuppofed to be 180
toifes.
As the dividing a line into fo many equal parts is
troublefome and tedious, it is more convenient to have
a Icale oj. equal parts by which the w7orks may be con-
ftrudted.
If therefore, in this cafe, the radius is taken equal
to 180 toifes, and the circle deferibed with that radius
being divided into fix equal parts, or the radius being
carried fix times round, you will have a hexagon in-
feribed; AB being bife&ed by the perpendicular CD
fis before, fet off 30 toifes from C to D, and draw the
indefinite lines ADG, BDF 5 in which take the parts
AE, BH, each equal to §0 toi!es: from the cen¬
tre E deferibe an arc through the point H, meeting
AD in G, and from the centre H deferibe an arc
through the point E, meeting BD in F 5 or which is
the fame, make each of the lines EG, HF, equal to
the diftance EH; then the lines joining the points
A, E, F, G, H, B, will be the principal or outline of
the front.
If the fame conftru&ion be performed on the other
fides of the polygon, you will have the principal or
outline of the whole fortification.
If, with a radius of 20 toifes, there be deferibed
circular arcs, from the angular points B, A, M, T,
and lines are drawn from the oppofite angles, E, H,
&c. fo as to touch thefe arcs, their parts, a b, b cy &c.
together with thefe arcs, will reprefent the outline of
the ditch.
Definitions.
1. The part FEALN, is called the baftion.
2. AE, AL, the faces of the baftion.
3. EF, LN, the flanks.
4. FG, the curtain.
5. FN, the gorge of the baftion.
6. AG, BF, the lines of defence.
7- AB, the exterior fide of the polygon.
8. CD, the perpendicular.
9. Any line which divides a work into two equal
parts, is called the capital of that work.
10. a be, the counterfcarp of the ditch.
11. A, M, the flanked angles.
12. H, E, L, the angles of the flioulder, or flioul-
der only.
13. F,* N, the angles of the flank.
14. Any angle whofe point turns from the place is
called a falient angle, fuch as A, M 3 and any angle
whole
Sea. 1.
Vauban’s
Method.
1 /—<
Plate
CCXXI
/
Se$:. I.
Of
Onllons.
F 0 R T 1 F 1
wliofe point turns towards the place, a re-entering angle,
fuch as b, F, N.
15. If there be drawn two lines parallel to the prin¬
cipal or outline, the one at 3 toifes diftance, and the
other at 8 from it j then the fpace y x included between
the principal one and that fartheft diftant, is called
the rampart.
And the fpace x x, contained by the principal line,
and that near to it, and which is generally ftained
black, is called the parapet.
16. There is a fine line drawn within four feet of
the parapet, which expreffes a ftep called banquette.
N. B. All works have a parapet of three toifes
thick, and a rampart of 8 to 10, befides their Hopes.
The rampart is elevated more or lefs above the level
of the place from 10 to 20 feet, according to the na-
C A T I O N.
ture of the ground and the particular conftrudhons of
engineers.
The parapet is a part of the rampart elevated from
6 to feet above the reft, in order to cover the troops
which are drawn up there from the fire of the enemy in
a fiege \ and the banquette is two or three feet higher
than the rampart, or about four feet lower than the
parapet j fo that when the troops ftand upon it they
may juft be able to fire over the parapet.
17. The body of the place, is all that which is con¬
tained within this firft rampart: for which reafon, it is
often faid to conftruft the body of the place $ which
means properly, the conftrudtion of the baftions and
curtains.
18. All the works which are conftrufted beyond the
ditch before the body of the place are called outworks.
27
Of
Ravelins.
Plate
GGXXI.
TABLE.
Side of Polyg.
Perpendicul.
Faces baft.
Forts.
80
10
22
Cape of ravel. | 25
90
25
28
100 no 120
I 24-
3°
14
3°
35
33
38
130
16
35
40
Little Fortif.
140
20
40
54
150
21
42
5°
160
23
45
50
170
25
47
52
Mean.
I 80
3°
50
5 5
190
31
53
?5
Great.
200 260
25
22
55 6°
60 I 50
In the firft vertical column are the numbers ex¬
prefling the lengths of the exterior fides from 80 to 260.
In the fecond, the perpendiculars anfwering to thefe
fides. In the third, the lengths of the faces of ba¬
ftions : and in the fourth, the lengths of the capitals of
the ravelins.
The forts are moftly, if not always, fquares : for
which reafon, the perpendiculars are made one-eighth
of the exterior fides $ becaufe if thej^ were more, the
gorges of the baftions would become too narrow.
The little fortification is chiefly defigned for citadels,
and are commonly pentagons 5 the perpendiculars are
made one-feventh of the exterior fide : the mean is
ufed in all kinds of fortifications from an hexagon up¬
wards to any number of fides 5 and the great is feldom
ufed but in an irregular fortification, where there are
fome fides that cannot be made lefs without much ex¬
pence or in a town which lies near a great river,
where the fide next the river is made from 200 to 260
toifes j and as that fide is lefs expofed to be attacked
than any other, the perpendicular is made fhorter,
which faves much expence.
The faces of the baftions are all ^ths of the exte¬
rior fides, or nearly fo, becaufe the fraflions are ne¬
glected.
It may be obferved in general, that in all fquares the
perpendicular is 4th of the exterior fide, and all pentagons
ith, and in all the reft upward ^th.
1. Conjlru&ion of Orillons and retired Flanks.
Defcribe the front MPQRST as before, and di¬
vide the flank into three equal parts, of which fuppofe
S r to be one : from the oppofite flanked angle M draw
a line M r, in which take the part mroi 5 toifes •, take
likewife R « in the line of defence MR, produced,
equal to 5 toifes, and join n m, upon which as a bafe
defcribe the equilateral triangle npm, and from the
anglep, oppofite to the bafe as centre, is defcribed the
circular flank n rn.
And if S r be bifefted by the perpendicular 1, 2, and
another be ereCled upon the face ST, at S 5 the inter-
feftion 2 of thefe two perpendiculars will be the cen*
tre of the arc which forms the orillon.
The orillons are very ufeful in covering the retired
flanks, which cannot be feen but direftly in the front }
and as thefe orillons are round, they cannot be fo eafily
deftroyed as they -would be if they were of any other
figure.
2. ConJlruBion of Ravelins or Half moons.
Fig. 2. Set off 55 toifes, from the re-entering
angle O of the counterfcarp, on the capital OL or
on the perpendicular produced, and from the point L
draw lines to the ftioulders AB j whofe parts LM,
LN, terminated by the counterfcarp, will be the faces,
and MO, ON, the femi-gorges, of the ravelin requir¬
ed.
This is M. Vauban’s method of conftrufting ravelins,
according to fome authors : and others will have the
faces of the ravelin to terminate ®n thofe of the baftions
within 3 toifes of the fhoulders •, which feems to be
the beft way, for thefe ravelins cover the flanks much
better than the others.
The ditch before the ravelin is 12 toifes, its counter¬
fcarp parallel to the faces of the ravelins; and is made
in a circular arc, before the falient angle ; as likewife
all ditches are in general.
When the ravelins are made with flanks, as in fig. 3.
the faces ftiould terminate on thofe of the baftions, at
leaft 5 toifes from the fhoulders.
The flanks are made by fetting off 10 toifes from the,
extremities of the faces, from f to h, and from m to li
and from the points h, /, the flanks h, kr /, p, are drawn
parallel to the capital LO of the ravelin.
D 2
There
.cS
F O II T I F I
There are fometimes redoubts made in the ravelin,
‘' ‘ r ' iuch as in fig. 2. which is done by fetting off 16 toifes
Plate the extremities of the faces on the femi-gorges
€CXXI. from N to b, and from M to a ; and from the points b,
a, the faces are drawn parallel to thofe of the ravelin :
the ditch before the redoubt is 6 toifes, and its coun-
terfcarp parallel to the faces.
3. ConJiruBion of Tenailles.
A tenaille is a work made in the ditch before the
curtains, the parapet of which is only 2 or 3 feet
higher than the level ground of the ravelin. There
are three different forts : the firft are thofe as in fig. 4.
which are made in the direftion of the lines of defence,
leaving a paffage of 3 toifes between their extremities
and the flanks of the baftions, as likewife another of 2
in the middle for a bridge of communication to the ra¬
velin.
The fecond fort are thofe as in fig. 5. Their faces
are in the lilies of defence, and 16 toifes long, befides
the paffage of 3 toifes between them and the flanks
of the baftions $ their flanks are found by defcribing
arcs from one fhoulder of the tenaille as centre through
the other, on which are fet off 10 toifes for the flanks
defired.
And the third fort are thofe as in fig. 6. Their faces
are 16 toifes, as in the fecond fort, and the flanks are
parallel to thofe of the baftions.
The ufe in general of tenailles is to defend the bot¬
tom of the ditch by a grazing fire, as likewife the level
ground of the ravelin, and efpecially the ditch before
the redoubt within the ravelin, which can be defended
from nowhere elfe fo well as from them.
The firft fort do not defend the ditch fo well as the
others, as being too oblique a defence \ but as they are
not fubjeft to be enfiladed, M. Vauban has generally
preferred them in the fortifying of places, as may be
feen in the citadel of Lille, at Landau, New Brifac,
and in a great many other places.
The fecond fort defend the ditch much better than
the firft, and add a low flank to thofe of the baftion :
but as thefe flanks are liable to be enfiladed, they have
not been much put in praftice. This defied! might
however be remedied, by making them fo as to be co¬
vered by the extremities of the parapets of the oppofite
ravelins, or by fome other work.
As to the third fort, they have the fame advan¬
tage as the fecond, and are likewife liable to the fame
objedlions; for which reafon, they may be ufed with
the fame precautions which have been mentioned in the
fecond.
Tenailles are efteemed fo neceffary, that there is
hardly any place fortified without them : and it is not
without reafon. For when the ditch is dry, the part
behind the tenailles ferves as a place of arms, from
which the troops may fally, deftroy the works of the
enemy in the ditch, oppofe their defcent, and retire
with fafiety j and the communication from the body of
the place to the ravelin becomes eafy and fecure:
which is a great advantage y for by that means the ra¬
velin may be a much better defence, as it can be
fupplied with troops and neceffaries at any time. And
if the ditch is wet, they ferve as harbours for boats,
svhifch may-.carry out armed men to oppofe the paf-
G A T I O N.
Sea. L
fage over the ditch whenever they pleafe; and the
communication from the tenailles to the ravelin be¬
comes likewife much eafier than it would be without
them.
4. ConJlruEiion of Lunettes.
Of
Lunettes,
&c.
Plate
CCXXI.
Fig. 7. Lunettes are placed on both fides of the ra¬
velin, luch as B, to increafe the ftrength of a place :
they are conftrudfted, by bifedling the faces of the ra¬
velin with the perpendicular LN ; on which is fet off
30 toifes from the counterfcarp of the ditch, for one of
its faces j the other face, PN, is found by making the
femi-gorge TP of 25 toifes; the ditch before the lu¬
nettes is 12 toifes, the parapet 3, and the rampart 8,
as in the ravelin.
There is fometimes another work made to cover the
falient angle of the ravelin, fuch as A, called bonnet,
whofe faces are parallel to thofe of the ravelin, and
when produced bifedl thofe of the lunettes ; the ditch
before it is 10 toifes.
There are likewife lunettes, fuch as D in fig. 8.
whofe faces are drawn perpendicular to thofe of the ra¬
velin, within a third part from the falient angle; and
their femi-gorges are only 20 toifes.
Thefe kinds of wrorks may make a good defence,
and coft no very great expence ; for as they are fo near
the ravelin, the communication with it is very eafy, and.
one cannot well be maintained till they are all three
taken.
5. ConfruElion of Tenaillons.
Fig. 9. Produce the faces of the ravelin beyond the
counterfcarp of the ditch, at a diftance MN of 30
toifes, and take on the counterfcarp of the great ditch
15 toifes from the re-entering angle p to q, and draw
N y y then q NM p will be the tenailles required; its
ditch is 12 toifes, that is, the fame as that of the rave¬
lin. Sometimes there is made a retired battery in the
front of the tenaillons, as in B ; this battery is 10
toifes from the front to which it is parallel, and 15
toifes long.
There are commonly retrenchments made in the te¬
naillons, fuch as O ; their parapets are parallel to the
fronts MN, and bifeft the fide y N ; the ditch before
this retrenchment is 3 toifes; and there is a banquette
before the parapet next to the ditch of about 8 feet,
called berm ; which ferves to prevent the earth of the
parapet (which feldom has any revetment) from falling
into the ditch.
It is to be obferved, that the ravelin, before which
tenaillons are eonftrudled, muft have its falient angles
much greater than the former conftrublion makes them ;
otherwife the falient angles of the tenaillons become
too acute ; for which reafon we made the capital of
this ravelin 45 toifes, and the faces terminate within 3
toifes of the fhoulders.
6. ConfruBion of Counterguards.
Fig. 10, 11. Wlien the counterguard is placed be¬
fore the ravelin, fet off 40 toifes on the capital of the
ravelin from the falient angle. A to the falient angle B,
of the counterguard ; and 10 from C to D, on the
counterfcarp of the ditch.
When the counterguard is before the baflion, fuch as
in
F O R T I F 1 C A T 1 O N.
Se6t I.
Of in fig. 2. its falient angle F is 50 toifes from the fa-
Hornw rk',]ient angie E of the baftion, and the breadth near the
, ^ ditch of the ravelin 10 toifes as before.
p!ate The ditch before the counterguards is 12 toifes, and
CCXXL its counterfcarp parallel to the faces.
Counterguards are made before the ravelin on fome
particular occafions only } but are frequently conftruft-
ed before the baftions, as covering the flanks wonder¬
fully well. Some authors, as IVIr Tlondel and l\Ir
Coehorn, will have them much narrower than they are
here.
7. Conjlruttion of Hornworhs.
Fig. 12. Produce the capital of the ravelin be¬
yond the falient angle A, at a diflance AB of about
80 toifes 5 draw DEE at right angles to AB; in
which take ED, BE, each equal to 55 toifes •, and
on the exterior fide DE, trace a front of a polygon
in the fame manner as that of the body of the place,
making the perpendicular BF 10 toifes, and the
faces 30.
The branches Btf, E£, of the hornwork, when pro¬
duced, terminate on the faces of the baftions, ■ with¬
in 5 toifes of the (boulders. The ditch of the horn-
work is 12 toifes, and its counterfcarp parallel to the
branches ; and in the front terminates at the (boul¬
ders, in the fame manner as the great ditch before the
baftions.
The capital of the ravelin before the front of the
hornwork is 35 toifes, and the faces terminate on the
(boulders, or rather 2 or 3 toifes beyond them : and
the ditch before the ravelin is 8 toifes.
There are fometimes retrenchments made within the
hornwork, fuch as S, S which are conftrufled by
eredting perpendiculars to the faces of the ravelins,
within 25 toifes of their extremities. This retrench¬
ment, like all others, has a parapet turfed only with a
berm of 8 feet before it j as likewife a ditch from 3 to
5 toifes broad.
Fig. 13. When a hornwork is made before the ba¬
ftion, the diftance DL of the front from the falient
angle of the baftion is 100 toifes, and the branches
terminate on the faces of the adjacent ravelins within
5 toifes from their extremities j all the reft is the fame
as before.
8. ConJlruBion of Crownworks.
Plate From the falient angle, A (fig. 14.) of the raveling
CCXXII. as a centre, defcribe an arc of a circle with a radius of
about 120 toifes, cutting the capital of the ravelin
produced at C $ from the point C, fet off the cords
CB, CF, each of them equal to no toifes ; and on
each of which, as an exterior fide, conftrudl a front of
a polygon of the fame dimenfions as in the hornwork;
that is, the perpendicular (hould be 18 toifes, the faces
30, and the branches terminate on the faces of the ba¬
ftions within 25 toifes of the (boulders.
The ditch is 12 toifes, the capital of the ravelin 35,
and its ditch 8 } that is, the fame as in the horn-
work.
Sometimes the crownwork is made before the ba¬
ftion, as in fig. 15. The arc is defcribed from the fa¬
lient angle A of the baftion, with a radius of 120 toifes,
as before j and the branches terminate on the faces of
the adjacent ravelins within 23 toifes of their extremw
ties; the reft of the dimenfions and conftruftions arc Of
the fame as before. '
Horn works, as well as crownworks, are never made    >
but when a large fpot of ground falls beyond the forti- plate
fication, which might be advantageous to an enemy CCXXIL
in a fiege, or to cover (orae gate or entrance into a
town.
9. ConfruBion of Covert-ways and Glacis.
Although we have not hitherto mentioned the co¬
vert-way, neverthelefs all fortifications whatfoever have
one ; for they are elteemed to be one of the moft effen-
tial parts of a modern fortification} and it is certain,
the taking the covert-way, when it is in a good condi¬
tion and well defended, is generally the moft; bloody
adlion of the fiege.
After having conftrufled the body of the place, and
all the outworks which are thought neceffary, lines are
drawn parallel to the outmoft counterfcarp of the ditches,
at 6 toifes diftant from it \ and the face mn, nin, in¬
cluded between that line and the counterfcarp, will be
the covert way required.
Fig. 16. There is in every re-entering angle of the
counterfcarp a place of arms m ; which is found by fet-
ting off 20 toifes from the re-entering angle a, on both
fides from a to b, and from a to c; and from the points
b, c, as centres, arcs are defcribed with a radius of 25
toifes, fo as to interfecl each other in d; then the lines
drawn from this interfedlion to the points c, will be
the faces of the places of arms.
If lines are drawn parallel to the lines which termi¬
nate the covert-way, and the places of arms, at 20-
toifes diftant from them, the fpace x,x,x, between thefe
lines and thofe which terminate the covert-way will be
the glacis.
At the extremities of the places of arms, are traverfes
made, fuch as v, v, which ferve to enclofe them ; thefe
traverfes are 3 toifes thick, and as long as the covert¬
way is broad j and a paffage is cut in the glacis round
them, of about 6 or 8 feet, in order to have a free com¬
munication wdth the reft of the covert-way.
There are alfo traverfes of the fame dimenfions be¬
fore every falient angle of the baftion and outworks,
and are in the fame direflion as the faces of thofe works
produced ; and the thicknefs lies at the fame fide as the
parapets.
The paffages round thefe laft traverfes are liketvife
from 6 to 8 feet wide.
In each place of arms are two fally ports 2; 2;, which
are 10 or 12 feet wfide, for the troops to fally out j
in time of a fiege they are (hut up with barriers or
gates.
10. Conf ruBion of Arrows and Detached Redoubts.
An arrow is a work made before the falient angles
of the glacis, fuch as A, fig. 16. It is compofed of a
parapet of 3 toifes thick, and 40 long *, and the ditch
before it 5 toifes, terminating in a (lope at both ends.
The communication from the covert-w^ay into thefe
arrows is 4 or 5 toifes wide j and there is a traverfe, r,
at the entrance, of 3 toifes thick, with a paffage of 6
or 8 feet round it.
A detached redoubt is a kind of work much like a
ravelin, with flanks placed beyond the glacis; fuch as
B ; they are made in order to occupy fome fpot of
^ ground!
FORTIFICATION. Se& I
Of ground wkicii might be advantageous to the befiegers j
Covert- ]ikewffe to 0blige the enemy to open their trenches far-
‘lvS’ ther oft than they would do otherwife.
Plate Their diftance from the covert-way ought not to
GCXXII. exceed i 20 toifes, that it may be defended by mulket
{hot from thence.
The gorge a £ is 40 toifes; the flanks ar,bf wftiich
are perpendicular to the gorge, 10 j and the faces c d,
f d, 30 : the ditch before it is 6 toifes, ending in {lopes
at both ends 5 the covertwvay 4 5 the branches of the
covett-way are 42 toifes long, or thereabouts $ the
faces of the places of arms y, y, which are perpendicu¬
lar to the branches, 10 5 and the other, which is paral¬
lel to them, 14.
The communication from the covert-way into the
redoubt, is 5 or 6 toifes wide j and there is a traverfe
made juft at the entrance, and another in the middle
when it is pretty long. The parapets of this communi¬
cation terminate in a Hope or glacis.
If thefe redoubts are above 50 toifes diftant from
the covert-way, the beftegers carry their trenches round,
and enter through the gorge •, by which the troops
that are in them are made prifoners of wrar, if they do
not retire betimes ; to prevent which, fome other out¬
works ftiould be made to fupport them.
11. ConJlruEiion of Second Ditches and Covert-ways.
Fig. 17. When the ground is low, and water to be
found, there is often a ditch about 10 or 12 toifes
made round the glacis 5 and oppofite to the places of
arms are conftru&ed lunettes, beyond the ditch : fuch
as D, whofe breadth on the counterfcarp of the ditch
is 10 toifes, from b to #, and from c to d; and the
faces a L, L, are parallel to thofe of the places of
arms j the ditch before them is from 8 to 10 toifes
wide.
The fecond covert-way is 4 toifes, the femi-gorges
of the places of arms, w, about 15, and the faces per¬
pendicular to the counterfcarp; the fecond glacis is
from 15 to 18 toifes broad.
This fecond covert-way has traverfes everywhere, in
the fame manner as the firft.
1 12. ConfruBion of Profiles.
A profile is the reprefentation of a vertical feftion
of a work 5 it ferves to fhow thofe dimenfions which
cannot be reprefented in plans, and is neceflary in the
building of a fortification. Profiles are generally con-
ftru&ed upon a fcale of 30 feet to an inch. It would
be endlefs to defcribe all their particular dimenfions ;
we {hall therefore lay down the principal rules only,
given by M. Vauban, on this fubjeft.
1. Every wrork ought to be at leaft 6 feet higher
than that before it, fo that it may command thofe be¬
fore it : that is, that the garrifon may fire from all the
works at the fame time, with great and fmall arms, at
the befiegers in their approaches. Notwithftanding
this fpecious pretence, there are feveral authors who
objeft againft it. For, fay they, if you can difcover
the enemy from all the wrorks, they can difcover, by
the fame reafon, all the works from their batteries ; fo
that they may deftroy them without being obliged to
change their fituation, and thereby difmount all the
guns of the place before they come near it.
But if all the wrorks w ere of the fame height, thofe
3
within cannot be deftroyed, till fuch time as thofe be- Of
fore them are taken : guns might be placed in the co- Proflles-
vert-way and outworks to obftruft the enemy’s ap- TphtT~
pioach } and when they come near the place, they CCXXfl
might be tranfported into the inner works : and as the
body of the place w’culd be much lower, the expence
would be confiderably dimlnifhed.
But when works are low, they are eafily enfiladed
by the ricochet batteries, which is a kind of"firing with
a fmall quantity of ponder, by giving the gun an ele¬
vation of 10 or 12 degrees: this might however be
partly prevented, by making the parapets near the fa-
lient angles, for the fpace of 8 toifes on each fide, 5 or
6 feet higher than the reft of the works.
2. The covert-way flrould be lower than the level
ground, otherwife the body of the place muft be railed
very high, efpecially where there are feveral outworks ;
this is to be underftood only when the works exceed
each other in height, otherwife it need not be below
the level.
3. The bafes of all inward Hopes of earth ftiould be
at leaft equal to the height, if not more.
4. The bafes of all outward Hopes of earth, two-
thirds of their heights.
5. The Hopes of all walls, or revetments, ftiould be
one-fifth of their height 5 or one-fixth might perhaps
be fufficient: the height of a w-all is eftimated from
the bottom of the ditch, and not from the beginning
of its foundation.
6. The Hopes of all parapets and traverfes are one-
fixth of their breadth; that is, 3 feet towards the
field *, or the infide, where the banquettes Ihould be 3
feet higher than the outfide.
7. When the revetment of a rampart goes quite up
to the top, 4 feet of the upper part is a vertical wall
of 3 feet thick, with a fquare ftone at the top of it
projedfting 6 inches; and a circular one belowq or
where the Hope begins, of 8 or 10 inches diameter :
they go quite round the rampart, and the circular pro-
jedlion is called the cordon.
Where the ftraight part of the wall ends and the
Hope begins, the wall is always made 5 feet thick j
and the counterforts or buttreffes reach no higher than
that place.
8. When the rampart is partly walled and partly
turfed, then one-fifth of the height which is turfed
muft be added to 5 feet, to get the thicknefs of the
wall above.
And having the thicknefs of any wTall above, by ad- >
ding one-fifth of its height from the bottom of the
ditch, the fum will be the thicknefs of the w'all at the
bottom ; but if a fixth part is only taken for the Hope,
then a fixth part muft be added.
For inftance, fuppofe a rampart of 30 feet high from
the bottom of the ditch, and that 10 of which are to
be turfed ; then the fifth part of I o, which is 2, added
to 5, gives 7 for the wall above ; and as this w’all is
20 feet high, the fifth of which is 4, and 4 added to
the thicknefs 7 above, gives 11 for the thicknefs near
the foundation.
Fig. 18. Reprefents (in military perfpe&ive) the pro- p]ate
files of the body of a place, the ravelin, and covert-way; CCXXIIL
which gives a clear idea of what is meant by a profile,
and from which thofe of all other w orks may be eafily
conceived.
Sect.
Sea. II. F O R T I F
Of
Forufica- Sect' IL Of Irregular Fortification.
u.—y^--1 The moft effential principle in fortification confifts
Plate in making all the fronts of a place equally flrong, fo
OCXXHI. that the enemy may find no advantage in attacking
either of the fides. This can happen no otherwife in
a regular fortificati®n fituated in a plain or even ground:
but as there are but few places which are not irregular
either in their wrorks or fituations, and the nature of
the ground may be fuch as makes it impraflicable to
build them regular without too great expence $ it is fo
much the more neceflary to fhow in what confifts the
ftrength or weaknefs of a town irregularly fortified, fo
that the w^eakeft part may be made ftronger by addi¬
tional outwrorks ; as likewife, if fuch a place is to be
attacked, to know winch is the ftrongeft or weakeft
part.
I. Con/lrufiion of an Irregular I lace fituated in an open
country.
If the place to be fortified is an old town enclofed by
a wTall or rampart, as it moft frequently happens, the
engineer is to confider well all the different circum-
ftances of the figure, fituation, and nature of the ground j
and to regulate his plan accordingly, fo as to avoid the
difad vantages, and gain all the advantages poflible :
he Ihould examine, whether by cutting off fome parts
of the old wall or rampart, and taking in fome ground,
the place can be reduced into a regular figure, or
nearly fo j for if that can be done without increafing
the expence confiderably, it ftiould by no means be
omitted. Old towns have often towTers placed from
dirtance to diftance, as Douay, Tournay, and many
other places, which are generally made ufe of, and
mended when it may be done. If there is a rampart
without baftions or towers, it muft be well confidered
wdiether baftions may not be added, or if it is not bet¬
ter to make only fome outwrorks : if the ditch about
this rampart is not too wfide and deep, it w^ould be ad¬
vantageous to make detached baftions ; otherwife rave¬
lins and counterguards muft be conftru&ed. Special
care muft be taken to make all the fides of the polygon
as nearly equal as poflible, and that the length of the
lines of defence do not exceed the reach of mufket-fhot $
but if that cannot be done, thofe fides which are on
the narroweft part ftiould be made the longeft.
If it fliould happen that fome of the fides are inac-
ceflible or of very difficult approach, either on account
of fome precipice, marlhy ground, or inundation, they
may be made much longer than the others which are
of eafy accefs, and the flanks need not be fo large as
the reft 5 by doing fo, there will be fome expences fa-
ved, which may be ufed in making the other fides
ftronger by adding more outworks.
There are few fituations but what are more advan¬
tageous in fome parts than in others ; it is therefore
the bufinefs of an engineer to diftinguiffi them, and to
render thofe fides ftrong by art which are not fo by
If the fituation is low and watery, lunettes or tenail-
lons, and fuch other fmall outworks, ffiould be conftruc-
ted ; becaufe they are not of any great expence, and
may make a very good defence. But if one fide of the
place only is low, and running water is to be had, a fe-
I C A T I O N.
cond ditch and covert-way with lunettes may be made, Of
by obferving, that if the firft glacis is made to Hope, Il'regular
fo as to become even with the level of the water in the
fecond ditch j or if the water can be fwelled by means - v - - ;
of dikes or fluices, fo as to overflow the beft part of Plate
the firft glacis, it ftiould be done : for by fo doing CCXXIII.
thefe works wall be able to make a very good defence,
fince the befiegers will find it a difficult matter to lodge
themfelves upon this glacis; which cannot be done but
within a few toifes of the firft covert-way, where the
befieged are ready to receive them, and to deftroy their
works with great advantage j whereas the enemy can¬
not fupport their workmen but from the fecond covert¬
way, which is too far off to be of any great fervice to
them.
But if the fituation is of a dry nature, without any
water upon it, caponiers ftiould be made in the great
ditch, from the curtains to the ravelin, and batteries
raifed in the entrance of the ditch before the ravelin,
whofe parapet muft flope off into a glacis fo as to af¬
ford no cover for the enemy behind them. Arrows and
detached redoubts are likewife very proper to be ufed
in fuch a cafe } and fometimes horn or crownworks, if
it ftiould be thought convenient : but thefe works
ftiould never be conftrudted without an abfolute necef-
fity, either to occupy a fpot of ground which might
be advantageous to the enemy, or to cover fome gate
or entrance into the town ; for they are of great ex¬
pence, and their defence feems not to be anfwerable
to it.
Moft of the places in Flanders are fortified with
hornworks, fuch as Ypres, Tournay, Lifle, and o-
thers.
If the place to be fortified is new, and the fituation
will not admit of a regular conftrudlion, particular
care muft be taken in choofing fuch a fpot of ground as
is moft advantageous, and leaft liable to any difadvan-
tages either in the building or in the maintaining of it.
All hills or rifing grounds ftiould be avoided, which
might command any part of the works j marftiy grounds,
becaufe fuch fituations are unwholefome ; or lakes and
Handing waters for the fame reafon, excepting a lake
is or may be made navigable. Good water ftiould be
had either within the place or near it, for it is abfolute-
ly neceffary for men and cattle: the air ftiould be
wholefome j otherwife the continual ficknefs that may
reign in fuch a place might prevent people to come and
live in it, and the garrilon would not be in a condition
to defend themfelves as they ought to do. In ftiort, all
the different circumltances attending fuch an undertak¬
ing ffiould be maturely confidered before a refolution is
taken to fortify any place.
When a fituation is fixed upon, the next thing to be
confidered is, the bignefs of the town and the number
of its outworks ; which muft abfolutely depend upon
the confequence fuch a place is of to a nation. If it is
only to guard a pafs or entrance into a country, it
need not be fo large : but if it is to be a place either to
promote or to proteft trade, it fliould be large and com¬
modious ; the ftreets fliould be wide, and the buildings
regular and convenient. As to what regards the forti¬
fication, its conftru&ion fliould depend on the nature
of the fituation, and the number of works, on the funds
or expence a prince or a nation will be at ; which,,
however, ought to be according to the benefit arifing
fromi
Lo
Of
Irregu !ar
Fortifica¬
tion.
Plate.
CCXXIII.
FORTIFICATION.
Se£l. II.
from fucli a place ; for as fuel) undertakings are of very
great expence, an engineer cannot be too {paring in
his works ; on the contrary, the greateft economy
(hould be ufed both in regard to the number of works
and to their conftrubtion. The body of the place may
have (a) revetments quite up to the top, or only in
part and the reft turfed j but as to the outworks, they
{hould have half revetments, or they may be made
with turf only 5 as being not fo neceffary to prevent
the place from being furprifed, which may neverthelefs
make a good defence.
Fig. 19. is the plan of an oflagon, one half of which
is fimilar and equal to the other half; it being fuppof-
ed, that the fttuation would not admit of fortification
quite regular. The exterior fides are each 180 toifes,
and the works are conftrufted according to our me¬
thod : but becaufe the fides AB, EF, are weaker than
the reft, as has been proved before, we have added te-
nailles, redoubts in the ravelins, and lunettes, to ren¬
der them nearly equal in ftrength with the others j and
if counterguards were made before the baftions A and
B, it would effectually fecure that front. Inftead of
lunettes, any other works may be made, as may be
thought convenient and according to the nature of the
ground. If it {hould be judged neceflary to add other
outworks to the ravelins all around the place, care mull
be taken to add likewife more to the fronts AB, EF,
in order to render the advantages and difadvantages of
attacking on either fide equal.
2. Conjlruclion of an Irregular Place ftuated on a hill or
rock.
In the conftruclion of fuch places, care muft be ta¬
ken that no neighbouring hill commands any part of
the works. The towm {hould always be built on the
higheft part j but if it fhould be thought more conve¬
nient to place it kwer, then the upper part muft be for¬
tified with a fort. The fituation {hould be made level
as near as poflible, by removing the earth from fome
places to fill up others-, and if it cannot well be level¬
led without extraordinary expence, works muft be made
on the higheft part, fo as to command and proteft the
lower. The works ought to occupy all the upper part
of the hill) but if it ftiould be too extenfive to be all
enclofed, or fo irregular as not to be fortified without
great inconvenience, the parts wdffch fall without {hould
be fortified with fome detached works, and a com¬
munication with the place muft be made either above
or under ground. There {hould be no cavity or hollow
roads within cannon {hot round about the place, where
the enemy might be able to approach under cover. If
there {hould happen to be a fpring near the top of the
hill, it flrould be enclofed in the fortification, or if that
cannot be done, by fome work or other; for there is
nothing more neceffary, and at the fame time fcarcer,
in fuch fituations, than water •, for wftiich reafon there
cannot be too much care in providing it : feveral cif-
terns are to be made to receive the rain water,, and
to preferve it j wells {hould be dug likewife, though
Of
Irregu'ar
Fertifica-
tian.
Plate
ever fo deep, the wTater of which will ferve for com¬
mon ufe.
Places built on hills or rocks {hould never be large j
for their ufe is generally to guard paffes or inlets into
a country, and are feldom ufeful in traffic ; and it is a
difficult matter to provide for a large garrifon in fuch CCXXIIL
fituations: neither {hould any fuch place be built with¬
out fome very material reafons ; but when it is abfo-
lutely neceffary, great care and precaution {hould be
taken to render the wrorks as perfedt as the fituation
will admit of, and at the fame time to be as frugal in
the expence as poffible.
3. Confrufiion of Irregular Portifcations ftuated near
rivers, lakes, or the fea.
As the intent of building thefe kind of places is
chiefly to facilitate and proteft trade, they are of more
importance than any other kind, efpecially in mari¬
time countries, wdiere the principal ftrength and powder
depends on them : for which reafon, we {hall treat of
this conftruflion more largely than of any other.
The firft thing to be confidered is their fituation,
which ought to be fuch as to afford a good harbour
for {hipping, or a fafe and eafy entrance in ftormy
weather ; but as it is hardly poflible to find any wEere
{hips may go in and lie fecure with all winds, care
{hould be taken to make them fafe to enter with thofe
winds which are moft dangerous: but it is not fuffi-
cient that the harbour is fafe againft ftormy weather,
it fhould likewife be fo againft an enemy both by
land and water, for it often happens, that {hips are de~
ftroyed where it was imagined they were fecure, which
is of too great confequence not to be provided againft j
for wrhich reafon, forts or batteries muft be built in the
moft convenient places, to prevent the enemy’s {hips
from coming too near, fo as to be able to cannonade
thofe in the harbour, or fling fhells amongft them; and
if there is any danger of an enemy’s approach by land,
high ramparts and edifices muft be built, fo as to co¬
ver them.
When a river is pretty large, and it is not convenient
for making a harbour without great expence, the {hips
may ride along the Eore; which for that reafon, muff
be made acceflible for ihips of burden: this may be
done by advancing the quay into the river if the water
is too fhallow, or by digging the river fufhciently deep
for that purpofe.
And to prevent an enemy from coming up the river,
forts muft be built on both fides, efpecially when there
are any turnings or windings. Antwerp is fuch a
place-*, for the Scheldt is fufficiently deep to carry {hip*
of great burden wEich may come quite near the town-
wall-, and feveral forts are built below it on both fides,
fo that it would not be an eafy matter for an enemy to
come up the river.
When the river is but fmall, fo that no fhips of bur¬
den can come through it, it is fufficient to make it run
through fome of the works, where proper landing-places
are contrived, from whence the goods may be carried
into
(a) Revetments are chiefly made to prevent a place from being furprifed : outwurks do not w-ant to be made
fo -, the taking them by furprife is of no great confequence, except in a fiege, when other cautions are ufed t©
prevent it.
4
I'
. .
I
t
J
k
i -
Se£t II.
Of into the place j as at Sarrelouxs, where a hornwork is
Irregular beyond the Sarre, in the gorge of which the
^tion^” g°ods are ^anded-
■ - If the breadth of the river does not exceed 200
Plate yards, it commonly paffes through the middle of the
CCXXIII. town, and proper quays are made on each fide j in
fuch a cafe, the fortification is fo contrived, as that
the river pafles through the curtain, in order to have
a baftion on each fide to defend the coming in and go¬
ing out.
When M. Vauban fortified near rivers, he made al¬
ways the exterior fide near the water much longer than
any of the others ; fuch as Hunninghen on the Rhine,
and Sarrelouis on the Sarre j but for what reafon he
fortified thefe places in that manner, has not been told
by any author.
But it is plain that the fides which terminate at the
river are the wxakeft j becaufe the befiegers trenches
being fecured by the river, they may draw moft of their
troops off, and a£t therefore with more vigour and
ftrength on the other fide : befides, as the ftrength of
a fide increafes in proportion as the angle of the poly¬
gon is greater, by making the fide next the river longer,
the angles at the extremities become wider, and con-
fequently the adjacent fides ftronger.
There are other advantages, befides thofe mention¬
ed already, which arife from the lengthening that fide :
for if the river is pretty deep, fo as not to be fordable,
that fide is not liable to be attacked j and by increaf-
ing its length, the capacity of the place increafes much
more in proportion to the expence, than if more fides
were made ; the centre of the place will be likewife
nearer the river, which makes it more convenient for
tranfporting the goods from the water fide to any part
of the town.
Fig. 20. To illuftrate this method of M. Vauban’s, we fliall
give the plan of Hunninghen : this place was built for
the fake of having a bridge over the Rhine, for which
reafon, he made it only a pentagon j the fide AB next
to the river is 200 toifes, and each of the others but
180.
About the {pace a b c, which lies before the front
FORTIFICATION.
S3
AB, is a ftone wall; and the paffages x x are flint up Of
with fluices, to retain the water in the ditches in dry
feafons ; and to prevent an enemy from deftroying the
fluice near the point c, whereby the water would run  v .
out and leave the ditches dry, the redoubt y was built Plate
in the little ifland hard by, in order to cover that CCXXIII.
fluice 5 without which precautionr the place might be
infulted from the river fide, wdrere the water is ihallow
in dry feafons.
The hornwork K beyond the Rhine was built to co¬
ver the bridge j but as this work cannot be well de¬
fended arofs the river, the hornwork H was made to
fupport the other.
Before finilhing the defcription of this plan, we fhall
fhow how to find the long fide AB.
After having infcribed the two fides GE, GF, in a
circle, draw the diameter CD, fo as to be equally di-
ftant from the line joining the points EF that is
parallel to it. On this diameter fet off ioo toifes on
each fide of the centre j from thefe points draw two in¬
definite perpendiculars to the diameter ; then if from
the points EF, as centres, twro arcs are defcribed with
a radius of i8o toifes, their interfeftions A and B,
with the faid perpendiculars, will determine the long
fide AB, as likewife the other two FB and EA. In
like manner may be found the long or lliort fide of any
polygon whatfoever.
When a place near a river is to be fortified for the
fafety of commerce, particular care Ihould be taken in
leaving a good fpace between the houfes and the w'a-
ter fide, to have a quay or landing place for goods
brought by water *, it fliould alfo be contrived to have
proper places for (hips and boats to lie fecur* in flormy
weather, and in time of a fiege •, and as water-carriage
is very advantageous for tranfporting goods from one
place to another, as likewife for bringing the neceflary
materials, -.not only for building the fortifications, but
alfo the place itfelf, the expences will be lelfened con-
fiderably when this convenience can be had j for which
reafon, places fliould never be built anywhere elfe but
near rivers, lakes, or the fea j excepting in extraordi¬
nary cafes, where it cannot be avoided.
FOR
Fortin FORTIN, Forteler, or Field-fort, a fconce or
i| little fort, whofe flanked angles are generally 120 fa-
i-ortftude. t}j0ms cfiftant from one another.
The extent and figure of fortins are different, ac¬
cording to the fituation and nature of the ground j fome
of them having wdiole baftions, and others demi-ba-
ftions. They are made ufe of only for a time, either to
defend the lines of circumvallation, or to guard fome
paffage or dangerous poll.
FORTISSIMO, in Mujic, fometimes denoted by
FFF, or f ff fignifies, to fing or play very loud or
itrong.
FORTITUDE, a virtue or quality of the mind,
generally confidered as the fame wTith Cour age j though
in a more accurate fenfe they feem to be diftinguilh-
able. Courage may be a virtue or a vice, according
Vol. IX. Part I.
f
FOR
to circumftances ; fortitude is always a virtue : we fpeak Fortitude.
of defperate courage, but not of defperate fortitude.  y >
A contempt or negleft of danger, without regard to
confequences, may be called courage; and this fome
brutes have as well as we : in them it is the effect
of natural inftinft chiefly} in man it depends partly
on habit, partly on ftrength of nerves, and partly on
want of confideration. But fortitude is the virtue of
a rational and confiderate mind, and is founded in a
fenfe of honour and a regard to duty. There may be
courage in fighting a duel, though that folly is more
frequently the effe<ft of cowardice j there may be cou¬
rage in an aft of piracy or robbery : but there can be
no fortitude in perpetrating a crime. Fortitude implies
a love of equity and of public good ; for, as Plato and
Cicero obferve, courage exerted for a felfifti purpofe, or
E without
FOR t 34 ] FOR
titude. witliout a regard to juftice, ought to be called audacity
rather than fortitude.
This virtue takes different names, according as it
a£ls in oppofition to different forts of evil ; but fome
of thofe names are applied with confiderable latitude.
With refpedd to danger in general, fortitude may be
termed intrepidity ; with refpeft to the dangers of war,
valour; with refpe£t to pain of body or diftrefs of mind,
patience ; with refpedt to labour, aiiivily ; with refpeft
to injury, forbearance ; with refpect to our condition in
general, magnanimity.
Fortitude is very becoming in both fexes \ but cou¬
rage is not fo fuitable to the female charadler 5 for in
women, on ordinary occafions of danger, a certain de¬
gree of timidity is not unfeemly, becaufe it betokens
gentlenefs of difpofition. Yet from thofe of very high
rank, from a queen or an emprefs, courage in emer¬
gencies of great public danger would be expedted, and
the want of it blamed j we Ihould overlook the fex,
and confider the duties of the flation. In general,
however, mafculine boldnefs in a woman is difagree-
able ; the term virago conveys an offenlive idea. The
female warriors of antiquity, whether real or fabulous,
Camilla, T haleftris, and the whole community of Ama¬
zons, were unamiable perfonages. But female cou¬
rage exerted in defence of a child, a hulband, or a near
relation, would be true fortitude, and deferve the high-
eft encomiums.
The motives to fortitude are many and powerful.
This virtue tends greatly to the happinefs of the in¬
dividual, by giving compofure and prefence of mind,
and keeping the other paflions in due fubordination.
i o public good it is effential 5 for without it, the in¬
dependence and liberty of nations would be impoftible.
It gives to a charafter that elevation wdiich poets, ora¬
tors, and hiftorians, have in all ages vied with one an¬
other to celebrate. Nothing fo effefrually infpires it
as rational piety 5 the fear of God is the beft fecurity
againft every other fear. A true eftimate of human
life 5 its ftiortnefs and uncertainty; the numberlefs
evils and temptations to which by a long continuance
in this world we muft unavoidably be expofed j ought
by no means to difcourage or to throw any gloom on
our future profpesfts : they ftiould teach us, that many
things are more formidable than death 5 and that no¬
thing is loft, but much gained, when, by the appoint¬
ment of Providence, a well fpent life is brought to a
conclufion.
Let it be confidered too, that pufillanimity and fear-
tulnefs can never avail us any thing. On the contra-
ry, they debafe our nature, poifon all our comforts,
and make us defpicable in the eyes of others j they
darken our reafon, difconcert our fchemes, enfeeble
our efforts, extinguilh our hopes, and add tenfold
poignancy to all the evils of life. In battle, the brave
foldier is in lefs danger than the coward ; in lefs dan¬
ger-even of death and wounds, becaufe better prepared
to defend himfelf; in far lefs danger of infelicity 5 and
has before him the animating hope of vi61ory and ho¬
nour. So in life, the man of true fortitude is in lefs
danger of difappointment than others are, becaufe his
underftanding is clear, and his mind difencumbered ;
lie is prepared to meet calamity without the fear of
ftnking under it; and he has before him the near pro-
fpeft of another life, in which they who pioufiy bear the Fortuna
evils of this will obtain a glorious reward. II
FOR PUNA, a goddefs worfhipped with great de- ^orturie*
votion by the ancient Greeks and Romans ; who be-
lieved her to prefide over human affairs, and to diftri-
bute wealth and honour at her pleafure. See For¬
tune.
FORTUNATE islands, in Ancient Geography,,
certain iflands (concerning the fituation of which au¬
thors are not agreed) famous for the golden apples of
the Hesperides.—The common opinion is, that they
are the Canary Ifiands.
. FORTUNE (Tv£»), a name which among the an¬
cients leems to have denoted a principle of fortuity,
whereby things came to pafs, without being neceflil
tated thereto: but what and whence that principle
is, they do not feem to have ever precifely thought.
Hence their philofophers are often intimating, that
men only framed the phantom Fortune to hide their ig¬
norance j and that they call Fortune whatever befals a
man without his knowing for what purpofe. Hence
Juvenal (fat. x. ver. 366.) affirms, they were men who
made a deity of fortune.
Nullum niimen abejl,fi fit prudentia ; fed te
Nosfacimus, Fortuna, deam, catloque locamus.
I he ingenious IVtr Spence gives another reading of this
paffage :
Nullum numen hales, ftft prudentia ; fed te
Nosfacimus, Fortuna, deam, caloque locamus.
This reading, he thinks agrees beft with the context;
Juvenal fays, ver. 356, that the two things we ftiquld
pray for are good health and good fenfe 5 that we
might be the authors of our owm happinefs if we plea-
fed, ver. 363* } that virtue is the only wTay to true hap¬
pinefs, ver. 364 1 that if we ourfelves are prudent, For¬
tune has no power over us ; and that, in truth, ffie is
no goddefs at all, and has only ufurped a feat in heaven
from the folly of mankind, ver. 366. Fortune was not
confidered as a deity by the old Romans, but was made
fo by the devotion and folly of the vulgar 5 and Mr
Spence fays, that he has feen an ancient gem, in which
Cybele, the mother of the gods, is reprefented as turn¬
ing away her head from Fortune, in- an attitude of
difowning and rejeding her 5 (Polymetis, p. 1 cq, 1 c4
&.c.) J
According to the opinion of the heathens, therefore^ .
fortune in reality wTas only the arrival of things in a
hidden and unexpe&ed manner, without any apparent
caufe or reafon : fo that the philofophical fenfe of the
word coincides with what is vulgarly called chance.
But in religion it had a farther force; altars and
temples in great numbers vrere confecrated to this For¬
tune, as a. deity. This intimates, that the heathens
had pprfonified, and even deified, their chance ; and
conceived her as a fort of goddefs, who difpofed of the
fate of men at her pleafure. Hence that invocation
of Horace, 0 diva,gratum qua; regis Antium, in the
35th ode of the firib book, wffiere he recommends
Auguftus, then preparing for a vifit to Britain, to her
protedion. From thefe _ different fentiments it may
be inferred, that the ancients at one time took For¬
tune for a peremptory caufe, bent upon doing good to
FOR [ 35 ] FOR
Fortune, feme, and perfecuting others; and fometirnes for a
Fo‘ty-. inconifant caufe, without any view or determina¬
tion at all.
If then the word fortune had no certain idea in the
mouth of thofe who erected altars to her, much lefs
can it be afeertained what it denotes in the mind of
thofe who now ufe the word in their writings. They
who would fubftitute the name Providence in lieu of
that of Fortune, cannot give any tolerable fenfe to half
the phrafes wherein the wmrd occurs.
Horace paints the goddefs, preceded by Neceflity,
holding nails and w’edges in her hands, wdth a cramp-
iron, and melted lead to fallen it \ rarely accompanied
with Fidelity, unlefs when Ihe abandons a family j for
in that cafe Fidelity never fails to depart with her, as
well as friends.
She is difrefpeftfully fpoken of by moll of the Ro¬
man waiters, and reprefented as blind, inconftant, un¬
juft, and delighting in mifehief, [Ovid, ad Liv. ver. 52,
ver. 374. Hor. lib.i. od. 34. ver. 26. lib. iii. od. 29.
ver. 15. Statius, Theb. xii. ver. 505.) However they
had a good as well as a bad Fortune, a conftant and
inconftant Fortune ; the latter of which was reprefent¬
ed with wings, and a wheel by her, (Hor. lib. iii. od.
29. ver. 56.) Juvenal alludes to a ftatue of Fortune,
which exhibited her under a very good charadler, as
the patronefs of the poor infants that w^ere expofed by
their parents in the ftreets, (Sat. vi. ver. 605.
The painters reprefent her in a woman’s habit, with
a bandage before her eyes, to Ihow that Ihe a£ls with¬
out difeernment} and Handing on a wheel, to exprefs
her inftability. The Romans, fays Laftantius, repre¬
fented her with a cornucopia, and the helm of a ftu'p,
to fhow that fire diftributes riches, and diredls the af¬
fairs of the w’orld. In effeft, it is with fuch chara&ers
that we fee her reprefented on fo many medals, with
the infeription, FORTVNA AVG. FORTUNA REDVX, FOR-
TVNJE AVG. or REDVCIS, &c. Sometimes Are is feen
pointing at a globe before her feet, with a feeptre in
one hand, and holding the cornucopia in the other.
The Romans had a virile as well as a muliebrian
Fortune, for the obje&s of their adoration : the For-
tuna viriiis was honoured by the men, and the Fortuna
tnuliebris by the women. They honoured Fortune alfo
under a variety of other appellations.
The Romans derived the worfhip of Fortune from
the Greeks, under the reign of Servius Tullius, who
dedicated the firft temple to her in the public market.
Nero alfo built a temple to Fortune. The Fortune
vvorfhipped at Antium was probably of the moft ex¬
alted character of any among the Romans 5 if wTe may
judge by the account which Horace gives us of the
great folemn proceftions that were made to her, (Hor.
lib. i. od. 35. ver. 22. But the moft celebrated tem¬
ple of Fortune was at Praenefte. Statius fpeaks of fe-
veral Fortunes there, and calls them the PraneJHncefo-
rores, (lib. i. Sylv. iii. ver. 80.)
FoRTUNR-Tellers. Perfons pretending to tell fortunes
are to be punifhed with a year’s imprifonment, and
Handing four times on the pillory. Stat. ix. Geo. II.
c. 5.
FORTY days Court, the court of attachment or
woodmote, held before the verderors of the foreft once
every forty days, to inquire concerning all offenders
againft vert and venifon. See Attachment.
FORUM, in Roman antiquity, a public ftandxng
place within the city of Rome, where caufes were ju¬
dicially tried, and orations delivered to the people.
Forum was alfo ufed for a place of traffic, anfwer-
ing to our market-place. Thefe were generally called
fora vena/ia ; in contradiftinftion to the former, which
were called fora civilia.
The. fora civilia were public courts of juftice, very
magnificent in themfelves, and furrounded with porti¬
coes and (lately edifices; of thefe there wrere fix very
remarkable : 1. Forum Romanum. 2. Julianum. 3. slu-
gufum. 4. Palladium. 5. Forum Trajani. 6. Forum Sa-
lujhi. The Forum Romanum wras the moft noted, and
is often called limply Forum, by w'ay of eminence.
Here w'as the pleading place called Rofra, the Comi-
tium, the fandtuary of Saturn, temple of Cajlor, &c.
See Rostra, Comitium, &c.
The fora venalia, or market-places, wrere very nume¬
rous. The chief of them were the forum boarium for
oxen or beef; fuarium for fwine ; piflorium for bread ;
cupedinarium for dainties; olitorium for garden Huff.
The Grecian A^«^< exaflly correfpond with the Ro¬
man yore, being places wffiere courts and markets wrere
held. At Athens -they had many fora, but the chief
of them were the old and the new.
Forum Indicere, wrasthe a£t of the praetor appointing
the place in Rome where caufes were to be tried.
Agere forum denoted the bringing on caufes out of
Rome, in a Roman province (Cicero, Suetonius) ; the
fame with agere conventum (Florus).
The term forum added to a proper name, denoted
fome market town or borough j as,
Forum Allieni, a place mentioned only by Tacitus ;
and, from what he fays of it, thought to be Ferrara,
capital of the duchy of that name in Italy. E. Long.
I 2. 5. N. Lat. 44. 46.
Forum Appii (Cicero, Luke) ; a t®wn of the Volfci,
in Latium, on the Via Appia, a little beyond the Tres
Tabemse ; fet down in the Jerufalem Itinerary as fi-
tuated near the river Nymphaeus : now entirely ex-
timft.
Forum Cornelii, a town of the Cifpadana, built
by Sylla : Now Imo/a, a city in Romagna, and
territory of the Pope. E. Long. 12. 12. N. Lat. 44.
3°-
Forum Domitu, a town of Gallia Narbonenfis: pro¬
bably built by Domitius Ahenobarbus, who command¬
ed in thofe parts : Now Frontignan, or Frontigniac, in
Languedoc, near the Mediterranean. E. Long. 3. 30.
N. Lat. 43. 30,
Forum Fulvii, a town of Liguria, furnamed Valen-
tinum : from which it is conjeftured that it is now
Valewza, in the duchy of Milan ; which is confirm¬
ed by Peutinger’s diftances. E. Long. 90. N. Lat.
45°-
Forum Gallorum, a fmall town of the Cifpadana, on
the Via iEmilia, eight miles from Mutina, beyond the
river Scultenna. Here Antony defeated Panfa, and
w?as in his turn defeated by Hirtius : Now Cajlelfranco,
in the territory of Bologna.—Another Forum Gallorum,
a town of the Vafcones in the Hither Spain : Now
Gurrea, a fmall town of Arragon.
Forum Julium. There are feveral towns of this
name; as a Forum Julium of Gallia Narbonenfis; or
Forojulium : Now Frejus, or Frejules, in Provence, at
F 2 the
F O S [ 36 ] F O S
Forurn the mouth of the Argens. Forum Julium Car riorum,
,, lj .. to the north of Aquileia, in the Tranfpadana: Now Ci-
di Friuli, formerly Cividal d' Aujlria, in the ter¬
ritory of Venice.
Fokvu Jutuntorum, a town of the Infubres, in the
Tranfpadana : Now Crema, capital of the Cremafco,
in the territory of Venice. E. Long. 10. 15. N. Lat.
45- 20- . ..
Forum Livii, a town of the Semnones, in the Cif-
padana : Now7 Forli, in Romagna. E. Long. 12. 45.
N. Lat. 44. 25.
Forum Segujianorum, fituated on the eaft fide of the
Liger, in Gallia Celtica : now Fours, on the Loire,
in the Lyonnois, capital of the territory of Forez. E.
Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 45. 44.
Forum liberii, a town of the Pagus Tigurinus, in
.Belgica, on the left or fouth fide of the Rhine : Now
Kaiiferjlulli literally the tribunal of Tiberius, which he
held there when commander in the Rhetian war.
Forum Volcani (Strabo) • the Carnfn Fhlegrcei of
Pliny : a place in Campania encompafled with rocky
eminences, near Puteoli, and diftant from it tuTo miles
towards Naples, emitting fmoke, and in fome places
flame, like a large extenfive furnace, and yielding ful-
phur : Now called Solfatara, in the Terra di Lavoro.
Forum is alfo ufed, among cafuifts, &c. forjurif-
didlion ; thus they fay, In faro legis, &c.
FOSS, or Fosse, in Fortification, &c. a ditch or
moat. The word is French, formed of the Latin par¬
ticiple fofium, of the verb fodio, “ I dig.”
Foss, Fo/Jit, in Anatomy, a kind of cavity in a bone,
with a large aperture, but no exit or perforation.'
When the aperture is very narrow7, it is called a Jinus.
Foss is particularly ufed for the cavity or denture
in the back part of the neck.
FOSSA magna, or navicularis, is an oblong ca¬
vity, forming the infide of the pudendum muliebre, and
which prefents itfelf upon opening the labia $ and in
the middle whereof are the carunculce myrtiformes. See
Anatomy.
Fossa* in our ancient cuftoms, w7as a ditch full of
water, where women committing felony were drowned ;
as men w7ere hanged : Nam et ipfi in omnibus tenementis
fuis omnem ab antiquo legalem habuere jujlitiam, videlicet
ferrum,foJJam,furcas, et fimilia. In another fenfe it is
taken for a grave, as appears by thefe old verfes :
Hie jacent in fofifa Bedce venerabilis ojja :
Hie ejl fojjatus, qui bis crat hie cathedratus.
Foss Way was anciently one of the four great Ro¬
man highways of England : fo called, according to
Camden, becaufe it w7as ditched on both fides, which
was the Roman method of making highways.
FOSSARII, in antiquity, a kind of officers in
the ealtern church, whofe bufinefs was to inter the
dead.
Ciaconius relates, that Conftantine created 950 fof-
faries, whom he took out of the divers colleges or com¬
panies of tradefmen: he adds, that they were exempted
from taxes, fervices, burdenfome offices, &c.
F. Goar, in his notes on the Greek Euchologion,
infinuates that the foffarii were eftablifhed in the times
of the apoftles *, and that the young men, who carried
off the body of Ananias, and thofe perfons full of the
fear of God who interred St Stephen, were of the
number.
St Jerome affures us, that the rank of foffarii held the
firft place among the clerks; but he is to be underftood
of thofe clerks only who had the direftion and intend¬
ance of the interment of the devout.
FOSSE, the Roman military way in South Britain,
begins at Totnefs, and paffes through Exeter, Ivel-
cheller, Shepton Mallet, Bath, Cirencefter, Leicefler,
the Vale of Belvoir, Newark, Lincoln, to Barton up¬
on the Humber, being flill vifible in feveral parts,
though of 1400 years Handing. It had the name from
the foffes or ditches made by the fides of it.
FOSSIL, in Natural Hfiory, denotes, in general,
every thing dug out of the earth, whether it be a na¬
tive thereof, as metals, ftones, lalts, earths, and other
minerals j or extraneous, repofited in the bow'els of the
earth by fome extraordinary means, as earthquakes, the
deluge, &c.
Native foffils are fubftances found in the earth, or om
its furface, of a fimple ftrufture, exhibiting no appear¬
ances of organization; and thefe are included under the
general names of fimple and compound, earthy or me¬
tallic minerals. See Mineralogy.
Extraneous foffils are bodies of the vegetable or ani¬
mal kingdoms accidentally buried in the earth. Of the
vegetable kingdom, there are principally three kinds;
trees or parts of them, herbaceous plants, and corals :
and of the animal kingdom there are four kinds; fea
{hells, the teeth or bony palates and bones of fifties,
complete fifties, and the bones of land animals. See
Geology.
Thefe adventitious or extraneous foffils, thus found
buried in great abundance in divers parts of the earth,
have employed the curiofity of feveral of our lateft
nafuralifts, w7ho have each their feveral fyftem to account
for the furprifing appearances of petrified fea fifties,
in places far remote from the fea, and on the tops
of mountains ; ftiells in the middle of quarries of ftone ;
and of elephants teeth, and bones of divers animals,
peculiar to the fouthern climates, and plants only
growing in the eaft, found foffil in our northern and
w7eftern parts.
Some will have thefe ftiells, &c. to be real ftones,
and ftone plants, formed after the ufual manner of
other figured ftones ; of which opinion is the learned
Dr Lifter.
Another opinion is, that thefe foffil ftiells, with all
the foreign bodies found within the earth, as bones,
trees, plants, &c. were buried therein at the time of
the univerfal deluge ; and that, having been penetrat¬
ed either by the bituminous matter abounding chiefly
in wratery places, or by the falls of the earth, they have
been preferved entire, and fometimes petrified.
Others think, that thofe ftiells, found at the tops of
the higheft mountains, could never have been carried
thither by the waters, even of the deluge ; inafmuch as
moft of thefe aquatic animals, on account of the wreight
of their (hells, ahvays remain at the bottom of the wa¬
ter, and never move but clofe along the ground. They
imagine, that a year’s continuance of the waters of the
deluge, intermixed with the fait waters of the fea, up¬
on the furface of the earth, might w7ell give occafion
to the production of {hells of divers kinds in different
climates;
F O S [ 37 ] F O S
Fofter.
climates; and that the univerfal faltnefs of the water
was the real caufe of their refemblance to the fea fhells,
as the lakes formed daily by the retention of rain or
fpring water produce different kinds.
Others think, that the waters of the fea, and the
rivers, with thole which fell from heaven, turned the
whole furface of the earth upfide down ; after the fame
manner as the waters of the Loire, and other rivers,
which roll on a fandy bottom, overturn all their fands,
and even the earth itfelf, in their fwellings and inun¬
dations j and that in this general fubverfion, the Ihells
came to be interred here, filhes there, trees there, &c.
See Deluge.
Dr Woodward, in his Natural Hiftory of the Earth,
purfuing and improving the hypothefis of Dr Burnet,
maintains the whole mafs of earth, with every thing
belonging thereto, to have beep fo broken and dilfolv-
ed at the time of the deluge, that a new earth was
then formed on the bofom of the water, confiding of
different ftrata or beds of terreflrial matter, ranged
over each other ufually according to the order of their
fpecific gravities. By this means, plants, animals, and
efpecially fiflies and Ihells, not yet diffolved among the
reft, remained mixed and blended among the mineral
and foflil matters 5 which preferved them, or at leaft
alfumed and retained their figures and impreftions ei¬
ther indentedly or in relievo. See Geology.
Foss/z Pitch. See Petroleum, Mineralogy In¬
dex.
FOSTER James, a nonconformift divine, very high¬
ly celebrated for' his pulpit eloquence and erudition,
was born at Exeter in the year 1697. At the age of
five years he was put to the free fchool of that city,
where his progrefs in the acquifition of grammar wyas fo
rapid, that his mailer boafted of him as the moft emi¬
nent genius in his fchool. From this feminary he went
to the academy where young men defigned for clergy¬
men in the diifenting intereft were educated, where his
progrefs and applaufe were equally great. His appre-
henfion was remarkably quick, his judgment folid, me¬
mory retentive, eloquence commanding, and his talents
for argumentation were truly admirable} but above all,
his piety was genuine, and few men poffelfed candour,
modefty, liberality, integrity, tendernefs and benevo¬
lence, in fuch a remarkable degree. He commenced
preacher at the age of 21, and was much admired where
he occafionally officiated. About this time the dodrine
of the trinity was much agitated in the weft of England,
which was not confonant to the notions of Mr Fofter,
and the honefty and opennefs of his heart would not al¬
low him to conceal thefe, which brought fo much odium
upon him from the orthodox party, that he retired to
another feene of adion. He became pallor of a con¬
gregation at Milborne-port, in Somerfetffiire ; but as
foon as his hearers became zealoufiy attached to what
was deemed the orthodox opinion, he retired to Aftiwick
under the hills of Mendip, in the fame county. In this
afylum he preached to two congregations at a little dif-
tance from each other, as poor as they were plain, the
united contributions of which did not amount to 15I.
per annum. In this humble poverty and obfeurity he
lived for fome years, honourable, however, as it was
occafioned by his determined uprightnefs and fincerity.
In. the year 17 20, he gave the world his “ Eifay on
Fundamentals, with a particular regard to the doc¬
trine of the ever-blefted Trinity,” &c. The defign of
this work was to check an uncharitable and intolerant
fpirit, at that time extremely prevalent, by fhowing
that the trinitarian notion is not a fundamental article
of Chriftianity, or made an exprefs condition of falvation
in the facred feriptures. A fermon accompanied this
elTay, entitled “ The refurredlion of Chrift proved, and
vindicated againft the moft important objeftions of the
ancient Jews, or modern Deifts, and his difciples ffiown
to be fufficient witnefles of the fa£t.” From Affiwick
he removed to Trowbridge in Wiltlhire, where his con¬
gregation did not ufually exceed 20 or 30 people.
By reading Dr Gale’s treatife on infant baptifm, he
became a convert to the doctrine, that immerfion is
the time fcriptural rite, and was accordingly foon after
baptifed in London in conformity to that mode. This
unreferved manner of adopting whatever his confcience
believed to be truth, excluded him from almoft every
religious party among whom he might otherwife have
expe£ted preferment. But while he deliberated with
himfelf whether he ffiould abandon the miniftry, and
acquire the knowledge of fome mechanical employ¬
ment, Robert Houlfton, Efq. took him to his houfe in
the capacity of chaplain, where his circle of acquaint¬
ances became wider and more refpedlable. In 17 24,
he was appointed to fucceed Dr Gale in the baptill
congregation in Barbican, London. In the year 1728
he commenced a Sunday evening leSure in the Old
Jewry, which he continued till within a fliort time of his
death, with fuch a degree of popularity as few diffent-
ers at that time experienced. In 1731 appeared his
valuable work, entitled “ The ufefulnefs, truth, and
excellency of the Chriftian revelation, defended againlt
the obje£lions contained in a late book, called Chrif¬
tianity as old as the Creation,” &c. In this reply Mr
Fofter exhibited no ordinary fhare of talents and inge¬
nuity, and it was admired by the candid and judicious
of every defeription. Dr Tindal, againft whom it was
written, is faid to have fpoken of it always with great
refpefl. He publifhed a volume of fermons in the year
1734, followed by other three volumes, the laft of which
appeared in 1744. At this time he was appointed fuc-
ceflbr to' Dr Jeremiah Hunt, in the proteftant congre¬
gation at Pinner’s-hall. In 1746, he attended the earl
of Kilmarnock when under fentence of death for high-
treafon, after which he publilhed an oelavo pamphlet,
with the title of “ An account of the behaviour of the
late earl of Kilmarnock after his fentence, and on the
day of his execution^’
He received from the Marifchal college of Aberdeen
the degree of doftor in divinity, accompanied with
handfome letters from the principal and Profeffor For-
dyce, the latter of whom thus addreffed him. “We
beg that you will be fo good as to accept of the diplo¬
ma, as a fmall mark of the fincere veneration we have
for you, and of the fenfe we entertain of the eminent
fervices you have done to the caule of liberty, religion,
and virtue, by your writings as well as public inftruc-
tions.” The firft volume in quarto of his ‘ Difcourfes
on all the Principal Branches of Natural Religion and
Social Virtue,’ was publiffied in the year I749> an^ the
fecond appeared in 1752. They were publiffied by
fubferiptionj and to evince the high eftimation in which
Fofter.
F O T [ 33 ] F O T
Iuj talents and virtue were held, 200c names were con¬
tained in the lift, many of them diftinguifhed by their
dignified rank and literary abilities.
In the month of April 1750, he was feized with a
violent diftemper, from the effedts of which he never
thoroughly recovered; yet while at all able to officiate,
he continued to preagh till the beginning of 1752, when
he had another attack, which feems to have been of a
paralytic nature. After declining for feme time, he
expired like a genuine Chriftian on the 5th of Novem¬
ber, in the 55th year of his age. His private and pub¬
lic life were alike irreproachable. Such was the won¬
derful extent of his beneficence, that he mult have died
in indigent circumftances, had it not been for the nu¬
merous fubferiptions to his difeourfes on natural reli¬
gion. Mr Rider gives him the following eulogium.
4t His voice was naturally fweet, ftrong, diftindl, har¬
monious, always adapted to his matter, always varied
as his method changed ; as expreffive of the fenfe as the
moll judicious recitative. Monotony was a fault he
was never guilty of. His adlion, the foul of eloquence,
was grave, expreffive, free from diftortions, animated
without being theatrical; in ffiort, fuch as became the
pulpit. He reminded us of Paul at Athens, arrefting
the attention of his auditors.” It was no doubt fuch
rare accompliffimepts which induced Mr Pope to be an
occafional hearer, and to pay him the following compli¬
ment :
Let modefl Fofter, if he will, excel
Ten metropolitans in preaching w?ell.
In a poem deferibing the refpeftive merits of difienting
minifters at that period, and fuppofed to have been the
work of Mr Savage, we find the following lines upon
Dr Fofter.
But fee th’ accomplifti’d orator appear,
Refin’d his language, and his reafoning clear ;
Thou only, Fofter, haft the pleafing art,
At once to charm the ear, and mend the heart.
Befides the works formerly taken notice of, Dr Fof¬
ter publiffied three funeral fermons, one of which was
intended for that celebrated confeflbr Mr Emlyn ; to¬
gether with a number of eifays in the Old Whig.
Foster, Samuel, an ingenious Engliffi mathematician
of the laft century, and aftronomical profeflbr in Greftiam
college, was one of that learned affbeiation which met
for cultivating the new philofophy during the political
confufions, and which Charles II. eftabliffied into the
Royal Society. Mr Fofter, howTever, died in 1652,
before this incorporation took place; but wrote a number
of mathematical and aftronomical treatifes, too many
to particularize. There w-ere two other mathematical
ftudents of this name ; William Fofter, a difciple of Mr
Oughtred, who taught in London; and Mark Fofter,
author of a treatife on trigonometry, who lived later
than the former two. ’
FOTHER, or Fodder, is a weight of lead, con¬
taining eight pigs, and every pig one and twenty ftone
and a half; fo that it is about a ton or common cart
load. Among the plumbers in London, it is nineteen
hundred and a half; and at the mines it is two and
twenty hundred and a half. The word is of Teutonic
origin, from fuder.
EOTHERGILL, Dr George, was bom in Weft-
2
morland in 1705, where his family had been long I other gill.
feated on a competent eftate that had defeended re^vT-   v~—'
larly for feveral generations. After an academical
education in Queen’s college, Oxford, of which he be¬
came a fellow, he was, in 1731, elefted principal of St
Edmund’s hall, and prefented to the vicarage of Brum-
ley in Hampffiire. Having been long affli&ed with
an afthma, he died in 1760. He was the author of a col-
ledtion of much efteemed fermons, in 2 vols, 8vo. The
firft volume confifts of occafional difeourfes, publiffied by
himfelf; the fecond printed from his MSS.
Fothergill, Dr John, a late eminent phyfician,
fon of John and Margaret, Quakers, was born in 1712,
at Carr End in Yorkffiire, where his father, who had
been a brewer at Knareffiorough (after having travelled
from one end of America to the other), lived retired
on a fmall eftate which# he cultivated. The Doftor
was the fecond of five children (four fons and a daugh¬
ter), and received his education under the care of his
grandfather Thomas Hough, a perfon of fortune in
Cheffiire, which gave him a preuileftion for that county),
and at Sedbergh in Yorkffiire. He afterwards ferved
his time to one Mr Bartlett an apothecary at Bradford.
From thence he removed to London, and became a
pupil of Dr (afterwards Sir Edward) Wilmot, at St
Thomas’s Holpital. He then went to the univerfity of
Edinburgh to ftudy phyfic, and took his dodor’s degree
there. From Edinburgh he wrent to Leyden ; whence,
after a ffiort flay, he returned to London, and began to
pra&ife about the year 1740, in a houfe in White-hart
Court, Lombard-ftreet, wffiere he refided during the
greateft part of his life, and acquired moft of his
fortune. In 1746, he was admitted a licentiate of
the College of Phyficians in London; and in 1754
a fellow of that of Edinburgh, to wdiich he w’as a
confiderable benefador. He afterwards became a
member of the Royal Medical Society at Paris, and a
member both of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies.
He continued his pradice with uninterrupted fuccefs
till within the iaft twx) years of his life, when the illnefs
which he had brought on himfelf by unremitted at¬
tention, obliged him to give up a confiderable part of
it. Befides his application to medical fcience, he had
imbibed an early tafte for natural hiftory, improved by
his friend Peter Collinfon, and employed himfelf on
coquillage and fmaller objeds of botany. He was for
many years a valuable contributor to the Gentleman’s
Magazine ; where his obfervations on the weather and
difeafes were begun in April 1751, and difeontinued in
the beginning of 1756, being difappointed in his views
of exciting other experienced phyficians in different
parts to imitate the example. He had very extenfive
pradice, but he did not add to his art any great or va¬
rious improvements. His pamphlet on the ulcerous fore
throat is, on every account, the beft of his publications;
but owes.much of its merit to the information of the
late Dr Letherland. It was firft printed in 1748, on the
re-appearance of that fatal diforder wffiich in 1 739 had
carried off the two only fons of Mr Pelham. In 1762
Dr Fothergill purchafed an eftate at Upton in Effex ;
and formed a botanic garden there, the fecond in Eu¬
rope; Kew is the firft. In 1766 he began regularly
to withdraw, from Midfummer to Michaelmas, from
the exceffive fatigue of his profeffion, to Lee-Hall, near
Middlewich, in Cheftiire; which, though he only rent¬
ed
F O T [ 39 ] F O T
Fothergill. cd it by the year, he had fpared no expence to improve.
He took no fees during this recefs, but attended to
prefcribe gratis at an inn at Middlewich once a week.
In 1767, after he found himfelf obliged to relax his
attention to bulinefs, he removed from his houfe in the
city, to relide in Harpur-ftreet, Red-Lion Square.
Some time before his death he had been induftrious to
contrive a method of generating and preferving ice in
the Weft Indies. He was the patron of Sidney Par-
kinfon, and drew up the preface prefixed to his account
of the voyage to the South Seas. At his expence
alfo was made and printed an entire new tranfiation of
the whole Bible, from the Hebrew and Greek originals,
by Anthony Purver, a Quaker, in two volumes,
1764, folio, and alfo, in 1780, an edition of Bilhop
Percy’s “ Key to the New Teftament,” adapted to the
ufe of a feminary of young Quakers, at Acworth, near
Leeds in Yorkftiire, founded in 1778 by the Society,
wdio purchafed, by a fubfcription in which Dr Fother-
gUl ftood foremoft, the houfe and an eftate of thirty
acres which the Foundling Hofpital held there, but
which they found inconvenient for their purpofe on
account of diftance. The Do6tor himfelf firft projeift-
ed this on the plan of a fmaller inftitution of the fame
kind at Gilderfomes. He alfo endowed it handfomely
by his will. It now contains above 300 children of
both fexes, who are clothed and inftrufted. Among
the other beneficent fchemes fuggefted by Dr Fother¬
gill were thofe of bringing fiih to London by land car¬
riage, which, though it did not in every refpedft fucceed,
tended to deftroy a fuppofed combination: and of
rendering bread much cheaper, though equally whole-
fome, to the poor, by making it with one part of po¬
tatoes and three parts of houfehold flour. But his
public benefactions, his encouragements of fcience, the
inftances of his-attention to the health, the police, the
convenience of the metropolis, &c. we cannot pretend
to fpecify. The fortune which Dr Fothergill had ac¬
quired was immenfe; and, taking all things together,
the houfe and moveables in Harpur-ftreet, the property
in Eflex, and the eftate in Chefbire (which he held on
a leafe), and his ready money, amounted to 8o,oool.
His bufinefs when he was in full pra&ice was cal¬
culated at near 7000I. per annum. In the influenza
of 1775 and 1776, he is faid to have had 60 patients
on his lift daily, and his profit was eftimated at 8000I.
per annum.
The diforder wdiich haftened his death was a fcir-
rhus of the proftata, and an obftruilion in the bladder
(in which were found after his death two quarts of
water), which had been gradually coming on him for
fix years paft, occafioned by a delicacy, which made
him unwilling to alight from his carriage, and when,
after his temporary recovery from it the year before he
died, he fubmitted to ufe relief in his carriage, it was
too late. Fie died at his houfe in Harpur-ftreet, De¬
cember 26. 1780 5 and his remains wrere interred, Ja¬
nuary 5. in the Quakers burying-ground at Winch-
more-hill, whither they w7ere accompanied by more
than 70 coaches and poft-chaifes, notwnthftanding the
intention of the executors to have the funeral private.
The Doftor by his will appointed, that his Ihells and
other pieces of natural hiftory fliould be offered to the
late Dr Hunter at 500L under the valuation he or¬
dered to be taken of them. Accordingly Dr Hunter Fothergilla
bought them for 1200I. The drawings and collec- 11 .
tions in natural hiftory tvere alfo to be offered to Mr ot^erin"
(now Sir Jofeph) Bankes at a valuation. His Englilh 1 S ^ j
portraits and prints, which had been collefted by Mr
John Nickolls of Ware, and purchafed by him for 80
guineas, were bought for 200 guineas by Mr Thane.
His books rvere fold by auftion, April 30. 1781, and
the eight following days. His houfe and garden at
Upton, in which 15 men w^ere conftantly employed,
were valued at io,oool. He fpared no expence to
augment this as well as his other collecdons. He had
an ingenious artift qualified to collect for him at the
Cape of Good Hope, and another on the Alps, and
employed for feveral years before his death a painter in
natural hiftory at Leeds.
Dr Fothergill’s charafter wras excellent. A tranf--
adlion, indeed, with regard to one Dr Leeds, gave oc-
cafion to fome of his enemies to blame him ; but how
unjuftly, has been abundantly fhowm by his biogra
phers Dr Elliott and Dr Lettfome. Befides the pam¬
phlet already mentioned, Dr Fothergill wrote a conli
derable number of Trafts, which are now collefted
into one volume 8vo, by Dr Elliott. He fometimes
wrote in the newspapers, and is faid to have been the
author of more than 100 letters in the Gazetteer, con¬
cerning the New Pavement.
FOTHERGILLA, a genus of plants, belonging to
the polyandria clafs. See Botany Index.
POTHERING, a peculiar method of endeavouring
to flop a leak in the bottom of a fhip while file is afloat,
either under fail or at anchor. It is ufually performed
in the following manner : A balket is filled with alhes,
cinders, and chopped rope yarns, and loofely covered
with a piece of canvas; to this is faftened a long pole,
by which it is plunged repeatedly in the water, as clofe
as poflible to the place where the leak is conjectured to
lie. The oakum or chopped rope yarns being thus
gradually lhaken through the twigs, or over the top of
the balket, are frequently fucked into the hole along
with the w^ater, fo that the leak becomes immediately
choked ; and the future entrance of the water is there¬
by prevented.
FOTHERINGAY, a town of Northamptonfliire,
about four miles from Staneford, fituated on the river
Avon or Nen, and confifting of one ftreet. Edward
duke of York in the reign of Henry V. founded and
endowed a fine collegiate church here, in which he was
interred. At the diffolution, the college and the choir
were pulled down, and the bodies of the founder and
his family left expofed till Queen Elizabeth’s time, who
ordered them to be interred, and the prefent monu¬
ments to be erefted. On the north fide of the church
is a free fchool, founded by Henry VII. or Edward VI,.
endowed with 20I. per annum for a mafter, payable out
of the exchequer by the receiver of the county. The
bridge over the river here wTas firft built by Queen
Elizabeth, 1573, of timber, with three pillars upon the
foundation. Daniel, firft earl of Nottingham, and the
other truftees for William Saville, marquis of Halifax,
rebuilt it, in 1722, of freeftone from King’s Cliffe. On
the fouth-eaft fide of the cliffe ftood the caftle; which .
was of great antiquity and confiderable ftrength. Mary
queen of Scots, who had been in the cuftody of Sir
Amias.-
r
Fou-
Tchcoa
Foulahs.
F O U [ 4° ] F O U
Amias Powlet here, was tried and beheaded in the hall}
and her Ton afterwards, forgiving and even taking into
favour her greateft enemy Cecil, only took the childiih
revenge of beating down the caftle} which he fo com¬
pletely demolilhed, that no more than the earthworks
now remain. Within the firft work is a farm-houfe
with fome carved ftones wrought into it, and at the
fouth-weft corner of the inner trench are fome maffes of
ilone walls. Sir Robert Cotton carried the wainfcot of
the hall to Connington.
FOU-tcheou, a city of China, in the province of
Fo-kien. It carries on a confiderable trade} but is
chiefly remarkable for the magnificence of its principal
bridge, which has more than 100 arches, conftru£led
of white ftone, and ornamented with a double baluf-
trade throughout. This city is the refidence of a
viceroy, and has under its jurifdidlion nine cities of the
third clafs.
FOUGADE, or Fougasse, in the art of war, a
little mine, about 8 or 10 feet wide, and 10 or I 2 deep,
dug under fome wmrk or poll, which is in danger of
falling into the enemy’s hands} and charged with facks
of powder, covered with ftones, earth, and whatever
elfe can make great deftruftion. It is fet on fire like
other mines, with a faucifl'e. See Mine.
FOUL, or Foule, in the fea language, is ufed
when a (hip has been long untrimmed, fo that the
grafs wreeds, or barnacles, grow to her fides under
water. A rope is alfo foul when it is either tangled
In itfelf, or hindered by another, fo that it cannot run
or be overhauled.
Foul imports, alfo, the running of one Ihip againft
another. This happens fometimes by the violence of
the wind, and fometimes by the carelefsnefs of the
people on board, to Ihips in the fame convoy, and to
Ihips in port by means of others coming in. The damages
occafioned by running foul, are of the nature of thofe
in which both parties mull bear a (hare. They are
ufually made half to fall upon the fufferer, and half
upon the veffel which did the injury} but in cafes
wdiere it is evidently the fault of the mailer of the
veffel, he alone is to bear the damage.
Foui-lVater. A Ihip is faid to make foul water,
when, being under fail, Ihe comes into fuch Ihoal
water, that though her keel do not touch the ground,
yet it comes fo near it, that the motion of the water
under her raifes the mud from the bottom.
Foul is alfo a difeafe in cattle, proceeding from
blood, and a w’aterilh rheum that falls down into the
legs, and makes them fwell.
Foul or Pimpled Face. See Gutta Rofacea.
FOULA, or Foul IJland, one of the Shetland ifles,
lying between fix and feven leagues weft from the
main land. It is about three miles long, narrow, and
full of rough, fteep, and bare rocks} one of which is
fo large, and runs up to fuch a height, that it may
be clearly feen from Orkney. This, it is probable, is
the Thule of Tacitus. It has fcarcely any pafturage,
and but little arable land. The only commodities ex¬
ported are ftock fifti, train oil, and feathers.
FOULAHS, a people of Africa, which inhabit the
confines of the great defert Sahara. The principal of the
Foulah ftates is that within Sierra Leona, and of which
Teembo is the capital. See Sierra Leona.
i
FOUMART, a fpecies of Mustela. See Mam- Foumart
MALIA Index. ^
FOUNDATION, in ArcliiteBure, is that part of a Foua^er/,i
building which is under ground. See Architecture,
N° 104.
Palladio allows a fixth part of the height of the
whole building for the hollowing or under-digging}
unlefs there be cellars under ground, in which caie he
would have it fomewhat lower.
Foundation, denotes alfo a donation or legacy,
either in money or lands, for the maintenance and
fupport of fome community, hofpital, fchool, &c.
The king only can found a college, but there may Jacob's
be a college in reputation founded by others. If it-^aw
cannot appear by inquifition wrho it was that founded
a church or college, it ftiall be intended that it was the
king, who has power to found a new church, &c.
The king may found and ereft an hofpital, and give a
name to the houfe upon the inheritance of another, or
licenfe another perfon to do it upon his own lands} and
the words fundo, creo, &c. are not neceffary in every
foundation, either of a college or hofpital, made by the
king } but it is fufficient if there be words equivalent :
the incorporation of a college or hofpital is the very
foundation} but he who endows it with lands is the
founder} and to the ereclion of an hofpital, nothing
more is requifite but the incorporation and foundation.
Perfons feifed of eftates in fee Ample, may ere£l and
found hofpitals for the poor by deed enrolled in chan¬
cery, &c. which (hall be incorporated, and fubjeft to
fuch vifitors as the founder lhall appoint, &c. flat. 39.
Eliz. c. 5.
FOUNDER, in a general fenfe, the perfon who
lays a foundation, or endows a church, fchool, religi¬
ous houfe, or other charitable inftitution. See Foun¬
dation.
Founder, alfo implies an artift wrho calls metals, in
various forms, for different ufes, as guns, bells, ftatues,
printing charadlers, candlefticks, buckles, &c. wflience
they are denominated gun-founders, bell-founders, fi¬
gure-founders, letter-founders, founders of fmall works,
&c. See Foundery.
Founder, in the fea language: A (hip is faid to
founder, wflien by an extraordinary *eak, or by a great
fea breaking in upon her, fhe is fo filled with water,
that flie cannot be freed of it } fo that {he can neither
veer nor fleer, but lie like a log} and not being able
to fwim long, will at laft fink.
FOUNDERED, in Farriery. See there, § xli.
FOUNDERY, or Foundry, the art of calling all
forts of metals into different forms. It likewife fignifies
the workhoufe or fmelting hut wherein thefe opera¬
tions are performed.
Foundf.ry of Small Works, or cajling in Sand. The
fand ufed for calling fmall works is at firft. of a pretty
foft, yellowilh, and clammy nature } but it being ne¬
ceffary to ftrew charcoal dull in the mould, it at length
becomes of a quite black colour. I his fand is worked
over and ovei*, on a board, with a roller, and a fort of
knife } being placed over a trough to receive it, after
it is by thefe means fufficiently prepared.
This done, they take a wooden board of a length
and breadth proportional to the things to be call, and
putting a ledge round it they fill it with fand, a little
moiftened.
\
F O U
t 4
Feundery. moiftened, to make it duly cohere. Then they take
  either wood or metal models of what they intend to
caft, and apply them fo to the mould, and prefs them
into the fand, as to leave their impreffion there. Along
the middle of the mould is Laid half a fmall brafs cy¬
linder, as the chief canal for the metal to run through,
when melted, into the models or patterns j and from
this chief canal are placed feveral others, which extend
to each model or pattern placed in the frame. After
this frame is finilhed, they take out the patterns, by
Hr ft loofening them all round, that the fand may not
gj.ve way.
Then they proceed to work the other half of the
mould with the fame patterns in juft fuch another
frame ; only that it has pins, which, entering into holes
that correfpond to it in the other, make the two cavi¬
ties of the pattern fall exadlly on each other.
The frame, thus moulded, is carried to the melter;
who, after extending the chief canal of the counter¬
part, and adding the crofs canals to the feveral models
in both, and ftrewing mill dull over them, dries them
in a'kind of oven for that purpofe.
Both parts of the mould being dry, they are joined
together by means of the pins : and to prevent them
giving way, by reafon of the melted metal paftingthrough
the chief cylindrical canal, they are fcrewred or wedged
up like a kind of prefs.
While the moulds are thus preparing, the metal is
filling in a crucible of a fize proportionate to the quan¬
tity of metal intended to be caft.
When the moulds are coolifli, the frames are un-
fcrewed or unwredged, and the caft work taken out of
the fand, which fand is worked over again for other
calling.
Foundery of Statues. The calling of ftatues de¬
pends on the due preparation of the pit, the core, the
wax, the outer mould, the inferior furnace to melt off
the wax, and the upper to fufe the metal. The pit is a
hole dug in a diy place fomething deeper than the in¬
tended figure, and made according to the prominence
of certain parts thereof. The infide of the pit is com¬
monly lined with Hone or brick ; or when the figure
is very large, they fometimes work on the ground, and
raife a proper fence to refill the impulfion of the melt¬
ed metal.
The inner mould, or core, is a rude mafs to which
is given the intended attitude and contours. It is raif-
ed on an iron grate, ftrong enough to fuftain it, and
is ftrengthened within by feveral bars of iron. It is
generally made either of potters clay, mixed with hair
and horfe dung •, or of plafter of Paris mixed with brick
dull. The ufe of the core is to fupport the tvax, the
iliell, and leffen the weight of the metal. The iron bars
and the core are taken out of the brafs figure through
an aperture left in it for that purpofe, w'hich is fol-
dered up afterwards. It is neceffary to leave fome
of the iron bars of the core, that contribute to the
fteadinefs of the projecting part, within the brafs fi-
gure.
The wax is a reprefentation of the intended ftatue.
If it be a piece of fculpture, the wax Ihould be all of
the fculptor’s own hand, who ufually forms it on the
core : Though it may be v,nought leparately in cavities,
moulded on a model, and afterwards arranged on the
Vol. IX. Part I.
i ] F O U
ribs of iron over the grate •, filling the vacant fpace in Funr’rier-o
the middle with liquid plafter and brick dull, whereby “"Y
the inner core is proportioned as the fculptor carries on
the wax.
When the wax, which is the intended thicknefs of
the metal, is finilhed, they fill fmall waxen tubes per¬
pendicular to it from top to bottom, to ferve both as
canals for the conveyance of the metal to all parts of
the work ; and as vent holes, to give paffage to the air,
which would otherwife occafion great diforder when the
hot metal came to encompafs it.
The work being brought thus far, mull be covered
with its fhell, which is a kind of cruft laid over the
wax, and which being of a foft matter, eafily receives
the impreflion of every part, which is afterwards com¬
municated to the metal upon its taking the place of.
the wax, between the Ihell and the mould. The mat¬
ter of this outer mould is varied according as different
layers are applied. The firft is generally a compofition
of clay, and old white crucibles well ground and fift-
ed, and mixed up with water to the confiftence of a
colour fit for painting : accordingly they apply it with
a pencil, laying it feven or eight times over, and let¬
ting it dry between whiles. For the fecond impreffion
they add horfe dung and natural earth to the former
compofition. The third impreffion is only horfel dung
and earth. Laftly, The ftiell is finilhed by laying on
ieveral more impreflions of this laft matter, made very
thick with the hand.
The Ihell, thus finifhed, is fecured by feveral iron
girths, bound round it, at about half a foot diftance
from each other, and faftened at the bottom to the
grate under the ftatue, and at top to a circle of iron
where they all terminate.
If the ftatue be fo big that it would not be eafy to
move the moulds with fafety, they muft be wrought
on the fpot where it is to be caft. This is performed
two ways: in the firft, a fquare hole is dug under
ground, much bigger than the mould to be made
therein, and its infide lined with walls of free-ftone or
brick. At the bottom is made a hole of the fame
materials, wdth a kind of furnace, having its aperture
outwards : in this is a fire made to dry the mould,
and afterwards melt the wTax. Over this furnace is
placed the grate, and upon this the mould, &c. formed
as above. Laftly, At one of the edges of the fquare
pit, is made another large furnace to melt the metal.
In the other way, it is fufiicient to work the mould
above ground, but with the like precaution of a fur¬
nace and grate underneath. When finilhed, four
walls are to be run around it, and by the fide thereof
a maflive made for a melting furnace. For the reft,
the method is the fame in both. The mould being fi¬
nilhed, and enclofed as deferibed, whether under ground
or above it, a moderate fire is lighted in the furnace
under it, and the whole covered with planks, that the
wax may melt gently down, and run out at pipes con¬
trived for that purpofe, at the foot of the mould,
which are afterwards exadlly clofed with earth, fo foon
as the wax is carried off. This done, the hole is filled
up with bricks thrown in at random, and the fire in
the furn|ce augmented, till fuch time as both the
bricks and mould become red hot. After this, the
fire being extinguiftied, and every thing cold again, _
F they
F O U [ 42 ] F O U
fouiulery. they take out the bricks, and fill up their place with
’ y— earth rnoifiened, and a little beaten to the top of the
mould, in order to make it the more firm and fteady.
Thefe preparatory meafures being duly taken, there
remains nothing but to melt the metal, and run it into
the mould. This is the office of the furnace above
defcribed, which is commonly made in the form of an
oven with three apertures, one to put in the wood,
another for a vent, and a third to run the metal out at.
From this laid aperture, which is kept very clofe while
the metal is in fufion, a fmall tube is laid, whereby the
melted metal is conveyed into a large earthen bafon,
over the mould, into the bottom of which all the big
branches of the jets, or calls, which are to con¬
vey the metal into all the parts of the mould, are in-
ferted.
Thefe calls or jets are all terminated with a kind of
plugs, which are kept clofe, that, upon opening the
furnace, the brafs, which gullies out wdth violence,
may not enter any of them, till the bafon be full enough
of matter to run into them all at once. Upon which
occafion they pull out the plugs, which are long iron
.rods with a head at one end, capable of filling the
whole diameter of each tube. The whole of the fur¬
nace is opened with a long piece of iron fitted at the end
of each pole, and the mould filled in an inltant. This
completes the work in relation to the calling part; the
reft being the fculptor’s or carver’s bufinefs, who, tak¬
ing the figure out of the mould and earth wherewith
it is enccmpafled, faws off the jets wdth wdiich it ap¬
pears covered over, and repairs it with chiffels, gravers,
puncheons, &c.
Foundery of Bells. The metal, it is to be ob-
ferved, is different for bells from what it is for
ftatues ; there being no tin in the ftatue metal j but
there is a fifth, and fometimes more, in the bell
metal.
The dimenfions of the core and the wax for bells,
if a chime of bells efpecially, are not left to chance, but
mull be meafured on a fcale, or diapafon, which gives
the height, aperture, and thicknefs, neceffary for the
feveral tones required.
It is on the wrax that the feveral mouldings and other
ornaments and infcriptions, to be reprefented in re¬
lievo on the outfide of the bell, are formed. The
clapper or tongue is not properly a part of the bell,
but is furnilhed from other hands. In Europe, it is
ufually of iron, with a large knob at the extreme } and
is fufpended in the middle of the bell. In China, it is
only a huge wooden mallet, 11 ruck by force of arm
againft the bell; whence they can have but little of that
confonancy fo much admired in fome of our chimes of
bells. The Chinefe have an extraordinary way of in-
crealing the found of their bells, viz. by leaving a hole
under the cannon 5 which our bell-founders would reckon
a defeft.
The proportions of our bells differ very much from
thofe of the Chinefe. In ours, the modern propor¬
tions are, to make the diameter 15 times the thicknefs
of the brim, and the height 1 2 times. The parts of a
bell are, 1. The founding bow, terminated by an in¬
ferior circle, which grows thinner and thinner. 2. The
brim or that part of a bell whereon the clapper ftrikes,
-and which is thicker than the reft. 3. The outward
finking of the middle of the bell, or the point under Foundery.
which it grows wdder to the brim. 4. The waift or —y*—^
furniture, and the part that grows wider and thicker
quite to the brim. 5. The upper vafe, or that part
which is above the waift. 6. The pallet which fup-
ports the ftaple of the clapper within. 7. The bent
and hollowed branches of metal uniting with the can¬
nons, to receive the iron keys, whereby the bell is hung
up to the beam, which is its fupport and counterpoife
when rung out.
The bufinefs of bell foundery is reducible to three
particulars. 1. The proportion of a bell. 2. The
forming of the mould. And, 3. The melting of
the metal. There are two kinds of proportions,
viz. the fimple and the relative j the former are
thofe proportions only that are between the feveral
parts of a bell to render it fonorous 5 the relative
proportions eftablilh a requifite harmony between feve¬
ral bells.
The method of forming the profile of a bell, pre¬
vious to its being call, in which the proportion of the
feveral parts may be feen, is as follows : the thicknefs
of the brim, C 1 (Plate CCXXIII.) is the foundation
of every other meafure, and is divided into three equal
parts. Firft, draw the line HD, which reprefents the
diameter of the bell; bifedl it in F and eredl the per¬
pendicular F ; let DF and HF be alfo bifedled in
E and G, and two other perpendiculars HL e, G a, be
eredled at E and G : GE will be the diameter of the
top or upper vafe, i. e. the diameter of the top will be
half that of the bell j and it will, therefore, be the dia¬
meter of a bell which will found an oftave to the
other. Divide the diameter of the bell or the line
HD into 15 equal parts, and one of thefe will give
C 1 the thicknefs of the brim 5 divide •'again each of
thefe 15 equal parts into three other equal parts, and
then form a fcale. From this fcale take I 2 of the lar¬
ger divifions or of the whole fcale in the compafs,
and fetting one leg in D deferibe an arc to cut the line
Ee in N$ draw ND, and divide this line into 12
equal parts j at the point 1 erefl the perpendicular
1 C=io, and C 1 will be the thicknefs of the brim
of the diameter : draw the line CD ; bifeft DN ; and
at the point of bifedlion 6 ere£l the perpendicular
6 K—li of the larger divifions on the fcale. With an
opening of the compafs equal to twice the length of
the fcale or 30 brims, fetting one leg in N, deferibe an
arc of a circle, and with the fame leg in K and the
fame opening deferibe another arc to interfedl the for¬
mer : on this point of interfedlion as a centre, and
with a radius equal to 30 brims, deferibe tlje arc NK 5
in 6 K produced take KBrry of the larger meafure
of the fcale or -y of the brim, and on the fame centre
with the radius 303- brims deferibe an arc AB parallel
to NK. For the arc BC, take 12 divifions of the
fcale or 12 brims in the compafs j find a centre, and
from that centre, with this opening, deferibe the arc
BC, in the fame manner as NK or AB wrere defcri¬
bed. There are various ways of deferibing the arc
K p 5 fome deferibe it on a centre at the diftance of
nine brims from the points p and K j others, as it is
done in the figure, on a centre at the diftance only of
feven brims from thofe points. But it is neceffary firft
to find the point />, and to determine the rounding of
the
1
F O U T 43 ] F O U
Foundery. tlie bell/> I. For this purpofe, on the point C as a
u"*—y™— centre, and with the radius C I, defcribe the arc i/> «;
bii'edt the part l,2of the line D//, and erefting the
perpendicular p;//, this perpendicular will cut the arc
i # in m, which terminates the rounding i p. Some
founders make the bendings K a third of a brim lower
than the middle of the line DN 5 others make the part
C 1 D more acute, and inftead of making C 1 perpendi¬
cular to DN at J, draw it -^th of a brim higher, making
it ftill equal to one brim ; lb that the line 1 D is longer
than the brim Cl. In order to trace out the top part
N a, take in the compafs eight divilions of the fcale or
eight brims, and on the points N and D as centres,
defcribe arcs to interfeft each other in 8 : on this point
8, with a radius of eight brims, defcribe the arc N £ ;
this arc will be the exterior curve of the top or crown :
on the fame point 8 as a centre, and with a radius
equal to 7-^- brims, defcribe the arc Ac, and this will
be the interior curve of the crown, and its whole
thicknefs will be one third of the brim. As the point 8
does not fall in the axis of the bell, a centre M may
be found in the axis by defcribing, with the interval
of eight brims on the centres D and H, arcs which
“will interfedl in M 5 and this point may be made the
centre of the inner and outer curves of the crown as
before. The thicknefs of the cap which llrengthens
the crown at £) is about one-third of the thicknefs of
the brim 5 and the hollow branches or ears about one
fixth of the diameter of the bell. The height of the
bell is in proportion to its diameter as 12 to 15, or in
the proportion of the fundamental found to its third
major: whence it follows, that the found of a bell is
principally compofed of the found of its extremity or
brim as a fundamental, of the found of the crown
which is an oflave to it, and of that of the height
which is a third.
The particulars necelfary for making the mould of
a bell are, 1. The earth : the molt cohefive is the bell $
it mull be well ground and lifted, to prevent any chinks.
2. Brick Hone 5 which mult be ufed for the mine,
mould, or core, and for the furnace. 3. Horfe dung,
hair, and hemp, mixed with the earth, to render the
cement more binding. 4. The wax for infcriptions,
coats of arms, &c. 5. The tallow equally mixed with
the wax, in order to put a flight lay of it upon the
outer mould, before any letters are applied to it. 6. The
coals t dry the mould. *
For making the mould, they have a fcaffold con-
filling of four boards ranged upon treffels. Upon
this they carry the earth, grofsly diluted, to mix it
with horfe dung, beating the whole with a large fpa-
tula.
The compafles of conllruclion is the chief inllru-
ment for making the mould, which conlill of two dif¬
ferent legs joined by a third piece. And, lalt of all
the founders Ihelves, on which are the engravings of
the letters, cartridges, coats of arms, &c.
They firft dig a hole of a fufficient depth to contain
the mould of the bell, together with the cafe or can¬
non under ground j and about fix inches lower than
the terreplain, where the work is performed. The
hole mull be wide enough for a free paffage between
the mould and walls of the hole, or between pne mould
and another, when feveral bells are to be call. At
the centre of the hole is a Hake eredled, that is fiiongly Foundery-
faflened in the ground. This fupports an iron peg, ——v—
on which the pivot of the fecond branch of the com-
pafies turns. The flake is encompaffed with a lolid
brick-work, perfectly round, about half a foot high,
and of the propoied bell’s diameter. This they call a
milijlone. The parts of the mould are, the core, the
model of the bell, and the fhell. When the outer fur-
face of the core is formed, they begin to raife the core,
which is made of bricks that are laid in courfes of equal
height upon a lay of plain earth, At the laying of
each brick, they bring near it the branch of the com-
pafies, on which the curve of the core is lhaped, fo as
that there may remain between it and the curve the
dillance of a line, to be afterwards filled up with layers
of cement. The work is continued to the top, only
leaving an opening for the coals to bake the core. This
work is covered with a layer of cement, made of earth
and horfe dung j on which they move the compalfes
of conilruflion, to make it of an even fmoothnefs every¬
where.
The firlt layer being finilhed, they put the fire to
the core, by filling it half with coals, through an open¬
ing that is kept fhut, during the baking, with a cake
of earth that has been feparately baked. The firlt
fire confumes the Hake, and the fire is left in the core
half or fometimes a whole day : the firlt layer being
thoroughly dry, they cover it with a fecond, third,
and fourth j each being fmoothed by the board of the
compafies, and thoroughly dried before they proceed to
another.
The core being completed, they take the compalfes
to pieces, with intent to cut off the thicknefs of the
model, and the compafles are immediately put in their
place to begin a fecond piece of the mould. It con-
lifts of a mixture of earth and hair, applied with the
hand on the core, in feveral cakes that clofe together.
This work is finilhed by feveral layers of a thinner
cement of the fame matter, fmoothed by the compalfes,
and thoroughly dried before another is laid on. The
firft layer of the model is a mixture of wax and greafe
fpread over the whole. After which are applied the
infcriptions, coats of arms, &c. befmeared with a pen¬
cil dipped in a veflel of wax in a chafing difti : this is
done for every letter. Before the Ihell is begun, the
compaflfes are taken to pieces, to cut off all the wood
that fills the place of the thicknefs to be given to the
Ihell.
The firft layer is the fame earth with the reft, lifted
very fine ; while it is tempering in water, it is mixed
with cows hair to make it cohere. The whole being
a thin cullis, is gently poured on the model, that fills
exactly all the finuofities of the figures, &c. and this
is repeated till the whole is two lines thick over the
model. When this layer is thoroughly dried, they
cover it with a fecond of the fame matter, but fome-
what thicker j when this fecond layer becomes of fome
confiftence, they apply the compalfes again, and light
a fire in the core, fo as to melt off the wax of the in¬
fcriptions, &c.
After this, they go on with other layers of the Ihell,
by means of the compaffes. Here they add to the
cows hair a quantity of hemp, fpread upon the layers,
and afterwards fmoathed by the board of the com-
F 2 paflfes.
F O U [
ndery. paiies. The thicknefs ef the fliell cor*es to four or five
'v inches lower than the millilone before obferyed, and
furrounds it quite clofe, which prevents the extravafa-
tion of the metal. The wax Ihould be taken out before
the melting; of the metal.
The ear of the bell requires a feparate work, which
is done during the drying of the feveral incruftations
of the cement. It has feven rings : the feventh is cal¬
led the bridge, and unites the others, being a perpen¬
dicular fupport to firengthen the curves. It has an
aperture at the top, to admit a large iron peg, bent at
the bottom ) and this is introduced into two holes in
the beam, faftened with two ftrong iron keys. There
are models made of the rings, with maffes of beaten
earth, that are dried in the fire in order to have the
hollow of them. Thefe rings are gently preffed upon
a layer of earth and cows hair, one half of its depth j
and then taken out, without breaking the mould.
This operation is repeated i 2 times for I 2 half moulds,
that two and two united may make the hollows of the
fix rings: the fame they do for the hollow of the bridge,
and bake them all to unite them together.
Upon the open place left for the coals to be put in
are placed the rings that conftitute the ear. They firlt
put into this open place the iron ring to fupport the
clapper of the bell 5 then they make a round cake of
clay, to fill up the diameter of the thickneis of the-
core. This cake, after baking, is clapt upon the
opening, and foldered with a thin mortar fpread over
it, which binds the cover clofe to the core.
The hollow of the model is filled with an earth,
fufficiently moiil to fix on the place, which is ftrewed
at feveral times upon the cover of the core •, and they
beat it gently with a peftie, to a proper height j and a
workman fmooths the earth at top with a wooden
trowel dipped in water.
Upon this cover, to be taken off afterwards, they
affemble the hollows of the rings. When every thing
is in its proper place, they ftrengthen the outfide of the
hollows with mortar, in order to bind them with the
bridge, and keep them fteady at the bottom, by means
of a cake of the fame mortar, which fills up the wdaole
aperture of the (hell. This they let dry, that it may
be removed without breaking. To make room for the
metal, they pull off the hollows of the rings, through
which the metal is to pafs, before it enters into the va¬
cuity of the mould. The ihell being unloaded of its
ear, they range under the millftone five or fix pieces
of wood, about two feet long, and thick enough to
reach almoft the lower part of the Ihell j between thefe
and the mould, they drive in wooden wedges wfith a
mallet, to ihake the fliell of the model whereon it refts,
fo as to be pulled up and got out of the pit.
When this and the wTax are removed, they break
the model and the layer of earth, through which the
metal muft run, from the hollow of the rings, between
the fliell and the core. They fmoke the infide of the
fliell, by burning flravv under it, that helps to fmooth
the furface of the bell. Then they put the fliell in
the place, fo as to leave the fame interval between that
and the core; and before the hollows of the rings or
the cap are put on again, they add two vents, that are
united to the rings, and to each other, by a mafs of
baked cement. After which they put on this mafs of
44 ] ' F O U
the cap, the rings, and the vent, over the fliell, and Founclery.
folder it with thin cement, which is dried gradually by v"”—^
covering it with burning coals. Then they fill up the
pit with earth, beating it ftrongly all the time round
the mould.
The furnace has a place for the fire, and another for
the metal. The fire-place has a large chimney with a
fpacious afti-hole. The furnace which contains the
metal is vaulted, whofe bottom is made of earth,
rammed down j the reft is built with brick. It has
four apertures j the firft, through which the flame re¬
vibrates ; the fecond is clofed with a ftopple that is
opened for the metal to run ; the others are to fepa¬
rate the drofs or fcoriae of the metal by wooden rakes :
' through thefe laft apertures paffes the thick fmoke.
The ground of the furnace is built floping, for the me¬
tal to run down.
FouNDERr of Great Guns and Mortar Pieces. The
method of catting thefe pieces is little different from
that of bells j they are run maffy, without any core,
being determined by the hollow of the fliell ; and they
are afterwards bored with a fteel trepan, that is worked
either by horfes or a wrater mill.
For the metal, parts, proportions, &c. of thefe pieces,
fee Gunnery.
Letter Foundery, or Caf ing of Printing Letters.
In the bufineis of cutting, calling, &c. letters for
printing, the letter-cutter muft be provided with a vice,
hand-vice, hammers, and files of all forts for watch¬
makers ufe j as alfo gravers and fculpters of all forts,
and an oil ftone, &c. fuitable and fizeable to the feve¬
ral letters to be cut: a flat gage made of bpx to hold
a rod of fteel, or the body of a mould, &c. exadlly per¬
pendicular to the flat of the ufing file : a Hiding gage,
wTofe ufe is to meafure and fet off diftances between
the fhoulder and the tooth, and to mark it off from the
end, or from the edge of the work } a face gage,
which is a fquare notch cut with a file into the edge
of a thin plate of fteel, iron, or brafs, of the thicknefs
of a piece of common tin, whofe ufe is to proportion
the face of each fort of letter, viz. long letters, af-
cending letters, and Ihort letters. So there muft be
three gages ; and the gage for the long letters is the
length of the whole body fuppofed to be divided into
42 equal parts. The gage for the afeending letters
Roman and Italic are 4, or 30 parts of 42, and 33 parts
for the Englilh face. The gage for the fhort letters
is 4, or 18 parts of 42 of the whole body for the Ro¬
man and Italic, and 22 parts for the Englifti face.
The Italic and other ftanding gages are to meafure
the fcope of the Italic Items, by applying the top and
bottom of the gage to the top and bottom lines of the
letters, and the other fide of the gage to the Item \ for
when the letter complies wflth thefe three fides of the
gage, that letter has its true ftiape.
The next care of the letter-cutter is to prepare good
fteel punches, wreU tempered, and quite free from all.
veins of iron 5 on the face of which he draws or marks
the exadt ftiape of the letter with pen and ink if the
letter be large, or with a fmooth blunted point of a
needle if it be fmall; and then with fizeable and pro¬
per (haped and pointed gravers and fculpters, digs or
fculps out the fteel between the ftrokes or marks he
made on the face of. the punch, and leaves the marks.
ftanding
F O U [4
Fou'.dery. Handing on the face. Having well fhaped the inlxde
u—''v ilrokes of his letter, he deepens the hollows with the
fame tools; for if a letter be not deep in proportion
to its width, it will, wdien ufed at prefs, print black,
and be good for nothing. This work is generally re¬
gulated by the depth of the counter-punch. Then he
works the outhde with proper files till it be fit for the
matrice.
But before we proceed to the finking and juftifying
of the matrices, we mull provide a mould to jultify
them by, of which there is a draught in Plate CCXXIII.
fig. 1. 2.
Every mould is compofed of an upper and an under
part. The under part is delineated in fig. 1. The
upper part is marked fig. 2. and is in all refpedls made
like the under part, excepting the ifool behind, and the
bow or fpring alfo behind ; and excepting a fmall
roundilh wire between the body and carriage, near the
break, where the under part hath a fmall rounding
groove made in the body. This wire, or rather half
w ire, in the upper part makes the nick in the lhank of
the letter, when part of it is received into the groove
in the under part. Thefe two parts are fo exactly fit¬
ted and gaged into one another (viz. the male gage
marked c in fig. 2. into the female marked g in fig. 1.),
that when the upper part of the mould- is properly pla¬
ced on, and in the under part of the mould, both toge¬
ther make the entire mould, and may be Hid backwards
for ufe fo far, till the edge of either of the bodies on the
middle of either carriage comes juft to the edge of the
female gages cut in each carriage ; and they may be
Hid forward fo far, till the bodies on either carriage
touch each other : and the Hiding of theie twro parts
of the mould backwards makes the fliank of the letter
thicker, becaufe the bodies on each part Hand wader
afunder; and the Hiding them forwards makes the
Hiank of the letter thinner, becaufe the bodies on each
part of the mould Hand clofer together. The parts of
the mould are as follow : viz. a, The carriage, b, The
body, c, The male gage. d e, The mouth-piece,
fi, The regifter. g, The female gage, h, The hag,
a a a a. The bottom-plate, b b b. The wrood on which
the bottom-plate lies, c c c, The mouth. dd, The
throat. edd. The pallat. f The nick. gg, The
ftool. h h, The fpring or bow.
Then the mould muft be juftified : and firft the
founder juftifies the body, by calling about 20 proofs
or famples of letters 5 wfhich are fet up in a compofing
Hick, with all their nicks towards the right hand $
and then by comparing thefe with the pattern letters,
fet up in the fame manner, he finds the exadl meafure
of the body to be caft. He alfo tries if the two fides of
the body are parallel, or that the body be no bigger
at the head than at the foot, by taking half the num¬
ber of his proofs and turning them with their heads to
the feet of the other half y and if then the heads and
the feet be found exactly even upon each othci-, and
neither to drive out nor get in, the two fides may be
pronounced parallel. He farther tries whether the
two fides of the thicknefs of the letter be parallel, by
firft fetting his proofs in the compofing Hick with their
nicks upwards, and then turning one-half with their
heads to the feet of the other half; and if the heads
and feet lie exa&ly upon each other, and neither drive
5 ] F O U
out nor get in, the two fides of the thicknefs are paral- Founder)-,
lei. ° _ '   1
The mould thus juftified, the next bufinefs is to pre¬
pare the matrices. A matrice is a piece of brafs or
copper of about an inch and a half long, and of a thick¬
nefs in proportion to the fize of the letter it is to con¬
tain. In this metal is funk the face of the letter in¬
tended to be caft, by ftriking the letter punch about
the depth of an n. After this the fides and face of
the matrice muft be juftified and cleared wfith files of
all bunchings made by finking the punch.
Every thing thus prepared, it is brought to the fur¬
nace } which is built of brick upright, with four fquare
fides, and a Hone on the top, in which ftone is a wide
round hole for the pan to Hand in. A foundery of any
confequence has feveral of thefe furnaces in it.
As to the metal of which the types are to be caft,
this, in extenfive founderies, is always prepared in
large quantities •, but caft into fmall bars, of about 20
pounds w-eight, to be delivered out to the workmen as
occafion requires. In the letter foundery which has
been long carried on with reputation under the direc¬
tion of Meff. Wilfon and Sons at Glafgow, we are
informed, that a flock of metal is made up at two dif¬
ferent times of the year, fufficient to ferve the cafters at
the furnace for fix months each time. For this purpofe,
a large furnace is built under a lhade, furnithed with a
wheel vent, in order the more equally to heat the fides
of a ftrong pot of caft iron, which holds when full
15 hundred weight of the metal. The fire being-
kindled below, the bars of lead are let foftly down in¬
to the pot, and their fufion promoted by throwing in
fome pitch and tallow, which foon inflame. An outer
chimney, which is built fo as to projedl about a foot
over the fartheft lip of the pot, catches hold of the
flame by a ftrong draught, and makes it adl very power¬
fully in melting lead ) whilft it ferves at the fame time
to convey away all the fumes, &c. from the workmen,
to whom this laborious part of the bufinefs is commit¬
ted. When the lead is thoroughly melted, a due pro¬
portion of the regulus of antimony and other ingredi¬
ents are put in, and fome more tallow is inflamed to
make the whole incorporate fooner. The workmen
now having mixed the contents of the pot very tho¬
roughly by ftirring long wnth a large iron ladle, next
proceed to draw the metal off into the fmall troughs
of caft iron, which are ranged to the number of four-
fcore upon a level platform faced with ftone, built to¬
wards the right hand. In the courfe of a day 15 hun¬
dred weight of metal can be eafily prepared in this
manner j and the operation is continued for as many
days as are neceffary to prepare a flock of metal of all
the various degrees of hardnefs; After this, the whole
is difpofed into preffes according to its quality* to be
delivered out occafionally to the workmen.
The founder • muft now be provided with a ladle,
which differs nothing from other iron ladles but in its
fize 5 and he is provided always with ladles of leveral
fizes, which he ufes according to the fize of the letters
he is to caft. Before the cafter begins to caft, he muft
kindle his fire in the furnace to melt the metal in the
pan. Therefore he takes the pan out of the hole in
the ftone, and there lays in coals and kindles them j
and, when they are well kindled, he fets the pan in
again,-,
F O U
Foun^ery. again, and puts in metal into it to melt: if it be a fmall-
bocjje{j letter he calls, or a thin letter of great bodies,
his letter mull be very hot, nay fometimes red-hot,
to make the letter come. Then having chofen a ladle
that will hold about lb much as the letter and break
is, he lays it at the Itoking hole, where the dame
burlts out, to heat. Then he ties a thin leather, cut
with its narrow end againft the face to the leather
groove of the matrice, by whipping a brown thread
twice about the leather groove, and fallening the
thread with a knot. Then he puts both halves of the
mould together, and puts the matrice into the matrice-
cheek, and places the foot of the matrice on the ilool
ol the mould, and the broad end of the leather upon
the wood of the upper half of the mould, but not tight
up, leil it might hinder the foot of the matrice from
finking clofe down upon the llool in a train of -work.
Then laying a little rofin on the upper wood of the
mould, and having his calling ladle hot, he with the
boiling fide of it melts the rofin : and, when it is yet
melted, preffes the broad end of the leather hard down
on the wood, and fo fallens it to the wood ; all this is
the preparation.
Noiv he comes to calling. Wherefore, placing the
under half of the mould in his left hand, with the
hook or hag forward, he clutches the ends of its wrood
between the lovrer part of the ball of his thumb and
his three hind fingers 5 then he lays the upper half of
the mould upon the under half, fo that the male gages
may fall into the female gages, and at the fame time
the foot of the matrice places itfelf upon the llool;
and, clafping his left hand thumb llrong over the up¬
per half of the mould, he nimbly catches hold of the
bow or fpring with his right hand fingers at the top
of it, and his thumb under it, and places the point
of it againlt the middle of the notch in the backfide
of the matrice, prefling it as wTell forwards towards
the mould, as downwards by the flioulder of the notch
clofe upon the llool, while at the fame time wdth his
hinder fingers, as aforefaid, he draws the under half
of the mould towards the ball of his thumb, and thrulls
by the ball of his thumb the upper part towards his
fingers, that both the regillers of the mould may prefs
againlt both fides of the matrice, and his thumb and
fingers prefs both halves of the mould clofe together.
I hen he takes the handle of his ladle in his right
hand, and with the boll of it gives a llroke, two or
three, outwards upon the furface of the melted metal,
to fcum or clear it from the film or dull that may fwim
upon it j then takes up the ladle full of metal, and
having his mould, as aforefaid, in his left hand, he a
little twills the left fide of his body from the furnace,
and brings the geat of his ladle (full of metal) to the
mouth of the mould, and twills the upper part of his
right hand towards him to turn the metal into it, while
at the fame moment of time he jilts the mould in his
left hand forwards, to receive the metal wdth a llrong
lhake (as it is called), not only into the body of the
mould, but while the metal is yet hot running, fwift
and ilrongly, into the very face of the matrice, to re¬
ceive its perfect form there, as u’ell as in the lhank.
Then he takes the upper half of the mould off the
under half, by placing his right hand thumb, on the
end of the wood next his left hand thumb, and his
[ 46 1 F O U
two middle fingers at the other end of the wood ; and FounTry
finding the letter and break lie in the under half of v~—'
the mould (as moll commonly by reafon of its weight
it does), he throws or toffes the letter, break and all,
upon a Iheet of wafte paper laid for that purpofe on
the bench, juft a little beyond his left hand, and is
then ready to call another letter as before ; and alfo,
the whole number that is to be call with that matrice.
A workman will ordinarily call about 3000 of thefe let¬
ters in a day.
vVhen the callers at the furnace have got a fufficient
number of types upon the tables, a fet of boys come
and nimbly break awray the jets from them : the jets
are thrown into the pots, and the types are carried
away in parcels to other boys, who pafs them fwiftly
under their fingers, defended by leather, upon fmooth
flat Hones, in order to polilh their broadlides. This
is a very dexterous operation, and is a remarkable in-
llance of what may be effefted by the power of habit
and long practice j for thefe boys, in turning up the
other fide of the type, do it fo quickly by a mere touch
of the fingers of the left hand, as not to require the
leall perceptible intermiflion in the motion of the right
hand upon the Hone. The types, thus finely fmooth-
ed and flattened on the broad fides, are next carried
to another fet of boys, who fit at a fquare table, two
on each fide, and there are ranged upon long rulers
or flicks, fitted with a fmall projedlion, to hinder them
from Hiding off backwards. When thefe Hicks are fo
filled, they are placed, two and two, upon a fet of
wooden pins fixed into the wall, near the dreffer, fome¬
times to the amount of an hundred, in order to under¬
go the finilhing operations. This workman, who is
always the moft expert and Ikilful in all the different
branches carried on at the foundery, begins by taking
one of thefe Hicks, and, with a peculiar addrefs, Hides
the whole column of types oft' upon the drefling-fiick :
this is made of well-feafoned mahogany, and furnilhed
with two end-pieces of Heel, a little lower than the
body of the types, one of which is moveable, fo as to
approach the other by means of a long ferew-pin, in-
ferted in the end of the flick. The types are put in¬
to the Hick with their faces next to the back or pro-
jedtion ; and after they are adjufted to one another fo
as to Hand even, they are then bound up, by ferewing
home the moveable end-piece. It is here where the
great and requifite accuracy of the moulds comes to
be perceived ; for in this cafe the whole column, fo
bound up, lies flat and true upon the flick, the two
extreme types being quite parallel, and the whole has
the appearance of one folid continuous plate of metal.
The leafi inaccuracy in the exadl parallelifm of the in¬
dividual type, when multiplied fo many times, would
render it impoflible to bind them up in this manner,
by difpofing them to rife or fpring from the flick by
the fmalleft preffure from the ferew. Now, when lying
fo conveniently with the narrow edges uppermoft, which
cannot poflibly be fmoothed in the manner before men¬
tioned by the Hones, the workman does this more ef-
fedlually by feraping the furface of the column with a
thick-edged but fliarp razor, which at every ftroke
brings on a very fine fmooth Ikin, like to polifhed filver
and thus he proceeds till in about half a minute he
comes to the farther end of the flick. The other edges
of
F G U [ 47 ] F O U
Foundery, of the types are next turned upwards, and polifhed in
Fount, the fame manner. It is whilft the types thus lie in the
y dreffing-ftick that the operation of bearding or barb¬
ing is performed, which is effe&ed by running a plane,
faced with Heel, along the Ihoulder of the body next
to the face, which takes more or lefs off the corner,
as occaiion may require. Whilit in the dreffing-ftick,
they are alfo grooved, which is a very material opera¬
tion. In order to underltand this, it muft be remem¬
bered, that when the types are firlt broken off from
the jets, fome fuperfluous metal always remains, which
would make them bear very unequally againft the pa¬
per whilft under the printing prefs, and effectually mar
the impreffion. That all thefe inequalities may, there¬
fore, be taken away, and that the bearings of every
type may be regulated by the Ihoulders imported to
them all alike from the mould, the workman or dref-
fer proceeds in the following manner: The types be¬
ing ferewed up in the Hick, as before mentioned, with
the jet end outermoft, and projecting beyond the wood
about one-eighth of an inch, the flick is put into an
open prefs, fo as to prefent the jet end uppermolt, and
then every thing is made faff by driving a long wedge,
which bears upon a flip of wrood, which lies clofe to
the types the whole length : then a plough or plane
is applied, which is fo conftruCted as to embrace the
projecting part of the types betwixt its long fides,
which are made of polifhed iron. When the plane is
thus applied, the Heel cutter bearing upon that part
between the fhoulders of the types, where the inequa¬
lities lie, the drefler dexteroufly glides it along, and by
this means ftrips off every irregular part that comes in
the way, and fo makes an uniform groove the whole
length, and leaves the twro (boulders (landing $ by
which means every type becomes precifely like to ano¬
ther, as to the height againft paper. The types be¬
ing now finifhed, the (tick is taken out of the prefs,
and the whole column replaced upon the other (tick ;
and after the wfliole are fo drgffed, he proceeds to pick
out the bad letters, previous to putting them up into
pages and papers. In doing this he takes the (tick
into his left hand, and turning the faces near to the
light, he examines them carefully, and whenever an
imperfeCt or damaged letter occurs, he nimbly plucks
it out with a (harp bodkin, which he holds in the right
hand for that purpofe. Thofe letters which, from their
form, projeCt over the body of the type, and wdiich
cannot on this account be rubbed on the (tones, are
feraped on the broadlides with a knife or file, and fome
of the metal next the face pared away with a pen¬
knife, in order to allow the type to come clofe to any
other. This operation is called kerning.
The excellence of printing types confilts not only
in the due performance of all the operations above de-
feribed, but alfo in the hardnefs of the metal, form,
and fine proportion of the character, and in the exaCt
bearing and ranging of the letters in relation to one
another.
FOUNT, or Font, among printers, &c. a fet or
quantity of characters or letters of each kind, caff
by a letter-founder, and forted.—We fay, a founder
has caff a fount of pica, of engliih, of pearl, &c.
meaning that he has caff a fet of characters of thefe
kinds.
A complete fount not only includes the running
letters, but alfo large and fmall capitals, (ingle let- Fount;,
ters, double letters, points, commas, lines, and numeral Fountain-
characters. 1... ■■ v—
Founts are large or fmall, according to the demand
of the printer, who orders them by the hundred weight,
or by (beets. When the printer orders a fount of 500,
he means that the fount (hould weigh 5001b. When
he demands a fount of 10 (heets, it is underffood, that
with that fount he (hall be able to compofe 10 (heets,
or 20 forms, without being obliged to diftribute. The
founder takes his meafures accordingly j he reckons
120 pounds for a (heet, including the quadrates, &c.
or 60 pounds for a form, which is half a (heet : not
that the (heet always weighs 1 20 pounds, or the form
60 pounds; on the contrary, it varies according to the
fize of the form ; befides, it is always fuppofed that
there are letters left in the cafes.
The letter-founders have a kind of lift, or tariff,
whereby they regulate their founts : the occafion there¬
of is, that fome letters being in much more ufe, and
oftener repeated than others, their cells or cafes (hould
be better filled and ftored than thofe of the letters
which do not return fo frequently. Thus the 0 and /,
for inftance, are always in greater quantity than the k
or
This difference will be bed perceived from a propor¬
tional comparifon of thofe letters with themfelves, or
fome others. Suppofe a fount of 100,000 characters,
which is a common fount ; here the a ftiould have
5000, the c 3000, the e 11,000, the i 6000, the m
3000, the k only 30, and the at, y and 2, not many
more. But this is only to be underffood of the let¬
ters of the lower cafe 5 thofe of the upper having other
proportions, which it vrould be, here, too long to infill
on.
FOUNTAIN, a fpring or foorce of water riling
out of the earth. Among the ancients, fountains
were generally efteemed as facred ; but fome were held
to be fo in a more particular manner. The good ef¬
fects received from cold baths gave fprings and rivers
this high reputation ; for their falutary influence was
fuppofed to proceed from fome prefiding deity. Par¬
ticular reafons might occafion fome to be held in greater
veneration than others. It was cuftomary to throw
little pieces of money into thofe fprings, lakes, or
rivers, which were efteemed facred, to render the pre¬
fiding divinities propitious ; as the touch of a naked bo¬
dy was fuppofed to pollute their hallowed waters. For
the phenomena, theory, and origin of fountains or
fprings, fee Spring.
Artificial Fountain, called alfo a jet d'eau, is a con¬
trivance by which water is violently fpouted upwards.
See Hydraulics.
Boiling Fountain. See Iceland.
Fountain-TREE, a very extraordinary vegetable grow¬
ing in one of the Canary iflands, and likewife faid to
exift in fome other places, which diftils water from its
leaves in fuch plenty as to anfwer all the purpofes of
the inhabitants who live near it. Of this tree we have
the following account in Glaffe’s hiftory of the Cana¬
ry iflands.—“ There are only three fountains of water
in the whole ifland of Hierro, wherein the fountain-
tree grows. One of thefe fountains is called Acof,
W’hich, in the language of the ancient inhabitants, fig-
nifies river} a name, however, which does not feem
tar
F O U [48
Fount-air. to have been given it on account of its yielding much
—"V—water, for in that refpect it hardly deferves the name
of a fountain. More to the northward is another call¬
ed Hapio ; and in the middle of the iiland is a fpring,
yielding a dream about the thicknefs of a man’s finger.
This laft was difcovered in the year 1565, and is call¬
ed the fountain of Anton. Hernadez. On account of
the fcarcity of water, the fheep, goats, and fwine,
here do not drink in the fummer, but are taught to dig
up the roots of fern, and chew them to quench their
thirft. The great cattle are watered at thofe fountains,
and at a place where water didills from the leaves of a
tree. Many writers have made mention of this fa¬
mous tree, fome in fuch a manner as to make it ap¬
pear miraculous : others again deny the exiftence of
any fuch tree : among whom is Father Feyjoo, a mo¬
dern Spanifh author, in his Theatro Critico. But he,
and thofe who agree with him in this matter, are as
much miftaken as thofe who wrould make it appear to
be miraculous. This is the only ifland of all the Ca¬
naries which I have not been in j but I have failed with
natives of Hierro, who, when queftioned about the ex¬
iftence of this tree, anfwered in the affirmative.
“ The author of the Hi/iory of the difcovery and con-
queft has given us a particular account of it, which I
{hall here relate at large.
“ The diftritl in wffiich this tree ftands is called Ti-
gulahe ; near to wffiich, and in the cliff or deep rocky
afcent that furrounds the whole ifland, is a narrow gut¬
ter or gully, wffiich commences at the fea, and conti¬
nues to the fummit of the cliff, where it joins or co¬
incides with a valley, which is terminated by the deep
front of a rock. On the top of this rock growTs a tree,
called in the language of the ancient inhabitants, Garfe,
“ Sacred or Holy Tree,” which for many years has
been preferved found, entire, and frefh.- Its leaves con-
ftantly diftil fuch a quantity of water as is fufficient to
furnilh drink to every living creature in Hierro ; na¬
ture having provided this remedy for the drought of
the ifland. It is fituated about a league and a half from
the fea. It is not certainly known of what fpecies it is,
only that it is called Til. It is didindl from other trees,
and dands by itfelf 5 the circumference of the trunk
is about I 2 fpans, the diameter four, and in height,
from the ground to the top of the highed branch, 40
fpans : the circumference of all the branches together
is 120 feet. The branches are thick and extended ;
the lowed commence about the height of an ell from
the ground. Its fruit refembles the acorn, and tades
fomething like the kernel of a pine apple, but is fofter
and more aromatic. The leaves of this tree refemble
thofe of the laurel, but are larger, wider, and more
curved 5 they come forth, in a perpetual fucceffion, fo
that the tree always remains green. Near to it gnnvs
a thorn which it fadens on many of its branches, and in-
tenveaves with them j and at a fmall didance fr-m the
garfe are fome beech trees, brefos, and thorns. On the
north fide of the trunk are two large tanks or cifterns,
of rough flone, or rather one ciftern divided, each half
being 20 feet fquare, and 16 fpans in depth. One of
thefe contains wTater for the drinking of the inhabi¬
tants : and the other that which they ufe for their
cattle, walking, and fuch like purpofes. Every morn¬
ing, near this part of the ifland, a cloud or mid arifes
from the fea, which the fouth and eaderly winds force
4
] F O U
againd the fore-mentioned deep cliff j fo that the cloud Fountain,
having no vent but by the gutter, gradually afcends it,
and from thence advances dowdy to the extremity of
the valley, where it is dopped and checked by the
front of the rock which terminates the valley, and then
reds upon the thick leaves and wdde-fpreading branches
of the tree, from whence it didils in drops during the
remainder of the day, until it is at length exhaufted*
in the fame manner that we fee wrater drip from the
leaves of trees after a heavy Ihower of rain. This
didillation is not peculiar to the garfe or til; for the
brefos, which grow near it, likewife drop wrater ; but
their leaves being but few and narrow, the quantity is
fo trifling, that though the natives fave fome of it,
yet they make little or no account of any but what di¬
dils from the til, wffiich, together with the water of
fome fountains, and what is faved in the winter feafon,
is fufficient to ferve them and their docks. This tree
yields mod water in thofe years when the Levant or
eaderly winds have prevailed for a continuance} for,
by thefe winds only the clouds or mids are drawn hi¬
ther from the fea. A perfon lives on the fpot near
which this tree growrs, who is appointed by the council
to take care of it and its water ; and is allowed a houfe
to live in, with a certain falary. He every day didri-
butes to each family of the didrift feven pots or veffels
full of water, befides what he gives to the principal
people of the ifland.”
“ Whether the tree which yields water at this pre-
fent time be the fame as that mentioned in the above
defeription, I cannot pretend to determine : but it is
probable there has been a fucceffion of them ; for Pli¬
ny, deferibing the Fortunate iilands, fays, “ In the
mountains of Ombrion are trees refembling the plant
ferula, from wffiich water may be procured by preffure.
What comes from the black kind is bitter, but that
which the white yields is fweet and potable.” ■
Trees yielding water are not peculiar to the ifland
of Hierro \ for travellers inform us of one of the fame
kind in the iftand of St Thomas, in the bight or gulf
of Guinea. In Cockburn’s voyages wre find the followT-
ing account of a dropping tree, near the mountains of
Vera Paz, in America.
“ On the morning of the fourth day, wre came out
on a large plain, wffiere were great numbers of fine
deer, and in the middle dood a tree of unufual dze,
fpreading its branches over a vad compafs of ground.
Curiofity led us up to it. We had perceived, at fome
didance off, the ground about it to be wet; at wffiich
we began to be fomewhat furprifed, as well knowing
there had no rain fallen for near fix months pad, ac¬
cording to the certain courfe of the feafon in that lati¬
tude : that it was impoffible to be occafioned by the
fall of dew on the tree, we W’ere convinced, by the
fun’s having power to exhale awTay all moidure of that
nature a few minutes after its rifing. At lad, to our
great amazement as wHl as joy, W'e faw w’ater drop¬
ping, or as it wrere diddling, fad from the end of every
leaf of this wonderful (nor had it been amifs if I had
faid miraculous) tree 5 at lead it wTas fo with refpeft to
us, who had been labouring four days through extreme
beat, without receiving the lead moidure, and were now
almod expiring for want of it.
“ We could not help looking on this as liquor fent
from heaven to comfort us under great extremity. We
catched
F O U
Fouqmeres catclied wliat we could of it in our hands, and drank
Fournefs very plentifully of it } and liked it fo well, that we
could hardly prevail with ourfelves to give over. A
matter of this nature could not but incite us to make
the llricteft obfervations concerning it ; and according¬
ly we ftaid under the tree near three hours, and found
we could not fathom its body in five times. We ob-
ferved the foil where it grew to be very ftrong ; and
upon the niceft inquiry we could afterwards make,
both of the natives of the country and the Spanilh in¬
habitants, we could not learn there was any fuch tree
known throughout New Spain, nor perhaps all Ame¬
rica over: but I do not relate this as a prodigy in na¬
ture, becaufe I am not a philofopher enough to defcribe
any natural caufe for it 5 the learned may perhaps give
fubllantial reafons in nature for what appeared to us a
great and marvellous fecret.”
FOUQUIERES, James, an eminent painter, wTas
bom at Antwerp in 1580, and received his chief in-
itructions from Velvet Breughel. He applied himfelf
to the ftudy of landfcapes, and went to Italy to im¬
prove himfelf in colouring. Fie fucceeded fo happily,
that his works are faid to be nearly equal to thofe of
Titian.—He was engaged and much careffed at the
court of the eledlor Palatine, and afterwards fpent fe-
veral years of his life in France *, wdtere his works met
with univerfal approbation. By fome mifconduct, how¬
ever, he funk into poverty, and died in 1659 in the
houfe of an inconfiderable painter. He had relided for
feveral years at Rome and Venice, where he acquired
that excellent ftyle of colouring and delign for which
his wTorks have been defervedly diftingmfhed.
FOURCHEE, or Fourchy, in Heraldry, an ap¬
pellation given to a crofs forked at the end. See
Heraldry.
FOURMONT, Stephen, profeffor of the Arabic
and Chinefe languages, and one of the molt learned
men of his time, was born at Herbelai, a village four
leagues from Paris, in 1683. He ftudied in Mazarine
college, and afterwards in the Seminary of Thirty-
three. He was at length profeffor of Arabic in the
Royal College, and was made a member of the Aca-.
demy of Infcriptions. In 1738 he was chofen a
member of the Royal Society of London, and of that
of Berlin in 1741. He was often confulted by the
duke of Orleans, firft prince of the blood ; who had a
particular efteem for him, and made him one of his fe-
cretaries. He wrote a great number of books 5 the
moll confiderable of thofe which have been printed are,
1. The Roots of the Latin Tongue, in verfe. 2. Cri¬
tical Refledlions on the Hillories of ancient Nations,
2 vols. 410. 3. Meditationes Sink a;, folio. 4. A Chinefe
Grammar, in Latin, folio. 5. Several differtations print¬
ed in the Memoirs of the Academy of Infcriptions, &c.
He died at Paris in 1744.
He ought not to be confounded writh Michael Four-
mont, his youngelt brother $ W'ho took orders, was
profeffor of the Syriac language in the Royal College,
and a member of the Academy of Infcriptions. Fie
died in x 746.
FOURNESS, in Loynfdale, Lancalhire, is a tradl,
between the Kent, Leven, and Dudden-fands, which
runs north parallel with the well lides of Cumberland
and Weltmorland j and on the fouth runs cut into
Vol. IX. Part I.
F O U
the fea as a promontory. Here, as Mr Camden ex- Fourth,
preffes it, “ the fea, as if enraged at it, laihes it more v ”
furioufly, and in high tides has even devoured the Ihore,
and made three large bays j viz. Kentfand, into which
the river Ken empties itfelf; Levenfand and Dudden-
fand, betw-een wdiich the land projecls in fuch a man¬
ner that it has its name hence ; Forenefs and Foreland,
lignifying the fame with us ns promontonum anterius ’m.
Latin.” Bilhop Gibfon, however, derives the name
of Fonrnefs or Furnefs, from the numerous furnaces
that were there anciently, the rents and fervices oi
which (called Bloomfmithy rents) are Hill paid. This
whole traft, except on the coalt, rifes in high hills and
vail piles of rocks called Fornefs-Fells; among which
the Britons found a fecure retreat, truiling to thele
natural fortreffes, though nothing w’as inacceffible to
the vidlorious Saxons 5 for we find the Britons fet¬
tled here 228 years after the arrival of the Saxons :
becaufe at that time Egfrid king of Northumberland
gave St Cuthbert the land called Carthmell, and all the
Britons in it, as is related in his life. In thefe moun¬
tainous parts are found quarries of a fine durable blue
Hate to cover buildings with, winch are made ufe of
in many other parts of the kingdom. Here are feveral
cotton mills lately erected \ and if fuel for fire were
more plentiful, the trade of this country would much
increafe : but there being no coals nearer than Wigan
or Whitehaven, and the coafl duties high, firing is ra¬
ther fcarce, the country people ufing only turf or peat,
and that begins to be more fcarce than formerly. In
the moffes of F'ournefs much fir is found, but more
oak : the trunks in general lie with their heads to the
eaft, the high winds having been from the well. High
Furnefs has ever had great quantities of Iheep, which
browfe upon the hollies left in great numbers for them
and produces charcoal for melting iron ore, and oak
bark for tanners ufe, in great abundance. The forelts
abound with deer and wild boars, and the legh or
fcofe, or large flags, whofe horns are frequently found
underground here. The low or plain part of Fournefs,
which is fo called to dillinguilh it from the wmody or
mountainous part, produces all forts of grain, but prin¬
cipally oats, whereof the bread eaten in this country
is generally made •, and there are found here veins of a
very rich iron ore, which is not only melted and
wrought here, but great quantities are exported to
other parts to mix with poorer ores. The three fands
above mentioned are very dangerous to travellers, by
the tides and the many quickfands. There is a guide
on horfeback appointed to Kent or Lancafter fands at
xol. per ann. to Leven at 61. per ann. out of the pub¬
lic revenue 5 but to Dudden, which are moll danger¬
ous, none 5 and it is no uncommon thing for perfons
to pafs over in parties of 100 at a time like caravans,
under the diredlion of the carriers, who go to or fro
every day. The fands are lefs dangerous than former¬
ly, being more ufed and better known, and travellers
never going without the carriers or guides. “ Furnis
abbey up in the mountains,” was begun at Tulket in
Amoundernefs 1124, by Stephen earl of Boulogne,
afterwards king of England, for the monks of Savigni
in France, and three years after removed to this val¬
ley, then called Bekangefgill, or, “ the vale of night-
Ihade.” It wras of the Cillertian order, endowed with
G above
[ 49 1
T’ourt’i
II
Fowl.
F O W [ 5
?ibove 800I. per ann. Out of the monks of this abbey,
Mr Camden informs us, the bifhops of the Ifle of Man,
i which lies over againft it, ufed to be chofen by ancient
cuflom j it being as it were the mother of many mo-
nafteries in Man and Ireland. Some ruins, and part
of the foffe which furrounded the monailery, are Hill
to be feen at Tulket. The remains at Fournefs breathe
that plain fimplicity of the Ciflertian abbeys; the
ehapter-houfe was the only piece of elegant Gothic
about it, and its roof has lately fallen m. Part of the
painted glafs from the eaft window, reprcfenting the
crucifixion, &c. is preferved at Windermere church in
Bowlnefs, Weftmorland. The church (except the north
fide of the nave), the chapter-houfe, refeftory, &c, re¬
main, only ynroofed.
FOURTH REDUNDANT, in Mujtc. See Interval.
FOWEY, or Foy, a town of Cornwall in England,
240 miles from London, with a commodious haven bn
the Channel. It is a populous place, extending above
one mile on the eaft fide of a river of its own name ;
and has a great ftiare in the filhing trade, efpecially
pilchards. It rofe fo much formerly by naval wars and
piracies, that in the reign of Edward III. its {hips re-
fufing to ftrike when required as they failed by Rye and
Winchelfea, were attacked by the (hips of thofe ports,
but defeated them ; whereupon they bore their arms
mixed with the arms of thofe two cinque-ports, which
gave rife to the name of the “ Gallants of Fowey.”
And we learn from Camden, that this town quartered
a part of the arms of every one of the cinque ports
with their own ; intimating, that they had at times
triumphed over them all : and indeed once they v^ere
fo powerful, that they took feveral of the French men
of war. In the reign of Edward III. they refcued
certain {hips of Rye from diftrefs, for which this town
was made a member of the cinque-ports. Edwrard IV.
favoured Fowey fo much, that when the French
threatened to come up the river to burn it, he caufed
two towTers, the ruins of which are yet vilrble, to be
built at the public charge for its fecurity : but he was
afterwards fo difgufted with the inhabitants for attack¬
ing the French after a truce proclaimed with Louis XL
that he took away all their {hips and naval ftores, to¬
gether with a chain drawn acrofs the river between the
two forts above mentioned, w’hich vTas carried to Dart¬
mouth. It is faid they wTere fo infolent, that they cut
off the ears of the king’s purfuivants; for which fome
lives were forfeited as well as eftates. The corporation
confifts of a mayor, recorder, 8 aldermen, a town clerk,
and 2 afliftants. The market is on Saturday, the fairs
May-day and Sept. 10. Here are a fine old church,
a free fchool, and an hofpital. The toll of the market
and fairs, and keyage of the harbour, were veiled in
the corporation on the payment of a fee-farm rent of
about 40s. It does not appear to have fent members
to parliament before the 13th of Queen Elizabeth.
Here is a coinage for the tin y of which a great quan¬
tity is dug in the country to the north and weft of it.
The river Foy, or Foath, is very broad and deep here,
and wms formerly navigable as high as Leftwithiel.
W. Long. 5°. N. Lat. 50. 27.
FOWL, among zoologifts, denotes the larger forts
of birds, whether domeftic or wild : fuch as geefe,
pheafants, partridges, turkeys, dusks, &c.
o ] FOX
Tame fowl make a neceffary part of the flock of a Fowling,
country farm. See Poultry. Foi.
Fowls are again diftinguiihed into twm kinds, viz. 'rmmm
land and water fowl, thefe laft being fo called from
their living much in and about water : alfo into thofe
which are accounted game, and thofe which are not.
See Game.
FOWLING, the art of catching birds by means
of bird-lime, decoys, and other devices, or the killing
of them by the gun. See BiRD-Catching, BiRD-Llme,
Decoy, Shooting, and the names of the different
birds in the order of the alphabet.
Fowling, is alfo ufed for the purfuing and taking
birds with hawks, more properly called FALCONRY or
HAWKING. See thefe articles.
Fowling Piece, a light gun for {hooting birds.
That piece is always reckoned beft which has the long-
eft barrel, from 5^ to 6 feet, with a moderate bore 5
though every fowler ftiould have them of different fizes^
fuitable to the game he defigns to kill. The barrel
fhould be well polilhed and fmooth within, and the
bore of an equal bignefs from one end to the other 5
which may be proved, by putting in a piece of pafte-
board, cut of the exaft roundnefs of the top : for if
this goes down without flops or Hipping, you may con¬
clude the bore good. The bridge-pan muft be fome-
what above the touch-hole, and ought to have a notch
to let down a little powder : this will prevent the piece
from recoiling, which it would otherwife be apt to do.
As to the locks, choafe fuch as are well filled with true
work, whole fprings muft be neither too llrong nor too
weak. The hammer ought to be well hardened, and
pliable to go down to the pan with a quick motion.
FOX, in Zoology. See Cants, Mammalia Index.
The fox rs a great nuifance to the huibandman, by
taking away and deftroying his lambs, geefe, poultry,
&c. The common way to catch him is by gins;
which being baited, and a train made by drawing raw
flefh acrofs in his uiual paths or haunts to the gin, it
proves an inducement to bring him to the place of de-
ftrudlion.
The fox is alfo a beaft of chafe, and is taken with
greyhounds, terriers, &c. See Hunting.
Fox, "John, the martyrologift, was born at Bofton in
Lincolnftiire in the year 1517. At the age of 16 he
was entered a ftudent of Brazen-Nofe college in Oxford;
and in 1543 he proceeded mafter of arts, and was chofen
fellow of Magdalen college. He difeovered an early
genius for poetry, and wrote feveral Latin comedies,
the fubjefls taken from Scripture, which his fon aflures
us were written in an elegant ftyle. Forfaking the
mufes, he now applied himlelf with uncommon afii-
duity to the ftudy of divinity, particularly church-hi-
ftory ; and, difeovering a premature propenfity to the
dodlrine of reformation, he was expelled the college as
an heretic. His diftrefs on this occafion was very great;
but it was not long before he found an afylum in the
houfe of Sir Thomas Lucy of Warwicklhire, who em¬
ployed him as a tutor to his children. Here he mar¬
ried the daughter of a citizen of Coventry. Sir Tho¬
mas’s children being now grown up, after refiding a
fhort time with his wife’s father, he came to London j
where finding no immediate means of fubfiftence, he
was reduced to the utmoft degree of want 5 but was at
length
FOX
[ 5
Fox, length (as his fon relates) miraculouily relieved in the
Fox-glove, following manner : As he was one day litting in St
Paul’s church, emaciated with hunger, a Granger ac-
cofted him familiarly, and, bidding him be of good
cheer, put a fum of money into his hand ; telling him
at the fame time, that in a few days new hopes were
at hand. He was foon after taken into the family of
the duchefs of Richmond, as tutor to the earl of Sur¬
rey’s children, who, when their father was fent to the
Tower, were committed to her Care. In this family he
lived, at Ryegatc in Surrey, during the latter part of
the reign of Henry VIII. the entire reign of Ed-
vcard VI. and part of that of Queen Mary : but at
length, perfecuted by his implacable enemy Biihop
Gardiner, he was obliged to leek refuge abroad. Balil
in Switzerland was the place of his retreat, where he
fublilled by correcting for the prefs. On the death of
^)ueen Mary he returned to England •, where he was
gracionily received by his former pupil the duke of
Norfolk, who retained him in his family as long as
he lived, and bequeathed him a penfion at his death.
Mr Secretary Cecil alfo obtained for him the rectory
of Shipton near Salifhury ; and we are allured that he
might have had confiderable church preferment, had
it not been for his unwillingnefs to fubfcribe to the
canons. He died in the year 1587, in the 70th year
of his age ; and was btiried in the chancel of St Giles’s,
Cripplegate. He was a man of great induftry, and
confiderable learning •, a zealous, but not a violent re¬
former ; a nonconformift, but not an enemy to the
church of England. He left two fons j one of whom
was bred a divine, the other a phyfician. He wrote
many pieces •, but his principal work is, tire Adis and
Monuments of the Church, &c. commonly called
Fox's Book of Martyrs. His facls are not always to
be depended on, and he often lofes his temper ; which,
confidering the fubjedl, is not much to be -wondered
at.
Fox, George, the founder of the fedl of Englilh
Quakers, w-as a Ihoemaker in Nottingham. The ac-
coimts of thofe times tell us, that as he wrought at
his trade, he ufed to meditate much on the Scriptures j
which, with his folitary courfe of life, improving his
natural melancholy, he began at length to fancy hlm-
felf infpired} and in confequence thereof let up for a
preacher.
He propofed but few articles of faith $ infilling
chiefly on moral virtue, mutual charity, the love of
God, and a deep attention to the inward motions and
fecret operations of the Spirit 5 he required a plain
fimple worlhip, and a religion without ceremonies,
making it a principal point to wait in profound filence
the diredlions of the Holy Spirit. Fox met with much
rough treatment for his zeal, was often impril’oned, and
feveral times in danger of being knocked on the head.
But all difcouragements notwithllanding, his fedl pre¬
vailed much, and many confiderable men were drawn
over to them; among whom were Barclay and Penn.
He died in 1681. His followers were called Quakers,
in derifion of fome unufual fhakings and convulfions
with which they were feized at their firll meetings.
See Quakers.
Fox-G/ove. See Digitalis, Botany and Mate¬
ria Mewca Index-.
t ] FOX
Fox- Ijlands, the name of a group of iilands, 16 in Fox-ilands.
number, fituated between the eallern coaft ol Kamt-’ " ~v *
fchatka and the weftern coall of the continent ot
America. Each illand has a particidar name ; but the
general name Fox-IJJands is given to the whole group,
on account of the great number of black, gray, and red
foxes with which they abound. The drefs of the in¬
habitants conlills of a cap, and a fur coat which reaches
down to the knee. Some of them wear common cap*
of a party-coloured bird fkin, upon which they leave
part of the wings and tail. On the fore part of their
hunting and filhing caps, they place a fmall board like
a Ikreen, adorned with the jaw bones of fea bears, and
ornamented wV.li glafs beads, which they receive in
barter from the Ruffians. At their feftivals and dan¬
cing parties they ufe a much more fliowy fort of caps.
They feed upon the ilefii of all forts ol fea animals,
and generally eat it raw. But if at any time they
choofe to drefs their victuals, they make ufe of a
hollow ftone } having placed the filh or flelli therein,
they cover it with another, and ciofe the interilices
with lime or clay. They then lay it horizontally-'
upon two ftofies, and light a fire under it. The
provifion intended for keeping is dried without fait
in the open air. Their weapons confift ol bows, ar¬
rows, and darts; and for defence they ufe wooden
Ihields. The moll perfedl equality reigns among
thefe ifianders. They have neither chiefs nor fupe-
riors, neither laws nor punilhments. They live toge¬
ther in families, and locieties of feveral lamilies united,
which form what they call a race, who, in cale ol an
attack or defence, mutually help and fupport each
other. The inhabitants of the fame illand always
pretend to be of the fame race 5 and every perfon
looks upon his illand as a poffellion, the property of
which is common to all the individuals of the fame
fociety. Feafts are very common among them, and
more particularly when the inhabitants of one illand
are vifited by thofe of the others. The men of the
village meet their gueffs beating drums, and preceded
by the women^ who ling and dance. At the conclu-
fion of the dance, the holls ferve up their bell provi-
fions, and invite their guells to partake of the featl.
They feed their children when very young with the
coarfelt fielh, and for the molt part raw. If an infant
cries, the mother immediately carries it to the fea-
fide, and whether it be fummer or winter, holds it
naked in the water until it is quiet. This cullom is
fo far from doing the children any harm, that it
hardens them againlt the cold, and they accordingly
go barefooted through the winter without the leall
inconvenience. They feldom heat their dwellings j
but when they are defirous of warming themfelves,
they light a bundle of hay, and Hand over it; or elfe
they fet fire to train-oil, which they pour into a hollow
Hone. They have a good lhare of plain natural fenfe,
but are rather How of underllanding. They feem
cold and indifferent in moll of their adlions 5 but let
an injury, or even a fufpicion only, roufe them from
this phlegmatic Hate, and they become inflexible and
furious, taking the moll violent revenge without any
regard to the confequences. The leaft affliction
prompts them to fuicide j the apprehenfion of even
an uncertain evil often leads them to defpairj and
G 2 they
F RA. f 5
Fracaftor they put an end to their days with great apparent in-
Y' jl fenfibility.
lon‘ • FRACASTOR, Jerome, an eminent Italian poet
and phyfician, was bom at Verona in the year 1482.
Two Angularities are related of him in his infancy :
ene is, that his lips adhered fo clofely to each other
when he came into the world, that a furgeon was obliged
to divide them with his incilion knife 5 the other, that
his mother was killed with lightning, while he, though
in her arms at the very moment, efcaped unhurt. Fra-
eaftor was of parts fo exquilite, and made fucli progrefs
in every thing he undertook, that he became eminently
Skilled not only in the belles lettres, but in all arts and
fciences. He was a poet, a philofopher, a phyfician, an
aftronomer, and a mathematician. Fie was a man of
vaft confequence in his time j as appears from Pope
Paul Ill’s making ufe of his authority to remove the
council of Trent to Boulogne, under the pretext of a
contagious diftemper, which, as Fracaftor depofed, made
it no longer fafe to continue at Trent. He was inti¬
mately acquainted with Cardinal Bembus, Julius Scali-
ger, and all the great men of his time. He died of an
apoplexy at Cali near Verona, in 1553 • an(^ I559>
the town of Verona erecled a ftatue in honour of him.
He was the author of many performances, both as
a poet and as a phyfician: yet never man w-as more
dilinterefted in both thefe capacities than he: evi-
dently fo as a phyfician, for he praftifed without fees j
and as a poet, whofe ufual reward is glory, nothing
cojild be more indifferent. It is owing to this indiffer¬
ence, that wre have fo little of his poetry, in compan¬
ion of what he worote •, and that, among other compo-
fitions, his Odes and Epigrams, which were read in
manufeript with infinite admiration, yet, never paffing
the prefs, were loft. What we have now of his, are
the three books of “ Siphilis, or of the French difeafe 5”
a book of Mifcellaneous Poems ; and two books of his
poem, entitled, Jofeph, which he began at the latter
end of his life, but did not live to finifh. And thefe
works, it is faid, vrould have perilhed wdth the reft, if
his friends had not taken care to preferve and commu¬
nicate copies of them : For Fracaftor, writing merely
for amufement, never troubled himfelf in the leaft
about what became of his wrorks after they once got
out of his hands. Fracaftor compofed alfo a poem,
called Aicon, Jive fie cura canum venaticorum. His
poems as well as his other works are all written in
Latin. His medical pieces are, De Sympathia et An-
tipathia,—De contagione et contagiojis morbis,—De caujis
criticorum dierum,—De vini temperatura, &c. His
works have been printed feparately and colledlively.
The beft edition of them is that of Padua 1735, in 2
vols, qto.
FRACHES, in the glafs trade, are the flat iron
pans into which the glafs veffels already formed are
put when in the tower over the working furnace, and
by means of which they are drawn out through the
leers, that they may be taken gradually from the fire,
and cool by degrees.
FRACTION, in Arithmetic and Algebra, a part or
divifion of an unit or integer} or a number which Hands
to an unit in the relation of a part to its whole. The
word literally imports a broken number.
Fractions are ufually divided into decimal, fexa-
] FRA
gefimal, and vulgar. See Algebra and Arithme- Fra&ure
tic. ||
h RAC JURE, in Surgery, a rupture of a bone or ame’
a folution of continuity in a bone when it is cruftied 7 ”
or broken by iome external caufe. See Surgery
Index. t
FRyENUM, or Frenum, Bridle, in Anatomy, a
name given to divers ligaments, from their office in
retaining and curbing the motions of the parts they
are fitted to.
Frjsnum Linguce, or Bridle of the Tongue; a mem¬
branous ligament, which ties the tongue to the os
hyoides, larynx, fauces, and lower parts of the mouth.
In fome fubjehls the freenum runs the whole length of
the tongue to the very tip j in which cafes, if it were
not cut, it would take away all poffibility of fpeech.
See ToNGUE-Tied.
Frjenum Penis, a flender ligament, whereby the
prepuce is tied to the lower part of the glans of the
penis. Nature varies in the make of this part •, it be¬
ing fo Ihort in fome, that unlefs divided it would not
admit of perfect eredfion. There is alfo a kind of little
freenum, faftened to the lower part of the clitoris.
FRAGA, a ftrong towm with a handfome caftle, in
the kingdom of Arragon in Spain. It is ftrong by
fituation among the mountains 5 having the river Cinca
before it, whofe high banks are difficult of accefs \
and at its back a hill, which cannot eafily be ap¬
proached with large cannon. Alphonfo VII. king of
Arragon, and the firft of that name of Caftile, was
killed by the Moors in 1134, when he befieged this
town. E. Long. o. 23. N. Lat. 41. 28.
FRAG ARIA, the Strawberry, a genus of
plants belonging to the icofandria clafs •, and in the
natural method ranking under the 3 5th order, Senticofe.
See Botany Index, and for an account of the varieties
and culture, fee Gardening Index.
FRAIL, a balket made of ruffies or the like, in
which are packed up figs, raifins, &c. It fignifies alfo
a certain quantity of raifins, about 75 pounds.
FRAISE, in Fortification, a kind -of defence .con¬
fiding of pointed flakes, fix or feven feet long, driven
parallel to the horizon into the retrenchments of a
camp, a half moon, or the like, to prevent any ap¬
proach or fealade.
Fraifes differ from pallifades chiefly in this, that the
latter Hand perpendicular to the horizon, and the
former jet out parallel to the horizon, or nearly fo,
being ufually made a little Hoping, or with the points
hanging down. Fraifes are chiefly ufed in retrenchments
and other works thrown up of earth } fometimes they
are found under the parapet of a rampart, ferving in-
ftead of the cordon of ftone ufed in Hone works-
To Fraisk a Battalion, is to line the mufqueteers
round with pikes, that in cafe they ffiould be charged
wdth a body of horfe, the pikes being prefented, may
cover the mufqueteers from the ffiock, and ferve as a
barricade.
FRAME, in Joinery, a kind of cafe, wherein a thing
is fet or enclofed, or even fupported j as a wdndow
frame, a picture frame, &c.
Frame is alfo a machine ufed in divers arts; as,
Frame, among printers, is the Hand which fupports
the cafes. See Case.
Frame,
FRA
irame Frame, among founders, a kind of ledge enclofing
II a board j which, being filled with wetted land, ferves
» ra”ce’ , as a moulcl to call: their works in. See FoutsDERY.
Frame is more particularly ufed for a lort of loom,
wThereon artificers ilretch their linens, fnks, fluffs, &c.
to be embroidered, quilted, or the like.
Frame, among painters, a kind of fquare, confiding
of four long flips of wood joined together, whofe in¬
termediate fpace is divided by threads into feveral little
fquares like a net *, and hence fometimes called reticu¬
la. It ferves to reduce figures from great to fmall ;
or, on the contrary, to augment their iize from fmall
to great.
FRAMLINGHAM, a town of Suffex, 88 miles
from London. It is a large old place, with a caftle,
fuppofed to have been built by feme of the firft kings
of the Eaft Angles ; the walls, yet Handing, are 44
feet high, 8 thick, with 13 towers 14 feet above them,
2 of which are watch-towers, "lo this caftle the prin-
cefs, afterwards Queen Mary I. retired, when the Lady
Jane Grey was her coiypetitor for the crown. I he
town is pleafantly fituated, though but indifferently
built, upon a clay hill, in a fruitful foil and healthy
air, near the fource of the river Ore, by fome called
Wincknel, which runs through it to Orford. It has a
fpacious place for the market which is held on Sa¬
turday 5 and a large ftately church built all of black
flint, with a fteeple 100 feet high j two good alms-
houfes ; and a free-fchool.
FRANC. See Frank.
FRANCE, a large kingdom of Europe, fituated
between 50 W. and 70 E. Long, and between 430 and
510 N. Lat. being bounded by the Englith channel
and the Auftrian Netherlands on the north j by Ger¬
many, Switzerland, Savoy, and Piedmont, in Italy, on
the eaft •, by the Mediterranean fea, and the Pyrenean
mountains, which feparate it from Spain, on the fouth j
j and by the bay of Bifcay on the weft.
Firft fub- The kingdom of France was originally poffeffed by
(hied by the Celtes or Gauls. They were a very warlike peo-
Julius Cx- ancj oftgu checked the progrefs of the Roman
arms : nor did they yield till the time of Julius Caefar,
who totally fubdued their country, and reduced it to
* Set Gaul.the form of a Roman province*. The Romans con¬
tinued in quiet poffeffion 01 Gaul, as long as their em¬
pire retained its ftrength, and they were in a condition
to reprefs the incurfions of the German nations, whom
even in the zenith of their power they had not been
able to fubdue. But in the reign of the emperor Va-
__ lerian, the ancient Roman valour and difeipline had
begun to decline, and the fame care was not taken to
defend the provinces as formerly. The barbarous na-
2 tions, therefore, began to make much more frequent
Invaded by incurfions ; and among the reft the Franks, a Ger-
the Franks. man nation, inhabiting the banks of the Rhine, proved
particularly troublefome. Their origin is varioufiy ac¬
counted for j but the moft probable fuppofition is, that
about the time of the emperor Gordian, the peo¬
ple inhabiting the banks of the Lower Rhine, entered
into a confederacy with thofe who dwelt on the Wefer,
and both together affumed the name of Franks or
Freemens Their firft irruption, we are told by Vale-
fius, happened in the year 254, the fecond of Valerian’s
reign. At this time they were but few in number ;
^and were repulfed by Aurelian, afterwards emperor.
FRA
Not difeouraged by this check, they returned two France,
years after in far greater numbers •, but were again v
defeated by Gallienus, whom Valerian had chofen
for Ins partner in the empire. Others, however,
continued to pour in from their native country in fuch
multitudes, that Gallienus, no longer able to drive them
out by force of arms, made advantageous propofals to
one of their chiefs, whom he engaged to defend the
frontiers againft his countrymen as well as other in¬
vaders.
This expedient did not long anfwer the purpofe.
In 260 the Franks, taking advantage of the defeat
and captivity of Valerian in Perfia, broke into Gaul,
and afterwards into Italy, committing everywhere
dreadful ravages. Five years afterwards they invaded
Spain ; which they poffeffed, or rather plundered, for
the fpace of 1 2 years : nor could they be driven out
of Gaul till the year 275, when the emperor Probus
not only gave them a total overthrow in that country,
but purfued them into their own, wdiere he built feve¬
ral forts to keep them in awe. This intimidated them
fo much, that nine of their kings fubmitted to the em¬
peror and promifed an annual tribute.—They conti¬
nued quiet till the year 287 j when, in conjunction
with the Saxon pirates, they plundered the coafts of
Gaul, carrying oft'an immenfe booty. To revenge this
infult, the emperor Maximian entered the country of
the Franks the following year, where he committed
fuch ravages that two of their kings fubmitted to him j
and to many of the common people who chofe to re¬
main in Gaul, he allowed lands in the neighbourhood
of Treves and Cambray.
The reftlefs difpofition of the Franks, howrever, did
not allow them to remain long in quiet. About the
year 293, they made themfelves mafters of Batavia
and part of Flanders *, but were entirely defeated, and
forced to furrender at diferetion, by Conftantius the
father of Conftantine the Great, who tranfplanted them
into Gaul. Their countrymen in Germany continued
quiet till the year 306, when they renewed their de¬
predations } but being overtaken by Conftantine the
Great, two of their kings were taken prifonefs, and
throwm to the wild beafts in the fttows exhibited on
that occafion.
All thefe vidlories, however, as wTell as many others
faid to have been gained by the Romans, were not fuf-
ficient to prevent the incurfions of this reftlefs and tur¬
bulent nation : infomuch that, in the year 355, they
had made themfelves mafters of 40 cities in the pro¬
vince of Gaul. Soon after, they w'ere totally defeated
by the emperor Julian, and again by Count Theodo-
fius, father to the emperor of that name j but in the
year 388, they ravaged the province wdth more fury
than ever, and cut off a whole Roman army that was
fent againft them. As the weftern empire wras at
this time in a very low ftate, they for fome time found
more interruption from other barbarians than from
the Romans, till their progrefs was checked by Ae-
tius. _ _ 3
When the war with Aetius broke out, the Franks Phara monel
were governed by one Fharamond, the firft of their**?6 firft
kings of whom we have any diftirift account. He is
fuppofed to have reigned from the year 417 or 418,
to 428 ; and is thought by Archbifhop Uflier to have
been killed in the war with Aetius. By fome he is
fuppoied
[ 53 ]
*
FRA [ :
-fiance, fupfjofed to 1»ave 1 compiled the Salic laws, with the
~'v—alTiilance of four fages named Wifegdf}, LofegaJ}, JVide-
gqft, and Solegaft. But Valeflus is of opinion that the
^ Franks had no written laws till the time of Clovis.
Clodio. Pharamond was fucceeded by his fon Clodio, who
likewife carried on a war againft the Romans. He is
faid to have received a terrible overthrow from Aetius
near the city of Lens; notwithftanding which, he ad¬
vanced to Cambray, and made himfelf mafter of that
city, where for fome time he took up his refidence.
After this he extended his conquefts as far as the river
Somme, and deftroyed the cities of Treves and Co¬
logne, Tournay and Amiens. He died in the year
, 4485 and was fucceeded by Merovaeus.
Merovseus, Authors are not agreed whether the new king was
brother, or fon, or any relation at all, to Clodio. It
feems probable indeed, that he was of a different fa¬
mily ; as from him the firft race of French kings were
ftyled Merovingian. He was honoured and refpecled
by his people, but did not greatly enlarge the bounda-
6 ties of his kingdom. He died in 458.
Childeric. Merovaeus wras fucceeded by his fon Childeric •, who
being no longer kept in aw7e by Aetius, made w’ar on
the Romans, and extended his conquefts as far as the
river Loire. He is faid to have taken the city of Pa¬
ris after a ftege of five years, according to fome, and
of ten, according to others. The Roman power was
now totally deftroyed in Italy •, and therefore Clodo-
Vtrus, Clovisy or Louis, for his name is differently writ¬
ten, wTho fucceeded Childeric, fet himfelf about making
an entire conqueft of Gaul. Part of the province was
ftill retained by a Roman named Sijagrius, who proba¬
bly had become fovereign of the country on the down¬
fall of the weftern empire in 476. He was defeated
and taken prifoner by Clovis, who afterwards caufed
him to be beheaded, and foon after totally reduced his
dominions.
Trench mo- Thus was the French monarchy eftablifhed by Clo-
narchy efta-vis in the year 487. He now poffeffed all the coun-
Clovb* ^ -1T lying between the Rhine and the Loire; which,
though a very extenfive dominion, wras yet confider-
ably inferior to what it is at prefent.
Clovis had been educated in the Pagan religion,
and continued in that profeflion till the 30th year of
his age 5 notwnthftanding wftiich, he allowed his fubjefts
full liberty of confcience. Having married, however,
Clotilda, daughter of the duke of Burgundy ; this
princefs, who was a zealous Chriftian, ufed all her in¬
fluence with her hufband to perfuade him to embrace
her religion. For fome time he continued to waver :
but happening to gain a battle, where, being in great
danger, he had invoked the god of Clotilda and the
Chriftians, he afterwards gave fuch a favourable ear
to the difeourfes of Remigius bifliop of Rheims, that
he foon declared himfelf a convert, and was baptized
in the year 496. His acknowledgment of the truths
of the gofpel was not followed by any amendment of
life •, on the contrary, he employed the remainder of
his life in the aggrandizement of himfelf and extenfion
of his dominions by the moft abominable treachery,
fraud, and violence. In his attacks on Armorica he
proved unfuccefsful. The inhabitants of this country,
which comprehended the maritime part of ancient Gaul
lying between the rivers Seine and Loire, had united
4br their defence j and though abandoned by the Ro-
2
4 ] FRA
mans, made a powerful defence againft the barbarians Franca,
who a (faulted them on all fides. Clovis, finding them y—
too powerful to be fubdued by force, propofed an union
with his people, which they readify accepted, and this
the more eafily on account of his profefting the Chri¬
ftian religion. Thus the Chriftianity of Clovis in feve-
ral inftances proved fubfervient to the purpofes of Iris'
ambition, and his power became gradually very for¬
midable. The Burgundians at this time poffeffed all
the country from the foreft of Vofges to the fea of
Marfeilles, under Gondebaud the uncle of Clotilda ;
who to fecure his own authority, had put to death
turn of his brothers, one of whom was the father of
the French queen. The third brother, Godagejil, whom
he had fpared and allowed to poifefs the principality of
Geneva, confpired with Clovis to diive him from his
dominions. A war having commenced between the
French and Burgundian monarchs, the latter was de-
ferted in a battle by Godagefil, and obliged to fiy to
Avignon, leaving his antagonift mafter of the cities of
Lyons and Vienne. The viflor next laid fiege to
Avignon 3 but it was defended with fuch vigour, that
Clovis at laft thought proper to accept of a fum of
money and an annual tribute from Gondebaud 3 who
was likewife obliged to cede to Godagefil the city of
Vienne, and feveral other places taken during the
war.
Gondebaud no fooner found himfelf at liberty from
his enemies, than he affembled a pow-erful army 5 with
which he advanced towards Vienne, wdrere Godagefil
himfelf refided at that time. The place was garrifon-
ed by jupoo Franks, and might have made conliderabie
refiftance 3 but Gondebaud being admitted through
the fubterraneous paffage of an aqueduft, maffacred
mod of the Franks, fent the reft prifoners to the king
of the Vifigoths, and put Godagefil to death. This
was quickly followed by the fubmiffion of all the other
places which had owned the authority of Godagefil :
and Gondebaud, now thinking himfelf able to refill
the power of Clovis, fent a meffage to inform him,
that he muft no longer expefl the promifed tribute ;
and though Clovis wras very much mortified with this
defedlion, he found himfelf obliged for the prefent to
put up with the injury, and accept of the alliance and
military lervice of the king of Burgundy.
His next expedition was againft the Vifigoths, who
poffeffed confiderable territories on both fides of the
Pyrenean mountains. -His motives for this underta-
kmg were expreffed in the following fpeech to his no¬
bility when affembled in the city of Paris, which he
confidered as the capital of his dominions. “ It is
with concern (faid the religious monarch) that I fuffer
the Arians to poffefs the moft fertile part of Gaul:
let us, with the aid of God, march againft them 3 amd
having conquered them, annex their kingdom to our
dominions.” The nobility approved of the fcheme 3
and Clovis marched againit a prince for whom he had
but lately profeffed the greateft regard, vowing to
erefl a church in honour of the holy apoftles, if he fuc¬
ceeded in his enterprife. Alaric the king of the Vi¬
figoths was a young man deftitute of military expe¬
rience, though perfonally brave. He did nfct there¬
fore hefitate at engaging his antagonift 3 bnt unable
to contend with the veteran troops of Clovis, his army
wras utterly defeated on the banks of the Clain, 10
miles
FRA [5
France, miles foutli of Poiftiers, in the year 507. Alaric, per-
ceiving the ruin of his troops, rufhed againit Clovis in
perfon, by whom he was killed, and the remainder
of the army purfued for fome time with great Daugh¬
ter. After this victory the province of Aquitaine fub-
mitted, and Clovis eftabliflred his rvinter quarters at
Bourdeaux. Thouloufe furrendered next fpring 5 and
the royal treafures of the Wigoths were tranfported
to Paris. Angouleme was next reduced, and the city
of Arles invefted. But here the viftorious career of
Clovis was flopped by Theodoric king of the Oflro-
goths, who had overturned the dominion of Odoacer
in Italy. He had married Abolfleda the After of Clo¬
vis, but had alfo given his own daughter in marriage
to the king of the Viflgoths, and had endeavoured, as
much as was in his power, to preferve a good under-
ftanding between the two fovereigns. Finding this
impoflible however, and that no bounds could be fet
to the ambition of Clovis, he fent one of his generals
with a powerful army againft him •, by whom the
French monarch wTas defeated with the lofs of 30,000
men. By this misfortune Clovis was obliged to raife
the Aege of Arles with precipitation : however, the
Franks ftill retained the greateft part of their con-
quefts, and the province of Aquitaine was indiffolubly
8 annexed to their empire.
Is honour- In 509, Clovis had the title of Roman conful j by
ed with the which means the people of Rome were infenAbly led
title of t0 pay a pecuiiar regard to the French monarchs: and
v,an conIul' Clovis was now fuppofed to be invefted with a juft
title to all his conquefts in whatever manner they had
been acquired. He w’as folemnly invefted with his new
dignity in the church of St Martin in the city of
Tours ; after which he entered the cathedral clothed
in a purple tunic and mantle, the badges of his ofAce.
Clovis now proceeded to augment his power by the
murder of his kinfmen the princes of the Merovingian
race. Among thofe who periftied on this occaAon
were Sigebert king of Cologne, rvith his fon Cloderic j
Cararic, another prince wdiofe dominions have not been
accurately pointed out by hiftorians; Ranacaire, who
governed the prefent diocefe of Cambray ; and Reno-
ner, king of the territory of Maine. All thefe mur¬
ders, however, were expiated, according to the views
of the clergy of thofe times, by the great zeal he ex-
preffed in the caufe of Chriftianky, and his liberality
to the church.
Clovis died in the year 511, after having reformed
and publiftred the Salic laws : a few lines of which,
debarring rvomen from inheriting any part of the Sa¬
lic lands, have been extended fo far as to deprive the
females of the royal family of France of their right of
9 fucceffion to the throne of that kingdom.
Hisdomi- Clovis was buried in the church of ,St Peter and
nions divi- Paul, now Genevieve, in the city of Paris, where
^ his tomb is ftill to be feen. His dominions were di-
dren.11' vided among his four ions. Thieri, or Theodoric, the
eldeft, had the eaftern part of the empire : and, from
his making the city of Metz his capital, is commonly
called the king of Metz. Clodomir, the eldeft fon by
Clotilda, had the kingdom of Orleans ; Childebert,
and Clotaire, who w^ere both infants, had the king¬
doms of Paris and Soiffcns, under the tutelage of their
mother. The prudence of Clotilda kept matters quiet
in all the parts of the. empire for eight years 3 but
5 ] FRA
about the year 520, a numerous fleet of Danes arrived France,
at the mouth of the Meufe 3 and their king Cochiliac, —v-~
having landed his forces, began to deftroy the country
with Are and fvvord. Againft him Thieri fent his fon
Theodobert, who defeated the Danilh army and navy,
and killed their king, forcing the reft to retire with
precipitation.
In 522, Hermanfroi king of Thuringia, having de-
ftroyed one of his brethren named Bcrthaire, and feizcd
on his dominions, applied to Thieri for afliftance
againft his other brother Balderic, whom he intended '
to treat in the fame manner. In this infamous enter
prife Thieri embarked, on condition that he ftiould
have one half of Balderic’s dominions 3 but after the
unhappy prince was overcome and killed in battle,
Hermanfroi feized all his dominions. Thieri had no
opportunity of revenging himfelf till the year $31 ;
when perceiving the power of the Oftrogoths, whom
he much dreaded, to be conAderably leflened by the
death of King Theodoric, he engaged his brother Clo¬
taire to aflift him : and they accordingly entered Thu¬
ringia with two powerful armies. They joined their
forces as foon as they had pafied the Rhine, and were
quickly after reinforced by a conftderable body or
troops under the command of Theodobert. The al¬
lies attacked the army of Hermanfroi, which was ad-
vantageoully ported 3 and having totally defeated it, he
was forced to fly from place to place in difguife. Soon
after this the capital was taken, and Hermanfroi him¬
felf being invited to a conference by Thieri, was trea-
cheroufly murdered ; after wdftch his extenftve domi¬
nions became feudatory to Thieri.
In the mean time, Clotilda had excited her children
to make wTar on the Burgundians, in order to revenge
the death of her father Chilperic, whom Gondcbaud
king of Burgundy had caufed to be murdered. Gon-
debaud wTas nowT dead, and had left his dominions to
his fons Sigifmund and Godemar. Sigifmund’s forces
■were quickly defeated 3 and he himfelf was foon after
delivered up by his own fubjefts to Clodomir, who
caufed him to be thrown into a pit where he periftied
miferably. By his death Godemar became foie mafter
of Burgundy. Clodomir marched againft him, and
defeated him 3 but purfuing his viftory too eagerly, was
furrounded by his enemies and flain. After the reduc¬
tion of Thuringia, however, Childebert and Clotaire
entered the kingdom of Burgundy at the head of a
powerful army, and in 534 completed the conqueft of
it 3 in which, according to fome, Godemar was killed-;
according to others, he retired into Spain, and from
thence into Africa. I0
In 560 Clotaire became foie monarch of France. He Clotaire be-
had murdered the fons of Clodomir, who was killed in eomes
Burgundy as above related. Thieri and his childrenmonarCli^
were dead, as was alfe Childebert 3 fo that Clotaire was
foie heir to all the dominions of Clovis. He had Ave
fons; and the eideft of them, named Chramnes, had fome -
time before rebelled againft his father in Auvergne.
As long as Childebert lived, he fupported the young
prince 3 but on his death, Chramnes was obliged to
implore bis father’s clemency. He was at this time
pardoned 3 but lie foon began to cabal afrefli, and en¬
gaged the count of Bretagne to aflift him in another
rebellion. The Bretons, however, were defeated, arid
Chramnes determined to make his efcape 3 but perceiv-
ing
France.
FRA [ 5
mg that his wife and children were furrounded by his
father’s troops, he attempted to refcue them. In this
attempt he was taken prifoner, and with his family was
thruft into a thatched cottage near the field of battle 5
of which the king was no looner informed, than he
commanded the cottage to be fet on fire, and all that
were in it periflied in the fianaes.
Clotaire did not long furvive this
11
The empire Clotaire did not long furvive this cruel execution
vfderlCl1” his ^ut ln J62; and after his death the
French empire was divided among his four remaining
inns, Caribert, Gontran, Sigebert, and Chilperic.—
I he old king made no divifion of his dominions before
he died, which perhaps caufed the young princes to
fall out fooner than they would otherwife have done.
After his death, however, they divided the kingdom
by lot j when Caribert, the eldeft, had the kingdom of
Paris ; Gontran, the fecond, had Orleans ; Sigebert,
bad Metz (or the kingdom of Auftrafia) j and Chil-
peric had Soiifons. Provence and Aquitaine were pof-
ieflfed by all of them in common. The peace of the em¬
pire was firft difturbed in 563 by an invafion of the
Abaresj a barbarous nation, iaid to be the remains of
the Hunns. They entered Thuringia, which belonged
to the dominions of Sigebert ; but by him they were
totally defeated, and obliged to repafs the Elbe with
precipitation. Sigebert purfued them clofe, but readi¬
ly concluded a peace with them on their firft propofals.
F° this he was induced, by hearing that his brother
Chilperic had invaded his dominions, and taken
Rheims and fome other places in the neighbourhood.
Againft him, therefore, Sigebert marched with his vic¬
torious army, made himfelf mafter of Soiffons his ca¬
pital, and of the perfon of his eldeft fon Theodobert.
He then defeated Chilperic in battle j and not only re¬
covered the places which he had feized, but conquered
the greater part of his dominions : neverthelefs, on the
mediation of the other two brothers, Sigebert abandon-f
ed all his conquefts, fet Theodobert at liberty, and thus
reftored peace to the empire.
Soon after this, Sigebert married Brunehaut daugh¬
ter to Athanagilde king of the Vifigoths in Spain j and
in a little time after the marriage, died Caribert king of
12 Paris, whofe dominions were divided among his three
Infam°},s brethren. In 567 Chilperic married Galfwintha, Brune-
Sllperic0 haUt’S eldeft whom he did not obtain without
fome difficulty. Before her arrival, he difmiffed his
miftrefs called Fredegonde, a woman of great abilities
and firmnefs of mind, but ambitious to the higheft de¬
gree, and capable of committing the blackeft crimes
in order to gratify her ambition. The queen, who
brought with her immenfe treafures from Spain, and
made it her whole ftudy to pleafe the king, was for
fome time entirely acceptable. By degrees, however,
Chilperic buffered Fredegonde to appear again at court,
and was fufpedted of having renewed his intercourfe>
with her 5 which gave fuch umbrage to the queen
that Hie defired leave to return to her own country
promifing to leave behind her all the wealth fhe had
brought. The king, knowing that this would render
him extremely odious, found means to diffipate his
wife’s fufpicions, and foon after caufed her to be pri¬
vately ftrangled, upon which he publicly married Fre¬
degonde.
' Stich an atrocious a&ion could not fail of exciting
the greateft indignation againft Chilperic. His domi-
6 ] FRA
nions were immediately invaded by Sigebert and Gon- France.
tran, who conquered the greateft part of them ; after ' "Y—’
which, they fuddenly made peace, Chilperic confenting
that Brunehaut ftiould enjoy thofe places which on his
marriage he had bellowed upon Galfwintha, viz. Bour-
deaux, Limoges, Cahors, Bigorre, and the town of
Bearn, now called Lefcar.
I he French princes, however, did not long conti¬
nue at peace among themfelves. A war quickly en-
fued, in which Gontran and Chilperic allied themfelves
againft Sigebert. The latter prevailed; and having-
forced Gontran to a feparate peace, feemed determined
to make Chilperic pay dear for his repeated perfidy and 1,
infamous conduct; when he wras allaffinated by a Con- Sigebert af-
tnvance of Fredegonde, wffio thus faved herfelf andlad'inatct' >
Chilperic from the moft imminent danger. Immediate¬
ly on his death, Brunehaut fell into the hands of Chil-
peric ; but Gondebaud, one of Sigebert’s beft gene¬
rals, made his eleape into Auftrafia with Childebert,
the only fon of Sigebert, an infant of about five years
of age, who was immediately proclaimed king in room
of his father. . In a fliort time, however, Meroveus, eld¬
eft fon to Chilperic, fell in love with Brunehaut, and
married her without acquainting his father. Chilperic,
on this news, immediately went to Rouen, where Me¬
roveus and his confort were $ and having feized them,
fent Brunehaut and her two daughters to Metz, and
carried Meroveus to Soiffons. Soon after, one of his
geneials being defeated by Gontran, who elpoufed
runehaut’s caufe, Chilperic, in a fit of rage, caufed
Meroveus to be lhaved and confined in a monaftery.
brom hence he found means to make-his efcape, and
with great difficulty arrived in Auftrafia, where Brune¬
haut would glady have prote&ed him ; but the jealou-
ly of the nobles was fo ftrong, that he was forced to
leave that country •, and being betrayed into the hands
of his father’s forces, was murdered at the inftigation
^bVedegoiffie, as was generally believed.
The French empire was at this time divided between
Gontran king of Orleans, called alfo king of Burgun¬
dy, Chilperic king of Soiffons, and Childebert king of
Auftrafia. Chilperic found his affairs in a very difagree-
able fituation. In 579, he l?ad a difpute with Varoc
count of Bretagne, wffio refufed to do him homao-e.
Chilperic dilpatched a body of troops againft him j
who were defeated, and he wTas then forced to fubmit
to a diffionourable peace. His brother and nephew
lived in ftrict union, and had no reafon to be very well
pleafed with him. His own fubjefts, being oppreffed
wuth heavy taxes, were miferably poor and difeontented.
His fon Clovis, by a former queen named Andovera,
hated Fredegonde, and made no fecret of his averfion!
To add to his embarraffment, the feafons were for a
long time fo unfavourable, that the country was threat¬
ened writh famine and peftilence at the fame time. The
king and queen were both attacked by an epidemic
difeafe which then raged. They recovered j but their
three fons Clodobert, Samfon, and Dagobert, died j
after wffiich, the fight of Clovis became f© difagreeable
to Fredegonde, that fiie caufed him to be murdered
and likewife his mother Awdovera, left Chilperic’s af-
fedlion for her Ihould return after the tragical death of
her fon.
In 583 Chilperic himfelf was murdered by fome un-and ftke-
known affaffins, when his dominions were on the point wife
ofpcric.
Trance.
Death of
Gontran;
16
and Fre-
degonde.
*7
Brunehant
banilhed.
FRA [ 57 ] FRA
of bemg conquered by Gontran and Cbildebert, who
had entered into a league for that purpofe. After his
death Fredegonde implored the protection of Gontran
for herfelf and her infant fon Clotaire ; which he very
readily granted, and obliged Childebert to put an end
to the war. He found himfelf, however, greatly dif-
ficulted to keep Fredegonde and Brunehant in awe;
for thefe two princeffes having been long rivals and im¬
placable enemies, were continually plotting the de-
ftruction of each other. This, however, he accom-
plilhed, by favouring fometimes Brunehaut and fome-
times Fredegonde 5 fo that, during his life, neither of
them durft undertake any thing againlt the other.
On the 28th of March 593, died Gontran, having
lived upwards of 60, and reigned 3 2 years. Childebert
fucceeded to the kingdom without oppolition, but did
not long enjoy it he himfelf dying in the year 596,
and his queen fhortly after. His dominions were di¬
vided between his two fons Theodobert and Thierri *,
the firft of whom was declared king of Auftrafia, and
the latter king of Burgundy. As Theodobert was
only in the nth year of his age, and Thierri in his
10th, Brunehaut governed both kingdoms with an ab-
folute fway. Fredegonde, however, took care not to
let flip fuch a favourable opportunity as was offered her
by the death of Childebert, and therefore made her¬
felf miflrefs of Paris and fome other places on the Seine.
Upon this Brunehaut fent againft her the bed part of
the forces in Auftrafia, who were totally defeated 5 but
Fredegonde died before fhe had time to improve her
victory, leaving her fon Clotaire heir to all her domi¬
nions.
For fome time Brunehaut preferved her kingdom in
peace ; but in the end her own ambition proved her
ruin. Inftead of inftruCting Theodobert in what was
neceffary for a prince to know, fhe took care rather to
keep him in ignorance, and even fuffered him to mai-ry
a young and handfome Have of his father’s. The new
queen was pofleffed of a great deal of affability and
good nature ; by which means fire in a fhort time gain¬
ed the affeftion of her hufband fo much, that he readily
confented to the banifhment of Brunehaut. Upon this
difgrace ihe fled to Thierri king of Burgundy, in the
year 599. By him fhe was very kindly received j and
inftead of exciting jealoufies or mifunderftandings be¬
tween the two brothers, fhe engaged Thierri to at¬
tempt the recovery of Paris and the other places which
had been wrefted from their family by Fredegonde,
procuring at the fame time a confiderable body of auxi¬
liaries from the Vifigoths. This meafure was fo ac¬
ceptable to Theodobert, that he likewife raifed a nu¬
merous army, and invaded Clotaire’s dominions in con¬
junction with his brother. A battle enfued, in which
the forces of Clotaire were totally defeated, and him¬
felf obliged foon after to fue for peace : which was not
granted, but on condition of his yielding up the beft
part of his dominions.
This treaty was concluded in the year 600 j but
three years afterwards, it was broken by Clotaire. Fie
wns again attacked by the two brothers, and the wrar
carried on with great vigour till the next fpring. At
this time Thierri having forced Landri, Clotaire’s ge¬
neral, to a battle, gave him a total overthrow, in which
the king’s infant fon Meroveus, whom he had fent a-
long with Landri, was malfacred j to gratify, as Clo-
Vol. IX. Part I.
taire pretended, the malice of Brunehaut. After this Franc.*,
victory, Thierri marched direCtly to Paris ; fully bent v’“ v
on the deftruftion of his coufm, which now feemed ine¬
vitable. This, however, was prevented by Theodo¬
bert 5 who no fooner heard of the victory gained by
Thierri, than he became jealous of his fuccefs, and of¬
fered Clotaire fuch terms of peace as he gladly accept¬
ed. The latter having then nothing to fear on the
fide of Auftrafia, quickly compelled Thierri to liften to
terms of accommodation alfo.
This behaviour of Theodobert greatly provoked his
brother ; and his refentment was highly infiamed by
Brunehaut, who never forgot her difgrace in being ba-
nifhed from his court. A war was therefore commen¬
ced between the two brothers in 605 ; but it was fo
highly difapproved of by the nobility, that Thierri
found himfelf obliged to put an end to it. The tran¬
quillity which now took place was again difturbed in
607, by Theodobert’s fending an embafl'y to demand
fome part of Childebert’s dominions, which had been
added, by the will of that monarch, to thofe of Bur¬
gundy. The nobility of both kingdoms were fo much
averfe to war, that they conftrained their kings to con-
fent to a conference, attended by an equal number of
troops j but Theodobert, by a fcandalous breach of his
faith, brought double the number, and compelled his
brother to fubmit to what terms he pleafed. This piece
of treachery inftantly brought on a war 5 for Thierri
was bent on revenge, and his nobility no longer oppo-
fed him. It was neceffary, however, to fecure Clotaire
by a negotiation ; and accordingly a promife was made
of reiloring thofe parts of his dominions which had
formerly been taken from him, provided he would re¬
main quiet. This treaty being finiftied, Thierri en¬
tered Theodobert’s dominions, defeated him in two
battles, took him prifoner, ufed him with the utmoft
indignity ; and having caufed an infant fon of his to
be put to death, fent him to his grandmother Brune¬
haut. By her orders he was firft lhaved and confined
in a monaftery j but afterwards, fearing left he ftiould
make his efcape, Ihe caufed him to be put to death.—
Clotaire, in the mean time, thought that the beft me¬
thod of making Thierri keep his word was to feize on
thofe places which he had promifed to reftore to him,
before his return from the war with Theodobert. This
he accordingly did ; and Thierri no fooner heard of his
having done fo, than he fent him a meffage requiring
him to withdraw his forces, and, in cafe of his refufal,
declared war. Clotaire was prepared for this •, and
accordingly affembled all the forces in his dominions,
in order to give him a proper reception. But before l8
Thierri could reach his enemies, he was feized with a Death of
dyfentery ; of which he died in the year 612, having Thierri.
lived 26 years, and reigned 17.
On the death of Thierri, Brunehaut immediately
caufed his eldeft fon, named Sigifbcrt, then in the 10th
year of his age, to be proclaimed king. It is probable
that ftie intended to have governed in his name with
an abfolute fway ; but Clotaire did not give her time
to difcover her intentions. Having great intelligence
in Auftrafia and Burgundy, and knowing that the no¬
bility in both kingdoms were difaffefted to Brunehaut,
he declared war againft her; and ftie being betrayed
by her generals, fell into the hands of her enemies.
Clotaire -gave her up to the nobles j who generally
H _ hated
FRA
France.
put to a
cruel
death.
hated her, and who ufed her in the mod cruel manner.
After having led her about the camp, expofed to the
Eninehaut “1^ts w^° had the meannefs to infult her, fhe
was tied by the leg and arm to the tail of an untamed
horfe, which, fetting off at full fpeed, quickly dafhed
out her brains. After this her mangled body was re¬
duced to afhes, which were afterwards interred in the
abbey of St Martin at Autun.
Thus in the year 613, Clotaire became foie monarch
of France ; and quietly enjoyed his kingdom till Ijis
death, which happened in 628. He was fucceeded by
Dagobert; who proved a great and powerful prince,
and raifed the kingdom of France to a high degree of
Iplendour. Dagobert was fucceeded by his fons Sige-
bert and Clovis; the former of wrhom had the kingdom
of Auftrafia, and the latter that of Burgundy. "Both
the kings were minors at the time of their acceffion to
the throne, which gave an opportunity to the mayors
of the palace (the higheft officers under the crown) to
ufurp the whole authority. Sigebert died in 640, af¬
ter a ffiort reign of one year ; leaving behind him an
infant Ion named Dagobert, whom he ftrongly recom¬
mended to the care of Grimoalde his mayor of the pa¬
lace. The miniffer caufed Dagobert to be immediate¬
ly proclaimed king, but did not long fuffer him to en¬
joy that honour. He had not the cruelty, however,
to put him to death ; but fent him to a monaftery in
one of the Weftern iflands of Scotland j and then, giv¬
ing out that he was dead, advanced his own fon Chil-
debert to the throne. Childebert was expelled by Clo¬
vis king of Burgundy j wffio placed on the throne
Childeric, the fecond fon of Sigebert. Clovis died
foon. after the revolution, and was lucceeded in his
dominions by his fon Clotaire ; who died in a ffiort
time, without iffue. He was fucceeded by his brother
Childeric j who, after a ffiort reign, w^as murdered with
his queen, at that time big wdth child, and an infant
fon named Dagobert; though another, named Daniel,
had the good luck to efcape.
The affairs of the French were now in the moft de-
France°n ^ P^oia^e fltuati°n‘ The princes of the Merovingian
race had been for fome time entirely deprived of their
powTer by their officers called matjors of the palace. In
Auftrafia the adminiftration had been totally engrofled
by Pepin and his fon Grimaulde; while Archambaud
and Ebroin did the fame in Neuftria and Burgundy.
On the reunion of Neuftria and Burgundy to the reft
of tl ic French dominions, this minifter ruled with fuch
a defpotic fway, that the nobility of Auftrafia were
provoked to a revolt; elefting for their dukes twxr
chiefs named Martin and Pepin. The forces of the con¬
federates, however, were defeated by Ebroin 5 and
Martin having furrendered on a promife of fafety, was
treacherouffy put to death. Pepin loft no time in re¬
cruiting his fhattered forces*, but before he had any
occafion to try his fortune a fecond time in the field of
battle, the aflaffination of Ebroin delivered him from all
apprehenfions from that quarter. After his death, Pe¬
pin carried every thing before him, overthrew the royal
army under the command of the new minifter Bertaire ;
and, having got poffeffion of the capital, caufed him-
felf to be declared mayor of the palace j in which fta-
tion he continued to govern with an abfolute fvvay dur¬
ing the remainder of his life.
Pepin (who had got the furname of Herijial from
[ 58 ]
FRA
France.
20
Miferable
his palace on the Meufe) died in the year 714, having
enjoyed unlimited power for 26 years. He appointed
his grandfon T heudobalde, then only fix years of age,
to fucceed him in his poll; of mayor of the palace. This
happened during the reign of Dagobert already men¬
tioned *, but this prince had too much fpirit to fuft'er
Itimfelf to be deprived of his authority by an infant.
1 he adherents of the young mayor were defeated in
battle, and this defeat was foon followed by his death.
Charles, however, the illegitimate fon of" Pepin, was Exploits of
now* railed to the dignity of duke by the Auftrafians, f.harles
and by his great qualities feemed every way worthy of^Firtel.
that honour. The murder of Dagobert freed him
from a powerful opponent j and the young king Chil-
peric, who after Dagobert’s death was brought from a
cloifter to the throne, could by no means cope with
fuch an experienced antagonift. On the 19th of March
717, Charles bad the good fortune to furprife the
royal camp as he palled through the foreft of Arden ;
and foon after a battle enfued, in which the king’s for¬
ces were entirely defeated. On this Chilperic entered
into an alliance with Eudes duke of Aquitain, whofe
friendfhip he purchafed by the final ceflion of all the
country which Eudes had feized for himfelf. Charles,
however, having placed on the throne another of the
royal family named Clotaire, advanced againft Chilperic
and his afibciate, whom he entirely defeated near Soif-
fons. After this difafter, Eudes, defpairing of fuccefs,
delivered up Chilperic into the hands of his antagonift .
after having ftipulated for himfelf the fame terms which
had been formerly granted him by the captive mo¬
narch.
Charles now advanced to the fummit of power, treat¬
ed Chilperic with great refpea ; and, on the death of
Clotaire, caufed him to be proclaimed king of Auftra¬
fia } by which, however, his own power was not in the
leaft diminiffied ^ and from this time the authority of
the kings of France became merely nominal; and fo
inactive and indolent were they accounted, that hifto-
rians have befto-ytd upon them the epithet of faineans,
i. e. “ lazy or idle.” Charles, however, had ftill one
competitor to contend with. This was Rainfroy, who
had been appointed mayor of . the palace j and who
made fuch a vigorous refiftance, that Charles was obli¬
ged to allow him the peaceable poffeffion of the country
ot Anjou. No fooner, however, had Charles thus fet
himfelf at liberty from domeftic enemies, than he was
threatened with deftruiftion from foreign nations. The
Suevians, Frifons, and Alemanni, -were fucceffively en¬
countered and defeated. Eudes alfo, who had perfidi-
ouffy broken the treaties to which he had bound him¬
felf, was twice repulfed ; after which Charles invaded
Aquitain, and obliged the treacherous duke to heark¬
en to reafon. This was fcarce accomplished, when he
found himfelf engaged w*ith a more formidable enemy
than any he had yet encountered. The Saracens hav¬
ing overrun great part of Afia, now turned their victo¬
rious arms wTeftward, and threatened Europe with total
iubjetftion. Spain had already received the yoke j and
having paffed the Pyrenees, they next invaded France,
appearing in vaft numbers under the walls of Thouloufe.
Here they were encountered and defeated by Eudes j
but this proved only a partial check. The barbarians
once more paffing the Pyrenees, entered France with
fuch a powerful army, that Eudes tvas no longer able
to.
France.
f See /Ira
bia, N°
174.
France di¬
vided a-
mong the
fons of
Charles.
F K A . . [ 59
to refill:. He encountered them indeed with his accul-
1 tomed valour; birt being forced to yield to fuperior
power, he folicited the protection and aflillance of
Charles. On this occafion the latter, on account of his
valour and perfonal ftrength, acquired the name of Mar-
tel, i. e. “ the hammer,” alluding to the violence of the
llrokes he bellowed on his enemiesf. Three hundred and
feventy-five thoufand of the Infidels, among whom was
the commander Abdelrahman himfelf, are faid to have
perilhed in the battle 5 notwithilanding which they foon
made another irruption : but in this they were attend¬
ed with no better fuccefs, beipg again defeated by
Charles; who by fo many vicfories eftablilhed his powrer
on the moft folid foundation. Having again defeated
the Frifons, and with his own hand killed their duke,
he affumed the fovereignty of the dominions of Eudes
after his deceafe, referving to himfelf the claim of ho¬
mage, which he ought to have yielded to Thierri his
lawful fovereign. At laft his fame grew fo great, that«
he w'as chofen by Pope Gregory HI. for his proteClor.
He offered to (hake oft' the yoke of the Greek empe¬
ror, and to invelt Charles with the dignity of Roman
conful *, fending him at the fame time the keys of the
tomb of St Peter *, but while this negotiation was going
on fuccefsfully, the pope, the emperor, and Charles
Martel himfelf, died. After his death, which happen¬
ed in the year 741, his dominions were divided among
his three fons, Carloman, Pepin, and Grippon, accord¬
ing to the difpofitions he had made in his lifetime. Ey
this Carloman, the eldelt, had Auftrafia j Pepin, the fe-
cond, Neullria and Burgundy j while Grippon, the
third, had only fome lands affigned him in France \ by
which he wras fo much difpleafed, that the tranquillity
of the empire was foon dillurbed. With the afliftance
of his mother Sonnechilde he feized on the city of
Lahon, where he endured a violent liege. In the end,
however, he was obliged to fubmit j Sonnechilde was
put into a monaftery, and Grippon imprifoned in a
caftle at Arden. The two brothers, having thus freed
themfelves from their domeltic enemy, continued to go¬
vern the empire with uninterrupted harmony } but
their tranquillity was foon difturbed by the intrigues of
Sonnechilde. That enterprifing and ambitious woman
had negotiated a marriage between Odilon duke of
Bavaria and Hiltrude the filler of the two princes.
This was no fooner accomplilhed than Odilon, initigat-
ed by Sonnechilde, and alarmed at the growung power
of the twTo princes, entered into an alliance with Theo-
dobald duke of the Alemanni and Theodoric duke of
the Saxons ; who having affembled a formidable army,’
advanced diredlly again!! the princes. They polled
themfelves in an advantageous manner, with the river
Lech in their front •, but Carloman and Pepin, palling
the river at difierent'fords in the night time, attacked
the camp of the allies with great vigour. The engage¬
ment continued doubtful for five hours \ but at lal! the
intrenchments were forced on all fides, the Bavarians
and Saxons entirely routed, and the vanquilhed dukes
obliged to fubmit to the clemency of the vidlors. Du¬
ring their abfence on this expedition, Hunalde, whom
Charles Martel had appointed duke of Aquitain, hav¬
ing likewife entered into a confederacy with Odilon,
palled the Loire, ravaged the open country, and burnt
the magnificent cathedral of the city of Chartres. The
two princes, however, having returned with their vic-
23
] FRA
torious army, Hunalde found himfelf obliged to re¬
treat : and even this availed him but little : for the
Franks entering the duchy of Aquitain, comnuttea
fuch devallations, that Hunalde in defpair refigned his
dominions to his fon, and retired into a convent. This
event was foon followed by a fimilar relignation of Car-
loman, notwithftanding the uninterrupted fuccefs he had
met with. Fie fuddenly took the refolution of retiring
into a convent, and perfifte'd in his defign notwithiland-
ing the entreaties of Pepin, who, to appearance at lead,
did all he could to difluade him.
By the refignation of Carloman, which happened in Pepin be-
the year 746, Pepin was left foie mailer of France j comes foie
and in this exalted llation he acquitted himfelf in fuch ot
a manner as has juftly rendered his name famous to po-cjoni>
Iferity. One of the firft adls of his new adminillration
was to releafe his brother Grippon from prilbn : but
that treacherous prince had no fooner regained his li¬
berty, than he again excited the Saxons to take up arms.
His enterprife, however, proved unfuccefsful: the
Saxons were defeated, their duke Theodoric taken,
and his fubjedfs obliged to fubmit to the will of the
conqueror j who upon this occafion caufed them make
a profeflion of the Chriltian religion. Grippon then
fled to Hiltrude, his half lifter, whofe hulhand Odilon
wras now dead, and had left an infant fon named 7h^'-
lon. He met with a favourable reception from her j
but, wuth his ufual treachery, feized both her and her
fon by the aftiilance of an army of malecontent Franks,
whom he had perfuaded to join him. His next Hep
’'was to aflume the fovereignty and title of duke of Ba¬
varia ; but being driven from the throne by Pepin, he
wras obliged to implore his clemency, which was once
more granted. All thefe misfortunes, how'ever, were
not yet fufticient to cure Grippon of his turbulence
and ambition : He once more endeavoured to excite dif-
turbances in the court of Pepin j but being finally
detected and baffled, he was obliged to take refuge in
Aquitain. ,24
Pepin having now' fubdued all his foes both foreign f
and domeltic, began to think of afluming the title of j.;ng
king, after having fo long enjoyed the regal powTer. His
willies in this relpebt w'ere quite agreeable to thofe of
the nation in general. The nobility, however, were
bound by an oath of allegiance to Childeric the nomi¬
nal monarch at that time : and this oath could not be
difpenfed with but by the authority of the pope. Am-
baifadors for this purpofe w'ere therefore defpatched
both from Pepin and the nobility to Pope Zachary, the
reigning pontiff. His holinefs replied, that it was law¬
ful to transfer the regal dignity from hands incapable
of maintaining it to thofe who had lo fuccefsfully pre-
ferved it ; and that the nation might unite in the lame
perfon the authority and title of king. On this the
unfortunate Childeric was degraded from his dignity,
fhaved, and confined in a monailery for life; Pepin al-
fumed the title of king of France, and the line of Clovis
was finally fet afide.
This revolution took place in the year 751. The
attention of the new monarch was firft: claimed by a
revolt of the Saxons 5 but they were foon reduced to'
fubjedtion, and obliged to pay an additional tribute :
and during his expedition againft them, the king had
the fatisfadtion of getting rid of his reftlefs and trea¬
cherous competitor Grippon. This turbulent prince,
H 2 having
FRA [ 60 ] FRA
!•-ranee, ^ having foon become weary of reading at the court of
Aquitain, determined to efcape from thence, and put
^limfelf under the protection of Aftoiphus king of the
Lombards; but he was killed in attempting to force
a pafs on the confines of Italy. Pepin in the mean time
continued to pulh his good foitune. The fubmiffion
of the Saxons w^as foon followed by the reduCHon of
Britanny ; and that by the recovery of Narbonne from
the Infidels. His next exploit was the protection of
Pope Stephen HI. againft Altolphus the king of the
Lombards, wrho had feized on the exarchate of Ra¬
venna, and infilled on being acknowledged king of
Rome. The pope unable to contend with fuch a
powerful rival, halted to crofs the Alps and implore
the protection of Pepin, who received him with all
the refpeCt due to his character. He was lodged in the
abbey of St Dennis, and attended by the king in per-
fon during a dangerous ficknefs with which he was
feized. On his recovery, Stephen folemnly placed the
diadem on the head of his benefaCtor, bellowed the
regal unCtion on his fons Charles and Carloman, and
conferred on the three princes the title of patrician of
Rome. In return for thefe honours, Pepin accompa¬
nied the pontiff into Italy at the head of a powerful
army. Altolphus, unable to withftand fuch a power¬
ful antagonilt, fhut himfelf up in Pavia, wdiere he was
clofely befieged by the Franks, and obliged to renounce
all pretenfions to the fovereignty of Rome, as v’ell as
to reftore the city and exarchate of Ravenna, and
fwear to the obfervance of the treaty. No fooner was
Pepin gone, however, than Aftoiphus broke the treaty
he had juft ratified with fuch folemnity. The pope
was again reduced to diftrefs, and again applied to Pe¬
pin. He now fent him a pompous epiftle in the ftyle
and character of St Peter himfelf •, w7hich fo much in¬
flamed the zeal of Pepin, that he inftantly fet out for
Italy and compelled Aftoiphus a fecond time to fub-
xnit to his terms, wThich wTere now rendered more fevere
by the impofition of an annual tribute. Pepin next
made a tour to Rome •, but finding that his prefence
there gave great uneafinefs both to the Greeks and to
the pope himfelf, he thought proper to finilh his vifit
in a Ihort time. Soon after his return Aftoiphus died,
and his dominions were ufurped by his general Didier ;
who, however, obtained the papal fanClion for what
lie had done, and was recognized as lawful fovereign
of the Lombards in the year 756.
Pepin returned to France in triumph ; but the peace
of his dominions was foon difturbed by the revolt of
the Saxons, who always bore the French yoke with
the utmoft impatience. Their prefent attempts, how¬
ever, proved equally unfuccefsful with thole they had
formerly made j being obliged to fubmit and purchafe
their pardon not only by a renewal of their tribute, but
by an additional fupply of 300 horfe. But while the
king was abfent on this expedition, Vaifar duke of
Aquitain took the opportunity of ravaging Burgundy,
where he carried his devaftations as far as Chalons.
Pepin foon returned, and entering the dominions of
Vaifar, committed fimilar devaftations, and would
probably have reduced the whole territory of Aqui¬
tain, had he not been interrupted by the hoftile pre¬
parations of his nephew Taffilon the duke of Bavaria.
The king, however, contented himfelf at prefent with
fecurxng his frontiers by a chain of polls, againft any
invafion j after which he refumed his enterprife on the France,
dominions of Vaifar. The latter at firft attempted to v J
impede the progrels of his antagonift by burning and
laying wafte the country ; but finding this to no pur-
pole, he determined to try his fortune in an engage¬
ment. ViClory declared in favour of Pepin 5 but he
refufed to grant a peace upon any terms. The French
monarch advanced to the banks of the Garonne 5 while
Vaifar was abandoned by his ally the duke of Bavaria,
and even by his own fubjeCts. In this diftrefs he re¬
tired with a band of faithlul followers into the country
of Saintonge, where he defended himfelf as long as pof-
lible, but was at lall deprived both of his crown and
life by the victor.
Thus the duchy of Aquitain w7as once more annex¬
ed to the crown of France } but Pepin had fcarce time
to indulge himfelf with a view of his new conqueft
when he wras feized wdth a flow fever, which put an
end to his life in the year 768, the 54th of his age,of
and 17th of his reign. He was of a Ihort ftature, Pepin. °
whence he had the furname of Le Bref or the Short ;
but his great aCtions juftly entitled him to the character
of a hero 5 though under the fucceeding reign his own
fame feemed to have been entirely forgot, and on his
tomb was only inferibed, “ Here lies the father of
Charlemagne.”
Pepin wras fucceeded in his authority by his twoSuc^e(le(}
fons Charles and Carloman j to whom with his dying by his two
breath he bequeathed his dominions. They continued-fons.
to reign jointly for fome time j but the aCtive and en-
terprifing fpirit of Charles gave fuch umbrage to the
weak and jealous Carloman, that he regarded him with
envy, and was on the point of coming to an open rup¬
ture with him, when he himfelf was taken off by
death, and thus the tranquillity of the empire was
preferved.
The firft military enterprife of Charles was againft
Hunalde, the old duke of Aquitain 5 w’ho leaving the
monaftery where he had refided upwards of 20 years,
affumed the royal title, and was joyfully received by
his fubjeCts, already weary of the French yoke.—
Charles took the field with the utmoft expedition, and
with difficulty prevailed upon his brother Carloman,
who was then alive, to join him with his forces. But
the junction was fcarce effeCted, when Carloman with¬
drew his forces again, and left his brother to carry on
the war in the belt manner he could. Charles, though
thus deferted, did not hefitate at engaging the enemy ;
and having overthrown them in a great battle, Hu¬
nalde was obliged to fly to the territories of Lupus
duke of Gafcony. Charles quickly fent an embaffy de¬
manding the fugitive prince 5 and Lupus, not daring
to difobey the orders of fuch a powerful monarch,
yielded up the unfortunate Hunalde, who was inftantly
call into prifon, from which, however, he afterwards
made his efcape.
The death of Carloman, which happened in the year Reign of
771, left Charles foie mafter of France, but the revolt Charles the
of the Saxons involved him in a feries of wars fromGreat-
which he did not extricate himfelf for 33 years. Thefe
had long been tributaries to the French, but frequently
revolted ; and now, when freed from the terror of Pe¬
pin’s arms, thought they had a right to fliake off the
yoke altogether. Charles entered their country with
a. powerful army j and having defeated them in a num¬
ber
FRA [ 6i
France, ber of fmall engagements, advanced towards idrefbourg
 v ’ near Paderborn, where they had their capital port, and
where was the image of their god Irminful, reprelented
as a man completely armed, and Handing on a co¬
lumn. The Saxons made an obftinate defence, but
were at lail obliged to fubmit j and Charles employed
his army three days in demollfhing the monuments of
idolatry in this place 5 which fo much dilheartened the
whole nation, that for the prefent they fubmitted to
fuch terms as he pleafed to impofe} and which were
rendered eafier than they probably would have been,
by the news which Charles now received from Italy.—
He had concluded a marriage with the daughter of
Didier king of the Lombards ; but this had been dif-
folved by the pope, wTho reproached the Lombards
with the firft ftain of the leprofy. Thus all friend Ihip
was diffolved betwixt Didier and Charles } and as the
Lombard monarchs feem to have had a kind of natural
enmity towards the popes, it is not furpriling that, it
ihould now break out with uncommon fury. Didier
having feized and frighted to death Pope Stephen IV.
ufed his utmoft endeavours to reduce his fucceffor
Adrian I. to a Hate of entire dependence on himfelf.
Adrian applied to the French monarch, the ufual re-
fourcc of the pontiffs in thofe days. Charles was very
willing to grant the neceffary afliftance, but the nobi¬
lity wrere averfe to an Italian war; fo that he was obli¬
ged to a<ff with great circumfpeclion. Several embaf-
fies were therefore fent to Didier, entreating him to re-
ftore to the Pope thofe places which he had taken from
him, and at laft even offering him a large fum of money
if he would do fo j but this propofal being reje&ed,
he obtained the confent of his nobility to make war
on the Lombards. Didier difpofed his troops in fuch
a manner, that the officers ol Charles are faid to have
been unanimoufly of opinion that it would be impof-
fible to force a paffage. This, however, was accom-
pliffied, either through the fuperior Ikill of Charles,
according to fome hiltorians, or a panic which feized
the Lombard foldiers, according to others; after which,
Didier, with the old duke of Aquitain, who had efca-
ped from his prifon, and taken refuge at his court,
ihut themfelves up in Pavia. Adalgife, the only fon
of the Lombard monarch, with the widow and children
of Carloman, fled to Verona. That city was im¬
mediately invefted by the conqueror, and in a ffiort
time obliged to fubmit. Adalgiie had the good luck
to efcape to Conftantinople, but we are not informed
what became of Carloman’s widow and children.—
Charles, after paying a ffiort vifit to Rome, returned
to the fiege of Pavia. The place was vigoroufly de¬
fended, until famine and peftilence obliged the inhabi¬
tants to implore the clemency of Charles. Hunalde-
fell a facrifice to his own obftinacy in oppofing the-
intention of the people *, Didier was taken prifoner and
carried into France •, but we are not informed of his
fate afterwards. His kingdom, however, was totally
diffolved, and Charles was crowned king of Lombardy
at Milan in the year 774.
Having received the oaths of allegiance from his
new fubjefts, Charles fet out for Saxony, the inhabi¬
tants of which had again revolted, and recovered Eref-
bourg their capital. The king foon recovered this im¬
portant poll; but a detachment of his army being, cut
eff, and new troubles arifing in Italy, he was obliged
]
fra
to accept of the propofals of the Saxons, though ^
their limcerity was very doubtful. Having therefore
only {Lengthened the fortifications of Erefbourg, and
left a fufficient garrifon in the place, he fet out for
Italy, which was all in commotion through the in¬
trigues of the emperor of the Eaft, and Adalgife tne
fon of Didier. The prefence of Charles reftored tran¬
quillity in that quarter j but in the mean time, the
Saxons having taken Erefbourg and deftroyed the for¬
tifications, threatened to annihilate the French power
in that quarter. On the king’s return, he found them
employed in the fiege of Sigebourg. His Hidden ar¬
rival {truck the barbarians with fuch terror, that they
inftantly fued for peace } which the king once more
granted, but took care to fecure their obedience by a
chain of forts along the river Lippe, and repairing the
fortifications of Erefbourg. An affembly of the Saxon,
chiefs was held at Paderborn, and a promiie was made,
that the nation fliould embrace the Chrifti.an religion :
after which the king fet out on an expedition to Spain
in the year 77&*
This new enterprile was undertaken at the requefi.
of Ibunala, the Moorifli fovereign of Saragoffa, who
had been driven from his territory. He was rellored
however, by the prowefs of Charles, who reduced the
cities of Pampeluna and Saragoffa. He reduced alio
the city of Barcelona, and the kingdoms of Navarre
and Arragon j but, on his return, he met with a fe-
vere check from the Gafcons, who attacked and de¬
feated the rear-guard of his army with great, {laughter
as they paffed the Pyrenean mountains. I his engage¬
ment, which feems to imply fome defefl in the prudence
or military {kill of Charles, has been much celebrated
among romance writers, on account of the death of Ro¬
land a famous warrior.
Next year, 779, he paid a vifit to Italy with his. two
fons Carloman and Louis. Having palled the winter
at Pavia, he entered Rome next fpring amidft the ac¬
clamations of the inhabitants. Here, in tne 39^ yeaIr
of his age, he divided his dominions in prefence of the
pope betwixt his two fons Carloman and Louis. The
former, who now took the name of Pepin, had Lom¬
bardy 5 the latter Aquitain. Having then recei\ed
the fubmiffion of Taffilon duke of Bavaria, he fet out
for Saxony, where he took a moft fevere revenge
on the people of that country for the many treacfieries
they had been guilty of. The prefent revolt was
chiefly owing to a chief named W-itikind, who had
twice before fled from the victorious arms of Charles,
and taken refuge at the court of Denmark. Return¬
ing from thence, in the king’s abfence, he rouled his
countrymen to aCtion, while the generals of Charles,
difagreeing among themfelves, negleCled to take the
proper methods for repelling the enemy. In come-
quence of this,- they were entirely defeated on the
banks of the Wefer in the year 782. Charles arrived
in time to prevent the total deftruftion of his people,
and direftly penetrated into the heart of the country.
Witikind unable to refill his antagonill, once more
fled into Denmark } but 4500 followers periflied
at once by the hands of the executioner. An univer-
fal infurreftion was the confequence of this unheard of
cruelty ; and though during three years the French
monarch was conftantly fuccefsful in the field, he found
it impoffible by any force whatever to fubdue the
fpirit
' France.
R A [62
At laft therefore he was obliged
rF
, fpirit of tile people.
to have reconrfe to negotiation. Witikind and feve-
ral other chiefs were invited to an interview j where
Charles reprefented to them in fuch llrong colours the
rum which mud necfeflarily enfue to their country by
perlifting obftinately in oppofition to him, that they
were induced not only to perfuade their countrymen
finally to fubmit, but to embrace the Chriftian reli-
gion.
Charles having thus brought his affairs in Saxony
to a happy conclufion, turned his arms againfi Tafli-
lon duke of Bavaria, who had underhand fupported
the Saxons in their revolt. Having entered his coun¬
try with a powerful army in the year 1787, he made
Inch rapid advances, that the total deflrudion of Taf-
filon feemed inevitable. Charles had advanced as far
as the river Lech, when Xaflilon privately entered his
camp, and threw himfelf at his feet. The king had
compaffion on his faithlefs kinfman on feeing him in
this abjeft poflure; but no fooner did the traitor find
himlelf at liberty, than he ftirred up the Hunns, the
Greek emperor, and the fugitive Adalgife, againft the
king. He fomented alfo the difcontents of the fac-
, tious nobles of Aquitain and Lombardy j but his fub-
jecls, fearing left thefe intrigues fliould involve them
in deftru&ion, made a dil’covery of the whole to
Charles. Taflilon, ignorant of this, entered the diet
at Ingelheim, not fufpefting any danger, but w^as in-
liantly arrefted by order of the French monarch. Be¬
ing brought to a trial, the proofs of his guilt were fo
apparent, that he was condemned to lofe his head :
the punilhment, however, was afterwards mitigated to
perpetual confinement in a monaftery, and the duchy
of Bavaria was annexed to the dominions of Charles.
1 he Hunns and other enemies of the French mo¬
narch continued to profecute their enterprifes without
regarding the fate of their affociate Taflilon. Their
attempts, however, only ferved to enhance the fame
of Charles. He defeated the Hunns in Bavaria,
and the Greek emperor in Italy j obliging the fatter
to renounce for ever the fortune of Adalgife. The
Hunns, not difheartened by their defeat, continuing to
infeft the French dominions, Charles entered their
country at the head of a formidable army j and having
forced their intrenchments, penetrated as far as Raab
on the Danube, but was compelled by an epidemic
diftemper to retire before he had finifhed his conqueft.
He was no fooner returned to his own dominions, than
he had the mortification to be informed, that his eldeft
fon Pepin had confpired againft his fovereignty and
hfe. The plot was difcovered by a prieft who had
accidentally fallen alleep in a church where the con-
fpirators were affembled. Being awakened by their
voices, he overheard them confulting on the proper
meafures for completing their purpofe 5 on which he
inftantly fet out for the palace, and fummoned the mo¬
narch from his bed to inform him of the £Uilt Gf
fon. Pepin was fejzed, but had his life fpared, though
condemned to expiate his offences by {pending the re¬
mainder of his days in a monaftery.
Charles was no fooner freed from this danger than
lie was again called to arms by a revolt of the Saxons
on the one hand, while a formidable invafion of the
Moors diftreffed him on the other; the Hunns at the
fame time renewing their depredations on his dgmi-
Frai
] F R ' A
nions. The king did not at prefent make war againft
the Moors 3 probably forefeeing that they would be
called off by their Chriftian enemies in Spain. This
accordingly happened 3 the victories of Alonfo the
Chaile obliged them to leave France 3 after which
Charles marched in perfon to attack the Saxons and
Hunns. The former confented again to receive the
Clmftian religion, but were likewile obliged to deliver
up a third part of their army to be difpofed of at the.
king’s pleafure 3 but the Hunns defended themfelves
with incredible vigour. Though often defeated, their
love of liberty was altogether invincible 3 fo that the
war was not terminated but by the death of the king,
and an almoft total deftrucfion of the people : only one
tribe could be induced to acknowledge the authority
of the French monarch.
Ihefe exploits were finiftied betwixt the years jn^
and 798 : after which Charles invaded and fubdued the
ilfands of Majorca and Minorca 3 which the diffemions
of. the Moorifh chief , gave him an opportunity of
doing. The fatisfaftion he felt from this new' con-
quell, however, was foon damped by the troubles which
broke out in Italy. After the death of Pope Adrian,
his nephew afpired to the papal dignity 3 but a prieft
named Leo being preferred, the difappointed candi¬
date determined on revenge. He managed matters lb
well, that his deligns w^ere concealed for four years.
At laft, on the day of a proceflion, a furious affauk was
maae on the perlbn of Leo. The unfortunate pontiff'
was left for dead on the ground ; but having with
difficulty recovered, and made his efcape to the Vati¬
can, he was prote&ed by the duke of Spoleto, at that
time general of the French forces. His caufe was
warmly efpoufed by Charles, who invited him to his
camp at Paderborn in Wtflphalia ; whence he difpatch-
ed him with a numerous guard to Rome, promiiino-
foon after to vifit that metropolis, and redrefs all griev¬
ances. His attention for the prefent, however, was
called by the defeents of the Normans on the maritime
provinces of his dominions 3 fo that he was obliged to
defer the promifed affiftance for fame time lont'er.
Haying coirftru&ed forts at the mouths of moft of the
navigable rivers, and further provided for the defence
of his territories, by inftituting a regular militia, and
appointing proper fquadrons to cruife againft the in¬
vaders, he fet out for the fourth and laft time on a
journey to Rome. Here he was received with the
higheft poflible honours. Leo was allowed to clear
himfelf by oath of the crimes laid to his charge by his
enemies, while his accufers were fent into exile. * On
the feftival of Chriftmas, in the year 800, after Charles
had made his appearance in the cathedral of fit Peter,
and aififted devoutly at mafs, the pope fuddenly put a
crow n on his head ; and the place inftantly refounded He is
with acclamations of “ Long life to Charles the Au-crowned
gyft, crowned by the hand of God ! Long life and emperor of
viftory to the great and pacific emperor of the Ro- t^ie we^*
mans !” His body w7as then confecrated and anointed
with royal undlion 3 and after being conducted to a
throne, he was treated with all the refpeft ufually paid
to the ancient Caefars 3 from this time alfo being ho¬
noured with the title of Charlemagne, or Charles the
ft real. In private converfation, however, he ufually
protefted, that he was ignorant of the pope’s intention
‘it this time 3 and that, had he known it, he would have
difappointed
28
FRA [ 6.3 ] FRA
Fiance.
29
J)eath of
Charles the
Great.
Extent of
his territo¬
ries.
difappointed hun by his abfence : but thefe protefla-
tions were not generally believed ; and the care he
took to have his new title acknowledged by the eaftern
emperors, evidently fhowed how fond he was of it.
Charles, now raifed to the fupreme dignity in the
well, propofed to unite in himfelf the whole power of
the firft Roman emperors, by marrying Irene the em-
prefs of the eaft. But in this he was difappointed by
the marriage of that princefs by Nicephorus ; however,
the latter acknowledged his new dignity of Augulfus,
and the boundaries of the two empires were amicably
fettled. Charles was further gratified by the refpedt
paid him by the great Haroun Al-Ralhid, caliph of
the Saracens, who yielded to him the facred city of
Jerufalem, and holy fepulchre there. But in the mean
time his empire was threatened with the invaiion of a
very formidable enemy, whom even the power of Charles
would have found it hard to refill. Thefe were the
Normans, at this time under the government of God¬
frey a celebrated warrior, and who by their adventurous
fpirit, and {kill in maritime affairs, threatened all the
weftern coafts of Europe with defolation. From
motives of mutual convenience a tranfitory peace was
ellablilhed, and Charles made ufe of this interval to
fettle the final diflribution of his dominions. Aqui-
tain and Gafcony, with the Spanilh Marche, were affign-
ed to his fon Louis ; Pepin had Italy confirmed to
him 5 agd to this was added the greateft part of Ba¬
varia, with the country now polfelfed by the Grifons.
Charles the eldett had Neuftria, Auilrafia, and Thu¬
ringia. The donation wTas fuppofed to be rendered
more authentic by the fandlion of the pope. This di-
vifion, horvever, had fcarce taken place, when the
princes were all obliged to defend their dominions by
force of arms. Louis and Pepin were attacked by the
Saracens, and Charles by the Sclavonians. All thefe
enemies were defeated 5 but whiR Charles hoped to
fpend the ihort remainder of his life in tranquillity, he
was once more called forth to martial exertions by the
boftile behaviour of Godfrey the Norman leader.
Charles fent him a meffage of defiance, which was re¬
turned in the fame flyle by Godfrey : but the former,
by artfully fomenting divifions among the northern
powers, prevented for a while the threatened danger;
but, thefe dhturbances being quelled, the Normans re¬
newed their depredations, and Charles w7as obliged to
face them in the field. An engagement, however, was
prevented by the death of Godfrey, who was affaflinated
by a private foldier •, on which the Nonnan army re¬
treated, and the dominions of the empire flill remain¬
ed free from thefe invaders. Still the latter days of
Charles w ere embittered by domeftic misfortunes. His
favourite daughter Rotrude died, as did alfo Pepin
king of Italy ; and thele misfortunes were foon followed
by the death of his eldeft fon Charles. The emperor
then thought proper to affociate his only furviving fon
Louis with him in the government; which was formally
done at Aix-la Chapelle. Charles himfelf furvived this
t r an (action only a few months : his death happened on
the 27th of January Si4, in the 71ft year of his age,
and 47th of his reign.
By the martial achievements of this hero, the French
monarchy was raifed to its utmoft pitch of fplen.
dour. He had added the province of Aquitain to the
territories of his anceflors; he had confined the inha.-.
bitants of Brittany to the fiiores of the ocean, and ob- -Fr-antc.
liged them to fubmit to a difgraceful tribute. He
had reduced under his dominion all that part of Spam
which extends from the Pyrenees to the river Ebro,
and includes the kingdoms of Roufiillon, Navarre, Ar-
ragon, and Catalonia. He pofieffed Italy from the
Alps to the borders of Calabria ; but the duchy of Be-
neventum, including moll of the prefeut kingdom of
Naples, efcaped the yoke after a tranutory fubmiflion.
Befides thefe extenfive countries, Charles added to his
territories the whole of Germany and Pannonia ; fo
that the French now had the jurifdiction of all the
country from eaft to weft, from the Ebro in Spain
to the Viftula; and from north to fouth, from the s
duchy of Beneventum to the river Eyder, the boun¬
dary between Germany and the dominions of Denmark.
In acquiring tbefe extenfive dominions Charles had been
guilty of horrid and repeated maffacres, for which,
however, he had been in fomc meafure excufable by the
barbarity and rebellious difpofttion or the people with
whom he had to deal, upon whom no mild meafures
would probably have had any efteft. His eftablilhing
of fchools throughout the conquered provinces, (bowed
alfo his inclination to govern his fubjects in peace,
and to take proper fteps for their civilization ; though
indeed many parts of his private conduct (bowed no
finall inclination to cruelty ; particularly the fate of
the fons of Carloman, of whom no account could ever
be obtained. His advice to his fon Louis indeed was
excellent j exhorting him to conftder his people as his
children •, to be very mild and gentle in his admini-
ftration, but firm in the execution of juftice j to re¬
ward merit j promote his nobles gradually choofe mi-
nifters deliberately, but not remove them capricioully 31
or without fufticient reafon. All thefe prudent maxims, j^ce1ine-^
however, -were not fufficient to enable Louis to govern 15 eni^ire’
dominions fo extenfive, and people fo turbulent as he
had to deal with. At the time of the deceafe of'his
father this prince w’as about 36 years of age, and had •
married Ermengarde, daughter of the count of Hcf-
bai of the diocefe of Liege, by whom he had three
fons, Lotlniire, Pepin, and Louis. Lothaire, the eldeft,
was aflbeiated with himfelf in the empire, and the two
youngeft were intruded with the governments of Aqui¬
tain and Bavaria. Every one of the princes proved un¬
faithful to their father, as well as enemies to one an¬
other. The death of Ermengarde, and the marriage of
the emperor with Judith a princefs of Bavaria, artful
but accompliftied, proved the firft fource of calamity to
the empire. In the year 823, Charles, the emperor’s
youngeft fon, was born ; and his pretenfions became in
time more fatal to the public tranquillity than the am¬
bition and difobedience of all the reft. Various parts
of the Imperial dominions were likewife affaulted by
foreign enemies. The inhabitants of Brittany and Na¬
varre revolted 5 the Moors invaded Catalonia ; while
the ambition of Judith produced a war amongft the
brothers themfelves. Civii\v r.
Charles at firft had been appointed fovereign of that among the
part of Germany bounded by the rivers Danube, the fons of
Maine, the Neckar, and the Rhine; the country ofLoil,sitiie
the Grifons and Burgundy, comprehending GenevaGentlr
and the Swifs cantons; but this was oppofed by the
three elder fons. Pepin and Louis advanced with the
united forces of Aquitain and Bavaria, while the Im¬
perial
V R A [
.France, perial forces deferted their ftandard and joined the
w—malcontents. The emperor was taken prifoner, and
the emprefs retired to a monaftery. I.othaire, the
eldeft of the young princes, to whom the reft found
themfelves obliged to fubmit, was the perfon nho re¬
tained the emperor in his poffeflion; but, notwithftand-
ing his breach of duty, his heart was touched with re-
morfe on account of the crimes he had committed.
Dreading the reproach of the world at large, and be¬
ing threatened with the cenfures of the church, he
threw himfelf at his father’s feet, and begged par¬
don for his guilt, confenting to relinquilh the autho¬
rity he hacl unjuftly ufurped. Thus Louis was re-
eftablilhed in his authority by the diet of the empire
which had met to depofe him. His firft ftep was to
recal his emprefs from the monaftery to wrhich fhe had
retired; but this princefs, implacable in her refent-
ment, now perfecuted Lothaire to fuch a degree, that
he was obliged to join his two brothers Pepin and
Louis in a confederacy againft their father. The old
emperor thought to check this rebellious difpofttion
by revoking his grant of Aquitain to Pepin, and con¬
ferring it on his youngeft fon Charles, then only
nine years of age ; but Pope Gregory IV. conferred
the Imperial dignity itfelf on Lothaire, depofmg the
unhappy monarch, and again fending the emprefs to a
nunnery in the foreft of Arden. The unnatural beha-
rdour of his fon, however, once more excited the
compaffion of his fubjedls. Dreux, the bifhop of
Mentz, ufed his intereft with Louis king of Bavaria
to arm his fubjefts in defence of his father and fove-
reign. In this enterprife the Bavarian monarch was
joined by the French and Saxons; fo that the aged
emperor was once more reftored, the emprefs releafed
from her nunnery, and Charles from his prifon, in the
year 833.
The ambition of Judith now fet matters once more
in a flame. Taking advantage of the affedlion her
hufband bore her, fhe perfuaded him to in veil; her fon
diaries with the fovereignty of Neuftria as well as
the dominions formerly afligned him. This was pro¬
ductive of great difcontent on the part of Lothaire
and Pepin ; but their power was now too much broken
to be able to accomplifh any thing by force of arms.
The death of Pepin, which happened foon after, pro¬
duced a new divilion of the empire. The claims of
young Pepin and Charles, fons of the deceafed prince,
were entirely diffegarded, and his French dominions
divided between the twTo brothers Charles and Lothaire,
the latter being named guardian to his infant nephew.
This enraged Louis of Bavaria, whofe intereft WTas
entirely negleCled in the partition, to fuch a degree,
that he again revolted; but the unexpected appearance,
with the hoftile preparations of the Saxons, obliged
him to fubmit and afk pardon for his offences. Still,
however, the ambition of the emprefs kept matters in
a continual ferment, and the empire was again threat¬
ened with all the calamities of civil war; but before
thefe took place, the emperor died, in 841, after a moft
unfortunate reign of 27 years.
Louis was eminent for the mildnefs of his manners
and peaceful virtues, which procured him the title of
Le Debonnaire, or, “ the gentle but fuch was the tur¬
bulence and exceffive barbarity of the age in which he
lived, that all his virtues, inftead of procuring him
4
64 ] FRA
refpeCt and efteem, w^ere produ&ive only of contempt France,
and rebellion from thofe whom both duty and nature
ought to have rendered the moft fubmiftive and obe¬
dient.
The deceafe of the emperor w'as followed by a civil
war among his fons. The united forces of Lothaire
and his nephew' Pepin were defeated by thole of
Charles and Louis in a very bloody battle in the plains
of Fontenoy, where 100,000 Franks perilhed, in the
year 842. This viClory, however, bloody as it was,
did not decide the fortune of the war. The conquerors
having, through motives of intereft or jealoufy, retired
each into their own dominions, Lothaire found means
not only to recruit his {battered forces, but preffed the
other two princes fo vigoroufly, that they were glad
to confent to a new partition of the empire. By this
Lothaire wTas alknved to poffefs the whole of Italy,
wdth the whole traCl of country between the rivers
Rhone and Rhine, as well as that between the Meufe
and Scheldt. Charles had Aquitaine, with the country
lying between the Loire and the Meufe ; while Louis
had Bavaria, with the reft of Germany, from whence
he w'as diftinguifhed by the appellation of Louis the
German. ^3
By this partition, Germany and France were dif-Fhvilion of
joined in fuch a manner as never afterwards to be unit-tlie emPire*
ed under one head. That part of France which w'as
allowed to Lothaire, wras from him called Lotharingiay
and now Lorrain, by the gradual corruption of the
W'ord. The fovereignty, however, which that prince
had purfued at the expence of every filial duty, and
purchafed with fo much blood, afforded him now but
little fatisfa&ion. Difgufted with the cares and anxie-Lothaire
ties of his fituation, he fought relief in a monaftery inrefigns.
the year 855. On his retreat from the throne, he al¬
lotted to his eldeft fon Louis II. the fovereignty of
Italy; to his fecctid fon Lothaire the territory of
Lorrain, with the title of king ; and to his youngeft --
fon Charles, furnamed the Ba/d, Provence, Dauphiny, Reign of
and part of the kingdom of Burgundy ; fo that he Charles the
may be confidered as properly the king of France. Bahb
From the year 845 to 857 the provinces fubjefted to
his jurifdiddion had been infefted by the annual de¬
predations of the Normans, from wbom Charles was
at laft fain to purchafe peace at a greater expence than
might have carried on a fuccefsful war. The people
of Brittany had alfo revolted ; and though obliged by
the appearance of Charles himfelf, at the head of a
powerful army, to return to their allegiance, they no
fooner perceived him again embarraffed by the incur-
fions of the Normans, than they threw off the yoke,
and under the conduft of their duke Louis fubdued
the neighbouring diocefe of Rennes; after which ex¬
ploit Louis affumed the title of king, which he tranf-
mitted to his fon Herifpee. By him Charles was to¬
tally defeated ; and his fubje&s, perceiving the weak-
nefs of their monarch, put themfelves under the pro-
tedlion of Louis the German. His ambition prompt¬
ed him to give already ear to the propofal; and there¬
fore, taking the opportunity of Charles’s abfence in *
repelling an invafion of the Danes, he marched w'ith a
formidable army into France, and was foleranly crown¬
ed by the archbiftiop of Sens in the year 857. Being
too confident of fuccefs, however, and fancying him¬
felf already cftablhhed on the throne, he was perfuaded
to
FRA [
France, to difmifs Ills German forces j vvhicli lie Had no fooner
—v——' done, tlian Charles marched againft him with an army,
and Louis abandoned his new kingdom as eafily as he
had obtained it.
Notwithftanding this fuccefs, the kingdom of Charles
continued ftill in a very tottering fituation. The Nor¬
mans haraffed him in one quarter, and the king of
Brittany in another. He marched againft the latter
in the year 860 ; but had the misfortune to receive a
total defeat, after an engagement which lafted two days.
The viftory was chietly owing to a noted warrior na¬
med Robert le Fort, or the Strong, who commanded
the Bretons 5 but Charles found means to gain him
over to his party, by invefting him with the title of
duke of France, including the country which lies be¬
tween the rivers Seine and Loire.
For fome time the abilities of Robert continued to
fupport the tottering throne of Charles $ but the diffi¬
culties returned on the death of that hero, who was
killed in repelling an invafion of the Danes. Some
amends was indeed made for his lofs by the death of the
king of Lorrain in the year 869 ; by which event the
territories of Charles were augmented by the cities of
Lyons, Vienne, Toul, Befanqon, Verdun, Cambray,
Viviers and Urez, together with the territories of
Hainault, Zealand, and Holland. Cologne, Utrecht,
Treves, Mentz, Straffiurg, with the reft of the ter¬
ritories of Lothaire, were affigned to Louis the German.
All this time the Normans ftill continued their in-
curftons to fuch a degree, that Solomon king of Brit¬
tany was perfuaded to join his forces to thofe of Charles,
in order to repel the common enemy. The event
proved unfortunate to the Normans j for their principal
leaders were befteged in Angiers, and obliged to pur-
chafe leave to depart by relinquiffiing all the fpoil they
had taken. Charles thus freed from a formidable ene¬
my, began to afpire to the Imperial crown, which
about this time became vacant by the death of Louis.
This belonged of right to Louis the German ; but
Charles, having inftantly affembled a powerful army,
marched with it into Italy before Louis could be ap-
prifed of his defigns 5 and being favourably received at
Rome, the Imperial crown was put on his head with¬
out any hefitation by the pope, in the year 873. Louis,
enraged at his difappointment, difcharged his fury on
the defencelefs country of Champagne j and though
the approach of Charles obliged him for the prefent
to retire, yet he continued his preparations with fuch
vigour, that Charles would in all probability have fou id
him a very formidable adverfary, had he not been taken
off by death in the year 877. Charles was no fooner
informed of his brother’s deceafe, than he invaded the
dominions of his fon Louis, who poffeffed Franconia,
Thuringia, the Lower Lorrain, with fome other terri¬
tories in that quarter. The enterprife, however, prov¬
ed unfuccefsful. Charles, though fuperior in num¬
bers, was defeated with great flaughter, and had fcarcely
time to reunite his fcattered forces, when he was in¬
formed that the Normans had invaded his territories,
laid wafte part of that country, and taken poffeffion of
the city of Rouen. So many difafters affe&ed him in
fuch a manner that he fell dangeroufly ill, and was
fcarcely recovered of his ficknefs when he found himfelf
called into Italy to the affiftance of the pope agaiuft
VOL. IX. Part I,
65 ] FRA
the Saracens, whofe invahons were encouraged by the Fance.
dukes of Beneventum and the Greek emperor. Charles ” v' - ‘
paffed into Italy with only a* few followers j but when
he, came to Pavia, at which place the pontiff had ap¬
pointed to meet him, he was informed that Cartoman
king of Bavaria, and fon of Louis the German, was
already in Italy with a powerful army, and laid claim
to the imperial title in virtue of his father’s right.
Charles prepared to oppofe him by force of arms ; but
his generals confpired againft him, and the foldiers de¬
clared their refolution not to pafs the Alps. On this
he was obliged to retire to France, at the very moment
that Carloinan, dreading his power, prepared to return
to Germany. This was the laft of Charles’s enterprifes,
His journey brought on a return of his indifpofttion,
which was rendered fatal through the treachery of a
Jewiffi phyfician named Zedechxus, who adminiftered ,a
poifon to him under pretence of curing his malady. He is poi-
He expired in a miferable cottage upon Mount Cenis,foneu.
in the 54th year of his age, and 38th of his reign over
the kingdom of France. ^
The ambition of Charles had been productive of Reign of
much diftrefs both to himfelf and to his fubjedts. His Lou‘r't',e
fon Louis, furnamed, from a defedt in his fpeech, //^Stammerer.
Stammerer, was of a quite different difpofition ; but his
feeble adminiftration was ill calculated to retrieve mat¬
ters in their prefent fttuation. He died on the 10th
of April 879, while on a march to fupprefs fome in-
furreftions in Burgundy. He left his queen Adelaide
pregnant j who fome time after his deceafe was deliver¬
ed of a fon, named Charles. After his death followed
an interregnum ; during which a faftion was formed
for fetting aftde the children of Louis the Stammerer,
in favour of the German princes, fons to Louis the
brother of Charles the Bald. This fcheme, however,
proved abortive ; and the two fons of the late king,
Louis and Carloman, were crowned kings of France.
Another kingdom was at that time ereCled by an af-
fembly of the ftates, namely, the kingdom of Provence,
which conlifted of the countries now called Lyonnais,
Savoy, Daaphiny, Tranche Cample, and part of the duchy
of Burgundy ; and the kingdom was given to Duke
Bofon, brother-in-law to Charles the Bald. In 881,
both kings of France died •, Louis, as was fufpeCled,
by poifon j and Carloman of a wound he received ac¬
cidentally while hunting. This produced a lecond in¬
terregnum j which ended with the calling in of Charles
the Grofs, emperor of Germany. His reign was more
unfortunate than that of any of his predeceffors. The
Normans, to whom he had given leave to fettle in
Frieiland, failed up the Seine with a fleet of 700 Ihips,
and laid liege to Paris. Charles, unable to force them
to abandon their undertaking, prevailed on them to
depart by a large fum of money. But as the king
could not advance the money at once, he allowed them
to remain in the neighbourhood of Paris during the
winter ; and they in return plundered the country,
thus amaffing vaft wealth befides the fum which Charles
had promifed. After this ignominious tranfaxftion
Charles returned to Germany, in a very declining ftate
of health both as to body and mind. Here he quar¬
relled with his emprefs •, and being abandoned by all
his friends, he wras depofed, and reduced to fuch
diftrefs, that he would not even have had bread to eat,
I had
FRA
[ 66 ]
FRA
France, had he not been fupplied by the arclibidiop of Mentz,
out of the principle of charity.
On the depofition of Charles the Grofs, Eudes count
of Paris was chofen king by the nobility during the
minority of Charles the fon of Adelaide, afterwards
named Charles the Simple. He defeated the Normans,
and repreffed the power of the nobility $ on which ac¬
count a fa£Hon was formed in favour of Charles, who
was fent for, with his mother, from England. Eudes
did not enter into a civil war ; but peaceably refigned
the greateft part of the kingdom to him, and confent-
ed to do homage for the reft. He died foon after this
agreement, in the year 898.
. During the reign of Charles the Simple, the French
government declined. By the introduftion of fiefs,
thofe noblemen who had got into the poffeflion of go¬
vernments, having thefe confirmed to them and their
heirs for ever, became in a manner independent fove-
reigns : and as thefe great lords had others under them,
and they in like manner had others under them, and
even thefe again had their vafifals j inftead of the eafy
and equal government which prevailed before, a vaft
number of infupportable little tyrannies was eredted.
The Normans, too, ravaged the country in the molt
terrible manner, and defolated fome of the fined pro¬
vinces in France. At laft Charles ceded to Rollo, the
king or captain of thefe barbarians, the duchy of Neu-
ftria 5 who thereupon became a Chrillian, changed his
own name to Robert, and that of his principality to
Normandy.
During the remainder of the reign of Charles the
Simple, and the entire reign of Louis IV. furnamed
the Stranger, Lothaire, and Louis V. the power of the
Carlovingian race continually declined ; till at laft they
Charles the were fupplanted by Hugh Capet, who had been creat-
Great fup- ecf duke of France by Lothaire. This revolution hap-
planted by pened in the year 987, and was brought about much
Hu^h Ca- in the fame manner as the former one had been by Pe¬
pin. He proved an adtive and prudent monarch, and
pofielTed fuch other qualities as were requifite for keep¬
ing his tumultuous fubjedts in awe. He died on the
24th of Odtober 997, leaving his dominions in perfedt
quiet to his fon Robert.
The new king inherited the good qualities of his fa¬
ther. In his reign the kingdom was enlarged by the
death of Henry duke of Burgundy, the king’s uncle,
to whom he fell heir. This new accelTion of territory,
however, was not obtained without a war of feveral
years cbntinuance on account of fome pretenders to
the fovereignty of that duchy ; and had it not been for
the afiiftance of the duke of Normandy, it is doubtful
whether the king would have fucceeded.—As Robert was
of opinion, that peace atid tranquillity were preferable to
wide extended dominions with a precarious tenure, he re-
fufed the kingdom of Italy and imperial crown of Ger¬
many, both which w’ere offered him. He died ortthe 20th
of July 1030} having reigned 33 years, and lived 60.
Robert was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Henry I.
who in the beginning of his reign met wdth great op-
pofition from his mother. She had always hated him j
and preferred his younger brother Robert, in whofe fa¬
vour (he now raifed an infurre£tion. By the affiftance
of Robert duke of Normandy, however, Henry over¬
came all his enemies, and eftabliflied himfelf firmly up-
pet
39
Robert.
40
Henry I.
on the throne. In return for this, he fupported Wil- France.
Ham, Robert’s natural fon, and afterwards king of —
England, in the poffefiion of the duchy of Normandy.
Afterwards, however, growing jealous of his power,
he net only fupported the pretenders to the duchy of
Normandy fecretly, but invaded that country himfelf in
their favour. This enterprife proved unfuccefsful, and
Henry wras obliged to make peace : but no fincere re¬
conciliation ever followed ; for the king retained a deep
fenfe of the difgrace he had met with, and the duke ne¬
ver forgave him for invading his dominions. The trea¬
ty between them, therefore, was quickly broken ) and
Henry once more invaded Normandy writh two armies,
one commanded by himfelf, and the other by his bro¬
ther. The firft wTas haraffed by continual fkirmifhes,
and the laft totally defeated } after which Henry was
obliged to agree to fuch terms as the duke thought
proper: but the rancour between them never ceaied,
and was in reality the caufe of that implacable averfion
which for a long feries of years produced perpetual
quarrels between the kings of France and thofe of the
Norman race in England.
Henry died in 1059, not without a fufpicion of be-pj ^jj1
ing poifoned j and was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Phi¬
lip, at that time in the eighth year of his age. Bald¬
win earl of Flanders wTas appointed his guardian j and
died in the year 1066, about the time that William of
Normandy became king of England. After the death
of his tutor, Philip began to (how a very infincere,
haughty, and oppreffive difpofition. He engaged in a
war with William the Conqueror, and fupported his
fon Robert in his rebellion againft him §. But after § See Eng-
the death of William, he aflifted Robert’s brothers landi
againft him 5 by which means he wTas forced to confent
to a partition of his dominions.
In 1092, King Philip being wearied of his queen
Bertha, procured a divorce from her under pretence of
confanguinity, and afterwards demanded in marriage
Emma daughter to Roger count of Calabria. The
treaty of marriage wras concluded 5 and the princefs was .
fent over, richly adorned with jewels, and with a large
portion in ready money : but the king, inftead of
efpoufing her, retained her fortune, and difmified the
princefs herfelf, carrying off from her hufband the coun-
tefs of Anjou, who was efteemed the handfomeft wo¬
man in France. With her he was fo deeply enamour¬
ed, that not fatisfied with the illegal poffeflion of her -
perfon, he procured a divorce between her and her huf-
band, and prevailed upon fome Norman bilhops to fo- ,
lemnize his owm marriage with her. The whole of
thefe tranfaftions, however, were fo fcandalous, that
the pope having caufed them to be revifed in a coun¬
cil at Autun, in the year 1094, pronounced fentence
of excommunication againft Philip in cafe he did not
part with the countefs. On his repentance, the cen-
fure was taken off; but as the king paid no regard to
his promifes, he was, in 1095, excommunicated a fe-
cond time. He again profeffed repentance, and wTas
abfolved j but foon after, living with the countefs of
Anjou as formerly, he was excommunicated a third
time. This conduft, fo unworthy of a prince, expof-
ed him to the contempt of the people. Too many of
the nobility followed his example, and at the fame
time defpifed his authority 5 not only making war up¬
on
1
FRA [ 6
on each other, but fpoiling and robbing his fubjedls
with impunity.
In the year 111 o, Philip prevailed on the court of
Rome to have his affair reviewed in an affembly at
Poiftiers; where, notwithftanding his utmoft efforts,
fentence of excommunication was a fourth time pro¬
nounced againil him. Yet, in fpite of all thefe fen-
tences, as Queen Bertha was dead, and the count of
Anjou offered, for a large fum of money, to give
whatever affiftance was requiffte for procuring a dif-
penfation, Philip at laft prevailed, and the countefs
was proclaimed queen of France. But though the
king’s domeftic affairs were now in fome meafure quiet¬
ed, his negligence in government had thrown the af¬
fairs of the nation into the greateft diforder. He there¬
fore affociated with him in the government his eldeft
fon Louis. This prince was the very reverfe of his fa¬
ther j and by his activity and refolution, keeping con-
ffantly in the field with a confiderable body of forces,
he reduced the rebellious nobility to fubjeflion, and,
according to the beff hiftorians, at this time faved the
ftate from being utterly fubverted.
For thefe fervices the queen looked upon the young
prince with fo jealous an eye, and gave him fo much
diffurbance, that he found it neceffary to retire for fome
time into England ; where he was received by King
Henry I. with the greatell kindnefs. He had not been
long at court, before Henry received by an exprefs a
letter from Philip ; telling him, that, for certain im¬
portant reafons, he ihould be glad if he clofely confined
his fon, or even defpatched him altogether. The King
of England, however, inftead of complying with this
infamous requeft, ftiowed the letter to Louis, and fent
him home with all imaginable marks of refpeft. Im¬
mediately on his return, he demanded juftice ; but
the queen procured poifon to be given him, which
operated fo violently that his life was defpaired of. A
ftranger, however, undertook the cure, and fucceeded ;
only a palenefs remained in the prince’s face ever af¬
terwards, though he grew fo fat that he was furnamed
the Grofs.
On his recovery, the prince was on the point of re¬
venging his quarrel by force of arms j but his father
having caufed the queen to make the moil humble fub-
miflions to him, his refentment was at length appeafed,
and a perfect reconciliation took place.
Nothing memorable happened in the reign of King
Philip after this reconciliation. He died in the year
1108, and was fucceeded by his fon Louis the Grofs.
The firlt years of his reign were dilturbed by infur-
redlions of his lords in different places of the king¬
dom } and thefe infurre&ions were the more trouble-
fome, as they wTere fecretly fomented by Henry I. of
England, that by weakening the power of France
his duchy of Normandy might be the more fecure.
This quickly brought on a war j in which Henry
was defeated, and his fon William obliged to do ho¬
mage to Louis for the duchy of Normandy. As the
kings of England and France, however, were rivals,
and exceedingly jealous of each other, the latter
efpoufed the caufe of William the fon of Robert duke
of Normandy, whom Henry had unjuftly deprived of
that duchy. This brought on a new war j in which
Louis, receiving a great defeat from Henry, was obliged
to make peace upon fuch terms as his antagonirt thought
7 ] FRA
proper. The tranquillity, however, was but of ffiort France,
duration. Louis renewed his intrigues in favour of 1
William, and endeavoured to form a confederacy
againft Henry ; but the latter found means not only
to diffipate this confederacy, but to prevail upon Hen¬
ry V. emperor of Germany to invade France with the
whole ftrength of the empire on one fide, while he
prepared to attack it on the other. But Louis hav¬
ing colle&ed an army of 200,000 men, both of them
thought proper to defift. Upon this the king of
France would have marched into Normandy, in order
to put William in poffeffion of that duchy. His great
vaflals, however, told him they would do no fuch
thing } that they had affembled in order to defend the
territories of France from the invafion of a foreign
prince, and not to enlarge his power by deftroying
that balance which arofe from the king of England’s
poffeflion of Normandy, and which they reckoned ne¬
ceffary for their own fafety. This v7as followed by a
peace with Henry •, which, as both monarchs had now
feen the extent of each other’s power, wTas made on
pretty equal terms, and kept during the life of Louis,
who died in 1137, leaving the kingdom to his fon
Louis VII. ^
The young king was not endowed with any of thofe Louis VI?.
qualities which conftitute a great monarch. From a weak
the fuperftition common to the age in which he lived, Prmce*
he undertook an expedition into the Holy Land, from
wdience he returned without glory. In this expedition
he took his queen Eleanor along with him ; but was
fo much offended with her gallantries during her ftay
there, as well as her behaviour afterwards, that he di¬
vorced her, and returned the duchy of Guienne which
he received with her as a portion. Six wreeks after
this (he married Henry duke of Normandy, count of
Anjou and Maine, and heir apparent to the crown of
England. This marriage wTas a very great mortifica¬
tion to Louis; and procured him the furname of the
Young, on account of the folly of his condudl. When
Henry afeended the throne of England, fome wars
were carried on between him and Louis, with little
advantage on either fide : at laft, however, a perfect
reconciliation took place ; and Louis took a voyage to
England, in order to vifit the ftirine of St Thomas of
Canterbury. On his return he was ftruck with an
apoplexy 5 and though he recovered for that time, yet
he continued ever after paralytic on the right fide.
After having languifhed for about a year under this
malady, he died on the 18th of September 1x80, leav¬
ing the kingdom to his fon Philip. ^
This prince, furnamed The Gift of God, The Magna- Philip the
nimous, and The Conqueror, during his lifetime ; and, as Great,
if all thefe titles had fallen ftiort of his merit, ftyled
Auguflus after his death,—is reckoned one of the
greateft princes that ever fat on the throne of France,
or any other.—It doth not, however, appear that'thefe
titles were altogether well founded. In the beginning
of his reign he was oppofed by a ftrong fadlion excited
by his mother. This indeed he fuppreffed with a vi¬
gour and fpirit wftiich did him honour j but his taking
part with the children of Henry II. of England in
their unnatural contefts with their father, and his
treacherous combination with John to leize his bro¬
ther’s kingdom when he was detained in prifon by the
emperor of Germany, muft be indelible ftains in his
I 2 charafter,
France.
. ^5
Rf ign of
Louis IX.
FRA [ 68
character, and for ever exclude him from the title of
Magnanimous. As to military ikill and perfonal va¬
lour, he was evidently inferior to Richard I. of Eng¬
land ^ nor can his recovering of the provinces held by
the Englifli in France, from fuch a mean and dallardly
prince as King John, entitle him with any juftice to
the furname of Conqueror. In politics he was evidently
the dupe of the pope, who made ufe of him to intimi¬
date John into a fubmiflion, by promifing him the king¬
dom of England, wdiich he never meant that he (houid
enjoy. An account of thefe tranfactions, which are
the principal ones of this reign, is given under the ar¬
ticle England, N° 121—141.
Philip died in 1223, and was fucceeded by his fon
Louis VIII. and he, in 1226, by Louis IX. afterwards
flyled St Louis. This prince was certainly pofl'efled
of many good qualities, but deeply tinftured with the
fuperftition of the times. This induced him to en¬
gage in two croifades. The firft was againft the
Saracens in Egypt : in which he was taken prifoner
by the Infidels, and treated with great cruelty j but
at laft obtained his ranfom, on condition of paying a
million of pieces of gold, and furrendering the city
of Damietta. He no fooner regained his liberty, than
he entered Syria with a view of doing fomething wor¬
thy of his rank and charadter. From this expedition
he w7as obliged to return fooner than he intended, by
the newTs of the deceafe of his mother Queen Blanch,
whom he had appointed regent in his abfence, and
who had managed the national affairs with the greateft
prudence. The king, however, found many diforders
in the kingdom upon his return j and thefe he fet
himfelf to reform with the utmoft diligence. Hav¬
ing fucceeded in this, he yielded to Henry III. of .
England, the Limoulin, Querci, Perigord, and fome
other places; in confideration of Henry and his fon
Prince Edward their renouncing, in the fulleft manner,
all pretenlions to Normandy and the other provinces of
1 ranee which the Englilh had formerly poffeffed.
The reputation of this monarch for candour and
juftice wras fo great, that the barons of England, as
well as King Henry III. confented to make him um¬
pire of the differences which fubftfted between them.
But though he decided this matter very juftly, his
decifion was not productive of any good effeft. At
laft the king, having fettled every thing relating to his
kingdom in a proper manner, fet out on another croi-
fade for Africa; where he died of the plague, on the
25th of Auguft 1720.
^ Notwithftanding the misfortunes of Louis, his fuc-
Philip the ceffor Philip, furnamed the Hardy, continued the war
Hardy. againft the Infidels with great vigour. Being rein¬
forced by his uncle Charles king of Sicily, he brought
the war to a more fortunate conclufion than his prede-
ceflor had been likely to do. A he Saracens were de¬
feated in two engagements, and the king of Tunis
obliged to fue for peace ; offering at the fame time to
double the tribute he formerly paid to the crown of
Sicily; to reimburfe the expences of the war ; and to
permit the Chriftian religion to be freely propagated
throughout his dominions. Having accompliflied this,
the two princes fet fail for Europe ; but the feeds of
the diftemper which had infeCled the army in Africa
not being eradicated, broke forth on their arrival in
Sicily, and raged for fome time with great violence.
46
] F R A
Behdes a vaft number of common people, the king’s France
brother John, his queen Ifabella, with his brother and v 
fifter-in-law the kingr and queen of Navarre, and his
uncle and aunt the count and countefs of PoiCtiers, pe-
rifiied by this dreadful malady.
On his return to France, Philip took poffeflion of the
counties of Provence and Thouloufe; married his fe-
cond fon, though then very young, to the only daugh¬
ter of the king of Navarre 5 while he himfelf efpoufed
Mary the daughter of the duke of Brabant, reckoned
one of the moft beautiful princeffes of the age. He
Iteadily enforced the regulations of his predeceflor,
who had prohibited the barons from making private
wars upon one another; procured the friendlhip of
Edward I. of England by ceding to him the county
of Agenois ; and entered into a war with Spain in or¬
der to fupport the pretenfions of his nephews, the In¬
fants de la Cerda, to the throne of Caftile.
I he events of this wrar wTere of no great import¬
ance } and the king’s attention was quickly called off
from them by the death of his eldeft fon Louis at the
age of twelve years. This difaftrous event happened
in the year 1275, not without a fufpicion of poifon ;
and the young queen, Mary, wras accufed by a bur¬
geon named La Broffe as guilty of his death. Philip
gave fome credit to the accufation : but having applied
to a nun, who pretended to be infpired, for full fatis-
fadfion, her ’anfwer proved fatal to La Broffe. The
queen being cleared by this pretended prophetefs, La
Broffe was accufed of a treafonable correlpondence with
the king of Caftile, and condemned to death. The
manner of his trial and execution, howrever, were fucb,
that the tide of popular favour was turned 5 La Broffe
w7as by the voice of the people declared to be innocent
and the king and queen themfelves loudly condemned
During thefe unfavourable circumftances, the Sicilians
over whom Charles of Anjou had eftablifhed his au¬
thority, inftigated by John of Procida, a noble exile,
came to a reiolution of freeing themfelves at once from 47
TT1 U 1 .    . c,
the French yoke by a general maffacre. This cruel Fre"ch ,
refolution was accordingly put in execution ; and the-^^p^1
French, to the number of 8000, murdered in one
night; after wrhich Peter of Arragon, failed to the
ifland, where he was received by the inhabitants as
their king and faviour. Charles was fenfibly affeefed
by this misfortune : and having laid fiege to Medina,
failed diredlly to Marfeilles, where he obtained a power¬
ful reinforcement. But during his abfence on this
occafion, his fon, to whom he had intrufted the care of
the fiege, having raftdy ventured an engagement with
the Spaniih fleet, was entirely defeated and taken pri¬
foner ; which fo much affedfted the father that he died
of grief, and Sicily was infeparably attached to the
houfe of Arragon.
The misfortunes of Charles were followed by others
equally great to Philip himfelf. Pope Martin IV. in
the warmth of his zeal for the caufe of the duke of
Anjou, had excommunicated Pedro king of Arragon,
and beftowed his kingdom on Charles of Valois, a
younger fon of the king-of France. In attempting
to defend himfelf againft the execution of this unjuft
fentence, Pedro was mortally wounded j but, foon af¬
ter, the French fleet being defeated by that of Arra¬
gon, the king was fo much affecred by the misfortune
that he fell Tick. liis difeafe was augmented by the
heat
F R A
[ % ]
FRA
Frarce. heat of the climate and the fatigues of war j fo that,
‘ 1 'quite worn out with grief and infirmities, he expired
at Perpignan in the 41ft year of his age, and i 6th of
his reign.
. 4? j>y t]ie Jeat;h of Philip the Hardy the French crown
Fhi'ilp devolved on his fecond Ion, called alfo Philip, and from
Fair. the beauty of his perfon lurnamed the Fair ; who had
efpoufed the princefs of Navarre, and at the time of
his acceffion was in his 17th year. By the marriage
with this princefs he had obtained the counties of
Champagne and Brie; yet with all this increafe of
power lie found himfelf unable to fupport the war in
which his predeceffor had engaged. For this reafon
he thought proper to abandon the intereft of the In¬
fants de la Cerda, and fettle the differences with Caf-
tile. The treaty was concluded by the mediation of
Edward I. of England 5 at whofe interceffion Charles
the Lame, fon to the duke of Anjou already men¬
tioned, was releafed from his captivity j Edward him¬
felf paying part of his ranfom. On this Charles con-
fented to renounce his claim on Sicily j and Philip him¬
felf promifed that his kinfman Philip of Valois ihould
renounce all pretenfions to the crown of Arragon. In
return for this generofity, the latter obtained the eldeft
daughter of Charles, with the territories of Anjou and
Maine as a dowry.
The tranquillity procured by this treaty, however,
was foon interrupted by differences with Edward the
promoter of it j Pope Boniface VIII. and Guy de
Difference Dampier> count of Flanders. The difference with
with Eng- England took place by a mere accident. A Norman
land. and an Englifh veffel having met off the coait of Bay¬
onne, and having both occafion for water, the crews
met and quarrelled at the fame fpring. A Norman
was killed in the fquabble by his own weapon, with
which he affaulted an Englilhman, as the latter pre¬
tended : but however the matter was, complaints were
made by the Normans to Philip 5 who, without giving
himfelf much trouble to inquire into the merits of the
caufe, inftantly allowed them to redrefs their fuppofed
injuries. On this a kind of piratical war commenced
between the two nations, in wdiich the two fovereigns
for fome time took no a&ive part ; though other na¬
tions interfered \ the Irifh and Dutch feamen fiding
with the Englifh, and thofe of Flanders and Genoa
with the French. Thus the powers on both Tides were
gradually augmented, till at laft the affair became fb
ferious, that in one engagement 15,000 French are
faid to have perifhed. Philip, alarmed at fuch a car¬
nage, fummoned the king of England as his vaffal to
attend $ and, on his refufal, declared his eftates in
France to be forfeited. After a number of negotia¬
tions, Philip declared that he wrould be fatisfied with
the nominal ceflion of the province of Guienne, which
he engaged inftantly to reftore to the king of England
as foon as it fhould be put into his hands. Edward
complied with his demand; but no fooner had the
French monarch obtained poffelfion of that country,
than he perfifted in the forfeiture of the Englifh pof-
feflions in France; which treacherous proceeding in¬
ftantly produced a war betwixt the two nations. Ed¬
ward, that he might defend himfelf the better againft
fuch a formidable adverfary, concluded a treaty with
the emperor Adolphus, together with the counts of
Brittany, Holland, Bar, Juliers, Gueldr.es, and Flan¬
ders ; while Philip {Lengthened himfelf by an alliance France,
with John Baliol of Scotland j and thus laid the foun-'
dation of that firict union which took place between
France and Scotland for two centimes. During this
war the French made a defeent on the coaft of Eng¬
land, and deftroyed the town of Dover 5 while Ed¬
ward, in revenge, landed in Gafcony wdth an army of
50,000 men. No great exploits, however, were per¬
formed with this mighty armament } and both parties
finding thcmfelves pretty equally matched, confented
to a fufpenfion of arms for two years} during which a
peace w?as finally concluded by the mediation of Pope 50
Boniface VIII. Guienne was reftored: EdwardPeace con-
efpoufed Margaret the fitter of Philip; while hisCllulec,‘
daughter Ifabella w^as given in marriage to the prince
of Wales.
Both Philip and Edw’ard behaved to the allies whom
they had engaged in their caufe with equal perfidy.
Baliol was abandoned by Philip to the refentment of
Edwrard ; while Guy, earl of Flanders, was left equal¬
ly expofed to the refentment of Philip.
The reconciliation betwixt the French and EnglifhDifference
monarchs wxas foon followed by a difference with Pope'll1
Boniface, wdiom they had appointed mediator between ^on‘;ac
them. Senfible of his affuming difpefition, how¬
ever, they had inferted in the reference made to him,
that he was chofen as a private man, arid not as
the fucceffor of St Peter. The haughty pontiff,
however, foon Ihowed, that he was not by any means
to be treated as a private perlon, and a conteft with
Philip quickly enfued. Boniface began w’ith forbidding
the clergy to grant the king any fubfidies without
firft obtaining the confent of the Holy See, under the
pain of excommunication. Philip revenged himfelf by
prohibiting any ecclefiaftics from fending money cut
of the kingdom without his leave ; and by protefhng
the Colonnas, who were the implacable enemies of Bo¬
niface. By this his holinefs was fo much irritated that
he fent a moft: abufive letter to Philip ; after which he
fummoned the clergy of France to a council at Rome ;
which Philip retaliated, by feizing the temporalities
of thofe who obeyed the fummons, and recalling his
brother Charles of Valois, who had the title oi the
Po/>e'lj General. Ssnfible, however, of the danger that
attended this conteff, he defpatched two emiffaries, un¬
der pretence of conciliating the differences, to levy
fuch a body of troops as might execute his hoftile pur-
pofes againft the holy father. With thefe he fuddenly
invefted the pope in his native city of Anegnia; and
while the bull wTas preparing for the excommunication
of Philip, and releafing his fubjefts from their obe¬
dience, the pope himfelf was obliged to furrender pri-
foner to the troops of the prince whom he- defigned to
anathematize.
Though Boniface had been at this time delivered
up to the troops of Philip through the treachery of the
people of Anegnia, yet he was no fooner taken pri-
foner and brought to diftrefs, than they refeued him
from his guards and conveyed him to Rome, where he ^2
foon after died of grief and ftiame. His fucceffor Be- Death of
nedift revoked the excommunication of Boniface, and Boniface.-
attempted to regain the allegiance of Philip by gentle
means: but, before this could be effefted, he himfelf
was cut off by death, not without ftrong fufpicicns of
poifonv After his deceafe Philip offered to procure
the-
F R A
Vvance.
tlie papal cliair for Bertrand'arc'hbifliop of Bourdeaux,
provided he would condemn the memory of Boniface,
reftore the honours and eftates of the Colonnas which
had been forfeited, allow him, for five years, the tenths
of the clergy of France, and comply with a requeft
which at that time it was not proper to divulge
C 7° 3
FRA
to arms, and maiTacrcd 1500 French •, Chatillon himfelf France,
being obliged to efcape their fury by fwimming over 1 v -
the towm ditch. The infurgents, nowT daily gathering
ftrength, foon amounted to an army of 60,000 men,
who laid fiege to Courtray. Here they were rafhly
attacked in their trenches by the count d’Artois, who
Bertrand having complied with the terms propofed - met with the reward of his temerity, being cut off
S3
The Pope
fixes his re
-fidence at
Avignon.
54
Expedition
of Philip
againft the
earl of
Flanders.
by the king, alcended the papal throne by the name
of Charles V. but narrowly efcaped being killed on his
return from the cathedral of Lyons, by the falling of a
wTall which had been overloaded by the number of
people who came to fee the proceffion j by which acci¬
dent the duke of Brittany was killed, and the king
_ and count of Valois confiderably bruifed. The new
pope fixed his refidence at Avignon, w'here he punc¬
tually complied with all the conditions of the treaty,
except that of condemning the conduct of Boniface,
which he abfolutely refufed to do; and, inftead of
doing fo, vindicated it with much folemnity, after hav¬
ing inquired into the matter, or pretended to do fo.
The other condition, which Philip had at firlt con¬
cealed, was difcovered by the death of the emperor
Albert of Auftria ; after which event he defired Cle¬
ment to affift him in placing his brother Charles of
Valois on the Imperial throne. But his holinefs, ap-
prehenfive of the danger which might accrue to himfelf
from being furrounded with the powerful relations of
Philip, urged the diet to proceed inftantly to an elec¬
tion j recommending to them Henry of Luxemburg
as a proper perfon to fill the Imperial throne. In this
fcheme he fucceeded fo well, that the ele61ion was over
before Philip could arrive at Avignon ; and the only
confolation the French monarch could obtain for his
difappointment was the poffeflion of the city of Lyons,
which had hitherto maintained an independency under
its archbifhop ; but was now perfuaded to fubmit to
the authority of Philip.
In the mean time Guy, earl of Flanders, being
abandoned by his ally Edward king of England, was
obliged to throw himfelf on the mercy of the French
monarch, who had fent his brother, Charles of Va¬
lois, wdth a powerful army to invade his dominions.
FronPthe latter indeed he had obtained a promife, that
if he could not, wdthin a year, compofe the differences
fubfifting between him and Philip, he ffiould be at li¬
berty to retire, and purfue what meafures he pleafed.
But Philip, in order to gratify the refentment which
his queen entertained againft the captive prince, de¬
tained him, wdth twm of his fons, in clofe confinement,
while he himfelf entering Flanders in triumph, was
everywhere received as fovereign of the country ; and
at his departure appointed John de Chatillon, a re¬
lation of the queen, to govern thofe newly acquired
territories.
The new governor took care to repair the fortifica¬
tions which had been fuffered to decay by reafon of the
aftiduous application of the Flemings to trade j but be¬
ing of a very haughty and tyrannical difpofition, and
the poverty of the times not allowing his mafter to
keep regular garrifons, an infurrettion quickly took
place. This would have been effe&ualiy quelled by
the diligence of the magiftrates, had not Chatillon un¬
luckily entered Bruges, and publicly difplayed two
hogfheads of ropes, which he threatened to employ
in the execution of the inhabitants. On this they flew
3
S3
The con-
wdth 20,000 of his troops. Philip determined on re¬
venge j though the raifing another army obliged him
to debafe the coin of the kingdom. Thus, however,
he was enabled to enter Flanders with fuch a force as.
wTould probably have fubdued the wrhole country, had
not Edward artfully communicated to the queen of the conn.
France, as a fecret, a feigned correfpondence between try pre-
the French nobility and the court of Rome ; by which vented by
falfe intelligence the king was induced to abandon the^i^31^11**
enterprife without performing any thing worthy of the ^ an ’
armament he had fitted out. The war was continued
for fome time longer ; but the attempts of Philip were
conftantly defeated by the fteady valour of the Fle¬
mings ; and the only recompenfe Philip obtained for
all his trouble and expence was the city of Courtray. ^
The other remarkable tranfa&ions of this reign wTere Expulfioo
the expullion and confifcation of the eftates of theP^e
Templars, who at that time enjoyed immenfe poffef-T!>,^ j9
fions in France. The confifcations took place without
any form of trial, and upwards of 50 of them wrere put
to death in a cruel manner. The grand mafter, with
three of his principal officers, were burnt by a flow fire
in the prefence of the king himfelf. The wffiole body
of thefe unfortunate knights had been accufed of the
moft grofs and abominable fenfualities. The particu¬
lars w7ere revealed, or pretended to be fo, by two cri¬
minals who received their pardon for the dilcoveries
they made j and thefe difcoveries were confirmed by
the confeffion of the Templars themfelves. But this
confeffion was aftenvards retraced, as being extorted
from them by the fear of abfolute deftruftion j and
thofe who fuffered, maintained their purity to the laft:
and on the whole, it was believed that Philip confulted
his avarice rather than his juftice by this cruel execu¬
tion. The latter part of his life was embittered by
domeftic misfortunes. His three daughters-in-law,
Margaret daughter of the duke, and Jean and Blanch
of the count, of Burgundy, who had married his three
fons, Louis, Philip, and Charles, were accufed of infi¬
delity to their huffiands. After a fevere examination,
Margaret and Blanch were condemned to perpetual im-
prifonment 5 in which fituation Margaret was after¬
wards ftrangled by order of her hufband Louis. Their
paramours, Philip and Walter de Launay, two bro¬
thers, were flayed alive, and afterwards hung upon a
gibbet, with an uflier of the chamber, who had been
their confidant. The uneafinefs of mind which Phi¬
lip fuffered on this account is fuppofed to have impair¬
ed his health, and he died of a confumption in the year
1395, the 47th of his age, and 30th of his reign.
On the acceffion of Louis, furnamed the -Bo{/?^ro«j-,Reign'of
on account of his violent temper, he found his treafury Louis the
fo much exhaufted, that he was obliged to delay for Boiiterous.
fome time the ceremony of his coronation with his new
queen Clemcnce, daughter of the king of Hungary.
Finding the kingdom otherwife in a very diftrafted
ftate, he applied himfelf very diligently to appeafe the
difcontents of his fubje<fts, and conciliate their affe&ion
by
*
FRA
France, by every means in bis power. In this be was aflifted
*w by bis uncle Charles of Valois, on whom he at length
entirely devolved the government of the kingdom.
This regent, however, behaved with fuch cruelty as is
fuppofed to have proved fatal to the king himfelf j for
having put to death a nobleman named Enguerraml de
Poilier de Marigni, who enjoyed the confidence of the
late king, this cruelty was fo much refented, that his
friends were thought to have adminillered poifon to
the king *, who expired fuddenly after drinking a glafs
of cold water, in the 26th year of his age, and fecond
of his reign. Immediately after his death, Charles
prepared to difpute the fovereignty with the brothers
of the late fovereign. Philip count of Poiftou, the
elded brother, wTas at that time at Rome aflifting in
the eleftion of a new pope ; and it wTas not until a
' month after the death of his brother that he was able
to put an end to the intrigues which took place on that
occalion : but on his arrival in France, the throne was
affigned to him by the unanimous voice of the people.
His profpefts, however, wTere for a Ihort time clouded
by the queen dow7ager Clemence being delivered of a
fon, who has been enrolled among the kings of France
Reign of lin(ler the name of John I. His death in three wrecks
Philip the fecured the throne to Philip ; who, on account of the
Long. tallnefs of his ftature, was furnamed the Long. His
conduct proved fuperior to that of his predeceffor, wrho
had unfuccefsfully attempted to fubdue the Flemings,
and had even fuffered himfelf to be duped by their
count j but Philip, by his vigorous behaviour, fo reduced
them, that they compelled their fovereign to confent
to a peace upon honourable terms. He fummoned
EdwardTI. of England to do homage for his poffef-
fions in France j but that monarch, gnding himfelf in¬
volved in difficulties, which rendered the vifit inconve¬
nient, fent excufes to Philip, which. he wras pleafed to
accept. As the French monarch had formerly taken
the crofs during the lifetime of his father, he now pro-
pofed to put his vow7 in execution ; but wras dilfuaded
from this by the pope himfelf, at whofe inftance he
fent an army into Italy to put an end to the contend-
Unfortu- factions of the Guelphs and Gibbelines, w7ho for fo
rate expe- long time filled the country wfith blood and daughter,
elition into The event proved unfortunate j and the difgrace was
Italy. rendered more mortifying by a contagious diftemper,
which fwept off many thoufands of French fubjefts.
This wras fuppofed by the fuperftitious people of thofe
times to be occafioned by the Jews, wffio had confpired
with the Saracens to poifon the fprings; and that the
execution of the project was committed to fome le¬
pers who lived by themfelves in hofpitals richly endow¬
ed. On this a perfecution was inftantly commenced
againft thefe unfortunate men, and great numbers of
them wrere burnt alive ; while the Jews in general w7ere
abandoned to the rage of the populace, wffio infulted
their perfons, and plundered their houfes without re-
morfe.
The remaining part of the reign of Philip wras fpentv
in attempting to regulate the internal concerns of his
kingdom. A defign had been formed by his prede-
eeffors of eftablifhing a certain ffandard for the coin,
weights, and meafures, throughout France : and this
was adopted by Philip j who, in order to carry it more
effeflually into execution, purchafed from the counts
of Valois, Clermont, and Bourbon, their right of
FRA
coinage within their own dominions. But notwith- France.
Handing all his endeavours for this purpofe, he never '
could bring the fcheme to bear: nor indeed could he
in any degree conciliate the affection of his fubjedts.
He died of a fever and dyfentery in the year 1322, the
28th year of his age, and 6th of his reign. ^5
By the death of Philip, the crown of France de- Reign of
volved on his brother Charles IV. who had obtained Charles the
the furname of Fair. After fettling fome difputes with F'air’
the duke of Burgundy, his next Itep w7as to diffolve
his marriage with Blanch, who Hill continued in pri-
fon, and to efpoufe Mary the daughter of Henry em¬
peror of Germany. This marriage w7as contradled
with a view7 to the Imperial crown itfelf, which had
been fo long feparated from that of France j and in
1325 an opportunity offered for Charles to gratify his
ambition. At that time the Imperial dignity was dif-
puted between Louis of Bavaria and Frederic of Au-
ftria; the latter of whom had been taken prifoner in a
battle with Louis. But Pope John, who entertained
an implacable hatred againff Louis,, fulminated the fen-
tence of excommunication againff him, intruffing the
execution of it to Leopold the brother of Ferdinand.
The king of France wras induced to embark in the fame
caufe, by a promife of the fpoils of Bavaria 5 while
Frederic himfelf confented to relinquilh his pretenfions
to the empire which he had fo unfuccefsfully main¬
tained. Louis, howeVer, by inflantly releafing his pri¬
foner, and difmiffing him in an honourable manner,
engaged his friendffiip, and difarmed his mofl formid¬
able antagonifl. But the pope was not to be fo dif-
appointed. A confiderable fum of money induced
Leopold to perfevere in his hoflilities, while it was
determined that a new7 council of eleftors fliould be
held in order to transfer the Imperial cicowm to Charles.
In purfuit of this vifionary fcheme, the king of France
fet out for the frontiers of Germany wffiffi a fplendid
army j but foon found that there was no poffibility of
accomplilhing his willies. Leopold alone, from mo¬
tives of interefl, remained his friend j the red Ihewed
the greateff indifference ; and even his brother-in-law
the king of Bohemia abfented himfelf from the diet; >
while in a fhort time the death of the queen put an end
to all connexions with that crowm.
On the deceafe of Mary, Charles efpoufed Joanna
daughter to the count of Evreux : and in order to
avert the calamities to be feared from an infant fuccef-
fion, he entered into an alliance with Robert king of
Scotland j by which it was provided, that Ihould ei¬
ther of the fovereigns die without an heir apparent, the
Hates of the kingdom Ihould fill the vacant throne, and
the furvivor of the tw7o kings fnould with his whole force
fupport the legality of the nomination againff any other
competitor $ though even this proved infufficient to avert
the danger which now threatened the kingdom, as (hall
be explained in the fequel 55 ;
Charles died in the year 1328, in the 34th year of Candidates
his age, leaving his queen pregnant j and as the ^uc' °r ^‘Vnd
ceffion depended on the fruit of the queen’s pregnancy, kingdom cn-
a regent in the mean time was neceffary j and two can- ,he oerta
didates inftantly appeared for this important poll, of Charles
urging at the fame time their right to the crown as
w7ell as to the regency. Thefe were, Philip de Valois,
coufm-german to the deceafed king; the other, Ed¬
ward III, king of England, who afpired to the throne -
iu-'
[ 7' 3
F R A t 72 ] FRA
1* ranee.
60
Difputes
rvith Ed¬
ward III.
of Eng¬
land.
61
Edward’s
firft expe¬
dition.
in right of his mother, and the nephew of Charles the
Fair. His pretenfions, however, were eafily i'et alide,
and Philip was confirmed in the regency : from which
he foon after flepped into the throne, on the queen
being delivered of a daughter j from which circum-
llance he acquired the furname of Fortunate. But
though the pretenfions of Edward, both to the regen¬
cy and crown, were unanimoufly rejccied by the peo¬
ple, it was Itill impofiible for Philip to think of the
claims of fuch a formidable rival without uneafinefs.
He therefore fummoned the Englilh monarch to do
homage for his poffeiTions in France ; and, upon his
not anfwering his fummons, forfeited them, and feized
his revenues. This at laft induced Edward to crofs
the fea and pay his homage •, which Philip confented
to receive in any form, upon condition of a proper ex¬
planation being afterwards given : but as this Was ftu-
dioufly delayed after the return of the king of Eng¬
land, the province of Guienne was again feized by the
French monarch. Edward, unwilling to lofe his con¬
tinental dominions, or involve himfelf in a war for the
fake of a mere ceremony, fent over a formal deed, by
which he acknowledged that he owed liege homage to
Faance. Thus the flame wras fmothered for the pre-
fent •, and would perhaps have been entirely extin-
guifhed, had it not been for the intrigues of Robert of
Artois, brother-in-law tb the king of France himfelf,
who had been expelled his country, and had taken re¬
fuge in England. By him he was perfuaded to renew
his pretenfions to the crown of France, which of necef-
fity produced a war.
For fome time, indeed, neither party made any
open declaration of hoftility •, but as both monarchs
were poffeffed of great prudence and fagacity, they
foon penetrated each other’s defigns. Philip, under
pretence of taking the crofs, began to make prodigious
armaments, ftrengthening himfelf at the fame time by
alliances on every fide ; while Edward, determining to
renew his claim to the crown of France, projected the
conqueft of Scotland. This, however, he could not
accomplilh ; and in the mean time Philip, in order to
favour the Scots, with whom he was in alliance, fuffer-
ed his fubjefts to make irruptions into Guienne.
In 1337, the war broke out openly. Philip having
detached a fquadron of his fleet againft the Infidels,
employed the relt, confifting chiefly of Genoefe veflels,
againft the Englilh. As in this war it was of great
importance which fide was taken by the Flemings,
thefe people were courted by both parties. Louis
count of Flanders declared for Philip, but his fubje£ls
were more inclined to King Edward. Jamfes Arteville
a brewer, the moft able and artful man in the country,
governed them at that time as much as if he had been
their prince j and the advantages arifing from the
Englifh commerce determining him in favour of Ed¬
ward, that prince, at his requeft, embarked for Sluys
with a numerous army. Here he arrived in 1338; and
on his firft landing, it was refolved that the German
princes in alliance with him ftiould afl againft France.
But lor this a pretence was wanting. The vaflals of
the empire could not adt by Edward’s orders, or even
as his allies, without diredtions From the emperor, and
he wras in league with France. This difficulty, how¬
ever was foon overcome : the French had made them-
felves mafters of Cambray, and the emperor refolved
that it flrould be retaken. With this view he created France.
Edward Vicar General of the Empire j an empty title, ' -~v“ ^
but which feemed to give him a right of commanding
the fervices of the princes of Germany. The Flemings,
who were vaffals of France, likewife pretended fcruples
at invading the territories of their liege lord. To quiet
thefe, Edward, by the advice of Arteville, aflumed the
title of King of France; and by virtue of this right
challenged their affiftance for dethroning Philip de Va¬
lois, the ufurper of his kingdom. This ftep, which
he feared wmuld beget endlefs animofities and jealoufies,
he did not take without hefitation; and, according to
Mr Hume, from this time we may date the commence¬
ment of that great animofity which the Englifli have al¬
ways born to the French.
Edward’s firft attempt was upon the city of Cam¬
bray, to which he laid fiege *, but in a ftiort time he
was prevailed upon by Robert d’Artois to raife the
fiege and march into Picardy. This country he enter¬
ed with an army of near 50,000 men, compofed moftly
of foreigners. Philip came within fight of him with
an army of near 100,000, compofed chiefly of native
fubjefts 5 and it was daily expefted t »at a battle would
enfue. But the Englilh monarch was averfe to engage
againft fo great a fuperiority : and Philip thought it
fufficient if he eluded the attacks of his enemy, wfithout
running any unnecelfary hazard. The twm armies faced
each other for feveral days \ mutual defiances were fent 5
and Edward at laft retired into Flanders, and difperfed
his army.
Such was the fruitlefs, and almoft ridiculous concltt-
fion of Edward’s firft expedition, wffiich had plunged
him into the greateft difficulties. He had contrabled
near 300,000!. of debt *, he had anticipated all his
revenue; he had pawned every thing of value which
belonged either to himfelf or his queen ; nay, he was
obliged in fome meafure eVen to pawn himfelf to his
creditors, by defiring their permifiion to go over to
England in order to procure fupply, and by promifing
on his word of honour to return in perfon if he did not
remit their money. On his arrival in England, how¬
ever, he procured a large fupply, fufficient to enable
him to make all the necefiary preparations for a new
invalion j and fo certain were the Engliffi that Fiance
would now be conquered, that the parliament, before
Edward’s departure, protefted that they owed him no
obedience as king of France, but that the two kingdoms
muft remain for ever diftinfr and independent.
The king of England let out on his fecond expedi- His fecond
tion with a fleet of 240 velfels. Philip had prepared exPecbtion,
S fleet of 400 veffels, manned with 40,000 men ; which
he ftationed off Sluys, in order to intercept him in his
paffage. The two fleets met on the 13th of June
1340; but the Englifh, either by the fuperior abilities-^ p^el1cf,
or Edward, or the greater dexterity of his feamen, entirely de-
gained the wind of the enemy, and had the fun in feated at
their backs 5 and with thefe advantages began the ac-lea-
tion. The battle was fierce and bloody : The Englilh
archers, wffiofe force and addrefs were now much cele¬
brated, galled the French on their approach ; and
when the Ihips grappled together, the example cf the
king and the nobility who were with him fo animated
the feamen and foldiers, that they maintained every-
wffiere a fuperiority over the enemy. The Flemings
obferving the battle, hurried out of their ports, and
brought
FRA [
France, brought a reinforcement to the Englifh ; which coming
1   ' unexpectedly, had a greater effect than in proportion
to its power and numbers. Two hundred and thirty
(hips wrere taken : and 30,000 Frenchmen were killed,
with two of their admirals : the lofs of the Englifh was
mconfiderable, compared to the greatnefs and import¬
ance of the viftory. None of Philip’s courtiers, it is
faid, dared to inform him of the event j till his fool or
jefter gave him a hint, by which he difcovered the lofs
he had fultained.
After this great vidlory, Edward landed his forces
and laid fiege to Tournay. Philip marched to its re¬
lief with a very numerous army : but afted with fo
much caution, that Edward found himfelf in a manner
blocked up in his camp : and the countefs dowager of
Hainault, fifter to Philip, mother-in-law to Edward,
and fifter-in-lawr to Robert d’Artois, coming out of a
convent, to which fhe had retired, interpofed with fo
much fpirit and addrefs, that (he engaged all parties to
agree to a truce for a year, and might perhaps have
64 brought about a peace if file had furvived.
Edward in- In 1341, however, Edward’s ambition wTas once
vited into more excited by the invitation of the count de Mount-
thirdtime ^ort’ w^° P°ffeffed himfelf of the province of
Brittany, and applied to Edwrard to fecond his claims.
An offer of this kind entirely coincided with Edward’s
moft fanguine defires. He was happy in the promifed
affiflance of Mountfort, an attive and valiant prince,
clofely united to him by intereff, and thus opening to
him an entrance into the heart of France. Thefe flat¬
tering profpedts, howrever, were for a while damped
by the imprifonment of Mountfort; whofe aims being
difcovered, he was befieged in the city of Nantz and ta¬
ken. But Jane of Flanders his wife foon made up for
the lofs of her hufband. This lady courageoufly under¬
took to fupport the falling fortunes of her family. She
affembled the inhabitants of Rennes, wdiere fhe then
refided 5 and carrying her infant fon in her arms, de¬
plored her misfortunes, and attempted to infpire the
citizens with an affection for her caufe. The inhabi¬
tants of Nantz indantly efpoufed her interefls, and all
the other fortreffes of Brittany embraced the fame re-
folution. The king of England wTas apprifed of her ef¬
forts ; and was entreated to fend her fuccours with all
poffible expedition to the town of Hennebone, in wrhich
place fhe refolved to fuftain the attacks of the enemy.
Charles de Blois, Philip’s general, anxious to make
himfelf mafter of fo important a fortrefs as Hennebone,
and ilill more to take the countefs a prifoner, fat down
before the place with a large army, and conduced the
fiege with indefatigable induftry. The defence was no
lefs vigorous : feveral fallies were made by the garri-
fon, in which the countefs herfelf was flill the moft ac¬
tive, and led on the affault. Obferving one day that
their whole army had quitted the camp to join in a
general ftorm, fire fallied out by a poftern at the head
of 300 horfe, fet fire to the enemies tents and baggage,
put their futtlers and fervants to the frvord, and occa-
fioned fuch an alarm, that the French defifted from the
affault, in order to cut off her communication with the
town. Thus intercepted, fhe retired to Auray, where
fhe continued five or fix days j then returning at the
head of 500 horfe, fhe fought her way through one
quarter of the French camp, and returned to her faith¬
ful citizens in triumph. But the befiegers had at
Voe. IX. Part I.
3 ] FRA
length made feveral breaches in the walls ; and it was France,
apprehended that a general affault, which was hourly v
expected, would be fatal. A capitulation was there¬
fore propofed, and a conference was already begun,
when the countefs, who had mounted on a high tower,
and was looking towards the fea with great impatience,
defcried fbme ihips at a diftance. She immediately
exclaimed that fuccours were arrived, and forbade any
further capitulation. She was not difappointed in her
wiihes 5 the fleet fhe difcerned carried a body of Eng¬
lifh gentlemen, with 6000 archers, whom Edward had
prepared for the relief of Hennebone, but who had
been long detained by contrary winds. They entered the
harbour under the condudl: of Sir Walter Manny, one
of the moft valiant commanders of his time. This re¬
lief ferved to keep up the declining fpirits of the Bre¬
tons until the time appointed by the late truce with
Edward was expired, on which he was at liberty to re¬
new the war in greater form.
The fuccours under Sir Walter Manny were quickly
followed by a more confiderable reinforcement com¬
manded by Robert of Artois, who made himfelf ma¬
fter of the city of Vannes foon after his arrival : but
the French foon recovered the city, and Robert was
compelled to relinquifh his prize after receiving a mor¬
tal wound. Edward himfelf, eager to revenge the
death of his ally, foon landed at Morbian near Vannes
with an army of 1 2,000 men. With this fmall num¬
ber he undertook at once the fiege of Vannes, Nantz,
and Rennes : but by dividing his forces, he failed in
every enterprife, and gave an opportunity to John duke
of Normandy, the king of France’s eldeft fon, to inveft
him in his camp. In this fituation his provifions foon
began to fail } and Edward, notwithftanding all his
valour, would have been obliged to furrender, had he
not, by a train of artful negociations, induced Philip
to relinquifti the advantage he had obtained, and con-
fent to a truce of three years. This was accompliftied
by the mediation of the court of Rome ; and the French
monarch was foon made fenfible of the partiality of
that court, and the imprudence of the ftep he himfelf
had taken. Edward foon found a pretence to renew
the war, from the execution of fome nobles of Brittany,
who, he faid, were partifans of Mountfort, and chofe
to look upon their punifiiment as an infraction of the
treaty.
Philip nowT endeavoured to lecure himfelf againft the
power of his rival by alliances, and by purchafing the
city of Montpelier from the king of Majorca : but in
the mean time, the Englifti, under the command of the
earl of Derby, had invaded Guienne, twice defeated
the French army commanded by the Count de Lifle,
and made themfelves mafters of a great number of
towns. Philip, by reafon of the exhaufted ftate of his
treafury, wras for fome time incapable of making any
oppofition. To recruit his finances, he was obliged
to lay a duty on fait; which gave fuch offence to his
fubjedls as had almoft excited a rebellion. When thefe
difcontents w'ere affuaged, however, he foon raifed an
army of 100,000 men, w-hofe courage was further
raifed by the prefence of the dukes of Normandy and
Burgundy. The Englilh general was therefore com¬
pelled to ftand upon the defenfive. One fortrefs after
another was furrendered to the French j till at length
nothing appeared but a total extimftion of the power
-K of
/
France.
, 65
He lands
with an ar
66
‘Calais ta¬
ken.
FRA
of England upon the continent. In this
Edward refolved to bring relief in perfon to his diftref-
fed fubjedls and allies 5 and accordingly embarked in
1346 at Southampton, on board a fleet of near 1000
fail, of all dimenfions. He carried with him, befides
all the chief nobility of England, his eldefl: fon the
prince of Wales (afterwards furnamed the B/nek Prince),
a youth of about 15 years old, and already remarkable
both for underltanding and valour above his age. His
in in Nor arm^ con^^eci 4000 men at arms, 10,coo archers,
mandy. 0'' 10,000 Wellh infantry, and 6000 Irilh 5 all which he
landed fafely at La Hogue, a port in Normandy,
which country he determined to make the feat of the
war.
The intelligence of Edward’s landing, and the deva-
ftation caufed by his troops, who difperfed themfelves
over the whole face of the country, foon fpread univer-
fal ccnfternation through the French court. The rich
city of Caen was taken and plundered by the Englilh
without mercy $ the villages and towns, even up to
Paris, flrared the fame fate and the French had no
ether refource but by breaking down their bridges, to
attempt putting a flop to the invader’s career. In the
mean time, Philip wTas not idle in making preparations
to reprefs the enemy. He had ftationed one of his
generals, Godemar de Faye, with an army on the op-
poflte fide of the river Somme, over which Edward
was to pafs j w'hile he himfelf, at the head of 1 20,000
fighting men, advanced to give the Englilh battle.
Edwfard, thus unexpectedly expofed to the danger of
being enclofed and ftarved in an enemy’s country, pub-
lifhed a reward to any that fhould bring him intelli¬
gence of a palfage over the river Somme. This was dif-
covered by a peafant of the country, named Gobin
Agace : and Edward haft juft time to get his wLole ar¬
my over the river, when Philip appeared in his rear. Of
the battle that enfued, in which the French were over¬
thrown wflth great flaughter, an account is given un¬
der the article Cressy.
Edward next laid fiege to Calais, wFich w'Efs then
defended by John de Vienne, an experienced command¬
er, and fupplied with every thing neceffary for defence.
It was at length taken, after a twelvemonth’s fiege,
the defendants having been reduced to the laft extre¬
mity by famine and fatigue $ for the confequences of
which, fee the article Calais.
From the very beginning of this unfortunate war,
Philip had invariably ftiowxd himfelf defirous of peace,
and the vidlory of Creffy rendered him Hill more fo. Ed¬
ward alfo notwithftanding his fucceffes, was unable to
fupport the expences of the war any longer. The me¬
diation of the court of Rome wras therefore readily ac¬
cepted, and a truce for three years concluded. At the
fame time, Philip met with fome recompenfe for the
Ioffes he had fuftarned, by the acquifition of Dauphiny,
which has ever fince given the title of Dauphin to the
eldeft fon of the king of France. It was obtained by the
refignation of Hubert prince of Dauphiny j who^ be¬
ing difappointed in his hopes of marrying Joan, daugh¬
ter of the duke of Bourbon, gave up his territories°to
Charles the grandfon of Philip, who had married that
lady 5 himfelf retiring into a convent. Soon after this
event, the king himielf, who had been fome time a wi¬
dower, was married to Blanch, the daughter of Philip
count of Evreux, and Jane queen of Navarre 5 and his
[ 74 ] FRA
fituation, fon John to the countefs of Boulogne. But the hap- France.
pinefs occafioned by thefe marriages w7as foon interrupt- * ' v_ lJ
ed by the death of the king ; who expired in the year n f
*350, the 57th of his age, and 23d of his reign. King Phi-
On the death of Philip his eldeft fon John took pof-lip.
feftion of the kingdom j but fcarcely was he feated on
the throne, when he difgufted his nobility by an un-
feafonable aft of feverity. Robert de Brienne, count
of Eu and Guifnes, had been taken prifoner by the
king of England at Caen ; and under pretence of ne¬
gotiating his ranfom, had pafled feveral times between
France and England ; but being accufed of a treafon-
able correfpondence with Edward, he was by order of
his fovereign fuddenly arrefted, condemned, and be¬
headed, without any form of trial. At his death, it
is faid that he confeffed his treafonable praftices 5 but
that has not been authenticated by any biftorian of
credit. Having been conftable of France, the fword,
the badge of his office, was delivered to Charles de la
Carda : but his fate was equally unfortunate with that
of his predeceflbr, being foon after affaflmated by Charles
king of Navarre, furnamed The Wicked. This prince, r„famous
celebrated for his perfonal qualifications, but detefted conduct of
for his crimes, was the fon-in-law of John himfelf. Hetlie kinS
had demanded the duchy of Angouleme of the king ; NTflVarre*
but as the latter had thought proper to beftew it upon
Carda, he had taken the effeftual method of revenging
himfelf, by affaflinating his rival. John did not fail to
Ihow a proper relentment ; but fuch was the weaknefs
of his government, that the king of Navarre fet him
at defiance, and would not even condefcend to the ce¬
remony of aiking pardon until John had fent him his
fecond fon as an hoftage for his perfonal fecurity. To
thefe offences the king of Navarre added another ftill
more atrocious, viz. that of afpiring to the crown of
France itfelf) to which he pretended a right derived
from his mother, being grandfon by the female fide to
Louis the Boifterous. But his more immediate de¬
mands were the countries of Champagne and Brie. To
obviate all difficulties on this head, however, John be¬
llowed the duchy of Normandy on his eldeft fon
Charles; and commanded him to feize the eftates of
the king of Navarre. On this the latter foon made
his appearance at Paris; but John found himfelf obli¬
ged to appeafe his murmurs at the expence of no lei's
than 100,000 crowns.
All this time the truce with England had been very
ill obferved on both fides; the French had poffeffed
themfelves of the port of St Jean d’Angeli ; and the
Englilh had furprifed the town of Guifnes. The rival
houfes of Mountfort and Blois ftill continued their
animofities $ while Edwrard continued to threaten war.
The king of Navarre went on with his intrigues 5 and
even the dauphin was drawn into a confederacy againft
his father. John, however, being informed of their
machinations, found means to defeat them effeftually.
The dauphin was reclaimed by pointing out to him
the impropriety of his conduft, and the difadvan-
tage which mull unavoidably accrue to himfelf from
the connexions which he had formed. The king of
Navarre was invited, with his principal adherents, to
an entertainment, where they were unexpeftedly ar-He is taken
relied : the former being fent prifoner to Chateau and con,
Gaillard, and feveral of the moll obnoxious of thefinefk
latter put to death. The reft of the confpirators,
inftead
F l\ A
[ 75 ]
FRA
France.
70
Fiance a-
gain invad¬
ed by Ed¬
ward.
Battle of
Poidtiers.
infteaJ of being dil'raayed by this check, immediately
Ihovved themielves in open rebellion j and finding
themfelves unable, without farther aflxftance, to gain
their point, they without delay invited over Edward
from England.
That warlike and enterprifing monarch had never
loft fight of the object he had originally embraced 5
and on the expiration of the truce had fent his fon,
the prince of Wales, from the colour of his armour
furnamed the B/cck Prince, with a fleet towards the
coaft of France. Young Edward had with this fleet
entered the mouth of the river Garonne, burnt the
towns and villages of Languedoc, and retired with the
plunder into the country of Guienne. Edward him-
felf, who had likewife palled over to the continent,
wafted the country as far as St Omer ; but the French
king, notvvithftanding all thefe provocations, deter¬
mined to avoid a battle, and therefore prohibited his
general, the'conftable of Bourbon, from coming to an
engagement, though his army was much fuperior to
that of the prince of Wales. With the flower of his
troops, however, he purfued Edward from St Omer to
Hefdin, wdiere he defied him to a pitched battle j but
the latter, without minding his bravadoes, continued
his march to Calais, from whence he embarked for
England. After his departure, John called an affem-
bly of the ftates at Paris, where he explained the dif-
trefled fituation of his finances, and Ihow'ed fo fully the
neceflity of aflifting him in the defence of the kingdom,
that they confented to maintain an army of 30,000
men during the war. To fupply the other exigencies
of government, they revived the duty on fait, and
added a variety of other impofts; but at the fame
time appointed a committee of their own number to
take care that the money was folely appropriated to the
public fervice.
The fatisfaclion which John received from thefe
grants, and the fuppreffion of feme difturbances which
happened about this time, was foon overcait by the
news that the prince of Wales had marched with an
array of 12,000 men from Bourdeaux ; and, after ra-
vaging the Agenois, Quercy, and the Liinoufin, had
entered the province of Berry. The young warrior
had penetrated into the heart of France with this trif¬
ling body of forces, in hopes of joining the duke of
Lancafter in Guienne. But he foon found that his
fcheme was impradlicable : the country before him
was too well guarded to permit his advancing fur¬
ther ; and all the bridges behind were broken down,
which effedtually barred a retreat. In this embarraf-
fmo fituation, his perplexity was increafed, by being
informed, that the king of France was adtually march¬
ing at the head of 60,000 men to intercept him. He
at'firft thought of retreating : but foon finding it im-
poflible, he determined calmly to wait the approach
of the enemy ; and, notwithftanding the difparity of
forces, to commit all to the hazard of a battle.
It w^as at a place called Maupertuis, near Poiftiers,
that both armies came in fight of each other. I he
French king might very eafily have ftarved the Englilh
into any terms he thought proper to impofe 5 but fuch
was the impatient valour of the French nobility, and
fuch their certainty of fuccefs, that it might have been
equally fatal to attempt repreffing their ardour to en¬
gage. In the mean time, while both armies were
7*
were French de-
drawn out, and expecting the lignal to begin, they were France,
flopped by the appearance of the cardinal of Perigord, w—”
wTho attempted to be a mediator between them. How¬
ever, John, wTho made himfelf fure of vhftory, would
liften to no other terms than the reftitution of Calais;
wdth which the Black Prince refufing to comply, the
onfet was deferred till the next morning, for wdiich
both fides waited in anxious fufpenfe.
During this interval, the young prince ftrengthen-
ed his port by new intrenchments j and placed 300
men in ambufh, wdth as many archers, who were com¬
manded to attack the enemy in flank during the heat
of the engagement. Having taken thefe precautions,
he ranged his army in three divifions \ the van wras com¬
manded by the earl of Warwick, the rear by the earls
of Salifbury and Suffolk, and the main body by him¬
felf. In like manner, the king of France arranged his
forces in three divifions j the firit commanded by the
duke of Orleans ; the fecond by the dauphin, attend¬
ed by his younger brothers 5, while he himfelf led up
the main body, feconded by his youngeft and favourite
fon, then about 14 years of age. As the Englifh wrere
to be attacked only by marching up a long narrow
lane, the French fuffered greatly from their archers,
who were ported on each fide behind the hedges. Nor
wTere they in a better fituation upon emerging from
this danger, being met by the Black Prince himfelf,
at the head of a chofen body of troops, who made a
furious onfet upon their forces, already in great difor-
der. A dreadful overthrow enfued : thofe wTho
as yet in the lane recoiled upon their own forces j feated.
while the Engliffi troops who had been placed in am-
buffi, took that opportunity to increafe the confufion,
and confirm the victory. The dauphin and the duke
of Orleans were among the firft that fled. The king
of France himfelf made the utmoft efforts to retrieve
by his valour what his rafhnefs had forfeited 5 but
his Angle courage was unable to flop that coftfterna-
tion which had now become general through his army j
and his cavalry foon flying, he found himfelf expofed
to the enemy’s fury. At length, fpent with fatigue,
and defpairing of fuccefs, he thought of yielding him¬
felf a prifoner j and frequently cried out, that he was
ready to deliver himfelf to his coufin the prince of 73
Wales. The honour of taking him, however, was re-King John
ferved for a much more ignoble hand ; he was feized by taken pri-
Dennis de Morbec, a knight of Arras, wrho had beenloner*
obliged to fly his country for murder.
In April following, the prince conduffed his royal
prifoner through London, attended by an infinite con-
courfe of people of all ranks and ftations. His modefty
upon this occafion was very remarkable : the king of
France was clad in royal apparel, and mounted on a
white fteed diftinguiihed by its fize and beauty} while
the prince himfelf rode by his fide upon a mean little
horfe, and in very plain attire. 74.
This dreadful defeat, which happened in the year Miferable
1356, almoft entirely ruined the French affairs j and fituation of
the miferies which enfued from this caufe were greatly
augmented by internal commotions. The dauphin,
who had now affumed the government, was altogether
unable to govern a turbulent and feditious people at
fuch a crifis. An affembly of the ftates, which he
called, took the opportunity to limit the power of the
prince, impeach the former minifters, and demand the
K 2 liberty
France.
FRA
from pri-
fon.
„
Inforrec-
tions and
tumults of
the pea-
iantu
t Fr^nce- liberty of tbe king of Navarre 5 the treafurer of the
v crown was murdered by one Marcel, a partizan of
that worthlefs prince who had filled the city of Paris
with confufion by his intrigues. The affaffin whom
Marcel employed was dragged, by order of the dau¬
phin, from an altar where he had taken refuge, and
inftantly put to death. The bilhop of Paris relented
the indignity done to the church ; and Marcel avenged
the fate of his adherent, by murdering both the mare-
fchals who had feized him in the prefence of the dau¬
phin 5 and fo near him, that his clothes were ftained
with their blood. The prince indignantly alked him,
if he was to be involved in the fame deftru&ion ? when
Marcel affe&ed to provide for his fafety by putting
The king upon him a blue hood, the badge of the adherents of
ot Navaire Navarre. The public diforders were now alfo augmented
ek.-pes tjie efcape 0f ^0 king of Navarre from confinement j
and though the dauphin w^as even affured that he had
adminiftered a dofe of poifon to him, he was obliged
kill to pay him fome appearance of regard. A fcheme
tvas even formed by the chiefs of the {edition to change
the government, to veft all the power in the commons,
and leave the king no more than an empty title \ but
though this w'as favourably received by the city of Pa¬
ris, it wras entirely rejected by the other cities of the
kingdom. 1 he dauphin wTas likewife recognized as re¬
gent by the ftates general, and the inhabitants of Pi¬
cardy and Champagne took up arms in his caufe.
In this difaftrous Hate of affairs, the miferies of the
people were heightened by a new and unexpedled evil.
I he peafants, who had been all along oppreffed by
the nobles, rvere nowT treated in fuch a manner, that
they role in great numbers to revenge themfelves;
the caftles of the nobility were rafed to the ground,
their wives and daughters ravilhed, and themfelves put
to the moll cruel torments. At laft they were obliged
to arm in their own defence. The duke of Orleans
cut off 10,000 of them in the neighbourhood of Pa¬
ris } 1 2,000 were maffacred by the king of Navarre •,
9000, who had laid fiege to the town of Meaux,
where the dauphinefs and three other ladies of the firlt
rank refided, were routed and purfued wnth dreadful
{laughter by an officer in the fcrvice of Edward. A~
midft thefe confufions, Marcel, the feditious leader al¬
ready mentioned, perilhed in a tumult of his own rail¬
ing 5 and the moff virtuous and prudent people of the
nation fupported the pretenfions of the dauphin. His
moft dangerous enemy was the king of Navarre, who
had allured to his ftandard numbers of thofe Norman
and Englifli adventurers who had followed Edward in¬
to France, and there been left to feek their fortunes ;
where they affociated themfelves under the name of the
Peace be- Companions. By fiich a formidable competitor the
tween the dauphin was reduced almoft to the laff extremity, when
fndPkh? ofh-S h-°peS WerC revived an unexpended propofal from
Navarre! ° ^ riv?1’ °/ Peace uPon equitable and moderate terms.
Hiftorians in general have afcribed this to the natural
levity of the king of Navarre ; but fome have been of
opinion that he afted from prudential motives, and
that he juftly fuppofed it wmuld be more eafy to deal
with the dauphin who was his own kinfman, and
humbled by fo many misfortunes, than with a haugh¬
ty and imperious conqueror like Edward.
On the expiration of the truce in 1359, Edward
again fet fail for France, and anchored before Calais
[ 76 ]
fra
with a fleet of 1100 fail, affumed the title of king of France.
France, and augmented his army to 100,000 men.  v——<
*ihe dauphin, finding himfelf unable to withlland fo 7^.
great a power, was obliged to aft on the defenfive j ^noT'
choofing the city of Paris for his flation, and allowing France by
the Englifh to ravage all the open country. Thus Edward,
they were allowed to penetrate through Picardy into
Champagne ; but the city of Rheims, where Edward
defigned to have been crowned king of France, baffled
their utmort efforts. From Champagne, therefore,
which was already laid wTalte, the Engliih monarch
marched into Burgundy; pillaging Tonnere, Gaillon,
and Avalon. Burgundy was faved by the payment
of 100,000 merks, and a like fum was paid for Nx-
vernois. At laft, after a long and deftrudlive march,
Edward arrived at the gates of Paris 5 but the pru¬
dence of the dauphin and citizens of that metropolis
had rendered it impregnable to the attacks of famine
as well as the affaults of an army. Thus the war went yj,,
on till the year 1360, when the king of England wasdudeTa
inclined to peace, as is faid, by a dreadful tempeft,peace,
to which his army was expofed wdfile encamped in the
fields round Chartres. His condudf, however, may
more reafonably be derived from other motives. Not-
withftanding all the victories he had gained, the French
nation fliowed not the leaft favour to his claim of fuc-
ceffion ; the king of Navarre wras a dangerous rival,
and the caution of the dauphin in avoiding an engage¬
ment deprived him of the advantages he might expedt
from his valour and military {kill. Thus conferences
for a peace were opened at Bretigny in the Chartraine;
and it was at laft concluded on the following condi¬
tions, viz. 1 hat King John ftiould pay for his ranfom,
at different periods, three millions of crowns of gold
(about a million and a half of our money) : Edward
ihould for ever renounce all claim to the kingdom of
France ; and (hould remain poffeffed of the territories
of Poidlou, Xaintonge, PAgenois, Perigord, the Li-
moufin, Quercy, Rouvergne, PAngoumois, and other
diftridts in that quarter, together with Calais, Guifnes,
Montreuil, and the county of Ponthieu on the other
fide of France. Some other ftipulations were made in
favour of the allies of England, as a fecurity for the
execution of thefe conditions.
Upon John’s return to his dominions, he found him¬
felf very ill able to ratify thofe terms of peace that had
been juft concluded. He was without finances, at the
head of an exhaufted ftate *, his foldiers without difci-
pline, and his peafants without fubordination. Thefe
had rifen in great numbers 5 and one of the chiefs of
the banditti affumed the title of TAe Friend of God
and the terror of Man. A citizen of Sens, named
John Gouge, alfo got himfelf, by means of his robbe¬
ries, to be acknowdedged king ; and he foon caufed as
many calamities by his devaftations, as the real king
had brought on by his misfortunes. Such was the
ftate of that wretched kingdom upon the return of its
captive monarch : and yet fuch was his abfurdity,
that he immediately prepared for a croifade into the
Holy Land, before he was well replaced on the throne. g_
Had his exhaufted fubje&s been able to equip him for John una-
this chimerical projedl, it is probable he would have t>Ie to pay-
gone through with it j but their miferies were fuch,^115 ranfom<
that they w'ere even too poor to pay his ranfom. This^u[nS 1°
was a breach of treaty that John would not fubmit tG;JLns‘an
and
France.
81
by Charles r , i r i
the Wife. a*ter he cloied
FRA [7
and he was heard to exprefs himfelf in a very noble
manner upon the occafion : “ Though (fays he) good
faith fhould be banilhed from the reft of the earth, yet
ftie ought ftill to retain her habitation in the bread; of
kings.” In confequence of this declaration, he ac¬
tually returned to England once more 5 and yielded
himfelf a prifoner, fince he could not be honourably
free. It is faid by fome, that his paflion for the coun-
tefs of Salifbury was the real caufe of his journey : but
we want at this time the foundations for fuch an injuri-
D;es, and is ous report. He was lodged in the Savoy, the palace
fucceeded ile refided during his captivity ; and foon
a long and unfortunate reign, by his
death, which happened in the year 1384, about the
56th,year of his age.
Charles, fumamed t/ie Wife, fucceeded his father on
the throne of France ■, and this monarch, merely by the
force of a finely conduced policy, and even though
fuffering fome defeats, reftored his country once more
to tranquillity and power. He quelled and diflipated
a fet of banditti, who had affociated themfelves under
the name of Companions, and who had long been a ter¬
ror to the peaceable inhabitants. He had them enrol¬
led into a body, and led them into the kingdom of Caf-
tile againft Peter, furnamed the Cruel, whom his fub-
jedts had dethroned, and who, by means of an alliance
with the Englifh, endeavoured to get himfelf re-inftat-
ed upon the throne. In confequence of thefe alliances,
the Englilh and French again came to an engagement 5
their armies on the one fide commanded by the Black
Prince j on the other, by Henry of Tranftamarre, and
Bertrand du Guefclin, one of the moft confummate ge¬
nerals and accompliihed charadfers of the age in which
he lived. However, the ufual good fortune of the
Englifh prince prevailed •, the French loft above 20,000
men, while only four knights and 40 private men on
the fide of the Englifh were flain.
Bad fuccefs Neverthelefs, thefe victories were attended with very
of the Eng-few good efFedls. The Englifh, by their frequent le¬
vies, had been quite exhaufted, and were unable to
continue an army in the field. Charles, on the other
hand, cautioufly forbore coming to any decifive en¬
gagement j but was contented to let his enemies wafte
their ftrength in attempts to plunder a fortified coun¬
try. When they were retired, he then was fure to
fally forth, and pofiefs himfelf of fuch places as they
were not ftrong enough to defend. He firft fell upon
Ponthieu •, the citizens of Abbeville opened their gates
to him } thofe of St Valois, Rue, and Crotoy, imitat¬
ed the example •, and the whole country was in a little
time, reduced to total fubmiffion. The fouthern pro¬
vinces were, in the fame manner, invaded by his gene¬
rals with equal fuccefs while the Black Prince, defti-
tute of fupplies from England, and wafted by a cruel
and confumptive diiorder, was obliged to return to his
native country, leaving his affairs in the feuth of France
in a defperate condition.
In this exigence, the refentment of the king of
England was excited to the utmoft pitch ; and he feem-
ed relolved to take fignal vengeance on his-enemies of
the continent. But the fortunate occafion was now
elapfed ; and all his fucceeding defigns were marked
with ill fuccefs. The earl of Pembroke and his whole
army were intercepted at fea, and taken prifoners by
Henry king of Caftile. Sir Robert Knolles, one of
lifli,
7 ] FRA
his generals on the continent, at the head of 30,000
men, was defeated by Bertrand du Guefclin 5 while
the duke of Lancafter, at the head of 25,000 men,
had the mortification of feeing his troops diminiftied
one half by flying parties, without ever coming to a
battle.
France.
At laft, the Englilh affairs were totally ruined by the
death of the Black Prince and King Edward. On re¬
ceiving this news, the armies of Charles attacked the
Englilh on all fides. One, under the command of the
duke of Burgundy, entered Artois another entered
Auvergne, under the command of the duke of Berry 5
that which afted in Guienne was commanded by the
duke of Anjou ; and the forces in Bretagne were un¬
der the conftable Guefclin : the king himlelf had a
powerful body of troops, that he might be able to re¬
pair any accident which Ihould happen through the
chance of wrar. The conftable joined the duke of
Burgundy, who found it difficult "to oppofe Sir Tho¬
mas Felton and the fenefchal of Bourdeaux. Soon
after his arrival, the conftable attacked and defeated
them, making both the commanders prifoners of wTar.
This vidlory was fo well purfued, that, at the clofe of
the campaign 1377’ Bayonne and Bourdeaux, with
the diftrifts about them, and the fortrefs of Calais
with its dependencies, were all the places left to Eng¬
land on the continent.
Thus Charles eftablifhed once more the houfe of Va-Death of
lois on the throne of France, but did not long live to charles»
enjoy his good fortune. He died in the year 1379, at
the age of 44, of the confequences of poifon formerly
given him by the king of Navarre, as has already been
mentioned. The immediate operation of this poifon
had been fufpended by the fkill of a phyfician fent by
the emperor Charles IV. He opened an iffue in his
arm, the running of which preferved his life j but the
phyfician declared, that whenever it fhould dry up, the
confequence would be fatal. Not long before his
death, Charles had commenced a procefs againft the
king of Navarre for this crime. Several of the afl«~
ciates of the latter fuffered on this occafion, and the
king himfelf was deprived of his poffeflions in Nor¬
mandy, as well as his lordihip of Montpelier, which
had been given him in lieu of the counties of Cham¬
pagne and Brie, and the duchy of Burgundy which S4
he had claimed. He did not long furvive the death of and of the
the French monarch whom he deftreyed. His death kin& °^^a“
was lingular and very terrible; for having been afflid- varre'
ed with the leprofy, he had been obliged to make ufe
of fome bandages dipped in fulphur, and afterwards
fteeped in brandy. Thefe took fire by the careleffnefs
of a page, and the unfortunate prince was burnt to
death.
Charles V. wxis fucceeded by his fon Charles VI. fur-Reign^of
named the Well-beloved, who at the time of his acceflion Charles VL
to the throne was only 1 2 years of age. The duke of
Anjou, eldeft brother to the late king, had been ap¬
pointed guardian during the minority of the prince j
but he being totally unfit for the office, and diftin-
guifhed only for his rapacity and ambition, readily re-
ngned his charge to the dukes of Burgundy and Bour¬
bon, the former uncle to the king by his father’s fide,
the latter by his mother’s. None of thefe tutors, how¬
ever, proved faithful to the truft repofed in them. The
duke of Anjou feized the plate and treafurfs of the
late ;•
F R A t ?8 ] FRA
France, late king, hi order to fupport his ambitious enter-
—v'   pnfes. ‘ At that time Joan, infamous for her profli¬
gacy, reigned in Naples. She had appointed one
Charles Durazzo, who was her relation, to fucceed her
in the throne 5 but the inhuman wretch murdered his
benefaftrefs, who with her laft breath revoked her
grant of the kingdom to him, and beftowed it upon
the duke of Anjou. His influence at the French
court enabled him to wafte the treafures of the king¬
dom in fupport of his pretenfions; though he proved
ultimately unfuccefsful, his forces being conftantly de¬
feated, and his defigns frufl rated by the fuperior Ikill
of his adverfary. The duke of Burgundy, inflead of
inftru&ing his pupil in the ways of virtue, indulged
him in every kind of vicious pleafure, hoping thereby
to gain his favour afterwards. The citizens of Paris,
oppreffed by taxes, broke out into tumults, and were
quelled with difficulty *, while the mal-adminiftration of
S5 Philip the duke of Burgundy foon involved the nation
Flanders in hoftilities with the Flemings. Philip invaded their
invaded, country at the head of an army of 80,000 men, along
with whom was the young king, accompanied by the
principal nobility of France. The firft operations of
war were favourable to the Flemings 5 but they were at
length totally defeated on the banks of the river Lis,
•where their leader, with 25,000 of his followers, periffi-
ed. This viftory was followed by the fubmiffion of
the whole country ; but the fatisfa&ion of the king at
this event was difturbed by new feditions and revolts
in the city of Paris, and other great towns of the
kingdom. His return, however, at the head of a vic¬
torious army, foon reduced them to their duty, and fe-
veral of the revolted cities were feverely puniffied ; at
the fame time that the death of the duke of Anjou hav¬
ing freed him from the immediate dependence on his
tutors, he affumed the reins of government into his own
hands in the year 1384.
The genius which Charles began to difplay in his
early years, raifed the hopes of the nation *, but thefe
were foon overcaft, and greater misfortunes than ever
were now about to enfue. The young king, whofe
marriage began to be a fubjedl of attention to the
council, refufed to comply with the forms in ufe
g among his predeceffors, and infilled upon feeing the
Marries perfon defigned for his confort. An interview was
Tfabella accordingly contrived betwixt him and Ilabelia daugh-
daughter toter to tjle ^uke 0f Bavaria ; where he fell in love with
Bavaria6 ^ t5iat: PrinciA and afterwards married her. His admi-
'ar ‘ nillration was for fome time prudent and vigorous.
He conciliated the affe&ions of his people by reftoring
their privileges, punilhing their oppreffors, and reliev¬
ing them from the taxes which had been impofed in
his minority. He reduced the Flemings to fubmit to
the authority of his unde the duke of Burgundy ; de¬
tached 15,000 archers and 1500 men at arms to affilt
the Scots in their incurfions into England ^ and in
1385 fitted out a prodigious armament agalnft Eng¬
land. A vail fleet was aftembled in the harbour of
Sluys, and a very numerous army in the neighbour¬
hood. According to fome writers, the armament con-
lilled of 1200 fliips, 20,000 foot differently armed,
20,000 cavalry, and 20,000 crofs-bow-men. There
was befides a vaft wooden edifice or floating town,
which was contrived for the prote&ion of the foldiers
when landed: but all thefe preparations were at laff
2
brought to nothing through the obftinacy of the duke France,
of Berry ; who, having been originally againfl: this -—v~~~
meafure, carried on his part of the armament fo flow-
ly, that he did not arrive at Sluys till the middle of
September, when the feafon was fo far advanced, that
no invalion was praflicable. A llorm that happened
foon after, drove the greateil part of the fleet on
Ihore, and beat the wooden edifice all to pieces ; the
remains of which the king beftowed on the duke of
Burgundy, to whom he gave alio the port of Sluys,
which was then very commodious, and of the utmoit
importance.
The deftruftion of the French fleet was only a pre¬
lude to calamities of a more extraordinary nature. The
Sieur de Craon, a profligate nobleman, had been in-
trufted by the court of France with a confiderable fum
of money for the fupport of the duke of Anjou, at
the time he wras reduced to diftrefs by his Italian ex¬
pedition. This money he had diffipated at Venice j
but, by the credit of the duke of Orleans, the king's
brother, he had obtained his pardon, and returned to
court. Here he attempted to gratify his private re-
fentment by the affaffination of Oliver Cliffon the con-
ftable, whom he fufpefted of having promoted his dif-
grace. This veteran hero wras attacked, on his return
from the hotel de St Pol, by a band of 20 ruffians,
againft whom he defended himfelf with wonderful in¬
trepidity, when at laft he fell, after receiving more
than 50 wounds. Happily, however, he recovered
notwithftanding his being mangled in this manner j
while the affaffin, to fcreen himfelf from vengeance,
fled for prote6Hon to the duke of Britanny. The king
demanded the affaffin to be given up to him in chains ",
but the duke anfwered, that he knew nothing of him :
to which the king giving no credit, marched with all
his forces into his territories. When the army arrived gg
at Mans, the king was feized with a flow fever j but j. fe;2e(j
could not be prevailed upon to reft or take phyfic. On with luna-
the 5th of Auguft 1391, having marched all day in tic fits,
the heat of the fun, a miferable, ragged, wild-looking
fellow darted from behind a tree, and laying hold of
the bridle of his horfe, cried out, “ Stop ! where
are you going, king ? You are betrayed and imme¬
diately withdrew again into the wood. The king
paffed on not a little difturbed 5 and foon after one of
the pages, wffio rode behind and carried his lance,
overcome with heat, fell afleep, and let it fall upon the
helmet which was carried by the other. The king,
hearing the noife, looked about 5 and perceiving the
page lifting the lance, killed him immediately : then
riding furioufly with his fword drawm, he ftruck on
every fide of him, and at every perfon, till he broke
his fword ; upon which one of his gentlemen leaped up
behind him and held his arm. He fell foon after, and
lay as if he had been dead ; fo that being taken up and
bound in a waggon, he wTas carried back to Mans,
where he lay twro days in a lethargy, after which he
came a little to himfelf, and expreffed great concern at
the blood he had ffied in his delirium. The people
who had expreffed the greateft concern for his diftem-
per, were equally rejoiced at the news of his recove¬
ry •, but unfortunately it w7as loon difcovered, that he
no longer poffelfed that ftrength of judgment and un-
derftanding for which he had formerly been remark¬
able. Hence a regency became indifpenfably neceffary;
and
FRA
[ 79 ]
FRA
France, and the competition for it brought to light the cha-
1' rafters of the queen and duke of Orleans, which had
s9 not hitherto been difplayed to public view. The for-
fes about a mer t^e^e was a mo^ beautiful and accomplithed
regency. princefs j but vindictive, violent, and intriguing : in-
fenfible to natural affedtion, but eafily acceffible to
flattery, and ready to yield to every impulfe of law-
lefs padion. The duke of Orleans was equally re¬
markable for his perfonal accomplifhments, and had
married Valentina daughter of the duke of Milan •, but
his engagements with that princefs did not prevent him
from engaging in a number of licentious amours, and
among the reft, as was fuppofed, with his filter-in-law
Ifabella. During the king’s illnefs he openly afpired
at the regency; but his pretenfions were overruled
by the dates, the adminiftration of affairs being for
the prefent conferred on the duke of Burgundy. In a
few months indeed the health and underftanding of the
king feemed to be fufficiently reltored : but in the year
x 393 it was again difturbed by an accident no lefs ex-
Anaccidenttraordinary than the former had been. An entertainment
occafions a had been given in honour of the marriage of one of the
relapfe in queen’s attendant’s. At this fix mafques entered the
the king. apartmentj difguifed like fatyrs, in linen clothes covered
with roiin, and while warm ftuck over with down. Thefe
were the king and five of his lords. The duchefs of
Berri paid attention to the king, though Ihe did not
know him, and engaged in converfation with him. In
the mean time the duke of Orleans ignorant of the con-
fequence, out of diverfion ran a lighted torch againfl
one of them. His whole drefs was inflantly in a flame,
and the fire was from him communicated to all the
reft. The mafques, notwithftanding the dreadful fitua-
tion they were in, called out, “ Save the king ; fave
the king !” on which the duchefs of Berri, recollect¬
ing that it muft be him with whom {he had engaged in
converfation, wrapped him in her cloak, and preferved
him from further danger. Only one of the reft efcap-
ed by jumping into a ciftern of water} the other four
periftied in the flames. The terror which the king un¬
derwent by this accident inftantly occafioned a relapfe ;
and he continued delirious at intervals as long as he
lived. During this ftate of infanity he was untrac-
table by every perfon except Valentina duchefs of Or¬
leans ; who feemed to have as great an influence over
him as her hufband the duke had over the mind of the
queen. So great was the power indeed which fhe had
over the king in this deplorable ftate, that in thofe fu-
perftitious times it was fuppofed by many to be the
effefl of magic. Others, with more probability, afcribed
it to her fuperior charms as a woman ; and this idea in¬
ftantly produced her a number of enemies among her
own fex, the duchefs of Burgundy particularly ; and
the quarrel between the two ladies, foon extended itfelf
to their hufhands. Amidft their diffenfions, however,
they did not entirely negleft the adminiftration of pub¬
lic affairs ; they ftrove to conciliate the affedlion of the
parliament by preferving the rights of the commons in¬
violate •, and they endeavoured to check an inordinate
paflion for gaming which began to appear about this
time, and to fubftitute manly and martial exercifes in its
place.
During the intervals of his reafon, Charles fre¬
quently affumed the government into his own hands:
and as the war ftill continued with England, though in
a languid manner, the French monarch,. in one of t ^
thefe lucid intervals, had an interview with Richard
king of England, in order to put an end to hoftilities ’Interview
of which both were equally weary. Still, however, betwixt the
their claims were fo difficult to be adjufted, that they kings of
could do no more than conclude a truce for 25 years
during which Ipace it w7as hoped that a lading peace ®
might take place. Richard gave up Cherburg to
Charles, and Breft to the duke of Brittany : a mar¬
riage tvas alfo concluded betwixt the king of England
and Ifabella the daughter of Charles, though the latter
was then only feven years of age ; but by reafon of
the tender age of the princefs, this marriage w7as never
confummated. 93 c
During this unfortunate reign, France was ftill far-Unhappy"
ther weakened by the fuccours fent to the Hungarians ^teouh^
againft the Turks. On this fatal expedition up-
wards of 1000 of the braveft and moft experienced Himga_
knights wTere fent under the conduft of John count ofrians.
Nevers, eldeft fon of the duke of Burgundy the
count of Eu, conftable of FranceJohn de Vienne,
admiral of France ; and the count of Marche, a prince
of the blood royal; together with De Courcy, one of
the beft and moft experienced captains in Chriftendom.
The prudent counfels of this veteran, however, were
not obeyed by the youthful warriors by whom he was
accompanied. Attacking the enemy therefore rafhly,
and while heated with wine, they wrere all either killed
or taken prifoners. Notwithftanding this difafter, how¬
ever, affiftance was fent in the year 1400 to Wancef-
laus emperor of Germany $ and the duke of Orleans,
who commanded the army on this occafion, acquitted
himfelf fo well that he acquired the duchy of Luxem¬
burg for himfelf, and left his ally fatisfied : but while
the friendfhip of France was thus courted by foreign
powers, the kingdom itfelf was in the moft miferable ^
fituation. The king’s diftemper feemed daily to gain violent
ground ; while the difeordant interefts of the contend- commo-
ing parties kept the whole nation in a ferment. The
moft violent animofity took place betwixt the dukes of
Orleans and Burgundy. The former, by means of his
own intereft with the queen, and the afcendency his
duchefs had over the king, for fome time got the bet¬
ter of his rival, and was made lieutenant general and
governor of the kingdom } but having prefumed on
his power to levy new impofts on the people, and op¬
prefling alfo the churchman, whom in that fuperftiticus
age he ought by all means to have let alone, he was
deprived of his authority, and obliged to yield to the
duke of Burgundy. For fome time, however, thefe
powerful rivals were kept within fome bounds by the me¬
diation of the duke of Bourbon, who feems to have
been the only grandee who maintained a pure and un-
fpotted chara&er ; but by his death in 1404, the un¬
happy nation was left totally expofed to their relentlels
fury. In 1405, the queen and duke of Orleans again
feized the adminiftration ; but were foon deprived of it
by the unanimous voice of the people. During this
period Charles and his children were neglected and
abandoned to diftrefs; but they were relieved by the
duke of Burgundy on his obtaining the regency ; and
Ifabella, with the duke of Orleans, was obliged to retire
from Milan. A fudden return of^the king’s reafon and.
underftanding for a much longer time than ufual, now
deprived both parties of their pow7er; and the ad-
miniftraticu-
France.
94
Duke of
Orleans af-
faffinated.
95
invafion by
Henry V.
of England.
FRA"' [go
Tiiftration was vefted in the queen and a council com-
pofed of princes of the blood.
The two rival dukes, thus prohibited from inter¬
fering in public affairs, exercifed themfelves in com¬
mitting hoftilities againft the Engliflq with whom the
truce had been lately concluded. They w7ere encou¬
raged to this infraction of the treaty by the unfettled
fftuation of the affairs of Henry IV. : but their at¬
tempts proving unfuccefsful, the truce was renewed af¬
ter obtaining reftoration of the princefs, who had been
married to Richard II. as has been already mentioned.
The failure of their enterprifes produced a new fcene of
difcord betwixt the dukes, who mutually threw the
blame upon each other. By the entreaties of the duke
of Berry they were apparently reconciled ; but the duke
of Burgundy pretended friend fliip only in order to take
the more fignal vengeance. To this he was now fur¬
ther inflamed by jealoufy. Having hired a band of
ruffians to execute his bloody purpofe, the duke was
one evening attacked by eighteen of them while at¬
tended only by two pages. A Norman gentleman
whom the duke had deprived of an employment, head¬
ed the affaffms, and in perfon attacked the duke. At
the firff _ blow he cut off his hand, at the fecond he
ilruck him from his mule, and at the third put an end
to his life. His wife Valentina was fo concerned at his
death, that ffie died loon after. The duke of Bur¬
gundy efcaped to Flanders j and the whole nation was
rent into two faClions, called the Burgundians and Ar~
magnacs ; the latter being the title of the party of the
duke of Orleans, from Armagnac the father-in-law of
that prince. A dreadful confufion enfued : the duke
of Burgundy foon returned to France, and extorted a
pardon from the unhappy king, who was now no
longer able to refill him : and we may have fome no¬
tion of the Hate of the kingdom in general from being
told, that 2000^ people periflied in one tumult in the
capital. The king himfelf was alternately the prifoner
of each party, and alternately transferred the power
from the one to the other as he happened to fall into
their hands. This therefore ■was thought by Henry V.
of England, a favourable opportunity to recover from
France thofe grants that had been formerly given up
by treaty. But previoufly, to give his intended expe¬
dition the appearance of juftice, he fent over ambaffa-
dors to Paris, offering a perpetual peace and alliance,
on condition of being put in poffeffion of all thofe pro¬
vinces which had been ravilhed from the Englifh du¬
ring ^fome former reigns, and of efpoufing Catharine,
the brench king’s daughter, in marriage, with a fuit-
able dowry. 1 hough the French court wras at that
time extremely averfe to war, yet the exorbitance of
thefe demands could not be complied with ; and Henry
very probably made them in hopes of a denial. He
theiefoie affembled a great fleet and army at South¬
ampton j and having allured all the military men of
the kingdom to attend him, from the hopes of con-
queft, he put to fea, and landed at Harfleur, at the
head of an army of 6ooo men-at-arms, and 24,000 foot
moftly archers. ’
His firft operations were upon Harfleur ; which be¬
ing preffed hard, prorxfifed at a certain day to furren-
der unlefs relieved before that time. The day arriv-
the garrifon, unmindful of their engagement
-foil refolving to defend the place, Henry ordered an
]
FRA
affault to be made, took the town by fform, and put
all the garnion to the (word. From thence the vic¬
tor advanced farther into the country, which had been
already rendered defolate by faftions, and which he
now totally laid walle. But although the enemy made
a feeble refiftance j yet the climate feemed to fight
again ft the Engliih ; a contagious dyfentery carrying
o£i three parts of Henry’s army. In this fituation
France,
he had recourfe to an expedient common enough in that
barbarous age, to infpire his troops with confidence in
their general. He challenged the dauphin, who com-
manded in the French army, to fingle combat, offer¬
ing to flake his pretenfions on the event. This chal¬
lenge, as might naturally be expe&ed, was reje&ed ;
and the Irench, though difagreeing internally, at lali
leemed to unite at the appearance of the common
danger. A numerous army of 14,000 men at arms,
and 40,000 foot, was by this time affembled under the
command of Count Albert, and was now placed, to in¬
tercept Henry’s weakened forces on their return. The
Englifh monarch, when it was too late, began to re¬
pent of his rafh inroad into a country where difeafe
and a powerful army everywhere threatened deftruc-
tion ; he therefore thought of retiring into Calais. In
this retreat, which was at once both painful and dan¬
gerous, Henry took every precaution to infpire his
troops with patience and perfeverance 5 and fhowed
them in his own perfon the brightefl example of forti¬
tude _ and refignation.. He was continually harajfed
on his march by flying parties of the enemy 5 and
whenever he attempted to pafs the river Somme, acrofs
which his march lay, he faw troops on the other fide
ready to oppofe his paffage. However, he was fo for¬
tunate as to feize by furprife a paffage near St Quint in,
which had. not been .fufficiently guarded \ and there he
fafely carried over his army.
But the enemy was Hill reiolved to intercept his re¬
treat . and after he had paffed the fmall river of Ter-
trois at Blangi, he was furprifed to obferve from the
heights the whole French army drawn up in the plains
of Agincourt; and fo polled, that it was impoflible for Battf/of
him to proceed on his march, without coming to an vgincourt,
engagement. A battle accordingly took place, in
which the Englifh gained a vidory, the mofl remark¬
able perhaps, of any recorded in hiflory j an account
of which is given under the article Agincourt.
This victory, gained on the 25th of Oaober 141 5,
w7as however attended with no immediate effedls!
Henry Hill continued to retreat, after the battle of
Agincourt, out of the kingdom 5 and carried his pri-
foners to Calais, and from thence to England. In ^
.1417, he once more landed an army of 25,000 men lafd^ae-ai*
in Normandy j and prepared to flrike a decifive blow in Nor-"
for the crown of I ranee, to which the Englifh mo-mar‘dy.
narchs had long made pretenfions. That wretched
country was now in a mofl deplorable fituation. The
whole kingdom appeared as one vaft theatre of crimes
murders, injuflice, and devaflation. The duke of Or¬
leans was affaffinated by the duke of Burgundy ; and
the duke of Burgundy, in his turn, fell by the treach¬
ery of the dauphin. At the fame time, the duke’s
fon, defirous of revenging his father’s death, entered
into a fecret treaty with the Engliih; and a league was
immediately concluded at A.rras, betwTeen Flenrv and
the young duke of Burgundy, in which the king pro-
mifed
FRA [8
France, mi fed to revenge the murder of the late duke j and
* v ' the fon fecmed to infift upon no further ftipulations.
Henry, therefore, proceeded in his conquelis without
much oppofition from any quarter. Several towns and
provinces fubmitted on his approach ; the city of Rou¬
en was befieged and taken : Pontoife and Gifors he
foon became mafter of. hie even threatened Paris by
the terror of his power, and obliged the court to re¬
move to Troyes. It was at this city that the duke of
Burgundy, who had taken upon him the prote&ion
of the French king, met Henry in order to ratify that
treaty which was formerly begun, and by which the
crown of Fiance was to be transferred to a ftranger.
The imbecility into which Charles had fallen, made
him padive in this remarkable treaty; and Henry dic¬
tated the terms throughout the whole negotiation.
The principal articles of this treaty were, That Henry
ihould efpoufe the princefs Catharine; that King Charles
iliould enjoy the title and dignity of king for life ; but
that Henry fhould be declared heir to the crown, and
Ihould be intruded with the prefent adminiftration of
the government j that France and England fhould for
ever be united under one king, but fhould dill retain
their refpeftive laws and privileges j that Henry fhould
unite his arms with thofe of King Charles and the
duke of Burgundy, to deprefs and fubdue the dauphin
and his partifans.
He marries ^ was not ^on£ a^ter treatyj that Henry mar-
the Pnncefs tied the princefs Catharine ; after which he carried his
Catharine, father-in-law to Paris, and took a formal poffeffion of
that capital. There he obtained from the edates of
the kingdom a ratification of the late compaft j and
then turned his arms with fuccefs againd the adhe¬
rents of the dauphin 5 vrho, in the mean time, wan¬
dered about a dranger in his own patrimony, and to
his enemies fuccedes only oppofed fruitlefs expodu-
lations.
Henry’s fupplies wrere not provided in fuch plenty
as to enable him to carry on the war without return¬
ing in perfon to prevail upon his parliament for fredr
fuccours; and, upon his arrival in England, though
he found his fubje&s highly pleafed wdth the fplendour
of his conqueds, yet they feemed fomewEat doubtful
as to the advantage of them. A treaty, wdiich in its
confequences was likely to transfer the feat of empire
from England, was not much relifhed by the parlia¬
ment. They therefore, upon various pretences, refufed
him a fupply equal to his exigencies or his demands •,
but he was refolved on purfuing his fchemes j and,
joining to the fupplies granted at home, the contribu¬
tions levied on the conquered provinces, he was able
once more to ademble an army of 28,000 men, and
with thefe he landed fafely at Calais.
In the mean time, the dauphin, a prince of great
prudence and aftivity, omitted no opportunity of re¬
pairing his ruined fituation, and to take the advantage
of Henry’s abfence from France. He prevailed upon
the regent of Scotland to fend him a body of 8000 men
from that kingdom ; and with thefe, and fome few
forces of his owm, he attacked the duke of Clarence,
who commanded the troops in Henry’s abfence, and
gained a complete vi£lory.
This was the firft action which turned the tide of
fuccefs againft the Englifb. But it was of fiiort dura¬
tion : for Henry foon after appearing with a confider-
Vol. IX. Part I.
I ] FRA
able army, the dauphin fled at his approach 5 while Franc-,
many of the places, which held out for the dauphin ' ' v ^
in the neighbourhood of Paris, fiirrendered to the con¬
queror. In this manner, while Flenry wTas everywhere
victorious, he fixed his refidence at Paris ; and while
Charles had a ftnall court, he was attended with a
very magnificent one. On Whitfunday 1421, the two
kings and their tw7o queens with crowns on their heads
dined together in public •, Charles receiving apparent
homage, but Henry commanding with abfolute autho¬
rity.
In the mean time, the dauphin was chafed beyond
the Loire, and almoft" totally difpoffeffed of all the
northern provinces. He was even purfued into the
fouth, by the united arms of the Englifh and Burgun¬
dians, and threatened with total deitruCHon. In this
exigence, he found it neceffary to fpin out the war, and
to evade all hazardous actions with a rival who had
been long accuftomed to victory. His prudence was
everywhere remarkable ; and, after a train of long
perfecutions from fortune, he found her at length wil¬
ing to declare in his favour, by the death of the king
of England. (|()
Charles VI. died a fhort time after j and Charles VII. Death of
fucceeded his father to a nominal throne. Nothing Henrv and
could be more deplorable than the fituation of that
monarch on affuming his title to the crown. The Eng-
lifii were mailers of almofl all France 5 and" Flenry VI.
though yet but an infant, was lolemnly invefted with
regal power by legates from Paris. The duke of Bed¬
ford was at the head of a numerous army, in the heart
of the kingdom, ready to oppofe every infurreClion j
while the duke of Burgundy, who had entered into a
firm confederacy with him, Hill remained iledfaft, and
feconded his claims. Yet, notwithflanding thefe fa- 100
vourable appearances, Charles found means to break Defperate
the leagues formed again!! him, and to bring back his ,:tuat'on (,i;
fubjeds to their natural interefls and their duty. Charles
However, his firft attempts were totally deflitute of
fuccefs. Wherever he endeavoured to face the enemy
he was overthrown, and he could fcarcely rely on the
friends next his perfon. Flis authority was infulted
even by his own fervants j advantage after advantage
was gained agamft him 5 and a battle fought near Ver-
neuil, in which he was totally defeated by the duke of
Bedford, feemed to render his affairs altogether defpe-
rate. But from the impoflibility of the Englifh keep¬
ing the field without new fupplies, Bedford was obli¬
ged to retire into England j and in the mean time, his
vigilant enemy began to recover from his late confler-
nation. Dumois, one of his generals, at the head of
1000 men, compelled the earl of Warwick to raife
the fiege of Montargis •, and this advantage, flight as
it was, began to make the French fuppofe that the
Englifh were not invincible. ror
But they foon had flill greater reafon to triumph in The French
their change of fortune, and a new revolution was pro-®^airs^"
duced by means apparently the moil unlikely to be at- ti'ii
tended with fuccefs. In the village of Domremi, near 0f Orleans..
Vaucouleurs, on the borders of Lor rain, there lived a
country girl, about 27 years of age, called Joan de
Arc. This girl had been a fervant at a fmall inn} and
in that humble flation had fubmitted to thofe hardy
employments which fit the body for the fatigues of
war. She was of an irreproachable life, and hf*d hi-
L the.t®
FRA
tlierto teftified none of thofe enterprifing qualities
which difplayed themfelves foon after. She content¬
edly fulfilled the duties of her fituation, and was re¬
markable only for her modefty and love of religion.
But the miferies of her country feemed to have been
one of the greatefl obje&s of her compaflion and re¬
gard. Pier mind, inflamed by thefe objedls, and brood¬
ing with melancholy ftedfaftnefs upon them, began to
feel feveral impulfes, which fhe was willing to miftake
for the infpirations of heaven. Convinced of the rea¬
lity of her own admonitions, fhe had recourfe to one
Baudricourt, governor of Vaucouleurs, and informed
him of her deltination by heaven to free her native
country of its fierce invaders. Baudricourt treated
her at firft with negleft: but her importunities at
length prevailed; and willing to make a trial of her
pretenfions, he gave her fome attendants, who con¬
duced her to the court, which at that time refided at
Chinon.
The French court wTere probably fenfible of the
weaknefs of her pretenfions j but they w^ere willing to
make ufe of every artifice to fupport their declining
fortunes. It was therefore given out, that Joan w^as
adually infpired ; that fhe had been able to difcover
the king among the number of his courtiers, although
he had laid afide all the diftinCions of his authority $
that fhe had told him fome fecrets, which were only
known to himfelfj and that fire had demanded, and
minutely defcribed, a fword in the church of St Ca¬
tharine de Fierbois, which fhe had never feen. In this
manner, the minds of the vulgar being prepared for
her appearance, fhe w^as armed cap-a-pee, and fhown
in that martial drefs to the people. She wTas then
brought before the doCors of the univer'fity j and they,
tinCured with the credulity of the times, or willing to
fecond the impoflure, declared that fhe had aCually
received her commiflion from above.
When the preparations for her miflion w^ere com¬
pletely blazoned, the next aim was to fend her againft
the enemy. The Englifh were at that time befieging
the city of Orleans, the lafl refource of Charles, and
every thing promifed them a fpeedy furrender. Joan
undertook to raife the fiege •, and to render herfelf ftill
more remarkable, girded herfelf with the miraculous
Sword, of which fhe before had fuch extraordinary no¬
tices. Thus equipped, fhe ordered all the foldiers to
confefs themfelves before they fet out; fhe difplayed in
her hand a confecrated banner, and affured the troops
of certain fuccefs. Such confidence on her fide foon
raifed the fpirits of the French army j and even the
Englilh, who pretended to defpife her efforts, felt
themfelves fecretly influenced with the terrors of her
miffion. A lupply of provifions was to be conveyed
into tne town j, Joan, at the head of fome French
troops, covered the embarkation, and entered Orleans
at the head, of the convoy which fhe had fafely pro-
tetled. While fne was leading her troops along, a dead
filence and afionifhment reigned among the Encdifh •
and tney regarded with religious awe that temerity,
which they thought nothing but fupernatural affiffance
could infpire. But they were foon roufed from their
ftate of amazement by a fally from the town ; Joan led
on the befieged, bearing the facred ftandard in her hand,
encouraging them with her words and aftions, bring¬
ing them to the trenches, and overpowering the befie-*
F li A
gers in their own redoubts. In the attack of one of France,
the forts, fhe was wounded in the neck with an arrow j ’ ——y—~
but inftantly pulling out the weapon with her own
hands, and getting the wound quickly dreffed, fhe haft-
ened back to head the troops, and to plant her victo¬
rious banner on the ramparts of the enemy. Thefe fuc-
ceffes continuing, the Englifh found that it was impof-
fible to refift troops animated by fuch fuperior energy 5
and Suffolk, who conduced the attack, thinking that
it might prove extremely dangerous to remain any
longer in the prefence of fuch a courageous and victo¬
rious enemy, raifed the fiege, and retreated with all
imaginable precaution.
From being attacked, the French now in turn be¬
came the aggreffors. Charles formed a body of 6000
men, and fent them to befiege Jergeau, whither the
Englifh, commanded by the earl of Suffolk, had re¬
tired, with a detachment of his army. The city was
taken ; Suffolk yielded himfelf a prifoner ; and Joan
marched into the place in triumph at the head of the
army. A battle was foon after fought near Patay,
where the Englifh were worfled, as before j and the
generals Scales and Talbot were taken prifoners.
Hhe railing of the fiege of Orleans was one part of
the Maid’s promife to the king of France j the crown¬
ing him at Rheims was the other. She now declared
that it was time to complete that ceremony; and
Charles, in purfuance of her advice, fet out for Rheims
at the head of 12,000 men. The towns through which
he paffed opened their gates to receive him j and Rheims
fent him a deputation, with its keys, upon his ap¬
proach. The ceremony of his coronation was there
performed with the utmofl folemnity; and the Maid
of Orleans (for fo fhe was now called) feeing the com¬
pletion of her miffion, defired leave to retire, alleging
that fhe had now accomplifhed the end of her calling.
But her fervices had been fo great, that the king
could not think of parting with her 5 he preffed her to
flay fo earneflly, that fhe at length complied with his
requeft.
.A tide of fucceffes followed the performance of
this folemnity j Laon, Soiffons, Chateau-Thierri, Pro-
vins,. and many other fortreffes in that neighbourhood,
fubmitted to him on the firft fummons. On the other
hand, the Englifh, difeomfited and difpirited, fled on
every quarter ; not knowing whether to aferibe their
misfortunes to the power of forcery or to a celeflial
influence ; but equally terrified at either. They now
found themfelves deprived of the conquefts they had
gained, in the fame manner as the French had former¬
ly fubmitted to their power. Their own divifions,
both abroad and at home, unfitted them entirely for
carrying on the war j and the duke of Bedford, not-
withflanding all his prudence, faw himfelf divefled of
his ftrong holds in the country, without being able to 102
flop the enemy’s progrefs. In order therefore, to re- Henry VI.
vive the declining ftate of his affairs, he refolved to°^nS^an^
have Henry crowned king at Paris, knowing that
natives would be allured to obedience by the fplendour France,
of the ceremony. In 1430, Henry was accordingly
crowned, all the vaflals that ftill continued under the
Englifh power fwearing fealty and homage. But.it
was now too late for the ceremonies of a coronation to >
give a turn to the affairs of the Englifh j the genera¬
lity of the kingdom had declared againft them, and the
remainder
[ 82 ]
FRA
[ 83 ]
F R A
103
Maid of
Orleans
taken pri-
foner.
France, remainder only waited a convenient opportunity to fol-
iovv the example.
An accident enfued foon after, which, though it pro-
mifed to promote the Englilh caufe in France, in the
end ferved to render it odious, and conduced to the
total evacuation of that country. The duke of Bur¬
gundy, at the head of a powerful army, had laid liege
to Compeignj and the Maid of Orleans had thrown
herfelf into the place, contrary to the wifhes of the
governor, who did not defire the company of one
whofe authority would be greater than his own. The
garrifon, however, were rejoiced at her appearance,
and believed themfelves invincible under her protec¬
tion. But their joy was of Ihort duration j for Joan
having the day after her arrival headed a fally, and
twdee driven the enemy from their intrenchments, Ihe
was at lad obliged to retire, placing herfelf in the rear,
to protect the retreat of her forces. But in the end,
attempting to follow her troops into the city, Hie found
the gates Ihut, and the bridge drawn up by order of
the governor, wTho is faid to have long wifhed for an
opportunity of delivering her up to the enemy.
Nothing could exceed the joy of the befiegers, in
having taken a perfon who had been fo long a terror
to their arms. The fervice of Te Deum wras publicly
celebrated on this occafion; and it wras hoped, that the
capture of this extraordinary perfon would reft ore the
Englilh to their former victories and fuccefles. The
duke of Bedford was no fooner informed of her being
taken, than he purchafed her of the Count Vendome,
who had made her his prifoner, and ordered her to be
committed to clofe confinement. The credulity of
both nations wras at that time fo great, that nothing
wras too abfurd to gain belief that coincided with their
paflions. As Joan but a little before, from her fuccef-
fes, was regarded as a faint, Ihe was now, upon her
captivity, confidered as a forcerefs, forfaken by the de¬
mon who had granted her a fallacious and temporary
afliftance. Accordingly it was refolved in council to
fend her to Rouen to be tried for witchcraft: and the
bilhop of Beauvais, a man wholly devoted to the Eng¬
lilh intereft, prefented a petition again!! her for that
purpofe. The univerfity of Paris was fo mean as to
join in the fame requeft. Several prelates, among
whom the cardinal of Winchefter wras the only Englilh-
man, wrere appointed as her judges. They held their
court at Rouen, where Henry then refided •, and the
Maid, clothed in her former military apparel, but load¬
ed with irons, was produced before the tribunal. Her
behaviour there no way difgraced her former gallantry ;
Ihe betrayed neither w^eaknefs nor womanilh fubmif-
lion } but appealed to God and the pope for the truth
of her former revelations. In the iffue, Ihe was found
guilty of herefy and witchcraft; and fentenced to be
burnt alive, the common punilhment for fuch offences.
But previous to the inflidlion of this dreadful fen-
tence upon her, they were refolved to make her abjure
her former errors j and at length fo far prevailed upon
her, by terror and rigorous treatment, that her fpirits
were entirely broken by the hardlhips Ihe was obliged
to fuffer. Her former vifionary dreams began to va-
nifh, and a gloomy diltrull to take place of her late in-
fpirations. She publicly declared herfelf willing to
recant, and promifed never more to give way to the
vain delufiotis which had hitherto milled her, and ini- France,
poled on the people. This was what her oppreffors 'r'“ '
defired ; and willing to Ihow feme appearance of mer¬
cy, they changed her fentence into perpetual imprifon-
ment, and to be fed during life on bread and water.
But the rage of her enemies was not yet fatiated. Su-
fpecling that the female drefs which Ihe had confent-
ed to wear, was difagreeable to her, they purpofely
placed in her apartment a fuit of men’s apparel, and
watched for the efleft of their temptation upon herw
Their cruel artifices prevailed. Joan, Itruck with the
fight of a drefs in which fire had gained fo much glo¬
ry, immediately threw off her penitent’s robes, and
put on the forbidden garment. Her enemies caught
her equipped in this manner $ and her imprudence was
confidered as a relapfe into her former tranfgreffions. ro^
No recantation would fuffice, and no pardon would and cruelly
be granted. She was condemned to be burnt alive in Put to
the market place of Rouen 5 and this infamous fentence ^eat^‘
was accordingly executed with moll brutal feverity.
One of the firlt misfortunes which the Englilh felt
after this punilhment, was the defe&ion of the duke
of Burgundy j who had for fome time feen the error
of his condudd, and wilhed to break an unnatural con¬
nexion, that only ferved to involve his country in ruin.
A treaty was therefore begun and concluded between
him and Charles, in which the former agreed to afliil
him in driving the Englilh out of France. This wras
a mortal blow to their caufe j and fuch was its effects
upon the populace of London when they were inform¬
ed of it, that they killed feveral of the duke of Bur¬
gundy’s fubje£ls, who happened to be among them at
the time. It might perhaps alfo have haiJened the
duke of Bedford’s death, who died at Rouen a few
days after the treaty was concluded ; and the earl of
Cambridge was appointed his fucceffor to the regency
of France. 105
From this period, the Englilh affairs became totally Affairs of
in-etrievable. The city of Paris returned once more t^ie Eng^':
to a fenfe of its duty. Lord Willoughby, who com-
manded it for the Englilh, was contented to llipulate
for the fafe retreat of his troops to Normandy. Thus
ground was continually, though llowly, gained by the
French •, and notwithftanding their fields were laid
wTalfe, and their towns depopulated, yet they found
protection from the weaknefs and divifions of the Eng-
liih. At length both parties began to grow weary
of a war, which, though carried on but feebly, was yet
a burden greater than either could fupport. But the
terms of peace infilled upon by both were fo wide of
each other, that no hopes of an accommodation could
quickly be expedted. A truce, therefore, for twenty-
two months, was concluded in 1443, which left every
thing on the prefent footing between the parties. No
fooner was this agreed upon, than Charles employed
himfelf with great indultry and judgment in repairing
thofe numberlefs ills to which his kingdom, from the
continuance of wars both foreign and domeftic, had
fo long been expofed. He eltablilhed difeipline a-
mong his troops, and juitice among his governors.
He revived agriculture, and repreffed faflion. Thus
being prepared once more for taking the field, he took
the firlt favourable occafion of breaking the truce } and
Normandy was at the fame time invaded by four
L 2 powerful
FRA [ 84 ] F R A
Fr^tvea.
Dome ft ic
anisfortunes
and death
CUatles.
powerful armies; one commanded by Cliarles liimfelf,
a iecond by the duke of Brittany, a third by the count
of Alen^on, and a fourth by the Count Dunois. Every
place opened its gates almch as foon as the French
appeared before them. Rouen was the only one that
promifed to hold out a fiege ; but the inhabitants cla¬
moured fo loud for a furrender, that the duke of So-
merfet, who commanded the garrifon, was obliged to
capitulate. The battle, or rather the Ikirmith, of
Fourmingi, was the laft Hand which the Engliih made
in defence of their French dominions. However, they
were put to the rout, and above a thoufand were flain.
Ail Normandy and Guienne, that had fo long acknow¬
ledged fubjedition to England, were loft in the fpace
oi a year ; and the Engliih law themfelves entirely dif-
poftefled of a country which for above three centuries
■ hey had confidered as annexed to their native domi¬
nions. Calais alone remained of all their conquefts j
and this was but a fmall compenfation for the blood
and treafure which had been laviftied in that country, and
only ferved to gratify ambition with a tranfient applaufe.
rims, in the year 1450, the power of the Englilh
in France was entirely deftroyed ; and Charles deferv-
edly obtained the furname of Victorious, on account of
the vigour he had fhown in driving out the invaders of
nis country. His fatisfaftion, however, -was now
greatly diminifhed by domeftic misfortunes. The dau¬
phin, forgetting the allegiance and filial duty he owed
to his father, had already impeded his conquefts by his
feditious intrigues. He had ufed every endeavour to
thwart the defigns of his minifters, and it was fuppof-
ed that he had deftroyed Agnes Soreille his father’s
favourite miftrefs by poifon. He had married Char¬
lotte daughter to the duke of Savoy 5 which Charles
had refented by a declaration of war againft the duke,
but had been perfuaded to recal it in order to profe-
eute the war againft Guienne, which made part of the
dominions of the Englith. At laft, weary of the dif-
obedience of his fon, he commanded him to be arrefted \
but Louis, informed of his defign, withdrew to Franche
Comte, and afterwards to Brabant ; of which the duke
of Burgundy (at this time fovereign of the country)
was no fooner apprifed, than he ordered him to be
fupplied with every neceffary, and treated with all
imaginable refpeCl. He refufed to fee him, however,
until he Ihould obtain the approbation of his father ;
on which Louis, having in vain attempted to draw the
duke into a participation of his crimes, employed him-
fell in fowing diffenfion betwixt his benefaffor and his
ion the count of Charolois, at the very time that he
lumfelf was receiving a penfion of 12,00c crowns an¬
nually from the father. Thus he at laft deftroyed the
domeftic peace of his benefactor, while his unnatural
behaviour created continual fufpicions in the mind of
his father. Charles was repeatedly informed that his
own dcmeftics, along with his undutiful fon, were in
a confpiracy againft his life. Bhe miserable monarch,
therefore, in continual fear of being poifoned, and hav¬
ing none in whom he could repofe any confidence,
obftinately refufed for fome days to take any nouriih-
ment; and when at laft prevailed upon by the impor¬
tunities of his attendants to do fo, his ftomach had
become incapable of receiving food, fo that he died
for want of fuftenanee in the year 1461. His body,
jeeglefted by his unnatural fon, was interred at the ex¬
pence of Tannegui do Chaftel, who had been his faith- France.
ful companion.  v—
On the death of Charles, his fon Louis fucceeded tor, TF c
the throne, to which he had fo long afpired. lie Lc.nTxi
was reckoned one of the greateit politicians that ever
exifted j though his character was not on that account
the more amiable ; on the contrary, there ai'e few
princes whofe hiftory appears in a more deteftable light.
So deftitute was he of natural affe£tion, that he did
not even attempt to conceal his joy at his father’s
death. He pretended much friendlhip for the count
of Charolois, fon to the duke of Burgundy, on ac¬
count of the protediion he had received at his father’s
court 5 and even conferred upon him a penfion of
12,000 crowns annually : but all this (how of affec¬
tion foon degenerated into a mortal averfion on both
fides. Some differences which took place between the
courts of France and Caftile produced an interview
betwixt the two monarchs, Louis, and Henry fur-
named the Impotent. They met at Mauleon on the
confines of Navarre : but their negotiations came to
nothing, and they parted with a mutual contempt of
each other ; Henry defpifing the mean and fordid ap¬
pearance of Louis, as he in his turn did the gaudy
magnificence of Henry. In his negotiations with the
duke of Burgundy, Louis proved more fuccefsful ; per-
fuading him to reftore fome towns on the river Somme,
which had been ceded by Charles VII. and by the
poffeflion of which the duke was in effedt mafter of
Picardy. This ceflion was oppofed by the count of
Charolois ; but Louis, by corrupting John de Croy
the duke’s minifter, obtained his end j and for the fum
of 400,000 crowns the cities were delivered to him.
By this tranfadlion he effedlually enfured the hatred of
Charolois : and even in that very tranfaclion the dupli¬
city of Louis was eminently difplayed j for though he
had agreed to retain in thofe towns the officers ap¬
pointed by the duke, he was no fooner in poffeffion of
them than he difplaced them all, and nominated others
in their ftead. ^
The duchy of Brittany was at this time governed Formidable
by Francis, a weak but generous prince, and whole confederacy
defedl of capacity was fupplied by the abilities of his againft
minifters. Him Louis infulted in the moft grievous
manner 5 and as Francis found himfelf unable to op-
pofe fuch a powerful adverfary alone, he joined in a
clofe alliance with the dake of Burgundy and the
count of Charolois *, the latter having been grievoufly
offended with Louis, and even accufed him of attempt¬
ing his life. The confpiracy was joined by feveral of
the principal French nobility, who had been oppref-
fed by the king •, and though the fecret was confided
to upwards of 500 perfons, not one of them ever di¬
vulged it. Louis finding matters become very critical,
marched with an army towards the capital, which the
count of Charolois already infulted. A battle enfued,
in which both princes exerted themfelves to the, ut-
moft, though their valour was but ill feconded by
the bravery of their troops. About 1500 periled on
each fide ; but the count of Charolois remained mafter
of the field of battle. Louis, however, after this en¬
gagement, entered the capital: where he endeavoured,
by every kind conceffion he could think of, to con¬
ciliate the affeftion of his fubje&s ; in which he fucr
ceeded fo well, that though the army of infurgents
was
FRA
[ 85
France, was foon augmented to more than 100,000 men, they
were unable to make themielves mailers of the city.
At laft a treaty was let on foot betwixt Louis and the
count of Charolois ; by which the latter obtained the
towms which had been formerly ceded, with the di-
flricls of Boulogne, Guifne, Peronne, Mondidior, and
Roye, as a perpetual inheritance for himfelf. By
granting favours to the other confederates, the league
1IO wras broken ; and the moment that Louis found him-
Treachery felf freed from danger, he protefted againft the whole
of Louis.J treaty in the prefence of feme confidential members of
parliament, as contrary to the intereil of the crown j
and therefore waited the firft favourable opportunity
to cruih one by one thole wdro had been ready by their
united efforts to deftroy himfelf. The duke of Bour¬
bon, one of the moil able of the confederates, was
gained over, by bellowing upon him in marriage, Jane
the natural daughter of Louis himfelf, with the downy
/ of Uffon in Auvergne j together with Moras, Beau-
repaire, and Cormillon in Dauphiny j while, by the dif-
contents betwixt the dukes of Brittany and Normandy,
he was enabled to fecure the neutrality of the former,
and to recover from the latter fome territories which
he had unwillingly ceded to him.
In 1467, Philip duke of Burgundy, from his amiable
qualities fumamed The Good, died, and left his domi¬
nions to his fon Charles count of Charolois. That
fiery and impetuous prince, jealous of the growing
power of France, and an implacable enemy of Louis,
had entered into a fecret treaty with Francis ; but
Louis had driven the Bretons from the polls they oc¬
cupied in Normandy before the duke of Burgundy
could pafs the Somme. The king, however, alarmed
at the power of the confederates, concluded a peace
with Brittany ; and, confiding in his talents for nego¬
tiation, determined to have a perfonal interview with
the duke of Burgundy.
Louis im- This memorable interview took place in the year
prifoned by 1468; and Peronne, a city of Picardy, but belong-
Charles. ing to the duke of Burgundy, was appointed as the
place of rendezvous. To this place the politic Louis
repaired with a {lender train, and attended only by
Cardinal Balue, the duke of Bourbon, and the count
de St Pol, conftable of France ; feemingly without re-
flefling that he was entering a hoilile city, where he
might be confined for any length of time, or treated at
the pleafure of the duke, who wras his mortal enemy.
Indeed he had not long been in the place when he be¬
gan to fee the error of his condudl; and by the daily
concourfe of Burgundian lords and other perfons of
rank, wrho were his avowed enemies, he became
alarmed for his. perfonal fafety. His fear now fug-
gelled to him a worfe meafure than even the former 4
and he. requefted apartments in the callle, where it
was in the power, of his rival in a moment to make him
a clofe prifoner. This event accordingly took place,
and that through the arts and machinations of Louis
himfelf. His defign had been from the beginning to
keep the duke of Burgundy conftantly employed in
domeftic wars. For this purpofe he had, before his
interview with Charles, excited the inhabitants of
Liege, who were fubje£l to the duke of Burgundy, to
revolt. It is moll probable, that he did not imagine
the effefls of this treachery would fo foon begin to
appear. At the very time, however, that Louis was
o 3 FRA
in the callle of Peronne, the people of Liege revolted, Frnm ?.
leized the bilhop and governor 5 and having maffacred
great numbers of the adherents of Charles, retired
with the priloners they had made to the capital.
Charles was foon informed of this inaffacre, with the
additional circumftance, that the ambaffadors of Louis
were feen animating the infurgents to their work of
dellruclion. He then llew into a tranfport of rage 5
commanded the gates of the cattle to be Unit and
Itriftly guarded j denouncing the fevereft vengeance
on the perfidious monarch who had fo often deceived
him. Louis, however, though greatly, and no doubt
very jultly, alarmed, did not neglefl to take the pro¬
per methods for fecuring himfelf. He dillributed large
fums of money among thofe officers to whom he ima¬
gined the duke was moll inclined to pay any regard,
and by fplendid proraifes and prefents endeavoured to
allay the refentment of his ether enemies. At laft the 112
refentment of Charles having fubfided, he entered into A treaty
a treaty with the king, and concluded it upon much LouiTatad
the fame terms as thofe which had been agreed upon (jjiarjej_
before. His refentment, however, {{ill manifefted it-
felf fo far, that he infilled upon Louis being prefent '
at the puniffiment he inflifled upon the inhabitants of
Liege for the maffacre they had committed, and of
which we have already taken notice. This was agreed'
to : the two princes formed the fiege of the city in
conjunflion •, and, notwithftanding the obftinate de¬
fence of the people, it was at laft taken by llorm, and
the inhabitants maffacred. It was not long, however,
before the new alliance was diffolved. A confederacy
againlt Louis, whom neither promifes nor treaties
could bind, wras formed betwixt his own brother the-
duke of Normandy and the duke of- Burgundy ; but
before their meafures were ripe for execution, Louis
had already commenced-hoililities. The duke of Bur¬
gundy, as a peer of France, was fummoned to parlia¬
ment 5 and on his refufal, the conftable St Pol made
himfelf mailer of St Ouintin. Several other chics
were foon after reduced 5 and Baldwin, the natural
brother of Charles, corrupted by Louis, deferted his
caufe} and the haughty fpirit of the duke was thus at
laft obliged to condefcend to folicit a peace. This,,
however, was of no long duration. Charles, encou¬
raged by the fuccefs of Edward IV. of England his
brotherdn-lawr, began once rpore to league againlt
Louis with the dukes of Brittany and of Guienne ; the
latter being the king’s brother, formerly-duke of Nor¬
mandy, but who had exchanged that duchy for the'
territory of Guienne. But wdiile the affairs of the-
confederates feemed to be in a profperous w ay, their
profpedls were fuddenly overcaft by the death of the-
duke of Guienne, which was univerfally fuppofed to
have been occalioned by poifon, and Louis was as uni¬
verfally looked upon as the author. The abbot of St
Joan d’Angeli was fixed upon as the immediate perpe¬
trator of the deed : but on the day appointed for his
trial he was found ftrangled in his cell j and this allb
rvas with great probability fuppofed to have been the
deed of Louis, who after the death of his brother in-
ftantly feized on the territory of Guienne^ and annex ¬
ed it to the- dominions of France.
By this unheard-of condudl of the French monarch,
Charles wTas exafperated to fuch a degree, that he vow¬
ed the molt dreadful vengeance againft the unhappy
people-
France.
”3 .
Furious in-
vafion of
I ranee by
C3iarle< of
Jiurgundy.
114
Invafion by
^-Edward IV
of England,
11 $
•Louis
agrees to
pay an an¬
nual pen-
fion to Ed¬
ward.
FRA [
people of France, and threatened to facrifice to the
memory of the duke of Guienne every one who now fell
into his hands. The citizens of Nefle were maflacred
without diftin&ion of fex or age ; I’eauvis refifted his
attacks j after which Charles wreaked his fury on other
places. Having entered the country of Caux, he re¬
duced the cities of Eu and St Valery, burnt Longue-
ville, and wafted the whole country as far as Rouen.
Louis, on the other hand, fteady and conftant in his
defigns, determined to diffolve the league between the
duke of Brittany and Edward IV. of England. Ac¬
cordingly he encamped with his army on the frontiers
of Brittany ; while the duke, not meeting with the
aftiftance promifed by Edward, wras obliged to confent
to a truce for a year •, and the duke of Burgundy him-
felf was obliged to follow his example, having com¬
mitted fuch devaftations as deprived him of all means
of fubfiftence in the country, fo that he could neither
advance nor retreat. In a very little time, however,
he again began to confpire with the king of England
againft Louis, and a powerful invafton was determined
upon. Edward was to crofs the fea with an army of
10,000 men, while Charles affembled all his forces to
join him. The former was alfo to fet up a claim to
the crown of France, and at lead to obtain the pro¬
vinces of Normandy and Guienne 5 the duke was to
have Champagne with fome adjacent diftrifts j to free
his dominions from homage ; and neither party was
to make peace without the confent of the other. It
was fuppofed that the duke of Brittany would na¬
turally accede to the confederacy •, and the Count de
St Pol, conftable of Fiance, had engaged to deliver
up the town of St Quintin and others which he oc¬
cupied on the river Somme. Louis, however, ftill
had the good fortune to avoid the ftorm. Charles,
inftead of advancing to the afliftance of Edward, who
had entered France at the head of 15,000 archers and
1500 men at arms, laid liege to the city of Nuiz on
the Rhine 5 while the conftable St Pol, inftead of
delivering up the towns as he had promifed, deceived
his allies, and enabled Louis to diflblve a confederacy,
which, had it been vigoroufty maintained, might have
involved him in the greateft difficulties. To procure
the departure of Edward, however, he was obliged to
confent to a tribute of 75,000 crowns, as well as to
fettle on the king himfelf 50,000 crowns for life ; be¬
trothing alfo the dauphin to the eldeft daughter of
the king of England. The duke of Burgundy ex¬
claimed loudly againft this treaty ; but Edward per-
ftfted in his refolution ; and it was accordingly exe¬
cuted at a place called J?ecquigny, near Amiens; but
in fuch a manner as ffiowed the little confidence the
two fovereigns repofed in each other. A grated bar¬
rier was ere&ed in the middle of the bridge of Pec-
quigny, between the barriers of which only a man’s
arm could pafs : the two princes appeared on the op-
pofite fides of it; and having conferred privately, and
confirmed the treaty between them, parted with many
proteftations of friendffiip ; in which, probably, neither
party was very fincere. A power was referved by Ed¬
ward, for the duke of Burgundy to accede to the
treaty } but the latter haughtily replied, that he was
able to fupport himfelf without the affiftance of Eng¬
land j and that he would make no peace with Louis
t-ill three months after the return of Edward to his own
86 ] FRA
country, lo this refolution he adhered : but no foolier France,
was the term expired, than he concluded a truce with —
Louis for nine years. The ftipulations publicly agreed
upon betwixt thefe two princes coniifted only in fome
articles for the mutual advantage of their fubje&s;
but privately they had figned others of a different na¬
ture. The conftable St Pol having rendered himfelf
obnoxious to all parties by his complicated treachery,
fled to Mons in Hainault; but the duke of Burgundy
had already confented to deliver him up on condition
of receiving his eftates and moveables as the price of
his treachery.
Thus was Louis without any other remarkable quali¬
fication than the mere arts of fallehood and duplici¬
ty* got rid of all his enemies except the duke of Bur¬
gundy, whofe growing power rendered him a conftant
objedt of jealoufy and terror. His own imprudence
and raftmefs, however, foon proved his ruin. Having char/es e*.
raflily engaged in a war with the Swifs, he was de- gages in a *
feated in the firft engagement with that martial nation, war with
with the lofs of his military cheft and baggage, with^ Swifs.
his plate and jewels, fuppofed to be the richeft in Eu¬
rope. His difappointment on this occafion was fo
great, that he was feized with a fevere ficknefs, from
which he had hardly recovered when he refumed his
mad fcheme of conquering the Swifs. Another battle
enfued j in which, after an obftinate difpute, Charles
was defeated with the lofs of 18,000 men, himfelf
efcaping with great difficulty. This difafter was fol¬
lowed by the defedlion of molt of his allies j the duke
of Lorrain recovered the city of Nancy and great part
of his dominions which Charles had feized; while the
latter, overwhelmed with ffiame and difappointment,
fpent his time in folitude and inactivity. From this
he was at laft roufed by the misfortunes which fell up¬
on him in fuch quick fucceffion. He now invefted
the city of Nancy j and in this, as well as in every
other inftance, he aCted againft; the advice of his belt
officers ; and the confequences w7ere ftill more fatal
than before. The duke of Lorrain advanced with a
ftrong body of Germans to the relief of the city, while
Charles had fcarcely 4000 men to oppofe him. His
troops were therefore eafily defeated, and himfelf, not-
withftanding the moft heroic efforts of valour, hurried
away in the crowd. The count de Campobaffo, an
Italian nobleman in whom he put a great deal of confi¬
dence, but who was in reality a traitor, had deferted
with about 80 men in the beginning of the engage¬
ment. He left 12 or 15 men about the duke’s perfon, pfe
with ftriCt orders to affaffinate him in the tumult; and finated.
this order they punctually complied with 5 the body of
Charles being found two days after the battle pierced
with three wounds.
The news of Charles’s death was received with the
moft unfeigned joy by Louis, whofe foie objeCt now
was to unite the territories of the duke of Burgundy
to his own. This might be done in two ways; oneCor/ueft of.
by a match betwixt the dauphin and Mary the heirefs Burgundy
of Burgundy ; the other, by marrying her to the duke by Louis,
of Angouleme, a prince of the royal blood of France,
and on whom Mary had fhown fome inclination to be¬
llow herfelf. The king, however, to whom duplicity
and falfehood feem to have been abfolutely neceffary,
chofe a third method, more agreeable to his charaCler.
The match wfith the dauphin was attended with fuch
circumftances
F R
France, circumitances as rendered
^'jle 0f age wag very great, the dauphin be¬
ing only eight years old, and the princefs twenty : the
Flemings were belides very much averfe from fubmit-
ting to a prince whofe powerful refources would enable
him to bpprefs their liberties ; but notwithftanding
thefe unfurmountable difficulties, Louis chofe to infill
upon the match, at the fame time that he endeavoured
to make himfelf mailer of her dominions by force of
arms. He addreffed circular letters to the principal
cities of Burgundy ; reprefenting, that the duchy had
been given by King John to the male heirs of his fon
Philip j and that now, when thefe were extincl by the
death of Charles, the territory reverted of courfe to
the crown. To render this argument more effedlual,
he corrupted the governors of fome towns, feduced
the inhabitants of others to rife againll their gover¬
nors ; whilll he himfelf at the head of an army, pre¬
pared to enforce obedience from thofe who could not
be worked upon by other methods. Thus the pro¬
vince of Burgundy was entirely reduced $ but Flanders
could not be brought under fubjeftion either by fair
means, force, or fraud. In his conduft for this pur-
pofe, indeed, Louis difplayed the moil deteltable as
well as the meanell treachery and falfehood. To ren¬
der Mary odious to her fubjedls, he negociated with
her minillers, and prevailed upon them to difclofe to
him fome of the moll important Hate fecrets ; after
which he communicated their letters to the Hates of
Flanders. This double treachery, however, did not
at prefent anfwer his purpofe. The two minillers
whom he had betrayed were indeed put to death with¬
out mercy, and that even in the prefence of their fo-
vereign : but Mary herfelf was thus induced to be-
How herfelf upon the emperor Maximilian ; and Louis
had the mortification to find that all his arts had con¬
tributed only to aggrandize a rival power, whom he
had already fufficient caufe to dread. To remedy this
overfight, he entered into an alliance with Edward IV.
of England, whom he had infpired with a jealoufy of
his brother Clarence, in order to prevent a match be¬
twixt that nobleman and the princefs Mary, which had
alfo been in agitation. Thus a peace was concluded
between the two monarchs, to continue during the life
of each, and a year after.
The marriage of Mary with Maximilian effe&ually
fecured the independence of Flanders 3 wffiile the re¬
turn of the prince of Orange to the party of that
princefs extended the flames of war once more to the
cities .of Burgundy. The French were on the point
of being totally expelled from that country, when
Maximilian unexpectedly made propofals of peace. A
truce was on this concluded between the two princes,
but without any term limited for its duration, or with¬
out any conditions flipulated in favour of the Bur¬
gundians 5 fo that the whole country was quickly after
1:9 reduced by Louis.
Tyranny king now freed from the apprehenfions of fo-
and cruelty reign enemies, turned his vindictive difpofition againft
01 bcuis. his own fubjeCls 3 over whom, under pretence of for¬
mer rebellions, he exercifed the moll infupportable ty¬
ranny. I he principal viflim to his fanguinary difpofi¬
tion on this occafion was James d’Armagnac duke of
Nemours, one of the firft noblemen in the kingdom,
but who had formerly appeared a zealous confederate boife.
A 1 87 ] FRA
it evidently impra&icable. againft him in the league in which Edward and Charles
France.
were concerned. The unfortunate nobleman, know¬
ing that vengeance was determined againll him, fled to
a fortrefs named Car!at, fituated among the mountains
of Auvergne. Here he was befieged by the Seigneur
de Beaujeu, who had married Anne the daughter of
Louis. The place, however, was almofl impregnable
to any force 3 lb that his enemies were obliged to make
the moll folemn promifes of fafety in order to induce
him to furrender himfelf. By thefe he was at laft per-
fuaded to trull himfelf in the hands of the faithlefs
tyrant 3 who no fooner had him in his power than he
fhut him up in the Baftile in an iron cage, and repri¬
manded the judges becaufe they had releafed him from
this clofe confinement during the time of his examina¬
tion. The judges reluClantly condemned him to be
beheaded : but the king’s cruelty extended beyond the
fentence 3 and he ordered the two young fons of the
duke, though yet in early childhood, to be placed di-
re&ly under the fcaffold, that they might be covered
with the blood of their father. Four thoufand perfons
are fuppofed to have periffied upon this occafion
without any form or trial : and were it not for the
concurrent teflimony of the hillorians of that age, the
inhumanities and barbarities of this monarcli are fcarce
to be credited. By thefe he broke the fpirits of the
french nobility, and*gradually extended the power of
the crown beyond all bounds 3 fo that at lafl it was li¬
mited only by the fovereign’s pleafure. Amidfl all
the perfidy and cruelty, however, for which this mo¬
narch is fo juflly to be detefled, we may on fome oc-
cafions remark a kind of magnanimity and generofity,
which we cannot but applaud. An inflance of this
was his fupporting the houfe of Medici againft Pope
Sextus, whom he obliged to defifl from his attacks,
and. to recal his fentence which he had fulminated
againfl them.
In 1479, the emperor Maximilian, who had lightly Burgundy
abandoned the duchy of Burgundy when he might unfuc.cefs*
have reduced it, now renewed his claims when it was*111? VY
no longer in his power to enforce them. After a va Maximi-
nety of a&ions of leffer note, and the deftru&ion oftian.
cities on both fides, a decifive battle was fought at
Guinegate. Here the Flemings were routed 3 but as
the French purfued with too great ardour, the infantry
of the enemy rallied, and the battle was renewed with
great flaughtef on both fides. A more decifive advan¬
tage was afterwards gained by the capture of. 80 Fle-
miffi veflels, which induced that commercial people to
think of peace. In the mean time, however, Louis,
after a life fpent in continual deceit, hypocrify, and’
cruelty, received warning of his approaching end by
a fit of apoplexy with which he was feized in the
year 1480. He lay fpeechlefs and motionlefs for trvo
days 5 after which he recovered in fome degree, but
never completely regained his health and flrength.
Flis illnefs, however, neither prevented him from pur-
fuing the fchemes of his ambition, nor from ufing the
fame methods as before to attain them. He feized,
without any pretence, the eilates of the duke of Bour¬
bon, the only nobleman in the kingdom whofe power
could give him any caufe of fufpicion ; yet, notwith-
llanding his affiduity for the interell of the dauphin,
he kept him a kind of prifoner in the caftle of Am-
permitting none but his own fervants, or per¬
fons
France.
m
Death of
Louis XL
I2Z
Reign of
( haries
VIII.
113
Pvegency of
the Lady
Beaujeu.
FRA [ 88 ] F. R A
foils of the meaneft rank, to have accefs to him. He
banilhed his own confort, the mother of the dauphin,
to Savoy, and endeavoured to infpire the prince with
averfion towards her. By the death of Charles, the
titular king of Naples, and the laft of the fecond houfe
of Anjou, he became mailer of the county of Pro¬
vence ; but his fatisfaclion on this occaiion was mar¬
red by a fecond broke of apoplexy. Still, however,
he revived, and, with his recovery, again began to pur-
fue his ambitious intrigues. The death of Mary of
Burgundy, who periihed by a fall from her horfe, in-
i pi red him with new views; and he betrothed his fon
to the infant daughter of the emperor. Thus he of¬
fended Edward IV. of England, whofe eldeft daugh¬
ter Elizabeth had been previouily contracted to the
dauphin ; and a war would have undoubtedly enfued,
had it not been for the death of the king of England.
I his rvas followed in no long time after by that of
Louis himfelf, who had in vain exhauiled the fkill of
the phyfician, and wearied the clerical order with pray¬
ers and proceflions to avert the impending broke. He
expired in the year 1483, after a reign of 23 years j
during which he was detebed by his fubjefts, whom
he had continually oppreffed ; and equally dreaded and
hated by his neighbours, whom he had conbantly de¬
ceived : notwithftanding wdiich he obtained the title
of Mo/t Chriftian from his holinefs, which his fuccef-
lors have ever after retained.
Notwithbanding the dark charafter of this prince,
it is undoubtedly to be allowed, that he laid the foun-
dations of the future greatnefs of France. By his
arts he deprived the common people of their liberty,
ciepreffed the power of the nobility, ebablifhed a band¬
ing army, and even induced the bates to render many
taxes perpetual, which formerly were only temporary,
in order to fupport the army which wras to keep them-
felves in bavery. From this time the people -were ac-
cubomed to fubmit entirely to the voice of their lo-
vereign as their only legiflator j and being always obe¬
dient in matters of the greateb confequence, they
cheerfully contributed whatever fums were required to
fulfil the king’s plealure.
Charles VIH. who fucceeded his father Louis XL
in 1483, was only 14 years of age at the time of his
lather’s death : but though he might, even at that
age, have afcended the throne without any material
violation of the laws of France, yet it was judged ne-
ceffary to. have a regent, on account of the king’s de¬
licacy of conbitution and want of education. Three
competitors appeared as candidates for this important
trub, viz. John duke of Bourbon, a prince of the
blood, and who had, till the age of 60, maintained
the mob unblemilhed character 5 Louis duke of Or¬
leans, prefumptive heir to the crown, but who from
his being only 20 years old himfelf, feemed incapaci¬
tated on that account from undertaking fuch an im¬
portant office : the third competitor was Anne the
eldeb daughter of Louis, to whom the latter had in
the lab moments of his life committed the charge of
the kingdom, with the title of governefs. The claim
of this lady was fupported by the affembly of the
bates general at Tours ; and though ffie was only en¬
tered into the 22d year of her age, it appears that the
office could net have been more properly bebowed.
Being martied to Peter of Bourbon, lire of Beaujeu,
4
her prefent title was the Lady of Beaujeu ; but ffie ap- France.
pears to have a£ted entirely independent of her hui- 
band, who was but of a moderate capacity, and in¬
deed had been recommended to her by Louis on ac¬
count of his bender abilities, leb by any other match
the houfe of Bourbon ffiould be too much aggran¬
dized. Her firb bep was to ingratiate heafelf with
the people, by fome popular ads ; among which one
was to puniffi the inbruments of her father’s cruelties.
One of thefe, named Olivier le Dian, who, from the
JJation of a barber, had raifed himfelf to tha confi¬
dence and favour of the king, and had dibinguiffied
himfelf by the invention of new modes of torture,
was publicly hanged. Another, named Jean Doyac,
who by continual ads of violence and rapacity had
oppieffed the people, was condemned, after being
whipped in all the open places or fquares of Paris, to
have one of his ears cut off, and his tongue pierced
with a hot iron 5 after which he was conveyed to his
native city of Montferrand, where he was again whip¬
ped, and his other ear cut off} after which his abates,
as well as thofe of Olivier, were confifcated. Jacques
Coitier, the phyfician of Louis, who had availed him¬
felf of the terror of death with which the king was
brongly influenced, to extort great fums of money
from him, was ordered to anfwer for the immenfe
wealth he had acquired ; but he averted the danger by-
paying a fine of 50,000 crowns.
Thus the lady de Beaujeu gained the affedion of
the people at large ; and was equally fuccefsfulin gain¬
ing over thofe who were averfe to her government.
The duke of Bourbon was made conbable, an office
which he had long defired j but the duke of Orleans
behaved in fuch a manner as to exclude all hopes of
favour. Incenfed at the determination of a trifling
difpute at tennis againb him, by the lady Beaujeu, he
exclaimed, that whoever had decided it in that manner
“ was a liar if a man, or a brumpet if a w7oman.” Af¬
ter this furious declaration he fled to the cable of Beau-
jency, where, however, he was foon forced to furrender.
He then applied to Henry VII. of England, who had
newdy afcended the throne of England ; but that prince,
naturally flow and cautious, did not pay much attention
to his propofals on which he next made his applica¬
tion to the court of Brittany. Here he was received 124
with great marks of ebeem, and began to entertain ^.ke oI
hopes of marrying the daughter of the duke ; but be- fli'Jto Bm
ing looked upon with a jealous eye by the nobility, tany.
they entered into fecret negotiations with Anne, and
even folicited her to invade the country. In thefe ne¬
gotiations, however, they flipulated that only a certain
number of troops ffiould enter the province, and that
no fortified place ffiould remain in the hands of the
French j which conditions were indeed agreed to by
the regent, though ffie determined to keep them no I2(.
longer than it anfwered her purpofe. In purfuance of That coun-
this refolution, Brittany was invaded at once by four try in¬
armies, each of them fuperior to the bipulated number, vadec^ ^7
who quickly made themfelves mabers of the mob ^rer-£^
portant places in the country ; while the troops of
the duke retired in difgub, leaving them to purfue
their conquefls as they pleafed. Finding at lab, how¬
ever, that the entire fubjedlion of their country was de¬
termined upon, the nobility began to exert themfelves in
defence of it; and, inflamed by the enthufiaun of liber¬
ty
Vrance
[
126
Marriage
between
the king
of France
and du-
thefs of
Sritt-any.
*27
Hi s expedi
tion into
Italy, and
furprifing
fuccefs.
fra
; r‘i‘i'ecl an army of 6ot000 men. By tliefe the
rrench were compelled to abandon the fiege of Nantz j
cut tats proved only a tranfient gleam of fuccefs. Anne
perievered in her defign of completing the conqueft of
t.ie country, and the date of Europe at that time fa¬
voured the defign. Of all the European dates, Eng-
anu alone was then capable of affording any effectual
alii dance ; and the flow caution of Henry prevented
him from giving the aflidance which for his own inte-
red he ought to have done. Thus the Bretons were
left to defend themfelves the bed way they could j and
having ventured a battle, they were entirely defeated,
and mod oi their leaders taken prifoners. A fmall body
ot Englifh, under the command of Lord Woodville,
who abided them, were entirely cut in pieces. The
duke foon.after died by a fall from his horfe, leaving
his dominions to his daughter Anne, at that time only
T3 years of age. A marriage was negotiated betwixt
this pnncefs and Maximilian king of the Romans, who
had been married to Mary of Burgundy j but by
reafon of the poverty of that prince it was never
completed. The lady Beaujeu, then, finding that the
abiolute conqueft of Brittany would dill be a difficult
matter, determined to conclude a marriage betwixt the
young king of France and the duchefs, though the
former had already been married to Margaret of Auf-
tna the daughter of Maximilian. This marriage in¬
deed had not been confummated by reafon of the
tender age of the princefs 5 but die had been fent to
ans for her education, and had for feveral years been
treated as queen of France. In 1491, however, Mar¬
garet was fent back to her father : Anne of Brittany
or.a ^ITle refufed to violate the engagements into
which die had entered j but at lad, finding herfelf dif-
treffed on all fides, and incapable of refiding the nu¬
merous forces of France with which die was preffed,
me reludlantly confented to the match, and the
nuptials were celebrated the fame year at Langeais
in Touraine. 0
. -^hiximilian, whole poverty had prevented him from
giving any affidance to his bride, or even from coming
to lee her, enraged at the double difgrace he had dif¬
fered, began, when too late, to think of revenge.
ranee n as now threatened with an invafion from the
united forces of Audria, Spain, and England. But
this formidable confederacy was foon diffipated. 
Henry, whofe natural avarice had prevented him from
giving the neceffary . affidance, was bought off with
money: the immediate payment of 745,000 crowns,
and. the promife of 25,000 annually ever after, per¬
suaded him to retire into his own country. Ferdinand
king of Spain had the counties of Rouffillon and Cer-
dagne redored to him 5 while Maximilian was gratified
by the ceffion of part of Artois, which had been ac¬
quired by Louis XI.
The young king of France agreed to thefe terms
the more readily, that he was impatient to undertake
an expedition into Italy, in order to conquer the king¬
dom of Naples, to which he claimed a right. Mod of
his counfellors were againd the expedition ; but the
king was inflexible, even though Ferdinand kinp of
Naples odered to do homage for his kingdom, and pay
him a tribute of 50,000 crowns a-year. He appointed
.Peter duke of Bourbon regent in his abfence ; after
which he fet out on his expedition with very-Tew
VOL. IX. Part I.
89 ] FRA
troops and very little money. By the way he fell ill France,
of the fmallpox, but in a diort time recovered, and en- “
tering Italy with only 6000 horfe and 1 2,000 foot, he
was attended with the mod furprifing fuccefs, traverfing
the vvnole country in fix weeks, and becoming mader of
the Kingdom of Naples in lefs than a fortnight. Such
extraordinary good fortune feemed miraculous j and he
was reckoned sn indrument raifed up by God to dedrey
the execrable tyrants with which Italy was at that time
mfeded. Had Charles made ufe of this prepoffedlon in
Ins favour, and afled up to the cha aider generally given
him, he might have raifed his name as high as any hero
ot antiquity. His behaviour, however, was of a very
different nature. He amufed himfelf with feads and
ffiows 5 and leaving his power in the hands of favourites,
they abandoned it to whoever would purchafe titles,
places, 0 iauthority, at the rates they impofed ; and the
whole force he propoied to leave in his new conquered
dominions amounted to no more than 4000 men.
But while Charles was thus lofing his time, a league
was concluded againd him at Venice j into which en¬
tered the pope, the emperor Maximilian, the archduke
Philip, Ludovic Sforza, and the Venetians. The con¬
federates affembled an army of 40,000 men, command¬
ed by Francis marquis of Mantua 5 and they waited
for the king in the valley of Farnova, in the duchy of
Parma, into which he defeended with 9000 men. On
the 6th of July 1495 he attacked the allies; and, not-
withdanding their great fuperiority, defeated them,
with the lofs of only 80 of his own men. Thus he got
fafe to France j but his Italian dominions wTere lod
alinod as foon as he departed. Some fchemes were r„s
propofed for recovering thefe conqueds ; but they were His death,
never put m execution, and the king died of an aoo-
plexy in 1498. i
The premature death of this monarch, in the 28th
> ear of his age, was fuppofed to have been owing to
his irregular life, and particularly his attachment to
women ; which had for lome time impaired his health,
br?ught on evident fymptoms of his approaching
diffolution. A1 Iaft be rebnquidied his irregularities
and retired with the queen to the cadle of Ambloife’
Here in pading through a low door he druck his head
with violence againd the top. No unfavourable fymo-
tom appeared at the time; but foon afterwards, as he
convened with his confeffor, and avowed his defign of
obfervmg the nuptial fidelity he owed to the queen
he hiddenly fell backward in a fit of apoplexy. He
recovered his voice three times, and uttered fome ex-
preiiions of devotion; but indantly relapfed, and in a
ffiort time expired, notwithdanding every affidance
taat could be given. He was greatly celebrated for
ins iweet temper and agreeable difpodtion, which pro¬
cured him the furnames of the Affable and Courteous.
1 wo of his domedics are laid to have died of grief
alter his death, and his widow abandoned herfelf to
the mod pungent forrow for two datjs.
By the death of Charles VIII. the throne of France
paned from the direff line of the houfe of Valois and
Loins duke of Orleans fucceeded to the throne.’ At
the time of his accedion he was in his 36th year, and
had^ long been taught prudence in the fchool of ad-
yerfity. During the adminiilration of the lady Beau-
jeu, he had been, as we have already obferved, con-
itantly m dngrace j and after his connexions with the
^ duke
France.
129
Expedition
©f Louis
XII. into
Italy.
F Pv A [90
duke of Britanny, had fpent a very coniiderable time
in prifon ; -and though afterwards fet at liberty by
Charles, he had never pofieffed any fhare of that mo¬
narch’s confidence or favour. J_owards the conclu-
fion of that reign, he fell under the difpleafure of the
queen ; and had afterwards continued at his caflle of
Blois till he was called from thence to the polTeffion of
the kingdom. He had been married in early life, and
againft his will, to Jane the youngeft daughter of
Louis XL a princefs of an amiable diipofition, but de¬
formed in her perfon, and fuppofed to be incapable of
bearing children. Afterwards he entertained thoughts
of having this marriage diffolved, and was fuppofed to
poifefs the affedfion of the duchefs of Britanny, before
flie became queen of France. After the death of her
hufband, that princefs retired to Brittany, where fhe
pretended to affume an independent fovereignty j but
Louis having got his marriage with Jane diffolved by
Pope Alexander VI. quickly after made propofals to
the queen-dowager, which on her part were accepted
without hefitation 5 though it was flipulated, that if fhe
fhould have two fons, the younger fliould inherit the
duchy of Brittany.
As Louis, while duke of Orleans, had fome preten-
fions to the kingdom of Naples, he inflantly fet about
realizing them by conqueft. On his acceflion, he
found matters ia that country much more favourable
to his defigns than formerly. The pope, Alexander
VI. was very much in his interefls, from the hopes of
getting his fon Caefar Borgia provided for : he had con¬
ciliated the friendfhip of the Venetians by promifing
them a part of the Milanefe 5 he concluded a truce
with the archduke Philip ; and renewed his alliances
with the crowns of England, Scotland, and Denmark.
He then entered Italy wfith an army of 20,000 men ;
and being aflifted by the Venetians, quickly conquered
one part of the duchy, while they conquered the other,
the duke himfelf being obliged to fly with his family
t© Infpruck. He then attacked Ferdinand of Spain
with three armies at once, twr to aft by land, and on$
by fea 5 but none of thefe performing any thing remark¬
able, he was obliged to evacuate the kingdom of Na¬
ples in 1504.
In x^ob, the people of Genoa revolted ; drove out
the nobility *, chofe eight tribunes } and declared Paul
Nuova, a filk dyer, their duke : after which they ex¬
pelled the French governor, and reduced a great part
of the Riviera. This occafioned Louis’s return into
Italy ; where, in 1507, he obliged the Genoefe to fur-
tender at difcretion : and, in 1508, entered into the
league of Cambray, with the other princes who at
that time wanted to, reduce the overgrown power of
the Venetians. Pope Julius II. who had been the firft
contriver of this league, very foon repented of it 5 and
declared, that if the Venetians would reflore the cities
of Faenza and Rimini, which had been unjuflly taken
from him, he would be contented. This was refufed *,
and in 1509, the forces of the republic received fuch
an entire defeat from Louis, that they agreed to reftore
not only the two cities demanded by Pope Julius, but
whatever elfe the allies required.
The pope now, inftead of executing his treaties with
his allies, made war on the king of France without the
kail provocation. Louis called an affembly of his
clergy > -where it was dfteriainedj that in ferae cafes it
]
Y R A
was lawful to make war upon the pope } upon which France,
the king declared war againft him, and committed the v J
care of his army to the Marlhal de Trivulce. Fie foon
obliged the pope to retire into Ravenna ; and in 1511,
Gallon de Foix, duke of Nemours, gained a.great vic¬
tory at Ravenna, but was himfelf killed in the engage¬
ment. After his death the army was dilhanded for want
of pay 5 and the French affairs in Italy, and everywhere
elfe, fell into great confufion. They recovered the
duchy of Milan, and loft it again in a fewr weeks. Hen¬
ry VIII. of England invaded France, and took I erru-
enne and Tournay; and the Swifs invaded Burgundy
with an army of 25,000 men. In this defperate fituation
of affairs the queen died, and Louis put an end to the
oppofition of his rnoft dangerous enemies by negotiating
marriages. To Ferdinand of Spain he offered his fe-
cond daughter for either of his grandfons, Charles or
Ferdinand j and to renounce, in favour of that m^r- 130
riage, his claims on Milan and Genoa. This propofalH1S maf"
was accepted ; and Louis himfelf married the princefs”3^ ^ ‘
Mary, lifter to Henry VIII. of England. Ihis mar-Maty 0f
riage he did not long.furvive, but died on the 2d of Ja-England,
nuary 1514 j and was fucceeded by Francis I. count of and death.
Angoulefme, and duke of Bretagne and Valois.
The new king was no fooner feated on the throne, Francis I.
than he refolved on an expedition into Italy. In this'nvacles
he wras at firft fuccefsful, defeating the Swifs at Marig- la y*
non, and reducing the duchy of Milan. In 1518, the
emperor Maximilian dying, Francis wTas very ambitious
of being his fucceffbr, and thereby reftoring to France
fuch a fplendid title, which had been fo long loft. But
Maximilian, before his death, had exerted himfelf fo
much in favour of Charles V. of Spain, that Francis
found it impoflible to fucceed j and from that time an
irreconcilable hatred took place between the two mo-
narchs. In 1521, this ill will produced a xvar •, which,
however, might perhaps have been terminated, if Fran¬
cis could have been prevailed upon to reftore the town
of Fontarabia, which had been taken by his admiral
Bonivet : but this being refufed, hoftilities were re¬
newed with greater vigour than ever ; nor were they
concluded till France was brought to the very brink
of deftruftion. The war was continued with various
fuccefs till the year 1524-, when Francis having in- 132
vaded Italy, and laid fiege to Pavia, he was utterly de-Defeated
feated before that city, and taken prifoner on the 24th
of February.
This difafter threw the whole kingdom into the ut-
moft confufion. The Flemilh troops made continual
inroads 5 many thoufand boors affembled in Alface, in
order to make an invafion from that quarter ; Henry
VIII. had affembled a great army, and threatened the
kingdom on that fide alfo } and a party was formed
in the kingdom, in order to difpoffefs the duchefs ot
the regency, and confer it upon the duke de Ven-
dofme. This prince, however, who, after the conftable,
was the head of the houfe of Bourbon, went on pur-
pofe to Lyons, where he affured the regent that he
had no view but for her fervice, and that of his coun¬
try j upon which fine formed a council of the ableff
men of the kingdom, and of this fhe made him prefi-
dent. The famous Andrew Doria failed with the
French galleys to take on board the remains of the
French troops under the duke of Alva, whom he land¬
ed fafely in Ffance, Thefe who efcaped out of the
^ MUanefe
France.
133
Francis I.
carried to
Madrid,
where he
figns a dis¬
advanta¬
geous trea
ty;
134
aad breaks
it.
FRA r
Milanefe alfo made their way back again as well as
they could. Henry VIII. under the influence of Car¬
dinal Wolfey, refolved not to opprefs the oppreffed :
he therefore allured the regent that Are had nothing to
fear from him 5 and at the fame time advifed her not
to confent to any treaty by which France was to be
difmembered. To the emperor, however, he ufed an¬
other language. He told him, that the time was now
come when this puiffant monarchy lay at their mercy 'y
and therefore, that fo favourable an opportunity Should
not be let flip : that, for his part, he Should be content
with Normandy, Guienne, and Gafcony, and hoped
the empire would make no fcruple of owning him king
of France : adding, that he expefted the emperor
would make a right ufe of his vi&ory, by entering
Guienne in perfon 5 in which cafe he wras ready to bear
half the expences of the war. He forefaw what fell out:
the emperor wTas alarmed at thefe conditions, and did
not care to have him for a neighbour j for which reafon
he agreed to a truce with the regent for fix months. In
Picardy the Flemings were repulfed ; and the count de
Guife, with the duke of Lorrain, had the good fortune,
with a handful of troops, to defeat and cut to pieces the
German peafants.
In the mean time, Francis w^as detained in captivity
in Italy : but being wearied of his confinement in that
country, and the princes of Italy beginning to cabal
for his deliverance, he rvas carried to Madrid •, where.,
on the 14th of January 1525, he figned a treaty, the
principal articles of which were, Lhat he fhouid refign
' to the emperor the duchy of Burgundy in full foye-
reignty } that he Should defill from the homage which
the emperor owed him for Artois and Flanders y that
he fhouid renounce all claim to Naples, Milan, Afli,
Toumay, Lifle, and Hefden, &c. j that he Should per-
fuade Henry d’Albert to refign the kingdom of Na¬
varre to the emperor, or at leaSl Should give him no af-
firtance; that within 40 days he Should reflore the
duke of Bourbon and all his party to their eftates •,
that he Should pay the king of. England 500,000
crowns wdiich the emperor owed him ; that when the
emperor went to Italy to receive the Imperial crown,
he Should lend him I 2 galleys, four large Ships, and a
land army, or inftead of it 200,000 crowns.
All thefe articles the king of France promifed on
the word and honour of a prince to execute •, or, in
cafe of non-performance to returrt prifoner into Spain.
But, notwithstanding thefe profeffions, Francis had al¬
ready protested before certain notaries and witneffes in
whom he could truft, that the treaty he was about to
Sign was againft his will, and therefore null and void.
On fne 21 it of February, the emperor thought fit to
releafe him from his prifon, in which he had been
clofely confined ever fmce his arrival in Spain j and
after receiving the Strongest aSTurances from his own
mouth, that he would literally fulfil the terms of the
treaty, fent hin under a Strong guard to the frontiers,
where he was ex-hanged for his two eldeSt fons, who
were to remain ashoStages for his fidelity.
When the king i-turned to his dominions, his firSt
care was to get himfef abfolved by the pope from the
oaths he had taken •, after which he entered into a
league with the pontiff, the Venetians, the duke of
Milan, and the king of ingland, for preferving the
peace of Italy. In the m^th of June, he publicly
9r ] FRA
received remonftrances from the Slates of Burgundy ; in
which they told him, wdthout ceremony, that by the
treaty of Madrid he had done what he had no right to
do, in breach of the laws and his coronation oath j add¬
ing, that if he perfifted in his refolution of throwing
them under a foreign yoke, they muft appeal to the ge¬
neral Slates of the kingdom. At thefe remonftrances
the viceroy of Naples and the Spanish ministers were
prefent. They perceived the end which the king aim^-
ed at, and therefore expostulated with him in prettv
warm terms. At lait the viceroy told him, that he hau
now nothing left but to keep his royal wTord in return¬
ing to the cattle of Madrid, as his predeceffor John had
done in a like cafe. To this the king replied, that King
John adted rightly •, that he returned to a king who had
treated him like a king j but that at Madrid he had re¬
ceived fuch ul’age as wmuld have been unbecoming to a
gentleman : that he had often declared to the emperor’s
minifters, that the terms they extorted from him .were
unjuft and impracticable : but that he was Hill walling
to do all that was fit and reafonable ; and to ranfom his
fons at the rate of two millions of gold, in lieu of the
duchy of Burgundy. _
Hitherto the treaty for the tranquillity, of Italy had
been kept fecret, in hopes that fome mitigation of the
treaty of Madrid wmuld have been obtained *, but now
it was judged expedient to publish it, though the vice¬
roy of Naples and the Spanish lords were Still at the
French court y and the emperor was to be admitted
into it, provided he accepted the king’s offer of two
millions for the releafe of his children, and left the
duke of Milan and other Italian princes in quiet, pol-
feffion of their dominions. It is the common misfor¬
tune of all leagues, that the powmrs who enter into
them keep only their own particular interefts in view',
and thus defeat the general intention of the confederacy.
This wras the cafe here. The king’s great point was
to obtain his children upon the terms he had propofed j
and he wTas defirous of knowfing what hopes there wrere
of that, before he afted againft the monarch who had
them in his powrer. Thus the duke of Milan and the
pope were both facrificed. I he former wTas obliged to
furrender to the duke of Bourbon, and the latter was
furprifed by the Colonnas } both of which difafters
wmuld have been prevented if the French fuccours had
entered Italy in time. See Italy.
According to an agreement which had been made
between Francis and Henry, their ambaffadors went
into Spain, attended each of them by a herald, in or¬
der to fummon the emperor to accept the terms which
had been offered him ; or, in cafe of refufal, to declare
w'ar. It feems the emperor’s anfw'er was forefeen in
the court of Franceand therefore the king had pre¬
viously called together an affembly of the notables $
that is, perfons of the feveral ranks of his people in
whom he could confide. To them he propofed the
great queftion, Whether he was bound to perform the
* treaty of Madrid ? or, Whether if he did not perform
it, he wras obliged in honour to return to Spain ? lo
both thefe questions, the affembly anfwered in the ne¬
gative : they faid, that Burgundy W'as united to. the
crown of France, and that he could not Separate it by
his owm authority } that his perfon alfo wras the pro¬
perty of the public, of which therefore he could not
difpofe j but for the twm millions, which they looked
M 2 upon
France.
France.
Cambray.
IRA [92
upon as a juft equivalent, they undertook that it thould
be railed tor his feryice. When the ambafladors de-
' !!Verf? ' ieir ProP°htions5 Charles treated the Englilh
herald with refpeft, and the French one with con-
f See Duel. ^ ’ wh,£J 3 challenge ^om Francis to
r35 r ^T1Peror ; differences, however, were at laft
Treaty of adjulted 5 and a treaty was concluded at Cambray on
tne 5lh of Auguft 1528. By this treaty, inftead of
the poffelfion, the emperor contented himlelf with re-
ierving his right to the duchy of Burgundy, and the
svvo mi.lions ol crowns already mentioned. Of thefe
he was to receive 1,200,000 in ready money : the
prince s lands in Flanders belonging to the houfe of
Bourbon were to be delivered up ; thefe were valued
at 400,000 more: and the remaining 400,000 were
j0, e Pa'l y France in dilcharge of the emperor’s
oebt to England. Francis was likewife to difeharge
tiie penalty of 500,000 crowns which the emperor
had incurred, by not marrying his niece the princefs
Mary of England j and to releafe a rich fleur-de-lis
which had been many years before pawned by the houfe
°r „r?Un 'V f°r 5?’°°° cr°wns. The town and caltle
Oy hidden were alfo yielded ; together with the fove-
reignty of Flanders and Artois, and all the king’s pre-
tenhons in Italy. As for the allies of Franc?, they
were abandoned to the emperor’s mercy, without the
icaff ftipulation m their favour j and Francis himfelf
proteffed againft the validity of the treaty before he ra-
tmed it, as did alfo his attorney-general before he regi-
itcred it m parliament j but both of them with the
greatelt iecrecy imaginable.
. ^rther of much confequence happened dur¬
ing the remainder of the reign of Francis I. The war
was loon renewed with Charles, who made an invafion
into France but „.th very bad fuccefi ; nor rvas peace
-o- fu-y ellabUhed but by the death of Francis, which
^3d °f March' ^ c^-
ceeded by 6 by his fon Henry II. who afeended the throne
Henry If. that very day on which he was 29 years of age. In
the beginning of his reign, an infurre&ion happened
in Cruienne, owing to the oppreffive conduft of the
officers who levied the fait tax. The king defpatched
again ft the mfurgents two bodies of troops 5 one com-
manded by the duke of Aumale fon to the duke of
Guffe, the other by the conftable. The firft behaved
with the greateft moderation, and brought back the
people to their duty without making many examples :
the other behaved wdth the utmoft haughtinefs* and
cruelty 5 and though the king afterwards remitted many
of his pumfhments, yet from that time the conftable
became odious to the people, while the family of Guife
were highly refpe&ed.
In 1548, the king began to execute the edids which
136
*37
Henry per- y  0. —5“" ^ me etnas winch
fecutes the bad been made agamft the Proteftants with the ut
PrctefUnts. moft feverity 5 and, thinking even the clergy too mild
in the profecution of herefy, ereded for that purpofe
a chamber compofed of members of the parliament of
Pans At the queen’s coronation, which happened this
year, he earned a number of Proteftants to be burned
and was himfelf prefent at the fpedacle. He was how¬
ever, fo much {hocked, that he could never forov»t it •
but complained, as long as he lived, that, at certain
tames, it appeared before his eyes, and troubled his un-
derftanding.
In 1549, a peace being concluded with England, the
] FRA
of,'!noUooar'<i B0Ul0gne fu°“ the kUer> Ac fum Franc,
oi 400,000 crowns ; one halt lo be paid on the day    
O leftitution, _ and the other a few months after. , G8
ocotiand was included in the treaty, and the Endiffi Advanta-
reflored foTc places they had .aken’there.
the moft advantageous peace that France had hitherto land. S
made with England ; the vaft arrears which were due
to tnat crown being in effeeft remitted j and the pen-
hon which looked fo like tribute, not being mentioned,
was m extingmffied. The earl of Warwick him!
eft, who had concluded the peace, was fo fenfible of
the dffgrace fuffered by this nation on this occafion,
that he pretended to be lick, m order to avoid fetting
Jus hand to fuch a fcandalous bargain. ^
I his year, an edift was made to reftrain the extra¬
vagant remittances which the clergy had been in ufe
01 making to the court of Rome, and for correfting
W?tb C°TTItted ^ the PaPal notaries?
S \ fenia-P°Pe JulmS IIL Was hiShly difpleafed :
and the following year (1550) war was declared by
the king of France againft the pope and the emperor,
I lie pretence was, that Henry prote&ed Odlavio Far-
neie duke of Parma, whom the pope was defirous of
depriving of his dominions. In this war the king was
threatened with the cenfures of the church, moreefpe-
dally when it was known that he had entered into
an alliance with the Turks, and a Turkiffi fleet entered
the Mediterranean, where they threatened the ifle of
Gozo and made defeents upon Sicily. Henry, how¬
ever, ftrongly denied any fuch connexion, and infilled
that the emperor had given them fufficient provoca-
ir/ b“tbe ^at as it will, the emperor foon found
himfelf in fuch danger from thefe new enemies, that
he could not fupport the pope as he intended, who on u
that account was obliged to fue for peace. After “S*
this the king continued the war againft the emperor againlt the
Wlt)\/rUCCe S ’ reduclng the cities of Toul, Verdun emperor,
and Metz. He then entered the country of Alface’
wurre^UCed 311 th<T fortreffes between Hagenau and’
Wiffenburg. He failed, however, in his attempt on
otrafburg 5 and was foon after obliged by the Ger
man princes and the Swifs to defift from farther con-
quefb on that fide. This war continued with very
little interruption, and as little fuccefs on the part of
the French, till the year 1557, when a peace was
concluded j and foon after, the king was killed at a He is killed
tournament by one Count de Montgomery, who was at a tourna.
reckoned one Oi. the ftrongeft knights in France, andment*
who had done all he could to avoid this encounter with
the king.
Ihe reign of his fucceffor Francis II. was remarkable
only for the perfecution of the Proteftants ; whic’i be¬
came fo grievous, that they were obliged to t^e up
arms in their own defence. This occafionH feveral
civil wars, the firft of which commenced in t-le reign of
Charles IX. who fucceeded to the throne in 1560. This Civil wars
nrft war continued till the year 1562, ^Fen a peace with the
was concluded, by which the Protefta'cs were to have P‘oteftants-
a free pardon and liberty of confc-nce. In 1565,
the war broke out anew, and was -ontinued with very
little interruption till 1569, wM1 peace was again
concluded upon very advantage05 terms for the Pro¬
teftants. After this King CPr^esj who had now ta¬
ken the government into h5 hands careffed the Pro¬
teftants in an extraordina/ manner. Fie invited to
court
FRA
France.
*42
Dreadful
court the admiral Coligni, who was the head of the
Proteftant party 5 and cajoled him fb, that he was
lulled into a perfeft fecurity, notwithftanding the
many warnings given him by his friends, that the
king’s fair fpeeches were by no means to be trulled ,
but he had foon reafon to repent his confidence. On
the 22d of Auguft 1571, as he was walking from the
court to his lodgings, he received a Ihot from a win¬
dow, which carried away the fecond finger of his
right hand, and wounded him grievoufly in the left
arm. This he himfelf afcribed to the malice of the
duke of Guife, the head of the Catholic party. Af¬
ter dinner, however, the king went to pay him a vilit,
and amongft others made him this compliment : “You
have received the wound, but it is I who fuffer
defiring at the fame time that he would order his
friends to quarter about his houfe, and promifmg
to hinder the Catholics from entering that quarter after
it was dark. This fatisfied the admiral of the king’s
fincerity j and hindered him from complying with the
defires of his friends, who would have carried him
away, and who were ftrong enough to have forced a
paffage out of Paris if they had attempted it.
In the evening, the queen mother, Catharine de
mafiacre of Medicis, held a cabinet council to fix the execution of
ftantsr0te" ma^'acre t^le Proteftants, which had been long
meditated. The perfons of which this council was
compofed, were, Henry duke of Anjou, the king’s bro¬
ther j Gonzagua duke of Nevers ; Henry of Angou-
lefme grand prior of France, and batfard brother of
the king j and mairfhal de Tavannes ; and Albert de
Gondi, count de Retz : the dire&ion of the whole
was. given to the duke of Guife, to whom the ad-
minillration had been entirely confided during the
former reign. The guards were appointed to be in
arms, and the city officers were to difpofe the militia
to execute the king’s orders, of which the fignal was
the ringing of a bell near the Louvre. Some fay, that
when the hour approached, which was that of mid¬
night, the king grew undetermined: that he expref-
fed his horror at fhedding fo much blood,, efpecially
confidering that the people whom he was going to de-
ftroy were his fubje&s, wffio had come to the capital at
his command, and in confidence of his word ; and par¬
ticularly the admiral, whom he had detained fo lately
by his careffes. Ihe queen mother, however, re¬
proached him with his cowardice, and reprefented to
him the great danger he was in from the Proteftants ;
which at laft induced him to confent. According to
others, however, the king himfelf urged on the maf-
facre ; and when it was propofed to him to take off
only a few of the heads, he cried out, “ If any are
to die, let there not be one left to reproach me with
breach of faith.
As foon as the ignal was given, a body of Swifs
troops , of the Catho.L- religion, headed by the duke
of Guife, the chevalier FAngoulefme, accompanied by
many perfons of quality, -ttacked the admiral’s houfe.
Having forced open the db>rs, the foremoff of the af-
faffins rufhed into his apartmtnt • and one of them afk-
ed if he was Coligni? To this L anfwered that he was;
adding, “ Young man refpeft liefe gray hairs to
which the affaffin replied by runn^g him through the
body with a fword. The duke if Guife and the
chevalier growing impatient below fUrs? criec] out t0
[ 93 ]
F It A
know if the bufinefs was done ; and being told that it France,
was, commanded that the body fhould be thrown out' 
at the window. As foon as it fell on the ground, the
chevalier, or (as tome fay) the duke of Guife, wiping
the blood off the face, kicked it with his foot. The
body was then abandoned to the fury of the populace ;
who, after a feries of indignities, dragged it to the com¬
mon gallows, to which they chained it by the foot, the
head being cut off and carried to the queen mother ;
who, it is faid, caufed it to be embalmed and fent to
Rome. The king himfelf went to fee the body hang
upon the gibbet; where a fire being kindled under it,
part was burnt, and the reft fcorched. In the Louvre,
the gentlemen belonging to the king of Navarre and
the prince of Conde were murdered under the king’s
eye. Two of them, wounded and purfued by the af-
faffms, fled into the bedchamber of the queen of Na¬
varre, and jumped upon her bed, befeeching her to fave
their lives ; and as flie went to afk this favour of the
queen mother, two more, under the like circumftances,.
rulhed into the room, and threw’ themfelves at her feet.
The queen mother came to the window to enjoy thefe
dreadful fcenes; and the king, feeing the Proteftants
who lodged on the other fide of the river flying for
their lives, called for his long gun, and fired upon them.
In the fpace of three or four days, many thoufands
we^e deftroyed in.the city of Paris, by the moft cruel
deaths wffiich malice itfelf could invent. Peter Ramus,
profeffor of philofophy and mathematics, after being
robbed of all he had, his belly being firft ripped open,
was thrown out of a window. This fo much affected
Denis Lambin, the king’s profeffor, that, though a
zealous Catholic, he died of terror. The firft twro days,
the king denied it was done by his orders, and threw
the'wdiole blame on the houfe of Guife : but, on the
28th of Auguft, he went to the parliament, avowed it,
was complimented upon it, and diredted a procefs a-
gai.nft tlm admiral, by which he was ftigmatized as a
traitor. Two innocent gentlemen fuffered as his ac¬
complices in a pretended plot againft the life of the
king, in order to fet the crown on the head of the
prince of Conde. They were executed by torch light;
and the king and the queen mother (with the king of
Navarre and the prince of Conde by force) were fpec-
tators of this horrid fad!; and they alfo affifted at the
jubilee to thank God for the execution of fuch an in¬
famous defign. ■
The maflacre was not confined to the city of Paris
alone. On the eve of St Bartholomew, orders had
been fent to the governors of provinces to fall upon
the Proteftants themfelves, and to let loofe the people
upon them ; and though an edidf was publiflied before
the end of the week, alluring them of the king’s pro-
tedlion, and that he by no means defigned to extermi¬
nate them becaule of their religion, yet private orders
were fent, ot a nature diredtly contrary ; in confequence
of which, the maffacre, or (as, in allufion to the Sici¬
lian vefpers f, it w’as now ftyled) the Matins of Paris, | see J/Wh.
wTere repeated in Meaux, Orleans, Troyes, Angers,
Thouloufe, Rouen, and Lyons ; fo that in the fpace of
tw’o months 30,000 Proteftants were butchered. The
next year Rochelle, the only ftrong fortrefs which the
Proteftants held in France, was befieged, but was not
taken without the lofs of 24,000 of the Catholics who
befieged it. After this a pacification enfued on terms
favourable
FRA
[ 94 1
FRA
*43
Death of
Charles IX
144
Henry III,
favourable to tire Protcftants, but to which they never
trufted.
This year the duke of Anjou was elefted- king of
Poland, and foon after fet out to take pofieffion of his
new kingdom. The king accompanied him to the fron¬
tiers of the kingdom-, but during the journey -was feiz-
ed with a flow fever, which from the beginning had
a very dangerous appearance. Pie lingered for fome
time under the moft terrible agonies both of body and
mind ; and at laft died on the 30th of May 1572, hav¬
ing lived 24 years, and reigned 13. It is faid, that
after the dreadful maffacre above mentioned, this prince
had a fiercenefs in his looks, and a colour in his cheeks,
which he never had before. He flept little, and never
found. Pie waked frequently in agonies, and had foft
mufic to compofe him again to reft.
During the firft years of the reign of Plenty III.
who fucceeded his brother Charles, the war with the
Proteftants was carried on with indifferent fuccefs on
the part of the Catholics. In 1575, a peace was
concluded, called by may of eminence the Edict of Pa¬
cification. It confifted of no fewer than 63 articles ;
the fubftance of which was, that liberty of confcience,
and the public exercife of religion, were granted to the
reformed, without any other reftriftion than that they
fliould not preach within two leagues of Paris or any
other part where the court was 5 party chambers were
ere&ed in every parliament, to confift; of equal num¬
bers of Catholics and Proteftants, before ■whom all
judgments were to be tried : The judgments againft the
admiral, and, in general, all wTho had fallen in the war
or been executed, were reverfed ; and eight cautionary
towns were given to the Proteftants.
The edict gave occafion to the Guifes to form an
affociation in defence, as was pretended, of the Ca¬
tholic religion, afterwards known by the name of the
Catlic/ic League. ‘ In this league, though the king rvas
mentioned with refpeft, he could not help feeing that
it ftruck at the very root of his authority: for, as the
Proteftants had already their chiefs, fo the Catholics
were, for the future, to depend entirely upon the
chief of the league *, and were, by the very words of
it, to execute whatever he commanded, for the good of
the caufe, againft any, without exception of perfons.
The king, to avoid the bad effefts of this, by the ad¬
vice of his council declared himfelf head of the league 5
and of confequence recommenced the war againft the
Proteftants, wdiich was not extinguiftied as long as he
lived.
The faction of the duke of Guife, in the mean time,
took a refolution of fupporting Charles cardinal of
Bourbon, a weak old man, as prefumptive heir of the
crown. In 1584 they entered into a league with
Spain, and took up arms againft the king j and though
peace was concluded the fame year, yet in 1587 they
again‘proceeded to fuch extremities, that the king was
forced to fly from Paris. Another reconciliation wTas
foon after effefted j but it is generally believed that
the king from this time refolved on the deftrudHon
of Guife. Accordingly, finding that this nobleman
ftill behaved towards him with his ufual infolence,
the king caufed him to be ftabbed, as he was coming
likewife the into his prefence, by his guards, on the 23d of De-
king. ^ cember x 987. The king himfelf did not long fur¬
tive him-, being ftabbed by one James Clement, a Ja-
3
MS
Catholic
league
formed.
146
Duke of
Guife mur
dered, and
147
nry IV.
US
cobine monk, on the firft of Auguft 1588. His wound Frarre.
at firft was not thought mortal j but his frequent fwoon- y—
ing quickly difeovered his danger and he died next
morning, in the 39th year of his age, and 16th of his
reign.
Before the king’s death, he nominated Henry Bour- ^
bon king- of Navarre for his fuccelfor on the throneu'
O
of France j but as he was a Proteftant, or at lead
one who greatly favoured their caufe, he was at firft
owned by very few except thofe of the Proteftant party.
He met with the moft violent oppolition from the
members of the Catholic league j and was often re¬
duced to fuch ftraits, that he w-ent to people’s houfes
under colour of vilits, when in reality he had not a
dinner in his own. By his aftivity and perfeverance,
however, he was at laft acknowledged throughout the
whole kingdom, to which his abjuration of the Pro¬
teftant religion contributed not a little. As the king
of Spain had laid claim to the crown of France, Hen¬
ry no fooner found himfelf in a fair way of being firm¬
ly feated on the throne, than he formally declared war
againft that kingdom 5 in which he at laft proved fuc-
cefsful, and in 1597 entered upon the quiet poffeflion
of his kingdom.
The king’s firft care was to put an end to the
religious difputes which had fo long diftrafled the
kingdom. For this purpofe, he granted the famous
ediift, dated at Nantz, April 13. 1598. It re-efta-^;^
blifhed, in a moft folid and effe£!ual manner, all the Nantz.
favours that had ever been granted to the reformed
by other princes j adding fome which had not been
thought of before, particularly the allowing them a
free admiflion to all employments of truft, profit, and
honour j the eftablifhing chambers in which the mem¬
bers of the two religions were equal -, and the per¬
mitting their children to be educated without con-
ftraint in any of the univerlities. Soon after, he con¬
cluded peace with Spain upon very advantageous
terms. This gave him an opportunity of reftoring
order and juftice throughout his dominions j of repair¬
ing all the ravages occafioned by the civil war j and
abolifhing all thofe innovations which had been made,
either to the prejudice of the prerogatives of the
crown or the welfare of the people. His febemes-phe king-
of reformation, indeed, he intended to have carried be-propofes to
yond the boundaries of France. If we may believenew-mode!
the duke of Sully, he had in view no lefs a defign than t^JEuro"
the new-modelling of all Europe. He imagined that ^ ^ers<
the European powers might be formed into 2 kind 01
Chriftian republic, by rendering them as neMy as pof-
fible of equal ftrength $ and that this republic might
be maintained in perpetual peace, by b>,'nging their
differences to be decided before a feMte of wife, dif-
interefted, and able judges : and t^en he thought it
W’ould be no difficult matter to o’cr*:urn the Ottoman
empire. The number of thefe powers was to be i 5 ;
viz. the Papacy j the empip" °f Germany j France;
Spain*, Flungary-, Great Bri*^11} Bohemia5 Lombardy j
Polandj Sweden-, Denman? ^public of Venice j
the States General-, the_^;vt^s Cantons j and the Ita¬
lian commonwealth, was to comprehend the
ftates of Florence, *enoa> Lucca, Modena, Parma,
‘ Mantua, and Mon-0- In order to render the ftates
equal, the empire was t0 be given to the duke of Ba¬
varia • the kin/^om Naples to the pope 5 that of
7 Sicily
FRA
[ 95 3
FRA
France.
15°
Sicily to the Venetians j Milan to the duke of Savoy,
who, by his acquifition, was to become king of Lom¬
bardy the Aultrian Low Countries were to be added
to the Dutch republic •, Franche Compte, Alface, and
the country of Trent, were to be given to the Swifs.
With a view, it is now thought, of executing this grand
projeft, but under pretence of reducing the exorbitant
power of the houfe of Auftria, Henry made immenfe
preparations both by fea and land j but it he really
had fuch a deiign, he was prevented by death from
He is mur- attempting to execute it. He was dabbed in his ^
dered, coach by one Ravilliac, on the I 2th ot May 1608.
On the death of Henry IV. the queen mother af~
fumed the regency. Ravilliac was executed, after fuf-
fering horrid tortures. It is faid that he made a con-
fetlion, which was fo written by the perfon who took
it down, that not one word of it could ever be read,
151 and thus his inftigators and accomplices could never
Louis XIII. be difcovered. The regency, during the minority of
Louis XIII. was only remarkable for cabals and in¬
trigues of the courtiers. In 1617, the king affumed
the government himfelf, banilhed the queen mother to
Elois, caufed her favourite Marlhal d’Ancre to be killed,
and chofe for his minifter the famous Cardinal Riche¬
lieu. In 1620, a new war broke out between the
Catholics and Proteftants, which was carried on with
the greateft fury on both lides ) and we may judge of
the fpirit which actuated both parties by what hap¬
pened at Negrepliffe, a town in Quercy. I his place
was befieged by the king’s troops, and it was refolved
to make an example of the inhabitants. The latter,
however, abfolutely refufed to furrender upon any
terms. They defended themfelves, therefore, moll
defperately j and the city being at laft taken by ftorm,
they were all maffacred, without rcfpeft of rank, fex,
or age, except ten men. When thefe were brought
into the king’s prefence, he told them they did not
deferve mercy : they anfwered, that they wrould not
receive it; that the only favour they alked, was to be
hanged on trees in their own gardens $ which was
granted, and the place reduced to alhes. Both par¬
ties foon became weary of fuch a deftru£tive wTar •, and
a peace was concluded in 1621, by which the edidt of
Nantz was confirmed. This treaty, however, vras of no
long duration. A new war broke out which laded till
the year 1628, when the edict of Nantz was again con¬
firmed ; only the Proteftants were deprived of all their
cautionary towns, and confequently of the power of de¬
fending themfelves in time to come. This - put an end
to the civil wars on account of religion in France.
Hiftorians fay, that in thefe wars above a million of
men loft their lives, that 1 50,000,000 livres w’ere fpent
in carrying them on ; and that 9 cities, 400 villages,
2000 churches, 2000 monafteries, and 10,000 houfes,
were burnt or otherwife deftroyed during their conti¬
nuance. The next year, the king was attacked with a
flow fever which nothing could allay, an extreme de-
preflion of fpirits, and prodigious fwelling in his fto-
m&ch and belly. The year after, however, he recover¬
ed, to the great difappointment of his mother, who
had been in hopes of regaining her power. She was
arrefted ; but found means to efcape into Flanders,
where (he remained during the reft of his reign. Riche¬
lieu, by a mafterly train of politics, tftough himfelf
was next to an enthufiaft for popery, fupported the
France.
Proteftants of Germany and Guftavus Adolphus againft
the houfe of Auftria j and after quelling all the rebel- v
Hons and confpiracies which had been formed againft
him in France, he died fome months before Louis XIII.
in 1643. 152
Louis XIV. fyrnamed le Grand, fucceeded to the Louis XIV.
throne whea he was only five years of age. During
his minority, the kingdom was torn in pieces under
the adminiftration of his mother Anne of Auftria, by
the factions of the great, and the divifions between
the court and parliament, for the moft trifling caufes
and upon the moft defpicable principles. The prince
of Conde flamed like a blazing ftar ; fometimes a pa¬
triot, fometimes a courtier, and fometimes a rebel.
He was oppofed by the celebrated Turenne, -who from
a Proteftant had turned Papift. The nation of France
was involved at once in civil and domeftic wars 5 but
the queen mother having made choice of Cardinal Ma¬
zarine for her firft minifter, he found means to turn
the arms even of Cromwell againft the Spaniards, and
to divide the domeftic enemies of the court fo effe£tu-
ally among themfelves, that when Louis aflumed the
reins of government into his own hands, he found
himfelf the moft abfolute monarch that had ever fat
upon the throne of France. He had the good for¬
tune, on the death of Mazarine, to put the domeftic
adminiftration of his affairs into the hands of Colbert,
who formed new fyftems for the glory, commerce, and
manufadlures of France, all which he carried to a
furprifing height. The king himfelf ignorant and
vain, wTas blind to every patriotic duty of a king, pro¬
moting the interefts of his fubje&s only that they
might the better anfwer the purpofes of his greatnefs j
and by his ambition he embroiled himfelf with all his
neighbours, and wantonly rendered Germany a difmal
fcene of devaftation. By his impolitic and unjuft re- >
vocation of the edift of Nantz in the year i685,_ with
the dragooning * the Proteftants that followed it, he * See Lra*
obliged them to take fhelter in England, Holland, andgowing.
different parts of Germany, where they eftablifhed the
filk manufaftories, to the great prejudice of their owm
country. He w7as fo blinded by flattery, that he ar¬
rogated to himfelf the divine honours paid to the Pa¬
gan emperors of Rome. He made and broke treaties
for his conveniency : and in the end he raifed againft
himfelf a confederacy of almoft all the other princes
of Europe; at the head of which was King William III.
of England. He was fo well ferved, that he made
head for fome years againft this alliance ; and France
feemed to have attained the higheft pitch of military
glory, under the conduft of thofe renowmed generals
Conde and Turenne. (See United Provinces.) At
length, having provoked • the Englilh by his repeated
infidelities, their arms under the duke of Marlborough,
and thofe of the Auftrians under Prince Eugene, ren¬
dered the latter part of Louis’s life as miferable as the
beginning of it w7as fplendid. His reign, from the year
1702 to 1711, vvas one continued feries of defeats and
calamities} and he had the mortificatic-.i of feeing
thofe places, taken from him, which, in the former
part of his reign, wrere acquired at the expence of
many thoufand lives. (See Britain, N° 342j &c.)—-
Juft as he was reduced, old as he was, to the defperate
relolution of collecting his people and dying at their
head, he was faved by the Englilh Tory miniftry de¬
fer tin v *
FRA
France.
1S3
Louis XV.
, I54
Aammi-
itration of
ferting tne caufe, withdrawing from their allies, and
concluding the peace of Utrecht in 1715. See Bri¬
tain, N° 371, &c.
The laft years of Louis XIV. were alfo embittered
by domeftic calamities; which, added to thofe he had
already endured of a public nature, impreffed him with
a deep melancholy. He had been for fame time af-
fiifled with a fibula 5 which, though fuccefsfully cut,
ever afterwards affe&ed his health. The year before
the peace, his only fon, the duke of Burgundy, died,
together with the duchefs and their eldeft fon j and the’
only remaining child was left at the point of death.
I .re king himielf furvived till the month of Septem-
oer xyiyj but on the 14th of that month expired,
leaving tne kingdom to his great grandfon Louisj then
a minor.
By the iaft will of Louis he had devolved the re¬
gency during the minority of the young king, upon
a council, at the head of which was the duke of Or^
urauon or . That. n°bleman, however, difgufted wdth a
the duke of dl'P°htion which gave him only a calling vote, appeal-
Orleans. ed to the parliament of Paris, who fet afide the wall
of the late king and declared him foie regent. His
firfl afts were extremely popular, and gave the moft
favourable ideas of his government and chara&er. He
reftored to the parliament the right which had been
taken from them of remonftrating againfl the edi&s
of the crown, and compelled thofe who had enriched
themfelves during the calamities of the former reign
to reftore their wealth. He alfo took every method
to efface the calamities occafioned by the unfuccefsful
w ars in which his predeceffor had engaged \ promoted
r ommerce and agriculture; and, by a clofe alliance with
Great Britain and the United Provinces, feemed to
lay the foundation of a lafting tranquillity. This hap¬
py profpeft, however* was foon overcaft by the in¬
trigues of Alberoni the Spanilh minifler, who had
termed a defign of recovering Sardinia from the em¬
peror, Sicily from the duke of Savoy, and of efta-
blifhing the Pretender on the throne of Britain. To
accompliili thefe purpofes, he negotiated with the Ot¬
toman Porte, Peter the Great of Ruflia, and Charles XII.
of Sweden j the Turks intending to refume the war
againfl: the emperor 5 the two latter to invade Great
Britain. . But as long as the duke of Orleans retained
the adminiflration of France, he found it impoffible
to bring his fchemes to bear. To .remove him, there¬
fore, he fomented divifions in the kingdom. An in-
furreftion took place in Brittany ; and Alberoni fent
fmall parties into the country in difguife, in order to
fupport the infurgents, and even laid plots to feize the
regent .himfelf. All of a fudden, however, the Spa-
nifh minifler found himfelf difhppomted in every one
of bis fchemes. His partizans in France were put to
death ; the king of Sweden was killed at Frederick-
fhali in Norw ay j the Czar, intent on making new re¬
gulations, could not be perfuaded to make wrar upon
Britain ^ and the i urks refufed to engage in a war
with the emperor, from whom they had lately fuffer-
•ed fo much. The cardinal, neverthelefs, continued
his intrigues ; which quickly produced a war betwixt
Spain on the one part, and France and Britain on the
other. The Spaniards, unable to refift the union of
two fuch formidable powers, were foon reduced to the
neceffity of fuing for peace j and the terms were dic-
4
[ 96 ]
FRA
tated by the regent of France 5 and of thefe the dif- Franck,
million of Alberoni the Spanifli minifter was one. A —y—
double marriage was now fet on foot : the duke of
Orleans gave his owm. daughter, Mademoifelle Mont-
penfier, to Uon Lewis prince of Aflurias, wTule the
iiiianta of Spain wras betrothed to her coufin the king
of France. From this time the houfe of Bourbon
continued^ united ; both princes being convinced, that
it was their intereft not to wafte their ftrength in wars
againfl each other.
I he fpint of conquefl having nowin a great meafureDeftmdive
iubfided, and that of commerce taken place through-project 0'f~
out the w-orld in general, France became the feene ofJ®hnLaw.
as remarkable a projeft in the commercial way as ever
was known in any country. One John Law, a Scotf-
man, who had been obliged to leave his own
country, laid the plan of a company which might
by its notes pay off the debt of the nation, and reim-
burfe itfelf by the profits. Law had wandered through
various parts of Europe, and had fucceflively endea¬
voured to engrofs the attention of various courts. The
propofal was made to Viftor Amadeus king of Sicily j
but he difmiffed Law wfith a reply, that “ he was not
rich enough to ruin himfelf;” but in France it was
looked upon in a more favourable light; the nation be¬
ing at this time involved in a debt of 200 millions,
and the regent, as well as the people in general, very
fond of embarking in new fchemes. The bank, thus
eftabhfhed, proceeded at firfl with fome degree of
caution j but having by degrees extended their credit
to more than 80 times their real flock, they foon be¬
came unable to anfwer the demands made upon them j
fo that the company was diifolved the very fame year
in which it had been inflituted. The confufion into
which the kingdom was thrown by this fatal fcheme,
required the utmoft exertions of the regent to put a
flop to it 5 and fcarcely was this accomplifhed when Th/vfno,
the king, in 1723, took the government into his own takes thf
hands. The duke then became minifler j but did notgovem-
long enjoy this pofh His irregularities had broken m.entint0
his conflitution, and brought on a number of ma-^1’^WQ
ladies, under which he in a fliort time funk, and ^
was fucceeded in his adminilfration by the duke of
Bourbon Conde. The king, as wre have already re¬
marked, had been married, when very young, to the
infanta of Spain, though by reafon of his tender years
the marriage had never been completed. The prin-
cefs, however, had been brought to Paris, and for
fome time treated as queen of France; but as Louis
grew up, it was eafy tofee that he had contra&ed an The
.nveterate hatred againft the intended partner of his of Spain
bed. The minifler, therefore, at lall confented that fent back,
the princefs fjjould be fent back } an affront fo much
refented by the queen her mother, that it had almoft
produced a war betwixt the two nations.
The diffolution of the marriage of Louis was the
lafl a£l of Conde:s adminiflration 5 and the procuring
of a new match w-as the firfl a£l of his fucceflbr Car¬
dinal Fleury. The princefs pitched upon was the
daughter of Staniflaus Lefczinfki, king of Poland,
who had been depofed by Charles XII. of Sweden. ^j-ar G8
The princefs was deftitute of perfonal charms, but of with th^
an amiable difpofition; and though it is probable that daughter of
ihe never pofTeffed the love of her hufhand, her excel-Slaniflaus
lent qualities could not but extort his efteem ; and theklng of ^
7 , • , fand.
birth
Fra
FRA [ 97 ]
t of a prince Toon after their marriage removed all people.
, — the fears of the people concerning the fucceflxon.
Cardinal Fleury continued the pacific fchemes pur-
hied by his predeceffbrs 5 though they were fomewhat
interrupted by the war wrhich took place in the year
I733* Notwithftanding the connexion betwixt that
monarch and the French nation, however, Fleury was
fo parfimonious in his afliftance, that only 1500 fol-
diers were fent to relieve Dantzic, wFere Staniflaus
himfelf refided, and wTho at that time was befieged by
the Ruffians. This pitiful reinforcement was loon
overwhelmed by a multitude of Ruffians •, and Staniflaus
•was at laft obliged to renounce all thoughts of the
mown of Poland, though he was permitted to retain
the title of king : and that this title might not be
merely nominal, the king of France confented to be¬
llow upon him the duchies of Bar and Lorrain • fo
that, after the death of Staniflaus, thefe territories
were indiflblubly united to the dominions of France.
Fleury lleadily purfued his pacific plans, and the dif-
putes between Spain and England in 1737 very lit-
. tie affefted the peace of France; and it mult be
remembered to his praife, that inltead of fomenting
the quarrels betwixt the neighbouring potentates, he
laboured inceffantly to keep them at peace. He re¬
conciled the Genoefe and Corficans, who were at war 5
and his mediation was accepted by the Ottoman Porte j
who at that time carried on a fuccefsful war with the
emperor of Germany, but made peace with him at
the interceflion of the cardinal. All his endeavours
to preferve the general peace, however, proved at lafl:
ineffedtual. I he death of the emperor Charles VI. in
1740, the lad prince of the houfe of Auflria, fet all
Europe in a flame. The emperor’s elded daughter,
Maria Therefa, claimed the Audrian fucceffion, which
comprehended the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohe¬
mia, the duchy of Silefia, Audrian Suabia, Upper
and Lower Aufiria, Stiria, Carinthia, Carniola ; the
rour fored towns ; Burgaw 5 Brifgaw : the Low Coun¬
tries j Friuli ; Tyrol; the duchy of Milan ; and the
duchies of Parma and Placentia. Among the many
competitors who pretended a right to lhare, or wholly
to inherit, thefe extenfive dominions, the king of
i ranee was one. But as he wilhed not to awaken the
jealoufy of the European princes by preferring direft-
]y his own pretenlions, he chofe rather to fupport thofe
of Frederick III. who laid claim to the duchy of Sile¬
fia. This brought on the war of 1740; and of which
an account is given under the articles Britain and
Prussia. It was terminated in 1748 by the treaty
of Aix-la-Chapelle 5 but to this Louis, wffio fecretly
meditated a fevere vengeance againd Britain, only con¬
fented, that he might have time to recruit his fleet
and put himfelf fomewhat more upon an equality with
this formidable power. But while he meditated great
exploits of this kind, the internal tranquillity of the
159 kingdom was didurbed by violent difputes betwfixt the
Difputes clergy and parliaments of France. In the reign of
betwixt the Louis XIV. there had been violent conteds betwixt
and der^T^h6 ^an^en^s an<^ Jefuits concerning free will and other
c cr£-• obfeure points of theology; and the opinions of the
Janfenids had been declared heretical by the celebra¬
ted papal bull named Unigenitus ; the reception of wffiich
was enforced by the king, in oppofition to the parlia¬
ments, the archbiffiop of Paris, and the body of the
Vol. IX. Part I.
FRA
The archbifiiop, with 15 other prelates, pro- France,
teded againd it as an infringement of the rights of the
Gallican church, of the laws of the realm, and an in-
fult on the rights of the people themfelves. The duke
of Orleans favoured the bull by inducing the biffiops
to fubmit to it; but at the fame time flopped a perfe-
cution which was going on againd its opponents. Thus
matters palled over till the conclufion of the peace; a
fliort time after which, the jealoufy of the clergy was
awakened by an attempt of the minifler of date to in¬
quire into the wealth of individuals of their order. To
prevent, this, they revived the contefl about the bull
Unigenitus ; and it was refolved, that confeffional note-
ffiould be obtained of dying perfons ; that thefe notes
ffiould be figned by priefls who maintained the autho¬
rity of the bull; and that, wfithout fuch notes, no
peifon could obtain a viaticum, or extreme unclion.
On this occafion the new archbilhop of Paris, and the
parliament of that city, took oppofite fides; the latter
imprifoning fuch oi the clergy as refufed to adminifler
the facraments excepting in the circumdances above
mentioned. Other parliaments followed the example
of that of Paris ; and a w^ar was indantly kindled be¬
twixt the civil and eccleliaflical departments of the
date. In this difpute the king interfered, forbade the
parliaments to take cognizance of ecclefiadical pro¬
ceedings, and commanded them to fufpend all profe-
cutions relative to the refufal of the facraments: but
mflead of acquiefcing, the parliaments prefented new
remonflrances, refufed to attend any other bufinefs,
and refolved that they could not obey this injun£lion
without violating their duty as well as their oath. They
cited the biffiop of Orleans before their tribunal; and
ordered all writings, in which its jurifdiftion was dif-
puted, to be burnt by the executioner. By the af-
fidance of the military, they enforced the adminidra-
tion of the facraments to the fick, and ceafed to dif-
tribute that juftice to the fubjedt for which they had
been originally indituted. Fhe king, enraged at their Parliament
obdinacy, arrefled and imprifoned four of the mem-ofParis
bers who had been mod obflinate, and banifhed thebaniflltd’
remainder to Bourges, Poidiers, and Auvergne ; while,
to prevent any impediment from taking place in the
adminidration of juflice by their abfence, he iflued let¬
ters patent, by which a royal chamber for the profecu-
tion of civil and criminal fuits was indituted. The
counfellors refufed to plead before thefe new courts ;
and the king,, finding at lad that the whole nation was
about to fall into a date of anarchy, thought proper
to recal the parliament. The baniffied members en¬
tered Paris amidfl the acclamations of the inhabitants;
and the archbiffiop, who dill continued to encourage
the priefls in refufing the facraments, wTas baniffied to
his feat at Conflans; the biffiops of Orleans and Troyes
vi ere in like manner baniffied, and a calm for the pre-
fent redored to the kingdom.
The tranquillity thus eflablilhed was of no long du-New dif-
ration. In the year 1756, the parliaments again fellPuteske-
under the difpleafure of their king by their imprudent t'Vxt the
perfecution of thofe who adhered to the bull Unige-^i^lr
mtus. They proceeded fo far in this oppofition as to
refufe to regifler certain taxes abfolutely neceflary for
the carrying on of the war. By this Louis was fo
provoked, that he fuppreffed the fourth and fifth cham¬
bers of inqueds, the members of which had diflin-
N guiflied
itfo
F R A [ 93 ] FRA
France, guifhed tlierafelves by their oppofition to his will. He
’ v commanded the bull Unigenitus to be refpeeted, and
prohibited the fecular judges from ordering the admi-
niftration of the facraments. On this 15 counfellors
of the great chamber refigned their offices, and 124
members of the different parliaments followed their
example ; and the mold grievous difeontents took place
throughout the kingdom. An attempt was made by
a fanatic, named Damien, to affaffinate him ; and the
king was aftually wounded, though llightly, between
the ribs, in the prefence of his fon and in the midft
of his guards. The affaffin was put to the molt ex-
quilite tortures \ in the midft of which he periifted,
in the moft obftinate manner, to declare that he had
no intention to kill the king 5 but that his deftgn was
only to wound him, that God might touch his heart,
and incline him to reftore peace to his dominions, &.c.
Thefe expreffions, which undoubtedly indicated inia-
nity, had no e lie it on his mercilefs judges, who con-
figned him to one of the moft horrid deaths the inge¬
nuity or cruelty of man could invent. This attempt,
however, feems to have had fome effect upon the king j
for he foon after batiifhed the archbilhop of Paris, who
had been recalled, and once more accommodated matters
jfo with his parliament.
Family The unfortunate event of the war of 1755 1aad
compadt brought the nation to the brink of ruin, when Louis
France and ’mP^ore^ affiftance of Spain ; and on this occafion
Spairfeita- t^le celebrated Family CompaS was llgned ; by which,
biiflied. with the Angle exception of the American trade, the-
fubje£ts of France and Spain are naturalized in both
kingdoms, and the enemy of the one fovereign is in¬
variably to be looked upon as the enemy of the other.
At that time, however the affiftance of Spain avail¬
ed very little 5 both powers were reduced to the low-
eft ebb, and the arms of Britain were triumphant in
every quarter of the globe. See the article Britain.
The peace concluded at Paris in the year 1763,
though it freed the nation from a moft deftrueftive and
bloody war, did not reftore its internal tranquillity.
X63 The parliament, eager to purfue the vittory they had
Expulfion formerly gained over their religious enemies, now di-
of the Je- lefted their efforts againft the Jefuits, who had obtain¬
ed and enforced the bull Unigenitus. T hat once
powerful order, however, was now on the brink of dc-
ilru£lion.' A general deteftation of its members had
taken place throughout the whole world. A confpi-
racy formed by them a gain ft the king of Portugal,
and from which he narrowly eicaped, had roufed the
indignation of Europe, and this was Hill farther in¬
flamed by fome fraudulent practices of which they had
been guilty in France. Le Valette, the chief of their
miffionaries at Martinico, had, ever fince the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle, carried on a very extenfive commerce,
infomuch that he even afpired at monopolizing the
whole Weft India trade when the wat with Britain com¬
menced in 175T- Lconay and Gouffre, merchants at
Marfeilles, in ex-pelation of receiving merchandife to
the value of two millions from him, had accepted of
bills drawn by the Jefuits to the amount of a million
and a half. Unhappily they were difappointed by
the vaft number of captures made by the Britiffi ; in
confequence of which they were obliged to apply to
the Society of Jefuits at large : but they, either igno¬
rant of their true intereft, or toe flow in giving affift¬
ance, fuff^red the merchants to flop payment •, and thus France,
not only to bring ruin upon themielves, but to in-
volve, as is ufual in fuch cafes, a great many others
in the fame calamity. Their creditors demanded in¬
demnification from the Society at large ; and on their
refufal to fatisfy them, brought their caufe before the
parliament of Paris. That body, eager to revenge
themfelves on fuch powerful adverfaries, carried on the
moft violent perfecutiovs everywhere againft them. In
the courfe of thefe, the volume containing the con-
ftitution and government of the order itfelf was ap¬
pealed to, and produced in open court. It then ap¬
peared, that the order of Jefuits formed a diftinft body
in the ftate, fubmitting implicitly to their chief, who
alone was abfolute over their lives and fortunes. It
was like wife difeovered that they had, after a former
expulfion, been admitted into the kingdom upon con¬
ditions which they had never fulfilled ; and to which
their chief had obftinately refufed to fubferibe ; con-
fequently that their exiftence at that time in the na¬
tion was merely the effedt of- toleration. The event
was, that the writings of the Jefuits were pronounced
to contain dodlrines fubverfive of all civil government,
and injurious to the fecurity of the facred perfons of
foverejgns: the attempt of Damien againft the king
was attributed to them, and every thing feemed to prog-
nofticate their fpeedy diffolution. In this critical mo¬
ment, however, the king interfered, and by his royal
mandate fufpended all proceedings againft them for a
year j a plan of accommodation was drawn up, and
fubmitted to the pope and general of the order : but
the latter, by bis ill-timed haughtinefs, entirely over¬
threw the hope of reconciliation. I he king withdrew
his protedlion, and the parliament redoubled their ef¬
forts againft them. The bulls, briefs, conftitutions,
and other regulations of the Society, were determined
to be encroachments on authority, and abufes of go¬
vernment •, the Society itfelf was finally diffolved, and
its members declared incapable of holding any clerical
or municipal offices ; their colleges were feized ; their
effedls confifcated, and the order annihilated ever
fince. 164
The parliament, having gained this viclory, next Contentions
made an attempt to fet bounds to the power of the^™^
king himfelf. They now refufed to regifter an edict
which Louis had iffued for the continuance of fame Li ament,
taxes which fttould have ended with the war, and like-
wife to conform to another by which the king was en¬
abled to redeem his debts at an inadequate price. The
court attempted to get the edicts regiftered by force,
but the parliaments everywhere feemed inclined to re¬
fill to the lalt. In 1766, the parliament of Brittany
refufed the crown a gift of 700,000 livres \ in confe¬
quence of which they were tingled out to bear the
weight of royal vengeance : but while matters were on
the point of coming to extremities, the king thought
proper to drop the procefs altogether, and to pubhffi a
general amnetiy. The parliaments, however, now af-
fected to defpife the royal clemency ; which exafperated
the king to fuch a degree, that he ordered the counfel¬
lors of "the parliament of Brittany (who had refufed
to refume the fun&ions of which he deprived them)
to be included in tbe lift of thofe who were to be 4
drafted for militia j and thofe upon whom the lot fell
were immediately obliged to join their refpeaive regi¬
ments ;
F R A
16s
Ifland of
Corfica re¬
duced.
France, ments 5 the reft being employed in forming the city
”,"~v guard, i'he parliament of Paris remonftrated fo free¬
ly upon this conduct of the king, that they alfo fell
under his cenfure ; and Louis in the molt explicit
manner declared, that he would fufter no earthly power
to interfere with his will; and the parliaments were
tor the prefent intimidated into iubmiftion.
The interval of domeftic tranquillity which now took
place, was employed by the king in humbling the pride
of the pope, who refuted to recal a brief he had pub-
liftied againft the duke of Parma. On this the French
monarch reclaimed the territories of Avignon and Ve-
naiflin ; and while the pontift' denounced his unavailing
cenfures againft him, the marquis de Rochecouart, with
a lingle regiment of i’oldiers, drove out the troops of
the pope, and took pofteftion of the territories in que-
ftion.
A more formidable oppofition was made by the na¬
tives of the fmall illand of Corfica j the fovereignty of
which had been transferred to France by the Genoefe
its former mailers, on condition that Louis Ihould re-
inftate them in the poflellion of the ifiand of Caprala,
which the Corficans had lately reduced. Thefe illanders
defended themfelves with the moft defperate intrepidi¬
ty ; and it was not till after two campaigns, in which
feveral thoufands of the braveft troops of France were
t66 ^0^:, *kat they could be brought under fubjeflion.
DittreiFed The fatisfaflion which this unimportant conqueft
ftate of the might aftord to Louis, was clouded by the diftrefs of
nation. the nation at large. The Eaft India Company had to¬
tally failed, and moft of the capital commercial houfes
in the kingdom were involved in the fame calamity.
The minifter, the due de Choifeuil, by one defperate
ftroke, reduced the intereft of the funds to one half,
and at the fame time took away the benefit of the fur-
vivorlhip in the tontines, by which the national credit
was greatly affeffed; the altercation betwixt the king
and his parliaments revived, and the diflenfions became
worfe than ever. The due de Choifeuil attempted in
vain to conciliate the differences } his efforts tended
only to bring misfortunes upon himfelf, and in 1771
he was baniftied by the king, who fufpe£fed him of fa¬
vouring the popular party too much *, and this was foon
after followed by the banilhment of the whole parlia¬
ment of Paris, and that by the banithment of a num¬
ber of others ; new parliaments being everywhere cho-
fen in place of thole who had been expelled. The
people were by no means difpofed to pay the fame re¬
gard to theie new parliaments that they had done to
the old ones ; but every appearance of oppofition was
at laft filenced by the abfolute authority of the king.
In the midft of this plentitude of power, however, which
he had fo ardently defired, his health daily declined,
and the end of his days was evidently at no great
diftance. As he had all along indulged himfelf in fen-
iual pleafures to the greateft excefs, fo now they prov¬
ed the immediate means of his deftru&ion. His fa¬
vourite miftrefs, Madame de Pompadour, who for a
long time governed him with an abfolute fway, had
long fince been dead, and the king had for fome time
been equally enflaved by the charms of Madame du
iBarre. At laft even her beauty proved infufticient to
excite delire ; and a fucceflion of miftreffes became ne-
eellary to roufe the languid appetites of the king. One
[ 99 1
F K A
of theie, who was infected with the fmallpox, commu- France,
nicated the dileafe to the king ; wiio in a Ihort time r-—'
died of it, notwithftanding all the aftiftance that could ,-v ‘f7 ,
be given him by the phylicians. Louis'xV.
1 he new king Louis XVI. grandfon to the former, 16S
afeended the throne in the year 1774, in the 20th yearReif?n °^r
of his age ; and to fecure himfelf againft the dileafe Lcu*s ^v
which had proved fatal to his predeceftor, fubmitted to
inoculation, with feveral others of the royal family.
Iheir quick and eafy recovery contributed much to ex¬
tend that pradice throughout the kingdom, and to remove
the prejudices which had been entertained againft it.
I he king had no iooner regained his health, than he
applied himfelf diligently to extinguilh the differences
which had taken place betwixt his predeceffor and the
people. He removed thole from their employments
who had given caufe of complaint by their arbitrary
and oppreflive condud j and he conciliated the affec¬
tion ot his fubjeds by removing the new parliaments
and recalling the old ones.
But though the prudence of Louis had fuggefted
to him thefe compliances, he endeavoured frill toJ pre¬
serve pure and entire the royal authority. He explain¬
ed his intentions by a fpeech in the great chamber
of parliament. “ The ftep that he had taken to en-
fure the tranquillity and happinefs of his fubjeds, ought
not (he obferved) to invalidate his own authority ; and
he hoped, from the zeal and attachment of the prefent
affembly, an example of fubmiflion to the reft of his
fubjeds. Their repeated refiftance to the commands
°f ^his grandfather had compelled that monarch to
maintain his prerogative by their banilhment ; and they
were now recalled, in the expedation that they would
quietly exercife their fundions, and difplay their Gra¬
titude by their obedience.” He concluded with De¬
claring, “ 1 hat it was his defire to bury in oblivion all
paft grievances; that he Ihould ever behold with ex¬
treme difapprobation whatever might tend to create
divifions and dilturb the general tranquillity 5 and that
his chancellor would read his ordinance to the affem¬
bly, from which they might be affured he would not
fuffer the fmalleft deviation to be made.” That ordi¬
nance was conceived in the moft explicit terms, and
was immediately regiftered by the king’s command.
The articles of it limited within very narrow bounds
the preteniions of the parliament of Paris : The mem¬
bers were forbidden to look upon themfelves as one
body with the other parliaments of the kingdom, or
to take any ftep, or affume any title, that might tend
towards or imply fuch an union : They were enjoin¬
ed never to relinquifti the adminiftration of public ju-
fiice, except in cafes of abfolute neceffity, for ivhich
the firit prefident was to be refponiible to the king •
and it was added, that on their dilbbedienoe the grand
council might replace the parliament, without5 any
new edia for the purpofe. They were ftill however
permitted to enjoy the right of remonftrating before
the regiftering of any edidts or letters patent which
they might conceive injurious to the welfare of the
people, provided they preferved in their reprefentations
the relpea due to the throne. But thefe remonflrances
were not to be repeated ; and the parliament, if they
proved meffeaual, were to regifter the edia objeaed
to \\ ithin a month at fartheft from the firft day of its
N 2 being
F R A [ 100 ] FRA
France, being publifhed. They VvTere forbidden to blue any ar-
w rets •yybjch might excite trouble, or in any manner re¬
tard the execution of the king’s ordinances 5 and they
were allured by the king himfelf, at the conclulion of
this code for their future conduct, that as long as they
adhered to the bounds prefcribed, they might depend
upon his countenance and protection. In fhort, the
terms on which Louis confented to re-eftablilh the par¬
liaments were fuch, that they were reduced to mere
cyphers, and the word of the king ftill continued to be
the only law in the kingdom. The archbithop of Pa¬
ris, who had likewife prefumed to raife fome commo¬
tions with regard to the bull Unigenitus, was obliged
to fubmit ; and feverely threatened if he Ihould after¬
wards interfere in fuch a caufe.
The final conqueft of the Corficans, who, provoked
by the oppreffion of their governors, had once more
attempted to regain their former liberty, was the firtt
event of importance which took place after this reite¬
ration of tranquillity : but the kingdom was yet filled
I-775* with diforder from other caufes. A fcarcity of corn
happening to take place juft at the time that fome
regulations had been made by M. Turgot the new fi¬
nancier, the populace rofe in great bodies, and com¬
mitted fuch outrages, that a military force became ab-
folutely neceffary to quell them •, and it was not till
upwards of 500 of thefe miferable wretches were de-
llroyed that they could be reduced. The king, how¬
ever, by his prudent and vigorous conduft on this oc-
cafion, foon put a flop to all riots, and eminently dif-
played his clemency as well as prudence in the me¬
thods he took for the reftoration of the public tran-
169 quillity.
Humane 'l'he humanity of Louis was next fhown in an edict
vour of de" caufecl to t>e regiftered in parliament, fenten-
ferters. cing the deferters from his army in future to work as
flaves on the public roads, inftead of punifhing them as
formerly with death j and with equal attention to the
general welfare of his fubje&s, he feized the moment of
170 peace to fulfil thofe promifes of economy which on his
Suppreffion acceffion he had given to the people. Various regula-
oi the mouf-t’ons took place in confequence •, particularly the fup-
quetaires. prejplon Q£ tjie m0ufquetaires and fome other corps,
which being adapted more to the parade of guarding
the royal perfon than any real military fervice, were
fupported at a great expence, without any adequate re¬
turn of benefit to the flate.
Particular attention was alfo paid to the ftate of the
marine 5 and the appointment of M. de Sartine in
1776 to that department did honour to the penetra¬
tion of the fovereign. That nainifter, fruitful in rc-
fburces, and unwearied in his application, was incef-
fantly engaged in augmenting the naval ftrength of
his country •, and the various preparations that filled
the ports and docks created no hnall uneafinefs to the
Britifh court.
The next appointment made by the king was equal¬
ly happy, and in one refpeft lingular and unpre¬
cedented. M. Turgot, though poffeffed of integrity
and induftry, had not been able to command the pub¬
lic confidence. On his retreat, M. Clugny, intendant
general of Bourdeaux, had been elevated to the vacant
poll: but he dying in a very fliort fpace, M. Taboureau
des Reaux was appointed his fucceffor j and the king
foon after affociated with him in the management of
the finances M. Neckar, by birth a Swiis, and by re- France;
lk>;ion a Proteftant. That gentleman, in the preced- ~'v "“J
ing reign, had been chofen to adjuit fome differences
between the Eaft India Company and the crown*, andmentof M.
had difeharged his truft in a manner which gained the Neckar to
approbation of both parties. Poffeffed of diftinguiih-^ t^rec~
ed abilities, his appointment would have excited no fur-^'^^J.’e
prife, had it not been contrary to the conftant policy
of France, which had carefully excluded the aliens of
her country and faith from the controul of her revenue.
It now flood forward as a new inftance of enlargement
of mind and liberality of fentiment •, and will to po-
fterity mark the prominent features of the reign of
Louis XVL
Although the French monarch was of a pacific difi-
pofition, and not deftitute of generofity of fentiment;
yet his own and the public exultation had been openly
and conllantly proportioned to the fuccefs of the Ame-
ricans in their conteft with Britain : the princes of the The French
blood and the chief nobility were eager to embark in privately
fupport of the caufe of freedom 5 and the prudence °f Americans
the king and his moft confidential minifters alone re- ;n tiie;r
drained their ardour. The fatal events of the former war conteft
were rtill impreffed on the mind of Louis; and he could whh £>ri-
not readily confent to expofe his infant marine in a con-tam»
tell with a nation who had fo frequently afferted the
dominion of the feas, and fo lately broken the united
ftrength of the houfe of Bourbon. At the fame time,
he was fenfible that the opportunity of humbling thofe
haughty iilanders Ihould not be entirely negledled, and
that fome advantages fhould be taken of the prefent
commotions in America. Two agents from the Unit¬
ed States, Silas Deane and Dr Benjamin Franklin,
had fucceflively arrived at Paris : and though all audi¬
ence was denied them in a public capacity, ftill they
were privately encouraged to hope that France only-
waited the proper opportunity to vindicate in arms
the independence of America. In the mean while,
the American cruifers were hofpitably received iuto
the French ports $ artillery and all kinds of warlike
ftores were freely fold or liberally granted to the di-
ftrefs of the colonifts j and French officers and engi¬
neers, with the connivance of government, entered into
their fervice.
Some changes were about this time introduced into
the different departments of ftate. The condudl of M.
Neckar in the finances had been attended with univer-
fal approbation *, and M. Taboureau des Reaux, his col¬
league, had refigned his fituation, but ftill retained the
dignity of counfellor of ftate. To afford full fcope to
the genius of M. Neckar, Louis determined no longer
to clog him with an affociate : but, with the title of
Director General of the Finances, fubmitted to him the
entire management of the funds and revenue of France.
In the enfuing year, the Count de St Germains, fecre-
tary at war, died } and the prince de Montbarey, who
had already filled an inferior fituation in that depart¬
ment, was now appointed to fucceed him.
In the mean time, Louis’s negotiations with foreign
courts were not negle&ed. He concluded a new trea¬
ty of alliance with Switzerland 5 vigilantly obferved
the motions of the different princes of Germany on the
death of the ele&or of Bavaria; and when clofely
queftioned by the Englifti ambaffador, Lord Stormont,
refpefting the various warlike preparations which were
diligently
E
A
[
ed States.
France, diligently continued througli the kingdom, he repli«d,
v That at a time when the leas were covered with Englith
fleets and American cruifers, and when fuch armies
were lent to the New World as had never before ap¬
peared there, it became prudent for him alfo to arm
for the fecurity of the colonies and the proteflion of
the commerce of France. The king was not ignorant
at the fame time, that the remonftrances of Great Bri¬
tain, and the importunities of the agents of the United
States, would foon compel him to adopt forne decifive
line of conduU. This was haltened by a new event
173 difaflrous to Britain ; the failure of General Burgoyne’s
and at la't expedition, and the capture of his army. The news
openly ac- ^ t was rece}ve(l at Paris with unbounded ex-
knowledge . v__ ■ . , . r . .
the inde- ultation. M. bartine, the marine lupermtendant, was
pendence eager to meafure the naval ftrength of France with
of the Unit-{hat Qf Great Britain j the queen, who had long Se¬
conded the applications of the American agents, now
efpoufed their caufe with frelh ardour •, and the pacific
inclinations of Louis being overborne by the fuggeftions
of his minifters and the influence of the queen, it was
at length determined openly to acknowledge the inde¬
pendence of the United States;
Dr Franklin and Silas Deane, who had hitherto
afiled as private agents, were now acknowledged as
public ambaffadors from thofe Hates to the court of
Verfailles •, and a treaty of amity and commerce was
figned between the two powers in the month of Febru¬
ary 1778. The duke of Noailles, ambafiador to the
court of London, was in the month of March in-
i'truiHed to acquaint that court with the above treaty.
At the fame time he declared, that the contrabUng
parties had paid great attention not to ftipulate any
exclufive advantages in favour of France, and that the
United States had referved the liberty of treating with
every nation whatever on the fame footing of equality
and reciprocity. But this ftipulation was treated by
the Britiih with contempt 5 and the recal of Lord
Stormont, their ambaflador at Verfailles, was the fig-
nal for the commencement of hoftilities.—The events
produced by this war are related under the articles
America, Britain, and Indostan. Here our
chief bufinefs is with domeftic tranfaftions, the mea-
fures of the cabinet, and the internal economy of the
Hate.
In the year 1780 new changes in the French mini-
flry took place. M. Bertin had refigned the office
of fecretary of Hate •, the prince de Montbarey had re¬
tired from the poH of fecretary at war, and was fuc~
Removal ofceeded by the Marquis de Segur. But the moil im-
M. de Sar- portant removal was that of M. Sartine, who had for
tine. feveral years prefided over the marine department, and
svhofe unwearied application and ability had raifed the
naval power of France to a height that aflonilhed Eu¬
rope : but his colleagues in the cabinet loudly arraigned
a profufion, v.'hich would have diverted into one chan¬
nel the whole refources of the kingdom ; and his re¬
treat opened a road to the ambition of the Marquis de
CaHries, who was appointed to fupply his place.
This year, the king fixed on the anniverfary of hi-s
birth day to render it memorable by a new inflance of
humanity ; and he aboliihed for ever the inhuman cu-
Hom of putting the quejlion, as it wras called, by torture 3
a cuflom which had been fo eflabliffied by the praftice
of ages, that it feemed to be an infeparable part of
D4
Francei
U5
01 ] FRA
the confutation ©f the courts of juHice in France. At
the fame time, to defray the charges of wTar, he conti¬
nued to diminifli his own expenditure $ and facrificing
his magnificence to the eafe of his fubjefls, difmiffed
at once above 400 officers belonging to his court.
Unhappily, however, the popular diicontents were truiiitfion
excited next year by the difmiflion of their favourite ^ec^aT
minider, M. Neckar. Fie had conceived the arduous
but popular project of fupporting a war by loans with¬
out taxes j and the rigid economy which he had intro¬
duced into all the departments of the royal houfehold,
and the various refources that prefented themfelves to
his fertile genius, had fupported him amidit the diffi¬
culties that attended this fyflem. But his auflerity of
temper had not rendered him equally acceptable to the
fovereign and his fubjeUs •, and the repeated reforms
he had recommended were reprefented as inconfiflent
with the dignity of the crown he was therefore in
1781 difmiffed from his office of comptroller-general j
and M. Joli de Fleuri, counfellor of Hate, was appoint¬
ed to that important department. The defeat of the
count de Graffe happened next year, and impreffed the
kingdom with general grief and conflernation. 1m
menfe preparations wrere, however, made for the opera¬
tions of 1783 j and in conjunction with the courts of
Madrid and the Hague, Louis was determined this year
to make the mod powerful efforts to bring the war to a
conclufion. But in the midff of thefe preparations, the
voice of peace was again heard ; and Louis wras induced 175
to liHen to the proffered mediation of the two firff po- Peace con-
tentates in Europe, the emperor of Germany and the eluded,
emprefs of Ruffia. The count de Vergennes, who Hill
occupied the poH of fecretary of foreign affairs, wr&s
appointed to treat with Mr Fitzherbert the Britiffi
miniiler at Bruffels, but who had lately proceeded to
Paris to conduft this important negotiation. The
way was already fmoothed for the reHoration of public
tranquillity, by provifional articles figned at the con¬
clufion of the laff year between the Hates of America
and Great Britain, and wffiich were to conflitute a
treaty of peace finally to be concluded when that be¬
tween France and Great Britain took place. Prelimi¬
nary articles were accordingly agreed upon and fign¬
ed at Verfailles : thefe were loon after fucceeded by a •
definitive treaty 5 and France, throughout her exten-
five dominions, beheld peace once more eHablilhed.
Though the late war had been attended by the moH
brilliant fuccefs, and the independence of America
feemed to Hrike deep at the fource of her rival’s power,
yet France herfelf had not been entirely free from in¬
convenience. The retreat of M. Neckar, had, as we
have already obferved, diminithed the public confidence)
three different perfons who had fince tranfiently occu¬
pied his poH, increafed the jealoufies of the people 5 of thV
and the failure of the celebrated Caiffe d’EfcompteCaifle
completed the univerfal conHernation. d’Efcompte
That bank had been effabliffied in the year 1776.
The plan of it was formed by a company of private
adventurers, and its capital was fixed at 500,000!.
fterling. The profeffed defign of the Company was
to difeount bills at fliort dates, at the rate of four per
cent, per annum : but as this intereff could never be an
equivalent for the capital funk by the proprietors, they
were intrufled wnth the additional power of iffuing
notes to the amount of their capital, which, as they
were
FRA [ 102 ]
FRA
' France, were capable at any time of being converted into fpecie,
might be often voluntarily taken by their cuftomers
from mere convenience. The reputation of the bank
foon caufed its flock to fell above par : and its credit
was ftili at the higheft, when to the ailonilhment of the
nation it fuddenly flopped payment on the 2d of Octo¬
ber 1783. The cauie affigned was an uncommon fcar-
city of fpecie : But the public fufpeifed that the failure
arofe from a loan fecretly made to government; and
what confirmed the fufpicion was, that government a-
bout .the fame time flopped payment of the bills drawn
upon them by their army in America.
Whatever was the caufe of this event, the king was
prevailed on to extend his protection to the Company.
By four fucceflive ediCts the banks in Paris were
ordered to receive the notes of the Caiffe d’Efcompte
as currency 5 and a lottery with a flock of one million
flerlmg, redeemable in eight years, being eflablithed,
the tickets were made purchafable in notes of the Caiffe
d’Efcompte. By thefe expedients the public confi¬
dence in that bank was revived, its bufinefs increafed,
and its flock rofe to above double the original fubferip-
tion ; the bills from America were at the fame time put
in a train of payment, and public credit w^as reflored
throughout the kingdom. Some compenfation alfo
for the expences that had been incurred during the late
war, was drawn from a treaty with the United States
of America. Thefe engaged to reimburfe France in
the fum of 18 millions of livres, which had been ad¬
vanced in the hour of their diflrefs j and Louis con-
fented to receive the money, as more convenient to the
States, in the fpace of I 2 years, by 12 equal and an¬
nual payments. n-
The general peace was foon after followed by a par¬
ticular treaty between France and Holland, which was
France and effedted wdth great addrefs by the Count de Vergennes.
t o an . jt jnc]ucie(i t]ie principles which can ferve to ce¬
ment in the clofefl union diflimff nations under diftinfl
governments 5 and by which they may mutually partici¬
pate, in peace or in war, of good or of evil ; and in
all cafes admimfter the moll perfeil aid, counfel, and
fuccour to each other. It alfo preferibed, if their
united good offices for the prefervation of peace fhould
prove ineffe£tual, the affiflance they were to afford
each other by fea and land. France was to furniffi
Holland with 10,000 effedlive infantry, 2000 cavalry,
with 12 fhips of the line and 6 frigates. Their High
Mightineffes, on the other fide, in cafe of a marine
Avar, or that France fhould be attacked by fea, rvere to
contribute to her defence fix fhips of the line and three
frigates 5 and in cafe of an attack on the territory of
France, the States General were to have the option of
furnifhing their land contingent either in money or
troops, at the eflimate of 5000 infantry and 1000 ca¬
valry. Further, If the flipulated fuccours fhould be
infufficient for the defence of the party attacked, or
for procuring a proper peace, they engaged to affifl
each other Avith all their forces, if neceffary ; it being
however agreed that the contingent of troops to be fur-
nifhed by the States General fhould not exceed 20,000
infantry and 4000 cavalry. It was further added,
that neither of the contrafting powers fhould difarm,
or make or recewe propofals of peace or truce, with¬
out the confent of the other : they promifed alfo not
to contradl any future alliance or engagement what-
2
T7S
Treaty be¬
tween
ever, diredlly or indireaiy, contrary to the prefent France.
treaty ; and on any treaties or negotiations being pro-  y •
poled which might prove detrimental to their joint inte-
reft, they pledged their faith to give notice to each o-
ther of fuch propofals as foon as made.
Thus Avas Holland now converted into the firm ally
of that power againft whole encroaching Ipirit fhe had
formerly armed the moft powerful kingdoms of Eu¬
rope ; Avhile France having afferted the independence
of America againft Great Britain, and having con¬
verted an ancient and formidable foe into an ufeful
friend, feemed to have attained an influence CA^er the
nations of the earth that fhe had never before been pof-
feffed of.
But hoAvever exalted her prefent fituation might ap¬
pear, the feeds of future commotion Avere already ap¬
parent to an attentive obferver. "fhe applaufe that
had attended the parliament of Paris in their ftruggles
with the late king might be confidered as the fin ft daAvn
of freedom j the language of that affembly bad boldly
inculcated to their countrymen their natural rights,
and taught them to look with a lei’s enraptured eye on l79
the luftre that encompaffed the throne. The Avar in Confe-
America had contributed to enlarge the political ideas finence to
of the French : they had on that occafion flood forth ^
as the champions ,of liberty, in oppofition to regal Jncrfe-1'
power j and the officers, Avho had acted on that confpi-rence be-
cuous theatre, accuftomed to think and fpeak without tween Eri-
reftraint, on their return imparted to the provinces of ai?^
France the flame of freedom which had been kindled in
the Avilds of America. From that moment the French,
inftead of filently acquiefcing under the edi(5fs of their
fovereign, canvaffed each aftion Avith bold and rigid im¬
partiality •, while the attachment of the army, which
has ever been confidered as the foie foundation of def-
potifm, gave Avay to the noble enthuftafm of liberty.
We have already noticed the public diffatisfa£Hon
that had attended the difmiffion of M. Necker; his tran-
fient fucceffor, M. de Fleury, had retired from the
management of the finances in 1783, and the more
tranfient adminiftration of M. d’Ormeffon had expired
in the fame year that gave it birth. On his retreat,
M. de Calonne, who had fucceffively filled with acknow-
ledged reputation the office of intendant of Mentz, andment and
afterAvards of the provinces of Flanders and Artois, was meafures of
nominated to the poft of comptroller-general. This Ca"
gentleman, flexible and infinuating, eloquent in con- om‘e*
verfation and polifhed in his manners, fertile in refour-
ces and liberal in the difpofal of the public money,
foon rendered himfelf acceptable to the fovereign. But
he did not enter upon his new and arduous ftation fa¬
voured by the breath of popularity : he was reported
to be more able than confiftent, and not to have tem¬
pered the ardour of his fpirit by the feverity of deep
refearch ^ and the people, amidft repeated loans, re¬
gretted that fevere fimplicity which had charafterized
the adminiftration of M. Necker.
It was the bold and judicious mealures of Calonne,
however, that reftored credit to the Caiffe d’Efcompte,
wffiich had flopped payment a few weeks before bis ac-
celfion. His next meafure, in 1784, the eftablifliment
of the Caiffe d’Amortillement, or finking fund, was en¬
titled to a ftili higher degree of applaufe. The plan
of that fund was Ample and moderate : It Avas to pay
annually by government, into the hands of a board fet
apart
FRA
France, apart for that purpofe, the entire intereft of the nation-
~~~v~ ' al debts, whether in flock or annuities, together with
an additional fum of 120,000]. The annuities that
would be extinguifhed every year were eftimated at
50,000!. } and in that proportion, the fum let apart for
the redemption of the national debt would annually in-
creafe. The operation of this new fund was limited to
the term of 25 years j and during that term the annual
receipt of the Cailfe d’Amortiffement is declared unal¬
terable, and incapable of being diverted to any other
objefl.
The principal meafure of the next year was the
eflablilhment ot a new Eaft India Company, (the con-
ftitutions of which have bsen already detailed : fee
Company) ;—a meafure not equally commendable
with the preceding, and which did not fail to excite
violent complaints. The time, however, was now ap¬
proaching, when the necelTities of the ftate would com¬
pel him to meafures Hill more unpopular, and deilined
to undergo a feverer fcrutiny. Although peace had
been re-eftablifhed throughout Europe for three years,
yet the finances of France feemed fcarce affefted by
this interval of tranquillity, and it was found requifite
to clofe every year with a loan. The public expen¬
diture of 1785 might probably feem to lanclion this
meafure. It had been thought proper to fortify
Cherbourg upon a large and magnificent fcale 5 the
claim of the emperor to the navigation of the Scheldt
had obliged the French to increafe their land forces,
either to form a refpeclable neutrality, or to affifi: ef-
fedlually their Dutch allies ; and the marquis de Caf-
tries, fond of war, and profufe irr his defigns, had not
fullered the navy, which M. Sartine had furrendered
mto his hands, to decline during the interval of peace.
The treaty of commerce concluded in the year 1786
with Great Britain was a new fource of difcontent.—
Though regarded by the Englilh manufadlurers as far
from advantageous, it excited in France hill louder
murmurs. It was reprefented as likely to extinguilh
thole infant ehablilhments, which were yet unable to
vie with the manufactures of England that had attain¬
ed to maturity ; and the market that it held out for
the wines and oils of France was palled over in filence,
while the dillrefs of the artifan was painted in the moh
hriking colours. But when the cdidl for regihering
the loan at the conclufion of the laft year, and which
amounted to the fum of three millions three hundred
and thirty thoufand pounds, was prefented to the par¬
liament of Paris, the murmurs of the people, through
the remonfirances of that affembly, affumed a more le¬
gal and formidable afpect. The king, however, figni-
fied to the feleft deputation that were commiffioned
to convey to him their remonilrances, that he ex-
pefted to be obeyed without farther delay. The ce¬
remony of the regiftering accordingly took place on
the next day 5 but it was accompanied with a refolu-
tion, importing, “ that public economy was the only
genuine fource of abundant revenue, the only means
of providing for the neceffities of the Hate, and reffor-
ing that credit which borrowing had reduced to the
brink of ruin.”
The king was no fooner informed of this flep, than
he commanded the attendance of the grand deputa¬
tion of parliament ; when he crazed from their records
F R
the relblution that had been adopted 3 and obferved, France,
that though it was his pleafure that the parliament “
Ihould communicate, by its refppclful reprefentations,
whatever might concern the good of the public, yet
he never would allow them fo far to abufe his clemency
as to erect themfelves into the cenfors of his govern¬
ment. At the fame time, more ilrongly to mark his
difpleafure at their expollulations, he fuperfeded one
of their officers, who had appeared molt adtive in for¬
warding the obnoxious refolution.
M. de Calonne, however, though gratified by the
approbation of his fovereign, could not but feel him-
felf deeply mortified by the oppofition of the par¬
liament. His attempts to conciliate that affembly had
pi'oved ineffieClual : and he experienced their inflexible
averfion at the critical juncture when their acquielcence
might have proved of the moll effential fervice. An
anxious inquiry into the ftate of the public finances
had convinced him that the expenditure by far exceed¬
ed the revenue. In this lituation, to impofe new taxes;
was impracticable j to continue the method of borrow¬
ing was ruinous ; to have reCourfe only to economical
reforms, would be found wholly inadequate 5 and he he-
fitated not to declare, that it would be impoflible to
place the finances on a folid bafts, but by the reforma¬
tion of whatever was vicious in the conftitution of the
ftate.
To give weight to this reform, M. de Calonne was.
fenfible that fomething more was neceffary than the
royal authority; he perceived that the parliament was
neither a fit inftrument for introducing a new order
into public affairs, nor would fubmit to be a paflive
machine for fanftioning the plans of a minifter, even
if thofe plans were the emanations of perfect wifdom.
Though originally a body of lawyers, indebted for
their appointments to the king, there was not an at¬
tribute of genuine legiflative affembly but what they
feemed defirous to engrofs to themfelves j and they had
been fupported in their pretenfions by the plaudits of
the people, who were fenfible that there was no other
body in the nation that could plead their caufe againft
royal or minifterial oppreftion. To fupprcfs, therefore,
the only power of contrcul that remained, and to ren¬
der the government more arbitrary, was deemed too
perilous a meafure : yet to leave the parliament in the
full poffeflion of their influence, an influence that the
minifter was convinced would be exerted againft him,
was at once to render his whole fyftem abortive.
In this dilemma, the only expedient that fuggefted"
itfelf was to have recourfe to fome other affembly, more
dignified and folemn in its charaCfer, and which Ihould
in a greater degree confift of members from the vari¬
ous orders of the ftate and the different provinces of
the kingdom. This promifed to be a popular mea¬
fure *, it implied a deference to the people at large,
and might be expeCled to prove highly acceptable.
But the true and legitimate affembly of the nation, the
States General, had not met fince the year 1614 5 nor
could the minifter flatter himfelf with the hope of ob¬
taining the royal affent to a meeting which a defpotic
fovereign could not but regard with fccret jealoufy. iSr
Another affembly had occalionally been fubftituted in
the room of the States General: this was diftinguillied0^t^e
by the title of the Notables; and confifted of a num- a^eS‘
ber.
[ ]
France.
182
Splendid
project of
M. de Ca.
lonne.
V Vt A [ 104 ]
ber of perfons from all parts of the kingdom, chiefly poffeffions
felefted from the higher orders of the date, and no¬
minated by the king himfelf. This aflfembly had been
convened by Henry IV. again by Louis XIII. and
was now once more fummoned by the authority of
Louis XVI.
The writs for calling them together were dated on
the 29th of December 1786; and they were addreffed
to feven princes of the blood, nine dukes and peers of
France, eight field marefchals, twenty-two nobles, eight
counfellors of ftate, four matters of requefts, eleven
archbilhops and bifhops, thirty-feven of the heads of
the law,, twelve deputies of the pays d'etats, the lieute¬
nant civil, and twenty-five magiftrates of the different
towns of the kingdom. The number of members wras
144; and the 29th of January 1787 was the period ap¬
pointed for their meeting.
Upon the arrival of the notables at Paris, however,
the minifter found himfelf yet unprepared to fubmit
his fyftem to their infpedlion, and poftponed the
-opening of the council to the 7th of February. A
lecond delay to the 14th of the fame month wTas oc-
cafioned by the indifpofition of M. de Calonne him-
lelf, and that of the count de Vergennes prefident of
the council of finance and firlt fecretary of ftate ; and
a third procraftination was the neceffary refult of the
death of the count on the day previous to that fixed
fer the opening of the meeting. He was fucceeded
in the department of foreign affairs by the count de
Montmorin, a nobleman of unblemilhed charadter.
Eut his lofs at this critical jundlure was feverely felt
by M. de Calonne ; he alone, of all the minifters, hav¬
ing entered wuth warmth and fincerity into the plans
of the comptroller general. The chevalier de Miro-
mefnil, keeper of the feals, was avowedly the rival and
enemy of that ftatefman. The marefchal de Caftries,
lecretary for the marine department, was perfonally at¬
tached to M. Neckar •, and the baron de Breteuil, fe¬
cretary for the houfehold, was the creature of the
queen, and deeply engaged in wdiat was called the Auf-
trian fyftem.
It wras under thefe difficulties that M. de Calonne,
on the 22d of February, firft met the affembly of the
notables, and opened his long-expedfed plan. He
began by ttating, that the public expenditure had for
centuries part exceeded the revenue, and that a very
confiderable deficiency had of courfe exifted ; that the
Miffiffippi fcheme of 1720 had by no means, as might
have been expefted, reftored the balance ; and that
under the economical adminiftration of Cardinal Fleury
the deficit ftill exifted ; that the progrefs of this de¬
rangement under the laft reign had been extreme ; the
deficiency amounting to three millions fterling at the
appointment of the. Abbe Terray ; who, however, re¬
duced it to one million fix hundred and feventy-five
thoufand pounds 5 it decreafed a little under the fhort
adminiftrations that followed, but rofe again in con-
fequence of the war, under the adminittration of M.
Neckar 5 and at his own acceflion to office, it was three
millions three hundred and thirty thoufand pounds.
In order to remedy this growing evil, M. Calonne
recommended a territorial impoft, in the nature of the
England land tax, from w'hich no rank or order of
men were to be exempted 5 and an inquiry into the
FRA
of the clergy, which hitherto had been France.
deemed facred. from their proportion of the public bur- v 1
dens : the various branches of internal taxation were
alfo to undergo a llricl examination •, and a confidera-
ble refource was prefented in mortgaging the demefne
lands of the crown.
I he very neceffity for thefe reforms was combated
with a degree of boldnefs and force of reafoning that
could not fail of deeply imprefling the affembly ; and
inftead of meeting with a ready acquiefcence, the
comptroller general was now launched into the bound-
lefs ocean of political controverfy. M. Neckar, pre¬
vious to his retirement, had publifhed his Compte ren¬
du au Roi, in which France was reprefented as pof-
fefling a clear furplus of 425,000 pounds Sterling :
this performance had been read with avidity, and pro- Oppofed by
bably contributed to ettrange from the author the royal Mirabeau
countenance 5 but the credit of it was ably vindicated ?.nd thf bl"
by M. de Brienne archbiihop of Thouloufe. Thoidoufe,
M. de Calonne met with a ftill more formidable ad- *
verfary in the count de Mirabeau. This extraordinary
man, reftlefs in his difpofition, licentious in his morals,
but bold, penetrating, and enterpriling, had occafion-
ally vifited every court in Europe. He had been ad¬
mitted at one time to the confidence of the minifter j
and had been direfted, though in no oftenfible charac¬
ter, to obferve at Berlin, the difpofition of the fuccef-
lor of the great Frederick j in this capacity he was
frequently expofed to negledl and difappointment 5 his
letters were often left unanfwered; difguft fucceed¬
ed to admiration; and he wdio had entered the Pruf-
fian court the intimate friend, returned to Paris the
avowed enemy, of M. de Calonne : While the arch¬
biihop arraigned the underftanding, the count impeach¬
ed the integrity, of the comptroller general.
I he eloquence of M. de Calonne, however, might
have fuccefsfully vindicated his fyftem and reputation
againrt the calculations of Brienne, and the inveftives
of Mirabeau; but he could not fupport himfelf againft
the influence of the three great bodies of the nation. 1S4
'I he ancient nobility and the clergy had ever been and by the
free from all public afleffments; and had the evil PriNC|Pal
gone no farther, it might have been ftill perhaps borne
with patience j but through the fhameful cuftom of magi-’^
felling patents of nobility, fuch crowds of new nobleffe ttrates.
ftarted up, that every province in the kingdom was
filled with them. The firft object with thofe who had
acquired fortunes rapidly, was to purchafe a patent ;
which, befides gratifying their vanity, afforded an ex¬
emption to them and their pofterity from contributing
proportionably to the exigencies of the ftate ; the ma-
giftracies likewife throughout the kingdom enjoyed
their (hare of thefe exemptions 5 fo that the whole
weight of the taxes fell on thofe who wrere leaft able to
bear them.
The minifter’s defign, then, of equalizing the pub¬
lic burdens, and by rendering the taxes general dimi-
nilhing the load borne by the lower and moft ufeful
claffes of people, though undoubtedly great and pa¬
triotic, at once united againft him the nobility, the
clergy, and the magiftracy ; and the event wras fuch as
might be expefted : the intrigues of thofe three bodies
raifed againft him fo loud a clamour, that finding it
impoffible to ftem the torrent, he not only refigned his
place
I
F R A
IVartce.
r
place on the i 2th of April, but foou after retired to
England from the ftorm of perfecution.
In the midft of thefe tranfadions at home, Louis’s
attention was alfo called to the ftate of affairs in the re-
S.Jn!0"^ Prbrf °f his new and clofe aily. The prince
135'
Ulfturban-
ces in Hol¬
land.
1S7
Attempts
of the
French to
. —  an]. j ne prince
ot Urange had been ftripped of all authority by the
ariftocratic party; and, retiring from the Hague, main¬
tained the ihadow of a court at Nimeguen. His bro¬
ther-in-law, however, the new king of Pruffia, exerted
his endeavours to promote the interelts of the ftadt-
holder ; and, having offered, in concert with France,
to undertake the arduous talk of compohng the differ¬
ences which diffraded the republic, the propofal was
received with apparent cordiality by the court of Ver-
failles. At the fame time it could fcarce be expeded
that France would become the inftrument of reftoring
the prince of Orange to that {hare of power which he
had before occupied, and thus abandon one of the
longeff and moft favourite objeds of her policy, the
eilablilhing a fupreme and permanent controul in the
affairs of Holland. In fad, the conditions which wrere
Trained by the Louveftein fadion, as the bafis of re¬
conciliation, were fuch as plainly indicated their defign
to. reduce the Influence and authority of the ftadtholder
within very narrow limits. On his renouncing his
right of filling up the occaficnal vacancies in the town
ienates, he was to be reffored to the nominal office of
captain general : but he wTas to be reffrained from
inarching the troops into or out of any province, with-
«ut reave from the refpedive provinces concerned 5
And he was alfo to iubfcribe to a refolution paffed feme
Time beiore by the fenate of Amfterdam, that the
command Ihould at all times be revocable at the
pie a hire of the dates. Had the prince acquiefced
in thefe preliminaries, France would have complete-
y attained the objedl of her long negotiations, and
by means of the Louvedein fadion have acquired
tne afcendency that fhe had repeatedly fought in
die councils of Holland. But under the difficul¬
ties that furrounded him, the prince of Orange was
admirably fupported and affided by the genius, the
,Plnt, and the abilities of his confort : {lie firmly re¬
ceded every meafure tending to abridge any rights
that had been attached to the office of dadtholder: and
. de Rayneval, the French negotiator, having in
vam endeavoured to overcome her refolution, broke
oS the correfpondence between the Hague and Nime¬
guen, and returned to Paris about the middle of Jann-
ary 1787.
But the . republican party were totally difappoint-
r13?n the.lr hopes from France. The court of
V erlailles had indeed long traded to the natural
105 ] F R A
gineers were alfo direded to proceed filently and in
difguife towards Amderdam, and to affid in drength-
ening the works of that city. Thefe aids, w'hich might
have proved effedual had the conted been confined
to the dates of Holland and the dadtholder, were over-
whelmed in the rapid invafion of the Pruflians; and
the court of Berlin had taken its meafures with fo
much ceierity, and the fituation of the republicans was
already become fo ddperate, that it was doubtful
whether their affairs could be redored by any affid-
ance that France was capable of immediately admi-
TA1 f'c '\Jr' .. — 4. T3 _ * n . * *'
fupportthe -r “ ^ ^ trulted to the datura
repub'ican yrenRth of^ this jaarty, and had been affiduous dur
mg the whole dimmer in endeavouring to fecond
them by every fpecies of fuccours that could be
privately afforded. Crowds of French officers arrived
daily in Holland ; and either received commiffions in
the fervice of the dates, or aded as volunteers in their
troo.ps. Several hundreds of tried and experienced
lol.diers were feleded from different regiments ■ and
being furniftied with money for their journey, and af-
mrances of . future favour, were defpatched in fmall
parties to join the troops, and help to difeipline the
burghers and volunteers. A confiderable corps of en
Vol. IX. Part I.
mdering. Yet on Great Britain fitting out a ftrong
Iquadron of men of war at Portimouth to give confi¬
dence to the operations of the king of Pruffia, the
court of. ’Verfailles alfo fent orders to equip 16 fail
of the line at Breft, and recalled a fmall fquadron
which had been commiffioned on a dimmer’s cruife
on the coad of Portugal. But in thefe preparations
-Louis leemed rather to regard his own dignity, than
to be aduated by any hopes of effedually rel’ievina
his allies. All oppofition in Holland might be ad
ready confidered as extinguiffied. The dates affem-
bled at the Hague had officially notified to the
court of Verfailles, that the difputes between them
and the dadtholder were now happily terminated ;
and as the . circumdances which gave occafion for
their application to that court no longer exided fo the
fuccours which they had then requeded would now be
unneceflary.
Under thefe circumdances, France could only wiffi
to extricate herfelf from her prefent difficulty with
honour She therefore readily lidened to a memorial
from the Bntifh minider at Paris : who propofed in
oraer to preferve the good underdanding between ’the
two crowns, that all warlike preparations ffiould be
dl continued, and that the navies of both kingdoms
ffiould be again reduced to the footing of a neace
eitablnhment. I his was gladly acceded to by the court
of Verfailles; and that harmony which had been tran-
nently interrupted between the two nations was re-
liored.
I hough the French king could not but fenfibly feel Domeffic
the mortification of thus relinquiffiing the afcendency concerns of
v. mch he had attained in the councils of Holland the ^rance*
itate of his own domedic concerns and the internal fi¬
tuation of his kingdom furniffied matter for more fe~
nous reflection.. The difmiffion of M. de Calonne had
Jett rranee without a mimfler, and almofl without a
•Ji em ’ ,^nd though the king bore the oppofition of
tne notaries with admirable temper, yet the difan
pointment that he had experienced funk deep into his
mind. Without obtaining any relief for his mod ur¬
gent neceffities, he perceiyed too late that he had
opened a path to the redoration of the ancient condi-
tution of France, which had been undermined by the
crafty Louis XL and had been nearly exringuiffied by
the daring and fangumary counfels of Richelieu under
Louis XIII. The notables had indeed demeaned
themfe ves with relped and moderation, but at th-
fanie time, they had not been deficient in firmnefs. iSg
. e appointment of the archbiffiop of Thouloufe the Affembly
vigorous adyerfary of M. de Calonne, to the office of oflt,he ^
comptroller-general, probably contributed to preferveibiv,6^
the appearance of good hameur in that affembly; yet
° ' the
France.
190
Refufal of
the parlia¬
ment to re.
gifter the
new taxes.
191
The mem¬
bers ba-
nifhed.
F R A [ 106 j F R A
the propofed territorial import, or general land tax,
which was an objeirt fo ardently coveted by the court,
was rejeded. Louis, therefore, deprived of any fur¬
ther hope of rendering the convention fubfervient to his
embarraffments, determined to diflolve the affembly 5
which he accordingly did, with a very moderate
and conciliatory fpeecli to the members on their dif-
miflxon.
Thus difappointed of the advantage which he had
flattered himfelf he would have drawn from the acqui-
' efcence of'the notables, the king wras obliged now to
recur to the ufual mode of raifing money by the royal
edids $ among the meafures propofed for which pur-
pofe were the doubling of the poll tax, the re-eftablifh-
ment of the third twentieth, and a ftamp duty. But
the whole was ftrongly difapproved by the parliament
of Paris 'r and that affembly, in the moil pofitive terms,
refufed to tegirter the edid. Louis was obliged to
apply, as the laft refort, to his abfolute authority 5 and,
by holding what is called a bed of jufice, compelled
them to enrol the import.
The parliament, though defeated, were far from
fubdued j and on the day after the king had held his
bed of juftice, they entered a formal proteft again!! the
edid ; declaring, “ that it had been regiftered again!!
their approbation and confent, by the king’s exprefs
command ; that it neither ought nor fhould have any
force 5 and that the firft perfon who fhould prefume
to attempt to carry it into execution, fhould be ad¬
judged a traitor, and condemned to the galleys.”—
This fpirited declaration left the king no other alter¬
native, than either proceeding to extremities in fupport
of his authority, or relinquirtiing for ever after the
power of railing" money upon any occafion without the
confent of the parliament. Painful as every appearance
of violence muft have proved to the mild difpolition
of Louis, he could not confent to furrender, without
a ilruggle, that authority which had been fo long
exerciled by his predeceffors. Since the commence¬
ment of the prefent difcontents, the capital had been
gradually filled with confiderable bodies of troops $
and about a week after the parliament had entered
the protert, an officer of the French guards, with a
party of foldiers, went at break of day to the houfe
of each individual member, to fignify to him the
king’s command, that he fhould immediately get in¬
to his carriage, and proceed to Iroyes, a city of
Champagne, about *7° mhes from Paris, without
writing or fpeaking to any perfon out of his own
houfe before his departure. Thefe orders were ferved
at the fame inftant; and before the citizens of Paris
were acquainted with the tranfaftion, their magi-
ftrates were already on the road to their place of ba-
nilhment.
Previous to their removal, however, they had pre-
fented a remonftrance on the late meafures of govern¬
ment, and the alarming ftate of public affairs. In Ha¬
ting their opinions on taxes, they declared, that nei¬
ther the parliaments, nor any other authority, except¬
ing that of the three eftates of the kingdom colleftive-
3y affembled, could warrant the laying of any perma¬
nent tax upon the people 5 and they ftrongly enforced
the renewal of thofe national affemblies, which had
rendered .the reign of Charlemagne fo great and illu-
itrious.
This requiiition of the parliaments to re-eftablilh France,
the national council, or ftates general, was thq more
honourable, as the former affemblies muft have funk
under the influence of the latter, and returned to their
original condition of mere regifters and courts of
law. The confidence and attachment of the peo¬
ple of confequence rofe in proportion to this inftance
of difintereftednefs ", their murmurs were openly ex-
preffed in the ftreets of the capital, and the general
diffatisfa£lion was augmented by the flop that was
put to public bufinefs by the exile of the parlia¬
ment.
The cabinet at the fame time was apparently weak,
difunited, and fluftuating ; and continual changes took
place in every department of the ftate. Louis, averfe
to rigorous counfels, wiffied to allay the growing dif-
content by every conceffion that was conliftent with
his dignity j but it was generally believed, that the
queen ftrongly diffuaded him from any Hep that might
tend to the diminution of the royal authority. The
influence of that princefs in the cabinet was undoubt¬
edly great: but the popularity which once had accom¬
panied her was no more ; and fome imputations of pri¬
vate levity, which had been rumoured through the ca
pital, were far from rendering her acceptable to the
majority of the people ; while the Count d’Artois, the
king’s brother, who had exprefled himfelf in the mol!
unguarded terms again!! the conduct of the parliament,
flood expofed to all the confequences of popular
hatred.
Nor was it only in the capital that the flame of li¬
berty once more burft forth $ it blazed with equal
ftrength in the provincial parliaments. Among va¬
rious inftances of this nature, the parliament of Gre¬
noble paffed a decree againft lettres de cachet, the
moft odious engine of arbitrary power ; and declared
the execution of them within their jurifdiftion, by any
perfon, and under whatever authority, to be a capital
crime.
The king had endeavoured to foothe the Panfians
by new regulations of economy, and by continual re¬
trenchments in his houfehold : but thefe inftances of
attention, which once would have been received with
the loudeft acclamations, were now difregarded under
their affliftion for the abfence of their parliament. His
majefty, therefore, in order to regain the affedlions of 192
his fubje&s, confented to reftore that affembly •, aban-Recalled
doning at the fame time the ftamp duty, and the terri-
toriarimpoft, which had been the fources of difpute.
Thefe meafures, were, however, infufficient to eftablxlh
harmony between the court and the parliament. The
neceffities of the ftate ftill continued j nor could the
deficiency of the revenue be fupplied but by extraor¬
dinary refources, or a long courfe of rigid frugality.
About the middle of November 1787, in a full meet¬
ing of the parliament, attended by all the princes 'of
the blood and the peers of France, the king enter¬
ed the affembly, and propofed two edids for their ap¬
probation : one was for a new loan of 450 millions,
near 19 millions fterling : the other was for the re-
eftablithment of the Proteftants in all their ancient
civil rights •, a meafure which had long been warmly
recommended by the parliament, and which was pro¬
bably now introduced to procure a better reception to
the loan.
Fiance.
*93
liian.
F U A [
On tills occafion, the king delivered himfelf in a
fpeech of uncommon length, filled with profeffions of
regard for the people, but at the fame time ftrongly
expreflive of the obedience he expefted to his edi6ts.
Louis probably imagined, that the dread of that 'ba-
nithment from which the members had been fo lately
recalled would have enfured the acquiefcence of the
aflembly j but no fooner was permiffion announced for
every member to deliver his fentiments, than he was
convinced that their fpirits remained totally unfubdued.
An animated debate took place, and was continued
for nine hours j when the king-, wearied by perpetual
Oppofe the oppofition, and chagrined at fome freedoms uled in
ediift for a their debates, fuddenly rofe and commanded the edidt
to be regiftered without further delay. This meafure
was moil: unexpectedly oppofed by the duke of Or¬
leans, firlt prince of the blood j who, confidering it as
an infringement of the rights of parliament, protefted
againit the whole proceedings of the day as being
thereby null and void. Though Lotus could not con¬
ceal his aftonilhment and difpleafure at this decifive
ftep, he contented himfelf with repeating his orders ;
and immediately after, quitting the affembly, retired
to Verfailles. On the king’s departure, the parliament
confirmed the proteft of the duke of Orleans j and de¬
clared, that as their deliberations had been interrupted,
they confidered the whole bufinefs of that day as of no
effedt.
It was not to be fuppofed that Louis would fuffer
fo bold an attack on his power with impunity. Ac¬
cordingly, a letter was next day delivered to the duke
of Orleans, commanding him to retire to Villars dot¬
terel, one of his feats, about 15 leagues from Paris,
and to receive no company there except his own fami¬
ly ; at the fame time, the Abbe Sabatiere and M. Fre-
Orleans and teau, both members of the parliament, and who had
two mem- diilinguilhed themfelves in the debate, were feized
under the authority of lettres de cachet, and con¬
veyed, the firll to the caftle of Mont St Michel in
Normandy, the laft to a prifon in Picardy. This adi
of defpotifm did not fail immediately to roufe the feel¬
ings of the parliament. On the following day they
parliament, waited on the king, and expreffed their aftonilh¬
ment and concern that a prince of the blood royal
had been exiled, and two of their members imprifon-
ed, for having declared in his prefence what their
duty and confciences didlated, and at a time when
Hs majefty had announced that he came to take the
fenfe of the affembly by a plurality of voices. The
anfwer of the king was referved, forbidding, and
unfatisfadlory j and tended to increafe the refentment
of the parliament. At the fame time, it did not
prevent them from attending to the exigencies of
the ftate ; and convinced of the emergency, they con-
fented to regifter the loan for 450 millions of livres,
which had been the fource of this unfortunate dif¬
ference. This conceflion contributed to foften the
mind of the king, and the fentence of the two magi-
ftrates was in confequence changed from imprifonment
to exile j M. Freteau being fent to one of his country
feats, and the Abbe Sabatiere to a convent of Bene¬
dictines.
The parliament, however, was not to be foothed by
that meafure to give up the points againft which they
had originally remonftrated. In a petition conceived
194
Duke of
bers ba-
nilhed.
195
Strong re-
monftran-
ces of the
Duke of
107 ] FRA
with freedom, and couched in the moft animated lan.-1 Fiance
guage, they boldly reprobated the late ads of arbitrary ^
violence, and demanded the entire liberation of the
perfons againft whom they had been exerted. We
have already noticed the fluctuating counfels of the
court of Verfailles 5 and that Louis, as often as he
was left to purfue his own inclinations, adopted mea-
fures of reconciliation. On the prefent occafion, in
the beginning of the year 1788, he recalled the f)rieans
duke of Orleans to court, who foon after obtained called,
leave to retire to England ; and he permitted the re¬
turn of the Abbe Sabatiere and M. Freteau to the ca¬
pital.
The parliament, however, had not confined their
demands to the liberation of tbwfe gentlemen ; but had
alfo echoed the remonftrances of the parliament oi
Grenoble, and had loudly inveighed againft the execu¬
tion of lettres de cachet. Thefe repeated remonftrances,
mingled with perfonal reflections, feconded moft pro- 197
bably the fuggeftions of the queen, and Louis wasNew re~
once more inftigated to meafures of feverity. MefT. ™on^ra”"
d’Efpremenil and Monfambert, whofe bold and pointed
harangues had prefled moft clofely on the royal digni¬
ty, were doomed to experience its immediate refent¬
ment. While a body of armed troops furrounded the
hotel in which the parliament were convened, Colonel
Degout entered the 'aflembly, and lecured the per¬
fons of the obnoxious members, who were inftantly
conducted to different prifons. This new inftance
of arbitrary violence occafioned a remonftrance from
parliament, which in boldnefs far exceeded all the
former reprefentations of that affembly. They de¬
clared they were now more ftrongly confirmed, by
every proceeding, of the entire innovation which was
aimed at in the conftitution. “ But, Sire,” added
they, “ the French nation will never adopt the de-
ipotic meafures to which you are advifed, and whofe
effects alarm the moft faithful of your magiftrates :
we ihall not repeat all the unfortunate circumftances
which afflict us j wre Ihall only reprefent to you with
refpectful firmnefs, that the fundamental laws of the
kingdom mujl not be trampled upon, and that your au- x
thority can only be ejlee}ned fo long as it is tempered
with juflicey jps
Language fo pointed and decifive, and which affert-AlTeaibiy
ed the controlling power of the laws above the regal °^t^e ^°"
authority, could not fail of ferioufly alarming theta':ilcs'
king j and with a view to diminifli the influence of
parliament, it was determined again to convene the no¬
tables. Accordingly, about the beginning of May,
Louis appeared in that aflembly : and after com¬
plaining of the exceffes in which the parliament of
Paris had indulged thernfelves, and which had drawn
down his reluftant indignation on a few of the mem¬
bers, he declared his refolution, inftead of annihi¬
lating them as a body, to recal them to their duty
and obedience by a falutary reform. M. de la
Moignon, as keeper of the feals, then explained his
majefty’s pleafure to eftabliflr a cour plenier or fu-
preme affembly, to be compofed of princes of. the
blood, peers of the realm, great officers of the crown,
the clergy, marefchals of France, governors of pro¬
vinces, knights of different orders, a deputation of
one member from every parliament, and two members
from the chambers of council, and to be fummoned as
O 2 often
FRA [ j
( F.ance. often as the public emergency, in t'ne royal opinion,
v ihould render it requifite.
If tiie aflembly of the notables liftened in filent de¬
ference to the project of their fovereign, the parliantent
Oppofibon --eccived it with every fymptom of averlion.
to the J-,hat body pi-otefted agamft the eftablifliment
king’s pro- °/ other tribunal 5 and declared their final refolu-
polab. tion not to affift at any deliberations in the fupreme
affemhly which his inajefty prepared to inftitute. A
iuoi e unexpected mortification occurred to the king in
the oppofition of feveral peers of the realm : thefe ex¬
pelled their regret at beholding the fundamental prin¬
ciples of the conftitution violated j and while they were
lavifh. in the profeflions of attachment to the perlbn
of their iovereign, cone nded with apologizing for not
entering on thofe functions afligned them in the ple¬
nary court, as being inconfiftent with the true interefts
of his majelly, which were infeparable- from thofe of
the nation.
The flame quickly fpread throughout the more di-
ftant provinces; at Rennes in Brittany, and Gre¬
noble in Dauphine, the people broke out into ads of
the molt daring outrage. In the latter city feVeral
hundred of the inhabitants perilhed in a conflift wdth
the military ; they yet maintained their ground againfl:
the regulars; and the commanding officer, at the en¬
treaties of the firfl prefident, readily withdrew his troops
from a conteft into which he had entered with reluc¬
tance. The different parliaments of the kingdom at
the fame time expreffed their feelings in the moft glow-
ing language ; and ftrongly urged the neceffity of cal-
ing together the dates general, the lawful council of
the kingdom, as the only means of refloring the pub¬
lic tranquillity.
Louis. now plainly faw', that a compliance with
the public wiffies for the re-eftabliffiment of the ftates
general was abfolutely neceffary, in order to avoid
the calamities of a civil war, which impended upon
his refufal. In that event he muft have expected
to have encountered the majority of the people, ani¬
mated by the exhortations and example of their ma-
giftrates; the peers of the realm had expreffed the
ffrongefl: difapprobation of his meafures ; nor could he
even, depend any longer on the fupport of the princes
of his blood : but what afforded moil ferious matter
of alarm was the fpirit lately difplayed among the
military, who, during the difturbances in the pro¬
vinces, had relu&antly been brought to draw their
(words againff their countrymen, and many of whofe
officers fo recently engaged in eftabliihing the free¬
dom of America, publicly declared their abhorrence
of defpotifm.
It was not however, till after many a painful ftrug^Ie
that Louis could refolve to rellore an affembly, whofe
influence muft naturally overlhadow that of the crowm
and wbofe jurifdiclion would coniine within narrow
limits the boundlefs power he had inherited from his
predeceffor. In the two preceding reigns the ftates
general had been wholly difeontinued ; and though
the queen regent, during the troubles which attended
the minority of Louis XIV. frequently expreffed her
intention of call'ng them together, die was conftantly
diffuaded by the reprefentations of Mazarin. It is
probable that the prefent monarch ftill flattered him-
felf with the hope of being able to allure the members
08 ] fra
of that affembly to the fide of the court; and having France.
employed them to eftabliffi fome degree of regularity  v 
in the finances, and to curb the fpirit of the°parlia¬
ment, that he would again have dilmiffed them to ob-
feurity,
Under thefe impreflions an arret was iffued in Au- , 2Cr
guft, fixing the meeting of the ftates general to the^mon!
firft of May in the enfuing year; and every ftep was mg the
taken to fecure the favourable opinion of the public ftates ge~
during the interval. New arrangements took place inneta1,
the adminiftration; and M. Neckar, whom the con¬
fidence of the people had long followed, was again
introduced into the management of the finances; the
torture, which by a former edi£! had been reftridled
in part, was now entirely abolilhed ; every perfon ac»
cufed was allowed the affiftance of counlel, and per¬
mitted to avail himfelf of any point of lawr ; and it was
decreed, that in future fentence of death fliould not
be paffed on any perfon, unlefs the party accufed ffiould
be pronounced guilty by a majority at leaft of three
judges.
The time appointed for the convention of the ftates
general was now approaching ; and the means of af-
lembling them formed a matter of difficult deliberation
in the cabinet. The laft meeting, in 1614, had been
convened by application to the bailiwicks. But this
mode wTas liable to feveral ftrong objeflions; the
bailiwicks had been increafed in number and jurifdic-
tion, feveral provinces having fince that period been
united to France ; and the numbers and quality of the
members wrere no lefs an objefr of ferious attention :
it was not till the clofe of the year, therefore, that the
propofal of M. Neckar was adopted, which fixed the
number of deputies at 1000 and upwards, and ordain¬
ed that the reprefentatives of the third eftate or com¬
mons ffiould equal in number thofe of the nobility and
clergy united.
The eyes of all Europe wrere now turned on the
ftates general ; but the moment of that affembly’s
meeting was far from aufpicious; The minds of the
French had long been agitated by various rumours;
the unanimity that had been expefted from the differ¬
ent orders of the ftates was extinguilhed by the jarring
pretenfions of each ; and their mutual jealoufies were
attributed by the fufpicions of the people to the in¬
trigues of the court, who were fuppofed already to re¬
pent of the hafty affent which had been extorted. A
dearth that pervaded the kingdom increafed the general
difeontent; and the people, preffed by hunger, and in¬
flamed by refentment, were ripe for revolt. The fove¬
reign alfo, equally impatient of the obftacles he con¬
tinually encountered, could not conceal his chagrin ;
while the influence of the queen in the cabinet was
again eftablilhed, and was attended by the immediate
removal of M. Neckar. The difmiffion of that mini-jnfurrec.
fter, fo long the favourite of the public, was the fignaltions and
of open infurre&ion : the Parilians affembled in my-revolution.,
riads; the guards refufed to oppofe and ftain their
arms with the blood of their fellow citizens ; the Count
d’Artois and the moft obnoxious of the nobility
thought themfelves happy in eluding by flight the fury
of the infurgents ; and in a moment a revolution wras
accompliftied, the moft remarkable perhaps of any re¬
corded in hiftory.
But before we proceed in. our narration, and detail
the
fra
France.
the tranfa&ions which have marked the progrefs of this
lingular and terrible revolution, it may be worth while
to take a Ihort view of the internal lituation of France
previous to this period, and the more obvious political
caufes, the operation of which feems to have contributed
to the produftion of this great event.
The moral hiftory of man is always more important
than the mere recital of any phyucal occurrences that
may take place in his lot. It is not the fall of a mighty
monarch and the difperfion of his family ; it is no^the
convullion of empires, and the oceans of human blood
which have been fhed, that render the French revolution
peculiarly interefting. Such events, however deplorable
are far from being without example in the hiftory of
mankind. In the populous regions of the eaft, where
luperftition and flavery have always prevailed, they are
regarded as forming a part of the ordinary courfe of
human affairs; becaufe an intrepid and Ikilful ufuruer
finds it eafy to intimidate or enfnare millions of weak
and credulous men. In Europe the cafe is very dif¬
ferent ; no adventurer can advance far without encoun¬
tering thoufands as artful and as daring as himfelf
Events are not the refult either of blind hazard or of
individual. Hull; confpiracies or plots produce little
effech jLuke other arts, the art of government has been
brought to much perfedion j and an eftablifhed confti-
tution can only be ftiaken by the ftrong convulfion pro¬
duced by national pafiions and efforts. The wonderful
ipecracle which we are now to contemplate, is that of
a mild and polilhed people becoming in an inftant
iangumary and fierce; a well eftabliftied government
celebrated for its dexterity and ikill, overturned almoft
without a ftruggle ; a whole nation apparently uniting
to deftroy every inilitution which antiquitv had hallow¬
ed or education taught them to refpea ; a fuperftitious
people treating the religion of their fathers with con¬
tempt ; a long-enflaved people, whofe very chains had
pecome dear to them, occupied in their public counfels
in the difeuftion of refined and even vifionary fchemes
of freedom : in Ihort, 25,000,000 of perfons fuddenly
treading under foot every fentiment and every preju¬
dice that they themfelves had once regarded as facred
and venerable.
. Llke the other nations of Europe, France vks an¬
ciently governed by a barbarous ariftocracy, whofe dif-
terent members were feebly united by the authority of
ariftocracy. a iucceftion of kings deftitute of power or influence.
I he nobles, within their own territories; enjoyed privi¬
leges entirely royal : they made peace and wrar; they
coined money ; they were judges in the laft refort •
their vaffals were their flares, whom they brought and
fold along with the lands ; the inhabitants of cities, al¬
though freemen, were deprefled and poor, depending
for protection upon fome tyrannical baron in their
neighbourhood. _ At length, however, by the progrefs
of the arts, the cities rofe into confiderable importance
and their inhabitants, along with fuch freemen of low
rank as refided in the country, were confidered as enti¬
tled to a-reprefentation in the ftates-general of the king-
dom, under the appellation of tiers etat, or third efiate ;
the clergy and the nobles forming the two firft eftates.
But the. fovereign, having fpeedily become defpotic,
the meetings of the ftates general were laid aflde. This
abfolute authority, on the part of the crown, was not
acquired, as it was in England by the houfe of Tudor,
f J
FRA
by abohlhing the pernicious privileges of the nobles and France;
eievating the commons; but by Ikilful encroachments, —
by daring exertions of prerogative, and the ufe of a
powerful military, force. In France, therefore, the
monarch was abfolute, yet the nobles retained all
their feudal privileges, and the ecclefiaftical hier¬
archy did the fame. The following was, in a few
v ords, the hate of that country during thefe two laft
centuries.
Ihe kingdom of France, previous to the revolution, Was^cver
tv as never reduced to one Homogeneous mafs. It con-re^ucec^
nfted of a variety ot Separate provinces acquired by dif-int0 one
ferent means; fome by marriage, fome by legacy, andhoin0ge‘ f
others hv rrmnn^-Ti- ° ^ • fc’, /’ neousmals.
uuiers oy conqueit. Each province retained its an-
cient laws and privileges, whether political or civil, as
expreffed in their capitularies or conditions by which
they were originally acquired. In one part of his do¬
minions the French monarch was a count, in another
he was a duke, and in others he was a king ; the only
bond which united his vaft empire being the ftrong mi¬
ltary force by which it was overawed. Each province
had its barriers; and the intercourfe betwixt one pro¬
vince and another w’as often more reftrained by local
ufages than . the intercourfe of either with a foreign
country. Some of the provinces, fuch as Bretagne
and Dauphme, even retained the right of affembling
periodically their provincial ftates ; but thefe formed no
barrier againft the power of the court.
. ln.e clefgy formed the firft eftate of the kingdom Th^clergy,
'ri.P0i!-t' Piece<fence- I hey amounted to 1 20 000.tormc<^ t^ic
Ihe higher orders of them enjoyed immenfe revenuesertate
hut' t n /'uvaf a—. — _ _. i_.i I-. • _ hi the
203
France
formerly
under a
barbarous
but the cures or great body of ading clergy fel-- hf
dom poffeffed more than about L. 28 fterling fvem *d°m’
and their yicaires about half that fum. A few of
their dignified clergy were men of great piety, who
re ided conftantly m their diocefes, and attended to
the duties ot their office; but by far the greater
number , of them paffed their lives at Paris and Ver-
allies, immerfed in all the intrigues and diffipation
ot a gay and corrupted court and capital. They
were almoft exclufively feleded from among the
younger branches of the families of the moft power¬
ful nobility and accounted it a kind of dilhonour to
the order of bilhops for any perfons of low rank to
be admitted into it. The lower clergy, on the con¬
trary, were perfons of mean birth, and had little chance
o preferment. At the fame time, we find feveral re-
ipeciable exceptions to this laft. rule. The clergy as
a body, independent of the tithes, poffeffed a revenue
anfing from their property in land, amounting to four
or five millions fterling annually; at the fame time
they were exempt from taxation. The crown had of
late, years attempted to break through this privilege. To
avoid the danger, the clergy prefented to the court a
free .gift of a fum of money fomewhat ffiort of a million
Iterang every five years.
The nobility was nominally the fecond order of the The^obi-
J to noVf T 1U rCality th-C eirl1 The n°bIeS ai*°unt-% the fe-
r , r , han 200’000 113 number. The title andcoru!»
ramc efeended to all the children of the family, but
ofthem erty t le al°ne 1 henCe Vafl niul^udes
o them were dependent upon the bounty of the court.
1 cy regarded the meful and commercial arts as dilho-
nourable, and even the liberal profeffions of thq law and
phy.ic as m a great meafure beneath their dignity, dif-
daiuing
FRA
Fran-e
206
The par
liament
-third.
daining to intermarry with the families of their profef-
”■ ibrs. The feudal fyftem in its purity tvas extremely
favourable to the piodu&ion of refpeftable qualities in
the minds of thofe who belonged to the order of the
nobles •, but the introduction of commerce has rendered
its decline equally unfavourable to that clals of men.
Irvftead of the ancient patriarchal attachment between
the feudal chieftain and his vaftals, the nobility had be¬
come greedy landlords in the provinces, that they might
appear in fplendor at court ^nd in the capitah 1 here,
loft in intrigue, fenfuality, and vanity, their charac¬
ters became frivolous and contemptible. Such of the
French nobleffe, however, as remained in the provinces,
regarded with indignation this degradation of their or¬
der, and ftill retained a proud fenfe of honour and of
courage, which has always rendered them refpe&able.
The order of the nobles was exempted from the pay¬
ment of taxes, although the property of iome of them
was immenfe. The eftates of the prince of Conde, for
example, were worth 200,000!. a-year, and thofe of the
duke of Orleans nearly twbee as much. 'Ihe crown
had indeed impofed fome trifling taxes upon the no¬
bleffe, which, however, they in a great meafure con¬
trived to elude.
Next to the nobles, and as a privileged order poffef-
the ftng a fecondary kind of nobility of their own, we may
mention the parliaments. T. hefe wTere large bodies of
men, in different provinces, appointed as courts 01 law
for the adminiftration of juftice. In confequence of the
corruption of the officers of ftate, the members purcha-
fed their places, which they held for life j but the fon
was ufually preferred when he offered to purchafe his
father’s place. In confequence of this laft circumftance,
the pra&ifmg lawyers had little chance of ever beco¬
ming judges. Courts thus conftituted confifted of a
motley mixture of old and young, learned and. igno¬
rant, men. Juftice was ill adminiftered. The judges
allowed their votes in depending caufes to be openly
folicited by the parties or their friends. No wife
man ever entered into a litigation againft a member
of one of tbefe parliaments } no lawyer would under¬
take to plead his caufe ; it never came to a fuccefsful
iffue, and ufually never came to. any iffue at all. Af¬
ter the ftates-general had fallen into difufe, the parlia¬
ments acquired a certain degree of political c°nie-
quence, and formed the only check upon the abfo-
lute power of the fcrown. The law^s, or royal edicts,
before being put in force, vTere always fent to be regi-
ftered in the books of the parliaments. Taking ad¬
vantage of this, in favourable times and circumftances,
they often delayed or refufed to regifter the royal edifils,
and prefented remonftrances againft them. This was
done under a kind of legal fiftion : for they pretended
that the obnoxious edift being injurious to the public
happinefs, could not be the will of the king, but muft
either be a forgery or an impofition by the minifters.
Thefe obje&ions were got the better of, either by a po-
fitive order from the king, or by his coming in perfon
and ordering the edia to be regiftered. The parlia¬
ments, however, often carried their oppontion. very far,
even to the ruin of themfelves and their families as in¬
dividuals. This rendered them extremely popular with
the nation, and enabled them to embarrafs a weak ad¬
miniftration. After all, however, the oppofition of the
parliaments was fo feeble, that it was never thought
[ no ] F K A
worth while to abolifh them entirely till towards the Franc*,
end of the reign of Louis XV. ; but they were reftored
as a popular meafure, at the beginning of the reign of
Louis XVI. 207
The tiers etat, or commons, formed the loweft order The com.
of the ftate in France, and they were depreffed and mi-
ferable in the extreme. To form a conception of their order
fituation, it is neceflary to obferve that they bore theoppreffive
whole pecuniary burdens of the ftate : They alone burdens on
were liable to taxation. An expenfive and ambitiouslhem-
court; an army of 200,000 men in time of peace, and
of twice that number in war •, a confiderable marine ef-
tabliffiment, public roads and works, were all fupported
exclulively by the loweft of the people. To add to
the evil, the revenues were ill colleCled. They were
let out to farmers-general at a certain fum, over and
above which they not only acquired immenfe fortunes
to themfelves, but were enabled to advance enormous
prefents to thole favourites or miftreffes of the king or
the minifter, by means of whom they procured their
places. To raife all this money from the people,
they wove guilty of the cruelleft oppreffion, having it
in their power to obtain whatever revenue laws they
pleafed, and executing them in the fevereft manner.
For this laft purpofe they kept in pay an army of
clerks, fubalterns, fcouts, and fpies, amounting to
8o,oco men. Thefe men wrere indeed detefted by the
king, whom they deceived and kept in poverty 5 by
the people, whom they oppreffed ; and by the ancient
nobility, as purfe-proud upftarts. But the court of
France could never contrive to manage without them.
The peafants could be called out by the intendants of
the provinces, in what they called corvc'es, to work upon
the high roads for a certain number of days in the
year, which was a fource of fevere oppreffion, as the
intendant had the choice of the time and place of their
employment, and wTas not bound to accept of any com¬
mutation in money. They were moreover lubjecl to
the nobles in a thoufand ways. The nobles retained
all their ancient manerial or patrimonial jurifdiclions.
The common people being anciently Haves, had ob¬
tained their freedom upon different conditions. In
many places they and their pofterity remained bound
to pay a perpetual tribute to their feudal lords. Such
tributes formed a conliderable part of the revenue ot
many of the provincial nobles. No man could be
an officer of the army, by a late regulation, who. did
not produce proofs of nobility, for four generations.
The parliaments, although originally of the tiers
etatf attempted alfo to introduce a rule that none but
the nobleffe ffiould be admitted into their order.. In
fuch a fituation, it will not be accounted furpiifing
that the common people of France were extremely iu-
perftitious and ignorant. They were, however, paf-
fionately devoted to their monarch, and ^whatever con¬
cerned him. In I754> when Louis XV. was taken ill
at Metz, the whole nation was truly in a kind ol def-
pair. The courier and his horfe that brought the newts
of his recovery to Paris were both almoft fuffocated by
the embraces of the people. 20S
We have faid that the French monarch was defpo- Defpotic
tic. His power was fupported by his army, and by. a power of
watchful police, having in pay an infinite hoft of ipies 1
and other fervants. In France no man was lafe. The
fecrets of private families were fearched into. Nothing
FRA [i
France, was unknown to the jealous inquifition of the police.
v ' ‘ Men were feized by Litres de cachet when they lealb
expefted it, and their families had no means of difco-
vering their fate. The fentence of a court of law a-
gainft a nobleman was ufually reverfed by the minifter.
No book was publiilied without the Hcenfe of a cenfor-
general appointed by the court, and the minifter was
accountable to none but the king. No account was
given of the expenditure of the public money. Enor¬
mous gratifications and penfions were given as the re¬
ward of the moft infamous fervices. The fupreme
power of the ftate was ufually lodged with a favourite
miftrefs, and fhe was fometimes a woman taken from
Splendour public proftitution. This was not indeed the cafe
of the court under Louis X VI. but it was neverthelefs one of the
misfortunes of his life that he was far from being ab~
folute in his own family. Still, howevef, with all its
faults, the French court was the moft fplendid and po-
liihed in Europe. It was more the refort of men of
talents and literature of every kind, and there they
met with more ample proteflion, than anywhere elfe.
The court was often jealous of their produdtionSj but
they met with the moft diftinguifhed attention from
men of fortune and rank ; infomuch that for a cen¬
tury paft the French have given the law to Europe
in all queftions of tafte, of literature, and of every
polite accomplilhment. The gay elegance that pre¬
vailed at court diffufed itfelf through the nation ; and
amidft much internal mifery, gave it to a foreigner the
appearance of happinefs, or at leaft of levity and va¬
nity.
Such as it was, this government had flood for
ages, and might have continued, had not a concur¬
rence of caufes contributed to its overthrow. The in¬
ferior orders of clergy, excluded from all chance of
preferment, regarded their fuperiors with jealoufy and
envy, and were ready to join the laity of their owm
rank in any popular commotion. The inferior provin¬
cial nobleffe beheld with contempt and indignation the
vices and the power of the courtiers, and the higher
nobility wifhed to diminifh the powder of the crowm.
The pra&ifing lawyers, almoft entirely excluded from
the chance of becoming judges, wilhed eagerly for a
change of affairs, not doubting that their talents and
profeflional Ikill would render them neceffary amidft
any alterations that could occur. Accordingly, they
were the firft inftruments in producing the revolu¬
tion, and have been its moft aftive fupporters. The
monied intereft wiihed eagerly for the downfal of the
ancient nobility. As for the great mafs of the com¬
mon people, they were too ignorant, too fuperftitioufly
attached to old eftablifhments, and too much depref-
fed, to have any conception of the nature of political
liberty, or any hope of obtaining it. We have al¬
ready ftated the leading circumftances which led to
the French revolution (fee N° 184, &c.) j but there
were other circumftances which contributed in an
equal degree both to its commencement and its pro-
grefs.
For 40 years the principles of liberty had been diffe-
minated with eagernefs in France by fome men of great
talents, as Rouffeau, Helvetius, and Raynal, to whom
the celebrated Montefquieu had led the v7ay. Befides
thefe, there was in, France a vaft multitude of what were
aio
Caufes of
the Revo¬
lution.
11 j F 11 A
called men of letters, or perfons who gave this account
of the manner in which they fpent their time. All
thefe were deeply engaged on the fide of fome kind of
• political reform. The men of letters in Paris alone are
laid to have amounted to 20,000. One of the laft adds
of the adminiftration of the archbilhop of Thouloufe
was, on the 5(h July 1788, to publifh a refolution of
the king in council, inviting all his fubjedfts to give him
their advice wfith regard to the ftate of affairs. This
was confidered as a conceftion of an unlimited liberty of
the prefs j and it is fcarcely pcffible to form an idea of
the infinite variety of political publications which from
that period diffufed among the people a difiatisfadftion
with the order of things in which they had hitherto
lived.
The eftablilhed religion of France had for fome time
paft been gradually undermined. It had been folemnly
affaulted by philolbphers in various elaborate perform¬
ances j and men of wit, among whom Voltaire took the
lead, had attacked it with the dangerous weapon of ri¬
dicule. The Roman Catholic religion is much expofed
in this refpedf, in confequence of the multitude of falfe
miracles and legendary tales with which its hiftory
abounds. Without diferiminating betwixt the refpedf-
able principles on which it refts, and the fuperftitious
follies by which they had been defaced, the French na¬
tion learned to laugh at the whole, and rejetted inftead
of reforming the religion of their fathers. Thus the
firft order in the ftate had already begun to be regard¬
ed as ufelefs, and the minds of men were prepared for
important changes.
The immenfe population of the city of Paris, a-
mounting to upwards of 800,000 fouls, rendered it an
important engine in the hands of the conduttors of the
revolution. An overgrown capital has always proved
dangerous to a government that is or attempts to be
defpotic, as appears from the hiftory of ancient Baby¬
lon and Rome> as well as of modern Conftantinople, of
London under Charles I. and Paris under feveral of its
kings.
We cannot here avoid mentioning a phyfical event,
which affifted not a little in producing many of the
convulfions attending the revolution, a general fcarcity
of grain, which occurred about that period. On Sun¬
day the 13th of July 1788, about nine in the morning,
without any eclipfe, a dreadful darknefs fuddenly over-
fpread feveral parts of France. It was the prelude of
fuch a tempeft as is unexampled in the temperate cli¬
mates of Europe. Wind, rain, hail, and thunder, feem-
ed to contend in impetuofity 5 but the hail was the
great inftrument of ruin. Inftead of the rich profpetts
of an early autumn, the face of nature in the fpace of
an hour prefented the dreary afpett of univerfal winter.
The foil was converted into a morafs, the Handing
com beaten into the quagmire, the vines broken to
pieces, the fruit trees demolifhed, and unmelted hail ly¬
ing in heaps like rocks of folid ice. Even the robuft
foreft trees were unable to withftand the fury of the
tempeft. The hail was compofed of enormous, folid,
and angular pieces of ice, fome of them weighing
from eight to ten ounces. The country people, beat¬
en down in the fields on their way to church, amidft
this concuffion of the elements, concluded that the laft
day was arrived j and fcarcely attempting to extricate
themfelves,
V R A [I
u'""*1''10 6' t^em^e^ves> iay Jefpairing and half fuffocated amid ft
the water and the mud, expending the immediate diiTo-
lution ot all things. JLhe ftorm was irregular in its
devaftations. While feveral rich ddiridts were laid en¬
tirely wade, fome intermediate portions of country
were comparatively little injured. One of 60 fquare
leagues had not a Angle ear of corn or fruit of any kind
left. Of the 66 parifhes in the diftrift of Pontoife, 43
were entirely delolated, and of the remaining 23 fome
loll two-thirds and others half their harveil. The Me
of France, being the diftricl in which Paris is fituated,
ana tne Orleannois, appear to have fufrered chiefly,
i he damage there, upon a moderate eftimate, amount¬
ed to 80,000,000 of livres, or between three and
four millions fierling. Such a calamity mud at any pe¬
riod have been fevereiy felt 5 but occurring on the
eve Oi a great political revolution, and amidif a gene¬
ral fcarcity throughout Europe, it wras peculiarly un¬
fortunate, and gave more embarraflment to the govern¬
ment than perhaps any other event whatever. Num¬
bers of families found it neceffary to contrail their mode
of living for a time, and to difrnifs their fervants, wTho
were thus left dellitute of bread. Added to the pub¬
lic difcontent and political diflenfions, it produced
fuch an effeil upon the people in general, that the na¬
tion feemed to have changed its charailer j and in-
itead of that levity by which it had ever been diilin-
.guifhed, a fettled gloom now feemed fixed on every
sn countenance.
reduce^th!;0 T!ie fPring t5lc year 1789 was a period of much
power of political anxiety in France. The fuperior orders wfifhed
the crown reduce the power of the crown, but were jealous
in fpnng of their own privileges, and determined to retain them ;
*7S£- while the popular philofophers and others were endea¬
vouring to render them odious, and to roufe the people
to a love of freedom. Still, however, the great body
of the common people remained carelefs fpeclators of
the ilruggle, and unconfcious of the approaching com¬
motion. Such wTas their indifference, that few of them
took the trouble even to attend and vote at the eleflions
of the deputies to the flates-general. In many places,
where a thoufand voters were expedled, not fifty came
forward; but fuch of them as did appear fliowed that a
feed was fown which might one day rife into important
fruits. In the inftruftions which they gave to their
deputies, the Britifh conftitution was in general the
model of -what they wifhed their government to be.
They demanded equal taxation, the abolition of lettres
de cachet or arbitrary imprifonment, the refponfibility of
miniflers, and the extinction of the feudal privileges
of the nobles j but they wifhed that the whole three
orders of the ftate fhould fit and vote in one houfe, well
knowfing that their nobility were not prepared to a£t
the moderate part of a Britifh houfe _ of lords. The
nobies, on the contrary, although willing to renounce
feme of their pecuniary privileges, and to facrifice the
power of the crown, were moil decifively refolved
neither to furrender their feudal prerogatives nor the
right of fitting in three feparate affemblies ; by means
of which each of the orders could eafily refill the
encroachments of the other two. Mr Neckar has
been improperly cenfured for not deciding this laft
important queflion previous to the meeting of the
Hates general: but it mufl be obferved, that the very
2 ] FRA
purpofe of calling that affembly was to overturn the France,
unjuft privileges of the higher orders through its “v—
medium, and without any dire6l interpoficion on the
part of the minifters. Flad the king pofitively de¬
cided in favour of three chambers, the nobles and the
clergy would have retained all thofe ancient abufes
eftablifhed in their own favour, of which it was his
wifh to deprive them, and the crown and its prero¬
gatives would have been the only objects of facri¬
fice. It was therefore thought fafer to leave the t/ers
etat to fight its own battle 5 nor was it yet imagined
that the commons of France, deprefled and poor, and
difperfed by fituation over a multitude of provinces,
could ever unite in enterprifes dangerous to the fo-
vereign.
The Hates had been fummoned to meet at Ver-states fum
failles on the 27th of April, and moft of the deputies moned to
arrived at that time ; but the eleftions for the city meet at
of Paris not being concluded, the king deferred theVerfailles*
commencement of their feffions till the 4th of May.
During this period, the members, left in idlenefs,
began to find out and form acquaintance with each
other. Among others, a few members from Brittany
(Bretagne) formed themfelves into a club, into which
they gradually admitted many other deputies that
were found to be zealous for the popular caufe, and
alfo many perfons who were not deputies. This fo-
ciety, thus originally eftablilhed at Verfailles, was
called the Comite Breton; and was one day deftined,
under the appellation of the Jacobin Club, to give
laws to France, and to diffufe terror and alarm
throughout Europe. On the other fide, the arifto-
cratic party eftablilhed conferences at the houfe of
Madame Polignac, for the purpofe, it is faid, of
uniting the nobles and the clergy. ai^
An event occurred at this time which all parties A- popular'
aferibed to fome malicious motive. In the populous Pot in
fuburb of St Antoine, a M. Reveillon carried on a s^Antoir.e,
great paper manufadlory. A falfe report was fpread
that he intended to lower the wages of his work¬
men, and that he had declared bread was too good
for them, and that they might fubfift very well on
potato-flour. A commotion was raifed, he was burnt
in effigy, and his houfe was thereafter burnt and pil¬
laged by the mob, who were not difperfed till the
military had been called in, and much carnage en-
fued. The popular party aflerted that the commo¬
tion had been artfully excited by the party of the
queen and the Count D’Artois, to afford a pretence
for bringing great bodies of the military to the
neighbourhood to overawe the ftates-general, or in¬
duce the king more decifively to refolve on affembling
that body at Verfailles, in preference to Paris, where
they and the popular minifter M. Neckar wiflied it to
be held. 2I4
On the 4th of May the ftates-general affembled at The States
Verfailles. They commenced bufinefs by going in a General
folemn proceffion, preceded by the clergy, and fol-£0™nij:rc^
lowed by the king, according to ancient cuftom, to VcrfaVlet
church, to perform an a£t of devotion. The nobles
were arrayed in a fplendid robe, and they and the
higher clergy glittered in gold and jewels. The
commons appeared in black, the drefs belonging to
the law. The affembly was thereafter opened by a
ftiort
4
FRA
[ ii
215
Their de¬
bates and
inactivity
216
Popularity
of the
Tiers Etat,
or com¬
mons.
fhort fpeech from the throne, in which the king con¬
gratulated himfelf on thus meeting his people al-
fembled; alluded to the national debt, and the taxes,
which were feverely felt becaufe unequally levied j
he took notice of the general difcontent and fpint
of innovation which prevailed, but declared his con¬
fidence in the wifdom of the affembly for remedying
every evil. “ May an happy union (added he) reign
in this affembly; and may this epocha become ever
memorable for the happinefs and profpenty ot the
country. It is the wilh of iny heart; it is the mplt
ardent defire of my prayers; it is, in fiiort, the price
which I expeft from the fincerity of my intentions
and ray love for my people.”
M. Barretin, the keeper of the feals, next addreiled
the affembly in a congratulatory and uninterefting fpeech.
He was followed by the popular minifter M. Neckar,
who fpoke for three hours. Though much applauded
on account of the clear financial details which his fpeech
contained, he encountered a certain degree of cenfure
from all parties, on account of the cautious ambiguity
which he obferved with regard to the future proceedings
of the ftates-general.
Next day the three orders affembled feparately.
The deputies of the tiers etat amounted to 600 in
number, and thofe of the nobles and clergy to 300
each. During their firft fittings much time was fpent
in unimportant debates about trifling points of form j
but the firft important queftion, that neceffarily be¬
came the fubjeft of their difcuflion, was the verifica¬
tion of their powers, or produdlion of the commiflions
of the members, and inveftigation of their authenti¬
city. The commons (Jiers etaf) laid hold of this as
a pretext for opening the grand controverfy, whether
the ftates-general ftiould fit in one or in three fepa-
rate chambers? They fent a deputation inviting the
nobles and the clergy to meet along with them in
the common hall for the purpofe of verifying then
powers in one common affembly. In the chamber of
the clero-y 114 members voted for the performance of
this ceremony in the general affembly ; and 133 againft
it. But in the-more haughty order of the nobles, the
refolution for the verification in their, own affembly
was carried by a majority of 188 againft 47* The
commons paid no regard to this. T hey were con¬
duced by bold and fkilful leaders, who difcemed the
importance of the point in conteft, and relolved not
to abandon it. Aware of the exigencies of the date,
they knew that the crown was nearly verging upon
bankruptcy ; and that fuch were the deficiencies of
the revenue, that only a fhort delay was neceffary to
accompliih the abfolute diffolution of the government.
They fuffered five weeks to pafs away therefore in
total inaCivity. During this period propofals were
made on the part of the miniftry for a pacification
between the three orders, and conferences were open¬
ed by commiffioners from each. But no art could
feduce the commons from their original purpofe, or
prevail with them to enter upon the hufinefs of the
ft ate.
The nation had expeCed much from the affembling
of the ftates-general, and learnt the news of their in-
aCion with no fmall degree of concern. J'he tiers
etat was naturally popular, and the public cenfure
could not readily devolve upon that favourite order.
Vol. IX. Part I,
France
1789.
3 ] FRA
Moreover, from the firft period of their affembling
the commons made every effort to augment their own
natural popularity. They admitted all perfons pro-
mifcuoufly into the galleries, and even into the body
of their hall. No reftraint was attempted to be laid
upon the moft vehement marks of popular applauie
or cenfure. Lifts of the voters names were publicly
taken and fent to Paris upon every remarkable occa-
fion j and the members fuddenly found themfelves be¬
come, according to their political fentiments, the ob-
jefts of general execration or applaufe._ The new
and bold notions of liberty that were daily advanced
by the leaders of the tiers etat, were received with
acclamation by their hearers. The capital became
interefted in the iffue of every debate ; and the poli¬
tical fervor was eagerly imbibed by the nation writn
that vivacity which is fo peculiar to the French.
The commons accufed the nobles of obftinately im¬
peding the bufinefs of the ftate, by _ refilling to verify
their powers in one common aflemoly. T. he accufa-
tion was fwallowed by the multitude, w'ho faw not,
or were unwilling to fee, that the attack was made
by their own favourite order. In the mean time
the nobles became rapidly more and more unpopular.
Their perfons were infulted, new publications, daily
came forth, and were greedily bought up, which re¬
viled their whole order, and repreiented them as au
ufelefs or pernicious body of men, wdioie exiftence
ought not to be tolerated in a free ftate. . \V hoever
adhered to them wras branded with the odious appel¬
lation of Arifiocrate, The clergy, from the influence
of the parifli cures or parfons, teemed ready to. defeit
their caufe. They were even oppofed by a minority
of their own body, which derived luftre from having
at its head the duke of Orleans the firft prince of the
blood. Still, however, the majority of the nobles re¬
mained firm ; well aware, that if they once confented
to fit in the fame affembly, and to vote promifcuoufly,
with the ambitious and more numerous body of the
commons, their whole order, and all its fplendid privi¬
leges muft fpeedily be "overthrown.
The leaders of the commons faw the change that Taking ad-
was taking place in the minds of men-, and they at vantage of
length regarded the period as arrived when they ought P°P"-
to emerge from their inaflivity, and execute the daring j-gjze tj)e
projedl of feizing the legiftative authority in their legiflative
country. They declared that the reprefentatiyes of authority;
the nobles and the clergy were only the deputies or
particular incorporations whom they wrould allowr to
fit and vote along with themfelves; but who had no
title in a colle&ive capacity to a£l as the legiflators. of
France. For condudfing bufinefs with more facility,
they appointed 20 committees. In confequence of
a propofal by the Abbe Sieyes, a final meffage was
fent to the privileged orders, requiring their attendance
as individuals, and intimating that the commons, as the
deputies of 96 out of every hundred of their country¬
men, wrere about to affume the exclufive power of le-
giflation. None of the nobles obeyed this fummons ,
but three cures, Meffrs Cefve, Ballard, and Jalot, pre-
fented their commiffions, and were received with loud
acclamations. They were next day followed by five
more, among whom were Meffrs G.regoire, Dillon, and
Bodineau. After fome debate concerning the appella¬
tion which they ought to affume, the commons, with
p fiich
217
France.
1789.
21S
And aflert
their own
FRA [ x
) of the clergy as had joined them, folemnly voted
' themfelves the fovereign legiflators of their country
under the name of the National AJJembhj. The refult
oi the vote was no fooner declared, than the hall re¬
founded with (bouts from the immenfe concourfe of
fpe&ators, of “ Vive le roi et vive I’affemblee nationale,”
Long live the king and the national a[fembly. M. Bailly
was chofen prefident for four days only, Meffrs Camus
and Pifon de Galand lecretaries, and the alfembly pro¬
ceeded to bufmefs.
Its firft afts were decifively expreflive of its own
fovcei n ^over<^Snty- All taxes impofed without the confent
lv> ^ reprefentatives of the people wrere declared to
be null and void 5 but a temporary fan6fion was given
to the prefent taxes, although illegal, till the diffo-
lution of the affembly, and no longer. It was added,
that as foon as, in concert with his majefty, the
aiTembly fhould be able io fix the principles of national
regeneration, it would take into confideration the na¬
tional debt, placing, from the prefent moment, the
creditors of the ffate under the fafeguard and honour
tif the French nation.”
Majority of * popular caufe now gained ground fo fall, that
the clergy on the 19th of June a majority of the clergy voted for
unite with the verification of their powers in common with the
them. national allembly, and they refolved to unite with them
on the following day.
F 22f v, Affairs were now come to a crifis, and the nobles
nobles. "e Perce^ved th.at they mull inllantly make a decilive
riand, or yield up their cauie as finally loll. Such
was their alarm, that M. d’Efpremenil propofed, at
pne of the fittings of their order, to addrefs the king,
intreating him to dilfolve the llates-general. Hi¬
therto that prince had gone along with M. Neckar
in favouring the popular caufe in oppolition to the
aril!ocracy. But every art was now ufed to alarm
his mind upon the lubjeft of the late affumptions of
power on the part of the commons, and thefe arts
were at length- fuccefsful. Repeated counfels were
held ; M. Neckar was abfent attending a dying filter,
and the king was prevailed upon to a£t agreeably to
the advice of the leaders of the nobles. But the firlt
meafure which they adopted w-as fo ill conduced as
to afford little profpeft of final fuccefs to their caufe.
fin the 20th of June, when the prefident and members
were about to enter as ufual into their own hall, they
found it unexpectedly furrounded by a detachment of
the guards, who refufed them admiffion, while the
heralds at the fame time proclaimed a royal fellion.
Alarmed by this unforefeen event, the meaning of
which they knew not, but apprehending that an im¬
mediate diffolution of the affembly was defigned, they
inllantly retired to a neighbouring tennis-court, where,
in the vehemence of their enthufiafm, they took a
folemn oath “ never to feparate till the conftitution of
their country Ihould be completed.”
On the 22d a new proclamation intimated that the
royal felfion was deferred till the following day. It
was now found that the affembly had been excluded
from their hall merely becaufe the workmen were oc¬
cupied in preparing it for the intended folemnity. This
information was ill calculated to excite favourable ex¬
pectations of the meafures about to be adopted at a
royal feffion, ufhered in by fuch circumllances of mark¬
ed difrefpeCt for the reprefentatives of the people. The
France.
1798.
222
22t
Royal fef¬
fion pro¬
claimed.
14 1 FRA
afiembly, after wandering about in fearch of a place
of meeting, at length entered the church of St Louis,
and were immediately joined by the majority of the ,
clergy, with their prefident, the archbilhop of Vienne,... :
at their head. Two nobles of Dauphine, the marquis Wymeeir
de Blazon and the count d’Agoult, prefented their com- in the
millions at the fame time. Encouraged by thefe events, church of
and by the applaufes of furrounding multitudes, tlie St Louis,
affembly now expeCted with firmnefs the meafures about
to be adopted.
The royal fellion was held in the molt fplendid form, Difcouife 0f
but altogether in the ftyle of the ancient defpotifm. the king
Soldiers furrounded the hall. The two fuperior orders
were feated, while the reprefentatives of the people,
left Handing a full hour in the rain, were in no humour,
when at lait admitted, to receive with much compla¬
cency the commands of their fovereign. The kino-
read a difeourfe, in which he declared null and void the
refolutions of the 17th, but at the fame time prefented
the plan of a conllitution for France. It contained
many good and patriotic principles, but preferved the
dillinCtion of orders, and the exercife of lettres de ca¬
chet ; it faid nothing about any aClive lhare in the le-
gillative power to be poffeffed by the ftates-general, and
was filent both about the refponfibility of minillers and
the liberty of the prefs. H he king concluded by com¬
manding the deputies immediately to retire, and to af-
lemble again on the following day. Fie then withdrew,
and was followed by all the nobles and a part of the -
clergy. The commons remained in gloomy filence on
their feats. . It was interrupted by the grand mailer of jp received
the ceremonies, who reminded the prefident of the in- by the
tentions of the king. Inllantly the vehement count commons,
de Mirabeau, darting from his feat, exclaimed with in¬
dignation, “ The commons of France have determined
to debate. We have heard the intentions, that have
been fuggeited to the king ; and you, who cannot be
his agent with the Hates-general, you who have here
neither feat nor voice, nor a right to fpeak, are not
the perfon to remind us of his Ipeech. Go tell your
mailer, that we are here by the power of the people,
and that nothing (hall expel us but the bayonet.” The
applaufe of the affembly feconded the enthufiafm of the
orator, and the mailer of the ceremonies withdrew in
filence.
M. Camus then rofe ; and in a violent fpeech indig- g)epjt2^
nantly ftigmatized the royal feffion by the obnoxious ter theS a"
appellation of a bed of jujlice ; he concluded by moving king’s de.
that the affembly Ihould declare their unqualified adhe-Parture-
rence to their former decrees. This motion was fol¬
lowed by another, pronouncing the perfons of the de¬
puties inviolable. Both were fupported by Meffrs Pe~
tion, Barnave, Glaizen, the Abbes Gregoire, Sieyes,
arid many others, and were unanimoufly decreed. The
affembly therefore continued their fittings in the ufual
form. On the following day the majority of the clergy
attended as members; and on the 25th the duke of
Orleans, along with 49 of the deputies belonging to
the order of nobles, joined them alio. The remaining
nobles, as well as the fmall minority of the clergy, now
found themfelves awkwardly fituated. Whether on this
account, or becaufe their leaders had by this time form¬
ed a plan for carrying their point not by peaceable
means but by the aid of a military force, the king,
on the 27th, invited by a preffing letter both orders
to-
France.
1789.
226
Alarrmng
fituation of
France at
tW period.
tvj
Numerous
feditious
puhltra-
tions.
22S
Sedudb’on
of the mill
tary.
FRA [1
to join the commons. This requeft was immediately
complied with, although many of the nobility difappro-
ved of the meafure.
The lituation of France was now become truly alarm¬
ing. When the king retired from the aflembly after
the royal feflion, he was followed by more than 6000
citizens, from whom loud clamours and every mark of
difapprobation broke forth. All Verfailles was fpeedily
in an uproar. M. Neckar had repeatedly folicited his
difmiflion, and the report of this had increafed the po¬
pular clamour. The court wras in confternation. The
king probably difcovered, with no great fatisfaftion,
that his miniller was more popular than himfelf. At
fix o’clock in the evening the queen fent for M. Nec¬
kar. When he returned from the palace, he affured the
crowd that waited for him that he would not abandon
them ; upon which they retired fatisfied. At the fame
time the news of the royal feflion had thrown the city
of Paris into violent agitation. The peace of that ca¬
pital vcas at this time endangered by a variety of caufes.
A dreadful famine raged through the land, which in a
great city is ufually moft feverely felt. This prepared
the minds of men for receiving unfavourable impref-
fions of their political Hate. Every effort was more¬
over made to diforganize the government, and pro¬
duce a diflike to the ancient order of things. The
prels poured forth innumerable publications, filled with
new and feducing, though generally impra&icable, theo¬
ries of liberty. Thefe were ditlributed gratis among the
bulk of the people of Paris, and difperfed in the fame
manner through the provinces. Philip duke of Or¬
leans {prefumptive heir to the crowm, failing the chil¬
dren and brothers of the king) is with good reafon be¬
lieved to have fupphed this expence out of his more
than royal revenues. In the gardens of the Palais
Royal at Paris, which belonged to him, an immenfe
multitude w-as daily affembled, liftening from morning
to night to orators who defcanted upon the molt violent
lubjedfs of popular politics. Many of thefe orators
were fufpedled to be in his pay. It was even believed
that his money found its way into the pockets of fome
of the moft diilinguilhed leaders in the national affem-
bly.
But the government was, if poflible, ftill more dan-
, geroufly affaulted by the methods now generally ufed
to feduce the military. Every officer of the French
army belonged to the order of the nobles; and from
that quarter, therefore, it might have been imagined
that there was little danger. But this very circum-
fiance became the means of diforganizing that great
engine of defpotifm. As the foldiers could not avoid
imbibing fome of the new opinions, their own officers
became the firff objedts of their jealoufy ; efpecially in
confequence of that impolitic edict of Louis XVI.
which required every officer to produce proofs of four
degrees of nobility ; and thus infulted, by avowedly
excluding the private men from promotion. Perhaps
with a view to what might happen, the inttrudtions to
the deputies of the tiers etat had recommended an in-
creafe of the pay of the foldiers. And now at Paris
every art was ufed to gain them to the popular caufe.
They were condudted to the Palais Royal, and were
there careffed and flattered by the populace, while they
lifiened to the popular harangues. Thefe arts were
luccefsful. On the 23d of June they firfl: refufed to
>5 ] FRA
fire on the mob in a riot. Some of them were on the France.
30th reported to be in confinement for this offence 5 a ~ ^^
crowrd inftantly colledted, and refcued them, the dra- I789»
goons that were brought to fupprefs the tumult ground¬
ing their arms. A deputation of the citizens lolicited
of the affembly the pardon of the prifoners. The af-
fembly applied to the king, who pardoned them ac¬
cordingly. 22?
All thefe events, together with the tumultuous ftateTl18
of the capital, which was daily increafing, made it ne-^ calIed
cefiary for the king to call out the military force to
reftore, if poflible, the public peace. That his inten¬
tions were pure, the then ftate of affairs will permit
no man but a democrate to doubt • but the ariflocracy,
with the Count d’Artois at their head, were bringing
forward other meafures, which ultimately contributed
to the ruin of themfelves, the king, and the kingdom.
Crowds of loldiers wrere colledfed from all parts of the
kingdom around Paris and Verfailles. It was ob-
ferved, that thefe confifted chiefly of foreign merce¬
naries. Camps were traced out. Marfhal Broglio,
a tried veteran, was fent for and placed at the head of
the army. The king was fuppofed to have entirely
yielded to new counfels, and every thing bore the
appearance of a defperate effort to reftore the energy
of the ancient government. This is the moft impor¬
tant period of the French revolution j yet the fpecific
defigns of the leading aclors have never been clearly
underftood. It was rumoured at the time, that Paris
wras to.be fubdued by a fiege and bombardment j that
the affembly was to be diffolved, and its leaders put
to death. 1 hefe are incredible exaggerations 5 but
the crifis of French liberty was univerfally regarded
as at hand, and alfo the exiftence of the national af¬
lembly as an independent body ; or at leaft upon any
other footing than that propofed by the king on the 23d
of June. 230
An able and eloquent addrefs to the king againft the Fb6 affem-
affemblage of foreign troops in their neighbourhoodbly ad.tirefs
was brought forward by Mirabeau, and voted by the removeS ^
affembly. The king properly replied, that the ftate of therm6
the capital was the cauie of affembling the troops, and which is
offered to transfer the ftates-general to Noyons or Soif- refufed*
fons. “ We will neither remove (exclaimed Mirabeau)
to Noyons or to Soiffons ; we will not place ourfelves
between two hoftile armies, that which is befieging
Paris, and that which may fall upon us through Flan¬
ders or Alface ; w'e have not alked permiffion to run
away from the troops ; w^e have defired that the troops
ftiould be removed from the capital.”
.1 hirty-five thoufand men were now ftationed in the
neighbourhood of Paris and Verfailles. The polls were
occupied which commanded the city, and camps w^ere
marked out for a greater force. The Count d’Artois
and his party regarded their plans as ripe for execu¬
tion j and M. Neckar received a letter from the king,
requiring him to quit the kingdom in 24 hours. That
popular minifter took the route of Bruffels on the
following day, when his departure was made public.
In Ins dnmiflion the popular, or, as it was now called,
the democratic, party thought, they fan' the refolution 3,I
adopteo to accomplilh their ruin. I he affembly again They again
addreffed the throne 5 they requefted anew the removal a<j(Jrei's the
of the troops, offering to be refponfible for the publicking 5
peace, and to proceed in a body to Paris to encoun-
P 2 ter
France.
233
Degree of
the aflem-
in con-
fequenc.e-
234
Con ft t-i na¬
tion in Pa¬
ris O'l Nec
kar’s re¬
treat.
235
Cruelty of
the Prince
De Lara-
befq.
236
Terro. in
the city
univerial.
F It A [ii
ter perfonally every danger that might occur. But
they were coolly told, that the king was the beft judge
of the mode of employing the troops, and that the pre¬
fence of the afiembiy was neceflary at Verfailles. From
a fovereign who doubtlefs recolleaed the proceedings
of the long parliament of England, a different re¬
ply could not in reafon be expedfed. On receiv¬
ing it, however, it was inftantly decreed, on the mo¬
tion of the marquis de la Fayette, that the late mi-
niftry had carried with them the confidence of the af-
fembly j that the troops ought to be removed; that the
miniifry are and {hall be relponfible to the people
for their condudl } that the afiembiy perfifted in all its
former decrees 5 and that as it had taken the public
debt under the protedfion of the nation, no power in
France was entitled to pronounce the infamous word
bankruptcy.
The city of Paris was thrown into deep confterna-
tion by the news of M. Neckar’s retreat. His bull
-and that of the duke d’Orleans were drefled in mourn¬
ing, and carried through the llreets. T- he royal Alle-
mand, a German regiment, broke in pieces the bulls',
and difperfed the populace, i he prince De Lambefq,
grand ecuyer of France, was ordered to advance with
his regiment of cavalry, and take poll at the Ihuille-
ries. Being a man of a violent temper, and enraged
by the appearances of difapprobation which were vilible
around him, he funouily cut down with his fword a
poor old man who was walking peaceably in the gar¬
dens. The confequences of this adt of inhumanity were
fuch as might have been expedted \ a Ihout of execia-
tion inftantly arofe $ the cry to arms was heard ; the
military were aflaulted on all fides } the French guards
joined their countrymen, and compelled the Germans,
overpowered by numbers, and unlupported by the rell
of the army, to retire#
All order was now at an end, and as night approach¬
ed an univerfal terror diffufed itfelf through the city.
Bands of robbers were colledting 5 and from them or
from the foreign foldiery a general pillage was expedfed.
The night paffed away in conilernation and tumult. It
was found in the morning that the hofpital of St La-
^are was already plundered. Xhe alarm bells wTere rung j
the citizens aflembled at the Hotel de Ville, and adopt¬
ed a propofal that was there made, of enrolling them-
felves as a militia for general defence, under the appel¬
lation of the national guard. This day and the fucceed-
ing night were fpent in tolerable quietneis, without
any attempt on the part of the army. On the morn¬
ing of the memorable 14th of July, it was difcovered
that the troops encamped in the Champs Elifees had
moved off, and an immediate aflault wras expedted.
The national guard now amounted to 150,000 men 5
but they were in general deftitute of arms. They had
aflumed a green cockade ; but on recolledting that
this was the livery of the Count d’Artois, they adopted
one of red, blue, and white. M. de la Salle was na¬
med commander in chief, officers were chofen, and de¬
tachments fent around in queft of arms. In the Hotel
des Invalides upwards of 30,000 Hand of arms were
found, along with 20 pieces of cannon j a variety
of weapons was alfo procured from the garde meuble
de la couronne, and from the {hops of armourers, cut-
Jers
The celebrated fortrefs of the Baftile was an objeft.
6 ] FRA
of much jealoufy to the Parifians. At 11 o’clock in France^
the morning, M. de la Rcfiere, at the head of a nume- ' ^
rous deputation, waited upon M. de Launay the go- 17 9*
yernor, who promifed, along writh the officers of his
garrifon, that they would not fire upon the city unlefs tjje attack-
they fhould be attacked. But a report was foon fpread ed;
through Paris, that M. de Launay had, in a ffiort time
thereafter, admitted into the fortrefs a multitude of
perfons, and then treacheroufly maflacred them. T he
caufe of this piece of perfidy has never been explained.
The faft itfelf has been denied •, but it was atteiied at
the time by the duke of Dorfet, the Britiffi ambafla-
dor at the court of France."/ The effieft of the report
was, that a hidden refolution was adopted of aflaulting
the Baftile \ an immenfe and furious multitude ruffied
into its outer, and foon forced their way into its inner,
courts, wffiere they received and returned a fevere fire
for the fpace of an hour. Xhe French guards, who
were now embodied into the national guard, conducted N
the attack with {kill and coolnefs : they dragged three
waggons loaded with firaw to the foot of the walls,
and there fct them on fire 5 the fmoke of thele bi okc
the aim of the garrifon, while it gave no diilurbance
to the more diilant aflailants. Ihe befieging multi¬
tude prefled the attack with incredible obltinacy and
vigour for the fpace of four hours ^ the garnlon was
in confufion j the officers ferved the cannon in per-
fon, and fired their mulkets in the ranks} the governor,
in defpair, thrice attempted to blow up the fortrefs. ^ ^
A capitulation, when at laft fought, w^as refufed to the Ancl f^r_
garrifon, and an unconditional furrender took place. rcncierec^
The governor, and M. de Lofme Salbrai his major, auncondi-
gentleman of diftinguiffied humanity and honour, be-tionally.
came vidlims of popular fury in fpite of eveiy effort
that could be made for their prote&ion •, but the French
guards fucceeded in procuring the fafety of the gai±i-
fon. Only feven prifoners were found in the Baidle.
A guard was placed in it, and the keys weie fern to
the celebrated M. Briffot de Warville, who a few years
before had inhabited one of its caverns.
The remaining part of this eventful day was fpent
at Paris in a mixture of triumph and alarm. In the
pocket of the governor of the Baftile a letter was found,
encouraging him to rehftance by the promife of fpeedy
fuccours, written by M. de Fleffelles, the prevot de
marchands, or chief city magiftrate, who had pretend¬
ed to be a moft zealous patriot. Xhis piece of trea¬
chery w'as puniftied by inllant death j and his bloody
head wras carried through the city on a pole, along with
that of M. de Launay. At the approach of night a
body of troops advanced towards the city, at the Bar-
riere d’Enfer. The new national guard hurried thither,
preceded by a train of artillery, and the troops withdrew
upon the firft fire : barricadoes were everywhere form¬
ed, the alarm-bells were rung, and a general illumina-
tion continued during the whole of this night of confu-
fion. . , . . 23P .
In the mean time, it wTas obvious that the new mini- A new mi-
ftry were entering upon a difficult fcene of a(ffion,niftry ap-
where one falfe ftep might lead to ruin, and where Pointe °
their own plan of conduft ought to be maturely digest¬
ed. Marlhal Broglio was made minifter of war, the
baron de Breteuil prefident of finance, IVL de la Gale-
ziere comptroller-general, M. de la Porte intendant of
the war department, and M. Foulon intendant of the
navy ;
F ft A
t
Trance, navy: but tbefe were only meant to act as official men,
   —- under the Count d’Artois, and the other leaders oUhe
1789- ariftocracy. To thefe leaders there did not even remain a
24° choice of difficulties •, no refource was left but that ot
Theij «Ua* overawinp- by military power the national affembly and
5 fd the capital, and of rifking the defperate meafure of a
their con- national bankruptcy, which the court had not formerly
duel bad. dared to encounter, and to avoid which it had convok¬
ed the ftates-general. No trace remains however, ol
any attempt to put this criminal, but rail refource, in
execution. The evening after the departure of M.
Neckur was fpent by the court of Verfailles in leading
and ioy, as if a vi6tory had been gained, ihe courtiers
of both fexes went round among the foldiery, driving
to fecure their fidelity by careffies, largeffes, and every
fpecies of dattering attention. The minidry not only-
failed to fupport the Prince de Lambefq m the pod
which he had been fent to occupy, but they luftered
the whole of the 13th to pafs in indecifion, while the
capital was in a date of rebellion, while an army was
formally mudering within its walls, and the names .ot
the principal nobility were put up in lids of profenp-
tions. They received the news of the capture of the
Badile with confufion and difmay, which were increa-
fed, if poffible, by information given by Mardial Brog-
- lio5 that the troops refufed to aft againd Paris or the
national affembly. In this perplexity they adopted the
miferable device of concealing from the king the date
of public affairs j and that unfortunate prince was thus
perhaps the only perfon out of millions around him who
remained ignorant of the convulfions in which his coun¬
try was involved.
At length, at midnight, the Duke de Liancourt
forced his way into the king’s apartment, and told him
of the revolt of his capital, of his army, and of the fur-
render of the fortrefs of the Badile. Ihe Count d Ai-
tois, who was prefent, dill attempted to retain the mo¬
narch under his fatal delufion j but the Duke de Lian¬
court turning round, exclaimed., “ As for you. Sir,
your life can only be faved by indant flight $ I have
feen with horror your name in the bloody lid of the
proferibed.” Accordingly the count, with the mem¬
bers of his fhort-lived adminidration and their adhe¬
rents, fled to the frontiers. And thus an .emigration com¬
menced, the fource of that terrible conted which has
covered Europe with bloodffied and mourning. This,
minidry had, no doubt, many difficulties to contend,
againd ; but an accurate attention to their conduft ex¬
cites a fufpicion which, while it exculpates, them from
many intended crimes that have been laid to their
' charge, at the fame time does little honour to their ta¬
lents? It is this, that they had come into office without
having formed any clear plan of conduct ; tnat they
were men aiding without decifion and at random, and
confequently became the fport of thofe events which
they wanted fkill and vigour to direft or controul. By
their introduilion into office, and their mifeonduft while
in it, the royal authority fell prodrate before the popu¬
lar party in the national affembly. The nobles and
the clergy dill remained, but confounded in one affem-
bly with the more numerous order of the tiers etat, and
no longer rallying round a throne that was too feeble
to afford protedlion, they foon yielded to that fieice
and levelling fpirit of democracy that now rofe around
them. .
Fra: ce.'
1789.
i J FRA
But the perfon of the monarch was dill beioved.
Early next morning the king went to the affembly, but
with none of the ufual folemnities. He “ regretted the
commotions of the capital, difavowed any knowledge-j-he
of an intention againd the perfons of the deputies, and goes to the
intimated that he had commanded the removal of the affembly.
troops.” A deep and expreffive filence prevailed for a
few moments } this was fucceeded by vehement and um-
verfal Ihouts of applaule. The king arofe to depart,
and initantly the whole affembly crowded around, and
attended him to his palace. The queen appeared at a
balcony with the dauphin in her arms *, the mufic play¬
ed the pathetic air of Oil peut-on etre mieux qii'aufein
de fa famille. The enthufiafm of loyalty communicated
itfelf to the fir rounding multitudes, and nothing was
heard but acclamations of joy. w^ext-
On the following day, the king declared his refolu^"^”-
tion to vifit the city of Paris in perfon. Accoidingly tjie cjty 0f
that prince, who never wanted perfonal courage, how- paris in
ever deficient he might be in political itedfaftnefs, fet ^evfon,
out, attended by fome members of the aflembly and by
the militia of Verfailles. He was met by the celebra¬
ted M. de la Fayette, at the head of a body of the na¬
tional guard, of which be had now been choien com¬
mander in chief. M. Bailly, in whofe perfon the an¬
cient office of mayor of Paris had been revived, recei¬
ved the king at the gates, and delivered to him the
keys. All this while no fliout was heard from the crowd
of innumerable fpedlators but that of Vive la nation,
The king advanced to the Hotel de Ville, where the
new cockade was prefented to him, which he put on,
and prefented himfelf with it at a window. At the
fight of this badge of patriotifm an univerfal ffiout of
Vive le Roi burft forth from every quarter •, and he re¬
turned to Verfailles amidft general triumph and ap-
plaufe. _ . t 1 r 2S3u *■
Much, confufion ftill prevailed in the capital;
there was more appearance of regularity than could have £u^on
been expefted at the conclufion of fuch impoitant prevajie^>.
events. This arofe from a cafual concurrence of cir-
cumftances. Eo conduit wuth eafe the eleitions to the
ftates-general, Paris had been divided into 60 diftriils,
each of which had a feparate place of meeting. "I he
people did not eleil the members to the ftates-general j
but they chofe delegates, who under the name of elec¬
tors, voted for the members. At the commencement
of the difturbances, the electors, at the requeft of their
fellow-citizens, affumed a temporary authority 5 of which,
however, they were foon weary, and as foon as poffibl.e
procured the public election of l 20 perfons as munici¬
pal officers for the government of the city, lij6 citi¬
zens having got the habit of affembling in their diilriils,
grew fond of it 1 they affembled frequently, made rules
for their own government, and fent commiffioners to
communicate with other dillriils. Phe tumultuous na¬
ture of thefe meetings, and the vehemence of debate
which prevailed in them, will bell be conceived from
the ludicrous contrivance of one of their prefident-,
who ftationed a drummer at the back of his chair, and
when the confufion and noife became altogether ungo¬
vernable, gave the fignal for beating the drum, which
fpeedily overpowered every other, noife. Thefe meet-,
ings, however, gradually ripened into clubs, in which
much dexterity and intrigue were exerted. #
The whole of the late miniftry efcaped excepting M.-
H Irvn
France.
rySp.
244
Fate of M.
i oulon,
ami Ber-
thier.
MS
Confequen.
ces of M.
Neckar’s
return.
FRA [ 11
Foulon. His character, it may well be imagined, was
extremely unpopular ; for he is laid to have afferted,
that he would “ make the people of Paris eat hay.”
He had retired to the country, but was feized by his
own vaflals, and brought to Paris with a bundle of hay
tied to his back. In fpite of every effort made by M. M.
Eaiily and Fayette to procure him a fair trial at lead,
he was carried to the P/ace de Grave, and hanged at a
lamp-iron by the enraged multitude. His fon-in-law
M. Berthier, attempting to defend himfelf againft a
fimilar fate, fell, covered with wounds. Their heads
were carried round on poles 5 and thus the populace
became habituated to the fight of blood and murder :
they were even taught by popular fongs to glory in
luch afhons, and particularly by the well known long
Ca-tra.
In confequence of an invitation from the king, M.
Neckar returned to France. He was received by the
aflembly with great applaufe, and in Paris with infinite
folemnity and triumph. He here, however, committed
a political error that made fome noife. In deploring
the late excefles and murders, and taking notice of
the arreft of M. Bezenval, an officer of the Swifs
guards, he requefted of the eledlors at the Hotel de
Ville, in a folemn harangue, that the paft ffiould be for¬
gotten j that profcriptions Ihould ceale, and a general
amnefty be proclaimed. In a moment of enthufiafm
this was agreed to, and the eleftors decreed what un-
queftionably exceeded their powers. The diffri&s of
Paris were inftantly in commotion 5 the ele&ors alarm¬
ed, declared that they only meant that “ henceforth the
people would punifh no man but according to law
and at the fame time, to prove that they themfelves
were free from ambition, they formally renounced all
their own powers. The aflembly took up the que-
ftion. Tally I olendal, Mounier, Clermont Tonnerre,
Garat junior, and others, declared that no perfon ought
to be arrefted without a formal accufation 5 while
Mirabeau, Robefpierre, Barnave, and Gleizen, alleged,
on the contrary, that the people were entitled to lay
hold of any man who had publicly appeared at the
head of their enemies. The debate ended, by admitting
the explanation of the electors, and by a declaration
that it was the duty of the aflembly to fee juftice exe¬
cuted in all cafes.
The commotions and enthufiafm of the capital were
fpeedily communicated to the provinces. In every
quarter the people leized upon all the arms that could
be found, and the military uniformly refufed to aft
reach to the sgainft them. Many aft's of outrage were committed
provinces, in Brittany, at Strafbourg, in the Lionnois, and elfe-
where, in which the nobility were the fufferers. The
milchiefs that occurred were ufually magnified at a dif-
tance 5 but that very circumftance was an additional
evil. For example : It was ftated in the National Af-
fembly that M. de Mefmay, lord of Quincey, invited a
number of patriots, among whom were the officers of
a neighbouring garrifon, to a fplendid entertainment at
his houfe, to celebrate the happy union of the three
orders : That in the midft of the feaft the mafter of the
houfe contrived to withdraw unnoticed, and to fet fire
to a train previoufly laid, which communicated with a
quantity of gunpowder in the cellars, in confequence
-of which the whole company, by a hidden explofion,
avere blown into the air. It was found on inquiry,
2
246
The com¬
motions,
&c. of the
capital
8 ] FRA
that there was not one word of truth in the whole ffory. France.
But before this inquiry could be made, all France 1 •
had refounded with accounts of the pretended bloody 178.9.
tragedy ; and the whole nobility of the kingdom fuffer-
ed in a leis or greater degree, from the prejudices ex¬
cited by this unhappy report, the origin of which has
never been well explained. It would be vain to Hate all
the idle rumours to which at this time the blind credu¬
lity of the multitude gave currency. At one time, the
Ariilocrates were cutting down the green corn ; at an¬
other time they wore burying flour in common fewers,
or calling loaves into the Seine. One report wTas no
fooner proved to be falfe than another arofe, and the
whole nation was agitated by fufpicion and alarm. The
National Aflfembly were engaged in framing their cele¬
brated declaration of the rights of man, wffiich was to
form the bafis of the newr conftitution, when the alarm¬
ing accounts, received from all quarters, of the Hate of
anarchy into which the kingdom wras falling, obliged
them fuddenly to turn their attention to objefts of
praftical neceffity. The privileged orders found them-
lelves become the objefts of univerfal jealcufy and ha¬
tred } and that fonaething muff inftantly be done to fave
their families and property, which were menaced on
every fide wnth perfecution and pillage. Regarding the
popular torrent as now become irrelillible, to fave fome-
thing they refolved to facrifice a part. 247
On the afternoon fitting of the 4th of Auguft, the Vl('c.ountcJe
Vifcount de Noailles, feconded by the Duke d’Aguil-
Ion, opened one of the moft important fcenes in thed’Aguillon
French Revolution, or in the hiftory of any country, propofe
Thefe noblemen ftated, that the true caufe of the com-1*131
motions which convulfed the kingdom exifted in the mi-
fery of the people, who groaned under the double op-
preffion of public contributions and of feudal fervices.
“ For three months (faid M. de Noailles) the people
have beheld us engaged in verbal difputes, wdiile their
owm attention and their wnfhes are direfted only to
things. What is the confequence ? They are armed to
reclaim their rights, and they fee no profpeft of obtain¬
ing them but by force.” He therefore propofed to do
juftice as the fhorteft way of reftoring tranquillity, and 248
for that purpofe to decree, that henceforth every tax The taxes
ffiould be impofed in proportion to the wealth of thefll0u^be
contributors, and that no order of the ftate ffiould be ti'onTo the
exempted from the payment of public burdens’, that wealth of
feudal claims ffiould be redeemed at a fair valuation ;the contli-
but that fuch claims as confifted of perfonal fervices on butors’
the part of the vaflfal Ihould be abolilhed without com-
penfation, as contrary to the imprefcriptible rights of
The extenfive pofleffions of the noblemen wrho
made thefe propofals added much luftre to the difinte
refted facrifice which they afforded. Their fpeeches
w'ere received with the moft enthufiaftic applaufes by
the Affembly and the galleries, and their propofals
wrere decreed by acclamation without a vote. No na¬
tion is fo much led by the influence of fudden emotions
as the French. The patriotic contagion now fpread
fall through every breaft, and a conteft of generofity
enfued. The hereditary jurifdiftions poffelTed by the
nobles within their owm territories were next faerificed.
All places and penfions granted by the court were fup-
preffed, unlefs granted as the reward of merit or of ac-q-he t4"
tuai fervices. The game law’s, which condemned the law?, &.c.
hufbandman, under fevere penalties, to leave his proper- aboliflied.
ty
25®
Many an¬
cient privi¬
leges are
voluntarily
furrender-
ed.
251
Tithes and
revenues of
the clergy
taken a-
vi'ay.
252
A new mi-
niftry ap¬
pointed,
FRA f i
ty a prey to infinite multitudes of animals referred for
paftime, had always been numbered among the fevere
grievances of the French peafantry. Thefe were there¬
fore renounced, along with the exclufive rights of rab¬
bit warrens, filheries, and dovecotes. I he fale of offi¬
ces was aboliffied, and the fees exacted from the poor,
together with the privilege of holding a plurality of
livings, were relinquished by the clergy. The deputies
of the Pais d'Etat, or privileged provinces, with the
deputies of Dauphine at their head, next came forward,
and offered a furrender of their ancient privileges, re-
quelling that the kingdom might no longer remain par¬
celled out among Dauphinois, Bretons, Proven^aux, &c.
but that they ffiould all form one great mafs of French
citizens. They were followed by the reprefentatives of
Paris, Marfeilles, Lyons, Bourdeaux, Straffiourg, &c.
who requefted leave to renounce all their feparate pri¬
vileges as incorporations, for the fake of placing every
man and every village in the nation upon a footing of
equality. Ihus the Affembly proceeded, till every
member had exhaufled his imagination upon the fubjedl
of reform. To clofe the whole, the Due de Liancourt
propofed that a folemn Te Beam ffiould be performed,
that a medal ffiould be ftruck in commemoration of the
events of that night; and that the title of Restorer
of Gallic Liberty Should be bellowed upon the
reigning monarch. A deputation was accordingly ap¬
pointed to waff upon the king, refpeftfully to°inform
him of the decrees.
Several fucceeding days were neceffary to form into
laws tnc decrees of the 4th Augult, and commitees were
appointed to make out reports for that purpofe. One of
thefe reports having included the tithes and revenues of
the clergy among the abufes that were to be done away,
and having propofed in lieu of them to grant a certain
llipend to the different miniders of religion to be pay¬
able by the nation, the clergy attempted to make” a
Hand in defence of their property, and violent debates
enfued. In thefe they were ably fupported by the Abbe
Sieves : but as the clergy had formerly deferted the
nobles, fo they were now in their turn abandoned to
their fate by the hereditary aristocracy. The popular
party had long regarded the wealth of the church as
an eafy refource for Supplying the wants of the Slate. 
Never was there a more complete proof of the induence
of opinion over the affairs of men. The Catholic
clergy of France, though poffeffed of more property
than they enjoyed at the time when princes took up
arms or laid them down at their command, now found
fo few defenders, that they were terrified into a volun¬
tary furrender of all that they and their predeceffors
had poffeffed for ages. In their overthrow, they fcarcely
enjoyed even the barren honour of having fallen the
lalt of thofe privileged orders that fo long had ruled
over this ancient kingdom. They and the nobles, and
the king, Still poffefled their former titles and nominal
dignity ; but all of them were now fubdued, and at the
mercy of the commons of France, who fueedily dif-
miffed them at their pleafure.
As a Short feafon of tranquillity in the Court and the
National Affembly fucceeded thefe great popular facri-
fices, the King laid hold of it as a Sit opportunity for
the appointment of a new ministry. They confided of
the archbiffiop of Vienne, the archbiShop of Bour¬
deaux, M. Neckar, the Count de St Prieft, Count de
19 ] FRA
Montmorin, the Count de la Luzerne, and the Count France.
de la Tour du Pin Paulin. M. Neckar, as minister of   
finance, having Stated the diltreffed Situation of the re-
venue, prefented the plan of a loan of thirty millions ,
of livres. But M. Mirabeau, from a fpirit of rivalihip, as 4^° JjiV
Jt would feem, to M. Neckar, prevailed with the Af-faulty ia
femoly to alter and to narrow the conditions of it in railing mo
fuch a degree that very few fubferibers were found. andne>%
tne loan could not be filled up. This failure involved
tne Affembly in a considerable degree of unpopularity;
in confequence of which they allowed M. Neckar to
preicube his own terms for the purpofe of obtaining a
loan of eighty millions. But the happy initant of pub¬
lic confidence had been allowed to pals away, and this
loan was never more than half Silled up. RecourSe was
next had to patriotic contributions \ and great numbers
of gold rings, filver buckles, and pieces of plate, were
prefented to the Affembly. The royal family them-
felves fent their plate to the mint, either to give counte¬
nance to thefe donations, or, as IVI. Nsckar has Since
afferted, through abiolute neceffity, for the puvpole of
Supporting themfelves and their family. The confufion
into which the nation had been thrown by the lute
events had produced a fuSpenSion of the payment of all
taxes. T. nere exilded, in facf, no efficient government j
and if fociety efcaped entire diffolution, it was rnerelv
in coinequence of thofe habits of order which are pro¬
duced by a ftate of long continued civilization. The
bulinefs of government could not be tranfafted without
money, and many vain efforts were made by the mini-
ftry to procure it. At length M. Neckar was driven
to the defperate refource of proposing a compulfonj loan,
or that every individual poffeffed of property Should ad¬
vance to the State a fum equal to one-fourth of his an¬
nual income. i his bold proposition was fupported by
Mirabeau, and adopted by the Affembly ; but it does
not appear to have ever been effecffually executed.
In the mean time, the Affembly was bufily occupied n;r
in framing the celebrated declaration of the Rights of on tTe ^
Man, which was afterwards prefixed to the new confti Rights of
tution. i his was followed by the difeuffion of a point
of much delicacy and difficulty ; viz. What Share of le¬
gislative authority the king ought to poffefs under the
new constitution ; whether an abfolute negative or veto T5^
a fufpenfive veto, or no veto at all? This queftionopera-
ted like a touchstone for trying the fentiments of* eve- lng 15
ry perfon ; and the affembly, connSting of 1 200 men,
was now feen to arrange itfelf into two violent contend¬
ing factions. The debates were vehement and tumul¬
tuous, and continued for many days. As the affembly
Sat in public, and as multitudes of people of all deferip-
tions were admitted into the galleries, and even into
the body of the hall among the members, many inde¬
cent feenes took place in confequence of the interfe¬
rence of the Speiffators to applaud or cenfure the fenti¬
ments which were delivered. Thus the public at large
became fpeedily interefted in the difeuffion; the city ot
Paris took. a Side in oppofition to the veto, and the
whole empire was thrown into agitation by new and
ipeculative cjueftions. I he diftinguilhed place which
France holds among the nations of Europe rendered
thefe Singular events and diScuffions the objeft of uni-
veifal attention. The contagious love of novelty fpread
rapidly abroad, and gave rile to that well-founded iea-
loufy on the part or the monarchs of Europe, which
FRA [
France, 'was fpeedily to burfl: forth in a bloody tempeft
 "  the prefent cafe, the people of Paris became mod eager-
I7^9* ly interefted. Rumours of plots were fpread through
the country, and a new ftorm was obvioufly gathering,
when the queftion was thus got quit of. M. Mourner
remarked, that the executive power could poileis no
negative againft the decrees of the prefent alfembly,
which had been nominated by the nation with fupreme
powers for the exprefs purpofe of framing a confutu-
tion, which was to remain binding over all orders of men
in the date j and with regard to future legidatures, the
king declared by a meffage, that he whhed to polfefs
no more than a fufpenfive veto. It is remarkaole that
the popular Mirabeau concluded a fpeech in favour of
the abfolute veto of the crown with thefe words,
“ That it would be better to live in Condantinople
than in France, if laws could be made without the
roytd fanaion.” This political adventurer is, however,
accufed of having taken care to circulate in Paris a re¬
port that he had oppofed the veto with all his indu-
ence } and to give credit to the dory, he is faid to have
quitted the affembly jud before the divifion, that his
vote might not appear on record againd it.
The month of Augud was fpent in the debates about
the veto; and in the beginning of September a new
conditutional quedion was prefented to the affembly by
of its numerous committees. I his ■was, Whether
120 ] FRA
-In culating a report that a plot for conveying the king to FranC(t-
256
jQifcuffion
• about the
legiflative
body, whe-
one wi ..V.—   - -
the legiflative body ought to condd of one or oi two
chambers ? Mounier, Tally Tollendal, Clermont
thei: it Tonnerre, and others, who were zealous lovers oi
ought to freedom upon what were then accounted moderate
confift of principles, fupported eagerly the idea ot edabhinmg
one or two two independent chambers in imitation of the Bntilh
conditution j but they were deferted both by the de¬
mocratic and aridocratic parties. The fird of the.e re¬
garded an upper heufe or fenate as a refuge for the Oxd
aridocracy, or as the cradle of a new one \ while the
higher nobles and clergy feared led luch an arrange¬
ment might prevent the future re-edablifliment of the
ancient divifion into three orders. Of 1000 members
who voted, only 89 fupported the propofal for dividing
the legiflature into two chambers.
Soon after this, the king gave his fandion to the
rhe r°yal important decrees of the 4th of Augud, but not with-
“Od\o out feme hefitatiou, and expreffing doubts of tie wlf-
SelcrSs dom of fome of them in a letter to the affembly At
of the 4th the fame time the inviolability of the perlon oi the mo¬
narch was decreed, the indivifibility of the throne, and
its hereditary defcent from male to male in the reign¬
ing family.—But we fliall not here attempt to enter
into a detail of the various articles of the new condi¬
tution as conne&ed with the circumdances under which
they became the fubjeft of debate. We ihall only date
thofe more remarkable circumdances which tend to ai-
certain the peculiar changes which the fentiments of
the nation underwent in the progrefs of a_ revolution
the mod remarkable that occurs in human hiflory.
In confequence of the debates upon the quedion s ot
the veto and the two chambers, the minds of parties
had become much irntated. Paris, wore the fame
threatening afpefl that it had done in the months oi
June and of July preceding j and every thing feemed
tending towards an important crifis. The aridocratic
party accufed their antagonids of a defign to excite
new' infurreftions j and the charge was retorted, by cir-
ehambers.
257
Auguft,
.j&c.
358
State of
parties in
.Paris.
Metz was already ripe for execution. g
From the period of the defeftion of the. French
guards, who were now in the pay of the capital, c0nftquen-
proteftion of the royal family had been entiuded to ces of their
the militia or national guard of Verfailles, together-•uw .Ijea-
with the regiment of the gardes du corps, which was Tulles,
compofed entirely of gentlemen. Upon the circula¬
tion of the report of the intended flight of the King,
the French guards began to wifli to be reflored to
their ancient employment of attending his perfon, for
the purpofe of preventing any attempt of this nature.
This idea was eagerly cherilhed by the capital j and,
in fpite of every effort ufed by M. de la Fayette, the
obvious appearance of approaching didurbances could
not be prevented. I he popular party law the advan¬
tages which they would derive from placing the aflem-
bly and the king in the midd of that turbulent metro¬
polis which had given birth to the revolution, and
upon the attachment of which they could mod fecurely
depend. Every encouragement was therefore given
by the mod adlive leaders of what was now called the
Democratic party to the projedt of edabliftung the court
at Paris. The minidry were under no fmall degree of
alarm •, and the count d’Edaing, who commanded the
national guard of Verfailles, requeded the aid of an
additional regiment. The regiment of Flanders was
accordingly fent for : its arrival caufed no Imall de¬
gree of anxiety } and every effort was indantly made
to gain over both officers and foldiers to the popular
bn the fird of Oaober the garde du corps, probably
for the purpofe of ingratiating themfelves with the new¬
ly arrived regiment, and perhaps to attach them more
lleadily to the royal caufe, invited the officers of the
regiment of Flanders to a public entertainment. Seve¬
ral officers of the national guard, and others of the mi¬
litary, were invited. The entertainment was given in
the opera houfe adjoining to the palace ; feveral loya
toads were drank : but it is afferted, that when t e a~
vourite popular toad The Nation was given, it was
reiefted by the gardes du corps.. In ordinary cafes,
fuch a trifling circumflance as this, or even any othei
of the tranfadfions of a night of fedivity, would juffly
be regarded as unworthy of notice in recording the
more remarkable events in the hidory of a great na¬
tion •, but fuch was now the Angular, date of affairs,
that the mod trivial occurrences were inffrumental, by
their combination, in the produftion of important con-
fequences. The queen, having feen from a window ot
the palace the gaiety which prevailed among the mili¬
tary, prevailed with the king, who. was jud .returned
from hunting, to vifft them along with herfelf and the
dauphin. Their hidden appearance m the faloon kin¬
dled in an initant the ancient enthufiafm of trench
loyalty. The grenadiers of the regiment of Flanders
along with the Svvifs chaffeurs, had been admitted to
the deffert 5 and they, as well as their officers, drank
the health of the King, Queen, and Dauphin, with their
fwords drawn. The royal family having bowed with po-
litenefs to the company, retired—Of all nations, the
French are mod liable to the influence of hidden im-
preflions: the muhc played the favourite air 0 Ricard,
0 man Roi! Punivers Cabandonne, “ O Richard . O my
king ! the world abandons thee.” In the eagernefs of
& loyalty.
1789.
FRA [ 1
TYanee. loyalty, the national cockade, which had been adopt¬
ed by fome of the gardes du corps, was thrown afide,
and white cockades were fupplied as quickly as they
could be made by the ladies of the court.
When thefe events wrere next day reported at Paris,
accompanied by a multitude of exaggerations, they
gave rife to the moft violent alarm. The capital was
at that time fuffering all the horrors of famine ; and in
fuch a fituation, the news of a fealt which others have
enjoyed, feldom gives much pleafure to hungry men.
To the former report of an intended flight on the part
of the royal family, it wTas now added, that a counter
revolution was fpeedily to be attempted by force of
arms; and that the prefent fcarcity was artificially cre¬
ated by the court for the purpofe of reducing the peo¬
ple to fubmiflion. Their arilfocratic antagonifts have
iince afferted, that the famine was indeed artificial; but
that it was created by a portion of the violent party in
the national affembly, which was then denominated the
Cabal, whofe obje£t was to excite commotions as the
means of procuring an opportunity of fetting the duke
of Orleans at the head of the ftate, either as regent, or
in fome other form. To this laft party Mirabeau is
laid to have belonged.
For four days no notice was taken in the affembly of
what had palled at the entertainment given by the gardes
du corps. On the 5th of Odlober M. Petion mentioned
it for the firfl: time, and a violent debate enfued j during
which Mirabeau rofe and exclaimed, “ Declare that the
king’s perfon alone is facred, and I myfelf wTill bring
forward an impeachment}” thereby alluding to the
conduct of the queen. While this debate was pro¬
ceeding at Verfailles, the city of Paris was in com¬
motion. A vaft multitude of women of the loweft
rank, with fome men in women’s clothes, had affem-
failles,
260
A multi¬
tude of
the To we ft at the Hotel de Ville, and were calling aloud for
tank march arras ar>d bread. They refolved to proceed inftantly
to Ver- to Verfailles to demand bread from the king and from
the national alfembly. La Fayette oppofed them in
vain ; for his own foldiers refufed to turn their bayonets
againfl: the women. Upon this one Staniflaus Mail-
lard, who had diftinguifhed himfelf at the taking of the
Eaftile, offered himfelf as a leader to the infurgents. He
had the addrefs to prevail with them to lay afide fuch
arms as they had procured ; and he fet out for Ver-
iailles about noon with as much order among his fol¬
lowers as could well be expefted from fuch an affem-
blage. Either becaufe the paffion for going to Verfailles
had fuddenly become too infeftious to be refilled, or
becaufe the multitude already gone thither wTas now ac¬
counted dangerous, the mayor and municipality of Pa¬
ris thought fit to give orders to la Fayette inllantly
to fet out for that place at the head of the national
guard.
In the mean time, Maillard approached Verfailles
with his tumultuous troop 5 he arranged them in three
divifions, and perfuaded them to behave with tolerable
decency. The king was hunting in the woods of
Mendon when he was informed of the arrival of a moll
formidable band of women calling aloud for bread.
“ Alas ! (replied he) if I had it, I Ihould not wait to
be alked.” Maillard entered the affembly accompa¬
nied by a deputation of his followers to Hate the ob-*
je£l of their journey. The affembly, to pacify them,
fent a deputation of their own number along with them to
VOL. IX. Part I.
261
and fend
a depu¬
tation to
the affem
bly.
21 ] FRA
lay their complaints before the king. His majefty recei- France,
ved the whole with great politenefs, and readily agreed ' ^
to go into any meafures for the fupply of the capital *7 ^9*
that could be fuggefted. The report of this behaviour
had luch an eft'ett upon the multitude collected around
the palace, that they began to dilperfe ; but they were
fpeedily fucceeded by another crowd not lefs numerous.
A hidden refolution of flight feems now to have been
propofed by the court ; lor the king’s carriages rvere
brought to the gate of the palace which communicates
with the orangery : but the national guard of Verfailles
refufed to allow them to pafs, and the king himfelf re¬
fufed to remove, or to allow any blood to be Ihed in
his caufe.
La Fayette with his army at length arrived about La-Fayette
xo o’clock at night, and found the affembly in a very^1^^^
unpleafant fituation. Their hall and galleries were
crowded by the Parilian filh-women and others of the vt.r(a;i{eS
mob, who, at every inftant, inteirupted the debates, at mghn
La Fayette waited upon the king, and informed him
of the proceedings of the day, planted guards in every
quarter ; and after a fcanty banquet had been procured
for the multitude, he prevailed with the affembly to
clofe their fitting for the night. In this laft part of
his condudl M. la Fayette has been much cenfured,
and probably not without reafon 5 for it could fcarcely
be expelled that fuch a night would be fpent in peace
by the immenfe affemblage of turbulent charafters that
were now brought together. All was quiet, however, Defperate
till about fix in the morning of the 6th, when a great attempt on
number of women and defperate perfons ruflred forward t'ie ^ueen*
to the palace, and attempted to force their way into it.
Two of the gardes du corps were killed j the crowd
afeended the ftaircafe leading to the queen’s apartment,
but were bravely refifted by M. Miemandre a fentinel,
who gave the alarm, and defended his poll till he fell
covered with wounds, of which, however, he afterwards
fortunately recovered. The rutfians, reeking with his
blood, rufhed into the chamber of the queen, and pier¬
ced with bayonets and poniards the bed whence this
perfecuted woman had but juft time to fly almoft naked,
and, tlnough ways unknown to the murderers, had efca-
ped to feek refuge at the feet of the king, who was al¬
ready alarmed, and had gone to feek her. 26-.
The tumult became more violent every moment, and The royal
hidden death feemed to threaten the royal family ; but family fa-
la Fayette w-as by this time at the head of his troops, Z.ed by=
whom he befeeched earneftly to fave. the gardes du ayette*
corps from maffacre. In this he was fuccefsful; fome
that had been taken prifoners were furrounded by the
grenadiers of the French guards who prote&ed them,
and the retreat of the whole corps was eafily fecured.
The crowd was fpeedily driven from the different quar¬
ters of the palace, which they were already beginning
to pillage; and the royal family ventured to Ihow them
felves at a balcony. A few voices nowT exclaimed,
Le Roi a Pans, “ the King to Paris.” The ftiout be¬
came general; and the king, after confulting with la
Fayette, declared that he had no obje&ion to take up
his refidence at Paris, provided he was accompanied by
the queen and his children. When the propofal was
reported t:o the affembly, the popular leaders expreffed
much fatisfaftion. They ordered a deputation of ioo
members to attend the king thither ; they voted the na¬
tional affembly infeparable from the king. His jnajefty
£> fet
F R A [ i
l-'rance. fet out at two o’clock a priioner in the cuftody ot the
  — mob. Two gentlemen were felecled from his body
1789- guard, and, with all the parade of an execution, be-
2(35 headed in the court of his palace. Their heads were
Tied prifo- ftuck upon fpears, and led the proceflion 5 whilft the
nsrs to Pa- royal captives who followed in the train, and beheld
ns. this fpeftacle, were condudled fo llowly, that a Ihort
journey of twelve miles was protrafted to fix hours.
The king, the queen, and their children, were lodged
in the old palace of the Louvre, while Monfieur went
to rehde at the Luxemburg. The city was illumina¬
ted, and the evening fpent in triumph by the Pari-
,z66 fians.
Triumph The removal of the king to Paris was regarded as a
ofthepo- triumph by the popular party. I he higher order of
pular par- nobles conlidered it as completely ruinous to their
hopes •, and even many men of talents, fuch as Mounier
and Lally Tollendal, whom we cannot avoid regarding
as friends to the popular caufe in its outlet, now re¬
garded every profpeft of attaining a happy conftitution-
al freedom as at an end, as the national reprefentatives
mull be for ever expofed to the infults, and overawed by
the influence, of a turbulent capital. Many members of
the affembly took refuge in foreign countries, and ufed
every eftort to excite the other nations of Europe to
hoilility againft France. As the duke of Orleans had
been regarded as a chief agent in promoting the late
dillurbances, the marquis de la Fayette waited upon
him, and infilled upon his leaving the kingdom for a
time. The duke was overawed, and, on pretence of
public bulinefs, went to England, where he remained
2g7 for feveral months.
The atTem- On the 19th of Oaober, the National Affembly
bly holds held its Aril fefiion in Paris. The king was clofely
its firft fef- gUar(jeJ flis own palace } and no apparent oppolition
jion at Pc- now poocj jn the way to prevent the popular party from
giving to their country fuch a conllitution as they might
judge expedient. Much, however, was yet to be done,
and many difficulties remained, refulting from the ha¬
bits of men educated under a very dillerent order of
things. Two days after the Affembly came to Paris,
a baker was publicly executed by the mob, upon a falle
accufation of having concealed a quantity of bread.—
While the Affembly was at a diftance, events of this
nature had been little attended to, and the leading paity
avoided attempting to check thefe ebullitions of popular
violence, from which they had derived fo much advan¬
tage } but that party was now all powerful, and fo fla¬
grant an offence committed againlt the law was regard¬
ed as an infult upon the fovereignty of the National
Affembly. Two leaders of the mob were therefore
tried and publicly executed, and a fevere law was
puffed, of the nature of the Britilh riot aft, authoring
the magiftrates to a£l by military force againft any mul¬
titude of perfons that fliould refufe to difperfe. Thus
the peace of the capital was fecured for feveral months;
but in the country at large no fmall degree of anxiety
and trouble Hill fubfifted. The fame fufpicious temper
which had prevailed at Paris agitated the provinces
with the dread of plots and monopolies of grain. Add
to this, that the nobleffe in the country were by no
means fatisfied with the liberality with which their re¬
prefentatives had on the 4th of Auguft voted away
their privileges and their property. This produced
Solent jealoufes between the peafants and the** Iwh,
22 ] F R A
and gradually conveyed to every corner of the kingdom France,
the political ferment which had commenced at Paris. -v——J
The National Affembly being now, however, in to- 1789*
lerable fecurity, proceeded in the arduous attempt n
forming a free conftitution for the great empire of c[om
France. The Abbe Sieyes prefented a plan forded into
dividing the kingdom into 83 departments, of about 83 depart-
3 24 fquare leagues, and of each department into feve- ments-
ral dijlricis, and each diftritl was fubdivided into cantons
of four fquare leagues in extent. Thus the whole of
the ancient divifions of the kingdom into governments,
generalities, and bailiwicks, was in an inftant oblite¬
rated. An attempt w^as alfo made to fimplify in an
equal degree the relative fituation of individuals in civil
life, by a decree which put an end to all diftinftion of
orders and immunities, fo far as any privilege wdiatever
was concerned. At the fame time, a bold and moll im¬
portant meafure was adopted, which has ftnce proved
the organ of thofe terrible efforts which France has 2(j9
been enabled to make againft the re£t of Europe. This The church
was the confifcation of the whole of the lands belong- lands con¬
ing to the church, for the purpofe of fupplying thefllcated-
exigencies of the Hate. In this tranfa&ion, all regard
to juftice was thrown afide. The lands of the church
were as certainly the property of the then poffeffors of
them as any entailed eftate among us is the property of
him who occupies it. The Hate may have had a right
to appropriate to itfelf the church lands upon the death
of the incumbents } but it might with equal juftice, and
perhaps greater propriety, have leized the enormous re¬
venues of the duke of Orleans, as have confifcated a
Angle acre belonging to the moll ufelefs abbot without
his own confent. This nefarious meafure was pro-
pofed by the bilhop of Autun, M. Talleyrand Peri-
gord, a man of no religion, who had been promoted to
the bench in a moll irregular manner to ferve this very
purpofe. The mode in which this property was to be
expended was by iffuing aflignments (ajjignats) upon it j
which affignments were to be received by the Hate for
the payment of taxes, or for the purchafe of church
lands when fet up to fale. A provilion was at the
fame time made for the national clergy, who were for
the future to be paid by the Hate. On the day follow¬
ing that on which this important meafure was adopted,
a decree was paffed, fufpending the parliaments of the
kingdom from the exercife of their functions. 2^0
Decrees, in which the interefts of fo vail a.multitude Fruitlefs
of individuals were involved, could not be carried into attempts
effecl without much murmuring and oppolition. Thc^J^ejwt-
parliaments, in particular, began to exert themfelves
with vigour, and, by protefts and other publications,
attempted to invalidate the decrees of the Affembiy as
illegal} but thefe privileged bodies, who had often
been accuftomed to contend with fome fuccefs again!,
the defpotic adminiftration of their country, and on
that account had been for ages the objedls of public ap-
plaufe, now found themfelves utterly forlaken, and un¬
able to relift the mandate of a popular Affembly. Af¬
ter a few fruitlefs ftruggles, they wrere all of them un¬
der the neceflity of fubmitting to their fate. . 2^t
Nothing remarkable now occurred for fome time. Municipa-
The Affembly proceeded to organize the kingdom by lities efta-
the eftablilhment of municipalities, and by reforming bilked, See.
the junfprudence of the country. It is to be obferveo,
however, that when the parliament of Paris was abo-
} Ulhed,
Trance.
1790.
272
Monafte-
ries fup-
prefl'ed,
and their
lands con-
lilcated.
March
15th.
27 >
The Red
Book, or
lift of pen-
fions and
donations,
publilhed.
FRA [1
liilted, tlie Chatelet, being tl>e fecond_ court in that
city, was retained for the purpofe of trying thofe per-
fons who had become moft obnoxious by their attach¬
ment to the royal caufe. 1 his court had the fpirit to
acquit the Baron de Bezenval, Marlhal Broglio, and
the Prince de Lambefq. But having incurred much
popular odium on this account, they were guilty of the
unwrorthy meannefs of condemning to death the Mar¬
quis de Favres, for a pretended confpiracy (of which
no tolerable proof was ever brought) to mailacre La
Fayette, Bailly, and Neckar, and to convey the king
to Peronne.
During the whole of this winter the king had been
very ftridtly watched by numerous guards placed around
his palace, infomuch that the other nations of Europe
conlidered him as in a ftate of captivity. 1 o do awray
this impreffion, if poflible, and to make their king ap¬
pear a voluntary agent in the meafures that had lately
been adopted, was now regarded as a matter of fome
importance. Every effort was therefore made to pre¬
vail with him to come to the Affembly fuddenly, and,
as it were, of his own voluntary motion, there to de¬
clare his adherence to the meafures which had lately
been adopted. For fome time he refilled this propo-
fal ; but at length, on the 4th of February, he did
fuddenly appear in the National Allembly, where he
complained of the attempts that had been made to lhake
the new conllitution. He declared his wTi(h “ that it
fhould be univerfally known that the monarch and the
reprefentatives of the nation were united, and their
wilhes were the fame } that he would defend the confti-
tutional liberty of the Hate j that, in conjunflion with
the queen, he would early form the fentiments of his
fon for that new7 order of things which the circumltan-
ces of the empire had introduced.” Ihis declaration
difpirited the arillocratic party in no fmall degree, and
increafed that unhappy tendency of looking for aid
from foreign countries which they had always been too
apt to indulge.
On the 13th of February, monadic eftablifhments
w7ere fuppreffed, and their lands conlifcated } but tne
prefent friars and nuns were allowed penlions for their
fubfiifence, and to continue the obfervance of their mo¬
nadic vowxs, if they thought fit. We may obferve here,
that, in confequence of tire evacuation of the monade-
ries, it is probable that about this time the Breton com¬
mittee began to affume the appellation of the 'jacobin
C/ub, from the hall belonging to the Jacobin friars at
Paris, in wdrich their meetings wrere now held.
An event occurred at this time wdrich tended in no
fmall degree to increafe the odium under which the old
government already laboured. This w7as the publication
of the Red Book, or lid of penfions and donations grant¬
ed by the crorvn. In confequence of the mod preding
indances, it had been communicated by M. Neckar to
a committee of the affembly, after many entreaties,
and the mod folemn promifes of fecrecy It afforded,
however, too driking an advantage to the popular party
not to be made ufe of, and in a few days M. Neckar,
to his no fmall furprife, faw this regider publicly fold
by every bookfeller in Paris. He ought not, indeed,
to have been furprifed 5 and the giving up of this lid is
one of the many proofs which the tranfaftions of that
period afford of his great unfitnefs for the office which
he held. With much indignation, howrever, he de-
23 ] 4 FRA
manded why the committee had publidied it without ,
the permiffion of the Affembly or the king? But he
was told by the committee, that “ as to the Affembly, ^
they were fure of its approbation $ and as to the. king, Effect of it:
they were not his reprefentatives.” T o give an idea of publica-
the effeft of this publication, it is only neccffary to re-don.
mark, that, under the fhort adminidration of M. Ca-
lonne, the two brothers of the king had received from
the public treafury, independent of their legitimate in¬
come, nearly two millions derling, and that 6oo,oool.
had been granted to an individual, becaufe he was the
hufband of Madame de Polignac. M. Neckar’s oppo-
fition to this publication tended in no fmall degree to
injure his popularity, and the red of the minidry be- 275
gan to lofe the confidence of the public. Indeed, at Numerou:'.
this time, fertile caufes of alarm prevailed on all fides.
The clergy were attempting to revive in the provinces
the ancient animofities between the Roman Catholics
and the Protedants, afcribing the late decrees of the
Affembly to the latter. The German princes who pof-
feffed property in the north of France w7ere complain¬
ing loudly of the violation of their rights by the aboli¬
tion of the feudal fydem, although the National Af¬
fembly had voted to them a compenfation. .The mod
melancholy intelligence was received from their colonies
in the Wed Indies. In regulating thefe, the Affembly
had not recognized the right of the free «iegroes to en¬
joy the fame privileges with other citizens j at the
fame time, they did not go the length of denying thefe
privileges. This uncertain conduct produced infinite
calamities. The whites contended with thofe common¬
ly called people of colour. Thefe again fometimes dood
in oppofition to the free negroes, or to the Haves j and
hence it fometimes happened that no lefs than three ho-
dile affemblies wrere held at the fame time in the fame
colony, which made w7ar upon each other with the mod
inveterate fury. Each party found proteflors in tne
National Affembly of the parent date. . Thofe who
favoured or oppofed the exidence of didindtions at
home, in general followTed out the lame principle with
regard to the colonies. 27^
On the 14th of May, M. de Montmorency commu-^braotea°n
nicated to the National Affembly the preparations fotp0wer to
war in wdiich England and Spain were engaged. I his declare
brought fonvard the conditutional quedion, “ Who peace and
ought to poffefs the power of declaring peace and war ? war-
The Count Clermont Tonnerre, Meffrs de Serent, .Vi-
rieu, and Dupont, fupported the royal prerogative;
while on the other lide, the exclufive right of the legida-
tive body to exercife this important prerogative was
fupported by Meffrs d’Aiguillon, Garat jun. Freteau,
Jellot, Charles Lameth, Sillery, Petion, Robefpierre,
&c. M. Petion propofed a decree “ that the French
nation renounced for ever all idea of conqued, and con¬
fined itfelf entirely to defenfive war which was paffed
with univerfal acclamation. The Count de Mirabeau
at length fuccefsfully propofed that peace and war diould
be declared by the king and the legiflative body in con¬
junction } and the decree that was paffed on the fubjeft
is a drange farrago of contradictions and abfurdities. It
enjoined the king to “ guard the date from external
attacks.” But how could this be done, without repel¬
ling any attack that might be made upon it ? This,
however, he could net do, wfithout previoufly inform¬
ing the National Affembly ; and if that body chanced
Q 2 not
France.
in the af-
fembly by
a Pruffian
refugee,
&•(;.
27S
Abolition
of heredita¬
ry titles.
279
Propofal to
commemo-
xate the ta¬
king of the
."Baftile.
F R A [12
not to be fitting at the time, he was bound to let the
enemy advance without oppofition till he had convened
his orators, difperfed over 20,000 fquare leagues, and
liftened to their metaphylical quibbles in Paris.
On the 16th June, a very fingular farce was adled
in the Affembly. A Pruffian refugee, who called him-
felf Anacharfis Clouts, and who was ftruggling hard to
bring himfelf into public notice, on an evening fitting
(which, it is to be obferved, was generally ill attended
by the perfons of the highelt rank), introduced to the
Afiembly a number of perfons drefied in the different
habits of all the different countries that could be thought
of. In a formal harangue, he told the Aflembly that
he -was come, as the orator of the human race, at the
head of the reprefentatives of all nations, to congratu¬
late them upon the formation of their new conftitution.
He was anfwered by the prefident with abundance of
folemnity, and retired with his motley groupe. This
fataftical piece of folly, which in any other country
than France would fcarcely, perhaps, have excited a
fmile, rvas treated by the Affembly in a ferious light.
Alexander Lameth propofed, that the figures of diffe¬
rent nations exhibited in chains at the feet of Louis
XIV. fhould be deftroyed as an infult upon mankind.
M. Lambel, a lawyer, at this moment propofed the
abolition of all hereditary titles. He was fupported by
La Fayette, St Fargeau, and the Vifcount de Noailles.
The decree was pafl'ed, along writh another fupprefling
all armorial bearings. It is our intention at prefent ra¬
ther to flate fadfs than to hazard any political opinion
concerning the wifdom or folly of the tranfadlions which
we record. It may here, however, be remarked, that
no part of the proceedings of the French National Af¬
fembly was received by perfons of rank upon the Con¬
tinent of Europe with fo much indignation as this.—
The feudal fyftem had been overturned, and the pro¬
perty of the church wrefled from it, with little com¬
parative notice j but when thofe nominal diftindlions
were attacked which antiquity had fandfioned, and per-
fonal vanity rendered dear, the furrounding nations were
znftantly alarmed, and beheld with terror the levelling
precedent. We may likewife add, that no part of
their proceedings was more inimical to rational and prac¬
tical freedom. To preferve a perfedt equality of ranks
is impoflible. In a commercial nation, induftry will
procure wealth, and ■wealth will every where procure
dependents. Now nothing more contributes to keep
■within fome tolerable bounds the infolence of newly
acquired wealth, than the rank attached to birth and no¬
bility, which time and prejudice have confpired to make
refpedlable. It is not a little remarkable, that of all the
King’s minifters, Neckar alone, a plebeian, a republi¬
can, born and bred in a democracy, advifed his majefty
to refufe Iris affent to this foolifh decree, as a violent
but ufelefs encroachment upon the prejudices of a
powerful order of the flate.
In the mean time, the capital was entirely engroffed
by hurry and bullle. M. Bailly had propofed a plan
for commemorating the anniverfary of the taking of
the Baftile. It was adopted, becaufe it flattered the
vanity of the people, by prefenting them with a fplen-
did fpedlacle in commemoration of their own exertions.
.—The army had been much diforganifed and it was
refolved to attempt to unite all its branches, as well as
the whole departments of the Hate, in one common at-
4 ] FRA
tachment to the new order of things, by collecting into
one place deputations, for the purpofe of fwearing fide¬
lity to the new conftitution. In the middle of the
Champ de Mars an altar was eredted, at which the ci¬
vic oath, as it was called, was to be taken. Around
the altar an amphitheatre was thrown up capable of con¬
taining 400,000 fpedtators : 2000 workmen were em¬
ployed in this operation j and the people of Paris fear¬
ing left the plan might not be completed, aflifted in
the labour. All ranks of perfons, the nobles, clergy,
and even ladies, with the eagernefs for novelty fo pe¬
culiar to that people, united their efforts. Crowds of
foreigners as well as natives hurried to the capital to be
prefent at this folemnity, which was called the Confede¬
ration. The long-expected 14th of July at length ar¬
rived. At fix o’clock in the morning the proceflion
was arranged on the Boulevards, and confifted of the
eledors of the city of Paris, the reprefentatives of the
commons, the adminiftrators of the municipality, a bat¬
talion of children, with a ftandard, infcribed “ The
hopes of the nation j” deputies from the troops of
France wherever quartered, and of every order, along
with deputies from all the departments \ to thefe were
added immenfe detachments of the military, and of the
national guards, along with an almoft infinite multitude
of drums, trumpets, and mufical inftruments. The pro-
ceflion was extremely fplendid, as every diftrid had its
peculiar decorations. The national aflembly pafled
through a grand triumphal arch, and the king and
queen, attended by the foreign minilters, were placed
in a fuperb box. After a folemn invocation to God,
the king approached the altar, and, amidft the deepeft
filence, took the following oath : “ I the king of the
French do fwear to the nation, that I will employ the
wrhole power delegated to me by the conflitutional law
of the itate, to maintain the conftitution, and enforce
the execution of the law.” The prefident of the na¬
tional affembly then went up to the altar, and took the
civic oath, “ I fwear to be faithful to the nation, the
law, and the king; and to maintain with all my powers
the conftitution decreed by the national affembly, and
accepted by the king.” Every member of the affembly
Handing up, faid, “ That I fwear.” La Fayette then
advancing, took the oath for himfelf j the other depu¬
ties of the national guards pronouncing after him,
“ That I fwear and thefe words were folemnly pro¬
nounced by every individual of this immenfe affembly.
Te Deum was then fung. The performance was fublime
beyond the powers of defcription. Never perhaps be¬
fore was there fuch an orcheltra, or fuch an audience :
their numbers baffled the eye to reckon, and their fhouts
in full chorus rent the fkies. It is impoffible to enu¬
merate all the means which were employed to add fplen-
dor to this day. It ended with a general illumination,
and no accident difturbed the public tranquillity.
The affembly now proceeded in the formation of the
conftitution with confiderable tranquillity; which, how¬
ever, was difturbed by an unhappy event at Nancy.
Moft of the officers of the army were unfriendly to
the late revolution, and every means had been employed
by them to difguft the foldiers with it. At Nancy,
in particular, neceffaries had been denied them, and their
pay was kept back, under pretence that this was, the
will of the national affembly. Driven to defpair, the
regiments in garrifon threw off their .allegiance, and de¬
manded
France.
1790.
280
Ceremony
of the con¬
federation.
2S1
The fol¬
diers at
Nancy dif-
gwfted, and
the confe-
quences.
FRA ■ [ 325 ] FRA
France.
1790.
2S2
M. Neckar
refigns, and
leaves the
kingdom
without
being re¬
gretted.
283
Attempts
to re-orga¬
nize the
army.
mantled loudly the regimental accounts. They feized
at the fame time the military cheft, and fent a deputa¬
tion to date their cafe at Paris to the national affembly.
But the officers were before-hand, and prepoffeffed the
minifter of war againft them ; upon whofe reprefenta-
tion a decree was paffed, authoriling the commander in
chief of the province, M. Bouille, to reduce the infur-
gents by force. This was no fooner known, than the
national guard of Nancy affembled, and fent a deputa¬
tion to give a fair ftatement of faffs. But Bouille,
without wraiting the refult of an explanation, haftened
to Nancy at the head of all the troops he could fudden-
ly colleft ; and having fallen upon the regiments of
Chateauvieux and Meftre de Camp, after putting an
immenfe multitude to the fword, he took 400 pri-
foners.
The king’s' regiment was prevented from afling
againft Bouille by the intrepidity of a young officer of
the name of DeJJilles, who, however, died of the wounds
which he received on the occafton. The news of thefe
events filled Paris with indignation. The affembly af¬
terwards reverfed its own decrees againft the infurgents
at Nancy. Public honours were decreed to the me¬
mory of Deffilles 5 but Bouille could not be puniffied,
becaufe he had only afted in obedience to authority.
M. Neckar’s popularity had been gradually decli¬
ning, as he was unwilling to go all the lengths that the
ruling party wilhed. He gave in his refignation on
the 4th of September, and fpeedily thereafter left the
kingdom. He was regretted by no party. He was
regarded, on the one fide, as having conduced the king¬
dom to its ruin, by the conceffions which he originally
advifed the king to make in favour of the tiers etat ;
while he was defpifed by the oppofite party as a luke¬
warm politician, of narrow view’s, and a feeble mind.
He departed, however, with the unblemiffied reputa¬
tion of ftrifl integrity. M. Neckar does not feem to
have penetrated deeply into the charaffers of men, or
to have had any conception of the effeffs of that ter¬
rible and reftlefs energy which is called forth in a na¬
tion which attempts to make important changes in its an¬
cient manners and government. Having no concep¬
tion of the important era which was about to open
upon that country of wffiich he was the minifter, he
was far from being qualified to diredt or controul it
amidft the convulfions wffiich it wTas deftined to en-
counter. Unable to brook the lofs of his popularity,
he peeviftdy retired to Swifferland, where he publiffied
a work, which lliows to the conviction of every unpre¬
judiced reader the integrity of the French king, and
the wicked projects of the leading democrates, whom
he himfelf had armed with power.
The remaining part of this year wTas occupied in at¬
tempts to introduce fome degree of fubordination into
the navy, of France, which had been much diforganized,
and in farther regulating the affairs of the clergy. It
was now declared, that fuch clergymen as ffiould not
take the following oath, which had been prefcribed
fome months before, ffiould be confidered as ejefted
from their benefices : “ To watch carefully over the
faithful in the pariffi or diocefe which was entrufted to
his care 5 to be faithful to the nation, the law, and the
king 5 and to maintain to the utmoft of his powxr the
new conftitution of France, and particularly the decrees
relative to the civil conftitution of the clergy.” This
decree rendered the fituation of confcientio'us men ex- France,
tremely perplexing 5 efpecially as the pope teftified in ‘v" 1J
marked terms his difapprobation of the oath. The
people wrere reduced to the dilemma of choofing be¬
tween their new political and their old religious preju¬
dices, and the refult was extremely unfavourable to the
intereft of religion, i*7Qr
The affembly commenced the new year with a decree, ’
announcing the termination of its feffion, wffiich was tOHoftile ap»
take place as foon as it ffiould have finilhed the difeuf-pearances
fion of a lift of conftitutional articles. In the meanin Germa-
time, on the fide of Germany, Spain, Italy, and Savoy, ^ ^’c'
hoftile appearances began to be exhibited, and bodies
of troops advanced around the French frontier. The
emperor Leopold was, howTever, too cautious to an¬
nounce his intentions ; and the king foon communica¬
ted a letter from him, containing proteftations of ami¬
cable difpofitions, but adding, that “ the innovations
occafioned by the decrees of the 4th of Auguft ought
to be done away.” The king treated this merely as
an official meafure on the part of the emperor, that he
might not appear to renounce the claims of certain Ger¬
man princes connedled with Lorraine and Alface. But
the affembly expreffed fome alarm, and voted an aug¬
mentation of the national force. About this period
feveral new efforts were made by the difaffe&ed clergy
in various parts of the kingdom to excite difturbances, 2S5
which it is unneceffary to mention in detail. On the 20th Departure
of February the public attention wTas roufed by a cir-ot th;e
cumftance that in any other ftate of affairs would have kinS b _
. rri, . . . aunts Iron*
been accounted unimportant. 1 he king announced to paris.
the affembly, that his aunts, the.daughters of Louis XV.
had that morning left Paris \ but as he did not apprec
hend that the exifting laws laid them under any re-
ftraint in this refpedf, he had not oppofed their depar¬
ture.. After, fome debate, the affembly agreed that the
king had judged well; and thefe princeffes were left to'1
purliie their journey to Rome, which they reached af¬
ter fome delays occafioned by the jealoufy of certain
municipalities through which they paffed. Thus the
kingdom w’as gradually deferted by every branch of the
royal family, excepting the king and his eldeft brother
Monfieur. The afiembly, however, continued its la- 2S5
hours wdth confiderable quieAiefs. In the end of the Death of
month of March died the celebrated M. de Mirabeau, ^IlI'a^£au*"
at the age of 42 years ; a man whole integrity has for
many good reafons been much fufpefted, but whofe po¬
litical addrefs and intrepidity, and whole fplendid
powers of eloquence, have been feldom equalled. He re¬
ceived from his countrymen at his death marks of re-
fpeft unparalleled in modern hiftory. During his Ihort
illnefs, his ’ door was befieged by anxious citizens. A
mourning of eight days was decreed by the affembly,
and alfo a grand proceffion, which was attended by all
the public functionaries. He was the. firft who was
interred in the new magnificent. Pantheon, conlecrated
to the reception of the remains of illuftrious men. But
his allies were afterwrards removed, in confequence of
very clear proofs that he had not been incorruptible by
money. 28^
During the whole , of this fpring, much fear was en-An ewi-
tertained that fome attempts at a counter revolution grant army
were about to be made. The emigrant army affembled
on the borders of Alface was reviewed by the prince of j,or(|ers 0f *
Conde. Their uniform was black, faced with yellow, Alface,.
with
288
Jealoufy of
-rhfi people
and mili¬
tary left
the king
and his fa¬
mily fhould
emigrate.
2S9
Behaviour
of Bouille
on the
frontiers.
290
The king,
queen,and
royal fami¬
ly, leave
Paris.
291
Monfieur
and ma-
dame ar¬
rive at
Bruffels.
F ft A [ 12
with a death’s head, furrounded by a laurel wreath, on
one cuff, and a iword on the other ^ with the motto,
“ Conquer or die.” The king was alfo lurrounded by
crowds of nonjuring priefts and other difaffe&ed per-
fons. Thus, that popular jealoufy which in every period
of the revolution has ftrikingly marked the French
chara&er, was kept on the alarm. On the 18th of A-
pril, therefore, when the royal family was preparing to
go to St Cloud to pafs fome days, a report w?as inftant-
ly fpread that the king was about to fly from the coun¬
try. The carriages wTere immediately furrounded by
people. La Fayette drew out the national guaid, but
they refufed to aft. “ We knowr (exclaimed they)
that we are violating the laws, but the fafety of our
country is the firft law.” The king inftantly went to
the affembly, and with much fpirit complained of the
infult. He was anfwered refpeftfully by the prefident,
and continued his journey. As the royal family had
enjoyed a conftderable degree of freedom for fome time
paff, which was demonftrated by the unfuccefsful oppo-
fition made to this journey—the preient opportunity
w-as embraced for intimating to foreign courts his ac¬
ceptance of the conftitution j and all obnoxious peilons
were difmiffed from about his perfon. The breach of
difeipline on the part of the national guard on this oc-
caflon wras fo much refented by La Fayette, that he
refigned his command. Paris was thrown into con-
fternation j and it w’as not till after the moft umvei fal
felicitation that he was prevailed upon to refume his
office.
About this time M. de Bouille, to whom the protec¬
tion of the frontiers was entrufted, was employing, as
it is now faid, every means in his power to render the
country defencelels. I he garrifons wxre left unpiovid-
ed } difunion was fpread among the national troops •,
they w’ere removed from the frontiers, and their place
was occupied by foreigners, wherever it could be done.
The emigrants abroad, and their friends at home, wreie
lying in wTait for an opportunity of revolt \ when fud-
denly, on the 21ft of June, it was announced from the
Thuilleries, that the king, the queen, the dauphin, with
monfieur and madame, had quitted the palace and the
capital, without leaving any information of their inten¬
tion or their route. Tne emotion, excited by this
news among the multitude wTas a mixture of confter-
nation and rage. The national affembly, however, aft*
ed with much coolnefs. They inftantly took upon
themfelves the government, and decreed their fittings
permanent. They fent meffengers, at the fame time,
in all direftions, to attempt to lay hold of the fugitives.
Thefe had taken different routs. Monfieur and .ma¬
dame arrived fafely at Bruffels on the 23d. The king,
queen, and their children, when they came to a confi-
derable diftance from the capital, were furnilhed by
Bouille with a guard of dragoons, under pretence of
protefting treafure for the pay of the troops. At the
diftance of 156 miles, and when only a few leagues
from the frontiers, they were arrefted at St Menehould
by the poftmafter, M. Drouet, formerly a dragoon in
the regiment of Conde. At half paft feven o’clock in
the evening the carriages ft opt to change norfes at his
houfe; he thought he recollefted the queen, and ima¬
gined that the king’s face refembled the impreflions
ftamped upon aflignats. The efcort of dragoons in-
creafed the i'ufpicion. He fuffered them to depart at
3
6 ] F R A-
11 o’clock without notice j but taking a companion | France.
with him, he went by a Ihorter road to Varennes. ' 1
With the afliftance of the poftmafter there he gave the I79I*
alarm, and overturned a carriage on the bridge, which The j^ng
detained the royal travellers till the national guard of and queen
the place had" affembled, and the arreft was effeftedarrefted at
without bloodflied. They were brought back to Pa- Varennes.
ris by a deputation from the affembly. At his depar¬
ture, the king had imprudently left behind him a me¬
morial, in which he declared, that he never had thought
any facrifice too great for the reftoration of order ; but
that the deftruftion of the kingdom, and the triumph
of anarchy, being the only reward of ail his efforts, he
thought it neceffary to depart from it. He then takes
a review of the faults of the new conftitution, the
grievances he has fuffered } and protefts againft every
thing that he had been compelled to do during his cap¬
tivity. # 293
Different parties were very differently affefted by this Confequen-
ill-condufted and unfortunate flight of the king. Aces ofthis
fmall republican party had already begun to appear,^ °rttur,ate
and during the king’s abfence, attempts were made to *
induce the public at large to confider the royal au¬
thority as no neceffary part of a free conftitution. But
the minds of men were by no means prepared for the re¬
ception of this new doftrine. I he idea, however, ha¬
ving been thus publicly propofed, left fome impreflions,
which in time contributed to give rife to important
events. By far the greater number of leading men,
however, were at prefent convinced, that it was impof-
ftble to conduft a great empire like b ranee, well and pro-
fperoufly, without the afliftance of an hereditary, chief.
Thev therefore determined to pafs over the affair with
as much fdence as poflible, and to haften the period
when their new conftitution fhould be complete. Bui
there is reafon to believe, that this journey was flt the
long-run highly inftrumental in producing very fatal ef-
fefts to the perfonal fafety of the monarch..
His flight feemed a fignal for emigration. Many
of the ariftocratic party fent in refignations of their
feats in the national affembly. Troops were levied on
the frontiers in the king’s name} who took care, how¬
ever, to difavow any connexion with fuch a procedure.
Bouille emigrated, and afterwards fent to the affembly
a furious threatening letter : “You fliall anfwer (fays
he) for the lives of the king and of the queen to all. the.
monarchs of the univerfe. Fouch but a Angle hair 61
their heads, and not one (lone (hall be left upon another
in Paris. I know the roads. I will conduft the fo¬
reign armies. This letter is but the forerunner 0.1 the
manifefto of the fovereigns of Europe.
A conftderable calm throughout France fokowe^
thefe events, and it might be regarded as in a ftate. of
tranquillity. It contained, indeed, parties entertaining
much animofity againft each other, and many citizens had
w ithdrawn to foreign countries; but the peace was not
broken, and moderate men hoped that much profperity
would follow from the late agitations. But this calm
was deluftve •, and in the mid ft of it thofe projefts were
formed which were afterwards to prove fo fatal to the 254
peace of France and of Europe. Towards the clofe of Treaty of
this fummer, a convention took place at Pilmtz m Sax-Pilmtz.
ony between the emperor Leopold and the king of
Pruflia. Its objeft w^as not known at the time, but it
gradually came into view, and is now by many under-
* flood.
F \\ A [i
France, flood to have been intended for the purpofe of conclud-
" v ' ing a league for the invafion of France, the new-model-
i791, ling of its government, and the partition of fome of its
faireft provinces. The following paper has been re¬
peatedly published as the copy of a treaty concluded
and figned at Pavia, and is generally underltood to have
been identical with, and therefore known by, the name
of the Treat!/ of Pi/nitz. We are far from vouching for
its authenticity. It may have been fabricated by the
French affembly, to unite all parties in the nation againft
the foreign powers which threatened to invade them.
But in dating the events of this revolution, it is per¬
haps dill more neceffary, for the purpofe of rendering
the adlions of men comprehenfible, to give an account
of what was at the time believed to have occurred, than
it now' is to afcertain what vras aftually true.
Partition Treaty between the Courts in Concert, concluded
and fgned at Pavia, in the Month of July 1791.
His majefty the emperor wall take all that Louis XIV.
conquered in the Audrian Netherlands, wall give them
to his ferene highnefs the elector Palatine j fo that
thefe new polfedions, added to the Palatinate, may here¬
after have the name of Aufrafa.
His majedy will preferve for ever the property and
pofledion of Bavaria, to make in future an indivifible
mafs with the domains and hereditary poffedions of the
houfe of Audria.
Her ferene highnefs the archduchefs Maria Chridina
diall be, conjointly with his ferene highnefs her ne¬
phew the archduke Charles, put into hereditary poffef-
lion of the duchy of Lorraine.
Alface diall be redored to the empire ; and the bi-
fhop of Strafbourg, as well as the chapter, diall recover
their ancient privileges, and the ecclefiadical fovereigns
of Germany fhall do the fame.
If the Swifs Cantons confent to accede to the coali¬
tion, it may be propofed to them to annex to the Hel¬
vetic league the bidiopric of Porentrui, the defiles of
Tranche Comte, and even thofe of Tyrol, with the
neighbouring bailiwicks, as well as the territory of Ver-
foy, which interfefls the Pays de Vaud.
Should his majedy the king of Sardinia fubferibe to
the coalition, La Breffe, Le Bugey, and the Pays de
Gex, ufurped by France from Savoy, dial! be redored
to him.
In cafe his Sardinian majedy can make a grand di-
verfion, he diall be differed to take Dauphine, to belong
to him for ever as the neared defeendant of the ancient
dauphins.
His majedy the king of Spain diall have Roudillon
and Bearn, with the iflandof Corfica; and he diall have
the French part of the iiland of St Domingo.
Her majedy the emprefs of all the Ruffias diall take
upon herfelf the invafion of Poland, and at the fame
time retain Kaminiech, rvith that part of Podolia which
borders on Moldavia.
His majedy the emperor diall oblige the Porte to
give up Chociim, as ivell as the fmall forts of Servia,
and thofe on the river Lurna.
His majedy the king of Prudia, by means of the
above-mentioned invafion of the emprefs of all the Ruf¬
fias into Poland, diall make an acquifition of Thorn
and Dantzic, and there unite the Palatinate on the ead
to the confines of Sileiia.
27 ] FRA.
His majedy the king of Prudia diall befides acquire France.
Luface 5 and his ferene highnefs the eledlor of Saxony y—
diall in exchange receive the red of Poland, and oc- 179r*
cupy the throne as hereditary fovereign.
His majedy the prefent king of Poland diall abdicate
the throne on receiving a fuitable annuity.
_ His royal highnefs the eledlor of Saxony diall give
his daughter in marriage to his ferene highnefs the
younged fon of his royal highnefs the grand duke of
all the Rudias, who will be the father of the race of the
hereditary kings of Poland and Lithuania. (Signed)
Leopold. Prince Nassau. Count Florida Blan¬
ca. Bischoffswerder.
In the mean time, the national affembly was haden-Thenew
ing fad to the completion of the new conditution. It confthution
was finidied on the 3d of September, and prefented to conclu<Rd
the king. It begins with the following declaration of af"
the rights of a man and a citizen: and thereafter follow em ^
the different branches 5 the chief of which are here tranf-
lated.
L All men are born, and remain, free and equal in
rights : locial didin&ions cannot be founded but on
common utility.
II. The end of all political affociations is the pre-
fervation of the natural and imprefcriptible rights of
man : thefe rights are liberty, property, fecurity, and
refidance againd oppredion.
III. The principle of fovereignty refides effentially
in the nation : no body of men, no individual, can exer-
cife an authority that does not emanate exprefsly from
that fource.
IV. Liberty confids in the power of doing every
thing except that which is hurtful to another : hence
the exercife of the natural rights of every man has no
other bounds than thofe that are neceffary to enfure to
the other members of fociety the enjoyment of the
fame rights : thofe bounds • can be determined by the
law only.
V. The law has a right to forbid thofe actions alone
that are hurtful to fociety. Whatever is not forbidden
by the law, cannot be hindered j and no perfon can be ■
condrained to do that which the law ordaineth not.
VI. The law is the expredion of the general will :
all the citizens have a right to concur perfonally, or by
their reprefentatives, to the formation of the law : it
ought to be the fame for all, whether it protecd, or
whether it punilh. All citizens being equal in the eye
of the law, are equally admidible to dignities, places,
and public offices, according to their capacity, and
without any other didin ft ion but that of. their virtue
and their talents.
VII. _ No man can be accufed, arreded, or detained,
except in cafes determined by the law, and according
to the forms which the law hath preferibed. Thofe
who folicit, difpatch, execute, or caufe to be executed,
arbitrary orders, ought to be puniihed ; but every citi¬
zen that is fummoned or feized in virtue of the law,
ought to obey indantly—he becomes culpable by re¬
fidance.
VIII. The law ought to edabliih fuch puniffiments
only as are driftly and evidently neceffary ; and no
perfon can be punifhed but in virtue of a law eda-
bliffied and promulgated prior to the offence, and le¬
gally applied.
IX. Every man being prefumed innocent till fuch s
ume
'FrancC'.
I79r'
FRA [128
time as lie lias been declared guiitv, it it flian oe deem-
' ed abfolutely neceffary to arreft a man, every kind of
rigour employed, not neceffary to fecure bis perfon,
ought to be feverely repreffed by the law.
x. No perfon (ball be molefted for his opinions, even
fuch as are religious, provided that the manifeftation of
thofe opinions does not difturb the public order efta-
bliihed by the law.
XI. The free communication of thought, and of
opinion, is one of the molt precious rights of man.
Every citizen, therefore, may freely fpeak, write, and
publiih, his fentiments; fubjefl, however, to anfwer
for the abufe of that liberty, in cafes determined by the
law.
XII. The guarantee of the Rights of Man and Ci¬
tizens, involves a neceffity of public force : this force is
then inftituted for the advantage of all, and not for the
particular utility of thofe to whom it is confided.
XIII. For the maintenance of public force, and for
the expences of adminiftration, a common contribution
is indifpenfably neceffary : this contribution ftrould be
equally divided amongft all the citizens, in proportion
to their abilities. . .
XIV. Every citizen has a right, by himfelf, or by
his reprefentatives, to decide concerning the neceflity
of the public contribution ; to confent to it freely j to
look after the employment of it •, _ to determine the
quantity, the diftribution, the colleftion, and duration.
XV. The fociety has a right to demand from every
public agent an account of his adminiftration.
XVI. Every fociety, in which the guarantee of
rights is not affured, nor the feparation of powers deter¬
mined, has no conjlitution.
XVII. Property being a right inviolable and facred,
no perfon can be deprived of it, except when the pub¬
lic neceffity, legally afeertained, fhall evidently require
it, and on condition of a juft and previous indemnifica-
The conftitution guarantees, as natural and civil
rights, #
* I. That all citizens are admiffible to places and em¬
ployments without any diftinftion, but that of ability
and virtue.
2. That all contributions fhall be divided equally
among all the citizens, in proportion to their means.
3. That the fame crimes fhall be fubjefl to the fame
punilhments, without any diftinaion of perfons.
The conftitution in like manner guarantees, as natu¬
ral and civil rights, - . .
Liberty to all men of going,_ flaying, or departing,
without being arrefted, or detained, but according to
the forms prefcribed by the conftitution.
Liberty to all men of fpeaking, writing, printing,
and “ publifhing their thoughts, without. having their
writings fubjedted to any examination or infpedlion be¬
fore publication j” and of exercifing the religious wor-
fhip to which they are attached.
Liberty to all citizens of affembling peaceably, and
without arms, complying wfith the laws of police.
Liberty of addreffing to all conftitutional authorities
petitions individually figned.
The conftitution guarantees the inviolability of pro¬
perty, or a juft and previous indemnity for that of
which public neceffity, legally proved, fhall require the
facrifice.
] FRA
A public inftruclion fhall be created and organized,
common to all citizens, gratuitous with regard to thofe
parts of tuition indifpenfable for all men, and of which
the eftabliihment lhall be gradually diftributed in a pro¬
portion combined with the divifion of the kingdom.
“ The kingdom is one and indivifible 5” its territory,
for adminiftration, is diftributed into 83 departments,
each department into diftricts, each diftrict into cantons.
Thofe are French citizens,
Who are born in France, of a French father ;
Who having been born in France of a foreign fa¬
ther, have fixed their refidence in the kingdom 5
Who having been born in a foreign country, of a
French father, have returned to fettle in France, and
have taken the civic oath :
In fine, who having been bom in a foreign country,
being defeended in whatever degree from a Frenchman
or Frenchwoman, who have leit their country from re¬
ligious motives, come to refide in France, and take the
civic oath.
The right of French citizenfhip is loft,
1 ft, By naturalization in a foreign country ;
2dly, By being condemned to penalties which involve
the civic degradation, provided the perfon condemned
be not re-inftated ;
3dly, By a fentence of contumacy, provided the fen-
tence be not annulled 5
4thly, By initiation into any foreign order or body
which fuppofes either proofs of nobility “ or diftindftions
of birth, or requires religious vows.”
“ The law confiders marriage only as a civil con-
traft.”
The fovereignty is one, indivifible, “ inalienable, and
imprefcriptible,” and it belongs to the nation : no fec-
tion of the people, or individual, can arrogate the ex-
ercife of it.
The nation, from which alone flow all powers, can¬
not exercife them but by delegation.
The French conftitution is reprefentative: the re¬
prefentatives are the legiflative body and the king.
The National Affembly, forming the legiilative body,
is permanent, and confifts of one chamber only.
It fhall be formed by new eleftions every twTo years.
The legiflative body cannot be diffolved by the king.
The number of reprefentatives to the legiflative body
{hall be 745, on account of the 83 departments of
wffiich the kingdom is compofed j and independent of
thofe that may be granted to the colonies.
The reprefentatives lhall be diftributed among the
departments, according to the three proportions of land,
of population, and of the contribution direft.
Of the 745 reprefentatives 247 are attached to the
land. Of thefe each department {hall nominate three,
except the department of Paris, which lhall nominate
only one.
Two hundred and forty-nine reprefentatives are at¬
tached to the population. The total mafs of the active
population of the kingdom is divided into 249 parts?
and each department nominates as many of the depu¬
ties as it contains parts of the population.
Two hundred and forty-nine reprefentatives are at¬
tached to the contribution direft. The. fum total of
the direft contribution of the kingdom is likewife di¬
vided into 249 parts ; and each department nominates
as many deputies as it pays parts of the contribution.
In
France.
1791.
4
FRA
Fiance. En order to form a legiflative national affembly, the
f“",r v aflive citizens thall convene, in primary afi'emblies, eve-
J /91, ry two years in the cities and cantons.
“ The primary affemblies flrall meet of full right on
the firft Sunday of March, if not convoked fooner by
the public officers appointed to do fo by the law.”
To be an adlive citizen, it is necefl'ary,
To be a Frenchman, or to have become a French¬
man 5
To have attained 25 years complete 5
To have refided in the city or the canton from the
time determined by the law j
To pay in any part of the kingdom a diredt contri¬
bution, at leaf! equal to the value of three days labour,
and to produce the acquittance j
Not to be in a menial capacity, namely, that of a fer-
vant receiving wages j
To be infcribed in the municipality of the place of
Ids rendence in the lift of the national guards j
To have taken the civic oath.
The primary aftemblies fhall name electors in the pro¬
portion of the number of addive citizens refrding in the
city or canton.
There (hall be named one eleflor to the affembly, or
not, according as there (hall happen to be prefent 100
a (dive citizens.
There (hall be named two, when there (hall be pre¬
fent from 151 to 250, and fo on in this proportion.
The eleddors named in each department (hall con¬
vene, in order to choofe the number of reprefentatives,
whole nomination (hall belong to their department, and
a number of fubftitutes equal to the third of the repre-
lentatives.
“ The affemblies (hall be held of full right on the
laft Sunday of March, if they have not been before
convoked by the public officers appointed to do fo by
law.”
All addive citizens, whatever be their ftate, profef-
fion, or contribution, may be chofen reprefentatives of
the nation.
Excepting, neverthelefs, the minifters and other a-
gents of the executive power, &c.
The members of the legiflative body may be re-ele<d-
ed to a fubfequent legiflature, but not till after an in¬
terval of one legiflature.
No atdive citizen can enter or vote in an affembly
if he is armed.
The reprefentatives (hall meet on the firft Monday
of May, in the place of the fittings of the laft legifla¬
ture.
The royalty is indivifible, and delegated hereditarily
to the race on the throne from male to male, by order
of primogeniture, to the perpetual exclufion of women
grid their defcendants.
Nothing is prejudged on the effedd of renunciations
in the race on the throne.
The perfon of the king is inviolable and facred ; his
only title is king of the French.
If the king put himfelf at the head of an army, and
diredd the forces of it againft the nation, or if he do not
oppofe, by a formal add, any fuch enterprife undertaken
in his name, he (hall be held to have abdicated.
If the king having gone out of the kingdom, do
not return to it, after an invitation by the legiflative
body, within the fpace which (hall be fixed by the pro-
Vol. IX. Part I.
F R A
clamation, “ and which cannot be lefs than two months,” Francs,
he (hall be held to have abdicated the royalty. '—~v—-
After abdication, exprefs or legal, the king (hall be I79I;>
in the clafs of citizens, and may be accufed and tried
like them, for a£ls poftericr to his abdication.
The nation makes provifion for the fplendour of the
throne by a civil lift, of which the legiflative body (hall
fix the fum at the commencement of each reign, for
the -whole duration of that reign.
The king is a minor till the age of 18 complete j
and during his minority there (hall be a regent of the
kingdom.
The regency belongs to the relation of the king-,
next in degree according to the order of fucceffion to
the throne, who has attained the age of 25 5 provided
he be a Frenchman refident in the kingdom, and not
prefumptive heir to any other crown, and have previ-
vioufly taken the civic oath.
The prefumptive heir (hall bear the name of Prince
Royal.
“ The members of the king’s family called to the
eventual fucceffion of the throne, (hall add the deno¬
mination of French Prince to the name which (hall be
given them in the civil a£t proving their birth ; and
this name can neither be patronymic nor formed of
any of the qualifications aboliftied by the prefent confti-
tution.
“ The denomination of prince cannot be given to
any individual, and (hall not carry with it any privilege
or exception to the common right of all French citi¬
zens.”
To the king alone belong the choice and difmiflion
of minifters.
“ The members of the prefent national affembly, and
of the fublequent legiflatures, the members of the tri¬
bunal of appeal, and thofe who (hall be of the high
^jury, cannot be advanced to the miniftry, cannot receive
any place, gift, penfion, allowance, or commiflion of
the executive power or its agents during the conti¬
nuance of their functions, or during two years after
ceafing to exercife them : the fame (hall be obferved re-
fpebling thofe who (hall only be infcribed on the lift
of high jurors as long as their infcription (hall con¬
tinue.”
No order of the king can be executed if it be not
figned by him, and counterfigned by the minifter or
comptroller of the department.
In no cafe can the written or verbal order of a king
(belter a minifter from refponfibility.
The conftitution delegates exclufively to the legifla¬
tive body the powers and functions following :
To propofe and decree laws—The king can only
invite the legiflative body to take an objedt into con-
fideration j
To fix the public expences j
To eftabliffi the public contributions, to determine
the nature of them, the amount of each fort, the dura¬
tion, and the mode of colleftion, &c.
War cannot be refolved on but by a decree of the
national affembly, paffed on the formal and neceffary
propofition of the king, and fanftioned by him.
During the whole courfe of war, the legiflative body
may require the king to negotiate peace 3 and the king is
bound to yield to this requifition.
It belongs to the legiflative body to ratify treaties of
R peace,,
[ 129 1
Franre.
i791'
FRA [i
peace, alliance, and commerce j and no treaty (hall have
effeft but by this ratification.
The deliberations of the legiflative body (hall be
public, and the minutes of the fittings lhall be printed.
The legiflative body may, however, on any occafion,
form itfelf into a general committee.
The plan of !i decree {hall be read thrice, at three
intervals, the fliorteft of which cannot be lefs than eight
days.
The decrees of the legiflative body are prelented to
the king, who may refufe them his confent.
In cafe of a refufal of the royal confent, that refufal
is only fufpenfive.—When the two following legifla-
tures fliall fucceflively prefent the fame decree in the fame
terms on which it was originally conceived, the king
fhall be deemed to have given his fanclion.
The king is bound to exprefs his confent or refufal
to each decree within two months after its preienta-
tion.
No decree to which the king has refufed his confent
can be again prefented to him by the fame xegiflature..
The fupreme executive power refides exclufively in
the hands of the king.
The king is the fupreme head of the land and fea
forces.
The king names ambaffadors, and the other agents
of political negociations.
He beftows the command of armies and fleets, and
the ranks of marfhal of France and admiral:
He names twm-thirds of the rear-admirals, one-half
of the lieutenant-generals, camp-marflials, captains of
{hips, and colonels of the national gendarmerie .
He names a third of the colonels and lieutenant-co¬
lonels, and a fixth of the lieutenants of fliips :
He appoints in the civil adminiftration of the marine,
the directors, the comptrollers, the treafurers of the
arfenals, the mailers of the works, the under mailers
of civil buildings, half of the mailers of adminiftration,
and the under mailers of conftru&ion.
He appoints the commilfaries of the tribunals :
He appoints the fuperintendants in chief of the ma¬
nagement of contributions indireft, “ and the admini¬
ftration of national domains
He fuperintends the coinage of money, and appoints
officers entrufted with this fuperintendance in the ge¬
neral commiffion and the mints.
The effigy of the king is ftruck on all the comage
of the kingdom. #
There is in each department a fupenor admimltra-
tion, and in each diftrifl a fubordinate adminiftration. .
The adminiftrators are fpecially charged with diftn-
buting the contributions dire£l, and with fuperintend-
ffig the money arifing from the contributions, and the
public revenues in their territory.
The king has the right of annulling fuch a£ls of the
adminiftrators of department as are contrary to the
IawT or the orders tranfmitted to them.
He may, in cafe of obftinate difobedience, or of
their endangering, by their a£ls, the fafety or peace of
the public, fufpend them from their functions.. .
The king alone can interfere in foreign political con¬
nexions. , r
Every declaration of war ffiall be made in thele
terms : By the king of the French in the name of the na¬
tion.
30 ] FRA
The judicial power can in no cafe be exeicifed either
by the legiflative body or the king.
Juftice fliall be gratuitoufly rendered by judges chofen
from time to time by the people, and inftituted by letters
patent of the king, who cannot refufe them.
“ The public accufer lhall be nominated by the
people.”
“ The right of citizens to determine difputes defi¬
nitively by arbitration, cannot receive any infringement
from the aXs of the legiflative power.”
In criminal matters, no citizens can be judged ex¬
cept on an accufation received by jurors, or decreed by
the legiflative body in the cafe in which it belongs to
it to profecute the accufation.
After the accufation lhall be admitted, the fa<5t lhall
be examined, and declared by the jurors.
The perfon accufed lhall have the privilege of chal¬
lenging 20, “ without affigning any reafon.”
The jurors who declare the facl lhall not be fewer
than 1 2.
The application of the law lhall be made by the
judges.
The procefs fliall be public j “ and the perfon accu¬
fed cannot be denied the aid of counfel.”
No man acquitted by a legal jury can be apprehend¬
ed or accufed on account of the lame fadl.
For the whole kingdom there lhall be one tribunal
of appeal, eftabliihed near the legiflative body.
A high national court, compofed of members of the
tribunal of appeal and high jurors, ffiall^ take cogni¬
zance of the crimes of minifters, and tne principal
agents of the executive pcwer j and of crimes which
attack the general fafety of the hate, when the Icgil-
lative body lhall pafs a decree of accufation.
It fliall not affemble but on the proclamation of the
legiflative body 5 “ and at the diftance of 30,000 toifes
at leaft from the place of meeting of the legiflative
body.”
The national guards do not form a military body,
or an inftitution in the Hate ; they are the citizens
themfelves called to affift the public force.
Officers are chofen for a time, and cannot agam
be chofen till after a certain interval of fervice as pn-
vates.
None lhall command the national guard ol more than
one diftriX.
All the parts of the public force employed for the
fafety of the Hate from foreign enemies are under the
command of the king.
Public contributions lhall be debated and fixed every
year by the legiflative body, and cannot continue m
force longer than the laft day of the following feffion,
if they are not exprefsly renewed.
« Detailed accounts of the expence of the minute-
rial departments, figned and certified by the minifters
or comptrollers-general, lhall be printed and pubhlhed
at the commencement of the feffions of each legilla-
Fraftci
1791.
ture.
“* The fame lhall be done with the ftatements of the
receipt of the different taxes, and all the public reve¬
nues.
The French nation renounces the undertaking of any
war with a view of making conquells, and will never
employ its forces againft the liberty of any people.
The conftituting national affembly declares, That
the
France.
1791.
29S
And ac¬
cepted by
the king.
FRA [ i
the nation has the imprefcriptible right of changing
its conftitution j and neverthelefs confidering that it
is more conformable to the national intereft to employ
only by means provided in the conftitution itfelf, the
right of reforming thofe articles of it, of which expe¬
rience lhall have ftiown the inconveniences, decrees,
that the proceeding by an aflembly of revifion lhall be
regulated in the form following :
“ When three fucceftive legiflatures fhall have ex-
preffed an uniform wilh for the change of any conftitu-
tional article, the revifion demanded (hall take place.
“ The next legiflature, and the following, cannot
propofe the reform of any conftitutional article.
“ The fourth legiflature, augmented with 249 mem¬
bers, chofen in each department, by doubling the or¬
dinary number which it furnilhes in proportion to its
population, lhall farm the affembly of revifion.”
The French colonies and poffeflions in Afia, Africa,
and America, “ though they form part of the French
empire,” are not included in the prefent conftitution.
With refpefl to the laws made by the national af¬
fembly which are not included in the adl of conftitu¬
tion, and thofe anterior laws which it has not altered,
they lhall be obferved, fo long as they lhall not be re¬
voked or modified by the legillative power.
On the 13th of September the king announced, by
a letter to the prefident of the Aflembly, his accept¬
ance of the conftitution. This event was ordered to
be notified to all the foreign courts, and the Aflfembly
decreed a general amnefty with refpeft to the events of
the revolution. On the following day the king re¬
paired in perfon to the National Aifembly) and being
conduced to a chair of ftate prepared for him at the
fide of the prefident, he figned the conftitutional adf,
and took an oath of fidelity to it. He then withdrew,
and was attended back to the Thuilleries by the whole
AflTembly, with the prefident at their head. On the
. 30th of September, this National Aflembly, which has
folveV C' " ^nce been known by the name of the ConJHtuent Affem-
b/y, dilfolved itfelf, and gave place to the fucceeding
Legislative National Affembly, which had been defied
according to the rules prefcribed by the new conftitu-
298 tion.
Character (>n the character and the labours of the ConJHtuent
or' the^conrS ^HFeTnblyi we fhall only remark, that it contained many
ftituent af- men talents, and, in all probability, a confiderable
fembJy. number of men of integrity. Towards the dole of its
feflion, it aflumed a very ftriking character of modera¬
tion, and appears to have been completely monarchical,
although its jealoufy of the ancient .ariftocracy pre¬
vented it from fufficiently guarding the throne againft
popular violence : for a very ftriking defed in the new
conftitution foon appeared. The king poflefled a veto,
or negative, upon the refolutions of the legillative bo¬
dy : but this negative he was bound to exercife in
perfon, without refponfibility, and without the inter¬
vention of his minifters. He had no fenate, or upper
chamber, to ftand between him and popular violence j
and there was fomething apparently abfurd in fetting
the vote of an individual in oppofition to the coliedive
wifdom and will of a whole nation. In confequence of
this, he was reduced to the hard alternative of yielding
to every vote of the National Aflembly, or of expofing
himfelf perfonally to public odium.
The new Aflembly was opened by the king on the
France..
I?? T.
297
The af-
31 ] FRA
7th of Odober, with much apparent union on all
fides. His fpeech, recommending unanimity and confi¬
dence between the legiflative and executive powers, was
received with unbounded applaufe. The charader °f phe2 new
the men who compofed the new National Affembly was afi'embly
unaufpicious to the Court. At the commencement ol opened by
the revolution, the great body of the people at a dif-^ekl”5jr
tance from the capital were little interefted in thole pro-
jeds of freedom which occupied the more enlightened members,
or more turbulent inhabitants of Paris. They had gra¬
dually, however, been roufed from their lethargy. The
variety of powers conferred by the new conftitution up¬
on the people at large, and the multiplicity of offices of
which it gave them the patronage, had kindled in the
minds of men a love of dominion, and a wilh to inter¬
fere in public affairs. This attached them to the new
order of things. The love of power, which is the leaft
difguifed paffion in the human heart, and equally ftrong
in the breaft of the meaneft and of the higheft of man¬
kind, was thus, under the name of liberty, become a
leading paffion throughout this wide empire. They
w*ho flattered it molt, and were moft loud in praife of
the rights of the people, became fpeedily the favourites
of the public. The confequence of this was, that the
new National Afiembly was chiefly compofed of coun¬
try gentlemen, of principles highly democratic, or of
men of letters who had publilhed popular books,
or conducted periodical publications. The members of
the Conftituent Affembly had been excluded by their
own decree from holding feats in the new legiflature.—
The members of the latter, therefore, had little regard
for a conftitution which they themfelves had not framed,
and which was not protected by the venerable fanflion
of antiquity. 300
When this Affembly firft met, it fhowed a very Their jea-
trifling attention to formalities, and a peeviffi jealoufy A
of the minifters of the crown. In the mean time, the t^e
treaty of Pilnitz, already mentioned, began to be ru-crown.
moured abroad, and France wras thrown into a ftate of
anxious jealoufy for the fafety of its newly-acquired
liberties. Although the Pruffians and Germans (the
eleflor of Mentz alone excepted) all continued to
temporize, the northern powers, Sweden and Ruffia,
entered into ftridl engagements to reftore the old dei-
potifm of France. On the 9th of November-, a decree
was paffed, that the emigrants who, after the firft of
January next, Ihould be found affembled, as at prefent,
m a hoftile manner, beyond the frontiers, ihould be
confidered as guilty of a confpiracy, and fuft'er death j
that the French princes, and public funftionaries, who
Ihould not return before that period, fliould be punifli-
able in the fame manner, and their property forfeited
during their own lives. On the 18th, a feries of fe- T
vere decrees was alfo paffed againft fuch of the ejected
clergy as ftill refufed to take the civic oath. To both
thefe decrees the king oppofed his veto, or negative.—■
I he moderate party, who were attached to the confti¬
tution, rejoiced at this as a proof of the freedom of
their fovereign. Put, on the other fide, it excited a
moft violent clamour, and became the means of exciting ^or
new fufpicions of the willies of the court. At this Pacific an-
time anfwers wyere received from the different foreign fwers are
courts to the notification fent them of the king’s ac-
ceptance of the new conftitution. Thefe were general~ rejcrn
fy conceived in a ilile of caution, and avoided giving p0wers.
R 2 ~ open
F 11 A
[ 132 ]
FRA
France.
1791.
302.
But the
3-■'3
The mi-
niftry
'changed,
open offence. The emperor even prohibited all affem-
blages of emigrants within his flates j and the king
intimated to the Affembly that he had declared to the
elector of Treves, that unlefs the emigrants fhould
ceafe before the 1 5th of January to make hoitile prepa¬
rations within his territories, he would be confidered as
the enemy of France. All this, however, did not pre-
f°fir ?‘^ferve the court from fuipicion ; for although the diffe-
' ‘ ^ (‘ rent foreign courts had openly declared pacific inten¬
tions, yet the French emigrants boldly afferted, that all
Europe was actually arming in their favour. Accord¬
ingly they ceafed not to folicit their equals in rank,
who ftill remained within the country, to leave it to
jom with them in what they called the royal caufe.—
The unhappy Louis, placed between a republican
party that was gradually gathering ftrength, and an
anflocratical party that was roufmg Europe to arms
againft a nation of which he was the conflitutional
chief, and a combination of princes juftly fufpecled of
wifhing to feize upon a part of his dominions, flood in
a fituation which would have perplexed the mod fkilful
ilatelman ; and it is no proof of incapacity that he fell
a facriRce to circumflances which might have over¬
whelmed any known meafure of human ingenuity. Ad-
dreffes were crowding into the Affembly, difapproving
the condufl of the court. M. Montmorin refigned ;
M. Deleffart fucceeded him 5 and M. Cahier de Ger-
ville became minitler of the interior. M. du Portail
refigned alfo, and M. Narbonne fucceeded him as mi-
nifler of war. In the month of November, M. Bailly’s
mayoralty terminated; and the once popular La Fayette
appeared as a candidate to fucceed him. But he was
fuccefsfully oppofed by M. Petion, a violent Jacobin,
and a declared republican, who was defied mayor of
Paris by a great majority.
At this period the moderate men, who were friends
of the conftitution, attempted to counterafl the influ¬
ence of the Jacobin club by the eftablifhment of a fi-
milar one. It derived its name from the vacant con¬
vent of the Feuil/ans, in which it affembled. The molt
active members of the Conllituent Affembly belonged
to it, fuch as M. M. D’Andre, Barnave, the Lameths,
JDu Port, Rabaud, Sicyes, Chapelier, Thouret, La-
lx>rd, Taleyrand, Montefquieu, Beaumetz, &c. The
Jacobins contrived to excite a riot at the place of their
meeting, which was in the vicinity of the hall of the
National Affembly. This afforded a pretext for ap¬
plying to the Affembly for the removal of the new club.
The Affembly Ihowed their difpoiition, by complying
with this requeft.
At the end of this year, the kingdom of France
was by no means profperous. The public revenue had
fallen far fhort of the expenditure. The emigrant no¬
bility had carried out of the kingdom the greater part
of the current coin j and a variety of manufaflurers,
who depended upon their o$;entatious luxury, were re¬
duced to much diltrefs. The difpofitions of foreign
courts appeared very doubtful. The new year, how¬
ever, opened with delufive profpefls of tranquillity.—
The German princes appeared fatisfied with the mode
of compenfation which the French had offered for the
lofs of their poffeffions in Alface and Lorraine. The
prince of Loweftein accepted of an indemnification,—
The princes of Hohenlohe and Salm-Salm declared
themfelves ready to treat upon the fame terms. Prince
3°4
The Feuil-
lans efta-
■blifhed to
oppofe the
Jacobin
club.
3° 3
State of
France in
the end of
1791 and
beginning
of yfgi.
1792.
3o£
Maximilian, and the dukes of Wirtemberg and Deux- France.
Pouts, freely negociated. It is unneceffary to Hate in
detail the fubterfuges employed, in the mean time, by
the crafty Leopold, for amufing the French with the
appearances of peace. M. Deleflart, minifter for fo¬
reign affairs, fell a facrifice to them, and probably to
the undecided charadler of Louis. He was accufed
by M. Briffot of not having given timely notice to the
National Affembly of the difpofitions of foreign powers,
and of not prefiing proper meafures for fecuring the ho¬
nour and fafety of the nation. A decree of accufation
palled againll him in his abfence. He was apprehend¬
ed, tried by the high national court at Orleans, and
executed in confequence of its fentence.
The hidden death of Leopold on the firll of March
gave rife to a tranlient hope that peace might flill be pe,.^
preferved. A fufpicion of poifon fell upon , the French, murder of
but it w~as removed by the detail of his dileale that was the king of
fpeedily publilhed. On the x6th of the lame month, Sweden,
the king of Sweden was ivounded by a nobleman of
the name of Ankerllrom, and died on the 29th. This
enterprifing prince had overturned the conilitution of
his own country, and he had formed the project of con-
dudting in perfon his troops to the frontiers of France,
and of commanding or accompanying the combined ar¬
mies of Europe in their attempt to avenge the caule-of
infulted royalty. It was in a great meafure to counter-
a£l this fcheme that he was affalTmated. 307
The fudden fall, however, of thefe two enemies ra- The empe-
ther accelerated than retarded the meditated hoftilities. ror’s Rwcef*
The young king of Hungary, who fucceeded to the
empire, made no fecret either of his own intentions or warlike in'-
of the exillence of a concert of Princes againil France, tent ions,
M. Dumourier was now at the head of the war-office,
M. Roland was miniiler of the interior, and M. Cla-
viere minilter of finance. The Jacobins were ail-power¬
ful. The court gave way to the torrent. The pro¬
perty of the emigrants was confiscated, referving the
rights of creditors. The Imperial minuter, Prince
Kaunitz, demanded three things of France 5 id, The
restitution of their feudal rights to the German princes;
idly, To reftore Avignon to the Pope, the inhabitants
of which had fome time before thrown off their allegi¬
ance, and prevailed with the Conftituent Affembly to
receive their country as a part of France ; and laltly,
Prince Kaunitz demanded, that “ the neighbouring
powers ffiould have no reafon for apprehenfion from the
prefent weaknefs of the internal government of France.”
On receiving thefe demands, the king propofed a decla¬
ration of war, which was decreed by the National Af¬
fembly on the 20th of April, againit the King of Hun¬
gary and Bohemia. 3C 8
The French immediately began the war, by attack-
ing in three different columns the Auftrian Netherlands. yrAer-
M. Theobald Dillon advanced from Lille to Tournay, lands are
where he found a llrong body of Aultrians ready to re-unfuccefs-
ceive him. The national troops, unaccuftomed to fuf-kdjy at-
tain the fire of regular foldiers, wTere inllantly thrown
into confufion, and fled even to the gates of Lille. The
cry of treafon refounded on all fides j and their com¬
mander, an experienced and faithful officer, was mur¬
dered by his own foldiers and the mob. A fecond di-
vifion of x 0,000 men, under Lieutenant-General Biron,
took poffeffion of Quiveraln on the 29th, and marched
towards Mons. General Biron. xvas here attacked by
the
FRA [ 133 ] FRA
France, the Auftrians, whom he repulfed. Hearing, however,
' of the defeat of Dillon, he retreated. A third party
J792' advanced to Furnes, but afterwards withdrew. La
Fayette at the fame time advanced towards Bouvine3,
half way to Namur, from whirih he afterwards retreated.
The whole of thefe expeditions were ill contrived, in as
much as they divided the French undifciplined troops,
and expofed them in fmall bodies to the attack of ve¬
teran forces. The Andrians were fome time before
they attempted to retaliate. At length, however, on
the nth of June, they attacked M. Gouvion, who
commanded the advanced guard of La Fayette’s army
near Maubeuge. M. Gouvion was killed by a rolling
bullet 5 but La Fayette himfelf having come up, the
Aullrians abandoned the field. In the mean time,
209 matters were haftening in Paris towards a violent crifis.
Two par- Two parties, both of which were hoftile to the prefent
ties in Pa- conftitution, had gradually been formed in the date.
period1 and '^1ne oue w^hed to give more effectual fupport to the
the cont’e- royal authority, by eflablilhing a fenate or two cham-
quences. hers, to prevent the king’s vote from being the foie
check upon popular enthufiafm. The other party
wdfhed to fet afide royalty altogether, and to hazard the
bold experiment of converting France into a republic.
Thefe laft were fupported by the Jacobin club, which
had now contrived to concentrate in itfelf an immenfe
mafs of influence. Innumerable popular focieties were
eltablilhed in every town and village throughout the
provinces. With thefe a regular correfpondence was
kept up by writing and by emiffaries. Thus fchemes
and notions were inftantaneoufly propagated through a
great empire, and all the violent fpirits which it con¬
tained were enabled to aft in concert : But the more
immediate engine of the republican party confifted of
the immenfe population oi the metropolis, whom they
now endeavoured to keep in conftant alarm. For this
purpofe they alleged, that an Aujlrian Committee, that is
to fay, a confpiracy in favour of the enemies of the
country, exilted among the friends of the court. M.
JVL Genfonne and Briffot even offered in the atTembly
to prove the exiftence of this pretended Auftrian com¬
mittee. A report was next circulated, that the king
intended to abfeond from the capital on the 23d of
May. His majeffy publicly contradifled thefe accufa-
tions as calumnies, but they made no fmall impreffion
upon the minds of the public. New decrees were now
made againft the refraftory clergy, but thefe his majefly
refufed to fanftion. A propofal was alfo made and de¬
creed in the affembly to form a camp of 20,000 men
under the walls of Paris, and that for this levy every
canton in the kingdom Ihould contribute one herfeman
and four infantry. The national guard of Paris dif-
liked the propofal, and the king gave to it his negative.
Indeed at this time the king feems to have come to a
refolution of Handing out againft the Jacobin party, to
wfliich he had for fome time yielded. The miniftry
were therefore difmiffed, excepting M. Dumourier, and
others were appointed in their ftead. By this event
Dumourier loft the confidence of the Jacobin club. He
faw his error, refigned his office, and ]oined the army.
In the mean time a decree had been paffed, authorifing
the manufadlory of pikes for the purpofe of arming •>
cheaply the lower clafs of citizens. All means wTere
ufed to render the king odious by inflammatory writings
and harangues j and in both of theie the'noted incen- Fnnce;
diary Marat took the lead. ' v J
On the 20th of June M. Roederer, the procureur l^2'
general fyndic informed the national affembly, that, e(j
contrary to law, formidable bodies of armed men weremob march.,
preparing to prefent petitions to the king, and to the es through
national affembly. A part of them fpeedily appeared^5
with St Huruge and Santerre a brewer at their head. ‘-v’
They marched through the hall in a proceffion that
lafted two hours, at four o’clock in the afternoon, to
the number of about 40,000. They furrounded the
Thuilleries. The gates were thrown open \ and on an
attempt to break the door of the apartment where the
king then was, he ordered them to be admitted. His
lifter the princefs Elizabeth never departed from his
fide during four or five hours that he was furrounded
by the multitude, and compelled to liften to every in¬
dignity. All this while Petion, the mayor of Paris,
was unaccountably abfent. He at length, however,
arrived, and alfo a deputation from the affembly. The
queen, with her children and the princefs de Lamballe,
were in the mean time in the council-chamber, where,
though protected from violence, they were yet expofed
to much infult. At laft, in confequence of the approach
of evening, and of the entreaties of Petion, the multi¬
tude gradually difperfed. 311
The indignities fuffered on this day by the royal fa- rJie
mily were in fome refpeef s not unfavourable to their [habitants
caufe. A great numb-er of the molt relpe&able inha-are afliam.
bitants of the capital were afhamed of fuch proceedings, ed offucb
They complained of them feverely in a petition to the condud'r.
affembly, and addreffes to the fame purpofe were re¬
ceived from feveral departments. The direffory of the
department of Paris, at the head of which were M.
Rochefoucault and M. Talleyrand, publiftied a declara¬
tion difapproving of the condufl of the mayor, and of
M. Manuel the procureur of the commune, whom they
afterwards fufpended from their offices, although they
rvere fpeedily reftored by a decree of the affembly. At
the fame time, La Fayette leaving his army fuddenly,
appeared on the 26th at the bar of the national aflem-
bly. He declared that he came to exprefs the indig¬
nation which the whole army felt on account of the
events of the 20th : he called upon the affembly to
puniftr the promoters of thefe events, and to diffolve the
faefious clubs. The hidden appearance of La Fayette
threw the Jacobins into confternation, and from that
period they never ceafed to calumniate him. -,r2
On the jft of July, on the motion of M. Jean de The king-
Brie, the affembly ordered a proclamation to be made,0^ll^ia
that the country was in danger. On the 6th, the king^T^
gave intimation that the king of Pruffia was marching France,
with 52,000 men to co-operate againft France. The
French arms were at this time fomewhat fuccefsful in
the Auftrian Netherlands 5 but the cabinet fpeedily
thought it neceffary to order the armies to retreat : a
measure which was afterwards publicly cenfared by
Marfhal Luckner. 313
On the 7th, a fingular feene occurred in the nation- Moderate
al affembly. At the inftant that M. Briffot was about Tee,cT
to commence an oration, M. Lamiftourette bifhop °f0f Lyons.^
Lyons requefted to be heard for a few minutes. He
expatiated on the neceffity of union among the members
of the affembly, and of iacrificing their paffions and pre¬
judices-
3H
Mam fella
of the
duke of
ISrunfwick.
Injurious^
to Louis.
316
But advan¬
tageous to
the republi.
can party,
who re-
folve to de-
jtofe him.
FRA [1
judices on the altar of their country. He concluded an
animated addr^fs with thefe words, “ Let all who hold
in equal deteftation a republic and two chambers, and
wLo wdfh to maintain the conftitution as it is, rife !”
The words were fcarcely pronounced when the whole
affembly ftarted from their feats. Men of all parties
folemnly embraced each other, and protefted their ad¬
herence to the conftitution. A deputation announced
this happy event to the king; who immediately came
and congratulated them in a fhort fpeech, which wras
received with infinite applaufe. The only good effeft,
however, produced by this temporary agreement wms,
that the feftival of the 14th of July, which was cele¬
brated with the ufual magnificence, pafled over in tran¬
quillity.
On the 25th of July, the duke of Brunfwick iffued
at Coblentz his celebrated manifefto. It declared the
purpofe of the intended invafion of France to be the re-
ftoration of the French king to full authority. It de¬
clared the national guard of France refponfible for the
prefervation of tranquillity 5 and threatened with the pu-
nifhment of death, as rebels to their king, thofe who
ftiould appear in arms againft the allied powrers. All
men holding offices, civil or military, were threatened
in the fame manner, as well as the inhabitants of all
cities. The city of Paris in particular, and the national
aifembly, were declared refponfible for every infult which
might be offered to the royal family. It was declared,
that if they wrere not immediately placed in fafety, the
allies were refolved to inflift “ on thofe wffio fhould de-
ferve it the moft exemplary and ever memorable aven¬
ging puniffiments, by giving up the city of Paris to
military execution, and expofing it to total deftrudlion;
and the rebels who fhould be guilty of illegal refiftance
fhould fuffer the punifhments which they fhould have
deferved.” This fanguinary and imprudent manifefto
operated as a warrant for the deftrucfion of the unfor¬
tunate Louis XVI. It left no middle party in the
nation. All wffio wifhed to preferve freedom in any
form, and all wffio loved the independence of their
country, w7ere inftantly united. At the fame time, the
reproaches call on the king by the Jacobins now7 gained
univerfal credit. The kings of Pruffia and of Hungary
told the French nation, that their monarch w'as fecretly
hoftile to the conftitution •, and the reftoration of him
and his family to defpotic powder was made the foie
pretence for a bloody and dangerous war.
The republican party favv the advantage which they
had now gained, and refolved upon the depofition of
the king. The chief engine which they meant to em¬
ploy in this fervice confifted of about 1500 men, who
had come to Paris at the period of the confederation on
the 14th of July, and therefore called fvderes, and wffio
were alfo fometimes denominated Marfeillois, from the
place from which the greater number of them came.
Next to thefe, dependence was placed in the populace
of the fuburbs of the capital. The defigns of the re¬
publicans wrere not unknown to the court, and both
parties were forming plans of operation. It is faid
that the royal party intended that the king and his
family ftiould fuddenly leave the capital, and proceed to
as great a diftance as the conftitution permitted. The
republicans are faid to have intended to feize the perfon
of the king, and to confine him in the caftle of Vin¬
cennes till a national convention ftiould decide upon his
I
1792.
317
34 1 * fra
fate. Both allegations are probably true. Every motive Fianre.
which can influence the mind of man muft have induced
Louis to wiffi to be at a diftance from the factious and
fanguinary capital. And the fubfequent conduct of the
republicans authorife us to believe them capable of the
worft crime that wxas laid to their charge.
Various charges had been brought forward in the af-La Fayette
fembly againft La Fayette, and the 8th of Auguft wTas accufed and
appointed for their difcuffion. In the mean time, on acclu'tt;c^‘
the 3d of Auguft, Petion the mayor, at the head of a
deputation from the feitions of Paris, appeared at the
bar, and in a folemn fpeech demanded the depofition of
the king. The difcuffioh of the accufation againft La
Fayette was confidered as a trial of ftrength between
the parties : he was acquitted, however, by a majority
of nearly 200 ; and the republican party, defpairing of
carrying their point by a vote of the national aifembly,
refolved to have recourfe to infurredtion and force.
On the evening of the 9th of Auguft, about 1500 Horrid plot
gentlemen, officers of the army, and others, repaired to of the re-
the palace, refolved to protedl the royal family or to publicans,
die in their defence : added to thefe w’ere 700 Swfifs
guards, with a body of cavalry amounting to about
1000. Mandat, the commander of the national guards,
a man wffio was firmly attached to the conftitution, had
procured 2400 of that body and j 2 pieces of cannon.
With fuch a force, it has been generally thought that,
by vigorous and fteady councils, the palace, wffiich is a
kind of caftle, might have been fuccefsfully defended j
and what is now called a revolution might have born
the name of a rebellion, Meanwhile the affembly de¬
clared its fittings permanent. Petion was at the palace
late on the evening of the 9th. Some apprehenfions
were entertained, or pretended to be entertained, for his
fafety (for the whole of this bufinefs was, on the part
of the republicans, the moft infernal plot), and a depu¬
tation from the affembly brought him away. At mid¬
night the tocfin or alarm bell wTas founded, and the
drums beat to arms through the city. At this inrtant
a number of the moft adlive leaders of the republican
party aflembled, and elefted a newr common council or
commune. The perfons thus irregularly chofen inftantly
took poffeffion of the common hall, and drove out the
lawful members; who, writh that w’eaknefs with which
men are apt to ihrink from ftations of refponfibility in
perilous times, readily gave place to the ufurpers. The
new commune fent repeated meffages to M. Mandat,
requiring his attendance upon important bufinefs. He
was occupied in arranging the troops in the beft orider
around the palace j but fufpefting nothing, he wrent to
the common hall, and was there aftoniihed to find a dif¬
ferent affembly from what he expedled. He was
abruptly accufed of a plot to maffacre the people, and
ordered to prifon 5 but as he defcended the flairs, he
was ffiot with a piftol, and Santerre was appointed in
his ftead to command the national guard.
On this eventful night no perfon in the palace went
to bed. About fix o’clock in the morning of the icuh
the king defcended into the gardens to review the
troops. He was received with ftiouts of Vive le roi, ex¬
cepting from the artillery, who ihouted Vive la nation.
The king returned to the palace, and the multitude
continued to colledl. The national guard feemed un¬
determined about what they were to do, as they affem-
bled in divifions near the palace; and had a fteady re-
1 fiftance
219
The royal
family fly
for fai’e'y
to the hall
of the na¬
tional af
fembly.
320
A bloody
conflidl in
the palace,
in which
moil of the
Swifs-
guards are
maflacred
321
The royal
authority
fufpended,
and royal
family im-
prifoned.
FRA [ 1
fiftance been made from within, it is probable they
would have joined the royal party. But towards e; ;ht
o’clock M. Roederer procured admittance co cue pa¬
lace, and told the king that armed multitu j - were af-
fembling in hoftile array around the Thualt. ies 7 at
the national guard was not to be depended upon ; and
that, in cafe of refiflance, the whole royal family would
moil certainly be maffacred. He therefore advifed the
king to leek protection in the hall of the national af-
fembly. With this advice the king, with his ufual fa¬
cility of temper, was ready to comply •, but the queen
oppofed with vehemence the humiliating propoial. Be¬
coming gradually, however, alarmed for the fafety of
her children, lire gave her confent 5 and the king and
queen, the princefs Elizabeth, with the prince and
princefs royal, went on foot to the hall of the affembly.
“ I am come hither (faid his majeily) to prevent a
great crime. Among you, gentlemen, I believe myfelf
in fafety.” By an article of the conftitution the affem¬
bly could not deliberate in prefence of the king. The
royal family were, therefore, placed in a narrow box fe-
parated from the hall by a railing, where they remain¬
ed for 14 hours without any place to which they could
retire for refrefhment, excepting a very final! clofet ad¬
joining. Here they fat liftening to debates, in which
the royal char abler and office were treated with every
mark of infult.
When the king left the palace of the Thuilleries,
he unfortunately forgot to order it to be immediately
furrendered. He recollebted this as foon as he reached
the affembly, and fent orders for this purpofe ; but it
was now too late. The infurgents amounted to about
20,000 effeblive men. They were drawn up in tolera¬
ble order by Wefterman a Pruffian, and had about 30
pieces of cannon along with them. The gentlemen
within the palace, who had affembled to protebl the
king’s perfon, were now difpirited, and knew not what
part to abl. The commander of the Swifs, M. Affry,
was abfent, and the captains knew not what to do ; and
the national guard had no leader in confequence of the
death of Mandat. About nine o’clock the outer gates
were forced open ; and the infurgents formed their line
in front of the palace. A bloody combat commenced
chiefly between the Marfeillois and the Swifs. After
a brave refiftance of about an hour, the Swifs were over¬
powered by numbers, and gave away. All of them that
could be found in the palace were maffacred j fome
even while imploring quarter on their knees. Others
efcaped into the city, and were protebled by individu¬
als. Of this brave regiment, however, only 200 furviv
ved 5 but every human being, even the loweil fervants
found in the palace, wrere put to death. The Swifs
taken prifoners in various quarters were condubled to
the door of the affembly, and taken by a decree under
the proteblion of the Hate. But the fanguinary multi¬
tude infilled upon putting them to inllant death 5 and
the affembly would, in all probability, have been unable
to protebl them, had not the Marfeillois interfered in
their favour.
The fufpenfion of the royal authority was now de¬
creed, and the nation was invited to elebl a Convention
to determine the nature of its future government. On
this uncommon occalion all Frenchmen ol 21 years of
age were declared capable of elebling, and of being
elebled, deputies to the new national Convention. Com
35 ] FR A-
miffioners were, in the mean time, fent on the fame Fiance,
evening to give to the armies a falfe and favourable ac- ’
count of thefe tranfabli()ns. The *oyal family were IT92*
f rt to the old palace of the Temple in the midft of the
city, to remain there under a llribl guard ; and all pev-
fons of rank who had been attached to them were fei-
zed and committed to the different prifons.
To give an idea of the temper of the people of Pa- Bloody
ris at this time, it is proper to remark, that at the fame^T^0;
inllant when the multitude with a bloody fury was maf- 0j parr.‘1
facring the menial fervants in the palace, and could g^c.
fcarcely be reftrained from offering violence to the
Swifs who were made prifoners, they would fuffer no
abl of pillage to pals unpunifhed. Several attempts of
this kind were accordingly followed by the inllant
death of the criminals. The plate, the jewels, and
money found in the Thuilleries were brought to the
national affembly, and thrown dowm in the hall. One
man, whofe drefs and appearance befpoke extreme po¬
verty, call upon the table an hat full of gold.—But the
minds of thefe men were elevated by enthuliafm •, and
they conceived themfelves at this moment the cham¬
pions of freedom, and objects of terror to the kings of
the earth. 323
In the mean time, the lituation of France was ex-Cbtiy*1 fi-
tremely critical, and it appeared very doubtful if
new convention wmuld ever be fuffered to affemble.^^ggQjj,^
La Fayette had accidentally got fpeedy notice of the
events of the loth of Augult. He advifed the magi-
llrates of the town of Sedan to imprifon the commiflion-
ers from the national affembly when they Ihould arrive
there ; which wras accordingly done. He, at the fame
time, publhhed an addrefs to his army, calling upon 324
them to fupport the king and the conllitutian ; but La Fayette
finding that they were not to be depended upon, on thew,thdraws
19th of Auguft he left the camp in the night, accompa-ti0!ri
nied only by his llaff and a few fervants. They took'b
the route of Rochefort in Liege, which was a neutral charabter,
country j but wTere met by a party of the enemy, who
took them prifoners, and La Fayette w7as detained for
feveral years in Pruffian and Aultrian dungeons. The
fevere treatment of this man was probably a confider-
able error in policy on the part of the allies. His fide¬
lity to his king is very generally admitted } though fome
have entertained ftrong fufpicions of his having abled a
very bafe part to that unfortunate monarch ; and in the
Britifli houfe of commons he has been called an abandon¬
ed ruffian. The expreffion is certainly too flrong. His
errors feem to have been thofe of the head rather than of
the heart; and at all events,he fhould have been protebled
by the allies, if for no other reafon than to encourage
fubfequent defertions among the officers of the republi¬
can army.
To return from this digreffion. The commiffioners
were foon fet at liberty at Sedan, and received with ap-
plaufe by the army of La Fayette. General Arthur
Dillon at firfl entered into the fentiments of La Fayette j
but the politic Dumourier diverted him from his pur¬
pofe, and by this means regained his credit with the
Jacobins, and was appointed commander in chief. The
other generals, Biron, Montefquieu, Kellerman, and
Cuftine, made no oppofition to the will of the national
affembly.
Meanwhile, the combined armies of Auflria and
Pruffia had entered France, The duke of Brunfwick’s
army /
FRA [ 136 ] FRA
France, army was above $0,0CO ftrong. General C»airfait bad
1 ^  joined him with 15,000 Auibrians, and a confiderable
1792. body of Heflians, along with 20,000 French emigrants;
325 amounting in all to 90,000 men. To oppofe theie,
wd°,T' Dumourier had only 17,000 men collected near the
mies enter point from which the enemy were approaching m
France Luxembourg. The French emigrants had given the
in great (Juk.e of Brunfwick fuch an account of the diftrafted
force. t]iejr own country, and of the pretended difaf-
fedlion of all orders of men towards the ruling faftion
in Paris, that no refiftance of any importance was ex-
p^cled. When the combined troops, confiding either
of deady Andrian or Hungarian battalions, or of thoie
well difciplined Pruflians which the great Frederick
had inured to the bed military difcipline, were reviewed
in Germany before fetting out on their march, it is
laid that the fpedlators, among whom the French cai*fe
was not unpopular, beheld them with anxiety and re¬
gret, and pitied the unhappy country againd which
• this irrefidble force was hireded. The ibidiers and
their officers regarded themfelves as departing for a
hunting match, or an excurfion of pleafure ; and many
of the ufual accommodations of an army wrere ill attend¬
ed to, fuch as hofpitals, &.C. The beginning of their
progrefs into France judified thefe expedlations. Long-
wy furrendered after a liege of 15 hours, although well
fortified, poffeffed of a garrifon of 3500 men, and de¬
fended by 71 pieces of cannon. The news of this
event irritated the affembly lo much, that they decreed,
that, when retaken, the houfes of the citizens Ihould
be razed to the ground ; and, didrudful of the officers^
of the army, they decreed that the municipal officers of
a town ffiould hereafter have power to controul the de¬
liberation of the council ol war. Verdun was next
fummoned; and here the municipality compelled the
governor M. Beaurepaire to furrender. lhat officer,
difappointed and enraged, ffiot himfelf dead with a pi-
dol in pref^nce of the council, and on the 2d of Sep-
-26 tember the Pruffian troops entered the torvn.
Alarm at The news of this fecond capture, and of the ap-
Paris on pr0ach of the Pruffians, fpread an indant alarm
theirfuc^ t^roug^ Paris* It was propofed to raife a volunteer
cefs. 1 " army, which ffiould fet out immediately to meet the
enemy. The common council, which w;as now led by
Robefpierre, Danton, Marat, and others of the mod
fanguinary characler, ordered the alarrmgunstobe fired,
and the populace to be fummoned to meet in the
Champ de Mars to enroll themfelves to march againd
the enemy. The people affembled, and either in con-
ftquence of a premeditated plan, or, which is not very
probable, of an inliantaneous movement, a number of
voices exclaimed, that “ the domettic foes of the na¬
tion ought to be dedroyed before its foreign enemies
were attacked.”
Horrid Parties of armed men proceeded without delay to
maflacres. the prifons where the non-juring clergy, the Swifs offi¬
cers, and thofe confined fince the 10th of Augud on
account of praflices againd the date, were detained in
cudody. They took out the prifoners one by one,
gave them a kind of mock trial before a jury of them¬
felves, acquitted fome few, and murdered the red. A-
mong thefe lad was the princefs de Lamballe. She
w as taken from her bed before this bloody tribunal, and
maflacred ; her head was carried by the populace to the
Temple, to be feen by the queen, whofe friend ffie was.
2
Thefe maffiacres laded for twro days, and upwards of Francr.
1000 perfons were put to death. There is fcarce any ' v '
thing in hifiory that can be reprefented as parallel to
them ; they were committed, it is (aid, by lefs than
300 men, in the midd of an immenfe city, which
heard of them with horror, and in the vicinity of the
national affembly, which, by going in a body, could
have put an end to them. But fuch was the confufion
and dilmay of thefe two difgraceful days, that no man
dared to dir from his own houfe ; and every one belie¬
ved that the wffiole city, excepting his own dreet, was
engaged in maffacre and bloodffied. The national
guards were all ready at their reipeftive pods, but no
man direefed them to acl: and there is too much rea-
fon to fufpeiffi that Santerre and the chiefs of the com¬
mune connived, at lead, at the tranfaiffion.
In the mean time, General Dumourier was taking state v>f
the bed meafures to protrafl: the march of the enemy the French
till the army of Kellerman, confiding of 20,000 men, army> an{l
could join him from Lorraine, and that of Bournonvllle j’°n^uc^
trom Jb landers, amounting to 13,000; together with r]er>
whatever new levies Luckner might be able to fend
him from Chalons. The fored of Argonne extends
from north to fouth upwards of 40 miles ; it lay direcl-
ly in the route of the duke of Brunfwick, who mull
either force his way acrofs it, or make a circuit of 40
miles by the pafs of Grandpre on the north, or by Bar-
leduc on the fouth. The pafs that lay diredlly in his
route was that of Biefme. After furveying Dillon’s
podtion here, he left a party of 20,000 men to watch
it ; and with the main body of his army took the cir¬
cuitous rout by Grandpre on the north. Here Du-
mourier waited to receive him, and was attacked on the fians oblige
12th and 13th without fuccefs: but on the 14th, the il‘m t0 re*
attack of the Pruffians wras irrefidible, and Dumourier
retreating, gave up the pafs. On his march he wras fo jow. up
violently preffed by the advanced cavalry of the Pruf-their ad-
lians, that his army, at one time, w'as feized with a pa-vantage,
nic, and tied before 1500 men ; who, if they had pulh-
ed their advantage, might have difperfed it. On the
15th, however, Dumourier encamped at St Menehould,
and began to fortify it. Bournonville’s army joined
Dumourier on the 17th. The duke of Brunfwick
formed a plan of attacking Kellerman before his junc¬
tion could be completed. That general arrived on the
19th within a mile of Dumourier’s camp ; the projefl-
ed attack took place ; the Pruffians manoeuvred with
their ufual coolnefs and addrefs; they attempted to
furround Kellerman’s army, but this could not be ac-
compliffied. The French troops preferved excellent
order, while the national vivacity was conflantly {bow¬
ing itfelf in their Ihouts and patriotic fongs : 400
French were killed, and 500 wounded ; the lofs of
the Pruffians was much greater : and, in the face o?
the enemy, Kellerman joined Dumourier at the end of
the engagement without oppofition. At the time that
the attack was made on the army of Kellerman, an at¬
tempt Yvas made to force Dillon’s camp at Biefme by
the 20,000 men that had been left in its vicinity, but
without fuccefs ; and this large detachment was thus
prevented from croffing the forelt of Argonne and join¬
ing the duke of Brunfwick. It is to be obferved, that
in thefe engagements the French owed their fuperiority
chiefly to the excellence of their artillery ; a circum-
ffianee which ferved to convince their enemies that they
had
fra
France.
r
1792.
332
The Pruf-
fians di-
ftrefled by
fickneft
and fa¬
mine.
r- 533
Lifle Imn-
nioned and
vigoroufly
befieged by
the Auftri-
ans, but in
vain.
had to contend with regular military bodies, and not
with undifciplined multitudes, as they expedled.
I he duke of Brunfwick encamped his army at La
Lun, near the camp of Dumourier. And here the
i ruinans began to be in extreme diftrefs both from
hcknefs and famine. No temptation could induce the
inhabitants of the country to carry provifions to the
hoftile camp, while at the fame time the French army
was abundantly fupplied.
Bournonviile, with a body of 4000 men, intercepted
feveral droves of cattle and other convoys of provifions
deilined for the Pruffians. The rain fell in torrents
and the roads were uncommonly deep. Expofed to the
cold, the moiiture, and want of provifions, the Prufiians
ralhly ate great quantities of the grapes of Champagne.
J he coniequence of this was, that an epidemical diftem-
per commenced and fpread through the army to fuch an
, t I0>000 ™en at one time were unfit for duty.
1 he duke of Brunfwick, however, dill commanded a
mrce much more numerous than that of Dumourier :
and he has been much cenfured for not attacking his
camp and forcing him to engage. It has been faid
that the veteran and numerous force which he com¬
manded would have marched to certain viftory a-
gamd the raw troops that oppofed them; that, ' ha¬
ving defeated Dumourier’s army, there was nothing-
to oppofe their march to Paris. But the duke of
• runlcvick had entered France upon the fuppofition
that ,n its prefent didraded date no regular army could
be brought into the field againd him, and that the
people at large were hodile to the ruling faftion. The
contrary of all this had turned out to be true. He
Tf th? midil °f an hoftile Pe°Ple> and op¬
pofed by fkilful military chiefs. A defeat in fuch a
ntuation would have brought certain ruin to his army ;
and even the lofs fudained in the acquifition of a vi61o-
ry might have proved equally fatal. The remains of
the french army would not fail to hang upon his rear :
and from the difpofition of the people it appeared im-
podible to afcertain to what amount that army might
be fuddenly increafed. After propofing a truce, there¬
fore, which laded eight days, he commenced his retreat
towards Grandpre, and no advantage was gained over
nm in the courfe of it, Verdun was retaken by the
French on the 12th of Oftober, and Longwy on the
18th J the fiege of Fhionville was at the fame time raifed.
1 at fmall but drong fortrefs, under the command of
General Felix Wimpfen, had held in check an army of
15,000 men. J
While the Prufflans were advancing from the north-
ead the Audnans under the duke of Saxe Tefchen
hud fiege to Lifle. The council-general of the com¬
mune anlwered the fummons of the befiegers thus • “ We
have jud renewed our oath to be faithful to the nation
and to maintain liberty and equality, or to die at our
pod. We will not perjure ourfelves.” Such was the
cant of thefe men who had already perjured themfelves
by contributing to overturn the conditution which they
had repeatedly fworn to defend. The Audrian batte-
1 les began to play upon the town on the 29th, and were
chiefly directed againd that quarter which was inhabi¬
ted by the lower clafs of citizens, for the purpofe of ma¬
king them mutinous and feditious. This procedure was
nl judged, i he lower clafles of mankind are always
much accudomed to hardfliips, and they go farthed in
Vox. IX. Part I. 0
France.
*79-
37 ] fra
fupport of any enthufiadic principle they have been
perfuaded to adopt. Accordingly, though a great part
°r was reduced to a heap of ruins, the citizens
of Lifle became daily more obdinate. They received
each other into the houfes that were dill danding, and
every vault and cellar wras occupied. Although up¬
wards of 30,000 red-hot balls and 6000 bombs were
thrown into the city, befides the efforts made by an im^
menfe battering train of artillery, yet the lofs both to the
garnfon and people did not exceed 500 perfons, mod of
r rm- r,ere WOmen and chndren- After a fortnight
01 iruitlels labour the Audrians raifed the fiege.
War had been declared againd the king of Sardinia WarVe4.
on account of the threatening appearances exhibited in dared a-
E lat Tjarter. On the 20th of September General gamtt the
Montefquieu entered the territories of Savoy, and waskin£of
received at Chambery and throughout the wholes!^’
country with marks of unbounded welcome. On the ken &c
29th General Anfelm, with another body of troops, ’
took pofleflion of Nice and the country around it. On
the 30th General Cudine advanced to Spires, when he
round the Audrians drawn up in order of battle. He
attacked and drove them through the city, taking 2000
of them pnfoners. The capture of Worms fucceeded
tnat of Spires ; jVlentz furrendered by capitulation : and
Franck fort fell into the hands of the French on the 23d.
Out of this lad place, however, they were afterwards
driven on the 2d of December.
On the 20th of September the French 'National tWv-The nl-
’ventwn affembled. It was found to contain men of all bon at con.
charadlers, orders, and ranks. Many didinguiffedvention af*
members of the Conjlituting Affembly were eleaed into^165’
Vndalfo feveral tllat had belonged to the Legijlatke
Ailemblyj even foreigners were invited to become
I rench legiflators. The famous Thomas Paine and Dr
nedley of England were eleaed by certain depart-
ments ; but the latter declined accepting. Clouts a
Prufljan, whom we formerly noticed as bringing a de¬
putation to the bar of the condituent affembly, confid¬
ing of perfons reprefenting all the nations of the earth
was alfo chofen. The general afpea of the new conven-
tion fliowed that the republican party had acquired a de-
cided fupenonty. On the fird day of meeting M. Collot , .33^
dlleroois, who had formerly been an aaor, afcended ^es the e-
ie tribune, and propofed. the eternal abolition ofroy- ternal aho-
o ty in ranee. I he quedion was carried by acclama- htion of
tion, and the houfe adjourned. Meffages were fent to r°valty in
all parts of the country to intimate the decree, and by France-
the influence of the Jacobins they were everywhere re-
cewed with applaufe It was next day decreed, that
- 1 puohc aas fliould be dated by the year of the French
lepublic j and all citizens were declared eligible to all
the vacant offices and places. The rage of republica-
m foon went fo far, that the ordinary titles of Mon-
leur and Madame were aboliffied, and the appellation
Citizen fubdituted m their dead, as more fuitable to
the principles of liberty and equality.—It may be re¬
marked, that in this lad trifling circumdance an at-
tachment to the form of fpeech to which they had been
accudomed appears even in its abolition : For al¬
though the Roman orators addreffed their countrymen
when affembled by the honourable appellation of Citl-
%ens, yet they never, in acceding an individual, called
him Citizen Cato, or Citizen Cwfar, according to the
mode now adopted in France.
S
It
FRA
t 133 ]
FRA
France.
1792.
337
Two up-
pofite fac¬
tions in the
convention.
333
Decree a-
gainft the
emigrants
See.
339
Battle of
Jemappe,
and furren
der of the
Auftrian
Nether¬
lands,
It was foon difeovered that the leading republicans
had divided into two oppolite fa&ions. The one of
thefe was called Girondifls, becaufe Vergmaud, Gen-
fonne, Guadet, and fome others of its leaders, were mem¬
bers from the department of La Gironde. The cele¬
brated Condorcet belonged to this party ; and they were
fometimes denominated Briffvtines, from M. Briffot de
Warville their principal leader. They lupported the
miniftry now in office, at the head of which was Ro¬
land ; and the majority of the convention was obvioufiy
attached to them. In oppofition to thefe was the
fmaller party of the Mountain : fo called from its mem¬
bers ufualiy fitting in the convention on the upper feats
of the hall. They were men polfelled of Ids perfonal
refpe&ability, and fewer literary accompliffiments, but
of daring and fanguinary characters, whom the revolu¬
tion had brought Into public notice- . At tire head of
this party wrere Danton and Robefpierre ; and fubor-
dinate to thefe were Couthon, Bax ire, 1 hunot, i' ler-
lin de Thionville, St Andre, Camille Demoulins, Cha-
bot, Collot D’Herbois, Sergent, Legendre, Fabre
D’Eglantine, Fanis, and Marat.
Thefe two parties (bowed the diverfity of their charac¬
ters in the manner in which they treated the manacies of
the 2d and 3d of September. The Brififotines, with
the majority of the convention, wifhed to bring the
murderers to trial j but the queftion was always eluded
by the other party, with the alhftance of the Jacobin
club and of the populace.
On the 9th of Oaober it was decreed, that all emi¬
grants, when taken, fhould lufter death j and on tne 15th
of November, in confequence of an infurredion in the
duchy of Deux Fonts, and an application on the part of
the infurgents to the convention for aid, the following de¬
cree was pafied : i' ihe national convention declare, m
the name of the French nation, that they will grant fra¬
ternity and affiitance to all thofe people who wiih to
procure liberty } and they charge the executive power
to fend orders to the generals to give affiftance to iuch
people as have fuffered, or are now fuffering, in the
cauie of liberty.” Of this decree foreign nations, with
great reafon, complained much, as will Ihoitly appeal.
To return to the military affairs of the new repub¬
lic. On the 12th of Odober General Dumourier
came to Faris, and was fpeedily fent to commence a
winter campaign in the Netherlands. He fuddenly at¬
tacked the Auftrians at the village of Boilu, and drove
them from their ground. On the 5th of November he
came in light of the enemy upon the heights of Je-
mappe. Three rows of fortifications arofe above each
other, defended by 1 Co pieces of cannon. Their right was
covered by the village and a river, and their left by
thick woods. The French were by their own account
30,000, whilft others with great probability of truth
compute them at double that number, and the number
of the Auftrians was at leaf! 20,000. At feven in the
morning of the follow/ing day a heavy cannonade com¬
menced on both fides, and at noon a clofe attack was
determined on by the French, whofe right wing was
commanded by Generals Boumonville and Dampierre
and the centre by Generals Egalite (Ton to the duke
of Orleans who had affumed that name), Stetenboffe,
Defporets, and Drouet. The muftc played the popu¬
lar march of the Marfellois, and the foldiers ruffied on
with enthufiafm, Ihouting “ Vive la nation.” The en-
1792.
34o
gagement was warm and bloody \ the French were France,
twice repulfed •, but their impetuofity wras at laft irre- " ~v
ftftible, and about two o’clock the enemy fled from
their laft entrenchments. The lols on both fides
wras very great, that of the Auftrians amounting to
4000. This vidfory w7as decifive 01 the fate of the
Netherlands. Mons and Bruffels furrendered to Du¬
mourier y Tournay, Malines, Ghent, and Antwerp,
were taken poffeflkm of by General Labourdonnaye ;
Louvain and Namur ivere taken by General \ alence 5
and the whole Auftrian Netherlands, Luxembourg only
excepted, fell into the hands of the French . Liege
wTas taken on the 28th of November after a iucceisrul
engagement, in which the Auftrians loft 5 or 600 men
and an immenfe train of artillery. _ ^
France was now in a lituation not unufual in the hi-violent
ftory of thofe nations that either _ are free, or are at-contefts be-
tempting to become foj iuccefsful in all quarters abroad,
but diftracted by factions at home. The two parties and the
in the convention were engaged in a ftruggle, which jyiountain.
daily became more implacable. The party calleu the
Mountain did not hefitate about the nature of the means
they were to employ to bring about the ruin of their
antagoniifs. They are even fufpe£fed of having, through
the medium of Pache the war-minifter, retarded the
fupply of the armies, to render the ruling paity odious
by want of fuccefs. They were for fome time, how¬
ever, unfortunate in this refpeft } and the daily news of
victories fupported wTith the public the ciedit of the
Girondills. A new fubject wras therefore fallen upon,
which was the queftion, how the dethroned king was
to be difpofed of? The moderate party wiined to lave
him j and this w’as a fufficient reafon for their antago
nifts to refolve upon his ruin. A committee was ap¬
pointed to give in a report upon his conduct. A va¬
riety of accufations were brought againit him j and. the
convention infamoufty refolved to a£t the part of ac- -
cufers and of judges. _ 341
It wras on the 11 th of December when the ill-fated The king
monarch was ordered to the bar of the convention : the brought to
aft of accufation was read, and the king was fummon-tna •
ed by the prefident, Barrere, to anfwer to each fepaiate
charge.
Prcf. “ Louis, the French nation accufes you .of
having committed a multitude of crimes to eftiiohfti
your tyranny, in deftroying her freedom. You, on the
20th of June 1789, attempted the fovereignty of the
people, by fufpending the affemblies of their reprefen-
tatives, and expelling them with violence from the pxaces
of their fittings. This is proved in the procefs verbal
entered at the Tennis-court of Verfailles by the members
of the conftituent affembly. On the 23d of June you
w anted to dictate laws to the nation ; you furrounded
their reprefentatives with troops ; you prelented to
them twTo royal declarations, fubverlive of all liberty,
and ordered them to feparate. Your own declarations,
and the minutes of the affembly, prove theie attempts.
What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ No laws were then exifting to prevent me
from it.” • n v
Pref. “ You ordered an army to march againit the
citizens of Paris. Your fatellites have ffied the blood
of feveral of them, and you would not remove this army
till the taking of the Baftile and a general infurre6hon
announced to you that the people were viftorious. The
fpeeches
F R A [ 139 ] FRA
Frasce: fpeeches you made on the 9th, 12th, and 14th of July
’ v to the deputations of the conftituent affembly, (hew what
1792.
were your intentions •, and the maffacres of the Thuille-
ries rife in evidence againfl you.—What have you to
anfWer ?”
Louis. “ I was mafter at that time to order the
troops to march 5 but I never had an intention of Ihed-
ding blood.”
Pref. “ ^.fter thefe events, and in fpite of the promifes
which you made on the 15th in the conftituent afiem-
bly, and on the 17th in the town-houfe of Paris, you
have perfifted in your projedts againft national liberty.
You long eluded the execution of the decrees of the
nth of Auguft, refpeding the abolition of perfonal
fervitude, the feudal government, and tythes : you
Jong refufed acknowledging the rights of man : you
doubled the number of the life-guards, and called the
regiment of Flanders to Verfailles : you permitted, in
orgies held before your eyes, the national cockade to
be trampled under foot, the white cockade to be hoift-
ed, and the nation to be flandered. At laft, you ren¬
dered necefl'ary a frelh infurredKon, occafioned the death
of feveral citizens, and did not change your language
till after your guards had been defeated, when you re¬
newed your perfidious proraifes. The proofs of thefe
fadls are in your obervations of the 18th of Septem¬
ber, in the decrees of the nth of Auguft, in the mi¬
nutes of the conftituent aflembly, in the events of Ver¬
failles of the 5th and 6th of October, and in the con-
verfation you had on the fame day with a deputation of
the conftituent aflembly, when you told them you would
enlighten yourfelf with their councils, and never re¬
cede from them.—What have you to anfwer ?”
I^ouis. “ I have made the obfervations which I
thought juft on the two firft heads. As to the cockade,
it is falfe j it did not happen in my prefence.”
Pref. “ You took an oath at the federation of the
14th of July, which you did not keep. You foon
tried to corrupt the public opinion, with the aftiftance
of Talon who affed in Paris, and Mirabeau who was
to have excited counter-revolutionary movements in the
provinces.—What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. c< I do not know what happened at that time;
but the whole is anterior to my acceptance of the con-
ftitution.”
Pref. “ You laviftied millions of money to effedt this
corruption, and you would even ufe popularity as a
means of enflaving the people. Thefe fatls are the re¬
sult of a memorial of Talon, on which you have made
your marginal comments in your own hand-writing, and
of a letter which Laporte wrote to you on the 19th of
April 5 in which, recapitulating a converfation he had
with Rivarol, he told you, that the millions which yot;
had been prevailed upon to throw away had been pro-
dudlive of nothing. For a long time you had medi¬
tated on a plan of efcape. A memorial was delivered
to you on the 28th of February, which pointed out
the means for you to eftedl it; you approve of it by
marginal notes.—What have you to anfwer i1”
Louis. “ I felt no greater pleafure than that of re-
lievingthe needy : this proves no defign.”
Pref. “ On the 28th a great number of the nobles
and military came into your apartments in the caftle of
the Thuilleries to favour that efcape : you wanted to
quit Paris on the 10th of April to go to St Cloud.— Frarfjf.
What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ This accufation is abfurd.”
Pref. “ But the refiftance of the citizens made you
fenfible that their diftruft was great; you endeavoured
to difcard it by communicating to the conftituent af¬
fembly a letter, which you addreffed to the agents of
the nation near foreign powers, to announce to them
that you had freely accepted the conftitutional articles,
which had been prefented to you 5 and, notwithftanding,
on the 21 ft you took flight with a falfe paffport. You
left behind a proteft againft thefe felf-fame conftitutional
articles j you ordered the minifters to fign none of the
adls ifiued by the National Aflembly •, and you forbade
the rninifter of juftice to deliver up the feals of ftate.
The public money was laviftied to infure the fuccefs of
this treachery, and the public force was to proteft it,
under the orders of Bouille, who ftiortly before had
been charged with the maflacre of Nancy, and to whom
you wrote on this head, “ to take care of his popula¬
rity, becaufe it would be of fervice to you.” Thefe
fafts are proved by the memorial of the 23d of Febru¬
ary, with marginal comments in yoar own hand-wri-
ting ; by your declaration of the 20th of June, wholly
in your own hand-writing j by your letter of the 4th
of September 1790 to Bouille j and by a note of the
latter, in which he gives you an account of the ufe he
made of 993,000 livres, given by you, and employed
partly in trepanning the ttoops who wrere to efcort you.
—What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I have no knowledge whatever of the me¬
morial of the 23d of February. As to what relates to my
journey to Varennes, I appeal to my declaration to the
commiflaries of the conftituent aflembly at that period.”
Pref. “ After your detention at Varennes, the exer-
cife of the executive power was for a moment fufpend-
ed in your hands, and you again formed a confpiracy.
On the 17th of July the blood of citizens wTas (bed in
the Champ de Mars. A letter, in your own hand¬
writing, written in 1790 to La Fayette, proves that a
criminal coalition fubfifted between you and La Fayette,
to which Mirabeau acceded. The revifion began under
thefe cruel aufpices; all kinds of corruptions were made
ufe of. You have paid for libels, pamphlets, ford newf-
papers, defigned to corrupt tire public opinion, to dif-
credit the aflignats, and to fupport the caufe of the emi¬
grants. The regifters of Septeuil ftrew what immenfe
firms have been made ufe of in tbefe liberticide ma-
-wiceuvres.—What have you to anfwer ?
Louis. “ What happened on the ] 7th of July has
nothing at all to do with me. I know nothing of it.”
Pref. “ You feemed to accept the conftitution on the
14th of September; your fpeeches announced an inten¬
tion of fupporting it, and you were bufy in overturning
it, even before it was completed. A convention was
entered into at Pilnitz on the 24th of July, between
Leopold of Auftria and Frederic-William of Branden-
burgh, who pledged themfelves to re-ereft in France
the throne of abfolute monarchy, and you were filent
upon this convention till the moment when it was known
by all Europe.—What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I made it known as foon as it came to my
kirowledge; befides, every thing that refers to this fub-
jeft concerns the minifter.”
S 2 Pref
France.
FRA [ 140 ] FRA
'Prcf. Arles had hoifled the ftandard of rebellion •,
you favoured it by fending three civil commiflaries,
J792> who made it their bufinefs not to reprefs the counter-
revolutionifls, but to juftify their proceedings.—What
have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ The inftru£tions which were given to the
commhTaries muft prove what was their million j and I
knew none of them when the minifters propofed them
to me.”
Pref. 11 Avignon, and the county of Venaidin, had
been united with France •, you cauied the decree to be
executed ) but a month after that time civil war defo-
lated that country. The commiffaries you fent thither
helped to ravage it.—What have you to anfwer r”
Louis. “ I do not remember what delay has been
caufed in the execution of the decree j behdes, this oc¬
currence has no perfonal reference to me ; it only con¬
cerns thofe that have been fent, not thofe who fent
them.”
Pref. “ Nimes, Montauban, Mende, dales, felt great
fhocks during the firft days of freedom. You did nothing
to ftifle thofe germens of counter-revolution till the mo¬
ment w’hen Saillant’s confpiracy became manifeftly no¬
torious.—What have you to anfwer ?”
IsOiiis. “ I gave, in this refpefl, all the orders which
were propofed to me by the minifters.”
Pref “ You fent 2 2 battalions againft the Marfeil-
lois, who marched to reduce the counter-revolutionifts
of Arles.—What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I ought to have the pieces referring to this
matter, to give a juft anfwer.”
Pref. “ You gave the fouthern command to Wit-
genftein, who wrote to you on the 21 ft of April 179 2,
after he had been recalled : ‘ A few inftants more, and
I fliall call around the throne of your majefty thoufands
of French, who are again become worthy of the wilhes
you form for their happinefs.’—What have you to an¬
fwer ?”
Louis. “ This letter is dated fince his recall ; he
has not been employed ftnce. I do not recolledl this
letter.”
Pref. “ You paid your late life-guards at Coblentz ;
the regifters of Septeuil atteft this ; and general orders
llgned by you prove that you fent confiderable remit¬
tances to Bouille, Rochefort, Vauguyon, Choifeul,
Beaupre, Hamilton, and the wife of Polignac.—What
have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ When I firft learned that my life-guards
affembled beyond the Rhine, I flopped their pay : as
to the reft, I do not remember i1”
Pref. “ Your brothers, enemies to the ftate, caufed
the emigrants to rally under their banners : they raifed
regiments, took up loans, and concluded alliances in
your name : you did not difclaim them ; but at the mo¬
ment when you were fully certain that you could no
longer crofs their projects, .your intelligence with them
by a note, written by Louis Staniftaus Xavier, figned
by your two brothers, was conceived in thefe words :
/ ‘ I wrote to you, but it was by poft, and I could
fay nothing. We are two here, who make but one ;
one in lentiments, one in principles, one in zeal of
ferving you. We keep filence •, becaufe, were we to
break it too foon, it would injure you : but we lhall
fpeak as foon as we lhall be certain of general fupport,
and, that moment is near. If we are fpoken to on the
part of thofe people, rve {hall hear nothing j but if on Franfe.
your part, we will liften : we lhall purfue our road   
ftraight. It is therefore delired that you will enable us 1792.
to fay fomething. Do not Hand on ceremonies. Be eafy
about your fafety : we only exift to ferve you ; wre are
eagerly occupied with this point, and all goes on well •,
even our enemies feel themfelves too much interefted in
your prefervation to commit an ufelefs crime which
would terminate in their own deftruclion.
‘ L. S. Xavier and
‘ Charles Philippe.’
“ What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I dilorvned all the proceedings of my bro¬
thers, according as the conftitution preferibed me to do,
and from the moment they came to my knowledge. Of
this note I know’ nothing.”
Pref. “ The foldiers of the line, who were to be
put on the wTar eftablilhment, confifted but of 100,000
men at the end of December, you therefore negletied
to provide for the fafety of the ftate from abroad. Nar-
bonne required a levy of 50,000 men, but he Hopped
the recruiting at 26,000, in giving affurances that all
was ready j yet there was no truth in thefe afturances.
Servan propofed after him to form a camp of 20,000
men near Paris; it was decreed by the legillative alfem-
bly ; you refufed your fanftion.—What have you to
anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I had given to the minifters all the orders
for expediting the augmentation of the army : in the
month of December laft, the returns were laid before
the afiembly. If they deceived themfelves, it is not
my fault.”
Pref. “ A flight of patriotifm made the citizens re¬
pair to Paris from all quarters. You ilfued a procla¬
mation, tending to flop their march j at the fame time
our camps were without foldiers. Dumourier, the fuc-
ceflbr of Servan, declared that the nation had neither
arms, ammunition, nor provifions, and that the polks
were left defencelefs. You waited to be urged by a re-
queft made to the minifter Lajard, when the legiflative
aflembly wilhed to point out the means of providing
for the external fafety of the ftate, by propofing the
levy of 42 battalions. You gave commilfion to the
commanders of the troops to difband the army, to force
whole regiments to defert, and to make them pafs the
Rhine, to put them at the difpofal of your brothers,
and of Leopold of Auftria, with whom you had intel¬
ligence. This fa£l is proved by the letter of Toulou-
geon, governor of Franche Comte.—What have you
to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I know nothing of this circumftance $
there is not a word of truth in this charge.”
Pref. “ You charged your diplomatic agents to
favour this coalition of foreign powers and your bro¬
thers againft: France, and efpecially to cement the peace
between Turkey and Auftria, and to procure thereby a
larger number of troops againft: France from the latter.
A letter of Choifeul-Gouffier, ambalfador at Con-
ftantinople, verifies the fa£t.—What have you to an¬
fwer ?”
Louis. “ M. Choifeul did not fpeak the truth : no
fuch thing has ever been.”
Prf. “ The Pruflians advanced againft our fron¬
tiers : your minifter was fummoned on the 8th of July
to give an account of the ftate of our political relations
with
FRA
Trance
1792,
r
with Pruftia) you anfwered, on the 10th, that 50,000
PruPuans were marching againft us, and that you gave
notice to the legiflative body of the formal a£ls of the
pending hoftilities, in conformity to the conftitution.
—What have you to anfwer ?”
Loins. “ It was only at that period I had know¬
ledge of it : all the correfpondence paiTed with the mi-
niflers.”
Pref. “ You entrufted Dabancourt, the nephew of
Calonne, with the department of war ; and fuch has
been the fuccefs of your confpiracy, that the polls of
Longwy and Verdun were furrendered to the enemy at
the moment of their appearance.—What have you to
anfwer
Louis. 11 I did not know that Dabancourt was M.
Calonne’s nephew. I have not divelted the pods. I
would not have permitted myfelf fuch a thing. I know
nothing of it, if it has been fo.”
Pref. “ You have deftroyed our navy—a vaft num¬
ber of officers belonging to that corps had emigrated ;
there fcarcely remained any to do duty in the harbours 5
meanwhile Bertrand was granting paflports every day j
and when the legiflative body reprefented to you his
criminal conduft on the 8th of March, you anfwered,
that you were fatisded with his fervices.—What have
you to anfwer ?”
Louts. “ I have done all I could to retain the offi¬
cers. As to M. Bertrand, lince the legiflative aiTembly
prefented no complaint againlt him that might have
put him in a Hate of accufation, I did not think proper
to turn him out of office.
Pref. “ You have favoured the maintenance of ab-
folute government in the colonies ; your agents foment¬
ed troubles and counter-revolutions throughout them,
which took place at the fame epoch when it was to
have been brought about in France, which indicates
plainly that your hand laid this plot.—What have you
to anfwer r”
. Louis. 11 If there are any of my agents in the colo¬
nies, they have not fpoken the truth ; I had nothing
to do with what you have jult mentioned.”
Pref. “ The interior of the Hate -was convulfed by
fanatics 5 you avowed yourfelf their protedlor, in mani-
fefting your evident intention of recovering by them
your ancient power.—What have you to anfwer ?”
^ Louis. “ I cannot anfwer to this j I know nothing'
of fuch a projeft.”
Pref. “ The legiflative body had pafled a decree
on the 29th of January againft the fadlious priefts ;
you fufpended its execution.—What have you to an¬
fwer ?”
Louis. “ The conftitution referved to me the free
right to refufe my fandtion of the decrees.”
Pref. “ The troubles had increafed ; the minifter
declared, that he knew no means in the laws extant to
arraign the guilty. The legiflative body enacled a frefli
decree, which you likewife fufpended.—What have you
to fay to this ?”
[Louis replied in the fame manner as in the preced¬
ing charge.]
Pr<f. “ The uncitizen-like conduct of the guards
whom the conftitution had granted you, had rendered it
neceflary to dilband them. The day after, you fent
them a letter expreffive of your fatisfaflion, and con-
41 ] FRA
tinned their pay. This faft is proved by the treaiurer France,
of the civil lift.—What have you to anfwer ?”• v
Louis. “ I only continued them in pay till frefli ll92-
ones could be raifed, according to the tenor of the de¬
cree.”
Pref. “ You kept near your perfon the Swifs
guards : the conftitution forbade you this, and the legi- .
flative affembly had exprefsly ordained their departure.
—What have you to anfwer r”
Louis. 11 I have executed all the decrees that have
been enabled in this refpedt.
Pref. “ You had private companies at Paris, char¬
ged to operate movements ufeful to your projetfts of a
counter-revolution. Dangremont and Gilles were two
of your agents, who had falaries from the civil lift.'
The receipts of Gilles, who was ordered to raife a com-'
pany of 60 men, fliall be prefented to you.—What
have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I have no knowledge whatever of the pro-
jeifts laid to their charge : the idea of a counter-revolu¬
tion never entered into my mind.”
Pref. “ You wilhed to fuborn, with conftderable
fums, feveral members of the legiflative and conftituent
aflemblies. Letters from St Leon and others evince
the reality of thefe deeds.—What have you to an¬
fwer ?”
Louis. “ Several perfons prefented themfelves with
fimilar decrees, but I have waved them.”
Pref. “ Who are they that prefented you with
thofe projects ?”
Louis. “ The plans w’ere fo vague that I do not
recolledl them now.”
Pref. “ Who are thofe to whom you gave money ?”
Louis. “ I gave money to nobody.”
Pref. “ \ ou fuffered the French name to be re¬
viled in Germany, Italy, and Spain, fince you omitted
to demand fatisfadlion for the bad treatment which the
French fuffered in thofe countries.—What have you to
anfwer ?”
Louis. “ The diplomatical correfpondence will prove
the contrary 5 befides, this was a concern of the mini*'
fters.”
Pref. “ You reviewed the Swifs on the 10th of-
Auguft at five o’clock in the morning j and the Swifs
were the firft who fired upon the citizens.”
Louis. “ I went on that day to review all the troops
that were affembled about me ; the conftituted authori¬
ties were with me, the department, the mayor, and mu¬
nicipality ; I had even invited thither a deputation of
the national affembly, and I afterwards repaired into
the midft of them with my family.”
Pref u Why did you draw troops to the caftle ?”
Louis. “ All the conftituted authorities faw that
the caftle was threatened ; and as I was a conftituted
authority, I had a right to defend myfelf.”
Pref. “ Why did you fummon the mayor of Paris
in the night between the 9th and 10th of Auguft to
the caftle ?”
Louis. “ On account of the reports that were circu¬
lated,”
Pref. “ You have caufed the blood of the French
to be ftied.”
Louis. “ No, Sir, not I.”
Pref. “ You authorized Septeuil to carry on a
confiderable
France.
FRA ' [ 142 ] FRA
Fiance, connderable trade in corn, fugar, and coffee, at Ham-
    burg. This fact is proved by a letter of Septeuil.”
i792* Louis. “ I know nothing of what you fay.”
Pref. “ Why did you affix a veto on the decree
which ordained the formation of a camp of 20,000
men ?”
Louis. “ The conftitution left to me the free right
of refuJing my fandfion of the decrees ; and even from
that period I had demanded the affembiage of a camp
at Soiffons.”
Prejiclent, addreffing the convention. “ The que-
ftions are done with.” (To Louis)—“ Louis, is there
any thing that you wiffi to add ?”
Louis. “ I requeft a communication of the charges
which I have heard, and of the pieces relating thereto,
and the liberty of chooling counfel for my defence.
Valaze, who fat near the bar, prefented and read to
Louis Capet the pieces, viz. The memoir of Laporte
and Mirabeau, and fome others, containing plans of a
counter-rev'olution.
Louis. “ I difown them.”
Valaze next prefented feveral other papers, on which
the ad! of accufation was founded, and afked the king
if he recognized them. Thefe papers were the follow¬
ing :
Va/a%e. “ Letter of Louis Capet, dated June 29th
1790, fettling his connexions with Mirabeau and La
Fayette to effect a revolution in the conftitution.”
Louis. *t I referve to myfelf to anfwer the con¬
tents”—(Valaze read the letter.)—“ It is only a plan,
in which there is no queftion about a counter-revolu¬
tion ; the letter was not to have been fent.”
Vala%e. “ Letter of Louis Capet, of the 2 2d of
April, relative to converfations about the Jacobins,
about the preftdent of the committee of finances, and
the committee of domains ; it is dated by the hand of
Louis Capet.”
J.ouis. “ I difown it.”
Vala%e. “ Letter of Laporte, of Thurfday morn¬
ing, March 3d, marked in the margin in the hand-wri¬
ting of Louis Capet with March 3d 1791, implying
a pretended rupture between Mirabeau and the Jaco¬
bins.”
Louis. “ I difown it.”
Vaiaze. “ Letter of Laporte without date, in his
hand-writing, but marked in the margin by the hand
of Louis Capet, containing particulars refpe&ing the
laft moments of Mirabeau, and expreffing the care that
had been taken to conceal from the knowledge of men
fome papers of great concern which had been depofited
with Mirabeau.”
Louis. “ I difown it as well as the reft.”
- Valax-e. “ Plan of a conftitution, or revifion of the
conftitution, figned La Fayette, addreffed to Louis Ca¬
pet, April 6th 1790, marked in the margin with a line
in his own hand-writing.”
I.ouis. “ Thefe things have been blotted out by the
conftitution
Va/axe. “ Do you know this writing ?”
Louis. “ I do not.”
Valwze. “ Your marginal comments ?”
Louis. “ I do not.”
Valaze. “ Letter of Laporte of the 19th of April,
marked in the margin by Louis Capet April 19. 1791,
mentioning a converfation with Rivarol.”
2
Louis. “ I difown it.”
Valaze. “ Letter of Laporte, marked April 16.
1791, in which it feems complaints are made of Mira- I792,
beau, the abbe Perigord, Andre, and Beaumetz, who
do not feem to acknowledge facrifices made for their
fake.”
Louis. “ I difown it likewife.”
Valaze'. “ letter of Laporte of the 23d of Febru¬
ary 1791, marked and dated in the hand-writing of
Louis Capet 5 a memorial annexed to it, refpefling the
means of his gaining popularity.”
Louis. “ I know neither of thefe pieces.”
Valaze. “ Several pieces without lignature, found
in the caftle of the Thuilleries, in the gap which was
ffiut in the walls of the palace, relating to the expence#
to gain that popularity.”
Prejident. “ Previous to an examination on this iub-
je6f, I with to alk a preliminary queftion : Have you
caufed a prefs with an iron door to be conftrufted in the
caftle of the Thuilleries, and had you your papers
locked up in that prefs ?”
L^ouis. “ I have no knowledge of it whatever.”
Valaze. “ Here is a day-book written by Louis
Capet himfelf, containing the penfions he has granted
out of his coffer from 1776 till 1792, in which are
obferved fome douceurs granted to Acloque.”
Louis. “ This I own, but it conlifts of charitable
donations which I have made.”
Valaze. “ Different lifts of firms paid to the Scotch
companies of Noailles, Gramont, Montmorency, and
Luxembourg, on the 9th of July 1791.”
Louis. “ This is prior to the epoch when I forbade
them to be paid.”
Pref. “ Louis, where had you depofited thofe pie¬
ces which you own ?”
Louis. “ With my treafurer.”
Valaze. “ Do you know thefe penfion-lifts of the
life-guards, the one hundred Swifs, and the king’s guards
for 1792 f”
L.ouis. “ I do not.”
Valaze. “ Several pieces relative to the confpiracy
of the camp of Jales, the original of which are depo¬
fited among the records of the department of L’Ar-
deche.”
Louis. “ I have not the fmalleft knowledge of
them.”
Valaze. “ Letter of Bouille, dated Mentz, bear¬
ing an account of 993,000 livres received of Louis Ca¬
pet.”
Louis. “ I difown it.”
Valaze. “ An order for payment of 168,000 livres,
figned Louis, indorfed Le Bonneirs, with a letter and
billet of the fame.”
I.ouis. “ I difowm it.”
Valaze. “ Twro pieces relative to a prefent made
to the wife of Polignac, and to Lavauguyon and Choi-
feul.”
L^ouis. “ I difown them as well as the others.”
Valaze. “ Here is a note figned by the two bro- -
thers of the late king, mentioned in the declaratory
atl.”
Louis. “ I know nothing of it.”
Valaze'. “ Here are pieces relating to the affair of
Choifeul-Gouffier at Conftantinople.”
Louis. “ I have no knowledge of them.”
Valaze.
. .34*
He is allow¬
ed to nomi¬
nate his
own coun-
fel;
343
Bnt is con¬
demned t«
death by a
imall maio-
rity.
F R A" [i
_ Vala%e. “ Here4s a letter of the late king to the
hilltop of Clermont, with the an fiver of the latter, of
the 16th of April
Louis. “ I difown it.”
Prejident. “ Do you not acknowlege your writ¬
ing and your fignet ?”
Louis. “ I do not.”
Prefident. “ The feal bears the arms of France.”
Louis. “ Several perfons made ufe of that feal.”
Village. “ Do you acknowledge this lift of fums
paid to Gilles ?”
Louis. u I do not.”
Vaiaxc. “ Here is a memorandum for indemnifying
the civil lift for the military pennons p a letter of Du-
frefne St Leon, which relates to it.”
Louis. “ I know none of thofe pieces.”
When the whole had been inveftigated in this man¬
ner, the prefident, addrefling the king, faid, “ I have
no other queftions to propofe—-have you any thing
more to add in your defence ?”—“ I defire to have a
copy of the accufation (replied the king), and of the
papers on which it is founded. I alfo defire to have a
counfel of my own nomination.” Earrere informed
him, that his two firft requefts were already decreed,
and that tire determination refpeiling the other would
be made known to him in due time.
It would have been an excels of cruelty to refufe a
requeft fo reafonable in itfelf j it was therefore decreed
that counfel fhould be allowed to the king, and his
choice fell upon M. M. Tronchet, Lamoignon Male-
fherbes, and Defeze ; he had previoufly applied to M.
Target, who excufed himfelf on account of his age and
infirmity. On the 26th of December, the king ap¬
peared for the laft time at the bar of the convention ;
and M. Defeze read a defence which the counfel had
prepared, and which was equally admired for the folidity
of the argument and the beauty of the compofition.
When the defence was finilhed, the king arofe, and
holding a paper in his hand, pronounced in a calm man¬
ner, and with a firm voice, what follows : “ Citizens,
you have heard my defence 5 I now fpeak to you, per¬
haps ior the laft time, and declare that my counfel have
aiTerted nothing to you but the truth ; my confcience
reproaches me with nothing. I never -was afraid of ha¬
ving my conduct inveftigated 5 but I obferved with
great uneafinefs, that I was accufed of giving orders for
lliedding the blood of the people on the 10th of Auguft.
I he proofs I have given through my whole life of a
contrary difpofition, I hoped would have faved me from
Inch an imputation, which I now folemnly declare is
entirely groundlefs.”
The difeuflion was fatally clofed on the 16th of Ja¬
nuary. After a fitting of near 34 hours, the punifti-
ment of death ivas awarded by a fmall majority of the
convention, and feveral of thefe differed in opinion from
the reft, refpecting the time when it (hould be inflifled ;
ibme contending that it fhould not be put in execution
till after the end of the war, while others propofed to
take the fenfe of the people, by referring the fentence
to the primary affemblies.
M. Defeze then folemnly invoked the affembly in
the name of his colleagues, to confider by what a fmall
majority the punifliment of death was pronounced
againft the dethroned monarch. “ Do not afflifl:
France (added this eloquent advocate) by a judgment
that will appear terrible to her, when five voices only
344
43 1 .. F R.A
were prefumed fufficient to carry it.” He appealed to France,
eternal juftice, and facred humanity, to induce the con¬
vention to refer their fentence to the tribunal of the
people. “ You have either forgotten or deftroyed (faid
the celebrated M. Tronchet) the lenity which the law
allows to criminals, of requiring at leaft two-thirds of
the voices to conftitute a definitive judgment.”
The fentence was ordered to be executed in twenty-
four hours.
The king and his family had been for fome time kept And exe—
feparate from each other 5 but he was now allowed to fee cute“
them, and to choofe an ecclcfiallic to attend him. The
meeting, and, above all, the feparation from his family,
was tender in the extreme. On Monday the 21ft J a-
nuary, at eight o’clock in the morning, the unfortunate
monarch was fummoned to his fate. He afeended the
fcaffold with a firm air and ftep. Railing his voice,-
he faid, “ Frenchmen, I die innocent 5 I pardon all my
enemies; and may France”-—at this inftant the inhuman
Santerre ordered the drums to beat, and the execu¬
tioners to perform their office. When they offered to
bind his hands, he ftarted back as if about to refill: j
but recollefted himfelf in a moment, and fubmitted.
When the inftrument of death defeended, the prieft ex¬
claimed, “ Son of St Louis, afeend to heaven.” The
bleeding head was held up, and a few of the populace
ffiouted Vive la Rcpublique. His body was interred in
a grave that was filled up with quicklime, and a guard
placed around till it ffiould be confumed. -4 -
Thus fell Louis XVI. He poffeffed from nature Character
a good underftanding, which, however, was blunt-“n'
ed by the early indulgences of a court. He had a 1°ona-'r.i1
ftrong fenfe of juftice, and his humanity wTas perhaps
extreme. One defedl rendered his virtues of little va¬
lue, which was the poffeffion of an irrefolute and un-
fteady chara£ler. Unambitious, and eafily advifed, he
wras without difficulty induced to change his purpofes,
efpecially by his queen, whofe connexion with the
houfe of Auftria had always tended to render his coun-
fels unpopular. Whether he wa^or was not conne£!ed
with the foreign invaders of his country, pofterity muft
decide ; but all men of fenfe and moderation muft be
convinced that he w’as murdered by a band of ruffians.
Indeed a fentence fo infamous, and in all refpects un¬
juft, is not to be found in the records of hiftory. The
greater part of the charges brought againft him were
trifling. Thofe which feem to be of importance relate
to conduft authorized by the conftitution under which
he a£fed ; and that conftitution declared his perfon in¬
violable. The fevereft punifliment that he could incur-
by law, was not death, but depofition \ and there is no
doubt, that in putting him to death the French nation
broke the focial compadt which their reprefentatives
made with him. In a political view, this tragical event
was injurious to the republican caufe throughout Eu¬
rope. No man out of France ventured to juftify it;
and in all countries it excited the moft violent indigna¬
tion againft the rulers of the new republic^
New enemies were now haliening to join the general
league againft France. We do not mean here to enter with Great’
into a detail of the political ftruggles that occurred in Britain,
any other country, than that in the narrative of whofe
revolution we are now engaged. It will therefore only
be nefeeffary to remark in general, that the Britifti go¬
vernment at this time thought itfelf endangered by the
propagation of thofe fpeculative opinions which had
overturned
FRA [ i
JSranee, overturned the French monarchy. Almoft all the men
^ 0f property in the kingdom concurred with the miniftry
I793* in thinking a war with France neceffary for the pur-
pofe of fecuring the conftitution at home. After the
loth of Auguil the Britiih minifter had been recalled 5
but the new republic ftill fuifered the former ambaffa-
dor from France, M. Chauvelin, to remain in England.
Grounls of grounds of quarrel on the part of
the quarrel Great Britain were chiedy two ; the decree of the 15th
on the part of November i792j by which it was truly obferved that
of Great encouragement to rebellion was held out to the fubjedds
Britain, cf every date, and that war was thereby waged againft
every eftablilhed government. Of this decree the French
executive counci] gave explanations, denying the fair-
nefs of the interpretation put upon it, and alleging,
that the intention of the convention was only to give
aid to fuch countries as had already acquired their free¬
dom, and by a declaration of the general will requefted
aid for its prefervation. But this explanation cannot be
admitted. The decree exprefsly fays, that the French
nation willgrant ajjtjlance to all voho wijh to procure liber¬
ty ; and when it is confrdered what their notions of li¬
berty are, it cannot be doubted but that their intention
was to excite rebellion in foreign nations. The fecond
.point of difpute referred to the opening of the Scheldt.
This river runs from Brabant through the Dutch territory
to the fea. The Dutch had flmt up the mouth of it, and
prevented any maritime commerce from being carried on
by the people of Brabant by means of the river. To ren¬
der themfelves popular in Brabant, the French had de¬
clared, that they would open the navigation of the
Scheldt. But Great Britain had fome time before bound
herfelf by treaty with the Dutch to affift them in ob-
ilrufting this navigation, and now declared to the
French, that the projeft of opening the Scheldt mufl be
renounced if peace with Great Britain was to remain.
I he French alleged, that by the law of nations navigable
rivers ought to be open to all who relide on their banks j
but that the point wras of no importance either to
France or England, and even of very little importance
to Holland 5 that if the people of Brabant themfelves
chofe to give it up, they would make no objefiion.
It has been thought remarkable, that the Dutch gave
themfelves no trouble about the matter. They did not
afk the affiftance of England j and with that coolnefs
which is peculiar to their chara61er, the merchants in¬
dividually declared, that if the Scheldt was opened, they
could manage their commerce as well at Antwerp as
at Amfterdam. But in all this there is nothing
ftrange. Among the Dutch were many republicans,
who wilhed for the downfal of the ftadtholder. Thefe
rejoiced at every thing which diftreffed him, or had a
tendency to render his office ufelefs in the eyes of the
people. Others, who thought differently, were afraid
to fpeak their fentiments, as Dumourier was in their
neighbourhood with a viftorious army. The refult of
the whole was, that M. Chauvelin was commanded by
the Britiffi government to leave this country. The
348 French executive council gave powers to another mini-
I^d againft" ^er’ •^aret» to negociate, and requefted a paffport
the king of ^or i ^ut was not fuffered to land. The haughty
England republicans having thus far humbled themfelves before
and ftadt- the Britiffi government, at laft, on the ift of Febru-
ary on t^le mot’on of Briffot, the national con-
' vention decreed, among other articles, that “ George
king of England had never ceafed fmce the revolution
44 ] FRA
of the 10th of Auguit 1792 from giving to the France,
French nation proofs of his attachment to the concert' ^ ^
of crowned heads; that he had drawn into the fame ,793*
lake the ftadtholder of the United provinces; that,
contrary to the treaty of 1783, the Englifh miniftry
had granted protection to the emigrants and others who
have openly appeared in arms againft France; that they
have committed an outrage againft the French repub¬
lic, by ordering the ambaffador of France to quit Great
Britain ; that the Engliffi have flopped divers boats
and veffels laden with corn for France, whilft, at the
fame time, contrary to the treaty of 1786, they con¬
tinue the exportation of it to other foreign countries ;
that to thwart more efficaciouily the commercial tranf-
aClions of the republic with England, they have by an
aCl of parliament prohibited the circulation of aftignats.
The convention therefore declare, that in confequence
of thefe aCls of hoftility and aggreflion, the French re¬
public is at wnr with the king of England and the
ftadtholder of the United Provinces.
The abfurdity of pretending that any treaty with
France made in 1783 could be violated by proteding
the emigrants who fled from the fury of the convention,
muft be obvious to every reader. The convention was
itfelf a rebellious ufurpation of the government with
which fuch a treaty was made. The prohibition of
affignats was certainly contrary to no law, and was fanc-
tioned by every motive of expediency, unlefs the con¬
vention could prove that all nations were bound by
the law of nature to rifk their own credit upon the
credit of the French republic. ^
About a fortnight after this abfurd declaration againft And againft
Britain, war was likewife declared againft Spain; and Spain,
in the courfe of the fummer France wTas at war with
all Europe, excepting only Swifferland, Sweden, Den¬
mark, and Turkey.
In the mean time General Dumourier, who was pro- pr0gTeft of
ceeding agreeably to his orders, made an attack upon Dumourkr.
Holland ; but in doing this he difperfed his troops in
fuch a manner as to expofe them much to any attack
on the fide of Germany. He commanded General Mi¬
randa to inveft Maeftricht, while he advanced to block
up Breda, and Bergen-op-zoom. The firft of thefe places,
viz. Breda, furrendered on the 24th of February ; Klun-
dert was taken on the 26th; and Gertruydenberg on the
4th of March. But here the triumphs of Dumourier
ended. The fieges of Williamftadt and Bergen-op-
zoom were vigoroufly but unfuccefsfully preffed. On He is de-
the 1 ft of March General Clairfait having paffed thefe^ed*
Roer, attacked the French polls, and compelled them
to retreat with the lofs of 2000 men.
The following day the archduke attacked them anew
with confiderable fuccefs. On the qd the French were
driven from Aix-la-Chapelle, with the lofs of 4000 men
killed and 1600 taken prifoners.
The fiege of Maeftricht was now raifed, and the
French retreated to Tongres, where they were alfo at¬
tacked, and forced to retreat to St Tron. Dumourier
here joined them, but did not bring his army along
with him from the attack upon Holland. After fome
fkirmilhes, a general engagement took place at Neer-
winden. It.was fought on the part of the French
with great obftinacy ; but they were at length over¬
powered by the number of their enemies, and perhaps
alfo by the treachery of their commander. This de¬
feat was fatal. The French loft 3000 men, and 6000
immediately
FRA [ r
France, immediately deferted and went home to France. Dumou-
rier continued to retreat, and on the 22d he was again
1 793’ attacked near Louvain. He now, through the medium
And joins Colonel Mack, came to an agreement with the Im-
the allies; perialiils that his retreat fliould not be {erioully inter¬
rupted. It was now fully agreed between him and the
Imperialifts,that while the latter took polTefllon of Conde
and Valenciennes, he fhould march to Paris, diffolve
the convention, and place the Ion of the late king up¬
on the throne.
The rapid retreat and fucceflive defeats of General
Dumourier rendered his condudl fufpicious. Commif-
fioners were fent from the executive power for the pur-
pofe of difcovering his defigns. They diffembled, and
pretended to communicate to him a fcheme of a coun¬
ter-revolution. He confeffed his intention of diffolving
the convention and the Jacobin club by force, which
he laid would not exift three weeks longer, and of re-
iloring monait-hy. On the report of thefe commii-
fioners the convention fent Bournonville the minifter of
war to fuperfede and arreil Dumourier, along with Ca¬
mus, Blancal, La Marque, and Quinette, as commif-
lioners. The attempt on the part of thefe men was
at lealt hazardous, to fay no more of it; and the refult
was, that on the firft of April Dumourier fent them
prifoners to General Clairfait’s head quarters at Tour-
but his ar- nay as hoftages for the fafety of the royal family. He
my rffufe next attempted to feduce his army from their fidelity
W't*1 t0 t^e converM°n i hut he fpeedily found that he had
much millaken the charafter of his troops. Upon the
report that their general was to be carried as a criminal
to Paris, they were feized with hidden indignation j but
when they found that an attempt was making to pre¬
vail with them to turn their arms againft their coun-
Frodama- try’ their fentiments altered. On the 5th of April two
tionsofthe proclamations were LTued j one by General Dumourier,
Imperial and the other by the prince of Saxe Cobourg, declaring
commander that their only purpofe was to reftore the conftitution
1 * of 1789, 1790, and 1791. Prince Cobourg announ¬
ced that the allied powers wilhed merely to co-operate
with General Dumourier in giving to France her con-
flitutional king and the conlfitution the had formed for
herfelf, declaring, on his word of honour, that he came
not to the French territory for the purpofe of making
conquefts. On the fame day Dumourier went to the
advanced guard of his own camp at Maulde. He there
learned that the corps of artillery had rifen upon their
general, and were marching to Valenciennes •, and he
foon found that the whole army had determined to
Hand by their country. Seven hundred cavalry and
800 infantry was the whole amount of thofe that de¬
ferted with Dumourier to the Auftrians, and many of
them afterwards returned.
Staie^of t^e dcfe&i°n Dumourier, however, the whole
France at army of the north was dhTolved, and in part difbanded,
this period, in prefence of a numerous, well-difciplined, and victo¬
rious enemy. The Pruffians wTere at the fame time ad¬
vancing on the Rhine with an immenfe force, and about
to commence the fiege of Mentz. In the interior of
the republic more ferious evils if pofiible tvere arifing.
In the departments of La Vendee and La Loire, or
the provinces of Brittany and Poitou, immenfe multi¬
tudes of emigrants and other royalifts had gradually af-
fembled in the courfe of the winter. They profeifed
to aft in the name of Monfieur, as regent of France.
You IX. Part I.
45 ] FRA
About the middle of March they advanced againfl: France.
Nantz to the amount of 40,000. In the beginning ' v—
of April they defeated the republicans in twro pitched I/,9o*
battles, and poffelled themfelves of 50 leagues of coun¬
try. They even threatened by their own efforts to 35^
lhake the new republic to its foundation. On the 8th
of April a congrefs of the combined powers affembled "
at Antwerp. It was attended by the prince of Orange pJWers.
and his two fons, with his excellency Vander Spiegel,
on the part of Holland j by the duke of York and
Lord Auckland on the part of Great Britain 5 by the
prince of Saxe Cobourg, Counts Metterinch, Staren-
berg, and Mercy Dargenteau, with the Pruflian, Spa-
niih, and Neapolitan envoys. It was here determined
to commence aftive operations againft France. The
prince of Cobourg’s proclamation was recalled, and a
fcheme of conqUeft announced. 357
Commiflioners from the convention now fet up theUie repub-
ftandard of the republic anew*, and the fcattered bat-
talions flocked around it. General Dampierre was ap-'fe&mblcd.
pointed commander, and on the 13th he was able to
refill a general attack upon his advanced polls. On
the 14th, his advanced guard yielded to fuperior num¬
bers, but on the 15th was victorious in a long and
wTell-fought battle. On the 23d the Auftrians were
again repulfed, and on the ill of May General Dam¬
pierre was himfelf repulfed in an attack upon the
enemy. On the 8th another engagement took place, in
which the French general was killed by a cannon ball.
On the 23d a very determined attack was made by the
allies upon the French fortified camp of Famars, which
covered the town of Valenciennes. The French were
overcome, and in the night abandoned their camp. In
confequence of this the allies were enabled to commence
the fiege of Valenciennes; for Conde had been block¬
aded from the ill of April.
About the fame time General Cuftine on the Rhine
made a violent but unfuccefsful attack upon the Pruf¬
fians, in confequence of which they were foon enabled
to lay fiege to Mentz. The Corfican general Paoli Revolt of
revolted at this period ; and the new republic, aflaulted Pa°li-
from without by the whole ftrength of Europe, was un¬
dermined by treachery and faftion within.
While the country was in a ftate verging upon utter State of
ruin, parties in the convention were gradually waxing Parties in
more fierce in their animofity 5 and regardlefs of what j^ance^n^
was palling at a diftance, they feemed only anxious for tionary nil
the extermination of each other. In the month of >.un;u etta-
March, the celebrated Revolutionary Tribunal was efta-bMw'L
blilhed for the purpofe of trying crimes committed a-
gainft the ftate 5 and the Girondift party, the mildnefs of
whofe adminiftration had contributed not a little to in-
creafe the evils of their country, began to fee the ne-
ceflity of adopting meafures of feverity. But the pub¬
lic calamities, which now rapidly followed each other in
fucceflion, were aferibed by their countrymen to their
imbecility or perfidy. This gave to the party of the
Mountain a fatal advantage. On the 15th of April
the communes of the 48 feftions of Paris prefented a
petition, requiring that the chiefs of the Girondifts
therein named fliould be impeached and expelled from
the convention. This was followed up on the 1 ft of
May by another petition from the fuburb of St Antoine,
The Girondift party in the mean time impeached Ma¬
rat, but he v7as acquitted by the jury at his trial. The
T Mountain,
FRA
[ 1
FRA
360
The Moun¬
tain party
get the up¬
per hand.
361' _
Several ci¬
ties and de
partments
revolt in
confe-
quence.
Mountain, by the affiftance of the Jacobin club, had
now acquired a complete afcendancy over the city of
Paris. The Girondiits or Briffotines propofed there¬
fore to remove the convention from the capital •, and to
prevent this, the Mountain refolved to make the fame
ufe of the people of the capital againd the Girondiit
party that they had formerly done againft the monarch
on the 10th of Auguft. It is unneceffary to date in
detail all the tumults that occurred either in Paris or in
the convention during the remaining part of the month
of May. On the 3 id, at four o’clock in the morning,
the tccfln was founded, the generale was beat, and the
alarm guns fired. All was commotion and terror. The
citizens flew to arms, and affembled round the conven¬
tion. Some deputations demanded a decree of accufa-
tion againd 35 of its members. The day, however, was
fpent without decifion. On the afternoon of the id
of June an armed force made the fame demand. On
the 2d of June this wTas repeated, the tocfin again
founded, and an hundred pieces of cannon furrounded
the national hall. At lad Barrere mounted the tri¬
bune. He wras confidered as a moderate man, and re-
fpefted by both parties ; but he now artfully defected
the Girondids. He invited the denounced members
voluntarily to refign their character of reprefentatives.
Some of them complied, and the prefident attempted
to difiblve the fitting 5 but the members were now
imprifoned in their own hall. Henriot, commander of
the armed force, compelled them to remain ; and the
obnoxious deputies, amounting to upwards of 90 in
number, were put under arrefl, and a decree of denun¬
ciation againft them ftgned.
It is obvious, that on this occafion the liberties of
France were trodden under foot. T’r<c minority of the
national reprefentatives, by the afliftance of an armed
force raifed in the capital, compelled the majority to
fubmit to their meafures, and took the leading members
prifoners. Thus the city of Paris aflumed to itfelf the
whole powers of the French republic ; and the nation
was no longer governed by reprefentatives freely chofen,
but by a minority of their members, whofe fentiments
the city of Paris and the Jacobin club had thought fit to
approve of. Human hiftory is a mafs of contradictions.
The Mountain party came into power by preaching li¬
berty, and by violating its fundamental principles. How
far the plea of political neceflity may excufe their con-
dudt, we fhall not venture to decide explicitly. Certain
it is, however, that they foon commenced, both at home
and abroad, a career of the molt terrible energy that
is to be found in the annals of nations.
The firft refult of their victory in the capital was ca¬
lamitous to the republic at large. Briflbt and fome
other deputies efcaped, and endeavoured to kindle the
flames of civil war. In general, however, the influence
of the Jacobin club, and of its various branches, wras
fuch, that the north of France adhered to the conven¬
tion as it flood \ but the fouthern departments were
fpeedily in a ftate of rebellion. The department of
Lyons declared the Mountain party outlawed. Mar-
feiiles and Toulon followed the example cf Lyons, and
entered into a confederacy, wdiich has fince been known
by the appellation of Faderalifm. The departments of
La Gironde and Calvades broke out into open revolt.
In (hort, the whole of France was in a ftate of violent
convulfion. Still, however, the enthufiaftic garrifons
1793-
2,6i
of Mentz and Valenciennes proteCied it againft the im- France;
mediate entrance of a foreign force, and allowed leifure
for one of its internal faCtions to gain an afcendancy,
and'thereafter to proteCb its independence. In the
mean time, the political enthufiafm of all orders of per-
fons was fuch, that even the female fex did not efcape
its contagion. A young woman of the name of Char-Marat mur-
lotte Corde, in the beginning of July, came from the llerecl W a
department of Calvades to devote her life for what Iheotnan*
thought the caufe of freedom and of her country. She
requefted an interview with Marat, the moft obnoxious
of the Mountain party. Having obtained it, and con-
verfed with him calmly for fome time, Ihe fuddenly
plunged a dagger in his breaft, and walked carelelsly
out of the houi'e. She w-as immediately feized and
condemned. At the place of execution Ihe behaved
with infinite conftancy, ihouting Vive la republique. The
remains of Marat were interred wnth great fplendor,
and the convention attended his funeitd. His party
perhaps derived.advantage from the manner of his
death, as it feemed to fallen the odious charge of affaf-
fination upon their antagonifts, and gave them the ap¬
pearance of fuffering in the caufe of liberty. The
truth is, that affaflination was landlioned by both par¬
ties under pretence of defending the liberties of the re¬
public. ,63
One of the firft a£fs of the Mountain junto afterTherepub-
their triumph was to finilh the republican cGnftitutionTca.n conft1"
Previous to their fall, the Girondifts bad brought for-
wTard the plan of a conftitution, chiefly the work ofthe Moun-
Condorcet 5 but it was never fanffioned by the conven-tain.
tion, and was too intricate to be praftically ufeful.
The new conilitution now framed, which was after¬
wards fanftioned by the nation, but was never put
in pratftice, aboliflied the former mode of elefting
the reprefentatives of the people through the medium
of eletioral aflemblies, and appointed them to be chofen
immediately by the primary aflemblies, which were
to confift of from 200 to 600 citizens, each man vo¬
ting by ballot or open vote at his option. There was one-
deputy for every 40,000 individuals, and population was
the foie bafis of reprefentation. The eJedtions wTere to
take place every year on the 1 ft of May. Eledloral aflem¬
blies were, however, retained for one purpofe. Every
200 citizens in the primary aflcmblies named one eledlor j
and an aflembly of all the eledlors of the department was
afterwards held, which eledled candidates for the executive
council, or miniftry of the republic. The legiflative body
chofe out of all this lift of candidates the members cf
the executive council. One half of this council was re¬
newed by each legiflature in the laft month of the fef-
fion. Every lawr, after being pafied by the legiflative
body, was fent to the department. If in more than half
of the departments the tenth of the primary aflemblies
of each did not objedl to it, it became effedtual. Trial
by jury wTas eftabliihed. National conventions might be
called for altering the conftitution, and were to be call¬
ed, if required by the tenth of the primary aflemblies
of each department in a majority of the departments.
The publication of this conftitution procured no
fxnall degree of applaufe to the convention and the
Mountain party. The rapidity with which it was
formed (being only a fortnight) feemed to caft a juft
reproach upon the ftowmefs of their antagonifts, and it
wTas regarded as a proof of their being decidedly fe-
rious-
France.
*793-
364
Fall of
Conde and
lies.
FRA [i
rious in the caufe of republicanifm. No regard, how¬
ever, was paid to it by the convention, which declared
itfelf permanent, nor indeed did it feem polhble to carry
it into execution.
    We have mentioned that Conde was invelted from
Valencien- the beginning of April. It did not yield till the Ioth
of July, when the garrifon was fo much reduced by fa¬
mine and difeafe, that out of 4000 men, of wduch it
originally confided, only ijoow'ere fit for fervice. The
eyes of all Europe were in the mean time fixed upon
the liege of Valenciennes. Colonel Moncrieff had con¬
tended, that batteries ought immediately to be placed
under the walls without approaching it by regular pa¬
rallels j but the Imperial engineer Mr Ferraris aiferted,
that the work of the great Vauban muft be treated with
more refpeft •, and his opinion was adopted by the'
council of war. The trenches wrere opened on the
14th of June. Few fallies were attempted by the gar-
rifon, on account of the fmallnefs of their number.
The inhabitants at firft wilhed to furrender; but the
violence of the bombardment prevented their affem-
bling or giving much trouble on that head to General
Ferrand the governor. Much of the labour of the
fiege confifted of mines and countermines. Some of
thefe having been fuccefsfully fprung by the allies, the
town was lurrendered on the 27th of July by capitula¬
tion to the duke of York, who took poiTefiion of it in
behalf of the emperor of Germany. The fiege of
Mentz was at the fame time going on. It fuffered
much from famine. At laft, after an unfuccefsful at¬
tempt by the French army on the Rhine for its relief,
it furrendered on the 22d of July.
At the termination of the fiege of Valenciennes it would
aPPear ^at the allied powers wTere at a lofs how to pro-
theirfu-10 Ceet^ next* h'he Auftrian commanders are laid to have
prefented two plans: The firit was to penetrate to Pa¬
ris by the affiftance of the rivers -which fall into the
Seine; the other was to take advantage of the confier-
nation occafioned by the furrender of Valenciennes, and
with 50,000 light troops to penetrate fuddenly to Paris,
while a debarkation fiiould be made on the coaft of
Brittany to affift the royalifis. The propofal of the
Britiih miniftry was, however, adopted, which w^as, to
divide the grand army, and to attack Well Flanders,
beginning with the fiege of Dunkirk. This determi¬
nate confe- nation proved ruinous to the allies. The French found
the divTionmeans t0 vanclu^1 detail that army, which they
nf tiiJir 10n coubi not encounter when united.
It has been faid that the duke of York was in fecret
correfpondence with Omeron the governor of Dunkirk ;
but the latter wTas removed before any advantage could
be taken of his treachery. On the 24th of Auguft the
duke of York attacked and drove the French butpolls
into the town, after an aftion in which the Aulfrian
General Dalton was killed. A naval armament was
fexpefled from Great Britain to co-operate in the fiege,
but it did not arrix^e. In the mean time, a ftrong re¬
publican force menaced the covering army of the allies,
which was commanded by General Freytag. He w^as
foon attacked and totally routed. The fiege w7as raf¬
fed. dhe Britiih loll their heavy cannon and baggage,
with fex'eral thoufand men ; and the convention, belie¬
ving that their general Houchard could have cut off
the duke of York’s retreat, tried and executed him for
this negleft of duty.
F R A
I793-
3^5
The allied
powers di-
tirre pro¬
ceeding.
366
Unfortu-
of their
Jorces.
47 1
Prince Cobourg and General Clairfait in the mean France,
time unfuccefsfully attempted to befiege Cambray and
Bouchain, Quefnoy was, however, taken by General
Clairfait on the 1 xth of September j and here finally
terminated for the prefent campaign the fuccefs of the
allies in the Netherlands.
A confiderable part of the French army of the
north took a ftrong pofition near Maubeuge, wdaere
they xvere blockaded by Prince Cobourg j but upon
the 15th and 16th of Oflober he was repeatedly at¬
tacked by the French troops under General Jourdan,
who fucceeded Houchard. The French had now re¬
covered their vigour. They brought into the field a
formidable train of artillery, in which were many 24
pounders. Commiffioners from the convention ha¬
rangued the foldiers, threatened the fearful, and ap¬
plauded the brave. Crowds of women, without confu-
fion, went through the ranks, diffributing fpirituous li¬
quors in abundance, and carrying off the wounded.
The attacks were repeated and terrible on both fides j
but the Auftrians had confiderably the difadvantage,
and Prince Cobourg retired during the night. The
French now menaced maritime Flanders. They took
Fumes and befieged Nieuport. A detachment of
Britiih troops ready to fail to the Welt Indies were
haltily fent to Oftend, and prevented for the prefent
the farther progrefs of the French.
Such was the multiplicity of the events that now oc¬
curred in France, that it is difficult to ffate the out¬
lines of them with any tolerable perfpicuity. We have
already mentioned the extenfive diffenfions that occur¬
red throughout the republic in confequence of the tri¬
umph of the Mountain party on the 31 ft of May. The
department of Calvades was firft in arms againft the
convention under the command of General Felix Wimp-
fen ; but before the end of July the infurreftion was
quieted, after a few flight fkirmilhes. But the foedera-Lyons be.
lifm of the cities of Pffarfeilles, Lyons, and Toulon, ftillfieged by-
remained. Lyons was attacked on the 8th of Auguft conven-
by the conventional troops. Several adlions followed,and
which were attended with great lofs both on the part taken.’^
of the affailants and of the befieged. The city was re¬
duced almoft to ruins; but it held out during the
whole month of September. The befieging general
Kellerman was removed from his command, on account
of his fuppofed ina&ivity •, and the city furrendered on
the 8th of Oftober to General Doppet, a man wffio had ~GS
lately been a phyfician. Such was the rage of party Unrelent-
zeal at this time, that the wralls and public buildings of‘nS charac.
Lyons wTere ordered to be deftroyed, and its nameterofthe
changed to that of Ville Sljfranchie. Many hundreds C°nC1Uer0rS'
of its citizens were dragged to the fcaffold on account
of their alleged treafonable refiftance to the convention.
The vi&orious party, wearied by the floxv operation of
guillotiney at laft deftroyed their priioners in multi¬
tudes, by firing grape-lhot upon them. Such indeed
was the unrelenting charadter of the Mountain at this
time, not only here but through the whole republic,
that they themfelves pretended not to excufe it, but
declared that terror was xvith them the order of the
day' 369
In the end of July General Cartaux was fent againft The Mar-
Marfeilles. In the beginning of Auguft he gainedfeil!o!s obli-
fome fucceffes over the advanced foederalift tfoops. On ge.d t0 fub-
the 24th he took the town of Aix, and the Marfeillois^*
T 2 fubmitted.
3*1
F R A
[ 148 ]
F 11 A
!-793-
37°
lubimt
to Lord
Hood,
France. fubmittecL But the leading people of the important
' town and harbour of Xoulon entered into a negocia-
tion, and fubmitted to the Britiih admiral Lord Hood,
1 • under condition that he ihculd preferve as a depolit the
ditionaUy11 town and Ihipping for Louis XV II. and under the lli-
pulation tViat he (liould affill in relloring the conftitu-
tion of 1789. The fiege of Toulon was commenced
by General Cartaux in the beginning of September.
It continued without much vigour during that and the
whole of the fucceeding month. Neapolitan, Spanifh,
and Englifh troops, were brought by lea to aflift in its
defence. In the beginning of November, General Car-
t.aux was removed to the command of the army in Italy,
and General Dugommier fucceeded him. General O’
Hara arrived with reinforcements from Gibraltar, and
took upon him the command of the town, under a
commiliion from his Britannic majefty. On the 30th
of November, the garnfon made a powerful ialiy
to deftroy fome ‘ batteries that were eredling upon
heights which commanded the city. The French were
furprifed, and the allies fucceeded completely in their
obieft ; but, elated by the facility of their conqueft, the
allied troops milled forward in purfuit of the Hying
enemy, contrary to their orders, and were unexpected¬
ly met by a ftrong French force that wras drawn out to
proteCt the fugitives. General O'Hara now came from
the city to endeavour to bring off his troops wdth regulari¬
ty. He was wTounded in the arm and taken priloner. I lie
total lofs of the allies in this affair was eftimated at nearly
one thoufand men. The French had now muftered in
full force around Toulon, and prepared for the attack.
It was begun on the 19th of December in the morn¬
ing, and was chiefly direCted againft Fort Mulgrave,
defended by the Britifli. This fort was protefted by
an entrenched camp, 13 pieces of cannon, 36 and 24
-wnojsai pounders, &c. 5 mortars, and 3000 troops.. Such was
length obli- the ar3our of affault, that it was carried in an hour,
and the whole garrifon was deftroyed or taken. 1 he
allies now found it impoflible to defend the place ; and
in the courfe of the day embarked their troops, after
having fet on fire the arfenal and fhips. A fcene of
confufion here enfued, fuch as has not been known in
the hillory of modern wrars. Crow'ds of people of eve¬
ry rank, age, and fex, hurried on board the ihips, to
avoid the vengeance of their enraged countrymen.
Some of the inhabitants began to fire upon their late
allies; others in defpair were feen plunging into the
fea, making a vain effort to reach the Ihips; or putting
an end at once to their owm exiflence upon the fhore.
Thirty-one fliips of the line were found by the Britiih
at Toulon ; thirteen were left behind ; ten wxue burnt;
four had been previoufly fent to the French ports of
Breil and Rochefort, with 5000 republicans who could
not be trailed ; and Great Britain finally obtained by
this expedition only three fhips of the line and five
frigates.
On the fide of Spain the war prpduced nothing of
importance; and in the mountainous country of Pied¬
mont it went on flowly. Nice and Chamberry were
ftill retained by the French ; but more terrible fcenes
were aCting in other quarters. In La Vendee a moil
ings of the bloody war was perfifted in by the royalifts. In that
lovalifts in uarter 0f the country the language of the reft.of France
La Vendee.? uri<jerft0od. The people were fuperftitious, and
had acquired little idea of the new opinions that had
1793-
371
who is at
•.red to eva¬
cuate it.
37 a
Proceed-
lately been propagated in the reft of the empiie. They France,
were chiefly headed by priefts, and regarded their cauie
as a religious one. Their mode of warfare ulually was,
to go on in their ordinary occupations as peaceable citi¬
zens, and fuddenly to affemble in immenfe bands, info-
much that at one time they were iaid to amount to
130,000 men. They befieged Nantz and the city ox
Orleans, and even Paris itfelf was not thought altoge¬
ther fafe from their enterpfifes. The war was incon¬
ceivably bloody. Neither party gave quarter ; and La
Vendee proved a dreadful dram to the population of
France. On the 28th of June, the conventional gene¬
ral Biron drove the royalifts from Lucon ; and Nantz
was relieved by General Beyffer. After fome fuccefs,
General Wefterman was furprifed by them, and. com*
pelled to retreat to Parthenay. In the beginning, of
Auguft the royalifts were defeated by General Roflig-
nolt but on the 1 Oth of that month, under Charette
their commander in chief, they again attacked N.antz,
but fuffered a repulfe. It would be tedious to give a
minute detail of this obfeure but cruel war. The roy¬
alifts were often defeated, and feemingly dxiperfed,
but as often arofe in crowds around the aftonifhed ic-
publicans. At laft, however, about the middle of Oc¬
tober, they were completely defeated, driven from La
Vendee, and forced to divide into feparate bodies. One
of thefe threw itfelf into the ifland of Noirmoutier,
where they were fubdued; another took the road of
Maine and Brittany, where they ftruggled for fome
time againft their enemies, and were at laft cut to
pieces or difperfed.
The royalifts had long expefted afliftance from Eng¬
land ; and an armament under the earl of Moira was ac¬
tually fitted out for that fervice, but it did not arrive till
too late, and returned home without attempting a land-
ing.—The Mountain party always difgraced their fuc-Horrid
ceffes by dreadful cruelties-. Humanity is fhocked, and
hiftory would almoft ceafe to obtain, credit, were we totajnpartyt
Hate in detail the unrelenting cruelties which were exer-
cifed againft the unfortunate royalifts, chiefly by Car¬
rier, a deputy from the convention, fent into this quar¬
ter with unlimited powers. Multitudes of prifon.ers
were crowded on board veflels in the Lone, after which
the veffels were funk. No age or fex was fpared ;
and thefe executions were performed with every circum-
ftance of wanton barbarity and infult. 374
On the fide of the Rhine a great variety of events Progrefs of
occurred during the months of Auguft and September.^
Several engagements at firft took place, in which the
French were, upon the whole, fuccefsful. In Septem¬
ber, however, Landau was invefted .by the combined
powers ; and it was refolved to make every poflible ef¬
fort to drive the French from the ftrong lines of Weif-
fembourg, on the river Lauter. On the 13th of Oc¬
tober, the Auftrian general Wurmfer made a grand
attack upon thefe lines. I he French fay that their
generals betrayed them, and fuffered the lines to be ta¬
ken almoft without refiftance. I he general of the al¬
lies confeffed that the lines might have held out for
feveral days. The French retreated to Hagenau, from
which they were driven on the 18th ; and fuffered two
other defeats on the 25th and 27th. Some of the prin¬
cipal citizens of Strafbourg now fent a private deputa¬
tion to General Wurmfer, offering to furrender the
town, to be preferved as a depofit to* be reffo.red to
373
FRA [ 149 I FRA
Franr-e. Louis XVII. General Wurmfer refuted to accept of
it upon thefe terms, infilling upon an abfolute furren-
I793’ der to his Imperial Majefly. In confequence of the
delay occalioned by difagreement, the negociation was
difcovered, and the citizens of Strafbourg engaged in
the plot were feized by St Julf and Lebas, commiflion-
ers from the convention, and brought to the fcaflfold.
Prodigious efforts were now madg by the French to
recover their ground in this quarter. General Irem-
bert was (hot at the head of the army on the 9th of
November, upon a charge, probably ill-founded, of
treachery in the affair of the lines of Wejffembourg.
On the 14th, however, Fort Louis was taken by the
allies, not without fufpicion of treachery in the gover¬
nor. But here the fuccefs of General Wurmfer might
be faid to terminate. On the 2ill: the republican ar¬
ray drove back the Audrians, and penetrated almoft to
Hagenau. An army from the Mofelle noiv advanced
to co-operate with the army of the Rhine. On the
T 7th the Pruffians were defeated near Sarbruck. Next
day their camp at BUefcaftel was llormed, and the
The French ffrench advanced to Deux Fonts. On the 29th and
at length 30th the French were repulfed with great lofs in two
fuccetsfu! in violent attacks made on the duke of Brunfwick near
ter ^Uar’ Lautern. But it now appeared that the French had
come into the field with a determination to conquer
whatever it might cod. Every day was a day of battle,
( and torrents of blood were Hied on both Tides. The
allies had the advantage of poffeffing the ground,,which,
in that quarter, at fuch a late feafon of the year, is very
ftrong on account of its inequalities and moraffes. In
military fkill, the French officers and thofe of the allies
were perhaps nearly equal; but the French army was
by far the mod numerous •, and although not a match
in point of difcipline, yet it derived no fmall fuperiority
from the enthuliafm with which the troops were ani¬
mated. On the 8th of December, under the command
of General Pichegru, the French carried the redoubts
which covered Hagenau by means of the bayonet.
This modern inllrument of deftru&ion, againd which
no defenfive weapon is employed, is always mod fuccefs-
fi.il in the hands of the mod intrepid •, and it was now a
dreadful engine in the hands of French enthufiafm.—
The fined troops that ever Europe produced were un¬
able to withdand the fury of the republicans, which
feemed only to increafe in proportion to the multitude
of companions that they lod. On the 22d the allies
were driven with immenfe daughter from Hagenau, jiot-
withdanding the immenfe wmrks they had thrown up
for their defence. The entrenchments on the heights
of Reiihoffen, Jauderfhoffen, &c. were confidered as
more impregnable than thofe of Jemappe. They were
donned by the army of the Mofelle and the Rhine,
under Generals Hoche and Pichegru. On the 23d and
24th, the allies were purfued to the heights of Wrottc.
On the 26th, the-entrenchments there were forced by
the bayonet, after a defperate conflict. On the 27th,
the republican army arrived at Weiffembourg in tri¬
umph. General Wurmfer retreated acrofs the Rhine,
and the duke of Brunfwick hadily fell back to cover
Mentz. The blockade of Landau, which had laded
four months, wras raifed. Fort Louis "was evacuated
by the allies, and Kaiferflatern, Germerfheim, and
Spires, fubmitted to the French.—During this lad;
month of the year 1793, the lofs of men on both fides
in this quarter "was immenfe, and unexampled in the France,
hidory of modern war. It is even faid that it might ^
amount to more than 70,000 or 80,000 men. 1 / 93*
Thus far we have attended to the military affairs of ef
the republic for fome time pad:. Very violent efforts forts 0f the
were in the mean time made at Paris by the new admi- Mountain
nidration, edablidied under the aufpices of the Jacobin party,
club, and of the party called the Mountain. The new
republican confiitution had been prefented to the people
in the primary affemblies, and accepted. The bufmefs,
therefore, for which the convention was called toge¬
ther, that of forming a conditution for France, was
at an end; and it was propofed that they fhould dif-
folve themfelves, and order a new legiflative body to af-
femble, according to the rules preicribed by that con-
ftitution. This was, no doubt, the regular mode of
procedure ; but the ruling party confidered it as hazar¬
dous to convene a new afiembly, poffeffing only limited
powers, in the prelent diitraided ftate of the country.
It was indeed obvious, that France at this time dood in
need of a diidatodhip, or of a government poffeffed of
. ore abfolute authority than can be enjoyed by one
that a£ls, or even pretends to adt, upon the moderate
principles of freedom. It was therefore determined
that the convention Ihould remain undiffoived till the
end of the war j and that a revolutionary government,
to be conduced by its members, diouid be edablilhed,
with uncontrouled powers. Committees of its own
body were felected for the purpofe of conducing every
department of bufinefs. The chief of thefe commit¬
tees was called the committee of public fafety. It fuper-
intended all the red, and gave to the adminidration of
France all the fecrecy and difpatch which have been ac¬
counted peculiar to a military government, together
with a combination of ikill and energy hitherto un¬
known among mankind. A correfpondence was kept
up with all the Jacobin clubs throughout tfie king-,
dom. Commiffiouers from the convention were fent
into all quarters, with unlimited authority over every
order of perfons. Thus a government poffeffed of infi¬
nite vigilance, and more abfolute and tyrannical than
that of any fingle defpot, was edabliihed} and the
whole tranfaftions and refources of the date were
known to the rulers. On the 23d of Augud, Barrere, pranee
in name of the committee of public fafety, procured creed to be'
the celebrated decree to be paffed for placing the whole10 a fl.aje
French nation in a fate of requiftion for the public re<lmiui0Ii‘
fervice. “ From this moment (fays the decree) till that
when all enemies diall have been driven from the terri¬
tory of the republic, all Frenchmen diall be in perma¬
nent readinefs for the fervice of the army. The young
men diall march to the combat; the married men diall
forge arms, and tranfport the provifions 5 the women
diall make tents and clothes, and attend in the hofpi-
tals 5 the children d.all make lint of old linen : the old
men diall caufe themfelves to be carried to the public
fquares, to excite the courage of the warriors, to preach
hatred againd the enemies of the republic 5 the cellars
fhall be wadied to. procure faltpetre 5 the fuddle-horfes-
diall be given up to complete the cavalry \ the unmar¬
ried citizens, from the age of 18 to 25, lhall march
fird, and none diall fend a fubditute ; every battalion
dia’l have a banner, with this infeription, The French
nation rifen againf tyrants” The decree alfo regulates
the mode of organizing this. mafs. A decree more ty¬
rannical
378.
General
Cuftine
■tried a-nd
executed.
379
Murder of
the queen.
380
Kxeeution
of the head:
of the Gi-
rondift
party,
3Si
and of the
duke of Or¬
leans.
3«z
Executions
drecome
.prodigioufly
•common.
3S3
A newtable
of weights
and mea-
fures efta.
blifljed.
FRA [1
ranmcal than this was never made by an eaftern defpot j
' and when it was firft publiihed, foreigners were at a
lofs whether to regard it as a fublime eifort of a power¬
ful government, or as a wild project which could pro¬
duce nothing but confulion. The elfedts of it, how¬
ever, have been truly terrible. We have already men¬
tioned fome of them in the bloody contelt which oc¬
curred upon the Rhine, and Europe was foon deftined
to bear witnefs to ftill more extraordinary events.
In the end of July, General Cuftine was brought to
trial, and executed, in confequence of a variety of ac-
cufations of infidelity to his truft and difrefpefl: to the
convention. The queen was next brought to trial be¬
fore the revolutionary tribunal, on the 15th of Octo¬
ber. The charges againft her were very various j but
the chief tendency of them was to prove that flie had
always been holtile to the revolution, and had excited
all the efforts that had been made by the court againft;
it. On the 16th of October, this beautiful woman,
whom fortune once placed fo high, ended her days on
a fcaffold, after a mock trial, in which no regard wras
paid either to juftice or decency. She behaved with
much dignity and compofure, and appeared deeply im-
preffed with a fenfe of religion. The members of the
convention who had been at the head of the Girondift
party, and had either been detained in prifon fince the
31ft of May, or feized in the departments to which
they had retired, were afterwards brought to trial.
On the 30th of Oftober, 21 of them were executed,
viz. Briffbt, Vergniaud, Genfonne, Duprat, Lehardi,
.Ducos, Fonfrede, Bcileau, Gardien, Duchatel, Sillery,
Fauchet, Dufriche, Duperret, La Source, Cana, Beau¬
vais, Mainville, Antiboul, Vigee, and Lacaze. Seven¬
ty-one were ftill detained in confinement. The duke
of Orleans was afterwards condemned, on a charge of
having afpired to the fovereignty from the beginning of
the revolution. His execution gave fatisfaclion to all
parties. His vote for the puniihment of death upon
the trial of the late king had done him little honour
even in the opinion of the Mountain, and had rendered
him odious to all the reft of mankind.
The execution of perfons of all ranks, particularly
of priefts and nobles, became now fo common, that it
w7ould be in vain to attempt to give any detail of them.
Every perfon brought before the revolutionary tribunal
was condemned as a matter of courfe. The Jacobins
feemed infatiable in their thirft after blood, and the
people at large appeared to regard their conducf with
unaccountable indifference.
When the human mind is once roufed, its aftivity
extends to every objeft. At this time a new table of
weights and meafures was eftablifhed by the conven¬
tion, in which the decimal arithmetic alone is employ¬
ed. The court of Spain had the liberality, notwith-
ftanding the war, to fuffer M. Mechain to proceed in
his operations for meafuring a degree of the meridian
in that country. He carried on his feries of triangles
from Barcelona to Perpignan •, and from this place the
menfuration was continued to Paris. M. de Lambre,
and his pupil M. le Francois, alfo meafured a degree of
latitude in the vicinity of the metropolis. In all, 1 2
degrees of the meridian were meafured j of which the
mean is 57027 toifes, and by this the univerfal ftandard
of meafure is calculated. M. M. de Borda and Caflini
•determined the length of a pendulum that fwings fe-
2
]
FRA
l 5X3
51324
5l3
3243
243
conds, in vacuo, and in a mean temperature at Paris, to France,
be 3 feet and 8,06 lines. M. M. Lavoifier and Hauy
found that a cubic foot of diftilled water at the freezing 1193'
point wreighs in vacuo 70 pounds and 60 gros French
weight. We fliall infert a table of.the meafures and
weights now eftabliftied.
Long Measure.
Metres. . French Toifes.
10,000,000 rr a quadrant of the meri¬
dian which is the prin¬
ciple on which the new
meafure is founded 513 2430
100,000 = an hundredth part of a
quadrant, or decimal de-
_ gree of the meridian
1000 or a milliare, or mile
100 = a ftadium”) Agrarian
10 rr a perch J meafure
Feet. Inch. Lines.
1 — a metre, or re£lilineal
unit 3
-Ay or 0.1 rr a decimetre, or palm o
or 0.01 rz a centremetre, or di¬
git _ o
ToVo" or 0-001 — a millemetre o
Superficial Measure.
Sq. Metres.
10,000 — an arc, or fuperficial unit, being
a fquare the fide of which is 100
metres in length
1000 ~ a declare, or tenth of an are; a
fuperficies an hundred metres
long, and ten broad
100 rr a centiare
Measures of Capacity.
Cub. decimetres. Paris Pints. Paris Bujh.
1000 =r the cubic jnetre, or cade
or tun 10514
IOC ~ dedicade, orfetier I054-
10 ~ centicade, or bufhel 1 o *-
1 — cubic decimetre, or pint 1
Weights.
Cub. decimetres
of water.
icoorcthe weight of a cubic metre, or
cade of wTater, is called a bar or
millier 2044.4
ICO rr of a bar, or decibar, or quintal 204.44
10 = of a bar, or centibar, os decal 20.434
lb. o'Z. gros. grains.
1 — the weight of a cubic
decimetre of w7ater
is called a grave, or
pound 2 8 5 49
. I. ~ rV of a grave, or de-
cig?'ave, or ounce o 3 2 I2.I
*01 = 1-4-0. a grave, or
centigrave, or dram 0 0 2 44-41
.001 ~ the weight of a cubic
centimetre of water,
is named a gravet,
or maille 000 18.841
.0001 zr or grain 000 1.8841
,00001 centigravet 8 o o 0.18841
A
11.44
8-344
4-434
•443
Sq. Feet.
PdSd1
9483.1
948.31
78.9
7.S9
.789
.0789
French Pounds.
FRA
France.
1793
384
A new ka
lendar
formed.
Decay of
religion.
A piece of filver coin weighing a centigrave, and a
franc of lilver, according to the former ftandard* will
be worth 40 fols loj- deniers. The milliare, or thou-
fand metres, is fubftituted for the mile; and the are
for the arpent in land-meafure. The latter two are
to. each other as 49 to 25. The aftronomical circles
with which M. M. de Borda and Caflmi made the ob-
fervations, are divided according to this plan. The
quadrant contains 100 degrees, and each degree joo
minutes. Hence the minute of a great circle on our
globe is equal to a milliare, or new French mile. If
for the reduction of this meafure, we eftimate the Paris
toife, according to the comparifon made with the Itandard
kept in the Royal Society of London, at 6.3925 Enodifli
feet, the milhare or minute will be equal to 1093.6’t
yards, and the metre 3.280899 feet.
At the lame period a new kalendar teas formed. 
By .it the year is made to begin with the autumnal
equinox, and is divided into 12 months. Thefe are
called Vindemiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire,Nivofe, Ventofe,
Fluviofe, Germinal, Floreal, Prairial, Meffidor, Thermi’
dor, and Frudtidor. Ihe months confill of 30 days
each, and are divided into three decades. The days of
each decade are known by the names of Primidi, Duo-
di,. 1 ridi, &c. to Decadi j and the day of reft is ap¬
pointed for every tenth day, inftead of the feventh.
The day (which begins at midnight) is diftributed into
ten parts, and thele are decimally divided and fubdi-
vided. Five fupernumerary days are added every year
aiLer the 30th of FrudHdor. To thefe is given the ab-
iurd appellation of Sans Culotides, a word borrowed
from a term of reproach {fans calotte), which had
o.ten been beftovved on the republican party from the
meannefs of their rank and fortune ; but which that
party now attempted to render honourable and popu¬
lar. The childilh folly of this innovation has ftruck
eveiy perfon with furprife, as it can ferve no good pur¬
pose whatever. It is a wonderful inftance of the way-
tvardnefs of the human mind, which can occupv itfelf
one moment with deeds of favage barbarity, and the
next with a matter fo unimportant as the artificial
divifion of time.
. Ihe religion of France had been gradually loftng its
influence; and on.the 7th of November, Gobet, bifliop
of Pans, along with a great multitude of other eccle-
haftics, came into the hall of the convention, and folemn-
ly reugned their fun&ions and renounced the Chriftian
rehgmn. All the clergymen, whether Proteflant or
Catholic, that were members of the convention, followed
t is example, excepting only Gregoire, whom we for-
merly.mentioned as . having been one of the .firft priefts
that joined the Tiers Etat after the meeting of the
States. General. He had the courage to profefs himfelf
a Chriftian, although he faid that the emoluments of his
biftiopric were at the -fervice of the republic. With the
acclamations of. the convention, it was decreed that the
only French deities hereafter ftiould be Liberty, Equali¬
ty, Reafon, &.c. and they would feem to have confe-
crated thefe as a kind of new objects of worfhip. 
\\ hat political purpofe the leaders in the convention in¬
tended to ferve by this proceeding does not clearly ap¬
pear 5 unlefs, perhaps, their objeft was to render the
French manners and modes of thinking lb completely
new, that it ftiould never be in their power to return to
the flare from which they had juft emerged, or to unite
1 151 1 3? it A
in intercourfe with the other nations of Europe. The" France;:.
populace, however, could not at once relinquifh en- ‘    
tiiely the religion of their fathers. The commune of I794‘
Paris ordered the churches to be Ihut up, but the con¬
vention. found it necefiary to annul this order; and
Robefpierre gained no fmall degree of popularity by
fupporting the liberty of religious worlhip on this
ocean on. Hebert and Fabre d’Eglantine, who led the
oppolite party, haftened their own fall by this ill-judged
contempt of popular opinion. ° ^s6-
lor, now that the republic law itfelf fuccefsful inQliarreb
all quarters, when the Mountain party and the Jacobins b.et'!fn
had no. rival at liome, and accounted themfelves in no tain and
immediate danger from abroad, they began to fplit into Jacobins,
factions, and the fierceft jealoufies arofe. The Jacobin
club, was the ufual place in which their contefts were
carried on ; and at this time Robefpierre added the part
ol a mediator between all parties. He attempted with
great art to turn their attention from private animofities
to public affairs. He fpread a report that an invaffon
of Great Britain was fpeedily to take place. He there¬
fore propofed that the Jacobin club Ihould let themfelves
to work to difeover the vulnerable parts of the Britith
conftitution and government. They did fo: Thev
made fpeeches, and wrote effays without number. And
in this w'ay was the moft fierce and turbulent band of
men that ever perhaps exiffed in any country occupied
and amufed for a very confiderable time. What is no
lefs lingular, a great number of Britilh fubjecls favour¬
ed the plans of thefe reforming Atheifts, and, under
the fpecious appellation of the Friends of the People,
a&ed in concert with the French Jacobins. ' *
The winter paffed away in tolerable quietnefs, and no A provi-
military enterprife wTas undertaken either by the allies honal ac-
or. bythe French. On the iff of February, Barrerekn0MrIedSe'
dfferted.in the Convention that the confederate powers the'rVimb
w’ere willing provisionally to acknowledge the French He by the'
republic, to confent to a ceffation of hoftilities for two aMies re-
years, at the end of which a lafting peace fliould be ie,5led by
ratified by the French people. But this propofal thej!^011^’
convention declared itfelf determined to rejetft, as’af- *
fording, to the other nations of Europe the means of 388
uii eimining their new government. In the mean time, Vigorous
the revolutionary government was gradually becoming ltate of the
more vigorous. Thirty committees of the convention reV°Iution~
managed the whole bulinefs of the ftate, without lharingment.0'6™”
much of the direct executive government, which relied
m the. committee of public fafety. N Thefe different
committees were engaged in the utmoft variety of
objects. The ruling party had no competitors for
poiver. Without confufion or oppofition, therefore,
the moft extenfive plans, were rapidly carried into effecct!
I he convention was little more than a court in which
every projea vvas'folemnly regiftered. In the fame fef-
li°n 30 decrees would fometimes be paffed upon obrnfls 9
the moll widely different. The finances were under Manage-
one. committee, at the head of which wras Gambon. ment or’
J Ins committee found refources for the molt lavifh ex lhe finan*
penditure. The affignats were received as money"’’1
t'lroughout the (late; and thus a paper mill was faid tofaarcesof.
Have become more valuable than a mine of gold, Theirthe nation,
credit was fupported by an arbitrary law regulating the
maximum or higheft price of all provifions, and by the
immenfe mafs of wealth which had come into the hands
ol the convention by feizing the church lands, and by
coufifeatinp"
FRA [ 15
rranee, confifcating the property of royaliils, emigrants, and
perfons condemned by the revolutionary tribunal. So
I794- unequally had property been divided under the ancient
government, that by means of thefe confifcations about
feven-tenths of the national territory was luppofed to
be in the hands of the public. To this was added the
.plunder of the churches, confiding of gold and filver
faints, and utenfils employed in divine worfhip, along
with other articles of lefs value ; among which may be
mentioned the innumerable church bells, which were re¬
garded as lufficient for the manufacture of 15,000 pieces
of cannon. Thefe refources formed a mafs of property
luch as never was pofleffed by any government.
Other committees were engaged in very different ob-
jefts. Highways were conffruCted, and canals planned
and cut throughout the country. Immenfe manufacto¬
ries of arms were everywhere eftablithed. At Paris
alone 1100 mulkets were daily fabricated, and too
pieces of cannon calf every month. Public fchools
were affiduoufly inftituted, and the French language
taught in its purity from the Pyrenees to the Rhine.
The French convention poffeffed immenfe refources,
.and they did not helitate to lavilh them upon their
fchenies. Every fcience and every art was called upon
for aid, and the molt accomplhhed men in every pro-
teffion were employed in giving fplendour to their coun
try. The chemilt*, in particular, gave effential aid by
the facility with which they fupplied materials for the
manufacture of gun-powder •, and in return for their
fervices, Lavoifier, the greateft of them, buffered death
by a moft iniquitous fentence, Not fewer than 200 new
dramatic performances were produced in lefs than two
years; the objeCt of which was to attach the people to
the prefent order of things. The vigour with which
the committees of iubliftence exerted themfelves is par¬
ticularly to be remarked. As all Europe was at war
with I ranee, and as England, Holland, and Spain, the
three maritime powers, were engaged in the conteft, it
had been thought not impoffible to reduce France to
great didrefs by famine, efpecially as it was imagined
that the country had not refources to fupply its immenfe
population. But the prefent leaders of that country
aCled with the policy of a belieged garrifon. They
leized upon the whole provilions in the country, and
carried them to public granaries. They regiftered the
cattle, qnd made their owners refponlible for them.—
They provided the armies abundantly, and, as the people
■were accurately numbered, they dealt out in every diftriCt,
on dated occadons, what was abfolutely neceffary for fub-
ddence, and no more. To all this the people fubmitted;
and, indeed, throughout the whole of the mixed feenes
of this revolution, the calm judgment of the hidorian is
not a little perplexed. We cannot avoid admiring the
patience with which the people at large endured every
harddiip that was reprefented as neceffary to the common
caTTfe, and the enthuiiadic energy with which they la-
vilhed their blood in defence of the independence of
their country. At the fame time, we mud regard with
indignation and difgud the worthlefs intrigues by means
of which the fanguinary factions in the convention and
the capital alternately maffacred each other.
Diffenfions During the winter the diffendons of the Jacobins
of the Ja- dill increafed. They were divided into two clubs, of
cobins in- t]ie new one affembled at a hall which once be-
^ "aie’ longed to the Cordeliers. The leaders of it were Ke-
I
2 ] FRA
bert, Ronfin, Vincent, and others y but the old fodiety France.
retained its afcendency, and Robefpierre was now de- ' « 
cidedly its leader. This extraordinary man had gradu- 1794:•
ally accumulated in his own perfon the confidence of the
people and the direction of the government. As the
committees were above the Convention, which was be¬
come little more than a dlent court of record, fo the
committee of public fafety was above the other commit¬
tees. Robefpierre wras the leader of this ruling com¬
mittee. Barrere, St Jud, Couthon, and others of its
members, only adled a fecondary part. They laboured
in the bufinefs of the ftate, but the radical power was
with Robefpierre. He furrounded the members of the
Convention with fpies. Fie was jealous and implacable,
and let no bounds to the (bedding of blood. On the
25th of March he brought to trial the following aefive
Jacobins, wbo were condemned and executed on the
following day : Hebert, Ronfin, Momoro, Vincent,
Du Croquet, Koch, Co). Laumur, M. M. Bourgeois,
Mazuel, La Boureau, Ancard, Le Clerc, Proly, Def-
fieux, Anacharlis Cloots, Pereira, Florent, Armand,
Defcombles, and Dubuiffon. Not fatisfied with this, on
the 2d of April he brought to trial nine of thofe who
had once been his moft vigorous aflbeiates, Danton,
Fabre d’Eglantine, Bazire, Chabot, Philippeaux, Ca¬
mille Defmoulins, Lacroix, Delaunay d’Angers, He-
rault de Sechelles, who, along with Wefterman, were
executed on the evening of the 5th. 39T
Still, however, the preparations for the enfuing Prepara-
campaign w^ere proceeding with unabated vigour. Thetions for
committee for military affairs, at the head of which
were Carnot, I.a Fitte, d’Anifli, and others, was bufy
in arranging along the frontiers thejmmenle force which plan of the
the requifition had called forth. Plans of attack and aiiies-
defence were made out by this committee •, and when ap¬
proved by the committee of public fafety they were fent
to the generals to be executed. On the other fide, the
allies w^ere making powerful preparations for another
attempt to fubjugate France. The emperor himfelf
took th^ field at the head of the armies in the Nether¬
lands. The plan of the campaign is faid to have been
formed by the Auftrian colonel Mack. Weft Flanders
was to be protefted by a ftrong body of men ; the
main army was to penetrate to Landrecies, and getting
within the line of French frontier towns, it was to cut
them oft from the interior by covering the country from
Maubeuge to the fea. The plan was bo/c/. It belongs
to military men to judge whether this was not its only
merit. When attempting to put it in execution, the
allies mult have been ill informed of the immenfe force
which the French were collecting againft them. Even
the town of Lille alone, W'hich is capable of containing
a numerous army within its w'alls, and which was to be
left in their rear, Ihould have feemed an infurmountable
objection to the plan. . ^
On the 16th of April the Auftrian, Britilh, and State of .
Dutch armies affembled on the heights above Gateau, h; allied
and were reviewed by the emperor. On the following aimics-
day they advanced in eight columns againft the French,
drove in their whole polls, and penetrated beyond Lan¬
drecies •, wdiich place the French attempted to relieve,
but without fuccefs. The allied army now amounted
to 187,000 men, wdto were difpofed in the following
manner j 15,000 Dutch and 15,000 Auftrians, under
the prince of Orange and General Latour, formed the
fiege
393
Fall of
Landre-
cies.
394
Succefs of
Piche9[ru
in Welt
Flanders.
FRA [ ]
fiege of Landrecies; 15,000 Britifn, and 15,000 Aultri-
ans, commanded by the duke of York and General Otto,
encamped towards Cambray. The emperor nnd the
prince of Saxe-Cobourg, at the head of 60,000 Auf-
trians, were advanced as far as Guife ; 12,000 Helii-
ans and Auftrians under General Worms were llation-
ed near Douay and Bouchain 5 Count Kaunitz with
15,000 Auftrians defended the Sambre and the quar¬
ter near Maubeuge ; and, laftly, General Clairfait, with
40,000 Auftrians and Hanoverians, protedled Flanders
from Tournay to the fea; 60,000 Pruftians, for whom
a fubfidy had been paid by Great Britain, were expect¬
ed in addition to thefe, but they never arrived.
The French now commenced their aCtive operations.
On the morning of the 26th of April they attacked
the duke of York near Cateau in great force. After
a levere conflict they wyere repulfed, and their general
Chapuy was taken prifoner. At the fame time they
attacked the troops under his Imperial majefty, but
were there alfo repulfed in a ftmilar manner 5 lofing in
all 57 pieces of cannon. On the fame day, however,
General Pichegru advanced from Lifle, attacked and
defeated General Clairfait, took 3 2 pieces of cannon $
and, in the courfe of a few days, made himfelf mafter
of Vervic, Menin, and Courtray. On the 29th of
April, the garrifon of Landrecies furrendered to the al¬
lies. When this event was known in the convention,
it excited a confiderable degree of alarm. It was, how¬
ever, the laft effeCIual piece of fuccefs enjoyed by the
allies during this difaftrous campaign. General Clair¬
fait was again completely defeated by Pichegru in a
general engagement 5 and it was found neceflary to
fend the duke of York to his afliftance. This move¬
ment was no doubt unavoidable ; but the effeCl of it
was, that it fplit down the allied army into a variety
of portions, capable of carrying on a dcfultory war¬
fare, but unfit for the vigorous objeCts of conqueft. On
the 10th of May the duke of York was attacked near
Fournay by a body of the enemy, whom he repulfed ;
but he was unable to join Clairfait, upon whofe de-
ftruCtion the French were chiefly bent: for at the
fame time that the duke of York was occupied by the
attack upon himfelf, Pichegru fell upon Clairfait with
fuch irrefiftible impetuofity, that he was compelled to
retreat in confufion, and a part of his army appears to
have fled to the neighbourhood of Bruges. While Pi¬
chegru was thus advancing fuccefsfully in Weft Flan¬
ders, General Jourdan advanced in Eaft Flanders from
Maubeuge, crofted the Sambre, and forced General
Kaunitz to retreat. On the 18th, however, General
Kaunitz fucceeded in repulfing the enemy in his turn,
and they re-croffed the Sambre with conftderable lofs.
The allies now found that no progrefs could be made
in France while General Pichegru was advancing fuccefs--
fully and occupying Weft Flanders in their rear. The
emperor, therefore, withdrew the greater part of his
army to the neighbourhood of Tournay, and refolved
to make a grand effort to cut off the communication
between Courtray and Lifle, thus to prevent complete¬
ly the retreat of Pichegru. On the night of the 16th,
the army moved forwards in five columns for this pur-
pofe. Clairfait was at the fame time directed to ci-ofs
the Lys, to effeft a general junclion, if poffibh:, and
complete the plan. The attempt during that evening
feemed to promife fuccefs ; but, in the courfe of next
Vol. IX. Part I.
France.
1794.
\53 ] FRA
day, the divifion under the duke of York was over¬
powered by numbers and defeated. The progrefs of1
the reft of the columns was flopped, and Clairfait
completely defeated. In the confufton of the day,
when attempting to rally the different parts of the di¬
vifion which he commanded, the duke of York was fe-
parated from his own troops by a party of the enemy’s
cavalry, and only efcaped being made prifoner by the
fwiftnefs of his horfe. The plan of the allies being
thus iruftrated, their army withdrew to the neighbour¬
hood of Tournay.
Pichegru fpeedily attempted to retaliate againft the
allies. On the 22d of May he brought down at day¬
break his -whole force againft them. The attack was
commenced by a heavy fire of artillery, and all the ad¬
vanced polls were forced. The engagement foon be¬
came general j the attacks were repeatedly renewed
on both fides ; the whole day was fpent in a fuccef-
fion of obftinate battles. All that military fldll could
do was performed on both fides. The French and
the allied foldiers fought with equal courage and
equal difcipline. At nine o’clock in the evening the
French at laft reluftantly withdraw from the attack.
The day on which a vanquilhed enemy flies from the
field is not always that on which the vidlory is w6n.
In this engagement the French were unfuccefsful in
their immediate objedl; but the weight of their fire,
their fteady difcipline, and their violent obftinacy of
attack, raifed their military character high in the efti-
mation of the officers and foldiers of the allied army..
It was foon perceived, that in addition to thefe they
poffeffed other advantages. Their numbers were im-
menfe they implicitly obeyed their generals j who,
being men newly raifeu from the rank of fubalterns,
as implicitly fubmitted to the dire&ions of the com¬
mittee of public fafety. A combination of efforts was
thus produced whofe operation was not retarded bv
divided counfels. On the other fide, the numbers of
the allies were daily declining ; their leaders were in¬
dependent princes or powerful men, whofe fentiments
and interefts were often very hoftile to each other, and
their exertions were confequently difunited.
On the 24th the French again crofted the Sarnbre,
but were driven back with much lofs. On the 27th
an attempt was made ,to befiege Charleroi, but the
prince of Orange on the 3d of June compelled them to
raife the fiege. On the 12th a fimilar attempt was
made, and they were again repulfed. In Weft Flan-Helau
ders, however, Pichegru was fjfficiently ftrong to com- fiege
mence the fiege of Ypres. He was foon attacked byYl)re?»and
General Clairfait for the purpofe of relieving it, but
without luccefs.—Ypres was garrifoned by 7000 men •
reinforcements were therefore daily fent from the grand
army to Clairfait for the purpofe of relieving it. It is
unneceffary to mention the bloody contefts in which
that unfortunate general was daily engaged with the
French. It is fufficieht to fay, that they were uni¬
formly uniuccefsful, and were the means of wafting, 59s
m a great degree, the armies of the allies. Ypres hefd Takes F-. -
out till the 17th of June, when it capitulated: and fuch
was the difcipline of the French army at this time, that
no notice could be obtained, for feveral days, of that
event. But in confequence of this and of other events,
the duke of York found it neceffary to retreat to Oude-
narde ; for Jourdan, after ftorming the Auftrian camp
U ^ of
"95
France.
1794.
397 .
Charleroi
furrender-
ed, and the
Auftrians
defeated.
398
Further
fuccefles of
the French
in Flanders,
399
And on the
Rhine.
400
Corfica
fubdued
by Great
Britain.
FRA [
of Betlgnies, now advanced with fuch ftrength
Charleroi in the eaft that its immediate fall was fear¬
ed. As this would have enabled the two French ar¬
mies to encircle the whole of Flanders, the prince of
Cobourg advanced to its relief. Charleroi furrendered
at diferetion on the 25th. This circumftance was not
known by the prince of Cobourg when he advanced on
the 26th to attack in their entrenchments the army that
covered the liege near Fleurus : but the covering army
being by this time reinforced by the acceflion of the be-
fieging army, the allies were repulfed. Jourdan then
drew his men out of their entrenchments ; and, in his
turn, attacked the Auftrians. He was three times re¬
pulfed, but was at laft fuccefsful : the lofs of the van-
quilhed army is faid to have been prodigious 5 but no
regular accounts of it have been publilhed. The French
unqueftionably exaggerated their own fuccefs, when
they faid that it amounted to 15,000 men.
The allies now retreated in all quarters. Nieuport,
Oftend, and Bruges, wrere taken •, andTournay, Mons,
Oudenarde, and Bruffels, opened their gates. At this
laft place the French armies of Eaft and Weft Flan¬
ders united. Landrecies, Valenciennes, Conde, and
Quefnoi, were fruitlefsly left with garrifons in them.
1 re allied troops, evacuating Namur, formed a line
from Antwerp to Liege to protecl the country behind.
The French advanced in full force, and attacked Ge¬
neral Clairfait, cut to pieces half the troops that
now remained under him, and broke the line. The al¬
lies retreated before them. The duke of York wras joined
by fome troops under the earl of Moira that with much
diShculty had made their wray to him from Oftend j and
■with thefe and the Dutch troops he retired to the
neighbourhood of Bergen-op-zoom and Breda for the
proteftion of Holland. The prince of Cobourg eva¬
cuated Liege, crofted the Maefe, and placed a garri-
fon in Maeftricht. He foon, however, fent back a part
of his troops to the neighbourhood of Tongres ; for
here, to the aftonilhment of all Europe, the French
armies made a voluntary paufe in their career of vic¬
tory, and ceafed to purfue their retiring foes. Sluys
in Dutch Flanders was the only foreign poll that they
continued to attack, and it furrendered after a fiege of
21 days.
On the Rhine the war was equally fuccefsful on the
part of the French. On the 12th, 13th, and 14th of
July, repeated battles were fought •, in which the
French enjoyed their ufual fuccefs. They had nume¬
rous armies in every quarter. Their mode of fighting
was to make full preparation for accomplifhing their
obje£l, and to fight in great bodies day after day till it
was obtained. The Palatinate was thus overrun, and
Treves taken, by General Michaud. Flanders and the
Palatinate have always been accounted the granaries of
Germany ; and both of them, at the commencement of
the harveft, now fell into the hands of the French.
During the courfe of this fummer Corfica was fub¬
dued by Great Britain 5 and the whole of the French
Weft India ifiands, excepting a part of Guadaloupe,
yielded to the Britifli troops under the command of Sir
Charles Grey and Sir John Jarvis. On the firft of June
the Britifh fleet, under the command of Earl Howe,
gained a moft fplendid victory over the French fleet to
the weftward of Uftiant. The French committee of
fafety were known to have purchafed in America im-
154 ] _ FRA
upon menfe quantities of grain and other ftore
Thefe were France,
embarked on board x6o fail of merchantmen, convoyed '
by fix fail of the line. Lord Howe failed to intercept I794’
this valuable convoy. The French fleet failed at the,, . 4°!.
fame time to proteft it. On the morning of the 28th victory of
of May the fleets came in fight of each other. The the Britifu
Britiftr admiral had previoufly defpatched fix ftrips offleetut1-
the line under Admiral Montague to intercept the^erIj0r^
French convoy, while he fhould engage and detain the
grand fleet. The French dii'patched eight fail to de¬
feat this attempt. In the courfe of the 29th Lord
Howe got to windward of the French fleet. His
force wxrs 25, and theirs was 26, fail of the line. The
following day he bore down upon them, and broke
their line. The engagement w^as one of the fevereft
ever fought. The French admiral, in lefs than an hour
after the clofe action commenced in the centre, crowded
off with 12 of his (hips. The Britilh fleet was fo much
dilabled, or feparated, that feveral of the French dif-
mantled fhips got away under fails raifed on the ftump
of their fore-mafts. Seven fail of the line, however, re¬
mained in poffeflion of the Britifli, and two were un¬
queftionably funk. In the mean time, Admiral Mon¬
tague fell in with the French convoy, but it w7as now
guarded by 14 fail of the line. As he could not en¬
counter fuch a force, he returned home, and it was fafe-
ly conveyed into port. Thus, by one of thofe contra-
didions which fo often occur in human affairs, the Bri¬
tilh fleet wTas vieforious, and the French were left in
fome meafure mailers of the fea. As this engagement
howTever teftified that the Britifli feamen had not loft
their ancient fuperiority on their own element, the
nation regarded the prefent victory as a pledge of its
independence, and very general rejoicings took place
in confequence of it.
In the mean time, the revolutionary fyftem of go- The horrid
vernment in the hands of committees of the convention executions
at Paris, and of committees of the popular focieties*n p^r‘s
throughout the country, was arrived at its higheft per-tontinue^*
feeftion, and proceeded without oppofition in its fevere
and fanguinary meafures.
On the 10th of May Madame Elizabeth, filler of the
late king, was facrificed by it in confequence of a decree
of the revolutionai-y tribunal. Multitudes of others of
every rank and fex were daily facrificed in a fimilar
manner 5 the rich in particular were the great objedls
of perfecution, becaufe the confifcation of their proper¬
ty added to the ftrength of the ruling powers. Butimntenfe
neither were the poor fafe from the bloody vigilance of power of
this new and Angular government. By the different
executions Robefpierre had contrived to deftroy everyll)ierre'
avowed rival. All the conftituted authorities confifted
wholly of perfons nominated with his approbation ; and
as the committees which conduced the bufinefs of the
ftate were at his difpofal, his will was irrefiftible through¬
out the republic. He met with no oppofition in the
convention ; for that body was no longer the turbulent
popular aflembly which it had once appeared 5 it was
little more than a name employed to give fome fort of
refpeftability to fuch fchemes as were propofed to it. ^
Amidft this accumulation, however, of feemingly ir- Verging to
refiftible authority, Robefpierre was at the brink ofr«in.
ruin. The whole of the old Girondift party was indeed
fubdued and filent ; but many members of the conven¬
tion ftill remained attached to it. The party of the
Mountain.
France.
1794.
405
Particulars
of his fall.
F Pt A [ 1
Mountain, by means of whom Robefpierre bad rifen
to power, with little fatisfaclion now found themfelves
not only difregarded, but ready at every inilant to fall
a facrifice to that fyftem of terror which they had con¬
tributed to eredl. Even the Jacobins themfelves, though
neither timid nor cautious in the (bedding of blood, be¬
gan to murmur when they faw that awful privilege con¬
fined exclufively within a few hands, or rather monopo¬
lized by an individual. In this Hate things remained
for fome time 5 and it appeared how poflible it is for an
individual to govern a great nation even while the whole
of that nation is hoftile to his power. The banilhment
or imprifonment of all foreigners, which had long been
rigoroufiy pradlifed, prevents us from poffefling much
accurate information concerning the internal Hate of
France at this period •, but it is certain, that one cir-
cumftance in particular tended much to accelerate the fall
of Robefpierre. He had procured a decree to be paffed,
authorifing the committee of public fafety to imprifon
at its pleafure, and bring to trial, any member of the
convention. All the individuals of that body found
themfelves placed by this decree in the hands of a man
whofe fevere and fufpicious temper they well knew.
Still, however, they were fo much furrounded by fpies,
that it was difficult to form a party or plan of opera¬
tions 5 even the majority of the committee of public fafe¬
ty were among the number of the difcontented, but they
dared not to withftand their chief. At laft, on the 25th
of July, the convention began to exhibit figns of agita¬
tion. It was underftood, that in the courfe of a few
days Robefpierre would facrifice a number of the mem¬
bers to his fufpicions. On the following day the fitting
of the convention was ftill more tempelluous. In a long
fpeech Robefpierre defended his own conduct againtt
thofe who had reproached him with afpiring to the dic-
tatorfhip of France. He attacked the party whom he
ftyled Moderates, as wiffiing to overturn the revolution¬
ary government, and to reflore the feeble fyftem of the
Briffotines. The refult of a long debate was, that Ro¬
befpierre was apparently vidtorious, and his fpeech was
ordered to be printed. On the 27th the convention
appeared ripe for a change : St Juft, a member of the
committee of public fafety, in attempting to defend
Robefpierre, was repeatedly interrupted ; and Billaud
Varennes flood forward and enumerated the crimes,
and proclaimed the tyranny, of Robefpierre. The
fpeech was received with burfts of applaufe. Robe-
Ipierre in vain attempted to defend himfelf j he was
iilenced by (bouts of execration from every part of the
hall. Tallien feconded the former fpeaker in his ac-
cufation. The fitting was declared permanent, and a
decree of arreft was pafled againft Robefpierre and a
younger brother of his, along with St Juft, Couthon,
and Lebas. Thefe men left the convention, and found
fecurity in the hall of the commune of Paris ; wffiere
the municipal officers agreed to proteft and (land by
them. The tocfin was founded ; the armed force wms
under their command j an infurre&ion was therefore
attempted againft the. convention : but the feftions of
Paris refufed their fupport. Very few of the troops
could be colle&ed, and thefe were not firm 5 the late
tyranny had become odious. The hall of the commune
was therefore fpeedily furrounded \ and about three o’clock
in the morning of the 28th Robefpierre and his affoci-
Ates were made prifoners. They had been outlawed
55 3 F U A
by the convention on account of their refiftalice. I hey France. ^
were not therefore tried, unlefs for the purpofe of iden¬
tifying their perfons $ and, in the courfe of that day, l/J4*
they rvere executed : 60 of the municipal officers wxre
alfo executed for joining in their rebellion \ and in this
w7ay a ftorm paffed over, which at one time threatened
to involve the French capital in rum, and filled all Eu¬
rope with aftonithment. Thus alfo terminated the ca¬
reer of the moft extraordinary man that the hrench re¬
volution had brought forward. His talents were un¬
doubtedly confiderable, and his ambition knew7 no
bounds, bidding defiance to the ordinary feelings of hu¬
manity. Had Dumourier poffeffed his coolnefs and cau¬
tion, or had he polleffed the military talents of Dumou¬
rier, the convention would certainly have been over¬
turned, and wre ffiould have feen a fecond Cromwell on
the throne of his murdered fovereign.
After the fall of Robefpierre, the convention exhi- The fyfterts
bited no fmall change of appearance. Inltead of that °f terror
filence wffiich formerly prevailed, all w7as buftle and of6
noife; all accufed each other. There was no longer mo4era.
any leader, and there was no formed party. The former tifm.
fyftem of terror was declared to be at an end, and a
new fyftem of tnoderatiftn fucceeded. This was carried
to as great a height as the fyftem of terror had former¬
ly been j and all means were taken to render popular
the fall of their late tyrant. The committees were or-
ganifed anew, and their members ordered to be fre¬
quently changed. The correfpondence between the af¬
filiated Jacobin clubs was prohibited, and at laft the
Jacobin club itfelf was abolilhed. This laft; event wras
accomplifhed with eafe *, and that fociety which had
been the great engine of the revolution, wras itfelf with¬
out refiftance overturned. Seventy-one deputies of the
Girondift party, who had been imprifoned fince the 31ft
of May 1793, wxre fet at liberty. The name of Lyons
was reftored to it. Some of the agents of Robefpierre
were puniftied, particularly the infamous Carrier, wffiole
cruelties in La Vendee we formerly mentioned. Still,
however, the convention appeared fo little united and
fo little decided with regard to objedfts of the firft im¬
portance, that in all probability they would not have
condudted the important ftruggle againft the nations
of Europe with more fuccefs than the Girondift party
had formerly done, if the revolutionary government
and the late fyftem of terror had not already accumu¬
lated in their hands fuch vaft relources, and traced out
fuch a plan of procedure, as rendered it an eafy matter
to preferve their numerous armies in the train of fuccefs
to which they wxre now habituated. 407
The allies in their retreat had left ftrong garrifons The French
in the French towms which had furrendered to them.jowns
Thefe were Conde, Valenciennes, Quefnoi, and Lan- ga°rifoned
drecies. They now furrendered to the republican ar-hy the al-
mies with fo little refiftance, that the conduct of the em- lies furren-
peror began to be confidered as ambiguous, and he w7asder
fufpefted of having entered into fome kind of com-^J61'
promife with the French. This idea proved erroneous j
and as foon as the army wffiich had befieged thefe towns
was able to join the grand army under Pichegru and
Jourdan, the operations of the campaign were refumed
after a fufpenfion of almoft two months. The French
army divided itfelf into two bodies. One of thefe un¬
der Jourdan advanced againft General Ciairfait, wffio
had fucceeded the prince of Cobourg m the command
U 2 in
FRA [ i
t ^T~ance- in the neighbourhood of Maeftrieht. On the 15th of
J a September the French attacked the whole Aullrian
11 P°^s in an extent of five leagues from Liege to Mae-
Further dricht. On that and the following day the Ioffes were
fucceffes of nearly equal. On the 17th the French with jo pieces
the French.of cannon attacked General Kray in his entrenched
camp before Maeffricht. M. de Kray was already re¬
tiring when General Clairfait arrived with a ftrong re¬
inforcement, and after a fevere combat the French
were once more compelled to retire. On the 18th
the French renewed the attack with tenfold fury upon
every part of the Auftrian line, and the whole was
compelled to fly to the neighbourhood of Aix-la-Cha-
pelle. General Clairfait now chofe a ftrong pofition
on the banks of the Roer, where he even declared it
to be his wifti that he might be attacked. But by this
time the fpirit of his army was humbled, defertions
became numerous, and the want of difeipline was ex¬
treme. On the 1 ft of October the French croffed the
Maefe and the Roer, and attacked the wdiole Auftrian
polls from Ruremond down to Juliers. After a bloody
engagement, the brave and a&ive, though unfortunate,
General Clairfait was compelled haftily to crofs the
Rhine, with the lofs of 10 or 1 2,000 men. The French
general did not attempt to crofs that river, but one de¬
tachment of his army took poffeflion of Coblentz, while
others laid clofe fiege to Venlo and Maeftricht, which
4°9 _ boon furrendered.
pmorels hi i lie divifion of the French army, in the mean time,
the cob- under General Pichegru came down upon Holland,
queft of -and attacked the allied army under the duke of York
Holland, between Eois-le-duc and Grave. They forced the ad¬
vanced poll of Boxtel. Lieutenant-general Abercromby
was fent to attempt to recover this poll on the 15th
of September, but he found the French in fuch force
that he was obliged to retreat. Indeed the French
were difeovered to be no lefs than 80,000 ftrong in that
neighbourhood. Ihe duke of York was unable to
contend again!! a force fo fuperior, and retired acrofs the
Maefe with the lofs of fomewhat lefs than 1500 men.
Pichegru immediately laid fiege to Bois-le-duc. On the
30th of September, Crevecoeur was taken, and Bois-le-
duc furrendered in 10 days thereafter. In it 408 French
emigrants were taken prifoners 5 and thefe, as well as 700
that had been; taken at Nieuport, 500 at Sluys, and
11 co at Valenciennes, were all put to death, agreeably to
the rigorous law formerly made by the convention. The
French now followed the duke of York acrols the
Maefe. . Upon this the greater part of the allied army
under his royal highnefs croffed the Rhine and took poll
at Arnheim. The remaining part of the army fol¬
lowed foon after, and Nimeguen was occupied by the
French on the 7th of November. The duke of Brunf-
wick w'as at this time requefted to take the command
of the allied army, to proteft Holland, if poflible. He
came to Arnheim for that purpofe ^ but after examining
the ftate of things there, he declined the undertaking.
The allied troops had now fo often fled before their
vi&orious and almoft innumerable enemies, they had
fo often been in want of every neceffary, and had
been received fo ill by the inhabitants of the countries
through which they paffed, among whom the French
eaufe was extremely popular, that they had loft that
regularity of conduct and difeipline which alone- can
afford a ffecure profjpeS of fucc.efs in military affairs.
56 ] FRA
The French, on the contrary, well received, abounding France.
in every thing, and proud of fighting in a popular caufe, "—  
now added with much order, and fubmitted to the ftrideit 1794-
difeipline. In addition to all thefe advantages, the French 410
leaders had the dexterity to perfuade the world that^f 'j^,
new and unknown arts were employed to give aid to and itate*
their caufe. At this period the telegraphe was firft.of the
ufed for conveying intelligence from the frontiers tot rench
the capital, and from the capital to the frontiers, (Seearnues'
Telegraph). Balloons were alfo ufed by the French
during this campaign to procure knowledge of the po¬
fition of the enemy. An engineer afeended with the
balloon, which was fuffered to rife to a great height,
but prevented from flying away by a long cord. He
made plans of the enemies encampment j and during
an attack he lent down notice of every hoftile move¬
ment. In the affairs of men, and more efpecially in
military tranladlions, opinion is of more importance
than reality. The French foldiers confided in their
own officers as men poffeffed of a kind of omnifcience,
while the allied troops, no doubt, beheld with anxiety a
new contrivance employed again!! them, whofe import¬
ance would be readily magnified by credulity and igno¬
rance. With all thefe advantages, however, after the
capture of Nimeguen, they once more made a halt in
their career, and abftained from the attack of Holland,
which now feemed almoft proftrate before them.
While thefe events occurred in the north, the French Their fuc~
arms were fcarcely lefs fuccefsful on the fide of Spain, cefles in
Bellegarde was taken ; in the Weftern Pyrenees, Fon-sPain«
tarabia furrendered, and alfo St Sebaftian 5 the whole
kingdom of Spain feemed panic ftruck. That feeble
government, with an almoft impregnable frontier, and
the mol! powerful fortreffes, could make little refiftance j
and the difficult nature of their country was their only
proteftion. The hiftory of this war is only a biftory of
vi&ories on the part of the French. In the Eaftern
Pyrenees, on the 17th of November, the French gene¬
ral Dugommier was killed in an engagement, in which
his army was fuccefsful. On the 2,0th of that month
the French again attacked the Spaniards, and routed
them by means of the bayonet, without firing a lingle
mulket-lhot. Tents, baggage, and cannon, for an ar-
my of 50,000 men, fell into the hand of the conquerors,
along with a great part of the province of Navarre.
Towards the end of the year, an army of 40,000 Spa¬
niards, entrenched behind 80 redoubts, the labour of fix
months, fuffered themfelves to be completely routed;
their general Count de la Union was found dead on
the field of battle, and the whole Spanilh artillery was
taken. In three days thereafter, the fort Fernando
de Figuieres, containing a garrifon of 9107 men, fur¬
rendered, although it mounted 171 pieces of cannon,
and poffeffed abundance of provilions. The French
continued their conquefls 4 Rofas was taken, and the
whole province of Catalonia was left at the mercy of
the invaders.
The fucceffes of this wonderful campaign were not The^con-
yet terminated j and the laft part of them is perhaps the queft of
mol! important, although no great effort was neceffary Holland
to its execution. The winter now fet. in with uncom-com^'ete^'
mon feverity. For fome years pal! the feafons of Ey.
rope had been uncommonly mild ; there had been lit¬
tle froft in winter, and no intenfe heat in fummer.
during the late feafon the weather had long been rtv
markably
FRA [ 1
France, markably dry till the latter part of harveft, when there
fell a confiderable, though by no means unufual, quan-
t *795* tity of rain. Towards the end of December a levere
frofl bound up the whole of the rivers and lakes of
Holland. The Waal was frozen over in .the beginning
of January 5 a circumftance which had not occurred for
14 years part. Taking advantage of this, the French
eroded that river, and with little oppofition feized the
important pafs of Bommell, which at other feafons is
fo iirong by its inundations. The allied army had been
joined by 17,000 Aultrians, and had received orders to
defend Holland to the laft. They did fo, and were
faccefsful in repulimg the French for fome days between
the Waal and the Leek •, but the republican army,
amounting to 70,000 men, having at lali advanced in full
force, the allied troops were compelled to retire acrofs
the Yflelinto Weflphalia. In the courfe of their march
through this deferf country, in the midft of fevere frofl
and a deep fhow, they are faid to have fuffered incredi¬
ble hardfhips, and to have loft a very great number of
men. The French, in the mean time, advanced rapidly
acrofs the country to the Zuyder fea, to prevent the in¬
habitants from dying, and carrying off their property.
On the 16th of January 1795, a Party °f horfe, without
reliitance, took poffeflion of Amftevdam. The other
towns furrendered at diferetion. In confequence of an
order from the Hates general, the ftrong fortreffes of
Bergen-op-zoom, Williamftadt, Breda, &c. opened their
gates to the French. The fleet and the {hipping were
•fixed by the intenfe frolt in their ftations, and fell a prey
to the enemy 5 who thus, with little effort, made a com¬
plete conqueff of this populous and once powerful coun¬
try. The French were well received by the people at
large. The power of the ftadtkolder had been fupport-
ed among them merely by the influence of Pruffia and
‘England. Through hatred to this office, which had
now become odious chiefly to the mercantile ariffocracy
of Holland, they were little attached to their allies, and
gave them, during the prefent w:ar, as little fupport as
poflible. The ftadtholder and his family now fled to
England. The French declared, that they did not
mean to make fubjedls but allies of the Dutch, and in¬
vited them to call together popular affemblies for fettling
their own government, under the proteftion of the
French republic.
Thus terminated a compaign, the moft aftonifliing,
perhaps, that has been known in the hiftory of mankind.
In the courfe of it, even before the conqueft of Hol¬
land, the French had taken 2000 pieces of cannon and
60,000 prifoners. After that event, the conquered, ter¬
ritories added to them a population of nearly 14 millions
of people. Luxembourg and Mentz were the only
places on this fide of the Rhine that refifted them. The
former was clofely blockaded, for the purpofe of com¬
pelling it to furrender j the latter was feveral times
413 affaulted, but fuccefsfully held out.
<jliet At this .period Europe feemed to be weary of fuch a
refoWe'on ^oocty conteft, and the Diet of Ratifbon intimated its
peace. refolution to adopt fueh meafures as might tend to
bring about a general pacification. A treaty was con¬
cluded between the grand duke of Tufcany and France.
The convention declared their readinefs to treat for
peace with any of the powers of Europe upon honour¬
able terms. Great Britain and Aullria, however, feem-
-od to be perfuaded, that an .honourable and permanent
57 1 FRA
peace could not be obtained with France, while her Franry*.
government was fubjedl to fuch perpetual changes. For' ^ '■
inffance, fuch was the enmity of the Mountain party I795*
againf! the Gironde, that any treaty entered into by
the latter would have been trampled upon by the for¬
mer 5 and fuch, it was obferved, might continue to be
the afpedt of affairs in that diffracted country for an in¬
definite length of time.
As the conffitution which had bc*n framed in the A new coti'.
year 1793, during the tyrannical dominion of Robef-ftitutiaK,
pierre was juftly deemed impradlicable, a committee
was appointed to frame one entirely new. It was com-
pofed of Sieyes, Cambaceres, Merlin of Douay, Thi-
baudeau, Mathieu, Le Sage of Eure and Loire, and
Latouche. On the report of Cambaceres, the 19th of
April, that the committee thought that a commiflion
Ihould be appointed for this important bufinefs, a num¬
ber of qualified perfons were accordingly chofen, wffiile
all citizens were invited to communicate their fentiments
upon the fubjedf, and the committee was to give orders,
foi the belt plan to be publiflied. The feelings of the
nation at large received additional gratification from
the condudl of the convention towards Fouquier Tain-
ville the prefident, and 15 judges and jurors, of the re¬
volutionary tribunal. They were fully convi&ed on
the 8th of May, and executed on the 9th, launched in¬
to eternity amidff the jult execrations of a vaff multi¬
tude of ipedlators.
Although the Jacobins were defeated on the iff and Infmrectkm
2d of April, they did not confider themfelves as en-^the Ja~
tirely lubdued. Iheywxre plotting a more extenfiveco^*ns”
rnfurredlion, wdiich was not to be confined to the capi¬
tal, and fixed on the 20th of May as the period of
revolt. On the morning of that day, the toefin was
accordingly founded, and drums beat to arms in the
fuburb of St Antoine, in which the Jacobins had al¬
ways enjoyed the greateft influence. Upon this the
convention met; and although the infurrediion was far
from being a fecret, the committee of public fafety did
not appear to have taken any meafures to prevent it.
It wr,as.only at the moment when the inlurgents were
approaching that General Hoche was appointed to the
command of the armed force, and. fent to colled! the
military and. citizens for the protedlion of the conven¬
tion. The hall was prefently furrounded, the guards,
were overpowered, and the mob forced their way into
the midft of the affembly. The multitudes of women
who met upon this occaiion ftiouted for bread, and the
conffitution of 1793. Vernier the prefident, a man far
advanced in years, quitted the chair to Boiffy d’Anglas,
who kept it with commendable fortitude during the re¬
mainder of the day. I he mob had cockades with this
infeription upon them, “ Bread, and the conffitution of
}793'” One of the party attached to the convention
imprudently tore oft the hat .of one of the infurgents,
whom the multitude attacked with fwords; and as he’
fled towards the chair of the prefident, he was killed by
by a mufket {hot. The majority of the members gra¬
dually retired from this feene of lawflefs intrufion, *and
left the multitude mafters of the hall. Four of the
members who remained efpoufed the caufe of the in-
furgents, whofe triumph, however, was of very Ihort
continuance. A large body of the military and the
peaceable citizens vanquiftied them in the evening, the
powers of the majority were reffored, and the four de¬
puties >
F II A [
vlio efpoufed the caufe of the mob were
4*7
Defeat of
the Jaco¬
bins.
4tS
Hope to be
iuccefsfu!.
puties w
refted. # , .
It would appear that the convention and the citizens
of Paris now believed their triumph to be complete, as
no meafures were adopted by them fufficient to prevent
the repetition of a fimilar outrage. The Jacobins,
however, were not yet determined to view their caufe
as defperate, for next day they colie&ed in the fuburbs,
and in the afternoon made a fecond attempt. The
Caroufal was taken by them without oppofition, when
they pointed fome pieces of cannon againif the hall of
the convention, the members of which being wholly
unprotected, endeavoured to gain over the mob by flat¬
tery,—by promifing them bread, and the conflitution of
1793, or whatever elfe they thought proper to demand j
and the prefident even gave the deputation the frater¬
nal embrace. On the 23d the citizens affembled, and
went to the Thuilleries to defend the convention from
infult and violence. The military collefted in conlider-
able force •, and the convention was at length encour¬
aged to aft on the offenfive. It was decreed that if the
fuburb of St Antoine did not immediately furrender its
arms and cannon, with the murderer of Ferrand, it
would be declared in a date of rebellion. The generals
of the convention received orders to reduce it by force j
and the infurgents finding themfelves unequal to the
conflift, were forced by the inhabitants to make an un¬
conditional furrender, to preferve their property from
the depredations of the military. The foldiers found
among the prifoners were put to death, on which oc-
cafion fix of the members were tried and condemned by
a military commiflion. Three of them were guilty of
filicide, and the other three were publicly executed.
In the fouthern parts of France, the Jacobins were
equally turbulent as their brethren in Paris, and form¬
ed an infurreftion at Toulon on the 20th of May,
feizing on the gates, upon which they planted cannon;
they fet at liberty fuch of their affociates as had been
incarcerated, and detained the fleet which was about to
put to fea. From Toulon they proceeded to Marfeilles,
at which time they were 3000 flrong, and had x 2 pieces
of cannon. On their march they were oppofed by
Generals Charton and Paftod, by whom they were de¬
feated, 300 of them being fent prifoners to Marfeilles,
and Toulon was liberated.
The Mountain party, who were anxious to revive the
terrific reign and meafures of Robefpierre, were now
very much reduced, and expofed in many places to
violent perfecution. Affociations wTere formed for the
purpofe of avenging the crimes they committed during
the continuance of their powrer. When we refleft on
the charafter of Robefpierre’s government and what all
ranks of men fuffered under it, we mufi: confider it
truly aftonifliing that any number of men {hould hazard
their lives in attempting its relloration. The party
was of courfe gradually abandoned by its adherents on
the fall of its tyrant, and it funk in the eftimation of
every one who examined it with attention. Still, how¬
ever a fmall party remained, the members of which
\yere men of fuperior aftivity and enterprife. They
confifted of ferocious republicans wdio thought they be¬
held the revival of royalty and ariftocracy in every at¬
tempt to eftabliih a mild, fober, and regular govern¬
ment. Yet, amidfi: the univerfal odium caft upon them,
the Jacobins expefted to rife once more into power •,
• 3
France.
1795*
158 ] F H A
r- but what is moft lingular, the revival of their llrcngth
is to be dated from their unfuccefsful infurreftion juft '
now mentioned. Their want of popularity began to
afteft tire convention, as the people remembered how
tamely that body fubmitted to the tyranny of Robef¬
pierre, of whofe power the majority of the members
had been the fervile inftruments. The prefs therefore,
being now free, the moft hideous pifture of their con-
duft was held up to the public. The greater part of
them now began to repent of their viftory over the
Jacobins, as they forefaw that the confequences in the
end might prove fatal to themfelves.
On the 23d of June, Boiffy d’Anglas prefented theNe^ cotim
report of the committee relative to the plan of a new’ fhtution,
conftitution. It was, like its predeceffors, prefaced with
a declaration of the rights of man, confifting befides of
14 chapters on the following fubjefts :—the extent of
the republican territories, the political ftate of citizens,
primary affemblies, eleftoral affemblies, the legiflature,
the judicial authority, the public force, public inftruc-
tion, the finances, foreign treaties, the mode of revifing
the conftitution, and an aft that no rank or fuperiority
ftiould exift among citizens, but what might arife from
the exercife of public funftions. . ^2Q
The legiflature wras compofed of two affemblies, the Made up of
council of the Ancients, confifting of 250 members, as two affem-
none but married men and wddowers turned of 40bIies*
could be chofen members of it 5 the other council con¬
fifted of 500 members, and enjoyed the exclufive privi¬
lege of propofing the laws, while the council of Ancients
might rejeft or oppofe, without having power to alter
the decrees. The executive powder was intrufted to
five perfons who wTere to be 4° years °f a8e leaft*
and to be denominated the Executive Directory. The
two councils had the power of elefting its members,
the council of five hundred propofing 1 o times as many
candidates as could be chofen, and the council of two
hundred and fifty felefted the five members from among
thefe 50 candidates. One member of the direftory wras
to go annually out office, by which they wure • all
changed in the courfe of five years. In enafting laws
the direftory had no vote, being appointed purely to
fuperintend the execution of them, regulated the coining
of money, and had the difpofal of the armed force.
The treaties made by the direftory with foregn courts
were not binding without the fanftion of the legiflature,
and war could not be made without a decree of the
two affemblies. The whole articles of the newT con¬
ftitution underwent a feparate difcuffion, when they
were to be tranfmitted to the primary affemblies for
their approbation. Prior to this event, however, it was
agreed on by a majority of the convention, in order to
avert the danger wffiich now threatened themfelves,
from the lofs of public favour, that at the approaching
general eleftion, the eleftors ffiould be bound to return
twro thirds of the prefent members, and if this tailed,
that the convention themfelves might fill up the^ va¬
cancies. I hefe decrees accompanied the conftitution j
but at Paris the idea of re-defting two-thirds of the
old members was rejefted with contempt, and the ab-
furdity of it pointed out with every expreffion of acri¬
mony.
The
convention in the mean time did not
421
fail to Freedom
publiffi the approbation of the decrees by the primary ^ridged br
affemblies, as well as of the conftitution, although it is ie UI1‘
certain
FRA [i
France, certain tliat vaft numbers had confounded the two to-
y gether, and given their approbation accordingly. Such
I795* was the rage of many againll the convention in confe-
quence of the decrees already mentioned, that it was
even propofed to try the whole members before a new
revolutionary tribunal, and punifli each in pi-oportion
to his crimes. The fe£lions remonllrated againlf the
decrees to the convention, and the more eager they ap¬
peared in the bufinefs, the more perfuaded was the con¬
vention of its own imminent danger. Every remon-
ftrance, however, was difregarded, and the contend¬
ing parties formed the refolution of fettling it by force
of arms. About I oo eleftors of Paris met in the hall
of the theatre in the luburb of St Germain before the
day of meeting which had been appointed by the con¬
vention, and having chofen De Nivernois for their pre-
lident, began their debates, abfurdly concluding that
the fovereignty was veiled in the hands of the ele&ors,
after thefe had been chofen by the primary fedtions. A
body of troops was fent to diffolve them as an illegal af-
fembly, which wras accomplilhed without any difficulty,
the citizens not having been unanimous in their fenti-
422 ments refpedling it.
courted b T his* however, did not prevent the fedlions from
theamven-Pre^um*n.£ t^lat ^ fteady perfeverance they would be
tion. finally vidlorious, having always found that the party
favoured by the co-operation of the Parifian populace,
had carried their point ever fince the commencement
of the revolution. The armed force with which the
convention was furrounded gave the people very little
alarm, as they endeavoured to perfuade themfelves that
the military could never be brought to aft againft the
citizens. As the members of the convention alfo ap¬
peared to fufpeft their fidelity, they applied for affift-
ance to thofe very Jacobins whom they had humbled
on the 24th of May. If the feftions of Paris detelled
the members for their connexion with the atrocities of
Robefpierre, the Jacobins admired them from this very
circumlfance j a fet of reftlefs, bloody men, who were
never fatisfied writh wrars abroad nor revolutions at
home. Hundreds of them were relealed from prifon,
and put in a Hate of requifition for affifting the legifiative
423 body.
Struggle 1 he feftions of Paris having beheld the convention
theVcorwen-^UrrOU.n^e<^ ^ men wh° had juftly obtained the ap-
tion and pellations of terroriJIs and vien of blood, they exhibited
Parifians. a defire of engaging them which was altogether un¬
bounded. Their leader defigned to make the members
prifoners, till they could be conveniently brought to
trial, and in the interim conduft public affairs by com¬
mittees of the feftions, till a new legiilative body could
be chofen. General Miranda was to have the com¬
mand of the armed force after the overthrow7 of the
convention, but as it was ftill problematical wdrich party
rvould be triumphant, he retired to the country till the
event fhould declare it, refolving to lhare the reward
of a conqueft to which he wras to contribute nothing.
J he fuperior officers of the convention were unfaithful,
yet the fubalterns and foldiers might have continued
firm, to which they would, no doubt, be llrongly ex¬
horted by their Jacobin auxiliaries. What was greatly
m favour of the convention was, that the firft moments
of enthufiafm were permitted to pafs awTay, after which
the feftions exhibited a conduft both undecided and
weak.
59 3 I1 Pt A
Barras was appointed on the 4th of Oftober by the Fiance,
convention to the command of the troops, Generals v—^
Menon, Raffet and fome others, having been difmiffed I795*
from office. Barras called in the aid of the moft able pjarl4a2s^
officers, among whom we find Brune and Bonaparte, app0^te(3
and made, fpeedy preparations for a vigorous defence, to the chief
Troops with cannon w7ere planted in every avenue lead-commaricl
ing to the I huilleries, and mafked batteries were placed oi na'
in lituations of a more retired nature, if any of thefe troops
Ihould happen to be forced. The precaution was alfo
taken of tranfporting the provifions and military ftores
to St Cloud, if the convention fhould be obliged to re-
tieat fiom Paris. On the jfth of Oftober both parties
continued on the defenfive for feveral hours, but about
three o’clock in the afternoon, overtures w’ere made
by the general of the infurgents, Danican, in which he
declared that the intention of the citizens was for peace,
only they apprehended a maffacre wras to be begun by
the armed terrorifts furrounding the convention, and
that if thefe were removed they would return to their
duty j but it was refolved to try the iffue of the dif-
pute at the point of the fword, as the Jacobin party in
the convention were now more fully perfuaded of ulti¬
mate luccefs. On this occafion the armed Jacobins
without are generally underftood to have been the firft
aggreffors. The citizens on the fouth fide of the river
made an effort to reach the convention by the Quay
de Voltaire, but were completely prevented by' the
cannon of the convention, while the conffift was ex¬
tremely obftinate on the other fide of the river, near
the convention. After an engagement of four hours
continuance, the feftions wrere repulfed, and driven to
the poll of St Roch, which being alfo taken after an
obftinate refiftance, the infurgents fled to their head
quarters at the feftion of Le Pelletier ; but the troops
of the convention were, about midnight, in poffeffion of
the whole city.
The viftors attributed this infurreftion to the in-The violent
fluence of the royalifts; and whether they were right fac?bins
in their judgment or not, it is certain that the caufe of a^al.n ^
royalty was now become lefs odious to the people in ge-6 ^ ’
neral than the bloody extravagance of republicamfm •
but the mob in faft feem to have looked no farther
than the difarming of the Jacobins, and obtaining new
reprefentatives, The attempt failed, and the Mountain
were again at the head of the ftate. The fittings of
the convention were terminated on the 27th of Ofto¬
ber, and was fucceeded by the new legiilature in terms
of the conftitution. Among its laft decrees, was one
granting a general amnerty for all crimes and pro¬
ceedings of a revolutionary nature, but the emigrants,
tranfported priefts, and every one concerned in the laft
infurreftion, were excluded from the benefit of it. The
agents of Robefpierre in Paris and the departments were
liberated from prifon, and promoted to lucrative offices
under the new government.
. next fteP °f the new7 legiilature wras to divide Meafures of
itfelf into two councils, and proceed to the eleftion oftiie new
an executive direftory. The council of five hundred [eSiflature’
was bound to prefent to the other council 50 candi¬
dates, of which a lift w7as accordingly made out, con¬
fiding of no more than five whom they wdffied to be
chofen, the other 45 confifting of obfeure perfons, far¬
mers and peafants, wffiich left no more power to the
council of ancients than the form of an eleftion, wffiich
muft
FRA
[ 160 ]
FRA
"Fiance, mufl fall on Sieyes, Barras, Revvbell, La Reveillere
v Lepaux, and Letourneur de la Manche, none of the
I795# reft being qualified for the office. The intriguing
Sieyes, however, did not deem it prudent to venture
on the pofleffion of power 5 and on his declining to ac¬
cept of this new dignity, Carnot was appointed in his
ftead. The form of government now eftabliflied did
not promife to be produdftive of much happinefs or tran¬
quillity, as the molt important offices in the ftate were
filed by men whom the people could not endure. The
members too of the executive direftory, except only
Reveillere Lepaux, had always been connefted with
the Mountain party, and they employed the Jacobins
in almoft every official department, which could not
fail to render the government peculiarly obnoxious. It
was feared that a directory chofen by the Jacobins, and
new legiflators appointed by the people, might one
day be the means of totally fubverting the conftitution,
which a&ually took place.
On the 10th of April a treaty of peace with the
417
Treaty of
peace with king of Pruffia was prefented to the convention, in order
Piuffia. to p,e ratified. By virtue of this treaty, it was agreed
that the republican troops fhould be immediately with¬
drawn from the territories of Pruffia on the right bank
of the Rhine, having power to retain, till a general
peace, the territories which France then poffeffed on
the left bank of that river. There was to be a mutual
exchange of prifoners of war, and the intercourfe be¬
tween the two countries was to be placed in its former
fituation. Meafures were alfo adopted to ffiift the
theatre of hoftilities from the northern parts of Ger¬
many. At the fame time the king of Sweden acknow¬
ledged the French republic, whofe ambaffador was re¬
ceived at Paris with great folemnity. Another treaty
was concluded with Pruffia in the month of May,
which had a fpecial reference to the line of neutrality.
The cantons of Switzerland followed the example of
the king of Sweden, and a treaty of peace was con¬
cluded at Bafle on the 2 2d of July, between the repub¬
lic and the court of Spain, in confequence of which
France gave up all the conquefts fhe had made in that
country, and the original frontier was reftored 5 in re¬
turn for which the republic received all the Spaniffi part
of St Domingo. In this treaty the Dutch republic
was included, and the mediation of the king of Spain,
in favour of Portugal and the Italian princes, was ac¬
cepted by France.
On the 9th of June, the dauphin, the heir to the
throne of the unfortunate Louis XVI. and his only fon,
died in the prifon of the temple, where he was confined
with his lifter fince the death of the king. Some think
that his death was the confequence of difeafe, although
it is much more probable that he was poifoned, fince
there is no crime in the annals of human depravity
which the French rulers would have trembled to per¬
petrate, of which the numerous murders already detail¬
ed afford indubitable evidence. His death, however,
interefted the French nation fo deeply in favour of his
barbaroufly ufed family, that the convention found it
prudent to liberate the princefs. The committee of
public fafety propofed to the emperor to give her up in
exchange for the commiffioners whom Dumourier had
fent prifoners to the Auftrians, together with Semon-
ville and Marat, who were feized on their way to Tur¬
key as envoys extraordinary from the French republic.
4
4*S
Death of
Louis
XVII.
The propofal was agreed to, and the exchange took France.
place at Bafle in Switzerland. l'"— ’
If Britain was unfortunate in her affairs on the conti- I79'5,*
nent, Ihe ftill retained her fuperiority on the watery R t
element. A fleet under Admiral Hotham engaged aperiorbv”
French fleet on the 14th of March, and took two failiea.
of the line, the Ca Ira and Cenfeur ; but this was
nearly counterbalanced by the lofs of the Berwick and
Illuftrious. Three French fhips of the line were cap¬
tured by Lord Bridport on the 23d of June, in an at¬
tack on the enemy’s fleet off Port L’Orient, the reft of
the fleet effedling its efcape. As Britain thus evinced
upon all occafionsher fuperiority by fea, advantage was
taken of this circumftance to fend affiftance to the roya-
lifts in the weftern departments, which unfortunately
for them came too late, for the convention had offered
them a treaty which was accepted and figned at Nantz
on the 3d of March, on the one part by deputies from
the convention, and on the other by Charette, Sapi-
neau, and other chiefs of the infurgents of La Vendee,
and by Cormartin, as reprefentatives of the party called
Chouans or night owls. Stofflet fubmitted to the repub¬
lic on the 20th of April. The countenance given by
Britain to the royalifts made them difregard thefe trea¬
ties. The troops fent to their aid were compofed of
emigrants in the pay of Great Britain, and a number
of prifoners who agreed to join the royal caufe. Puifaye
commanded this motley army, and Count de Sombreuil
afterwards joined him with an inconfiderable reinforce¬
ment. This expedition arrived in the bay of Quiberon
on the 25th of June. Arms were put into the hands of
the inhabitants of the country, but it was foon found
that they could not be of much advantage to regular
troops. A refolution was therefore adopted to withdraw
the emigrant army within the peninfula of Quiberon,
the fort of which name was taken on the ^d of July,
the garrifort of which confifted of about 600 men, and
was afterwards occupied by the emigrants. All the
polls without thp peninfula were carried by an army
under General Hoche, the emigrants and Chouans ef-
caping into the boats of the Britilh fleet, or flying for
proteflion under the cannon of Quiberon fort. The re
publicans then began to ereft formidable works on the
heights of St Barbe, which commanded the entrance of
the peninfula. To prevent thefe operations, a fally on
the 7th was made from the fort, but without effeff,
and another with ftill greater force had no better fuc-
cefs. The whole forces in the peninfula amounted, in¬
cluding Chouans, to about 1 2,000 men, 5000 of whom
were fent to make an attack on the heights of St Barbe,
where the republicans were entrenched in three camps,
two of which were taken without difficulty 5 but as the
emigrants ruffied forward to attack the third, a malked
battery was opened upon them with grape Ihot, in con¬
fequence of which a dreadful flaughter enfued, and very
few of the emigrants tvould have effefted their efcape,
had not the fire from the Britilh Ihips compelled the re¬
publicans to abandon the purfuit. 430
It was now evident that a complete and ultimate fai-^a‘lure.°^
lure would be the fate of this expedition, and defertion ^
among the emigrants became very frequent, efpecially diucm.
thofe who had been liberated from priion on condition
of ferving againft the republic. The weather was very
tempeftuous on the evening of the 20th, which induced
the emigrants to indulge in a fatal fecurity. The troops
FRA [ :
, TrBncg. of the'republic were conduced in filence along an un-
guarded quarter of the fhore, and furprlfed one of the
7^5* polls, where they found the artillery men alleep. They
extinguithed the lanthorn which was intended to give
the Britiih fleet the alarm, and feized on their matches.
Some of the emigrants threw down their arms and join¬
ed the republicans, while others maintained an obftinate
Cornell before they furrendered. Count de Sombreuil
was taken and put to death, together with the bilhop
of Dol and his clergy, none being fpared but fuch as
pretended that their appearing againll the republicans
431 was purely owing to compulfion.
Continentd But to return to the affairs on the continent. The
fort of Luxembourg furrendered on the 7th of June, af¬
ter having been befieged lince the preceding campaign,
which put the French in pofleflion of the whole left
bank of the Rhine, Mentz only excepted, becaufe the
Aullrians could conveniently fupply it with every ne-
ceffary from the oppofite bank of the river. The repub¬
licans therefore determined to crofs the river, to invell
it on every fide ; but for fome time the attempt was de-
ayed, till the refult of the Quiberon expedition Ihould
be fully known. The paffage of the Rhine at Duflel-
dorf was effefled by General Jourdan in the month of
Augull, as commander of what was denominated the
army of the Sambre and Meufe. Having driven three
Aullrian polls before him, he croffed the Maine, and
invelled Mentz and Caflel, and Picbegru at the fame
time took poireffion of Manheim, having croffed the ri- '
ver near that city with the army of the Rhine and Mo-
A e* A ftrong detachment of this army having driven
Marlhal W urmfer from an important poll, began to
plunder and confequently run into confufion, of which
the Aullrians took a proper advantage, returned to the
charge, and the republicans were vanquilhed. Jourdan
was purfued by Clairfait to Duffeldorf, where the for¬
mer general made a Hand, and Pichegru recroffed the
Rhine near Manheim, leaving a garrifon in that city of
Sooo men, which, after a vigorous liege, furrendered to
* ie Aulfnans; and the republicans were driven from
the vicinity of Mentz. Little more was either loll or
won by the contending parties at this time, and they
mutually agreed to an armillice of three months
r,Jf f rhe of Heffe Caffe] entered into a treaty
with Ger- of peace with France on the 28th of Augull, which
man vv?s agr^ed to, on condition that he would furnifh Bri-
princes. tarn with no more troops during the war. Peace upon
fimflar terms was granted to the eleclor of Hanover ;
an the duke of Wirtemberg and fome other princes of
the German empire began to treat; but the negocia-
tions were broken off in confequence of the reverfe of
fortune which the French now experienced
Abfurd ,t, The however, ftill refolved to profecute
conduct of .. "T ,rlth "K0"1'.. and therefore made vaft prepara-
the direc- *10ns umang the winter for another campaign The
tory, Mountain party being again poffeffed of power, foon
began to difcover their relllefs, turbulent difpofition
which could not long fubmit peaceably to any govern¬
ment whatever, and became difgulled with that very
directory which they themfelves had eltablilhed. They
were perpetually dillurbing the public tranquillity. The
people of Pans, after the 5th of Oaober, durlt not op-
I av°w their abhorrence of the Jacobins, but it was
lineei flood that their wearing green cravats was a
Vol iT^Pan’l Th'S F'eCe °f drefS WaS Frollibited
France.
'79S-
] F R A
by the directory as a mark of attachment to toyalty.
Of this they were foon alhamed, and recalled their edidl
in^ few weeks. In the fouthern parts of France, the
piefent authority of the Jacobins produced very ferious
effects. Freron, by whom they had been abandoned
after the death of Robefpierre, returned to their caule
before the jth of October, and was fent to Toulon with
ull powers of adminiflration. He difmiffed the muni¬
cipality wdiich had been chofen by the people, reltored
the Jacobin clubs, and every perfon whom he fufpe£ted
ie cauled to be imprifoned. The directory was alarm-
e at the numeious complaints which were made from
every quarter againll the conduft of thofe turbulent
and bloody men, and refolved to obtain the confidence
mid affections of the people by deferting them entirely,
rreron was recalled from Toulon, and more moderate
men were made choice of to fucceed the reltlefs, fangui-
nary Jacobins. 434
The directory alfo made a public declaration that its wh“:h takes
confidence had been abufed. The police miniiter was avainTthe
charged with the removal from Paris of the members Jacobins,
of former revolutionary tribunals, and fuch as were ac-
tive leaders of the Jacobins. Ten thoufand men, called
the /egion of police, who aCted againft the Parifians on
the jth of OClober, and were decidedly the favourers
of the Jacobins, received orders from the directory and
legiilative body to join the armies on the frontiers,
which orders they refufed to obey, but were compelled
to fubmit by the interference of other troops brought
,a dldant. <3uarter to provide againft that event.
I his led the violent Jacobins to concert a plan for the
rum of the dire&ory and the majority of the councils,
who had now abandoned them. But as they w^ere a
confiderable time in being ready for aClion, their de-
figns were difeovered and completely defeated. The
guards were increafed on the 10th of May, and bodies
of cavalry w>ere llationed round the Luxembourg and
I hmHenes. The council of five hundred was inform-
ed by the diredory, that a terrible plot was ready to
built forth on the enfuing mourning. The confpirators
at the ringing of the morning bell, were to proceed in
Imall parties of three or four men each, to the houfes
of thole perfons whom they had fingled out for deftruc-
tion. Having murdered thefe, they were then to unite
m one body againll the direClory, whofe guard they
conceived themfelves qualified to vanquilh. The Jaco¬
bins m the mean time had nominated a new direClory
and legillature, from among the moll turbulent and
abandoned of their own perfuafion. Some of the lead¬
ers of this confpiracy were arrelled, among whom was
Drouet the pollmaller of Varennes, who Hopped the
unfortunate Louis on his way to the frontiers, and with
him ten others, who were condemned at Vendome, but
Drouet made his efcape.
the^iffrace^^f Wb-CbthJ JaC°blnS ^P^enced, and Moderate
-e dilgrace into which they were again brought, de-party.
termined the moderate party in the two councils to at¬
tempt to procure the repeal of the concluding decrees
o the convention which had granted them an amnelly,
and confirmed the laws againll emigrants, excluding
, friends from fucceedmg them. A number of
days were employed in the difeuffion of thefe topics,
but the moderate party gamed nothing in favour of the
emigrants, and nothing againft the Jacobins but this,
that luch as owed their prefervation to the amnefty,
X Ihould
FRA
[ 162 ]
FRA
437,
National
inthtute
Trance, fhouid not be deemed competent to hold any public of-
. ' fices.
I790‘ Another matter of no lefs a ferious nature now called
^ , for the attention of the republican government, which
AafeoTthe was the deplorable ftate of the finances.. While the
finances. tyrannical ufurpation of Robefpierre continued, terror
fupported the credit of the affignats, which joined to
the fale of the church lands, and the property of the
emigrants, furnifhed ample refources in the mean time *,
and no provifion was at all thoiight of for future exi¬
gencies. If money was wanted, more aflignats were
fabricated, and no enquiry was made concerning the
public expenditure, as no taxes were demanded from
the people. The diredtory complained to tire councils
of the great diftrefs under which they laboured, and of
the want of fufficient funds to meet the unavoidable ex-
pences of the enfuing campaign. A law was in confe-
quence paffed on the 25th of March, giving authority
to difpofe of the remainder of the church lands at the
value formerly fixed on them, which was 22 years pur-
chafe. A new paper currency, termed mandats, was
to be received in payment, but government had now
loft its credit. Thefe rapidly loft a great part of their
value, which increafed the demand for national proper¬
ty j and to prevent this, the legiflature decreed that
one-fourth of every purchafe fhould be paid in cafh,
which prevented the fale of the national property, and
the circulation of mandats.
During their preparations for the approaching cam¬
paign, the diredlory attempted to render themfelves po-
eftabliflied. pular at home, by the eftablifhment of the National
Inflitute, or fociety of men of letters under the protec¬
tion of government. Every man of erudition who had
efcaped the bloody perfecution of the Mountain party,
was invited to be a member. It was opened on the
4th of April, in the hall of the Louvre, when the am-
baffadors of Spain, Pruflia, Sweden, Denmark, Hol¬
land, America, Tufcany, Genoa, and Geneva, were
prefent, and the members of the diredfory in their robes
of ftate. The preftdent expreffed the determination of
the executive power to afford every encouragement to
the improvement of literature and the arts; and the pre-
fident of the inflitute replied that it w?as the determina¬
tion of the members to endeavour to give luftre to the
republican government by the exercife of their talents,
and by publications. The fpeeches w7ere enthuftaftical-
ly applauded by 1500 fpeftators, and the general ex-
pedlation wras, that France was now to enter on a ca¬
reer of glory and profperity wholly unprecedented.
Pro of 1 of About this time an approach torvards a negotiation
peace by with France was made on the part of Great Britain, by
Britain. Mr Wickham, ambaffador to the Swifs Cantons ; and on
the 8th of March, a note was communicated to M. Bar-
thelemy, ambaffador from the French republic. It was
alked, whether France would be willing to fend minifters
toa congrefs to negotiate peace with his Britannic majefty
and his allies ? Whether France would be inclined to
communicate the general grounds on which fhe would
be willing to conclude peace, that his majefty and his
allies might confider them in concert ? Laftly, wdrether
France would deftre to communicate any other mode of
accomplifhing a peace ? Whatever anfwer fhould be re¬
turned w7as to be tranfmitted to the Britifh court j but it
was at the fame time declared that Mr Wickham had
no authority to difeufs thefe fubjedls. An anfwer was
438
returned on the 26th of the fame month, by Barthelemy France, ,
in the name of the directory, complaining of the infin-'
cerity of the Britifh court, as its ambaffador had no au- x79 *
thority to negotiate, and that the propofal of a congrefs
made negotiation endlefs. It ftated the wifh of the di-
redtory to obtain peace, but that no portion of terri¬
tory would be relinquifhed, which formed part of the
republic by the conftitutional decree. To this note no
reply wras made j but it was complained of to the foreign
minifters refident at the court of London, and confider-
ed as leaving Britain no other alternative than the pro-
fecution of the war, at once both juft and neceffary. 439
During the winter feafon, the diredlory found means^y^
to reduce the weftern departments to proper fubjedtion.fubdue(ji
The expedition from England had tempted the royalifts
once more to try their fortune in the field of battle j but
after a number of defeats, their leaders Charette and
Stofflet were apprehended, and put to death on the 29th
of March, which tended to fupprefs the infurgents in
every quarter. Domeftic enemies being thus fubdued,
the republican government was enabled to make the
more vigorous exertions on the frontiers. Their mili¬
tary force wTas divided into three armies ; the army of
the Sambre and Meufe under Jourdan was principally
ftationed about Duffeldorf and Coblentz ; the army of
the Rhine and Mofelle, commanded by the celebrated
General Moreau, ftationed on the Upper Rhine, and
from Landau to Treves 3 and the third army occupied
the Italian coaft from Nice tow ards Genoa, the com¬
mand of which was beftowed on Bonaparte, a native of
Corfica, and one of the moft extraordinary men that
ever lived in any country, as our readers will perceive
in the fequel. 440
The army of Italy about this time was 56,000 ftrong, Bonaparte
which Bonaparte, at his arrival, found very ill eciuipped,^^1^
and in a ftate of mutiny for wrant of pay and necefiaries.of tiie arrr)?.
Wifhing them to prepare for immediate aftion, he ad-0f Italy,
dreffed them in the following manner : “ If w7e are to
be vanquifhed, we have already too much, and if we
conquer, we fhall want nothing.” He was anticipated
by the enemy. The Auftrians employed in the defence
of Italy under Beaulieu were more numerous than the
army of Bonaparte, to which were added 60,000 re¬
gular troops belonging to his Sardinian majefty, the
militia of the country, and about 2500 Neapolitan ca¬
valry. On the 9th of April the campaign was opened
by General Beaulieu, who attacked a poll called Voltn,
in the poffeflion of the republicans, fix leagues from
Genoa. They defended themfelves till the evening,
after which they retreated to Savona. Next day Beau¬
lieu fucceeded in all his attempts, till he reached Mon-
tenotte, the laft republican entrenchment, which con¬
tained 1500 men. Rampon, their commander, prevail¬
ed with them in a moment of enthufiafin, to fwear that
they would not furrender, in confequence of which they
fucceeded in arrefting the progrefs of the Auftrian ge¬
neral for the remaining part of the day.. Ihe right
wing of the French army was, during the night, ftation¬
ed in the rear of the redoubt of Mcntenotte, under La
Harpe, while Bonaparte, Maffena, Berthier, and Salj-
cetti, advanced by Altara, to take the enemy on their
flank and rear. Powerful reinforcements were in the
mean time lent to Beaulieu, who, on the morning of the
I ith again made an attack on La Harpe 3 but the ap¬
proach^ Maffena focn made the Auftrians and Sardi-
nians
France.
1796.
441
Tiefiles of
M illeftmo
forced by
Angereau.
>44*
Dego re¬
taken by
Bonaparte.
44.3.
Armiftice
with Sar¬
dinia.
F It A [ 163 J F It A
nians give way on all fides. Two of their generals
were wounded, 2500 were made prifoners, and the re¬
publicans purfued them beyond Cairo, which, on the
following day, fell into their hands.
General Angereau, on the 13th, forced the defiles of
Millefimo and by a rapid movement General Provera
was farrounded at the head of 1500 grenadiers j but
in dead of furrendering, this brave officer forced his way
through the enemy, and entrenched himfelf in the ruins
of an old caftle at the top of the hill. Angereau, with
Ids artillery, endeavoured to diflodge him; after which
lie arranged his troops into four columns, and made an
attempt to carry Provera’s entrenchments by florm,
which proved unfuccefsful, but the French had two
generals killed, and Joubert was wounded. The ad-
verfe armies faced each other on the 14th, while a di-
vifion wras left to continue the blockade of Provera.
The Aultrians made an unfuccefsful attack on the re¬
publican centre, wdiile Maffena turned the left flank of
their left wing in the vicinity of Dego, and La Harpe
turned the right flank of the fame wing. One column
kept in check the centre of the Auflrians, another at¬
tacked the flank of their left wing, and a third column
gained its rear. The republicans took 8000 prifoners,
and General Provera at laft furrendered.
General Beaulieu, after he was defeated at Millefimo,
made an effort fimilar to thofe which have been fre¬
quently found to change the fortune of war. With
7000 of his belt troops he made an attack upon the
village of Dego, where the republicans hfter their
fucceis -were indulging in fecurity. He made himfelf
mafter of the village, and the troops having rallied
under Maffena, that general employed the greater part
of the day in his efforts to retake it. The republicans
were three times repulfed, but Bonaparte having ar¬
rived in the evening with reinforcements, the pod; was
retaken, and 1400 men were made prifoners. Bona¬
parte was now, by defign, between the Auftrian and
Sardinian armies, his right wing being fecured by the
village of Dego againft the efforts of Beaulieu, while
he could a£t againfl the Piedmontefe troops with the
greater part of his force. Angereau powerfully fe-
conded his exertions, who had opened a communication
with the Tanaro, where Serrurier was approaching the
town of Ceva, in the vicinity of which there was a
Piedmontefe entrenched camp of 8000 men. The re¬
doubts covering this camp were, on the 16th, attacked
by General Angereau, capturing the greater part of
them, on which the Piedmontefe evacuated Ceva during
the night, and, on the 17th Serrurier entered it in
triumph. Count Colli repulfed Serrurier on the 20th ;
but Bonaparte, on the 22d, defeated him at Mondovi.
The Hying army endeavoured to make a Hand at Fof-
fano, its wings being at Coni and Cherafci, which latter
place wTas taken by Maffena on the 25th, when Foffano
was taken by Serrurier, and Alba by Angereau.
Prior to thefe movements, an armiftice was requefted
by Count Colli on the 23d, which General Bonaparte
granted, on condition that the fortrefies of Coni, Ceva,
and Tortona, fliould be given up to him, wdth their
magazines and artillery, and that he Ihould have per-
miffion to crofs the Po at Valentia. The armiftice was
figned on the 29th of April, and a definitive treaty was
concluded at Paris on the 1 7th of May. The condi¬
tions, in fo far as they concerned his Sardinian majefty,
w^ere unqueftionably humiliating. The duchy of Savoy FY„nee.
was given up to France for ever, as were alfo the ccun-
ties of Nice, Jende, and Bretueil. An amnefty rvas l79^‘
granted to all his fubjedls who were perfecuted for poli¬
tical opinions, and he agreed that the French troops
ftiould have free accefs to Italy through his territory.
He was to ereft no fortreffes on the ftde of France, to
demolilh thofe of Brunette and Sufa, and confefs that
his conduft to the laft republican ambaffador had been
difrefpedlful. 444
The republican army, in the mean time, advanced ^ formal
towards the Po ; but Beaulieu was deceived refpedling treaty'
one article of the armiftice, which granted permiffion
to Bonaparte to crofs that river at Valentia. Con¬
cluding that the republican chief - ferioufly intended to
crofs at this place, he made every poflible preparation
to oppofe him, while Bonaparte haftily penetrated into
Lombardy, and, on the 7th of May, was 60 miles down
the river to Placentia before the enemy could obtain
information of his route. He paffed the river without
difficulty. Six thoufand infantry and 2000 cavalry
wrere difpatched by Beaulieu to oppofe the paffage of
Bonaparte acrofs the river when it was too late, by
w’hom they were met and defeated on the following
day, at the village of Fombio. As 5000 more ad¬
vanced to the affiftance of thefe, they were repulfed by
La Harpe, at wffiich time that officer was killed. An
armiftice was granted by General Bonaparte on the 9th
to the duke of Parma, on condition that he paid
2,000,000 of French money, and delivered 10,coo
quintals of wheat, 5000 quintals of oats, and 2000 oxen
for the ufe of the army. He likewife agreed to give up
20 of his beft paintings, to be made choice of by the
republicans. This laft meafure w7as ftrongly objedled
to by feveral men of literature and artifts as foon as it
was known; but the diredlory difregarded every remon-
ftrance, and gave orders for fimilar ftipulations to be
inferted in every fubfequent treaty.
As General Beaulieu was forced to abandon the Po, Victory st
he croffed the Adda at Lodi, Pizzighitine, and Cre-L<xffi
mona, leaving fome troops to defend the approaches to
Lodi, which were attacked by the advanced guard of
the republicans on the 10th, who drove them into the
town, and purfued them fo rapidly, that there was no
time left to break down the bridge over the Adda.
Here the Auftrians defended the paffage with 30 pieces
of cannon, and the republican officers, after holding a
confultation, rvere of opinion that the bridge could not
be forced. Bonaparte, however, having demanded of
his grenadiers wffiether they were willing to make the
attempt, they commended the propofal, on which he
formed them into a clofe column, when they availed
themfelves of the darknefs occafioned by the fmoke of
the enemy’s artillery, and reached the middle of the
bridge unperceived, where 70c of them periffied by the
Auftrian cannon : but a number of republican officers
flew to the head of the column, urged on the brave
foldiers, broke into the Auftrian ranks, and made them
fly in all diregions. 445
It appears that nothing more wras expelled from the 'nd confe-
campaign of Bonaparte in Italy, than to induce the dif- p.uences °*
ferent princes and ftates to abandon the coalition againft
France, which every one of them affifted either with
troops, or with money and provifions. He made him¬
felf mafter of Ferrara, Bologna, and Urbino, granting
X 2 to
F K A [ 164 j FRA
Frat ce. to lixs Holinefs and tine duke of Modena an armiftice
V on the ufual terms, we mean large contributions, paint-
179^’ ings, and curiolities. The Neapolitan cabinet was i'o
terrified in confequence of his march into the Roman
territory, that it requefted a peace *, and Bonaparte
agreed to an armiftice without any of the humiliating
conditions demanded from the other ftates of Italy.
He next proceeded to Leghorn, in the neutral ftate of
Tufcany, in order to drive out the Englifh, and confif-
cate their property. In this manner did he linifti the
talk afligned him, before the commencement of the
campaign on the Rhine. It is true that Mantua was
Hill in pofi’effion of the Imperial troops 5 but it was in a
ftate of liege, and the reft of Italy was fubmiflive to the
Trench republic.
^ 447 ^ With a view to leflfen the exertions of the republicans
the Frer°h *n Rafy* the conteft in Germany was renewed by the
in Ger- Auftrians. General Jourdan was of confequence in-
many. formed, that the armiftice would terminate, and the war
be renewed, on the 31ft of May. Jourdan at this time
had to contend with General Wartenfteben, while the
archduke was at the head of the army in the Hundf-
ruck, to oppofe General Moreau on the Upper Rhine.
' A lingular ftratagem diftinguilhed the commencement
of the campaign on the part of the French, with a view
to decoy the whole of the Auftrian forces to the Lower
Rhine, that an opportunity might thus be afforded to
General Moreau of fuddenly entering Swabia, and car¬
rying the war to the hereditary territories of Auftria.
Jourdan began to make vigorous exertions, and Moreau
remained inactive. The lines of Duffeldorf were left
on the 31ft of May by the left wing of Jourdan’s army,
under the command of General Kleber, who defeated
the Auftrians in marching towards the Sieg. Ad¬
vancing with his centre and right wing, Jourdan forced
the Auftrian polls on the Nahe, effefted the paffage
of the Rhine, blockaded Ehrenbreitftein, and haftened
forward as if he defigned to form the liege of Mentz.
Thefe movements brought the archduke into the pe¬
rilous lituation of having Moreau in his front, and
Jourdan in his rear. He therefore crofted the river in
hafte, leaving the fortreffes of Mentz and Manheim to
retard the progrefs of Moreau. The archduke at¬
tacked the advanced guard of General Jourdan, which,
after an obftinate and bloody conflift, he forced to re¬
tire. Jourdan, upon this, retired to his former pofttions;
and Kleber, on the 20th, entered the lines of Duffeldorf,
from which he had taken his departure.
44S The archduke had no fooner withdrawn from the
Defeat of palatinate to force Jourdan down the Rhine, than Mo-
tlu'ke'”0 reau marc^e<i fpeedily towards Stralburgh, by which
Charles. the hoftile armies feemed as fall as poflible to be flying
from each other. The paffage of the river oppolite to
Kehl was effected by Moreau on the 24th of June,
which was attended with confiderable difficulty, a fudden
fwTell having prevented the Auftrians from being taken
by furpiife, which appears to have been the primary
intention of the republican commander. The entrench¬
ments on the iflands occupied by troops, were inftantly
carried at the point of the bayonet, and 2600 republi¬
cans effefted a landing on the oppofite fhore, where
they wTere expofed to the Auftrian cannon from the
camp of Wilftedt, and to the cannon of the fort j ftill,
however, they maintained their ground, and likewife
afted on the offeniive, till the boats Returned with rein¬
forcements, when the fort and redoubts were carried France,
by ilorm, and the Auftrians retreated towards Gffcn- <
burgh. 'MS-
In confequence of the archduke’s departure to Auftrums
Low’er Rhine in purfuit of General Jourdan, and the defeated
detachments fent to Italy to check the viftorious career by Moreau
of Bonaparte, General Moreau was in a fituation for
entering Swabia with a luperior force. On the 26th of
June he fucceeded in compelling the Auftrians to aban¬
don their camp at Wilftedt, and next day proceeded
with his army in three columns, againft another body oi
15,000 men before Offenburgh. A detachment from
General Wurmfer wTas fent to their afliftance, but thele
being defeated on their march by two republican co¬
lumns, and Offenburgh w^as evacuated during the night.
The mountain of Knubis was feized on the 2d of July
by a body of French under General Laroche. This is
the loftieft point in that ridge of mountains denominated
the Black Forejl. The Auftrians were next day driven
from the pafs of Friedenftadt, after an obftinate refift-
ance, by which their communication wdth the emigrants
under the Prince of Conde was entirely cut off. The
Auftrians wTere attacked at Raftadt on the 8th by the
left wing of the republican army, commanded by the
gallant General Deffaix, and, after a moil obftinate re¬
finance, were obliged to retreat to Ettingen. ^ ,Q
The archduke now arrived with his army on the The French
Lower Rhine, leaving Wartenfleben to check the pro-enter
grefs of General Jourdan, who began to aft upon the ^ran^tort*
offenfive as loon as the archduke departed. General
Kleber, as before, fet off from the lines of Duffeldorf,
and the centre and right wdng crofted the Rhine in the
vicinity of Coblentz. The French forced the polls of
Ukareth and Altenkirchen, and the whole army under
General Jourdan crofted the Lahn on the 9th of July,
and next day Wartenfleben was defeated with great
flaughter, and the lofs of 500 men taken prifoners j and
the republicans entered Frankfort on the 12th. The
two imperial armies w7ere now not far from each other,
being in the centre between thofe of Moreau and Jour¬
dan. Had the archduke found it practicable to refill
for a little one of thefe two armies of the French by a
detachment, while he rulhed upon the other with the
main body of his army, it is not improbable that an end
might thus have been put to any further invafion of the
Germanic empire j but the aftivity of the republican
officers wras not fo eafily checked, nor could their pro¬
grefs be arrelted by any partial exertions. His laft re-
lource, therefore, was to give battle to Moreau, which
was moll obftinately fought on both fides. The French,
in their endeavours to force the heights of Rollenfolhe,
were four times repulfed, and, after a moll terrible
flaughter, they carried the field at the point of the
bayonet. ^
In confequence of the lofs they fuftained at the battle phe arch-
of Ettingen, the two imperial armies retired eallw’ard, duke re¬
tire archduke retreating through Swabia towards Ulm, treats
where he had magazines. At every poll of any llrength
he made a Hand, in order to obftruft General Moreau’sJ
progrefs as much as poflible. Wartenfleben, in his re¬
treat through Franconia, made a fimilar oppofition to
the march of Jourdan. The archduke was forced by
Moreau to crofs the Neckar, and afterwards the Da¬
nube, by which means the whole circle of Swabia wTas
in the rear of the republicans. Wartenfleben was forced
to
FRA
[
"Prance.
X790.
45*
Great
alarm in
Germany.
453
The h'jufe
of Auftria
in danger.
454
Able con-
duel of the
archduke.
to retreat through Afchaffenbourg, Wartiburg, Schwein-
furt, and was obliged to crofs the Rednitz, in order
to dmn the array of Jourdan, which was preffing on his
rear. Jourdan continued to advance, till his right
wing, commanded by General Bernadotte, was polled
at Neumarck, his advanced polls at Teining, and the
main body of the army purfued Wartenlleben beyond
the Nab, having arrived at Amberg on the 2 2d of
Auguft.
The three republican armies commanded by Moreau,
Bonaparte, and Jourdan, were poifeired of the whole
country from the frontiers of Bohemia to the Adriatic,
excepting only a part of the mountains of Tyrol,
which caufed an alarm through the whole of Ger¬
many. The payment of 4,000,000 of French money
procured a peace for the duke of Wirtemberg ; and the
circle of Swabia obtained, on condition of paying
12,000,000 of livres, and delivering 8400 horfes,
5000 oxen, 100,000 quintals of wheat, 50,000 quin¬
tals of rye, ioo,oco facks of oats, 100,000 pairs of
ihoes, and a large quantity of hay. Peace was granted
to the margrave of Baden upon fimilar terms. Nego-
ciations were alfo entered into by the elector of Ba¬
varia and the circle of Franconia, having offered large
fums in order to procure it. Even the diet of Ra-
tiibon fent a deputation to the republican generals to
treat for a neutrality. Spain made a treaty with France,
both offenlive and defenlive, and war was in confequence
foon after declared againll Great Britain.
Bonaparte was detained Hill in Italy, whereas had it
been in his power to crofs the Tyrol at Infpruck, and
reach the Danube, it is more than probable that the
emperor of Germany would have been obliged to ac¬
cept of a peace upon any terms which the conquerors
thought proper to propofe. He was now abandoned
by every member of the coalition, Britain alone except¬
ed, whofe pecuniary aid enabled him to extricate him-
felf from the dangers which furrounded him. A com¬
mand of money raifed one army after another to check
the career of Bonaparte in Italy, while his German
armies were recruited by extenlive levies, and mercenary
troops belonging to the ftates which had made peace
with France.
The archduke Charles having received ftrong rein¬
forcements, came to the refolution of oppoling Moreau
at Umerlheim. A defperate battle was of confequence
fought, of 17 hours continuance, when one of the wings
of the Auftrian army fucceeded in gaining about four
leagues of territory in the rear of the republican army 5
but as the archduke was informed that Wartenlleben
could not maintain his ground againft the efforts of
General Jourdan, he deemed it prudent to retreat, and
adopt new meafures. On the 17th of Augult, he left
General La Tour to be a check upon Moreau, and
croffing the Danube at Ingolifadt, he marched to the
relief of General Wartenlleben, and with united forces
determined to fall upon Jourdan. On the 23d he made
an attack upon Bernadotte at Teining, whom he com¬
pelled to retreat towards Nuremberg. The archduke
was now'on the right of Jourdan, and Wartenfleben
was in front of him, which induced the French com¬
mander to retreat on the 24th. Such was the date
of the French finances at the beginning of this cam¬
paign, that the armies of Jourdan and Moreau were
under the neceffity of plundering wherever they came,
65 ] f R
to fupply their immediate wants.
A
France.'
1796.
455
ex- Moreau’s
This was particu¬
larly the cafe with Jourdan’s army, which w’hen it be- '
gan to retreat, differed almoil as much from the ex-
afperated inhabitants as from the oppoling army. The
archduke and Wartenlleben having united their forces,
the former wras enabled to difpatch General Nauendorf
with reinforcements to La Tour, to keep Moreau in
check, while he continued his purfuit of Jourdan to¬
wards Wurtzburg, where the French made a Hand, and
a fevere engagement took place on the 3d of Sep¬
tember. In this, General Jourdan was the greateft
fufferer, and he continued his retreat during the night.
Having croffed the Lahn, he made a feeble reliftance,
and marched along the banks of the Rhine, till his
army, on the 17th, arrived at Coblentz and Duffeldorf,
from which it had formerly departed.
The army of Moreau w'as now in a fituation
tremely perilous, yet he maintained his pofition till the fituation
17th of September, the very day on which JourdanT’gDy cri-
reached Duffeldorf $ but he was obvioully in a waver¬
ing condition as to his future movements, and one of
the greateft generals Europe ever beheld was now at
a lols what Itep to take. He made an unfuccefsful ef¬
fort to draw the archduke from the purfuit of Jourdan.
Many attacks w'ere made upon him, but without effeft;
and the Auftrian generals gave way to him w'herever
he turned. But finding that the retreat of Jourdan
was irretrieveable, and that General Bonaparte was ftill
detained in Italy, he finally refolved to retreat. To ,
prepare for this arduous undertaking, he had croffed the jj;s ^in_
Lech, w'hich he fuddenly repaffed, as if fully determin-paralleled
ed to penetrate farther into Auftria, and compelled La retreat.
Tour to fall back to Landfberg. Having thus obtain¬
ed a free paffage for his future movements, he began his
ever memorable and unexampled retreat, palling be¬
tween the Danube at Ulm and the lake of Conftance,
while La Tour continued prefling upon his rear. The
paffes of the Black Foreft wTere occupied by numerous
bodies of Auftrians and armed peafantry, while his
right dank was haraffed by Generals Nauendorf and
Petrafch, at the head of 24,000 men. He turned once
more upon La Tour wTith terrible impetuolity, defeated
him, and took 5000 prifoners, whom he wTas able to
carry to France. Fie after this continued his retreat,
checking Nauendorf and Petrafch wdth the right wTing
of his army under General Deffaix, and the reft of the
army cleared the paffages in front, till he reached the
Valley of Hell, a narrow defile extending for fome
leagues between lofty mountains, and in particular parts
of it not more than a few fathoms broad. 'Phis paf¬
fage wTas forced by the centre of his army in a mafs,
and the wings oppofed the enemy under Nauendorf and
La Tour. After this dreadful effort, he arrived at
Fribourg on the 13 th of Odftober. The archduke on
his arrival from the purfuit of Jourdan, forced him to
abandon his pofitions on the Swabian fide of the Rhine,
Kehl excepted, and a temporary fortification at Hun-
ingen, called a bridge-head. 457
As the French frontier at this time was in a defence-French
lefs fituation, the Imperial troops took advantage of it
to crofs the Rhine at Manheim, and to march in dif-^^ief^
ferent detachments to Weiffemburg, Seitz, Hagenau,
and nearly to the very gates of Strafburgh, levying
contributions, and demanding hoftages wherever they
came. When thefe detachments were recalled, the
archduke
FRA [ i65 ] FRA
Trance.
1796.
458
Bonaparte
victorious
in Italy.
459
Siege of
Mantua.
archduke formed the refolution of terminating the
campaign by the reduction of Kehl and the fortification
at Huningen, which he found to be no eafy talk. At
both thefe places a communication was open with the
French fide of the river, and the divifions of General
Moreau’s army did duty at them alternately. Much
of the winter was fpent by the Auilrians in endeavour¬
ing either to carry them by ftorm, or to reduce them
in confequence of a regular fiege. The French at laft
agreed to evacuate Kehl on the 10th of January, and
the fortification at Huningen was furrendered in the
month of February.
Although the republicans in Germany experienced
very confiderable reverfes of fortune, as we have juft
now feen, yet Bonaparte in Italy continued victorious.
Having laid all Italy under contribution, he enjoyed
the means of preferving a fecure and fteady difcipline
over a well paid army. The mode of fighting which
he adopted in all defperate cafes, was that of the clofe
column j the favourite method of Epaminondas and
Guftavus Adolphus. The ftile, too, in which he ad-
drefi'ed his army before any great adtion, was well a-
dapted to infpire them with enthufiafm. His fpeech to
his army when he firft entered Lombardy, deferves to
be remembered. “ Soldiers, you have rulhed like a
torrent from the fummit of the Appenines, you have
driven back and difperfed all who oppofed your march.
Your fathers, your mothers, your wives, your fifters,
your fweethearts, rejoice in your fucceft, and boaft with
pride ®f being related to you. But remains there no¬
thing more for you to eft'eCt ? Shall pofterity reproach
US with having found a Capua in Lombardy ? But I
already fee you rulhing to arms j an unmanly repofe
fatigues you, and the days loft to glory are loft to your
felicity. But let the people be tranquil •, we are the
friends of all nations, and more particularly of the def-
cendants of the Brutufes, the Scipios, and the illuftrious
perfonages -whom we have chofen as models. To re-
ftore the capitol, to replace with honour the ftatues of
the heroes who rendered it renowned, and to roufe the
Roman people, become torpid by fo many ages of
fiavery, fuch will be the fruit of your victories •, they
will form an epoch to pofterity, and you will have the
immortal glory of renovating the faireft portion of
Europe. The French nation, free and refpeCted by all
the world, will give to Europe a glorious peace. You
will then return to your homes, and your fellow-citizens,
who, when pointing to you, will fay, “ He wras of the
army of Italy.”
Bonaparte took up the firft part of the month of July
in commencing a regular fiege againft Mantua, expeCt-
ing to be mafter of that city towards the end of the
month. In this, however, he proved too fanguine, for
the military efforts of Auftria were very great, and the
pecuniary aid of Britain wras not refufed. Twenty
thoufand troops were fent from the Rhine, befides vaft
numbers from different quarters, fo that he was obliged
to raife the fiege, and provide for his own fafety in the
beft manner he could. Maffena w^as driven from his
poft at La Corona on the 29th of July, wdiile 15,000
Auftrians drove the republicans from Salo, and next
from Brefcia, wuth the whole of the ftores and maga¬
zines belonging to the army of General Bonaparte.
The Imperial troops, however, committed a fatal blun¬
der in their plan of operations, by dividing into two
2
1796.
46a
parts an army wdiich, when united was a match for the France,
enemy, and placing Bonaparte between them. Ot this'
blunder the republican chief wTas fully aware, and did
not fail to take advantage of it. He unexpectedly raif-
ed the fiege of Mantua, and leaving a fmall body of
troops to check the Auftrians, he marched rapidly weft-
ward, and retook Brefcia, with the magazines and hof-
pitals, on the ift of Auguft. As he had the mafs of
his army with him, he exceeded his enemies in numbers
vdierever he attacked them. Forming a large body of
his troops into clofe columns, the Auftrians extended
their line with the view7 of furrounding him, being not
yet acquainted with his manner of fighting, by which
means he penetrated their line in all directions, and
threw them into the greateft confufion. He made 4CC0
prifoners, and took 20 pieces of cannon. A divifion of
them finding Salo in poffeflion of the republicans,
wandered about in fearch of a road, by w’hich to make
their efcape, wdien they fummoned Lonado to furrender,
believing that the bulk of the French army had gone in
fearch of Wurmfer to give him battle. This was in¬
deed the cafe ; but Bonaparte wTas in Lonado wuth no
more than 1 200 men. Although this event no doubt
gave him much uneafinefs, yet with great prefence of
mind he threatened to deftroy their whole divifion for
infulting the French army, by fummoning its com¬
mander in chief to furrender. The Auftrian officers
believed that the whole army wras in the place, fo that
by this fingular ftratagem 4000 men were induced to
throw down their arms.
Marlhal Wurmfer w7as attacked by Bonaparte on the Deieat of
5th and 6th, and driven from Pefchiera and the river Wurmfer.
Mincio. The Auftrians were obliged to quit Verona
on the 7th, and again to betake themfelves to the
mountains of Tyrol j lofing in a conteft of fix days up¬
wards of 20,000 men, but fortunately three-fourths of
them w7ere prifoners. The fiege of Mantua was again
begun by the French, whofe works the enemy had de*
ftroyed in their abfence, and taken 140 pieces of can¬
non into the city which they had left behind. By this
lofs, the French could not undertake a regular fiege,
and General Wurmfer was in a condition to attempt the
relief of it by the beginning of September. Bonaparte
Laving been apprifed of his approach, left troops behind
him to carry on the blockade, while he directed his
march northward with the main body of his army, drove
the Auftrians from St Marco and Roveredo to the pafs
of Galliano, where they made a ftand. Here an en¬
gagement enfued, in which the Auftrians loft 6000
men taken prifoners, and the French entered Trent in
triumph. Inftead of retiring from the hero who had
vanquilhed him, Wurmfer threw himfelf into Baffano,
upon the flank and rear of Bonaparte, and then march¬
ed wdth rapidity towards Mantua. He endeavoured to
make a ftand at Baffano, but vras defeated, with the lofs
of 5000 men taken prifoners. He croffed the Adige
at Porto Legnago, and entered Mantua wuth no more
than 8500 men, infantry and cavalry. Great as this
veteran’s lofs was, it had the effetl of detaining Bona¬
parte in Italy, to watch the numerous garrifon of
Mantua. He expelled that its numbers would very
foon reduce it by famine to the neceflity of capitulating,
but in this he found himfelf difappointed, as the flefli of
the 4500 horfes which Wurmfer carried into it, af¬
forded fubftftence to the troops for a long time.
Such
France.
1796.
461
Revolt of
Corsica
from Bru
tain.
4^2
Th« Auf-
trians par¬
tially fuc-
cefsful.
4*3
Negotia¬
tions be¬
tween
Britain and
France.
F K A [1
Such was the fame of Bonaparte as a general, on
account of the viftories he obtained over the Auftrians,
that his countrymen, the Corficans, difcovered an in¬
clination to throw off the Britilh yoke, and be united
to France. They became of courfe fo mutinous, that
the viceroy deemed it neceffary to evacuate the ifland,
the fubmiffion of Italy to the republic having greatly
diminilhed its value. The imperial fubje&s in Italy, to¬
gether with the inhabitants of Bologna, Ferrara, and
Modena, now began to form themfelves into republics,
under the patronage of General Bonaparte ; they fent
deputies to the convention, raifed troops, and abolilhed
all orders of nobility.
The emperor foon after endeavoured to relieve Man¬
tua, by fending another army into Italy, under the
command of General Alvinzi, who having croffed the
Piava, was met by the republicans, and compelled to
repafs the river. Davidovich with his divifion having
driven the French down the Adige towards Verona,
General Bonaparte found it neceffary to concentrate his
forces. He therefore left General Vaubois as a check
to the progrefs of Davidovich, and marched in perfon
againft General Alvinzi, and wTas met by the Auftrians
at the village of Arcole. As this village could not be
turned fpeedily, on account of a canal, the French
were obliged to attempt the paffage of a narrow bridge
in the face of the Auftrian fire. Their officers ruffied
to the head of the column which had undertaken it, but
in vain endeavoured to rally them. Angereau advan¬
ced to the end of the bridge wuth a ftandard 5 but he
wTas followed by none, wffien the commander in chief
haftened to the bridge, and exclaimed, Grenadiers, fol¬
low your general ! They follow-ed till within 30 yards
of the bridge, v/hen they w^ere intimidated by the tre¬
mendous fire of the Auftrians, and Bonaparte judged
it proper to fall back. In the evening General Guieux
took the village at the head of 2000 men, but again
left the Auftrians in the poffeffion of it. On the 16th
of November a defperate engagement took place in the
vicinity of Arcole ; and next day the Auftrians preffing
on the centre of the republican army, wrere unexpefled-
ly taken on their flank by the left wung of the enemy,
which was lying in ambufcade. Bonaparte fent a party
of horfe and 25 trumpeters round to the rear of the
Auftrians, who concluded, from the terrible noife, that
they were furrounded, and fled on all fides in the utmoft
confufion.
Having driven Alvinzi acrofs the Brenta, Bonaparte
returned ; the pofitions of Rivoli and La Corona rvere
refumed, and Davidovich driven back into Tyrol. Ge¬
neral Wurmfer ftill defended Mantua during the re¬
maining part of the year; fo that nothing farther may
be faid to have been gained by fo many victories, but
to confider Bonaparte as their only invincible com¬
mander.
During thefe tranfa&ions in the field of battle, Great
Britain made a laudable effort to negotiate with France.
Paffports were obtained from the directory, and Lord
Malmefbury fet out as ambaffador to Paris. He began
the negotiation with De la Croix, the minifter for fo¬
reign affairs ; but his lordfliip foon found that the di-
reflory had no fcrious intention of concluding a treaty
with Britain. While the Britifti miniftry, as individuals,
did not approve of a peace at that time, yet officially
they confidered it as proper, if it could be obtained up-
1796
464
67 ] FRA
on honourable terms. It was propofed by Lord Malmef- France
bury, that the principle of mutual reftitutions ftiould be
agreed upon as the bafts of the treaty, and the direftory
withed that the objefts ftiould be fpecified. Lord
Maimefbury therefore faid, that the French ihould give
up the Auftrian Netherlands, for which Britain would
give up the foreign fettlements belonging to the repub¬
lic. Many of the Dutch polfeflions abroad wrere alfo
to be relinquiffied, on condition that the authority of
the ftadtholder fhould be acknowdedged. Fie was next
required to give in the ultimatum of his conditions in 2 4
hours j and on complaining of this demand, he wras in¬
formed on the 19th of December, that the direftory
wmuld agree to no conditions repugnant to the French
conftitution ; and he was informed that his farther refi-
dence at Paris was unneceffary.
During this year Great Britain maintained her ac- Cape of
cuftomed fuperiority at fea. The Cape of Good Hope Gooc* Hope
w'as taken by Admiral Elphinftone on the 16th of Sep-^6^^
tember 1795, which the Dutch rvere extremely anxious ' '
to recover, for wffiich purpofe they advanced money to
the French to fit out a fquadron to combine with them
in an attempt to reduce it. Seven ftiips of wTar were
fent to retake the Cape, under the command of Admi¬
ral L ucas, but having been caught between two fires,
he could not effeft his efcape, and therefore he furren-
dered to the Britifti admiral without firing a gun. ^
Although Britain was fuperior by fea, yet an inva- The French
fion of Ireland was attempted by the French in the end make an
of 1796; but as folly feemed to have concerted the attem^toa
plan, it was of confequence abortive. The whole was Ireland! ^
committed to one man, General Hoche, without any
fecond to occupy his place on the event of an accident.
The difaffefted party in Ireland had received no infor¬
mation of their approach, and the fleet was fent towards
a part of the country where the people were not very
much difpofed to receive them. In this expedition 18
fail of the line, 13 frigates, 12 Hoops, and tranfports
wfth 25,000 men, were employed. It was detained for
fome time when ready for failing, in confequence of a
mutiny. Hoche fet fail on the loth of December, but
in working out of Breft, a ffiip of the line was loft, and
fome more of them confiderably damaged. The frigate
which had on board the commander in chief was fepa-
rated from the fleet by a gale of wind, in confequence
of which, when moft of the fleet arrived at Bantry
Bay, they were without inftruftions how to proceed.
The officers and troops wiffied to land, but Admiral
Bouvet refufed to comply. After remaining for fome
days on the coaft, he failed for France, and reached
Breft with part of the fleet on the 31ft. General
Hoche reached Bantry Bay when it was too late, and
confequently could not land. One ffiip of the line and
twx) frigates foundered at fea, a frigate w'as captured by
the Britiffi, and a fliip of the line was run afhore, to
prevent her from being taken.
In the beginning of the year 1797, the archduke Ad^ntagrr
Charles was ftill employed in his endeavours to reduce g^w.ed by
Kehl, and the fortifications oppofite to Huningen, Mo-tke Auf~
reau being ftill his antagonift. General Hoche w'as ap-trians-
pointed to fucceed Jourdan on the Rhine, and Bona¬
parte was ftill engaged in the fiege of Mantua, while
powerful efforts were making to recruit the army of
Alyinzi. The youth of Vienna were requefted to grant
their afliftance, when 6000 of them volunteered their
fervici~? -
FRA [i
.Trance, fervices for Italy. General Alvinzi’s army was now
» 50,000 ftrong, with which he continued to alarm the
*191’ republicans in all direftions, in order to conceal from
them the plan of his future operations. Bonaparte was
ftill at Bologna, to prevent the efcape of General Wurm-
fer by that quarter, which he underftood, by an inter¬
cepted letter, was his deiign. Having been informed
of the approach of the Auftrian army, he haftened to
Mantua, and from that city to Verona, where the
centre of his line was oppofed to Alvinzi j but as the
Auftrians continued to attack all quarters at once, he
could not penetrate the defign of their commander. On
the 13th of January the movements of the enemy be¬
came more ferious on the lower part of his line near
Porto Legnago 5 but in the evening being informed
that the upper extremity of it under Joubert, had been
attacked by vaftly fuperior numbers, there he concluded
that the Auftrians were in greateft force. Still the
Auftrians perfifted in the abfurd plan of dividing their
army—an abfurdity which melancholy experience had
not taught them to corredt. Ten thoufand troops, in¬
cluding the Vienna volunteers, received orders to pro¬
ceed to Mantua by Porto Legnago, at the lower end
of the republican line, while Alvinzi in perfon advanced
againft Joubert, who was forced to retreat, and was re¬
duced to fuch a fituation, that the capture of his whole
divilion on the following day (the 14th) feemed highly
probable.
4^7 Bonaparte having received information refpe&ing the
lefeatec}6 ftate of affairs, left Verona on the 13th, having order¬
ed Maffena to follow him with the centre to Rivoli as
faft as poflible. On the 14th, at the break of day, the
divifion of Joubert made an attack on the Auftrians, at
which they wexe very much furprifed, not knowing
that Bonaparte had arrived with reinforcements. The
fuperior numbers of the Auftrians defeated all the en¬
deavours of the French troops to turn their divifions j
and the two wings of the republican army were driven
back upon the centre in confiderable confufton. Al¬
vinzi engaged the centre, which with difficulty main¬
tained its ground ; and the Auftrian wings advancing
on both Tides, entirely furrounded the French. The
vidlory feemed already won, and it is even reported
that General Alvinzi fent a courier to Vienna, to an¬
nounce the approaching capture of Bonaparte and all
his army. There can be no doubt that the republican
chief was now greatly alarmed, yet he ftill confidered
it in his power to make a laft effort. Forming three
ftrong columns, he difpatched them againft the right
wing of the Auftrians, which they penetrated at various
points, and made it fly in fuch confufion that, having
met a party of republicans which had not arrived in
•time to join the army, 4000 Auftrians laid down their
arms, and furrendered themfelves prifoners of war.
Bonaparte apprehending that this part of his line was
no longer in danger, left Joubert to profecute the vic¬
tory, and went to oppofe the march of Provera. A
party under General Murat having continued their
march all the night of the 14th after the battle, feized
on Montebaldo in the rear of the pofition at Corona, to
which part of the Auftrians retreated, while Joubert
on the following morning attacked them in front. Be¬
ing thus furrounded, they were thrown into confufion,
6000 of them were taken prifoners, and numbers pe-
rifhed in attempting to crofs the Adige.
1
1797*
40s
’ Surrender
68 ] FRA
During this bloody conflift on the upper part of this France,
river, General Provera forced his paffage acrofs the
lower part of it near Porto Legnago, and obliged the
republican general Guieux to retreat to Ronco. As ,
Provera was marching rapidly to Mantua, General An- ofpJiantua.
gereau came up with his rear, and made 2000 prifon¬
ers j but the Auftrian general reached the neighbour¬
hood of that city on the 15th, which was blockaded at
St George and La Favourite. He fummoned the re¬
publican commander here to furrender, but he having
refufed to comply, Provera endeavoured, without fuc-
cefs, to carry it by affault. He next made an attack
upon La Favourite, and was leconded by Wurmfer with
the troops in the garrifon, who had perceived his arri¬
val ; but as Bonaparte had arrived with reinforcements,
General Wurmfer w^as defeated, and Provera being
furrounded by the French, lurrendered himfelf and his
troops as priioners of wur. In confequence of thefe en¬
gagements at Rivoli and Mantua, the Auftrians loft
23,000 men taken prifoners, and 60 pieces of cannon.
The furrender of Mantua was now inevitable, on ac¬
count of abfolute famine, and therefore it capitulated
on the 2d of February. That Bonaparte might allow
the French emigrants to efcape, he alknved General
Wurmfer to feleft and take out of the garrifon 700
men who were not to be examined, nor viewed as pri¬
foners of war, and the general himfelf was to depart un¬
conditionally. ^
The moft a£live and vigorous preparations were mak- p0pe’s
ing by the emperor and the French, for recommencing forces fub-
their bloody conteff on the German frontiers, and there-dued,
fore it was of importance for Bonaparte to leave Italy
in his rear in a ftate of tranquillity. He fent General
Vidtor on the ift of February, together with the Loin-
bard legion, to enter the papal territories 5 and after
the furrender of Mantua, General Bonaparte followed
in perfon. The Lombard legion, after ftorming the
entrenchments of the pope’s troops, made 1000 of them
prifoners, and took all their cannon. General Colli
had carried away moft of the treafure from the chapel
at Loretto ; but the republicans ftill found articles of
gold and filver worth a million of livres, and the image
of the virgin was fent to Paris as a curiofity. At To-
lentino the republican chief was met by a meffenger
from the pope w ith an overture of peace, and a treaty
was concluded on the 19th. The pope promifed to
pay 15,000,000 of livres, and to deliver 800 cavalry
horfes, with a like number of draught horfes and oxen.
He alio agreed to pay 300,000 livres to the family of
the French ambaffador Baffeville, whom the rabble had
murdered at Rome, and to make an apology by his mi-
nifter at Paris for that event.
The French having been fo unfortunate in their in-Reintorce-
vafion of Germany by the way of Swabia and Fran- merits fent
conia, now determined to make their principal at-t0 i'0ria*
tempt from Italy under the command of General Bona-^1*1^”
parte. Vaft bodies of troops were therefore detached
by the directory from thofe who had lerved under Mo¬
reau, and fent as fecretly as poflible towards Italy by
the w’ay of Savoy. The impending danger was how¬
ever perceived by the court of Vienna, and therefore
gave the command on the fide of Italy to the archduke
Charles, he being the only Auftrian who had hitherto
been fuccefsful againft the republicans. The war was
now about to be carried into new territories, where a
foe
1797-
471
Error of
the court
of Vienna.
47 2
Frogrefs of
FRA [i
France, foe Lad fcarcely ever been feen by the houfe of Auftria.
It was neceffary that Bonaparte fliould once more force
his way over the Alps, that immenfe chain of moun-
tains which rifes in the neighbourhood of Toulon, and
llretching northward, obtains the names of Piedmont
and Savoy. It then takes an eafterly dire£Hon, form*
ing the countries of Switzerland, Tyrol, Carinthia, and
Carniola. The three laff of thefe palling along the A-
driatic, conftitute the frontier, in this quarter, of the he¬
reditary Hates of Auftria. The fertile and level coun¬
try, which belonged to Venice, lies between the moun¬
tains and the fea. It is crofled by many fheams which are
increafed by the melting fnows of the Alps, and whofe
peculiar charadteriftic is this, that they are greateft in
fummer, and leall in winter.
The archduke, inftead of making a Hand in the de¬
files of the mountains, was fent into the plain to guard
the paffages of the rivers •, a very important blunder
which entered into the plan of defence adopted by the
council of wTar at Vienna.
While Bonaparte continued to advance to the terri-
Bonaparte’s tories of the pope, the arrangement of the Auftrian
army. army was going forward along the eaftern bank of the
Piava, The republicans were on the oppofite fide, and
Bonaparte, after quitting the papal territories, haflened
to join them. Having effected the paffage of the Piava
on the 12th of March, the Auftrians retired, fkirmilh-
ing for fome days, till they croffed the Tagliamento,
w'here they halted with their whole force. The repub¬
lican army reached, on the 17th, Valvefone, on the op¬
pofite fide of the river, which after fome hefitation they
determined to crofs. The ftream having been diminith-
ed by the froft, the French croffed it in columns at dif¬
ferent points. Joubert with the left wing received or¬
ders to pafs along the valley of the river Drave, be¬
yond the higheft chain of the Noric Alps. Maffena at
the head of the centre divilion, paffed into the defiles of
thefe mountains, and the right divilion, commanded by
Bonaparte, marched along the coaft of the Adriatic.
On the 19th, the town of Gradifca, on the river
01 Gradifca. Lifonzo, furrendered to the right wing of the army j
and its garrifon, confifting of 3000 men, were made
prifoners. The fame divilion entered Goritz on the
2ill, where it found the principal magazines and hofpi-
tals belonging to the Auftrians. Triefte was taken on
the 23d, and materials worth 2,000,000 of livres were
fent off by the French from the quicklilver mines of
Ydria. On the 24th a large body of Auftrians was
confined by Maffena, and a part of the right wing
commanded by General Guieux ; but they having pro¬
cured reinforcements from the archduke, engaged the
French next day, and were defeated, having loft 5000
prifoners and 400 baggage waggons. Equal fuccefs
attended the left wing under Joubert, Baraguay, D’
Hilliers, 'and Delmas. Four thoufand Auftrians were
taken on the banks of the Lavis, and they were defeat¬
ed at Clauzen, with the lofs of 1500 prifoners. This
divilion then directed its march eaftward, along the val¬
ley of the Drave towards Clagenfurt, the metropolis of
Carinthia, where it was met by General Maffena, that
officer having obliged the archduke to evacuate his head¬
quarters, and proceed nearer to the capital of the em¬
pire, which now began to be in danger. In 13 days
General Bonaparte took 20,000 prifoners, and effected
the paffage of the Alps, after which there was no place
Vol. IX. Part I.
69 ]
FRA
1797.
473
Surrender
474
of fufficient ftrength to arreft his progrefs to Vienna. Franc?
Yet it mull be confeffed that his own lituation was notv
free from danger, and therefore he prudently embraced
this moment of unprecedented fuccefs to make overtures
of peace. He wrote to the archduke on the 31ft of
March, deprecating the continuance of the war, and
entreating him to ufe his influence for putting a period
to its ravages. This prince evalively replied, that it did
not belong to him to inveftigate the principles on which
the war was carried on, and that he had no power to
negotiate.
The Auftrians raifed the peafantry in the Tyrol,. toPa!tlal ,uc"
harafs the rear of the French army, by which they p.
gained fome advantages under General Laudohn, and
drove out the republican troops which had been left at
Botzen and Brixen. The people of the Venetian ftates
afted a fimilar part again!! the troops left in them, and
with the aftiftance of 10 Sclavonian regiments, they
murdered every Frenchman they could find, not fparing
even the lick in the hofpitals, of whom 500 were maf-
facred at Verona. The Auftrians attempted to fur-
round the invading army j but Bonaparte knew that
the embarraffment of the court of Vienna rvas at leal!
equal to his own. He was at the head of 95,000 men,
hitherto irreliftible \ and the Auftrians could not but
know that to furround his army was not to vanquilh it,
on wThich account he pcrfifted in advancing. On the
2d of April, after a bloody conflifl, he forced the
ftrong defiles between Freifach and Newmark, making
600 prifoners. His advanced guard reached Hunfmark
on the 4th, where they again defeated the Auftrians,
which induced the cabinet of Auftria to treat for peace,
there being no place where the army of the archduke
could make a Hand, till it came to the mountains in
the neighbourhood of Vienna. Bellegarde and Mor-
veld xequefted a fufpenfion of hoftilities from Bona¬
parte, while care wTas taken to remove the public trea-
fure and effefls into Hungary. The French command¬
er confented, on condition of getting poffellion of
Gratz and Leoben, about 50 miles from Vienna. This
was on the 7th of April, and the armiftice which was
to expire on the 13th, was afterwards renewed for a
longer period. A preliminary v.ty followed this on
the j 9th, by which the French were to retain the Auf¬
trian Netherlands, and the republic of Lombardy
Ihould be called the Cifalpine republic, comprehending
the Milanefe, Mantua, Modena, Ferrara, and Bolog¬
na. Bonaparte confented to return to Italy, if his army
fhould be fupplied with provilions during its march, and
all farther difputes w7ere to be fettled by a definitive treaty
of peace. He brought an accufation again!! the Vene¬
tian government for conniving at the murder of the
French during his abfence, and having poffeffed him-
felf of the city and territories, he diffolved that ancient
ariftocracy. 4^
During the approach of Bonaparte towards Vienna, p‘ace con-
the republican armies on the Rhine were preffing on the c^lc^e^
Auftrians, that they might not have it in their pow’er pnuwe ‘'u.d
to fend reinforcements againft him. An armiftice was Auftria.
offered by the Auftrians, but fince the French required
Ehrenbreitftein as a compenfation, both parties refolv-
ed to profecute the ,wTar. The left wdng of the army of
General Hoche proceeded from Duffeldorf, while the
centre and right wdng croffed the river near Coblentz.
On the 18th of April a fierce conteft took place be-
Y tweeh
FRA
Fratice tween the hoftile armies near the Lahn, in which the
v Auftrians loft 4000 taken prifoners. General Moreau ha-
*191' ving forced the pafl'age of the Upper Rhine near Strafburg,
attacked and carried the village of JDierfheim. Next
day the conflift was renewed with fuch vigour on the
part of the republicans, that the fort of Kehl was tak¬
en, and 5000 Auftrians were made prifoners. They
■were next purfued towards the Danube, when all mili¬
tary operations were inftantly fufpended by melTengers
difpatched through Germany from the archduke and
Bonaparte, with the joyful news that peace was con¬
cluded. On the arrival of thefe meffengers, the army
of General Hoche was making a defperate attack upon
Francfort on the Maine, which General Warnecht was
employing every effort to proteft. Both armies fud-
denly received the news, the hoftile troops threw down
their arms, and congratulated each other on the happy
6 event.
ftanges in conteft of an alarming nature was now fall ap-
the direc- proaching between the legiflative and executive branches
of the French government. A third part of the legiila-
tive body was now to be changed. On the 19th of
May, Letourneur went out of the direftory by lot; on
the 20th the new third took their feats, and on the 21ft
Barthelemy was chofen a member of the directory in
the room of Letourneur. Pichegru, Jourdan and Wil-
lot, were among the members of the new third, fo that
a decided majority of both councils was of the moderate
party 5 and two members of the directory, Carnot and
Barthelemy, were underftood to be men of the fame de-
fcription. Every meafure was adopted which tended to
render the Mountain party odious, or embarrafs the
477 direftory.
New plan Gilbert Defmolieres, on the 14th of June, brought
ef-finance; up a report from a committee on the ftate of the finan¬
ces, in which he inveighed againft the prodigality and
profufion of the directory and its agents in the ftrongeft
language. A new plan of finance wras propofed by the
fame committee on the 18th, which went to take from
the direftory the adminiftration of the public money.
On the preceding day Camille Jourdan prefented a re¬
port of great length on the fubject of religion, wherein
he infifted on the impropriety of forbidding its ceremo¬
nies to be publicly difplayed, and the iniquitous nature
of that perfecution which its minifters had fuffered, be-
caufe they could not take the oaths prefcribed by the
legillature. The council of five hundred decreed, on
the 15th of July, that all the laws againft refractory
priefts fhould be repealed j and on the following day a
decree requiring from them an oath of fidelity to the
47g conftitution, was carried by a majority of no more than
«ind lenient fix members. Emery, a new member, propofed the re-
ineafures in pea] Qf laws by which the property of emigrants
the°miefts. ^aci 136611 conhfcatech and that their relations fhould be
confidered as competent to fucceed them. Such as had
fled into foreign countries from Toulon and other parts
of the nation, received encouragement to return home,
and allowed to cherifh the expectation that their names
would be expunged from the lift of emigrants.
The royal- The difcuflion which thefe topics underwent made
jfts aflame the diredtory and the councils profeffed enemies to each
frefli cou- 0ther. The latter wifhed the former to be changed be-
rage‘ fore the expiration of the legal time, and the diredtory
wifhed to deprive many new members of their feats who
had been eledled by the people. A? was jathejr
F R A
the moft odious member of the diredtory, an effort was France.
jnade to deprive him of his feat, under the pretence that  v—^
he was lefs than the legal age of 40$ but his colleagues I797'
maintained that he was born in the year 1755, and it
feems no proof of the contrary could be produced.
Still the diredtory did not want a number of adherents.
The refolution of the councils in favour of the priefts
had the appearance of a counter-revolution, which indu¬
ced the royalifts to refume courage, and journals v/ere ra¬
pidly publifhed in defence of their caufe. The councils
received information on the 20th of July, that a divi-
fion of the army under General Hoche was within a
few leagues of Paris, while the conftitution declared
that the diredlory incurred the penalty of ten years im-
prifonment, if it brought any troops nearer the refidence
of the legiflative body than twelve leagues without its
confent. An explanation was demanded, when the di
redtory declared their ignorance of the march, having
been undertaken wdthout any orders from them, and
purely owing to a miftake of the officer by 'whom it
wTas condudted j but the councils paid little regard to
fuch an allegation. The mutinous fuburb of St An¬
toine adhered to the majority of the directory, which
encouraged them fo much, that they loft no time in
proceeding to adlion. General Angereau had been
lent for from Italy, under the pretext of delivering to
the diredfory fome ftandards taken from the enemy.
The Thuilleries was furrounded by Angereau on the
morning of the 4th, -with a divifion of the troops, -when
the guard of the councils refufed to adl againft them,
and Ramel their commander was made prifoner. On
entering the hall, he found Pichegru and twelve more
of the chiefs of the oppofite fadtion, whom he immedi¬
ately fent prifoners to the temple. Carnot made his
efcape on the preceding evening, but Barthelemy re¬
mained and vcas put under arreft. When feveral mem¬
bers of the councils came to the hall at the ufual hour,
they were aftonifhed to find that feals had been put
upon the doors, and that they could not find admit¬
tance. They were ordered to go to the furgeon’s hall,
where the diredfory, it was faid, had appointed them to
meet. Of both councils not more than 120 members
affembled, who fent to obtain from the diredfory an ac¬
count of the late proceedings. They were given to un-
derftand that what had been done was abfolutely necef-
fary for the falvation of the republic, congratulating the
duped councils on their efcape from the machinations of
the royalifts. According to the report of Boullay de
la Meurth, a vaft royalift confpiracy, the centre of
which was in the bofom of the councils, was endeavour¬
ing to fubvert the conftitution, but that the indefati¬
gable diligence and adfivity of the diredfory had defeat¬
ed all their attempts ! It was propofed to tranlport the
confpirators without a trial, and the councils were fo
completely impofed upon as to vote the tranfportation
of 53 of their own members, and twelve other perfons,
among which number were included the diredfors Car¬
not and Barthelemy.
During the whole of thefe tranfadfions the city of Parisi *
remained in a ftate of tranquillity. Its unfortunate
ftruggle on the 5th of Oftober had fo completely fub-
dued the ardour of the inhabitants, that they allowed
the national reprefentation to be violated with im¬
punity, and liberty to be trampled under foot, without
a fingle exertion in its defence. The diredfory ex¬
cised
[ i"0 1
VrSnce.
97
4S0
*Treaty of
tampo
Formio.
481
A body of
French
troops [and
in Wales.
FRA [1
culed tlieir conduft to the nation under pretence of the
exigence of a royalift confpiracy. General Pichegru, it
was faid, had oft'ered to join the emigrants under tlfe
prince of Conde, and the Aullrians commanded by
General Wurmfer, and with this aggregate force to
march dire&ly to Paris, for the re-eftablilhment of
Royalty. There are certain circumftances which lead
us to lufpedl that this was a fabrication: for at the time
when this fuppofed. correfpondenbe became public, it
was denied to be genuine j and Moreau who was impli¬
cated in this confpiracy, was after this employed in the
fervice of the republic, to whofe military fldll and fide¬
lity the French rulers feemed willing to commit the fal-
vation of the country.
The diredtory was now very powerful, but its mem¬
bers foon became giddy from the elevated nature of
their fituation, and feemed to adl under the dangerous
conviclion, that there was nothing in which they might
not venture to engage, whatever might be the rapacity
or ambition attached to it. WJhile contending with
the councils, they prolonged the negotiations with Lord
Malmefbury, adling in a fimilar manner refpedling
thofe which had been entered into between Bonaparte
and the imperial ambaffadors at Campo Formio. Great
Britain offered to make peace with France, if permitted
to retain poirdlion of the Cape of Good Hope, together
with the Spanifh ifland of Frinidad. Fhe negotiations
with the emperor were fpeedily terminated, and on the
17th of Odlober a definitive treaty was figned at Campo
Formio. The Netherlands were given up to the repub¬
lic, the Milanefe to the Cifalpine republic, and his
territories in the Brifgaw to the duke of Modena, to
compenfate for the lofs of his duchy in Italy. It was
likewife agreed by the emperor that the French fhould
poffefs the Venetian iflands in the Levant, namely, Corfu,
^ante, Cephalonia, Santa M[aura, Cerigo and others.
The emperor was to have the city of Venice with its
remaining territory, from the extremity of Dalmatia,
as far as the Adige and the lake Garda. The Auilrians
accordingly left the'Rhine, by which means the repub¬
licans were enabled to furround Mentz and Ehrenbreit-
flein, the former of which was captured in a fhort
time, but the latter required a Very tedious blockade
before it would furrender. Venice was at the fame
time entered by the Auitrians, the French having left
it, and Bonaparte, when about to march out of Italv
left 25,000 men to garrifon Mantua, Brefcia, Milan’
and fome other places, and to preferve this new republic
in a ftate of dependence upon France.
It is faid that the diredlory about this time endea¬
voured to force America to purchafe a forbearance
from war by a large fum of money together with a pri¬
vate prefent of 50,000!. to the members of the direc¬
tory. The lait part of this charge was denied by the
minifter Talleyrand, but the general impreffion it pro¬
duced could not be effaced, and the directory was thus
very much injured in the eftimation of fuch countries
as were otherwile difpofed to view it in a very favour¬
able light.. To leffen its reputation ftill more, it caufed
the councils to pals two laws, by which all neutral
fhips on their way to Britain or returning from it, fhould
be liable to be leized. Thefe, however, produced an
effedl very different from that which was intended; for
having put all the trade of the wellern world into the
power of the Britilh, they enriched the very people
4S2
71 ] FRA
whom they were meant to ruin. Britain at this time France.
held the empire of the feas in fuch an eminent, and per-   
haps we may add, unprecedented degree, that the re¬
publican fleets lay blockaded in their own ports during
the greater part of the year. The expedition againit
Ireland having completely failed, the directory w^as at
a lofs how to difpole of the galley Haves wdto had made
a part of Hoche’s army deftined again!! Ireland. It
would have been cruel to remand them back to punilh-
ment 3 the troops would not ferve with them in the ar¬
my, and by the new laws of France they could not re¬
ceive a pardon, neither was it prudent to give fo many
criminals liberty. Thus perplexed, the diredlory at
lail determined to fend them over to England. They
were landed from two frigates and fome fmall velfels
on the coal! of V ales, with mufkets and ammunition^
but de.ftitute of artillery. On the evening of the day
on which they landed (23d of February)’, they were
made prifoners of war by a party of militia, yeomanry,
cavalry, colliers and others, under the command of Lord
Cawdor.
Although the navy of France continued in port, and Defeat of
therefore out of danger for the remainder of this year a Dench
yet the Dutch and Spanilh allies of that country fuftain-^ bTy Si*
ed very .ferious Ioffes by fea. A Spanilh fleet of 27 fail Jer‘
of the line, oppofed to a Britilh fleet of only 15 fail,
under the gallant admiral Sir John Jervis, was complete¬
ly defeated on the r4th of February, off Cape St Vin¬
cent. The Britilh admiral paffed twice through the
enemy’s line, and cut off part of their fleet from the
reft. Four Ihips were taken, and the admiral’s own
Ihip made her efcape with confiderable difficulty. This
fleet was on its way to Breft in order to effeft a junc¬
tion with the French fleet, but Jervis’s victory render¬
ed this objedt unattainable. In confequence of this me¬
morable viftory, Sir John was created earl St Vin¬
cent., and had an annuity of 2000I. fettled upon him,
receiving at the fame time the thanks of both houfes of
parliament.
The Dutch, if poffible, were ftill more unfortunate, ^ Dutdi
Admiral Duncan having blocked up the Texel where fleetde-
their fleet lay, during the whole fummer, with the af-^ea,te'* ^7
fiftance of which it appears that the French meant to DuSan off
try the fate of another attack upon Ireland. A refolu-Campcr-
tion having at length been adopted of rilking an en-down'
gage.ment with the .Britilh at fea, De Winter received
poluive orders to fail, a ftep agamft which he remon-
ftr.ated, but without effect. Admiral Duncan was at
this time refitting at Yarmouth, but on receivin°' in¬
telligence of the failing of the Dutch fleet, he fet out
in fearch of, and came up with it on the nth of Oc¬
tober, confifting of a force rather inferior to his own
fleet, which amounted to 16 fail of the line and three
frigates. The Britilh admiral ran his fleet immediate¬
ly through the Dutch line, commencing the attack be¬
tween them and their own coaft, about nine miles from
Camperdown. As the Dutch are defperate fighters
by fea, our readers will naturally conclude that this
was a. fanguinary conflidt. It lafted for three hours,
at which time the greater part of the Dutch fleet had’
ftruck 3 but owing to the ffiallownefs of the water on
the coaft they could not all be feized. Eight ffiips of
the line, two of 56 and one of 44 guns were taken, be¬
tides a frigate afterwards loft near the coaft of Britain.
Admiral De Winter was captured with his Ihip, and
Y 2 Vico-
F K A [17
Fr’.nce. Vice-admiral Rentjies. Admiral Duncan received ho-
s nours fimilar to thole which were bellowed upon Earl
t 798- St Vincent, and an annuity to the f#!ne amount.
4-4 . After the ratification of tire treaty with the emperor
tusances' Carnpo Formio, Jofeph Bonaparte, one of the bro-
At Rome, thers of the general, was fent to the city of^ Rome a,->
plenipotentiary from the French republic.^ The pope
having now no expectation of foreign afliftance, fub-
mitted to every demand for the reduction of his troops,
and for emancipating every perfon confined in prifon on
account of their political lentiments. On the 26th of
December i/97? three men waited upon the ambaffador,
and re quelled the co-operation ol France in bringing a-
bout a revolution which a party at Rome was anxious
<. to ellablilh. He rejected the propofal, and did every
thing in his power to diffuade them from it 5 but he ne¬
glected to communicate the intelligence to the papal
government, which was certainly his duty. He went
to the fecretary of Hate on the 28 th, and the wed him a
lift of perfons under his protedlion who had a legal au-
/ thority to wear the French cockade, and contented at
the fame time that all others wearing it fhould be pu-
niflied. He offered to give up fix of the infurgents who
had taken refuge in the palace. In the evening of the
28th a more ferious tumult happened in the courts and
vicinity of the French ambaflador’s palace, with which
the pope, it is believed, was not perfonally acquainted j
but the governor of the city endeavoured to difperfe the
infurgents by parties of cavalry and infantry. General
Duphot, in attempting to make the military defift from
firing upon the infurgents, wTas {hot by a petty officer
belonging to the troops of his holmefs. The ambaffador
and his other friends now made their efcape to the
palace through a bye-way. The Spaniffi ambaffador
having been informed of this event, fent to the fecretary
of ftate, and protefted againft fuch a daring violation
of the privileges of plenipotentiaries. 1 he palace of
the French ambaffador was ftill furrounded by the mili¬
tary, when at laft he demanded paffports to enable him
to leave the territories of the pope, which wrere foon
granted, and accompanied by many proteftations of the
innocence of government, and its iorrow that fuch an
,5- unfortunate event fhould have taken place.
The contU Jofeph Bonaparte'went to Florence and from thence
aental to Paris. The ’ prote6lion of Vienna, Spain, Naples,
powers de- anq Tufcany wTas earneftly folicited by the pope, but
L'mhe " they all feemed difpofed to keep at a diftance_ from his
pope. misfortunes. General Berthier experienced little or no
oppofition on his march to Rome, where he fubverted
the dominion of the pope, and proclaimed the fove-
reignty of the Roman people, with too many marks of
wanton, unprovoked infult. The tree of liberty w’as
planted on the very day on wffiich the anniverfary of
the pope’s eledlion to the fovereignty w^as celebrated }
intended, no doubt, to make him feel ftill greater mor¬
tification. While in the Siftine chapel receiving the
congratulations of the cardinals, the commiffioner ge¬
neral, and Cervoni, wffio commanded the troops with-
\ in the city, during this ceremony entered the chapel,
and announced to the fovereign pontiff on his throne,
that his reign w^as at an end. Fie w7as removed to the
territory of Tufcany, where he dwelt in great obfeurity,
till his enemies being in their turn driven! from Rome,
were pleafed to remove him farther from the capital, to
•terminate his exiftence beyond the Alps,
2 ] FRA
The greateft curiofities found in Rome veere con- France,
veyed to Paris, and fold by public auction, the direc- ”"“7%
tory having facrificcd national vanity at the ffirine
of avarice. Pafsports were offered to the natives of
countries at war with France, if they inclined to be¬
come purchafers. 4S6'
But feenes of a different and fanguinary nature were Conqueft of
in the mean time exhibited in Switzerland, a country Switzer-
• which had preferved its neutrality during the conflict of
France with the combined powers, thus defending the hy the
weakeft part of her frontiers, and as a grateful return French,
for pall favours, it was now determined to fubjugate
Switzerland. About the end of the year 1797’ an ^n*
furredlion broke out in the Pays de Vaud, lubjeth to the
canton of Berne, which made the government perceive
its critical fituation, and ifiue a proclamation on the
5th of January 1798, requiring the people of the Pays
de Vaud to appear in arms, renew their oath of al¬
legiance, and reform every exifting abufe. A com-
miftion of the fenate at Berne was empowered to ex¬
amine every complaint, and redrefs every grievance ;
but their motions were confidered as too tardy by po¬
pular impatience, and the infurgents endeavoured to be¬
come mafters of the ftrong places. F roops were fent
againft them by the government of Berne, but General
Weifs a died with hefitation, if not even with treachery,
and a body of republicans appeared under General Me¬
nard, who fent an aid de camp and twro huffars to Ge¬
neral Weifs. As the meffengers returned, one of the
huffars was killed, moft probably by accident, but it
was inftantly magnified into a horrid breach of the law
of nations. The French, therefore, continued to ad¬
vance, and were mafters of the whole Pays de Vaud
by the end of January. The government of Berne
prepared for war, while it at the fame time ufed every
effort in order to maintain peace. A truce was entered
into with General Brune, the fucceflbr of Menard, and
thofe who killed the huffar were delivered up. An
army of 20,000 men was colledled, the command of
which was given to M. d’Erlach, once a field marftial
in the fervice of France. But there was a prevailing
difaffeftion in his army, and the people were far from
being united among themfelves. With this circum-
ftance the French were well acquainted, and therefore
they demanded a total change of government. As
M. d’Erlach was apprehenfive of a fall greater defec¬
tion in his army, he requefted permiflion to put an end
to the armiftice. T he French now refufed to negotiate,
and General Schawenberg on the 2d of March took
poffeffion of Soleure at the head of 13*000 men. Brune
afterwards made himfelf mafter of Eriburg, and foiced
the Swifs army to retreat. The government of Besne
being now greatly alarmed, decreed the landjihui m, or
riling of the people in a mafs, which their ancient cuf-
toms juftified in the time of neceflity. I he people ai-
fembled, diffolved the government, and offeied to dil-
mifs the army, if the republican troops would retire.
This offer was rejected, without admitting a Irench
garnion into Berne, and therefore they continued to ad¬
vance. About 6000 from the army of M. d’Erlach
had deferted, leaving him at the head of no more than
14,000 men •, and although the riling had abundantly
fupplied him with numbers, yet he had not time fuffi-
cient to get them properly arranged. He was attacked-
on the 5th of March, and driven from Newenbeg and;
Favenbrun,
Trance.
3 7^)3.
4? 7
The inva-
fion of E-
gypt pro-
jefled by
the direc¬
tory.
FRA. T '7.3 1 FRA
Favenbrun, but having rallied his troops, he made a ifland of Malta. He quarrelled with the gfand-mafier, France. ^
ftand for feme time at Uteren. The conflia was re- becauie he would not permit fo large a fleet to water
newed at Grauholtz, from whence they were driven all at once in his ports. 1 he French commander land-
four miles nearer the capital. Being completely de- ed his troops in different places, and attempted to maKe
feated they murdered many of their officers in a fit of himfelt matter of the ifland. It is laid that many of the
defpair among whom was their commander in chief, knights belonged to the Illuminati, and were therefore
Berne capitulated to the French, which induced the ready to betray their government. After a very feeble
more wealthy and populous ftates to follow the example', oppofition the grand-mafter capitulated, and thus gave
but the poorer cantons made a dreadful effort to pre- up in a few days a fortrefs which, it is faid, might have
ferve their fmall poffeffions, and the independence of held out for iveeks againft all the troops of the French
their'country. They compelled Schawenberg to retire republic. Bonaparte left in the ifland a garrifon of
with the lofs of 3000 men, but were at laid totally van- 4000 men, and failed for Alexandria on the 2iiffi _ 488
ouiffied by the fuperior fkill and numbers of the repub- Rear-admiral Nelfon having diftinguithed himfelf in Admiral
lican army. The public magazines were plundered, a very eminent degree, while in the flation of commo-.^J” goes
and a new conftitution was forced upon them after the dore under Lord St Vincent, was fent in purfuit of Bo-of Bona.,
model of France. naparte. Being wffiolly ignorant of the deftination ofparte.
If the direftory made no fcruple to violate the inde- the French, he failed for Naples, where he obtained in-
■pendence of other nations, it was very reafonable to formation of the attack upon Malta, to which accord-
conclude that they would pay little regard to the liber- ingly he fleered his courfe. On his arrival, however,
ties of their countrymen at home. A third of the le- he found that Bonaparte was gone 5 but corijeduring
viflature was changed in the month, of April 5 one mem- that he had failed for Alexandria, he immediately pre-
ber of the dire&ory went out by ballot, and Jreilhard pared to folloiv him. The French commander, inftead
was chofen to fucceed him. Nothing was left unat- of keeping a diredt courfe towards that city, flood along
tempted by the direftory to influence the ele&ion in fa- the Grecian coaft, till he made the eafternmoft point of the
vour of their friends, but their fuccefs was not great, ifland of Candia. Then fleering to the fouthward, he
They complained to the council of five hundred on the fo protraded his voyage, that he did not reach the.E-
2d of May; they complained of plots of royalifls, by gyptian coafl till Admiral Nelfon had left it. Having
which it was faid that eledions had been made to fall landed his troops, he took the city of Alexandria by
on men w'ho w:ere inimical to the mtereft of the repub- florin on the jth of July. It was defperateiy defended
lie. It was propofed on the 7th by the committee who by the inhabitants, but without military fkdl. The re¬
reported on the meffage of the direftory, that many publican tranfports were drawn.up within the inner
ele£foral affemblies fhould be annulled 5 but General harbour of Alexandria, and the fliips of war call anchor
Jourdan oppofed tliis plan as incompatible withthe free- along the fliore of the bay of Abouhir. I he repubh-
dom of election, and as proceeding upon the fuppofltion can army marched on towaras the Nile, and in pro-*
of confpiracies which had no exiftence. ceeding along the banks of that river, they fuffered
We are now to be prefented with the moft extrava- much from the intenfe heat of the climate. They foon
gant project which perhaps the directory ever attempt- came to action with the Mamelukes, or military rulers
ed to execute ;—to fend a formidable army to take pof- of the country 5 but the fmall degree of fkill poffeffed
feflion of Egypt, and from thence to proceed by the by thofe barbarians, was by no means a match for Eu-
Red fea to the Eaft Indies, to take poffeflion of the ropean ta&ics. Cairo furrendered on the 23d, and two
Britiih fettlements in that quarter of the globe. After days after, another battle was fought, in which the in¬
peace was proclaimed between France and Germany, habitants "were defeated. L hey made a iafl eitort on the
the dire&ory made no fecret of their determination to 26th, near the celebrated pyramids, when 2000 of
invade Great Britain. Whether this projedl was of Bo- them were killed, 400 camels with baggage were taken,
naparte’s own devifmg, or intended as a fnare in order and 50 pieces of cannon. . 489
to get rid of him and his viftorious army, feems to be- Having- proceeded thus far in his conquefl of Egypt, Tyranny
a matter which our readers muft be left to determine Bonaparte framed for it a provifional government, and ™rl
for themfelves. It might not be his projeft, and he iffued proclamations in the Arabian language, proteflA''. °te.
might accept the command of the army of Egypt from ing that the French were friendly to the religion of ‘
this convidlion, that he would be fafer abroad in the Mahomet, owned the authority of the grand fignior,
mofl perilous undertaking, than be expofed at home to and were only come to infliS punifhment on the Mame-
the malice of a government become jealous of his repii- lukes for doing fo much injury to their trade with E-
tation, and which was far from being fcrupulous .of its gypt. Thus far the good fortune of Bonaparte feemed
conduS. t° attend him ; but on the xft of Auguft the fleet
The meditated attack upon Egypt was certainly con- under Admiral Nelfon appeared off the mouth of the
dufted with fuch a degree of fecrecy as was calculated Nile, who having difeovered the pofition of the French
to miflead. Prodigious ftories were circulated concern- fleet, prepared to attack .it.- In point of numbers the
ing large rafts of timber, by means of which the army of two fleets were upon a level, but as to weight of metal
Eng/and,- as it was called, was to be conveyed over to the French fleet was the flronger of the two. Admiral
Britain ; and to give the greater probability to this re- Nelfon, by running forae oiTiis ftnps between the ene-
port, General Bonaparte, the commander in chief, made my and the land, furrounded one part of the fleet,
a journey to the weftern coafl. The fleet was getting while the reft were thus rendered entirely ufelefs. The
-ready in the harbour of Toulon, and troops were colleS- Culloden ran-aground while this plan was carrying into
ed in its vicinity. But Bonaparte embarked with 40,000 effect} an advantage upon the whole, as it pointed out
ofjxis veteran, troops, and on the pth of June readied the to the reft where the danger lay -concealed. '1 his me-
roorablc c
I'i'anca,
1798.
490
Battle of
-the Nib.
491
General
Humbert
invades
Ireland.
49a
Imprudent
conduct of
the king of
Naples.
F R A [ 1
morable action commenced with the fetting of the fan,
and continued, with occalional intervals, till the break
of day. Nine fail of the line belonging to the French
were taken ; a (hip of the line was burnt by her own
commander, and the admiral’s flag fhip, L’Orient, was
blown up during the a&ion, few of her crew, conflfting
of 1000 men, having efcaped deftrudlion. Two fhips
of the line and two frigates were faved by flight, but
afterwards captured.
If we confine ourfelves to modern times, it will be
difficult to point out any naval engagement produ&ive
of more interefting efFe&s than this. The military ex¬
ertions of France had by degrees deftroyed the combi¬
nation which the princes of Europe formed againfl: her.
The victories of Bonaparte had humbled the pride of
Auflria } the continent looked with difmay towards the
new republic, and when the direftory feized on Rome
and Switzerland, no power ventured to interpofe in
their behalf. T. he afpedf of affairs, however, had now
undergone an almoft total revolution. The once trium¬
phant Bonaparte was (hut up in a barbarous country,
trom which the fleets of Britain might prevent his re¬
turn. Propofals were made by Great Britain to the
northern powers, for the recommencement of hoftilities
againfl; France, as it was not conceived poflible that the
could make fuch refiftance as formerly. The ftates of
Italy, too, determined to make a bold effort for the re¬
covery of their independence. The court of Naples re¬
joiced at the deftruflion of the French fleet, and the
king himfelf went to meet Admiral Nelfon on his re¬
turn from the Nile.
It is well known that the French had long promifed
encouragement to the Iri(h rebels ; but as their expec¬
tations were not gratified in time, they broke out into
open rebellion without the promifed afliftance ; and
when, the fpirit of rebellion was .almoft wholly fubdued,
the dire&ory attempted to land troops in fmall divifions’
luch as that under General Humbert on the 22d of Au-
guft, conflfting only of 1100 men, who landed at Kil-
lala. Yet this force, fmall as it was, would have pro¬
ved formidable but a month before. They were joined
by a party of the moft defperate of the rebels in the vi¬
cinity, and defeated General Lake at the head of a fu-
perior force, taking from him fix pieces of cannon.
Their next ftep was to march in different diredlions to
announce the arrival of the republicans, and maintain¬
ed their ground for three weeks. This able general
receiving. no reinforcements from France, finding the
rebellion in a great meafure cruflied, and being inform¬
ed that General Cornwallis was about to furround him
with 25,000 men, he laid down his arms to a Britifti
column, four days after he had difmiffed his Irifti affo-
ciates, that they might provide for their own fafety.
Aclive meafures were now taken by the dire<ftory to
fend troops to Ireland when too late, as the vigilance
of Britifh cruizers defeated all their endeavours. La
Hoche, a fhip of 84 guns, and four frigates, w-ere cap¬
tured by Sir John Borlafe Warren on the 1 2th of Oc¬
tober, in attempting to reach Ireland with 3000 men.
On the 20th another frigate was taken, deftined for the
fame country, which induced the direftory to abandon
the attempt as altogether defperate.
The vidlory . obtained by Admiral Nelfon at the
mouth of the Nile, made the king of Naples aft the
very imprudent part of preparing to commence hoftili-
3
74 1
fra
Fiar
179
ties again ft France. Without even waiting till the
Auftrians fhould commence the attack on the republi¬
can troops in the Roman territory, he procured General
Mack to affume the command of his army. He began
the war without any foreign aid, except the Britifti
fleet, and thus brought upon himfelf the vengeance of
the French republic. The diredory had no Idea that
he wrould adopt fuch condud, and of confluence when
General Mack appeared at the head of 45,000 men,
the troops , of France in that quarter w^ere unable to
contend with him. General Championet having juftly
complained of the attack made upon his polls, circum-
ftanced as he was, he received for anfwer from the ho-
ftile commander, that his majefty had refolved to take
poffeflion of the Roman territory, and advifed the
French to retire quietly into the Cifalpine ftates, main¬
taining that their entrance into Tufcany would be con-
fidered as a declaration of war., Championet accord¬
ingly evacuated Rome, as he had no force againft fuch
a formidable army. He left a garrifon in the caftle of
St Angelo, and concentrated what troops he could col¬
led in the northern parts of the Roman ftate. General
Mack entered the city of Rome without oppofition in
the end of November.
Thefe tranfadions having been known at Paris, war The4Fre
ivas immediately declared againft their Neapolitan and declare
Sardinian majefties, the latter of whom had committed againft
no ad of hoftility . againft the French ; but he was ac- ?Ies.and
cufed of difaffedion to the republic, a charge which ^
could fcarcely fail to be true. He found himfelf placed
in a very humiliating fituation fince the firft entrance of
Bonaparte into Italy, his ftrongeft fortreffes being in
poffeflion of the French, who levied on him what con¬
tributions.they thought proper, and even placed a gar¬
rifon in his metropolis. Being unable to go to war he
made a voluntary furrender of his continental domi¬
nions, and agreed to retire to the ifland of Sardinia.
A period was foon put to the difpute with Naples.
As the French retreated, the country people gave them
much trouble and uneafinefs, and the Neapolitan troops
fcarcely obferved the modem rules of war refpeding
fuch as they had taken prifoners. When General Bou¬
chard, by orders from General Mack, commanded the
caftle of. St Angelo to furrender, he maintained that he
would view the prifoners in the light of hoftages for the
conduct of the garrifon, and that a man (hould be put
to death for every gun fired from the caftle. It is
fcarcely to be imagined that the Neapolitan officers
would have expreffed themfelves in fuch a {hocking
manner, if they had not calculated on the vigorous co¬
operation of the Auftrian forces, in which, however,
tney wrere very much deceived. The confequence was,
that the territory of Naples very foon fell into the
hands of the French. Either the terror of the republi¬
can name was fo great in Italy, or the cowardice of the
Neapolitan troops, that they were defeated by one-
fourth of their own numbers, at Term", Porto Fermo,
Civita Caftellana, Otricoli, and Calvi. As the army
of General Mack was gradually reduced to 12,000
men, in confeqtuence of defertion and frequent defeats
he advifed the king of Naples and his family to take re¬
fuge onboard the Britifti fleet, which was then lying at
Leghorn. This advice w^as adopted, and they reached
Palermo in Sicily on the 27th of December, in Admiral
Nelfon’s {hip. General Mack having requefted an ar-
miftice.
FRA [
France, miftice, it was refufed by the French commander. Be-
v—""v——' ing driven from Capua, the only remaining poll of any
*799* confequence in the territory of Naples, and being in
the greateft danger from the difaffeftion of his troops,
he furrendered himfelf and the officers of his Half to the
republican general. The governor of Naples offered a
contribution of money if the French troops would not
enter that city, which was agreed to, and they remain¬
ed at Capua. General Serrurier, at the head of a
French column, drove the Neapolitans out of Leghorn,
and took poffeffion of that place.
Defperate Such is the mildnefs of the climate in the fouthern
condudt of parts of Italy, that the people can fubfxft with fewer
roni.LaZZa" e®}rts induftry than in almoft any other country of
Europe. This naturally begets an indolent difpofition,
which is cheriihed by a number of charitable inftitutions
originating from the Catholic religion. In Naples there
had long been a body of men called Lazzaroni, or beg¬
gars, amounting to the aftoniffiing fum total of near
40,000, who entirely fubfifted on charity. They fre¬
quently threatened the ftate if they did not receive an
immediate fupply of their wants, which procured them
very liberal contributions. Having been informed that
the French, wherever they came, deftroyed all monaf-
teries and other fources of charity, they determined to
oppofe them to the utmoft of their power, and appear
the advocates for royal government. In the beginning
of January 1799, they exhibited marks of difcontent^
and at laft broke out into an open infurreftion. They
appointed Prince Militorni their commander in chief,
who made many fruitlefs efforts to reftrain their vio¬
lence and love of plunder. They declared war againft
the French, forced the prifons open, and murdered all
who had been incarcerated for difaffeflion to the kingly
government. I heir ravages now became fo dreadful
and boundlefs, that Prince Militorni abandoned them,
fet out to Capua, and requefted Championet to take
poffeffion of the city, in order to refcue it from utter
deflruftion. It was agreed that a column of French
troops (liould take a circuitous route, and enter the
city from the oppofite quarter. Before this plan could
be carried into execution, two-thirds of the Lazzaroni
marched out on the 19th and 20th of January, with
ffie daring refolution to attack the French in the forti¬
fications of Capua. Multitudes of them periffied by
tne French artillery j and in order to favour the cap-
fare of. Naples by the party fent on that expedition,
Championet made no fally out upon them, but conti¬
nued on the defenfive. The Lazzaroni being informed
on the 2rIt that a French column had marched for
Naples, returned to the city $ and although Champio¬
net clofely purfued them, they arrived in time to barri¬
cade the ffreets, and prepare for the defence of differ¬
ent quarters. A. terriole confiifl now commenced,
which lafted from the morning of the 2 2d to the even¬
ing of the 23d'of January. Having been driven from
fireet to ftreet, they finally rallied at one of the gates
of the city, where they were almoft totally cut off. It
is certainly a reproach to the Neapolitan government,
not to have been able to give a better diredtion to the
49S undaunted courage of fuch men.
The direc- We may view this triumph as the laft which the di-
eomes'juft. rei^ory enjoyed, for the confequences of their part con-
ly unpc- v-ere now rapidly gathering around them. They
pular. were with the greateft juftice unpopular at home, both
75 ] F R A
from their mode of conducing public affairs, and their France,
repeated violations of the conftitution of their country. v——J
Their profufion was unlimited, as well as the exorbitant I799*
demands which they made upon conquered countries.
Championet was fo affiamed of them, that in Italy he
endeavoured to reftrain them, in confequence of which
he was deprived of his command, and thrown into pri-
fon ; Scherer, the war minifter, being appointed his
fucceflor. Under him the rapacity of the government
agents, and the embezzlement of the public ftores, were
carried as high as poffible. Yet France ftill continued
to be dreaded by foreign nations, to whom the true
ftate of internal affairs was but obfcurely known. An
army of 45,000 Ruffians had arrived to the affiftance of
Auftria, yet that cabinet was at a lols whether to de¬
clare war or not. Britain folicited the aid of Pruffia
mth an offer of large fubfidies ; but Sieyes, the pleni¬
potentiary at Berlin, artfully contrived to defeat the
negotiation, and counteraft the unpopularity of his
country.in Germany, by giving to the world the fecret
convention of Campo Formio. This determined the
greater number of the German princes to maintain
their neutrality under the guardianffiip of Pruffia.
A note was prefented to the congrefs at Raftadt on
the 2d of January by the French plenipotentiaries refi-
dent there, intimating that if the entrance of Ruffian
troops into Germany was not prevented, it would be
confidered as tantamount to a declaration of war. To
this no fatisfa&ory anfvver was returned. The ftrong
fortrefs of Ehrenbreitftein furrendered on the 26th of
that month, after being blockaded fince the treaty of
Campo Formio. This poffeffion, together with Mentz
and Duffeldorf, made the French a very powerful ene¬
my on the Rhine. Switzerland alfo belonged to them,
and all the fortified places of Italy, on which account
they were qualified to commence arrive operations. At
this period Jourdan commanded on the Upper Rhine
from Mentz to Huningen ; the eaftern frontier of
Switzerland was occupied by General Maffena; Scherer
had the chief command in Italy ; Moreau afted under
him, and Macdonald commanded the troops in the ter¬
ritory of Rome and Naples. Yet all thefe armies fo
mattered, did not exceed 170,000 men, a force greatly
inferior to that of Auftria, altogether independent of 45^
the Ruffian army. The direftory, however, trufting to War de-
the unity of its own plans, the wavering politics of thec‘are^ a_
court of Vienna, and the flow movements of the im-gainftfhe
perial armies, was. anxious to renew the war, a declara-a^/^rTnd
tion of which againft the emperor of Germany and thedukeOf
giand duke of Tufcany, was made on the 1 ^th offufeany.
March. Jourdan had adually croffed the Rhine at
Stra 1 l)ii h on the 1 ft of that month, and occupied
many ftrong pofitions in Swabia. Manheimwas taken,
and General Bernadotte fummoned Philipffiurg to fur-
render, while General St Cyr entered Stutgard. In
order to oppofe the march of this army, the archduke
Charles croffed the Lech on the 4th of March ; Maf-
fena marched into the territory of the Grifons, and fur-
prifing a.ftrong body of Auftrians, made the whole of
them prifo.ners, together with their general and the
whole of his ftaff, in confequence of which the country
of the Grifons was reduced.
. I he republican plan of procedure was not completed
without the jundlion of Maffena’s and Jourdan’s armies,
to accomplifli which it was neceffary to carry the im¬
portant
France.
*199'
497
Succefs of
the Auf-
trians in
Italy.
498
The Ruf¬
fians and
imperialifts
united un¬
der Su-
warrow.
FRA [ 176
portant poft of Feldkircli, which tvas held by General
Hotze. Defeated in his firft attempt, Maffena renew¬
ed the attack five times with frefli forces, but the de¬
termined bravery of the Auftrians rendered them mef-
fefiuah But as the French were in poffefhon. of the
Grifons, the inVafion of the Engadine was facilitated,
where the Auftrians being too weak to relift, retreated
into the Tyrol, and were purfued by the republicans,
who forced fome of the defiles, and extended their in¬
roads as far as Glurentz and Nauders.
The vanguard of the principal Auftrian army pulh-
ed on to meet the French. It was attacked by Jourdan
cm the 20th of March, by whom the outpofts were
driven in ; but the centre of his army was attacked on
the following day, and forced to retire to Stockach during
the night. The archduke encamped before Stockach
on the 24th, and the republicans attacked him on the
following day. His right wing under General Meer-
feldt wTas their main objeft, which they lucceeded in
driving into a wood between Liptingen and Stockach.
Meerfeldt renewed the conflnft wnthout mccefs. Ihe
left wing having maintained its ground, fent reinforce¬
ments to General Meerfeldt, who in his turn obligeu
the French to retire. The French, however, made
4000 prifoners during the various movements of the
day. Yet their lofs was fo great, and the Auftrian
force fo vaftly fuperior to their own, that Geneial Jour¬
dan durft not hazard another engagement. He retreat¬
ed on the following day, and feeling that he was not a
match for the enemy, he fent a part of his army to
cover Kehl and Strafburg, and marched with the re¬
mainder towards Switzerland. .By this event General
Maffena, who w^as forcing his w^ay to the Tyrol and
Engadine, wTas obliged to return to the protection of
Switzerland. He w as appointed to the chief command
in this quarter, and Jourdan wTas removed..
The Auftrians were no lefs fuccefsful in Italy, not-
wuthftanding they w7ere attacked by the French before
the termination of the armiftice. General Kray ob¬
tained a complete victory over them at Legnago, and
forced them to flee for protection under the walls of
Mantua. On the 15th of April they were again at¬
tacked by the Auftrians at Memiruolo, and again
forced to retreat after an obftinate refiftance. 'Ihe
lofs fuftained by the French in thefe different engage¬
ments was unqueftionably great, but we fhould appre¬
hend that the account which ftates it at 30,000 men in
killed, wounded and priioners, muft furely be exagge¬
rated. But the Auftrians'may be faid to have purchafed
thefe viftories at a dear rate. Scherer at firft gained
fome advantages over them, but he had not fkill to
improve them, elfe they wmuld have unqueftionably
•fiven a new turn to the afpecf of affairs. The Auftrian
pofts were forced by a divifion of his army on the 26th
of March, and 4000 prifoners taken *, but on the other
divifion being repulfed, he withdrew his troops, and
thus relinquifhed the advantages he had obtained. On
the <;th of April the divifion under Moreau performed
wonders, and took 3000 prifoners ; but by the unfkil-
ful meafures of Scherer, he was not fupported, and
the triumph of the Auftrians was of courfe complete.
Prior to this period, a body of Ruffians joined the
imperialifts, and the command of this combined, army
wras given to Field-marftial Suwarrow Rimnifki, who
advanced towards the Adda on the 24th of April ^ and
4
Franc*
1799.
') ] FRA
after carrying the outpofts of General Moreau, Suwar¬
row determined to attack him in his entrenchments. He
maintained the appearance of attack along the whole
line of Moreau, while he fecretly threw a bridge ever
among the rocks at the upper part of the river, where
fuch a thing had been confidered as unpoffible. By
means of this bridge a part of the combined army next
morninp' turned the republican fortification^, and at¬
tacked their flank and rear, while the reft of the army
forced the paffage of the river at different points. 'Hie
French fought with their ulual intrepidity, but were
foon driven from all their politions, and forced to re¬
treat to Pavia, with the lofs of 6000 men killed, 5000
made prifoners, including four generals, and 80 pieces
of cannon.
General Moreau now eftablifhed the poor remains of
his army, amounting to 1 2,000 men, upon the Po, be¬
tween Aleffandria and Valentia. He forced, on the
1 ith of May, a body of Auftrians to retreat, and took
a number of them prifoners. On the 1 2th, about 7000
Ruffians croffed the Po at Bafignano, and marched on
towards Pecetto, when Moreau fell upon them with
fury ; and they refufing to lay down their arms, about
2000 of them were drowmed in repafling the river, and
a few were taken prifoners. On the advance of Su-
warrow, General Moreau was under the neceffity of
retiring to occupy the Bochetta, as well as other paffes
which lead to the territory of Genoa, when the com¬
bined army began the fieges of the fortified places in
Italy then occupied by the French. Bellegarde drove
the French from the Engadine } Maffena was obliged
to retire to the vicinity of Zurich, he was fo preffed by
the archduke } and nearly the whole of Piedmont had
rifen againft the republicans. Phey received .no rein¬
forcements from the interior of France, and their officers
were obliged to aft on the defenfive, to defend the
frontiers as long as poffible. In one inftance only thej
had the powrer of making oifenfive war, and it was cer¬
tainly done wfith great vigour. General Macdonald
had ftill a confiderable army in the fouthern parts of
Italy, in the territories of Naples and Rome. The
combined powers had made no effort to cut off his re**
treat, convinced, perhaps that tnis could fcarcely be
accomplifhed in the mountainous countries of X ufcany
and Genoa. Knowing his lituation to be lecure, he
was in no hurry to remove, although nearly the whole
country betwreen him and If ranee was occupied by the
combined army. His army amounted to about 30)0-0
men, and he received orders from the direftory to leave
the territories of Rome and Naples, and unite, if poflible,
with the army of IMoreau. From the fituation of the
allies, however, he refolved to hazard an aftion by
himfelf. With Moreau he. had concerted a. plan for
dividing their enemies, and vanquiftiing them in detail,
as Bonaparte had fo often done in Italy before. Mac¬
donald alone wras in a fituation for ftriking an important,
blowq yet it was neceffary for Moreau to draw upon
himfelf as many of the Auftro-Ruffian forces as poffible,
that the remainder might be more completely expofed
to the attack of Macdonald. ,
Moreau availed himfelf of the circumftance of the Artful ftra-
French and Spanilh fleets being in the vicinity.of Genoa, tagern of
to fpread a report that they had brought him . a very
powerful reinforcement, intending thereby to withdraw
the attention of Suwarrow from Macdonald Ihe
Ruffian
497
FRA
r
France.
1199'
Ruffian general was at Turin, his advanced pofts at
Sufa, Pignerol, and the Col d’Affiette, while General
Hohenzollern was ftationed at Modena with a confider-
able force, and General Ott at Reggio with 10,000
men. General Macdonald began his operations on the
12th of June, when his advanced divifions attacked
and defeated Hohenzollern, taking 2000 of his men
prifoners. General Ott was attacked at the fame
time, and being compelled to retreat, the French made
their entry into Parma on the 14th. He was again
attacked on the 17th, and forced to retire towards
Giovanni, where the progrefs of General Macdonald
498 was arrefted.
The French Suwarrow having received information of his ap-
rewatrrdvJyProach, anc^ ^'ucce^'es> Turin on the 15th
,ju a • 0£ june> at the head of 20,000 men, and came up
with Macdonald on the banks of the Tidone. The
centre and right wing of Suwarrow’s army were com¬
manded by Rofenberg and Foeriter, the Aultrian ge¬
neral Melas commanded the left wing •, Prince Pro-
cration was at the head of the advanced guard, and
Prince Lichtenftein of the referve. An aftion imme¬
diately commenced, which was fought with defperate
fury on both fides for three fucceffive days, when victory
declared in favour of Suwarrow. Driven from Tidone
to the Trebbia, the french were finally vanquifhed on
the 19th, after a greater (laughter on both fides than
the oldeli officer prefent recolledded to have witneffed.
Viflory remained doubtful, till General Kray arrived
with large reinforcements from the army befieging
Mantua, and, in direct contempt of his orders, decided
the fate of the day.
The republicans retreated during the night, and the
next day they were purfued by the army of Suwarrow
in two columns. Seldom could the French be over¬
taken in a march, but the army of Suwarrow accom-
pliffied this, when he furrounded the rear-guard of the
fugitives, and obliged them to lay down their arms.
The red of the army defended themfelves in the pafies
of the Appenines and territory of Genoa, after lofing,
it is faid, no fewer than 17,0-0 in killed, wounded,
and prifoners. Moreau, in the mean time, gave battle
to the Auftrians under Bellegarde, and though far fu-
perior to him in numbers, they were totally defeated.
This temporary advantage, however, availed little, in
confequence of the rapid return of Suwarrow from the
purfuit of Macdonald. The fortrefies in Italy fur-
rendered in clofe fucceflion, and it appeared as if the
combined powers would foon be able to enter the ter¬
ritory of France.
The affairs of the republic became equally critical in
Paleftine. After having defeated the Mamelukes,
made himfelf mafter of Alexandria and Cairo, and
avowed himfelf a Mahometan in Egypt, Bonaparte led
an army into Paleltine, to take poffeffion of Jerufalem,
and by rebuilding the temple, and reftoring the Jews,
to give the lie to the prophecies of the Chriftian re¬
ligion. At the head of 10,000 men, with officers emi¬
nently (killed in the art of war, he reached the town of
Acre on the fea-coaft, 28 miles fouth of Tyre, and 37
north of Jerufalem. He laid fiege to this town in due
form, which was but indifferently fortified, and defended
by a fmall garrifon of Muffulmans, which the governor
would have unconditionally furrendered, had he not
Vol. IX. Part I.
’99*
499
Fruitleis
liege of
Acre by
Bonaparte.
500
77 J F R A
been advifed to make a vigorous refiftance by an Eng- France,
lifti naval officer. Sir Sidney Smith having received
the command of the garrifon, detained Bonaparte before
Acre 69 days, although the number of the allies by
whom it wras defended did not exceed 2000 men. The
French commander made eleven attempts to carry it
by affault, all of wffiich proved unfuccefsful. He was
at laft obliged to raife the fiege, after he had lort eight
of his generals, 85 inferior officers, and almolt one half
qf his army. His unfuccefsful attempt upon Acre muff
indeed appear important, efpecially to Britain, if it be
true that the Drufes, to the number of 60,000 men,
had promifed to join him on the reduftion of that town.
Had this junftion been effedled, it is believed that
Conftantinople would have become their prey, which
was firft to have been plundered, and then reduced to
affies.
While France experienced fuch reverfes abroad, (he-rhedirec-
was much difturbed alfo by internal commotions, and tory finks
the dire&ory found itfelf in a very critical fituation.*nto con“
New ele£lions were dill unfriendly to their intere(l,teu1”'’
and they could no longer fecure a majority in the
councils, they were funk into fuch contempt. When
they fought money, they obtained reproaches on ac¬
count of their own profufion, and the agents they em¬
ployed. Infurre£tions in the well and fouth -were
formed by the friends of royalty, and thefe were writh
difficulty fubdued, on account of the abfence of the
military. In the midft of all thefe difficulties, the
occurrence of one event feemed to promile the direc¬
tory the return of their former influence. On the 28th
of April, the French plenipotentiaries received orders
to quit Raftadt in 24 hours. Having demanded a
paffport from Colonel Barbafey, they received for an-
fwer that none could grant it but the commander in
chief. They at lad began their journey, the three mi-
nillers, Bonnier, Roberjot, and Jean Debry, were in
feparate carriages, Robeijot having his wife, and Jean
Debry his wdfe and daughters along with him, attended 501
by the minillers of the Cifalpine republic. At a (hort ^lU(Jer
diltance from Radadt they were met by 50 Audriant*ie[^"c^
huffars, who dopped the carriage of Jean Debry, and ‘ . at
demanded his name. Of this he informed them, adding Raftadt.
that he was a French minider returning to France. He
was immediately torn from his carriage, defperately
wounded with fabres, and thrown into a ditch for
dead. Bonnier and Roberjot -were murdered on the
fpot. When the ruffians departed, and the carriages
returned to Radadt, Jean Debry wandered all night
in the woods, and next day returned to Radadt. He
demanded the reditution of the papers which the hired
affaffins had carried off when they plundered the car¬
riages, but they were refufed. Radadt and its vici¬
nity wTas occupied by French troops during the long-
fitting of congrefs, of which the Audrians had ob¬
tained poffeffion but a few days before. The difeipline,
therefore, of the Aullrian army was feverely reproached
by this event; but it is probable that more than the
want of fubordination was at the bottom of a crime fo
atrocious, unprecedented, and totally repugnant to the
laws of nations. It is true, the archduke loll no time
to declare his utter ignorance of the matter in a letter
to Maffena •, but this wras far from giving fatisfa£lion to
the French diredlory. In a meffage to the councils on
Z the
France.
1799.
502
iiieyes
chofen a
member of
the direc¬
tory.
5=>3
General
Joubert is
killed, and
the French
retreat un¬
der Mo¬
reau.
F, R A [ 1
tlie jtTi of May, they made it the premeditated acl of
the Andrian government, to infult France by the murder
of her ambafladors.
A violent oppodtion to the direftory commenced by
the introduftion of the new third of this year. Sieyes,
who was ambaflador at Berlin, and had podeffed cond-
fiderable influence over all parties, was elefted a member
of the direftory. This dation, we have already feen,
he refufed to occupy at the fird edablidunent of the
conflitution, and therefore his acceptance of it at fuch
a critical juncture, excited great lurprife. Treilhard
was removed from the direflory, as it was faid that he
had held an office in the date within lefs than a year
previous to his election. Merlin and Reveiilere were
under the necedity of refigning, to avoid an impeach¬
ment which was threatened to be brought againd them;
but Barras dill retained his dation. Moulins, Gohier,
and Ducos, men who were but very little known, and,
far from being leaders of the contending parties, were
chofen members of the direftory. The public fpirit
was attempted to be revived by the eflablilhment of
clubs, a liberty of which the rcdlefs Jacobins fird took
advantage. They foon propofed violent m'eafures, and
began to denounce the members and the conduct of
government. But their intemperance having juflly
alarmed the directory, obtained permiflion from the
councils to fupprefs their meetings, before they had
time to corrupt the public mind.
The direftory now employed every effort to augment
the armies which had lately differed fuch dreadful dimi¬
nutions. In the beginning of Auguff their army in
Italy amounted to 45,000 men, of which General
Joubert had the chief command. Turin, Aleffandria,
Milan, Pefchiera, and Ferrara, were captured by the
allies with adoniffiing rapidity. Turin fuffained a
bombardment of only three days, Aleffandria held out
feven, and Mantua only fourteen, in which lalt place
there wrere 13,000 who were difmiffed on their parole.
.1 he combined powers next laid liege to Tortona, and
General Joubert refolved on its relief, which object!
he expedled to accomplifli before the arrival of Kray
with afliftance to Suwarrow. The whole of the Auf-
trian polls wrere driven in by the republicans on the
13th of Auguff, who took poffeffion of Novi. On the
15th they were attacked by Suwarrow, wffio by this
time had received troops from Mantua under General
Kray. I he right wfing wTas commanded by this officer,
its left by Melas, and its centre by Prince Procration
and Suw7arrow in perlon. The engagement commenced
about five o’clock in the morning, foon after which,
while General Joubert was urging his troops forwrard
to charge with the bayonet, he received a mulket fliot
in his body, and falling from his horle, he immediately
expired. Moreau refumed the command, and after a
bloody conflitf, the allied army gave way in all direc¬
tions. The Ruffians m particular iuffered leverely,
from the obffinate manner in which they fought. The
Frencn .ine vvas attacked at three m the afternoon but
remained unoroken , and the whole wro.uld have termi¬
nated in'the defeat of the allies, if General Melas had
not tun^d the right flank of the republican Kne •, and
following up his advantages, he got poffeffion of Novi,
when the French army began to retreat under the com¬
mand of General Moreau.
The Auffrians fay that the French upon this occaffon
78 ] FRA
loft 4000 men killed, and the fame number taken prifon- Frar.ee.
ers, confeffing that their own lofs wTas equal to this; but ■ v— -<
the lofs of the Ruffians was never publiihed. We have I799*
reafon to believe that it was the greateft of the whole,
fince they wall rather ftand and be cut to pieces than
think of retreating. The French loft all hope of being
able to defend Genoa, and therefore prepared to eva¬
cuate that city and territory. It was now the appre-
henfion of the direclory that the fouth of France would
immediately be invaded, but in this they were happiiv
deceived. The conquered army was aftonilhed to find
itfelf unmolefted after fo fignal a defeat, and in a few'
days ventured to fend back parties to reconnoitre the
movements of the allies. Championet, the fucceffor of
Joubert, was amazed to find that they had rather re¬
treated than advanced, on which account he relumed
the pofitions held by his army before the battle of
Novi.
So far from prosecuting the advantages they had ob- Smvarrow
tained in Italy, Suwarrow was perfuaded to abandon marches to
that country with his Ruffian troops, and march to the tlie.relief of
deliverance of Switzerland from the yoke of France,
i he army of Maffena in this quarter amounted to an
70,000 men in the month of Auguft, which not only
prevented the archduke from purluing Lis advantages,
but the French even threatened to endanger his poii-
tion. Maffena’s right wing under General Lecourbe
bad carried Mount St Gothard, the great pafs leading
from the eaftern parts of Switzerland into Italy. S11-
warrow’s expedffations were no doubt high, having never
yet been vanquished, and being called upon to under¬
take an enterprife in which the Auftrians had hitherto
failed, even under their moft fortunate general. When
he was ready to march, the Auftrian commander in
Italy refufed to give him mules for tranfporting his
baggage- This officer had recourfe to a moft pitiful
falfehood, when he afferted that he would be furniihed
with a competent number at Bellinzone, where Suwar¬
row could find none. Having no other alternative, he
difmounted the cavalry, and made ufe of their horfes to
drag along the baggage. In fpite of thefe obllacles,
however, he arrived, by forced marches on the frontiers
of Switzerland on the day which he and the archduke
had fixed upon.
Either fuppofing that it would demean a prince of
the houfe of Auftria to ferve under a Ruffian general,
or not being daring enough to require the moft expe¬
rienced general in Europe to receive orders from fo
young a man as the archduke, that prince was fent into
Swabia to attack a fmall body of republicans. Fie took
with him 48,000, fome fay 60,000 men, although
20,000 would have been more than fufficient for the
accompliftiment of luch an undertaking. It is not an eafy
matter to conceive upon what principle the council of
war at \ ienna could imagine, that fuch an able officer as
Maffena would continue inadlive at the head of an army
almoft the double of that which was fent to oppofe him.
ihe archduke marched again!! the French in Swabia,
who relifted him as much as the fmall number of their
troops would permit ; but they were gradually driven
towards the Rhine. To carry on the deception, they
made a ferious ftand in the vicinity of Manheim, where
they loft 1800 men, and which the Auftrians entered,
feemingly determined to crofs the Rhine.
Switzerland in the mean time was completely ex-
FRA [ i
, France, pofed to tlie army of Maffena. The right wing of the
combined army in this country was commanded by
7^9 General Hotze ; the centre, compoled of the newly ar¬
rived Ruffians, was headed by Korfakof 3 and the left
wing by General Nauendorf. As foon as Maffena un-
derltood that the archduke had entered Manheim, and
that Suwarrow was approaching to Switzerland by the
way of St Gothard, he began his movements. St Go-
thard was defended by Lecourbe, and in the mean time
Mafiena determined to anticipate the arrival of Suwrar-
row\ Having drawn the attention of the Ruffians to
another quarter on the 24th of September, by a falfe
attack, he fuddenly eroded the Limmat, three leagues
from Zurich. Some of the French troops engaged the
Auftrians, but the principal part of the army marched
againll the Ruffians. General Hotze fell in the begin¬
ning of the aftion, and Petrafch who fucceeded him
ffiunned a total defeat, by retiring in the night with the
lofs of 4000 men. The Ruffians fought with very lin¬
gular obftinacy, being in a mountainous country to
which they were ftrangers, and fighting againfl the molt
aole commanders in Europe. It w'as in vain, however, to
attempt putting them to flight, for even when furrounded
they would not lay down their arms, but flood to be
llaughtered on the fpot. The Aultrians having re¬
treated on the 25th, the Ruffians on the 28th followed
their example, retreating under General Korfakof in
good order, and with the lofs of 3000 men, which wras
^05 not very greatj confidering his perilous lituation.
Suwarrow During thefe tranfadfions, General Suwarrow was
ditgufted proceeding by the wTay of Italy with an army of 18,000,
condudV hut others fay no more than 15,000 men. He carried
Auftria. the pafs of St Gothard, and defeended into the valley
of Urferen, driving Lecourbe before him with great
daughter, and advanced as far as Altorf. He next day
reached the canton of Claris, and made 1000 of the
French priloners, and General Linken defeated another
corps of 1300 men. MafTena now turned upon Su¬
warrow, and by furrounding him on all lides, expedfed
to take him and the grand duke Conllantine prifoners.
Suwarrow defended himfelf in a very mafterly manner,
and there being only one pafs in the mountains unoccu¬
pied by the republicans, the aged hero difeovered it, and
by this he effedted his efcape, but loft his cannon and
haggage among the dreadful precipices with which that
country abounds. He made his way through the Grifon
country, and arrived at Coire with about 6000 men.
Suwarrow felt truly indignant when he found in what
manner affairs had been condudted, the perilous fitua-
tion in which the Ruffians had been left by the arch¬
duke, and the deftrudfion which of confequence they
had met with. He conlidered himfelf and his men
as treacheroully betrayed, complained bitterly of the
commander of the allies in Switzerland, and publicly
charging the council of Vienna with felfilhnefs and
injuftice, refufed to co-operate farther with the
Auftrian army. He tranfmitted an account of the
whole in a letter to Peterlhurgh, and withdrew his
forces to the vicinity of Augffiurg to wait for further
sot orders from his court.
Britain pre- _ Great Britain in the mean time made aftive prepara-
vad^FM*1' ^0ns to ^nva^e Holland, with an army of 40,000 men,
land. <>* Britiffi troops and auxiliaries from Ruffia.
The firft divifion under General Sir Ralph Abercromby
failed in the month of Auguft, protected by a fleet
79 ] ' FRA
under Admiral Duncan. Bad weather prevented Fratite.
any attempt to land the troops till the 27th, on the w-—^
morning of which day the debarkation was effected on 1799»
the Ihore of Helder Point without oppofition. They
were not expefted to land in North Holland, on which
account the troops in that neighbourhood were few.
But before the Britifh troops had proceeded far on their
march,, they had to contend with a confiderable body of
infantry, cavalry, and artillery, haftily collecfted from
the adjacent towns. The Dutch fought with great
obftinacy, but became fatigued by the fteady oppofition
of their antagonifts, and fell back about two leagues.
They evacuated the fort of Helder in the night, and it
was taken poffeffion of by the Britiffi on the morning
ot the 28th. Admiral Mitchell now entered the
Zuyder fea with a detachment of the Britiffi fleet, in
order to give battle to the Dutch under Admiral Story.
Inftead of retiring to the (hallow water with which that
fea abounds, he unaccountably furrendered his whole fleet
on the 30th of Auguit without firing a gun, pretending
that from the mutinous diipofition of his feamen, he
could not prevail upon them to fight.
If this had terminated the expedition, it woffid have Wh?c°h is ill
been extremely fortunate as eftabliffiing the power of^nduded.
the Britifh fleet without a rival. But this victory, if it
can be fo called, was followed up by an endeavour to
reftore the authority of the ftadtholder, and the ancient
government of the United Provinces. As no more thatr
the firft divifion had arrived, the terror of an invading
foe began to be diffipated, the enemies of the new go¬
vernment were diftreartened, and time was allowed to
prepare for defence. But thefe were not the only
errors chargeable on the expedition. The Britiffi troops
landed in the very worft place they could poffibly have
chofen, not only as it is everywhere interfered by
ditches and canals, but -it abounded more than any
other part of Holland, with perfons difaffeded to the
perfon and government of the ftadtholder. In a word,
this unfortunate expedition was undertaken towards the*
approach of the rainy feafon, when a campaign in Hol¬
land is next to impoffible. When it was firft fpoken
of, even the French direClory helitated to undertake the
defence of that country 3 but when the time and place of
landing came to be known, they were foon determined,
being almoft certain of fuccefs. General Brune was
accordingly fent with what troops could be fpeedily
colleded, in order to co-operate with General Daen-
dais.
General Abercromby in the meantime could only
aCt on the defenfive, as no reinforcement had arrived.
The enemy was encouraged by his want of aCfivity"
and ventured to attack him on the 1 oth of September!
Two Dutch columns, and one of republicans, advanced
upon him, but were repulfed in every direction, and
forced to retreat to Alkmaer. Additional troops ar¬
rived on the 13th, under his royal highnefs the duke
of York, who affumed the chief command. On the
arrival of the Ruffians, offenfive operations were im¬
mediately refolved on, and the army advanced on the
19th. The left wing under General Abercromby
inarched along the fhore of the Zuyder fea to attack
Hoornej Generals Dundas and Pultney commanded the
centre columns, and the Ruffians were led on by their
own general D’Herman. Owing to fome mifunder-
ftanding the Ruffians advanced to attack the enemy
Z 2 about
FRA
[ 180 ]
FRA
Fiance.
1799.
about tliree o’clock in the morning, which was Tome hours
before the reft of the army began its march. Their
firft efforts were crowmcd with luccefs, and they made
themfelves mafters of the village^ of Bergen j but aS
they preffed too eagerly forward without the co-opera¬
tion of the other columns, the enemy nearly furround-
ed them. Their general was made prifoner ^ and not-
withftanding the Britilh troops came up in time to fe-
cure their retreat, they loft upwards of 3000 men.
This defeat of the right wing made the commander in
chief recal his troops from their advanced polations,
notwithftanding General Abercromby was mafter of
Hoorne and its garrifon, and General Puitney had car¬
ried by affault the chief pofition of the Dutch army.
Such was the feverity of the weather, that no freih
attack was made till the 2d of Oftober, on which day
a defperatre aftion commenced between the Britilh,
and the united Dutch and hrench troops, at 6 clock in
the morning, w'hich did not terminate till the fame hour
at night, when the Britilh gained poffeffion of Alkmaer
and the neighbouring villages. This engagement
having been chiefly carried on among the fand mils
near the ocean, the fatigue which the troops endured,
prevented them from gaining any great advantage
over the fugitives, who took a pofition between Baver-
wyck and Wyck-op-zee, where the duke of York again
attacked them on the 6th, and kept pofleffion of the
field alter a very fanguinary conteft. 1 his, however,
was the laft luccefs gamed by the invading army. The
duke of York finding that he could make no farther
progrefs, the enemy having been fo rapidly reinforced,
the difficulties prefented by the face of the country and
the badnefs of the weather alfo confpiring againft him,
retired to Schager Brug, where he waited for orders
from England relative to his return home. Being in
the mean time clofely preffed by the enemy, his em¬
barkation muft have been accomphfhed with great dan¬
ger, had he not entered into a convention with the
Dutch and French, that his retreat Ihould not be mo-
lefted farther, in return for which he promifed not to
injure the country by demoliftiing any of the dykes
which defended it from the fea, and that Great Britain
would reftore to France and Holland 8000 prifoners
taken before the prefent campaign.
The affairs of the French republic now began, in
confequence of thefe events, to wear a more favourable
afpeft. It is true, Championet was defeated in Italy
in all his efforts againft the Auftrians, and Ancona Sur¬
rendered on the 13th of November to General Frolich j
but the French were ftill mafters of the Genoefe terri¬
tory, Switzerland and Holland, and the new combina¬
tion formed againft them feemed about to be diffolved.
Pruflia withdrew at an early period, and ftill preferved
a neutrality ; and from exifting circumftances it was
natural to conclude, that the emperor of Ruffia would
alfo defert the caufe of the allies.
   An event took place about this time which prefent-
defeated t>yecl ^he revolution of France in a light never before
feen. Our readers will recolle£I that General Bona¬
parte was obliged to retreat from Acre with great lofs,
after a fiege of 69 days. At this time he received in¬
formation that a Turkiffi army was about to invade
£gypt by lea, and therefore he returned acrofs the de-
fert of Arabia by the way of Suez, and arrived in the
vicinity cf the Pyramids on the 11th of July, when an
France.
1799.
508
The Turks
Bonaparte
near the
Pyramids.
5°9
Who re-
army of 18,000 Turks landed at Aboukir, which they
carried by affault, and put the garriibn to death, con-'
lilting of 500 men. Bonaparte marched down the
country againft them on the 15th, and ten days after
came in fight of them at fix o’clock in the morning.
Their troops were divided into two parts, encamped on
the oppofite fides of a delightful plain. The cavalry of
Bonaparte advanced with rapidity into the centre of the
Turkilh army, cutting off the communication between
its different parts. Struck with terror, the Turks en¬
deavoured to gain their flfips, when the whole of them
perilhed in the fea. The left diviffon made a more
obftinate refiftance, but it was at length defeated. About
the end of September the news of this vihlory reached
France, which recalled the memory of Bonaparte’s con-.
quells, as forming a ftriking contrail to the reveries ex¬
perienced by the republic after that period, ihe di-
reiftory received a defpatch from him on the 10th of Oc¬
tober, which was read to the councils 5 and on the 14th
a meffage announced the arrival of Bonaparte in France,
together with his principal officers. He was received
at Paris with marks of diftinftion, although none could turns to
tell w-hy he had left his army and returned home. At France, and
this time the parties in the government were equally fL'b'7rts,,
balanced j and the affiffance of Bonaparte was requeit- ^ °*
ed by both. The Jacobins were fuperior in the council vernment(
of five hundred, and the Moderates in that of the An¬
cients. It was underffood that Sieyes wTas attached to
the latter party, on which account the Jacobins had
made many unfuccefsful efforts to difmifs him from
his office. Intriguing as the Jacobins were, they were
fairly outwitted by Sieyes, who had a plot ripe for exe¬
cution, to overwhelm them in a moment. On the
morning of the 9th of November, one of the commit¬
tees of the council of Ancients gave in a report, that
the country was in danger, propofmg the fitting of the
legillature to be adjourned to St Cloud, about fix miles
from Paris. The council of five hundred having no
legal right to queltion the authority of this decree, and
as the ruling party was clearly taken unawares, the
members gave their filent confent, and both councils
met at the place appointed on the 10th of November.
The council of fiye hundred received a letter from.
Lagarde, lecretary to the direftory, informing them that
four of its members had refigned their offices, and that
Barras was a prifoner by order of Bonaparte, whom the
council of Ancients had appointed commander of their
guard. In the midft of their deliberations, General
Bonaparte entered the hall, accompanied by about 20
officers and grenadiers. He proceeded towards the
chair where his brother Lucien fat as prefident, when
great tumult enfued, and the epithets of a Cromwell, a
Caefar, and a ufurper, were conferred upon him. i he
members preffed forward upon him, and Arena a Corfi-
can endeavoured to difpatch him with a dagger j but
he was refcued by his military attendants. A party or
armed men entered the hall, and carried off the preii-
dent, when in a violent debate which enfued, it was
propofed that Bonaparte Ihould be declared an outlaw.
Military mufic was loon heard approaching j a body of
armed troops entered the hall, and the members were
obliged to difperfe. The council of Ancients fet afide-
the conftitution, and paffed a number of decrees. The
directory was aboliflied, and an executive commiflion
fubftituted in its place, confifting of Bonaparte, Sieyes,
and
FRA [ 181 ] FRA
France, 'and Rogeir Ducos, under the denomination of confuls.
 v The fittings were adjourned till the 20th of February
J799* 1800, and two committees, confiding of 21 members,
chofen from both councils, to adt as interim legis¬
lators. The greater part of the members compofing
the council of five hundred returned to Pans, having
been expelled from the hall by the military, while part of
them continued, and fandlioned all the decrees of the
council of ancients. On the 17th of November the
confuls decreed the tranfportation of a great number
of Jacobins to Guiana, and call; a number of them into
prifon 5 but thefe decrees were foon after reverfed, and
every thing affumed an air of tranquillity.
I'he expedition to Egypt was in the mean time un-
fuccefsful in every one of its objefts. Tippoo Sultan,
fon and fucceffor to the celebrated Hyder Ally,
fovereign of the Myfore country, had, in the year
1792, been under the necefiity of concluding a treaty
of peace with Lord Cornwallis under the walls of Serin-
gapatam, in which he refigned a portion of his territory
to the invaders, and agreed to pay a very confiderable
fum of money. He was likewife obliged to deliver up
two of his fons as hoftages for the pun&ual performance
of every thing ftipulated. A war which terminated in this
manner could not reafonably be expefted to become the
bafis of much cordiality. He w^as indeed obliged to
fubmit, but he only waited for a favourable opportunity
to recover what he had loll, and to accomplilh, if poi-
fible, the total expulfion of the Britilli from India, which
with him was a favourite object, as it had always been
with his father. The afcendancy of Britain, however,
was now fo great, chiefly owing to the exertions of
Warren Haftings, Efq. that Tippoo clearly perceived
the impoflibility of finking it, without the affittance of
an army from Europe. To no country but France
could he look for an adequate force •, but the foreign
and domeftic wars arifing from the revolution, had pre¬
vented the rulers of that nation from attending to the
interefts of diftant regions. In 1797, Tippoo deter¬
mined to renew his intercourfe with France by means
of the i(lands of the Mauritius and Bourbon. One Ri-
paud, formerly a lieutenant in the French navy, who had
refided for fome time at Seringapatam, perfuaded Tippoo
that the French had a confiderable force at the Mauritius,
which with little difficulty might be fent to his affift-
ance. Ripaud being fent to confer with the French
upon the fubjeft, he and two minifters from Tippoo
■were joyfully received by Malartic the governor, and
veffels were fent to France to acquaint the directory
_IO with their propofals.
Thermo- The governor Malartic in the meantime, either from
tions of grofs ignorance, from treachery, or a with to involve
Tippoo SaibTjpp
00 Sultan in a quarrel with Britain, adopted amea-
BrTain^ ^fure which ultimately defeated the plans, and brought
about the ruin of that prince. On the 30th of January
1798, he publifhed a proclamation, containing the whole
of Tippoo’s confidential propofals, inviting all citizens
of France to efpoufe his caufe. Copies of this procla¬
mation foon found their way into moil quarters of the
world. Accordingly the governor-general of India re¬
ceived orders to watch the motions of Tippoo, and even
hoftilely attack him if it could not be prudently avoid¬
ed. The Indian government, however, had, before
this, been apprifed of the impending danger, and had
made preparations for war without lofs of time.
But Tippoo did not place his foie dependence on France,
afliftance from France. He invited one Zemaun Shah y
from the north-weft, whofe kingdom was compofed oi I799’
provinces taken from Perfia and India, to make an at¬
tack upon the Britilh and their allies. In hopes or
diredft aid from France, which Tippoo expefted in con-
fequence of Bonaparte’s invafion of Egypt, and the
important fervice which he looked for from the exer¬
tions of Zemaun Shah, he remained quiet, and endea¬
voured to temporife with the Britifli. Military prepa¬
rations on the part of the Britifh being in a confider¬
able degree of fonvardnefs, Lord Mornington, the go¬
vernor-general, informed Tippoo that he wTas not igno¬
rant of his hoftile deligns, and of his connexion with
France, propofing, however, to fend an ambaffador, for
the purpofe of bringing about a reconciliation. This
was not anfwered till the 18th of December, although
written by his lordftiip on the 8th of the preceding
month. Tippoo fimply denied the charge, and refufed
to admit the ambaflador. Unwillingly to fport with
human blood, his lordftiip on the 9th of January I799>
again intreated Tippoo to receive the ambafiador, to
which no anfwer was returned during a whole month,
during which interval 5000 men arrived from England,
and General Harris received orders to advance at the
head of the Madras army againft the kingdom of My¬
fore. This feemed to bring Tippoo a little more to rea-
fon, who nowr offered to receive the ambaffador, on con¬
dition he fliould come without any attendance $ but as
this was not deemed a fatisfadlory conceffion, the army
continued to advance. An army from Bombay was
alfo approaching on the oppofite fide of his dominions, -
which encountered part of Tippop’s forces, and defeated
them ; General Harris defeating the remainder of them
on the 27th of March, wffio on the 7th of April fat
down before Seringapatam. This officer received a
letter from Tippoo on the 9th, in which he mentioned
his adherence to treaties, and wiftied to be informed as
to the caufe of the war. The only anfwer he receiv¬
ed was a reference to Lord Mornington’s letters. He
made another attempt on the 20th, and General Harris
informed him that he had already been made acquaint¬
ed wuth the only conditions which could or would be
granted. The half of his dominions was to be furrender-
ed, large fums of money were expedled from him 5 he
was to admit an ambaffador to his court, to dif-
claim all connexion with the French, and grant hof-
tages for the faithful obfervance of every ftipula-
tion. sir
Tippoo wrote a letter to General Harris on the 28th, Propofals oi’
defiring leave to treat by ambafladors, which was re-.^U10.0 TC ’
fufed him, as he was in poffeffion of theJlne qua non ofJ
the Britilh government. It was believed that the be-
fieging army would have been obliged to retreat, had
it been poffible for Seringapatam to hold out only a
fortnight longer. On the laft day of April the befieg-
ers began to batter the walls of the city, and they got
poffeffion of it on the 4th of May. Tippoo haftened
from his palace to the attack, when given to underftand
that a breach was made in the w’alls, where he fell
undiftinguithed in the general conffidl. His treafures
and the plunder of the city were immenfe, with wffiich
the befieging army was enriched, after deducing a cer¬
tain proportion for the Britiftr government and the Eaft
India company. His fubjedls immediately furrendered.
TcKBce.
] ‘T
99-
512 ^ ^
A confular ^ he plan of a new conftitution was prefentecl to the
government public by the confuls in the month of December 1799.
bfrianc^ ■^cccrc^ng to P^an» 80 men, who had the power
a ranee. Gf nom}natjng t]ieir ovvn fucceifors, and were called
the confervative fenate, had likewife authority to eleft
the whole of the legifiators and executive rulers of
the Hate, while none of thele offices could be held by
themfelves. One man, called the chief conful, pof-
iefled the fovereign authority, held his power for ten
years, and was competent to be re-ele£!ed. Other
two confuls were to affift in his deliberations, but had
no power to controul his will. The legillative power
was divided into two affemblies *, the tribunate, com-
poled of 100 members, and the confervative fenate
of 300. When the chief conful thought proper to
propofe a law, the tribunate might debate upon it,
without having authority to vote either for or againft
it, while the members of the fenate might vote, but
were not enabled to debate. The confuls and the
members of the legillative body, as well as of the
confervative fenate, were not refponiible for their con¬
duct, but minifters of ftate employed by them were
underflood to be accountable. The committees which
framed the conilitution, nominated the perfons who
were to execute the fun&ions of government. Bona¬
parte was appointed chief conful, and Cambaceres and
Lebrun lecond and third confuls. Sieyes, as formerly,
declined taking any aftive part in the adminiftration of
public affairs, and he received, as a gratuity for his Cer¬
vices, an eftate belonging to the nation, called Crofne,
in the department of the Seine and Oifne.
Bonaparte Bonaparte had not long been in poffeffion of the
propofes to reins of government, till he fent overtures for negotia-
Britain.lth tJllg.P^ace with the allied powers at war with France j
but it is to be prefumed that he did not wiffi for a ge¬
neral peace. Separate propofals were made to the dif¬
ferent belligerent powers, no doubt with a view to dif-
folve the coalition j but the decrees of the convention
which declared war againft all the powers of Europe,
were not repealed by him. He departed from the’
forms famftioned by the cuftom of nations in carrying
on diplomatic correfpondence, but addreffed a letter di-
redlly to his Britannic majefty, the fubftance of which
was contained in two queftions j “ wffiether the war
which had, for eight years, ravaged the four quarters
of the globe, was to be eternal ?” and “ whether there
were no means for Britain and France of coming to a
good underftanding ?” Satisfactory, and we think, un-
anfwerable replies, were made to thefe queftions by the
FRA [ 1
and that part of the country which formed the ancient
kingdom of Myfore, was conferred on a defendant of
the former race, of its kings, and the remaining terri¬
tories were divided among the Britiffi and their allies.
The family of Tippoo were 'either taken or made a
voluntary furrender, being removed from that part of
the country, and allowed a decent annuity.
Zemaun Shah in the mean time invaded the country
from the north-weft, advancing to the vicinity of Delhi,
and fpreading terror and defolation wherever he came.
Satisfied with plunder, however, he foon withdrew his
forces j and the French army being detained in Egypt
by a war with the Turks, as well as the want of Ihip-
ping at Suez, Tippoo had to contend fingly againft the
united force of Britain and her allies in thofe eafterti
regions
I Sop.
82 ] FRA
Britiffi miniftry, who dwelt much, and very juftly, on France.
the bad faith of revolutionary rulers, and the inftability   v—
of the governments of France fince the fubverfion of
monarchy. The overture tranfmitted to Vienna was of
a fimilar nature, and it experienced fimilar treatment j
but the emperor of Ruffia abandoned the coalition, pro ¬
bably on account of the fhameful manner in which Su-
warrow had been treated, while carrying on the war in
Italy and Switzerland.
Bonaparte on the 7th of March, fent a meffage to
the legillative body, containing his own ideas of the
conduct and defigns of the Britiffi cabinet, and aflur-
ing them that he would invoke peace in the midft of
battles and triumphs, and fwear to fight only for the
happinefs of France and the repofe of the world. This
meflage w^as followed by two decrees j the one calling,
in the name of honour, upon every foldier abfent on
leave from the armies of Italy and the Rhine, to join
them before the April j and the other appointing
a frefh army of referve of 60,000 men to be affembled
at Dijon, under the immediate command of the firft
conful.
About this time the belligerent powTers were nearly
ready for opening the campaign in Italy and on the
Rhine. The Genoefe republic wras the only territory
of any importance in Italy, which remained in the
hands of the french, but the army by which they de¬
fended it was very much reduced fince the preceding
year, and might be confidered as in a ftate of mutiny^
from the want of pay, clothes and provifions. The
Auftrians eagerly wiffied to obtain poffeffion of Genoa
and all its dependencies, in which they could not fail
to be feconded by the Genoefe themlelves, as they look¬
ed upon the republicans to be the deftroyers of their
commerce. Maffena received the command of the
army in Genoa, wdth extraordinary powers, and evinced
himfelf to be a general of confummate abilities. Car¬
rying a reinforcement of troops with him from Lyons
and Marfeilles, and reducing to order and obedience,
by a judicious diftribution of rewards and puniffiments,
all whom he found ready to defert their ftandards, he
foon found himfelf at the head of a force fufficient to
check the progrefs of the Auftrians, and keep the
Genoefe in fubjeftion. After a number of battles had
been fought, he was obliged to retire into the city,
where he muft foon have been compelled to furrender
by famine, if General Melas had immediately blockad¬
ed it.
The appearance of the Britiffi fleet on the 5th of A- Britiffi
April, was the concerted fignal for Melas to make anfleet aP'
attack upon Genoa, the communication between which £farso^
and France was thus cut off. Prior to the arrival ofGen0a'
Lord Keith, a quantity of wheat and other proviiions
had been thrown into the city, by which means the
army and the inhabitants were refeued from the confe-
quences of immediate famine. The furrounding coun¬
try was foon vanquiffied by the Auftrians 5 but Ss the
gallant Maffena ftill lived in the expedlation of fupplies
from France, he obftinately refufed to furrender the
city. General Melas having nothing to apprehend
from this army blocked up in Genoa, left General Ott
to continue the blockade, and wrent with his own forces
againft Sauchet, who commanded another divifion of
the French army.
A decilive batfle was fought between Ceva and St
Lorenzo,
France.
near Lo¬
renzo.
FRA [ i
Lorenzo, on tlie 7th of May, in whicli the republicans
experienced a total defeat, having loft 1200 priibners,
and 19 pieces of cannon. This foon obliged General Sau-
The5Fench c'iet 1:0 abandon his ftrong pofition of Col di Tenda,
defeated where he left behind him four pieces of cannon and 2co
prifoners •, and marching on towards Nice, the -Auf-
trians drove him from one port to another, till he was
finally obliged to take refuge behind the Var; by which
movements General Melas became mafter of the whole
department of the Maritime Alps. But the campaign
on the Rhine did not open in fuch a favourable manner
to the Auftrians. The court of Vienna dire&ed the
archduke Charles to refign the command of the army
to General Kray, rvho diftinguilhed himfelf in fuch an
eminent manner in Italy, during the campaign of 1799.
Of his military talents there could be only one opinion,
and his integrity and zeal had been fufficiently tried ;
but he had the misfortune not to be fo noble as fome of
the other generals ! It is truly ridiculous to behold men
contending about trifles, when engaged in matters of
fuch vaft importance as the falvation of their country.
During the moft propitious days of Rome, her greateft
generals were plebeians.
It could not be reafonably expe&ed that fuch a dif
5i<S
Moreau re
as dire^ef cordan.t army, commanded by an able officer who had
the misfortune not to be a nobleman, would ever be
by Bona¬
parte.
5D
And is
therefore
left to his
own judg¬
ment.
able to make head againft the veterans of France, led
on by fuch an extraordinary general as Moreau. The
Hungarian troops, finding themfelves ready to be facri-
ficed to the party diftenfions of their officers, would not
fight againft the enemy. The council of war at Vienna
had fent General Kray inftruftions at the opening of
the campaign, how he was to difpofe of his forces, and
having no general under him to fupport his own opi¬
nion, he was under the painful neceflity of obeying his
inftruAions, whether he could approve of them or not.
Inflruclions of a fimilar nature had been tranfmitted to
Moreau by the chief conful, but he indignantly refufed
tt3 fight under fuch reftraints. hie was no doubt con-
fcious that his own knowledge of the military art was
at leaft equal to that of Bonaparte, while he was infi¬
nitely better acquainted with the country, and there¬
fore he fent a courier to Paris to acquaint the conful,
that if the orders fent him- were to be rigidly obeyed,
he fhould feel it his duty to refign his command, and
accept of an inferior ftation. He accompanied his re-
fignation with a plan of the campaign wdiich he had
framed for himfelf, the propriety of which inftantly
ftruck the chief conful, and therefore he u^as ordered
to carry on the war, according to his own judge¬
ment.
General Moreau being thus wifely left to adopt and
execute his own meafures, crofted the Rhine, and drove
the Auftrians from one poll to another, till Kray, find¬
ing it impracticable to adopt offenfive meafures with a
rebellious army, with difaffefted officers to command
them, refolved to maintain his pofition at Ulm, and
wait for affiftance from Vienna. He wras defeated at
Stockach, Engen, and Molkirch, although- he exhi¬
bited fully the talents of an able general 3 but what ta¬
lents were able to counteract the pernicious confequen-
ces of treachery ? At one time, when 7000 men recei¬
ved orders to advance, they inftantly threw down their
arms. Kray too plainly perceiving that it was abfo-
lutely in vain to attempt any thing of an offenfive na-
8s ] FRA
ture, entrenched himfelf ftrongly at Ulm, commanding France,
both Ikies of the Danube, which makes it a place of ~—
great importance. Moreau perceiving his intentions, 18oo>
refolved to try the paffage of the Danube, and force
him to a general engagement, by cutting him off from
his magazines at Donawert. For this purpofe he gave
orders to Lecourbe with one of the wings of his army,
to take poffeftion of a bridge between Donawert and
Dillingen, which was not efteffed without confiderable
difficulty. The Auftrians having perceived, when too
aie, that their all was in danger, dilputed every inch
of ground with the French commander. Between the
time of marching to, and of crofting the Danube, Kray
fent reinforcements to the left bank to oppofe the paf-
fage, in confequence of which a battle was fought at
Hocnftet, in the vicinity of Blenheim, where victory
again declared for the French, who made 4000 of the
enemy priloners, independent of the killed and wound¬
ed loft by the Auftrians, of which we have feen no efti-
mate.
General Kray,, fenfible that his fituation was perilous,
lert a ftrong garrifon at Ulm, and marched againft the
enemy, attacking them at Newburg, which both fides
conducted with determined bravery 3 but the Auftrians,
after a long conteft, fell back on Ingolftadt. It may
not improperly be faid, that this battle decided the fate
of Germany. The eleftorate of Bavaria was now in
the poffeflion of the French, with other territories of
lefs extent; and as they approached the hereditary do¬
minions of the emperor, men of republican fentiments
behaved with fuch effrontery, as to convince the court,
that no dependence could be reafonably placed on ar¬
mies compofed of fuch men. The imperial family, and
the Britiih ambaffador, wrere openly infulted in the
theatre, and the cry of peace, peace, was vociferated
xrom different quarters.
. 111 General Kray alone could not ex- Th/rrench
cite luch a Ipirit, becaufe at this time the affairs ofHrmy at
Germany were even in a more deplorable ftate in Italy DiJon unex°
o^the^Rhine6 U,3"11136' TT ^ C^m^n opened ^es for
on the Rhine, the army of referve under the command Laly,
ot Bonaparte, which was formed at Dijon, began its
march. When the French government declared that
this army was above 50,000 ftrong, and receiving daily
reinforcements, few could be found who were difpofed
to give any credit to the report. Such as were friendly
to the caufe of the allies, were unwilling to allow the
French government fo much vigour, while it was in-
duftnoufly circulated by the Jacobins of Germany, that
it could not amount to more than 6000 men. The
firft conful fet out from Paris on the 5th of May, to -
take the command of an army, the ftrength and defii-
nation of which had given rife to fo many conjectures
and on receiving the troops cantoned at Dijon, he pro!
ceeded towards Genoa. .Having been a ftiort time in-
the Pays de Vaud, he joined the army of referve at the
root of St Bernard, of which he immediately affumed
the command. It is certain that a very infignificant
xorce would have been able to arreft the progrefs of
Bonaparte while afcending the mountain 3 but either
General Melas had heard nothing of its being in mo¬
tion, or he had implicitly believed the report of the Ja¬
cobins. In confequence of this ignorance or credulity,
the army of referve encountered no oppofition till it
reached the town of Aoft, of which the firft conful very-
loon.
FRA [ i
-France. f0on gained pofleflion. Having, with tne moft afto-
perfeVerance, paffed the fort of Bard, he pro-
18°°. ceec}ed on his march down the valley of Aoft with lit¬
tle oppofition, till he arrived at the town of Yorea,
where the Auftrians were affetnbled in force, but were
obliged to give way before the impetuofity of the re¬
publicans, and poft themfelves on the heights of Ro¬
mano behind the Chinfella. It was of vaft importance
as commanding the paffage of the river, and was occu¬
pied by 4000 cavalry, 5000 infantry, and a few pieces
of cannon. It was taken on the 26th of May, and the
fort of Brunette foon after, in confequence of which
the road to Turin was now open. While the republi¬
cans were elfetting a paffage over St Bernard, the chief
part of the Auftrians under Melas were employed in
the celebration of their viftory over them at Nice,
little fufpefting how foon they were to experience a fad
reverfe of fortune, and that the vigors would very loon
be vanqufthed. General Melas, at length roufed from
his dream of fecurity, marched towards 1 urin with all
poffible fpeed, in order to defend the Po, and prevent
the invaders from arriving at Vienna. He naturally
concluded that Turin would be the firft important point
.of attack made by the French, but in this he was de¬
ceived 5 for while he prepared to difpute the paffage of
the Po wdth the republicans, Bonaparte fuddenly turn¬
ed to the left, and entered Milan on the 2d of
jane.
The army of Bonaparte was very numerous, but he
wanted magazines, artillery, and ftores of every kind •,
but underftanding that Pavia was the great depot of the
Auftrian army, he fent his advanced guard againft it
under General Lanne's, who made an eafy conqueft of
it, and found in it more than 200 pieces of cannon,
8000 mulkets, 2000 barrels of gunpowder, and a pro¬
digious quantity of all forts of provifions. Another of
the chief conful’s generals croffed the Po at Stradella j
and having cut off the communication between General
Melas and the country of Piedmont, gained pofieflion
of the Auftrian magazines at Piacenza, Cremona, and
gjp a number of other places on the banks of the river.
Maffena in About this time it was that Bonaparte became ac-
a critical quainted with the fate of Genoa, by means of intercep-
iituation at tecj ictters# Maffena did every thing in the power of
£enoa* bravery and perfeverance to keep poffeflion of the city }
but after he had witneffed 15,000 of the inhabitants pe-
rilh with hunger, he furrendered to the Britiih and
Auftrian commanders on the 5th of June, and obtained
very favourable terms, when we conlider that it was
impoflible for him to hold out any longer. The right
wing of his army, confifting of 8110 men, was permit¬
ted to march into France by the way of Nice, and the
reft were to be conveyed by fea to Antibes, at the ex¬
pence of Britain •, no man was to be deemed refponftble
for having held any public office under the government
of the Ligurian republic •, and all officers taken prifo-
ners ftnee the commencement of the campaign, were
allowed to return to France on their parole, not to
ferve till they ftiould be regularly exchanged. By the
fall of Genoa, the Auftrian army which befieged it
was at liberty to co-operate with the commander in
chief; and, accordingly, General Ott marched at the
head of thirty battalions to check the progrefs of the
French army in Piedmont. On the 9th of June he was
■Dpet by generals Lannes and Vi&or at Montebello,
x
84 J F R A , , , P
where a battle was fought with great fury on botxi F.ance^
ftdes, when the French were victorious, and General
Ott retreated with great lofs. Melas being unable to 1 30
arreft the progrefs of the republicans by detachments of
his army, collected his whole force between Aleffandria
and Tortona, that he might be able to open a way for
himfelf to the Auftrians on the Mincio, if he ffiould
find it impoflible to crufti the enemy. The confequence
of this ftep was the ever memorable battle of Marengo,
fought on the 14th of June, which has been 'Narioudy
delcribed. The French accounts reprefented the army
of General Melas as more numerous than that of the
chief conful, to whofe fuperior conduft and bi avery
alone the French were indebted for fuccefs. Others
have believed that the fuperiority was on the fide of the
republicans, and think they can difeover as much from
comparing together the different bulletins of the army
of referve. On this point wc pretend not to decide,
only it is certain that the Auftrians were vi&orious for
nine hours, and the fate of that battle appears to have
been decided by the mafterly condudt of General De-
faix, who died on the field. One falfe movement, made
by General Melas, which enfeebled his centre, afford¬
ed the gallant Defaix an opportunity of making a vigo¬
rous difeharge with a body of cavalry that had hitherto
been unemployed. General Zach, a man worn out
with age and fatigue, when about to take the command
of the army from Melas, fell into the hands of the
enemy, who remained mafters of the field of battle. *’2Ci r
The Auftrians loft in this engagement above 9POO Great
men, and the French upwards of 12,000, according t°trjansat
their own account. Enraged that the victory fhould tpe battle
be thus fnatched from them, the Auftrians were eager of Maren-
to renew the combat on the following day j but Gene- g°*
ral Melas deemed it prudent to check the ardour of his
troops, and concluded a capitulation, laid by fome to
be unparalleled in the annals of w7ar. He may have
figned fuch a capitulation in confequence of inftrutftions
from the council of wrar at Vienna, or the fortreffes gi¬
ven up by him may have been deftitute of provifions.
If we admit the firft fuppofition, it follows that the
council of w'ar wTere determined enemies to the caufe of
the combined powers j and if we go upon the fecond,
Melas himfelf was perhaps the moft improvident com¬
mander that ever was charged with the defence of a
country. The whole of Piedmont and Genoa were
given up to the French, and an armiftice w'as conclud¬
ed, to laft till the court of Vienna had time to return
its opinion.
General Kray in Italy wras anxious to avail himfelf of
this armiftice, to arreft the progrefs of Moreau’s army j
but that able general would not liften to any overtures
upon the fubjedt, till he fhould receive inftrudlions from
Paris. Count St julien arrived with propofals of peace
from the Imperial cabinet, in confequence of which the
armiftice was concluded in Germany and Italy, the
polls then occupied by the refpedlive armies being con-
fidered as conftituting the line of demarcation. In op¬
pofition to the fpirit of their ftipulations with General
Melas, the French reinforced theft army in Italy, le¬
vied immenfe contributions, and railed troops in differ-
ent ftates declared by themfelves to be independent. Gre5J di_
While France was everywhere victorious in Europe, ^reis 0f ^3
her troops in Africa were fubjedted to hardflups and dif- French
orace. Their being abandoned by theft chief made^00?510
them
512
General
Kleber af-
faffinated.
5^3
OF which
Menou is
wnjuftly
ifufpedled.
FRA [
tliem complain bitterly j and Kleber is faid to Have de¬
clared, that the fame umverfe (hould not contain him
and Bonaparte. He continued the negotiations begun
by General Bonaparte with the grand vizier for evacu¬
ating Egypt, between whom a convention wras conclu¬
ded on the 24th of January 1800, to which Sir Sidney
Smith agreed on the part of Great Britain. By virtue
of this convention the republican army, its baggage
and effe&s, w'ere to be colledled at Alexandria, Rofet-
ta, and Aboukir, to be conveyed to France in veffels
belonging to the republic, and fuch as might be fur-
nifhed for that purpofe by the Sublime Porte. It would
feem that nothing could have happened more injurious
to the intereft of the allies than the evacuation of E-
gypt upon fuch terms, lince the conful would thus
have been furnilhed wuth nearly 18,000 troops, which
might have been advantageoufly employed, either in
Italy or on the Rhine. It is ftrange how this impor¬
tant circumftance did not occur to Sir Sidney Smith,
and no lefs fo, howr he took upon him the office of ple¬
nipotentiary. Mr Dundas clearly proved in the houfe
of commons, that he exceeded any power with which
he could reafonably conceive himfelf veiled, that being
lodged with Lord Elgin at Conllantinople.
In the latter end of the year 1799, the Britiffi mini-
llry had reafon to believe that a negotiation would take
place between the grand vifier and General Kleber, re-
IpetSing the evacuation of Egypt by the troops of the
latter} and as liich an event wras much to be delired,
Lord Keith received orders to accede to it, on condi¬
tion that General Kleber and his army ffiould be de¬
tained as prifoners of w7ar, inftead of being fent back to
France. I his was bitterly complained of in France,
and numbers even in England exclaimed againll it as
a flagrant breach of faith, while General Kleber him-
ielf did not conlider it in fuch a light, although the on-
}y perfon who had reafon to do fo, could he have done
it with fairnefs. On the 20th of March he attacked
the 'I urks in the vicinity of Cairo, who fled before him
in all direflions, and left more than 8000 men dead
and wounded on the field of battle. By this conquelt
Cairo W'as rellored to the French, which in terms of the
convention they had abandoned. Kleber again pro-
pofed to evacuate Egypt, on the terms agreed to by
the grand vifier and Sir Sidney Smith, and Lord Keith
being ordered to agree to them by the cabinet of St
James s, a fulpenfion of holtilities took place, and the
Turks were ready to be delivered from enemies whom
they were not able to expel, when General Kleber was
fuddenly afiaffinated.
Both parties had reafon to regret this event, as Ge¬
neral Kleber appears to have been, not only the moll
honourable, but by far the ablelt commander of the re¬
publicans, m that quarter of the globe. It is not cer¬
tainly known by whom he was murdered, nor who were
the contrivers of fuch a plot, but at Conllantinople his
fucceffor Menou was llrongly fufpefled. We mull con-
fefs that he was not friendly to Kleber; but on the other
hand we do not find General Reynier, in his “ State
EgyPL” infinuate any thing of this nature againll
Menou, although he treats his condufl and abilities
with fome degree of contempt; and we are informed
that the aflaffin himfelf, previous to his execution,
fblemnly acquitted Menou from being in the lead ac¬
quainted with the plot.
Vol. IX. Part I.
185 ] F R A
As Menou refufed to leave Egypt by capitulation, Fr^ncp.
the Britilh government formed the refolution of driving "x—~J
him out of it by force. Sir James Pulteney received tSot.
the command of 12,000 men, to a£l in the Mediter-^j^4,
ranean in fuch a manner as might mod effeflually an- -vbercrom-
noy the enemy ; a plan wffiich was difconcerted by the by fails inr
iffiae of the battle .of Marengo. He was fuperfeded by
Sir Ralph Abercromby, who carried reinforcements
along with him, together with a train of artillery from
Gibraltar. He touched at Minorca and Malta, from
whence he deered his courfe for the coad of Egypt,
which he reached on the id of March 1801, and
anchored next day in the bay of Aboukir j but the
weather prevented him from attempting to land till the
7th of that month, at 10 o’clock in the forenoon.
I he fird divifion effefled a landing in the face of the
French, to the amount of 4000 men, whofe pofition
was fo very advantageous, that an eye witnefs thought
they might have refided the world ; yet 2000 Britiffi
troops drove them from it, with the lofs of fome field
pieces, and the difembarkation was continued during that
and the following day. 52^
The whole army of General Abercromby moved ^e^tench
forward on the 12th, and coming in fight of the main foniiuere^.
body of the French, gave them" battle on the 13th.tiLnear
The conflia: was obdinate on both fides, and their lofs A'exandna,
very confiderable, but vidlory in the end declared forap(1 Gene-
the Britidi. This advantage was followed up with vi-ral Aher'
gour, and on the 21 d a more intereding battle 'was^^aHy'
fought wdth fimilar fuccefs, about four miles from the wounded,
city of Alexandria. Sometimes the French had the ad ¬
vantage, and fometimes the Britiffi, but the latter were
finally vi6lorious. General Abercromby, that he might
not damp the ardour of his troops, concealed for two
hours the anguiffi of a mortal wound he received in this
aftion :—a degree of magnanimity which has very fei-
dom been equalled, and we believe never was fur-
paffed. The lofs of the Britiffi on this occafion wras
edimated at 1 yoo, and that of the French at 4000
men. . 52(S
_ As it maybe faid that the fate of Egypt was de-TheNor~
cided in a great meafure by thefe two battles, we betr!:I\ern Con'
Uq-itp. ~oll  c J . rr ■ ofcderacy.
leave to call the attention of our readers to affairs of
great importance which about this time took place in
Europe. The powers of the north, envious of the fupe-
riority of Britain by fea, and adting under the influence
of the capricious Paul, w7ere refolved to revive the
armed neutrality of Catharine II. during the continu¬
ance of the American war, and claimed a right of
trading to the ports of France, without being fubjedled
ta have their veffels fearched. The minidry of Great
Britain were determined to break fuch a confederacy j
but to the adoniffiment of the nation they refigned at
this period. Different caufes have been affigned for an
event which was fo unexpedted ; but the odenfible rea¬
fon was a difference in the cabinet relative to catholic
emancipation. After the union of Ireland with Bri¬
tain, it feems pretty clear that the minider did propofe
this fubje$ in the cabinet, but his majedy, from a fa-
cred regard to his coronation oath, put his negative up¬
on it,, in confequence of ® hich Mr Pitt and his friends
gave in their refignation. In general they were fuc-A change
ceeded by men who had countenanced their adminidra-of miniftry
tion during the war. Mr Addington was appointed ta^es place
fird lord of the treafury, and chancellor of the exAn Britain.
A a chequer*;
i8oi.
F R A [ i
Trarce. cliequer ; Lord Eldon, lord high chancellor j the earl
of St Vincent, fiijdlord of the admiralty 5 lords Hawkes-
bury and Pelham, fecretaries of date, and the honour¬
able Colonel Yorke, lecretary at war. The former
miniftry was diffolved on the 1 ith of February 5 but
owing to the indifpolition of his majefty, none of the
newT miniftry entered upon office before the middle of
March, during which eventful interval Mr Pitt and
his aftbeiates had the chief management of public af¬
fairs. The new miniftry entered upon office by folemn-
ly pledging themfelves to' the nation, that they would
employ their united efforts in procuring a fafe and ho¬
nourable peace rvith France, while they never loft fight
for a moment of the warlike plans of thofe who had
preceded them.
About this time the moft hoftile meafures ■were
adopted by the powers compofing the northern confe¬
deracy. The free city of Hamburgh was taken by a
Daniffi army under Charles prince of Heffe, in order
to injure the commerce of Great Britain j and the king
of Pruffia fent a numerous army into the eleftorate of
Hanover. To puniffi this unaccountable conduct, and
diffolve the northern confederacy, a fleet of 17 fail of
the line, four frigates, four floops, and fome bomb veffels,
■was fitted out in the ports of Britain, which failed from
Yarmouth on the 12th of March, under the command
of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker, Lord Nelfon, and Rear-
admiral Graves, and having paffed the Sound, appear¬
ed before Copenhagen on the 30th of the fame month.
The Danes did not appear in the fmalleft degree agi¬
tated, for it was impoffible to moleft either the fleet or
the city, without palling through a channel fo ex¬
tremely intricate, that it was once believed hardly fafe
to attempt it with a Angle ffiip, and without any ene¬
my to oppofe. This channel was founded by Lord
Nelfon, wffio undertook to condudl a large divifion of
the fleet through it, requefting from Sir Hyde Parker
the command of it, wffiich was accordingly given him,
and Rear-admiral Graves was his fecond in com¬
mand.
As the large!! ffiips drew too much water for being
vanquifhed employed in fuch a hazardous attempt, his lordlhip
by Lord felefted 1 2 of from 74 to 50 guns, together with four
frigates, four floops, two fire-fhips, and feven bombs.
A moft prodigious force wras oppofed to this, confifting
of fix fail of the line, 11 floating batteries, each mount¬
ing from 26 twenty-four pounders to 18 eighteen poun¬
ders, one bomb-lhip, and a number of fchooners. Thefe
wTere fiipported by the Crown iflands, mounting 88
pieces of cannon 5 by four fail of the line, moored in the
mouth of the harbour, and by a few batteries on the
ifland of Amak. Lord Nelfon attacked this tremen¬
dous force on the 2d of April, and filenced the firing
of the batteries after an obftinate and bloody aftion
which lafted four hours, taking, burning, and finking
about 17 fail, including feven fail of the line. In kill¬
ed and wrounded the Britiffi loft 943 men, while that
of the Danes muft have been at leaft double the num¬
ber. A fufpenfion of hoftilities was the immediate con-
fequence of this brilliant vidlory, and a treaty of armed
neutrality to laft for 14 weeks.
After repairing the ftiips that were damaged upon
Who fails this occafion, the Britifh fleet failed for Carlfcrona, and
^hfence appeared before it on the 19th of April. The gover¬
nor here was immediately informed by the Britifh ad-
3 - -
528
The Danes
Nelfon at
Copenha¬
gen,
529
to Carlf-
crona.
86 j F R A
miral of what had happened at Copenhagen, requefting France,
his Swedifh majefty to give an explicit anfwer whether ^——*
he meant to adhere to, or abandon the confederacy. 1801.
The reply was very ambiguous j but having received
the news of the fudden death of the emperor Paul, on
the 23d of March, and Lord Nelfon, now commander
in chief, writing in a more peremptory tone than the
officer whom he had fuperfeded, the court of Stock¬
holm deemed it prudent to follow the example of that
of Copenhagen. Alexander, the fon and lucceffor of
Paul, poffeffed of more honour and juftice than his fa¬
ther, reftored all the Britiftr property wffiich he had
confifcated, relinquiffied his abfurd claim to the ifland
of Malta, and agreed that neutral veffels ffiould be
fearched, when bound for any one country at war with
another, which proved the grave of the northern con¬
federacy.
When the armiftice was figned between the Auftrian
and French generals in the year i8co, the troops of
the latter wrere in poffeffion of Germany almoft to the
banks of the Inn, and of Italy to the frontiers of Ve¬
nice ; but the fpirit of the emperor was yet unfubdued,
and he would not abandon his allies by a confirmation
of the preliminaries of peace which Count St Julian had
agreed to at Paris, as he exceeded the powers with
which he was entrufted. Kray having retired from fer-
vice, the archduke John fucceeded him, with whom the
emperor in perfon repaired to the army j but they foon
found it impra&icable to aft an offenfive part againfl:
General Moreau, and therefore another armiftice com¬
prehending Italy, was agreed to. The emperor wifhed
to include Britain in any treaty with France, but as
Bonaparte would admit no plenipotentiary from that
country without the benefit of a naval armiftice,
which it was truly abfurd to expeft, General Moreau
received orders to go on with his military operations. 530
The army of Auftria was now given to the com- The Auf-
mand of generals whofe vepy names were almoft Un-|"ar,s totajf
known beyond the confines of their own country, and H0henlin-
who evinced themfelves but very little acquainted with den.
the military art. As Moreau was pondering on the
plan of his winter campaign, the right wing of his
army was attacked by the Auftrians with fuch vigour,
as had nearly reduced him to the neceffity of afting on
the defenfive •, and had General Klenau known how
to make a temperate ufe of his viftory on this occa¬
fion, the ruin of the French commander would have
been inevitable. The cafe was otherwife. Elated with
his fuccefs, he unaccountably abandoned his pofition
on the Inn, and engaging his cautious and able an-
tagonift at the village of Hohenlinden, was totally-
routed, with the lofs of 80 pieces of cannon, 200
caiffons, aad 10,000 prifoners, independent of a pro¬
digious number left dead on the field.
General Moreau allowing the enemy no time to
rally, proceeded direftly towards the Inn, croffing it
on the 9th of December, l8co, and driving his ene¬
mies before him, ftruck the court of Vienna with con-
fternation and difmay. Prince Charles was recalled
to the command of the army, but after many fruitlefs
efforts to retrieve its loft honour, he propofed an ar-
miftice on the 27th of December, which was granted
by the French commander, on condition that it Ihould
be immediately followed by a definitive treaty. If the
archduke could have had any dependence on his army,
although
_ S31
ireaty of
Luneville.
Britain de
ferted by
almofl: all
Europe.
533
Bonaparte
threatens
to invade
Britain.
FRA [
although very much weakened, this armiftice, in all
probability, would not have taken place, for the poli-
tion of Moreau was perilous in tire extreme. In the
very heart of Auftria, he had behind him on his right,
about 30,000 men in the Tyrol, with upwards of
50,000 on his left. But Auftrian valour was now al-
moil cxtinguidred by fo many fad reverfes of fortune,
and Auftrian officers were not true to their trull.
I his armillice was followed by a treaty of peace
figned at Luneville on the 9th of February 1801, be-
tween the emperor for himfelf and the Germanic body,
and the firlt conful of the French republic, in the name’
of the people of France. By it the emperor ceded the
Brifgau to the duke of Modena, for the territories loft
by that prince in Italy, and bound himfelf to find in¬
demnities in the Germanic empire for all thofe princes
whom the fate of war had deprived of their dominions.
The grand duke of lufcany was to renounce his duke-
dom for ever^ with its dependencies in the ifle of Elba
to the infant duke of Parma, for which the empire was
to furnifh him with an adequate indemnification.
On the 28th of March a treaty of peace was con-
cluded between the French republic and the king of
the Two Sicilies, by which his majefty obliged him-
iell to ffiut all the ports of Naples and Sicily againft
Ihips of every defcription belonging either to the
Britilh or the Turks, till thefe powers Ihould conclude
a treaty with the French republic, and till Britain
and the northern powers (liould come to a good un-
. handing. He renounced for ever, Porto Longano
in. t e ifie of Elba, his ftates in Tufcany, and the
principality of Piombino, to be difpofed of in fuch a
manner as the French republic might think proper.
Great Britain had now none to affift her in the con-
teft with France, but the Turks in Egypt and the Por-
tuguele in Europe, powers which rather diminiffied
than mcreafed her ftrength, by dividing it. The
Spaniards had made an attack upon Portugal at the
defire of France, conquering fome of its provinces :
but a treaty of peace was concluded between them on
the 6th of June, by which the king of Spain reftored
all his conquefts except the fortreis of Olivenza, and
the prince regent of Portugal and Algarva promifed
to. llmt the ports of his whole territories againft the
h!ps of Great Britain, and to make indemnification
to his Catholic majefty for all Ioffes and damages fuf-
tamed by his fubjects during the war.
W hen the chief conful had made peace with all his
other enemies, he threatened Great Britain with an im¬
mediate mvafion, which gave great uneafinefs at firft to
a confiderable part of the nation, but it gradually fub-
iided. In order to diminifh this alarm, Lord Nelfon
was fent to deftroy the (hipping and harbour of Bou¬
logne. His fuccefs in this undertaking fell ffiort of the
expectations which many had formed 5 but he made
luch an impremon on the enemy on the 4th of Auguft
as evinced that Britain could annoy the coaft of France5
with greater facility, than France could moieft that of
Britain. It was alfo highly fatisfactory to find that the
ipmt of the Bntifh navy was not exclufively attached
to the hero of the Nile ; for Rear-admiral Saumarez
havmg m the month of July, come up with a com¬
bined fquadron of French and Spanifh (hips of war
bound for Cadiz, much fuperior to his own, he fcru-
pied not to give them battle, the confequence of which
187 J F R
was, that one oi them was captured, and two more France
were burnt. ■
Attempts were again made by Britain during the 1 So 1.
uminer of 1801, to negotiate with France. The firft, .534
conful could not but fee, from the total diffolution of to'
the northern confederacy, that it was impoflible for him treat with
to rum the Britiih commerce, and confequently that all France,
t e treaties he had made for the purpofe of excluding
our flaps from neutral ports would fignify nothing. He
leemed determined, however, to keep poffeftion of E-
gypt; and Britain, on the other hand, was as fully re¬
vived to wreft it from him. On this account the nego¬
tiations were protrafted, till the conqueft of that coun-
tiy was known at London and Paris. ^
\¥hen Sir Ralph Abercromby died, General Hut-Rofetta,
.ml on succeeded to the command of the Britifli forces Ciliro> an<?
m Egypt, who was probably acquainted with the plan AJexa"dna*
of his much lamented predeceflbr, as one fpirit feemed he BrSa,.
to aftuate both. Rofetta foon furrendered, which was
loHowed by the conqueft of Cairo 5 and Menou having
accepted o( fimilar terms for Alexandria, the whole of
Egypt fell into the hands of the allies, and the republi¬
can troops and baggage were conveyed to the neareft
French ports m the Mediterranean, in (hips furniihed
them by die allies. After thefe events, the negotiations
between Britain and France went on more agreeably •
and, on the ift of Oftober, the preliminaries" of peace
uere igned at London by Lord Hawkelbury on the
part of his Britannic majefty, and M. Otto on that of
1 ench republic. By it Great Britain engaged to
give up all the conquefts made during the continuance
ot the war, excepting the iflands of Ceylon and Trini-
dad France was to reftore nothing. The Cape of
Good Hope was to be free to all the contrafting par¬
ties ; the ifland of Malta was to be given to the knights
o_ the order of St John of Jerufalem ; Egypt was to be
given to the Ottoman Porte 3 Portugal was to be main¬
tained m its integrity, except what was ceded to the
Fmg 01 Spain by the prince regent 3 Naples and the
■Koman ftates were to be evacuated by the French
Porto Ferrajo by the Britiffi, with all 'the ports and
iflands occupied by them in the Mediterranean ; and
plenipotentiaries were appointed to meet at Amiens, for
the purpofe of drawing up and (igning the definitive
treaty I his was concluded on the 2 2d of March 1802
m confequence of which the French republic was ac¬
knowledged by the whole of Europe. ^
The reftoration of peace, after fo long and fanguinary Peace con-
a conteft, gave the higheft fatisfaclion to all ranks and c!uf,ed at
denominations of men, with the exception, perhaps
a few mterefted individuals ; and it was certffinly as ho-tairand"'
nourable to Britain as could well be expe&ed from the Prance,
nature of the war. It was celebrated at Paris in the
cathedral of Notre Dame, with great pomp and magni-
ficence. The celebration of the re-eftablifhment of the
Catholic religion in France, to which the majority of
the people were warmly attached, gave additional im¬
portance to tne fcene m that country, and the meafure
evinced the moft confummate political wifdom on the
part of Bonaparte, whofe popularity in confequence of
1- was very much increafed. We muft now lay before
our readers the celebrated Concordat, or convention
concluded between Bonaparte and the pope, by which
ie Catholic faith was again eftabliflied m that coun¬
try.
Copy
A a 2
F R A
France.
lSo2.
[
Copy of the late important Convention between the Trench
Government and liis Hohnefs the Pope, Pius VII.
ratified the 23d Fruaidor, year 9, (10th September,
1S01).
The chief conful of the French republic, and his ho-
iinefs the fovereign pontiff, Pius VII. have named as
their refpeaive plenipotentiaries—
The chief conful, the citizens Jofeph Bonaparte,
counfellor of ftate •, Cretet, counfellor of ftate j and
Bernier, doaor of divinity, curate of St Laud d’An¬
gers •, furnithed with full powers :
His holinefs, his eminence Monfeigneur Hercule
Confalvi, cardinal of the holy Roman church, deacon
of St Agathe ad Suburrum, his Secretary of ftate j Jo¬
feph Spina, archbifhop of Corinth, domeftic prelate to
his holinefs, attendant on the pontifical throne-, and
Father Cafelli, his holinefs’s advifer on points of theo¬
logy ; in like manner furnilhed with full powers in due
form :
Who, after exchanging their full powers, have con¬
cluded the following convention :
188 ] FRA
ful, and canonical inftitution fhall be adminiftered by
the holy fee, conformably to the preceding article.
6. The bilhops, before entering upon their functions,
(hall take, before the chief conful, the oath of fidelity
which was in ufe before the revolution, expreffed in the
following words:
“ I fwear and promife to God, upon the Holy Evan-
gelifts, to preferve obedience and fidelity to the govern¬
ment eftablifired by the conftitution of the French re¬
public. I likewife promife to carry on no coirefpon-
dence, to be prefent at no converfation, to form no
connexion, whether within the territories of the repub¬
lic or without, which may, in any degree, difturb the
public tranquillity : and if, in my diocefe or elfewhere,
I difcover that any thing is going rorward to the pieju-
dice of the ftate, I will immediately communicate to
government all the information I poflefs.”
7. Ecclefiaftics of the fecond order firall take the
fame oath before the civil authorities appointed by the
government.
8. The following formula of prayer fnall be recited
at the end of divine fervice in all the Catholic churches
of France.
France.
i802.
Convention between the French Government and his Ho-
linefs the Pope, Pius VII.
The government of the republic acknowledges that
the Catholic, Apoftolical, and Roman religion, is the
religion of the great majority of French citizens.
His holinefs, in like manner, acknowledges that this
fame religion has derived, and is likely to derive, the
greateft benefit and the greateft fplendour from the efta-
blifhment of the Catholic worfhip in France, and from
its being openly profeffed by the confuls of the repub-
lic. . • r
This mutual acknowledgment being made, m confe-
quence, as well for the good of religion as for the
maintenance of interior tranquility, they have agreed
as follows;
Article 1. The Catholic, Apoftolical, and Roman
religion fhall be freely exercifed in France. Its fervice
ihall be publicly performed, conformably to the regula¬
tions of police, which the government fhall judge ne~
ceffary for the public tranquillity.
2. There fhall be made by the holy fee, in concert
with the government, a new divifion of French dio-
cefes.
3. His holinefs fhall declare to the titular French
bilhops that he expe&s from them, with the firmeft con¬
fidence, every facrifice for the fake of peace and unity
.—even that of their fees.
After this exhortation, if they fhould refufe the facri¬
fice commanded for the good of the church (a refufal,
ueverthelefs which his holinefs by no means expefts),
the fees of the new divifion fhall be governed by bifhops
appointed as follows :
4. The chief conful fhall prefent, within three months
qfter the publication of his holinefs’s bull to the arch-
bifhoprics and bifhoprics of the new divifion.. His ho¬
linefs fhall confer canonical Inftitution, according to the
forms eftablifhed in France before the revolution (avant
changement de gouvernement).
5. The domination to the bifhoprics which become
vacant in future, flail likewife belong to the chief con-
Domine, falvam fac rempublicam.
Domine, falvos fac confules.
9. The bifhops fhall make a new divifion of the pa-
rifhes in their diocefes, which, however, fhall not take
effeft till after it is ratified by government.
10. The bifhops fhall have the appointment of the pa-
rifh priefts.
Their choice fhall not fall but on perfons approved of
by government.
11. The bifhops may have a chapter in their cathe¬
dral, and a feminary for the diocefe, without the go^
vernment being obliged to endow them.
1 2. All the metropolitan, cathedral, parochial, and
other churches which have not been alienated, neceffa-
ry to public worfhip, fhall be placed at the difpofal of
the bifhops.
13. His holinefs, for the fake of peace and the hap¬
py re-eftablifhment of the Catholic religion, declares-
that neither he nor his fucceffors will difturb in any
manner thofe who have acquired the alienated property
of the churchand that in confequence, that property,
and every part of it, fhall belong for ever to them, their
heirs and afligns.
14. The government fhall grant a fuitable falary to
bifhops and parifh priefts, whofe diocefes and parilhes*
are comprifed in the new divilion.
The government fhall likewife take meafures to
enable French Catholics, who are fo inclined, to difpofi,
of their property for the fupport of religion.
16. His holinefs recognifes in the chief conful of the ^
French republic the fame rights and prerogatives in re-*
ligious matters which the ancient government enjoyed.
17. It is agreed between the contra£ling parties, that
in cafe any of the fucceffbrs of the prefent chief conful
fhould not be a Roman Catholic, the rights and prero¬
gatives mentioned in the foregoing article, as well as-
the nomination to the bifhop’s fees, fhall be regulated,,
with regard to him, by a new convention.
The ratifications fhall be exchanged at Paris in the-
fpace of forty days.
FRA [ 189 ] F R A -
Ffa-nce. Done at Paris, the 26th Meffidcr, year 9 of the
~~'n French republic.
1802.
(Signed) Joseph Bonaparte.
Hercules, Cardinalis Consalvi.
Joseph, Archiep. Corinthi.
Bernier.
F. Carolus Caselli.
Regulations of the Gallic an Church.
Title I.—Of 'the Regulation of the Catholic Church,
as conneBed with the Policy of the State.
Article 1. No bull, refcript, decree, provilion, or
Hhy thing in the place of a provilion, or, in Ihort, any
other difpatch from the court of Rome, even though it
fiiould relate to individuals only, {hall be received, pub¬
lished, printed, or otherways put in force, without the
authority of the government.
2. No individual, affuming the charafter of nuncio,
legate, vicar, or apollolic commiffary, or whatever other
appellation he may affume, fhall be allowed to exercife
his fundlions in France, but with the confent of the go¬
vernment, and in a manner conformable to the liberties
of the Gallican church.
3. The decrees of foreign fynods, or even of general
councils, lhall not be puhlifhed in France before the
^government lhall have examined their form, their con¬
formity to the laws, rights, and privileges of the French
republic, and whatever might in their publication have
a tendency to alter or to affefl: public tranquillity.
4. No national or metropolitan council, no diocefan
fynod, no deliberatife affembly, lhall be allowed to
be held without the exprefs permiflion of government.
5. All eccleliaftical fundfions lhall be gratuitous,
with the exception of thofe oblations which lhall be au¬
thorized, and fixed by particular regulation.
6. Recourfe lhall be had to the council of Hate in
every inltance of abufe, on the part of fuperiors, and
other ecclefialtical perfons. The inltanees of abufe are
ufurpation, or excefs of power, contravention of the-
laws and inftitutions of the republic ; infradlion of the
rules confecrated by the canons received in France ; any
attack upon the liberties, franchifes, .and culloms of the
Gallican church j and any attempt, which, in the ex¬
ercife of worlhip, can compromife the honour of chi-1
zens, arbitrarily trouble their confcience, or lead to op-
preflion, injury, or public fcandal.
7. There lhall alfo be a right of appeal to the coun¬
cil of ftate, on the ground of any attempt being made
to interrupt the exercife of public worlhip, and to in¬
fringe on that liberty which the general laws of the re¬
public, as well as particular regulations, guarantee to
its minifters.
8. An appeal lhall be competent to any perfon inte-
refted j and in -cafe no complaint is exhibited by indivi¬
duals, the bulinefs lhall be taken up officially by the
prefefts. The public functionary, eccleliallical or indi-;
vidua], who lhall wilh to exercife this right of appeal,
mult addrefs a figned memoir, containing a detail of the
grievance complained of, to the counfellor of Itate pre-
liding over religious affairs, whofe duty it will then be¬
come to make, with the lealt polfible delay, every in¬
quiry into the fubjeCt} and upon his report the affair
lhall be definitively fettled, or fent back, according to France,
the urgency of the cafe, to the competent authorities.
1-0 0 2**
Title II.—Of the Clergy.—Sect. I.—General Regula¬
tions. J
Article 9. The Catholic worlhip lhall be exercifed
under the direction of the archbilhops and biihops in
their diocefes, and under that of the cures, in their pa-*
rilhes.
10. Every privilege derogating from eccleliaftical ju-
rifdiCtion is abolilhed.
11. The archbilhops and biihops may, with the per-
milfion of the government, eftablifh in their diocefes ca¬
thedral chapters and feminaries. All other ecclefiafti-
cal eftablilhments are fupprefl'ed.
12. Archbilhops and biihops may adopt the title of
citizen, or monfieur, as they lhall judge moft fit 5 all*
other qualifications are forbidden.
Sedl. II.—Of the Archbifbops, or Metropolitans.
Article 13. The archbilhops lhall confecrate and in-
ftal their fuffragans. In cafe of failure, or refufal on '
their part, their place lhall be fupplied by the eldeft
bilhop of the metropolitan diftriff.
14. They fhall wratch over the maintenance of doc-*
trine and diicipline in the diocefes dependent on their
fee.
15- They lhall hear and judge of complaints and ap¬
peals againft the condudl and decifions of-the fuffragaa*'
bilfiops.
Seel. III. Of tlie Bfhops, the Vicars-General, and the
Seminaries.
Article 16. No perfon can be named a bilhop who'
is not a Frenchman, and who is not at leaft thirty years
of age.
17. Before the decree for the nomination is difpatch-
ed, he lhall be bound to produce an atteftation of the
corre<ft:nefs of his conduct and manners, furnilhed by
the bifhop of that diooefe in which he lhall have exer¬
cifed the fundtions of the fhiniftry 5 he lhall undergo an
examination refpeciing his tenets, by a bifliop and two
priefts commilfioned by the chief conful, and who lhall
addrefs the refult of their examination to the counfellor
of ftate wdio prelides over the department of ecclefiafti-
cal affairs.
18. The prieft, nominated by the chief conful, lhall
endeavour without delay to procure inftallation fron*
the pope } he lhall be permitted to' perform no fundtion
till the bull authorizing his inftallation fhall have re-1
ceived the fandtion of government, and till he Ifiall have
taken in perfon the oath preferibed by the convention'
entered into between the French government and the
holy fee. This oath lhall be taken to the chief conful,
and a minute of it lhall be entered by the fec-retary of
ftate.
19- The biihops Ihall nominate and inftall the cures;
they lhall not however make public their appointment,'
nor lhall they give them canonical inftrudtion, till their
nomination lhall have been agreed to by the chief con¬
ful.
20. They lhall be bound to refide in their diocefes, <
and lhall not be fuffered to quit them without the per-f
milfion of the chief conful. .
Zl-y -
FRA
21. Each bifhop fliall be empowered to appoint two,
and each arcbbifhop three, vicars-general: they {hall
make choice of them from among thofe priefts who pof-
fefs the requifite qualifications for being biihops.
22. They {hall vifit annually in perfon a certain por¬
tion of their diocefe ; and within the {pace of five years
the whole of it. In cafe unavoidable circumftances
{hall prevent them from making this vifit, it fliall be
made by a vicar-general.
23. The bifhops {hall be bound to organize their fe-
fninaries, and the rules of this organization {hall be
fubmitted to the approbation of the chief conful.
24. Thofe who {hall be chofen teachers in thele
feminaries {hall fubfcribe the declaration made by the
French clergy in 1682, and publifired by an edict of
the fame year. They {hall limit themfelves to teach
only the dodtrine therein contained ; and the biftrops
fliall addrefs a certificate of their abiding by this limi¬
tation, to the counfellor of {fate who prefides over the
ecclefiartical department.
25. The bifhops {hall fend every year to this counfel¬
lor of {fate the names of the ftudents of thofe feminaries
who are deftined to the holy minillry.
26. They {ball appoint no ecclefiaftic who does not
poffefs a property of the annual value of 300 francs,
unlefs he has attained the age of 25 years, and poffefs
the qualities required by the canons of France.
The bifhops firall perform no ordination before the
number of perfons to be ordained has been fubmitted to
the government, and by them agreed to.
Seft. IV. Of the Cures.
Article 27. The cures {ball perform no ecclefiaftxcal
functions before they have taken, in the prefence of the
prefect, the oath prefcribed by the convention entered
into between the government and the holy fee. A copy
of this oath fliall be made out by the fecretary of the
prefedl-general, and regularly lodged with each party.
28. They ftiall be introduced to the pofleffion of
their benefice either by a cure, or by a prielt wdiom the
bifliop fhall point out.
29. They fhall be bound to refide in their refpedlive
parifhes.
30. The cures {hall be diredlly fubjeft to the bifhops
in the exercife of their fundtions.
31. The vicars, and the afliilants performing their
duties, fhall be under the fuperintendance and direc¬
tion of the cures.
They fhall be approved by the bifliop, and liable to
be recalled by his authority.
32. No foreigner {hall be employed in the fundtions
of the ecclefiaftical miniftry, without the permiflion of
the government.
33. Every ecclefiaftic, though a Frenchman, is for¬
bidden the exercife of ecclefiaftical fundtions, unlefs con-
nedted with fome diocefe.
34. No prieft ftiall quit his diocefe to ferve in ano¬
ther, without the permiflion of his biftiop.
Sedt. V. Of the Cathedral Chapters, and the Government
of the Diocefes, during the Vacancy of the Sec.
Article 35. The archbifliops and biftiops who ftiall
wifli to exercife the power which is given them, by ef-
tabliftiing chapters, ftiall make no appointment without
having previoufly obtained the authority of the govem-
F R A
ment, not only for the eftabiiihment itfelf, but for the France.
number and choice of the ecclefiaftics by whom they are '
to be formed. I§0 2.
36. During the vacancy of the fee, the metropolitan,
or, in his Head, the oldeft of the fuffragan bifliops, ftiall
watch over the governments of the diocefes.
The vicars-general of thefe diocefes {hall continue
their fundtions after the death of the biftiop, till the in-
ftallation of his fucceffor.
37. It ftiall be the duty of the metropolitans and the
cathedral chapters to communicate to the government
information of the vacancy of fees, and the fteps w’hich
may have been taken for the government of vacant dio¬
cefes.
38. The vicar-general, wrho {hall govern during the
vacancy, as well as the metropolitan and conftituent
members of chapters, ftiall fuft'er no innovation to be
introduced into the ufages and cuftoms of the diocefes.
Title III. Of Worfhip.
Article 39. There ftiall be only one liturgy, and
one catechifm, for all the catholic churches of France.
40. No cure fhall appoint extraordinary public
prayers in his parifti, without the fpecial permiflion of
the bifliop.
41. No feftival, with the exception of the fabbath,
ftiall be eftabliftied without the permiflion of govern¬
ment.
42. The ecclefiaftics {hall ufe, in the performance of
religious ceremonies, the habits and ornaments fuitable
to their titles.
They ftiall in no cafe, or under any pretence, aflume
the colour and the diftindlive marks referved to the
biftiops.
43. All ecclefiaftics fhall drefs according to the
French fafliion, and in black. The bifhops fliall add
to this coftume the paftoral crofs, and violet ftockings.
44. Domeflic chapels and oratorios, for the accommo¬
dation of individuals, fliall not be eftablilhed without
the exprefs permiflion of the government, granted on
the application of the biftiop.
45. No religious ceremony {hall be folemnized with¬
out the temples confecrated to the catholic wrorfhip, in
places deftined to different forms of worftiip.
46. The fame temple fhall be exclufively confecrated
to the fame fyftem of wmrfhip.
47. There fliall be in the different cathedrals and pa¬
rochial churches, a place fpecially appointed for the ci¬
vil and military authorities.
48. The bifliop ftiall concert with the prefedt the
means of calling the faithful to religious worftiip by
public bells, which are to be rung on no other occa-
fion, wdthout the permiflion of the local police.
49. When the government fhall appoint public pray¬
ers, the bifliops ftiall concert with the prefedl, and the
military commandant of the place, the day, the hour,
and the manner in which thefe regulations are to be
carried into effedl.
50. The folemn inftrudiions known under the appel¬
lation of fermons, and thofe diftinguifhed under the
name de Rations, at the time of Advent and Lent, fliall
not be delivered but by priefts vTho have obtained the
fpecial authority of the biftiop.
51. The cures in the ordinary exercife of their pa¬
rochial duties (hall pray for, and ftiall caufe prayers to
be
[ 190 ]
France.
i8c2.
FRA [i
be offered up in behalf of the profperity of the French
republic, and the fafety of the French confuls.
52. They fhall introduce into their inftruftions no
cenfure, dire£t or indireff, either of individuals or of
other forms of w or (hip authorized by the (late.
53. In their pulpits they (hall introduce no publica¬
tion foreign to the exercife of public worfhip, till it
has at lead received the authority of the government.
54. The nuptial benedidtion (hall be given to thofe
only who (hall prove in due form, that their marriage
has been contracted before a civil magiftrate.
55. The regifters kept by the miniffers of religion,
not being founded upon any thing but the adminiffra-
tion of the facraments, are in no cafe to fupply the re¬
gifters appointed by the law to afcertain the civil con¬
dition of the French people.
56. In all ecclefiaftical and religious adks, the equi¬
noctial calendar eftablifhed by the laws of the republic
is to be continued, and particular days (hall retain the
names which they poffels in the folftitial calendar.
57. The day of repofe for the public functionaries
(hall be Sunday.
IITLE IV. Of the Arrangement of Archbifhops, Bi-
fjofs, Parijhes, Edifices appropriated to public wor-
fhip, and the falaries of the Clergy,
Sect. I. Of the Arrangement of Archbifhops and Bifhops.
Article 58. There (hall be in France 10 archbilhops
and 50 biftiops.
59* The arrangement of the archbiithoprics and dio-
cefes (hall be made in conformity to the fubjoined plan.
9l 1 fra
68. The vicars, and thofe performing their functions,
(hall be chofen from among the eccleliaftics receiving
penftons, in conformity to the laws of the conftituent
affembly.
The amount of thefe penfions, and the produce of
oblations (hall conftitute their falary.
69. -I he bidiops (hall form a plan of regulations re¬
lative to the offerings which the minifters of religion
(hall be authorized to receive for the adminiftration of
the facraments. The plan of the regulations furnilhed
by the bilhops (hall not be publilhed or otherwife put
into execution till they have received the approbation
of the government.
/O. Tvery ecclefiaftic now receiving a penlion from
the date (hall be deprived of it on refilling, without fuf-
icient reafon, to take upon him the functions which he
is required to difcharge.
71. The general councils of the departments are au¬
thorized to procure for the bilhops and archbilhops fuit-
able places of refidence.
72. The parfonages and gardens pertaining to them
which have not been alienated, (hall be reftored to the
cures,, and thofe officiating in the fubfidiary places of
worftnp. In cafes where thefe parfonages cannot be pro¬
cured, the general councils of the commune are autho¬
rized to procure for them a fuitable lodging and garden.
73. The foundations which have for their object the
maintenance ot religion and the exercife of public wor-
(hip, are to confift only of funds appointed by the (late •
they are to be accepted by the diocefe and biftrop, and
are not to be enforced without the authority of the go¬
vernment. 6
1802.
Seel. II. Of the Arrangement of Parifhcs.
Article 60. There (hall be at lead one parifh within
the jurifdi&ion of a juftice of peace. There (liall be
befides eftabliftied as many fubfidiary places of worftiip
as circumftances may require.
61. Each bifhop, in concert with the prefeft, (hall
regulate the number and extent of thefe fubfidiary efta-
blifhments: the plan formed (hall be fubmitted to the
infpeflion of the government, and (hall not be put into
execution without its authority.
62. No portion of the French territory (hall be
formed into a diftrief, fubjeft to the adminiftration of a
cure, or to any fubfidiary eftabliftiment, without the ex-
prefs authority of government.
63. The priefts ferving in thefe fubfidiary eftablifti-
ments are to be named by the biihops.
Se61. III. Of the Salaries of the Clergy.
Article 64. The falary of the archbilhops is to be
15,000 francs (about 625I. fterling.)
65. The biftiops are to receive 10,000 francs (about
420I. fterling.
66. The cures are divided into two claffes. The fa¬
lary of the cures of the firft clafs is to be 1500 francs
(about 62b fterling 3) that of the fecond clafs is to be
1000 francs (about 42I. fterling.)
6'7. The penfions they enjoy according to the regu¬
lations of the conftituent affembly (hall be deducted
from their falaries.
The general councils of the larger communes (hall
be empowered to grant them an augmentation of falary,
iuch as circumftances may require.
74. The fixed propery, except the buildings deftined
to the accommodation of the minifter, is not to be af-
feifted by .ecclefiaftical titles, or poffeffed by the mini¬
fters of religion in confequence of their funftions.
Se<ft. IV. Of the Ed fixes appropriated to public worjhip.
Article .75. I he buildings formerly appropriated to
the catholic worftiip, which are now at the difpofal of
the nation, (hall be given up to the difpofition of the
biftiops by decrees of the prefedft of the department: a
copy of thefe. decrees (hall be addreffed to the counfellor
of (late who is intruded with the regulation of religious
affairs. °
76. Offices (hall be eftabliftied for the purpofe of fu-
perintending. the fupport and prefervation of temples,
and the adminiftration of charitable contributions.
77. In thofe parifties where there exifts no buildings
fit for being employed as a place of religious worfliip
the biihop (hall confult with the prefect refpe&insr the’
eftabliftiment of a fuitable edifice.
Table of the Arrangement of the new Archbijhoprics and
Bifhoprics of France.
Paiis. This archbiftiopric (hall comprehend the de¬
partment of the Seine.
Troyes—1’Aube and 1’Yonne.
Amiens—la Somme and POife.
Soifons—PAifne.
Arras—le Pas de Calais.
Cambray—le Nord.
Verfailles—Seine-et-Oife, Eure-et Loire.
Meaux—Seine-et-Marne, Marne.
Orleans—Loiret? Loire-et-Cher.
Malines—*
FRA [
France. Malines—Archbifhopric—les deux Nettes, la Dyle.
1 »  Namur—Sambre-et-Meufe.
^802. Tourney—Jemappe.
Aix-la-Chapelle—la Roer, Rliin et-Mofelle.
Treves—la Sarre.
Gand—I’Efcaut, la Lys. /
Liege—Meufe-Inferieure, Ourthe.
Mayence—Monte Tonnerre.
Bcfanpon—Archbifhopric—Haute-Saone, le Doubs, le
Jura.
Autun—Saone-et-Loire, la Nievre.
Metz—la Mofelle, les Forets, les Ardennes.
Strafbourg—Haut-Rhin, Bas Rhxn.
Nancy—la Meufe, la Meurthe, les Vofges.
Dijon—Cote-d’Or, Haute-Marne.
Lyons—Archbi/hopnc—le Rhone, la Loire, I’Ain.
Mende—PArdiche, la Lozere.
Grenoble—1’Ifere.
Valence—la Drome.
Chambery—le Mont-blanc, le Leman.
Aix—Archbifhopric—le Var, les Bouches-du-Rhone.
Nice—Alpes Maritimes.
Avignon—Gard, Vauclufe.
Ajaccio—le Galo, le Liamone.
Digne—Hautes-Alpes, BalTes-Alpes.
Tou/oufe—Archbi/hopric—Haute-Garonne, Ariege.
Cahors—le Lot, PAveyron.
Montpellier—le Herault, le Tarn.
Carcaffonne—PAude, les Pyrennees.
Agen—Lot-et-Garonne, le Gers.
Bayonne—les Landes, Hautes-Pyrennees, Baffes-
Pyrennees.
Boureieaux—Archbifhopric—la Gironde.
Poitiers—les deux Sevres, la Vienne.
La Rochelle—la Charente Inferieure, la Vendee.
Angouleme—la Charente, la Dordogne.
Bourges—Arclibifhopric—le Cher, PIndre.
Clermont—PAllier, le Puy-de Dome.
Saint-Flour—la Haute-Loire, le Cantal.
Limoges—la Creufe, la Correze, la Haute Vienne.
*Tours—ArchbiJJjopric—Indre-et- Loi re.
Le Mans—Sarthe, Mayenne.
Angers—Maine-et-Loire.
N antes—Loire-In ferieure.
Rennes—Ille-et-Villaine.
Vannes—le Morbihan.
Saint Brieux—C6tes-du-Nord.
Quimper—le Finifterre.
Rouen—Archbifhopric—la Seine-Inferieure.
Coutances—la Manche.
Bayeux—le Calvados.
Seez—POrne.
Evreux—PEure.
Articles relative to the Vrotejlant Religion.
TITLE I. General Difpojitions applicable to all Protejiant
Communions.
Article 1. No individual fhall officiate as a minifter
of religion who is not by birth a Frenchman.
2. Neither the Proteftant churches nor their minifters
4
192 ] FRA
{hall have any connexion with a foreign power or au- France,
thority. g' _ u
3. The paftors or minifters of the different Proteftant 1 0 *
communions {hall pray for the profperity of the French
republic and the fafety of the confuls.
4. No dodlrinal decifion or formulary, under the
title of a confejjion, or under any other title, ffiall be
publiffied or become a fubject of inftru&ion before its
publication has been authorifed by the government.
5. No change {hall take place in the forms of their
difcipline without the fame authority.
6. The council of the ftate ffiall take cognizance
of all the plans formed by their minifters, and of all the
diffenftons which may arife among them.
7. It ffiall be underftood, that to the fupport of paf¬
tors of conliftorial churches, the property of thefe chur¬
ches ffiall be applied, as well as the oblations eftabliffi-
ed by ufage and by pofttive regulations.
8. The regulations applied to the fpecific articles of
the Catholic worffiip refpefting the liberty of endow¬
ments, and the nature of the property which can be
the objedl of them, ffiall be common to the Proteftant
churches.
9. There ffiall be two academies or feminaries in the
eaft of France for the inftru&ion of the minifters of the
confeffion of Augffiurg.
10. There ffiall be a feminary at Geneva for the
inftruftion of the minifters of the reformed churches.
11. The profeffors in all the academies or feminaries
{hall be nominated by the chief conful.
12. No perfon ffiall be defied a minifter or paftor
of any church of the confeffion of Augffiurg, who has
not ftudied during a fixed period in one of the French
feminaries appointed for minifters of this perfuafion, and
who ffiall not produce a certificate in due form of his
capacity and regular conduct during the continuance eft
his ftudies.
13. No perfon is to be defied a minifter or paftor of
the reformed church without having ftudied in the femi¬
nary of Geneva, and without producing a certificate of
the deferiptions pointed out in the preceding article.
14. The regulation refpefling the adminiftration and
internal police of thefe feminaries, the number and the
qualifications of the profeffors, the mode of inftruflion,
the fubjeffs which are taught, together with the form of
the certificates of application, good conduff, and capa¬
city, are to be approved of by the government.
Title II. Seff. I.—Of the Reformed Churches.—Of
the general Organisation of thefe Churches.
Art. 15. The reformed churches of France ffiall have
paftors, local confiftories, and fynods.
16. There ffiall be a confiftorial church for every
6000 individuals of the fame communion.
17. Five confiftorial churches ffiall form a fynod.
Seff. II.—Of Pajlors and local Conf/lories.
Art. 18. The confiftory of each church ffiall be com-
pofed of the paftor or paftors officiating in that church,
and of a certain number of aged and refpeflable lay¬
men chofen from among that clafs of citizens paying
the greateft ffiare of public contributions : their number
ffiall not be under iq nor above li.
19. The
FRA [ r
uice-, ^ ^9- The number of mmifters or paftors in one con-
fiftorial church (hall not be augmented without the au-
02‘ thority of the government.
20. The members of the confiftory fliall watch over
the maintenance of difcipline, the application of the
property of the church, as well as the funds ariling from
charitable contributions.
2 x. The palto>-, or the oldelt of the pallors, {ball be
the prefident of the confiftorial affemblies : the office of
iecretary {hall be filled by one of the elders.
22. The ordinary confiftorial affemblies (hall con¬
tinue to be held on the days pointed out by long
pra6lice.
The extraordinary alfemblies ffiall not be held with¬
out the permiffion of the fub-prefeft, or of the mayor in
Ins abfence.
23. Every two years one half of the elders of the
coniillory ffiall be renewed. At this period the elders
in office ffiall fix upon an equal number of Protellant
citizens, heads of families, and chofen from among thofe
paying the largeft contribution to the Hate in the com-
mune where the confiltory is fituated, and proceed to a
new eleftion : thofe going out are capable of being re-
elecled.
24. In thofe churches, where there is at prefent no
confillory, one ffiall be formed by the ele&ion of 25
heads of Proteftant families paying the largelt contri¬
butions to the Hate. The ele&ion ffiall not take place
without the authority, and unlels in the prefence of the
prefefl or fub-prefeft.
25. Pallors can only be depofed after the reafons of
fuch depofition have been confirmed by the govern¬
ment.
26. In cafe of the deceafe, the voluntary refignation,
Or the confirmed depofition of a pallor, the confillory
fhall, according to the 18th article, choofe one to fill
his place by a majority of voices.
The title of the ele£lion ffiall be prefented to the firll
conful by the counfellor of Hate intrulled with the man¬
agement of religious affairs, for the purpofe of receiving
his approbation. 6
After this approbation is given, he cannot enter up¬
on the exercife of his fundion till he has taken before
the prefe£l the oath exa&ed of the minillers of the Ca¬
tholic worlhip.
27. All the pallors now employed are provifionally
confirmed. }
28. No church ffiall extend from one department to
another.
Seel. III.—Of Synods.
Art. 29. Each fynod ffiall confilt of a pallor and an
elder from each church.
30. The fynods ffiall fuperintend the celebration of
public worffiip, the do&rines that are taught, and the
conduft of religious affairs. All their decifions, of what¬
ever defeription, lhall be fubmitted to the approbation
of government.
31- The fynods lhall not aflemble without the per-
miffion of government. Previous notice ffiall be given
to the counfellor of Hate intrulled with the management
of religious matters, of the fubjedls which are to be dif-
cufled. The affembly lhall be held in prefence of the
prefedl or fub-prefe£l, and a copy of the minutes of the
deliberations ffiall be addrelfed to the counfellor of Hate
Vol. IX. Part I.
95 ] FRA
above-mentioned, who ffiall, with all pofiible fpeed, Fiance,
tranfmit a report to the government. ~—v—
32. The meetings of the fynod lhall not be prolonged l8°2*
beyond fix days.
1ITLE HI.—Of the Organisation of the Churches of
the Confffion of Augfburg.
Se£t. I.-—General Regulations.
^rt* 33* The churches of the confeffion of Augffiurg
ffiall have pallors, local conliilories, infpedlions, and ge¬
neral confillories.
Seft. II.—Of the Mini/lers, Pa/lors, and local Conffories
of each Church.
Art. 34. With refpedl to pallors, the regulation of
the confillonal churches, which was preferibed by the
2d fedlion of the preceding title as applicable to the re¬
formed pallors and churches, is to be obferved.
Se£l- III. Of InfpeSiions.
Art* 35* The churches of the confeflxon of Augf¬
burg ffiall be fubjefl to infpedlions.
36..Five confillorial churches lhall form the bounds
of an infpe&ion.
37. Each infpeflion ffiall be compofed of a minilter
and an elder from each church of the dill riel. It ffiall
not alfemble without the permilfion of the government.
At its firll meetings, the oldelt of the mimlters of the
diftritt lhall prefide. Each infpedtioh lhall choofe two
laymen and one clergyman, who ffiall take the title of
mlpebtor, and whole duty it ffiall be to watch over the
condud of the minillers, and to preferve good order in
the different churches: the choice of the infpeaor and
the two laymen ffiall be confirmed by the firlt conful.
38. The infpeaion ffiall not aflemble without the au¬
thority of government, in prefence of the prefed or
lub-prefea, or without having given previous intelli¬
gence to the counfellor of Hate, whofe bufinefs it is to
watch over religious affhirs, of the fubjeds that are to
come under difeuflion.
. 39. The irifpedor ffiall vxfit the churches of his dif-
tnd ; and he may adopt the affillance of the two lay¬
men named with him, as often as circumllances fliall
appear to require. He lhall be charged with the con-
vocation of the general affembly of infpedion, no decree
01 which, however, ffiall be put in force till it has re¬
ceived the approbation of the government.
Sed- IV. Of general Conffories.
AJ:’Q40'nrhererfhal! be t lree general confiftories ;
one at Straffiurg for. the Protellants of the confeflion
o Augiburg, belonging to the departments of the Un-
per and Lower Rhine; the fecond at Mentz, for thofe
of the deFanments of Laffare and Mont Tonnerre; and
the third at Cologne, for thofe of the departments of the
Rhine and Mofelle, and la Roer.
4*- Each confiltory ffiall be formed of one lay pre-
rident, of nvo ecclefiaftical infpedors, and a deputy
from each inlpedion : the prefident and the two eccle
lafhcal mfpedors ffiall be nominated by the chief con-
iul. I he prefident ffiall take the fame oath before the
chief conful, or a .public fundionary delegated for that
purpofe which is impofed upon the minillers of the Ca¬
tholic religion ; the two ecclefiaftical infpedors and the
B b iay
fra
[ 194 ]
FRA
537
Bonaparte
chofen con-
ful for life.
S38
The extent
of his
powers.
lay members fball have the Isitnc oath adxuinifteied to
them by the prefident.
^2. Tlic general confiftory (hall not be permitted to
affemble without the confent of the government, and
unlefs in prefence of the prefeft or fub-prefca, And af¬
ter a notification ot the fubjedls in difcullion, as deicr.b”
ed in former articles.
43. During the interval between the different meet¬
ings, there fhall be a direftory, compofed of the prefi¬
dent, of the oldeft of the two ecclefiaftical uifpeftors,
and of three laymen, one of whom fhall be nominated
by the chief conful j and the two others fhall be choien
by the general confiflory.
44. The privileges of the general confifiory and the
directory fhall continue to be directed by the cufloms
and regulations of the churches of the confeflion of
Augfburg, in all points which have not been formally
fixed by the laws of the republic or the prefent articles.
When Bonaparte was ele&ed firft conful for ten
years, he was deemed competent to be re-ele£fed for
the fame length of time •, but he was afterwards chofen
for life, with the iirange power conferred upon him
of nominating his fucceffor, or, in other words, of
governing beyond the grave, than which nothing can
be conceived more ridiculous or unjuft.. Having ad¬
vanced with fuch rapidity in the acquifition of power
and authority, it was extremely natural to conclude,
that the ambition of Bonaparte w’as not fatiated, but
that he would afterwards claim to himfelr, and influence
an infatuated people to fanftion, ftill higher degrees of
dignity and grandeur. A book w?as accordingly pub-
lifhed, either with his permiftion, or by his exprefs com¬
mand, pointing out the propriety and expediency of cre¬
ating him Ftr/1 Emperor of the Gauls ! At a fubfequent
period of the hiftory contained in this article we fhall
fee this extravagant propofition actually carried into
effect, and Napoleon I. adorned with imperial honours.
This verifies what Dumourier afferted concerning the
French, at a time when fuch an event was highly im¬
probable “ that a king they would have.”
In the capacity of firft conful, his power was funilar
to that of his Britannic majefty, in refpe6t of criminals
under fentence of death, that he could grant them at
his pleafure a plenary pardon, and admit thern to return
1803.
again to the bofom of fociety ; but his executive autho¬
rity in almoft every other cafe was dangeroufly greater,
as there was in fa£l no other power in the ftate which
could poflibly controul him. While his authority was
eflablifired thus firmly within his own dominions, he
endeavoured to increafe his influence over the reft of
Europe, by forming an alliance with the court of Pe-
terfhurgh. At firft it was believed to be purely of a
commercial nature, but the ablive part taken by both
in difmembering the Germanic body, clearly evinced
that fuch an alliance was of a more interefting nature,
notwithftanding the ortenfible reafon for fuch condubt
was the indemnification of the fufferers during the war.
It will perhaps be admitted, that the ftate of France,
after the dreadful convulfions occafioned by the revolu¬
tion required an executive government of confiderable
promptitude and vigour j yet it was furely poflible, and
it was no lefs a facred duty binding upon him, to con-
endangering in the fmaUeft degree the liability of his P‘ar‘cf-
government. The French people fhould not have been ‘,'~"
deprived of the many blefiings refulting from a repre-
fentative government j and if not ripe for it then, it
fhould have been conferred upon them at a fubfequent
period. If the hero of Marengo was afraid of facing a
free parliament, he thus pronounced himfeli a tyrant,
and if unable to moderate its deliberations, very defi¬
cient in political knowledge. He might find it expe¬
dient, for inftance, to impofe fome reftraints on the h-
centioufnefs of the prefs; but totally to annihilate its
liberty was as unjuft as it was impolitic. He ftiould
have recollefted a faying of an hiftorian and philofo-
pher, “ that a whifper may circulate as rapidly as a
pamphlet.”
Towards the termination of the year 1803, Bona¬
parte was very active in his vifltations of the fea-port
towns, where the moft fulfome addreffes were prefented
to him which were ever given to any mortal being.
Various conjedlures were formed as to the probable de-
fign of fuch vifits. It was thought by fome that he
intended to conciliate the affeftions of the people, efpe-
cially the military and the conftituted authorities;
others imagined that it was to make himfelf acquainted
with the true ftate of public opinion ; while a third
clafs conjeaured that it was with a view' to increafe
the navy of France, and acquire an intimate know¬
ledge of the different parts of the coaft. Whatever
his objea was, it is more than probable that it was
direaed to one point, and that his complicated move¬
ments were purpofely intended to mifiead thole who
felt an intereft in watching him. It is true, he made
no fecret of his determination to invade Great Britain ;
but we fhould greatly diminifh that knowledge which
he muft unqueftionably poffefs, were we to conclude
that he ever lerioufly believed in the praaicability of
fuch an undertaking.
His abilities as a foldier will be difputed by no man, Charadle'r
for when viewed only in this light, he is unqueftionably ^rl^a*
great; but it would be a moft unpardonable breach of1
truth to call him an able politician. While he promifed
to reftore the commerce of France, it continued to lan-
guilh, more, perhaps after the reftoration of peace, than
during the continuance of the war. This feems to be a
fubjeft fairly beyond his comprehenfion. Numbers in
France drew a great part of their fubfiftence from the
expenditure of fuch perfons from the Bntifh dominions,
as were difpofed, after the return of peace, to pay a vifit
to the metropolis of the Gallic empire. But while we
thus freely animadvert on the conduft of the firft conful,
and point out his errors or faults without any referve,
we wifh not to conceal a fingle circumftance which re¬
dounds to his honour. When Camoaceres, the bifhop
of Caen, made application to the prefeift of Rouen to
have the Proteftant churches forcibly fhut; as foon as the
requeft of the bifhop was known to Bonaparte, he fent
for the fecond conful and told him, that ii the bifhop
had not been his brother, he would have ftiuck him off
the lift. Such a reply was certainly worthy of a great
On the 21ft of February 1803, a view of the ftate of
France was laid before the legiflative body and the tri¬
bunate, containing a comprehenfive view of the relations
f t 1 1* 1 ^ 1- t-r* r'rxlcmrl .TOrPlCTTI
539
if- was no ieis a lacreu uuiy uuminv ujjuh ...m, lu &. j r •„
fult in particular circumftances, the happinefs and prof- of the republic, both with refpecl to colonies and ore gn
perity of the people much more than he did, without ftates; but the moft important part of it had a re t rencc
FRA
France, to Britain, which was charged with a cling improperly
t’_" v in retaining troops in Malta and Egypt, after the iigning
I°°3‘ of the definitive treaty. It divided the ir.habitants of it
into two parties, reprefenting the one as having fworn
implacable enmity to France, and the other as anxious
to maintain the relations of peace and amity, concluding
with lingular bravado, “ whatever may be the fuccefs of
intrigue at London, it will never, force other nations into
new leagues; and the French government afferts, with
juft pride, that England alone cannot now contend with
S4o France.”
Hoftile pre- It now began to be manifeft, that the bleffings of
partitions of peace were not to be long enjoyed. The extenfive
France. warlike preparations going forward about this time in
the ports of France and Holland, roufed the jealoufy of
the Britilh miniftry j for although the oftenfible reafon
was to reduce the revolted colonies to obedience, they
could not help apprehending that much more was com¬
prehended in fuch extenfive armaments. We lhall ftill
be more inclined to adopt this opinion, if we advert to
the following circumftance. When Bonaparte, on the
13th of March, found Lord Whitworth and M. de
Marcoff Handing together, he addreffed them in thefe
words: “ We have fought for fifteen years, and it
feems there is a ftorm gathering at London, which may
produce another war of fifteen years more.—The king
of England has faid, in his meflage to the parliament,
that France had prepared offenfive armaments} he has
been miftaken j there is not in the ports of France any
confiderable force, they having all fet out for St Do¬
mingo. He faid there exifted fome differences between
the two cabinets; I do not know of any. It is true that
his majefty has engaged by treaty that England Ihould
evacuate Malta. It is poflible to kill the French people,
but not to intimidate them.” At the conclufion of the
drawing-room, it is faid that Bonaparte addreffed the
Britilh envoy thus, when near the door : “ The duchefs
of Dorfet has paflfed the moft unpleafant feafon at Paris;
I moft ardently wilh Ihe may pafs the pleafant one alio j
but if it is true that we are to have wrar, the refponfi-
bility, both in the fight of God and man, will be on
thofe who lhall refufe to execute the treaty.”
Much about the fame time a paper was inferted in the
Hamburgh Correfpondenten, containing much violent
declamation againft Great Britain, and believed by
many to have been the production of Bonaparte. If
our information be correct, the French minifter re-
quefted, and obtained permiflion, from the magiftrates
of that city to make it thus public. Some alterations
were made on the manufcript, which having given
offence to the republican ambaffador, it was, on the
30th of March, inferted without any alterations or
fuppofed amendments. It contains many rancorous ex-
preflions againft Great Britain, while part of it feems
to be a dcfigned apology for the infulting converfa-
tion which took place at Madame Bonaparte’s draw¬
ing room already mentioned. It contains fome reflec¬
tions alfo on the freedom of difcufiion indulged in the
Britilh mews-papers relative to the affairs of France,
a.circumftance far beneath the notice of the firft conful,
who, in this particular, did not advert to the freedom of
the Britilh prefs.
In the interior parts of France, the moft aftive pre¬
parations for rvar continued to be made, and at the fea-
ports, the different commanders received orders to put
FRA
the navy as fall as pollible on a refpeftabie footing. France.
Vaft bodies of the military received orders to leave ' ‘
the Netherlands, and march towards the frontiers of 1803.
the Batavian republic, while the thips deftined for the
Newfoundland filhery were laid under an embargo. 541
As the illand of Malta was, by the treaty of Amiens, Imputes
to be furrrendered to the knights of the order of
John of Jerufalem, upon certain conditions, Ds Tho-
maii, the new grand mailer, fent M. de Buffy his
lieutenant in the month of January, with full powers
to demand poffeflxon of the illand ; to which the go¬
vernor, Sir Alexander Jonathan Ball, replied, that as
fome of the powers who had, by the 10th article of the
treaty of Amiens, been invited to guarantee the inde¬
pendence of Malta, had not as yet agreed to that mea-
lure, he could not terminate the government of his
Britannic majefty without farther inftructions.
As the long and tedious correfpondence carried on
between Great Britain and France, by means of Lord
Whitworth and M. de Talleyrand, which was laid be¬
fore both houfes of parliament on the 18th of May
1803, not terminate in fuch a manner as the lovers
of peace moft ardently wilhed, a frelh rupture between
the two countries feemed unavoidable. Officers were
fent to refide in the principal fea-ports ©f Great Bri¬
tain, veiled with the charadler of commercial agents,
but they were in fa6t detected in founding the har¬
bours, and in drawing plans of the ports j a glaring
proof that fome defperate blow was meditated againft
this country. ^
In fpite of the efforts of the Britiffi miniftry to prc-Hoftilities
vent a rupture, hoftilities actually commenced on there'corn-
16th of May, and letters of marque were iffued againft
the French republic. The ultimatum of Britain wastain ami
conceived in thefe terms : “ that the French govern-France,
ment Ihould not oppofe the ceffion of the illand of
Lampedola to his Britannic majefty j that the French
forces Ihould evacuate the Batavian and the Swifs
territory ; that a fuitable provifion Ihould be made for
the king of Sardinia ; and, by a fecret article, that
Britain Ihould be permitted to retain poffeffion of
Malta for ten years.” Our readers will no doubt im¬
mediately conclude, that this was reje&ed j but France
Hill made fome feeble endeavours to negotiate, which
appeared to the cabinet of St James’s to be a pretext
only to gain time, the war was confidered as actually
recommenced. All fubje&s belonging to Britain who
were now found in France and Holland were arrefted
and detained ; an event which was fpeedily followed
by the march of a republican army towards Ofnaburgh
and Hanover, the former of which was taken poffef¬
fion of by General Mortier on the 26th of May, after
which he took the town of Bentheim, and the Hano¬
verian garrifon were made prifoners of war. Ofna¬
burgh was abandoned by the Hanoverians on the 28th,
and two days after the Jrench got pofleflion of Quack-
enbrook. His royal highnefs the duke of Cambridge
was determined to Hand or fall with the eledlorate ; bj.it
as he was at the head of no more than a handful of
troops compared with the army of Mortier, the regency
urged him to retire from the command, as the probabi¬
lity of fuccefs was entirely againft him. The duke,
therefore, returned to Bremen, and reached Yarmouth
on the 13th of June, along with Prince William of
Gloucefter.
[ !95 1
B b 2
Much
France.
543
Bonaparte
labours to
ruin Britilh
commerce.
544
Britain put
in a ftate
of defence.
FRA [ 196 ] FRA
Much about this period, General Mortier was waited
upon by deputies from the regency, both of a civil and
military nature, who begged that he would fufpend his
march, and propofed a capitulation. By this the Ha¬
noverian troops were permitted to furrender on their
parole, and agreed not to take up arms againft France
during the continuance of the war. Sums were to be
raifed for maintaining the republican army, while private
property was to be held facred.
If this ptomife, however, was really made, it does not
appear that it was confidered as binding, for it has been
faid that more flagrant afts of cruelty and injuftice were
fcarcely ever perpetrated by people profefling to be civili¬
zed. The following, we are told, is part of the information
upon this fubjedl communicated by private letters. “ In the
city of Hanover, and even in the public ftreets, women
of the highefl rank have been violated by the lowed: of
the brutal foldiery, in the prefence of their hufbands
and fathers, and fubje&ed at the fame time to fuch
additional and undefcribable outrages, as the brutal fury
of the violators, inflamed by drunkennefs, could con¬
trive. Nor have we heard that the philofophers of
Goettingen, the enthufiafts of equality and perfeflibi-
lity, have been at all better treated.” We fufpe£t
that this picture is too highly coloured} yet, if a
thoufandth part of the narration be true, of which we
have only felefted a fpecimen, wre mufl: allow it to be
an indelible ftigma on the French nation.
It had alwrays been a favourite object with Bona¬
parte, to do as much injury as poffible to the commerce
of Great Britain, and therefore he now determined to
fhut againft this country the ports of the Wefer and the
Elbe j and alfo infilled on the ports of Denmark being
fhut againft vefiels belonging to Britain, propofing to
plant a French garrifon in the city of Copenhagen,
while the other powers of Europe feemed to behold his
condu£f with indifference or ftupefa£lion. The French
having put themfelves in poffeflion of the exclulive na¬
vigation of the Elbe, Great Britain determined to bloc¬
kade it with fhips of war, as a report then prevailed that
Bonaparte would make ufe of that port for the purpofe
of invading Scotland. In this view of the matter, the
conduct of Britain was highly commendable.
About this time the French army in St Domin¬
go w7as in a moft melancholy condition, as appeared
from the information contained in fame intercepted let¬
ters. Although about 10,000 men reached the ifland, in
three months after General Rochambeau’s arrival, wdien
they were landed in the different ports, fcarcely any
traces of a reinforcement could be perceived, fo much
had his army fuffered. The atrocities of the troops in
their turn were alfo faid to be great, and complaints
made to the commanding officers wrere anfwered with
threats. It appears that Rochambeau was obliged to
have recourfe to abfolute falfehood, in order to keep up
the fpirits of his troops, and allay their difcontent *, giv¬
ing out, wThat he knew could not be the cafe, that a re¬
inforcement of zo,ooo men was daily expefted.
In the mean time, the miniftry of Great Britain ufed
every effort to place the country in a fecure and refpec-
table ftate of defence, ftiould the infatiable nmbition of
Bonaparte lead him to a ferious attempt to invade it.
The intelligent part of the people indeed believed that
he never ferioufly intended to hazard the confequences
of what he threatened, yet it was certainly prudent to
prepare for the worft. The troops of the line were in- France,
duftrioufly and fuccefsfully recruited, the militia were ' “1" Qv J
called out and kept in aflive fervice, and an army of 1°°3’
referve was raifed with the utmoft expedition. Having
almoft 500,000 troops of different fpecies, Britain had
no juft reafon to apprehend an invafton, being able to
accomplifti the deftnnftion of the boldeft invader.
Thefe troops were encamped along the coaft, garrifon
towns were properly fupplied with men, the greateft
force was concentrated wherever the probability of a
landing was ftrongeft, and care was taken of the health
of the military, as well as the appointment of the ableft
generals to command them. Provifions, ammunition
and ftores were colleifted in abundance. As it was na¬
tural to conclude that London would be the great ob¬
ject with an invading army, the utmollr attention was
paid to the defence of thofe parts of the coaft which are
moft adjacent to it.
Similar efforts were made to annoy the enemy by fea,
and render their defigns wholly abortive. To Lord
Keith and Admiral Montague was entrufted the com¬
mand of the channel fleet j and an attempt was made
at Granville to difconcert the preparations of France,
by attachment of ftiips under the command of Sir James
Saumarez, which wras fo far attended with fuccefs as to
intimidate the inhabitants, damage a number of houfes,
and deftroy fome boats in the harbour. Similar atacks
upon Calais and Boulogne alfo tended to convince the
French refiding on the coaft that they wrere far from
being fecure, although total deftrutftion wras not the
confequence of fuch exertions. Lord Nelfon then
guarded the Italian feas, and Sir Edward Pellew and
Sir Robert Calder were ftationed off Ferrol. 541-
In the mean time the republican army in Hanover Cruelties of
continued to opprefs the inhabitants, and to devour the t*ie *rencli
refources of that eleftorate. The Dutch were made to Hanove5-^
fuffer almoft as much from their new allies and pretend-rianSi
ed friends, as the inhabitants of a conquered country.
They were dragged into a w’ar of which they certainly
wifhed to be the unconcerned fpeflators, compelled to
raife and maintain a large body of native troops, to re¬
ceive garrifons into all their ftrong towns, to give up
their fea-ports to the French, and expofe their whole
country as a fcene of paffage and encampment to the
armies of the republic. Their trade was ruined, and their
ports blocked up by the Britilh at fea, on account of
their alliance with France. The inhabitants of the
Belgic provinces belonging to France w’ere alfo fevere
fufferers by the levies of confcripts, the interruption
which their trade and manufactures met with from the
war, and the rigour by which they were governed. It
was reported that the firft conful had 300,000 effective
men in readinefs along the coaft and the places adjacent,
and that 2800 men were inceffantly employed, aug¬
menting and repairing the fortifications at Boulogne. 5^5
During the month of November 1803, the fea-coaftsThe Britife
of Great Britain and Ireland received frelh additions oL03^5 ^re
ftrength, that if ever troops from France fhould dare to 01tl e
attempt a landing, they might be affured of meeting
with a warm reception. The garrifon of Plymouth was-
augmented to 13,700 land men, befides 1500 feamen
and marines. A battery w^as ereCIed at Paul Point, for
the defence of the Humber, and two others were to be
built oppofite to it in Lincolnlhire. Exertions equally
fpirited were continued by fea. Sir Sidney Smith cruif-
1804.
FRA [I
F^ance• ^ t^le Texel, and drove on ftiore on the coaft of
Holland, 12 armed fliips of the enemy, three of which
were captured. During the month of February 1804,
tne French and Dutch ports continued to be blockaded
by the Britifh navy with the utmoft vigilance, a meafure
which the tempeftucus nature of the weather frequently
rendered hazardous. The preparations for an invalion
of this country were ftill continued on the part of
France, but no force of any ccnfequence found it prac¬
ticable to put to lea, owing to the vigilance of our
cruizers. A number of gunboats wrere taken at dif¬
ferent times off Boulogne, and different other parts of
the French and Dutch coafts, which might have convin¬
ced the people of thefe countries of the abfurdity of ex-
peding to accomplilh any thing decifive againft Britain
by fuch inadequate means.
A plan was fuggeffed for filling up the ports of the
enemy with Hones and the hulks of old veffels, fo as
to render it difficult, if not wholly imprafticable, ei¬
ther for fhips or fmall craft to make their way out of
them. The idea feems to have been taken from a fad
well known, that harbours have been often ruined by the
tides and currents of the fea, the depofition of fand
from rivers, earthquakes, and other accidents; and
therefore it was concluded that fimilar effeds might
he produced by artificial means. The accomplilhment
of fuch an objed, if it were pradicable, would be an
ample compenfation for the greateff expence.
It was the opinion of the difcerning part of mankind,
long before it happened, that the ambition of Bonaparte
would not always remain fatisfied with the dignity of
firft conful, even lor life j for although he could re¬
ceive no frelh additions to his power and influence, yet
there was reafon to believe that the found of fuch titles
as have always been deemed higher and more dignified
ftill, w’ould be too fafcinating for him to refill. Ac¬
cordingly, on the 25th of April 1804, the following
decree was iffued by the tribunate of France.
“ Tlle tribunate, confidering that at the breaking
out of the revolution, when the national will had an
opportunity of manifeffing itfelf with the greateff free¬
dom, the general w’ilh was declared for the individual
unity of the fupreme power, and for the hereditary fuc-
ceifion of that powTer :
“ ^'bat the family of the Bourbons, having by their
condufl rendered the hereditary government odious to
the people, forced them to lofe fight of its advantages
and drove the nation to feek for a happier deffiny in a
democratical form of government:
“ That France having made a trial of different forms
of government, experienced from thefe trials only the
miferies of anarchy :
“ That the Hate was in the greateft peril, when Bo¬
naparte, brought back by providence, fuddenly appear¬
ed for its falvation :
“ That the confullhip for life, and the power grant¬
ed to the firff conful of appointing his fucceffor, are not
adequate to the prevention of intrigues at home or
abroad, which could not fail to be formed during the
vacancy of the fupreme power :
“ .That in declaring that magiftracy hereditary, con¬
formity is obferved at once to the example of all great
flates, ancient or modern, and the firff wilh of the na¬
tion, expreffed in 1789 :
97 ] FRA
“ That, enlightened and fupported by this experience, France,
the nation now returns to this wilh more ftrongly than v——
ever, and expreffes it on all fides : ° 1 804.
“ That when France demands for her fecurity an
hereditary chief, her gratitude and affeftion call on Bo¬
naparte :
“ That France may expeft from the family of Bo¬
naparte, more than from any'other, the maintenance of
the rights and liberty of the people :
“ That there is no title more fuitable to the glory of
Bonaparte, and to the dignity of the fupreme chief of
the French nation, than the title of emperor.
“ The tribunate have come to the following vote :
That Napoleon Bonaparte, the firft conful, be
proclaimed emperor of the French, and in that capacity
be invefted with the government of the French republic :
“ That the title of emperor and the imperial power
be made hereditary in his family in the male line, ac¬
cording to the order of primogeniture.”
The foregoing decree having been put to the vote, it
was carried by acclamation, with the Angle exception
of the only member (Carnot,) who delivered his fenti-
ments againft its adoption.
The fenate prefented an addrefs to the firft conful, in
which they took great pains to convince him that the
fafety. of France, and the happinefs of Europe, depend¬
ed entirely upon his acceptance of the title of Emperor
of the French, and upon its being made hereditary in *y
his illuftrious family. The different divifions of the
army of courfe fent addreffes to the firft conful, intreat¬
ing him to condefcend to become emperor of France.
Bonaparte requefted them, in his anfw^er, “ to make
known to him the whole of their thoughts.” The fe¬
nate then defired him to take the imperial and heredi¬
tary dignity. Bonaparte confented.
An addrefs was prefented by the fenate to the firft 547
conful, in which they employed many arguments tQ;^Jr!3arte
convince him (they might have fpared themfelves the^eroroft
trouble) that the prefervaticn of France, and the repofe France,
of all Europe turned on his acceptance of the dignified
title of the emperor of the French, which right to be
hereditary in his auguft family. The different divifions
of the army hoped alfo that he would be gracioufly
pleafed to condefcend (what an inftance of humility!)
to become emperor of France. Whether or notit may
excite the aftoniftiment of our readers, we can allure
them upon the moft undoubted authority, that he was
fo humble as to accept of it, and the following is his
addrefs to the confervative fenate.
“ Senators,
“ Your addrefs of the 6th laft Germinal has never
ceafed to be prefent to my thoughts. It has been the
object of my moft conftant meditation.
You have judged the hereditary power of the
iupreme magiftracy neceffary, in order to fhelter the
French people completely from the plots of our ene¬
mies, and from the agitations which arife from rival
arnbitions. It even appears to you, that many of our.
mftitutions ought to be improved, in order to fecure for
ever the triumph^ of equality and public liberty, and
prefent to the nation and to the government the double
guarantee they are in want of.
In proportion as I fix my attention upon thefe great
Objcfls,
FRA
[ t?8 1
FRA
France.
1804.
,548r
Trial of
ilate pri-
foners in
France.
obieas, I am ftill more convinced of the verity of thofe
fentiments which I have expreffed to you, and I ieel
more and more, that in a circumftance as new as it is
important, the councils of your wifdom and experience
were neceffary to enable me to fix my ideas.
“ I requeft you then to make known to me the whole
of your thoughts. , ,
“ The French people can add nothing to the hon¬
our and glory with which it has furrounded me; but the
moft facred duty for me, as it is the deareft to my heart
is to fecure to its latejl pqfterity thofe advantages which
it has acquired by a revolution that has coft it fo much,
particularly by the facrifice of thofe millions of brave
citizens who have died in defence of their rights, r 1 -
teen years have part fince, by a fpontaneous movement
you ran to arms, you acquired liberty, equality, and
glory. Thefe firft bleflings of nations are now lecured
to you for ever, are Iheltered from every tempeft, they
are preferved to you and your children ; mftitutions
conceived and begun in the midft of the fiorms of in¬
terior and exterior wars, developed with conftancy, are
juft terminated in the noife of the attempts and plots of
our moft mortal enemies, by the adoption of every thing
which the experience of centuries and of nations has de-
monftrated as proper to guarantee the rights^which the
nation had judged neceffary for its dignity, its liberty,
and its happinefs.”
The new emperor was allowed to adopt the children
or grand-children of his brothers, if arrived at the age
of 18 years complete, and he without legitimate chil¬
dren of his own ; but this privilege cannot be enjoyed
by his fucceffors. Failing both legitimate and adopted
heirs, the crown (hall be enjoyed by Jofeph Bonaparte
and his defendants*, and failing _ Jofeph and his de¬
fendants, it (hall devolve on Louis Bonaparte and his
defendants, See. If a fucceffor cannot be found in any
of thefe channels, a Senatus confukum, propofed to the
fenate by the dignities (we prefume it fhould have been
dignitaries) of the empire, and fubmitted for the ac¬
ceptance of the people, {hall nominate an emperor. It
was alfo decreed that the members of the imperial
family Ihould be called French princes, and the eldeit
fon of the family, the imperial prince. Among other
things it was enafted, that every emperor, two years
after he comes to the throne, (hall iwear to maintain
the integrity of the territory of the French republic .
We have mentioned this laft circumftance, wholly tor
this reafon, that the emperor of a republic is no doubt a
rarity to the greater part of our readers. .
The trial of the (late prifoners commenced at Paris
on the 29th of May 1804. They were charged with
confpiring againft the life and government of Bona¬
parte ; but how great was our aftoniihment to find the
juftly celebrated General Moreau included in the num¬
ber ! Envy and jealoufy of Bonaparte can alone have
implicated this great man in fuch a charge, as he whs
heard to fay on the arrival of the new emperor from
Egypt • “ this is the man who is neceffary to fave
France.” Georges with 11 of his affociates, were con¬
demned and executed on the 2 5th of June ; the gallant
Moreau and four more, were fentenced to fuffer two
years imprifonment, and about 18 were acquitted.
Some of thofe who were condemned were afterwards
nardoned by imperial clemency, moved by the fafei-
nating charms of female eloquence and female tears.
Francs.
The fentence of imprifonment againft Moreau was com¬
muted to banilhment for life to the United States of '”'7) ~
America. . , 1, jj'
The coronation of Bonaparte took place m the month orgnatioiv
of December 1804, which was accompanied on the part0f ?ona.
of the people by Inch demonftrations of apparent fatis-paite.
fadftion as evinced the degraded ftate of the public mind
in that unfortunate country. After receiving a num¬
ber of the moft fulfome fpeeches, filled entirely with
bombaft and falfehood, his imperial majefty delivered
the following addrefs. “ I afeend the throne, to which
the unanimous wifhes of the fenate, the people, and the
army have called me, with a heart penetrated with the ,
great dejimies of that people, wThom, from the midft o^
camps, I firft faluted with the name of Great. From
my youth *, my thoughts have been folely fixed upon
them (fo it appears) *, and I mutt add here, that my
pleafures and my pains are derived entirely from the
happinefs or mifery of my people. My defeendants
{hall long preferve this throne (a very bold prediftion).
In the field they will be the firft foldiers of the army,
facrificing their lives for the defence of their country.
As magiftrates they will never forget, that contempt
of the laws, and the confufion of facial order, are only
the refult of the imbecillity and uncertainty of princes.
You, fenators, whofe counfels and fupport have never
failed me in the moft difficult circumftances, your fpirit
will be handed down to your fucceffors. Be ever the
prop and firft counfellors of that throne, fo neceffary to
the welfare of this vaft empire.” _ 5SO
On the 4th of February 1805, a letter written by who writes
Bonaparte to his Britannic maiefty on the fubjefl of a letter to
peace, was laid before the legiflative body by the coun-"^'
fellors of ftate, in which he obferved that providence, on the}ubii
the fenate, the people, and the army, had called him je(<^ 0f
to the throne of France. He admitted that, the two peace,
countries, over which they prefided as the chiei magi¬
ftrates, might contend againft each other for ages, but
denied that it was for the intereft of either to continue
the conteft. He requefted his Britannic majefty not
not to deny himfelf the inexpreflible felicity of giving
peace to the world j for ftiould the prefent moment be
loft, he did not fee how all his efforts would be able
to terminate the war, which he confidered as without
any object or prefumable refult. He concluded with
obferving that reafon is fufficiently powerful to.difcover
means of reconciling every thing, when the wilh of re¬
conciliation exifts on both fides. On the 16th of. the
fame month, a very fplendid entertainment was given
to the emperor and emprefs by the city of Paris. 551
Never was any naval viftory more glorious or de-The merae.
cifive than that which was gained by the Britiih under
Vice-admiral Lord Nelfon over the combined fleets ofgar) in
France and Spain, off Cape Trafalgar, on the 2ift Oc-which Lord
tober 1 805. The Britiih commander in chief gave the Nelfon felL
fignal for bearing up in two columns as they formed in
the order of failing, a mode of attack which had been
previoufly ordered by his lordftiip, to prevent the delay
and inconveniency of forming the line of battle in the
manner ufually adopted. The fleet of the enemy con-
fifted of 34 {hips, under the command of the French
admiral Villeneuve. The Spaniih divifion under Ad¬
miral Gravina, formed the line of battle with great
coolnefs and {kill, the heads of the {hips being turned
to the northward. TJie manner of attack was uncom¬
mon.
F R A [ x
France, tnon, and the formation of their line was confequently
~ new. Few fignals were neceffary from the commander
°*5* of the Britifh fleet, becaufe the flag olFicers and cap¬
tains were made previoufly acquainted with the admi¬
ral’s whole plan. The weather column was led by the
commander in chief on board the Victory, and Lord
Collingwood in the Royal Sovereign took charge of the
leeward divifion. The leading (hips of the Britifla columns
breaking through the enemy’s line, was the fignal for
commencing hoililities, which began about i 2 o’clock.
The (hips of the enemy were fought in fuch a manner
as did the higheil honour to the officers by whom they
were commanded, but they oppofed a force which was
not to be vanquiihed. About 3 o’clock in the after¬
noon the enemy’s line gave way, many of their {hips
having ftruck their colours. Admiral Gravina then
fleered for Cadiz j and 19 fail of the line, of which two
were firfl: rates, fell into the hands of the viftors, and
three flag-officers, Villeneuve, Don Ignatia Maria
D’Aliva, and Don Baltazar Hidalgo Ciineros, were
made prifoners.
Germany is About the fame time that the Britifh navy ac-
overrun by quired the moff fignal victory over the combined fleets
Bonaparte. 0f J7rance antj Spain, the emperor Napoleon was carry¬
ing his victorious arms through the heart of Germany,
and forcing the emperor of that country to abandon his
metropolis. He left Paris on the 24th of September
1805, to join the grand army, and reached Straffmrgh
on the 26th, accompanied by the emprefs. Here he
iflued a manifeffo to his army, in which he mentioned
the commencement of the war of what he termed the
third coalition, which he faid was created and maintain¬
ed by the gold and hatred of England. He declared
he would fight till he had fecured the independence of
the Germanic body, and never again make peace witln-
out fufficient fecurity of its continuance. He crofied
the Rhine at Kehl on the iff of October, and on the
evening of the fame day arrived at Ettlingen, where
the eleClor of Baden was prefented to him, along with
his two Tons. On the 2d he went to Stutgard, where
the eleCtor (now king) of Wirtemberg received him in
the moff magnificent manner, and the city was illumi¬
nated. The king of Wirtemberg agreed to furnifh
6000 men for the affiftance of France, and the eleCtor
of Baden 4000.
The French armies on the coaft reached the banks
of the Rhine in the month of September, and croffed
that river on the 25th. General Bernadotte reached
Franconia on the 23d, where he was joined by the Ba¬
varian army of 20,000 infantry and cavalry ; by the
army of Holland under Marmont. and the Batavian
divifion. This army of Bernadotte, about 40,000
ftrong, conftituted the fifth divifion of the grand or
Imperial French army. It is remarkable that thefe
three great men, Jourdan, Lecourbe, and Macdonald,
w’ere not employed ; the reafon afligned for which mea-
fure is, that Bonaparte fufpeCled them of difloyalty
ever fince the condemnation of that fingular officer
Moreau. Bernadotte marched direClly for the Danube
on the 2d of OClober, and took a pofition at Ingol-
ffadt. The rapidity with which the French forces
moved feems to have difconcerted the Auftrian com¬
mander completely, as no movements were made to op-
pofe their progrefs.
Hoftilities commenced on the 7th, when the Auf-
ek
99 J £ it
trians were defeated with the lofs of many killed, wound- France,
ed, and prifoners, in attempting to oppofe the pafiage —v—^
of General Vandamme acrofs the bridge of Donawert. I8o5»
Field-marlhal Auffenberg, while on his march to Ulm,
wms completely furrounded by the French, and obliged
to furrender. It is faid that the Auftrians here loft two
colonels, five majors, 60 officers, and 4000 men made
prifoners. Memmingen furrendered on the 14th to Mar-
ihal Soult, after which he marched on to Biberach, in
order to cut off the retreat of the Auftrians by that
road. Murfhal Ney croffed the Danube, and made an
attack upon Elchingen a little above Ulm. The Auf¬
trians made a fortie, but were driven back to their
entrenchments before Ulm, with the lofs, it is faid,
of 3000 men taken prifoners j and at Langenau their
lofs amounted to the fame number, in an action with
Prince Murat, who commanded the cavalry. This
officer again brought them to aftion on the 17th, when
their lofs was computed at 1000 men, and next day
General Werneck’s divifion was obliged to capitulate.-
From Albeck to Nuremberg, Murat is faid to have
got pofieffion of 1500 waggons and 16,000 prifoners j
but Prince Ferdinand effe£ted his efcape. 553
Ulm furrendered by capitulation on the 17th, and Surrender
this unaccountable ftep ivas taken by General Mack,ofUinK
becaufe Berthier affured him that the Auftrians wrere on
the other fide of the Inn ; that Lannes wTas in purfuit of
Prince Ferdinand •, that Werneck had capitulated, and
that it was impofii'ole for any fuccours to reach Ulm.
After the furrender of this place, the Auftrian generals
who w^ere made prifoners, were fent under an effort
through Bavaria to Vienna, and Mack was eiitrufted
with fome propofals to the emperor of Germany. ^ ,
On die 28th of October a fpirited proclamation was The French
iffued by the emperor at Vienna, declaring that the enter Vi-
views ol Auftria and Ruffia were extremely moderate,enna'
and execrating the defigns and views of Bonaparte.
Every divifion of the French army, except that under
General Ney, croffed the river Inn on the iff: of No¬
vember. Bonaparte himfelf was with the right wing
at Saltfburgh 5 and the centre, commanded by Prince
Murat, marched towards Lintz with uncommon rapi¬
dity. The Auftro-Ruflian army retreated to Maelk
(50 miles from Vienna) as the enemy advanced. The
Auftrians and Ruffians made no ftand between the Ens
and Vienna, which latter place the French entered on
the 12th of Oflober. Bonaparte arrived on the 13th,
and took up his quarters in the palace of Schoenbrun,
about two miles from the city of Vienna. The French
troops conduced themfelves with the utmoft propriety
and decorum, which prevented any difturbance from
taking place in the metropolis. ^
On the 27th of November, as Bonaparte perceived The dread-
the dreadful carnage which was inevitable from the con-fuI battle
fli£l of two fuch prodigious armies as that of the allies j0F5mfter~
and his own, was extremely anxious to fpare the effu-
fion of human blood, and for this purpoff he propoffd
an armiftice, which was rejedled with difdain. It was
not long before Bonaparte difcovered that the allies
w7ere ailing from prefumption, want of confideration,
and imprudence, of which circumftances he was but too
well qualified to take advantage. At funriff the battle
commenced, and a tremendous cannonade took place
along the whole line. It is almoft needlefs to remark,
that 200 pieces of cannon and 200,000 men made a
m«ftri
F R A
[ 200 ]
F R A
1805.
5S6 j •
The French It is certain
account
contradift-
ed by the
Ruffians.
France, rhoft tremendous noife. In lefs than an nour the whole
left wing of the allies was cut off, their right being by
that time at Aufterlitz, the head quarters of the Ruf¬
fian and Auftrian empefors. From the heights of this
place the emperors witnefffed the total defeat of the Ruf¬
fians by the French guard. The lofs fuftained by the
allies during the whole of this battle was eilifnated at
1 pieces of cannon, with 45 Hand of colours, and
18,000 Ruffians, and 600 Auilrians were left, dead on
the field. On the 5th of December an interview' took
place betwxen the emperors of Auftria and France,
which lafted for two hours. An armitlice wras mutual¬
ly agreed to, which was to ferve as the bafis of a defi¬
nitive treaty. The emperor of Ruffia w’as comprehend¬
ed in this armiftice, on condition of marching home his
army in fuch a manner as the emperor Napoeleon might
think proper to prefcribe. By virtue of the treaty of
peace, the French agreed to evacuate Brunn on
the 4th of January, Vienna on the loth, and the
whole Aufttrian ftates in fix weeks after the figning of
the treaty, except fuch as wrere ceded to Italy and
Bavaria.
 j however, that the lofs of the Ruffians
in this terrible conffidl w’as declared by the court of Pe-
terfburgh to have been ffiockingly exaggerated by the
French bulletins, which made the allied army amount
to 105,000, wdiile it appears that the Ruffians wrere on¬
ly 52,000 ftrong, and the Auftrians i^ocO. Accord-
ding to the Ruffian ftatement, they had not a deficit of
more than 17,000 men after that memorable battle,
while the French papers made it 35,000 men killed on
the field and taken prifoilers, independent of 20,000
wffio were drowmed. Which of thefe contradi&ory re¬
ports is to be believed, w7e ffiall leave entirely to the
judgment of our readers, who will probably think with
us, that the One is perhaps too much diminiffied, and
the other rather exaggerated.
rvenectiuris F w7ould have required the invincible modefty of
on the con- a Waffiington, not to be elated with the extraordinary
dudt of the fuccefs which attended the arms of Bonaparte in this laft
kmg of attack upon Germany ;—a qualification which he feems
L rJ ia' never to have poffeffed. After the battle of Aufterlitz,
his conduct was of confequence marked with the moft
horrid injuftice, tyranny, and rapine, both with refpeft
to Hanover and the unfortunate king of Naples. The
unexpended turn wffiich the iffue of that battle gave to
continental affairs, likewdfe changed the fentiments of
the cautious, the intriguing, and myfterious king of
Pruffia, on whofe co-operation the allies at a former pe¬
riod had certainly feme reafon to calculate, although it
does not appear that he was ever ferious in his profef-
fions of attachment to the intereft of Britain. He could
drain her coffers without granting her that effectual af-
fiftance which he fcrupled not to promife, but which he
never intended to confer. Indeed it muff be confeffed,
that after the battle of Aufterlitz, wffien both Auftria
and Ruffia wrere humbled by the Corfican ufurper, it
would have been madnefs in Frederick to aim a blow
againft France 5 but why not aim it before, when in all
probability it wmuld have been eminently fuccefsful ?
We admire the king who wiffies to make his fubjefts
happy, "by keeping war at a diftance from them as
much as poffible •, but we deteft that fovereign as the
worft of fwindlers, who receives payment for fuch affift-
France,
557
Reflections
ance to other nations againft their infatiable enemies as
he never defigns to grant.
The troops of his Pruffian majefty took poffeffion of
Hanover) and the country of Anfpach was ceded to the
king of Bavaria, wffio received his royalty from the
hands of Napoleon I. The king of Naples took re¬
fuge in Sicily, hoping there to be protected from the
vengeance of the felf-ele£ted monarch of France, by
the united exertions of the naval force of England,
Ruffia, and Sicily. His Neapolitan majefty no doubt
often violated the treaties which he made with France;
but it ought in charity to be remembered, that thefe
treaties were made under the impulfe of fear, the prof-
pe£t of impending deftrudtion, and to prevent a band
of robbers from plundering both him and his fubjedls of
their laft {lulling. When the affairs of the continent at
any time wore a more favourable afpeft, he no doubt
trampled on fuch extorted treaties, in the hope of re¬
gaining that of which he had been unjuftly deprived ;
and under fuch circumftances even juftice itfelf cannot
condemn him, and the dkftates of humanity commife-
rate his misfortunes. _ _ _ £5g
While the arms of Bonaparte were vidforious in Eu- Admiral
rope, his naval force in the Weft Indies received a Duckworth
freffi proof that Britain reigns triumphant on the feas.
A fquadron under the command of Admiral Duck-fquadron
worth, engaged and deftroyed a French fquadron on in the Well
the 7th of February, about 36 miles from the town of Indies.
St Domingo. Three of them, one of 84, and two of
74 guns, were taken by the gallant admiral; three of
them made their efcape, and two of them were com¬
mitted to the flames, viz. of 84, and other of 1 20 guns.
The lofs fuftained by the Britifh on this occafion was
comparatively fmall, confidering the advantages of the
conqueft, the total amount of the flain being 74, and
of w’ounded 264. Much about the fame time the im¬
portant news of the furrender of the Cape of Good
Hope arrived in Britain, an expedition which had been
wifely entrufted w'ith Admiral Sir Home Popham, and
General Sir David Baird.
From the humbled fituation of the emperor of Ger¬
many after the memorable battle of Aufterlitz, it wTas
natural to expedl that he would feel it his intereft to
make peace with the French emperor, and therefore
we {hall lay before our readers the treaty of Prefburg,
which was figned and ratified on the 26th and 27th of
December, 1805. It confifts of twenty-three articles,
and forms no bad fpecimen of the kind of treaties the
powers of Europe have to expeft from Bonaparte,
when the fortune of war enables him to diclate the
terms.
Treatij of 'Peace between Auflria and France.
His majefty the emperor of Germany and Auftria,
and his majefty the emperor of the hrench, king of Ita¬
ly, equally animated with a defire to put an end to the
calamities of war, have refolved to proceed without de¬
lay to the conclufion of a definitive treaty of peace.
This treaty contains 24 articles, of which the following
are the principal, and indeed the only ones that are in-
terefting to thofe ftates who are not immediately con¬
cerned in the treaty.
Article 1. There ffiall be from the date of this day,
peace and friendftiip between his majefty the emperor
of
2
France,
J805.
[
FRA
of Germany and Auftria, and his majefty the
peror of the French, king of Italy, their heirs and
fucceffors, their dates and fubjefts refpeclively,
201 ] FRA
tria, as well for himfelf, his heirs and fuccefTors, as for
for
ever.
2. France {hall continue to poffefsin property and fo-
vereignty the duchies, principalities, lordlhips, and ter¬
ritories beyond the Alps, which were before the pre-
fent treaty united and incorporated with the French em¬
pire, or governed by the laws and government of
France.
3. The emperor of Germany and Auftria, for him¬
felf, his heirs, and fucceffors, recognizes the difpofitions
made by his majefty the emperor of France, king of
Italy, relative to the principalities of Lucca and Piom-
bino.
4. The emperor of Germany and Auftria renounces,
as well for himfelf as for his heirs and fucceffors, that
part of the ftates of the republic of Venice, ceded to
him by the treaties of Campo Formio and Luneville,
{hall be united in perpetuity to the king of Italy.
5. The emperor of Germany and of Auftria acknow¬
ledges his majefty the emperor of the French as king of
Italy j but it is agreed that, in conformity with the de¬
claration made by his majefty the emperor of the French,
at the moment when he took the crown of Italy, that
as foon as the parties named in that declaration fhall
have fulfilled the conditions therein expreffed, the
crowns of France and Italy {hall be feparated for ever,
and cannot in any cafe be united on the fame head.
His majefty the emperor of Germany binds himfelf to
acknowledge, on the feparation, the fucceffor his ma¬
jefty the emperor of the French {hall appoint to himfelf
as king of Italy.
6. The prefent treaty of peace is declared to compre¬
hend their moft ferene highneffes the ele&ors of Bavaria,
Wirtemberg, and Baden, and the Batavian republic,
allies of his majefty the emperor of the French, in the
prefent war.
7. The eledlors of Bavaria and Wirtemberg having
taken the title of king, without ceafing neverthelefs to
belong to the Germanic confederation, his majefty the
emperor of Germany and Auftria acknowledges them in
that charafter.
8. His majefty the emperor of Germany and Auftria,
as well for himfelf, his heirs and fucceffors, as for the
princes of his houfe, their heirs and fucceffors refpec-
tively, renounces certain principalities, lordlhips, do¬
mains, and territories. [Thefe are fpecified in the
treaty, which declares alfo by whom they are hereafter
to be held.]
14. Their majefties the kings of Bavaria and Wirtem¬
berg, and his moft ferene highnefs the elector of Ba¬
den, ftrall enjoy over the territories ceded, as well as
over their ancient eftates, the plenitude of fovereignty,
and all the rights refulting from it, which have been
guaranteed to them by his majefty the emperor of the
French, king of Italy, in the fame manner as his ma¬
jefty the emperor of Germany and Auftria, and his ma¬
jefty the king of Prufiia, over their German ftates. His
majefty the emperor of Germany and Auftria, both as
chief of the empire, and as co-eftates, engages himfelf
not to oppofe any obftacle to the execution of the acls
which they may have made, or will make, in confe-
quence.
jy. His majefty the emperor of Germany and Auf-
Vol. IX. Part I.
the princes of his houfe, their heirs and fucceffors, re- v
nounces all the rights, as well of fovereignty as of pa¬
ramount right to all pretenfions whatfoever, aflual or
eventual, on all the ftates, without exception, of their
majefties the kings of Bavaria and Wirtemberg, and of
his moft ferene highnefs the eleftor of Baden, and ge¬
nerally on all the ftates, domains, and territories, com-
priled in the circles of Bavaria, Franconia, and Swabia,
as well as to every title taken from the faid domains
and territories ; and reciprocally, all pretenfions, aftual
or eventual, of the faid ftates, to the charge of the houfe
of Auftria, or its princes, are, and ihall be, for ever ex-
tinguilhed.
17. His majefty the emperor Napoleon guarantees
the integrity of the empire of Auftria in the ftate in
which it {hall be in confequence of the prefent treaty of
peace.
18. The high contracting parties acknowledge the
independence of the Helvetic republic, as eftablifhed by
the act of mediation, as well as the independence of the
Batavian republic.
20. All commercial communications and relations
are re-eftablilhed in the two countries on the fame foot¬
ing as before the war.
_ 21. His majefty the emperor of Germany and Auf¬
tria, and his majefty the emperor of the French, king
of Italy, ihall maintain between them the fame ceremo¬
nial as to rank and etiquette as was obferved before the
prefent war.
23. Immediately after the exchange of the ratifica¬
tion of the prefent treaty, commiffaries {hall be named
on both fides to give up and to receive in the names of
their refpeCtive fovereigns, all parts of the Venetian
territory not occupied by the troops of his majefty the
emperor of the French and king of Italy. The city of
Venice, the Langnes, and the poffeflxons of Terra Fir-
ma, {hall be given up in the fpace of 15 days j Vene¬
tian Iftria, and Dalmatia, the mouths of the Cattaro,
the Venetian iftes in the Adriatic, and all the places
and forts which they contain, in the fpace of fix weeks
from the exchange of the ratifications. The refpe&ive
commiffaries will take care that the feparation of the
artillery belonging to the republic of Venice from the
Auftrian artillery be exactly made, the former being to
remain entirely to the kingdom of Italy.
Done and figned at Freiburg the 26th of December,
1805.
(Signed) Ch. Maur. Talleyrand, (L. S.)
(Signed) John, Prmce of Lichtenstein,
, . (L. S.)
(Signed) Ign-ag, Count De Guylai.
We have approved, and do approve, the above trea¬
ty, in all and each of its articles therein contained j wc
declare, that it is accepted, ratified, and confirmed ;
and we promife, that it {hall be inviolably obferved.
In faith of which, we have given thefe prefents, figned
with our hand, counterfigned, and fealed with oui^im¬
perial feal.
At the palace of Schoenbrun, 27th December, 1805.
By the emperor, Napoleon* &c.
The following brief recapitulation by Bertrand de'
Moleville of the various revolutions which have agita-
t C c ted
France.
~—v -
i8oj.
•France.
. 559
Rife and
pro.: refs of
the revolu
4ion.
FRA [
ted France during a period of more than 15 years wijl,
it is hoped, from' its concifenefs and perfpicuity, be ac¬
ceptable to our readers j and with this we conclude our
hiftorical detail of thefe remarkable events.
“ Popular infurre&ions, and an army (fays the au¬
thor), have hitherto been the ufuai means, or chief in-
ftruments, of every revolution ; but thofe infurredlions
being of the moll ignorant and unthinking clafs of the
people, were always fomented by a certain number of
faftious men, devoted to, and dependent upon, fome
ambitious chief, daring, brave, of military talents, foie
and abfolute condudlor of every ftep of the revolt, and
mafter of all the means of the infurreftion. In the
hands of this chief, the foldiers, or people armed, were
but machines, which he fet in motion or reftrained ac¬
cording to his pleafure, and of which he always made
V.fe to put an end to revolutionary diforders and crimes,
as foon as the objedl of the revolution was gained. So
Caefar and Cromwell, after they had ufurped the fu-
preme power, loft no time in fecuring it to themfelves,
by placing it on the bafts of a wife and well-regulated
government •, and they employed, in quelling the trou¬
bles that had favoured their ufurpation, thofe very le¬
gions, that fame army, which they had ufed to excite
them.
“ This was not the cafe in France : there, the revo¬
lution, or rather the firft of thofe it experienced, and
of which the others were the inevitable fconfequence,
was not, whatever be fuppofed, the refult of a confpi-
racy, or preconcerted plan, to overturn the throne, or
to place an ufurper upon it. It was unexpedledly en¬
gendered by a commixture of weaknefs, ignorance, ne¬
gligence, and numberlefs errors in the government. The
jlates-general, however imprudent their convocation
may have been, would have produced only ufeful re¬
forms, if they had found the limits of their power mark¬
ed out by a hand fufficiently firm to have kept them
within that extent. It was, however, but too evident
that, even before their opening, they were dreaded, and
that confequently they might attempt whatever they
pleafed. From that time, under the name of clubs,
various affbciations and fadtions fprang up ; fome more
violent than others, but all tending to the fubverfion of
the exifting government, without agreeing upon the
form of that which was to be fuhftituted: and at that
junfture alfo the projedts of the fadlion, whofe views
were to have the duke of Orleans appointed lieutenant-
general of the kingdom, began to appear.
“ This fadlion, or more properly this confpiracy,
was indeed of the fame nature as thofe that had pro¬
duced all former revolutions, and might have been at¬
tended with the fame confequences, had the duke of
Orleans been poffelTed of that energy of charadler, that
bravery and daring fpirit, requiftte in the leader of a
party. The people had already declared in his favour,
and he might very eafily have corrupted and brought
over a great part of the army, had he been equal to the
command of it : but, on the very firft occafion of per-
fonal rilk, he difcovered fuch cowardice and mean-
nefs, that he defeated his own confpiracy, and convin¬
ced all thofe who had entered into it, that it was im-
pcflible to continue the revolution, either in his favour
or in conjunclion with him. The enthufiafm the peo¬
ple had felt for him ended with the efforts of thofe who
Had excited it,
202 ] l"’ R A
“ M. Necker, whom the multitude had affociated with
him in their homage, ftill preferved for fome time his
adorers, and that little cabal which was for ever exalt¬
ing him to the Ikies. But as he was inferior even to
the duke of Orleans in military talents and difpofitions,
he was as little calculated to be the leader of a revolu¬
tion, or of a great confpiracy : for which reafon his pa-
negyrifts then confined themfelves in their pamphlets
and placards, with which the capital was overrun, to
infinuating that the only means of faving the Hate wTas
to declare M. Necker diBator; or at leaft to confer
upon him, under fome title more confiftent with the
monarchy, the authority and powers attached to that
republican office. In faft, if after his difmitlion, in the
month of July 1789, he had dared to make this a con¬
dition of his return to the miniftry, it is more than pro¬
bable that the king would have been under the neceffi-
ty of agreeing to it, and perhaps of re-eftablifhing in
his perfon the office of mayor of the palace. At that
moment he might have demanded any thing : eight
days later, he might have been refufed every thing j
and very foon after, he was reduced to fneak out of the
kingdom, in order to efcape the effebls of the general
contempt and cenfure which he had brought upon him-
felf.
“ General La Fayette, who then commanded the Pa-
rifian national guard, gathered the wrecks of all this
popularity, and might have turned them to the greateft
advantage, if he had poffeffed ‘ that refolute charadler
and heroic judgment’ of wThich Cardinal de Retz ipeaks,
and ‘ which ferves to diflinguifh what is truly honour¬
able and ufeful from what is only extraordinary, and
what is extraordinary from wftiat is impoflible.’ With
the genius, talents, and ambition of Cromwell, he might
have gone as great a length \ wfith a lefs criminal ambi¬
tion, he might at leafl have made himfelf mafter of the
revolution, and have diredled it at his pleafure : in a
wmrd, he might have fecured the triumph of whatever
party he fhould have declared himfelf the leader. But
as unfit for fupporting the charadler of Monk as that of
Cromwell, he foon betrayed the fecret of his incapacity
to all the world, and was diftinguifhed in the crowd of
conflitutional ringleaders only by his three coloured
plume, his epaulets, white horfe, and famous faying—
‘ Infurredtion is the molt facred of duties when oppref-
fion is at its height.’
' “ The revolution, at the period when the fadtion
that had begun it for the duke of Orleans became fen-
fible that he was too much a coward to be the leader
of it, and when La Fayette difcovered his inability to
condudl it, was too far advanced to recede or to flop j
and it continued its progrefs, but in a line that no other
revolution had taken, viz. without a military chief,
without the intervention of the army, and to gain tri¬
umphs, not for any ambitious confpirator, but for poli¬
tical and moral innovations of the mofl dangerous na¬
ture j the mofl fuited to miflead the multitude, incapa¬
ble of comprehending them, and to let loofe all the
paffions. The more violent combined to deflroy every
thing 5 and their fatal coalition gave birth to Jacobinifm,
that terrible monfler, till then unknown, and till now
not fufficiently unmafked. This monfter took upon
itfelf alone to carry on the revolution 5 it diredled, it
executed, all the operations of it, all the explofions, all
the outrages : it every where appointed the mofl adlive
leadersj
France.'
F H A [ 203 ] FRA
France.
'560
Conftitu-
tion of
1791 com¬
pletes the’
firft revolu¬
tion.
leaders, and, as inftvuments, employed the profligates of
every country. Its power far furpafled that which has
been attributed to the inquifition, and other fiery tri¬
bunals, by thofe who have Ipoken of them with the
greateft exaggeration. Its centre was at Paris; and
its rays, formed by particular clubs in every town, in
every little borough, overfpread the whole furface of
the kingdom. The conftant correfpondence kept up
between thofe clubs and that of the capital, or, to ufe
their own expreflions, des Societex popu/aires affiliees avec
la Socilte mere—J" between'the affiliated popular Socie¬
ties and the parent Society,’ was as fecret and as fpeedy
as that of free-mafons. In a word, the Jacobin clubs
had prevailed in caufing themfelves to be looked up to
as the real national reprefentation. Under that pre¬
tence they cenfured all the authorities in the moll im¬
perious manner \ and whenever their denunciations, pe¬
titions, or addreffes, failed to produce an immediate ef-
feft, they gained their point by having recourfe to in-
furreftion, aflaffination, and fire. While Jacobinifm
thus fubjedled all France to its controul, an immenfe
number of emiflaries propagated its doftrines among
foreign nations, and prepared new conquefts for it.
“ The national affembly, the capital, indeed we
may fay all France, was divided into three very diftinft
parties. The mofi: confiderable in number, but unhap¬
pily the wTeakeft through a deficiency of plan and refo-
lution, was the party purely royal : it was adverfe to
every kind of revolution, and was folely defirous of
fome improvements, with the reform of abufes and pe¬
cuniary privileges :—the moft able, and moil intriguing,
was the conftitutional party, or that which was defi¬
rous of giving France a new monarchical conftitution,
but modified after the manner of the Engliffi, or even
the American, by a houfe of reprefentatives. The
third party was the moft dangerous of all, by its daring
fpirit, by its power, and by the number of profelytes
it daily acquired in all quarters of the kingdom: it
comprifed the democrates of every defcription, from the
Jacobin clubs, calling themfelves Friends of the conjli-
tutiony to the anarchs and robbers.
“ The democratic party, which at firft was only
auxiliary to the conftitutional one, in the end annihilated
it, and became itfelf fubdivided into feveral other par¬
ties, whofe fatal ftruggles produced the fubfequent re¬
volutions, and may ftill produce many more. But in
principle, the conftitutionalifts and the democrates
formed two diftin6I, though confederate, fa&ions*, both
were defirous of a revolution, and employed all the
ufual means of accompliffiing it, except troops, which
could be of no ufe to them, for neither of them had a
leader to put at the head of the army. But as it was
equally of importance to both that the king ffiould be
deprived ofthe power of making ufe of it againft them,
they laboured in concert to diforganife it j and the com¬
plete fuccefs of that manoeuvre was but too fully pro¬
ved by the fatal iflue of the departure of the royal fa¬
mily for Montmedi. The revolution then took a more
daring and rapid ftride, which was concluded by the
pretended conftitution a£t of 1791. The incoherence
of its principles, and the defeats of its inftitutions, pre-
fent a faithful pifture of the difunion of its authors,
and of the oppofite interefts by which they were fway-
ed. It was, properly fpeaking, a compact between the
fa£Uon of the conftitutionalifts and that of the demo¬
crates, in which they mutually made conceflions and fa- France,
crifices. -y—
“ Be that a£ it may, this abfurd conftitution, the
everlafting fource of remorfe or forrow to all who bore
part in it, might have been got over without a (hock,
and led back to the old principles of monarchical go¬
vernment, if the affembly wffio framed it had not fe-
parated before they witneffed the execution of it ; if,
in impofing on the king the obligation to maintain it,
they had not deprived him of the power and the means j
and above all, if the certain conlequence of the lew
mode of proceeding at the elections had not beer to
fecure, in the fecond affembly, a confidevable majority
of the democratic againft the conftitutional party.
“ The fecond affembly was alfo divided by three
fa&ions, the wreakeft of which was the one that wiffied
to maintain the conftitution. The other two were for
a new revolution and a republic j but they differed in
this, that the former, compofed of the Briffotins and
Girondifts, wras for effe&iiig it gradually, by beginning
with divefting the king of popularity, and allowing the
public mind time to wrean itfelf from its natufal attach¬
ment to monarchy ; and the latter, wiiich was the leaft
numerous, was eager to have the republic eftablifhed as
foon as poffible. Thefe two fadlions, having the fame
objeft in view, though taking different roads, were ne-
eeffarily auxiliaries to each other 5 and the pamphlets,
excitations to commotion, and revolutionary meafures
of both, equally tended to overthrow the conftitution of
l19l-
“ Thofe different factions, almoft entirely compofed
of advocates, folicitors, apollate priefts, doctors, and a
few literary men, having no military chief capable of
taking the command of the army, dreaded the troops,
who had fworn allegiance to the conftitution and obe¬
dience to the king, and who moreover might be influ¬
enced by their officers, among whom there ftill remain¬
ed fome royalifts. The fureft way to get rid of all un-
eafinefs on this fubjeft, was to employ the army in de¬
fending the frontiers. For this purpofe a foreign war
w'as neceffary, to which it wras known that the king and
his council w^ere equally averfe. No more wTas want¬
ing to determine the attack which was diredted, almoft
at the fame time, againft all the minifters, in order to
compel them to retire, and to put the king under the
neceffity of appointing others more difpofed to fecond
the views of the parties. Unhappily this attempt w7as
attended writh ^11 the fuccefs they had promifed them¬
felves j and one of the firft afts of the new miniftry was
to declare war againft the emperor. At the fame time,
the emigration that had been provoked, and wffiich was
almoft everywhere applauded, even by the lowed clafs of
people, robbed France of the flow'er of the royal party,
and left the king, deprived of his beft defenders, expo-
fed to the fufpicions and infults that fprang from innu¬
merable calumnies, for w'hich the difafters at the be¬
ginning of the war furnilhed but too many opportu¬
nities. _ 5tfr
“ In this manner was prepared and accelerated the The feconi
new revolution, which was accompliffied on the x oth revoluti°n*
of Auguft 179 2, by the depofition and imprifonment of
the king, and by the moft flagrant violation of the con¬
ftitution of 1791. The latter, however, was not entire¬
ly abandoned on that day j for the projeft of the Gi¬
rondifts, wffio had laid the plot of that horrible confpi-
C c 2 racy,
FRA [ 204 ] FRA
France, racy, was then only to declare the king’s depolition, in
order to place the prince royal upon the throne, under
the guidance of a regency compofed of their own crea¬
tures 5 but they were hurried away much farther than
they meant to go, by the violence with which the moft
furious of the Jacobins, who took the lead in the infur-
reftion, conduced all their enterprifes. The prince
royal, inftead of being crowmed, was fhut up in the
Temple 5 and if France at that moment was not decla¬
red a republic, it wras lefs ownng to any remaining re-
fpect to the conftitution, than to the fear the legiilative
body was in of raifing an army againft it, and alfo the
majority of the nation, wdio would naturally be angry
to fee a conifitution which feemed to be rendered fe-
cure and liable by fo many oaths, thus precipitately
overthrown, without their having been confulted.
“ It was on thefe confiderations that the opinion
rvas adopted, that a national convention Ihould be
convoked, to determine the fate of royalty. Prompt
in feizing all the means that might enfure the fuccefs
of this fecond revolution, the affembly, under pretence
of giving every poflible latitude to the freedom of elec¬
tions, decreed, that all its members ihould be eligible
for the national convention.
“ From that moment the Girondills daily loll ground,
and the moft flaming members of the democratic party,
fupported by the club of Jacobins, by the new com¬
mune of Paris, and by the tribunss^ made themfelves
mailers of every debate. It wras of the utmoft import¬
ance to them to rule the enfuing eleftions 5 and this
was fecured to them by the horrible confternation which
the maffacres of the 2d of September ftruck through¬
out the kingdom. The terror of being affaflinated, or
at leaft cruelly treated, drove from all the primary af-
femblies, not only the royalifts and conftitutionalifts,
hut moderate men of all parties. Of courfe, thofe af-
femblies became entirely compofed of the weakeft men
and the greateft villains exifting in France ; and from
among the moft frantic of them were chofen thofe mem¬
bers of the convention who were not taken from the
legiflative body. Accordingly, this third aflembly,
in the firft quarter of an hour of their firft fitting, were
heard Ihouting their votes for the abolition of royalty,
and proclaiming the republic, upon the motion of a
member who had formerly been a player.
“ Such an opening but too plainly ftiewed what was
to be expelled from that horde of plunderers which
compofed the majority of the national convention, and
of whom Robefpierre, Danton, Marat, and the other
ringleaders, formed their party. That of the Briflb-
tines and Girondifts Hill exifted, and was the only one
really republican. Thefe femi-wretches, glutted with
the horrors already committed, feemed defirous of ar-
refting the torrent of them, and laboured to introduce
into the affembly the calm and moderation that were
neceffary to give the new republic a wife and folid or¬
ganization. But the fuperiority of their knowledge,
talents, and eloquence, wdiich their opponents could not
difpute, had no power over tigers thirfting for blood,
^2 who neither attended to nor fuffered motions but of the
The~third blackeft tendency. No doubt they had occafion for
*evolution, atrocities upon atrocities to prepare the terror-ftruck
nation to allow them to commit, in its name, the moft
execrable of all, the murder of the unfortunate Louis
XVI.: and that martyrdom was neceffary to bring about
a third revolution, already brewing in the brain of
Robefpierre. Fear had greatly contributed to the twTo
former : but this wTas effefted by terror alone, without
popular tumults, or the intervention of the armies j
which, now drawn by their conquefts beyond the fron¬
tiers, never heard any thing of the revolutions at home,
till they were accompliftied, and always obeyed the pre¬
vailing fadlion, by wThom they were paid.
“ By the degree of ferocity difcovered by the mem¬
bers of the convention in palling fentence upon the
king, and in the debates relative to the conftitution of
1793, Robefpierre was enabled to mark w’hich of the
deputies were likely to fecond his views, and which of
them it wras his part to facrifice.
“ The people could not but with tranfport receive a
conftitution which feemed to realife the chimera of its
fovereignty, but which wrould only have given a kind
of conftruClion to anarchy, if the execution of this new
code had not been fufpended under the pretext, belong¬
ing in common to all a6ls of defpotifm and tyranny, of
the fupreme laxv of the fafetij of the fate. This fufpen-
fion was effected, by eftablilhing the provifionary go¬
vernment, which, under the title of revolutionary go¬
vernment, concentrated all the powers in the national
convention until there Ihould be an end to the war and
all inteftine troubles.
“ Although the faflion, at the head of which Robe¬
fpierre rvas, had a decided majority in the affembly,
and might confequently have conftdered themfelves as
really and exclulively exercifmg the fovereign power, he
wras a demagogue of too defpotic a nature to ftomach
even the appearance of lharing the empire with fo many
co-fovereigns. He greatly reduced their number, by
caufing all the powers invefted in the national affem¬
bly by the decrees that had eftabliftied the revolu¬
tionary government, to be transferred to a committee,
to which he got himfelf appointed, and where he was
fure of the foie rule, by obtaining for colleagues men
lefs daring than himfelf, though equally wicked $ fuch
as Couthon, St Juft, Barrere, and others like them.
This committee, who had the affurance to ftyle them-
felves the Committee of Public Safety, very foon feized
upon both the legiflative and executive powers, and ex-
ercifed them with the moft; fanguinary tyranny ever
yet heard of. - The minifters were merely their clerks 5
and the fubjugated affembly, without murmur or objec¬
tion, paffed all the revolutionary laws which were pro-
pofed, or rather diftated, by them. One of their moft:
horrible and deciftve conceptions was that of thofe re¬
volutionary tribunals which covered France with fcaf-
folds, where thoulands of victims of every rank, age,
and fex, were daily facrificed ; fo that no clafs of men
could be free from that ftupifying and general terror
which Robefpierre found it neceffary to fpread, in order
to eftablifh and make his powrer known. He foon him¬
felf dragged fome members of his own party, fuch as
Danton, Camille des Moulins, and others, whofe energy
and popularity had offended him, before one of thofe
tribunals, where he had them condemned to death. By
the fame means he got rid of the chief leaders among
the Briffotines and Girondifts; while he caufed all the
moderate republican party, who were ftill members of
the affembly, except thofe who had time and addrefs
to efcape, to be fent to prifon, in order to be fentenced
and executed on the firft occafion,
“ in
FRA [ 205 ] FRA
Trance. « In tills manner ended the third revolution, in which
the people, frosen with terror, did not dare to take a
Th/f uirth Part- Inftead of an army of foldiers, Robeipierre em-
’icvolution ployed an army of ■executioners and affaiTins, fet up as
produses revolutionary judges •, and the guillotine, itriking or
menacing all heads indifcriminately, made France, from
one end to the other, fubmit to him, by the means of
terror or of death. Thus -was this nation, formerly fo
proud, even to idolatry, of its kings, feen to expiate,
by rivers of blood, the crime of having fuffered his to
be fpilt who was the moll virtuous of all their mo-
narchs.
“ In the room of that famous Baftile, whofe cele¬
brated capture and demolition had fet only feven pri-
foners at liberty, two of whom had long been in a ifate
of lunacy, the colleges, the feminaries, and all the reli¬
gious houfes of the kingdom, were converted into fo
many ftate prifons, into which were inceffantly crowd¬
ed, from time to time, the viflims devoted to feed the
ever-working guillotines, which were never fuffered to
Hand ftill for a day, becaufe they were at once the chief
refource of fupplies for the government, and the inftru-
ment of its ferocity. * The guillotine coins money for
the republic,’ was faid in the tribune by one of Robe-
® JBarrere. fpierre’s vileft agents *. In faft, according to the ju-
rifprudence of the revolutionary tribunals, the rich of
every clafs, being declared fufpefled perfons, received
fentence of death, for no other reafon than that of gi¬
ving the confifcation of their property a fhow of judi¬
cial form.
u Still blood flowed too flowly to fatisfy Robefpierre j
his aim was but partly attained by the profcription of
the nobles, the priefts, and the wealthy. He fancied,
not only an ariftocracy of talents and knowledge, but
of the virtues, none of which would his trufty orators
and journalifts admit, fave that horrid patriot 'ifm which
was elfimated according to the enormity of the crimes
committed in favour of the revolution. His plan was
to reduce the French people to a mere plantation of
flaves, too ignorant, too ftupid, or too pulillanimous,
to conceive the idea of breaking the chains with which
he would have loaded them in the name of liberty 5 and
he might have fucceeded in it, had not his ambition, as
impatient as it was jealous, too foon unveiled the inten¬
tion of reforting to the guillotine to ftrike off the
• fhackles with which an affembly of reprefentatives of
the nation fettered, or might fetter, his power. He
was about to give this decilive blow, which he had con¬
certed with the commune of Paris, the revolutionary
tribunal, the club of Jacobins, and the principal offi¬
cers of the national guard, when the members of the
convention, who were marked out to be the firft facri-
fices, anticipated him at a moment when he leaft ex-
petted it, by attacking himfelf in the affembly, with
energy fufficient to roufe all the fettions of the capital
againft him and againft the Jacobins. The parties came
to blows, and vittory remained uncertain for feveral
Fours } but at length declared againft Robefpierre. In
the fpace of a day, that execrable monfter was dragged
from the higheft pitch of power ever attained by any
tyrant, to the very fcaffold that was ftill reeking with’
the blood of his laft vittims. His principal accomplices
in the committee of public fafety, in the commune,
in the national guard, in the revolutionary tribunal,
Sind, many of his agents in the provinces, met -the fame
fate. The revolutionary tribunals were fupprefTed, and France,
the prifons thrown open to all whom they had caft into '
them. . ... . 564
“ This fourth revolution, in which the fattion then the confti.
efteemed the moderate party overthrew the terroriftsj tution of
and feized the fupreme power, was no lefs complete
than thofe which had preceded it, and produced the
conftitution of 1795. All France received as a great
bleffing a conftitution that delivered them from the re~-
volutionary government and its infernal policy. Belides
it had, in fpite of great defetts, the merit of coming
nearer -than the two preceding ones, to the principles of’
order, of juftice, and real liberty; the violation of which
had, for five years before, been the fource of fo many dif-
afters and fo many crimes. The royalifts, confidering
it as a ftep towards monarchy, were unfortunately fo
imprudent as to triumph in it; and their joy, as pre¬
mature as indifcreet, alarmed the affembly to fuch a
degree, that they pafled the famous law, ordaining the
primary afiemblies to return two-thirds of the mem¬
bers of the convention to the legiflative body, which
was to fucceed that affembly. It was thus that the
fpirit of the convention continued, for the firft year, tov
be difplayed in the two councils.
In the year following, the bias of the public mind,
perhaps too haftily turned towards royalty, (hewed it-
feif in the elettions of the members for the new third,
fo clearly as to alarm the regicides who compofed the
direttory, and the conventionalifts, who ftill made a*
third of the legiflative body ; nor did they lofe a mo--
ment in devifing means for their defence. That which
appealed the fureft to them was, to publifh notices of'
plots among the royalifts, and annex one or more de¬
nunciations, in terms fo vague as to leave room for im¬
plicating, when neceffary, all their adverfaries ; while
by the help of this impofture they procured fome fecret
information, artfully fabricated, and ever eafily obtain
ed through threats or rewards by thofe who have at
command the guillotine and the public treafure.
“ This mafked battery was ready to be opened be ¬
fore the members of the new third took their feats.
Thefe at firft confined themfelves to the fecuring of a
conftant majority in the two councils in favour of the
moderate opinions; but in a little time every fitting was
marked by the repeal offbme revokttiorvary law, or by
fome decree tending to reftrain the executive authority
within the limits fixed by the conftitution.
w The direttory, alarmed atthe abridgement of their The fifth
power, and dreading ftill more ferious attacks upon it, revolution,
came to a refolution of no longer poftponing the blow
they had been meditating againft the legiflative afl'em-
by : and they accompliffied, in the manner already re¬
lated, a fifth revolution, as complete as any of thofe
by which it was preceded. It differed indeed from
them effentlally in the facility and promptnefs with
which it was effettod, although the party which pre¬
vailed, that is to fay, the majority of the direttory, and
the minority of the legiflative body, had to combat
not only againft the. conftitution, but againft the opi¬
nion, and even againft the indignation -of the public.
That moral force^ on which the majority of the two
councils had unluckily placed all their reliance, vanifli-
ed in an inftant before the phyftcal force of a detach¬
ment of troops confifting of fix or feven hundred"men ;
fo true is it that the power of the public opinion, rfo
dipufouilyy
France.
566
The fixth
revolution,
and confu-
lar govern¬
ment.
FRA l
diculoufly exaggerated in thefe days, is and can be^ no
more, under a firm and well ordered government, than
a mere fancy. Men accuftom themfelves too eaiily to
take for public opinion the private opinions made public
by certain writers, whofe caution or audaciopfnefs de¬
pends always upon the energy or feeblenefs of the fu-
preme authority. It is the fame thing with popular
commotions: they are eafily excited under a weak go¬
vernment, which does not poflefs the wifdom to prevent
or the fpirit to fupprefs them ; but a vigorous, jult, and
Uriel government has nothing to fear from them. I he
directory, compelled to withdraw the larger body of
troops, which they had thought neceffary to enfure the
revolution they were meditating, difeovered, no doubt,
great ability in fecuring tbe two councils, by appearing
to dread them : but it was chiefly to the energy of
their meafures, and to the concentration and prompt-
nefs with which they were executed, that they owed
their fuccefs. Two days before, tbe legiilative body
might, without obflruflion, have impeached, arrefted,
and even outlawed, the majority of the directory, who
were execrated by the public under the title of trium¬
virate ; and, if requifite, they would have been fupport-
ed by more than 30,000 armed citizens, who, with
Pichegru and Villot at their head, would foon have
difperfed, and perhaps brought over, the feeble detach¬
ments of troops of the line which the dire&ory had at
their command. The legiflative body, relying too much
upon its popularity, did not fufficiently confider, that
the people, whofe impetuofity is commonly decifive
•when allowed to take advantage in attack, are always
feeble on the defenfive, and totally unable to with hand
every affault made previous to an infurreflion, for it is
always eafy to prevent their affembling. It was on
this principle that the direftory founded their opera¬
tions, and the 5th of September too well proves how
juftly. That day reduced the legillative body, by the
moft" degrading fubjugation, to a mere difgufting cari¬
cature of national reprefentation *, it invefted the direc¬
tory with the moft arbitrary and tyrannic power, and
reftored the fyftem of Robefpierre, under a form lefs
bloody, but not lefs pernicious ; for the revolutionary
tribunals which that monfter had eftablilhed, were
i'carcely more expeditious than the military ones of the
direftory. The power of arbitrary and unlimited
tranfportaticn is, in time, as deftrudlive as the guillo¬
tine, without poffefling, like that, the advantage of ex¬
citing a falutary horror, which, by recovering the peo¬
ple from the ftate of ftupor and apathy, the conftant
effects of terror, gives them both recolleftion and force
to break their chains. Though, in violating the moft
effential regulations of the conftitution, the directory
obtained a temporary confirmation of their power, their
example pointed out to Bonaparte and Sieyes the path
which they purfued with infinite addrefs, and in which
they accomplifhed a fixth revolution.”
The changes which fucceeded, from the confular to
the imperial and defpotic government of France, are
frefh in the mind of every reader, fo that the account
of them need not be repeated.
France.
567 r
Climate or
France.
S6*
206 ] F R A
bly adapted to the'cultivation of the vine, without which
many parts of it would perhaps continue in a ftate of
nature. The country prefents to the eye a level ap¬
pearance in general, but feveral mountains are met with
in the fouthern parts of it, fuch, for example, as Au¬
vergne, Languedoc, Dauphine, and Provence. Some
reckon the Limoufin the moft beautiful province in
France, although many parts of it befides this exhibit
a charming diverfity of hills and valleys, and fome of
the rivers, but the Seine in particular, often afiume a
piclurefque appearance. It cannot be faid that agri¬
culture has attained to the perfection which it has done
in Britain ; yet in different provinces the cultivation of
the ground leems to keep pace with its fertility, and
the hufbandmen of others difplay a degree of induflry
which is deferving of commendation. As a ftriking
proof of this, many mountains of the Cevennes, only
remarkable for their fterility, have been rendered ex¬
tremely fertile by the indefatigable exertions of induftry.
The moft remarkable rivers of France are commonly Rivers,
reckoned four in number, the Seine, Loire, Rhone,
and the Garonne, although there are many others of in¬
ferior note. The Seine is univerfally allowed to be a
beautifol river, which takes its rife in the department of
Cote d’Or, and after, traverfing a country of about 250
miles in extent, falls into the Englifti channel at
Havre de Grace. The fource of the Loire is in Mont
Gerbier, in what was formerly called Languedoc, and
after running about 500 miles, empties itfelf into the
fea beyond Nantes. The Rhone rifes from the Glacier
of Furea, and the Garonne in the vale of Arau in the
Pyrenees. The inferior rivers are the Saofte, Dordogne,
and a number of leffer ftreams which form a junftion
with the Loire. 569
There are numerous mountains in France, but there Mountain,
are none which are of a great height. It is per¬
haps difputable whether wTe ftiould conftder Mont
Blanc among the number, but if we do fo, no other
mountain in the vaft chain of the Alps can exceed it in
height. Thofe of Brittany confift chiefly if not wholly
of granite, but there is nothing remarkable in their ele¬
vation. France is divided from Switzerland by Mont
Jura j but the principal chain of mountains is that de¬
nominated Cevennes, running from north to fouth, and
fending out ramifications from eaft to weft. Some na-
turalifts are of opinion, that certain volcanic appear-
ances may be traced among the mountains in the de¬
partments of Cantal and the Upper Loire } but the
bafaltic columns of which they chiefly confift, either do
not favour this conjefture, or leave the truth of it ex¬
tremely problematical. The loftieft mountains in France
are thofe called Monts D’Or, wfoich conftitute the
centre, of which Puy de Sanfi forms the chief elevation,
its height being computed at 6300 feet above the level
of the fea. This mountain is covered with perpetual
In a country fo extenfive as that of France, it is not
to be expe&ed that the climate fhould be invariably the
fame ; but it is certainly clearer and more falubrious
upon the whole than that of Britain ; and it is admira-
3
fnow, from the iides of which iffues the river Dor-
dogne.
Pyrenees liave been known cind ceieorated in
hiftory fince the time of Herodotus, and may with equal
propriety be confidered as belonging either to Fiance
or Spain ; although they have been more ably and mi¬
nutely deferibed by the learned of the former country.
Shells and flceletons of animals have been found among
the Pyrenees, which may afford matter for ample diL
cuflion to the admirers of nature’s produflions. Marine
productions
FRA
t 207 ]
FRA
France, productions have been difcovered on the top of Mont
Perdu, which it is extremely difficult to afcend, becaufe,
in many places, it is almoit perpendicular for nearly 600
feet j and near the fummit there is a lake about 9000
feet above the level of the fea.
There are many forefts in France, and of confider-
able extent, to the growth of which it becomes of im¬
portance to attend, as the chief fuel which the inhabi¬
tants can command is wood. The largeft forelts are
thofe of Orleans and Ardennes, but our limits forbid
us to give an enumeration of the reft, which could an-
fwer no important purpofe.
Of the botanical ftate of this country nothing can
be advanced with certainty 5 for although its produc¬
tions of this nature may be faid to have been examined
around Paris, Lyons, and Montpelier, with conlider-
able accuracy, yet much is ftill wanting to furnifti any
thing like a complete hiftory of its vegetables. We
have no certain accounts of what are purely indigenous or
what are exotic, although the former muft be more
abundant in France than in any other European coun-
try*
The horfes of this country are certainly inferior to
thofe of Britain} and in former times its monarchs
570
Plants.
S7i
Animals.
were drawn by oxen to the national aflemblies. Their France,
cattle are of a beautiful cream colour, but their flieep v—--3
are much inferior to the Englilh, owing perhaps to
their wretchedly ill management, their meat being ftraw
during the winter feafon infteadof green food. France
in fome places is infefted by the wild boar and the wolf,
while the ibex and chamois inhabit the Pyrenees and
the Alps. 572
At one period there were gold mines in the fouthem Minerals,
parts of France, and particles of that precious metal are
ftill to be found in fome of the rivulets. There are
mines of filver in Alface, and mines of copper in the
departments of the Alps. The duchy of Deux Ponts
contains mines of mercury; antimony is found in Ar-
deche; and abundance of iron, the moft extenftvely ufe-
ful of all the metals, is met with in the northern de¬
partments, for the working of which there were com¬
puted to be 2000 furnaces employed in the year 1798. 573
The population of France has been varioufly eftimat-Populatipn.
ed by different writers; but we hope our readers will
find a pretty accurate account of it by infpe&ing the
following table, which exhibits the number contained
in each department, according to the republican divifion
of it fince the revolution.
Ancient Provinces.
Flandre Fran^oife.
Artois. . .
Picardie.
Normandie.
Me de France.
Champagne.
Lorraine.
Alface.
Bretagne.
Maine and Perche.
Anjou.
Touraine.
Orleannois.
Berri. . .
Departments.
Population.
Chief Towns.
Nord.
Pas-de-Calais.
Somme.
Seine Inferieure.
Calvados.
Manche.
Orne.
Eure.
Seine.
Seine and Oife.
Oife.
Aifne.
Seine and Marne.
Marne.
Ardennes.
Aube.
Haute Mame.
Meufe.
Mofelle.
Meurthe.
Vofges.
Haut-Rhin.
Bas-Rhin.
Me and Vilaine.
Cotes-du Nord.
Finifterre.
Morbihan.
Loire Inferieure.
Sarthe.
Mayenne.
Mayenne and Loire.
Indre and Loire.
Loiret.
Eure and Loire.
Loire and Cher.
Indre.
Cher.
578,435
53 2>74I
466,998
640,890
484,212
317,120
407,475
257,986
738,522
437>6o4
355,634
408,174
291,159
29^484
253,902
228,814
222,585
257,237
379,ooi
336,895
1i5,546
330»4°8
448,483
511,840
530,441
220,108
4I5»I94
451 »336
381,241
324,730
442,482
264,935
290,031
210,179
307,084
216,882
V9A59
Douai.
Arras.
Amiens.
Rouen.
Caen.
Coutances.
Alen^on.
Evreux.
Paris.
Verfailles.
Beauvais.
Laon.
Melun.
Chalons-fur Marne.
Mezieres.
Troyes.
Chammont.
Bar-fur-Ornain.
Metz.
Nancy.
Epinal.
Colmar.
Strafbourg.
Rennes.
St Brieux.
Quimper.
Vannes.
Nantes.
Le Mans.
Laval.
Angers.
Tours.
Orleans.
Chartres.
Blois.
Chateauroux.
Bourges.
Nivernois.'
FRA
Trance.
Ancient Provinces.
Nivernois.
Bourgogne.
Franche-Compte.
Poitou. .
Marche. . .
Limolin.
Bourbonnois.
Saintonge and Aunis.
Angoumois and part of Saintonge.
Auvergne. «
Lyonnois, Foret and Beaujolois.
Dauphine. ^
Guyenne, comprehending
Gafcogne.
Bearn.
Comte-de-Foix.
Rouflillon.
Languedoc.
Provence.
Corfica.
[ 208 ]
Departments.
Nievre.
Yonne.
Cote d’Or.
Saone and Loire.
Ain.
Haute-Saone.
Doubs.
Jura.
Vendee.
Deux-Sevres.
Vienne.
Haute-Vienne, comprifmg part of
Limofin.
Greuze.
Correze, comprifing part of Up¬
per Vienne.
Allier.
Charente-Inferieure.
Charente.
Puy-de-dome.
Cantal.
Rhone.
Loire.
Ifere.
Hautes-Alpes.
Drome.
Dordogne.
Gironde.
Lot and Garonne.
Lot.
Aveyron.
Gers.
Landes.
Hautes-Pyrenees.
Baffes-Pyrenees.
Arriege.
Pyrenses-Orientales.
Haute-Garonne.
Audei
Tam.
Garde.
Lozere.
Ardeche.
Haute-Loire.
Heraut.
Bouches-du Rhone.
Bafl’es-Alpes.
Var.
Golo.
Liamone.
F R
Population.
238,812
127,510
339>86°
44°>773
288,700
284,073
216,878
284,460
291>433
256,057
129,006
225,373
254,502
266.105
420,896
319,4 27
505,332
243,708
305,454
322,965
430.106
116,754
232,6x9
44i,38°
557,5B5
404,936
387,019
332,090
288,555
3x1,267
180,093
368,731
194,838
106,171
310,672
219,101
271,402
309,802
132,502
273,255
259,M3
273,452
323,M7
144,436
262,926
M7,874
210,710
A
Chief Towns.
Nevers.
Auxerre.
Dijon.
Ma^on.
Bourg.
Vefoul.
Befan^on.
Lons-le-Saunier.
Fontenay-le-Peuple.
Niort.
Poitiers.
Limoge.
Gueret.
Tulle.
Moulins.
Saintes.
Angouleme.
Clermont.
St Flour.
Lyons.
Montbrifon.
Grenoble.
Gap.
Valence.
Perigueux.
Bourdeaux.
Agen.
Cahors.
Rhodez.
Auch.
Mont-de-Marfan.
Tarbe.
Pau.
Tarafcon.
Perpignan.
Touloufe.
Carcaflbnne.
Caftres.
Nifmes.
Mende.
Privas.
Le Puy.
Montpellier.
Aix.
Digne.
Toulon.
Baftia,
Ajaccio.
France.
574
■Religion,
5tc.
The eftablifhed religion is that of the church of
Rome, but entirely independent of the Holy fee *, and
the revenues of the clergy are not fo extenfive as to
render them formidable to the prefervation of the ftate.
Of its political conftitution, as that is an ignis fatuus
which eludes all defcription, little need be faid. The
government at prefent is a military defpotifm, and Bo¬
naparte, once firft conful, now emperor, owes his very
jxillence, either as a man or a monarch, to the attach-
4
ment of the foldiery. Let him lofe that, and he is ine¬
vitably undone.
Since the revolution, it is perhaps impoflible to give
a juft account of the ftrength of the French army, for
both themfelves and their enemies made it, we believe,
more numerous than it really was, although both parties
muft have been actuated by very different motives.
The numerous defeats which the allies experienced,
rendered it necefl'ary to fpeak of their antagonifts as a
never-
Plate CC XXL\ .
i
wit
'//./, // (t^nn. //„/\ Av,//,/r>- /A„/.
FRA [ 209 ] FRA
France, never-to-be-clirninxfhed fwarm of men, and the French
v 1 no doubt gave exaggerated reports of their own aftual
ftrength, in order to intimidate the allies. In the time
of the old government, the army amounted to 170,000
infantry, 44,000 cavalry, and 11,000 artillery j and
perhaps at no period of the revolution did it ever exceed
600,000 men, although it has been often magnified to
the prodigious total of a million.
576 The naval force of France was once formidable even
Navy. t0 Britain j but the decided fuperiority in this refpeft
has been invariably poffeffed by the latter country ever
fince the battle of La Hogue. The combined naval
flrength of France and Spain could not refill the impe-
tuofity of a Britilh fleet off Trafalgar, under the com¬
mand of the ever memorable Lord Nelfon.
577 The revenue of France, during the exillence of the
evenue. t)|(j g0vemment, has been eilimated at thirty millions
fterling, but the clear produce could not exceed eighteen
millions, after the deduftion of all expences. Under
the prefent ufurpation, however, it is impoflible to
make any ellimate of its amount, as it is often aug¬
mented in an unknown and fludluating ratio by plunder
and rapine.
Learning. . reipe& to literature, France certainly holds a
diflinguiHied place among the nations of Europe j and
if the palm has been adjudged to Italy and Britain by
fome authors, in point of bold invention and profound
philofophical fpeculations, French authors are to be
met with in great abundance who have done honour to
human nature by their polite learning, and elegant as
well as ufeful fcience. Altogether independent of a
Corneille, a Racine, a Crebillon, a Moliere, or a Vol¬
taire, this country has, at a more modem period, pro¬
duced many diltinguiftied writers in literature and
philofophy, whofe produdlions will continue to be
read and admired, fo long as men retain a fenfe of the
value and importance of the fciences they refpedlively il-
luftrate.
At one period there were no fewer than 21 univerfi-
ties in France, of which the Sorbonne at Paris was
reputed the raoft celebrated, the fame of which drew
numbers of ftudents from diftant countries. There were
about 39 academies and literary focieties, which pro¬
duced many elegant and valuable diflertations on the
different fciences, which have been long known to, and
juftly efteemed by, the learned world.
579 I he cities of France are very numerous, and many
Cities, &.c. of them make a molt confpicuous figure. Paris, which
is ftill the metropolis, has been fometimes reckoned a
third fmaller than London, and its population dated at
600,000 fouls. It has often been confidered as fuperior
to London in point of magnificence, but it is undoubted¬
ly inferior, both in regard to convenience and cleanli-
nefs, the ftreets in general having very poor accommo¬
dations for paffengers on foot 5—a defied for which no
elegance or magnificence can fully compenfate. The
next to Paris in importance, is the city of Lyons, the
population of which is computed at 100,000 ; but the
defolation which it fuffered during the tremendous reign
of Jacobin fury it will perhaps never recover, as the
abolition of monarchy w7as the innocent caufe of the
ruin of its trade, which confifted chiefly in the ma-
nufadure of fuch fplendid articles as were confumed by
rihe court.
Next to Lyons we may mention Marfeilles and Bour-
Vol. IX. Part I.
deaux, each of which are computed to contain about Fnu;c
80,000 people j and the port of the former city is per- -"•—v—
haps the beft, as well as the mofi: frequented, of any in
the Mediterranean. Lifle and Valenciennes are both
ftrongly fortified cities, the former of which has a popu¬
lation of about 60,000. It furrendered to the com¬
bined powers in the year 1793, but the French re-took
it in the following year. The remaining cities, of
which w7e can only give a bare enumeration, are
Amiens, Rouen, Breft, Nantes, Orleans, Nancy, Metz,
Strafbourg, Touloufe, Montpelier, &c. noire of them
having a population under 30,000 fouls, many of them
carrying on an extenfive trade, and all of them abound¬
ing with elegant buildings.
There are feveral public edifices in France, which
command the admiration of every beholder, fuch as the
palace of Verfailles, the beautiful and magnificent
bridge of Neuille, and the ancient cathedrals and
caftles, of wLich there are prodigious numbers. The
bridge of Neuille indeed has been reckoned fuperior to
any in Europe. ^
Many exertions have been made at different periods, Canals,
to improve the inland navigation of France. The great
Henry IV. began the celebrated canal of Burgundy,
which was finilhed by Louis XIII. and by which a com-'
munication is opened between the rivers Loire and Seine.
It confifts of 42 locks, and is of Angular importance to
the commerce of the weftern provinces. The canal of
Picardy reaches from the river Somme to the Oife, taking
its rife from St Quin tin, and affording an intercourfe
to the provinces lying on the north-eaft. But the
greatefl: and mod expenfive work of this nature in
France, ■which was begun and finifiied by Louis XIV.
is the canal of Languedoc, which was completed in 15
years. It is 144 feet broad, fix feet deep, and about
180 miles long, and it coil upwards of half a million
fterling.
The total amount of the exports of France in the Trade,
year 1784, exclufive of the provinces of Lorraine and
Alface, and the trade with the Weft; Indies which has
been fince carried on, was 307,151,700 livres, and her
imports 271,365,000, leaving a balance of 35,786,700
livres, which amount to 1,565,668!. fterling. Britilh
commerce has been on the increafe ever fince the com¬
mencement of the revolution, while it may be juftly
faid that the trade of France has been proportional¬
ly on the decline, although we cannot affert with
a certain geographer, that it has been “ almoft an¬
nihilated.”
, °f France, a late province of France, but now
divided into five departments, and fo called, becaufe it
was formerly bounded by the rivers Seine, Marne, Oife,
Aifne, and Ourque. It comprehends befides Paris, the
Beauvoifis, the Valois, the county of Senlis, the Vexin,
the Hurepois, the Gatinois, the Multien, the Goele,*
and the Mantois. Paris is the capital.
FRANCFORF on the Maine, an imperial and han-
featic town of Franconia in Germany, where the em¬
perors were formerly eledled. It is a handfome, ftrong,
and rich place, and has a great deal of commerce.
Here the golden bull is preferved, which is the origi¬
nal of the fundamental laws of the empire. It is feated
in a fine fertile plain j and well fortified with a double
ditch, baftions, redoubts, and ravelins. The ftreets
are remarkably wide, and the houles haudfomely built.
Hd It
F ft A [21
Francfort It lias great conveniency for carrying on an extenlive
!' . trade with the other parts of Germany, by means Oi
Franch.fe. the navjga^e river which runs throughout it. It was
^ taken in Oaober 1792, by the French, who were dif-
poffcffed of it by the PnkTxans in December following 5
it was again taken by the French in July 1796, but they
evacuated it to the Auftriansin September following. The
fuburb is called Saxon-haitfen, and joined to the town
by a (tone bridge built over the Maine. E. Long. 8. 40.
N. Lat. 49. 55.
FrancfoUt on the Oder, a rich and handfome town
of Germany, in the middle marche of Brandenburgh,
formerly imperial, but now fubject to the king of
PrufTia. It is remarkable for three great fairs, and a
celebrated univerfity. It lies about 45 miles fouth eaft
of Berlin, and 72 fouth of Stetin. E. Long. 14. 39.
N. Lat. 52. 23.
FRANCKE-compte, a late province oi France,
bounded on the fouth and weft by Champagne and Bur-
gundy 5 on the north by Lorram ^ and to the eaft by
the earldom of Mumplegard, and Switzerland. It is in
length from north to fouth about 30 leagues; in breadth
about 20. It is partly flat and partly hilly, i he
flat country is fruitful in grain, wine, hemp, and paf-
ture } and the hilly country abounds in cattle, produ¬
cing alfo fome wine and corn, copper, lead, iron, and
filver ores, mineral waters, and quarries of (tone, marble,
and alabafter. It now forms the three departments of
Doubs, Jura, and Upper Saone.
FRANCHISE, in Law. Franchife m&Jibertij are
ufed as fynonymous terms} and their definition is, “ a
royal privilege, or branch of the king’s prerogative,
fubfifting in the hands of a fubjea.” _ Being therefore
derived from the crown, they muft arife from the king’s
grant ; or in fome cafes, may be held by prefcription,
which, as has been frequently faid, prefuppofes a grant.
The kinds of them are various, and almoft infinite.
We {hall here briefly touch upon fome of the principal*,
premifing only, that they may be veiled in either natural
perfons or bodies politic; in one man, or in many : but
the fame identical franchife, that has before been grant¬
ed to one, cannot be bellowed on another, for that would
prejudice the former grant.
To be a county palatine, is a franchife veiled in a
number of perfons. It is likewife a franchife for a
number of perfons to be incorporated and fubfift as a
body politic ; with a power to maintain perpetual fuc-
ceflion, and do other corporate adls: and each indivi¬
dual member of fuch corporation is alfo faxd to have a
franchife or freedom. Other franchifes are, to hold a
court leet; to have a manor or lordlhip} or, at leaft,
to have a lordlhip paramount : to have waifs, wrecks,
eftrays, treafure-trove, royal filh, forfeitures, and deo-
dands : to have a court of one’s own, or liberty of
holding pleas and trying caufes: to have the cogni¬
zance of pleas j which is a Hill greater liberty, being
an exclufive right, fo that no other court lhall try cau¬
fes arifing within that jurifdidlion : to have a bailiwick,
or liberty exempt from the Iheriff of the county >
wherein the grantee only, and his officers, are to exe¬
cute all procefs : to have a fair or market ; with the
right of taking toll, either there or at any other pub¬
lic places, as at bridges, wharfs, or the like *, which
tolls muft have a reafonable caufe of commence¬
ment (as in confideration of repairs, or the like), elfe
o ]. FRA
the franchife is illegal and void: or laftly, to have a Franchifa
foreft, chafe, park, warren, or filhery, endowed with FrarK!|fcans
privileges of royalty. See Chase, Forest, &c. _—y——>
Franchise is alfo ufed for an afylum or fanduary,
where people are fecure of their perfons, &c. Churches
and monafteries in Spain are franchifes for criminals *,
lo wrere they anciently in England, till they were abufed
to fuch a degree that there was a neceflity for abolilh-
ing the cultom. One of the moil remarkable capitula-
lars made by Charlemagne in his palace of Henftal,
in 779, was that relating to the franchifes of churches.
The righl» of franchife wTas held lo facred, that even
the lefs religious kings obferved it to a degree of fcru-
puloufnefs : but to fuch excefs in time wras it carried,
that Charlemagne refolved to reduce it. Accordingly
he forbade any provifion being carried to criminals re¬
tired into churches for refuge.
Franchise of Quarters, is a certain fpace or diftrid
at Rome, wherein are the houfes of the ambaffadors
of the princes of Europe ; and where fuch as retire
cannot be arrefted or feized by the ffiirri or ferjeants,
nor profecuted at law. The people of Rome look
on this as an old ufurpation and a fcandalous privilege,
which ambafladors, out of a jealouly of their power,
carried to a great length in the 15th century, by en¬
larging infenlibly the dependencies of their palaces or
houfes, within wffiich the right of franchife was an¬
ciently confined. Several of the popes, Julius IIL
Pius XIV. Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V. publilhed
bulls and ordinances againft this abufe ; which had
refcued fo confiderable a part of the city from their
authority, and rendered it a retreat for the moll aban¬
doned perfons. At length Innocent XL exprefsly re-
fufed to receive any more ambaffadors but fuch as
would make a formal renunciation of the franchife of
quarters.
FRANCIS I. king of France, the rival of the em*
peror Charles V. and the reftorer of learning and polite-
nefs in France. See (Hi/lory of) France.
Francis, Philip, a very ingenious writer, of Inlh
extradlion, if not born in that kingdom. _ His father
was a dignified clergyman in Ireland, being dean of
fome cathedral; and our author, his fon, tvas alfo
bred to the church, and had a dodlor’s degree confer¬
red on him. He was more diftinguilhed as a tranfla-
tor than as an original wrriter. His verfions of Horace
and Demofthenes have been juftly valued : the former
is accompanied with notes, and is perhaps as complete
and ufeful a work of its kind as hath yet appeared.
He was alfo a confiderable political writer and in the
beginning of the prefent reign is fuppofed to have
been employed by the government : for which fer-
vice he was promoted to the redlory of Barrow in
Suffolk, and to the chaplainlhip of Chelfea hofpital.
He was alfo the author of two tragedies, Eugenia
and Conllantia 5 but, as a dramatic writer, not very
fuccefsful. He died at Bath in March 1773 j leaving
a fon, who was then one of the fupreme council at
Bengal.
FRANCISCANS, in Eccleftajhcal Hi/lory, are re¬
ligious of the order of St Francis, founded by him in
the year 1209. Francis was the fon of a merchant of
Affifi, in the province of Umbria, wffio, having led a
diffolute life, was reclaimed by a fit of ficknefs, and
afterwards fell into an extravagant kind of devotion,
that
FRA [2
Francifcans.tliat looked lefs like religion than alienation of mind,
v Soon after this, viz. in the year 1208, hearing the
paffage repeated, Matt. x. 9. xo. in which Chrilt ad.
dreffes his apoitles, Provide neither gold, nor Jilver, &c.
he was led to coniider a voluntary and abfolute poverty
as the eflence of the gofpel, and to prefcribe this po¬
verty as a facred rule both to himfelf and to the few
that followed him. This new fociety, which appeared
to Innocent III. extremely adapted to the prefent date
of the church, and proper to rellore its declining credit,
was folemnly approved and confirmed by Honorius III.
in 1223, and had made confiderable progrefs before
the death of its founder in 1226. Francis, through an
excefiive humility, would not fuffer the monks of his
order to be called fratres, i. e. brethren or friars, but
Jratercuh, i. e. little brethren, or friars-minor, by which
denomination they dill continue to be diftinguifhed.
They are alfo called gray friars, on account of the
colour of their clothing, and cordeliers, &c. The
1 rancifcans and Dominicans were zealous and atfiive
friends to the papal hierarchy, and, in return, were
diilinguilhed by peculiar privileges and honourable
employments. The Francifcans, in particular, were
invefted with the treafure of ample and extenfive m-
dulgences j the diilribution of which was committed
to them by the popes, as a means of fubfiftence, and
a rich indemnification for their voluntary poverty.
In confequence of this grant, the rule of the founder,
which abfolutely prohibited both perfonal and collec¬
tive property, fo that neither the individual nor the
community were to poffefs either fund, revenue, or any
worldly goods, was confidered as too ftrick and fevere,
and difpenfed with foon after his death. In 1231,
Gregory IX. publilhed an interpretation of this rule,
mitigating its rigour; which was farther confirmed by
Innocent IV. in 1245, and by Alexander IV. in 1247.
Thefe milder operations were zealouily opnofe by a
branch of the Francilcans called the fpirituaf and their
complaints were regarded by Nicholas III. who, in
1279> pubhihed a famous conlfitution, confirming the
rule of St Francis, and containing an elaborate expli¬
cation of the maxims it recommended, and the duties
it prefcribed. In 1287, Matthew of Aqua Sparta,
being eleaed general of the order, difcouraged the
ancient difcipline of the Francifcans, and indulged his
monks in abandoning even the appearance of poverty 5
and this conduct inflamed the indignation of the fpiri-
tual or auiterer Francifcans j fo that from the vear 1290
feditions and fchifms arofe in an order that had been fo
famous for its pretended difintereftednefs and humility.
Such was the enthufiartic frenzy of the Francifcans
that they impioufly maintained, that the founder of
their order xvas a fecond Chrift, in all refpe&s nmilar
to the firftj and that their inftitution and difcipline
were the true gofpel of Jefus. Accordingly, Albizi,
a Francifcan of Pifa, publilhed a book in 1383, with
the applaufe of his order, entitled, The book of the
Conformities of St Francis with Jefus Chrift. In the
beginning of this century, the whole Francifcan order
was divided into two parties; the one, embracing the
ievere difcipline and abfolute poverty of St Francis,
were called fpirituals; and the other, who infilled
on mitigating the auftere injunaions of their founder,
were denominated brethren of the community. Thefe’
wore long, loofe, and good habits, with large hoods j
!ii ] F R A
the former were clad in a ftrait* coarfe, and Ihort drefs, F
pretending that this drefs was enjoined by St Francis,
and that no power on earth had a right to alter it.
Neither the moderation of Clement V. nor the violence
of John XXII. could appeale the tumult occafioned
by thefe two parties; however, their rage fubfided
from the year 1329. In 1368 thefe two parties were
formed into two large bodies, comprehending the
whole Francifcan order, which fublift to this day ; viz.
the conventual brethren, and the brethren of the ob-
fervance or obfervation, from whom Iprung the ca¬
puchins and recolledls. The general opinion is, that
the Francifcans came into England in the year 1 224*
and had their firft houfe at Canterbury, and their fecond
at London 5 but there is no certain account of their
being here till King Henry VII. built two or three
houfes for them. At the diftblution of the monafteries,
the conventual Francifcans had about 55 houfes, winch
wrere under feven cuftodies or wardenftiips; viz. thofe
of London, York, Cambridge, Briltol, Oxford, New-
caftle, and Worcefter.
FRANCOIS, or Francais, Port Des, the name of
a bay or harbour difcovered by Peyroufe on the north-
weft coaft of America, is lituated in N. Lat. 58. 37.
and in Long. 139. 50. W. from Paris. This harbour
was from three to four leagues deep : he entered it with
his two frigates in July 1786, and came to an anchor
in an illand near the middle of it, in 20 fathoms w-ater,
with a muddy bottom. The bottom of the bay, he ob~
ferves, is one of the moft extraordinary places in the
world *, the water is fo deep that it could not be fa¬
thomed, and furrounded by peaked mountains of a great
height, covered with fnow, without vegetation, and
feemingly condemned by nature to perpetual fterility.
He never faw the furface of the water ruffled with the
fmalleft breath of air, or in the leaft difturbed but by
the falling of enormous pieces of ice, which continually
detach themfelves from five different glaciers. The air
was fo calm, and the filence fo profound, that the voice
of man might be heard at the diftance of half a league,
as well as the noife of fea-birds which hatch their eggs
in the cavities of the rocks.
ITe found the variation of the compafs to be 28° E.
and the dip of the needle 740. At full and change of
the moon, when it is high water at one o’clock, the fea
rofe feven feet and a half. The current of the channel
at the entrance of the harbour, during the fea breeze,
came in like a rapid river, fo that it muft be impraftica-
ble to take the channel when the winds blow violently
from the fouthward; and indeed the currents at all times
render the entrance difficult. This harbour poffeffes
many advantages, but is alfo fubjefl to feveral inconve¬
niences. It leems not to be convenient for (hips to
anchor, which are employed Ln trafficking in Ikins, be-
caufe fuch fflips ought to enter many bays, making in
each a ftiort ftay, fince the whole ftock of the Indians is
very foon difpofed ot j but it feems to be a very com¬
modious place for the eftablifnment of a fadlory, and
this commercial fettlement, it is fuggefted, fflould be
made on Cenotaph illand, a name given to an ifiand in
the middle of the harbour, from the monument eredled
on it to the memory of fome of the crew of Peyroufe’s
fhips, which were loft in the channel. This illand is
about a league in circumference, abounds with wood
and water, and feems capable of cultivation. The quan-
D d a tity
■Franconia
I!
Frank.
FRA [21
tity of otter fkms far exceeded any thing which Pey-
roufe had obferved in any other part of America,
The climate of this coaft, according to Peyroufe,
feemed much milder than that of Hudfon’s Bay. For
three ©r four months of the year vegetation was very
vigorous ; there was found abundance of celery,^ endive,
lupin, and yarrow, with moft of the plants which are
common in the meadows and mountains of France.
Goofeberries, rafpberries, and ftrawberries, were alfo
common in the woods j poplars, willows, hornbeam,
and pines, feme of which meafured fix feet m diameter,
and 140 feet high, fit for malts of the large!! fhips. The
river leemed to be filled with trout and falmon, and
different kinds of fifh were found in the bay itfelf. The
varietv of birds was not great 5 but bears, martens, and
fquirrels, were frequent in the woods. Ihe inhabitants
are faid to be coniiderably different from the Californi¬
ans, being taller, ftouter, of a more agreeable figure,
having greater vivacity of expreffion, and a greater fiiare
ofi courage and fenfe. Xheir colour is olive, and the
hair in general is neither lo coarfe nor black as that of
the South Americans. It is fuppofed that they are
worfhippers of the fun, for they wrere frequently ob¬
ferved ^ addrefling themfelves in their prayers to this
planet *, but neither temple nor priefi, nor trace of
public worlhip, was feen. It is faid that they burn theii
dead.
FRANCONIA, a circle of Germany, bounded on
the north by the circle of Upper Saxony, on the eait by
that of Bavaria, on the fouth by that of Swabia, and on
the weft by the circles of the Rhine, ft. he middle is
fertile in corn, wine, and fruits, but the borders are full
of woods and barren mountains.
This country was overrun by the French republicans
in the fummer of lypbj but in September the Auftrians
compelled them to retreat. Ihe Franks, wdio conquered
France, came from this province, and gave their name
to this kingdom.
FRANGULA. See Rhamnus, Botany Index.
FRANK language, Lingua Franca, a kind of
jargon fpoken on the Mediterranean, and particularly
throughout the coafts of and ports of the Levant, com-
pofed of Italian, Spanilh, French, vulgar Greek, and
other languages.
Frank, or Ft~anc, an ancient coin, either of gold
or filver, ftruck and current in France. The value
of the gold franc was fomething more than that of
the gold crown: this coin has been long out of ufe,
though the term is ftill retained as the name of a
money of account •, in which fenfe it is equivalent to
the livre, or 20 fols.
Frank, or Franc, meaning literally free from charges
and impofitions, or exempt from public taxes, has various
fignifications in the ancient Englilh cuftoms.
FRANK-Almoigne, {libera eleemofyna), or “ free
alms a tenure of a fpiritual nature, whereby a re¬
ligious corporation, aggregate or foie, holdetb lands
of the donor to them and their fucceflbrs for ever. The
fervice which they were bound to render for thefe
lands was not certainly defined : but only in general to
pray for the fouls of the donor and his heirs, dead or
alive; and therefore they did no fealty (which is in¬
cident to all other fervices but this), becaufe this divine
fervice was of a higher and more exalted nature. This
is the tenure by which almoft all the ancient monaf-
2 ] fra
teries and religious houfes held their lands j and by Frank.
which the parochial clergy, and very many ecclefiafti- '''L ""v
c al and eleemofynary foundations, hold them at this
day j the nature of the fervice being upon the Reforma¬
tion altered, and made conformable to the purer doc¬
trines of the church of England. It was an old Saxon
tenure j and continued under the Norman revolution,
through the great refpedt that was fhown to religion
and religious men in ancient times. I his. is alfb the
xeafon that tenants in frank almoigne were difcharged of
all other fervices except the trinoda necefitas, of repair¬
ing the highways, building caftles, and repelling inva-
fions) juft as the Druids, among the ancient Britons
had omnium rerum immumtatem. And even at prefent,
this is a tenure of a very different nature from all
others j being not in the leaft feodal, but merely .fpi¬
ritual. For, if the fervice be negletted, the law gives
no remedy by diftrefs, or otherwife, to the lord ot
whom the lands are holden} but merely a complaint to
the ordinary or vifitor to correct it.
FRANK-CJwfe is defined to be a liberty of free chafe,
whereby perfons that have lands within the compals of
the fame, are prohibited to cut down any wood, &c.
out of the view of the forefter.
FuANK-Fee, fignifies the fame thing as holding lands
and tenements in fee-fimple j that is to any perion and
his heirs, and not by fuch fervice as is required by
ancient demefne, but is pleaded at common law. See
Fee.
Frank-Low, a word applied to the free and com¬
mon law of the land, or the benefit a perfon has
by it.
He that for any offence lofeth this frank-law incurs
thefe inconveniences, viz. He may not be permitted
to ferve on juries, nor ufed as an evidence to. the
truth j and if he has any thing to do in the king’s
court, he mull not approach it in perfon, but appoint
his attorney •, his lands, goods, and chattels, {hall be
feized into the king’s hands j and his lands be eftrea-
ted, his trees rooted up, and his body committed to
cuftody.
pRANK-Marriage, in Law, is where tenements are
given by one man to another, together with a wife,
who is the daughter or coufin to the donor, to hold in
frank-marriage. By fuch gift, though nothing but
the word frank-marriage is expreffed, the donees {hall
have the tenements to them, and the heirs of their two
bodies begotten j that is, they are tenants in fpecial
tail. For this one word, frank-marriage, denotes, ex vi
termini, not only an inheritance, like the word frank-
almoigne, but likewife limits that inheritance 5. fupply-
ing, not only words of defcent, but of procreation alfo.
Such donees in frank-marriage are liable to no fervice
but fealty : for a rent referved therein is void until the
fourth degree of confanguinity be paft between the iffues
of the donor and donee.
Frank-?ledge, in I,aw, fignifies a pledge or furety for
the behaviour of freemen.
According to the ancient cuftom of England, for the
prefervation of the public peace, every freeborn man,,
at the age of fourteen, except religious perfons, clerks,
knights, and their eldeft fons, was obliged to give fe-
curity for his truth and behaviour towards the king and
his fubjefls, or elfe be imprifoned. Accordingly, a
certain number of neighbours became interchangeably
bound
FRA [21
Frank bound for each other, to fee each perfon of their pledge
II forthcoming at all times, or to anfwer for the offence
Frank ort. ^ any Qne gGne awfly . fQ that whenever any perfon
offended, it was prefently inquired in what pledge he
wns, and there the perfons bound either produced the
offender in 31 days, or made fatisfa&ion for his of¬
fence.
Frank Tenement. See Tenure.
FRANKED 1 jETTERS. The privilege of letters
coming free of portage to and from members of par¬
liament was claimed by the houfe of commons in 1660,
when the firrt legal fettlement of the prefent port office
was made ; but afterwards dropped, upon a private
affurance from the crown, that this privilege flrould be
allowed the members. And accordingly a warrant was
conftantly iffued to the poftmafter general, diredling
the allowance thereof to the extent of two ounces in
weight; till at length it was exprefsly confirmed by
4 Geo. III. c. 24. which adds many new regulations,
rendered neceffary by the great abufes which had crept
into the praftice of franking j whereby the annual
amount of franked letters had increafed from 23,600!.
in the year 1715, to 170,700!. in the year 1763.
^Further regulations have fince taken place; in parti¬
cular, franks muft be dated (the month written at
length), and put into the office the fame day j notwith-
rtanding which, the revenue ftill lofes by this privilege
a very confiderable annual revenue.
FRANKEN, Franciscus, commonly called Old
Frank, a famous Flemilh painter, fuppofed to have
been born about the year 1544 j but though his works
are well known, very few of the circumftances of his
life have been tranfmitted to pofterity. This mafter
painted hiftorical fubjedrts from the Old and New Tef-
taments; and was remarkable for introducing a great
number of figures into his compofitions, which he had
the addrefs to group very diffindtly. Vandyck often
commended his works, and thought them worthy of a
place in any colledtion.
FRANKEN, Francifcus, diftinguifhed by the name
of TToung Frank, was the fon of the former, born in the
year 1580. He was inftrudled by his father j whofe
llyle he adopted fo clofely, that their works are fre¬
quently mirtaken. When he found himfelf fufficiently
{killed at home, he travelled into Italy for improve¬
ment in colouring ; and, on his return, his works were
much coveted. The moil: capital performances of this
painter are, a fcriptural performance in the church of
Notre Dame at Antwerp •, and an excellent pidlure, in a
fmall fize, of Solomon’s idolatry. Young Frank died
in 1642.
FRANKENDAL, a ftrong town of Germany, in
the dominions of the Eledlor Palatine, fituated near
the Rhine, about feven miles fouth of Worms. It
was taken by the Spaniards in 1623, by the Swedes
in 1632, burnt by the French in 1688, and finally
taken by the allies in the year 1794. E. Long. 8. 29.
N. Lat. 49. 25.
FRANKENIA ; a genus of plants belonging to the
hexandria clafs •, and in the natural method ranking
under the 17th order, Calycanthemee. See Botany
Index.
FRANKFORT, the name of feveral townfliips in
different places of North America; fuch as Frankfort, a
town (hip in Hancock, and diltricl: of Maine, with a few
3 ] . F R A
houfes regularly built. It contains 891 inhabitants, Frankln-
and lies about 238 miles north-eaft of Bofton. Frank-
fort, a thriving village in Philadelphia ; the name of . A.""
another in Hampfhire, of one in Virginia, and the name
of the meti-opolis of Kentucky.
FRANKINCENSE. See Incense.
FRANKLIN, Thomas, D. D. chaplain in ordi¬
nary to his majefty, vyas born in London about the
year 1720, and was the fon of Richard Franklin,
well known as the printer of an anti-minirterial paper
called The Craftfman; in conducting which he re¬
ceived great aflirtance from Lord Bolingbroke, Mr
Pulteney, and other excellent writers, who then op-
pofed Sir Robert Walpole’s meafures. By the advice
of the fecond of thefe gentlemen, young Franklin was
devoted to the church, with a promife of being pro¬
vided for by the patriot 5 who afterwards forgot his
undertaking, and then entirely neglefted him. He
was educated at Weftminfter fchool 5 from whence he
went to the univerfity of Cambridge, where he be¬
came fellow of Trinity college, and was fome time’
Greek profeffor. In December 1758, he was inftituted
vicar of Ware and Thundridge; -which, with the
le&urertiip of St Paul, Covent Garden, and a chapel
in Queen ftreet, were all the preferments he held till
he obtained the reftory of Braffed in Kent. This
gentleman was poffeffed of no inconfiderable fiiare of
learning and poetical abilities, and was long a favourite
in the literary world. His tranilations of Phalareus,
Sophocles, and Lucian, equally evince his learning
and his genius, as they are not more dirtinguhhed for
fidelity in the verfion, than congeniality with the fpirit
of the admirable originals. Dr Franklin, like Mr
Foote, fuffered a tranfiation from the French to be
printed in his name j but the Oreftes and Eledfra are
fuppofed to be all that were really by him. It was a
tranfiation of Voltaire’s works, to which alfo Dr Smol¬
lett’s name appears. His own dramatic compofitions,
of which the principal are the tragedies of The Earl
of Warwick and Matilda, are univerfally known, and
defervedly efteemed by the public. He died in March
i784* . . r
Franklin, Benjamin, a philofopher and a ftatef-
man of confiderable eminence, was born in the year
1706, at Bofton in New England. His family derived
their origin from Edlon in Northamptonfhire, where
his ancertors had an inconfiderable freehold for many
generations. The perfecution of the nonconformifts in
the reign of Charles II. induced his father to take re¬
fuge in New England ; and in the city of Bofton he
followed the occupation of a foap-boiler and tallow-
chandler. Franklin drew up a hiftory of his own life
from his nativity to the 25th year of his age j but as at
that period he had made no very confpicuous figure in
the world, it is to be lamented that we have not the af-
fiftance of his own pen to the meridian of his career..
This defied! we have endeavoured to fupply in the
fubfequent narrative from the moft authentic ma¬
terials, avoiding as much as poffible the exaggerated
panegyric of friends, and the unmerited detradlion of
enemies.
Our author, from his very infancy, difcovered the
ftrongeft propenfity towards literary purfuits, which de¬
termined his father to qualify him for the miniftry; but he
was thwarted in his defigns by a numerous and increafing
family.
FRA
[ 21
Franklin.
family, and therefore Benjamin was taken from fchool
' at ten years of age, to take part in the drudgery of his
father’s trade. This greatly mortified the afpiring mind
of young Franklin, who wiHied to prefer a feafaring
life to fuch an employment ; but from this he was dii-
fuaded by the iniluence of his father, who was a man of
fome knowledge, and poffeffed a lolid underltanding.
He made it his chief aim to infpire his children with
the love of knowledge and the principles of moral rec¬
titude. He had few books j yet from among thefe
Benjamin felefted a number of voyages and travels, as
well as different hiftories, a fpecies of reading for which
he had a ifrong predilection. By going through a
courfe of controverfial divinity in this unaided manner,
he greatly ftrengthened his argumentative powers, which
was moft probably all he had in view. Defoe upon pro¬
jects, according to his own account, made fuch impref-
fions upon his mind as in a great meafure direCted the
fubfequent events of his life.
He was now chofen to an employment which accord¬
ed much better with the natural bent of his mind than
the bufinefs of his father’s (hop. A brother of his own
had a printing-office in Bolton, to whom Benjamin was
bound apprentice at I 2 years of age. With the mecha¬
nical part of the bufinefs he was foon acquainted j
and the opportunities thus afforded him of procuring
new books to read, were eagerly feized, and the
greater part of the night frequently fpent in the per-
ufal of them. He foon became anxious to imitate the
works which he molt admired, and his firit attempts
were of a poetical nature. He compofed and printed
ballads, which were well received by thofe who love
fuch a fpecies of reading ; yet his father had the ad-
drefs to convince him that nature never defigned him
for a poet. He therefore turned his whole attention to
the cultivation of profe compofition, in which he fuc-
ceeded infinitely better ; and he thus became fuperior
to his brethren of the prefs, and raifed himfelf to ftations
of public importance. As his paffion for reading and
writing was very ftrong, fo he became in a ffiort time a
powerful difputant, which was ftrengthened by his inti¬
macy with a young man of a fimilar difpolition. He
perufed, with uncommon attention, a tranflation of Xe¬
nophon’s Memorabilia, which enabled him either to
confute or confound an adverfary by a number of quef-
tions. It is alfo certain that he became a fceptic as to
the religion in -which he had been educated, and pro¬
pagated his unbelief with zeal and affiduity. The fatal
eonfequences which this produced on the deportment of
fome of his intimate companions, at length happily con¬
vinced him that it is extremely dangerous to deftroy the
falutary influence of religion, without being able to
fubftitute any thing in its place of equal importance and
efficacy. He feems, however, to have continued a
fceptic in his own mind, yet he ftill retained a love for
moral re£litude, which led him to adopt honourable
means in the profecution of valuable ends. Much to
his honour be it fpoken, he acquired, at a very early
period of life, that triumph over his fenfual appetites,
which is fo effentially neceffary to a life of dignity, ufe-
fulnefs, and virtue. Having read Tyron’s recommen¬
dation of a vegetable diet, at 16 years of age, he aban¬
doned the ufe of animal food ; and on offering to his
brother to fupport himfelf on half the money which was
paid for his board, he was allowed to adopt his own
4 ] FRA
plan, by which means he was enabled to fave a conii- Franklin,
derable fum for the purchafe of books. Although he v
relaxed confiderably as to a vegetable diet, yet he thus
acquired the habit of being fatisfied with little, and a
contempt of the gratifications of the palate was frequent¬
ly of Angular advantage to him through the whole of
life.
When his brother began a news-paper, Benjamin
fent a number of pieces on various topics to be inferted,
which met with the approbation of the moft competent
judges j—a fatisfacfion he enjoyed without being known,
as they were all anonymous. His brother treated him
with the harffinefs of a mailer, wffiich he bore with the
utmoft impatience, as the public had already pronounced
him to be poffeffed of merit. The ftates of America
having prohibited James Franklin from publifhing this
paper, on account of fome political offence, the name of
Benjamin was employed as publiiher, in confequence of
which he procured his indentures, although he agreed
privately with his brother to ferve out his time. But
as he did not deem this agreement obligatory, he urent
to New York by fea, and from that place to Philadel¬
phia, in the feventeenth year of his age. He himfelf
acknowledges this to have been a fault, and therefore
has averted that cenfure which he would otherwife have
deferved. At Philadelphia he engaged with a printer
of the name of Keimer, whofe affairs he foon placed on
a more refpeclable footing j and here alfo he became
acquainted with feveral young men of a literary turn of
mind, by whofe company his take for knowledge was
greatly improved.
He foon after became acquainted with Sir William
Keith the governor of* that province, who powerfully
recommended it to him to commence bufinefs on his
own account, and promifed to give him all the encou¬
ragement in his power. Encouraged by this gentleman
to adopt fuch a plan, he fet out for BofL.in on a vifit
to his parents, in order to procure from tuem fome pe¬
cuniary aid *, but a welcome reception v.-s all he could
obtain. Having returned to Ph —hi: a, Str William
generoufly offered to take the yvhoi; nreten upon him¬
felf, and advifed Franklin to make a voyage to Eng¬
land, in order to procure every thing nece^ary for
a printing-office. He fet fail in the year ‘725, and
took with him his intimate companion Ralph, whofe
name has been rendered memorable by being cfebrated
in the Dunciad. Unfortunately for Franklin, Sir
William Keith, on whofe letters of recommendation
and credit he entirely relied, bafely deceived him, and
he was obliged to wmrk as a journeyman in London for
his immediate fubfiftence. His friend Ralph could only
live by his head, and his income of confequence wuis ex¬
tremely circumfcribed, as well as precarious, which
made him a heavy burden on the pocket of B njamin.
In that diffolute metropolis the one forgot his wife and
child in America, and the other the folemn prornifes
of fidelity wffiich he had made to a Mifs Read, prior to
his departure ;—another ftep of his conduft which he
himfelf feverely cenfures. By a differtation on liberty
and neceffity, pleafure and pain, he acquired confider-
able reputation, and it was the means of introducing
him to the celebrated Dr Mandeville, author of the
Fable of the Bees. In the fecond printing-office in
which he worked, belaboured inceffantly to convince his
fellow workmen that a pint of porter does not contain
half
F B A [2
Franklin, half* fo much nourifhment as a penny roll, for which he
“"“A'"”"*'' obtained the ludicrous epithet of the American aquatic;
yet he was finally enabled to make many converts to
his doflrine \—a proof that he poffelTed ftrong perfuafive
powers, when we conlider the deep-rooted attachment
of thofe with whom he had to treat to their favourite
libation.
After eighteen months refidence in London, he re¬
turned to Philadelphia in the year 1726, and became
clerk to a Mr Denham, a man of refpeffability, who
had opened a warehoufe in that city. He foon became
acquainted with the principles of commerce, and led a
very happy life in this new lituation, till the connexion
was diffolved by the death of Mr Denham, which hap¬
pened the following year. This again obliged him to
become journeyman printer, and he was afterwards
overfeer in the office of Keimer, whom wre have already
■mentioned. Here he acquired great eiteem, and at
length conceived the idea of fetting up for himfelf,
which he accomplilhed by entering into partnerfhip
with one Meredith, a fellow workman, whofe father
was in circumftances to enable him to advance them
feme money. His induffry was habitual, but the idea
that he was now wmrking for himfelf, gave it additional
energy. He was chiefly inftrumental in the inftitution
of a club which w^ent by the name of the junto, and
which wras highly conducive to the intelleftual im¬
provement of its members. Before the admiflion of a
candidate, the following queftions were put to him.
“ Do you flncerely declare that you love mankind in
general, of what profeflion or religion foever ? Do
you think any perfon ought to be harmed in his body,
name, or goods, for mere Ipeculative opinions, or his
external wray of worfhip ? Do you love truth for truth’s
fake ; and will you endeavour impartially to find and
receive it yourfelf, and communicate it to others ?”
Franklin and his copartner began a newfpaper, which
the labours and talents of the former brought into
repute, and by them the votes and laws of the affem-
bly came afterwards to be printed. The partner¬
fhip being diflblved by the departure of Meredith,
Franklin, by the generous aid of friends, wras enabled
to take the whole bufinefs upon himfelf, to which he
added the bufinefs of a llationer. When the increafe of
paper money engaged the attention of the American
government, Franklin wrote an anonymous pamphlet
in defence of the meafure, by which he acquired con-
fiderable reputation, the countenance of men in power,
and it placed his profperity on a permanent bafis.
About this time he kept up a criminal correfpondence
with different females, chiefly owing, perhaps, to the
difappointment he met with in the firft objeft of his
love, Mifs Read, who by this time was married to ano¬
ther in confequence of his negledt. But we forget the
faults of the man in the ingenuous confeflion of the pe¬
nitent. A report prevailing that Mifs Read’s huflband was
married to another woman, he retired to the Well Indies
where he died, and Franklin married the oojefl of his firlf
love in the month of September 1736, being then
about 24 years of age. She proved a valuable wife,
and in every fenfe of the w’ord, an “ help meet for
him.”
To him we are to afcribe the eftablilhment of a pub¬
lic library at Philadelphia, which he accomnlifhed in
the year 1731, and had the fatisfa&ion of feeing it ar-
I
5 ] FRA
rive at that flourilhing condition which it has long fince Franklin,
attained. His u Poor Richard’s Almanac,” was be- —v—
gun in 1732, and became remarkable for the many
prudential maxims with which it abounded } and the
proverbial manner in which they were exprelfed made
them take fall hold of the memory. His political ca¬
reer commenced in 1736, when he was chofen clerk to
the general aflembly of Pennfylvania, to which he wTas
re-elected for feveral years, and at laft became a repre-
fentative. In I737> was mEUie poftmalter of Phila¬
delphia, and in the fubfequent year he greatly improv¬
ed the police of the city, by the formation of a fire-
company, and afterwards an infurance-company againfi:
Ioffes by fire. In the war with France, which broke
out in 1744; when the belt means of defending the
province againlt the inroads of the enemy, and when
the militia bill was thrown afide from its being ob¬
noxious to the people, Franklin, fuggelted the idea of a
voluntary affociation for their mutual defence, which
was inftantly figned by 1200 perfons, and 10,000 fub-
fcriptions were obtained in a fhort time by circulating
it through the province. By this and limilar means
America had an opportunity of alcertaining her own
ftrength, and how to make ufe of it with advantage in
cafes of emergency.
About this time he began his interefting experiments
on eleclricity, by the refult of which he juftly acquired
a diftinguilhed reputation. The library fociety of Phi¬
ladelphia having received from Mr Peter Collinfon in
the year I745> an account of the faffs refpefting elec¬
tricity w'hich at that time engroffed the attention of
philofophers in Europe, Franklin fet about ftudying
the fubjeff wuth the greatefl: afliduity. He gave the
account of his refearches, the title of “ New experi¬
ments and oblervations in eleclricity, made at Philadel¬
phia in America,” and addreffed to Mr Collinfon in
the form of letters, bearing date from 1747 to 1754.
1 hey wTere everywhere read with avidity, and univerfal-
ly admired j Dr Prielfley fpeaks of them in the follow¬
ing terms. “ It is not eafy to fay whether we are moil
plealed with the fimplicity and perfpicuity with which
the author propofes every hypothefis of his own, or the
noble franknefs with which he relates his miltakes, when
they were corredfed by fubfequent experiments.” Not
to fwell this article with a detailed account of all his
difcoveries on this fubjedf, we lhall content ourfelves •
with mentioning that moll interefting of the whole,
his grand difcovery that lightning and eledlric fire are
identically the fame. This identity had be$run to be
fufpecled, and experiments had been made in France to
afcertain the fadl ; but it was referved to Franklin to
deirtonftrate this fadl by his own experiments. He ob¬
tained his firft decifive proof of this in the month of
June. 1752, by fetting up a filken kite into the air with
a point of iron, and a key faftened to the end of the
hempen firing by which he held it. In this manner he
drew down from a thunder cloud a fufficient quantity of
eledlric fire to emit fenlible fparks from the key. By
means of an infulated iron rod which he fixed upon his
houfe, he drew down the lightning, and was thus fur-
mlhed with an opportunity of difcovering whether it
was pofitive or negative. As he firmly believed that
philofophical difcoveries were only valuable in fo far as
they could be produdlive of benefit to man, he made
them fubfervient to the protedlion of buildings from the
effects.-
FRA . . t 21
effects oi lightning, which are truly alarming in North
America. He applied phylics to the purpofes of com¬
mon life, and in 1745 invented his Pennfylvania fire¬
places, in which the qualities of an open grate were
combine4 with that of a Hove.
He turned his attention very much to the fubjeft of
politics, which was extremely natural for a man of a
public ipirit living under a popular government. He
was cbofen a reprefentative of the city of Philadelphia
'for the provincial affembly in 1747. At this time a
contefl fubfifted between the affembly and the proprie¬
taries, as to the claim of the latter to be exempted from
public burdens. Franklin took the popular fide of the
queftion, by which he acquired great influence, and
was regarded as the head of the oppofition. This was
not the offspring of eloquence, for he feldom fpoke, and
never in the form of an harangue} but his pointed ob-
fervations, his unadorned good lenfe, frequently de-
ftroyed the effe£l of the moll elaborate orations.
He drew up the plan of an academy to be founded
at Philadelphia, from a conviction that education in a
free Hate is of the utmoft importance. It was carried
into effeft in the year 1750, by virtue of a fubfeription,
to w'hich the proprietors afterwards liberally contribut¬
ed. He difeharged the duties of his office as pollmaf-
ter of Philadelphia with fo much punctuality, that he
was appointed deputy poftmafler general for the Britifh
colonies in 1753, and the revenue wras foon bettered
by his unwearied exertions. A plan for conciliating
the Indians, and forming an alliance wdth them, w7as
drawn up by Franklin in 1754, to which the commif- '
fioners at Albany agreed, and a copy of it was tranf-
mitted to the Britifh privy council. It is a Angular
circumftance, that this plan was rejeCted by the affem-
blies as giving too much power to the crown, w7hile the
Britifh miniflry declared that it gave too much influ¬
ence to the reprefentatives of the people. In the year
1757, Franklin fet fail for London, as agent for Penn¬
fylvania, the affembly of that province being involved
in difputes wdth the proprietary. It was agreed on by
the privy council, that landholders Ihould pay their
fhare of the public burdens, on condition Franklin
■would engage that they fliould be fairly proportioned.
He continued at the Britifh court as agent for his pro¬
vince, and acquired fo great reputation, that the fame
trufl was repofed in him for Maffachuffets, Maryland,
and Georgia. His merit as a philofopher w7as now
juftly appreciated in Europe, and he was made a fel¬
low of the Royal Society of London. The degree of
L. L. D. was alfo conferred upon him at St Andrews,
Edinburgh, and Oxford.
In the year 1762 he returned to America, where he
received the thanks of the affembly of Pennfylvania, and
a handfome recompenfe in money for his important
fervices. When the llamp aft occafioned fo much dif-
turbance in America, Dr Franklin was fummoned to
the bar of the houfe of commons, to give evidence ref-
pefting the difpofitions of the people, whether he thought
they could be induced to fubmit to it; and the energy
and clearnefs of his reprefentations were inffrumental
in procuring the repeal of that obnoxious meafure.
On the commencement of hoflilities between Great
Britain and the colonies in 1775, he returned to Ame¬
rica, and was chofen a delegate to congrefs by the le-
£ filature of Pennfylvania. In 1776 he treated with
2
6 ] FRA
Lord Howe on the fubjeft of a reconciliation, and in Trank!in.
one of his letters expreffed in ftrong terms the temper v*""”
of the Britilh nation, to which he imputed the fatal
extremity then arrived. When the queftion of inde¬
pendence came to be difeuffed, he wxis decidedly in fa¬
vour of the meafure, and was highly inftrumental in
bringing over the public mind to the fame opinion.
When a negotiation with France was opened, Dr
Franklin was chofen one of the perfonages to relide at
that court. His political abilities eminently qualified
him for fuch a ftation, and his charafter as a philofopher
gained him great efteem in a country where knowledge
is revered. He brought about a treaty with France of
an offenfive and defenfive nature in 1778, the imme¬
diate confequence of which was a war with Britain.
He wras one of thofe who figned the provifional treaty
the year following. Prior to his leaving Europe he
concluded a treaty with Sweden and Pruflia. He was
recalled from that aftive ftation in 1785, which he had
filled with fo much ability, and chofen prefident of the
fupreme executive council. He w^as chofen prefident
of a fociety for alleviating the miferies of prifons, and
abolilhing flavery. His increafing infirmities made him
withdraw from all public bufinefs in 1788 j and on
April the 17th 1790, he terminated his aftive and ufe-
ful life, in the 85th year of his age.
Perhaps no man ever exceeded Dr Franklin in that
folid praftical wifdom which confifts in purfuing valu¬
able ends by the moft appropriate means. His cool
temper and found judgement fecured him from errone¬
ous expeftations. He law things in their true light,
and predifted confequences with nearly a prophetic
fpirit. He faid of himfelf “ I have alw ays fet a greater
value on the charafter of a doer of good, than any other
kind of reputation.” In 1779, his “ Political, Mifcel-
laneous, and Philofophical pieces,” were publifhed in
4to and 8vo. His effays, humorous, moral, and lite¬
rary, were publilhed after his death, in two fmall vo¬
lumes.
He was by no means inattentive to his own intereft,
of which his rapid advancement in life furnilhes an
ample proof; yet he never neglefted the intereft: of fo¬
ciety, or the good of mankind in general. The deli¬
cate fituations in which he frequently flood, unavoidably
expofed him to the cenfure of his enemies 5 yet his ge¬
neral conduft has long ago received the approbation of
his countrymen, by whom he was confidered as the
bell and moft valuable of citizens. When we view him
as a philofopher, w^e muft aferibe his chief merit to his
eleftrical difeoveries, yet on many other topics, fuch as
meteorology and mechanics, he evinced himfelf a man
of confiderable penetration. As a political writer, his
great merit is clearnefs, energy, and fimplicity 5 and as
a mifcellaneous author he poffeffes a fund of humour
wrhich cannot fail to be at once both entertaining and
impreflive.
Franklin, the name of feveral counties in America,
fuch as Franklin county in Pennfylvania, computed to
contain 800 fquare miles, or 512,000 acres. It contains
11 townlhips, and 15,655 inhabitants. Franklin, a
county in Kentucky ; the name of one in Halifax, of
one in Virginia, and of another in Georgia, which con¬
tains 1041 inhabitants, including 156 flaves. It is alfo
the name of a towmlhip in Maffachufetts j of one in
Pennfylvania, another in New York, and of another in
Connefticut,
Fraternal.
FRA [2
Franks Connefticut, as well as of a fmall ille ' at the mouth of
St George’s river.
  FRANKS, Francs, Frankis, or Franquis, a
name which the Turks, Arabs, Greeks, &c. give to
all the people of the weftern parts of Europe. The
appellation is commonly fuppofed to have had its rife
in Alia, at the time of the croifades; when the French
made the moil conliderable figure among the croilfees :
from which time the Turks, Saracens, Greeks, Abyf-
finians, &c. ufed it as a common term for all the Chri-
Itians of Europe ; and called Europe itfelf Frankijian.
The Arabs and Mahometans, fays M. d’Herbelot, ap¬
ply the term Franks not only to the French (to whom
the name originally belonged, but alfo to the Latins
and Europeans in general.
But F. Goar, in his notes on Condinus, cap. 5. n. 43.
furniifies another origin of the appellation Franks, of
greater antiquity than the former. He obferves, that
the Greeks at firft confined the name to the Fraud,
i. e. the German nations, who had fettled themfelves
in France or Gaul \ but afterwards they gave the fame
name to the Apulians and Calabrians, after they had
been conquered by the Normans ; and at length the
name was farther extended to all the Latins.
In this fenfe is the word ufed by feveral Greek wri¬
ters j as Comnenus, &c. who to diitinguilh the French,
call them the we/lern Franks. Du Cange adds, that
about the time of Charlemagne they diftinguilhed eaft-
em France, weftern France, Latin or Roman France,
and German France, which was the ancient France,
afterwards called Franconia.
FRASCATI, or Frescati. See Frescati.
FRASERSBURGH, a fmall fea-port torvn in the
county of Aberdeen, fituated on the point of land call¬
ed Kinnaird's Flead, which is the fouthern extremity
of the Murray frith. It has a fmall but excellent har¬
bour, made and kept up at a confiderable expence by
the proprietor and the town, and well adapted for build¬
ing fmall veflels. According to the tide, there are
from 11 to 15 feet water within the harbour, and 20
feet immediately without at fpring tides : without is a
tolerable road for Ihipping, in a bay nearly a league in
length and half a league in breadth, with good ancho¬
rage in a fandy bottom. Veffels of about 200 tons bur¬
den can enter the harbour. Fraferfburgh contains about
1 coo inhabitants, and is well fituated for trade with the
call: coalt of Europe. The only manufacture carried on
in Fraferfburgh is in linen yarn, of which there is an¬
nually exported to the amount of 3000I. or 4000I.
FRAI ERNAL, fomething belonging to the rela¬
tion of brother.
Fraternal AffeBion is the love and attachment fub-
fifiing among, or due to one another by, children of
the fame family.
Though all mankind fprung from the fame head, are .
bound to cultivate a mutual good will to each other;
yet tl^is duty is not fo obvious and ftriking as that
which is incumbent on thofe who belong to the fame
family. Nothing can approach nearer to felf love than
fraternal affection : and there is but a ihort remove from
our own concerns and happinefs, to theirs who come
from the fame flock, and are partakers of the fame blood.
Nothing, therefore, can be more horrible than difcord
and animofity among members fo allied ; and nothing
fo beautiful as harmony and love.
Vol. IX. Part I.
17 ] FRA
This relation is formed by nature, not by choice ; Fraternity
and though it has many things in common with, yet it !j
is prior to, the obligations of friendihip : conlequently ! 7
nature and reafon didate that there fhould be a pecu¬
liar affedion between brethren. We are not obliged,
however, to make a brother or filler an intimate or f,o~
fom friend in preference to one who is not akin. Di-
verfity of temper, and want of fuitable qualification*^
may render it unfafe and improper. But where friend-
ftrip and fraternity meet in the fame perfons, fuch a
conjundlion adds a luftre to the relation.
Among brethren, a hearty benevolence, an ardent
concern for each other’s welfare, a readinefs to ferve
and promote it, are the peculiar offices of this relation 5
and though friends are to have their ffiare, yet the
claim of kindred is firft and ordinarily flrongeft. “ Ne-
ceffaria praetidia vitae debentur iis maxime (fays Cicero),
quos ante dixi, i. e. propinquis) : vita autem, vidufque
communis, concilia, fermones, &c. in amicitiis vigent
maxime.” Dr Officiis.
FRATERNITY, brotherhood, the relation or
union of brothers, friends, partners, alTociates, -&c.
Fraternity, in a civil fenfe, is ufed for a guild, af-
fociation, or fociety of perfons, united into a body, for
fome common interefl or advantage. See Company
and Guild.
Fraternity, in the Roman Catholic countries, fig-
nifies a fociety for the improvement of devotion. Of
thefe there are feveral forts 5 as, 1. The fraternity of
the rofary, founded by St Dominic. It is divided in¬
to two branches, called the common rofary, and the per¬
petual rofary ; the former of whom are obliged to con-
fefs and communicate every firfl Sunday in the month,
and the latter to repeat the rofary continually. 2. The
fraternity of the fcapulary, whom the bleffed Virgin,
according to the fabbatine bull of Pope John XXIL
has promifed to deliver out of hell the firfl Sunday af¬
ter their, death. 3. The fraternity of St Francis’s
girdle, are clothed with a lack of a gray colour, which
they tie with a cord, and in proceffions walk bare¬
footed, carrying in their hands a wooden crofs 
4. That of St Auflin’s leathern girdle comprehends a
great many devotees. Italy, Spain, and Portugal, are
the countries where one fees the greateft number of
thefe fraternities, fome of wffiich afllime the name of
arch fraternities. Pope Clement VII. inflituted the
arch-fraternity of charity, which diflributes bread every
Sunday among the poor, and gives portions to 40 poor
girls on the feafl of St Jerome their patron. The fra¬
ternity of death buries fuch dead as are abandoned by
their relations, and caufes maffes to be celebrated for them.
FRATRES arvales. See Arvales.
FRATRIAGE, the partition among brothers, or
coheirs, coming to the fame inheritance or fucceffion.
. FRATRICELLI, in ecclefiaflical hiftory, an en-
thufiaflic fe6l of Francifcans, which rofe in Italy, and
particularly in the marquifate of Ancona, about the
year 1294. The word is an Italian diminutive, figni-
fying fratercuh, or “ little brothers and was here
ufed as a term of derifipn, as they were mofl of them
apofiate monks, whom the Italians call fratelli, or fra-
tricelh. For this reafon the term fratricelli, as a nick¬
name, was given to many other feds, as the Catharifcs,
the Waldenfes, &c. however different in their opinions
and in their condudl. But this denomination applied to
E e the
F Pv A [ 218 ] F R E
Fratricide, the au ft ere part of the Francifcans was confidered as ho-
—noarable. See FRANCISCANS.
The founders were P. Maurato, and P. de Folfom-
broni, who having obtained of Pope Celeftin V. a per-
miffion to live in folitude, after the manner of her¬
mits, and to obferve the rule of St Francis in all its
rigour, feveral idle vagabond monks joined them, who,
living after their own fancies, and making all perfec¬
tion to confift in poverty, were foon condemned lay
Pope Boniface VIII. and his fuccelfor, and the inquifi-
tors ordered to proceed againft them as heretics: which
eommiflion they executed with their ufual barbarity.
Upon this, retiring into Sicily, Peter John Oliva de
Serignan had no fooner publilhed his Comment on the
Apocalypfe, than they adopted his errors. They
foretold the reformation of the church, and the reftora-
tion of the true gofpel of Chrift, by the genuine follow¬
ers of St Francis, and declared their affent to almoft all
the doftrines which were publifhed under the name of
the abbot Joachim, in the “ Introdu&ion to the ever-
lafting Gofpel,” a book publifhed in 15 20, and ex¬
plained by one of the fpiritual friars whofe name was
Gerhard. Among other enormities inculcated in this
book, it is pretended that St Francis was the angel
mentioned in Rev. xiv. 6. and had promulgated to the
w orld the true and everlafting Gofpel of God ; that
the Gofpel of Chrift was to be abrogated in 1 260, and
to give place to this new and everlafting Gofpel, which
was to be fubftituted in its room •, and that the mini-
fters of this great reformation were to be humble and
bare-footed friars, deftitute of all worldly employ¬
ments. Some fay they even ele&ed a pope of their
church; at lead; they appointed a general, with Supe¬
riors, and built monafteries, &c. Befides the opinions
of Oliva, they held, that the facraments of the church
were invalid ; becaufe thofe who adminiftered them
had no longer any power or jurifdiftion. They were
condemned afrefh by Pope John XXII. in confequence
of wdiofe cruelty they regarded him as the true anti-
chrift ; but feveral of them returning into Germany,
were fheltered by Lewis, duke of Bavaria, the em¬
peror.
There are authentic records, from wdiich it appears
that no lefs than 2000 perfons were burnt by the inqui-
fition, from the year 1318 to the time of Innocent VI.
for their inflexible attachment to the poverty of St
Francis. The Severities againft them were again revived
towards the clofe of the 15th century by Pope Nico¬
las V. and his fucceffors. However, all the perfecu-
tions which this fe£t endured wrere not Sufficient to ex-
tinguifti it; for it fubfifted until the times of the refor¬
mation in Germany, when its remaining votaries adopt¬
ed the caufe and embraced the doftrine and difcipline
of Luther. And this has led Popifh writers to charge
the Fratricelli with many enormities, Some of which •
are recounted by M. Bayle, art. Fratricelli.
The Fratricelli had divers other denominations : they
were called fratricelli, according to fome, becaufe they
lived in community, in imitation of the primitive Chrif-
tiars, or rather through the humility of the founder of
the Francifcan order, to which the Fratricelli originally
belonged ; Dulcini, from one of their dodfors ; Bi%ochi,
Beguins, and Beghardi.
FRATRICIDE, the crime of murdering one’s bro¬
ther. See Parricide.
FRAUD, in Law, Signifies deceit in grants, or con¬
veyances of lands, &c. or in bargains and iales of
goods, &c. to the damage of another perfon. ^
A fraudulent conveyance of lands or goods to de¬
ceive creditors, as to^creditors is void in lawn And a
fraudulent conveyance in order to defraud purchafers,
is alfo to Such purchafers void ; and the perfons juftify-
ing or putting off Such grants as good, fhall forfeit a
year’s value of the lands, and the full value of the goods
and chattels, and likewife fliall be imprifoned. See
Cheating.
FRAUSTADT, a town of Silefia, on the fron¬
tiers of Poland, remarkable for a battle gained by the
Swedes over the Saxons in 1706. E. Long. 13. 30.
N. Lat. 51 45.
FRAXINELLA. See Dictamnus, Botany Index.
—It is remarkable of this odorous plant, that, when
in full bloffom, the air which Surrounds it in a ftill
night may be inflamed by the approach of a lighted
candle. Dr Watfon doubts whether this inflammabi¬
lity proceeds from an inflammable air which is exhaled
by the plant, or from fome of the finer parts of the
effential oil of the plant being diffolved in the common
atmofpherical air. The latter is the moft probable
fuppolition ; for were it the pure inflammable air, as
Mr Cavallo obferves, it wTould, on account of its Small
Specific gravity, leave the plant as Soon as it was pro¬
duced. Common air acquires the property of becoming
inflammable, by being tranfmitted through feveral effen¬
tial oils.
FRAXINUS, the Ash ; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the polygamia clafs; and in the natural method
ranking under the 44th order, Sepiarite. See Botany
Index.
FRAY literally fignifies to fret; as cloth or fluff
does by rubbing, or over much wearing.
Among hunters a deer is faid to fray his head, when
he rubs it againft a tree, to caufe the Ikins of his new
horns to come off.
FREA, or Frigga, the wdfe of Odin, was, next
to him, the moft revered divinity among the Heathen
Saxons, Danes, and other northern nations. As Odin
was believed to be the father, Frea was efteemed the
mother of all the other gods. In the moft ancient
times, Frea was the fame with the goddefs Herthus,
or Earth, who was So devoutly worlhipped by the
Angli and other German nations. But when Odin,
the conqueror of the north, ufurped the honours due.
only to the true Odin, his wdfe Frea ufurped thofe
which had been formerly paid to mother Earth. She
was worftiipped as the goddefs of love and pleafure,
who bellowed on her votaries a variety of delights,
particularly happy marriages and eafy childbirths. To
Frea the lixth day of the week was confecrated, which
ftill bears her name.
FREAM, a name given by farmers to ploughed
land worn out of heart, and laid fallow till it re¬
cover.
FREATS, or Freits, a term ufed in Scotland for
ill omens, and Sometimes denoting accidents fuperna-
turally unlucky. King James VI. in his Dcemonologie,
MS. pen. Edit. B. I. ch. iv. p. 13. “ But I pray
you forget not likew^ays to tell what are the Devill’s
rudiments ? E. His rudiments I call firft in general
all that quhilk is called vulgairelie the virtu of woode,
herbc.
Fraud
H
Treats.
—y—
F Pv E [2
Freckles lierbe, and ilaine j quliilk is ufed by unlawful charmis
Frederick w^^out natural caufis. As lykeways all kynd of prat-
■ tiques, freitix, or uther Ljh extraordinair actions, quilh
cannot abyde the trew twiche of naturall ?'aifon. It oc¬
curs again in the fame fenfe in p. 14. marg. note; and
in p. 51. fpeaking of Sorcerers, “ And in generall that
naime was gevin thaime for uling of lie chairmis and
freitis, as that craft teachis thaime.”
FRECKLES, lentigixes, fpots of a yellowilh
colour, of the bignefs of a lentile feed, fcattered over
the face, neck, and hands. Freckles are either natural,
or proceeding accidentally from the jaundice or the
adlion of the fun upon the part. Heat or a fudden
change of the wreather, will often caufe the flun to ap¬
pear of a darker colour than natural j and thereby pro¬
duce what is called tan,funburn, and morphew, which feem
to differ only in degree j and ufually difappear in winter.
Perfons of a fine complexion, and whofe hair is red,
are the moft fubjedt to freckles, efpecially in thofe parts
which they expofe to the air.
To remove freckles, put juice of lemons in a glafs
phial, and mixing it with fugar and borax finely pow¬
dered, let it digell eight days, and then ufe it. Hom-
berg propofes bullocks gall mixed with alum, and, af¬
ter the alum has precipitated, expofed three or four
months to the fun in a clofe phial, as one of the belt
remedies known for the removing of freckles.
FREDBERG. See Freyberg.
FREDERICA, a town of North America, in
Georgia, feated at the mouth of the river Alatamaha,
lately built and fortified by General Oglethorpe. The
ifland it ftands upon is called St Simons's ; and is about
13 miles in length, and 4 in breadth. W. Lone. 8 j.
35. N. Lat. 31. o.
FREDERICK II. the Great, of Prufiia, one of
the greateft warriors of the age in which he lived, was
the fon of Frederick-William then hereditary prince
of Brandenburg, and Maria Dorothea a princefs of
the houfe of Brunfwick. He was born in 1712, the
year before his father Frederick I. mounted the throne
ef Pruffia. The latter was fo far from being a patron
of literature, that he regarded nothing but what relat¬
ed to the military art •, and moft of his generals, what¬
ever their merits in their own line might be, fcarce knew
bow to fign their names. So great indeed was the ig¬
norance of the monarch himfelf, that he banilhed from
his dominions a philofopher of the name of Wolf, mere¬
ly becaufe he maintained the do&rine of pre-eftablilhed
harmony j upon which a theologian named Lange, alfert-
cd, that on fuch principles his majefty’s grenadiers were
not culpable when they deferted, it being only the ne~
ceflary confequence of the impulfe their machine had
received from their Creator. His fon was of a difpo-
fition the very reverfe of his father. Being put from
his birth under the care of Val de Recoule a French
lady of great merit and underftanding, he acquired, in
his early years, not only a tafte for literature in ge¬
neral, but a prediledlion for the French language,
which was not obliterated throughout his whole life.
It is not to be fuppofed that a prince of the difpofi-
tion above mentioned, ivould fuffer his fon to be long
engaged in literary purfuits. At feven years of age,
young Frederick was taken out of the hands cf Madame
de Recoule, and put under the care of military tutors.
General count de Finkeftein, an old warrior, was ap-
19 ] F R E
pointed his governor j his fub-governor was Colonel de Frederick.
Kalkftein, an officer renowned for his courage and ex- v ~‘
perience; he was taught mathematics and fortification
by Major Senning ; Han de Jenuun, a F> enchman, in-
ftrufled him in other branches of knowledge j and a
cadet of the name of Kcn%el, taught him his exercife.
At eight years of age he was furnilhed with a fmall
arfenal ftored with all forts of arms proportioned to his
age and ftrength, of which his father left him abfolute
mafter. In a Ihort time he was named captain and
chief of the corps of cadets \ and, the young prince per¬
formed every day, in miniature, with his little foldiers,
all the evolutions with which his father exercifed his
giants. At laft he received the command of a com¬
pany in his father’s regiment famous throughout all
Europe, and which was compofed of men of whom
fcarce one was ffiort of feven French feet.
Born, however, with a tafte for the arts, he devoted
to their cultivation every moment he could efcape from
the vigilance of his guardians. He was more particularly
fond of poetry and mufic, and when he could find a mo¬
ment’s leifure, he read French authors, or played on the
flute j but his father as often as he furprifed him playing
or reading, broke hrs flute and threw his books into
the fire. The prince, chagrined at fuch injurious
treatment, and having a great defire to vifit Germany,
England, h ranee, and Italy, defired permiffion to tra¬
vel. . This, however, his father would not allow, but
permitted him to accompany himfelf in the little jour¬
neys he made from time to time into Germany; and,
in 17 28, took him to Drefden to fee the king of Po¬
land. By thefe little expeditions the defire of the
prince to vifit other countries was only the more in¬
flamed, fo that at laft he formed a defign of fetting
out without his father’s knowledge. The defign was
intrufted to two of the prince’s young friends, named
Kat and Kelt; money was borrowed for the occafion,
and the day of their departure fixed, when unluckily
the whole project -was difeovered. The old king, im¬
placable in his refentment, and confidering his fon as
a deferter, determined to put him to death. He was
ftmt up in the fortrefs of Cuftrin ; and it was wTith the
utmoit difficulty that the count de Seckendorf, fent
for the purpofe by the emperor Charles VI. was able
to alter the king’s refolution. Certain vengeance,
however, w?as determined on both the intended affo-
ciates in Frederick’s journey. Keit efcaped the dan¬
ger by flying into Holland; but Kat had not that
good fortune. The king firft direfled that he fliould
be tried by a court martial; but as they, contrary to
his expeftation, only fentenced the criminal to per¬
petual imprifonment, the revengeful monarch by an
unheard-of exercife of the royal prerogative caufed
him to be beheaded. The execution was performed
under the windows of the prince royal, whofe head
was held towards the fcaffold by four grenadiers; but
no fooner did he approach the window, and fee his
friend in the hands of the executioner, than he ftretch -
ed out his arms towards him, crying out, “ Kat!
Kat!” and inftantly fainted away. During the remain¬
der of his life he confidered capital punifhments with
a great degree of horror, and they were rare through¬
out the Pruflian dominions while he continued to
reign. When the emperor had fueceededin preventing
the execution of Frederick, the king remarked, that
E e 2 “ Auftria
F R E [ 220 ] F R E
Frederick, “ Auilria would one day fee what a ferpent {lie had
^1 nourifhed in her bofom.” 'hhe royal prifoner rernain-
ed a year at Cuitrin ; during which time his father
v.iihed that he (hould learn the maxims of government
and finance. For this purpofe M. de Munchow, pre-
fident of the chamber of domains and finances, was
ordered to make him aftift at all their afiemblies, to
confider him as a fimple counfellor, to treat him as
• fuch, and make him work like others. The young
counfellor, however, though he afliiled at their meet¬
ings, did not trouble himfelf with reading afts or
copying decrees. Inflead of this, he arnufed himfelf
fometimes with reading French pamphlets, and at
others with drawing caricatures of the prefident or
members of the affembly. M. Munchow himfelf was
likewife very favourable to the prince at this time, by fur-
nifhing him with books and other articles of amufement,
notwithftanding the exprefs prohibition of his father j
though in this he certainly ran great rilk; for the
old king, who fet but a very light value on human life,
would undoubtedly have put him to death had he re¬
ceived intelligence of his complaifance.
Frederick, after palling the time above mentioned
in confinement, was recalled to Berlin, on pretence
of being prefent at the celebration of his eldeft lifter’s
marriage with the hereditary prince of Bareith ; but
the true reafon was, that the king had now prepared a
match for the prince himfelf. This was the princels
Elizabeth Chriftina of Brunfwick, niece to the em-
prefs. Frederick, who was not only totally indiffe¬
rent to the fair fex in general, but particularly pre¬
judiced againft this princefs, made feme objections j
his father, however, overcame all obftacles with “ his
ufual arguments (fays the author of the life of Frede¬
rick), viz. his cane, and a few kicks.”
The coldnefs which Frederick at this time Ihowed for
the fair fex appears not to have been natural; for as early
as the year 1723, though then only in the nth year
of his age, he is faid to have fallen in love with the
princefs Anne, daughter of George II. Even at this
early period he entered into vows to relufe every other
but her for his confort •, nor were thefe ever broken, as
far as depended on himfelf. The marriage perhaps
would have taken place, had it not been for feme dif¬
ferences which arofe between the courts of Pruftia and
Hanover about a few acres of meadow land, and two
or three Hanoverians inlifted by the Pruflian recruit¬
ers. It is fuppofed alfo, that it was intended at one
time to marry him to Maria Therefa of Auftria j but,
as in that cafe it would have been neceffary to change
his religion, Frederick derived from thence a plaufible
pretence for refufing the match. The princels whom
he efpoufed had a large lhare of beauty ; and, what was
ftill better, an excellent heart : but Frederick is faid
to have fuffered fb much in his former amours, that
certain natural and unfurmountable impediments re¬
mained to the completing of his marriage w-ith any
woman. Scarcely therefore was he in bed with his
* young fpoufe,. when a cry of Fire! was raifed by his
friends. Frederick got up to fee where the conflagra¬
tion was : but finding it to be a falfe alarm, he fent mef-
fengers to compofe the princefs} but neither that night,
nor any other, did he think proper to difturb her reft.
On cccafion of this marriage, Frederick received
from his father the county of Rupin. He relided in
the capital of this county, named alfo Rupin^ for fomeFrederick.
time } but afterwards chofe Rheinlherg for his place
of abode. This is a little town built in the fands, on
the confines of Mecklenburg, and at that time con¬
taining only 1000 inhabitants ; but it -was foon greatly
improved by Frederick. Having put over the great
gate of the caftle, however, the following infcription,
Frederico T r a n ou i l lit at e m Colenti, his father
was difpleafed with it, and therefore hurried him from
his peaceful retreat into the noife and tumult of war.
At this time the fucceflion to the crown of Poland
had kindled a general war throughout Europe, and
the king of Pruftia wTas to fend 10,000 auxiliaries
to the Imperial army, then commanded by Prince Eu¬
gene. The king conducted his troops in perfon,
and refolved to take this opportunity of giving his fon
an idea of war. At this time, however, he learnt but
little ; and only faw, as he himfelf expreffes it, the Iha-
dow of the great Eugene. That confummate general,
neverthelefs, did not overloook his merit •, but predicted
that he would one day be a great captain. Frederick
having gone to reconnoitre the lines at Philiplhurg, in
his return through a very open wood, was expofed to
the cannon of the lines, which thundered inceffantly.
The balls broke a number of branches on every fide
of him : notwithftanding which, he never caufed his
horfe to move quicker ; nor did his hand which held the
bridle ever alter its motion even for a moment. He
continued to converfe quietly with the generals who
attended him, and never Ihowed the fmalleft fign of
apprehenfion. Being one night at fupper with Field-
Marlhal Grumkow, the converfation turned on the
young Prince Eugene who died on the Rhine *, and
he was alked whether that prince would ever have be¬
come a great man ? Frederick decided in the negative,
on account of young Eugene’s not having known at
any period of his life how to choofe a friend who dared
to tell him the truth.
During this campaign the health of the old king
was fo much impaired, that he was obliged to leave
the army; and Frederick, on his return, was for feme
time intruded with figning all the orders in his father’s
name. On the king’s recovery the prince was fent to
Stettin, under the care of the prince of Deffau, that he
might fee the fortifications of that town. He was af¬
terwards permitted to go to Koniglberg to fee the un¬
fortunate Stanillaus, who had taken refuge in that
place, and who was no lefs remarkable for his philo-
fophy and conftancy than for his misfortunes. With
him Frederick remained for feme weeks, and contract¬
ed a friendihip which was not diffolved but by the death
of Stanillaus. At laft he was allowed to return to his,
peaceful manfion at Rheinlherg, where he remained
till the death of his father. In this place his time was
occupied alternately by the ftudy of the fciences, the
cultivation of the arts, and the pleafures of friendihip.
Philofophy, hiltory, politics, the military art, poetry,
and mufic, agreeably fucceeded each other, and had
each its ftated period. The prince palled the greateft
part of the day in his library j and the remainder in
the fociety of a felecf company of agreeable and learn¬
ed men. The principal of thefe were Chafot, a French
officer ; Kayferling, a gentleman of Courland, on whom
the prince beftowed the name of Cccfarion ; Jordan, a
French refugee and Knobelfdorf, direclor of the build-
F R E [2
. Ings and gardens $ but who could converfe on all the
arts of designing with great tafte and judgment.—In
thefe meetings, gaiety generally prefided 3 there were
generals to fpeak of war, mulicians to form concerts,
and excellent painters to decorate the apartments.
Whilll Knobelfdorf was executing landfcapes and lay¬
ing out the gardens, Pefne was immortalizing himfelf
by his cielings, and Du Buiflbn by his pictures of
flowers. The two Grauns compofed excellent mulic,
or direfted the orcheifra 3 and Benda, one of the firfl
violins of Europe, accompanied the prince w;ho played
■extremely well on the flute. The morning was ufual-
ly dedicated to ftudy 5 gaiety and agreeable converfa-
tion prevailed at every repalt 5 and every evening there
was a little concert.—In this retreat Frederick conceiv¬
ed that ardent paflion for military glory and the ag¬
grandizement of his kingdom for which he became at
laft fo remarkable 3 and here he is liippofed to have
formed the moll fublime and daring projects. He was
fired with a defire of imitating the celebrated heroes of
antiquity, of w7hom he read in the ancient authors, and
for which he fet apart fome hours every day. Amongft
the wmrks which he read almoif every year were He¬
rodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch, Tacitus,
Salluft, Livy, Quintus Curtius, Cornelius Nepos, Va¬
lerius Maximus, Polybius, Caefar, Vegetius, &c. He
never fpoke but with enthufiafm of the great warriors
of Greece and Rome 3 and when feated on the throne
thought he could never diffinguifh an able foldier in a
more honourable manner than by conferring on him a
Roman furname. Hence he diflinguilhed by the name
of Quintus Icihus M. Guichard, who had written fome
treaties on the military art of the ancients ; giving
him at the fame time a free battalion. This name of
Quintus Ici/ius was retained by M. Guichard as long as
he lived.
In his purfuit of glory Frederick found that it was
not improper to cultivate the friendfhip of celebrated
poets, philofophers, and others of the literary clafs3
for which purpofe he flattered, commended, and com¬
plimented all the molt celebrated literati of Europe at
that. time. “ The philofophers (fays the author of
his life) anfwered him as a mad lover writes to his mi-
ilrefs. They wrote to him that he was a great poet,
a great philofopher, the Solomon of the north. All
thefe hyperboles were printed 3 and Solomon was not
forry for it, though he had too much underilanding to
believe in them. Wolf, Rollin, Gravefande, Mauper-
tuis, Algarotti, Voltaire, were honoured with his cor-
refpondence. The laft efpecially, accuftomed to offer
up incenfe to the idol of the day, were it tranfported
from the dunghill to the altar, did not fail to exalt as
the firft man of the univerfe a prince who was in ex¬
pectancy of the throne, and who affured him that he
was the greateft philofopher of the age and the firft
poet in the world.”
That Frederick might keep up his charafter with
the literati, or perhaps from a real predile&ion for his
principles, he patronized the Apology of Wolf, and had
his principal treatifes tranflated into French. He even
prevailed upon his father, to relax a little in favour of
that philofopher.. A commiflion of reformed and Lu¬
theran theologians was appointed in 1736, to examine
into the tenets of that unfortunate philofopher. Wolf
was. declared innocent, and a letter was lent to him at
21 ] F R E
Marpourg containing an invitation to return 3 but the Fred
philofopher di'd not think proper to make his appear-
ance till the year 1740, wdien his prote&or was feated
on the throne. ^
During his refidence at Rheinfberg, Frederick com¬
pofed his refutation of the principles of Machiavel, un¬
der the title of Anti-Machiavei: of which he fent
the manufcript to Voltaire to correft, and to get printed.
The old king, now almoft worn out with infirmity,
faw with regret the prediledlion his fbn entertained for
men of letters 5 and, in his peevifh fits, often threaten¬
ed the whole fociety with confinement in the fortrefs
of Spandau. Thefe threats frequently occafioned a vio¬
lent alarm among the joyous company at Rheinfberg,
which it required all the eloquence of Frederick to
quiet. Their apprehenfions on this account, however,
were foon removed. At the commencement of the
year 1740, the king’s diforder increafed to a great de¬
gree, and in the month of May his cafe became defpe-
rate, He lived, however, till the 31ft of that month, when
he expired, and left the throne to his fon Frederick II.
The acquifition of a kingdom did not abate Frede-
rick’s paflion for literature, though to this he w7as now
obliged to fuperadd the qualities and labours of a great
king. A confideration of his tranfa&ions in this charac¬
ter falls under the article Prussia, to which we refer :
thefe, indeed, fo totally engroffed the remaining part of
his life, that little more remains to be faid under this ar¬
ticle, than to relate fome anecdotes by which wre may
be in fome meafure able to trace the chara&er of this •
great and lingular perfbnage.
It has already been mentioned, that in the early part
of his life, Frederick had conceived a great inclination
to travel. This paflion feems not to have been extin-
guifhed by the fplendour of his new fituation 3 for hav-
ing, foon after his acceflion, gone into Pruflia and Weft-
phalia to receive the homage of the inhabitants, he
formed a refolution of proceeding incognito as far as
Paris. Being difcovered at Strafbourg, however, he
laid afide the defign of proceeding to Paris, and went
to fee his ftates in Lower Germany. Here he wrote
the celebrated Voltaire, that he fhould come incognito
to vifit him at Bruffels 3 but being feized with an in-
difpofition in the little palace of Meufe, two leagues
from Cleves, he wrote again to that philofopher," in¬
forming him that he expe&ed he fhould make the firft
advances. The following curious account is given by
him of his reception, &c. “ The only guard I found
at the gate was one foldier. The privy counfellor,
Bambonet, was cooling his heels in the court: he had
large ruffles of dirty linen 3 a hat full of holes; and an old
magifterial peruke, one end of which defeended as low
as his pockets, and the other fcarcely reached his fhoub
der. I was condubled into his majefty’s apartment,
where there was nothing but bare walls. I perceived
in a cabinet, by the glimmering of a taper, a truckle - *'
bed, two feet and a half wide, on which lay a little
man muffled up in a night gown of coarfe blue cloth.
J his was the king, in a ftrong perfpiration, and even
trembling, under a wretched blanket in a violent fit of
the ague. I bowed to him 3 and began by feeling his
pulfe, as if I had been his firft pbyfician. The fit over,
he dreffed himfelf and fat down to table. Algarotti,•
Kayferling, Maupertuis, the king’s minifler to the
S-ates General, and myfelf, were cf the party 3 where
F R E [2
Frederick, we converfed profoundly on tire immortality of the foul,
   ' on liberty, and the androgynes of Plato.”
This rigid economy, and contempt of every luxury
with regard to his own perfon, was maintained by Fre¬
derick as long as he lived. The following account, ta¬
ken like wife from Voltaire, will give an idea of his man¬
ner of living. “ lie rofe at five in the morning in
fummer, and fix in winter. A lacquey came to light
his fire, and drefs and flrave him j and indeed he almoft
wholly dreffed himfelf. His room was not inelegant.
A rich bailuftrade of iilver, ornamented with little cu-
pids, Teemed to enclofe an alcove bed, the curtains of
which were vifible 5 but behind them, inltead of a bed,
there was a library : the king flept on a truckle bed
with a flight mattrefs concealed behind a fcreen. Mar¬
cus Aurelius and Julian, thofe apoftles of Stoicifm,
did not fleep in a more homely manner. At feven his
prime minifier arrived with a great bundle of papers un¬
der his arm. This prime minifier vras no other than a
clerk who had formerly been a foldier and valet-de-cham-
bre. To him the fecretaries fent all their defpatches, and
he brought extradls of them, to which the king wrote
anfwers in two words on the margin : and thus the af¬
fairs of the whole kingdom were expedited in an hour.
Towards eleven the king put on his boots, reviewed
his regiment of guards in the garden, and at the fame
hour the colonels were following his example in their
refpedlive provinces. The princes his brothers, the
general officers, and one or two chamberlains, dined at
his table ; which was as good as it could be in a country
where there is neither game, tolerable butchers meat,
nor a pullet, and where the very wdreat is brought from
Magdebourg. After the repaft, he retired alone into
his cabinet, where he made verfes till five or fix o’clock.
Then came a young man named D’Arget, formerly
fecretary to Valory the French envoy, who read to
him. A little concert began at feven, in which the
king played on the flute with as much {kill as the firft
performer j and pieces of his compofition were fre¬
quently executed. Supper was ferved in a little hall,
♦the Angular and ftriking ornament of which was a
picture, the defign of which he had given to Pefne, one
of our beft colourifts. It was a fine pidture of Priapus.
Thefe repafts were not in general the lefs philofophic
on that account. Never did men converfe in any part
of the wrorld with fo much liberty refpedting all the
fuperflitions of mankind, and never were they treated
with more pleafantry and contempt. God was refpedt-
ed ; but none of thofe wdro had deceived men in his
name were fpared. Neither women nor priefts ever
entered the palace. In a wTord, Frederick lived with¬
out a court, without counfel, and without religious
worftup.”
As Frederick had efpoufed his princefs entirely con¬
trary to his inclination, it was imagined that on his ac-
ceffion to the throne he would embrace the opportunity
of fetting himfelf free from engagements fo difagree-
able to himfelf. The queen was not without fufpicions
of this kind, infomuch that fhe was on the point of
fainting away when he made his firfl: vifit to her. To
the furprife of all parties, however, he made her a very
affedlionate fpeech, apologizing for his indifference, and
inviting her tp participate with him the throne of which
fhe was fo worthy. In the firft year of his reign he
reftored the academy of faiences at Berlin which had
3
2 ] F R E
been founded in 1700 ; but he foon became difgufted Frederick,
with its members, whom he endeavoured at all times -y--—♦
to ridicule rather than encourage. His war with the
queen of Hungary, however, which took place almoft
immediately after his acceflion, for fome time prevent¬
ed him from taking fuch an adlive part in literary mat¬
ters as he was naturally inclined to do. After the
peace, being at liberty to follow his inclination,
he gave full fcope to his paflion for literature j and
in the interval betwixt the conclufion of the firft war
and beginning of that of 1756, he compofed moft of
the works wdiich are now afcribed to him. At this
time he wrote his Hijfory of my own Times, afterwards
announced among his pofthumous works. In writing
hiftory he acquired a tafte for hiftoriansj and juftly gave
the preference to the ancients, the moft celebrated of
wrhofe wrorks he perufed every year. Voltaire wTas his
principal literary correfpondent, whom he invited to
refide with him. Afraid of lofing his liberty, however,
that philofopher hefitated, excufed himfelf, and entered
into pecuniary treaties, firft for himfelf, and afterwards
for his niece Madame Dennis, whom he wdlhed to ac¬
company him. At laft he was determined by feeing
a poem from Frederick to M. d’Arnaud, in which the
latter was compared to the rifing, and Voltaire to the
fetting fun. By this Voltaire wras fo much piqued,
that he fet out for Berlin without delay, and arrived
there in June 1750. He was received in the moft
magnificent and affectionate manner, and for fome time
his fituation was very agreeable ; but the difputes and
rivalftiip which took place betwixt him and Maupertuis
foon threw every thing into confufion. In thefe the
king interfered in fuch a manner as was certainly be¬
low his dignhy 5 and he often exercifed himfelf in ma¬
king a jeft of the other men of letters in a way exceed¬
ingly difgufting, and which induced many of them to
leave him. The fquabbles with Voltaire were fome-
times very diverting 5 an account of feme of which is
given under the article Voltaire. They ended at
laft in a final quarrel with that wit, and his departure
from the kingdom. The reftlefs difpofition of Frede¬
rick fhowed itfelf after his departure, by his attempts
to provoke the literati who remained at his court to
quarrel with him as Voltaire had been accuftomed to
do. But they were of too paffive a difpofition to gra¬
tify him in this refpeft, choofing rather to fuffer the
moft mortifying ftrokes of raillery, or to leave the
kingdom altogether, than to contend with him. This
proved fo uneafy to the king, that he one day exclaim¬
ed, “ Shall we have no more quarrels then ?” The
breaking out of the war in 1756, however, put a flop
to this diverfion, and afforded him as many enemies as
he could wifh. The exploits he performed daring the
feven years which this unequal conteft lafted, are al¬
moft incredible * j and it is amazing how the fortitude * See Pruf-
and refolution of any perfon could enable him to fu-T^*
ftain the difficulties which during this period he had
to encounter. In one fatal moment, indeed, even the
refolution of Frederick was on the point of giving way.
This happened after the battle of Colin, when his af¬
fairs feemed altogether defperate, before they were re¬
trieved by the viftory at Rofbach. At this time he
wrote to his fifter at Bareith, that he was on the point
of putting an end to his own life ; but as this refolu¬
tion did not extinguifh in him the love of glory, he
wifhed
F R E
Frederick, wilhed to have it faid that he made verfes on the brink of
' v   the grave. With this view he wrote a long poeti¬
cal epiftle to the marquis d’Argens, in which he
communicated to him his delign, and bade him fare¬
well.
Happily, at laft, the king’s affairs took a better
turn, and fuch defperate thoughts were laid afide. His
constitution, however, was irreparably injured by the
exceflive fatigues he had fuftained. Soon after the
conclufion of the peace, his body began to bend, and
his head to incline to the right fide : by degrees he
became very infirm; he was tormented with the gout,
and fubjedt to frequent indigeftions. All his distem¬
pers, however, wrere born with invincible patience j and,
till a very Short time before his death, he never ceafed
to attend his reviews, or vifit the different provinces of
his dominions. He has been known to review his
troops, and gallop through all the ranks, as if he felt no
pain, notwithstanding that an abfcefs which had bro¬
ken out upon him, and approached to a fuppuration,
frequently, upon fuch ocqafions, touched the faddle.
In Auguft 1785 he impaired his health Still farther by
affifting at a review, where he was expofed without even
a cloak to a heavy rain for four or five hours. On his
return to Potzdam he was feized with a fever; and, for
the firft time, became unable to affift at the military cx-
ercifes of Potzdam, which take place in September.
His malady, however, did not prevent him from dicta¬
ting the difpofition of thefe exercifes during the three
days they lafted, and he always gave the word in pre¬
fence of his generals and the foreigners of diftindtion
then at Potzdam. About the end of autumn the fever
left him, but was fucceeded by a violent cough ; and
he continued free from the gout which had ufually at¬
tacked him at this feafon. He was greatly weakened
by the cough, which prevented him from Sleeping; but
this did not in the lead interrupt him in the execution
of bufinefs. Every morning, at four or five o’clock,
he ordered the three cabinet fecretaries to enter his
apartment, where he didtated anfwers to their papers.
It was not till after the defpatch of all his affairs that
he faw a furgeon or fometimes a phyfician, though he
had a bad opinion of the phyficians in general, whom
he confulted on his diflemper. In the evening he a-
mufed himfelf from five to eight with fome of his So¬
ciety and after that hour he paffed the remainder of
the time before he went to reft, in hearing fome an¬
cient authors read to him ; and thus he continued to
employ himfelf till the very day before he died. On
the 17th and 18th of May 1786, he w^as unable to af¬
fift at the ordinary reviews, but dill he hoped to be
prefent at thofe of Silefia. He feveral times attempt¬
ed to mount his horfe to go to the parade at Potzdam ;
but finding his powers infufficient, he was obliged to
return, after having proceeded a few paces. He made
other attempts, but with as little fuccefs ; and at lad
his diforder terminated in a dropfy. Being now no
longer able to remain in bed, he fat day and night in
an arm chair with Springs which could be moved at
pleafure. For near a month before his death the Swell¬
ing of his feet gave him violent pain, fo that he wifh-
ed an incifion to be made ; but the furgeon refufed to
perform the operation, fufpedting that it might haden
his death. Nature, however, accompli died his defires ;
his right leg opened, and difcharged fuch a quantity
[ 223 ]
F R E
of matter, that he was greatly relieved : and thofe un- Frederick.
acquainted with the medical art began to entertain y—
hopes of his recovery. The phyficians, however, were
of a very different opinion; and the event judified their
apprehenfions. On the 16th of Augud 1786 his
throat began to rattle violently, and his attendants ex¬
pected every moment that he would breathe his lad. In
this fituation his three fecretaries entered the room for
the defpatch of bufinefs as ufual. Even then Frederick
made an effort to colled; his force, giving them a fign
to wait, as if he would fpeak with them in a fhort time.
This, however, was the lad he could make : for he
foon after fell into a dupor ; though from this he reco¬
vered fo far as to be able to fpeak. In the evening he
allied what o’clock it was ? and on being anfwered
that it was nine, he faid, “ Well then I am going to
red.” His refpiration and voice became gradually
more feeble ; and he expired on Thurfday at 19 mi¬
nutes after two in the morning, without any convul-
fion or fymptom of pain.
This great monarch was of the middle fize, had
large blue eyes and a piercing look. He fpoke Ger¬
man incorreCtly, and in a very rough manner ; but
talked French very fluently, and his voice was then
mild and agreeable. His conditution was naturally
feeble, but he had greatly improved it by his activity
and laborious life. He had the art of relieving every one
from that embarraffment which frequently occurred in
accoding fuch a celebrated monarch ; and it feems pro¬
bable that he himfelf confidered on what he Ihould fay
to any illudrious perfon who happened to come to his
court. His univerfal knowledge enabled him to con-
verfe on all fubjeCts ; and thus he talked of war with
military men, of verfes with the poet, of agriculture
with the farmer, jurifprudence with the lawyer, com¬
merce with the merchants, and politics with the Englilh-
man. He had a very retentive memory ; was fond of
folitude and gardening ; and likewife took great plea¬
fure in dogs, of which animals he condantly kept a
number about him, giving them little balls covered
with leather to play with. In company, he wras fond
of alking quedions and jeding; in which lad he pro¬
ceeded fuch lengths as undoubtedly were unbecoming
in a fuperior towards his inferiors, wdio would not have
failed to refent fuch jokes from perfons more on an
equality with them. In military affairs he wTas excef-
fively fevere, not to fay cruel; of which the following
anecdote may ferve r, an indance. In the fird war
of Silefia, widiing to make fome alterations in his
camp during the night, he forbade every perfon, under
pain of death, to keep, after a certain hour, a fire or
other light in his tent. He himfelf went the rounds ;
and in pading the tent of a Captain Zietern he per¬
ceived a light. Entering the tent, he found the cap¬
tain fealing. a letter to his wife, for whom he had a
great, affedtion. “ What are you doing there ? (fays
the king :) Do you not know the order ?” The cap¬
tain fell on his knees and alked pardon, but did not at¬
tempt to make any excufe. “ Sit down (fays Frede¬
rick), and add a few words I am going to didiate to
you.” Zietern obeyed ; and the king didlated, “ To-
morrow I (hall perifli on a fcaffold.” The unfortunate
man wrote them, and next day was executed. In
matters of domellic legiilation, ne was more arbitrary,
than juft ; of which we have a notable example in the
famous:
F H E [ 224 ] F R E
Frederick, famous cafe of Arnold the miller. The man had refufed
■F'etlen'ckf- to pay the rent of the mill he poffefl'ed, on pretence
, b"1^~ , that the ftream which turned it had been diverted into
a fifh pond. This was evidently a frivolous excufe j
becaufe the water which ran into the pond alfo ran out
of it into the fame channel as before, fo that nothing
could be loll except what evaporated from the furface
of the filh pond. The judges therefore gave fentence
againft the miller; but the king not only reverfed their
fentence, but difgraced them. For this he was cele¬
brated through all the newfpapers in Europe ; and yet
he was in the wrong, and afterwards even acknow¬
ledged himfelf to have been fo : but, notwithifanding
he knexv his error, he not only made no reparation to
the parties he had injured, but allowed them to lie in
prifon at Spandau all his lifetime, fo that they were
not releafed till the commencement of the fucceeding
reign. He entertained certain and almoft unaccount¬
able prejudices againft certain places and perfons, which
neither condinft nor merit could eradicate. One of
thefe unfortunate places was Weftphalia, on which he
never conferred any bounty : and one day a native of
that country, a man of great merit, being propofed
to him for a place, he refufed, faying, “ He is a Weft-
phaiian ; he is good for nothing.” Voltaire accufes
him of ingratitude to the count de Seckendorf; who,
as we have already feen, faved his life, and againft
whom he afterrvards conceived moft implacable hatred.
His indifference towards thofe who afforded him the
moft effential fervice, was evident: when a robuft but¬
cher prevented him from falling, horfe and all, over a
precipice, where both would have undoubtedly been
killed, the king, fenfible of the afliftance that had
been afforded him, turned about, and faying, “ Thank
you, friend,” rode off without ever enquiring farther
about the perfon who had juft preferved him from de-
ftrudlion.
With regard to the literary merits of this monarch,
we certainly cannot pronounce them extraordinary.
Voltaire boafts of having correfted his works, and
others of having furnifhed him with materials for his
hiftory. He has been accufed of borrowing whole
hemiftichs of poetry from Voltaire, Boileau, Rouffeau,
and others; nor does the charge appear to be at all
void of foundation. Such of his verfes as appear to
have undergone no correftion, are very indifferent,
nor indeed can we pronounce any of his poetic works
to be of the firft rate. In the former part of his life
he entertained a great partiality for the French learn¬
ing and language ; but as he advanced in years, he en¬
tirely loft this predile&ion, and inclined much more to
favour the Englilh and Germans. Towards the end of
his life, indeed’ he affecled a contempt for the. French,
without whom it it faid he would fcarcely ever have
made any figure except in military affairs.
Frederick, is the name of two counties, and of fe-
veral townlhips in America, fuch as the county of Fre¬
derick in Maryland, which contains 30,791 inhabitants,
in which are included 3641 Hayes. It is alfo the name
of a county in Virginia, 30 mhes long and 20 broad,
with a population of 19,681 fouls, including 4250
^FREDERICKSBURG, a fort and colony of
Brandenburg, on the gold coaft or Guinea, in Afri¬
ca, near Cape Threepomts, and about ^3 miles from
4
Cape Coaft. It mounts 46 pieces of cannon on four Freder'-k-
batteries ; and formerly belonged to the Pruflians, but
is now fubjecl to Denmark. W. Long. 1. 15. N. Lat. pree pif)ne
4. 30.   
FREDERICKSHALL, or Frederickstadt, a
ftrong town of Norway, in the prefeclure of Ager-
huys, where Charles XII. king of Sweden was killed
by a mulket ball in 1718, when he was befieging this
town. It is feated on the coaft of the Catagate, in
E. Long. 10. 45. N. Lat. 59. 2.
FREDERICKSODE, a town of Denmark, in
Jutland, taken by the Swedes in 1657, but now fub-
jeft to Denmark. It is feated near the fea, in E. Long,
10. o. N. Lat. 55. 42.
FREDERICKSTADT, a town of Denmark, in
South Jutland, built in 1621. It is feated on the
river Eyder, in E. Long. 9. 23. N. Lat. 35. 32.
Frederickstadt, a town of Norway, in the pro¬
vince of Agerhuys, feated on a bay of the fea, near
the frontiers of Sweden, in E. Long. 11. 6. N. Lat.
59. 1 2.
FREE, in a general fenfe, is ufed in oppofition to
whatever is conftrained or neceflitated. When applied
to things endowed with underftanding, it more pecu¬
liarly relates to the liberty of the will.
Free Bench, fignifies that eftate in copyhold which
the wife, being efpoufed a virgin, has after the de-
ceafe of her hulband for her dower, according to the
cuftom of the manor.
In regard to this free bench, different manors have
different cuftoms : and in the manor of Eaft and Weft
Enbourne in the county of Berks, and in other parts
of England, there is a cuftom, that wdien a copyhold
tenant dies, the widow {hall have her free bench in all
the deceafed hulband’s lands, dum fold et cajia fuent,
“ while (lie lives fingle and chafte ;” but if (he is found
to be guilty of incontinency>, Ihe (hall forfeit her eftate.
Neverthelefs, upon her coming into the court of the
manor riding backwards on a black ram, with his tail
in her hand, rehearfing a certain form of words, the
fteward is bound by cuftom to reftore her to her free
bench. The words are,
Here I am,
Riding on a black Ram,
Like a whore as I am ;
And for my crincum crancum
Have loft my bincum bancum,
And for my tail’s game
Have done this wordly fhame :
Therefore, pray Mr Steward, let me have my
land again.
Free or Imperial Cities in Germany, are thofe not ■
fubjett to any particular prince ; but governed, like
republics, by their own magiftrates.
There were free cities (liberm civilates) even un¬
der the ancient Roman empire: fuch were thofe to
whom the emperor, by the advice or confent of the
fenate, gave the privilege of appointing their own ma-
giftiates, and governing themfelves by their owm laws.
See City.
Free Fijijery, See Free Fishery.
Free Warren. See Warren.
Free Mafon. See Mason.
Free Stone, a whitifh ftone, dug up in many parts
F R E [2
freebooter of Britain, which is hard and durable, and of excellent
II ufe in building,. &c. It is a kind of the grit ftone, but
^ Freehold. £ner fandecl anJ fmoothed •, and is calledyi'cc, from its
being of fuch a conftitution as to cut freely in any di¬
rection.
The qualities of the feveral kinds of free ftones ufed
in the different parts of Europe are very different.
They all agree in this general property indeed, that
they are fofter while in the quarry than when they
have been fome time expofed to the air: but even this
general property differs greatly in degree. There is
a fort of gray free ftone in ufe at Paris (of which we
do not yet feem to have met with any in this country),
which has the above mentioned quality in fo great a
degree, that the expence of working it is in a great
meafure faved.
This ftone lies everywhere on the fouth fide of the
river Seine, and is of a coarfe and large grit. It is fo
foft when newly taken out of the ftrata, that they fa-
fhion it very conveniently with a fort of broad axe, and
form as many ftones for building in this manner in an
hour, as an equal number of our people do in a day or
twTo. Though this ftone is as foft as dry clay when
firft taken up, it is found to harden fo confiderably in
the air, that it becomes more than equal to our ordi¬
nary free ftone.
The Portland free ftone of Britain of the fineft kind,
which is white, and of a clofe grit, is very fit for hewing
and carving 5 but it will neither refill water nor fire,
which is a very lingular inftance in fo denfe a ftone j
while the free ftone of Kent, which is lefs beautiful to
the eye, and is of a grayilh colour, and confiderably
clofe, though of a larger grain, refills the air and water
very well. The free ftone of Derbylhire, on the other
hand, is fo brittle as to be unfit for any fine working j
and fo coarfe and open in its texture, that it lets water
through : yet it bears the fire extremely well, and is fit
for ovens, hearths, &c.
FREEBOOTER, or Flibuster, a name given to
the pirates wffo fcour the American feas, particularly
fuch as make war againft the Spaniards. See Buca-
NIER.
FREEDOM, in general, the ftate or quality of
being free. See Liberty.
Freedom of a Corporation, the right of enjoying all
the privileges and immunities belonging to it. See
Corporation.
The freedom of cities, and other corporations, is re¬
gularly obtained by ferving an apprenticelhip •, but it
is alfo purchafed with money, and fometimes conferred
by rvay of compliment.
Freedom of Confcience. See Toleration.
Freedom of the Will, that powrer or faculty of the
mind, whereby it is capable of- acting or not atting,
f See iWV. choofing or rejecting whatever it judges proper f. Of
iapbyfict. every man muft be fenfible, who finds in himfelf
a power to begin or forbear, continue or end feveral
aftions, barely by a thought or preference of the
mind.
FREEHOLD, Frank Tenement, {liberum tene-
mentum), is land, or tenement, which a man holds in
fee-fmple, fee-tail, or for term of life. See Fee and
Tail.
Freehold is of two kinds, in deed and in law.
The firft is the real poffeffion of land or tenement
> Vol. IX. Part I.
Freezing.
25 ] F R E
in fee, fee-tail, or for life : the other is the right a freethinker
man has to fuch land or tenement before his entry
feizure.
A freehold, by the common law, cannot commence
in futuro, but it 'muft take effe£t prefently, either in
poffeftion, reverfion, or remainder. Whatever is part
of the freehold goes to the heir; and things fixed
thereto may not be taken in diftrefs for rent, or in ex¬
ecution, &c. No man ihall be diffeifed of his freehold
by flat. Magna Charta, cap. 29. but by judgment of
his peers, or according to the laws of the land : nor
fir a 11 any diftrain freeholders to anfwer for their freehold
in any thing concerning the fame, without the king’s
writ. Freehold eftates, of certain value, are required
by ftatutes to qualify jurors, electors of the knights of
the ihire in parliament, &c.
Freehold is likewife extended to fuch offices as a
man holds in fee, or for life.
Freehold is alfo fometimes taken in oppofition to
villenage.
Lambard obferves, that land, in the Saxons time,
was diftinguiihed into bochland, i. e. holden by book
or writing ; and folkland, held without writing. The
former, he fays, wras held on far better condition, and by
the better fort of tenants, as noblemen and gentlemen ;
being fuch as we now call freehold: the latter was moftly
in poffeflion of peafants; being the fame with what we
now call at the will of the lord.
In the ancient laws of Scotland, freeholders are
called milites, “ knights.” In Reg. Judicial, it is ex-
preffed, that he wdto holds land upon an execution of a
ftatute merchant, until he hath fatisfied the debt, tenet
ut liberum tenementum fbi et afignafusfuis; and the
fame of a tenant per elegit: the meaning of which feems
to be, not that fuch tenants are freeholders, but as
freeholders for the time, till they have received profits
to the value of their debt.
FREETHINKER. See Deist.
FREEZE, Frieze, or Fri'ze, in Commerce. See
Frize.
Freeze, in ArchiteSlure, that part of the entablature
of columns, between the architrave and corniche.
The freeze is properly a large Hat face, or member,
feparating the architrave from the corniche.
The ancients called it %oophorus, (£<y<pagej) becaufe it
was ufually enriched with figures of animals ; and our
denomination freeze has a like origin, being formed of
the Latin phrygio, “ an embroiderer,” becaufe it is
commonly adorned with fculptures in baffo relievo,
imitating embroidery.
FREEZING, in Philofophy, the fame with conge¬
lation. See Congelation, Frost, and Ice.
Freezing Rain, ox Raining Ice, a very uncommc ’
kind of fhower, which fell in the weft of England, in
December 1672 j wiiereof we have divers accounts in
the Philofophical Tranfadtions.
This rain, as foon as it touched any thing above
ground, as a bough or the like, immediately fettled
into ice, and by multiplying and enlarging the icicles,
broke all down with its weight. The rain that fell on
the fnow immediately froze into ice, without finking
in the fnow at all.
It made an incredible deftrudlion of trees, beyond
any thing in all hiftory. “ Had it concluded with
fome guft of wind (fays a gentleman on the fpot), it
F f ' might
F 11 E [ 226 1 F 11 E
Freight might have been of terrible confequence. I weighed
j .j the fprig of an afii tree, of juft three quarters of a
  pound j tire ice on which weighed 16 pounds. Some
were frighted with the noife in the air •, till they
difeerned it was the clatter of icy boughs, dallied
againft each other.” Dr Beale obferves, that there
was no conliderable froft obferved on the ground during
the whole 5 whence he concludes, that a froft may be
very intenfe and dangerous on the tops of fome hills
and plains, while in other places it keeps at two,
three, or four feet diftance above the ground, rivers,
lakes, &c. and may w-ander about furious in fome
places and remifs in others not far off The froft was
followed by glowing heats, and a wonderful forwardnefs
of Horvers and fruits.
FREIGHT, in Navigation and Commerce, the hire
of a ihip, or a part thereof, for the conveyance and
carriage of goods from one port or place to another ;
or the fum agreed on between the owner and the mer¬
chant, for the hire and ufe of a veffel. See Maritime
Laws.
FREIND, John, a moft learned Englifti phyfician
and writer in the 18th century, was born at Croton,
Northamptonlhire, in 1675. In 1696, he publifhed, in
conjunction with Mr P. Foulkes, an edition of two
Greek orations, one of yEfchines againft Cteliphon,
and the other of Demofthenes de Corona, with a new
Latin verfton. In t 699, he wuote a letter to Dr Solane
concerning an Hydrocephalus, publilhed in the Philo-
fophical Tranfaftions; and another letter in Latin to
the fame gentleman, De fpafmis rarior. hiforia, printed
in the fame Tranfadtions. In 1703, his Emmenalogia
appeared, which gained him great reputation. In 1704,
he was chofen profeffor of chemiftry in the univerlity of
Oxford. In 1705 he attended the earl of Peterborough
to Spain, as phyfician to the army there *, and, upon
his return in 1707, publilhed an account of the earl’s
expedition and conduft. In 1709 he publilhed his
Chemical Lectures. In 1712 he attended the duke
of Ormond in Flanders, as his phyfician. In 1716
he was admitted a fellow of the College of Phylicians
in London. This year he publifhed the firft and third
books of Hippocrates De morhis popularibus, with a
Commentary on Fevers, written by himfelf. He fat
member for the borough of Launcefton in Cornwall
in 1722, where he diltinguilhed himfelf by his oppo-
lltion to the adminiftration. March 1722, he wTas
committed to the Tower on a charge of high treafon ;
and while he was under confinement, he wrote a Latin
epiftle to Dr Mead, De quibufdam variolarum getteribus;
and began his Hiftory of Phylic, the firft part of which
was publilhed in 1725, and the fecond in 1726. Upon
the acceftion of George II. to the throne, he wras ap¬
pointed phyfician in ordinary to the queen, who lhowred
the utmoft regard and efteem for him. He died at
London in 1728. His works were publifhed together
in Latin at London, 1733, in folio, and dedicated to
the queen.
FREITS. See F*eats.
FRENCH, in general, fomething belonging to
France: thus we fay, the French language, French
cuftom, polity, &c.
The French language, as it now Hands, is no original
or mother language, but a medley of feveral. Thofe
that prevail moft, and which are, as it were, the bafts
thereof are, 1. The Celtic ; whether that were a par- French.
ticular language itfelf, or whether it were only a dia-  W“■
left of the Gothic, as fpoke in the wreft and north.
2. The Latin, which the Romans carried with them
into Gaul, when they made the conqueft thereof.
And, 3. The Teutonic, or that dialed! of the Teuto¬
nic fpoke by the Franks, when they gaffed the Rhine,
and eftablilhed themfelves in Gaul. Of thefe three
languages, in the fpace of about thirteen hundred
years, was the prefent French formed, fuch as it is now
found. Its progrefs was very How ; and both the Ita¬
lian and Spanilh were regular languages long before
the French.
Pafquier obferves, it was under Philip de Valois
that the French tongue firft began to be polilhed ; and
that, in the regifter of the chamber of accounts of that
time, there is a purity feen almoft equal to that of the
prefent age. However, the French was ftill a very im-
perfedt language till the reign of Francis I. : the cuftom
of fpeaking Latin at the bar, and of w7riling the public
afts and inftruments of the courts of jultice in that J
language, had made them overlook the French, their
own language. Add that the preceding ages had
been remarkable for their ignorance, which was owing,
in a good meafure, to the long and calamitous wars
which France had been engaged in; whence the French
nobleffe deemed it a kind of merit not to knowr any¬
thing ; and the generals regarded little whether or not.
they wrote and talked politely, provided they could but
fight w'ell.
But Fiancis I. who was the reftorer of learning, and
the father of the learned, changed the face of things j
and after his time, Henry Stevens printed his book, De
la Precedence du Langage Franfois. The change had
become very confpicuous at the end of the 16th century j
and under Henry IV. Amyot, Coeft'eteau, and Mal¬
herbe, contributed towards bringing it to its perfection j
wdrich the Cardinal de Richelieu completed, by the
eftabliihment of the French academy) an aflembly,
wherein the moft diftinguifhed perfons of the church,
the fword, and the gown, have been members. Nor
did the long reign of Louis XIV. contribute a little
to the improvement of the language; the perfonal
qualities of that prince, find his tafte for the fine
arts, and that of the princes of the blood, rendered
his court the politeft in Europe. Wit and magni¬
ficence feemed to vie; and his generals might have
difputed with the Greeks, Romans, &c. the glory of
writing well, if they could not that of fighting. From
court, the elegance and purity of the language foon
fpread itfelf into the provinces; and now7 there is fcarce
anybody there who does not wuite and fpeak good
French.
One of the characters of the French language is, to
be natural and eafy. The wmrds are ranged in it much
in the fame order as the ideas in our minds 5 in w’hich
it differs exceedingly from the Greek and Latin, where
the inverfion of the natural order of words is reputed a
beauty. Indeed the Hebrew furpaffes even the French
in this point j but then it comes lliort of it in copioufnefs
and variety.
It muft be added, however, that as to the analogy
of grammar, and the fimplicity wherewith the moods
of verbs are formed, the Engliih has the advantage not
only over the French, but over all the known languages
in
F R E f2
Frefcati. in the world 5 but then the turns, the expredions, and
the idioms of the Englilh, are fometimes fo quaint
and extraordinary, that it lofes a good deal of the ad-
vantage which its grammatical (implicity gives it over
the red. '~
The French has but few compound words; wherein
it differs widely from the Greek, High Dutch, and
Englidi. This the French authors own a great dif-
advantage in their language 5 the Greek and Dutch
deriving a great part of their force and energy from
the compofition of words, and frequently expreffing
that in one founding word, which the French cannot
exprefs but by a periphrafis. The diminutives in
tile French are as few as the compounds j the
greated part of thofe remaining in ufe having lod
theii diminutive fignification j but what dhlinguilh the
french mod, are its judnefs, purity, accuracy, and
flexibility.
French is the mod univerfal and extendve language
in Europe. 1 he policy of ftates and courts has ren¬
dered it neceffary for the miniders of princes, and their
ofLcers, &c. and the tafle of arts and fciences has had
the fame effecl with regard to the learned. In Germa¬
ny, and elfewhere, the princeffes and perfons of diflinc-
tion value themfelves on underdanding French ; and in
feveral courts of Europe, French is almod as much
known as the language of the country.
IRESCAII, or Frascati, a fmall town, fltuated
on the brow of a hill, about twelve miles to the ead-
ward of Rome. It derives its name from the coolnefs
of the air, and frejh verdure of the fields around. It
15 buih of the ruins of the ancient Tufculum ; and the
/ ufculan villa where Cicero wrote his famous quedions
is at a place now called Grotta Ferrate, about two
miles didant. E. Long. 11. 43. N. Lat. 41. 48. There
is a very fine profpeft from this town into the neigh¬
bouring country, which abounds with the feats of car¬
dinals and other nobility. It is the fee of a biihop,
who is one of the fix fenior cardinals, and is furround-
ecl ^ f°me the mod beautiful villas in Italy ; the
principal of which are the villa Aldobrandini, belong¬
ing to Prince Pamfili 5 the villa Isberna, belonging
to Prince Borghefe j _ and villa Ludovifi, to the family
of'Colonna. The villa Aldobrandini, called alfo Bel¬
vedere from its beautiful profpea, is the mod remark¬
able, on account of its fine fituation, extenfive gardens,
airy terraces, its grottoes, cafcades, and water-works.
Over a faloon, near the grand cafcade, is the following
infeription :
Hue ego tnigravi mujis comitatus Hpollo ;
Hie Delphi, hie Helicon, hie mihi Delos erit.
The -walls are adorned with a reprefentation of Apollo
and the Mufes ; and fome of that god’s adventures are
painted in frefco by Domenichino. The villa Taberna
is one of the fined and bed furnidied of any in the
neighbourhood of Rome. From this you afeend through
gardens to Monte Dracone, another palace on a more
lofty fituation, belonging alfo to that prince, and de¬
riving its name from the arms of his family. From
hence you may fee Rome, and the whole extent of the
plain j it has a noble afeent, with a broad paved walk -,
and among other curiofities there is a hall adorned with
the pidlures of a vad number of men eminent for
learning and arms. The gardens, laid out by Vignola,
27 j F R E
contain three miles in compafs j and have many de Frefco
lightful walks, and curious water-works. Near this ' ^
place are the monks of Camaldoli and the capuchins ,
and higher up are ruins of the ancient Tufculum.
Afcending towards the plain, two miles on the right
hand, you find the famous abbey of Grotta Ferrata,
belonging to the monks of St Bafil, and fituated on
the ruins of Cicero’s houfe. The Virgin Mary of the
great, altar is an ancient Greek picture j in the chapel
the pictures of St Nilus and St Bartholomew the ah
bot, are by Annibal Caracci ; and all the paintings in
frefco of this chapel are by Domenichino. Villa Lu¬
dovifi has a charming walk going up to it, where you
fee the ruins of Lucullus’s palace. The houfe is fmall j
but the gardens are large, embelliflred with a great
variety of walks and fountains, and a beautiful caff
cade.
FRESCO, a method of painting in relievo on walls,
fo as to endure the weather. It is performed with
water colours on frefli plader, or on a vrall laid with
mortar not yet dry. This fort of painting has a great
advantage by its incorporating with the mortar, and
drying along with it, becomes very durable. The
Italians, from whom w’e borrow the term, call \1 frefco;
becaufe it is frequently ufed for walls, alcoves, and
other buildings in the open air. Vitruvius, lib. vii.
cap. 4. calls it udo teflorio.
Painting in frefco is very ancient, having been prac-
tifed in the earlieft ages of Greece and Rome. It is
chiefly performed on walls and vaults, newly plaftered
with lime and fand ; but the plafter is only to be laid,
m proportion as the painting goes on ; no more beino-
to be done at once than the painter can defpatch in a
day, while it dries. Before he begins to paint, a car¬
toon or defign is ufually made on paper, to be chalked,
and transferred to the wall, about half an hour after
the plafter is applied.
The ancients painted on ftucco ; and we may remark
in Vitruvius what infinite care they took in making the
incruftation or plaftering of their buildings to render
them beautiful and lafting; though the modern paint¬
ers. find a plafter of lime and fand preferable to it; both
as it does not dry fo haftily, and as being a little brown-
ifti, it is fitter to lay colours on, than a ground fo white
as ftucco.
In this kind of painting, all the compound and ar¬
tificial colours, and almoft all the minerals, are fet afide,
and fcarce any thing is ufed but earths; which are ca¬
pable of preferving their colour, defending it from the
burning ef the lime, and refilling its fait, which Vitru¬
vius calls its bitternefs.
For the work to come out in all its beauty, the co¬
lours muft be laid on quick, while the plafter is yet
moift ; nor ftiould they ever be retouched dry, with
colours mixed up with the white of an egg, or fize, or
gum,.as fome workmen do ; becaufe fuch colours grow
blackilh; nor do any preferve themfelves, but only
fuch as were laid on haftily at firft.
I he colours ufed are white made of lime flaked
long before, and white marble dull 5 ochre, both red
and yellow; verditer; lapis lazuli; fmalt; black chalk,
&c. All which are only ground, and worked up with
water j molt of them grow brighter and brighter as
the frefco dries.
The brufties and pencils for this work ought to be
F f 2 long
F refli
Water
Fret.
F B E [22
long and foft, otherwife they will rake and raife the
painting. The colours Ihould be full, and flowing
from the brufli •, and the defign perfe6V : for in this
work you cannot alter or add upon any colour.
FRESH water, is that not tinctured or impregna¬
ted with fait or faline particles enough to be difcovered
by the fenfe. Such generally is that of fprings, rains,
wells, lakes, &c.
The dulcifying or making of fait water frelh is a
fecret that has been long fought wnth great attention.
For an account of the principal attempts that have
been made with this view. See Water.
Frejh Wind flgnifies ftrong, but not violent •, hence
when the gale increafes, it is faid to frelhen.
FRESHES, in fea language, denotes the impetuo-
fity of an ebb tide, increafed by heavy rains, and flow¬
ing out into the fea, often difcolouring it to a conlide-
rable diftance, and forming a line that feparates the
two colours, and which may be diltindtly perceived for
a great length along the coait.
Freshes, a local term fignifying annual inunda¬
tions, from the river being fwollen by the melted
fnows and other frefli waters from the uplands, as is
the Nile, &c. from periodical or tropical rains. As a
labor’s term, it is oppoled to marine or fait water
flooding's,- tides, &c. The word is of common ufe in
America, where the inundations fo called are or great
fervice. They bring down the foil to the intervals
below, and form a fine mould, producing corn, grain,
and herbage, in the mold luxuriant plenty. They alfo
afford another benefit, in regard to many rivers in
America, viz. in equalizing the furface of the ftream
(where rapid falls, or cafcades, obftruft the navi¬
gation), fo that rafts of timber and other grofs pro¬
duce are then floated down to the fea ports in great
quantities.
FRESNOY, Charles Alphonse du, an excellent
poet and painter, was bom at Paris in 1611. He was
inftrudled there by Perrier and Simon Vouet in paint¬
ing : but he did not long adhere to Vouet’s manner of
colouring ; for as foon as he fixed himfelf at Rome,
he made the works of Titian the models for his imita¬
tion. He was, however, more celebrated as a poet
than as a painter •, and gave more attention to the
theory than to the pradlice of the pencil. According¬
ly, he is better known by his incomparable poem De
arte graphica, than by his performances on the canvafs:
and on this poem he bellowed fo much pains, that he
died in 1665, before it was publilhed. It was printed
afterwards with a French profe tranfiation and notes by
M. de Piles ; and was tranilated into Englilh by Mr
Dryden, wW prefixed to it an original preface contain¬
ing a parallel between painting and poetry.
FRET, or Frette, in ArchrteEhire, a kind of knot
or ornament, confifting of two lifts or fmall fillets va-
rioufly interlaced or interwoven, and running at parallel
diftances equal to their breadth.
Fret, in Heraldry^ a bearing c'ompofed of fix bars,
croffed and varioufly interlaced. Some call it the true-
lover's knot. See Heraldry.
Fret, in Mufic, fignifies a kind of flop on fome in-
ftruments, particularly bafs viols and lutes. Frets con-
fift of firings tied round the neck of the inftrument, at
certain diftances, within which fuch and fuch notes are
to be found.
8 ] FBI
Fret Work, that adorned with frets. It is fome- Fret
times ufed to fill up and enrich flat empty fpaces j but U
it is moftly pradlifed in roofs, which are fretted over *n "rg‘
wdth plafter work.
FRETTS, in Mineralogy, a term ufed by our min¬
ers to exprefs the worn fide of the banks of the rivers
in mine countries, where they fearch for the ftioad
ftones or grewts waAied down from the hills, in order
from thence to trace out the running of the ihoad up
to the mine.
Fretts, Fronts, or Frcits. See Freats.
FREYEERG, or Friedberg, a town in the circle
of Upper Saxony, containing upwards of 60,000 peo¬
ple. There are mines of copper, tin, lead, and filver,
in its vicinity, which afford employment to a confider-
able number of workmen, and produce an annual reve¬
nue of more than 10,000 rix-dollars. The princes of
the houfe of Saxony are ufually buried here, where there
is alfo an academy for the ftudy of mineralogy, inlfitu-
ted in the year 1765, and reckoned the molt famous
for that fcience of any in Germany. It is fituated on a
branch of the Muldau, 1 5 miles louth-weft of Hrefden,
in N. Lat. 51. and W. Long. 11. 10.
FRIABLE, among naturalifts, an appellation gi¬
ven to bodies that are ealily crumbled to pieces : fueh
are pumice and all calcined ftones.
FRIAR, or Frier, by the Latins czWtHi frater, the
Italians fra, and the French frere, that is, brother : a
term common to the monks of all orders } founded on
this, that there is a kind of fraternity or brotherhood
prefumed between the feveral religious perfons of the
fame convent or monaftery.
Friars are generally diftinguilhed into thefe four
principal branches, viz. 1. Minors, Gray friars, or Fran-
cifcans. 2. Auguftines. 3. Dominicans, or Black
friars. 4. White friars or Carmelites. From thefe
four the reft of the orders defcend. See Franciscans,
Augustines, &c.
Friar, in a more peculiar fenfe, is reftrained to fuch
monks as are not priefts j for thofe in orders are ufually
dignified with the appellation of father.
Friers Obfervar.t (fratres obfervantes'), were a branch
of the Francifcans; thus called, becaufe not combined
together in any cloifter, convent, or corporation, as
the conventuals are j but only agreed among them-
felves to obferve the rules of their order, and that more
ftritftly than the conventuals did, from whom they fe-
parated themfelves out of a Angularity of zeal, living
in certain places of their own choofing.
FRIBURG, a large town of Germany, and capital
of Brifgaw •, remarkable for the fteeple of the great
church, which, next to that of Strafburg, is the fine!!
in Germany ; and for its univerfity. The inhabitants
are famous for polilhing cryftal and precious ftones. It
has been feveral times taken and retaken 5 particularly
by the French in 1744, who demoliihed the fortifica¬
tions. It was alfo taken by them in June 1796. It is
feated on the river Trifet, ten miles eaft of Brifach,
and 26 fouth of Stralhurgh. E. Long. 7. 57. N. Lat.
48. 4.
FRIBURG, a town of Swifferland, and capital of the
canton of the fame name, feated on the river Sane,
in E. Long. 7. 5. N. Lat. 46. 50. Its fituation is Co»ces
moft lingular and piifturefque : “ It Hands partly
in. a fmall plain, partly on bold acclivities on a/(7n(/>
ridge
Triburg,
Fricafl'ee.
F R I [ 229 ]
rido’e of rugged rocks, half encircled by tbe. river
Sane j and is fo entirely concealed by the circumjaecnt
hills, that the traveller fcarcely catches the fmallei
crlimpfe, until he bunts upon a view of the whole town
from the overhanging eminence. 1 he fortifications,
which confift of high ftone walls and towers enclole a
circumference of about four miles, within which ipace
the eye comprehends a lingular mixture of houfes, rocks,
thickets, and meadows, varying mftantly from wild to
agreeable, from the buttle of a town to the fohtmle of
the deeneft retirement. The Sane winds in luch a ier-
nentine manner as to form in its courfe, within the fpace
of two miles, five obtufe angles, between which the in¬
tervening parts of the current are parallel to each other.
On all Tides the defcent to the town is extremely fteep :
in one place the fireets even pafs over the roofs of the
houfes. Many of the edifices are raifed in regular gra¬
dation like the feats of an amphitheatre ; and many
overhang the edge of a precipice in fuch a manner, that
on looking down, a weak head would be apt to tuin
giddy. But the mold extraordinary point of view is
from the Pont-neuf. To the north-weft, part of the
town Hands boldly on the Tides and the piked, back of
an abrupt ridge ; and from eaft to weft a fem.icircle of
high perpendicular rocks is feen, whofe bale is wallied
and undermined by the winding Sane, and whofe tops
and fides are thinly fcattered with (hrubs and undei-
wood. On the higheft point of the rocks, and on the
very edge of the precipice, appears, half hanging in the
air, the gate of the town called Bourgui/Ion : a fti anger
fianding on the bridge would compare it to Laputa, or
the Flying Iftand in Gulliver’s Travels ; and would not
•conceive it to be acceftible but by means of a cord and
pulleys. The houfes, conftrucfed with a gray, fand
ilone, are neat and well built •, and the public edifices,
particularly the cathedral, are extremely elegant. The
inhabitants are Roman Catholics, as are thole of the
whole canton. The biftiop of Laufanne, called, here
the bilhop of Friburg, refides in this city. He is ap¬
pointed by the pope, ufually at the recommendation of
the French court ; and his revenues, including a fmall
penlion from France, and from the abbey of Hauterive,
of which he was abbot, amount to about 400I. per an¬
num. His diocefe extends over the whole canton, and
part of that of Soleure. In all his a£fs and deeds, he
figns himfelf biftiop and count of Lauianne, and prince
of the German empire. The fovereign power refides in
the great council of two hundred ; comp.rifing the two
advoyers, the chancellor, the grand faiitier, the fenate
or little council of twenty-four, the fixty, from, which
body are chofen the bannerets and principal magiftrates,
and the remaining hundred and twelve members, who
are fimply denominated burghers.”
Friburg, the canton of, one of the 13 republics of
Switzerland. It is furrounded on all Tides by the can¬
ton of Bern. The land is fertile in corn, fruits, and
paftures •, and it is faid the canton can fend 18,000
men into the field. This canton is entirely Catholic.
FRICASSEE, a difti or mefs haftily dreffed in a
frying pan, and feafoned with butter, oil, or the like.
The word is French, formed of the Latin frixatura,
** frying.” Others will have fricaffee formed in imita¬
tion of the noife made by butter, or other fat, when
melted Lu the pan. We fay a fricaflee of pullets,^of
F R I
rabbit's, of tench, of tripe, of frogs, of egg-, of peas,
&CC* • 1 ■ !■■■ y —— I
FRICENTI, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
ki wdom of Naples, and in the farther principato, near
th? river Tripalto, in E. Long. 14. 13- N. Lut. 4°- 59-
FRICTION, the ad! of rubbing or grating the lur-
face of one body againft that of another, called alfo at¬
trition. The phenomena arifing. upon the friction of
divers bodies, under different circumftances, are very
numerous and confiderable. Mr Hawkftee gives us a
number of experiments of this kind j particularly oi the
attrition or friction of glafs, under various circumftan¬
ces, the refult of which was, that it yielded light and
became eledtrical. All bodies by friaion produce heat •,
many of them emit light *, particularly a cat s bacx,
fugar, beaten fulphur, mercury, Tea water, gold, cop¬
per, &.c. but, above all, diamonds, which, when bnlk-
ly rubbed againft; glafs, gold, or the like, yield a light,
equal to that of a live coal when blowed by the bellows.
See Electrics and Electricity.
Friction, in Mechanics^ denotes the refnlance a
moving body meets with from the furface on which, it
moves. Friaion arifes from the roughnefs or afpenty
of the furface of the body moved on, and that 01 the
body moving : for fuch furfaces confifting alternately
of eminences and cavities, either the eminences of the
one mutt be raifed over thofe of the other, or they
muft be both broke and w7orn off j but neither can liaP'
pen without motion, nor can motion be produced, with¬
out a force impreffed. Hence, the force applied to
move the body is either wholly or partly fpent on this
effea ; and confequently there arifes a reiiftance or fric¬
tion, which will be greater, ceteris paribus, as the
eminences are the greater and the fubftance the hardei .
and as the body, by continual friaion, becomes more
and more poliflied, the friaion diminifties. See Me¬
chanics. j u a
Friction, in Medicine and Surgery, denotes the act
of rubbing a difeafed part with oils, unguents, or other
matters, in order to eafe, relieve, and cure it. ■^r^c"
tions are much ufed of late in venereal cafes. Ihey
prefer the applying of mercury externally by way. of
friaion, to that of giving it internally, to raife a faliva-
tion. _ n n 1 n r
There are alfo friaions with the flefti bruih, a linen
cloth, or the hand only. Thefe friaions are a fort of
exercife which contributes greatly to health \ as they
excite and ftir up the natural warmth, divert defluxions*
promote perfpiration, open the pores of the Ikin, and
carry off ftagnant humours.
The flelh brufti (Dr Cheyne obferves) is an exercife
extremely ufeful for promoting a full and fiee perfpiia-
tion and circulation. Every body knows the effeft
of currying horfes j that it makes them fleek., gay,
lively, and aftive } fo as even to be judged equivalent
to half the feeding. This it can no otherwife effedt,
but by afliiling nature to throw oft" the recrements oi
the juices, wdiich ftop the free circulation, and, by co'v'
ftant fridlion, irritation, and ftimulation, to bring the
blood and fpirits to the parts moft diftant from the
feat of heat and motion ; and fo plump up the fupe.r-
ficial mufcles. And the fame effea. it would have m
other creatures, and man himfelf, if manage in t e
fame manner, and with the fame care and leguiarity..
Friday
F R f
Friendly
Wands.
Perfons, tlierefore, of weak nerves and fedentary lives
would do well to fupply the want of other exercife
with fpending half an hour, morning and night in
currying and rubbing their whole body, efpecially their
limbs, with a tlefli brulh. But this means of health
is moft advantageoully ufed when the primer vice are
mou empty.
FRIDAY, the fixth day of the week j fo named of
jreya' a Saxon deity- By the Romans it was called
dies Veneris. See Frea.
GoocI-Friday. See GooD-Friday.
FRIDSrOL, mentioned, in our ancient waiters
among the immunities granted to churches, fignifies a
reat, chair or place of peace and fecuritv, where cri¬
minals might find lafety and protection : of thefe there
were many m England ; but the moil famous were that
at Beverly, and that in St Peter’s church at York
grantea by charter of King Henry I.
FRIEDENSHUET FEN, a Moravian fettlement
whole name figmfies tents of peace, fituated on the Suf-
• quehannah river in Pennfylvania, about 24 miles below
i ioga point, which ow^ed its origin to the united breth¬
ren m the year 1765. At that period it contained 12
huts belonging to the Indians, befides 40 houfes con-
chapel attCr t le EuroPean manner, and a very neat
tV> BB-JBNDLY islands, a clufter of iflands in rfie
acutc ocean, fo named by Captain Cook in the year
1773, on account of the friendfhip which apppeared to
ubM among the inhabitants, and from their courteous
behaviour to Grangers. Abel Janfen Tafman, an e-
jmment Dutch navigator, firfl touched here in 164.2
•and gave names to the principal iflands. Captain Cook
abonoufly explored the whole clufter, w hich he found
to confift ofmorethan 6°. The three iflands which
laflnan faw he named Mm Amjlerdam, Rotterdam, and
?he firs,s ,he kr«eft’ “d «kdS
about 2i miles from eaft to weft, and about 12 from
noith to muth. Ihefe iflands are inhabited by a race
of Indians, who cultivate the earth with great induf-
try. I he ifland of Amfterdam is interfefted by a ftraiofrt
and pleafant roads, with fruit trees on each fide, which
provide fliade from the fcorching heat of the fun. The
chief iflands are Annamooka, Tongataboo (the refi-
dence of the fovereign and the chiefs), Lefooga, and
Booa. Lefooga is about feven miles long, and m feme
places not above two or three broad. It is in many
reipeas fupenor to Annamooka. The plantations
True TrC UUn!erous and more extenfive : and en-
clofed by fences which running parallel to each other,
own fine. fpacious public roads, which would appear
beautiful m countries where rural conveniences have
been earned to the greateft perfetfion. They are, in
general highly cultivated, and well flocked with the
feveral roots and fruits which thefe iflands produce •
and Captain Cook endeavoured to add to their num
her by planting Indian corn and the feeHc ^ I|um" , / are> uPon the whole, few natural
rumpkim and the like. *Eooa, when vkwedYm ^
pumpkins, and the like. Eooa, when viewed from
the flap at anchor, formed one of the moft beautiful
profpedts.m nature, and very different from the others
o the Friendly Ifles 5 which being low and perfe&Iy
level, exhibit nothing to the eye but the trees wdiich
cover them: whereas here, the land riling gently lo¬
st confiderable height, prelaws us with an extenfive
proipea, where groves of trees are only interfperfed at
1
r 2.so ] e r i
irregular diftances, in beautiful diforder, and all 'the
rcit. is covered with grafs, except near the ftiores, where
it is entirely covered with fruit and other trees: amoneft
which are the habitations of the natives. In order to
have a view of as great a part of the ifland as pof-
j e, Captain Cook and fome of his officers walk¬
ed up to the higheft point of the ifland. From
this place they had a view of almoft the whole ifland
which confifted of beautiful meadows of prodigious ex¬
tent, adorned with tufts of trees, and intermixed with
plantations. ‘While I was furveying this delightful
pr° peeft (fays Captain Cook), I could not help'flatter-
nig myfelf with the pleafing idea that fome future na¬
vigator may, from the fame ftation, behold thefe mea¬
dows flocked with cattle, brought to thefe iflands by
the mips of England ; and that the completion of this
imgle benevolent purpofe, independent of all other con-
ideiations, would fufficiently mark to pofterity that
our voyages had not been ufelefs to the general inte-
lefts of humanity. ‘ The next morning,’ fays our be¬
nevolent commander, ‘ I planted a pine apple, and
lowed the feeds of melons and other vegetables in
laoofa’s plantation. I had indeed fome encourage¬
ment to flatter myfelf that my endeavours of this kind
alio would not be fruitlefs ; as I had this day a difli of
turnips feryed up at my dinner, which was the produce
ot feeds I left here in my former voyage.’
I he natives of thefe iflands feldom exceed the com¬
mon ftature ; but are very ftrong and well made, Spe¬
cially as to their limbs. They are generally broad
about the fhoulders j and though the mufcular difpofi-
tion of the men, which feems a confequence of much
aSion, rather conveys the appearance of ftrength than
of beauty, there are feveral to be feen who are really
handfome. The women are not fo much diftingu'flied
rom the men by their features as by their general
form, which is for the moft part deftitute of that
Itrong fieftiy firmnefs that appears in the latter. The
features of fome are fo delicate, as not only to be
a true index of their fex, but tc lay claim to a confi-
derable ihare of beauty and exprefiion : for the bodies
and limbs of moft of the females are well proportion¬
ed j and fome abfolutely perfed models of a beautiful
figure. . But tlie moft remarkable diftin&ion in the
women is the uncommon fmallnefs and delicacy of their
fingers, which may be put in competition with the
fineft m Europe. The general colour is a caft deeper
than the copper brown 5 but feveral of the men and
women have a true olive complexion ; and fome of the
laft are even a great deal fairer. Their countenances
Very, remarkably exprefs the abundant mildnefs or
good nature which they poflefs ; and are entirely free
rom that favage keennefs which marks nations in a
barbarous ftate. They are frank, cheerful,'and good
natured. > 6 ^
d here are, upon the whole, few natural defedls or
  . .   — r—r— The moft
ommon is the tetter or ring worm, that feems to af-
eL a^moft one half of them, and leaves whitiih ler-
pentme marks everywhere behind it j but this is of
leis confequence than another which is very frequent
and appears on every part of the body. Captain Cook
aLu m°rt3ikatlon to }earn t^at al] tke care he took
■if vzfited thefe iflands, to prevent the vene-
when
Friendly
Hlamls.
real
difeafe from beincf
o
communicated to the inhabi¬
tants,
F R 1 [231 J F R I
Friendly tants, had proved ineffectual. What is extraordinary,
lYlands. t{ley Jq not peern to regar(l Jt much ; and as there ap¬
peared few tigns of its deitroying effects, probably the
climate, and the way of living of thefe people, great¬
ly abated its virulence. There are two other complaints
frequent amonglt them’, one of which is an indolent firm
fwelling, that affefts the legs and arms, and increafes them
to an extraordinary fize in their whole length. The other
is a tumor of the fame fort in the tefticles, which fome-
times exceeds the fize of the two fifts. But in other re-
fpehls they may be confidered as uncommonly healthy.
Their hair is in general ftraight, thick, and itrong,
though a few have it bufhy or frizzled. The natural
colour is black ; but the greateft part of the men, and
fome of the women, have it ftained of a brown or
purple colour, and a few of an orange call. They
wear it varioufiy cut. Some have it cut off on one
fide of the head only 5 others have it entirely cut off
except a fingle lock ; the women in general wear it
fhort. The men have their beards cut fhort ; and both
men and women ftrip the hair from the armpits. The
men are ftained from about the middle of the belly
to about half way down the thighs wdth a deep blue
colour. The women have only a fewr fmall lines or
fpots thus imprinted on the inlide of their hands.
Their kings, as a mark of diftinction, are exempted
from this cultom.
The men are all circumcifed, or rather fupercifed,
as the operation confifts in cutting off only a fmall
piece of the forefkin at the upper part : which by that
means is rendered incapable ever after of covering the
glans. This is all they aim at, as they fay the opera¬
tion is praflifed from a notion of cleanlinefs.
The drefs of both men and w7omen is the fame :
and confifts of a piece of cloth or matting (but moftly
the former) about two yards wide and two and a half
long : at lead fo long as to go once and a half round
the waift, to which it is confined by a girdle or cord.
It is double before, and hangs down like a petticoat,
as low as the middle of the leg. The upper part of
the garment above the girdle is plaited into feveral
folds; fo that, when unfolded, there is cloth fuffi-
cient to draw up and wrap round the Ihoulders ; which
is very feldom done. The inferior fort are fatisfied
with fmall pieces; and. very often w-ear nothing but a
covering made of leaves of plants, or the maro, which
is a narrow piece, of cloth or matting like a falh.
This they pafs between the thighs and wrap round
the waif!; but the ufe of it is chiefly confined to the
men. The ornaments worn by both fexes are necklaces,
made of the fruit of the pandanus, and various fweet
fmelling flowers, which go under the general name of
kahulla. Others are compofed of fmall Ihells, the wing
and leg-bones of birds, fliarks-teeth, and other things ;
all which hang loofe upon the breaft 5 rings of tortoife
(hell on the fingers j and a number of thefe joined to¬
gether as bracelets on the wrifts. The lobes of the
ears (though moft frequently only one), are fometimes
perforated with two holes, in which they wear cylin¬
drical bits of ivory about three inches long.
Cleanlinefs induces them to bathe in the ponds, which
ieem to ferve for no other purpofe. T hey are lenfible
that fait water hurts their fkin 5 and when neceflity ob¬
liges them to bathe in the fea, they commonly have
fome cocoa' nutlheUs filled with frelh water poured over
them to w'aih it cflf. People of fuperior rank ufe cocoa
nut oil, which improves the appearance of the fldn
very much.
T he employment of the women is of the eafy kind,
and, for the moft part, fuch as may be executed in the
Louie. The manufaTuring their cloth is wholly con-
figned to their care ; as is alfo that of their mats, which
are eiieemed both for their texture and their beauty.
There are many other articles of lefs note that employ
the fpare time of their females; as combs, of wdiich they
make vaft numbers, and little balkets with fmall beads j
but all finifhed with fuch neatnefs and tafte in the dif-
pofition of the various parts, that a ftranger cannot help
admiring their aftiduity and dexterity.
The province allotted to the men, as might be ex¬
pected, is far more laborious and extenfive than that
O' the women. Agriculture, architecture, boat build-
rng, filhing, and other things that relate to naviga¬
tion, are the. objects of their care. Cultivated roots
and iruits being their principal fupport, this requires
their conftant attention to agriculture, which they
purfue very diligently, and feem to have brought almoft
to as great perfection as circumrtances will permit.
In planting the plantains and yams, they obferve fo
much exacineis, that, which ever way you look, the
rows prefent themfelvelves regular and complete. The
cocoa nut and bread fruit trees are fcattered about
without any order, and feem to give them no trouble
after they have attained a certain height.
1 he houfes of the lower people are poor huts, and
very fmall j thofe of the better fort are larger and more
comfortable. The dimenfions of one of a middling
fize are about 30 feet long, 20 broad, and 12 high.
Their houfe is, properly fpeaking, a thatched roof^or
ftied,. fupported by polls and rafters, difpofed in a
very judicious manner. The floor is raifed with earth
fmoothed, and covered with ftrong thick matting,
and kept very clean. A thick ftrong mat, about two’
and a half or three feet broad, bent into the form of
a femicircle, and fet upon its edge, with the ends
touching the fide of the houfe, in lhape refembling the
fender.of a fire hearth, enclofes a fpace for the mailer
and miftrefs of the family to lleep in. The reft of the
family lleep upon the floor, wdierever they pleafe to
he down ; the unmarried men and women apart from
each other : Or if the family be large, there are fmall
huts adjoining, to which the fervants retire in the
night j fo that privacy is as much obferved here as
one could expect. The clothes that they wear in
the day ferve for their covering in the night. Their
whole furniture confifts of a bowl or two, in which
they make kava j a few gourds j cocoa nut Ihells ;
and fome ■ fmall wooden ftools, which lerve them for
pillows.
They difplay much ingenuity in the building of their
canoes, as well as in the navigating them.
^ I he only tools which they ufe to conftrudt them,
which are very dexteroully made, are hatchets, or ra¬
ther ^thick adzes, of a fmooth black Hone that abounds
at Toofoa; augres, made of lliarks teeth, fixed on
fmall handles, , and rafps of a rough Ikin of a fifh, fall-
ened on hat pieces of wood, thinner on one fide, which
aifo have handles. The cordage is made from the fibres
of the cocoa nut hulk, which, though not more than
nine or ten inches long, they plait, about the fize of
a -
Friendly
Iflands.
F R I
[ 23
. Friendly -a quill, or lefs, to any length that they pleafe, and
I {lands, ro\i it Up in balls, from which the larger ropes are
v ' made by twilling feveral of thefe together. The lines
that they filh with are as ftrong and even as the bed
.cord we make, refembling it almoft in every refpea.
Their other filhing implements are large and imall
hooks made of pearl Ihell. Their _ weapons are clubs
of different forts, (in the ornamenting of which they
fpend much time), fpears and darts. They have alfo
bows and arrows ; but thefe feemed to be deligned
only for amufement, fuch as (hooting at birds, and
not for military purpoles. The llools are about two
.feet long, but only four or five inches high, and near
four broad, bending downward in the middle, with
four ftrong legs, and circular feet j the whole made
-of one piece of black or brown wood, neatly polilhed,
and fometimes inlaid with bits of ivory.
Yams, plantains, and cocoa nuts, compofe the great-
eft part of their vegetable diet. Of their animal food,
the chief articles are, hogs, fowls, fifh, and all forts of
ihell filh ; but the lower people eat rats. The two
fivll vegetable articles, with bread fruit, are what may
be called the bafis of their food, at different times of
.the year, with filh and Ihell filh j for hogs, fowls, and
turtle, leem only to be occafional dainties, reler\ ed for
their chiefs. Their food is generally dreffed by ba¬
king, and they have the art ol making, from different
* kinds of fruit, feveral dilhes which moft of us efteemed
very good. The generality of them lay their viftuals
■upon the firft leaf they meet with, however dirty it
may be j but when food is ferved up to the chiefs, it
is commonly laid upon green plantain leaves. The
women are not excluded from eating with the men ^
but there are certain ranks or orders amongft them
that can neither eat nor drink together. This diftmc-
tion begins with the king } but where it ends could
not be learnt. They feem to have no fet time for
meals. They go to bed as foon as it is daik, and rife
with the dawn in the morning.
Their private diverfions are chiefly finging, dancing,
and mufic performed by the women. I he dancing of
the men has a thoufand different motions with the
hands, to which we are entire ftrangers; and they are
performed with an eafe and grace which are not to be
defcribed but by thofe who have feen them..
Whether their marriages be made lading by any
kind of folemn contract, our voyagers could not deter¬
mine with precifion 5 but it appeared that tlm bulk of
the people fatisfied themfelves with one wife. The
chiefs, however, have commonly feveral women, though
it appeared as if one only was looked upon as the
miftrefs of the family.
When any perfon of confequence dies, his body is
walhed and decorated by fome woman or women, who
are appointed on the occafion *, and thefe women are
not by their cuftoms, to touch any food with their
hands for many months afterwards j and it is remark¬
able, that the length of the time they are thus pro-
fcribed, is the greater in proportion to the rank of the
chief whom they had walhed.
The concern of thefe people for the dead is moft
extraordinary. They beat their teeth with Hones,
ilrike a lhark’s tooth into the head until the blood
flow’s in ftrearns, and thruft fpears into the inner part
.of the thigh, into their fades below the armpits, and
2 ] F R I
through the cheeks into the mouth. All thefe ope¬
rations convey an idea of fuch rigorous difcipline, as
muft require either an uncommon degree of affec¬
tion, or the groffeft fuperftition, to exad. It Ihould
be obferved, however, that the more painful operations
are only pradifed on account of the death of thofe
moft nearly conneded.
Their long and general mourning proves, that they
confider death as a very great evil. And this is con¬
firmed by a very odd cuftom which they pradife to
avert it. They fuppole that the Deity will accept
of the little finger, as a fort of facrifice efficacious-
enough to procure the recovery of their health. They
cut it off with one of their Hone hatchets. There ap¬
peared fcarcely one in ten of them who was not thus
mutilated in one or both hands. According to Captain
King, it is common alfo for the inferior people to cut
off a joint of their little finger on account of the ficknefs
of the chiefs to whom they belong.
They feem to have little conception of future pu-
nilhment. They believe, however, that they are juftly
punilhed upon earth ; and confequently ufe every me¬
thod to render their divinities propitious. The Su¬
preme Author of all things they call Kal/afootonga ;
wffio, they fay, is a female refiding in the Iky, and di-
reding the thunder, wind, rain, and in general all the
changes of weather. They believe that when ihe is
angry with them, the produdions of the earth are
blafted ; that many things are deftroyed by lightning ;
and that they themfelves are alflided with ficknefs and
death as well as their Logs and other animals. When
this anger abates, they fuppofe that every thing is re-
ftored to its natural order. They alfo admit a plura¬
lity of deities, though all inferior to Kal/afootonga.
They have lefs abfurd fentiments about the immate¬
riality and the immortality of the foul. They call it
life, the living principle •, or, what is more agreeable
to their notions of it, Otooa ; that is, a divinity or in-
vifible being.
Of the nature of their government no more is knowm
than the general outline. According to the informa¬
tion received, the power of the king is unlimited, and
the life and property of the fubjed are at his difpofal ;
and inftances enough w7ere feen to prove that the lower
order of people have no property, nor fafety for their
perfons, but at the will of the chiefs to whom they re-
fpedively belong. When any one wants to fpeak with
the king or chief, he advances and fits down before
him with his legs acrofs ; wffiich is a pollute to which
they are fo much accuilomed, that any other mode of
fitting is difagreeable to them. To fpeak to the king
Handing w’ould be accounted here as a ftriking mark
of rudenels.
Though fome of the more potent chiefs may vie
with the king in point of adual pofleflions, they fall
very Ihort in rank and in certain marks of refped,
which the colledive body have agreed to pay the. mo¬
narch. It is a particular privilege annexed, to his fo-
vereignty, not to be pundured nor circumcifed, as all
his fubjedj are. Whenever he walks out, every one
whom he meets muft fit down till he has paffed. No
one is allowed to be over his head ; on the contrary all
mult come under his feet j for there cannot be a. great¬
er outward mark of fubmiffion than that which is paid
to the fovereign and other great people of thefe illands
b7
Friendly
Iflands.
F R I
Friendfhip. by their inferiors. The method is this
Definition
of friend-
fhip.
[ 23
the perfon
who is to pay obeifance fquats down before the chief,
and bows the head to the foie of his foot •, which,
when he fits, is fo placed that it cannot eafily be come
at ; and having tapped or touched it with the under
and upper fide of the fingers of both hands, he rifes
up and retires. The hands, after this application of
them to the chief’s feet, are in fome cafes rendered
ufelefs for a time ; for, until they be wafiied, they mull
not touch any kind of food. When the hands are in
this ftate, they call it taboo retna. Taboo, in general,
fignifies “ forbidden,” and rema is their word for
“ hand.” Their great men are fond of a lingular
piece of luxury ; which is, to have women fit befide
them all night, and beat on different parts of their
body until they go to deep ; after which they relax a
little of their labour, unlefs they appear likely to
awake ; in which cafe they redouble their drumming
until they are again fait afleep.
FRIENDSHIP may be defined, a mutual attach¬
ment fubfifting between two perfons : and arifing, not
merely from the general principle of benevolence, from
emotions of gratitude for favours received, from views
of intereft, or from inllindtive affection or animal
paflion ; but from an opinion entertained by each of
them, that the other is adorned with fome amiable or
refpeftable qualities.
2 The object of the general principle of benevolence
IHuftration^ is manl>in^ not any particular individual. Gratitude
definition regards the perfon from whom he who feels its emo¬
tions has received a favour, whether that perfon be a
virtuous or vicious, a refpe&able or a contemptible,
chara&er : it prompts the perfon obliged to make a fuit-
able return to his benefa&or, but not to enter into
any particular intimacy with him, merely on account
of the favours which he has received. Many connec¬
tions are formed, and dignified with the name of friend-
Jhip, upon no other principle but the fordid hope which
one or perhaps each of the parties entertains of ac-
complifhing fome felfifh purpofe through the afliftance
of the other : but fuch a connexion is fo bafe in its
nature, and fo tranfitory in its duration, as to render
it unneceflary for us to fpend time in demonftrating it
to be unworthy of the name of friendihip. The in-
ftin&ive affedfion which a parent entertains for his
child, as well as that which the child feels for his pa¬
rent, feems intended by nature to form an union between
the perfons thus related to each other : but the union
• between parents and children, when fupported by no
other principle but inftindt, is different from friend¬
ihip : it extends no farther than to caufe the parent
to provide for his child during his helplefs years, and
the child to look up to his parent for protedlion and
fupport. We need not mention that appetite which
is the foundation of love, and is the provifion which
nature has made for the continuation of our fpecies.
This appetite alone, and unaffifted by fome nobler prin¬
ciple, cannot give rife to any connexion worthy of an
honourable name.
After excluding thefe principles, we can refer the
origin of friendihip only to “ an opinion entertained
by each of the parties between whom it fubfifts, that
the other is adorned with fome amiable or refpedlable
qualities.” A connexion founded on different prin¬
ciples we cannot honour with the name of friendihip j
Vol. IX. Part I,
3 1 F R I
but that which flows from this pure fource mud beFriendfhip.
noble and virtuous. When two perfons of virtue and “Y——'
abilities contemplate each the other’s charafter and
conducf, they cannot but view them with complacency
and efteem. Habits and aftions difplaying prudence,
fortitude, moderation, integrity, benevolence, and piety,
naturally command the approbation of the impartial
fpeftator, and even affe£t him with delight. But as
we are difpofed to revifit a landicape the beauties of
which we have contemplated with rapture, and read
with frequent delight a poem in which genius ha
faithfully delineated fome of the mofl enchanting fcenes
or the molt interelfing events in nature } fo we alfo be¬
come defirous to enjoy frequent opportunities of con¬
templating a charafter diftinguifhed for eminent abi¬
lities and illuftrious virtues. The fociety of fuch a
perfon is preferred to his who is difgraced by the op-
pofite qualities. Hence, whenever men of truly re-
fpedtable charafters enjoy opportunities of mutual in-
tercourfe, an attachment naturally takes place between
them •, entirely difinterefted, and founded folely on
the approbation with which the one cannot avoid re¬
garding the condudf of the other. The efteem which
the one is thus induced to entertain for the other will
lead them to feek frequent opportunities of enjoying
each other’s fociety, mutually to afk and liften to ad¬
vice, to truft their molt fecret and important purpofes
to each other’s confidence, and to be no lefs concerned
each of them for the other’s interefl and honour than
for his own. This, and this alone, is genuine friend-
fhip; founded on virtue, and on that approbation
which virtue never fails to command : it is a natural
confequence of intercourfe between virtuous men.—
Where it is once eftablifhed, it cannot die, while thofe
virtues to which it owes its origin continue to adorn
the perfons between whom it fubfifts. ^
But, perhaps, fuch a pure and fublime attachment Circum-
can fcarce be cxpedled to exift among beings of fo fiances fa-
mixed and imperfedl a charafter as mankind. Thev°ura.^e tc>
wife man of the ancient Stoics, or the Chriftian whof ie.ri e an
iully obeys the precepts and follows the fteps of hisanceof
Saviour, might be capable of it j but, unfortunately, fritndfhip.
humanity never reaches fuch perfeftion. Virtue and
vice are fo blended together in every human chara6fer,
that while none is fo worthlefs as to excite no other
fentiment but abhorrence, there is fcarcely any fo uni¬
formly virtuous as to command unvaried efteem or ad¬
miration. Even the pureft and moft difinterefted of
thofe friendfhips which prevail among men, owe their
origin to other meaner principles, as well as to that
which has been mentioned as the principle of genuine
friendfhip. There are certain circumftances favourable,
and others adverfe, to the formation and continuance
of friendfhip. Thefe, making amends, as it were, for
the imperfedlion of human virtue and human know¬
ledge, lead men to overlook each other’s faults and fol¬
lies, and to unite in the bonds of friendfhip j a friend-
flftp which, though lefs folid, lefs generous, and lefs
lafting, than that which we have above defcribed, is
yet attended with effects favourable to the happinefs
of individuals, and to the interefts of fociety in general.
Equa/ity of age is favourable to friendftup. Infancy,
manhood, and old age, differ fo confiderably from each
other in their views, paflions, and purfuits, that the
tnan will feldom be difpofed to aflbciate with the boy
G g or
F R. I [ 234 ]
jr'riendfLip. or tlie youth, in preference to one who has had equal unequal
exoerience in the world with hiraielf j and the old tnan
will generally will) for the company of fome ancient
friend with whom he may ^)eak of “ the days of for¬
mer years.”
They who cultivate x\\zfame trade or profejjion, en¬
joy opportunities favourable to the formation of friend-
diip. Being engaged among the fame objects, and
acquiring fkill in the fame arts, their knowledge, their
fentiments, and habits, are nearly the fame : they can¬
not avoid frequent intercourfe with each other; they
naturally enter into each other’s prejudices and views,
and therefore cannot but take pleafure in each other’s
converfation and fociety. Phyficians, lawyers, and
divines, form each of them a diftin£t body j and the
members of each of thofe bodies affbeiate with one
another more readily than with men of a different pro-
feffion. It is related by Swift or Addifon, that, in
the beginning of the prefent century, there wras a par¬
ticular cofteehoufe in London w7hich clergymen ufed
to frequent, and that a fon of the church fcarcely ever
ventured to fhow his head in any other. In the days
of Dryden, poets, and all who pretended to poetical
genius or ta!le, reforted to IVill^s, as to another Par-
naffus, to lip cups of coffee, and now and then per¬
haps to drink of fome more infpiring liquor, inilead
of the waters of the fountain Hippocrene.
Equality of rank end fortune is alfo favourable to
friendihip. Seldom will a man of fortune be able to
gain the fmcere friendihip of any of his dependants.
Though he treat them with the moll obliging conde-
feenfion, and load them with favours 5 yet flill, either
the fenfe of dependence, or refentment for imaginary
injuries, or impatience of the debt of gratitude, or
fome other fimilar reafon, will be likely to prevent
them from regarding him with cordial affection. Ser¬
vants are but rarely faithful even to the mofl indulgent
mailer : Shakefpeare’s old Adam is a very amiable but
a very uncommon charadler. Indeed you may as foon
expedl to find the virtues and the generous courage
of the chevalier Bayard among our military men of the
prefent age, as to find an old Adam among the prefent
race of fervants. It is no lefs vain for the poor man
to hope to acquire a fincere friend among his fuperiors
in rank and fortune. The fuperior is generally dif-
pofed to exadl fuch profound deference, fuch gratitude,
fuch refpedl, even from the inferior whom he admits
into his intimacy, that the equal amicable intercourfe
of friendihip can fearce ever take place between them.
Among the letters of the younger Pliny, we are pleafed
to find many monuments of the goodnefs of his heart.
A number of his epillles addreffed to friends in meaner
rircumltances appear to have been accompanied with
very eonllderable prefents, which by his opulence he
was well enabled to bellow. But he takes care to
let thofe humble friends know the weight of the ob¬
ligations which he conferred, and the vaitnefs of the
debt of gratitude wThich they owed to him, in fuch
plain, nay even indelicate terms, that though they
might receive his favours with gratitude and regard
him as their benefadlor, yet they could never regard
him as a man with whom they might cultivate the
free eafy intercourfe of friendihip. Some one or ether
of the Greek writers mentions a fingular inftance of
cordial friendihip fubfilling between two per&ns in
F R 1
circumllances. One of them dying before Friemlfiiip.
other, and leaving a wife and daughter to whom 's
the
he had no fortune nor even means of fubfillence to
bequeath, enjoined his rich friend, in his will, to take
the charge of them on himfelf, and to fupport them
in a liberal manner : nor did he entreat this from his
humanity, but demanded it from his friendihip. Pie
had made a fure provilion for his family. His rich
friend delayed not to comply with his dying injunc¬
tion. He readily took upon himfelf the charge of the
wife and daughter of his deceafed friend, treated them
with kindnefs, and at lalt divided his whole fortune
equally between his own only daughter and the child
of his friend. This is an agreeable inftance of the
powrer of friendihip : but fuch inltances are not to be
expedled to occur frequently in ordinary life, any more
than the Stoic virtue of Cato, or the model! piety of a
Nelfon.
Similarity of tafe and temper will generally be found
favourable to friendihip. Two peevilh men, indeed,
will not long endure each other’s company with much
fatisfaclion ; but two perfons of mild, humane difpo-
fitions will naturally take delight in each other’s fo¬
ciety and converfation. They w’ho are charmed with
the bullle of a gay and adlive life, avoid the haunts of
the indolent and contemplative, and join hand in hand
to climb the heights of ambition, or tread the round
of amufement and diflipation. Thofe whom talle
leads to cultivate the elegant objecls of literature
amid the fweets of a rural retirement, to winder through
the grove, or recline on the brink of fome romantic
rill, and perufe the pages of one of thofe geniufes who
have fhown themfelves able to enlighten the under-
ftanding, and to kindle the glow of generous fenti-
ment in the breaft;—thofe children of tafte frequently
affociate in their elegant purfuits. We are pleafed to
read the correfpondence of Pliny and 1 acitus, of
Locke and Molineux, of Swift and Pope. We rejoice
to find, that notwithfianding the rivalry of learning
and genius, tafte and philofophy have a natural ten¬
dency to promote benevolence and friendftiip among
their votaries. The buftle of the world muft be ac¬
knowledged to be generally unfavourable to friendftiip.
When the heart is occupied with the fordid objefts of
ambition, or avarice, or gay diflipation, there is no
room left for the pure and generous fentiments of
friendftiip. Interefts often interfere, competitions and
jealoulies arife, fatal to all the fweets of focial inter¬
courfe. It is in aftive life that virtue {bines with
the moft brilliant luftre ; but feldom, alas ! does pure
virtue appear in the feenes of adlive life. How beau¬
tifully does the charadler of Atticus ftiine amid the
charadlers of his illuftrious cotemporaries ! ut Luna inter
minores ignes ! Sylla, Caefar, Cicero, Brutus, Antony,
and Auguftus, were eminent for their abilities and vir¬
tues ; but being engaged in the buftling purfuits of
ambition, they feem to have been ftrangers to the
calm and elegant happinefs which Atticus enjoyed.
Though thofe of them who were cotemporaries could
not avoid perceiving and admiring each other’s merits,
yet never did cordial friendihip fubfift between them.
Even Cicero, who could fo well define the duties and
deferibe the happinefs of friendftiip, yet appears to
have but feldom enjoyed its delights. But Atticus,
who conilaiuly declined entering the feenes of public
life,
P R I [ 235 ] F R I
FrienJChip. life, expetienced fuch happinefs in a private condition,
v-—v-—as muft have been more than an ample reward to him
for ihunning all the fplendid purfuits of ambition. He
was the difinterefted friend of all thofe eminent men,
and enjoyed their elteem and friendfhip. So upright
was his charafter, fo amiable his manners, that they
who were mortal enemies to each other, yet agreed in
cultivating at the fame time the friendlhip of Atticus.
None of them appear to have hated him on account of
his attachment to their enemies : and while he was
the friend of Cicero and O&avius, he was at the fame
time the proteftor of the wife of Antony. Perhaps
the virtue of fuch a charafter may be regarded as pro¬
blematical. It may be alleged, that while fuch inve¬
terate diffenlions arofe among his friends, the neutra¬
lity which he preferved wTas incontinent with integrity.
He has indeed been ralbly branded by fome writers
as an avaricious time-ferving man. But no evidence
appears to juftify their aflertions 5 on the contrary, the
moft refpeftable teftimony, the niceft fcrutiny, exhibit
his character in thofe amiable colours in which we
have chofen to view it. Atticus is indeed no ordinary
character. The general principles of human nature,
and the examples which moll frequently occur in the
world, naturally fuggell a fufpicion, that had he been
a man of genuine integrity, he mull have obferved a
different tenor of conduff. But there is one circumllance
which tends to llrengthen confiderably the refpeftable
tellimony of his cotemporaries in his behalf. In Cato,
in Epicffetus, in the philofopher, who, while fuffering
under all the violence of an acute diltemper, maintain¬
ed to Pompey that pain was no evil, we have inllances
of the tenets of philofophy oppoling and repreffing the
principles of nature. We know how often religious
enthuliafm has produced the fame effects. But Atticus
was the votary of the mild and elegant philofophy of
Epicurus ; which, though there appears to have been
a palpable inconlillency between its principles and the
fuperllruflure raifed upon them, was yet in its general
tendency not unfriendly to virtue, and recommended
to its votaries that calm and innocent mode of life
which Atticus cultivated. There is no Imall refem-
blance between the character of Atticus and that of
Epicurus, the founder of this philofophy. The fame
tenets feem to have produced the fame effects on both ;
and we will venture to pronounce fo high an encomium
on the Epicurean philofophy, as to affert, that it
chiefly contributed to form the character of this ami¬
able Roman.
Sex. We know not if we may venture to affirm, that
friendlhips are moll naturally contrafled among per-
fons of the fame fex. We believe they often are. If
limilarity of talle, of fentiments, of manners, be fa¬
vourable to friendlhip, this cannot but happen. The
diilindlion which nature has ellablifhed between the
two fexes, the new diltinflions which are introduced
by the different views with which their education is
conduced, and the different duties which they are
called to perform in life, have all a tendency to difpofe
men and women to enter into habits of intimacy
with perfons of their own fex rather than with the
other. Young girls have their peculiar amufements,
as boys have theirs : they knit and few together, con-
fult each other concerning their drefs, and aflbciate at
their idle hours. Young men, in the fame manner,
prefer the fociety of their equals of the fame fex till FiAnlfuip.
fuch time as their hearts begin to feel the impulfe of “
a new paflion. This foil paflion, indeed, caufes the
youth to prefer the company of his favourite maid to
that of his dearell companion *, and it perhaps caules
the virgin to view her female companions with a jea¬
lous eye, while Ihe fears that their charms may win
the heart of the youth whofe fond regard lire herfelf
wilhes to engage. But the fears, the jealottfies, the
timidity, nay even the fondnefs of love, are ncompa-
tible with friendfhip. Though the lover and his miilrefs
be dear to each other, yet the free confidence of
friendlhip cannot take place between them. 'They
dare not yet venture to trull to each other all the fe-
crets of their hearts. But if their mutual willies
be crowned by marriage 5 then, indeed, as their in-
terefts become the‘fame, if the tranfports of love are
not lucceeded by the calm delights and the free con¬
fidence of friendlhip, they mull be unhappy. The
marriage Hate is peculiarly favourable to friendlhip.
Perfons whofe relations to each other are more re¬
mote-, will often find circumilances concurring to in¬
duce them to cultivate a friendly intercourfe with each
other. But here indifference is almolt impoflible. It
is abfolutely requifite, in order that they may not ren¬
der each other miferable, that the hulband and the
wife be united in the bonds of friendlhip. This feems
even to be one of the great laws of nature, by means
of which provifion is made for the happinefs and the
prefervation of fociety. But though the wife and the
hulband be particularly attached to each other by the
ties of friendlhip no lefs than by thofe of love, yet
their mutual affedlion will not detach them from the
reft of the world ; their relations to the fociety around
them will Hill remain ; the hulband will Hill cultivate
the intimacy of thofe of his own fex, and the wife will
Hill choofe female in preterence to male friends. Upon
even a fuperficial view of life, we find reafon to declare
without hefitation, that acquaintance and intimacy
moll naturally take place among perfons of the fame
fex. The hulband and the wife are more than friends 5
they are one bone and one flejb. It has been fometimes
llightly infinuated, and fometimes more openly affert-
ed, by people who have but carelefsly viewed the phe¬
nomena of focial life, or have been difpofed to cavil
againll the fair fex, that women are incapable of fin-
cerity or conllancy in friendlhip with each other. But
it feems unneceflary to offer a ferious refutation of this
cavil. Neither is the general ch a rafter of the female
fex fo inferior to that of the male, nor are their cir-
cumftances fo very different from ours, as to render
them totally incapable of thofe virtues which are ne-
ceflary to effablilh and fupport mutual friendlhip.
They are in general pofleffed of more exquifite fenli-
bility, nicer delicacy of talle, and a juller fenfe of
propriety, than we : nor are they dellitute of genero- '
fity, fidelity, and firmnefs. But fuch qualities are
peculiarly favourable to friendlhip ; they communicate
a certain charm to the manners of the perfon rvho is
adorned with them \ they render the heart fufceptible
of generous difinterefted attachment; and they elevate
the foul above levity, infincerity, and meannefs. Com¬
petitions and jealoufies mull no doubt arife now and
then even among the moll amiable of the female fex,
as well as among us. Thefe wull preclude or dellroy
G g 2 friendlhip.
F R I [23
Frienclfhip. friendfhip. But the rivalry of beauty, of drefs, of
fafhion, is not oftener fatal to friendlhip among the
fair fex, than the contells of pride, avarice, vanity,
and ambition, among their haughty lords. If friend-
fliip be ranked among the virtues, it is not lefs a female
than a male virtue.
Relations ^he delightful intercourfe and intimacy of friend-
of confan- Ihip may be naturally expefled to fubfift not only be-
gumity. tv/een the hufband and the wife, but among all who
are connefted by any of the relations of confanguini-
ty. The powTer of inllinft does not always continue
to unite the parent and the child. Its offices are of a
temporary nature } but when thefe are performed, it
ceafes to operate. During the infancy, the childhood,
and even the youth, of his fon or daughter, the parent
watches over them with fond affeflion, and labours
with anxious affiduity to promote their welfare, for no
other reafon but becaufe the yearnings of paternal af-
fedtion draw him towards them. But as they advance
farther in life, and become able to care for themfelves,
it has been fo ordered by the wifdom of nature, that
the attachment of the parent almofl: dies away, unlefs
the grateful alfedlion and the merit of his children afford
him reafon to rejoice over them and blefs them. How
ihocking, how miferable, the condition of that family,
whofe members are not united by the mutual efteem
and confidence of friendffiip ! where the parent views
his children with jealoufy, ffiame, indignation, or for-
row : and the children anxioufly avoid the fociety of
their parents ! Their interefts are fo nearly connedted j
they have fo many occalions for adling in concert, and
mult live fo long together •, that we may almoit ven¬
ture to affirm, that the parent and the child, like the
hufband and the wife, mult be either friends or enemies.
But the ties of nature, the influence of habit, fenti-
ments, and circumftances, all concur to form between
them the facred connexion of friendlhip. Brothers and
filters, the children of the fame parents, and for a while
members of the fame family, may be expedted to re¬
gard each other through life with kindnefs and efteem }
and thefe we would rather choofe to attribute to a ra¬
tional attachment, founded on certain principles, than
to a blind inltindtive affedtion.
Thefe are a fewT of the diltindtions and relations in
fociety which appear molt favourable to friendlhip.—
Were we to defcend to minuter particulars, we might
enumerate all the varieties of tafte, of temper, and of
circumllances, by which mankind are diftinguilhed
from one another, and diftributed into particular claffes.
But this would be too tedious, and does not appear
neceffary.
6 As friendlhip is an attachment which takes place
I.^ws of between certain human charadters when placed in cer-
friendlhip. circumftanees, there muft therefore be laws for
fupporting the attachment and regulating the inter¬
courfe of friendlhip. Mutual efteem is the bafis on
which true friendlhip is eftablilhed; and the intercourfe
of friendffiip ought furely to be connected in fuch a
manner that this foundation be not injured. Friend¬
lhip muft diminilh neither our benevolence nor pru¬
dence : it muft not feduce us from an honeft atten¬
tion to our private intereft, nor contract our focial
affedtion s.
Sincerity may be confidered as the firft law of friend-
ihip. Artifice and hypocrify are inimical to all focial „
6 ] F R I
intercourfe. Between the deceitful and the honeft, Friendllnp.
friendlhip can never fubfift. For a while, the one may v r
impofe on the other 5 unfufpicious integrity may not be
able to fee through the malk under which the hideous
features of felfilh cunning are veiled j but the deceitful
friend muft ever be a ftranger to the delightful fenti-
ments of genuine friendlhip. To enjoy thele, your vir¬
tues muft be fincere, your aftedtion for the perfon whom
you call your friend unfeigned ; in communicating to
each other your fentiments, in oft'ering and liftening to
mutual advice, in joining to profecute the fame defigns,
or lhare in the fame amufements, candid fincerity mult
ftill be obferved between you. Attempt not to pet-
fuade each other, that your mutual affedtion is more
ardent, or your mutual efteem more profound, than
it really is. If the lentirnents or opinions which the
one expreffes appear to the other improper or ill-
founded, let not a falfe delicacy prevent him from de¬
claring his reafons againft them •, let him not applaud
where, if he wTere fincere, he muft blame. Join not
even your friend in an undertaking which you fecretly
diflike, or an amufement infufferably difagreeable to
you. You cannot, confiftently with fincerity and can¬
dour : and you will foon begin to think the bleffings of
friendlhip too dear, when bought at the price of fuch
facrifices.
But though fincerity is to be faithfully obferved in
the intercourfe of friendlhip j yet the harlhnefs of con-
tradidlion muft be carefully avoided. Thofe obliging
manners which are fo agreeable in an acquaintance or
cafual companion, are ftill more fo in a friend. If
they are neceffary to recommend the advantages of
focial intercourfe in general to the members of fociety,
they are no lefs neceffary to communicate a charm to
the intercourfe of friendlhip. People often think
themfelves entitled to behave to thofe whom they -
call their friends, and whofe interefts they profefs to
regard as their own, with harlhnefs, negligence, and
indifcreet familiarity; but nothing can be more fatal
to friendlhip. It is a well known maxim, eftablilhed
by general and uniform experience, that too much fa-
miliarity occajions mutual contempt. And indeed how
can it be otherwife ? Mild obliging manners are under-
ftood as the natural and genuine expreffions of kindnefs
and affection: boifterous rudenefs, petulance, and ne«
gledt, are naturally confidered as expreflive of oppofite
fentiments. But if friendlhip affume the tone, the car¬
riage and the language of enmity or indifference, it -
muft foon lofe all its native charms and advantages. :
Let the friend, as well as the cafual companion, when
he finds reafon to difapprove of the fentiments and
condu£t, or to diffent from the opinions of his friend,
exprefs himfelf in the gentleft terms, with honefty and
fincerity, but without carelefsnefs or harlhnefs. Let
no frequency of intercourfe nor union of interefts ever ,
tempt to carelefs or contemptuous familiarity. Stiff
and unmeaning ceremony may be banilhed •, but eafe, ,
and delicacy, and relpeflful deference, and obliging ,
attention, muft fupply its room. Much of the unhap- .
pinefs of the marriage ftate, and much of the mutual
uneafinefs which arifes among thofe. who are related
by the endearing ties of cenfanguinity, is occafioned ,
by the parties who are thus clofely connected, thinking
it unneceffavy to obferve the ordinary rules of goou
breeding in their mutual intercourfe. Lven kindnefs >
puts
F R I [
f*rien<Jffiip puts on a clifgufting garb, and affumes a harfh afpect.
mutual kinunefs cannot there long fubiiit. Home,
which ought to be a fanctuary to 111eIter from the
anxieties and ills of life, a little paradife where thole
pure and innocent pleafures might be enjoyed which
afford the moll genuine happinefs, and which are not
to be tafted in the buifle of the bufy and the didipa-
tion of the gay wTorld $ home thus becomes a place of
torment, wdiich is never entered but with pain and
unwillingnefs} and from w'hich the fon, the daughter,
the huihand, and the wife, eagerly feize every opportu¬
nity to efcape.
Mutual confidence is the very foul of friendilup. If
friend ihip be rightly defined to be a mutual affe&ion
founded on mutual efteem, thofe who are united in
the bonds of friendlhip cannot but repofe mutual con¬
fidence in each other. Am I confcious of none but
generous worthy fentiments, and none but upright ho¬
ned intentions ? I readily difclofe all the fecrets of my
foul to him whom I regard as capable only of fimilar
■defigns and fimilar fentiments. But it may be alked,
how far the confidence of friendlhip ought to be car¬
ried ? Mult I reveal to my friend all my fentiments,
opinions, and defigns ? Mud I communicate to one
friend the fecrets which have been intruded to me by
another ? Or mud I rather obferve the molt fulpicious
caution in my intercourfe with my friends, remember¬
ing that he who is now my friend may one day became
my enemy ? It feems mod prudent to obferve a me¬
dium between fufpicious caution and unlimited confi¬
dence. Were human virtue perfect, and w7ere there
no indances of friends ever becoming enemies, thofe
who regard each other with friendly affeftion might
very reafonably be required to fet no bounds to their
mutual confidence. But as this is far from being the
cafe, different meafures are to be obferved. Contract
no friendlhips, if you think it neceffary to treat a
friend with the fame referve as an enemy. Yet venture
not to difclofe to your friend all the foolidi or evil
defigns,which the wantonnefs of imagination may fe-
duce you to form. When you feel the emotions of
pride, of vanity, or of any evil paflion, if you are
able to reprefs them by the drength of reafon and con-.
fcience, it feems unneceffafy for you to tell the druggie,
or to boad of the vidfory. If, at any former period
of life, you have been fo unfortunate as to commit
a£1 ions which you .cannot now recolleft without fhame
and contrition, there can be no reafon why you may
not, as far as poffible, bury the remembrance of them
in your own bread. In fhort, not to become tedious
by defcending to minute particulars, the laws of friend¬
lhip do not require friends to unbofom themfelves to
each other any farther than is neceffary—to give them
jud ideas of each other’s eharatter and temper,—to
enable them to be ferviceable to each other in the pro-
fecution of honed deffgns,—and to afford each of.
them proper opportunities of exciting the other to vir¬
tue and wifdoro, and of interpofing his influence-to
preferve him from vice and folly. Whatever is necef¬
fary for any of thefe purpofes ought to be mutually
communicated \ whatever is not, may be concealed
wuthout violating the laws of friendlhip. As mutual
edeem is the foundation of friendfhip, and as human
frienddiips are not always lading, you ought not to
pour into the ear of your friend all the impertinences
7 ] t R I
which you may happen to conceive, nor even all the Frier,dfliip
projerds which may float in your imagination : but as “
much of the felicity of friendlhip arifes from the mu¬
tual confidence <to which it affords room, call not any
man your friend in whofe prefence you find it proper
to obferve the fame fufpicious caution as if be were
your enemy. The ancients, who talked of friendfnip
with enthuliafm as one of the mod elevated among the
virtues, required dill a clofer union and a more difin-
terelfed attachment among friends than we dare ven¬
ture to infid upon. The mutual duties which they
have defcribed as incumbent on friends, appear fome-
what extravagant. Among other things, fome of them
have gone fo far as to require a degree of mutual con¬
fidence which would foon dedroy all confidence, and
could not fail to counteract all the purpofes of friend¬
fhip : they have required one friend to communicate '
to another, not only all his own thoughts and purpofes,
but even thofe fecrets which have been confided to his
honour by any other friend. But the evil confequen-
ces which would refult are eafily to be forefeen. Per¬
haps, like Atticus, you enjoy the friendfhip of men
who are mutual enemies} and by communicating the
fecrets of the one to the other, you will then become
the betrayer of both. Or, though not abfolutely ene¬
mies, yet thofe who are your friends may happen not
to be in habits of friendfhip with each other j and they
may then perhaps not fcruple to divulge thofe fecrets
of one another which you have imprudently blabbed
to them. Indeed, might we fuppofe all mankind ab¬
folutely faultlefs, and not liable to moral impeifeClion,
we need not fear tbefe bad confequences from unbound¬
ed confidence in our friends. But friendfhip would
in.fuch a flate of fociety be unknown: juft as in the
golden age of the poets there are fuppofed to have
been no AiftinCfions of property. We cannot here'
forbear dropping an obfervation, which will readily be
acknowledged as juft by all who have any tolerable
knowledge of the morality of the philofophers of an¬
cient Greece. All their doftrines and precepts appear
calculated for a different order of beings than mankind.
They glanced carelefsly at the phenomena of the moral
world } and gleaning a few fa£la, immediately fet them¬
felves to ereft fyftems : From thefe, however wild and
theoretical, they then pretended to deduce laws for
the regulation of human conduct and their rules are
generally fuch as might be expefted from the means ■
which they appear to have employed in order to arrive
at them. An apology has however been offered for
fome of them, which, in our opinion, could occur
only to fuperficial obfervers of human life; It has
been alleged in behalf of the Stoics, that their fyftera
indeed required more, exalted virtue than human nature
is capable of attaining \ but that, notwithftanding this,
it could not fail to produce the happjeft effefts on the
manners and fentiments of its votaries. Inftances, too,
have been produced in fupport of this affertion ; a Cato,
an Epidletus, an Antoninus. . When we contemplate
a -model of perfeflfton beyond what we can hope to
reach, fay the advocates of the . Stoic philofophy,
though we defpair of attaining, yet we are prompted
to afpire after it. Now, the moft natural way of rea-
foning here feems to lead to a very different conclu-
lion. If an objeft is fet before me which I muft not
hope to obtain, I am unwilling to wafte my time and
exhauli . x
F R I [ 23
3* exhauft my vigour in the purfuit of it: bid me afceud
an inacceffxble height, I view the vale below with new
fondnefs. Philofophy, as well as fuperitltion and en-
thufialin, might in a few inftances triumph over the
principles oi nature •, but was it always equally power¬
ful ? Were all the difciples of Zeno Catos or Epicle-
tuf s ? Have all the monks and anchorites of the Ro-
m...': church been holy as the founders of their orders ?
No : The Greek philofophers who infefted Rome, and
taught thofe whimfical dodlrines which we hear fre¬
quently dignified with the name fib lime, were lin-
g’ularly corrupted and licentious in all their manners.
If thofe of the regular clergy of the church of Rome
have been always more pure, they have been cruelly
calumniated. Aik, then, only what I am capable of
performing : if you demand what is above my ftrength,
I lit Hill in indolence. In its general tendency, the
Stoic philofophy was favourable rather to vice than to
virtue.
But we have not yet exhaulted all the duties of
friendlhip. We have inculcated lincerity, and mutual
refpedl and obligingnefs of manners 5 we have alfo en¬
deavoured to alcertain what degree of mutual confi¬
dence ought to take place between friends. But an
important queltion Hill remains to be conlidered : how
far is an union oj interejis to take place between friends ?
Am I to lludy the interelt of my friend in preference
to my own ? May I lawfully injure others, in order to
ferve him ? Here, too, we mult conlider the circum-
llances and the ftrength of human nature ; and let us
beware of impoling burdens too heavy to be borne.
The greater and more perfect the union which reigns
in fociety, the greater will be its ftrength and happi-
nefs ; the clofer the union of friends, the more advan¬
tages will each of them derive from their union.
Where other ties belides thofe of friendlhip concur to
unite two individuals, their interefts will be more clofe-
ly conjoined than if they were connected by the ties
of friendlhip alone. The order of nature feems here
to be,—the hulhand and wife—the parent and child—
brothers and lifters, the offspring of the fame parents—
friends, connedted by the ties of friendlhip alone.
And, if we may prefume to guefs at the intentions of
the Author of nature from what we behold in his works
and read in his word, the clofeft union in fociety ought
to be that between the hulhand and the wife \ their in¬
terefts are altogether the fame-, they ought mutually
to forego convenience and gratification for each other’s
lake. The interefts of parents and children are fome-
what lefs clofely connected ; much is due from the one
to the other, but fomewhat lefs than in the former
relation j their interefts may fometimes be feparate,
but never ought to be oppofite. Next come brethren,
and other more diftant relations ; and next, the friend.
In thefe cafes, where we fuppofe the attachment of
friendlhip to operate together with the ties of na¬
ture, w7e perceive that interefts are varioufly united,
and various duties are due fcarce in any of them does
it appear that the interefts of two can become entirely
one. Still lefs can that be expedled to happen, where
the ties of friendlhip adt not in concert with thofe of
nature. We give up, therefore, all thofe romantic
notions, which fome have fo earneftly infilled on, of
requiring the friend to confider his friend as himfelf.
We cannot expedt any two individuals to poffefs pre-
8 ] F R I
cifely the fame degree of knowledge, to entertain ex-Hiendfli’p.
adlly the fame fentiments, or to Hand in circumftances -'V*—'
precifely fimilar. But till this happen, the interefts of
two can never be precifely the fame. And we will
not, therefore, require the friend adtually to prefer his
friend to himfelf; nay, we will even allow him to prefer
himfelf to his friend j convinced that fuch is the delign
of nature, and that by prefuming to counteradl the
principles of nature wre lhall be able to ferve no ufeful
purpofe. But as far as the firft principles of human
adlion and the inftitutions of fociety permit; we may
reafonably require of friends, that they mutually endea¬
vour to contribute each to the other’s intereft. You
will not delert your own family, nor negledl w:hat is
abfolutely necefiary for your owm prefervation, in order
that you may ferve a friend. It is not requilite that
you be either a Damon or a Pythias. AwTay with
what is romantic ; but fcruple not to fubmit to wrhat
is natural and reafonable. When your friend needs
your diredlion and advice, freely and honeftly give it :
does he need more than advice •, your adlive exertions
in his behalf? the laws of friendlhip require you not
to relufe them. Is it neceffafy for him to receive
ftill more fubftantial afliftance ? You may even be
expedled to aid him wdth your fortune. But remem¬
ber, that even the amiable principle-of benevolence mull
be fubjedl to the diredlions of prudence : if incapa¬
ble of taking care of ourfelves, we cannot be expedled
to contribute to the good of others: fociety wTould not be
favourable to the happinefs of the human race, if every
individual ftudied the general intereft fo far as to negledl
his owm. We are not born to be citizens of the world;
but Europeans, Britons, Englilhmen or Scotchmen.
Let every one, then, feek the intereft and happinefs of
his friends with whom he is connedled by the laws of
friendlhip alone, in lubordination to his own particular
intereft and happinefs, and to the intereft and happi¬
nefs of thofe wdth whom he is connedled by the ties
of nature and the general inftitutions of fociety. En¬
gage not in the fervice of your friend, nor lavifh your
fortune in his behalf, if by that means you are likely
to injure either yourfelf or your family. Still lefs
wall you think it requilite to carry your friendlhip to
fuch romantic excefs as to commit crimes in the fervice
of your friend. The ancients, whofe ideas of the na¬
ture and duties of friendlhip were romantic and extrava¬
gant, have, fome of them, required that a friend ihould
hefitate at no action, however atrocioufly wicked, by
which he can be ufeful to his friend. Have I been
guilty of theft or murder, or any other heinous viola¬
tion of the law's of morality or the inftitutions of fo¬
ciety : when I am brought to juftice for my crime, if
you, being my friend, are appointed to fit as my judge,
the law's of friendlhip, fay thofe admirable mailers of
morality, require that you pronounce me innocent,
though convinced of my guilt. But we need not de¬
claim againft the abfurdity of enjoining fuch bafe deeds
as duties of friendlhip. The idea of a connexion, the
laws of which are inimical to the order of fociety, mull
ftrike with horror every perfon who thinks of it.
Such a connexion is the union of a knot of villains,
confpiring againft the peace, nay even the exiftence °f Genera{
fociety. . view of the
Such wTe apprehend to be the nature of rational advantages
friendlhip fuch the circumftances in the order of na- •* friend-
ture^-
F R 1
[ 239 ]
F R I
Friendfhip ture and of fociety which are molt favourable to this
  union; and fuch the duties, by the performance of
which it may be maintained. When founded on
thefe principles, and regulated by thefe laws, friend-
fhip is truly virtuous, and cannot but be highly bene¬
ficial to the individuals between whom it fubfifts, and
to the interell of fociety in general. How delightful to
have fome perfon of an amiable and virtuous character
in whom you can confide ; who will join with you in
the profecution of virtuous defigns, or wall be ready to
call you back when you heedlefsly itray into the paths
of vice and folly ! who will adminifter to you honeft,
upright advice j will rejoice in your profperity, wnl
glory over your virtues, and will be ready to confole
and relieve you when finking under the preffure of
diftrefs ! Mull not your connexion with fuch a per¬
fon be favourable to your virtue, your interell:, and
your happinefs ? When we furvey any fublime or beau¬
teous fcene in nature, we wilh for fome perfon of con¬
genial talle and feelings to participate wuth us in the
noble enjoyment which the profpeft affords j when we
read any fine piece of compofition, the pleafure w'hich
we receive from it is more exquifite if others join with
us in applauding it. The landfcape which we have
often furveyed, the poem which we have often read,
pleafe us anewr, with all the charms of novelty, when
wre have an opportunity of pointing out their beauties
to fome perfoa to whom they have been hitherto un¬
known. Friendlhip communicates new charms and a
more delicate relifh to all our moll refined and elegant
pleafures. It enlivens our joys, it foothes and alleviates
our forrows. What Cicero has faid of polite letters
and philofophy, may be with ftill ftronger propriety
faid of friendlhip. In every condition of life the influ¬
ence of virtuous friendlhip is favourable to our welfare
and our happinefs : in profperity, in adverfity j in the
filence and tranquillity of retirement, as well as amid
the hurry of bufinefs j in the bofom of your family,
and when furrounded by your neareft connexions, no
lefs than when removed to a ftrange country. Indeed,
whatever advantages fociety bellows above what are to
be enjoyed in a favage Hate, not lefs numerous nor lels
important are thofe which we may derive from uniting
in the .bonds of friendlhip, rather than living in a Hate
of enmity or indifference.
But though friendlhip, when founded on mutual
efteem, and regulated by the laws of prudence, benevo¬
lence, and honefty, be produXive of fo many happy
effeXs; yet many inftances occur in the w’orld,
in w'hich connexions dignified with the name of
friendlhip are unfavourable both to the virtue and
the happinefs of thofe between whom they fubfiff.
WThen men affociate from views of convenience j when
their union is haftily formed without a knowledge
of each other’s temper and charaXer . when they are
drawn together by accident, as when they happen to
agree in the purfuits of the fame interefts or pleafures ;
when the young and the gay refort together to the
haunts of diffipation, and the covetous and ambitious
find it convenient to toil in concert for riches and
power : on all fuch occafions, the connexion which is
formed and dignified wflth the name of friendlhip is
unworthy of that honourable appellation. It is not
virtuous; it is produXive of no happy effeXs, and is
quickly diffblved. He, therefore, who is not incapa-
Miftakes in
forming
friendfliips,
and come-
quentin-
conftancy.
ble of virtuous friendlhip, and is delirous of enjoying itsFriendlhip.
advantages, muff carefully confider the nature of the *
connexion which he wfilhes to form, gain a thorough
acquaintance writh the charaXer of the perfon whofe
efteem and affeXion he wilhes to acquire, and attend to
thofe rules by the obfervance of which true friendlhip
may be maintained. ^
Many inftances are related, which Ihow what power Relation il-
it is poflible for friendlhip to acquire over the human luftrating
heart. We need not here repeat the well-known llory t^e Power
of Damon and Pythias, wdrole generous friendlhip af- j
forded a fpeXacle which foftened even the favage heart the human
of Dionylius. It is known to every fchool-boy j and, heart,
after the afteXing narrative of Valerius Maximus, has
been ftudioully detailed and commented on by almoll
every fucceeding ftory-teller or moralift. Addifon, in
one of his SpeXators, gives a beautiful little relation,
we know net upon what authority, which finely illuf-
trates the power of both friendfliip and love. Two male
negroes, in one of our Weft Indian illands, nearly of
the lame age, and eminent among their fellows in 11a-
very for gracefulnefs of figure, ftrength, agility, and
dexterity, were alfo diftinguilhed for their mutual friend-
Ihip and for their common attachment to a young fe¬
male negro, who w7as generally efteemed the moll beau¬
tiful of her complexion in the whole illand. The young
female appeared to be equally pleafed with both her
lovers $ and was willing to accept either of them for a
huflband, provided they could agree between them-
felves which of them fliould yield to the pretenfions of
the other. But here lay the difficulty j for while nei¬
ther would treacheroully fiipplant, neither of them was
walling to yield to his friend. The two youths, there¬
fore, long fuftered the fevereft affliXion, while their
hearts were torn between love and friendfliip. At
length, when they were no longer able to endure the
agony of fuch a conteft, being ftill unable to reprefs
their paflion for their lovely countrywoman, and inca¬
pable of violating the laws of friendftiip,—on a certain
day, they both, in company with the objeX of their ill-
fated love, retired into a Wood adjoining to the fcene of
their labours. There, after fondly embracing the
maid, calling her by a thoufand endearing names, and
lamenting their own unhappy fate, they ftabbed a
knife into her breaft ; which, while ftill reeking with
her blood, was by each of them in his turn plunged
into his own. Her cries reached the people who were
at work in the next field : fome of them haftening to-
the fpot, found her expiring, and the two youths already
dead befide her.
•We have introduced this little narrative as a linking
inftance of the noble effeXs which naturally refult from
genuine friendlhip. Here we fee it fuperior to the
force of the moll violent of palfions. Had the eleva¬
ted fouls of thofe negro youths been refined and en¬
lightened by culture and education in the principles of
morality and true religion, we may reafonably fuppofe
that their friendlhip would have triumphed over their
love, without prompting them to the ralh and defperate
deed which they committed.
Friendlhip, thus amiable in its charaXer, thus be-not incon-
neficial in its influence and effeXs, the theme of un- liftent wnh
bounded panegyric to the philofophers and moralills 0f01
every age, has been faid by fome refpeXable modern F^Xiani-
writers to be inconfiftent with the fpirit of that holy
religion
F II I [ 240 ] F R I
ntlfhip. religion which we profefs, and which we regard as the
revelation of heaven. General benevolence is fre¬
quently inculcated through the gofpel : “ Jefus often
earneftly intreated Ins difciples, “ to love one ano¬
ther 5” and direfted them in what manner to dlfplay
their mutual love, by telling them, that “ whatfoever
things they could reafonably wilh to receive from
others, the fame ought they to do to them.” The writers
of the epiftles often enlarge on the topics of charity
and brotherly love. But private friendlhip is nowhere
recommended in the code of Chriftianity. Nay, it is
fo inconfiftent with that univerfal benevolence wdiich
the gofpel enjoins, that where the one is recommended
and enforced, the other may be underilocd to be tacit¬
ly forbidden. But can that religion be true, or can it
be favourable to the happinefs of its votaries, which is
inimical, nay, which is even not friendly to virtuous
friendlhip ? Such are the fuggeftions of Lord Shaftef-
bury and Soame Jenyns on this head.
We muft grant them, that the fyllem of morals or
religion which difcourages a connexion fo noble in
its origin, fo amiable in its chara&er, and fo benefi¬
cial in its intiuence, as virtuous friendlhip, is rather
unfavourable to the happinefs and virtue of its vota¬
ries. But we mult confider the genius of Chrillianity
with more careful attention, before we fuffer ourfelves
to be perfuaded that friendlhip is inconfillent with it.
Univerfal benevolence is, indeed, inculcated in the
gofpel: we are required to love our neighbours as our-
lelves : and our Saviour feems to infinuate, in the llory
of the humane Samaritan, that we ought to regard as
neighbours all our brethren of the human race, hovrever
feparated from us by any of the diftin£tions of fociety.
But it would be unfair to conclude from this, that the
great Author of the gofpel meant to abolilh the order
of focial life, or to oppofe the ties of nature. Thefe
may Hill be refpe£led, though the laws of this bene¬
volence be obeyed. The parent is not required to de-
fert his child, in order that he may aflift or relieve his
neighbour ; nor the child to leave his parent to perilh
under the infirmities of old age, while he haftens to lend
aflilfance to a ftranger. The gofpel was not intended
to diffolve communities, or to abrogate the diftinftions
of rank. In Jefus, the end of the ceremonial law was
accomplilhed : by him, therefore, that burden of types
and ceremonies with which the Jervs had been loaded
was taken away. But he who abolilhed the ceremo¬
nial law declared, that the obligations of the moral law
fhould be more permanent than heaven or earth : The
duties which it enjoined wrere ftill to be religioufiy dif-
charged : The precepts of the gofpel were to illuftrate
and enforce, not to contradi61, the inllitutions of the
moral law. The relative duties of parents and chil¬
dren were hill to be performed 5 though men were di¬
rected not to confine all their fentiments of benevolence
to domeftic relations. Jefus, in his conduCl, did not
fet himfelf to oppofe the order of fociety. In various
parts of the New Teftament all the focial duties are
defined and deforced ; the mutual duties of parents and
children, of hulhands and wives, and of mailers and
fervants. The fubmiflion of all the members of a com¬
munity to that power which is veiled with the autho¬
rity of the whole, is alfo Itri&ly enjoined in the gofpel.
Jefus, when in his lalt moments he recommended his
mother to the protection of his beloved difciple. chofe
4.
to alk him to confider her as a parent; and dire&edFriendflup.
her to expeft from him the refpeCl and kindnefs ef ——v'-—*
a fon. Thefe faCls and obfervations teach us in
what fenfe to underhand that univerfal benevolence
which is inculcated in the gofpel. Though we are
to love all mankind, yet it is not necelfary that all
the individuals of the human race lhare our alFeflion
alike. Were we powerful, and wife, and benevolent,
as the Deity, fuch extenlive benevolence might be
required of us : But our fphere of aClion and obferva-
tion is narrow; we cannot extend our acquaintance or
influence beyond a very limited circle. Were we- to en¬
deavour to be equally ufeful to all mankind, we Ihould
become incapable of being ufeful to any individual.
We cannot become citizens of the world in the fenfe
in which fome philofophers have affe&ed to call them-
felves fuch, without becoming outcalls from every par¬
ticular fociety. A fon, a brother, a countryman, a
llranger, lie around you, each in circumllances of ex¬
treme dillrefs ; you pity their misfortunes, and would
gladly adminifter relief; but fuch is your benevolence,
that you feel precifely the fame degree of compaflion
for each of them ; you cannot determine to whom you
Ihould firfl ftretch out an helping hand; and you
therefore Hand like that venerable afs of the fchool-
men, whofe tantalizing fituation between two bundles
of hay has been fo long celebrated and lamented by
metaphyficians ; and fuffer fon, and brother, and coun¬
tryman, and llranger, to perilh, without relieving any
of them by your kind offices. It is therefore the de-
fign of the gofpel, that we Ihould fubmit to the laws
of nature, and comply with the inllitutions of fociety.
Firlt, attend to felf-prefervation ; next, perform the
duties of a wife or hulband,—a parent,—a child,—a
brother,—a citizen—, an individual of the human race.
You wall do well, indeed, to regard all mankind with
benevolence ; but your benevolence will be unavailing
to the objefts of it, if you overlook the diftinftions of
nature and thofe inllitutions which fupport the union
of focial life.
But if the fpirit of Chrillianity be not inimical to the
inllitutions and relations of fociety, neither can it be un¬
favourable to friendlhip. If that benevolence which the
gofpel enjoins admit of any modifications, why not of
that particular modification which conltitutes private
friendlhip ? It is not, indeed, dire£lly enjoined ; but
neither is it forbidden. It is perfeftly confillent with
the general tendency and fpirit of the gofpel fyftem :
being favourable to the interells of fociety, it cannot
but be agreeable to our holy religion.
But it is recommended by no dire£l precept, fay
thofe wdio would reprefent Chrillianity as inimical to
it; wdiile it has been the favourite theme of the philo¬
fophers and moralills of the heathen wTorld.
But why ffiould friendlhip be recommended by
means different from thofe which the gofpel employs
for the purpofe ? Make yourfelf tvell acquainted with
that admirable fyllem which you fo earnellly oppofe ;
you will find that even the duties of private friendIhip
are better explained and more powerfully enforced in
the gofpel, than by all the heathen philofophers and
poets from Hefiod to Plutarch. The gofpel makes a
dillindlion between the virtuous and the vicious ; it re-
prefents one charafter as more amiable and refpeftable
than another. As it diftinguilhes between virtue and
vice.
Friendlbip.
IX
Friendfliip
countenan¬
ced by our
Saviour's
example.
* W. Mel-
motb, Efq.
in the con¬
cluding
note to his
‘Tranjlation
of Cicero's
Lalius.
F It I [
vice, between piety and impiety; fo its great
241
ob~
je£t is to deter us from vice, and to encourage us to
the practice of virtue. It cannot be fuppofed, then,
that the gofpel will direft us to affociate indifferently
with virtuous and profligate charafters. It does not.
It diretts us to feek improvement, by affociating with
thofe whom we have reafon to efteem. It direfts thofe
who are incorrigibly wicked to be expelled from fo-
ciety. What is this but to command us to enter into
habits of intimacy wherever there is ground for mutual
efteem ? But this is the only bafts of genuine friend-
Ihip. When all the means which lead to a certain
end are laid before you, and when you are particu¬
larly directed by fome high authority to employ thofe
means; though the end which you thus attain be not
pointed out, yet the commanding you to employ fuch
a feries of means, is evidently the fame as if you were
dire&ed to accomplifh the purpofe to which they tend.
Thus, though the precepts of Chriftianity do not di¬
rectly enjoin private friendfhip 5 yet they have a direct
tendency to form thofe exalted characters who alone
are capable of true friendfhip j they inculcate thofe
virtues which naturally give rife to this generous at¬
tachment, and are abfolutely neceffary to fupport it
where it is formed; they inculcate benevolence by
the moft effectual motives, and admit of modifications
of that benevolence, correfpondent to the relations and
inftitutions of fociety : And therefore they, may be
confidered in as ftrong and direCt terms as if it had
been exprefsly faid, “ Cultivate private friendfhip.”
Befides, friendfhip is rather an accident of fociety, a
natural confequence of our character as moral and fo-
cial beings, than a relation to be regulated and defined
by inftitutions.
This union, fo natural between virtuous perfons,
has been countenanced by the example of the Author
of our religion j to whofe life, no lefs than to his doc¬
trines and precepts, we will do well to look for a ftan-
dard by which we may regulate our conduCt. We al¬
lude to two remarkable inftances which occur in the
evangelical hiftory; and with the recital of which, as
ftated in all their ftriking circumftances by a very ele¬
gant writer *, w'e fhall conclude the prefent article.
“ The evangelift, in relating the miracle which
Chrift performed at Bethany by reftoring a perfon to
life who had lain fome days in the grave, introduces
his narrative by emphatically obferving, that ‘ Jefus
loved Lazarus’ j intimating, it fhould feem, that the
fentiments which Chrift entertained of Lazarus were
a diftinCt and peculiar fpecies of that general benevo¬
lence with which he was aftuated towards all mankind.
Agreeably to this explication of the facred hiftorian’s
meaning, when the fifters of Lazarus fent to acquaint
Jefus with the ftate in which their brother lay, they
did not even mention his name ; but, pointing him out
by a more honourable and equally notorious defigna-
tion, the terms of their meffage were, ‘ Behold ! he
whom thou loveft is fick !’ Accordingly, wLen he in¬
forms his difciples of the notice he had thus received,
his expreflion is, ‘ Our friend Lazarus fleepeth.’ Now
that Chrift did not upon this occafion ufe the word
friend in its loofe undiftinguifhed acceptation, but in a
reftrained and ftridtly appropriated fenfe, is not only
manifeft from this plain account of the faft itfelf, but
anpears farther evident from the fequel. For as he
1 Voe- IX. Part I.
] F R I
was advancing to the grave, accompanied with the. re- Fncndihip,
lations of the deceafed, he difcovered the fame emotions Fnefland,
of grief as fwelled the bofoms of thofe wdth whom La¬
zarus had been moft intimately connefted j and fympa-
thizing with their common forrow, he melted into tears.
This circumftance w-as too remarkable to efcape particu¬
lar obfervation : and it drew from the fpeftators, what
one ftiould think it muft neceffarily draw from every
reader, this natural and obvious refle&ion, ‘ Behold i
how he loved him !’
“ But in the concluding cataftrophe of our Saviour’s
life, he gave a ftill more decifive proof that fentiments
of the ftrongeft perfonal attachment and friendlhip
were not unworthy of being admitted into his facred
bofom : they were too deeply, indeed, impreffed, to be
extinguiftied even by the moft excruciating torments.
In thofe dreadful moments, obferving. among the af¬
flicted witneffes of his painful and ignominious fuf-
ferings, that faithful follower who is defcribed by the
hiftorian as ‘ the difciple whom he loved }’ he di-
ftinguiftied him by the moft convincing inftance of fu-
perior confidence, efteem, and affeftion, that ever was
exhibited to the admiration of mankind. For, under
circumftances of the moft agonizing torments, when it
might be thought impoflible for human nature to re¬
tain any other fenfibility but that of its own inexprel-
fible fufterings, he recommended to the care and pro¬
tection of this his tried and approved friend, in terms
of peculiar regard and endearment, the moft tender
and facred objeCt of his private affeCtions. But no lan¬
guage can reprefent this pathetic and aflfeCting fcene
with a force and energy equal to the fublime fimplicity
of the Evangelift’s owrn narrative : ‘ Now there flood
by the crofs of Jefus, his mother and his mother’s
filter, and Mary Magdalene. When Jefus faw his
mother and the difciple (Handing) by, whom he loved;
he faith to his mother, Behold thy fon ! then he faith
to the difciple, Behold thy mother ! And from that
hour that difciple took her to his own home.’
“ It may fafely be afferted, that among all thofe
memorable examples of friendlhip, which have been
celebrated with the higheft encomiums by the ancients,
there cannot be produced a fingle inftance in which
the moft diftinguilhed features of exalted amity are
fo ftrongly difplayed as in the foregoing relation.
The only one, perhaps, that bears even a faint fimili-
tude to it, is that famous tranfaftion recorded by a
Greek author, which paffed between Eudamidas and
Aretheus. But wdien the very different circumftances
attending the refpeftive examples are duly confidered,
it muft be acknowledged, that the former rifes as much
above the latter in the proof it exhibits of fublime
friendlhip, as it does in the dignity of the charadters
concerned.
“ Upon the whole, then, it appears, that the divine
Founder of the Chriftian religion, as well by his own
example as by the fpirit of his moral doftrine, has not
only encouraged but confecrated friendlhip.”
FRIESLAND, one of the united provinces of the
Lowr Countries. It is bounded on the eaft by the ri¬
ver Lauvers, which parts it from the lordlhip of Gro¬
ningen, on the fouth by Overyffel, on the weft by
the Zuider-Zee, and on the north by the German
ocekn. It is 30 miles from north to'fouth, and 28 from
eaft to weft. The land is very fertile in corn and pa¬
ll h iture ;
F II I
Fright.
* nd?an<i ^ure j tlie horfes are large, and the cows and (beep
prolific. It is divided into three parts j Weftergo to
the weft, Oftergo to the eaft, and Sevenwalden to the
fouth.' The iftands of Sheling, Ameland, and other
fmall ones, are dependent on this province. The prin¬
cipal towns are Leuwarden the capital, Franeker, Doc-
kum, Harlingen, and Staveren.
Friesland, Eaft, a province of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, lying near the German ocean. It
is bounded on the fouth by the biftiopric of Munfter,
on the eaft by the county of Oldenburgh, on the weft
by the province of Groningen, and on the north by
the fea, being about 50 miles in length, and 30 in
breadth. It belongs to Pruftia, and was formerly call¬
ed the county of Embden. It is a very fertile country,
and feeds a great number of cattle 5 but it was greatly
damaged by an inundation in 1717, and the repair of
the dykes coft an immenfe fum. The principal towns
are Norden, Leer, Ellens, Whitmunde, and Aurick.
Embden ivas an imperial city, and the principal place
m the country ) but now belongs alfo to the king of
Pruflia, who bought it of the Dutch.
FRIGATE, in naval affairs, a Ihip of war, ufually
of two^ decks, light built, defigned for fwift failing.
W hen it hath but one deck, and confequently is of a
fmaller fize, they call her a light frigate.
frigates mount from 20 to 44 guns, and are efteem-
ed excellent cruifers. The name was formerly known
only in the Mediterranean, and applied to a long kind
of veffel navigated in that fea with fails and oars. The
Englifti were the firft who appeared on the ocean with
thefe lliips, and equipped them for war as well as for
commerce.
FRiGATE-Bui/t, denotes the difpolition of the decks
of fuch merchant Ihips as have a defcent of four or five
iieps from the quarter-deck and forecaftle into the
waift, in contradiftinflion to thofe whofe decks are on
a continued line for the whole length of the Ihip, which
are called galley-built.
FRIGATOON, a Venetian veffel, commonly ufed
in the Adriatic, built with a fquare ftern, and without
any foremaft, having only a mainmaft, mizenmaft, and
bovvfprit.
FRIGHT, or Terror, a hidden and violent degree
of fear. See Fear.
Sudden fear is frequently produ&ive of very remark¬
able effefts upon the human fyftem. Of this many
inftances occur in medical writings.—In general, the
eftedls of terror are a contra&ion of the fmall vef-
i’cls and a repulfion of the blood in the large and in¬
ternal ones ; hence proceed a fuppreflion of perfpira-
tion, a general oppreflion, trembling, and anguilh of
the heart, and lungs overcharged with blood.
Frights often occafion incurable difeafes, as epilep-
fy, ftupor, madnefs, &c. In acute difeafes, they have
evidently killed many, by the agitation into which
they have thrown the fpirits, already too much difor-
dered. We have alfo accounts of perfons abfolutely
killed by terrors when in perfed health at the time of
receiving the Ihock from them: people ordered to be
executed, but with private orders for a reprieve, have
expired at the block without a wound Out of many
inftances of the fatal effe&s of fear recorded in writers,
the following is feleded as one of the moft lingular.
“ George Gfooljantzjr, a Pglander? who had iulftted as
[ 243 ]
F R I
a foldier in the fervice of the king of Pruftia, deferted Fright,
during the war. A fmall party was lent in purfuit v--—
of him ; and when he leaft expe&ed it, they furprifed
him linging and dancing among a company of peafants,
who were got together in an inn and were making
merry. This event, fo hidden and unforefeen, and at
the fame time fo dreadful in its confequences, ftruck
him in fuch a manner, that, giving a great cry, he be¬
came at once altogether ftupid and infenfible, and
■ was feized without the leaft refiftance. They carried
him away to Glocau, where he was brought before the
council of war, and received fentence as a deferter. He
fuffered himfelf to be led and difpofed of at the will of
thofe about him, without uttering a word, or giving
the leaft lign that he knew what had happened or would
happen to him. He remained immoveable as a ftatue
wdierever he was placed, and was wholly paflive wdth
refpefl: to all that was done to him or about him. Du¬
ring all the time that he was in cuftody, he neither ate.
nor drank, nor flept, nor had any evacuation. Some
of his comrades were fent to fee him 5 after that he was
vifited by fome officers of his corps, and by fome priefts;
but he ftill continued in the fame ftate, without difco-
vering the leaft figns of fenfibility. Promiles, intrea¬
ties, and threatenings were equally ineffeflual. The
phyficians who were confulted upon his cafe, were of
opinion, that he was in a ftate of hopelefs idiocy. It
was at firft fiifpefted, that thofe appearances were feign¬
ed 3 but thele fufpicions neceffarily gave way, when it
was known that he took no fuftenance, and that the in¬
voluntary functions of nature wrere in great mealuxe fuf-
pended. After fome time they knocked off his fetters,
and left him at liberty to go whither he would. He
received his liberty with the fame infenfibility that he
had flrowed upon other occafions : he remained fixed
and immoveable 5 his eyes turned wuldly here and there
without taking cognizance of any objeft, and the
mufcles of his face were fallen and fixed like thofe of
a dead body.. Being left to himfelf, he paffed 20 days
in this condition, without eating, drinking, or any eva¬
cuation, and died on the 20th day. He had been lome-
times heard to fetch deep fighs 5 and once he ruffied
■with great violence on a foldier, who had a mug of li¬
quor in his hand, forced the mug from him, and having
drank the liquor with great eagernefs, let the muc drop
to the ground.”
When a perfon is affe&ed with terror, the principal
endeavour Ihould be to reftore the circulation to its due
order, to promote perfpiration, and to allay the agita¬
tion of the patient. For thefe purpofes he may drink a
little warm liquor, as camomile tea, &c. the feet and
legs may be put into warm water, the legs rubbed, and
the camomile tea repeated every fix or eight mi¬
nutes j and when the Ikin is wrarm, and there is a ten¬
dency to perfpiration, fleep may be promoted by a gen¬
tle opiate.
But frights have been known not only to caufe, but * Works
alfo to cure, difeafes. Mr Boyle * mentions agues, gout, Abr. p. S2,
and fciatica, cured by this means. &c.
To turn from the ferious to the ludicrous effedls of
fear, the following inftance of the latter fort, quoted
from a French author by Mr Andrews in his volume
of Anecdotes, (haws upon what flight occaficns this
paffion may be fometimes excited in a very high
degree, even in perfons the moft unlikely to enter¬
tain
Fright
Friiazin.
F R I [ 243 ] F R I
“ Charles Guftavus jthe fucceflbr of fame rank and dignity with thofe who had been born
free, but were Hill in a more ignoble and dependent
f Elements
of Moral
Scibnce.
tain fuch a guefl.
Chriftina of Sweden) was befieging Prague, when a
boor of moft extraordinary vifage dehred admittance to
his tent ; and being allowed entrance, offered, by way
of amufing the king, to devour a whole hog of one
hundred weight in his prefence. The old general Ko-
nigfmarc, who ftood by the king’s fide, and who, fol-
dier as he wras, had not got rid of the prejudices of his
childhood, hinted to his royal mailer that the peafant
ought to be burnt as a forcerer. ‘ Sir,’ faid the fellow,
irritated at the remark, ‘ if your majefty will make but
that old gentleman take off his fword and his fpurs, I
will eat him immediately before I begin the hog.’ Ge¬
neral Konigfmarc (who had, at the head of a body of
Swedes, performed wonders againft the Auftrians, and
who was looked upon as one of the braveft men of the
age) could not Hand this propofal, efpecially as it was
accompanied by a moll hideous and preternatural ex-
panfion of the frightful peafant’s jaws. Without utter¬
ing a word, the veteran fuddenly turned round, ran out
of the court, and thought not himfelf fafe until he had
arrived at his quarters 5 where he remained above
twenty-four hours locked up fecurely, before he had
got rid of the panic which had fo feverely affedled
him.”
Fear (Dr Beattie f obferves) fhould not rife higher
than to make us attentive and cautious j when it gains
an afcendancy in the mind, it becomes an infupport-
able tyranny, and renders life a burden. The objecl
of fear is evil; and to be exempt from fear, or at leaft
not enllaved to it, gives dignity to our nature, and in¬
vigorates all our faculties. Yet there are evils which
we ought to fear. Thofe that arife from ourfelves, or
which it is in our power to prevent, it would be mad-
nefs to defpife, and audacity not to guard againft.
External evils, which we cannot prevent, or could not
avoid^ without a breach of duty, it is manly and ho¬
nourable to bear with fortitude. Infenfibility to dan¬
ger .s not fortitude, no more than the incapacity of
feeling pain can be called patience ; and to expofe
ourfelves unneceffarily to evil is worfe than folly, and
very blameable prefumption. It is commonly called
fool-hardmefi; that is, fuch a degree of hardinefs or
boldnefs as none but fools are capable of. See the
article Fortitude.
FRIGID (frigidus), in a general fenfe, denotes the
quality of being cold. It is frequently applied to a
jejune ftyle, that is unanimated by any ornaments, and
confequently without any force or vigour.
Frig id-’none. See Zone, Geography Index.
FRIGIDITY, in Medicine, the fame with Impo¬
tence.
FRIGORIFIC, in Phy/io/ogy, fmall particles of
matter, which, according to Gaffendus and others, being
actually and effentially cold, and penetrating other
bodies, produce in them that quality wdiich is called
cold, or, according to others, merely the abfence or
diminution of the particles of heat. See Cold, Che¬
mistry Index.
FRIT,AZIN, the name of a clafs or rank of people
among the Anglo-Saxons, confifting of thofe wftio had
been llaves,. but had either purchafed, or by fome other
means obtained, their liberty. Though thefe were in
reality free men, they were not conhdered as of the
a more ig
condition, either on their former mafters or on fome
new patrons. This cuftom the Anglo-Saxons feem to
have derived from their anceftors in Germany, dtnong
whom thofe who had been made free did not differ
much in point of dignity or importance in the ftate
from thofe who continued in fervitude. This diftinc-
tion between thofe who have been made free and thofe
who enjoy freedom by defcent from a long race of free
men, ftill prevails in many parts of Germany; and
particularly in the original feats of the Anglo-Saxons.
IVIany of the inhabitants of towns and cities in England,
in this period, feem to have been of this clafs of men,
who were in a kind of middle ftate between flaves and
freemen.
bRILL, in Falconry. When a hawk trembles or
fhivers, they fay ihe frills.
FRINGILLA, a genus of birds belonging to the
order of pafferes. See Ornithology Index.
FRIO, a fmall iiland on the coaft of the Brafils,
fituated in 320 a' S. Lat. and 410 31' 45,, W. Long.
The land of Frio is high, with a hollow in the middle,
which gives it, at a diftance, the appearance of twro fe-
parate iflands. The paflage between the ifland and the
continent is about a mile broad, and feemed to Sir Eraf-
mus Gower to be clear from fhoals.
FRIPPERY, a French term fometimes ufed in our
language to lignify the trade or traffic of old fecond-
hand clothes and goods. The word is alfo ufed for the
place where fuch fort of commerce is carried on, and
even for the commodities themfelves. The company
of frippiers, or fripperers, at Paris, are a regular cor¬
poration, of an ancient Handing, and make a confider-
able figure in that city.
FRISII, Frisei, Frisiones, and Frisones, in An¬
cient Geography, a people of Germany, fo called either
from their ardent love of freedom, or from the freffi
and unbroken lands they occupied, contradiftinguifhed
fiom the old lands, lacitus divides them, from their
extent of power and territory, into the Majores, fituated
on the coafts between the Rhine and the Ems; and into
the Minores, occupying the parts about the lakes lying
between the channels of the Rhine.
FRIT, or Fritt, in the glafs manufa&ure, is the
matter or ingredients whereof glafs is to be made, when
they have been calcined or baked in a furnace.
A fait drawn from the affies of the plant kali or from
fern, or other plants mixed with fand or flint, and baked
together, makes an opaque mafs called by glafsmen frit;
probably from the Italianto fry 5 or becaufe the
frit, when melted, runs into lumps, like fritters, called
by the Italians fritel/i.
Frit, by the ancients, was called ammonitrum, of
uftftt;, fand, and nitre; under which name it is;
defcribed by Pliny thus: Fine fand from the Volturnian
fea, mixed with three times the quantity of nitre, and
melted, makes a mafs called atnmonitrum; which being
rebaked makes pure glafs. ■
Frit, Neri obferves, is only the calx of the materials
which make glafs j which, though they might be melted, >•
and glafs be made, without thus calcining them, yet it
would take up much more time. This calcining, oi'
making of frit, ferves to mix and incorporate the ma-
h 2 terials
Frill
Frit.
prizing.
F R I
Frit!l!aria terials together, and to evaporate
humidity. The frit, once made, is readily fufed, and
turned into glafs. > '
There are three kinds of frits. The firft, cryftal irit,
or that for cryftal metal, is made with fait of pulveririe
and fand. The fecond, and ordinary frit, is made of
th« bare allies of pulverine or barilla, without ex-
trafting the fait from them. This makes^ the ordi¬
nary white or cryftal metal. The third is frit for green
glafles, made of common allies, without any prepara¬
tion. This laft frit will require ten or twelve hours
baking.
The materials in each are to be finely powdered,
walhed, and learced 5 then equally mixed, and frequently
ftirred together in the melting pot. See Glass.
FRITILLARIA, fritillary : a genus of plants
belonging to the hexandria clafs; and in the natural
method ranking under the loth order, Coronaries. See
Botany Index.
The different fpecies of fritillary were, according to
Beckman, introduced into gardens about the middle of
the 16th century. The crown imperial (^fntillaria im-
perialis) is fuppofed by fome to be the lily which is
much celebrated in facred feripture \ becaufe a figure
xefembling this fplendid plant, they imagine, is. found
reprefented on the coins of Herod. Invent, vol. iii.
FRIULI, a province of Italy, fubjea to Venice, and
bounded by Carinthia in Germany on the north, by Car-
niola on the eaft, by the gulf of Venice on the fouth,
and by the Bellunefe and Feltrin on the wTeft.
FRIZE, or Frieze, in Architecture, a part of the
entablature of columns, more ufually written and pro¬
nounced yrrejse. See Freeze.
Frize, or Freeze, in Cotnmerce, a kind of woollen
cloth or fluff for winter wear, being frized or kna.pt
on one fide j whence, in all probability, it derives its
name.
Of frizes, fome are croffed, others not croffed; the
former are chiefly of Englifh manufa<2.ure, the latter of
Irifti.
FRIZING of Cloth, a term in the woollen manu-
faftory, applied to the forming of the nap of cloth or
fluff into a number of little hard burrs or prominences,
covering almoft the whole ground thereof.
Some cloths are only frized on the back fide, as black
cloths $ others on the right fide, as coloured and mixed
cloths, rateens, bays, freezes, &c.
Frizing may be performed two ways. One with the
hand, that is, by means of tw’o workmen, wrho condudl
a kind of plank that ferves for a frizing inftrument.
The other is by a mill, worked either by water or a
horfe, or fometimes by men. This latter is efteemed
the better way of frizing, by reafon the motion being
uniform and regular, the little knobs of the frizing are
formed more equably and regularly. The ftruClure of
this ufeful nxachine is as follows :
The three1 principal parts are the frizer or crifper, the
frizing table, and the drawer or beam. The two firft
are two equal planks or boards, each about 10 feet
long and 15 inches broad ; differing only in this, that
the frizing-table is lined or covered with a kind of
coarfe woollen fluff, of a rough fturdy nap ; and the
frizer is incruflated .with a kind of cement, compofed
of glue, gum arabic, and a yellow7 fand, with a little
aqua-yitte, or urine. The beam or drawer, thus called.
[ 244 ] FRO
all the fuperfluous becaufe it draws the ftuff from between the Inzer and Fnzwg
  'the frizing table, is a wooden roller, befet all over with Frobi‘jlier
little, fine, ftiort points or ends of wire, like thofe of ‘ 10 ’
cards ufed in carding of wTool.
The difpofition and ufe of the machine is thus : The
table Hands immoveable, and bears or fuffains the cloth
to be frized, which is laid with that fide uppermoft on
which the nap is to be railed ; over the table is placed
the frizer, at fuch a diftance from it as to give room
for the ftuff to be paffed between them.: fo that the
frizer, having a very flow femicircular motion, meeting
the long hairs or naps of the cloth, twills and rolls
them into little knobs or burrs} while at the fame time,
the drawer, which is continually turning, draws away
the ftuff from under the frizer, and wands it over its own
points.
All that the workman has to do while the machine
is a-going, is to ftretch the ftuff on the table as fall as
the drawer takes it off, and from time to time to-take
off the ftuff from the points of the drawer.
The delign of having the frizing table lined with
ftuff of a Ihort, ftiff, ftubby nap, is that it may detain
the cloth between the table and the frizer long enough
for the grain to be formed, that the drawer may not
take it away too readily, which mull otherwife be the
cafe, as it is not held by any thing at the other end.
It were unneceffary to fay any thing particular of the
manner of frizing Huffs with the hand, it being the aim
of the workmen to imitate, as near as they can wdth
their wooden inftrument, the flow, equable, and circular
motion of the machine: it needs only be added, that
their frizer is but about two feet long and one broad j
and that to form the nap more ealily, they moxften the
furface of the ftuff lightly, with water mingled with
whites of eggs or honey.
FROBENIUS, John, a famous and learned print¬
er in the 16th century, was born at Hamelburgh in
Franconia, and fettled at Balil. He had before ftu-
died in that univerftty, where he acquired the reputa¬
tion of being uncommonly learned; and now fetting
up a printing houfe in that city, was the firft of the
German printers who brought that admirable art to any
degree of perfection. Being a man of great probity
and piety, as well as Ikill, he was particularly choice
in the authors he printed, and would never, for the
fake of profit, fuffer libels, or any thing that might
hurt the reputation of another, to go through his .
prefs. The great chara&er of this printer was the
principal motive which induced Erafmus to refide at .
Bafil, in order to have his own works printed .by him.
A great number of valuable authors were printed by
Frobenius, with great care and accuracy j. among
which were the works of St Jerome, Auguftine, and
Erafmus. He defigned to have printed the Greek
Fathers j but died in 1527, before he could execute
his defign. Erafmus wrote his epitaph in Greek and
Latin. , .
John Frobenius left a fon named Jerome Fro ben t us 9
and a daughter married to Nicholas Epifcopius j. who,
joining in partnerftiip, continued Frobenius s printing
houfe with reputation, and printed correft editions o.
the Greek Fathers.
FROBISHER, or Forbisher,. Sir Martin, an
excellent navigator and fea officer in the 16th century,
was born near Doncafler in Yorklhire, and was from
his
FRO
Frobiflier his youth brought up to navigation
li Englifhxnan who attempted to find a north-weft pal-
Frog Fifli. fage to China? and in 1576 he failed with two barks
¥ and a pinnace in order to attempt that paftage. In
this voyage he difcovered a cape, to which he gave the
name of ^ueen Elizabeth's Foreland, and the next day
difcovered a ftrait to which he gave his own name. This
voyage proving unfuccefsful, he attempted tne fame
paifage in 1577 J but difcovermg fome ore in an ifland.
and his commiflion direfting him in this voyage only to
fearch for ore, and to leave the farther difcovery of the
north-weft to another time, he returned to England.
He failed again, with 15 (hips and a great number of
adventurers, to form a lettlement: but being obftrucd-
ed by the ice, and driven out to fea by a violent
ftorm, they, after encountering many difficulties, re¬
turned home, without making any fettlement, but
brought a large quantity of ore.—He afterwards com-
mantled the Aid in Sir Francis Drake’s expedition to
the Weft Indies, in which St Domingo in Hifpaniola,
Carthagena, and Santa Juftina, in Florida, were taken
and facked. In 1588, he bravely exerted himfelf in
defence of his country againft the Spanilh armada,
when he commanded the ft riumph, one of the largeit
{hips in that fervice ; and, as a reward for his diftm-
guiihed bravery, received the honour of knighthood
from the lord high admiral at fea. He afterwards
commanded a fquadron which was ordered to cruife on
the Spanifli coaft ; and, in 1592 took two valuable
{hips and a rich carrack. In 1594 he was fent to the
affiftance of Henry IV. king of France againft a body
of the Leaguers and Spaniards, who had ftrongly en¬
trenched themfelves at Croyzon near Breft } but in an
affault upon that fort, on the ’jih of November, Sir
Martin was unfortunately wounded with a ball, of which
he died foon after he had brought back the fleet to
Plymouth, and was buried in that town.
'Frobisher's Straits, lie a little to the northward of
Cape Farewell in Weft Greenland, and were difcover¬
ed by Sir Martin Frobilher. W. Long. 48. 16. N.
Lat. 63. 12.
FRODSHAM, a town of Chefliire in England,
162 miles from London, is noted for its ancient caftle.
It has a ftone bridge over the river Weaver near its
conflux with the Merfey, and a harbour for {hips of
good burden. By means of inland navigation, it has
communication with the rivers Dee, Ribble, Oufe,
Trent, Darwent,, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon,
&c. which navigation, including its windings, extends
-above 500 miles, in the counties of Lincoln, Notting¬
ham, York, Lancafter, Weftmorland, Stafford, War¬
wick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c.
FROG. See Ran a, 1 Erpetology Index.
Bull Frog. See Rana,3
Frog Fijh of Surinam, a very Angular animal, of
which a figure is given by Mr Edwards, Rijl. of Birds,
vol. i. There is no fpecimen in the Britifh mufeum,
nor in any private colleffion, except that of Dr Fo-
thergill. It was brought from Surinam in South A-
merica.—Frogs, both in Alia and Africa, according
to Merian, change gradually from fifties, to frogs, as
thofe in Europe 5 but after many years revert again in¬
to fifties, though the manner of their change has never
been inveftigated. In Surinam thefe fifties are called
jjikjes. They are cartilaginous, of a fubftance like our
[ 245 ] . F R 0
Fie was the firft muftela, and exquifite food : they are formed with re¬
gular vertebrae, and Imall bones all over the body di¬
vided into equal parts j are firft darkifh, and then
gray : their icales make a beautiful appearance. Whe¬
ther this animal is, in its perfett ftate, a fpecies of frog
with a tail, or a kind of water lizard, Mr Edwards does
not pretend to determine } but obferves, that when its
fize is conlidered, if it ftiould be deemed a tadpole at firft
produced from fpawn, and in its progrefs towards a
frog, fuch an animal, when full grown, if it bears the
fame proportion to its tadpole as thofe in Europe do,
muft be of enormous fize } for our full grown frogs ex¬
ceed the tadpoles at leaft 50 times. See Erpetology
Index.
FROME, a river that rifes from feveral fprings in
the weftern parts of Dorfetftiire in England, the prin¬
cipal of which is near Everlhot j and direfting its courfe
almoft due weft, pafles under Frampton bridge, w^afties
the town of Dorchefter, and falls into a bay of the
Englifti channel called Foolhaven, near Wareham.
pROME-Selwood, a town of Somerfetftiire in England,
150 miles from London. It is the chief town of this ■
part of the country, which was anciently one great
foreft called Selwoodjhire ; and in the latter end of the
laft century, in thofe called Frame Woodlands, there
was a confiderable gang of money coiners or clippers,
of whom many were taken and executed, and their co¬
vert laid open. Though the town is bigger than fome
cities, yet it has only one church 5 but it has fix or
feven meeting houfes of Proteftant diffenters. The.
inhabitants are reckoned about 13,000, whofe chief
manufa&ory is broad cloth. About 50 years ago,
more wire cards for carding the wool for the fpinners
were made at this place than in all England befides,
which was for the moft part fupplied with them from
hence; for here were no lefs than 20 mafter card-
makers, one of whom employed 400 men, women, and
children, in that manufattory, at one time} fo that even
children of 7 or 8 years of age could earn half-a-crown
a-week. The river here which abounds with trout,
eels, &c. rifes in the woodlands-, and runs under its
ftone bridge towards Bath, on the eaft fide of which
it falls into the Avon. This town has been a long
time noted for its fine beer, which they keep to a great
age, and is generally preferred by the gentry to the
wines of France and Portugal. It was governed for¬
merly by a bailiff, and now by two conftables of the
hundreds of Frome, chofen at the court leet of the
lord of the manor.
FRONDESCENTIA, from frons, “ a leafthe
precife time of the year and month in which each fpe-
cies of plants unfolds its firft leaves. •
All plants produce new leaves every year j but all do
not renew them at the fame time. Among woody
plants, the elder, and moft of the honeyfuckles ; a-
mong perennial herbs, the crocus and tulip, are the firft
that pufti or expand their leaves. 'The time of fow-
ing the feeds decides with refpedl to annuals, ft'he
oak and aflr are conftantly the lateft in pulhing their
leaves: the great eft number unfold them in fpring the
moffes and firs in winter. Thefe ftriking differences
with refpeft to fo capital a circumftance in plants as
that of unfolding their leaves, feem to indicate that
each fpecies of plants has a temperature proper or pe-
, culiar to itfelf, and requires a certain degree of heat
to
Frome
FRO [ 246 1 FRO
Front to extricate the leaves from their buds, and produce
the appearance in queftion.
ronunus. rp., • 1 , .
—t—■ 1 ins temperature, however, is not to fixed or con-
llant as it may appear to a fuperficial obferver. A-
mong plants of the fame fpecies, there are fome more
early than others 5 whether that circumftance depends,
as it moll commonly does, on the nature of the plants,
or is owing to differences in heat, expofure, and foil.
In general, it may be affirmed, that fmall and young
trees are always earlier than larger or old ones.
.The pufhing of the leaves is likewife accelerated or
retarded according to the temperature of the feafon ;
that is, according as the fun is fooner or later in dif-
penfing that certain degree of heat which is fuitable to
each fpecies.
FRONT, the forehead, or that part of the face
above the eyebrows. The word is formed of the Latin
fi ons ; and that from the Greek (pgdvsiv, “ to think, per¬
ceive 5” of 7nens, “ the mind, thought.” Marti-
nius, to make out this etymology, obferves, that from
the forehead of a perfon we perceive what he is, what
he is capable of, and what he thinks of.
Front is alfo ufed where feveral perfons or thino-s
are ranged fide by fide, and ffiow their front or fore
parts.
Front, in Jlrchiteciure, denotes the principal face
or fide of a building, or that prefented to their chief
afpeifi: or view.
IRGNTAL, in Architecture, a little fronton or
pediment, fometimes placed over a fmall door or win¬
dow.
Frontal, Frontlet, or Brow-bantl, is alfo ufed in
fpeaking of the Jewifh ceremonies. This frontal con-
lifts of four feveral pieces of vellum, on each whereof
is vyritten fome text of fcripture. They are all laid on
a piece of a black calf’s leather with thongs to tie it by.
The Jews apply the leather with the vellum on their
foreheads in the fynagogue, and tie it round the head
with the thongs.
FRONTIER, the border, confine, or extreme, of
a kingdom or province, which the enemies find in front
when they would enter the fame. Thus we fay, a
frontier town, frontier province, &c. Frontiers were
anciently called marches.
The word is derived from the French frontier e, and
that irom the fronteina ; as being a kind of front
oppofed. to the enemy. Skinner derives frontier from
front; inafmuch as the frontier is the exterior and molt
advanced part of a ftate, as the front is that of the face
of a man.
FRONTIGNIAC wine, is fo called from a town
of Languedoc in France, fituated 16 miles fouth-weft
of Montpelier, remarkable for producing it.
FRONTINAC, a fortrefs in Canada, fituated at
the head of a fine harbour, on the north-weft fide of the
outlet of Lake Ontario, where veffels of every defcrip-
tion may ride in perfeft fafety. It is 300 miles from
Quebec, and in companion of that place has a very ftiort
winter. J
FRONTINUS, Sextus Julius, an ancient Roman
writer, was of confular dignity, and flouriffied under
the emperors Vefpafian, Titus, Domitian, Nerva, and
Trajan. He commanded the Roman armies in Bri¬
tain j as made city prastor when Vefpafian and Ti¬
tus were confuls ; and Nerva made him curator of the
3
aqucdiufts, which occafioned his writing IDe AqucceluSli* Frontif-
bus urbis Romce. Fie wrote four books upon the Greek Piece
and Roman art of war j a piece De Re Agraria, and U
another De Limitibus. Thefe have been often feparate- , |I roih
ly reprinted ; but were all colleaed together in a neat ^
edition at Amfterdam in 1661, with notes by Robertus
Keuchenius. He died under Trajan.
FRON1ISPIECE, in ArchiteBure, the principal
face of a fine building. rJ he word is formed of the
Latin frontifpicium, q. d.frontishominis uJpeBio. Hence
alio, by a figure, we fay, the frontifpiece of a book;
meaning an ornament with an engraven title on the
firft page.
FRONTLET. See Frontal.
FRONTO, Marcus Cornelius, was chofen for his
eloquence to inftruft the emperors Marcus Aurelius and
Lucius Verus in rhetoric ; in recompenfe of which he
was promoted to the coniulate, and a ftatue was erect¬
ed to his honour. He taught Marcus Aurelius not
only eloquence, but the duty of kings, and excellent
morals. Some lay he wrote againft the Chriftians. A
le<ft was formed of thofe who looked upon him as a mo¬
del of perfect eloquence, and thofe were called Pronto-
niam. The Civilians, whole names were Pronto, men¬
tioned in the Pandeds, were probably defeended from
him.
FROST, in Phyfology, fuch a ftate of the atmo-
fphere as occafions the congelation or freezing of wTater
and other fluids. See Cold, Chemistry Index, and
Meteorology Index.
Water and other fluids are capable of containing the
element of fire or heat in two very different ftates. In
the one, they feem to imbibe the fire in fuch a manner,
that it eludes all the methods by wThich we are accul-
tomed to obferve it, either by our fenfation of feeling,
or the thermometer; in the other, it manifefts itfelf
obvioufly to our fenfes, either by the touch, the ther¬
mometer, or the emiffion of light.
In the firft of thefe ftates, we call the body cold;
and are apt to fay that this coldnefs is occafioned by
the abfence of heat. But this manner of exprefling
ourfelves, excepting in a relative degree, is certainly
improper; for even thofe fluids which are coldeft to the
touch contain a vaft deal of heat. Thus vapour, which
is colder to the touch than the water from which it was
railed, contains an immenfe quantity of fire, even more
than fufficient to heat it red hot. The like may be faid
of common ialt, and fnow, or ice. If a quantity of
each of thefe fubftances is feparately reduced to the de¬
gree of 28 or 30 of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, upon
mixing them together, the heat which would have rail¬
ed the thermometer to the degree above-mentioned,
now enters into the fubftance of them in fuch a manner
that the mercury falls down to o.—Here an exceffive
degree of cold is produced, and ye„t w7e are fiire that the
fubftances contain the very fame quantity of heat that
they formerly did : nay, they will even feem exceeding¬
ly cold, when they mull: certainly contain a great deal
more heat than they originally did ; for they abforb it
from all bodies around them ; and if a fmall veffel full
of water is put into the middle of fuel', a mixture, it will
in a ftiort time be full of ice.
It appears, L erefore, that our fenfes, even when
affifted by thermometers, can only judge A the ftate in
which the element of fire is with relation to the o-
dies
Froft,
F R O [ 24.7
dies around us, without regard to the quantity contain-
ed in them. Thus, if heat flows from any part of our
body into any fubftance actually in contact with it, the
fenfation of cold is excited, and we call that fubftance
cold; but if it flows from any fubftance into our body,
the fenfation of heat is excited, and we call that fuh-
ftance hot, without regard to the abfolute quantity con¬
tained in either cafe
Of all known fubftances, the atmoiphere either ab-
forbs or throws out heat with the moft remarkable fa¬
cility : and in one or other of thefe ftates it always is
with refpecl to the furface of the earth, and fuch bo¬
dies as are placed orr or near it 5 for thefe, properly
fpeaking, have no temperature of their own, but are
entirely regulated by that of the atmofphere.—When
the air has been for fome time abfor’oing the heat from
terreftiial bodies, a froft muft be the undoubted con-
iequence, ior the fame reafon that water freezes in a
veflel put into a freezing mixture j and were this ab-
forption to continue for a length of time, the whole
earth would be converted into a frozen mafs. There
are, however, certain powers in nature, by which this
effedl is always prevented j and the moft violent froft
we can imagine, muft always as it were defeat its own
purpofes, and end in a thaw. To underftand this fub-
je&, we muft obferve,
. 1. In that ftate of the atmofphere which we deno-
ininate froft, there is a moft intimate union between
the air and the water it contains, and therefore frofty
weather, except in very high latitudes, is generally
clear. J
3
FRO
^ ^en hich a union takes place, either in winter
or fummer, we obferve the atmofphere alfo inclined to
ablorb heat, and confequently to froft:. Thus in clear
fettled rveather, even in fummer, though the day may
be exceffively hot by reafon of the continued funfhine,
}et the mornings and evenings are remarkably cold,
and fometimes even difagreeably fo.
3* The air being therefore always ready in the time
of froft or in clear weather, to abforb heat from every
fubftance which comes into contaft with it, it follow s
that it muft alfo abforb part of that which belongs to
the vapours contained in it.
4. Though vapour is capable of becoming much
colder than water without being frozen, yet by a con¬
tinued^ abforption it muft at laft part with its latent
heat, i. e. tnat which effentially conftitutes its vapour,
and without which it is no longer vapour, but water
or ice. . No fooner, therefore, does the froft arrive at
a certain pitch, than the vapours, everywhere dif-
perfed through the air, give out their latent heat :
the atmofphere then becomes clouded : the froft either
totally goes off, or becomes milder by reafon of the
great quantity of heat difcharged into the air; and
the vapours defcend in rain, hail, or fnow, according
to the particular difpolition of the atmofphere at the
time.
, S' Even in the polar regions, where it may be
to ought that the froft muft increafe beyond meafure,
-Mere are aho natural means for preventing its running
.0 extremes. The principal caufe here is, the mixture
0 a gr^at quantity of vapours from the more tempe-
mte legions of the globe with the air in thofe dreary
-mates. It is well known, that aqueous vapour al-
Ways 'iCS ^r0Iia a warm to a colder place. For this
reafon, the. vapours railed by the fun in the more tem¬
perate regions of the earth, muft continually travel
northward and fouthward in great quantities. Thus
tuey furmfh materials for thofe immenfe quantities of
fnow aud ice which are to be found in the neighbour¬
hood of the poles, and which we cannot imagine the
weak influence of the fun in thefe parts capable of raif-
mg. It is impoftible that a quantity of vapour can be
mixed with frofty air, without communicating a great
deal of heat to it j and thus there are often thaws of
connderable duration even in thofe climates where
from the little influence of the fun, we fhould fuppofe
the Iroft would be perpetual.
6. We may now account with fome probability for
the uncertain duration of frofts. In this country they
are feldom of a long continuance; becaufe the vapours
railed from the fea with which our ifland is furround-
ed, perpetually mix with the air over the ifland, and
prevent a long duration of the froft. For the fame
reaion, frofts are never of fuch long duration in mari-
time places on the continent as in the inland ones.
Ihere is nothing, however, more uncertain than the
motion of the vapours with which the air is conftantly
hiled ; and therefore is is impoflible to prognofticate
the auration of a froft with any degree of certainty.
. geaeral, we may always be certain, that if a quan¬
tity of vapour is accumulated in anyplace, no intenfe
noft can fubfift in that place for any length of time •
and by whatever caufes the vapours are" driven from
place to place, by the fame caufes the frofts are regu¬
lated throughout the whole world. - 6
I he effeifts of froft in different countries are enu¬
merated under the article Congelation. In the
northern parts of the world even folid bodies are li-
aole to be affeded by froft. Timber is often appa¬
rently frozen, and rendered exceedingly difficult to faw.
Mar., chalk, and other lefs fcjlid terreftrial concre¬
tions will be fhattered by ftrong and durable frofts.
Metals are comraded by froft : thus, an iron tube, 12
teet long, upon being expofed to the air in a frofty
night loft two lines of its length. On the contrary,
ivr t rT °r dlJat<:s water near one tenth of its bulk.
/T1 °yle ma^e feveral experiments with metalline
veffels, exceedingly thick and ftrong j which being
filled wnh water, clofe flopped, and expofed to the
cold, burft by the expanfion of the frozen fluid with¬
in them. Trees are frequently deftroyed by froft, as
if ournt up by the moft exceffive heat 5 and in very
ftrong frofts, walnut trees, affies, and even oaks are
fometimes fpht and cleft, fo as to be feen through
and this with a terrible noife, like the explofion of fire¬
arms.
Froft naturally proceeds from the upper parts of bo¬
dies downwards : but how deep it will reach in earth
or water is not eafily known ; becaufe this depth may
vary with the degree of coldnefs in the air, by a longer
or morter duration of the froft, the texture of the
earth, the nature of the juices wherewith it is impreg-
nateu, the conftitution of its more internal parts as to
heat and cold, the nature of its effluvia, &c. Mr
-Doyle, in order to afcertain this depth, after four
nights of hard froft, dug in an orchard, where the
ground was level and bare, and found the froft had
icarce reached three inches and a half, and in a garden
nearer the Jioufe only two inches below the furface.
Nine
Froft.
Froft.
F K O
Nine or ten fucceflive frofty nights froze
' ground in the garden fix inches and a half deep •, and
in the orchard, where a wall fheltered it from the fouth
fun to the depth of eight inches and a half. He alio
dug in an orchard, near a wall, about a week after-
warks, and found the froft to have Pf ?rated, tofth^
depth of 14 inches. In a garden at Mofcow, the froft
in a hard feafon only penetrates to two feet: and the
utmoft effect that Captain James mentions the cold to
have had upon the ground of Charlton ifland, waste
freeze it to 10 feet deep : whence may appear the dif¬
ferent degrees of cold of that ifland and Ruffia. And
as to the freezing of water at the above mentioned
ifland, the Captain tells us, it does not naturally con¬
geal above the depth of fix feet, the reft eiP§_ X ac
cident. Water alfo, expofed to the cold air m large
velfels, always freezes firft at the upper furface, the
ice gradually increafing and thickening downwards :
for which reafon, frogs retire in frofty weather to
the bottom of ditches ; and it is faid, that fnoals of
fifti retire in winter to thofe depths of the fea and
vers, where they are not to be found in fummer; W a-
ter, like the earth, feems not difpofed to receive any
very intenfe degree of cold at a confiderable depth or
diftance from the air. The vaft maffes of ice found
in the northern feas being only many flakes and frag¬
ments, which, Aiding under each other, are, by the
congelation of the intercepted water, cemented toge-
In cold countries, the froft often proves fatal to
mankind •, not only producing gangrenes, but even
death itfelf. Thofe who die of it have their hands and
feet firft feized, till they grow paft feeling it ; alter
which the reft of their bodies is fo invaded, that they
are taken with a drowfinefs, vdfich, if indulged, they
awake no more, but die infenfibly. But there is ano¬
ther wTay whereby it proves mortal, viz., by freezing
the abdomen and vifeera, which on diffedion are found
to be mortified and black. . ,
The great power of froft on vegetables is a thing
fufficiently known •, but the differences between the
frofts of a fevere winter, and thofe which happen in
the fpring mornings, in their effbas on plants and
trees, were never perfeaiy explained, till by Mefl. Du
-r t 1 TVFpmnirs of the Fans Ac a-
Hamel and Buffon in the Memoirs of the Paris Aca-
The frofts of fevere winters are much more terrible
than thofe of the fpring, as they bring on a priva¬
tion of all the produas of the tenderer part of the ve¬
getable world •, but then they are not frequent,, inch
winters happening perhaps but once in an age j- and
the frofts of the fpring are in reality greater injuries to
us than thefe, as they are every year repeated. .
In regard to trees., the great difference is this, that
the frofts of fevere winters affba even their wood, their
trunks and large branches v whereas thofe of the ipnng
have only power to hurt the buds.
The winter frofts happening* at a time when moft of
the trees in our woods and gardens have neither lea\cs,
flowers, nor fruits upon them, and have their buds fo
hard as to be proof againft flight injuries of weather,
efpecially if the preceding fummer has not. been too
wet • in this ftate, if there are no unlucky circumftan-
ces attending, the generality of trees, bear moderate
winters very well j but hard frofts, which happen late
4
[ 248 ] fro
the bare in the winter, caufe very great injuries even to thofe
trees wdiich they do not utterly deftroy. Ihele are,
1 Long cracks following the diredlion of the fibres.
2 Parcels of dead wood enclofed round with wood yet
in a living ftate. And, 3. That diftemperature which
the forefters call the doub/t blea, which is a perteft
circle of blea, or foft white wood, which, when , the
tree is afterwards felled, is found covered by a circle
of hard and folid wood. r • c
The opinions of authors about the expolition of
trees to the different quarters, have been very different,
and moft of them grounded on no rational foundation.
Many are of opinion that the effedls of froft are molt
violently felt on thole trees wdiich are expofed to the
north : and others think the fouth or the weft the moft
ftrongly affbaed by them. There is no doubt but the
north expofure is fubjea to the greateft cold. It does
not, however, follow from this, that the injury muft
be always greateft on the trees expofed to the north in
frofts • on the conUnry, there are abundant proofs
that it is on the fouth fide that trees are generally
more injured by froft : and it is plain from repeated
experiments, that there are particular accidents, under
which a more moderate froft may do more injury to ve¬
getables, than the moft fevere one which happens to
them under more favourable circumftances.
It is plain from the accounts of the injuries trees re¬
ceived by the frofts in 1709, that the greateft of all
were owing to repeated falfe thaws, fucceeded by re¬
peated new frofts. But the frofts of the fpnng feafon
furnilh abundantly more numerous examples ot this
truth ; and fome experiments made by the Count de
Buffon at large in his own woods, prove mconteft-
ably, that it is not the fevereft cold or moft fixed trolt
that does the greateft injury to vegetables.
This is an obfervation direftly oppofite to the com¬
mon opinion j. yet is not the lefs true, nor is it any way
difeordant to reafon. We find by a number of expen^
ments, that humidity is the thing that makes frolt
fatal to vegetables 5 and therefore every thing that can
occafion humidity in them, expofes them to theie m-
iuries, and every thing that can prevent or take off an
over proportion of humidity in them, every thing that
can dry them though with ever fo increafed a cold,
Froft.
muft prevent or preferve them from thofe injuries. Nu¬
merous experiments and obfervations tend to prove
this. It is well known that vegetables aiways feel the
froft very feverely in low places where theie are
fogs. The plants which Hand by a river fide are fre¬
quently found deftroyed by the fpring and autumnal
frofts, while thofe of the fame fpecies, which ftand m
a drier place, fuffer little or perhaps none at all by
them > and the low and wet parts of forefts are well
known to produce worfe wood than the high and drier.
The coppice wood in wet and low parts ot common
woods, though it pufli out more vigoroufly at firft than
that of other places, yet never, comes. to fo good a
growth: for the froft of the fpring killing thefe early
fop ftioots, obliges the lower part of the trees to throw
out lateral branches : and the fame thing happens m a
greater or leffer degree to the coppice wood that grows
under cover of larger trees, m great forefts j for here
the vapours not being earned off either by the fun or
wind, ft agnate and freeze, and m the Lme manner de¬
ftroy the young ftioots, as the fogs of marlhy places.
Froft.
FRO [2
It is a general obfervation alfo, tbat tbe froft is never
hurtful to the late (hoots of the vine, or to the flower-
buds of trees, except when it follows heavy dews, or a
long rainy feafon, and then it never fails to do great
mifchief, though it be ever fo flight.
The froft is always obferved to be more mifchievous
in its confequences on newly cultivated ground than, in
other places \ and this is becaufe the vapours which
continually arife from the earth, find an eafier pallage
from tbofe places than from others, frees alio which
have been newdy cut, lufter more than otheis. by the
fpring frofts, which is owing to their (hooting out
more vigoroufly.
Frofts alfo do more damage on light and fandy
grounds, than on the tougher and firmer foils, fiippo-
iing both equally dry j and this feems partly owing to
their being more early in their produflions, and partly
to their lax texture fuffering a greater quantity of va¬
pours to tranfpire.
It alfo has been frequently obferved, that the fide-
fhoots of trees are more fubje£l to perilh by the fpring
frofts than thofe from the top j and M. Buffon, who
examined into this with great accuracy, always found
the effefls of the fpring frofts much greater near the
ground than elfewhere. T he (hoots within a foot of
the ground quickly perilhed by them y thofe wftiich
flood at two or three feet high, bore them much bet¬
ter 5 and thofe at four feet and upwards frequently re¬
mained wholly unhurt, while the lower ones were en¬
tirely deftroyed.
There is a feries of obfervations, which have pro¬
ved beyond all doubt, that it is not the hard frofts
which fo much hurt plants, as thofe frofts, though le(s
fevere, which happen when they are full of moifture j
and this clearly explains the account of all the great
damages done by the fevere frofts being on the fouth
fide ol the trees which are affe£led by them, though
that fide has been plainly all the while lefs cold than
the north. Great damage is alfo done to the weftern
(ides of trees and plantations, when after a rain with a
weft wind the wind flu’fts to the north at funfet, as is
frequently the cafe in fpnng, or when an eaft wind blow's
upon a thick fog before funriiing.
Froft, it is wrell known, is particularly deftrudlive to
the bloflbm of fruit trees. The following method of
(ecuring fuch trees from being damaged by early frofts
may be acceptable to many of our readers. A rope is
to be interwoven among the branches of the tree, and
one end of it brought down fo as to be immerfed in a
bucket of water. The rope, it is faid, will adt as a
condudlor, and convey the effedls of the froft from the
tree to the water. Thiswdea is not new, for the fol-
lowing paffage may be found in Colerus. “ If you dig
a trench around the root of a tree, and fill it with wra-
ter, or keep the roots moift till it has bloomed, it will
not be injured by the froft. Or, in fpring, fulpend a
veffel filled with w^ater from the tree. If you wd(h to
preferve the bloffom from being hurt by the froft, place
a veffel of water below it, and the froft will fall into
it.”
Hoar Frost, a cold moift vapour, that is drawm up
a little way into the air, and in the night falls again on
the earth, where it is congealed into icy cryftals of va¬
rious figures. Hoar froft, therefore, is nothing but dew
turned into ice by the coldnefs of the air.
Vol. IX. Part I.
49 ] F Pi O
Melioration of Aromatic Spirits by Fros r. Mr Beaume
obferves, that aromatic fpirituous waters have lets (cent
when newdy diftilled than after they have been kept
about fix months: and he found that the good effect;
of age was produced in a (hort time by means of cold •,
and that, by plunging quart bottles of the jifttror into
a mixture of pounded ice and fea fait, the (pirit, alter
having fullered for fix or eight hours the cold hence
refulting, proves as grateful as that which hath oeen
kept many years. Simple waters alfo, after having been
frozen, prove far more agreeable than they were beioie.
Geoftroy takes notice of this melioration by froic. Hiff,
Acad, x 7 13.
Melioration of Land by Frost. See Agriculture
Index.
FROTH, a white light fubftance, formed on the
fur face of fluids by vehement agitation, confiding of
air included in thin films of wrater.
Froth Spit, or Cuckoo Spit, t; name given to a white
froth, or fpume, very common in the fpring and firft
months of dimmer, on the leaves of certain plants, par¬
ticularly on thofe of the common white field lychnis or
catchfly, thence called by dome fpathng poppy.
All writers on vegetables have taken notice of jTi3
froth, though few have underftood the caufe or origin
of it till of late. It is formed by a little leaping animal,
called by fome the flea grajhopper, by applying its anus
clofe to the leaf, and difcharging thereon a fmall drop
of a white vifcous fluid, which, containing fome air in
it, is foon elevated into a fmall bubble : before this is
wrell formed, it depofits fuch another drop j and io on,
till it is every wray overwhelmed with a quantity of thefe
bubbles, which form the wdiite froth which we fee.
Within this ipume it is feen to acquire four tubercles on
its back, wherein the wings are enclofed : thefe burft-
ing, from a reptile it becomes a winged animal: and
thus, rendered perfeft, it flies to meet its mate, and
propagate its kind. It has an oblong, obtuie body,
and a large head wTith fmall eyes. I he external wings
(for it has four) are of a dulky brown colour, marked
with two white fpots : the head is black. It is a fpecies
of Cicada.
FROWDE, Philip, an Englilh poet, was the fon
of a gentleman who had been poltmafter in the reign of
Queen Anne. He was fent to the univcrfity of Oxford,
where he had the honour of being diftinguilhed by Ad-
difon, who took him under his protection. While he
remained there, he became the author of feveral pieces
of poetry, fome of which in Latin were pure and ele¬
gant enough to entitle them to a place in the Mufce
Anglic a nee. He likewife wrote two tragedies: Ihe
Fall of Saguntum, dedicated to Sir Robert Walpole j
and Philotas, addreffed to the earl of Chefterfield. He
died at his lodgings at Cecil Street in the Strand, in
173 8 ; and in the London Daily Poft had the follow¬
ing character given him : “ Though the elegance of
Mr Frowde’s writings has recommended him to the ge¬
neral public efteem, the politenefs of his genius is the
leaft amiable part of his charafter •, for he efteemed the
talents of wit and learning only as they were conducive
to the excitement and praftice of honour and humanity.
Therefore, wdth a foul cheerful, benevolent, and virtu¬
ous, he wras in converfation genteelly delightful, in
friendlhip punctually fincere, in death Chriftianly re-
figned. No man could live more beloved, no private
li man
Froft
II
Frowde.
F R U [ 2.
fcen- man could die more lamented.” A fine eloge 1 and we
have no reafon to doubt the truth of it.
FRUCTESCENTIA, (from fruFtus, “ fruit,”)
1 comprehends the precife time in which, after the fall of
the flowers, the fruits arrive at maturity, and difperfe
their feeds.
In general, plants which flower in fpring, ripen their
fruits in fummer, as rye ; thofe which flower in fum-
mer have their fruits ripe in autumn, as the vine j the
fruit of autumnal flowers ripens in winter, or the fol¬
lowing fpring, if kept in a Hove or otherwife defended
from exceflive frofts. Thefe frofts, fays M. Adanfon,
are frequently fo pernicious and violent as to deftroy
the greatefb part of the perennial plants of Virginia
and Mifliffippi, that are cultivated in France, even
before they have exhibited their fruit. The plants
which flower during our winter, fuch as thofe of the
Cape of Good Hope, ripen their fruit in fpring in our
iloves.
FRUCTIFEROUS, fignifies properly any thing
that produces fruit.
FRUCTIFICATION of plants, is defined by
Linnaeus to be the temporary part of a vegetable appro¬
priated to generation, terminating the old vegetable,
and beginning the new. It confifts of the following
feven parts j viz. the calyx, corolla, flamen, pilfillum,
pericarpium, femen or feed, and receptaculum. See
Botany. •
FRUIT, in its general fenfe, includes whatever the
earth produces for the nouriihment and fupport of ani¬
mals } as herbs, grain, puife, hay, corn, and flax,
every thing exprefled by the Latins under the name
fruges.
Fruit, in Natural Hi/lory, denotes the laft produc¬
tion of a tree or plant, for the propagation or multipli¬
cation of its kind ; in which fenfe fruit includes all kinds
of feeds, with their furniture, &.c.
Fruit, in Botany, is properly that part of a plant
wherein the feed is contained •, called by the Latins
frucius; and by the Greeks The fruit in the
Linnsean fyftem is one of the parts of fructification,
and is diftinguifhed into three parts, viz. the pericar¬
pium, feed, and receptacle, or receptaculum feminuni.
See Botany.
Colours extruded from Fruits. See the article Co¬
lour-Mu liny.
Bread-pRuiT. See Artocarpus, Botany Index.
Fruits, with regard to commerce, are diftinguilhed
into recent, frefh, and dry.
Recent Fruits are thofe fold juft as they are gather¬
ed from the tree, without any farther preparation : as
are moft of the productions of our gardens and orchards,
fold by the fruiterers.
Dry Fruits are thofe dried in the fun, or by the
fire, wfilh other ingredients fometimes added to them
to make them keep ; imported chiefly from beyond fea,
and fold by the grocers. Such are raifins, currants, figs,
capers, olives, cloves, nutmegs, pepper, and other fpi-
ces •, which fee under their refpedtive articles.
Under the denomination of dry fruits are alfo fre¬
quently included apples, pears, almonds, filberds, &.c.
pRUiT-Flies, a name given by gardeners and others
to a fort of fmall black flies found in vaft numbers
among fruit trees, in the fpring feafon, and fuppofed to
do great injury to them. Mr Leeuwenhoeck preferved
o ] F R U
fome of thefe flies for his microfcopical obfervations. Frurf.
He found that they did not live longer than a day or 'f~~
two, but that the females during this time laid a great
number of longifli vggs. The gardeners who fuppofe
that thefe flies wound the leaves of the trees, are mif-
taken : it is true that they feed on their juices •, but
they have no inftruments wherewith they can extrait
thefe for themfelves : they feed on fuch as are naturally
extravafated •, and when there is not a fufficient quanti¬
ty of thefe for their purpofe, they haunt the places to
which the pucerons refort, and feed on the juices which
thefe little creatures extravafate by means of the holes
they bore in the leaves with their trunks.
Fruit Stones. The mifehiefs arifing from the cuftom
which many people have of fwallowing the ftones of
plums and other fruit are very great. The Philofophi-
cal Tranfailions give an account of a woman who fuf-
fered violent pains in her bowTels for 30 years, return¬
ing once in a month or lefs. At length, a ftrong
purge being given her, the occafion of all thefe com¬
plaints was driven down from the bowrels to the anus $
where it gave a fenfation of diftenfion and ftoppage,
producing a continual defire of going to ftool, but
without voiding any thing. On the afliftance of a
careful hand in this cafe, there was taken out with a
forceps a ball of an oval figure, of about ten drachms
in weight, and meafuring five inches in circumference.
This had caufed all the violent fits of pain which Are
had fuffered for fo many years 5 and, after voiding it,
fire became perfeftly wTell. The ball extracted looked
like a ftone, and felt very hard, but it fwam in w^ater.
On cutting it through with a knife, there was found
in the centre of it a plum ftone ; round rvhich feveral
coats of this hard and tough matter had gathered.
Another inftance given in the fame papers is of a man,
who, dying of an incurable colic which had tormented
him many years, and baffled the effedls of medicines,
was opened after death •, and in his bowels was found
a ball fimilar to that above mentioned ; but fome what
larger, being fix inches in circumference, and weighing
an ounce and a half. In the centre of this, as of the
other, there was found the ftone of a common plum,
and the coats were of the fame nature with thofe of the
former.
Thefe and feveral other inftances mentioned in the
fame place, fufficiently ftiow the folly of that common
opinion that the ftones of fruits are wholefome. For
though by nature the guts are fo defended by their
proper mucus, that people very feldom fuffer by things
of this kind ; yet if we confider the various circumvo¬
lutions of the guts, their valves and cells, and at the
fame time confider the hair c 1 the Ikins of animals we
feed on, the wool or down on herbs and fruit, and the
fibres, veffels, and nerves of plants, which are not al¬
tered by the ftomach j it will appear a wonder that
inftances of this fort of mifehief are not much more
common. Cherry ftones, fwallowed in great quanti¬
ties, have occafioned the death of many people j and
there have been inftances even of the feeds of ftraw-
berries collecting into a lump in the guts,, and caufing
violent diforders, which could not be cured without
great difficulty.
Fruit Trees. With regard to thefe it may be ob~
ferved, 1. That the cutting and pruning them when
young hurt their bearing, though it contributes to
the
F R U [25
Fruitery the richnefs and flavour of the fruit, as well as to the
ii heauty of the tree. 2. J hat kernel fruit tiees come
Fniftum. later to bear than ftone £rujt trees . the time required
V by the firft, before they come to any fit age for bear¬
ing, being one with another five years; but when they
do begin, they bear in greater plenty than done iruit.
3. That ftone fruit, figs, and grapes, commonly bear
confiderably in three or four years, and bear full crops
the fifth and fixth year; and hold it for many years,
if well ordered. 4. That fruit trees in the fame neigh¬
bourhood will ripen a fortnight fooner in fome grounds
than in others of a different temperature. 5. That 111
the fame country, hot or cold fummers fet confiderably
forwards, or put backwards, the fame fruit, b. J hat
the fruit on wall trees generally ripen before thofe on
ftandards, and thofe on ftandards before thofe on
dwarfs. 7. That the fruit of all wall trees planted in
the fouth and eaft quarters commonly ripen about the
fame time, only thofe in the fouth rather earlier than
thofe in the eaftthole in the weft are later by eight
or ten days; and thofe in the north, by 15 or 20.
For the planting, pruning, grafting, &c. of fruit trees,
fee Gardening.
FRUITERY, a place for the keeping of fruit, a
fruit houfe, or fruit loft.
A fruitery Ihould be inacceflible to any thing of
moifture 5 and Ihould be as much as poflible fo, even
to froft.
FRUMENTACEOUS, a term applied by bota-
nifts to all fuch plants as have a conformity with
wheat, in refpeft of their fruits, leaves, ears, or the
like.
FRUMENTARII, a kind of foldiers or archers
under the weftern empire.
The firft time we read of thefe officers is in the reign
of the empeior Adrian, who made ufe of them to inform
himfelf of whatever paffed. They did not make any
particular corps diftmdt from the reft of the forces, but
there was a certain number of them in each legion. It
is fuppofed, that they were at firft a number of young
perfons, difpofed by Auguftus throughout the pro¬
vinces, particularly on all the grand roads, to acquaint
the emperor, wuth all expedition, of every thing that
happened.
Afterwards they wrere incorporated into the troops
tbemfelves, where they ftill retained their ancient name.
As their principal office w’as the giving intelligence,
they were often joined with the curiofi, with whom
they agreed in that part of their office.
Their name of frumentarii is derived from their be¬
ing alfo a fort of purveyors to the armies, cities, &c.
colie&ing all the corn from the feveral provinces to
furnilh the commonwealth.
FRUMENTATION, in Roman antiquity, a lar-
gefs of corn bellowed on the people. 1 his praftice of
giving corn to the people was very ancient among the
Romans, and frequently ufed to foothe the turbulent
humour of the populace. At firft the number of thofe
to whom this largefs was given vya-S indeterminate, till
Auguftus fixed it at 200,000.
FRUSH, or Running Thrush. See Farriery
Index.
FRUSTUM, in Mathematics, a part of fome folid
body leparated from the reft.
The fru ium of a cone is the part that remains,
t ] F R u
wrhen the top is cut off by a plane parallel to the bafe j
and is otherwife called a truncated cone. See Conic
Hellions.
The fruffum of a pyramid is alfo what remains af¬
ter the top is cut off by a plane parallel to its bafe.
The fruftum of a globe or fphere is any part there¬
of cut off by a plane, the folid contends of which may
be found by this rule : To three times the fquare ot
the femidiameter of the bafe add the fquare of its
height 5 then multiply that fum by the height, and
this produff multiplied by .5236 gives the folidity of
Flutes
II
Fuc'tiusr
the fruftum.
FRUTEX, a SHRUB. Shrubs, according to Lin¬
naeus, make a branch of the feventh family in the ve¬
getable kingdom j and are diftinguifned from trees, in
that they come up without buds. But this diftinflion
is not univerfal, though it be generally juft w-ith regard
to thofe of Europe. Nature hath made no abfolute di-
ftinftion between trees and ffirubs. Frutex, in its ge¬
neral acceptation, is a plant whofe trunk is perennial,
gemmiparous, wToody, dividing and fubdividing into a
great number of branches. In ffiort, it is the epitome
of a tree, exemplified in the rofe buffi.
FRY, in Zoology, fignifies the fpawn, or rather
young, of fifli.
FRYING-pan, a dangerous ffioal, wdiich has receiv¬
ed this appellation from its figure. It is fituated at the
entrance of Cape Fear river, in North Carolina, the
fouthern part of which is in 33® 22' N. Lat. 24 miles
fouth-eaft by fouth of the light-houfe on Bald Head.
FRYTH, John, a martyr to the Proteftant reli¬
gion in the reign of Henry VIII. He was the fon of
an innkeeper at Seven Oaks in Kent j and educated
in King’s college, Cambridge, where he took the
degree of bachelor of arts. Thence he removed to
Oxford, and was made a junior canon of Wolfey’s col¬
lege. He had not been long in this univerfity before
he became acquainted with William Tyndale, a zealous
Lutheran, wdth wdiom he converfed frequently on the
abufes in religion. Fryth became a convert to Luthe-
ranifm, and publicly avowed his opinions. He w’as
apprehended, examined by the commiffary, and con¬
fined to his college. At length having obtained his
liberty, in 1528 he w^ent over to Germany, where he
continued about twro years 5 and then returned to
England, more than ever determined in his religious
fentiments. Finding at that time but few affociates,
he wandered about from place to place, till at' laft he
was taken up at Reading as a vagrant, and fet in the
ftocks, where he remained till he was near expiring for
want of fuftenance. He was at length relieved by the
humanity of Leonard Cox, a fchoolraafter j who find¬
ing him a man of letters, procuied his enlargement,
and adminiftered to his neceffities. Fryth nowr fet
out for London, where, wTith more zeal than prudence,
he began to make profelytes ; but w'as foon apprehend¬
ed by order of the chancellor Sir Thomas More, and
fent prifoner to the tower. Refilling to recant his
opinions, he was condemned to the flames, and accord¬
ingly burnt in Smithfield, on the 4th of July 1533*
He left feveral works behind him, which were printed
in folio in 1573.
FUAGE, in old Engliffi writers, a tax of I2d. for
every fire, levied in the time of Edward III.
FUCINUS LACUS, in Ancient Geography, a lake of
I i 2 Italy
♦
Fucinus.
F U C [2;
Italy in the country of the Marfi. Now Logo di Cela-
no, from a cognominal citadel, lying on the fouth of
the Abruzzo Ultra, in the kingdom of Naples, near the
Apennines. This lake was under the proteftion of a
god of the fame denomination, whofe temple flood on
its banks. According to the teftimony of ancient au¬
thors, it was fubjeft to extraordinary riflngs and de-
creafings. The actual circumference is 47 miles: the
breadth in the wideft part is 10, in the narroweft 4-,
its depth 1 s feet upon an average. But all thefe have
varied prodigioufly. Two miles up the plain, behind
Avezzano, the fragments of boats, fliells, and other
marks of its ancient extent, have been cafually difco-
vered : and, on the contrary, there are people who re¬
member when it did not flow nearer than within two
miles of Avezzano. An immenfe traft of excellent
lands is loft at every increafe of its level. All round
this noble piece of water rifes a circle of grand moun¬
tains, lome of them the higheft in Italy, if we except
the Alps, and many of them covered with fnow *, and
at the foot of them are numerous villages, with rich
and well cultivated farms. The environs of the lake,
Mr Swinburne defcribes as all well cnclofed, and the
ftdes of the hills as covered with fine woods \ its waters
abound with fith of various kinds, and thither repair at
ftated feafons innumerable flights of wild fowl. As
the fwelling of the lake was attended with incredible
damage, the Marli had often petitioned the fenate to
drain it : Julius Cstfar would have attempted it, had he
lived longer. His fucceffors were avtrie to the pro-
jeft •, till Claudius, who delighted in expenfive difficult
enterprifes, undertook it. During the fpaoe of 11
years he employed 30,000 men in digging a paffage
through the mountain j and when every thing was
ready for letting off the water, exhibited a fuperb na¬
val fpeftacle on the lake. A great number of con¬
demned criminals were obliged to a£l the parts ,of Rho¬
dians and Sicilians in feparate fleets, to engage in ear-
neft, and to deftroy one another for the entertainment
of the court and the multitude of fpeftators that co¬
vered the hills : A line of well armed veffels and rafts
loaded with foldiers furrounded the feene of a£lion, in
order to prevent any of the wretches from efcaping j
but it was with great difficulty and many threats that
they could be brought to an engagement. When
this favage diverfion was ended, the operations for
opening the paffage commenced, and the emperor
was very near being fwept away and drowned by the
hidden ruffling of the waters towards it. However,
either through the ignorance or negligence of the
engineers, the work did not anfwer as was expeded,
and Claudius did not live long enough to have the
faults amended : Nero abandoned the fcheme through
envy. Hadrian is faid to have let off the waters of the
Fucinus ; but none now efcape except through hidden
channels formed by nature, which are probably fubject
to be obftruded, and thus occafion a fuperabundance
of water in the lake, till fome unknown caufe removes
the obftrudions and again gives free paffage.
Sir William Hamilton, who viiited the Fucinus in
1785, fays, “ it is the moft beautiful lake he ever fawr,
and would be complete if the neighbouring mountains
were better wooded.” It furnlihes abundance of fifli,
though not of the beft quality. There are a few large
trout, but moftly tench, barbel and dace.. In the
2 ] f u E
fhallow water on the borders of the lake, he faw thou- Fucus,
fands of water fnakes purfuing and preying upon a , Fuego.
little kind of fiffi like our thornbacks, but much bet- v
ter armed j though their defenfive weapons feemed to
avail them but little againft fuch ravenous foes. The
opening made by Claudius he defcribes as ftill entire,
though, in many parts, filled with earth and rubbilh. He
went into it with torches as far as he could. It is a
covered underground canal three miles long, and part of
it cut through a hard rock ; and other parts fupported
by mafbn work, with wrells to give light. Hadrian is
faid to have let off the waters of the lake : and our
author is of opinion, that if the canal were cleared and
repaired, it would ftill anfwTer that purpofe, and there¬
by reftore a great deal of rich land fit for cultiva¬
tion.
FUCUS, a name given by the ancients to certain
dyes and paints. By this name they called a purple
lea plant ufed by them to dye woollen and linen things
of that colour. The dye was very beautiful, but net
lafting; for it foon began to change, and in time
went wholly off. This is the account Theophrallus
gives of it.
The women of thole times alfo ufed fomething call
ed fucuS) to ftain their cheeks red ^ and many have fupe
pofed, from the fame word exprefling both, that the
fame fubftance was ufed on both cccafions. But this,
on a ft riel inquiry, proves not to be the cafe. The
Greeks called every thing fucus that would ftain or
paint the flelh. But this peculiar fubftance ufed by
the women to paint their cheeks was diftinguilhed from
the others by the name of ri%ion among the more cor-
re£t writers, and was indeed a root brought from Syria
into Greece. The Latins, in imitation of the Greek
name, called this root radicula; and Pliny very erro-
neoully confounds the plant with the radix lunaria, or
Jlruthion of the Greeks.
The word fucus was in thofe times become fuch an
univerfal name for paint, that the Greeks and Romans
had a fucus tncta/licus, which was the cerufe ufed for
painting the neck and arms white 5 after which they
ufed the purpuriffum, or red fucus of the riziujn, to
give the colour to the cheeks. In after-times they alfo
ufe a peculiar fucus or paint for the purpofe, prepa¬
red of the creta argentaria, or filver-chalk, and fome of
the rich purple dyes that were in ufe at that time : and
this feems to have been very little different from our
rofe-pink 5 a colour commonly fold at the colour-lhops,
and ufed on like occanons.
Fucus, in the Linnaean fyftem of botany, is a ge¬
nus of the order of algae, belonging to the cryptoga-
mia clafs of plants.
FUEGO, or Foco, one of the Cape de Verd iflands,
in the Atlantic ocean. It is much higher than any ot
the reft ; and feems, at fea, to be one Angle mountain,
though on the fides there are deep valleys. I here is a
volcano at the top which burns continually, and may
be feen a great way off at fea. It vomits a great deal
of fire and fmoke, and throws out huge pieces of rock
to a vaft height •, and fometimes torrents of melted mat¬
ter run down the fides. The Portuguefe, who firft in¬
habited it, brought negro flaves with them, and a flock
of cows, horfes, and hogs ; but the chief inhabitants
now are blacks, of the Romilh religion. W. Long.
24. 47. N. Lat. 15. 20.
FUEL,
Fuel
Fugue.
FUG [253
FUEL, whatever is proper to burn or make a fire j
as wood, turf, peat, bituminous earths, coal, &c.
FUEN-HOA, a city of China, in the province of
' Pe-tcheli, celebrated for its extent and the number
of its inhabitants, as well as for the beauty of its
ilreets and triumphal arches. It is fituated near the
great wall, amidft mountains 5 and has under its junf-
difiion, befides two cities of the fecond, and eight of
the third clafs, a great number of fortreffes, which bar
the entrance of China againft the 1 artars.
FUGALIA, in Roman antiquity, a feaft fuppofed
by fome to be the fame with the refugium, held on the
24th of February, in memory of the expulfion of the
kings and the abolhhing of monarchical government.
Others again diftinguilh the fugalia from the regifuge.
And others think, that the fugalia was the fame with
the poplifugia, or the feaft of Fugia, the goddefs of
joy, occafioned by the rout of an enemy, which was
the reafon the people abandoned themfelves to riot and
debauchery.
FUGITIVE, a perfon obliged to fly his country,
or remove from a place where he had fome abode or
eftabliftiment, on account of his crimes, debts, or other
occafions.
Fugitive Pieces, among the learned, denote thofe
little compoiitions which are printed on loofe ftieets
or half iheets; thus called, becaufe eafily loft and foon
forgotten.
FUGUE, in Mujic (from the Latin fuga, “ a
chafe”), a piece of mufic fometimes longer and fome-
times fhorter, in which, agreeable to the rules of har¬
mony and modulation, the compofer treats a fubjed ;
or, in other words, what expreffes the capital thought
or fentiment of the piece, in caufing it to pafs fucceffively
and alternately from one part to another.
Thefe are the principal rules of the fugue ; ®f which
ibme are peculiar to itfelf, and others common to it
with what the French call imitation.
1. The fubjed proceeds from the tonic to the do¬
minant, or from the dominant to the tonic, in riling or
defcending.
2. Every fugue finds its refponfe in the part imme¬
diately following that which commenced.
5. That refponfe ought to refume the fubjed in the
interval of a fourth or fifth above or below the key,
and to purfue it as exadly as the laws of harmony will
admit * proceeding from the dominant to the tonic
when the fubjed is introduced from the tonic to the
dominant, and moving in a contrary diredion when the
fubjed is introduced from the dominant to the tonic.
One part may likewife refume the fame fubjed in the
odave or unifon of the preceding •, but in that cafe, it is
a repetition rather than a real refponfe.
4. As the odave is divided into two unequal parts,
of which the one contains four gradations defcending
from the tonic to the dominant, and the other only
three in continuing the afcent from tne dominant to the
tonic ; this renders it neceffary to have fome regard to
this change in the exprefixon of the fubjed, and to make
fome alterations in the refponfe, that we may not quit
the cords that are effential to the mode. It is a different
cafe when the compofer intends to alter the modulation j
for there the exadnefs of the refponfe itfell, when taken
in a different tone, produces the alteration proper for
this change.
1
FUG
5. It is neceffary that the fugue fliould be planned in
fuch a manner, that the refponfe may commence before ™
the clofe of the firft air, fo that both the one and the
other may be in part heard at the fame time : that, by
this anticipation, the fubjed may be as it were con-
neded with itfelf, and that the art of the compofer may
difcover itfelf in this concourfe. It is abfolute mockery,
inftead of a fugue, to impofe upon the hearers the fame
air, merely tranfpofed from one key to another, with¬
out any other reftraint than an accompaniment after¬
wards formed at pleafure. This deferves at beft no
better name than wThat the French call imitation. See
Imitation.
.Befides thefe rules, which are fundamental, there are
others which, though prefcribed by tafte alone, are not
lefs effential. Fugues, in general, render mufic more noiiy
than agreeable j it is for this reafon that they are more
agreeable in the chorus than anywhere elfe. Now, as
their chief merit confifts in fixing the ear on the prin¬
cipal air or fubjed, which for this reafon is made to
pafs inceffantly from part to part, and from mode to
mode, the compofer ought to exert his care in pre-
ferving that air always ditlind j or to prevent it from
being abforbed in, or confounded with, the other parU.
To produce this effed, there are two different ways j
one in the movement, which muft be inceffantly con-
trafted with itfelf j fo that, if the procedure of the
fugue be accelerated, the other parts more gravely and
with protraded notes ; or, on the contrary, if the mo¬
tion of the fugue be flow and folemn, the accompani¬
ments muft have more and quicker bufinefs. The other
method is to extend the harmony, by removing the
parts at a greater diftance one from the other; left the
others, too nearly approximated to that which contains
the fubjed, fliould be confounded with it, and prevent
it from being diftinguiftied wfith fufticient clearnefs 4
fo that what would be an imperfedion anywhere elfe,
becomes here a beauty.
The unity of melody fliould be preferved : this is
the great and general rule, which muft frequently be
pradifed by different means. The chords muft be
chofen, and the intervals, fo that one particular lound
may produce the chief effed ; this can only refult from
the unity of the melody. It will fometimes be neceffary
to employ voices and inftruments of different kinds,
that the parts which ought to prevail may be moft
eafily diftinguiflied 5 this again ftiows the neceflity of
preferving the unity of the melody. Another objed of
attention, no lefs neceffary, is, in the different connec¬
tions of modulation which are introduced by the pro¬
cedure and progrefs of the fugue, to. caufe all thefe
modulations to correfpOnd at the fame time in all the
parts, to conned the whole in its progrefs by an exad
conformity of modes \ left, if one part be in one mode,
and another in another, the general harmony fliould be
in none at all, and for that reafon fhould no longer be
able to produce Ample effeds upon the ear, nor Ample
ideas in the mind ; which is another reafon for pre¬
ferving unity of melody. In a word, in every fugue the
confufion of melodies and modulations is at once what
a compofer has molt to fear, and will find the greateft
difficulty in avoiding j and as this kind of mufic never
produces a pleafure above mediocrity, one may fay that
a fine fugue is, though the mafterjfiece of an excellent
harmonift, ungrateful to his toil.
There
Fugue.
F U L [ 254 j F U L
Tulcrum There are flill feveral other kinds of fugues j fuch as
II the perpetual fugue *. the double fugue, the inverted
Fuller. r r r 0 u
1    iugue.
* See The inverted fugue is a manner of compofition, in
Canon. which the flying part proceeds in a contrary diretlion
to the other fugue, which had been formerly fixed in
the fame piece of mufic. Thus, when the firfl: fugitive
part is heard in afcending from the tonic to the domi¬
nant, or from the dominant to the tonic, the counter
fugue ought to be heard in defcending from the domi¬
nant to the tonic, or from the tonic to the dominant,
and vice vcrfa. Its other rules are exadlly like ihofe of
the common fugue.
FULCRUM, in Mechanics, the prop or fupport by
which a lever is futlained.
FULDA, a confiderable town of Germany, in the
circle of the Upper Rhine, and in the Euchow, with a
celebrated abbey; whofe abbot is primate of the ab¬
beys of the empire, perpetual chancellor of the emperor,
and fovereign of a fmall territory lying between Heffe,
Franconia, and Thuringia. It is feated on the river
Fulda, 55 miles fouth of Caffel, and 58 north-eail of
Francfort. E. Long. 9. 53. N. Lat. 50. 40.
FULGORA, a genus of infeeds belonging to the order
of hemiptera. See Entomology Index.
FULHAM, a village of Middlefex, four miles from
London. The Danes in 869 wintered at this place
till they retired to the continent. It was in the Con¬
queror’s time held of the king by the canons of St
Paul’s j and there is an ancient houfe here, which is
moated about, and belongs to the fee of London, whofe
biikop has -a palace here, and the demefne has belonged
to that diocefe from 1067. From this place to Putney
there is a wooden bridge over the Thames, where not
only horfes, coaches, and all carriages, but even foot
paflengers, pay toll. The church here is both a re£tory
and a vicarage.
FULICA, the gallinule apd coot, a genus of
birds belonging to the order of grallse. See Ornitho¬
logy Index.
FULIGINOUS, whatever proceeds from a thick
footy fmoke, fuch as lamp black.
FULIGNO, a city of Italy, in the pope’s territories,
10 miles north of Spoletto.
FULIGO, in 'Natural Hi/lory, a fpecies of pumice-
Itone. See Pumice.
FULLER, Dr Thomas, a learned Englifli divine,
wras born at Alvinckle, near Oundle, in Northampton-
ihire, about the year 1608, and ftudied at Cambridge.
He w'as chofen minifter of St Bennet’s there; and at
about 23 years^ of age, his merit procured him a fel-
lowlhip in Sidney-college, and a prebend in Salilbury
cathedral. He was foon after prefented to the rectory
of Broad Windfor in Dorfetfliire; and afterwards wras
made lecturer of the Savoy in London : but upon the
prefling of the covenant, he retired to Oxford j and
foon after accompanied Sir Ralph Hopton as his
chaplain in the army, which he attended in their
marches from place to place. After the death of King
Charles I. he obtained the living of Waltham-abbey,
and was appointed lefturer of St Clement’s; and
fliortly after removed to the lecture of St Bridge’s,
Fleet-ftreef. Upon the reftoration, he recovered his
prebend in the cathedral of Salifbury, was appointed
..chaplain extraordinary to his majelty, and created
?
doftor of divinity. It is faid, his memory wras fo tc- Fuller,
nacious and comprehenfive, that he could make ufe of —v—
a fermon verbatim if he once heard it. He once
undertook, in pafling to and from Temple-bar to the
Poultry, to tell at his return every fign as it flood in
order on both lides of the way, repeating them either
backwards or forwards j and this talk he a£fually per¬
formed. He wrote, 1. A Hiftory of the Floly War.
2. The Church-Hiftory of Britain, in folio. 3. An-
dronicus, or the Unfortunate Politician, in 8vo. 4. A
Pifgah-fight of Paleftine. 5. A Pliftory of Englifli
Worthies 5 and other works. He died in Auguft 1661 ;
and w7as interred in the chancel of Cranford church, in
Middlefex, whither his body wTas attended by at leal!
200 oF his brethren of the miniftry.
Fuller, a workman employed in the woollen
manufahlories to mill or fcour cloths, ferges, and other
fluffs, in order to render them more thick, compadh,
and durable. See Fulling.
Fuller's Earth, in Natural Hijlory, a fpecies of clay,
of a grayilh afli-coloured browm, in all degrees from
very pale to almoft black, and it has generally fome-
thing of a greenilh call. It is very hard and firm, of a
compadl texture, of a tough and fomewhat dully furface
that adheres (lightly to the tongue. It is very foft to
the touch, not flaining the hands, nor breaking eafily
between the fingers. It has a little harlhnefs between
the teeth, and melts freely in the mouth. Thrown into
water, it makes no ebullition or hiding j but fvvells
gradually in bulk, and falls into a fine folt pow'der. It
makes no effervefcence with aquafortis.
The greateft quantity and the fineft earth of this
kind in the world, is dug in the pits at Wavedon, near
Woburn in Bedfordlhiie. The flrata in thefe pits lie
thus : From the furface to the depth of fix feet, there
are feveral layers or beds of fand, all reddilh, but fome
lighter coloured than others. Under thefe there is a
thin flratum of a fand-ftone, which they break through,
and then there is the fuller’s earth. The upper Itra-
tum of this is about a foot thick : the workmen call
it cledge, and throw it afide as ufelefs ; being commonly
fouled with the fand which originally covered it, and
which infinuates itfelf a good way into it. After this,
they come to the fine fuller’s earth for fale, which lies
to the depth of eight feet more. The matter of this
is divided into feveral layers, there being commonly
about a foot and an half between one horizontal fiffure
and another. Of thefe feveral layers, the upper half,
wLere the earth breaks itfelf, is tinged red j which
feems to be owdng to the running of the water upon it
from among the fands above 5 fome of which are pro¬
bably of a ferruginous nature, or have ferruginous
matter among them. This reddilh fuller’s earth the
wrorkmen call crop; and between the cledge and this
there is a thin ftratum of matter, of lefs than an inch,
which in tafle, colour, and external appearance, re-
fembles the terra Japonica of the drops. The lower
half of the ftrata of fuller’s earth they call wall-earth.
This is untinged with the red colour of the other, and
feems the moft proper for fulling. Under the fuller’s
earth there is a ftratum of white and coarfe ftone about
two feet thick. They feldom dig through this ; but if
they do, they find more rtrata of fand.
This earth is of great ufe in fcouring cloths, fluffs,
&c. imbibing all the greafe and oil ufed in preparing,
drefling,
F U L [ 255 1 F U L
Fuller drefling, 8cc. of the wool j for which reafon it is made
I! a contraband commodity, and is not to be exported
..j nnder the penalty of is. for every pound weight. See
Fulling.
Fuller's Weed, or Teo.%!e. See Dipsacus, Botany
Index.
FULLERY, a place where cloths, &c. are fulled.
See the next article.
FULLING, the art or adl of cleanfing, fcouring,
and preffing cloths, Hull's, and {lockings, to render
them {Longer, clofer, and firmer : called alfo milling.
Pliny (lib vii. cap. 56.) allures, that one Nicias, the
fon of Hermias, was the firft inventor of the art of
fulling : and it appears by an infeription, quoted by Sir
G. Wheeler, in his Travels through Greece, that this
fame Nicias was a governor in Greece in the time of
the Romans.
Fulling of woollen cloths, depends, like felting, fo
entirely upon the llrudlure of wool and hair, that thofe
■who have read our account of that procefs, wall not
find it difficult to comprehend the following obferva-
tions.
The afperities with which the furface of wool is
everywhere furrounded, and the difpofition which it has
to affume a progreffive motion towards the root, render
the foinning of wool, and making it into cloth, difficult
operations. In order to fpin wrool, and afterwards con¬
vert it into cloth, its fibres muft be covered with a
coating of oil, which, filling the cavities, renders the
afperities lefs fenfible 5 in the fame w^ay as oil renders
the furface of a very fine file lefs rough, when rubbed
over it. When the piece of cloth is finilhed, it muft be
cleanfed from this oil; which would caufe it to foil
whatever it came in contadl with, befides giving it a
difagreeable fmell, and prevent its taking the colour
which is intended to be given to it by the dyer. To
deprive it of the oil, it is carried to the fulling-mill,
where it is beat with hammers in a trough full of water,
in which fome clay has been mixed \ the clay combines
with the oil, which it feparates from the cloth, and both
together are wafned away by the frefti water which is
brought to it by the machine; thus, after a certain time,
the oil is entirely walhed out of the cloth.
But the fcouring of the cloth is not the only objedl
in fulling it; the alternate preffure given by the mallets
to the piece of cloth, occafions, efpecially when the
fcouring is pretty far advanced, an effedl analogous to
that which is produced upon hats by the hands of the
hatter ) the fibres of wool which compofe one of the
threads, whether of the warp or the woof, affume a
progreffive movement, introduce themfelves among
thofe of the threads neareft to them, then into thofe
which follow ; and thus, by degrees, all the threads,
both of the warp and the woof, become felted together.
The cloth, after having, by the above means, become
ffiortened in all its dimenfions, partakes both of the
nature of cloth and of that of felt ; it may be cut with¬
out being fubjedl to ravel, and, on that account, we
are not obliged to hem the edges of the pieces of w hich
clothes are made. Laftly, as the threads of the warp
and thofe of the wToof are no longer fo diftindl and fepa-
rated from each other, the cloth, which has acquired a
greater degree of thicknefs, forms a warmer clothing.
Knit worfted alfo is, by fulling, rendered lefs apt to
run, in cafe a ftitch fhould happen to drop in it.
The fulling of cloths and other fluffs is performed Fulling,
by a kind of water-mill, thence called a. fulling or fcour-
itig mill.
Thefe mills, excepting in wffiat relates to the mill-
ftones and hopper, are much the fame w-ith corn-mills :
and there are even fome wffiich ferve indifferently for ei¬
ther ufe : corn being ground, and cloths fulled, by the
motion of the fame wheel. Whence, in fome places,
particularly in France, the fullers are called millers ; as
grinding corn and milling fluffs at the fame time.
The principal parts of the fulling-mill are, The
wheel, with its trundle; which gives motion to the tree
or fpindle, whofe teeth communicate it to the peftles
or {tampers, which are hereby raifed and made to fall
alternately according as its teeth catch on or quit a
kind of latch in the middle of each peftle. The peftles
and troughs are of w-ood ; each trough having at leaft
two, fometimes three peftles, at the diferetion of the
mailer, or according to the force of the ftream of wa¬
ter. In thefe troughs are laid the cloths, fluffs, &c.
intended to be fulled : then, letting the current of
water fall on the wheel, the peftles are fucceffively let
fall thereon, and by their weight and velocity {lamp
and prefs the fluffs vex-y ftrongly, which by this means
become thickened and condenfed. In the courfe of
the operation, they fometimes make ufe of urine
fometimes of fuller’s earth, and fometimes of foap.
To prepare the fluffs to receive the firft impreffions of
the peftle, they are ufually laid in urine ; then in ful¬
ler’s earth and wTater ; and, laftly, in foap diffolved in
hot water. Soap alone would do very wTell ; but this
is expenfive : though fuller’s earth, in the w7ay of our
dreffing, is fcarce inferior thereto ; but then it muft be
wTell cleared of all ftones and grittineffes, which ai’e apt-
to make holes in the fluff. As to urine, it is certainly
prejudicial, and ought to be entirely difearded ; not
fo much on account of its ill fmell, as of its ffiarpnefs
and faltnefs, which qualities are apt to render the fluffs-
dry and harlh.
The true method of fulling with foap is delivered by
Monf. Colinet, in an authentic memoir on that fubjedl,
fupported by experiments made by order of the mar¬
quis de Louvois, then fuperhxtendant of the arts and
manufactories of France; the fubftance of which we
{hall here fubjoin.
Method of Fulling Cloths and Woollen Stuffs with
Soap.—A coloured cloth, of about 45 ells, is to be laid
in the ufual manner in the trough of a fulling-mill ;
without firft foaking it in water, as is commonly pi'ac-
tifed in many places. To full this trough of cloth, 15
pounds of foap are required ; one-half of which is to
be melted in two pails of river or fpring water, made
as hot as the hand can well bear it. This folution is to
be poured by little and little upon the cloth, in pro¬
portion as it is laid in the trough : and thus it is to be
fulled for at leaft two hours; after which it is to be ta¬
ken out and ftretched. This done, the cloth is imme¬
diately returned into the fame trough, without any
new foap, and there fulled two hours more. Then
taking it out, they wring it well, to exprefs all the
greafe and filth. After the fecond fulling, the remain¬
der of the foap is diffolved as in the former, and caft
four different times on the cloth ; remembering to take
out the cloth every twxx hours, to ftretch it, and undo
the olaits and wrinkles it has acquired in the trough.
When
£ uuing
FUN [256
When they perceive it fufficiently fulled, and brought
to the quality and thicknefs required, they fcour it lor
good in hot weather, keeping it in the trough till it be
quite clean. As to white cloths j in regard thefe full
more eafy and in lefs time than coloured ones, a third
part of the foap may be fpared.
Fulling of Stockings, Caps, &c. fhould be performed
fomewhat differently ; viz. either with the feet or the
hands 5 or a kind of rack, or wooden machine, either
armed with teeth of the fame matter, or elfe horfes or
bullocks teeth. The ingredients made ufe of herein
are, urine, green foap, white foap, and fuller’s earth.
But the urine alfo is reckoned prejudicial here. Woven
{lockings, &.c. Ihould be fulled with foap alone : for
thofe that are knit, earth may be ufed with the foap.
Indeed it is frequent to full thefe kinds of works with
the mill, after the ufual manner of cloth, &c. But that
is too coarfe and violent a manner, and apt to damage
the wTork unlefs it be very ftrong.
FULMAR, in Ornithology. See Procellaria, Or¬
nithology Index.
Fulmar, or Foumart. See Mustela, Mammalia
Index.
FULMINATING, fomething that thunders or
refembles thunder.
Fulminating Gold, Silver, Copper, ^uickfilver, &c.
See Chemistry Index.
FULMINATION, in Chetnijlry, the fame with
detonation.
Fulmination, in the Romifti canon law, a fentence
of a bifhop, official, or other eccleliaftic appointed by
the pope, by which it is decreed that feme bull fent
from the pope ffiall be executed.
FUMARIA, FUMITORY, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the diadelphia clafs, and in the natural method
ranking under the 24th order, Corydales. See Botany
Index.
FUMIGATION, in Chemiflry, a kind of calcina¬
tion, when metals or other hard bodies are corroded
or foftened by receiving certain fumes for that pur-
pofe.
Fumigation, in Medicine. By the fubtile fumes
that are infpired as w^ell as inhaled into our bodies,
• much benefit or prejudice is produced, according to the
nature of the matter, and the conftitution into which it
is received j as is evident from the palfies produced a-
mong workers in lead-mines, Sue. and the benefits re¬
ceived in many cafes when the air is impregnated with
falutary materials. Catarrhs and catarrhous coughs are
relieved by fumes received with the breath j and, by
the fame method, expedloration is affifted in humoural
afthmas • and even ulcers in the lungs are faid to have
been healed by this method. The advantage of mercu¬
rial fumigations in the cure of venereal ulcers is known
to every practitioner.
FUMITORY. See Fumaria, Botany Index.
FUNAMBULUS, among the Romans, wras wffiat
we call a rope-dancer, and the Greeks fchcenobates. See
Rope-DANCKR.
*. There was a funambulus, it feems, who perform¬
ed at the time wffien the Flecyra of Terence wras
afted; and the poet complains, that the fpedacle
prevented the people from attending to his comedy.
Ita populus Jludio Jlupidus in funambulo, animum occu-
parat.
Fund.
] FUN
At Rome, the funambuli firft appeared under the Funchul
confulate of Sulpicius Pseticus and Licinius Stolo,
who were the firff introducers of the fcenic repre- _
fentations. It is added, that they were firft exhibited
in the iiland of the Tyber, and that the cenfors
Meffala and Caffius afterwards promoted them to the
theatre.
In the Floralia, or ludi F/orales, held under Galba,
there wrere funambulatory elephants, as w7e are inform¬
ed by Suetonius. Nero alfo ffiowed the like, in honour
of his mother Agrippina. Vopifcus relates the fame of
the time of Carinus and Numerianus.
FUNCHAL, the capital of Madeira, fituated round
a bay, on a gentle afeent, and containing about 15,000
inhabitants. It is watered by feveral ftreams from
the mountains} and is defended by a caftle on a
fteep rock, which is funounded by the fea at high
water. The houfes are built of brick or free-ftone;
but the ftreets are narrow7, dark and dirty. W. Long.
17. 6. N. Lat. 32. 38.
FUNCTION, the aft of fulfilling the duties of any
employment.
Function, being alfo applied to the aftions of the
body, is by phyftcians divided into vital, animal, and
natural. The vital funftions are thofe neceflary to life,
and without which the individual cannot fubiift } as
the motion of the heart, lungs, &c. The natural func¬
tions are fuch as it cannot fubfift any confiderable
time without} as the digeftion of the aliment, and its
converfion into blood. Under animal funftions are
included the fenfes of touching, tafting, &c. memory,
judgment, and voluntary motion ■, without any or all
of wffiich an animal may live, but not very comfort¬
ably.
The animal funftions perform the motion of the
body by the aftion of the mufcles j and this aftion
confifts chiefly in the Ihortening the flefliy fibres,
wffiich is called contraction, the principal agents of
wffiich are the arteries and nerves diftributed in the
fleffiy fibres.
All parts of the body have their owm funftions, or
aftions, peculiar to themfelves. Life confifts in the ex-
crcife of thefe funftions, and health in the free and ready
exercife of them.
Function, a term ufed in analytics for an algebraical
expreffion any how compounded of a certain letter or
quantity with other quantities or numbers j and the ex¬
preffion is faid to be a funftion of that letter or quanti¬
ty. Thus a—4 a:, or 0^4-3^*, or 2 a—af a*—x',
or xc, or cx, is each of them a funftion of the quan¬
tity x.
FUND, in general, fignifies any fum of money ap¬
propriated for a particular purpofe. Thus, that part
of the national revenue which is fet apart for the pay¬
ment of the national debt, is called the Jinking fund.
But, when we fpeak of the funds, we generally mean
the large fums wffiich have been lent to government,
and conftitute the national debt ; and for wffiich the
lenders, or their affignees, receive intereft from reve¬
nues allotted for that purpofe. The terin7?oc^ is ufed
in the fame fenfe, and is alfo applied to the fums which
form the capital of the bank of England, the Eaft In¬
dia and South Sea companies 5 the proprietors of which
are entitled to a fliare of the profits of the refpeftive*
companies.
The
2,
FUN [2
The prance of funding was introduced by the Ve¬
netians and Genoefe in the 16th century, and has been
adopted fince by moft of the nations in JLurope. Prin¬
ces had often borrowed money, in former times, to
fupply their exigencies, and fometimes mortgaged their
territories in fecurity : but thefe loans were generally
extorted, and their payment was always precarious j
for it depended on the good faith and fuccefs of the
borrower, and never became a regular burden on po-
iterity. The origin of funds is derived from the pecu¬
liar manners and circumftances of modern Europe.
Since the invention of gunpowder, and the progrefs
of commerce, the military occupation has become a
diltinct employment in the hands of mercenaries 5 the
apparatus of war is attended with more expence j and
the decifion of national quarrels has often been deter-
^mined by command of money rather than by national
bravery. Ambitious princes have therefore borrowed
money, in order to carry on their projedls with more
vigour. Weaker dates have been compelled, in felf-
defence, to apply to the fame refource j the wealth in¬
troduced by commerce has afforded the means 5 the
regularity of adminiitration, eftablilhed in confequence
of the progrefs of civility, has increafed the confi¬
dence of individuals in the public fecurity 5 the com¬
plicated lyftem of modern policy has extended the
feenes of war, and prolonged their duration 5 and the
colonies eftablifhed by mercantile nations have ren¬
dered them vulnerable in more points, and increafed
the expence of defending them.
When a greater fum has been required for the an¬
nual expence than could eafdy be fupplied by annual
taxes, the government have propofed terms to their
own fubjedts, or foreigners, for obtaining an advance
of money by mortgaging the revenue of future years
for their indemnification. This mortgage may either
be for a limited period, or perpetual. If the fum allot¬
ted annually for the benefit of thofe who advance the
money, be confiderably greater than the interefts of
the firms advanced, they may agree to accept of fuch
allowance, for a limited time, as a full equivalent.
Thus, they may either agree for the cafual produce
of the revenue alligned j or a fixed annuity for a great¬
er or lefs number of years ; or a life annuity to them-
lelves or nominees •, or an annuity for two or more lives }
or an annuity, with the benefit of furvivorlhip, called a
tontine, in which fcheme, the whole fum to which the
original annuitants were entitled continues to be diftri-
buted among the furvivors.
The eftablifhment of the funds was introduced in
Britain at the Revolution •, and has fince been gradually
enlarged, and carried to an amazing extent. The va¬
rious methods above-mentioned have been ufed in their
turns, but perpetual annuities have been granted for
the greateft part ; and, even when the money was ori¬
ginally advanced on other conditions, the lenders have
been fometimes induced, by fubfequent offers, to accept
of perpetual annuities, inilead of the former terms.
The debt for which perpetual annuities are granted, is
called the redeemable debt, and the other is called the
irredeemable debt. Although the debts thus contradted
by government are feldom paid for a long term of
years; yet any creditor of the public may obtain
money for what is due him when he pleafes, by trans¬
ferring his property in the funds to another j and
Vol, IX. Part I.
57 ] FUN
regular methods are appointed for tranfadling thefe
transfers in an eafy manner. By means of this, the
flocks become a kind of circulating capital 3 and have
the fame effedt, in fome relpedts, as the circulating
money in the nation. When a ftockholder transfers
his (hare, he may fometimes be able to obtain a greater
price than the original value, and at other times be ob¬
liged to accept of a lefs one. The value of the funds
depends on the proportion between the intereft they
bear, and the benefit which may be obtained by ap¬
plying the money to other purpofes. It is influenced
by the plenty or fcarcity of money, and by the quan¬
tity of the public debt 3 and it is impaired by any event
which threatens the fafety, or weakens the credit, of
the government.
The bufinefs of flock-jobbing is founded on the va¬
riation of the prices of flock. Perfons poffefl'ed of real
property may buy or fell flock, according to their no¬
tion that the value is likely to rife or fall, in expedta-
tion of making profit by the difference of price. And
a practice has taken place among perfons who often
poffefs no property in the funds, to contract for the
fale of flock againft a future day, at a price now a-
greed on. For inflance : A agrees to fell B 1000I. of
bank flock, to be transferred, in 20 days, for 1 200I.
A has, in fact, no fuch flock 5 but, if the price of
bank flock, on the day appointed for the transfer,
fliould be only x 18 per cent. A may purchafe as much
as will enable him to fulfil his bargain for 1180I. and
thus gains 20I. by the tranfadlion 5 on the contrary,
if the price of bank flock be 125 per cent, he will lofe
50I. The bufinefs is generally fettled without any
adtual purchafe or transfer of flock, by A paying to B,
or receiving from him, the difference between the cur¬
rent price of the flock on the day appointed and the
price bargained for.
This pradtice, which is really nothing elfe than a
w7ager concerning the price of flock, is contrary to
law j yet it is carried on to a great extent. In the
language of Exchange Alley, wdiere matters of this
kind are tranfadted, the buyer is called a bull, and the
feller a bear. As neither party can be compelled by
law to implement thefe bargains, their fenfe of honour,
and the difgrace and lofs of future credit, which at¬
tend a breach of contract, are the principles by which
the bufinefs is fupported. When a perfon declines to
pay his lofs, he is called a lame duck, and dare never
afterw’ards appear in the Alley. This opprobrious
appellation, however, is not beftowed on thofe whofe
failure is owing to wrant of ability, providing they
make the fame lurrender of their property voluntarily,
which the law would have exadted if the debt had been
entitled to its fandtion.
The intereft or dividend on the flock is paid half-
yearly 3 and the purchafer has the benefit of the inte-
reft due on the flock he buys, from the laft term to the
time of purchale. Therefore the prices of the flocks
rile gradually, cceteris paribus, from term to term, and
fall at the term when the intereft is paid. In compar¬
ing the prices of the different flocks, it is neceffary to
advert to the term wdien the laft intereft was paid :
and, allowance being made for this circumftance, the
prices of all the government flocks, which bear inte¬
reft at the fame rate, muft be nearly the fame, as they
all depend on the fame fecurity.
K k
When
FUN [ 258 ] FUN
When a loan is propofed, fuch terms muft be offer¬
ed to the lenders, as may render the tranfadlion bene¬
ficial : and this is now regulated by the prices of the
old flocks. If the flocks, which bear interefl at 4 per
cent, fell at par, or rather above, the government may
cxpeft to borrow money at that rate; but, if thefe
flocks are under par, the government muff either grant
a higher interefl, or fome other advantage Uvthe lend¬
ers, in compenfation for the difference. For this pur-
pofe, befides the perpetual annuity, another annuity
has fome'dines been granted for life, or for a term of
years. Lotteries have frequently been employed to
facilitate the loan, by entitling the fubfcribers to a cer¬
tain number of tickets, for which no higher price is
charged than the exadff value diflributed in prizes, though
their market price is generally 2I. or 3I. higher. Some¬
times an abatement of a certain proportion of the ca¬
pital has been granted, and a lender entitled to hold
tool, flock, though in reality he advanced no more
perhaps than 95I.
It belongs to the chancellor of the exchequer to
propofe the terms of the loan in parliament : and he
generally makes a previous agreement with fome weal¬
thy merchants, who are willing to advance the money
on the terms propofed. The lubfcribers to the loan
depofit a certain part of the fum fubfcribed j and are
bound to pay the reft by inflalments, or flated propor¬
tions, on appointed days, under pain of forfeiting what
they have depofited. For this they are entitled, per¬
haps, not only to hold their lhare in the capital, but to
an annuity for 10 years, and to the right of receiving
a certain number of lottery tickets on advantageous
terms. They may fell their capital to one perfon, their
annuity to a fecond, and their right to the tickets to a
third. The value of all thefe interefls together is call¬
ed omnium; and, in order to obtain a ready fubfcrip-
tion, it ought to amount to 102I. or upwards, on tool,
of capital. This difference is called the bonus to the
iubfcribers.
The capital advanced to the public, in the form of
transferable flocks, and bearing interefl from taxes ap¬
propriated for that purpofe, is called the funded debt.
Befides, there is generally a confiderable fum due by
government, which is not difpofed of in that manner,
and therefore is diftinguifhed by the appellation of the
unfunded debt. This may rife from any fort of national
expence, for which no provifion has been made, or for
which the provilion has proved infufficient. The chief
branches are,
iff, Exchequer Bills. Thefe are iffued from the ex¬
chequer, generally by appointment of parliament, and
fometimes without fuch appointment, when exigencies
require. They bear interefl from the time when iffued,
and are taken in by the Bank of England, which pro¬
motes their circulation.
2d, Navy Bills. The fums annually granted for the
navy have always fallen fhort of what that fervice re¬
quired. To fupply that deficiency, the admiralty if-
fues bills in payment of vidluals, flores, and the like,
which bear interefl fix months after the time iffued.
The debt of the navy thus contradled is difeharged,
from time to time, by parliament.
In time of war, the public expences, fince the Revo¬
lution, have always been much greater than the annual
revenue j and large fums have confequently been bor-
rowed. In time of peace, the revenue exceeds the Funtf:
expence, and part of the public debt has frequently ~ *
been paid off. But, though there have been more years
of peace than of war fince the funds were eftablithed,
the debts contradled during each war have much ex¬
ceeded the payments during the fubfequent peace.
This will appear by the following abftradt of the pro-
grefs of the national debt.
Debt at peace of Ryfwick, 1697
Debt at the beginning of war 1701
Difeharged during peace 1697 to 1701
Debt at peace of Utrecht 17x4, includ¬
ing value of annuities afterwards fub¬
fcribed to South Sea flock
Contradled in war 1701 to 1714
Debt at beginning of war X740, includ¬
ing l,ooo,oool. charged on civil lift
Difeharged during peace 1714 to 1739
Debt at peace of Aix-hvChapelle, 1748
Contrafled during war 1740 to 1748
Debt at beginning of war 1756
Paid off during peace 1748 to 1756
Debt funded at the peace 1763, includ-
ing 9,839,597!. then owing, which
was funded in the fubfequent years
Befides this, there was about 6,ooo,oool.
of debt paid off, without ever being
funded.
Funded debt, 1775 - - -
Paid off during peace 1763 to 1775* be¬
fides unfunded debt above mention¬
ed - - - -
Funded at the peace 1783
L,21,5x5,472
l6>394>701
5,1 21,071
55,282,978
38,888,277
47,954,623
7,328,355
79,193,3 13
31,238,690
73,289,673
5,903,640
r33,957,270
1 25,000,000
8,959,27°
2'I,363,254
The following is a flate of the national debt at a
later period.
Amount of funded debt on 5th January
1805 - - L. 603,925,792
Stock created by loan of 1805 - 38,700,000
L. 642,625,792
Transferred for the redemption of the
land-tax - - 22,000,000
L. 620,625,792
Redeemed by the commiffioners for ma-
naging the finking fund - 113,500,000
Leaving as the amount of the national
debt on the gill January 1806. L. 507,125,792
It is to be obferved that nearly 100 millions of the
above amount of 507 millions, confill of 4 and 5 per
cent, flock j and if this be converted into 3 per cent,
flock, it will make the total amount 557 millions; and
taking the 3 per cent, flock at 60 per cent, the prefent
average price, the total capital of the debt in money is
334 millions of pounds iterling.
The original provifion of the finking fund, of a mil¬
lion per annum, with the additions that have fince been
made to it 5 and the dividends on flock, bought up by
the commiffioners for managing that fund, amount at
this time (1806) to about eight millions per annum. It
has been calculated that the future rate of accumulation
of the finking futid, continuing the fame as hitherto,
namely,
FUN t *59 1 FUN
fundament namely, at 5 per cent, tire whole amount of the nation-
F ndamen ^e^)t extinguhhed in 24 years ; for the an-
taj> 'nual income of the commiflioners for the management
1———j of the linking fund being eight millions, this will pro¬
duce by the year
1810 the fum of L. 34,480,000
1820 156,700,000
1830 356,000,000
which lalt fum exceeds the prefent national debt.
FUNDAMENT, in Anatomy, the lowed: part of
the inteftinum re£tmn, called by anatomilts the anus.
See Anatomy.
FUNDAMENTAL, in general, fomething that
ferves as a bale or foundation for another.
Fundamental, in Mujic. A fundamental found is
that which forms the lowed: note of the Chord, and
from whence are deduced the harmonical relations of
f See Tonic, the red 5 or, which ferves for a key to the tone f. The
fundamental bafs is that which ferves for a foundation
to the harmony. A fundamental chord is that whofe
bafs is fundamental, and in which the founds are ran¬
ged in the fame order as when they are generated, ac¬
cording to the experiment fo often repeated by M.
d’Alembert, in his Preliminary Difcourfe and Elements
| See Mufic. 0p Mufic:t> But
as this order removes the parts to an
extreme didance one from the other, they mud be ap¬
proximated by combinations or inverlions j but if the
bafs remains the fame, the chord does not for this rea-
fon ceafe to bear the name of fundamental. Such an
example is this chord, ut mifol, included in the inter¬
val of a fifth : whereas, in the order of its generation,
vt fol mi, it includes a tenth, and even a feventeenth 5
fince the fundamental ut is not the fifth of fol, but the
oilave of that fifth.
Fundamental Bafs. This part in mufic is, accord¬
ing to Roufleau, and indeed according to all authors
who have proceeded upon M. Rameau’s experiment,
in its primary idea, that bafs which is formed by the
fundamental notes of every perfect chord that condi-
tutes the harmony of the piece ; fo that under each
chord it caufes to be heard, or underdood, the fun¬
damental found of that particular chord -, that is to
fay, the found from whence it is derived by the rules
of harmony. From whence we may fee, that the
fundamental bafs can have no other contexture than
that of a regular and fundamental fuccedion, without
which the procedure of the upper parts would be illegi¬
timate.
To underdand this well, it is neceffary to be known,
that, according to the fydem of Rameau, which Rouf-
fe u has followed in his Dictionary, every chord, though
compofed of feveral founds, can only have one which is
its fundamental, viz. that which produces this chord,
and which is its bafs according to the direCt and natu¬
ral order. Now, the bafs which prevails under all the
other parts, does not always exprefs the fundamental
founds of the chords; for amongd all the founds which
form a chord, the compofer is at liberty to transfer to
the bafs that which he thinks preferable •, regard being
had to the procedure of that bafs, to the beauty of the
melody, and above all to the expreflion, as may after¬
wards be explained. In this cafe the real fundamental
found, inftead of retaining its natural ftation, which is
in the bafs, will either be transferred to fome of the
other parts, or perhaps even entirely fupprelled, and Fundaaaei?.
fuch a chord is called an inverted chord. ,
In reality, fays Rameau, a chord inverted does not
differ from the chord in its direCl and natural order from
which it wras produced : but as thefe founds form differ¬
ent combinations, thefe. combinations have long been
taken for fundamental chords j different names have
been given them, (which may be feen at the wTord Ac¬
cord, in Rouffeau’s Diftionary). Thefe names, by the
perfons who bellowed them, wTere thought to create and
fandlify their diffindtions •, as if a difference in names
could really produce a difference in the fpecies.
M. Rameau in his Treatife of Harmony has Ihown,
and M. d’Alembert in his Elements of Mufic has Hill
more clearly evinced, that many of thefe pretendedly
different chords were no more than inverfions of one
fingle chord. Thus the chord of the fixth is no more
than the perfedt chord of the third transferred to the
bafs 5 by adding a fifth, w'e lhall have the chord of the
fixth and fourth. Here there are three combinations
of a chord, which only confifts of three founds thofe
wdiich contain four founds are fufceptible of four
combinations, fince each of thefe founds may be tranf-
ferred to the bafs. But in adding beneath this another
bafs which, under all the combinations of one and the
fame chord, always prefents the fundamental found ; it
is evident, that confonant chords are reduced to the
number three, and the number of diffonant chords to
four. Add to this all the chords by fuppofition, which
may likewife be reduced to the fame fundamentals, and
you wTill find harmony brought to a degree of fimplicity
in which no perfon could ever hope to lee it whilft its
rules remained in that Hate of confufion where M. Ra¬
meau found them. It is certainly, as that author ob-
ferves, an aftonilhing occurrence, that the pradlice of
this art could be carried fo far as it really was, without
knowing its foundation •, and that all the rules were fo
exadfly found, without having difeovered the principle
on which they depended.
After having Ihown what is the fundamental bafs be¬
neath the chords, let us now fpeak of its procedure, and
of the manner in which it connects thefe chords among
themfelves. Upon this point the precepts of the art
may be reduced to the fix following rules.
1. The fundamental bafs ought never to found any
other notes than thofe of the feries or tone in which
the compofer finds himfelf, or at leaft thofe of the fe*
ries-or tone to which he choofes to make a tranfition.
This of all the rules for the fundamental bafs is the firfi:
and moll indifpenfable.
2. By the fecond, its procedure ought to be fo impli¬
citly fubjefled to the laws of modulation, as never to
fuffer the idea of a former mode to be loft till that of a
fubfequent one can be legitimately affumed 5 that is to
fay, that the fundamental bafs ought never to be devi-
eus, or fuffer us to be one moment at a lofs in what
mode we are.
3. By the third, it is fubjefted to the connexion of
chords and the preparation of diffonances : a manoeuvre
which, as wre (hall afterwards fee, is nothing elfe but
a method of producing this connexion, and which of
confequence is only neceffary when the connexion can¬
not fubfift without it. See Connexion, Prepara¬
tion.
4. By the fourth, it is neceffitated, after every dif-
K k 2 fonance,
FUN [ 260 ] FUN
Fundamen-fonance, to purfue that career which the refolution of
tal. the diffonance indifpenfably prefcribes. See Resolu¬
tion.
5. By the fifth, which is nothing elfe but a confe-
quence of the former, the fundamental bafs ought
only to move by conlbnant intervals j except alone
in the operation of a broken cadence, or after a chord
of the feventh diminilhed, where it rifes diatonically.
Every other motion of the fundamental bafs is illegi¬
timate.
6. By the fixth, in fhort, the fundamental bafs or
harmony ought not to be fyncopated y but to diftin-
guiih the bars and the times which they contain, by
changes of chords properly marked with cadences ; in
fuch a manner, for inftance, that the diffonances which
ought to be prepared may find their preparation in the
imperfeft time, but chiefiy that all the repofes may hap¬
pen in the perfeft time. This fixth rule admits of an
infinite number of exceptions ; but the compofer ought
however to be attentive to it, if he would form a mufitc
in which the movements are properly marked, and in
which the bars may end gracefully.
Wherever thefe rules are obferved, the harmony (hall
be regular and without fault: this, however, will not
hinder the mufic from being deteftable. See Composi¬
tion.
A word of illuftration on the fifth rule may not be
ufelefs. Whatever turn may be given to a funda¬
mental bals, if it is properly formed, one of thefe
alternatives muft always be found j either perfect
chords moving by confonant intervals, without w'hich
thefe chords wrould have no connexion \ or diffbnant
chords in operations of cadence : in every other cafe,
the diiTonance can neither be properly placed nor pro¬
perly refolved.
Irom thence it follows, that the fundamental bafs
cannot move regularly but in one of thefe three man¬
ners : 1 ft, To rife or defcend by a third or by a fixth.
2dly, By a tourth or a fifth. 3dly, To rife diatonically
by means of the diiTonance which forms the connexion,
or by a licenfe upon a perfedl chord. With refpeft
to a diatonic defcent, it is a motion abfolutely prohibit¬
ed to the fundamental bafsj or, at moft, merely tolerat¬
ed in cafes wTere two perfedl chords are in fucceffion,
divided by a clofe expreifed or underftood. This rule
has no other exception : and it is from not difcerning
the foundation of certain tranfitions, that M. Rameau
has cauled the fundamental bafs to defcend diatonically
under chords of the feventh ; an operation which is
imprafticable in legitimate harmony. See Cadence,
Dissonance.
The fundamental bafs, w7hich they add for no other
reafon than to ferve as a proof of the harmony, muft
be retrenched in execution, and often in practice it
would have a very bad effea; for it is, as M. Rameau
very properly obferves, intended for the judgment, and
not for the ear. It would at leaft produce a monotony
extremely riaufeous by frequent returns of the fame
chord, vyhich they difguife and vary more agreeably
by combining it in different manners upon the continued
bfds, without reckoning upon the different inverfions of
harmony, which furnifh a thoufand means of adding
new beauaes to the mufic and new energy to the expref-
fion. See Chord, Inversion.
But it will be objefted, If the fundamental bafs is
not ufeful in compofing good mufic, if it muft even be Fundamen-
retrenched in practice, what good purpofe, then, can tal-
it ferve ? We anfwer, that in the firft place, It ferves
for a rule to fcholars, upon which they may learn to
form a regular harmony, and to give to all the parts^
fuch a diatonic and elementary procedure as is pre-
fcribed them by that fundamental bafs. It does more,
as wre have already faid : it proves whether a harmony
already formed be juft and regular ; for all harmony
wdiich cannot be fubjedted to the teft of a fundamental
bafs, muft according to all rules be bad. Finally, It
ferves for the inveftigation of a continued bafs under a
given air : though, in reality, he who cannot diredlly
form a continued bafs will fcarcely be able to form a
fundamental bafs, which is better; and much lefs ftill
will he be able to transform that fundamental bafs in¬
to a legitimate continued bafs. Thefe which follow
are, how'ever, the principal rules which M. Rameau
prefcribes for finding the fundamental bafs of a given
1. To afcertain with precifion the mode in which the
compofer begins, and thofe through which he pafles.
There are alio rules for inveftigating the modes 5 but
fo long, fo vague, fo incomplete, that with refpect to ,
this, the ear may be formed long before the rules are
acquired ; and the dunce who (hould try to ufe them
would gain no improvement but the habit of proceed¬
ing always note by note, without even knowing where
he is.
2. To try in fucceflion under each note the princi¬
pal chords of the mode, beginning by thofe which are
moft analogous, and palling even to the moft remote,
when the compofer fees himfelf under a neceftity of
doing fo.
3. To confider whether the chord chofen can fuit the
upper part in what precedes and in what follows, by a
juft fundamental fucceftion j and when this is imprafti-
cable, to return the wTay he came.
4. Not to change the note of the fundamental bafs
till after having exhaulled all the notes which are allow¬
ed in fucceffion in the upper part, and w'hich can enter
into its chord j or till fome fyncopated note in the air
may be fufceptible of twro or a greater number of notes
in the bafs, to prepare the diiTonance wThich may be af¬
terwards refolved according to rule.
5. To ftudy the intertexture of the phrafes *, the
poffible fucceffion of cadences, whether full or avoided
and above all, the paufes which for ordinary return at
the end of every four, or of every two bars, fo that
they may always fall upon perfedl and regular ca¬
dences.
6. In fhort, to obferve all the rules formerly given
for the compofition of the fundamental bafs.—Thefe
are the principal obfervations to be made for finding
one under any given air ; for there are fometimes feve-
ral different ones which may be inveftigated. But,
whatever may be faid to the contrary, if the air has ac¬
cent and charadler, there is only one juft fundamental
bafs which can be adapted to it.
After having given a fummary explication of the
manner in which a fundamental bafs fhould be com-
pofed, it {hould remain to fuggeft the means of tranf-
forming it into a continued bafs} and this would be
eafy, if it were only neceffary to regard the diatonic
procedure and the agreeable air of this bafs. But let
us
FUN [
FumU us not imagine that the bafs, which is the^ guide and
|1 fupport of the harmony, the foul, and as it were t.ie
Funeral, interpreter, of the air, Ihould be limited to rules fo
 Y— fimpie . there are others which depend upon principles
more certain and more radical ; fruitiui, but latent
principles, which have been felt by every aitiil of ge¬
nius, without having been deteded by any one. Roui-
feau hopes, that in his letter upon French muiic he
infmuated this principle. For thofe who underhand
him, he imagines he has faid enough concerning it,
and can never fay enough of it for thofe wno do not.
See R.ou(feint's Mifcellames, vol. ii. p. i..
He does not here mention the ingenious fyftem by
M. Serre of Geneva, nor his double fundamental bafs j
becaufe the principles which, with a fagacity merito¬
rious of praife, he had halt detected, have afterwards
been unfolded by 1VI. i artini, in a work of which Rouf-
feau has given an account in his article System.
FUNDI, in Ancient Geography, a town of Latium,
on the Via Appia, near Cajeta ; enjoying all the privi¬
leges of Roman citizens, except the right of fuffrage
and of magiftracy. Now Fondi, a city of Naples, on
the confines of the pope’s dominions. E. Long. 14. 20.
N. Lat. 41. 35.
FUNDY, a bay of confiderable extent in North
America, opening between the illands of Penobfcot
bay, in the county of Lincoln, and Cape Sable, the
fouth-weif point of Nova Scotia. It reaches about 200
miles in a north-eaft direftion, and forms a very nar¬
row iithmus with Verte bay, which reaches into the
land in a fouth-well diredlion from the ftraits of Nor¬
thumberland. It is 12 leagues from St John’s in New
Brunfwick, to the Gut of Annapolis in Nova Scotia,
where the tides are remarkably rapid, and riie to the
height of 30 feet. The tides in this bay are fo rapid,
that it is faid, they will overtake animals feeding on the
Ihore.
FUNEN, or Fioma, a confiderable ifland in Den¬
mark, feated on the Baltic fea, and feparated from Jut¬
land by a ftrait called the Leffer Belt, and from the
iiland of Zealand by another called the Great Belt. It
is fertile in wheat and barley 5 and abounds in cattle,
horfes, game of all forts, and fifh. Odenlee is the ca¬
pital town.
FUNERAL RITES, ceremonies accompanying the
interment or burial of any perfon. The word is form¬
ed of the Latin fanus\ and that oi funalia, on account
of the torches (which were fines cera circumdati) ufed
in the funerals of the Romans •, though others derive
funits from the Greek <pevo?, death or Jlaughter.
Thefe rites differed among the ancients according to
the different genius and religion of each country.
The firft people who feem to have paid any particu¬
lar refpe6I to their dead, were the Egyptians, the po-
fterity of Ham, the firft cultivators of idolatrous wor-
ftiip and fuperftition after the flood; they were alfo
the firft who afferted the immortality of the foul, its
migration into all kinds of animals in earth, air, and
fea, and its return to the human body ; which they
fuppofed to be within the term of 3000 years : Hence
proceeded their very great care in embalming of their
dead bodies, and their being at fuch vaft expences, as
they were, in building proper repofitories for them ;
for they were more felicitous about their graves than
their heufes: This gave birth to thofe wonders of the
261 ] F U N
world, the pyramids, which were built for the buiicii of ^
their kings, with fuch vaft charges, and almoft incre¬
dible magnificence. See Pyramid.
Whenever a perfon died among the Egyptians, his
parents and friends put on mournful habits, and ab-
ftained from all banquets and entertainments. Ihis
mourning lafted from 40 to 70 days, during which
time they embalmed the body. See Embalming.
When this ceremony was finiflied, the embalmed bo¬
dy was reftored to the friends, who placed it in a Kind
of open cheft, which was preferved either in their
houfes, or in the fepulchres of their anceftors. Bu -
before the dead were allowed to be depofited in the
tomb, they underwent a folemn judgment, which ex¬
tended even to their kings. Or this remarkable cuftom
we have a particular account in the firft book of Dio¬
dorus Siculus. “ Thofe who prepare to bury a rela¬
tion, give notice of the day intended for the ceremony
to the judges, and to all the friends of the deceaied ;
informing them, that the body will pals over the laxc
of that diftridl to which the dead belonged : when, on
the judges affembling, to the number of more than 4^,
and ranging themfelves in a femicircle on the farther fide
of the lake, the veffel is let afloat, which thofe who fu-
perintend the funeral have prepared for tuis purpofe.
This veffel is managed by a pilot, called in the Egyp¬
tian language Charon ; and hence they lay, that Oi-
pheus, travelling in old times into Egypt, and feeing
this ceremony, formed his fable of the infernal regions,
partly from what he faw, and partly from invention^
The veffel being launched on the lake, before the cof¬
fin which contains the body is put on board, tne law
permits all, who are fo inclined to produce an accufa-
tion again ft it. If any one fteps forth, and proves tnat
the deceafed has led an evil life, the judges pronounce
fentence, and the body is precluded from burial; but
if the acculer is convidted of injuftice in his charge, he
falls himfelf under a confiderable penalty. When no
accufer appears, or when the accufation is proved to be
an unfair one, the relations, who are affembled, change
their expreffions of forrow into encomiums on the dean;
yet do not, like the Greeks, fpeak in honour of his
family, becaufe they confider all Egyptians as equally
well born ; but they fet forth the education and man¬
ners of his youth, his piety and juftice in maturer life,
his moderation, and every virtue by which he was di-
ftinguilhed ; and they fupplicate the infernal deities to
receive him as an affociate among the bleft. The mul¬
titude join their acclamations of applaufe in this cele¬
bration of the dead, whom they confider as going to
pafs an eternity among the juft below.” Such is the
defeription which Diodorus gives of this funeral judi¬
cature, to wdiich even the kings of Egypt were fub-
je&. The fame author afferts, that many fovereigns
had been thus judicially deprived of the honours of
burial by the indignation of their people : and that
the terrors of fuch a fate had the moft falutary influ¬
ence on the virtue of their kings.
The funeral rites among the Hebrews were folemn
and magnificent. WHien any perfon was dead, his re¬
lations and friends rent their clothes ; which cuftom is
but faintly imitated by the modern Jews, who only
cut off a bit of their garment, in token of affliftion. It
was ufual to bend the dead perfon’s thumb into the
hand, and fatten it in that pofture with a firing ; be-
caufe
Funeral.
FUN
, funeral. caufe the thumb then having the figure of the name of
God, they thought the devil would not dare to ap¬
proach it. When they came to the burying place, they
made a fpeech to the dead in the following terms :
“ Blefled be God, wdio has formed thee, fed thee,
maintained thee, and taken away thy life. O dead ! he
knows your numbers, and (hall one day reftore your
life,” &c. Then they fpoke the elogium, or funeral
oration, of the deceafed } after which they faid a pray¬
er, called the righteoufnefs of judgment ; then turning
the face of the deceafed towards heaven, they called
out, “ Go In peace.”
Among the ancient Greeks it was ufual fometimes
before the interment, to put a piece of money into the
mouth of the deceafed, which was thought to be Cha¬
ron’s fare for wafting the departed foul over the infer¬
nal river. This ceremony was not ufed in thofe coun¬
tries which wTere fuppofed to be fituated in the neigh¬
bourhood of the infernal regions, and to lead thither
by a ready and direft road. The corpfe was likewife
furnifhed with a cake, compofed of flour, honey, &c.
which was defigned to appeafe the fury of Cerberus
the door-keeper of hell, and to procure the ghofl: a
fafe and quiet entrance. During the time the corpfe
continued in the houfe, there flood before the door a
velfel of water : the defign of w'hich was, that thofe
Concerned about the body might purify themfelves by
walking ; it being the opinion of the Greeks, as wrell
as of the Jew's, that pollution wTas contradled by touch-
mg a dead body.
The ceremonies by wdiich they expreffed their for-
row for the death of their friends were various ; but
it feems to have been a conftant rule to recede as much
as poffible in habit and behaviour from their ordinary
cuftoms. For this reafon they abftained from banquets
and entertainments •, they divefted themfelves of all or¬
naments ; they tore, cut off, or Ihaved their hair, which
they call into the funeral pile, to be confumed with
the body of their deceafed friend. Sometimes they
threw themfelves on the ground and rolled in the dull,
or covered their head with allies; they beat their
breafls, and even tore their flelh with their nails, upon
the lofs of a perfon they much lamented. When per •
fons of rank, fuch as public magiftrates or great ge¬
nerals died, the whole city put on a face of mourn¬
ing •, all public meetings wrere intermitted ; the fchools,
baths, Ihops, temples, and all places of concourfe, were
(hut up.
After interment followed the epulce or feafts, at which
the company ufed to appear crowmed 5 when they fpoke
in praife of the dead, fo far as they could go with
truth, it being efteemed a notorious wickedhefs to lie
upon fuch an occafion. And not only at thofe feafts,
but even before the company departed from the fe-
pulchre, they were fometimes.entertained with a pane¬
gyric upon the dead perfon.
The Grecian foldiers, who died in rvar, had not
only their tombs adorned with inferiptions (howing
their names, parentage, and exploits, but were alfo
honoured with an oration in their praife. Particularly
the cuftom among the Athenians in the interment of
their foldiers was as follows, namely, “ They ufed to
place the bodies of their dead in tents three days before
the funeral, that all perfons might have opportunity
«o find out their relations, and pay their laft refpefts
FUN
to them. Upon the fourth day, a coffin of cyprefs Funera'v
was fent from every tribe, to convey the bones of their ——1
own relations ; after which went a covered herfe, in
memory of thofe whole bodies could not be found. All
thefe, accompanied with the wdiole body of the people,
were carried to the public burying place, called Cerami-
cus, and there interred. One oration was fpoken in com¬
mendation of them all, and their monuments were adorned
with pillars, inferiptions, and all other ornaments ufual
about the tombs of the moft honourable perlons. The
oration was pronounced by the fathers of the deceafed
perfons who had behaved themfelves moft valiantlv.
Thus after the famous battle at Marathon, the fathers
of Callimachus and Cynaegyrus ^vere appointed to
make the funeral oration. And upon the return of
the day, upon which the folemnity was fir ft held, the
fame oration was conftantly repeated every year.”
Interring or laying the dead in the ground feems
to have been the moft ancient practice among the
Greeks ; though burning came afterwards to be gene¬
rally ufed among them. It w'as cuftomary to throw
into the funeral pile thofe garments the deceafed
ufually wore. The pile was lighted by one of the de-
cealed’s neareft relations or friends, who made prayers
and vows to the winds to affift the flames, that the
body might quickly be reduced to afhes ; and during
the time the pile was burning, the dead perfon’s friends
flood by it, pouring libations of wane, and calling upon
the deceafed.
The funeral rites among the ancient Romans were very
numerous. The deceafed was kept feven days 5 and
every day walked with hot water, and fometimes with
oil, that, in cafe he were only in a Humber, he might
be thus waked ; and every now and then his friends
meeting, made a horrible outcry or fhout, with the
fame view ; which laft addon they called conclamatio.
The third conclamation was on the feventh day 5 when,
if no figns of life appeared, the defundt was dreffed and
embalmed by the pollindlores •, placed in a bed near
the door, with his face and heels towards the ftreet ;
and the outfide of the gate, if the deceafed were of
condition, was garnifhed with cyprefs boughs. In
the courfe of thefe feven days, an altar was raifed near
his bed fide, called acerra ; 00 which his friends every
day offered incenfe : and the libitinarii provided things
for the funeral.
On the feventh day a crier was fent about the city,
to invite the people to the folemnization of the fune¬
ral in thefe words : Exequias L. Tit. filii, quibus ejl
commodum ire, jam temp us ejl. Ollus (i. e. Hie) ex cedibus
efferlur. The people being affembled, the laft concla¬
mation ended, and the bed was covered with purple :
a trumpeter marched forth, followed by old women
called pr rfece, (inging fongs in praife of the deceased :
laftly, the bed followed, borne by the next relations ;
and if the perfon were of quality and office, the waxen
images of all his predeceffors were carried before him
on poles. The bed was followed by his children, kindred,
&c. atrati, or in mourning : from which a6l of follow¬
ing the corpfe, thefe funeral rites were called exequiae.
The body thus brought to the roftra, the next of kin
laudabat defunBum pro rofris, made a funeral oration in
his praife and that of his anceftors. This done, the
body was carried to the pyra, or funeral pile, and there
burnt; his friends firft cutting off a finger, to be bu¬
ried
[ 262 ]
FUN [ 263 ] F U N
Funeral, ned with a fecond folemnity. The body confumed,
'~~~v the a(hes were gathered j and the prieft fprinkling the
company thrice with clean water, the eldeft of the
praf.ccc crying aloud, Ilicet, difmifled the people, who
took their leave of the deceafed in this form, Vale,
vale, vale : nos te orditie quo nature permiferit fequemur*
—The allies, enclofed in an urn, were laid in the fe-
pulchre or tomb.
The ancient Chrijhans tellified their abhorrence of the
Pagan cullom of burning their dead ; and always depo-
uted the body entire in the ground : and it was ufual
to bellow the honour of embalming upon the martyrs
at lead, if not upon others. They prepared the body
for burial, by walking it with water, and drefling it
in a funeral attire. The exportation or carrying forth
of the body was performed by near relations, or perfons
of fuch dignity as the circumftances of the deceafed
required. Pfalmody, or linging of pfalms, was the
great ceremony ufed in all funeral proceflions among
the ancient Chriflians.
In the RomiJJj church, when a perfon is dead, they
walh the body, and put a crucifix in its hand. At its
feet Hands a veffel full of holy water, and a fprinkler,
that they who come in may fprinkle both themielves
and the deceafed. In the mean time fome prieft llands
by the corpfe, and prays for the deceafed till it is laid
in the earth. In the funeral proceftion, the exorcilt
walks firft, carrying the holy water ; next the crofs-
bearer, afterwards the reft of the clergy, and laft of all
the officiating prieft:. They all ling the miferere, and
fome other pfalms; and at the end of each pfalm a re¬
quiem. We learn from Alet’s ritual, that the faces of
deceafed laymen muft be turned towards the altar,
wffien they are placed in the church 5 and thofe of the
clergy towards the people. The corpfe is placed in
the church fuvrounded with lighted tapers 5 after the
office for the dead, mafs is faid 5 then the officiating
prieft fprinkles the corpfe thrice with holy water, and
as often throw's incenfe on it. The body being laid in
the grave, the friends and relations of the deceafed
fprinkle the grave wuth holy water.
The funeral ceremonies of the Greek church are
much the fame wdtli thofe of the Latin. It needs
only be obferved, that, after the funeral fervice, they
kifs the crucifix, and falute the mouth and forehead of
the deceafed •, after which each of the company eats a
bit of bread and drinks a glafs of wine in the church,
wiffiing the foul a good repofe, and the afflifted family
all confolation.
Funeral Games, a part of the ceremony of the an¬
cient funerals.
It was cuftomary for perfons of quality, among the
ancient Greeks and Romans, to inftitute games with
all forts of exercifes, to render the death of their friends
more remarkable. This praftice was generally received,
and is frequently mentioned by ancient writers. Pa-
troclus’s funeral games take up the greateft part of one
of Homer’s Iliads ; and Agamemnon’s ghoft is intro¬
duced by the fame poet, telling the ghoft of Achilles,
that he had been a fpeiiator at a great number of fuch
folemnities.
The celebration of thefe games among the Greeks
moftly confifted ofhorfe races; the prizes were of dif¬
ferent forts and value, according to the quality and
magnificence of the perfon that celebrated them. The
garlands given to viftors on this occafion w^ere ufually Funeral,
of parfley, wffiich was thought to have Tome relation to
the dead.
Thofe games, among the Romans confifted chiefly
of proceflions; and fometimes of mortal combats of
gladiators around the funeral pile. They, as well as
the Greeks, had alfo a cuftom, though very ancient, of
cutting the throats of a number of captives before the
pile, as vidlims to appeafe the manes of the deceafed.
CaTar relates, that the Gauls had this cuftom.
'The funeral games were aboliflred by the emperor
Claudius.
Funeral Oration, a difeourfe pronounced in praife of
a perfon deceafed, at the ceremony of his funeral.
This cuftom is very ancient. In the latter part of
the. account above given of the Egyptian ceremonies
of interment, may be perceived the firft rudiments of
funeral orations, and what was the fubjedi of them,
which were afterwards moulded into a more polite and
regular form by other nations, wffio adopted this cuftom,.
Nor can we emit remarking, that thofe funeral folemni¬
ties w'ere attended not only with orations in praife of
the deceafed, but with prayers for him ; which prayers,.,
it feems, were made by one who perfonated the de¬
ceafed : an entire form of one of them is preferved by
Porphyry, and perhaps it may in fome meafure gratify*
the reader’s curiofity to recite it from him. “ When
(fays he) they (the Egyptians) embalm their deceafed
nobles, they privately take out the entrails, and lay
them up in an ark or cheft : moreover, among other
things which they do in favour of the deceafed, lifting
up the ark or cheft to the fun, they invoke him j one of
the hbitinarii making a prayer for the deceafed, wffiich
Euphantus has tranflated out of the Egyptian language,
and is as follows ;—O lord, the fun, and all the gods
wffio give life to men, receive me and admit me into
the fociety of the immortal ones 5 for, as long as I
lived in this rvorld, I relig’oufly w*orflripped the gods
whom my parents lhow7ed me, and have alw7ays ho¬
noured thofe who begat my body ; nor have I killed
any man, nor have I defrauded any of what has been
committed to my truft, nor have I done anything
wffiich is inexpiable. Indeed, whilft I was alive, if
I have finned either by eating or drinking anything
which wTas not lawful; not through myfelf have I
finned, but through thefe, ffiowffiig the ark and cheft:
wffiere the entrails were. And having thus fpoke, he
cafts it into the river, but the reft of the body he em¬
balms as pure.”
The Grecians received the feeds of fuperftition and
idolatrous w*orfhip from the Egyptians, through the
coming of Cecrops, Cadmus, Danaus, and Erechtheus,
into Greece ; and among other cuftoms tranfplanted
from Egypt, w*ere the folemnities ufed at the burial of
the dead. Of thefe, an encomium on the deceafed
always formed a part, as particularly noticed under the
preceding article.
from the Egyptians and Grecians, efpecially from
the latter, the Romans received many of their law*s
and cuftoms, as wrell as much of their polythetfm and
idolatrous worftiip. It is well known, that the cuftom
of making funeral orations in praife of the dead ob¬
tained among them ; and the manner in wffiich their
funeral fervices were performed has been already de- *
feribed. The corpfe being brought into their great
oratory.
FUN
[ 264 ]
FUN
Funera!. oratory, called the rojlra, the next of the kin laudabat
 v   defunBum pro rojlris, that is, made a funeral oration, in
the commendation principally of the party decealed,
but touching the worthy afts alfo of thofe his prede-
ceffors whole images were there prefent. The account
given by Dr Kennet is in thefe words: “ In all the
funerals of note, efpecially in the public or indiaive,
the corpfe was firft brought with a vaft train of follow¬
ers into the forum j here one of the neareft relations
.afcended the roltra, and obliged the audience with an
oration in praife of the deceafed. If none of the kin¬
dred undertook the office, it was difcharged by feme
of the moll eminent perfons in the city for learning
and eloquence, as Appian reports of the funeral of
Sylla. And Pliny the younger reckons it as the lafl
addition to the happinefs of a very great man, that he
had the honour to be praifed at his funeral by the moll
eloquent Tacitus, then conful} which is agreeable to
Quintilian’s account of this matter, Nam et funebres,
&c. For the funeral orations (fays he) depend very
often on fome public office, and by order of fenate
are many times given in charge to the magiftrates to
be performed by themfelves in perfon. The invention
of this cuftom is generally attributed to Valerius Pop-
licola, foon after the expulfion of the regal family.
Plutarch tells us, that honouring his colleagua-’s obfe-
quies with a funeral oration, it fo pleafed the Romans,
that it became cuftomary for the beft men to celebrate
the funerals of great perfons with fpeeches in their
commendations.” Thus Julius Caefar, according to
cuftom, made an oration in the roftra, in praife of his
wife Cornelia, and his aunt Julia, when dead j wherein
he ftiowed, that his aunt’s defeent, by her mother’s
fide, was from kings, and by her father’s, from the
gods. Plutarch fays, that “ he approved of the law
of the Romans, which ordered fuitable praifes to be
given to women as well as to men after death.”—
Though by what he fays in another place, it feems
that the old Roman law was, that funeral orations
fliould be made only for the elder women j and
therefore he fays, that Caefar was the firft that made
one upon his own wife, it not being then ufual
to take notice of younger women in that way : but
by that action he gained much favour from the popu¬
lace, who afterwards looked upon him, and loved him
as a very mild and good man. The reafon why fuch
a law was made in favour of the women, Livy tells us
was this, That when there was fuch a fcarcity of money
in the public treafury, that the fum agreed upon to
give the Gauls to break up the fiege of the city and
capitol could not be raifed, the women collefted
among themfelves and made it up *, who hereupon had
not only thanks given them, but this additional ho¬
nour, that after death, they ftiould be folemnly praifed
as wrell as the men : which looks as if, before this
time, only the men had thofe funeral orations made
for them.
This cuftom of the Romans very early obtained
among the Chriftians. Some of their funeral fermons
or orations are now extant, as that of Eufebius on
Conftantine} and thofe of Nazianzen on Bafil and
. Csefarius; and of Ambrofe on Valentinian, Theodofius,
and others. Gregory, the brother of Bafil, made
Aoyw, a funeral oration, for Melitus biftiop of
Antioch ; in which orations, they not only praifed the
2
Funeral,
fungi.
dead, but addreffed themfelves to them, which feems
to have introduced the cuftom of praying to departed
faints. Now thefe orations wrere ufually made before
the bodies of the deceafed were committed to the
ground ; which cuftom has been more or lefs continued
ever fince, to this day.
Thus it appears, that thofe rites and. ceremonies
among the heathens, which have been^ delivered from
one people to another, are what have given birth to
Funeral Sermons and Orations, among Chriftians.
Though this praftice is confiderably improved, and
cleared of many things which would fmell too rank Oi
paganifm. and is thrown into a method wThich, perhaps,
may be of fome fervice to chriftianity j yet, notwith-
ftanding this new drefs, its original may very eafily be
difeerned. The method in which the characters ol
deceafed perfons are given in our funeral fermons, is
very much the fame with that obferved in thofe pagan
orations ; where firft an account is given of the paren¬
tage of the deceafed, then of his education } after that,
we hear of his condudt in riper years : then his many
virtues are reckoned up, with his generous, noble, and
excellent performances.—Nor let the practice be con¬
demned becaufe of its rife and original ; for wby may
not the cuftoms of heathens, if juft and laudable in them-
felves, and nowife pernicious to Chriftianity in their
confequences, be follow’ed by Chriftians ? Only, fince
we are come into this pradlice, there is one thing we
fhould take care to follow them in 5 and that is, not
to make thofe fermons or orations for every one ; but
for thofe only whofe charafters are diftinguilhed, who
have been eminently ufeful in the wmrld, and in the
church of Chrift. The old heathens honoured thofe
alone with this part of the funeral folemnity, who were
men of probity and juftice, renowned for their wifdom
and knowledge, or famous for warlike exploits. This,
as Cicero * informs us, being part of the law for burials, * D. Leg.
which direas, that the praifes only of honourable per- b *•
fons (hall be mentioned in the oration. It would be
much more agreeable, therefore, if our funeral dif-
courfes w7ere not fo common, and if the chaiaaers
given of the deceafed were more juft ; devoid of that
fulfome flattery with which they too often abound.^
FUNGI (from <r<pWs, fungus'), the name of the
4th order of the 24th clafs of vegetables, in the Lin-
naean fyftem j comprehending all thofe which are of
the mulhroom kind, and which in fLournefort confti-
tute the 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th genera of
the firft feaion in the clafs xvii. This order in the
Linntean arrangement, contains 10 genera^ and it con-
ftitutes one of the natural order of plants in the Frag-
menta Methodi Naturalis of Linnseus. See Botany
Tndex.
But as the claflification of this order only has been
given under the article Botany, we fnall here detail
fome of the fpeculations of naturalifts concerning their
nature and mode of produftion.
The ancients called fungi children of the earth, mean¬
ing, no doubt, to indicate the obfeurity of their origin.
The moderns have likewife been at a lofs in what rank
to place them •, fome referring them to the animal,
fome to the vegetable, and others to the mineral, king-
dom. . ,
Meffrs Wilck and Miinchaufen have not {crupled to
rank thefe bodies in the number of animal produaions j
UCCclUiCf
FUN [
Fungi becaufe, when fragments of them or their feeds were
“““"v ' macerated in water, thefe gentlemen perceived a quan¬
tity of animalcules difcharged, which they fuppofed
capable of being changed into the fame fubftance. It
was the ancient opinion, that beef could produce bees 5
but it was referved for Mefffs Wilck and Miinchaufen
to fuppofe, that bees could produce beef. Wilck af-
ferts, that fungi confift of innumerable cavities, each
inhabited by a polype ; and he does not helitate to
afcribe the formation of them to their inhabitants, in
the fame way as it has been faid that the coral, the
lichen, and the mucor, were formed. Hedwig has
lately fhown how ill founded this opinion is with re-
fpe£t to the lichen ; and M. Durande has demonftra-
ted its falfity with regard to the corallines. “ Indeed
(fays M. Bonnet, talking of the animality of fungi)
nothing but the rage for paradox could induce any one
to publiih fuch a fable j and I regret that pollerity
will be able to reproach our times with it. Obferva-
tion and experiment fhould enable us to overcome the
prejudices of modern philofophy j now, that thofe of
the ancient have difappeared and are forgotten.”
It cannot be denied that the mufhroom is one of the
moft perifhable of all plants, and it is therefore the
moft favourable for the generation of infedts. Con-
fldering the quicknefs of its growth, it mull be fur-
nifhed with the power of copious abforption ; the ex¬
tremity of its veffels mull be more dilated than in other
plants. Its root feems, in many cafes, to be merely
intended for its fupport : for fome fpecies grow upon
Hones or moveable fand, from which it is impoflible
that they can draw much nourilhment. We mull
therefore fuppofe, that it is chiefly by the llalk that
they abforb. Thefe ftalks grow in a moift and tainted
air, in which float multitudes of eggs, fo fmall, that
the very infedls they produce are with difficulty feen
by the microfcope. Thefe eggs may be compared to
the particles of the byffus, 100,000 of which, as M.
Gleditfch fays, are not equal to the fourth of a grain.
May we not fuppofe, that a quantity of fuch eggs are
abforbed by the vefiels of the fungus, that they remain
there, without any change, till the plant begins to
decay ? Befides, the eggs may be only depofited on the
furface of the plant, or they may exift in the water
into which they are thrown for examination. Do
not we fee that fuch eggs, difperfed through the air,
are hatched in vinegar, in patte, &c, and wherever
they find a convenient nidus for their developement ?
Can it be furprifing then, that the corruption of the
muffiroom ffiould make the water capable of difclofing
certain beings that are really foreign to both P
It is not more eafy to acquiefce in the opinions of
thofe naturalifts who place the fungi in the mineral
kingdom, becaufe they are found growing on porous
Hones, thence called lapides fungarii; which, how¬
ever, muH be covered with a little earth, and be wa¬
tered with tepid water, in order to favour the growth.
Such muffirooms are no more the produce of the Hone,
than the lichen is of the rock to which it adheres, or
the mofs of the tree on which it is found. We have
only to obferve the growth of muffirooms, to be con¬
vinced, that this happens by developement, and not by
addition or combination of parts as in minerals. The
% opinion of Boccone, who attributed them to an undlu-
ous matter performing the fun£tion of feed, and acqui-
. Vol. IX. Part I.
265 ] FUN
ring extenlion by appofition of fimilar parts; and that of
Morifon, who conceived that they grew fpontaneouily
out of the earth by a certain mixture of fait and ful-
phur, joined with oils from the dung of quadrupeds;
have now no longer any adherents. Fungi are produ¬
ced, they live, they grow, by developement ; they are
expofed to thofe viciflitudes natural to the different pe¬
riods of life which charadterize living fubflances; they
periffi and die. They extradl, by the extremity of
their veffels, the juices with which they are nourithed ;
they elaborate and affimilate them to their own fub-
ftance. They are, therefore, organized and living be¬
ings, and confequently belong to the vegetable king¬
dom. But whether they are real plants, or only the
production of plants, is Hill a matter in difpute with the
ablefl naturaliHs.
Some ancient authors have pretended to difcover the
feed of muffirooms; but the opinion was never gene¬
rally received. Petronius, when he is laughing at the
ridiculous magnificence of his hero Trimalcio, relates,
that he had written to the Indies for the feed of the
morelle.
Thefe productions were generally attributed to the
fuperfluous humidity of rotten wood, or other putrid
fubfiances. The opinion took its rife from obferving
that they grew moff copioully in rainy weather. Such
was the opinion of Tragus, of Bauhin, and even of Co-
lumna, who, talking ot the peziza, fays, that its fub-
Hance was more folid and harder, becaufe it did not
originate from rotten wood, but from the pituita of the
earth. It is not furprifing, that, in times when the
want of experiment and obfervation made people be¬
lieve that infedls could be generated by putrefaction,
we ffiould find the opinion general, that fungi owed
their origin to the putrefcence of bodies, or to a vif-
cous humour analogous to putridity.
Malpighi could not fatisfy himfelf as to the exiflence
of feeds which other botaniffs had pretended to difcover.
He only fays, that thefe plants mufl have them, or
that they perpetuate themfelves and ffioot by fragments.
Micheli, among the moderns, appears to have employ¬
ed himfelf moH fuccefsfully on this fubjecff. He ima¬
gined, that he not only faw the feeds, but even the fla-
mina, as well as the little tranfparent bodies deflined to
favour the diffemination and the fecundation of thefe
feeds. Before this author, Lifler thought he perceived
feeds in the Fungus perofus crajfus tnagtius of John Bau-*
hin : the little round bodies that are found in the pezi-
zae and helvellm, at that time, paffed for feeds; which
did not appear at all probable to Marfigli, confidering
that the eye, when aflified with the very befl micro-
fcopes, could perceive nothing fimilar in much larger
fungi. Indeed thefe bodies may be the capfules or co¬
vers of the feeds, if they are not the feeds themfelves.
However this may be, Marfigli, obferving that fungi
were often without roots or branches, and that they
wanted flowers and feeds, the means which nature em¬
ploys for the production of perfect plants, thought him¬
felf warranted in doubting whether thefe beings could
be ranked in the number of vegetables.
The doubts of Marfigli prompted him to obferve the
formation of fungi. Their matrix he called Situs: he.
imagined they grew in places where they met with an
unctuous matter, compofed of an oil mixed with nitrous
fait, which, by fermentation, produced heat and^moifk
L 1 ture.
Furwi.
PUN [ 266 ] FUN
Fungi, ture, and infinuated itfelf between the fibres of wood j
—v—' that is, he imagined them to be the produaion of a vif-
cous and putrefcent humour. Lancifi, in like manner,
confidered fungi as owing their exiflence to the putrefac¬
tion of vegetables, and fuppofed them a difeafe in the
plant} buthe imagined, “ that the fibres of the tree
were neceilary to their produaion, as is the cafe m
the formation of galls ; he compared them to the warts
and other excrefcences of the human body. He added,
that fuch fungous vegetable tumours mull neceffarily ai-
fume various forms and figures, from the fluids which
dillend the tubes and veffels relaxed by putrefcence,
from the duaility of the fibres and their direaion, and
from the aaion of the air.
This opinion has been refuted by the celebrated na-
turalift M. de Juflieu, in the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences for the year 1728. He maintains, that the
fungi have a great analogy with the lichen, which is al¬
lowed to be a vegetable 5 that, like the lichen, they
are divefted of llalk, branches, and leaves j that,
like it, they grow and are nourilhed upon the trunks
of trees, on pieces of rotten wood, and on all forts of
putrid vegetables } that they refemble the lichen too. in
the rapidity of their growth, and the facility with which
many of them may be dried and reflored to their for¬
mer figure, upon being immerfed in water j and, laft-
ly, that there is a great limilarity in the manner in
which their feeds are produced. He affirms, that only
the warts and excrefcences which grow on animal bo¬
dies, and the knots and other tumors that are to be
found on trees, can be compared with one another j for
they are compofed equally of the folld and liquid fub-
flance of the plant or animal on which they grow j
whereas, the matter of the fungi is not only quite di-
11 in cl from that of the plants on which they are found,
but often entirely fimilar to the fubftance of thofe that
fpring immediately from the earth.
The organization, fays M. de Juffieu, which diftin-
guilhes plants and other produ61ions of nature, is vili-
ble in the fungi •, and the particular organization of
each fpecies is conftant ai all times and in all places j a
circumflance which could not happen if there were not
an animal reproduction of fpecies, and confequently a
multiplication and propagation by feed. This is not,
he fays, an imaginary fuppofition j for the feeds may
be felt like meal upon mulhrooms with gills, efpecially
when they begin to decay $ they may be leen with a
magnifying glafs, in thofe that have gills with black
margins : and, laftly, fays he, botanifls can have no
doubt that fungi are a diflinft clafs of plants, becaufe,
by comparing the obfervations made in different coun¬
tries with the figures and defcriptions of fuch as have
been engraven, the fame genera and the fame fpecies
are everywhere found.
Notwithllanding this refutation by M. de Juffieu,
another naturalift, M. de Necker, has lately maintained,
in his wcrk entitled Mycito/ogia, That the fungi ought
to be excluded from the three kingdoms of nature, and
be confidered as intermediate beings. He has obfer-
ved, like Marfigli, the matrix of the fungi: and has
fubftituted the -word carchte (initium faciens) inilead
ol Jitus; imagining that the rudiment of the fungus
cannot exift beyond that point in which the develope-
ment of the filaments or fibrous roots is perceived. He
allows, that; fungi are novjrilhed and grow like vege¬
tables *, but he thinks that they differ very much trom Fungi.
them in refpedf of their origin, ftmdlure, nutrition,  /■"“
and rapidity of growth. He fays, that the various vef¬
fels which compofe the organization of vegetables are
not to be found in the fungi, and that they feem en¬
tirely compofed of cellular lubftance and bark ; fo that
this Ample organization is nothing more than an ag¬
gregation of veffels endowed with a common nature,
that fuck up the moiilure in the manner of a fponge *,
with this difference, that the moiffure is affimilated in¬
to a part of the fungus. Laftly, That the fruflifica-
tion, the only effential part of a vegetable, and which
diflinguiflies it from all other organized bodies, being
wanting, fungi cannot be confidered as plants. T his
he thinks confirmed by the conftant obfervation of
thofe people who gather the morelle and the mufti-
room, and who never find them in the fame fpots
where they had formerly grown. As the generation of
fungi (fays M. Necker) is always performed when the
parenchymatous or cellular fubftance has changed
its nature, form, and fun61 ion, we muft conclude that
it is the degeneration of that part which produces
thefe bodies.
But if fungi were owing merely to the degeneration
of plants, they would be ftill better entitled to confti-
tute a new kingdom. They would then be a decom-
polition, not a new formation or new bodies. Be-
fides, we cannot deny, that in thofe bodies which
form the limit between the animal and vegetable king¬
doms, the organization bec«mes Ample, as the organs
deftined for nutrition are multiplied : but, as the laft in
the clafs of infe61s belongs to the animal kingdom,
fungi ought, notwithftanding the fimplicity of their
organization, ftill to belong to the vegetable kingdom.
The parenchymatous or cellular fubftance, which, as
Mr Bonnet lays, is univerfally extended, embraces the
whole fibrous fyftem, and becomes the principal inftru-
ment of growth, muft naturally be more abundant in
thele produ6tions; and this accounts for the rapidity
of their enlargement. Befides, growth, whether flow
or rapid, never was employed to determine the pre¬
fence or abfence of the vegetable or animal charafler.
The draba verna, which in a few weeks fhoots, puts
forth its leaves, its flowers, and fruit, is not lefs a
plant than the palm. The infeft that exifts but for a
day, is as much an animal as the elephant that lives for
centuries. As to the feeds of the fungi, it is probable
that nature meant to withdraw from our eyes the dif-
femination of thefe plants, by making the feeds almoft
imperceptible} and it is likewife probable that natu-
ralifts have feen nothing but their capfules. Since,
however, from the imperfection of our fenfes, we are
unable to perceive thefe feeds, ought we to infer that
they do not exift ? Are we authorized to conclude this,
becaufe we do net find muffirooms where we have
found them a year before ? Undoubtedly not ; for the
greater part of plants require a particular foil, and the
fame mould that this year will fofter a rare plant, will
next year allow it to perilh. Neither are we at liberty
to deny the exiftence of thefe feeds, becaufe thofe bo¬
dies which have been called their feeds, and the frag¬
ments or cuttings of the plants themfelves, have not
produced others of the fame fpecies. Nature feems to
have referved for herfelf the care of diffeminating cer- .
t&in plants; It is in vain, for inftancej that the bota-
* ' nift
F U II [2
nift fows tlie duft found in the eapfules of the orchis,
which every one allows to be the feed. But, after all,
what are thofe parts in the fungi cafually obferved by
naturalifts, and which they have taken for the parts of
fru&ification ? Thefe are quite diftinA from the other
parts; and whatever may be their ufe, they cannot
have been formed by a prolongation of the cellular
fubftance, or of the fibres of the tree on which the
fungus grows : they are, therefore, owing, like flower
and fruit, to the proper organization of the plant.
Thefe plants, therefore, have a particular exiftence,
independent of their putrefying nidus. The gills of
certain fungi, which differ effentially from the reft of
the plant in their conformation, would be fuflicient to
authorife this latter opinion. But can putrefadlion
Create an organic fubftance ?
Nature undoubtedly diffeminates through the air,
and over the furface of the earth, innumerable feeds of
fungi, as well as eggs of infefts. The plant and the
animal are excluded, when the nidus or the tempera¬
ture is favourable for their developement. No fortui¬
tous concourfe, either of atoms or fluids, could pro¬
duce bodies fo exquifitely and fo regularly organized.
It is fufHcient to throw one’s eyes on the beautiful
plates which SchaifFer has publiftied of them, and com¬
pare them, by the glafs, with the warts and other
excrefcences of animals, to be convinced that they
have not the fame origin. The funftion of the cellu¬
lar fubftance in vegetables muft be greatly fuperior to
that in animals, if it could produce any thing but de¬
formities.
The greater part of fungi exhibit a configuration
much too regular, conftant, and uniform, to be the ef-
fe& of chance or putrefadlion. As this form is pre-
ferved the fame in all places where fungi have been
found, it follows, that they contain in themfelves the
principles of their reproduilion. They refemble the
mifletoe, and other parafitic plants, which are perfect¬
ly diftinCl from the trees on which they grow. The
fungi, therefore, are organized and living fubftances,
or true plants. If the manner of their production is
unknown, that of fome infects is fo too.
FUNGIBLES, in Scots Law, are fuch things as
are eftimated by number, weight, or meafure ; as coin,
butter, ale, &c.
FUNGITiE, in Natural Hiftory, a kind of foflile
coral, of a conic figure, though fometimes flatted and
ftriated longitudinally.
FUNGUS, in Surgery, denotes any fpongy exeref-
cence. See Surge?y Index.
FUNNEL of a Chimney, the ftiaft or fmalleft
part of the watte, where it is gathered into its leaft di-
menfions.
Palladio direCts, that the funnels of chimneys be
carried through the roof four or five feet at leaft, that
they may carry the fmoke clear from the houfe into
the air. See Chimney.
He alfo advifes, that chamber chimneys be not made
narrower than 10 or 11 inches, nor broader than 15 5
for if too narrowq the fmoke will not be able to make
its wTay j and, if too wide, the wind will drive it back
into the room.
FUR, or Furr, in commerce. See Furr.
FURBISHER, a perfon who
cleans arms, as anno F,.— 1
(J7 ] FUR
chiefly performed with emery. See the article E-
MERY.
FURCA, in antiquity, a piece of timber refembling
a fork, ufed by the Romans as an inftrument of pu-
nifhment.
The punifliment of the furca was of three kinds:
the firft only ignominious, when a mafter, for fmall
offences, forced a fervant to carry a furca on his fhoul-
ders about the city. The fecond was penal, when the
party wTas led about the circus, or other place, with
the furca about his neck, and whipped all the way.
The third was capital, when the malefaftor having his
head faftened on the furca, was whipped to death.
FUR CHE', in Heraldry, a crofs forked at the ends.
FURETIERE, Antony, an ingenious and learned
Frenchman, wras bom at Paris in 1620J and after a
liberal education became eminent in the civil and canon
law. He was firft an advocate in the parliament *, and
afterwards taking orders, was prefented with the abbey
of Chalivoy, and the priory of Chuines. Many works
of literature recommended him to the public j but what
he is chiefly known by and valued for, is his Univerfal
Dictionary of the French Tongue, in which he explains
the terms of art in all fciences. He had not, however,
the pleafure of feeing this ufeful work publiihed before
his death j which happened in 1688. He was a member
of the French academy ; and the difputes and quarrels
which he had with certain members of it made a great
noife in the wrorld.
FURIA, in Zoology, a genus of infects belonging
to the order of vermes zoophyta. There is but one
fpecies, viz. the infernalis, which has a linear fmooth
body ciliated on each fide, with refleXed feelers preffed
to its body. In Finland, Bothnia, and the northern
provinces of Sweden, it wras not unfrequently that
people w-ere feized with a pungent pain, confined to a>
point, in the hand or other expofed part of the body,
which prefently increafed to a moft excruciating de¬
gree, and hath fometimes been fuddenly fatal. This
diforder was more particularly obferved in Finland,
efpecially about boggy and marfhy places, and always
in autumn. At length it was difeovered that this pain
inftantly fucceeded fomewhat that dropped out of the
air* and in a moment penetrated and buried itfelf in
the flefh. The Finlanders had tried variety of applica¬
tions to no purpofe, until at length a poultice of curds
or cheefe was found the moft effectual in eafing the
pain : and the event confirmed that the infeeft was al¬
lured by this application to leave the flefti; as, on its
removal, this wrorm, no longer than the fixth of an inch,
was found in it, and thus the caufe of this painful difeafe
explained. But by what means this creature is raifed
into the air, is as yet unknown.
FURIES, in Pagan antiquity, certain goddeffes
whofe office it wras to puniffi the guilty after death.
They were three in number: Alecfto, Megaera, and
Tifiphone j who were deferibed with fnakes inftead of
hair, and eyes like lightning, carrying iron chains
and whips in one hand, and in the other flaming
torches; the latter to and the former to puniffi,
the guilty: —’ '■ney were fuppofed to be conftantly
j^.—./ng over fuch perfons as had been guilty of any
enoiynous crime.
Mythologifts fuppofe, that Tifiphone puniflied the
crimes wffiich fprang from hatred or anger; Megaera,
E 1 2 thofe
f u n
[ 268 ]
FUR
Furnace.
Furling thofe from envy j and Ale&o, tliofe from an infatiable
purfuit after riches and pleafure. They were worshipped
at Caiina in Arcadia, and at Carmia in Peloponnefus.
They had a temple at Athens near the Areopagus, and
and their priefts were chofen from amongft the judges
of that court. At Telphulia, a city in Arcadia, a black
ewe was facrificed to them.
FURLING, in naval affairs, lignifies the operation
of wrapping up and binding any fail clofe to the yard ;
which is done by hauling upon the clew-lines, bunt-lines,
&c. which wraps the fail clofe together, and being
bound faff to the yard, the fail is furled.
FURLONG, an Englilh long meafure containing
the one-eighth of a mile, and therefore equal to 660
feet, or 2 20 yards.
FURLOUGH, in the military language, is a licenfe
granted by an officer to a foidier to be abfent from his
duty for a limited time.
FURNACE, is a veffel or building, for the purpofe
of containing combuftible materials, whether of coal or
wood, and io conftrudled that great heat may be pro¬
duced and concentrated. There is great variety of
furnaces, and they are varioully conftrufted, according
to the views of the operator, and the purpoles to which
they are applied. But in all furnaces there are four
things which require to be particularly attended to. 1.
To be able to concentrate the heat, and direft it as
much as poffible to the fubftances which are to be abfed
upon. 2. To prevent the diffipation of the heat after
it is produced. 3. To obtain the greateft quantity of
heat from the fmalieft quantity of fuel j and 4. To be
able to regulate at pleafure the neceffary degree of heat,
or to have it under proper management.
1. To accomplifti the firft objedl, namely to concen¬
trate the heat, it is, ufual to confine the fire in a chamber
or cavity, properly conftrufted, furnifhed with a door
or opening, by which the fuel is introduced •, a grate
for fupporting it, and allowing a free paffage to the air,
as well as for the allies to fall through into the cavity
below, called the ajh-pit. In this way the heat pro¬
duced by the combuftion of the fuel is confined by the
ffdes of the furnace, and fo concentrated that its force
is chiefly fpent on the fubftances inclofed.
2. The diflipation of the heat is prevented by keeping
the door of the furnace (hut, by conftrufting the chimney
no wider than to allow a paffage for the fmoke, and
placing the fubftance to be afted upon in fuch a manner
that the lire may have its full effeft as it goes up the
chimney.
To produce The third objeft, which is not the leaft important,
the greateft.g ^ pro(|uce ^ greateft quantity of heat from the
fmalleft quantity of fuel. In an economical point of
view, this objedt is worthy of the greateft attention,
though it is often difficult to attain it. In this view much
depends upon the proportion between the fpaces between
the bars of the furnace, and the widenefs and height of
the chimney. This is obvious from conlidering the
circuinftonces which regulate the procefs of combuftion ■,
for this depends on the current of air puffing through
the combuftible mattei. the fuel in the furnace
is kindled, a certain degree of heat n, TiCed •, but
without a current of freffi air puffing through 1 e
ine matter, the fire is inftantly extinguished • and with¬
out this ftream of freffi air the inflammation cannot go
on. But when this takes placej
Requifites
of a good
furnace.
To concen¬
trate the
heat.
To prevent
its diffipa-
tion.
proportion
of heat.
    -  o ,
the air within the, fur- tube
nace is rarefied, and being no longer a balance for the Furnace,
external air, it is driven up the chimney by a current of  ^ 1
denfer air, milling in at the openings. This having
palled through the fuel, is alfo rarefied, and paffes oft',
giving place in its turn to a new current, fo that in this
way there is a conftant flux of air up the chimney.
From this it mull; appear, that the greater the rarefac¬
tion of the air in the fire-place is, the greater will be
the intenlity of the heat produced. By conftrudling a
furnace in a particular way, the heat may be fo ma¬
naged that the under part of the chimney may be
nearly as ftrongly heated as the fire-place itfelf 5 fo that,
although a ftrong current of air paffes through the fuel,
yet as the heat is ufelefsly fpent on the chimney, there
is a great and unneceffary wafte of fuel. To prevent
this, there is a contrivance by which the throat of the
chimney is occafionally contrafted, by means of a Hiding
plate, which, when it is puffied in, clofes up the whole
vent} but may be drawn out in fuch a way as to form
a larger or fmaller opening as may be thought neceflary.
Till the fuel is thoroughly kindled, and the furnace
fully heated, the plate ffiould be quite drawn out, fo
that the largeft column of air which the furnace will
admit, may pafs through the fuel. The plate is then
put in to a certain length, and fo regulated that the
fmoke may be prevented from iffuing at the door of the
furnace. The current of air increafes in proportion to
the rarefadlion of the air in the fire-place, and this in¬
creafes the inflammation of the fuel; and the heat now
being reflected from every point of the furnace, except¬
ing the narrow paffage by which the fmoke paffes off,
becomes extremely intenfe. If a large quantity of fuel
be introduced at once, it will confume flowly, and re¬
quire little attention, in comparifon with thofe furnaces
wffiere this precaution is not obferved. When the in-
tenfity of the heat is not very great, the Aiding plate
may be of call iron *, but to refift great degrees of heat,
it will be found more convenient to have it made of
fire-clay. But it mull be obferved, that the advantage
derived from the fliding-plate is loft to thofe furnaces
which are of a large conftrudlion, and where great
quantities of metal are to Ije melted ; and there it is
commonly found, that the wafte of fuel is very great.
4. To attain the fourth object, namely, to be able to Method of
regulate conveniently the degree of heat, a certain pro- regulating
portion of air only is to be allowed to pafs through the t^e *ieat‘
fuel. With this view it is neceffary to have the com¬
mand of the furnace below, becaufe the parts above are
often filled with fmall quantities of foot. To manage
this in the moft effedhial manner, the door of the affi-pit
is to be perfectly clofed, and furniffied with a feries of
round holes which have a certain proportion to each
other. In the furnaces conftrufted according to Dr.
Black’s direction, the areas of thefe holes are as 1, 2,
4, 8, 16, &c. in geometrical progreffion. Seven or-
eight of thefe in the door of the affi- pit give a fufticient
command over the fire. When the utmoft intenfity of
heat is required, all the paffages are thrown open, and
the height of the chimney is increafed, fo that the
height of the column of rarefied air being augmented,
the motion of the current of air through the fuel is
proportionably more rapid, and confequently the heat
°4’ the furnace becomes more intenfe. In the conftruc-
furnacet(™p££nmended by Macquer, another
‘ ‘
FUR
[ 269 ]
F U R
its own
fmoke.
Furnace, moft diftant from the furnace wideft, and gradually
u—^ tapering as it approaches it. By this contrivance, it
was propofed to increafe the velocity of the current of
air as it paffes from a wider into a narrower tube.
But it is found that the air will not ultimately move
with greater velocity than if the tube were not ap¬
plied. It may indeed be ufeful where the furnace
is placed in a fmall apartment, and the tube itfelf
forms a communication with the external air.
After thefe preliminary obfervations on the gene¬
ral principles of furnaces, we propofe, in the follow¬
ing treatife to give a fhort account of the conftiuflion
and application of fome of the more important furnaces
which are employed in the arts and manufactures.
But before we enter into the detail and defcription
of particular furnaces, we (hall lay before our readers
the defcription of one which was invented by Meflrs
Robertons of Glafgow, for the purpofe of confuming its
own fmoke, and faving fuel.
Furnace for “ To conltruCt furnaces (fays the editor of the Phi-
conluming lofophical Magazine, from which this account is taken),
on fuch a principle as fhould enable them to coniume
their own fmoke, has long been a deiideratum; and we
believe the public in general, but efpecially thofe who
have been annoyed by the fmoke of (team engines,
founderieSj and fimilar eredtions in their neighbourhood,
wnll be glad to learn that a furnace has been contrived
which effectually gains this end.
“ The conftruCtion is extremely fimple, and will be
ealily underftood by the following defcription, and the
plate to which it refers.
Fig. 1. reprefents a vertical feCtion, and fig. 2. a
front view of a (team-engine boiler, furnifhed with one
of Meffrs Robertons furnaces 5 and the fame letters
refer in both to the fame parts of the conftruCtion.^
“ The opening A, through which the fuel is intro*
duced into the furnace, is (haped fomewhat like a
hopper, and is made of caft iron built into the brick¬
work H, H. From the mouth it inclines downward
to the place wFere the fire reds on the bottom grate B.
The coals in this mouth-piece or hopper anfwer the
purpole of a door (a), and thofe that are lowed are by
this means brought into a date of ignition before they
are forced into the furnace. Below the lower plate of
the hopper K, e the furnace is provided with front bars
G (b), which not only ferve to admit air among the
fuel, but offer a ready way to force the fuel back, from
time to time, from c to d (c), to make room for frefli
quantities to fall into the furnace from the hopper or
mouth-piece. By this arrangement the fuel is brought
into a date of ignition before it reaches the farther hde
of the bottom grate, where it is dopped by tlie ridng
Plate
ccxxv.
bread, b, of the brick-work, fo that any fmoke liberated j
from the raw coals in the mouth-piece mud pais over
thefe burning coals before it can reach the hue 1( ft.
But this, though it would caufe a large quantity of the
fmoke to be burnt, would not completely prevent the
efcape and afcent of fmoke up the chimney ; tor it is
not merely neceffary that the fmoke diould be expoled-
to a heat fufficient to ignite it before it efcapes : unlefs,
at the (ame time, a quantity of fredi air, able to furniln
a fufficiency of oxygen for the combudion of the fmoke,
Can be brought into contaff with it, it will dill efcape
in an undecompoled date. The judicious admidion of
fredi air, in fuch a manner that it can reach the (moke,
without previoudy pading through the fire, and parting
with its oxygen in its paffage, and in fuch quantity as
not to cool the bottom of the boiler, but merely to
caufe the fmoke to burn, conditutes the chief merit of
this invention ; and to us it appears that it wall fully
anfwer the propofed end. Below the upper fide 01 the
mouth-piece or hopper, and at about the didance of
three-faurthS of an inch from it, (this fpace being a
little more or lefs, according to the fize of the furnace),
is introduced a cad iron plate a n. 1 his plate is above
the fuel, and the fpace between it and the top of the
hopper is open for the admidion of a thin dream of air,
which, rudiing down the opening, comes fird in contact
with that part of the fire which is giving off the great-
ed part of the fmoke, viz. the fuel that has been lad in¬
troduced, mixes with it before it paffes over the fuel in
the interior, w'hich is in a high date of combudion, and
enables it to infiame fo completely, that not a particle
of fmoke ever efcapes undecompofed.
“ The quantity of air thus admitted to pafs over the
upper furface of the fire, is regulated by a very fimple
contrivance. The plate a n reds at eacn end on a dud,
or pin, projedling from the cheeks of the mouth-piece
A, or is furnidied at each end with a pivot which works
in the cheeks j the faid pins or pivots being placed
about midway betwmen the outfide and infide of the
mouth-piece or hopper, fo that, by elevating or de-
preffing the edge a of the plate, the opening at n is
enlarged or diminilhed. When that degree of opening
which produces the bed effedls is obtained, which is
eafily known, the plate a n is kept in its place by
means of a piece of iron introduced above it, and
anfwering the purpofe of a wedge.
“ Under the grates is the adi-hole I, the upper part
of which is furnilhed with doors SS, which, when (hut,
prevent the heat from the front bars G from coming
out into the apartment, and incommoding the work¬
men.
“ Invited by an advertifement, wre went to Meffrs
Bunnell
(a) “ In the management of this furnace, what is chiefly to be attended to is, that the hopper be kept full of
coal, and either wholly or in part fmall coal, to prevent, as much as pofiible, air getting in by that paffage •, it is
alfo neceffary at fome times to ufe a (butter of thin plate-iron, to be applied to the mouth of the hopper to exclude
the entrance of air by that paffage; ... . . , T t • 1 1 3
“ Thefe bars are in faft, a grated door, kept in their pofition by a catch L, and which may be opened
at (plLfure fordeLng the fire out. In fmall furnaces an opening here is all that is neceffary; the bars
may be difpenfed with. , . , , . . r 1 • 1 w
(c) “ Between the back end, d, of the bottom bars, and the bread brickwork b, is reprefented in the plate
a left ion of a (butter, which is fometimes opfened for the purpofe of getting out the refufe of the fuel.
FUR
t 27° I
FUR
Furnace. Bunnell and Silver, Bedford-ftreet, Covent Garden, to
u—y——' |ee one furnaces at work, and we were not a
little gratified in obferving that the fmalleft appearance
of fmoke could not be perceived iffuing from the top of
the chimney. The advantages of fuch an improvement
can hardly be better illuilrated than by mentioning
what had actually happened with this fleam engine.
The fmoke, before the improved furnace was employed,
incommoded the neighbourhood fo much, that it was
flopped as an intolerable nuifance. Now it is fo far
from diflurbing any one, that, without being admitted
to fee the engine, it wmuld be aflually impoffible to
know wdien it is at work.
“ Thefe furnaces, we underhand, have alfo been a-
dopted by many intelligent manufa6lurers at Leeds and
at Manchefier. At the latter place, if w^e may credit
new’fpaper reports, feveral manufacturers have had their
works indiCled as nuifances for not having adopted the
improvement ; the magiftrates arguing, that, though
the welfare of the place required that fuch inconveni¬
ences fliould be fubmitted to wdiile no poflible cure for
them wras known, the health and comfort of the inhabi¬
tants equally demand, now that the evil can be done
away, that fmoking furnaces fhould not be permitted in
the place.
“ We earneflly recommend to owners of fleam en¬
gines, and alfo to thofe wdio are annoyed by them, to
endeavour to bring this improvement into general ufe.
Indeed, we entertain no doubt of its being univerfally
adopted fooner or later; for it yields advantages not
only in point of cleanlinefs, comfort, and health, but
alfo in point of interefl; all the fmoke ufually difchar-
ged at the top of the chimney, being in faCl, fo much
good fuel, that only wanted the contacl of frefh air to
inflame it under the boiler. It is a facl well known,
that the flame which is often feen iffuing from the chim¬
neys of founders, &c. has no exiftence except at the
top of the chimney : while afcending the flue it is only
denfe fmoke, confiding of the azote of the atmofpheric
air decompofed in paffing through the fire, of hydro¬
gen, coal tar, and carbonaceous matter, of fuch a high
temperature, that it only wants oxygen to make it in¬
flame fpontaneoufiy : this it obtains from the atmofphe¬
ric air into which it afcends, and then prefents fuch ap¬
pearances as w'ould make a hafty obferver adopt the opi¬
nion that the flame had afcended, as flame, from the
fuel in the furnace ; which is by no means the cafe. A
confideration of this Ample fa6t will convince any per-
fon that it is not an inconfiderable proportion of the
fuel that is thus wafted. Nor is this the only lofs fuf-
tained ; the quantity of heat required not merely to ren¬
der fuch a portion of the fuel volatile, but to give to it
a temperature able to produce the effeft of which we
have taken notice, is itfelf furnifhed at the expence of
an extra and unneceffary quantity of fuel. The whole
wafte in many cafes is, we are perfuaded, not lefs than
an eighth of the whole fuel employed.”
Furnace for One of the moft important furnaces, particularly for
fmelting this country, where, although great and effential im-
Jron* provements have been made by induftry and ingenuity,
the manufafilure is yet in its infancy, is that for the
fmelting of iron.
We fhall therefore enter more fully into the detail of
the hiftory, conftruttion, and general principles of the
operation of blaft furnaces; and in tracing their pro-
3
greflive hiftory, it may be obferved, that in this coun- Furnace,
try it has experienced a revolution, of which no analo- 'v
gous inftance has occurred in other countries.
In the early and barbarous periods of fociety, before H^ftory
the introduction of agriculture, the furface of a country
is ufually covered with extenfive foreils. From this cir-
cumitance wood, as being moft acceflible, abundant,
«nd of eafieft application, is ufually employed by man¬
kind for the purpofes of fuel. In the progrefs of popu¬
lation and improvement, other advantages were derived
from the general ufe of wood as fuel; and among thefe
the improvement of the climate, and clearing land for
the purpofes of agriculture, were none of the leaft. The
application of wood as fuel to different manufa6tories,
had no doubt alfo an early origin ; and in the manu-
fafture of iron, if conducted on a fcale of any extent,
the demand for fuel of this kind muft have been very
great. If, then, during the gradual improvement and
profperity of this country, this Eaanufa&ure, in place
of remaining llationary, or declining, from diminifhed
confumption, has increafed in capital and extent, with¬
out fome fubilitute for wood, the art would have been
long before this time entirely loll, becaufe it depended
on a (lock which muft have rapidly declined, and even
its very exiilence was often far from being compatible
with the views and interefl: of landholders. Such were
the circumftances in which Great Britain was placed,,
from the reign of Charles II. to the middle of the 18th
century. During this period, being in a profperous
flate, the manufaflures and commerce of the country
increafed the demand for iron, while the fupply of
wood, one of the moft neceffary materials in its manu-
fadfture, was greatly diminifhed. It is true, indeed,
that, previous to this period, pit-coal had been employ¬
ed as a fubftitute ; but the prejudice of fome, and the
felfilh views of others, and efpecially the want of fuffi-
cient mechanical powers, obftru6led the progrefs of
this mode of manufaflure. When, however, thefe dif¬
ficulties were furmounted, and it was found that the
change of fuel in the blaft furnace was likely to prove
beneficial, this manufafture acquired new vigour, and
improvements fucceeded each other in rapid fucceflion.
In a period of about 50 years, a complete revolution
was effefled, not only in relinquiftung the mode of ma¬
king iron with charcoal and in employing pit-coal in
the blaft furnace, but alfo in the immenfe increafe of
the manufadlure.
At what period the manufa£lure of iron commenced and pro¬
in Britain, cannot be precifely afcertained. It has.Rrefs.°h»»
however, been fuppofed, that the Phoenicians,
wrought the tin mines of Cornwall, may have introdu¬
ced into the country men who were (killed in metallic
ores, and were capable of eftimating their value, by
converting thefe mineral riches to fuch purpofes as their
own neceflities, or the wants of the inhabitants, might
require. It is probable alfo, that the invafion of Eng¬
land by the Danes, and their eftablilhment in this
country, added fomething to their former knowledge
in the art of mining and manufacturing the ores of iron.
In fupport of this conjedure, the large heaps of fcoria
found in many parts of England, and having a confi-
derable thicknels of foil upon them, have been denomi¬
nated from time immemorial, “ Danes cindersand
indeed fo early as the year 1620, large oaks were found
in a (late of decay, upon the tops of fome of thofe hills
of
whaBriuifU
Furnace.
Number of
furnaces in
England.
P!t-coal
firft uied.
FUR [2;
of fcoria. But although thefe may have been very an¬
cient manufaftures, it is the lefs probable that the pro-
du£tion of thefe cinders is to be afcribed to the blaft
furnace } for at that remote period the manufaflure was
chiefly directed to the fabrication of fmall portions of
malleable iron, in what were called foot-blafts and
bloomeries. The art of carting or moulding in iron
was either altogether unknown, or in fo rude a ilate,
that it could not be prolecuted with much profpedt of
advantage. Pig or call iron, if it was at all produced,
was then of the moft refra&ory nature for being con¬
verted into malleable iron. It was not till a future pe¬
riod, when improvements had been made in machinery,
and the advantages of a diviflon of labour were known,
that different furnaces were conftrufted j one for manu-
fatfluring pig iron, and another for converting it into
malleable iron. To this the blail furnace feems to have
owed its exiftence, and it is to be confidered as an im¬
provement of the advantages which are derived from a
divilion of labour. The blaft furnaces being exclufively
appropriated to the making of pig iron, the attentive
manufaflurer would foon perceive that the produdls of
the furnace were often different from each other. Re¬
peated obfervation and experience would enable him to
afcertain what was the caufe of this difference. Obfer-
ving that an additional quantity of fuel rendered the
forged pig iron more fufible, this circumflance would
fuggeft the practicability of calling it into fhape. Hence
probably arofe the art of moulding, which afterwards,
as well as the bar-iron forge, became an appendage to
th* blaft furnace. After this new manufacture became
familiar, the advantage of dividing the produCt of the
blaft furnace into gray melting iron, or into forged pigs,
according to the demand, would be obvious.
In the year 1613, according to Dudley, who has
Hated the faCt in his Metallum Mortis, there were no
lefs than 300 blaft; furnaces in England for fmelting
iron ore with charcoal, and each furnace was fupplied
with fuel upon an average of 40 weeks in the year.
Taking the average produce of pig iron at each furnace
of 15 tons per week, or 600 tons per annum, the total
annual quantity will amount to 180,000 tons, which is
a greater quantity than has ever been produced in Bri¬
tain fince that period. It is fuppofed that this quantity
may be greatly exaggerated, but at the fame time it is
allowed that the iron manufaClure was, at this early pe¬
riod, highly profperous and produClive. But in the
progrefs of agriculture and the increafe ©f population,
it was neceflary to clear the land for the purpofe of cul¬
tivation. From this circumftance, as well as from the
great confumption of wood fsr the navy, the fupply of
fuel was greatly diminiihed •, fo that the iron manufac¬
ture became confequently lefs produClive.
It is curious to remark that, although pit-coal was
known long before this period, and was wrought at
Newcaftle previous to the year 1272, and great quan¬
tities of it were annually exported to Holland and the
Low Countries, and was ufed in the fmith’s forge, and
other manufactures which require a flrong continued
heat, yet in England the prejudice againft its ufe in the
manufacture of cart iron was fo inveterate, that when it
was fir ft propofed and attempted, every obftacle which
could be devifed was thrown in its way. During the
reign of James I. feveral patents were granted for the
<xclufive privilege of manufacturing iron with git-coal.
I ] F U K
None of the adventurers, however, fucceeded in their
attempts till the year 1619, when Dudley made pig-
iron in a blaft furnace, but produced only three tons in
the week. At this time the price of iron had rifen, in
confequence of many of the iron works having flopped
for want of wood as fuel. To thofe manufacturers,
therefore, who could ftill be furnifhed with a fupply of
wood, the manufacture wras highly profitable, fo that
they oppofed any newr attempt by which the price of
iron was likely to be diminifhed.
After this period, the progrefs of the iron manufac¬
ture was greatly interrupted from other caufes. Amidft
the diftraCtion occafioned by the civil wars which raged
in England, little improvement was to be expeCted.
It appears, however, that patents were granted during
the Commonwealth, for the exclufive privilege of ma¬
nufacturing iron in the new way j and in one of thefe,
it was believed at the time, that the ProteCtor himfelf
had a fhare. All thefe experienced the fate of the
former, and no manufacture of any extent was fuccefs-
fully eftablifhed. In the year 1663, Dudley in his ap¬
plication for his laft patent, ftated that he could pro¬
duce at one time feven tons of pig iron in the week
with a furnace of an improved conltruCtion, 27 feet
fquare, and with bellows which one man, without much
fatigue, could work for an hour.
Tims, as the demand for wood for the purpofes of
fuel in this manufacture increafed, and the growth of
timber was greatly diminiihed, the manufacturer was
forced by necellky to have recourfe to the ufe of pit-
coal j and when various valuable improvements had
been made en machinery, and particularly when the
beneficial effeCts of the fteam engine had been afcer-
tained, the iron manufacturer faw himfelf in poffeflion
of a command of power in the management of his ma¬
terials, of which he had formerly no conception. The
fmall furnace fupplied with air from bellows conftruCted
of leather, which was moved by means of oxen, horfes,
or men, went into difufe, when larger furnaces were
introduced, with an increafe of the column of air, for
the purpofe of exciting combuftion. But at this period,
when the manufacture derived new vigour from the in¬
troduction of the fteam engine, and the general im¬
provement in machinery, it feemed, from the operation
of other caufes, and particularly from the deficiency of
fuel, to decline rapidly. The demand for iron in the
manufactured ftate, and particularly for bar iron, had
increafed, while the quantity produced gradually dimi-
niftied. Recourfe was now had to foreign markets for
a fupply, and the importation of Ruffian and Swedifh
iron then commenced. Of the 300 blaft furnaces fpo-
ken of by Dudley, 59 only exifted; and eftimating their
annual produce at about 295 tons to each furnace, the
total amount did not much exceed 17,000 tons.
Such was the ftate of the manufacture of iron in
England and Wales, before the introduction of pit-
coal $ and thus it appears, that in a period of from 100
to 130 years, it had fuffered a diminution of more than
50,000 tons annually. It proved of lingular benefit to
this manufaClure, that the fteam engine, which had
then become a powerful machine, was introduced, for
the purpofe of railing and comprelfing the air, and
could be employed in tbofe places where materials were
abundant, but where there wras a deficiency of water for
moving the machinery. Befides, experience now taught
Furnace.
FUR [ 272 ] FUR
f'urna-e. tlie manufafturer, that the produce of his furnace could
— be increafed by enlarging the diameter of the fteam cy¬
linder, for rendering the vacuum under the pi lion more
perfect 5 and it was foon found that, by increafing thefe
effects, fuch a quantity of pig iron could be produced
from the coak of pit-coal, as would be attended with a
fuitable profit. It is fcarcely to be wondered at, that
this circumftance fhould have long remained a fecret *,
for a fmall quantity of air only being neceffary to ig¬
nite the charcoal furnace, whether it arofe from the pe¬
culiar inflammability of the fuel, or the fmall capacity
of the furnace, it was always under the eye of the ma-
nufadlurer, and he would more frequently experience
the inconveniences of overblowing than underblowing
the furnace. It feems too extremely probable, that
pit-coal, being cenfidered in every refpedl inferior to
charcoal, the manufacturer wmuld proceed with great
caution in enlarging the column of air, or increafing
its denfity j and thus the advantages to be derived from
its ufe would be in a great meafure loft. When, how¬
ever, experience had taught them a different lelfon, the
limits to the quantity of air that might be directed to a
coak blaft furnace, before any injurious effedts arofe,
were not very obfervable. It was found, indeed, that
the denfity of air diminifhed the quantity of the pro¬
duce, and the fame lawr feemed to hold vdth regard to
pit-coal as well as to wood,—that the fofter qualities
might be overblown, while the ftrata of a denier and
more compadl confiftence remained undiminiftred before
a heavier blaft.
Comes into Between the years 1750 and 1760 the coak of pit-
general ufe. coal was pretty generally fubftituted for charcoal, in the
blaft furnace. The iron manufadlure affumed new vi¬
gour, and in a period of 30 years it experienced in
England and Wales a very remarkable progrefs. From
the general and increafing ufe of pit-coal, it is probable
that many of the charcoal works wTere fooner relinquilh-
ed than they would otherwife have been. The hiftory
of the celebrated foundery of Carron in Scotland, af¬
fords us a curious inftance of the progrefs of the ufe of
pit-coal in this manufadfture. Thefe extenfive opera¬
tions commenced about the year 1760. The blowing,
as was the pradlice at the time, was performed by means
of large bellow's, moved by a water wheel. But as
there was a fcanty fupply of air, and as this was defi¬
cient in denfity, the weekly produce of the furnace
rarely exceeded 10 or 12 tons, find often in fummer this
quantity was confiderably diminilhed. With a view to
improve the operation, immenfe quantities of wood
charcoal were prepared, and it was found that the pro-
cefs of fmelting fucceeded much better with this kind of
fuel than with the mineral coal which was dug out in
the neighbourhood. But in the improvement of ma¬
chinery, more effedlual means were difcovered to pro¬
cure a blaft of fufficient force and denfity for the igni¬
tion of pit-coal, wheels of greater power were conftruc-
ted •, the ufe of the bellows was relinquifhed, and in
their place large iron cylinders, fo contrived as to blow
both up and down, were introduced. Thus, a larger
column of air, of three or four times the former denfity,
was obtained, and the beneficial effedfts arifing from the
improvements were fcon perceived ; for the fame fur¬
nace which formerly produced 10 or 12 tons in the
week, fometimes yielded 40 tons in the fame time 5
and on an annual average, not lefs than 15,000 tons Furnace.
of metal.  
About the end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, we
are informed by Dudley, that blaft furnaces had been
conftructed on lo large a hale, and with fuch a power
of machinery, as to yield a daily produce of more than
two tons of charcoal iron j but it is probable that fo
large a produce could only be obtained in fituations
where there was a copious liipply of water, and where
the water wheels and bellowTs/ employed were of large
fize. In the more ordinary modes of conducing this
procefs, furnaces of a much fmaller fize were employed,
and thefe received the fupply of air from hand bellows
which wTere moved by men, and fometimes by cattle.
From the fuperiority of the manufadture of iron guns,
mortars, &c. England poffeffed at this time a confider-
able export trade j but as pit-coal had not yet been ap¬
plied to any departments in the manufacture of iron, it
feems probable that thefe articles were call from the
large blaft furnaces, becaufe the flame of wood, com¬
paring it with that of pit-coal, poifefling but feeble ef¬
fects,- would render the application of the reverberating
furnace (if it was then known), of no ufe in the calling
of guns and mortars. The want of pit-coal in every de¬
partment of the foundery, greatly retarded the perfec¬
tion to which the art of moulding might have arrived,
and even obftruCted its improvement. The backward
ftate in which the art of calling and moulding long re¬
mained in this country, Ihewed that the want of this
material of the fmelting fuel in the blaft furnace was
long feverely felt j and owing to this, other nations,
who in many other refpeCts enjoyed fewer advantages,
made more rapid progrefs in the improvement of this
manufacture. Before this period, it is not improbable
that the ufe of pit-coal might have been fuggefted to the
manufacturer, and that this material, employed as a
fuel, might have been confidered as an auxiliary, or as
a fubftitute in various departments of the procefs. The
inflammability of this fubitance, and its tendency to be
converted into a cinder, as well as the general decay of
wood, would afford fufficient ground for what might be
confidered by many as a ufelefs fpeculation. The be¬
nefits of this manufacture as it then flood, had been
carefully inveftigated, and fully appreciated by thofe
who were interefted in it. The fupply of wood only
feemed to limit its extent, but for want of a fufficient
fupply of materials, the eftabliftiment of new works be¬
came impracticable, thofe already engaged in the bufi-
nefs were anxious to preferve the fupply they enjoyed,
however limited, than encourage any innovation or
change in the procefs, which, by the fubftitution of pit-
coal for charcoal from wood, would probably give to
new adventurers and fpeculators a fuperiority of the
market. Befides, many of the furnaces which were
then going, were at a great diltance from pit-coal, fo
that the general ufe of this fubftance, and the advan¬
tages to be derived from it, would be highly injurious
to their interefts.
Such was the ftate of this manufacture when the ufe
of pit-coal in this procefs was difcovered, or when it was
propofed to employ it for this purpofe. With this view,
James I. in the year 16x2, granted a patent to Simon
Sturtevant, for the exclufive manufacture of iron with
pit-coal, for the period of 31 years. In obtaining this
privilege,
1
4
FUR
Furnace.
Another
adventurer,
Dud-ley ob
tarns a pa¬
tent.
Attempts
to evade it.
pvivilege, the patentee obliged himfelf to publifh a full
account of his dilcoveries, and this appeared in a work
in quarto, under the title of “ Metallica.” It appears,
however, that Sturtevant had not fucceeded in his
fchemes j for in the following year he gave up his privi¬
lege, but it is not known to what caufes the failure is
to be afcribed.
After Sturtevant, a John Ravenfon embarked in the
■fame hazardous undertaking j and although he procured
a patent without much trouble, he had foon to encoun¬
ter difficulties in the way of ultimate fuccefs, analogous
to thofe which had prevailed over the perfeverance of
Sturtevant, and induced him to relinquiffi the farther
profecution of his fchemes. He obtained his patent on
conditions fimilar to thofe on which his predeceffor pro¬
cured it, in confequeuce of which he publiihed his
“ Metallica” in 1613. All his fucceflbrs were like
him, obliged to refign their patents from the want of
adequate fuccefs.
Dudley procured his patent in the year 1619, and
notwithilanding he affirmed that he manufactured not
more than three tons per week, he found it a lucrative
undertaking. This difcovery he brought to perfection
at the works of his father in Worcelterffiire j but by
the influence of thofe who wiftied to ffiare in the emolu¬
ments arifing from the mandfaCture of iron wiith pit-
coal, his patent was limited to 14 inftead of 31 years.
He informs us himfelf, that, during the greater part of
this period, he was enabled to fell pig and bar iron
much cheaper than any of his competitors; but as his
remarkable fuccefs drew their envy upon him, his de¬
voted works were at length deftroyed by a lawlefs mob,
urged on, it is fuppofed, to perpetrate fo atrocious a
deed by his rivals in bufinefs. In this unmerited treat¬
ment of the fanguine but unfortunate Dudley, the coke
pig procefs unqueftionably experienced an irreparable
lofs. He had lb many rivals to contend with, by virtue
of the original ground he occupied as a manufacturer,
and his attachment to the caule of royalty was fo lin-
cere, that his improvements were effectually prevented
from arriving at lading or general utility. Could he
have procured a new patent after the reftoration, there
is little doubt but he would have again entered with
avidity on the laborious paths of difcovery. In peti¬
tioning for the recovery of his ancient privileges, we
find him declaring that inltead of three, he was enabled
to manufacture leven tons per week of coke pig iron, in
confequence of a large furnace, and an improved bel¬
lows.
To ftand clear as much as poffible of tire method of
operation which Dudley had difcovered, one Captain
Buck, Major Wildman, and fome others, conitruCted
large air-furnaces in the forelt of Dean, into which they
put clay pots, for containing the requifite preparations
of ore and charcoal. Pit-coal was employed for the
purpofe of heating the furnaces ; and it is highly prob¬
able that thefe new adventurers were fanguine enough
to believe that, by tapping the pots below, the feparat-
ed metal would flow out. This ftrange method of aflay-
ing was foon found impracticable j for the heat was not
of fufficient intenfity to produce an entire feparation ;
the pots gave way, and the profecution of this ridiculous
fcheme was fpeedily relinquiffied.
Ine manufacture of iron received no farther im¬
provements for about a century after this period. It
Vol. IX. Part I.
[ 27.3 1
F U R
was found to be praClicable 5 but how to procure fuck a Furnace,
quantity as to produce a lucrative return, was not to ' v
be derived from the mere knowledge of the particular
proportions of the raw materials. Had machinery
reached that degree of perfeClion in the time of the ill
fated Dudley which it has fince done, we have good
realon to believe that the rapid progrefs of the pig iron
manufacture wmuld have dated its origin from the aera
of that enterprifing genius.
We (hall conclude this hiftorical account of the iron produce 9f
manufacture, with a view of the progreffive quantity furnaces in
produced at the different furnaces in Great Britain at Britain,
different periods.
Tens.
In 1620, the 300 blaft furnaces mentioned by
Dudley, which exifted in England and Wales,
produced each at an average
At a later period, but previous to the ufe of pit-
coal, 39 furnaces produced each on an average
In 1788, 24 charcoal furnaces, which were then
going in England, produced each on an
average - _ _
In 1788, 53 blafl: furnaces, in which coak from
pit-coal was ufed, yielded each on an average,
nearly - _
In 1788, eight furnaces in Scotland produced
on an average, each
In 1796, there were in England and Wales,
104 furnaces, from each of which was obtain¬
ed on an average - _ _
In 1796, 17 furnaces in Scotland produced
each on an average
But from the above ftatement we are not enabled to
draw an accurate conclufionof the degree of improvement
which has been introduced in blowing machinery *, for
among the furnaces mentioned in 1796, were included
a number of charcoal blafts, which yielded only a fmall
produce. But the average produce of iron manufac¬
tured at pit-coal blaft furnaces, at no lefs an amount than
At melting furnaces - . 1200
At forge pig works - . 2000
To what we have now faid, we ftiallonly give a view Prices at
of the prices of the produce of this manufa&ure, and different
the channels of confumption for this immenfe quantity Periods*
of materials. ^
250
294
545
907
875
1048
946
L. 6
8
9
4
5
7
8
Per Ton.
O
IO
o
10
10
10
Charcoal pig iron fold in 1620 for
Ditto for melting in 1788
Ditto in 1798
Coak pig iron in the time of Dudley
Ditto in 1788,
Ditto in 1798,
Melting iron in 1802,
The produce of pig iron in England and Wales,
and in Scotland, from 168 furnaces, has been calculated
at the immenfe quantity of 172,000 tons. It will be
impoHible to fay with abfolute precifion what are the
channels into which this immenfe quantity of raw ma¬
terials paffes for confumption ; but the following viewsr r
will enable the reader to account for part of it. ^ So"
Tons. iron.
Annual confumption in the ereaion of new fur¬
naces, forges, &c. - . 500o
^ m Annual
Vurnace.
Principles
of the bis ft
furnace,
Plate
ccxxv.
Defcriptio
of a fur¬
nace.
FUR
[
R
Tons.
bal-
A-nnual confumption at forges in Britain, for
the manufafture of bar iron - - 70,000
Furchafed by government in the ftate of can¬
nons, mortars, &c. on an average ^ of three
years, including the wafte in melting, &.c.
with what is employed in the navy as
lalt
Ditto by the India Company
Ditto for merchantmen
Ballafl for India and merchantmen
Let us now conlider the conftruftion
principles of the blaft furnace. I he teim „
ployed at iron founderies, to fignify the column of air
which is forced into the furnace for the purpofe ofpromot-
ing combuftion. The velocity of this blalt is produced
by the blowing machine impelling the contents of the
14,899
5»70°
11,000
5000
and general
blajl is em-
air-pump through one or two fmall apertures, and in
this way a column of air of various denlity is produced.
Mere we propofe to avail ourfelves of what has been
done by Mr Mufliet, formerly of the Calder iron works
near Glafgow, a manufafturer himfelf, who with much
philofophical diferimination joins a great deal of excellent
practical obfervation. The many valuable hints which
he has fuggefted, will, we truft, not only be acceptable,
but prove highly beneficial in direfting and aflifting the
views and operations of thofe concerned in this impor¬
tant manufacture.
To have a clear view of his reafonings and obferva-
tions on the nature and principles of the blaft furnace,
we (hall firft give his deicription of the building and
apparatus, and then detail wdiat he has faid concerning
its management and mode of operation.
Fig. 3. reprefents a blaft furnace with part of the
blowing machine. A the regulating cylinder, eight
* feet diameter and eight feet high. B, the floating pifton,
leaded with weights proportionate to the power of the
machine. C, the valve, by which the air is paffed from
the pumping cylinder into the regulator : its length 26
inches, and breadth 11 inches. D, the aperture by
which the blaft is forced into the furnace. Diameter
of this range of pipes 18 inches. The wider thefe
pipes can with conveniency be ufed, the lefs is the fric¬
tion, and the more powerful are the effecls of the blaft.
E, the blowing or pumping cylinder, fix feet diameter,
nine feet high : travel of the pifton in this cylinder
from five to feven feet per ftroke. F, the blowing
pifton, and a view of one of the valves, of which there
are fometimes two, and fometimes four, diftributed over
the furface of the pifton. The area of each is propor¬
tioned to the number of valves : commonly they are
1 2-j-46 inches. G, a pile of folid ftone building, on
which the regulating cylinder refts, and to which the
flanch and tilts of the blowing cylinder are attached.
H, the fafety-valve, or cock •, by the fimple turning
of which the blaft may be admitted to, or (hut off from
the furnace, and paffed off to a collateral tube on the
oppofite fide. I, the tuyere, by which the blaft enters
the furnace. The end of the tapered pipe, which ap¬
proaches the tuyere, receives fmall pipes of various dia¬
meters, from two to three inches, called nofe-pipes.
Thefe are applied at pleafure, and as the ftrength
and velocity of the blaft may require. K,, the bottom
of the hearth, two feet Iquare. L, the top of the
274 ] F U
hearth, two feet fix inches fquare. KL, the height Furnace
of the hearth fix feet fix inches. L is alio the bottom ^ v
of the bolhes, which here terminate of the lame lize as
the top of the hearth", only the former are round, and
the latter fquare. M, the top of the bolhes, 12 eet
diameter and eight feet of perpendicular heigh., rs,
the top of the furnace, at which the materials are
charged \ commonly three feet diameter. MN, the
internal cavity of the furnace from the top of the bolhes
upwards, 30 feet high. NK, total height of the inter¬
nal parts of the furnace, 44t feet.. OO, the lining.
This is done in the niceit manner with fire-bricks made
on purpofe, 13 inches long and three inches thick..
PP, a vacancy which is left all round the outfide of
the firft lining, three inches broad, and which is beat
full of coke-duft. This fpace is allowed for any ex-
panfion which might take place in conlequence of the
fwelling of the materials by heat when defeendmg to
the bottom of the furnace. £)£), the fecond lining,
fimilar to the firft. R, a call-iron lintel, on which the
bottom of the arch is fupported. R S, the rile of the arch.
ST, height of the arch •, on the outfide 14 feet, and 18
feet wide. VV, the extremes of the hearth, ten feet
fquare. This and the bolh-ftones are always made from
a coarfe gritted freeftone, whole fra ft are prelents large
rounded grains of quartz, connefted by means of a ce~
ment lefs pure.
Fig. 4. reprefents the foundation of the furnace, and .a
full view of the manner in wThich the falfe bottom is
conftrufted.
AA, the bottom Hones of the hearth. B, ftratum
of bedding fand. CC, paffages by which the vapours,
which may be generated from the damps, aie paffed off.
DD, pillars of brick. The letters in the horizontal viewq
of the fame figure, correfpond to fimilar letters in the
dotted elevation.
Fig. 5. AA, horizontal feftion of the diameter of the
bolhes, the lining and vacancy for Huffing at M. C,
view of the top of the hearth at L.
Fig. 6. vertical fide-feftion of the hearth and boffies ;
ffiewing the tymp and dam-ftones, and the tymp and
dam-plates, d, the tymp-ftone. b, the tynap-plate,
which is wedged firmly to the ftone, to keep it firm , in
cafe of fplitting by the great heat, c, dam-ftone, which
occupies the whole breadth of the bottom of the hearth,
excepting about fix inches, which, when the furnace is
at work, is filled every call with ftrong fand. This
ftone is furmounted by an iron plate of confiderable
thicknefs, and of a peculiar lhape d, and from this call¬
ed the dam-plate. The top of the dam-ftone and plate
is two, three, or four inches under the level of the tu¬
yere hole. The fpace betwixt the bottom of the tymp
and the dotted line is alfo rammed full of ftrong fand,
and fometimes fire-clay. T his is called the tymp-ftop-
ping, and prevents any part of the blaft from being un-
neceffarily expended.
The fquare of the bafe of this blaft-furnace is 3^
feet} the extreme height from the falfe bottom to the
top of the crater is 55 feet.
Having given the above defeription of the conftruc- Mode of
tion of the furnace, Mr Muffiet next proceeds to take a operation,
view of its mode of operation and management.. “ The
operations (he obferves) I am about to deferibe have
never as yet received any explanation confonant to true
philofophy or chemical f'afts; yet there are few which
prefent
FUR t 275 ] FUR
I-'uinace. prefent a more beautiful chain of affinities, decompoli-
 tion, and recombination, than the manufafture of iron
in all its various ftages. An extenfive foundery is a la¬
boratory fraught with phenomena of the molt intereil-
ing nature in chemiftry and natural philofophy : are
v\Te not then juftly furprifed to find that prejudice ftill
reigns there ; and that the curious manipulations of thefe
regions are ftill ftrrouded with error and mifconception;
as if their dingy ftrudhire forbade the entrance of genius,
or configned her laborious unlettered fons to an endlefs
ftretch of mental obfcurity ?”
Having defcribed the furnace, he continues, “ I
fliall proceed to detail the train of preparation neceflary
before the furnace is brought to produce good melting
iron.
Heating “ The furnace being finiftied, the bottom and fides
and prepa- 0f for two feet up the fquare funnel, receive a lining
ration. 0p common bricks upon edge, to prevent the ftone from
ftiivering or mouldering when the fire comes in contadb
with it. On the front of the furnace is erefled a tem¬
porary fire-place, about four feet long, into the bottom
of which are laid correfponding bars. The fide-walls
are made fo high as to reach the under-furface of the
tymp-ftone •, excepting a fmall fpace, which afterwards
receives an iron plate of an inch and a half thick, by
way of a cover: This alfo preferves the tymp-ftone
from any^injury it might fuftain by being in contadl with
the flame. A fire is now kindled upon the bars, and
is fed occafionally with fmali coals. As the whole ca¬
vity of the furnace ferves as a chimney for this fire, the
draught in confequence is violent, and the body of heat
carried up is very confiderable. In the courfe of three
weeks the furnace will thus become entirely free from
damp, and fit for the reception of the materials : when
this is judged proper the fire-place is removed, but
the interior bricks are allowed to remain till the opera¬
tion of blowing commences. Some loofe fuel is then
thrown upon the bottom of the furnace, and a few baf-
kets of cokes are introduced ; thefe are allowed to be¬
come thoroughly ignited before more are added. In
this manner the furnace is gradually filled •, fometimes
entirely full, and at other times y-Sths or 3-4ths full.
The number of bafkets full depend entirely upon the
ilze of the furnace : that in the plate will contain 900
bafkets. If the coal is fplint, the weight of each baf-
ket-full will be nearly 1 rolb. X 900=99,ooolb. cokes.
As this quality'of cokes is made with a lofs of nearly
50 per cent, the original weight in raw coals will be
equal to 198,0001b. When we reflecl that this vaft body
of ignited matter is replaced every third day, when the
furnace is properly at work, a notion may be formed of
the immenfe quantity of materials requifite, as alfo the
confequent induftry exerted to fupply one or more fur¬
naces for the fpace of one year.
“ When the furnace is fufficiently heated through¬
out, fpecific quantities of cokes, iron-ftone, and blafl- Furnace.^
furnace cinders are added: thefe are called charges. “X ^
The cokes are commonly filled in bafkets, which, at
all the various iron-works are nearly of a fize. The
weight of a bafket, however, depends entirely upon the
nature and quality of the coal, being from 70 to H2lb.
each (d). The iron-ftone is filled into boxes, which*,
when moderately heaped, contain yblb. of torrefied iron-
ftone ; they often exceed this when the ftone has been
feverely roafted. The firft charges which a furnace re¬
ceives, contain but a fmall proportion of iron-ftone to
the weight of cokes : this is afterwards increafed to a
full burden, w’hich is commonly four balkets cokes,
3 2olb. ; two boxes iron-ftone, nalb. j one box of blaft-
furnace cinders, 60 or yolb. (e). At new works, where
thefe cinders cannot be obtained, a fimilar quantity of
limeftone is ufed.
“ The defeent of the charge, or burden, is facilitated
by opening the furnace below two or three times a-day,
throwing out the cold cinders, and admitting, for an
hour at a time, a body of frefli air. This operation is
repeated till the approach of the iron-ftone and cinder,
which is always announced by a partial fulion, and the
dropping of lava through the iron bars, introduced to
fupport the incumbent materials while thofe on the bot¬
tom are carried away. The filling above is regularly
continued, and when the furnace at the top has acquired
a confiderable degree of heat, it is then judged time to Time to
introduce the blaft j the preparations neceffary for which t^lft
are the following :— a
“ The dam-ftone is laid in its place firmly imbedded
in fire-clay 5 the dam-plate is again imbedded on this
with the fame cement, and is fubjedl to the fame incli¬
nation. On the top of this plate is a flight depreflion,
of a curved form, towards that fide fartheft diftant from
the blaft, for the purpofe of concentrating the fcoria,
and allowing it to flow off in a connected ftream, as it
tends to furmount the level of the dam. From this
notch to the level of the floor a declivity of brick-work
is ere&ed, down which the fcoria of the furnace flows
iin large quantities. The opening betwixt the dam and
fide-walls of the furnace, called the fauld, is then built
up with fand, the loofe bricks are removed, and the fur¬
nace bottom is covered with powdered-lime or charcoal-
duft. The ignited cokes are now allowed to fall down,
and are brought forward with iron bars nearly to a level
with the dam. The fpace between the furface of the
cokes and the bottom of the tymp-plate is next rammed
hard with ftrong binding fand j and thefe cokes, which
are expofed on the outfide, are covered with coke-durt.
Thefe precautions being taken, the tuyere-hole is then
opened and lined with a foft mixture of fire-clay and
loam : the blaft is commonly introduced into the fur¬
nace at firft wdth a fmall difeharging-pipe, which is
afterw&ids increafed as occafion may require. In two
Mm2 hours
(d) . “This fame variety in the coal renders it almoft impoffible, under one defeription, to give a juft idea of the
proportions ufed at various blaft furnaces : to avoid being too diffufe, I (hall confine my defeription conne&ed
with a coal of a medium quality, or a mixture of fplint and free-coal, a balket of w'hich will weigh from *781b
to 84lb. 6 ‘
(e) . “ A preference at firft is always given to blaft-furnace cinders in place of lime j being already vitri¬
fied, they are of much eafier fufion, and tend to preferve the furface of the hearth by glazing it over with a black
vitrid exult.
FUR [276] FUR
Furnace, hours after blowing, a conliderable quantity of la/a will
^ ■ y 1 2 accumulated., iron bars are then introduced, and
perforations made in the comprelfed matter at the bot¬
tom of the furnace} the lava is admitted to all parts of
the hearth,' and foon thoroughly heats and glazes the
furfaces of the fire-ftone. Shortly after this it rifes to a
level with the notch in the dam-plate, and by its own
accumulation, together with the forcible action of the
blaft, it flows over. Its colour is at firfl; black ; its
fracture denfe, and very ponderous ; the form it affumes
in running off is flat and branched, fometimes in long
ftreams, and at other times lefs extenfive. If the pre¬
paration has been well conduced, the colour of the cin¬
der will foon change to white •, and the metal, which
in the ftate of an oxyde formerly coloured it, will be
left in a difengaged ftate in the furnace. When the
metal has rifen nearly to a level with the dam, it is
then let out by cutting away the hardened loam of the
fauld, and conveyed by a channel, made in fand, to
Fufed me- its proper deftination } the principal channel, or run-
tal let out. nerj is called the yotu, the lateral moulds are called
the pigs.
“ In fix days after the commencement of blowing,
the furnace ought to have wrought herfelf clear, and
have acquired capacity fufficient to contain from JjCOO
to 7000 weight of iron. The quality ought alfo to.be
richly carbonated, fo as to be of value and eftimation
in the pig-market. At this' period, with a quality.of
coal as formerly mentioned, the charge will have in-
creafed to the following proportions :—Five balkets
cokes, 4001b. ; fix boxes iron-ftone, 3361b. j one box
limeftone, ioolb.
“ An analyfis of the fmelting operation, and the ten¬
dency which the individual agents have to produce
change in the quality and quantity of the iron, come
next under confideration. Let us, however, firft notice
the charadteriftic features exhibited by the different kinds
of iron while in fufion, whereby the quality of the metal
may be juftly defined.
Charaaers “ When fine (N° 1.) or fupercarbonated crude iron is
of the pro- run from the furnace, the ftream of metal, as it iffues
duce, from the fauld, throws off an infinite number of bril¬
liant fparkles of carbone. The furface is covered
with a fluid pellicle of carburet of iron, which, as it
flows, rears itfelf up in the moft delicate folds: at firft
the fluid metal appears like a denfe, ponderous ftream,
but, as the collateral moulds become filled, it exhibits
a general rapid motion from the furface of the pigs to
the centre of many points •, millions of the fineft undu¬
lations move upon each mould, difplaying the greateft
nicety and rapidity of movement, conjoined with an
uncommonly beautiful variegation of colour, which
language is inadequate juftly to deferibe. Such metal,
in quantity, will remain fluid for 20 minutes after it is
run from the furnace, and when cold will have its fur¬
face covered with the beautiful carburet of iron, al¬
ready mentioned, of an uncommonly rich and brilliant
appearance. When the furface of the metal is not car¬
bureted, it is fmooth like forged iron, and always con¬
vex. In this ftate iron is too rich for melting without
the addition of coarfe metal, and is unfit to be ufed in a
cupola furnace for making fine callings, where thinnefs
Rnd a good Ikin are requifite.
“ N° 4. or oxygenated crude iron, when iffuing from
the blaft-furnace, throws off from all parts of the fluid
furface a vaft number of metallic fparks : they arife Furnace,
from a different caufe than that exerted in the former —v-^-
inftance. The extreme privation of carbone renders the
metal fubjedt to the combination of oxygen fo foon as
it comes into contadl with atmofpheric air. This truth
is evidently manifefted by the ejection of fmall fpherules
of iron from all parts of the lurface : the deflagration
does not, however, take place till the globule has been
thrown two or three feet up in the air 5 it then inflames
and feparates, with a flight hilling explofion, into a
great many minute particles of brilliant fire. When
thefe are colledled they prove to be a true oxyde of
iron, but fo much faturated with oxygen, as to poffefsno
magnetic obedience. The furface of oxygenated iron,
when running, is covered with waving flakes of an obfeure
finoky flame, accompanied with a hilling noife 5 form¬
ing a wonderful contrail with the fine rich covering of
plumbago in the other ftate of the matal, occafionally
parting and exhibiting the iron in a ftate of the greateft
apparent purity, agitated in numberlefs minute fibres,
from the abundance of the carbone united with the metal.
“ When iron thus highly oxygenated comes to reft,
fmall fpecks of oxyde begin to appear floating upon the
furface : thefe increafe in fize ; and when the metal has
become folid, the upper furface is found entirely covered
with a fcale of blue oxyde of various thickneffes,
dependent upon the llage of oxygenation or extreme
privation of carbone. This oxyde, in common, contains
about 15 per cent, of oxygen, and is very obedient to
the magnet. In place of a dark blue fmooth furface,
convex and richly carbonated, the metal will exhibit a
deep, rough, concave face, which, when the oxyde
is removed, prefents a great number of deep pits.
This iron in fufion Hands lefs convex than carbonated
iron, merely becaufe it is lefs fufceptible of a ftate of ex¬
treme divifion j and indeed it feems a principle in all
metallic fluids, that they are convex in proportion to
the quantity of carbone with which they are faturated.
This iron flows dead and ponderous, and rarely parts in
{hades but at the diftance of fome inches from each other.
“ This is a flight fketch of the appearance of the
two extreme qualities of crude or pig iron, when in a
ftate of fufion. According to the divifion formerly
made, there Hill remain two intermediate ftages of
quality to be deferibed: thefe are, carbonated and
carbo-oxygenated iron *, that is, N° 2 and 3 of the
manufacturers. Carbonated iron exhibits, like N° 1, a
beautiful appearance in the runner and pig. The break¬
ings of the fluid, in general, are lefs fine •, the agitation
lefs delicate ; though the divifion of the fluid is equal,
if not beyond that of the other. When the internal
ebullition of the metal is greateft, the undulating {hades
are fmalleft and moft numerous : fometimes they affume
the ftiape of fmall fegments ", fometimes fibrated groups;
and at other times minute circles, of a mellower colour
that the ground of the fluid. The furface of the metal,
expofed to the external air, when cooling is generally
{lightly convex, and full of pundlures : thefe, in iron of
a weak and fufible nature, are commonly fmall in the
diameter, and of no great depth. In ftrong metal, the
punCtures are much wider and deeper. This criterion,
however, is not infallible, wdien pig-iron of different
works, is taken colleCtively. At each individual work,
however, that iron will be ftrongeft whofe honeycombs
are largeft and deepeft.
u Carbo-
FUR
[ 277 1
FUR
Furnace. “ Carbo-oxygenated, or N° 3. pig-iron, runs fmootbly,
“^y~~ without any great degree of ebullition or difengagement
of metallic fparks. The partings upon its furface are long¬
er, and at greater diftances from each'other than in the
former varieties 5 the fhape they allume is either ellipti¬
cal, circular, or curved. In cooling, this metal ac¬
quires a conliderable portion of oxyde} the furface is
neither markedly convex nor concave ; the punctures
are lefs, and frequently vaniih altogether. Their ab-
fence, however, is no token of a fmooth face fucceed-
ing : in qualities of crude iron oxygenated beyond this,
I have already mentioned that a concave furface is the
confequence of the extreme abfence of carbon 5 and that,
in proportion as this principle is abfent, the furface of
the iron acquires roughnefs and afperity.
“ It may perhaps be proper here to mention, once
for all, that although, for convenience, the manufafturer
has, from a juft eftimation of the value of the metal in
a fubfequent manufacture, affixed certain numbers for
determinate qualities of iron, yet it is difficult to fay at
what degree of faturation of carbone each refpe£live
term commences : fuffice it then to fay, that the two
alterative principles, oxygen and carbone, form two dif-
tinft claffes, that in which oxygen predominates, and that
in which carbone predominates j the latter comprehends
N° 1 and 2 of the manufa&urers, the former includes
oxygenated, white and mottled j and the equalization of
thefe mixtures form, as has already been noticed, the
variety of carbo-oxygenated crude iron.
“ I ffiall now obferve fome things relative to the va¬
rious faces which crude iron affumes. N° 1 and 2, with
their intermediate qualities, poffefs furfaces more or lefs
convex, and frequently with thin blifters: this we at¬
tribute to the prefence of carbone, which being plentiful¬
ly interfperfed betwixt and throughout the particles of
the metal, the tendency which the iron has to ffrrink in
cooling is entirely done away j it tends to diftend the
aggregate of the mafs, and to give a round face, by
gradually elevating the central parts of the furface,
which are always laft to lofe their fluidity.
“ Again, that quality of iron knowm by the name
of N° 3, or carbo-oxygenated, is mcft commonly found
with a flat furface. If we ftill farther trace the appear¬
ance of the furface of pig-iron, when run from the fur¬
nace, we (hall find N° 4, either with a white or mottled
fraflure, polTeffed of concave faces rough and deeply
pitted. Beyond this it may be imagined that every de¬
gree of further oxygenation wTsuld be productive of a
furface deeper in the curve, and rougher, wfith addi¬
tional afperities. The contrary is the cafe : when crude
iron is fo far debafed as to be run from the furnace in
clotted lumps highly oxygenated, the furface of the
pigs is found to be more convex than that of N° 1 iron •,
but then the fradlure of fuch metal prefents an impure
mafs covered on both faces with a mixture of oxydated
iron, of a blueilh colour, nearly metallic. In ftiort,this
quality of iron is incapable of receiving fuch a degree
of fluidity as to enable us to judge whether the convexi¬
ty of its furface is peculiar to its ftate, or is owing to its
want of divinon as a fluid, wdrereby the gradual confoli-
dation of the metal is prevented.
“ Thefe features fufficiently diftinguifh betwixt the
various qualities of crude iron after they are obtained
from the blaft furnace : there are, however, criterions
not lefs infallible, whereby we can prejudge the quali¬
ty of the metal many hours before it is run from tr.e Furnace,
furnace. Thefe are the colour and form of the fcoria, ^
the colour of the vitrid cruft upon the working bars,^®^™1^6
and the quantity of carburet which is attached to it. coiour an<j
The variety of colour and form in the cinder almoft form of the
univerfally indicate the quality of the metal on the fcoria.
hearth. Hence, from a long courfeof experience, have
arifen the following denominations: “ Cinder of ful-
phury iron-,” “ Cinder of N° I, N® 2, and N° 3 j”
and “ Cinder of ballaft iron.” Although at different
works, from local circumftances, the fame kind of fcoria
may not indicate precifely the fame quality of iron, yet
the difference is fo fmall that the following defcription
of the various cinders may convey a very juft idea of
their general appearance.
“ When the fcoria is of a whitifli colour and fhort
form, branching from the notch of the dam, and emit¬
ting from its ftream beautiful fparks of ignited carbone,
refembling thofe ejedfted from a crucible of call fteel in
fulion, expofed to external air, or to the combuftion of
fine fteel filings in a white flame if, when iffuing from
the orifice of the furnace, it is of the pureft white co¬
lour, poffeffing no tenacity, but in a ftate ol the greateft
fluid diviixon, and, when cold, refembles a mafs of heavy
torrefied fpar, void of the fmalleft vitrid appearance,
hard and durable, it is then certain that the furnace
contains fulphury iron, i. e. fuper-carbonated iron. At
blaft furnaces, where a great quantity of air is thrown
in per minute, fuper-carbonated crude iron will be ob¬
tained with a cinder of a longer form, with a rough
flinty fraflure towards the outlide of the column.
“ That cinder which indicates the prefence of car¬
bonated iron in the hearth of the furnace, forms itfelf
into circular compafl ftreams, which become confoli-
dated and inferted into each other •, thefe are in length
from three to nine feet. Their colour when the iron
approaches the firft quality, is a beautiful variegation of
white and blue enamel, forming a wild profufion of the
elements of every known figure ; the blues are lighter
or darker according to the quantity of the metal and
the aftion of the external air while cooling. When the
quality of the pig-iron is fparingly carbonated, the blue
colour is lefs vivid, lefs delicate ; and the external fur¬
face rougher, and more fullied with a mixture of colour;
The fame fcoria, when fufed in veffels which are allow¬
ed to cool gradually, parts with all its variety and ihadej
and becomes of a yellowifti colour, fometimes nearly
white when the quantity of incorporated metals has been
fmall.
“ The cinder which is emitted from the blaft furnace
when carbo-oxygenated (or N° 3,) iron is produced,
affumes a long zig-zag form. The ftream is (lightly
convex in the middle ; broad, flat, and obliquely fur¬
rowed towards the edges. The end of the ftream fre¬
quently rears itfelf into narrow tapered cones, to the
height of fixer eight inches : thefe are generally hollow
in the centre, and are eafily demolfthed, owing to their
exceffive brittlenefs. The colour of this lava is very
various 5 for the moft it is pale yellow, mixed with
green. It tenacity is fo great, that if, while fluid, a
fmall iron hook is inferted into it at a certain degree of
heat, and then drawn from it with a quick but fteady
motion, 20 to 30 yards of fine glafs thread may be
formed with eafe. If the colours are vivid and varie¬
gated, the thread will poffefs, upon a minute fcale, all
the
F U R
[ 278 ]
FUR
’ Turn ace. tlie various tfnts of colouring wliich is round ^ in tire co-
  v   lutnnar mafs. When by accident a. quantity of this
lava runs back upon the difcharging-pipe, it is upon the
return of the blait impelled with fuch velocity as to be
blown into minute delicate fibres, fmaller than the
moft du&ile wire ; at firft they float upon the air like
wool, and when at reft very much referable that fub-
ftance.
“ The prefence of oxygenated crude iron (N 4,) on
the furnace-hearth, is indicated by the lava refolving it-
felfinto long ftreams, fometimes branched, fometimes
columnar, extending from the notch to the loweft part
of the declivity •, here it commonly forms large, flat,
hollow cakes, or inclines to form conical figures : thefe
are, however, feldom perfect $ for the quantity of fluid
lava, conveyed through the centre of the column, ac¬
cumulates fafter than the internal Aides of the cone are
confolidated } and thus, when the ftruclure is only half
finilhed, the fmall crater vomits forth its fuperabundant
lava, and is demolilhed. The current of fuch lava falls
heavily from the dam as if furcharged with metal, and
emits dark red fparks refembling the agitation of ftraw
embers. Its colour is ftill more varied than the former
defcriptions of fcoriae, and is found changing its hues
through a great variety of greens fliaded with browns.
Another variety of fcoria, which indicates the fame
quality of iron, affumes a fimilar form •, but has a black
ground colour mixed with browns, or is entirely black.
When the latter colour prevails, the texture of the cin-
jder becomes porous ; the quantity of iron left is now
very confiderable, and fuch as will be eafily extracted
in the affay-furnace with proper fluxes. In cafes of
total derangement in the furnace, the fcoria will ftill
retain this black colour, although the quantity of metal
may amount to 25 per cent.; the fracture, however,
becomes denfe, and its fpecific gravity increafes in pro¬
portion to the quantity of metal it holds incorporated.
“ The next fource of information, as to the quality of
the iron in the furnace, is to be got from the colour of
the fcoria upon the working bars, which are from time
to time inferted to keep the furnace free from lumps,
and to bring forward the fcoria. When fuper-carbon-
ated crude iron is in the hearth, the vitrid cruft upon
the bars will be of a black colour and fmooth furface,
fully covered with large and brilliant plates of plum¬
bago.
As the quality of the metal approaches to N° 2.
(carbonated), the carburet upon the fcoria decreafes
both in point of quantity and fize.
“ When carbo-oxygenated iron (N° 3) is in the fur¬
nace, the working bars are always coated with a light¬
er coloured fcoria than when the former varieties exift ^
a fpeck of plumbago is now only found here and there,
and that of the fmalleft fize. When the quality of the
metal is oxygenated (N° 4.), not only have the plates
of carburet difappeared, but alfo the coally colour on
the external furface of the fcoria j what now attaches to
the bars, is nearly of the fame nature and colour as the
lava emitted at the notch of the dam.
“ Thefe criterions are infallible •, for, as the fufibility
or carbonation of the metal is promoted in a diredl ratio
to the comparative quantity of the coally principle in the
furnace, fo in the fame proportion will the vitrid cruft
encircling the working bars exhibit the prefence of that
principle in the furnace*
“ In the fmelting operation a juft proportion and af- Furnace,
fociation of materials and mechanical conftruftion ought v ' ?
to be blended, in order to produce the beft poflible ef-
feffs. Under the former are comprehended the cokes,
iron -ftone, limeftone, and blaft } by the latter is under-
ftood the furnace, the power of the blowing-machine,
or the compreftion and velocity under which the air is
difcharged into the furnace, and the genius or mechani¬
cal fkill of the workmen. According to this divifion
I Ihall endeavour to point out the very various effefts
which difproportion in any cafe produces, and vice
verfa.
“ In the preceding obfervations the coal and iron ftone
have been traced through their various ftages of prepa¬
ration, and that ftage pointed out in which they were
moft fuitable for the profitable manufacture of the me*
tal. It will be neceffary to carry along with us this
fa£t, that in the exadl proportion which the quantity of
carbone bears to the quantity of metal in the ore, and its
mixtures, fo will be the fufibility, and of courfe the va¬
lue of the pig-iron obtained. The importance of this
truth will ftill farther appear when we confider the very
various qualities of pit-coal, the different proportions of
carbone which they contain, and the various properties
attached to every fpecies of this ufeful combuffible.
“ Among the many ftrata of coal which I have diftil- Vafnre of
led, fome I have found to contain 70 parts in the 100 coid exa-
This large proportion is peculiar to the clod-coal, ufed •ililt:ai
at fome of the iron-works in England, and juftly prefer¬
red, for the purpofe of manufacture, to the pureft and
hardeft variety of fplint-coal. The latter I have found
to average from 50 to 59 parts of carbone in the 100 *,
and the loft, or mixed qualities of coal, from 45 to 53
parts. Such various proportions of carbone plainly point
out, that the operations to be followed at each ind vi-
dual iron-work ought not to reft upon precedent, un-
lefs borrowed from thofe works where exadly the fame
quality of coal is ufed. This analylis alfo lays open
part of the fource from whence originates the widely
different quantities of metal produced per week at va¬
rious blaft-furnaces, and the great difproportions of ore
ufed to different coals.
“ Experience has fhewn that the three qualities of coal
juft mentioned, will fmelt and give carbonation to the
following proportions of the fame fpecies of torrefied
iron ftone t
T12 lb. of clod-coal cokes will fmelt - 1301b.
112 lb. of fplint-coal cokes will fmelt - 105 lb.
112 lb. mixed foft and hard coal cokes will fmelt 841b.
“ Let the iron ftone be fuppofed in the blaft furnace to
yield 40 per cent, then w'e find that the one-twTent!eth
of a ton of the refpeftive qualities of cokes will fmelt
and carbonate the following proportions of iron, viz.
112 lb. clod-coal cokes, 1301b. iron ftone, at 40 per
cent. — 52 lb. iron •, 112 lb. of fplint-coal cokes, 105 lb.
of the ftone = 42 lb. of iron ; and I x 2 lb. foft and hard
coal cokes, 84 lb. of the iron ftone — 33 to lh. of non.
We then have for the quantity of metal produced by
one ton of each quality of cokes :
Clod-coal 52 X 20 = l040 !h.
Splint ditto 42 X 20 =: 840 lb.
Mixed ditto 33^ X 2^ = 702 lb-
“ This furnifhes a datum whereby vre eafily obtain
the
1
FUR [ 279
Furnace, the quantity of the various cokes neceffary to produce
—one ton of carbonated crude iron by common proper-
tion : for if 1040 lb. of metal are produced by one ton,
or 2240 lb. of clod-coal cokes, the quantity of the fame
cokes requifite for the produciion of one ton, 01 2240
lb. of metal will be—
C.QJb.
3 ° 8
1 cokes |-
4°r 5°
i —37t
] F U ft
4.2 parts of a(hes. As it is there dated to lole 50 per
cent, in charring, 100 parts of cokes will contain 8.4
of allies •, and 8.4 per cent, deducted from 5973.3
Furnace.
4824.61b.= 2
Splint-coalcokes840:2240: :2240:5973.31b.-=2 13 1 9
Mixed ditto 702:2240::2240:7147.51b—3 3 3 7
“ If to the quantity of cokes neceffary to manufac¬
ture one ton of crude iron, we add the quantity of vo¬
latile matter driven off in the procefs of charring, wdiich
may be thus eftimated upon the average of each qua¬
lity:
Clod-coal -f-or 37 F perc. produce in cokes4 a 624-perc.
Splint coal -f — 50
Mixed coal ^—62,5
“ Then, for the quantity of the refpeftive coals ufed
in the raw ftate, we have the following refults in pro¬
portion :
r T. C. CK lb.
Clod-coal 5 : 4824.6 :: 8 : 77T9i 3 ^ 219
Splint-coal 4 : 5973-3 :: ^ • ll9‘h^ — 5 ^ 2 18
Mixed coal 3 : 7147.1 ” 8 : 16x584 =811 0x6
■Difference “ Thefe great difproportions of quantity, ufed to fa¬
ct produce bricate one ton, or 2240 averdupoife pounds of the fame
from differ-quallty of crude iron, wall convey a linking and im-
em kinds prefl'ive iJea 0f the multifarious qualities of coal which
ct coal. may |3e app^ecj an(j macje to produce the fame effedls.
It Ihould alfo convince the manufacturer that the ftudy
and analylis of his own materials is the firft and radical
approach to true knowledge, and certainty of operation.
Diveft him of this knowledge, and view him guided by
the culfoms and rules prevalent at another manufactory,
where the coals and ores may be as different as has been
already mentioned, and we will no longer wTonder at
the uncertainty of his refults, and the numberlefs errors
of his direction.
“ Before I enter into the practical difeuflion of the
application of coal, I beg leave to indulge myfelf in the
following calculations :—We have already feen that the
production of 22401b. of carbonated crude iron requires
48 24 lb. of clod-coal cokes ■, thefe may be averaged to
contain 4.5 per cent, of allies, which, deduCted from
4824, gives 4607 lb. of carbone ufed for one ton of
metal : this fum, divided by 2240, farther gives, for
one lb. of call iron thus manufactured, 2.056 lb. of car-
bone.
“ We next find that 2240 lb. of the fame metal re¬
quires of fplint-coal cokes 5973.3 lb.; we farther find,
from a table of the analyfis of coal, furnilhed in a for¬
mer paper, that 100 parts of the raw coal contained
gives 54721b. of carbone. This again, reduced by
2240 lb. gives for each pound of metal manufactured,
2.4421b.
“ Again, 7147.1 lb. of cokes obtained from foft
mixed coals are confumed for every ton of 2240 aver-
dupoiie pounds of crude iron produced *, every 100 parts
of the fame coals contain 3.3 parts of alhes; and 100
parts of cokes contain nearly 6.5 per cent, of allies,
which, deduCted from 7147.3, gives 6672.6 of ear-
bone, which divided by 2240, gives, for the quantity
ufed for one pound of call iron, 2.978 lb.
“ From thefe calculations it appears, that 22401b. of
carbonated iron, requires of carbone from clod-coal
46071b.; of carbone from fplint-coal, 54721b.; and.
of carbone from mixed coal, 6672 lb. : that one pound
of carbonated iron requires of carbone from clod-coal
cokes 2,0561b.; from fplint, 2,4421b.; from mixed,
2.983 lb.; and that carbonated crude iron may be ob¬
tained when widely different quantities of carbone have
been confumed.
“ In feeking for a folution of the latter faCt, we muff
have reccurfe to the different degrees of infiammability
of the carbone, according to the various laws of conti¬
nuity impofed upon it in its foffil conltruClion. It can
ealily be conceived, that, owing to this ftru&ure, and
the nature of the interpofed allies, the particles of car¬
bone of fome cokes will be more eafily oxygenated than
thofe of others ; in the fame way that wTe find fplint-
coal, when expofed to ignition in contadt with open air,
affords one-third of more cokes than are obtained from
foft mixed coals, though the latter, when diftilled, yield
more pure carbone than the former.
“ By experiment it is proven that 100 grains of
carbonic acid gas is compofed of 72 parts of oxygen,
united with 28 parts of carbone : if the quantity of the
carbone of clod-coal, viz. 2.056 lb. ufed for the manu-
fadluring of every pound of caff iron, is reduced to
grains, we will find it to confift of 14392 grains; this,
divided by 28, gives the acidifiable principle of 514
X 100^=51400 grains of carbonic acid gas (f) : hence,
as one cubic foot of this gas, at 29.84 of barometrical
preffure, and 54.5 of temperature, weighs nearly 761
grains, we find that in the formation of every pound of
:67,54 cubical feet of carbonic acid
/1 • 51400
caff iron —:
761
gas will be formed ; and in the produdlion of one ton
of metal, the aftonithing quantity of 151289,60 cubic
feet. This quantity, however incredible it may feem,
is only what would be formed under the above preffure.,
and at the above temperature : when we take into the
account the high temperature at which the decompofi-
tion and recombination are effedled, with the confe-
quent
(f) “ This is fuppofing, for the moment, that the whole of the carbone is oxygenated, either by the oxygen
contained in the ore, or obtained from the difeharging-pipe by the decompofition of the atmofpheric air : this,
however, is not ftridlly true, as the metal takes up a imall portion, by weight, of the carbone; and when, by
accident, moifture has been introduced into the furnace, either through the medium of the blafl, or of the mate¬
rials, its decompofition furnifties a portion of both oxygen and hydrogen, which may diffolve, and alfo carry off,
a part of the carbone. Atmofpheric air being found to hold water in folution, a fmall quantity of hydrogen’
will, even in the drieft weather, be prefent in the blalt furnace.
FUR [2
quent increafe of elaftic force and of volume, our ideas
are almoft unable to commenfurate the fum of the gas
hourly formed, and thrown off, ignited to the higheft
degree of heat.
“ If the fame mode of calculation is adopted with the
other qualities of coal, we will have the following re~
fults :
“ For the fplint-coal 2,442 lb. or — 610,5 X
2o
100=61050 grains of carbonic acid, which gives
—= 82,85 cubic feet for 1 lb. and 82,85 X 2240
= 185,584 cubic feet for one ton. For the mixed coal
o 20881
2,983 or——^—=: 710 X 100= 71000 grains carbo¬
nic acid ; that is, ■ ■■ =93,3 cubical feet for 1 lb. j
aT1d 93>3 X 2240 =r 208,992 cubical feet for one ton.
By the fame calculation we may attain a pretty accu¬
rate notion of the quantity of atmofpheric air necelfary
to produce 1 lb. or one ton of call iron 5 an average of
the three varieties of coal will be fufficiently accurate
for this purpofe; thus ill?.2 X ■1.7°94X_?°ggi =
3
1 7455t or 2>4935 Ik* Carbone are confumed upon
the average of each pound of pig-iron : this is found to
produce of carbonic acid gas —— 62.341 X too
— 62.30041 grains ; which again divided by 761, the
grains in one cubic foot gives 81.86 cubic feet for the
gas difcharged in manufacturing one pound of call iron.
As carbonic acid contains, as has already been noticed,
72 parts of oxygen in 100, then wre have for the quan¬
tity of oxygen gas 100 : 72 :: 62400.41 : 44856.29
grains oxygen gas j and as, at the ordinary temperature
and preffure of the atmofphere, a cubic foot of oxygen
gas weighs 591 grains, we find 44856.29 divided by
591 — 75-89 cubic feet of oxygen gas neceffary to
form the acidifying principle of 81.86 cubic feet of
carbonic acid gas j and that the fame quantity of oxy¬
gen gas is necelfary to the production of one pound of
carbonated crude iron, ilhis leads us to the following
fiatement for the quantity of atmofpheric air ufed du¬
ring the fame operation ; firft premifing that the confti-
tuent parts of atmofpheric air are nearly 73 of azote
and 27 of oxygen gas j of atmofpheric air then necef¬
fary, we have 27 : 100 :: 75.89 : 281 cubic feet.
“I ihall now proceed from mere calculation to matter
of fa£t, and attempt to prove the Correclnefs of the
former by the approximation of the latter to its refults.
.Let a blaft-furnace be fuppofed to produce 2o\ tons of
pig-iron per week, = 45360 averdupoife pounds j this,
divined by days, hours, minutes, and feconds, gives per
day 6480 pounds, per hour 270, per minute 3^ lb. and
per fecond 525 grains.
“ From this it is evident that one pound of call iron
is produced in 1 3t^V feconds 5 experience has {hewn
that a blaft-furnace, producing, in any of the above
periods, the refpeClive quantity of metal, requires a dif-
charge of air per minute nearly equal to 1350 cubic
feet; this, divided by 4,5 lb. the quantity produced per
minute gives, for one pound of iron, 300 cubic feet,
i he quantity, by calculation, we have feen to be 281
«ubic feet, difference 195 a fum no way confiderable
80 ] FUR
when we refleCI upon the inequality of the movements Furnace.
of a blowing machine, and when it is recolleffed that  v—
fome allowance ought alfo to be made for what air may
pafs through the furnace undecompofed, or may be loft
at the place- of entrance.
“ From this coincidence of theory with pra&ice, w-e
cannot help admiring the rigorous principles on which
the Lavoifierian fyftem is founded 5 nor are we lefs pleafed
to find, that, fmall as the operations of the chemift may
be, yet they are a juft epitome of what takes place in
the philofophy of extenfive manufadlories. The follow¬
ing table exhibits the quantity of carbone which may be
ufed upon an average, with the relative quantity of car¬
bonic acid formed, and air ufed :
“ In the manufaflure of 1. lb.— 1 ton of iron,
The pure carbone requifite is 2.49— 5585.44 lb.
Carbonic acid formed 81.86—1S3366.40 cub. ft.
Oxygen gas ufed 75-89—169993.60 cub. ft.
Atmofpheric air employed 281.00—629440.00 cub. ft.
“ From the foregoing particulars upon coal may be
learned how much is dependent upon the native con-
ftruftion of coal and its conftituent parts; I {hall next
advert to the effefts produced by its improper prepara¬
tion.
“ When coals intended for the blaft-furnace are fuf- Qualities of
ficiently charred, they ought, in point of colour, to be well-char-
of a filver-gray ; their fraclure will appear lamellated red coaL
and porous if fplint-coals have been ufed j fofter coals
form themfelves into branches llightly curved, and,
when properly prepared, are always very porous. I
have frequently found that the better the cokes were
charred, the more water they will abforb. Coals half
burnt do not take up half fo much w’ater, becaufe
their fra&ure continues in part to be fmooth and lefs
porous than wdien thoroughly burnt.
“ When half-prepared cokes are introduced into
the furnace, the metal formerly carbonated will lofe
its gray fradure, and approach to the quality of oxy¬
genated iron. Their prefence is eafily deteded by the
unufual quantity of thick vapour arifing along with
the flame. Befides, the water and fulphur, which raw
coals introduce into the furnace, and which always
impair the quantity of carbon by the various folutions
effeded by the prefence of oxygen, hydrogen, &c. the
fitnefs of the coal for combuftion, and the fupport of
the ore, is much diminiftied by this fecond courfe of
ignition and difengagement of bitumen. The preffure
of the incumbent ores alfo fradure and reduce the
cokes into fmall pieces, which produce a confiderable
portion of coke-duft ; this is partly carried to the top
of the furnace before the blaft 5 fometimes below it
appears in immenfe quantities, ignited to whitenefs,
and liquid as fand. Coal thus detached from the mafs,
expofed to the adion of a compreffed current of air, is
unfit for conveying the carbonic principle to the metal j
and as it frequently belongs to the juft proportion of
charcoal necefl'ary to fmelt the ores, and to carbonate
their iron, its lofs muft be felt, and the quality of iron
impaired.
“ When cokes of any quality are expofed to a moift Effeds of
atmofphere, fo as to abforb water, their effeds in the cokes great-
bla$ furnace become much reduced, and the prefence h' diminiflr-
of the w-ater is produdive of the moft hurtful confe-^^.v ab‘
quences in the produdion of carbonated crude iron. I waterf
have found, by repeated experiment, that one pound of
well-
FUR i 2
Furnace. Weil-prepared cokes will, when laid in water, take up
ounces in the fpace of half an hour j at this rate, a
bafket of cokes weighing 8olb. faturated with wTater,
will contain 140 ounces of water, or 8^ lb. If the
charge contains fix baikets, then we fee that upwards
of 50 lb. of water is introduced regularly along wdth
the charge, furniihing an additional quantity of oxygen
equal to 42^ lb. and of hydrogen equal to lb.; but it
frequently happens that the cokes contain a larger por¬
tion of water than is here Hated. When cokes thus
furcharged are introduced in quantity into the blaft
furnace, the quality of the metal is not always inftan-
taneoufiy changed, and frequently the colour and form
of the cinder remain long without any great alteration.
The contact of wetted cokes with the ore is firft feen
by the great difcharge of pale blue gas, with the whiter
flame at the top of the furnace ; next, the accumulating
oxyde upon the furface of the pig when conlolidating
indicates their prefence. Iron thus oxygenated fre¬
quently exhibits, while fluid, that agitation and delicate
partings peculiar to carbonated metal: the remelting of
this iron is never attended with advantage, and is always
unprofitable to the founder.
“ From the properties wrhich have been affign-
ed to pit-coal, the following fadls may be dedu¬
ced :—That charcoal is the bafis of the manufac¬
ture of crude iron j that its proper application pro¬
duces the moll valuable qualities of pig-iron; that, by
diminiihing its relative proportion, or contaminating
its quality by heterogeneous mixtures, the value and
fufibility of the metal is loft ; but that, by a proper
increafe, and always in proportion to this increafe, wall
the fufibility and value of the iron be mended. From
the whole, an important leflbn may be learned of the
pernicious effects of water in the furnace, and how
abfolutely necefiary it is to prepare the cokes without
ufing winter, either to damp the fires, as in the ufual
mode, or to cool the cinders obtained from the tar
kilns, to prevent their confuming in the open air : in
all this hurtful operation confiderable quantities of
w?ater become fixed in the cokes, which require a very
great degree of heat to expel.
“ The preparation of iron ftone has already been
fully attended to, and the phenomena which it exhi¬
bits under every ftage minutely deferibed. In confe-
quence of various experiments we are authorifed to
draw the following conclufions; That w’hen pure cal¬
careous iron-ftone is ufed, it admits of having the
Different local quantities of cokes diminiihed ; that argillaceous
kinds of requires a larger portion than the calcareous genus j
iron-ftone ^ ancj p]Jceous iron-ftone requires a greater pro-
ferent pro-* Port^on t^an any variety of the former genera,
portions of We have alfo feen that fufibility, either connedled
cokes. with ftrength or otherwife, is derived from the mix¬
ture of the ores; and that exceflive brittlenefs, inti¬
mately connected with infufibility, is alfo derived from
the fame fource. From a review of thefe fadts, we
are forcibly imprefTed with the importance of com¬
bining the prepared iron-ftones with proportions of
fuel fuited to their various natures, in order to pro¬
duce all the varieties of iron with the greateft poftible
economy. Contemplating farther the lame fubjedl, it
is eafy to be conceived that a wTant of knowledge of
the component parts of iron-ftones, and the effects
which individually they produce, muft lead to great
VoL? IX. Part I.
81 • ] FUR
uncertainty of operation in the fmelting procefs, Furnae-.
wherein the beautifiil economy of nature, and even
real property, will be often unprofitably facrificed to
precedent.
“ Befides the above caufes of alteration, dependent
upon mixtures of the earths, the exiftence of oxygen ?co" _°ftoi>e
in various quantities in the ores ought never to be
overlooked in proportioning the cokes to the iron-
ftone. This powerful agent, whofe form and fubftance
conftantly eludes our vilion *, whofe exiftence is only
afeertained by the wonderful changes produced by its
various combinations with the iron ; and whofe prefence
in the fame iron-ftone, in various quantities,- may pro¬
duce fuch variety of refult as to chara&erife the ores,
as containing good or bad iron, furely forms the moft
interefting mixture which ores or iron-ftones poilefs.
It will be a momentous epoch in the manufacture of
iron wrhen the exiftence of fuch a principle (hall be
fully admitted by the manufacturer, and its agency,
from certain vifible eft'eCts produced, adopted to explain
its accompanying phenomena. Till that period he will
not perceive the utility of afeertaining the quantity of
oxygen, and devifing economical methods of taking it
from the ore. An attention to this powerful principle
can alone root out thofe prejudices fo inimical to the
real interefts of the manufacturer, and which feem to
glance at nature, as having improvidently combined
her moft ufeful metal wuth mixtures which could refill
the ingenuity of man, or fet his comprehenfive intellect
at defiance. In the progrefs of this great inquiry, is it
not poflible that the prefent expenfive exertions may in
part be fuperfeded ? Is it not poftible, that, by laying
open the fources of information to individuals at large,
a greater mafs of intellect may engage in the praCtice
of this art ? While the prefent extenfive and lofty
buildings are neceffary, the bufinefs is entirely confined
in the hands of men of great capital: the extent of
their manufactures require that a large trad of country
be devoted to their fupply ; a natural confequence is,
that innumerable traCls of land are overlooked, or held
unworthy of notice, merely becaufe they cannot, in a
period neceffary to clear a great capital and infure a
fortune, afford the neceflary fupply of materials. Such
fituations, according to the prefent ftate of the iron
bufinefs, muft remain unexplored. Should, howrever,
a defire for truth once gain footing in the manufactories
of iron, and fliould this natural impulfe of the unpreju¬
diced mind keep pace with other branches of intellec¬
tual information, wre may not defpair of feeing many
imperfeCtions removed, which were the unavoidable
confequence of the period of their creation.
“ In the application of iron-ftone in the blaft furnace,
the following particulars ought rigoroufly to be attend¬
ed to :—
“ 1. Their mixtures, whether clay, lime, or filex *, their and its
relative proportions to each other, judging according to05*ier llua^*
the rules formerly laid dowm j which of them may admit tie*rt? be,
of a diminution of fuel j which of them will afford the°ni
quality of iron at the time requifite 5 and which of them
will be molt likely, by a judicious arrangement, to give
the greateft produce of metal, united with value and
economy. Iron-ftones, united with large portions of
filex, have already been ftated to require a greater pro¬
portion of fuel to carbonate their metal than the other
genera. When ballaft or forge-pigs are wranted, it
N n is
F U li
[ 282 ]
FUR
Furnace, is obvious that filiceous iron-ftones ought to be ufed j
 1 not that they contain a greater quantity of iron,
but becaufe they form a iubiiitute for tiie other binds,
which may be more advantageoufly faieited for the pio-
duftion of more valuable qualities.
“ 2. The quantity of metal which each individual
iron-ftone may contain, is another object of confidera-
tion. Befides the proportion of mixtures, which chiefly
contribute to the fafibility of iron-ftones, a fecond de¬
gree of fufibility is dependent upon the richnefs of the
ore in iron •, this is fo obvious in the ufe of the Cumber¬
land and Lancafliire ores, that the confequences of their
introduction will be perceived, by the change of the
fcoria and metal, in half the time that change would be
effected by ordinary iron-ftones. It has been frequent¬
ly noticed, that crude iron contained pure carbone in
proportion to its fufibility ; then the more fufible or fu-
percavbonated qualities muff take up, comparatively, a
confiderable portion of the carbonaceous principle from
the fuel. From this refults a ftriking confequence, that
v the quantity of fuel fhould, over and above its relation
to the mixtures, bear a juft proportion' to the quantity
of iron in the ftone : for example, let the weight per
Ouantity of charge of fuel at a blaft furnace be 4001b. and let this
fuel to be be fuppofed fufficiently to fufe and carbonate the iron
proportion. contained in gbolb. of iron-ftone j let the quantity of
rkhnefs of metal be ^ppofed 35 per cent, then the produce will be
the ore' * 261b. Should a change take place, and iron ftone
richer in iron be applied, though the fame by weight,
and ftiould this iron ftone yield of torrefied ftone 45 per
cent, its produce will be l62lb. or dolh. more than the
former. As there exifts no greater proportion of car-
hone in the furnace, it is evident that the exifting quan¬
tity, being diftributed over nearly one-third of more
metah muft therefore be in more fparing quantity in
the whole, and the value of the metal confequently re¬
duced.
“ 3. The weight of oxygen contained in iron ftones
is the next objedl of ferious confideration. I have al¬
ready (hewn, from experiment, that our iron ftones na¬
turally contain from 9 to 14 per cent, of oxygen, which
remains after torrefadlion •, it has alfo been ftiewn, that
this quantity of hurtful mixture may be eaftly doubled
by over-roafting or under-roafting the ftone } and that
the bad cffedls entailed are in the ratio of its combina¬
tion with the iron. From a review of the fafts
which have been adduced on this lubjedl, its agency
and efxedls will eafily be credited by men of fcience 5
its property of cenftituting the acidifying bafe of all
the acids readily explains the unalienable confequence
of its prefence with acidifiable bafes. The eftedls are
ftiil more pernicious when the oxygen is furnifhed by
the decompofition of water in raw iron ftone ^ the hy¬
drogen in this cafe fet free, alfo feizes a portion of the
carhone $ and thefe abftraftions, united to that produced
by the native portion of oxygen in the ftone, form an
aggregate which frequently reduces the value of iron
40 per cent. So long as the principles of fcience are
overlooked in the manipulations of the foundery and
forge, the exiftence of fuch agents will be treated as
chimeras of the philofopher and chemift, and the effecls
hourly produced by them induitrioufly attributed to
* Phil. caufes which, in point of unity or confiftency, will not
.Mag-, vol.v. bear the flighteft touch of inveftigation.”*
The compreffion, velocity, and efife&s of the air are
Furnace.
of the utmoft importance in blaft; furnaces. The pro-   <
dudtion, management, and diredlion of thefe eftedls are v——'
therefore ferious objects of confideration to the manu-
fa&urer of iron, fince on their proper application the
fucoefs of his operation chiefly depends. And here we
ihall renew our obligations to Mr Mulhet for his in •
terefting obfervations on this fubjedf. “ When it is
confidered,” he fays, “ that in the fmelting operation
the reduction of immenfe quantities of materials is ef~
fedled by a compreffed current of air impelled by the
whole power of a blowing machine, the contequences ot
the change ol air, either in quantity or quality, mull
be very obvious : when, farther, we contemplate tne
metal called into exiftence by means of combuftion thus
excited j when we confider iron as having the molr
powerful affinity for the bafe of that part of the air
which maintains combuftion 3 and when we view the
debafed ftate to which the metal is reduced by coming
into improper contaft with it, we muft conclude, that
the application of blaft in the manufaftming of iron
calls for the moft minute and thorough inveftigation.
In order to take a comsrehenfive view of this iubjeft,
the following divifion will be requiftte :—
“ iftj The intimate connection which the quantity ot
blaft hears to the area of the internal cavity of the fur¬
nace, and to the nature of the pit-coal.
“ 2d, The various modes by which air is procured,
and how thefe refpedtively afleft the quality of the air.
“ -d, The various changes to which air is fubje&ed
by a change of temperature in the atmofphere, with the
confequent effedls.
“ 4th, How far increafed or diminifhed velocity and
compreflion alter the refults of the furnace.
“ 5th, The form and diameter of the difeharging-
pipe.
“ 1 ft, Then, in the conftrudlion of a blaft-furnace and Quantity
blowing-machine, the quantity of air to be ufed ougbt|5;|t^j by^U
to depend upon the internal dimenfions of the former 3 ^ con_
which, again, ought to be formed according to the ^ru(niori cf
quality of the pit-coal. Upon the foftnefs or hardnefs the fur-
of the coal, ought more immediately to depend Th^deDends
height of the blaft-furnace. This neceffary precaution on the1na_
lias given rife to a vaft variety of furnaces, 01 different ture 0f qlS
capacities, from 30 to 50 height, and ftom nine coal,
to 16 feet diameter at the bodies. Furnaces from 30 to
36 feet are ufed for the fofter qualities of coal, fuch as
a mixture of free-coal and fplint. • Furnaces from 36
to 45 are appropriated to the burning of fplint-coal
cokes ; and in Wales, fuch is the fuperior ftrength and
quality of the pit-coal, that the furnaces admit of being
reared to the height of 50 feet.
“ Thefe various qualities of coal, it has been former¬
ly ftiewn, have appropriate weights of iron-ftone, and,
to ufe the language of the manufactory, axe capable
“ of fupporting a greater or lefs burden of mine.” Ihe
former qualities admit not of having the air diicharged
in great quantity, unlefs it is impelled under an uncom¬
mon degree of compreflion and confequent velocity in¬
compatible v;ith the operations of a fteam-engine. Ihe
reafon is obvious: when air, loofely compreffed or
comparatively fo, is thrown into a body of ignited fuel,
the mechanical ftruCture and continuity of who^e par¬
ticles are loft, the air is much more eafily decompoled 3
the ignition, of courfe, is more rapid : the defeent of the
materials is promoted beyond their proper ratio, and
long
FUR [2
Furnace. long before the carbonaceous matter has penetrated the
—v—— ore, or united to the metal, to conftitute fufibility. ^ I
(hall adduce an example, as being the mcft illuftrative
of this dodtrine.
“ Suppofe a blah furnace, 35 feet high, 11 wide at
Xlluftrated ^ b0i}ieS) properly burdened, and producing, N° .i.
by an ex- pjg_jron- jLet the difcharge of the air be fuppofed equal to
amp e‘ a prefiure of two pounds and a half upon the fquare inch,
or equivalent to one-fixth of the atmofphere, or five
inches of mercury '• under thefe crrcumftances let it fai-
ther be fuppofed, that 1500 cubical feet of air are dif-
charged in one minute j and that the diameter of the
difcharging pipe is 2.625, the area of which is equal to
6.890625 circular inches. Let the difcharging pipe
be increafed to three inches diameter, and let the fame
quantity of air be pafled into the furnace j it is evident
that as the area of the difcharging pipe is increafed to
nine circular inches, or nearly one-third more than for¬
merly, the compreflion of air muft be proportionally di-
minilhed. The alteration is foon perceived by its ef-
fefts } the quantity of fcoria increafes from the furnace,
whilil the confumption of the materials above is alfo
confiderably augmented. In a few hours the fcoria will
have undergone a complete change, from pure white,
enamelled with various blue fhades, to a green, brown,
or black colour, confiderably charged with the oxide
©f iron (g). The fame effe&s will continue, in greater
or leffer degree, till all the materials are reduced which
were exiiling in the furnace at the period of diminifhed
compreffion. The philofophy of this fa£l may be in-
veftigated in the following manner :—
“ While the juft affociation of proportions remained,
the air wras difcharged under fuch a degree of compref¬
fion as to excite proper combuftion : the decompofition
of the air by means of the ignited fuel, w7as not effedted
in immediate contaft with the feparating metal, but
had, by its uncommon degree of denfity, refilled de¬
compofition in the ignited paffage, and had been de-
compoled upon the cokes at a greater elevation in the
furnace. As a proof of this, we frequently fee a tube
formed throughout the W'hole breadth of the furnace,
quite black and apparently cold, formed of the fufed
materials: wdien this is removed, a confiderable defcent
momently takes place of cokes heated vifibly beyond
the common pitch : thefe inflame rapidly, but are foon
again cooled to blacknels by the inceffant difcharge of
air upon them. The defcending mixture of iron and
lava is in like manner cooled around the line of blaft ;
the tube is again formed, and, if not removed, will re¬
main for days together, wTile the furnace will be other-
rvays working in the beft manner.
“ When by accident or defign the compreflion and ve¬
locity of blaft are diminifhed, the tube begins to burn,
and throws off a great many fiery-coloured fparks, the
fides and roof fail, and are carried before the blaft in
all directions. Sometimes confiderable clots of imper-
fedl iron are recoiled with fuch violence as to efcape the
vortex of blaft, and iffue from the'tuyere-hole with fuch
velocity as to inflame in the air, and fall dowrn in the
ftate of oxide. In the end the tuyere will appear
to flame, and all the paffage inwards fhews an af-
Furnaee,
83 ] F U u
tonifhing degree 01 wtiitcnefs. "1 ne decompofition 01
the air is inftantaneoufiy effected upon its entering the
ignited paflage } the iron by this means is expoied to
the oxygen that is difengaged ; and the vaft quantity n
caloric fet free, in confequence of its union with the
iron and carbone, produces the aftonilhing heat now vi-
fible, but which formerly took place at a more proper
height in the furnace.
“ From this it will appear, that although a greater ap¬
parent degree of heat is vifibly produced oy the hidden
decompolition of the air, and a more rapid defcent oi.
materials for fome time is the confequence, yet, as the
quality of the iron is impaired, and as in the eno the
furnace will return to its old confumption of materials
as to quantity, the effects of a loofe fott blaft are ob-
vioufly pernicious.
“ It fometimes happens, that when a loofe blaft is fur-Pernicious
charged with a confiderable portion of moifture, or^s
comes in contadl with cokes which had been wet when^ ajr or
introduced into the furnace, the inflammation whichm fuel,
takes place at the tuyere is prodigious : fine fire clay
will be melted down and bloivn to flag in a fevv mi¬
nutes 5 the fides of the furnace, compofed of very infu-
fible fire ftone, is next attacked, and in a few hours
will be fo completely deftroyed as to flop the working,
and require immediate repair. Effects fimilar to thofe
now delcribed wall be felt when blaft is improper ly pro¬
portioned to coal of a ftronger continuity of fradture
and fuperior quality. Eefides the effedls produced by
the hidden decompofition of iron, others of like nature
are produced where a foft coal is ufed, a fmall furnace,
and a great difcharge of blaft.
“ It" has been found that crude iron, to be properly
matured, ought to remain in the blaft furnace, accord¬
ing to circumftances, 48 to 60 hours j that is, from the
period that the iron ftone is introduced till fuch dme as
the metal begins to occupy its place in the hearth in a
ftate of perfedl feparation. When the contrary is the
cafe, the mixtures arrive at the hotteft parts of the fur¬
nace before the metal has taken up a fufticient quantity
of carbone from the fuel j the adlion of the blaft, and
the immediate heat by which the ore is furrounded,
forces the iron from its connedlions to the bottom o^
the furnace. The quality is de-carbonated, and reauced
in its value : to reftore this again, the local portion of
fuel is increafed } this adds to the expence oi manufac¬
turing, and diminiihes, in fome meafure, the fmelting
of the furnace.
“ When fplint-coal cokes are ufed in the blaft furnace,
the blaft admits of being thrown in under the higheft pof-
fible pitch of compreflion •, the uncommon denfity of
the charcoal fuftains a very powerful difcharge of blaft
before it is diflipated to facilitate the general defcent.
Moft frequently, large maffes of thele cinders pafs
through the whole ignited cavity, and are thrown out
below, pcffefling all the acutenefs of their original form
and fradlure.
“ This quality of coal is ufed in all the Curfon blaft
furnaces, where, to enfure a refpedtable produce, the
air is difcharged under a preffure equal to 3^ pounds
upon the fquare inch, or 61 inches of mercury.
N n 2 “ The
(g) “ The metal will have loft nearly all its carbone, and have become inferior in value 25 to 30 per cent.
FUR [ 284 ] FUR
Furnace. “ The fame quality of coal was ufed at the Devon
‘’-—y——' jron -worksj where at one time, having all the blaft of
a 48 inch cylinder engine thrown into one furnace,
the column of mercury fupported was upwards of feven
inches 5 the quantity of air difeharged under fuch an
impelling power, I found to exceed 2600 cubical feet
per minute.
“ The coals ufed at the Cleugh, Cleland, and Clyde
iron works, are nearly of the fame quality at each—a
mixture of fplint and foft coal. 1 ne Muirkirk and
Glenbuck iron works have a coal different from any of
the former, and in fome particular fpots it confiderably
relembles the Engliih clod coal.
Methods of “ 2d, The various methods of procuring air for the
direfling blaft furnace may be reduced to the following :—ift,
f ir 'a'-e ^ Procured by cylinders, and difeharged into the
’ furnace by means of a floating pifton heavily loaded,
and working in a large receiver or regulating cylinder :
2d, That wherein pumping cylinders only are ufed, and
the air thrown into cherts inverted in water, called
the water vault: 3d, That mode wherein the air is dil-
charged from the pumping or forcing cylinder into an
air-tight houfe, called the air vault.
By cylin- “ The firft method is the original mode of blowing,
tiers and and is ftill much ufed at thofe iron works whofe erec-
water tion been prior to the laft fifteen years. By this
blowing mocJe the quality of the air is lefs fubiefl to alteration
machines * i ^ # j # # #
’ by a change of atmolphere. The principal oojechon to
this manner of blowing, is the wmnt of capacity in the
receiving cylinder 5 which cannot be increafed fo much
as to take avray the conftderable intervals which occur
at different parts of the engine ftroke. This effedt is
fenfibly feen by the fpeedy and irregular afeent and de-
feent of the column of mercury. In water blowing
machines, where the air is raifed by three or four cylin¬
ders wmrked by means of a crank, and where the air is
received into an air cheft, and forced into the furnace
by the continual adlion of the blaft of each fucceflive
cylinder, the current of the air is fteady, and fupports
the column of mercury with great uniformity.
By means “ The ufe of the water vault has of late years become
of the wa- very general among new eredled works. Its properties
ter vault. arej a qeacJy ancl very cold blaft : the largenefs of the
receiving ciftems gives them a fufficient capacity to re¬
tain every pound of air raifed by the furnace, and dif-
tribute it to the greateft advantage. This is not the
cafe wdth the floating piftons, w7here a certain quantity
of fpare wind is thrown out at every return of the en¬
gine, left the great pifton and weight Ihould be blown
out of the cylinder altogether •, which, indeed, fome-
times happens. The only objection w7hich remains in
force againft the ufe of the water-vault, is the tendency
which the air has to take up a conflderable portion of w7a-
ter in lolution, and introduce it into the furnace. A
judicious arrangement of the conducting pipes would in
fome meafure obviate this, as well as the more, dange¬
rous tendency which water has to rife in a pipe fpeedily
emptied of its air by the flopping of the engine : a
ftream of water thus conveyed to the furnace, would be
productive of the moft awful confequences.
The air “ The air afforded by the air vault is much inferior to
vault. that obtained in the former methods. This immenfe
magazine of compreffed air generates a conflderable por¬
tion of heat, which greedily feizes the damps, which
are unavoidable in underground excavations, and con- Furnace,
veys them to the furnace. The blaft is, however, fteady >
and uniform j and when the infide of the building is
completely fecured againft the paffage of air, it is pro¬
ductive of conflderable effeCts in the furnace. In the
fummer months, however, the air becomes fo far debat¬
ed as to affeCt the quality of the iron, and change it
from gray to white. Every change in the temperature
of the atmofphere during this period, is indicated by
various changes in the furnace.
“ The largeft air-vault hitherto in ufe wras excavated
out of folid rock at the Devon iron works : the fiffures
of the rock admitted conflderable quantities of water ;
and the fame degree of damp w7ould always prevent the
poflibility of making the fide wails and roof air-tight by
means of pitch and paper, &c.
“ Befides the various natures of blaft, as to the Quality
ftrength and equality of the current afforded by dif- ^ ftate of
ferent modes of conftruCling the blownng machines, a^^j
variety in the quality of the air obtained is alfo an in¬
variable eonfequence : this is fufficiently known by the
effects which it produces in the blaft furnace, and
ought to be fubjeCt to fcrupulous examination.
“ In this, as in other countries, larger produces of
call: iron are obtained in the winter months than during
the fummer and autumn feafons : the quality of the me¬
tal is alfo much more carbonated, and with a lefs pro¬
portion of fuel. In many parts of Sweden, w’here the
fummer heats are intenfe, the manufaClurer is obliged to
blow out or flop his furnace for tw'o or three months:
not only is he unable to make carbonated metal, but
is frequently Incapable of keeping the furnace in fuch
trim as to make a produce of any quality whatever. In
Britain, during the months of June, July, and Auguft,
more efpecially in dry feafons, the quality of the iron,
with the local proportion of fuel, will be depreciated
30 per cent, and the quantity reduced to two-thirds
or three-fourths.
“ In feeking for a folution of this univerfally ac¬
knowledged fadJ, our attention is naturally directed to
an examination of the various ftates of air. That the
quality of the air in winter is more fit for combuftion
than in fummer, is a truth which requires no farther de-
monftration. Greater coolnefs, whereby an almoft
complete refrigeration of moifture takes place, and the
prefence of perhaps a greater relative proportion of oxy¬
gen, may account for this phenomenon. On the con¬
trary, the quality of air during the fummer months be¬
comes much contaminated for combuftion, by holding
in folution a much greater quantity of moifture : the
abundance of nitrous particles may alfo diminilh the
ufual proportion of oxygen.
“ This will account for the inferior effeiffs of com¬
buftion both in common fires and in the blaft furnace j
it will alfo in a great meafure tend to folve the curious
phenomenon of the pig-iron taking up lefs carbone in
fummer, although reduced with a fuperior quantity of
fuel. The air difeharged moft probably contains lefs
oxygen •, yet the metal is much lefs carbonated than at
other times, when contrary proportions of thefe exift.
Moft probably the deficient carbone is carried off by
diffolving in hydrogen, forming a conftant ftream of
hydro-carbonic gas, while the oxygen that is fet free
unites to the iron 5 and while it reduces its quality, at
der.
FUR [28
Furnace, the fame time the quantity is reduced by a portion of
*' rlie metal being loft in the fcoria(H).
But is not “To correft thefe occalional imperfections in the quali-
fufficiently ty of the air, and to devife methods to procure air al-
a*tended to. wayS for proper combuftion, ought to be an objeCt
of much confideration to the manufacturer of cart iron.
Whether fuch a conlideration has given rife to the dif¬
ferent modes of receiving and difcharging the air now
in ufe, I cannot fay ; I rather think not : a great quan¬
tity of air has hitherto been a greater object than a
certain and uniform quality *, and in a country where
there is more temperate and cold wqather than hot, it
is by far the molt important objeCt: to unite both,
however, would be an attainment of the greateft utility,
and would rank the difcoverer arnongft the well-deferv-
ing of his country. How far the mechanifm of our
prefent machinery has been adapted to the exigencies
of our atmofphere, will appear upon examining the na¬
ture and properties of the air, judged by its effects upon
the blaft furnace.
th air from “ a’r Pr0^uce^ hy the blowing and receiving
the cylin- cylinder is lefs changed, and lefs fubjeCt to change, than
that produced and lodged in contaft with a vaft body
of air or water. If the blowung cylinder is fixed in a
dry cool fpot, the only difference which the air under¬
goes is an increafe of temperature ; this is fo very con-
iiderable, that upon entering the blowing cylinder im¬
mediately after flopping the engine, I have found the
thermometer rife 15 to degrees higher than the
furrounding air. That this heat is generated in the
cylinder is unqueftionable; but whether it is occafioned
•by the friClion of the pifton leather upon the fides of the
cylinder, or expreffed from the air by its fevere com-
preflion, I have not yet been able to decide. It very
probably arifes from both caufes, although the latter is
fufficient to produce a much greater degree of heat.
What effe£l this increafe of temperature has upon com¬
buftion we are unable to fay, as the degree of heat ac¬
cumulated will at all times bear a reference to the tem¬
perature of the furrounding air, and as there is no me¬
thod likely to be devifed where heat 'would not be ge¬
nerated by the acftion of the particles of air upon each
other. When the bulb of a thermometer is held in the
middle of the current of blaft, as it iffues from the dif¬
charging pipe, a temperature is indicated as much
lower than the temperature of the furrounding air, as
the temperature of the cylinder was higher ; and it is
moft probable that a much lowTer degree would be ob¬
tained, were it not for the previous expreffion of fome
heat in the blowing cylinder. Upon the whole, I think,
the quality of the air obtained in this way of blowing
uniformly moft fit for combuftioh, provided the nume¬
rous paufes and irregularities of the current of air were
done away.
“ Air forced into the furnace under water preffure
always contains a confiderable portion of moifture j the
blaft of courfe is colder, as it iffues from the difcharg¬
ing pipe. The temperature differs fo much from that
of the external air as to fink the thermometer from 54®
dowai to 28° and 30°. Such effefts are produced by
From the
water
vault.
5] FUR
air coming into contaft with water, that, although the Far
temperature of the atmofphere is 60, 65? to 70, yet the ^
blaft at the orifice feldom rifes above 38 : the cold pro¬
duced in this manner is much increafed if the air is fur-
charged with fo much water as to be viuble in the ftate
of a fine fpray. The leading feature, therefore, of the
water vault, as to its effefts upon the quality of the air,
feems to indicate an almoft unitorm degree of tempera¬
ture in the blaft : this can only be occafioned by the
warm air in fummer taking up a greater portion of the
water in folution, the efcape of which at a fmall orifice,
and under a great degree of compreffion, produces the
very great depreffion of the thermometer. I have al¬
ready hinted at the bad effefts produced by moift blafts,
and lhall, in a proper place, more minutely attend to
them.
“ The moft inferior quality of air ufed in the blaft From
furnace is that thrown into the air vault, and afterwards a*r va
expreffed from thence by its own elailicity and the fuc-
ceifive ftrokes of the engine. The capacity of fuch a
building is from 60 to 70,000 cubical feet; this, when
filled, generates a much fuperior degree of heat to that
fenfible in the blowing cylinder. As this heat is pro¬
duced many feet diftant from any mechanical motion,
it is moft evident that it is extricated from the air, and
will readily unite with the moifture which penetrates
the building : the quality of the air introduced into the
furnace will therefore be in proportion to the quantity
of moifture taken up 5 this will be much more in fum¬
mer than in winter, as the temperature of the former
exceeds that of the latter. The fenfation, on entering
the air vault in the coldeft months, immediately after
flopping the engine, is exaftly limilar to that experi¬
enced upon entering a crowded room in the hotteft fum¬
mer day j the walls are covered with damp, and the fu¬
perior regions of the vault readily obfcure the flame of
a candle. The feeling, upon remaining in the air vault
when the engine is at wTork, is lefs marked than would
be expefted where fo great a eompreflion of air exifted;
the fenfe of hearing, owing to the moifture in the con-
dufting medium, is confiderably impaired, and refpi-
ration is performed with fome difficulty j the light of
a candle is faint, and not vifible at the diftance of a
few feet.
“ I have explained the neceffity of juft proportions
exifting betwixt the area of the interior of the blaft fur¬
nace, the quantity of air throrvn per minute, and the
quality of coal. The various modes of blowing, and
their refpeftive effefts, deduced from ftrift obfervation,
were alfo attended to. We have now, 3d, to adduce
examples where the various changes of the atmofphere,
as to heat and pseffure, occafion the moft fenfible dif¬
ference in the quantity of materials confumed, and in
the quality and quantity of metal produced.
“ It has been already demonftratcd, that the air in
winter, by containing lefs moifture, is more proper for
combuftion, and more calculated to produce carbonated
crude iron, than the air exifting at any other feafon.
From this fuperior quality the manufafturer obtains ad¬
vantages, which induce him to wifti for a continuance
of
(h) “ May.not the fuperabundant azote of the fummer atmofphere produce part of thefe effefts, by diffolving a
portion of the carbone, and forming carbonated azotic gas„as has been proved by M. Lavoifier?”
F U R
of cool air tliroagViout the whole year .
' are not, however, uniform ; they depend greai- 7 uPon
a light or heavy atmofphere. The keener
n*ii vor'iiri til
JItTeeb of a
change of
weather.
Air from'
cylinders
preferred.
are not,   , .  ~
and more
ftill the air, the'more rapid the combuftion. _ During a
fevere froft, the defcent of the materials^ facilitated ^rom
one-tenth to one-fifteenth more than in rainy or hazy
weather, and at the fame time the quality of the iron is
rather improved than impaired. When a change from
froft to fnow or rain takes place, the effecls^frequently
become almoft immediately obvious ; the colour of the
dame at the furnace head is changed ; the tuyere or the
furnace inflames, and bums with great violence ; the
lava, as it flows from the notch of the dam done,, be¬
comes lengthened and tenacious j the form ox it is
changed, and the colour undergoes the moft vilible al¬
terations ; the iron no longer retains its complete latu-
ration of carbone, but flows out fenfibly impaired of its
fluidity 5 and, when cold, the privation of carbone is
moft evident by the examination of its fracture. ^ ^
44 When fuch confequences arife from the tianiuion
fo frequent in -winter from froft to thaw, it will oe ea-
fily conceived that the change effe&ed during the mild¬
er and warmer months mult produce proportionally ad¬
ditional effeas. The increafe of temperature by taking
up, and holding in folution, a much greater portion of
aqueous vapour, will account for the ordinary effeas
which are annually obfervable in every work. Where
thefe pernicious confequences approach to extremity, a
folution of the phenomenon will likely be obtained by
the examination of the blowing apparatus. If sir is fit¬
ted for combuftion in proportion as it is free from wa¬
tery folutions, we are not to expea fimilar refults from
thefe blaft furnaces in fummer, which are blown by air
from the regulating cylinder, and thofe blown by air
from a water or air vault. I have for years feen this
faa verified, and fuperior quantity and quality of iron
during the hot weather, obtained from a furnace excit¬
ed by means of blaft, from the Ample regulating cylin¬
der, with a lefs proportion of fuel than from furnaces
whofe air was exprefted by means of the water or air
vault. Obfervations thus made, where every day the
effeas of the different means could be juftly eftimated
and compared, have led me to the following conclu-
fion : That the quality of the air, as furniftied us by
nature in our atmofphere, is uniformly moie fit for the
manufaaure of crude iron to profitable account, ^when
difcharged Amply by means of cylinders and piftons,
than when brought into contaa with moifture either in
the water vault or air vault.
“ So imperfea has the quality of the fummer air been
found in this country for combuftion, where the water
vault was ufed, that experiments have been made to re¬
pair the deficiency of effeft by introducing fleam into
the furnace by means of an aperture above the tuyere.
The inducing motive to this aft, was a belief, that
combuftion was diminiflied in confequence of a diminu¬
tion of oxygen gas during the fummer j that, by intro¬
ducing water upon a furface of materials ignited to
whitenefs, decompofition would enfue, a larger quan¬
tity of oxygen would then be prefented to the fuel, and
fuperior effefts, as to combuftion, obtained in this man¬
ner than hitherto witneffed. The idea was ingenious,
and, in its application to the manufafture of caft iron,
•original •, but the whole train of fafts, which have
fceeri detailed, as to the effefts of a fuperabundant
[ 286 j ? U K
Thefe effeas quantity of oxygen, was overlooked. The event pro-
ved in the moft complete manner, and on a g^eat icalc, *
the pernicious effefts of moifture. ihe turnace gia-
duallv became cooled -where the fleam enteied ; the
heat, fet free by the decompofition of the water and the
difengagement of oxygen, increafed to an alarming
pitch a confiderable way up the furnace ; the qua ity Oi
the iron became brittle, and as white m the fraftpre as
filver } the introduciion of the fleam was ftdl continued,
the defcending materials were inftantly robbed ot theii
heat to facilitate the decompofition of the water, and
by and by the furnace clofed entirely over, and the ex¬
periment ceafed. . or.
“ This experiment, performed m a furnace i o leei.
hJo-h, is a complete proof that heat is difengaged from
bodies while they pafs from the fluid to the aeriform
ftate. The firft inftant of the difcharge of fleam, a very
confiderable portion of heat would be withdrawn from
the filling materials and united to the water, f his, in
its turn, would be ignited to whitenefs, and dekompo-
fed upon the metals and cokes, in a fuperior region of
the furnace. The procefs continuing for feveral hours,
the materials at the tuyere were at lali fo completely de¬
prived of the caloric by the continual torrent of fleam,
that they loft fluidity, cooled rapidly, and at laft be¬
came black. Had another aperture for fleam and for
air been opened above thefe, now entirely Ihut up by
the confolidated materials, the fame eftects would have
been produced *, the immenfe quantity of caloric, dif¬
engaged by the decompofition of the ignited water,
would now approach nearer to the top of the furnace,
another ftratum of filling materials would again become
confolidated, till in the end the whole furnace would
be fet fall from top to bottom. From the introduction
of fleam into the blaft furnace, either as fuch, or under
a fuperior degree of expanfive force, the following im¬
portant truths maybe learned: lhat the quantity of
oxygen which enters into our atmofpheric compound, is
generally more fit for the manufafture of the fupenor
qualities of crude iron than any mixture which may be
furnilhed by the addition of water : that, although the
decompofition of water, by furnilhing a fuperior quan¬
tity of oxygen, and by throwing off a relative propor¬
tion of caloric, increafes the effefts of combuftion im¬
mediately in the vicinity of this chemical analyfi^ $
as the water had previoufly abftrafted the heat necellary
to its decompofition from the inferior ftrata, a greatei
quantity by no means exifts in the furnace. T he water,
in faft, only ferves as a medium to convey the heat
from one particular fpot; but, by attempting to fly off
with it, meets decompofition, and renders up not^ only
the abftrafted heat, but that which was contained in the
oxygen of its decompofition. . _
“ 4th, The compreffion and velocity of the air dif-Comptef-
charged into the furnace, confiderably affeft the refults of
of the fmelting operations. In the confideration of this^ air con-
fubjeft, the various qualities of coals will be found to lidered.
have an intimate connexion with the area of the dn-
charging pipe and the compreflion of the blaft. It has
already been more than once obferved, that a foft or
mixed quality of coal is more fufceptible of combuftion
than either the fplint or clod coal: the confequence o.
this is, that, unlefs the neceffary compreffion of air is
ufed, decompofition is too early accomplifhed, and the
cokes become oxygenated by combuftion in a greater
run L 2
Furnace, ratio than is proper for the carbonation of the metal.
jo avoid this, the column of air ought to be difchar-
ged, in the cafe of foft coab being unavoidably ufed,
under inch a degree of compreflion, as to refill entire
decompofition in the ignited palfage. In that caie, the
iron does not fo immediately come into fontafl with
oxygen, as the decompofition is chiefly cfiefted in the
Superior ftrata of the leparating materials. Under the
former circumftance, of a loofe unconnected dream of
air being thrown upon cokes ealily combuftible, the
quality of the metal, with the fame quantity of fuel,
becomes oxygenated, the tuyere becomes fiery, and fre¬
quently emits fparks of metallic oxyde. The leparating
iron may be viewed as it oozes from the ore m fmail
globular maiTes, frequently on fire, changing itsv Hate
to that of an oxyde. The combination of oxygen, by
altering its denlity, makes it fubjeft to the re-a&ion of
the blaft, which at times gives it a direction from the
tuyere with confiderable violence. J hole parts of the
iron (by far the greatefl) thus oxydated, which efcape
not at the tuyere, mix along with the fufed earths of the
ores and limeitone, alter their colour, and flow from
the furnace more unrevived than at their firft introduc¬
tion. It is, however, very different, even with this in¬
ferior quality of coal, where the denuty of the blalt is
proportioned to the inflammability of tne fuel. Quali¬
ties and quantities of crude iron may be produced irony
this, equal to thofe from coals reckoned of a fuperior
nature. The metal becomes as highly faturated with
carbonic principle as that made from clod or fplint coal.
The tuyere .evinces that decompofition is efFeCted in its
proper place. The fluid mafles of iron, as they become
exprefled from the ore, are Ihivered into fpray, before
the denfe column of air, without exhibiting the leal!
lymptom of decompofition. 1 hey again unite under
the level of the blaft, increafe in lize, and fink through
the fluid ftratum of earths to the bottom of the furnace.
This faCI hoWs out one of the ftrongeft proofs of the
great affinity which carbone and iron mutually poiTefs
towards each other. In the cafe of the iron feparating
in an oxygenated ftate deftitute ot carbone, it immedi¬
ately falls a prey to its affinity for oxygen. In the lat¬
ter cafe, the iron, being completely carbonated, relifts
decompofition by the facrifice of a very fmail portion
of its carbone. It further proves, tnat the affinity of
oxygen is greater to carbone than to iron $ and that,
before iron becomes oxydated, all the carbone is taken
up.
“ The continuity of the particles of fplint coals ren¬
ders the cokes of difficult combuftion, capable of with-
ftanding a moft powerful difcharge of air, in quantity
and in the degree of compreffion, without entailing ef-
fe6Is fimilar to thofe produced with the ufe of fofter
coals : this renders the operations with fplint coal lefs
fubjedl to cafualty and to change. Carbonated iron
with a proper blaft is more uniformly obtained, and
frequently a very fuperior quantity. Similar effecls are
produced vrith the clod coal, but in a more eminent
degree. Difcharging pipes are ufed four inches in the
diameter, and the compreffion only equal to two pounds
on the fquare inch 5 yet the fame fatal eftefts are not
known as in the ufe of foft coal, which, with fuch a co¬
lumn of air, would require the preilure to be equal to
three pounds and a half upon the fquare inch at leaft.
‘6 5th, Upon the form and conftruvhon of the dif-
87 ] F U It
charging pipe effe&s of more confiderable importance Furnace. >
depend than is either generally allowed or even concei- v
ved. At fome iron works, no peculiar fliape is adopt-Forrn of ^
ed : if the tube is fufficient to convey the air, and the difcharging
mouth of it nearly of the fize- wanted, the interior con-pipe im-
ftruftion is entirely overlooked. This indifference,
however, is by no means general : varioufly conftru&ed
pipes are ufed at different works, and at lome places it
is preferred to throw in the air rrom two pipes whole
areas are only equal to one of the ufual fize.
“ To underftand properly the obje£Iionable parts of
the conftruclion of nofe pipes, it mull be recollefted,
that much has been faid to depend upon the blaft: reach¬
ing the oppofite extremity of the furnace, as little im¬
paired of the compa&nefs and velocity of it? original
difcharge as poffible. When it is otherwife, the refults
in the internal operations of the furnace mull be confe-
quently altered. If the comprefiion is diminiftied one-
half or two-thirds when it reaches the oppofite wall, de-
compofition 1 in that portion muft be effected before the
air has attained its elevated fituation in the furnace. It
is even poffible to difperfe the whole column of air in
fuch a manner that the ignited materials of the oppofite
fide may receive little of its effects to promote com¬
buftion.
“ A difcharging pipe is frequently ufed, in length
12 inches or more, the difcharging aperture 3 inches,
the other end 5 inches ; but this is arbitrary, depend¬
ing upon the lize of the adjoining pipe. From a pipe
thus conftrufted, the air difperfes or diverges too fud-
denly 5 and at a fmail diftance from the orifice, a con¬
fiderable portion of it anfwers but imperfectly the pui-
pofes of combuftion. Part of it is fpeedily decompofed,
and the oxygen brought into immediate contaCt with
the iron. The quantity of metal is reduced ^ by the
former, and the quality injured by the latter. I hough
long cuftom, by a continued ufe of fuch ftiapcd pipes,
has prevented their pernicious effeCts from being obler-
ved, yet they mult prove in many cafes detrimental to
the economical diftribution of air, and the manufacture
of iron.
“ A nofe pipe, of another conftruCtion, even more
exceptionable, is alfo ufed ; and the air dilperfes ftill
more fuddenly, in a degree fomewhat proportionate"
to the more fudden contraction of the pipe, a confider¬
able quantity never enters the furnace, but, linking
on the exterior wall, is thence repelled.
« A difcharging pipe, of the following conftruction, form
would obviate, in a great meafure, the imperfections of of conftruc •
the two former: the length of the tapered piece is i2tlon-
inches, of the ftraight pipe, fix inches j extreme diame¬
ter, as in the others, five inches j diameter of ftraight
pipe, three inches. From fuch a pipe it is conceived
that the blaft will proceed to the greateft poffible dif¬
tance unimpaired in compreffion and velocity. So far,
therefore, as the abfolute force of the blaft and breadth
of the furnace will permit, decompofition will be pre¬
vented on the level of the pipe, and the manufacturer
freed from the evils which I have above detailed, as at¬
tendant upon decompofition in that quarter.”
The following is a defeription, alfo taken from Mr Defcription
Mufliet, of an air and a water vault which is employed °n
to equalize the difcharge of air into a blaft furnace. . vault.
“ Fig. 7. reprefents a vertical feCtion of the elevation
of an air-vault 60 feet long and 30 feet wide, confifting
FUR [ 288 1 F U II
^Turr ace. oi four arches of regularly progreflive fizes. I his build-
-—v—ing is generally conflrufted under the bridgehoufe,
where the materials a^ daily colle&ed for filling the
furnace. AB, reprefents the acclivity to the furnace
top. The fpace betwixt the arch tops and the level of
the floor is filled with materials as denfe as can be pro¬
cured. The walls of the under part are three feet
thick, befides a lining of brick and plafter from 18
inches to two feet. Still further precautions are necef-
fary, and alternate layers of pitch and flout paper are
requifite to prevent the efcape of the compreffed air.
C, a view of the arched funnel which conveys the air
■from tire cylinder to the vault. Large iron pipes with
a well fitted door, are preferable, and lefs apt to emit
air. D, an end view of the pipe by wrhich the blafl is
•carried to the furnace.
“ Fig. 8. is a horizontal febtion of fig. 7. at the dotted
line a b, reprefenting the width of the crofs arches, which
are thrown in each partition to preferve an eafy com¬
munication betwixt the vaults. D, is a feftion of the
firft range of pipes, meant to condudl the air to the fur¬
nace. In like manner pipes may be taken off from any
part of the vault for the different purpofes of blowing
furnaces, fineries, hollow fires, &c.
“ Fig. 9. reprefents a vertical longitudinal feftion of
what is generally called the water-vault. The walls of
this building may be ere£Ied to the height of eight or
nine feet, their thicknefs fimilar to thofe of the air
vault. A brick lining, and even puddling with clay
betwixt it and the ftone building, is neceffary to pre¬
vent the w ater from oozing by the accumulated pref-
fure. A, is an end view of the horizontal range of
pipes w-hich conveys the blafl from the blowing cylinder
to the inverted chef!. EBB, the range which condufts
the air to the interior of the inverted chert, and con¬
veys it to the furnaces, proceeding along the extremi¬
ties of the columns broken off at BE. C, an inverted
chert made of wood, iron, or even of well-hewn flags
fet on end and tightly cemented, is 54 feet within in
length, 18 feet wide, and 1 2 feet high. The dimen-
lions, however, vary at different works. When the
chert is made of wood or iron, it is generally bolted by
means of a flange to the logs on which it is fupported,
left the great preffure of the air fhould overcome the
gravitatidfi of the chert, and difplace it. DD, view of
the centre log, and ends of the crofs logs, on which the
chert is laid. Thefe Ihould meafure 18 inches in height,
fo as that the mouth of the chert may be that diftance
from the furface of the floor, and the water allowed to
retreat from the interior of the chert with the leaf!
portable obftruclion. EE, the outfide walls of the
building^. FF, the brick-work, made perfe£lly w^ater
tight. The dotted line G, reprefents the furface of
the water when at reft. Let the depth of the w^ater
outfide and infide of the chert, be eftimated at four
feet. When the engine is at work, fhould the preffure
of the air have forced the water down to the dotted line
H, three feet and a half diftant from the line G and
only fix inches from the mouth of the chert, it follows
that the water muft have rifen in the outer building, or
chert, three feet and a half above G, and have its
highert furface nearly at reft at I. In this cafe the
ftrength of the blaft is reckoned equal to feven feet of
-water, or nearly fix inches of mercury. The fpace be¬
twixt the cheft and outfide building is three feet. When
2.
the engine is at reft, and the water has affumed its level, Furnace,
the quantity of water within the cheft fhould be equal “v u*
to that without.
“ Fig. 10. is a ground plan of fig. 9. The crofs logs
on which the ciftern is fupported are dotted within, but
drawn full in the fpace betwixt the flange of the cheft
and outer building. The breadth of the flange-tops of
the binding bolts, and thicknefs of the metal of the
chert, are alfo drawn. The letters bear a reference to
thofe in fig. 9.”
An account of fome curious phenomena obferved by51-ngUjar
Mr Roebuck in the air vault of a blaft furnace has been phenomena
publifhed in the 5th volume of the Tranfaflions of the oblerved in
Royal Society of Edinburgh. This, as well as fome™J^r
remarks of praftical utility on the management of blaft
furnaces, we doubt not, wall be intererting to our
readers. We fhall therefore give it in his own words.
It is addreffed in the form of a letter to Sir James
Hall.
“ I have (fays he) examined my memorandums, con¬
cerning the obfervations I made on the condenfed air
in the air vault of the Devon iron works, near Alloa,
on the north fide of the frith of Forth ; and, according
to your requeft, 1 now tranfmit you an account of
them j and alfo of an experiment I made, wdien a part¬
ner and manager of thefe works, in order to increafe
the produce of blaft furnaces.
The two blaft furnaces at Devon are of large dimen-
fions, each being 44 feet high, and about 13 feet wide
in the bofties, or wideft part, and are formed on a fteep
bank, bytwTOjpits funk in a very folid ftratum of coarfe-
grained freeftone.
Thefe pits w7ere aftenvards ftiaped and lined in the
ufual manner of blaft furnaces, v/ith common bricks and
fire bricks, and the hearth was laid with large blocks
of the ftone that had been dug out, and which ferve
the purpqfe of fire ftones. At the back of the two
furnaces, next the bank, the air vault is excavated, and
formed by a mine driven in the folid rock, diftant from
the furnaces about 16 feet. The bottom of the air
vault is only about four feet higher than the level of
the bottom of the furnaces. This vault has an aper¬
ture at one end to receive the air from the blowing
machine, and has twro at the oppofite end, one of which
receives the edu&ion pipe, and the other is a door to
give admittance occafionally into the vault. As the
rock is extremely clofe and folid, the vault is dry, ex¬
cept that a little w7ater oozes very gently from the fide
next the bank in fmall drops, and does not appear to ex¬
ceed an Englilh pint in 24 hours.
Thefe furnaces are provided with air, or blaft, as it
is termed, by the means of a fire-engine of the old, or
Newcomen’s conftruftion. The diameter of the fteam
cylinder is 48^ inches 5 and the fquare area of its pifton
being about 1866|- fquare inches, the power of this
fort of engine cannot be rated at more than 71b. to the
fquare inch, amounting in all to about 130621b. This
power was employed to w7ork an air pump, or blowing
cylinder, of 78 inches diameter, and about feven feet
long. The number of fquare inches on the pifton of
the air pump is 4778, and therefore this area, being
multiplied by 2-\, wall produce 13139, being a refift-
ance that nearly balances the above-rated pow7er, and
Ihows that the air, which was expelled from the air
pump, could not be condenfed more in the ordinary
way
FUR
[ 289 ]
F U R
of the air
vault.
Trial of the
furnace
fails.
Furnace, way of working, than with a comprefling power of a-
bout 2|-lb. on each fquare inch. As the engine was
not regulated, at firft, to make a longer llroke than
about four feet eight inches, only one furnace being
ufed, the quantity of air expelled at each ilroke of the
machine was about 155 cubic feet, which it difcharged
through a valve into the air vault, about 16 times in a
minute. When two furnaces afterwards were blown,
the engine was regulated to work much quicker, and
Dlmenfions a longer ftroke. The air vault is 72 feet long,
14 feet wide, and 13 feet high ; and contains upwards
of 13,000 cubic feet, or above 80 times the contents of
the air pump. The top, Tides, and bottom of this vault,
where the lead fiffure could be difcovered in the beds
of the rock, ivere carefully caulked with oakum, and
afterwards pladered, and then covered with pitch and
paper. The intention of blowing into the vault is to
equalize the blad, or render it uniform, which it effects
more completely than any machinery ever yet contrived
for the fame purpofe. The air is conduced from the
vault by the eduftion pipe, of 16 inches diameter, into
an iron bcpt or wind ched, and from this it goes off to
each furnace, in two fmaller pipes that terminate in
nozles, or blow-pipes, of only 2-^ to 3^ inch diameter, at
the tuyere of the furnace.
“ When the furnace was put in blad, after having
been filled with coakes, and gently heated for more
than fix weeks, the keepers allowed it to have but little
blad at fird, giving it a fmall blow-pipe of about 2^
inch diameter, and likewife letting off a very confider-
able quantity of air, at the efcape or fafety valve on
the top of the iron wind ched, as it is a received though
erroneous opinion among them, that the blad mud be
let on very gradually for feveral months. From the
condruftion of this valve, it was impodible to afcertain
the exa£l proportion of the blad which was thus lod,
but I believe it was very confiderable. The confe-
quence was, that the furnace, after it had been in blad
for feveral days, never feemed to arrive at its proper
degree of heat, but was always black and cold about
the tuyere in the hearth, and appeared in danger of
choking, or gobbing, as it is termed.
“ After various experiments tried in vain, by the
keepers and the company’s engineer, and others, (in¬
deed they tried every thing, except giving the furnace
a greater quantity of air, which, as I afterwards afcer-
tained, was all that it wanted), they concluded, that
the air vault was the caufe of the whole mifchief j and,
to confirm their opinion, they faid they had now dif¬
covered that water was, in confiderable quantities,
driven out of the air vault through the blow-pipe, which
cooled the furnace; and they infilled, that the power
of the engine was fuch as to force water out of the
folid rock $ fo that this method of equalizing the blalt
never would fucceed. The other managing partner
alarmed by thefe reprefentations, that
confult with the engineer, and others,
a fubftitute for the air vault at any ex-
The caufes
invefti-
gated.
was fo much
he began to
about finding
pence.
“ As the plan of the blowing apparatus had been
adopted at my recommendation, and was now fo loud¬
ly condemned on account of the water, I had other mo¬
tives, than mere intereft, for trying to become better
acquainted with the phenomena attending it. I accor¬
dingly determined to go into the air vault, and to re-
VOL. IX. Part I.
main inclofed in the condenfed air while the engine was Furnace,
blowing the furnace. It is an experiment that perhaps
never was made before, as there never exilled fuch an
opportunity. I could not perfuade the engineer, or any
other ot the operative people about the work, to be my
companions, as they imagined that there was much dan¬
ger in the experiment. Mr Neil Ryrie, however,
one of the clerks of the Devon company, had fufficient
confidence in my reprefentations to venture himfelf along
with me.
“ The machine had been Hopped about two hours Phenomena
previous to our entering the vault, and we found a ‘n au^
dampnefs and miftinefs in it, which difappeared Toon pg^uliar
after the door was Unit faff upon us, and the engine :e fnions
began to work in its ufual manner. After four or five of perfons
ftrokes of the engine, we both experienced a lingular within it.,
fenfation in our ears, as if they were Hopped by the
fingers, which continued as long as we remained in the (
condenfed air. Our breathing was not in the leaft af*
fecffed. I had no thermometer with me, but the tem¬
perature of the air felt to us the fame as that without
the vault. Sound was much magnified, as we perceived,
when we talked to each other, or rtruck anything 5 par¬
ticularly, the noife of the air efcaping at the blow-pipe,
or wafte-valve, was very loud, and feemed to return
back to us. There was no appearance of wind to
difturb the flame of our candles j on the contrary, I was
furprifed to find, that when we put one of them into
the eduftion pipe, which conveys the wind from the
vault to the furnaces, it was not blown out. There
was not the fmalleft appearance of any drops of water
iffuing out of this pipe. The oozing and dropping of
water from the fide of the rock, next the bank, feemed
the fame as before the condenfation was made in the
vault. In Ihorl^ everything appeared, in other refpefts,
the fame as when we were in the common atmofphere.
Having remained about an hour in the condenfed'air,
and fatisfied ourfelves that no water, during that time,
that we could in the leaft difcover, was agitated and
forced out of the rock and vault by the power of the
blaft, as was imagined and infilled on, we gave the
fignal to flop the engine. As foon as it ceafed to work,
and the condenfation abated, and before the door of the
vault was unfcrewed, the whole vault, in a few feconds,
became filled with a thick vapour, fo that we could
hardly fee the candles at four or five yards diftance.
The door being now opened, the work people, anxious
to know our lituation, and what had occurred, came
into the vault, and prevented any further obfervations.
“ I now endeavoured to account for this curious ap¬
pearance of the water, which only Ihowed itfelf occa-
fionally, in very fmall quantities, at the tuyere, at a hole
I ordered to.be made in the bottom of the wind cheft
to colleft it more accurately, for it never was ob-
ferved, but either when the engine, after working
llowly, was made to work quicker, or, after havino-
been Hopped for a few minutes, was fet to work again.
“ I confidered the vapour which we had difcovered The vapour
in the vault to arife from the moifture of the fide 0f °'>ferved in
the rock next the furnace, which being expelled by accounted
the great heat of the furnace, and converted1 into va- ^ounte
pour, was. able to force its way through the pores of
the rock into, the vault, but that being in a manner
confined within the rock, by the preffure of the con¬
denfed air, it found itfelf at liberty to come into the
O o vault.
FUR [290] F'UR
Furnace, vault, only when the condenfation abated confiderably,
* "i-/—1 ‘ qj. was totally removed by the going flow, or flopping
of the engine> It allb occurred to me, that the air,
in a flate of condenfation, might poflibly be capable
of holding a greater quantity of water in folution,
which might precipitate fuddenly into vapour or mift
when the condenfation abated. I imagined, there¬
fore, that the very fmall quantities of water we at
times difcovered, proceeded from nothing elfe but this
vapour, in its paffage to the furnace along wdth the
blaft, being conderded into water, by the coolnefs of
the edudlion pipe and iron wind cheft. The quantity
of water did not appear to amount to a gallon in
twenty-four hours.
“ A few days after I had made this experiment,
the w'ater ceafed entirely to make its appearance,
either at the tuyere, or at the hole in the wind cheft,
but the furnace did not come into heat for a long
while after, and indeed not till the keepers let much
more air into it by a larger blow-pipe, and allowed
kfs air to efcape at the fafety valve. It is probable that
the rock was now become perfeftly dry by the con¬
tinued heat of the furnace.
“ My experiment had the good effefl to remove all
the prejudices againft the plan I had adopted of blow¬
ing the furnaces, and likewife prevented the other
partner from laying out a large Turn of money, by
flopping the works, and altering the blowing machi¬
nery. Indeed, it has fince been admitted, by all who
have feen it at wmrk, to be the moft Ample and effec¬
tive method of equalizing the blaft which has yet been
put in pra&ice.
Witid “ This experiment led me, fome time afterwards,
gauge ap- i0 apply a wind gauge that I contrived, to afcertain
AefFefls Prec^e^y the ftate of the condenfation of the air thrown
into the furnaces. I found that a column of quick-
Alver was raifed flve inches, and fometimes, though
feldom, Ax inches, and, in the interval of the engine to
receive air into the air pump, it fell only half of an inch.
At this time only one furnace was worked. But when
two furnaces were in blaft, the engine only raifed the
mercurial gage about four inches, becaufe the Devon
company, for feveral reafons, did not, while I conti¬
nued a partner, think proper to allow the blowing ma¬
chinery to be completed, by putting to wmrk their
fecond boiler of 20 feet diameter for the Are engine,
according to my original deAgn, which, by adjufting
the machinery, would have enabled us ta blow two
furnaces, wdth two boilers, with as much effefl, in
proportion, as one furnace with one boiler. This in-
ftrument had the advantage of enabling the work
people to difcover the real power of their blaft, and
know the exaft condition of the air valves, and the
gearing of the blowing pifton j for if thefe were not
tight, and in order, (although the engine might, to
appearance, be doing well, by making the fame number
of difcharges of the air pump as ufual per minute),
yet the wind gage would not rife fo high, and would
Ihew that there was an imperfection fomewhere, by
reafon of a quantity of air efcaping at the valves, or
pifton, that could not fo eaftly otherwife be known.
This contrivance was conftdered as of much ufe, and
was afterwards always quoted in the company’s journal
books, to ftiow the aftual ftate of the blowing machine,
1% comparing the daily produce of the furnaces.
“ I hope you will not think me tedious, when I Furnace,
explain to you another experiment, which appears to ^
me to be of conftderable importance to all manufac¬
turers of caft iron.
“ I had reafon to conjecture, from my own obfer-
vations on the effedfs of blowing machinery on blaft
furnaces, as well as from the knowledge I had ac¬
quired from my father Dr Roebuck, and from my
communications wdth other experienced iron mafters,
that a great part of the power of fuch machinery was
mifapplied in general pradtice, by throwing air into
furnaces writh much greater velocity than neceffary, The velo-
and that, if this velocity was, to a certain degree di- city of the
miniftied, the fame pow'er, by properly adjufting theb^aft*
blowing machinery, of whatever nature, would be ca¬
pable of throwing into the furnace a proportionally
greater quantity of air. For, Since the quantities of
amj fluid, iffuing through the fame aperture, are as the
fquare roots of the preffure; it follows, that it would
require four times the preffure, or power, to expel
double the quantity of air, through the fame aperture,
in the fame time 5 but if the area of the aperture w'as
doubled, then the quantity of air expelled by the fame
power, and in the fame time, wmuld be increafed in
the ratio of the fquare root of 2 to 1, though its velo¬
city would be diminilhed exadlly in the fame propor¬
tion. Again : I conAdered that the quantity and in-
tenAty of heat, produced in blaft furnaces, and confe-
quently its effedls in increaftng the produce, might be
only in proportion to the quantity of air decompofed
in the procefs of combuftion, without regard to its
greater velocity; that is to fay, whether or not the
fame quantity of air was forced, in the fame time,
into the furnace through a fmall pipe, or through one
of larger dimenAons j for, in attending to the procefs
of a common air furnace for remelting of iron, where
there is a very large quantity of air admitted through
the large areas between the bars, it is well knowm, that
a much greater intenAty of heat is produced than takes
place in a blaft furnace 5 and yet the air does not enter
into the Are through the bars w?ith increafed denflty or
great velocity. I therefore thought it probable, that
increaAng the quantity of air thrown into the blaft fur¬
nace in a conftderable degree, although the velocity or an(j ;ts
denflty might be much lefs, would have the effeft of in- quantity
creaftng its heat, and operations, and produce. And confulere‘h
as, from the principles above ftated, with regard to the
machinery, I faw I could greatly increafe the quantity
of air thrown into the furnace, by enlarging the dia¬
meter of the blow-pipe, and regulating the engine ac¬
cordingly, without being obliged to employ more
powTer, I was anxious to make this experiment.
“ A fyftem of management, of which I did by no
means approve, was adopted by the other partners of’
the Devon company, foon after the works were begun
to be erected j and, in the profecution of it, they or¬
dered their fecond furnace to be put in blaft, wdtheut
permitting thofe meafures to be taken that w ere necef¬
fary to provide and maintain a fufficient ftock of mate¬
rials j and alfo without allowing their blowing machine
to be completed, according to the original deAgn, by
the addition of its fecond boiler. As might have been
expended, a trial of feveral months to carry on two
furnaces, with only half the pow7er of fleam that w7as
neceffary, and an inadequate ftock of materials, proving
unfuccefsfulj
FUR [
Furnace, unfuccefsful, tlie company, as a remedy, inftead
"v making up the above deficiencies, ordered one of the
furnaces to be blown out, and flopped altogether.
This improper meafure, however, afforded me the op¬
portunity of immediately putting in practice the plan
I have mentioned.
“ When one of the furnaces was flopped, the other
continued to be blown by a blow-pipe of 2^ inches
diameter, and the produce of the furnace, for feveral
weeks thereafter, was not 20 tons of iron per week at
an average. The engine at this time was making
about 16 ftrokes a minute, with a ftroke of the air
pump, about 4 feet 8 inches long; but when I altered
the diameter of the blow-pipe, firft to 3, and immedi-
and efta- ately after to 3^ inches diameter, and regulated the
bliftied by working gears of the engine, fo as to make a ftroke of
experiment.^ feet 2 inches long, and about 19 ftrokes in a mi¬
nute, on an average, the produce was immediately in-
creafed. It continued to be, on an average of nine
months immediately after this improvement, at the rate
of 33 tons of iron per wreek, of as good quality as
formerly; for, during this period, from the 2lft No¬
vember 1795 to July 30, 1796, this one furnace yielded
1188 tons of iron. No more coals were confumed in
working the blaft engine, or other expences about the
blowing machine incurred, and therefore no more power
was employed to produce this great effecft. It is alfo of
much importance to remark, that the confumption of
materials, from which this large produce wras obtained,
was by no means fo great as formerly: The furnace
required very confiderably lefs fuel, lefs iron Jlone, and
left limefone, than were employed to produce the fame
quantity of iron by the former method of blowing ; and
according to the ftatements made out by the company’s
orders, as great a change was effefted in the economical
part of the bufmefs.
“ From the fuccefs of this experiment, fo well au¬
thenticated, and continued for feveral months, I am led
to be of opinion, that all blaft furnaces, by a proper ad-
iuftment of fuch machinery as they are provided with,
might greatly and advantageoully increafe their pro¬
duce, by affuming this as a principle, viz. ‘ That with
the given power it is rather hy a great quantity of air
thrown into the furnace, with a moderate velocity, than
hy a lefs quantity thrown in with a greater velocity, that
the greatejl benefit is derived, in the fmelting of iron
flones, in order to produce pig-iron."1 However, it is by
291 FUR
of experiment alone, perhaps, that we can be enabled Furnace,
to find out the exadl .relations of power, velocity,
and quantity of air requifite to produce a maximum of
effedt (1).”
In order to illuftrate what is faid above, a ground
plan of the air vault and furnaces of the Devon Iron
Works is given in Plate CCXXVI. j of which the ex¬
planation follows.
Explanation of Fig. 11.
A, The air vault, formed by a mine driven in the
folid rock of coarfe-grained freeftone.
B, The blowing cylinder.
C, The pipe that conveys the air from the blowing
cylinder to the air vault.
D, The eduftion pipe that carries the air from the
air vault to the iron wind-cheft.
E, The iron wind cheft (about 2- feet cube),
in which is inferted a wind-gauge, reprefented in
fig. 12.
FF, The two blowr-pipes for each furnace, which
terminate in apertures of inches diameter at the
tuyeres of the furnaces.
GG, The two blaft furnaces, placed in two pits funk
in the folid rock.
HH, The tymps of the furnaces from whence the
caft iron is run off into the cafting room, LL.
O, The door to give occafional admittance into the
air vault.
M, The excavation, in which is placed the blowing
machine.
Explanation of Fig. 12.
A, The end of the wind-gauge (about 12 inches
long), which is open to the atmofpftere, being half filled
with quickfilver.
B, The end that is inferted in the iron wind cheft,
and expofed to the preffure of the condenfed air of the
air vault.
To Mr Mulhet we are alfo indebted for the following Defcription
account of air furnaces, which are employed in iron of an air
founderies for the purpofe of cafting large pieces of ord-*urr,aC€l
nance, and other heavy articles.
Thefe furnaces, he obferves, “ are employed for melt¬
ing pig iron wdth the flame of pit coal. Furnaces of
this kind are conftrufted of various fizes according to
circumftances. The fmall fizes will run down from
O o 2 feven
(l) “ If () be the quantity of a fluid, iffuing in a given time through an aperture of the diameter D, V its
velocity, and P the power by which it is forced through the aperture: then the area of that aperture being
as Da, the quantity of the fluid iffuing in the given time will be as VD*, or VD*—Q.
“ Again, this quantity multiplied into its velocity, will be as the momentum of the fluid expelled, or as the
power by which it is expelled, that is, VaD*=P, or VD= \IP.
“ Here, therefore, if D is given, V is as ^/P, as Mr Roebuck affirms. Alfo, becaufe V and alfo
v/P
Vrr—g, QrzD v^P, fo that, while P remains the fame, will increafe as D increafes, and V will diminifli
in the fame ratio.
“ The problem, therefore, of throwing the greateft quantity of air into the furnace, with a given' power,
ftriftly fpeaking, has no maximum, but the largeft aperture of which the engine can admit muft be the beft.
It is probable, however, that there is a certain velocity with which the air ought to enter into the furnace;
this will produce a limitation of the problem, which, as Mr Roebuck fuggefts, is not likely to be difcovered
but by experiment.” Eotc hy Mr Playfair.
FUR [ 292 ] FUR
Furnace, fevcn to ten hundred weight, and are ufed in {mall
■~v founderies for what the trade call jobbing.
“ Big. 13. (Plate CCXXVI.) a ground plan of two
large air furnaces, and chimney for melting pig or call
iron with the flame of pit coal.
“ The letters ABCD point out the exterior dimen-
fions of the ftalk or chimney, which is firft erected,
leaving two openings or arches into which the fore-part
of the furnaces are afterwards built. The breadth of
the chimney at the particular place which the plan ex¬
hibits is 16 feet from A to B, and from A to D or from
B to C fix feet fix inches. The plan is drawn at that
elevation where the flame enters the chimney by the
flue or throat, narrowed on purpofe to throw back part
of the flame, and keep the furnace equally hot through¬
out, as may be more particularly viewed in the vertical
fedtion, fig. 14.
“ EE, the furnace bars on wdiich the coals refl, and
where the combuftion is maintained.
“ FF, openings called teafing holes, by which the
coals are introduced to repair the fire.
u GG, fire brick buildings called bridges. Thefe
are meant to concentrate the flame, that it may a£t as
violently on the metal as poflible. Upon the height of
the bridge much depends in fufing the metal fpeedily,
and with little lofs. The height of this may be feen in
the vertical fedlion, fig. 14. G.
“ HH, the charging doors, by which the metal is
introduced in the fhape and {late of pig iron, lumps,
{craps, 8tc. &c. The iron generally occupies the fur¬
nace acrofs to I, called the back wall, and is never
meant to approach the bridge nearer than the dotted
line, left the metal in melting ftiould run back into
v the grates, in place of defcending into the general re-
fervoir or cavity belowr. The corners or notches, h, fi, h, h,
receive a flout call iron frame lined wuth fire bricks.
This is hung by means of a chain and pulley, and can
be raifed and depreffed at pleafure. This frame is, pro¬
perly ipeaking, the charging door, and is alw7ays care¬
fully made air tight by means of moiftened fand.
“ KK, the flues or openings by which the flame en¬
ters the chimney. Thefe are 15 inches by 1 o. On
maintaining thefe openings of a proportionate fize to
the other parts depend in a great meafure the powers
and ceconomy of the furnace.
“ EL, lading doors, by which ladles are introduced,
in the cafe of {mall furnaces, to lift out the metal and
diftribute it to the various moulds.
“ MMMM, binding bolts to limit within proper
bounds the expanfion which takes place in the building
when the furnace is highly heated.
“ Fig. 14. vertical fe&ion of one of the furnaces, and
its appropriate ftalk or chimney.
44 E, the grates.
44 F, the teafing hole.
“ G, the bridge.
44 H, the charging door.
‘4 K, the flue or opening into the chimney.
44 L, the lading door.
44 MM, the binder or binding bolt.
44 N, the interior of the {talk or chimney, 30 inches
(quare.
44 OO, the fire brick work, nine inches thick.
“ PP, fpace of two inches for fluffing with fand.
44 Qf), common brick building.
44 RR, caft iron lintels, over which are thrown Furnace,
double nine inch arches, fo that at any time the inferior
building can be taken down to make repairs, without
fhaking. or in the leaft injuring the chimney.
44 S. The dotted lines here are meant to reprefent
what is called the tapping hole. When a large piece
of goods is to be caft, lifting the metal with ladles would
be impra&icable. A flrarp pointed bar is driven up
this opening. The iron then flows freely out into a
large bafon of fand made for its reception. It is then
conduced, by collateral channels, into the mould.
44 The fpace under the curved dotted line from G to
L, by S, is filled with a mixture of fand and allies. When
the furnace is prepared to melt, the wffiole of the bot¬
tom receives a ftratum of fliarp clean fand about tw7o
inches thick. This is broken up at night, and freffi
fand is fubftituted for it before the fire is kindled in the
morning;
44 Fig. 15. is a horizontal fetlion of the chimney or
ftalk, taken where the flues aflume a perpendicular di¬
rection. The letters in this figure correfpond to thofe
in the vertical feClion, fig. 14. The height of the
chimney ought not to be lefs than 45 feet : if 50 feet,
the effeCt will be fooner and of courfe better pro¬
duced.
44 The effeCl wiftied to be produced in air furnaces is
the fufion of a certain portion of pig or caft iron, for the
purpofe of being poured or run into moulds to form ar¬
ticles of almoft every defeription.
44 The preparation previous to melting is as follows : Preparation
After the bottom of the furnace is laid, and fmoothed0^6 *ur’
with frelh fand, and all the openings made air tight, nace‘
the furnace man introduces a kindling at the teafing
hole, accompanied with new pit coal. In a few
minutes a confiderable volume of dark flame mixed
with fmoke is produced. The fire quickly gathers
ftrength ; more coal is introduced 5 and the furnace now
becomes filled with a yellow-coloured flame. By con¬
tinuing this operation for an hour, or an hour and a
quarter, the furnace and flame will have become com¬
pletely white ; the latter fteady, and at times apparently
without motion. The furnace man now judges the. bot¬
tom to have been fufficiently hardened for receiving the
pig iron without any rilk of finking. The charging door
is now opened, and the pig metal thrown carefully and
regularly upon that part of the bottom formerly de-
feribed as being appropriated for its reception. The
door is again clofed and made air tight, and the ope¬
ration of firing continued with unremitting care and at¬
tention.
“ The time of melting depends entirely upon the
quantity of metal introduced. The furnaces deferibed
above are capable of melting from 50 to 60 hundred
weight of metal each, and when there is a moderate
circulation of air they will perform this work in 2^ or
3 hours. In half an hour after the metal is intro¬
duced it affumes a blackiffi red colour. It then be¬
gins to brighten with every additional fire, and in about
one hour appears white, and begins to lofe Ihape, and
refemble a wreath of fnow.
44 An eye accuftomed to fuch heats will now difeern
the metal beginning to drop, and run down the inclined
plane in very beautiful ftreamlets refembling quick-
filver. Eight or ten of thefe are vifible at a time, and
after proceeding half way down begin to form junctions
FUR
[ 293 3
FUR
Furnace.
Circum-
ftances to
be attend,
ed to du¬
ring its
operation
with each other, and flow connected into the general
cavity or refervoir. By-and-by this becomes filled,
and literally forms a beautiful molten mirror, in which
fometimes part of the interior furnace is reflected. .
“ The furnace man, by fearching at the bridge with
his fire-iron or teafer, judges when the metal is nearly
all gone. Of this he is certain by looking up from the
peep-hole of the lading door. If the ftreamlets of the
running metal have ceafed, then the whole is melted,
and ready for running out.
“ In the operation of melting, the three following
circumitances ought to be particularly attended to : the
' thinnefs or hotnefs of the metal *, the wafte or lois iui-
tained in melting 5 and the quantity of coals em¬
ployed.
“ The firft is of the utmoft importance, as many ar¬
ticles in the foundery bufinefs require the metal in a Hate
of the greatelt divifion 5 otherwife they will be found
imperfedl when taken from the land, and unfit for fa e.
The furnace man, therefore, is always on the watch
to replace the fire as it decays, and keep a large
and fliarp volume of flame conftantly palling over tne
metal. . _
i( The wafte or lofs of real metal is alfo an object ot
great importance. This always bears a relation to the
quality of the iron, the ftrength and cleannefs of the
coals, and the judgment and attention of the melter.
Strong iron is found always more difficult to fufe ; this
neceflarily expofes it for a long period in contact with
the flame. The reverfe happens with metal that is
more fragile, and eafier broken in the pig. fhe length
of the expofure in fufing depends on this j and othei.
circumftances being alike, the lofs or wafte of metal will
alfo be in the fame ratio.
“ There are, however, other facts not unworthy of
notice. N° 1. pig iron, or richly carbonated metal,
when run from an air furnace, will be found in point
of quality little better than N° 2. or carbonated iron.
This is owing to a quantity of its carbone being de-
ftroyed during the fufion. The lofs in melting N° I.
iron, therefore, chiefly conftfts of carbone 5 and the de¬
ficiency of metal ought never, with a clean bottom, to
exceed 1 cwt. in 20. . .
** Carbonated ot 2. iron alfo becomes deprived or
a confiderable portion of its carbonaceous mixture m
fufion ; and when run from the air furnace is feldpm
better than N° 3’ metal. TLhe lofs fuftained 111 melting
may be averaged at 7^ per cent..
“ N° 3. pig iron is, after melting in an air furnace,
found whitith or mottled. It is feldom fufceptible of
the fame nice degree of divifion as the fuperior quali¬
ties, and lofes in fufion a much larger proportion of
metal, feldom under 10 per cent, and frequently 12^
or 15. . .
« The quantity of coals requifite to melt a given
quantity of iron is various, as much depends upon the
quality and fufibility of the metal. If the furnace goes
one heat a day with N° 1. or 2. iron, the quantity of
coals will be from 20 to 25 cwt. for a ton of iron. If
two or three heats a day, or as many tons of iron are
melted at one kindling, the proportion of coals will be
nearly weight for weight of the iron melted when the
coals are mixed with a fair proportion of fmall : with
ftrong large fplint coals, one ton of good pig iron may
be completely reduced with from 1 2 to j 5'cwt. including Fumac*,
the previous heating of the furnace #
In the reduction and fufion of ores, the improvement Ma^ xv>
of the blowing apparatus, or the machinery contrived for 245,
the purpofe of forcing a current of air into furnaces,
where a high degree of temperature was neceflary, has
always been an important objecft of confideration to the importance
manufacturer j and indeed,it appears that the hiftory and of blowing
improvement of this kind of machinery have progref- -
fively advanced, in fome cafes have exceeded the im¬
provement of other departments of the manufactures Oi
this country. r
In fmelting fome metallic ores, as for mftance, thole
of lead and tin, the magnitude and powers of blowing
machines have been lets attended to,. becaufe the re¬
quifite temperature for that purpofe is far inferior to
what is neceflary for the redu&ion of the ores of iron*
Lead and tin being naturally fufible, and eafily vola¬
tilized in a temperature beyond a bright red heat, have
hitherto fixed the limits with regard to the fize of the
furnace, and the quantity of blaft. Ihe air furnace is
generally employed in the manufafture of coppei, except¬
ing in fmall blaft furnaces, in which the precipitated
oxide of this metal is received, and they are.fimilar to
the furnaces called cupolas, and ufed at iron foun-
denes*
The lead mill, as it is called, or machine for the re-
duftion of the ores of lead, is of a very Ample conftruc-
tion. In the middle of a fquare building a water wheel
is erefted, and to the ftiaft of this wheel, four fmall
wheels of caft iron, about 18 inches in diameter, are
attached. Two pairs of bellows placed at equal dis¬
tances, and on each fide of the fhaft, are fupported on
a ftrong frame of wood. During the revolution of the
ffiaft of the water wheel, the fmall wheels are alfo car¬
ried round, and alternately deprefs the end of the lever
which is attached by means of an iron chain, to an
equally balanced beam. When this lever defeends, the
oppofite end of the beam is elevated, and to this end
there is attached by another iron chain, the. moveable
furface of the bellows. The blaft produced in this way
is foft, and far inferior, either with regard to quantity
or denfity, to the blaft neceffary for an iron furnace.
The length of the bellows is ufually about 1 o feet, the
the breadth acrofs the breech about five or. fix, and
they move at the rate of about 30 ftrokes a minute.
But in the manufafture of iron, and particularly fince which muff-
the ufe of pit-coal was introduced, it is abfolutely ne- j^of great
ceflary to have a more powerful blowing, machinery. ^ manu_
This, therefore, has always been an effential requifite, fa<qUre oi
and has been a conftant objeft in this manufacture j for non.
in proportion to the quantity1 of air thrown into the fur¬
nace, the produce and quantity of metal is increafed.
In the earlier periods of this manufacture, when the
fuel employed was charcoal from wTood, the procefs was
more eafily managed. Furnaces wffiich were built oi
fmall fize, and which were then called bloomcries, were
confidered of fufficient capacity to yield profit, if the}
produced a bloom or twm of iron in the day, each bloom
amounting to about 90 or 120lbs. lor fimaller opera¬
tions, hand bellowTs, and what were called fuel bla.fiq
were deemed of fufficient power 5 but when the refining
furnace began to be employed., and the iron manufac¬
ture branched out into the making of pig iron, and the ■
refining,
FUR [ 294 ] F U R
Fnrna-cc. refining or it into bar or malleable iron, tbe advantage
and neceffity of a powerful blaft were immediately feen.
The firff moving power introduced was that of the wa¬
ter wheel ; and this working two or more pairs of lea¬
thern bellows, was found to produce effefts fufficiently
powerful for the purpofe.
Progreffive Machinery conftrufted in this way, and fet in mo-
• improve- tion by the power of water, continued to be employed
ment oi for this purpofe, till the principles of the fleam engine
were fully underflood, and this powerful machine
came into general ufe. The fleam engine, befides ma¬
ny other advantages, could be employed in fituations
where thewant ofwater prevented furnaces being eredted,
but otherwife commodious, in being near the neceffary
materials of ore and fuel. The firft fubflitute for the
leathern bellows rvere cylinders cotnpofed of wTood,
clofely jointed, and flrongly hooped. Thefe in their
turn gave place to cylinders of call iron, fmoothly and
accurately bored ; and this kind of apparatus being dif-
covered and applied in the manufacture of iron, the
blowing machine now aflumed a more perfedt and more
manageable form.
Eut without attempting to defcribe any of the blow¬
ing machines in our own country, the power and ef¬
fects of w hich are familiar to thofe to whom this know¬
ledge is molt interefling, we fhall give a fhort defcription
of an apparatus of this kind, which is fet in motion by the
preffure of a column of water, and is eredted near Na¬
mur in the Netherlands. The account of this machine is
given by Baillet, infpedtor of the mines, who obferves,
that its conflrudlion is fimple, and not very expenfive,
and that it may be kept up without requiring much re¬
pair. This machine, befides, can be employed to blow
Mowing feveral furnaces at once. It does not require any oreat
maolune by moving power, and the confumption of W'ater is much
fure^of " t^ian t^e blowing apparatus of leather or wood,
water. confequence of thefe advantages, the number of fur¬
naces has been greatly increafed fince this apparatus
was firft ereded, and the extent of the manufadure has
been doubled. This apparatus pofiefles another fuperi-
ority over the ordinary blowing machines. The latter,
to be put in motion, require a water wheel 5 but the ap¬
paratus which is here alluded to, is fet in motion mere¬
ly by the pr effure of a column of water. '
^ The following is the defcription of this blowing ma¬
chine, as it wras firft eroded at Marche upon the Meufe.
was invented and conftruded by Janniens, proprietor
of the forges, and it confifts of two cylinders of three
feet eight inches diameter, and of thirty inches high,
placed vertically near each other. One of thefe cylin¬
ders is reprefented at fig. 16. A pifton of wood co-
vered with leather, (fig. i^.) moves in each cylinder,
and forces the air through the tubes 0, o7 o7 which are
fitted to the upper part of the cylinders, and are con-
duded. to the different furnaces where combuftion is to
be excited. 1 he bafe of thefe tubes is furnifhed with
valves, to prevent the return of the air. The pifton
is, oefides, furnifhed with twro lids or covers, w, wy
(fig. 18. and 19.) which open when it defcends, and
fhut when it rifes. The pifton is furrounded with a
band of leather in the ufual wray, to make it tight.
.The moving power in this apparatus, is a water
wheel ereded on the horizontal fhaft, s. On this fhaft
are fixed the arms /, t, projeding from its circumfe¬
rence, which alternately elevate the ftalk of the pifton.
3
The defcent of the pifton is regulated by the weighty,
which ads as a counterpoife; and the fpring of wood,
g, which is balanced when the ftalks of the pifton are
at their loweft defcent, ferves to retard the velocity,
and to prevent any fudden or violent ftroke.
Two of thefe cylinders, ereded at one of the forges
at Marche, furnilh air to two furnaces, which employ
charcoal from wood, and one with coke from pit-coal.
The ftroke of the pifton is about 18 inches, and 2 y
ftrokes in a minute, and with this length of ftroke and
velocity, the two piftons produce nearly about 400 cu¬
bical feet of air. The confumption of water, having a
fall of about 10 feet, is about 80 cubical feet.
Two fimilar cylinders, ereded at another furnace at
the fame place, move with the velocity of 19 ftrokes
per minute. The length of each ftroke is about 22
inches, fo that it produces about 360 cubical feet of air.
For this, with a fall of 10 feet, 75 cubical feet of wa¬
ter are neceffary.
In the conftrudion of this blowing machine, no pe¬
culiar difficulty occurs. It is not neceffary that the cv-
linders ffiould be accurately turned in the infide. All
that is required is, to grind or poliffi their inner furface
with fand ftone. It was in this way that the cylinders
and apparatus, juft defcribed, were prepared.
The pifton, which is made of wood, has in the mid¬
dle of it a mortife, «, fig. 17. and 19. to admit the
ftalk, /», which is kept in its place by four bands or
ftraps of iron, fig. 17.
The band of leather, 2, is about three lines in
thicknefs, and about five inches broad. It is nailed to
the pifton, and ought to be railed above the groove or
gutter, v.
The grooves y, y, are funk in the pifton, in propor¬
tion to the thicknefs of the leather, and their external
diameter fhould be fomewhat fmaller than that of the
cylinder. The large lids or covers of the pifton are of
wood, lined with ffieep-lkin j and their hinges, which
are made of leather, are fixed with fcrews to the wood;
a bridle of leather limits the extent of the opening.
The fmall valves, which are fixed at the upper open¬
ing of the cylinders, at the end of the tubes for con¬
ducing the air, are alfo of wood, and covered with
Iheep-flkin.
The tubes or pipes which conduC the air are made
of iron plates, or of tinned iron, and they terminate in
pipes of a convenient diameter, and propoitioned to
the different furnaces. They ffiould alfo be furniffied
with keys or cocks, for regulating at pleafure the quan¬
tity of the air.
The frame which fupports thefe cylinders is of a very
fimple conftruCion, as will appear by infpeCing fig. 16.
It is attached and fecured to part of the wall of the
building.
All that is neceffary to keep this apparatus in order,
is with a bruffi to cover the internal furface of the cylin¬
ders with oil once every 10 days.
The following are the dimenfions of the principal
parts in the old French meafure.
The large valves of the pifton, 8 inches by 6.
The interval between thefe valves, \ 4 inches.
Stalk of the pifton, 6 inches fquare.
The rollers on the axis CLength, \2 inches,
of the wheel. ^Diameter, 36 inches.
Diameter
Furnace.
FUR [
Furnace. Diameter of the cylinder, 38 inches.
S"—v 'w Height of ditto, 26 do.
Baillet, who has given the above defcription, pro-
pofes a new application of the moving force to this kind
of blowing machine ; and he obferves, that a very im¬
portant advantage may be derived from thefe cylinders,
hnce the fimple preffure of a column of water may be
fubflituted for the moving pow-er. In fig. 20. the ap¬
paratus is fo arranged as to Ihew in what way this effedi
may be produced.
The ftalk, f of the cylindrical apparatus r, is com¬
mon to the piflon of the fmall cylinder </, in which it
can convey the column of water b r. When the cock
hy is open, and that at / is (hut, the preffure of the co¬
lumn muft elevate the ftalk f and the pifton of the
blowing cylinder. Then the cock h being {hut, and
that at / being open, the water of the cylinder </will
flow out, and the ftalk f and the pifton of the cylinder
will defcend. Thefe alternate motions can be eafily
managed by means of levers, or regulators at 2", fitted
to the ftem of the pifton, and in the fame way as in the
fleam engine. The openings at h and / may be regu¬
lated according to the velocity which is required in the
motion of the pifton, and the diameter of the cylinder
d will be proportioned to the fall of water £, c, and the
volume of air which is wanted.
Explanation of the Figures.
Fig. 16. exhibits a fedlion and elevation of the blow¬
ing machine.
<2, the wall of the building. the opening in the wall
for the balance beam.
c, one of the two beams which receive the gudgeons
on which the balance beam moves. <?, the balance
beam *, fy the weight which a£ts as a counterpoife $ jq
the fpring of wood.
h, a brace or ftrap of leather, which is attached to
the curved head of the beam.
2’, h, /, w, the frame which fupports the cylinders.
22, the blowing cylinder of call iron.
0, 0 0, tubes for conveying air to the furnace.
/>, ftalk of the pifton.
a knee or catch attached to the ftalk.
r, the horizontal axis of the water wheel.
r, r, arms attached to the axis, with rollers which
raife the knee or catch q, and the pifton.
t, t, fimilar arms and rollers for moving the pifton of
the fecond cylinder.
Fig. 17. Seftion of the pifton.
Fig. 18. The pifton feen from above.
Fig. 19. View of the under furface of the pifton.
Fig. 17. 18. and 19.
fi, ftalk of the pifton.
w, xu, lids or valves.
v, v, groove in the circumference of the pifton.
a, mortife to receive the ftalk f>.
x, x, ftraps of iron to fupport the ftalk />.
y, y, the band of leather furrounding the pifton.
Fig. 20. a, a refervoir of water } c, a column of
water.
295 1 . F u R
d, a cylinder for water. Furnace.
e, the blowing cylinder. —y——.
f, the ftalk common to the piftons of the two cylin¬
ders, d and e.
g, the pipe for conducing the air.
h, /, cocks for receiving and letting out the water.
2, 2, the regulators, for the purpofe of opening and
(hutting the cocks. # yMr ^
k, a fecond blowing cylinder *. Mines.
The following is a defcription by Torelli-Narci, ofaThree-
three-blaft furnace, which was conftrucfted in the che-blaft fur*
mical laboratory of the French fchool of mines. nace*
“ This furnace (fays the author) is deftined for fu-
fing different mineral fubftances, in order to afcertain
the nature of them j and the experience of fix years
has fhown that it anfwers the intended purpofe. By its
means a very intenfe heat is obtained, and it was em¬
ployed by C. Clouet for repeating his experiments on
the converfion of forged iron into caft fteel, which were
attended with full fuccefs.
“ Chemifts who have feen this furnace feemed defirous
of being better acquainted with the conftrudlion of it:
the council even tranfmitted drawings of it to feveral
perfons ; and what has hitherto prevented a defcription
of it from being given was a defire to afcertain its power
by longer ufe.
“ I long ago conceived the idea of a fufing furnace,
in which the wind was diftributed in three tuyeres
placed in its circumference, and at equal diftances from
each other j but I had no opportunity of realizing this
idea till I became attached to the council of mines.
“ Nearly feven years ago a plan was in agitation for
conftrufting in the laboratory of the fchool a fufing
furnace capable of producing a very great degree of
heat, in order to operate with facility and fpeed on lar¬
ger quantities of mineral, and confequently to obtain
more precifion in the trials which might be made than
had been obtained by the fmall furnaces before employ¬
ed for docimaftic experiments.
“ I propofed my ideas : they were approved by the
council of mines j and I was ordered to caufe the fur¬
nace I am about to defcribe to be conftrufted. The
principal difference between it and thofe before ufed for
the fame purpofe is, that in the prefent one the wind is
introduced through three tuyeres, placed at equal dif¬
tances from each other in its circumference, whereas in
common furnaces it enters only by one.
“ This furnace is round, both outfide and infide, and
conftru&ed of very refraftory bricks, fecured by iron
hoops in fuch a manner that they cannot be difplaced.
It refts on a fquare bafe of ftrong mafon work, raifed
to a fufficient height above the ground to render it eafy
to manage.
“ The bellows are four feet in length, and the mean
breadth of them is about 20 or 21 inches: they are of
wood, and the joints are covered with white leather.
The upper part confifts of five folds and two half folds j
the inferior, of two folds and two half folds. They are pla¬
ced eight or nine feet (k) above a wooden box, the joints
of which are covered with leather, and into which the
wind
(k) “ This height is arbitrary •, it depends in part on the manner in which the bellows are difpofed, and on thr-
height of the chamber in which the furnace.is placed.”
FUR
wind as it comes from tlie bellow
copper pipe, three inches in diameter, adjufted to the
upner part of the box. The box itfelf is fupported by
two iron bars built into the wall. From the lower part
of this box defcend, in a vertical direfhbt three pipes
of copper, two inches in diameter, bent at right angles
about 45 inches below it, to bring them into a horizon¬
tal polition, and to convey the wind to the fmnace,
which is about fix feet diftant. i he extremities of
thefe pipes are fitted into three tuyeres of forged iron,
fixed at equal diftances around the circumference of the
furnace : thefe three pipes are more or lefs curved or
bent, to convey the wind into the furnace by tire tmee
apertures made for that purpofe. . _
“ About fix indies belowr the box isadjulled, on each
of the three tubes, which defcend in a vertical direc¬
tion, a brafs cock about three inches of interior diame¬
ter : thefe cocks ferve to intercept entirely the commu¬
nication between the bellows and the furnace } and by
opening them all more or lefs, or each of them fepa-
rately, any required quantity of wind maybe obtam-
ed (l).
“ Thefe cocks are well fixed to the tubes, and kept
in their place by two clips of iron fuited to the diame¬
ters of the tubes, and forming a kind of tbiee collars,
which by means of four fcrews embrace and confine
them : thefe pieces of iron are themfelves made fall to
two crutches of iron, which fupport the box and are
fixed to it by fcrew’S. The box is kept on the crutches
by two ftraps, which embrace it at each extremity, and
are fixed by female fcrews, which are fitted to fcrew s
on the ends of thefe flraps after they have pafied through
the horizontal part of the two crutches.
“ To give the proper ftrength to this furnace, a folid
fquare was conftrudled of mafon-work, about a foot lar¬
ger on each fide than the exterior diameter of the fides
-of the furnace, which were from 21 to 22 inches from
outfide to outfide. Bricks were placed on the ground
in the middle of this ere&ion for the extent of 18 inches,
in order to form a bottom, and on this bafe were placed
the fides of the furnace conftrufted in the manner about
to be defcribed.
“ I caufed to be forged two iron hoops fix lines in
thicknefs, from 2 to 2t inches in breadth, and about
2 2 inches of exterior diameter : thefe two circles were
faftened together by three bars of iron, the diftance of
their exterior edge being kept at about nine inches, the
height of the bricks : thefe bars are pierced with holes
towards the end rivetted on the circles, and placed at
equal diftances on their circumference. One of the
extremes of each of thefe three bars is left of a fufficient
length to pafs beyond the lower circle about an inch, in
order to make them enter into three holes formed in
the brick-work which forms the bottom of the furnace,
[ 296 ] FUR
js Convcved by a and by thefe means to prevent the furnace irom becom- Furnace,
ing deranged. #
“ This kind of iron frame was filled.with bricks fimilar
to thofe employed for the bottom of the furnace : they
were rubbed one on the other to fmooth them, and the
corners were a little rounded ; fo that, being placed
upright with their broad fides applied to the iron hoops,
the narrow fide ftood inwards. By thefe means all thefe
bricks were adjufted in fuch a manner as to touch each
other by their broadell faces, and to form the fides of
the furnace, the thicknefs of which was equal to the
breadth of the bricks, and its depth to their length..
Three apertures were referved for the tuyeres which
terminate the three tubes that convey the wind, by cut¬
ting from as many bricks a portion equal to the thick-
nefs of a brick.
“ Thefe bricks thus adjufted w'ere taken from the
iron frame, and then replaced, putting between them a
cement to conned! them firmly and to fill up the joints.
The dull produced by cutting the bricks was referved
for this purpofe ; and I defired the workman to mix
with it a fmall quantity of clay diluted in a great deal
of water, in order to make a puddle for daubing over
the bricks, and in particular to put between them no
more than was neceffary for filling the joints and the
fmall fpace left between their faces in confequence of
any inequality left in drefling them.
“ The furnace thus conftrufted was then placed on
its bafe, a ftratum of the fame mortar employed for
filling up the joinings of the bricks being firft interpof-
ed. ' The extremities of the three iron bars projefting
beyond the lower circle were placed in the holes left in
the bafe to receive them. The body of the furnace en¬
circled with iron, both by its weight and the gentle
blowrs given to the iron hoops above the bars which
connefted them, expelled the excefs of the mortar, and
caufed a part of it to enter and unite with that which
filled up the joints of the brick work of the circumfe¬
rence, which rendered it immoveable.
“ The bellows is fecured as ufual by crutches of iron
and fupporters fixed in the wall and to the floor : the
handle is difpofed in fuch a manner, that the rope
wrhich makes it a£l may be pulled by the fame peifon
who manages the fire of the furnace, which in certain
cafes is necefiary.
“ The tuyeres of forged iron which receive the ends
of the copper tubes are fecured in their proper apertures
in the circumference of the furnace by pieces of brick
and mortar fimilar to that employed for filling up the
joints ; and the ends of the copper pipes introduced in¬
to thefe tuyeres are luted wuth the fame mortar, a little
thickened with brick dull.
“ The apertures of tbefe tuyeres towards the interior
of the furnace is only nine lines in diameter j on which
account,
(l) “ Care muft be taken, when the aftion of the bellow’s ceafes, to (hut the cocks, efpecially when coals ate
ufed in the furnace •, for the hydrogen difengaged from that mineral fubftance afeends into the box, and^ when the
bellows are again made to aft, may inflame, and caufe a violent explofion, or even burft the bellows. Ihis acci¬
dent once took place in the furnace here defcribed : the box burft with a loud noife on the firft ftroke of the bel¬
lows, the gas which filled them having fuddenly inflamed j but by good fortune no perfon was hurt.. I be fame
thing happened at the houfe of C. Gorlier, lockfmith, of Paris j one of his bellows burft with a horrid explouon
at the moment when they were put in motion.”
F U R
[ 297 ]
FUR
Viirnncc. account, as tne volume of air furniilred oy the bellows
"v  cannot pafs fo quick as it is produced, it becomes
denfed in the box placed above the cocks. By thele
means a very uniform blaft is obtained, which can alio
be regulated by opening more or fewer of the cocks.
“ During more than fix years, fince this furnace was
conftrufted, it has fuffered no derangement : it is not
even cracked. It is however worn in the infide by the
violence of the heat it has experienced,^ which has in-
creafed its diameter about two inches. Ihe parts round
the three tuyeres have alfo got hollowed, fo that it has
need of being repaired. It is intended to make it deep-
er, and to have a kind of moveable muff's or linings
made of fire clay, in order that its diameter may be
reduced at pleafure : it is meant alfo to conft.ru6! it in
fuch a manner, as to depofit the reft or fupport for the
crucible, not on the bottom of the furnace, but on bars
of forged iron placed at the diftance of fome inches
from that bottom, fo as to leave below them h vacuity
in which the blaft of the bellows may be diffufed, and
from which it may rife, palling between the bars to tra-
verfe the mafs of charcoal which furrounds the crucible.
The blaft will then produce a more uniform fire, and the
flame can no longer be directed againft the lides of the
crucibles 5 fo that the rilk of their breaking by hidden
inequalities in the heat will be much lefs. . ^
“ This alteration is going to be immediately carried
into execution, and the method propofed for doing it is
as follows : .
“ A round frame will be made of forged iron, m
"which bricks will be placed in the fame manner as
above defcribed. In the lower part of the furnace an
aperture will be referved for raking out tne allies, which
will be clofed by means of a door of baked earth care¬
fully luted with clay. Some inches above the bottom
of the furnace will be placed a grate of forged iron, and
between this grate and the bottom of the furnace the
tuyeres will terminate, and the blaft be introduced.
Muffs or linings of very refra&ory earth will then be
introduced, fo as to defcend to this grate. There will
be two of them, one within the other, and both within
the body of the furnace. At the lower part thefe muffs
will be furnilhed with a rim, projecting outward fo as
to leave between the body of the furnace and the muffs
a vacuity, which will be luted at the bottom with clay,
and which will be filled with pounded glafs, or any
other fubftance a bad condu&or for heat.
The interior muff, or both of them, may be removed
at pleafure to obtain a furnace of greater or lefs capa¬
city according to the operations to be performed. It
is propofed to make the muffs wider at the top than at
the bottom.
Explanation of the Figures.
u pig 21. Plan of the bellows and of the furnace.
CCXXVII AB, the bellows made of wood, the folds of which are
alfo of wood covered with leather on the joints. CD,
the handle which ferves for moving the bellows. E, a
copper tube which conveys the wind or the bellows
into the box EG, in which it is condenled. *G, a
box of wood ferving as a refervoir for the wind conden-
jfed by the bellows. HI, KL, MN, three pipes adapt-
Vol. IX. Part I.
ed to the box FG, and which convey the wind into
the infide of the furnace by three tuyeres, I, L, N.
OP, mafon work to fupport the horizontal pipe*. Q,
the furnace properly fo called, the form of which is
circular, and which is placed on the fquare malon wrork
R, S, T, U.
“ Fig. 22. Elevation of the furnace, the pipes which
convey the blaft, the cocks, the condenfing oox, and
the bellows. AB, the bellows mounted in their place,
and fupported by the iron-wTork neceffary for fecuring
it, which is fixed in the wall and to the floor. CD,
the handle which ferves for moving the bellows. E,
the copper pipe which conveys the blaft of the bellows
to the box FG in vrhich it is condenfed. At G is a
hole fliut by a large cork Hopper, w'hich can be opened
at pleafure. This box is fupported by two crutches of
iron/, g, and //, /, built into the wall, and on which it
is fixed by two iron ftirrups /, m.
“ Fig. 23. One of the crutches and its ftirrup are feen
reprefented fidewife at f g, l; the extremities, n, 0, are
built into the wall, and the two ends, p, q, of the iron
piece which keeps the box on the horizontal traverfe of
the crutch, are tapped, and receive fcrews which make
them faft to the crutch f g. HI, KL, MN, are three
pipes which convey the wind into the interior of the
furnace. £, R, S, T, U, mafon work on which is pla¬
ced the furnace Q, and which ferves it as a bottom.
OP, mafonry which ferves to fupport the three pipes
that convey the wind to the furnace. XYZ, fig. 22.
are the three cocks fixed to the three pipes which pro¬
ceed from the box to convey the wind to the furnace.
« In fig. 24, the dimenfions of which are double thole
of fig. 22, may be feen the details of one of thefe cocks.
“ At r, s, t, the body of the cock is feen in front j the
ftopper being taken out {hows at r and at t the two
holes which receive the tubes that communicate either
with the box or with the tuyeres, u exhibits the body
of the cock feen on one fide •, v the key with its aper¬
ture x, and its head y. This key, turned round more
or lefs in its focket, ferves to give more or lefs. wind.
1, 2, 3, iron clips which fecure the cocks at the diftance
they ought to be from each other, and connect them at
the fame time to the iron crutches which fuppoit the
air-box.
“ Fig. 25. a plan of thefe two clips.. They are bent
at the places marked 1, 2, 3, to embrace the body of
the three cocks, and fecure them in fuch a manner
that they cannot be deranged when they are opened or
fhut.
“ Fig. 26. and 27. reprefent the plan and fedlion of
the changes and additions propofed to be made when
the furnace is re-conftru£ted. At I, L, and N, are
feen the extremities of the three pipes that enter the
forged iron tuyeres, and convey the wind to the interior
of the furnace, a, b, and c, indicate the thicknefs at
the upper part of each of the muffs and of the body of
the furnace, between which there are two vacuities
filled with pounded glafs or fome other bad condu&or
of heat, d, the grate on which are depofited the refts
of baked earth deftined to receive the crucibles, e, the
crucible, luted and attached with clay to a reft of
baked earth (m).”
V Pp Mr
Fuirece
—y—J
VOL. lA. rart 1.   *    
fMl “ The advantage arifing in large founderies from the application of two or three tuyeres inflead of one, ’s
well known; but I do not believe that fuch an arrangement was ever adopted in fmall furnaces. „ A
*
FUR [ 298 ] FUR
Furnace. Mr Collier, in a paper communicated to the Man-
chefter Philofophical Society, has delivered fome im¬
portant obfervations on iron and fteel, with a more cor-
re£t account of the procefs for the manufacture of the
latter than has hitherto been given. To this account
he has added the defcription of a furnace for the con-
verlion of iron into fteel. As his obfervations and rea-
fonings are extremely valuable, we (hall lay the whole
before our readers in his own words.
Accounts of “ After examining (fays Mr Collier) the works of
f*16 ^ ^^erent auth°rs who have written on the fubject of
iron^iid ^ mahing iron and fteel, I am perfuaded that the accounts
fteel, im- given by them of the neceffary procefles and operations
perfect. are extremely imperfect. Chemifts have examined and
defcribed the various compound minerals containing iron
with great accuracy, but have been lefs attentive to
their reduction. This obfervation more particularly ap¬
plies to fteel, of the making of which I have not feen
any correct account.
“ It is lingular to obferve, how very imperfectly the
cementation of iron has been defcribed by men of great
eminence in the fcience of chemiftry. Citizen Four-
croy ftates the length of time neceffary for the cemen¬
tation ol iron to be about twelve hours j but it is diffi¬
cult to difcover whether he alludes to caff or to bar
fteel: for he fays, that fhort bars of iron are to be put
into an earthen box with a cement, and clofed up. Now
lleel is made from bars of iron of the ufual length and
thicknefs: but caff fteel is made according to the pro¬
cefs defcribed by Citizen Fourcroy, with this effential
difference j the operation is begun upon bar fteel and
not bar iron.
“ Mr Nicholfon is equally unfortunate in the ac¬
count given in his Chemical Diftionary. He fays,
that the ufual time required for the cementation of
iron is from fix to ten hours, and cautions us againft
continuing the cementation too long ; whereas the ope¬
ration, from the beginning to the end, requires fixteen
days at leaft. In other parts of the operation he is
equally defective, confounding the making of bar with
that of caft fteel, and not fully defcriblng either. In
fpeaking of the ufes of fteel, or rather of what confli-
tutes its fuperiority, Mr Nicholfon is alfo deficient.
He obferves, that ‘ its moft ufeful and advantageous
property is that of becoming extremely hard when
plunged into water.’ He has here forgotten every
thing refpedling the temper and tempering of fteel in-
ftruments, of which, however, he takes fome notice in
the fame page. ‘ Plunging into water’ requires a
little explanation : for if very hot fteel be immerfed
in cold water without great caution, it will crack, nay,
fometimes break to pieces. It is, however, neceffary
to be done, in order to prevent the fteel from grow¬
ing foft, and returning to the ftate of malleable
iron * for, were it permitted to cool in the open air,
the carbone which it holds in combination would be
diffipated (n).
“ I fhall, at prefent, confine my remarks to the ope- Furnace,
ration performed on iron in Sheffield and its neigh- 1
bourhood : from whence various communications havegjr°l^^n
been tranfmitted to me by refident friends, and wffiere ’
I have myfelf feen the operations repeatedly per¬
formed.
“ The iron made in that part of Yorkffiire is pro¬
cured from ores found in the neighbourhood, which
are of the argillaceous kind, but intermixed with a
large proportion of foreign matter. Thefe, however,
are frequently combined with richer ores from Cumber¬
land and other places. The ore is firft roafted with
cinders for three days in the open air, in order to expel
the fulphureous or arfenical parts, and afterwards taken
to the furnaces : fome of which are conftrufled fo that
their internal cavity has the form of two four-fided py¬
ramids joined bafe to bafe 5 but thofe moft: commonly
ufed are of a conical form, from 40 to 50 feet high.
The furnace is charged at the top with equal parts offjrthe re¬
coal cinder and lime-ftone. The lime-ftone a<fts as a Auction of
flux, at the fame time that it fupplies a fufficient quan-iron orer
tity of earthy matter to be converted into fcoriae, which
are neceffary to defend the reduced metal from calcina¬
tion, when it comes near the low7er part of the furnace.
The fire is lighted at the bottom and the heat is ex¬
cited by means of two pair of large bellows Flowing al¬
ternately. The quantity of air generally throwm into
the furnace is from a thoufand to twelve hundred fquare
feet in a minute. The air paffes through a pipe, the
diameter of which is from two inches and a quarter, to
twro and three quarters, wide. The compreffion of air
which is neceffary is equal to a column of water four
feet and a half high. The ore melts as it paffes through
the fire and is collefted at the bottom, where it is
maintained in a liquid ftate. The flag, which falls
down with the fufed metal, is let off, by means of an
opening in the fide of the furnace, at the difcretion of the
wTorkmen.
“ When a fufficient quantity of regulus, or imperfeft-
ly reduced metal, is accumulated at the bottom of the
furnace (which ufually happens every eight hours), it is
let off into moulds j to form it for the purpofes intended,
fuch as cannon or pig iron.
“ Crude iron is diftinguiflied into white, black, and
gray. The white is the leaft reduced, and more
brittle than the other two. The black is that with
which a large quantity of fuel has been ufed j and
the gray is that which has been reduced with a fuffi¬
cient quantity of fuel, of which it contains a part in
folution.
“ The operation of refining crude iron confifts in ani1 for re*
burning the combuftible matter which it holds in fo- cru<i*
lution $ at the fame time that the remaining iron is
more perfe&ly reduced, and acquires a fibrous tex¬
ture. For this purpofe, the pigs of caft iron are
taken to the forge j where they are firft put into what
is called the refinery: which is an open charcoal
fire,
At i reibach, in Carinthia, C. Le Febre, and Haffenfratz member of the council and infpe&or of mines, fawq
about twenty yean ago, a large furnace with two tuyeres j drawings of which they brought to France, and which
t ey reP' ~ ente t e third plate of / ylrt de fatnquer let Canons^ by Monge : two pairs of bellows fupply wind
through two oppofite tuyeres, and fince that arrangement the daily produft of metal has been double.”
(N) It is the opinion of fome metal!urgifts, that a partial abftraaion of oxygen takes place, by plumdng hot
metal into cold water.” '& r ; r o t>
FUR [21
Ftirnace- fire, urged by a pair of bellows, worked by water
*" v or a fleam engine; but the compreflion of air, in
the refinery, ought to be lefs than that in the hlaft
furnace. After the metal is melted, it is let out of
the fire by the workmen, to difcharge the fcoriae j and
then returned and fubjecled to the blafl as before.
This operation is fometimes repeated two or three
times before any appearance of malleability (or what
the workmen call coming into nature) takes place ;
this they know by the metal’s firft afluming a granular
appearance, the particles appearing to repel each other,
or at lead to have no figns of attraftion. Soon after-
wards they begin to adhere, the attraction increafes
very rapidly, and it is with great difficulty that the
whole is prevented from running into one mufs, which
it is defirable to avoid, it being more convenient to
damp fmall pieces into thin cakes : this is done by put¬
ting the iron immediately under the forge hammer and
beating it into pieces about an inch thick, which eafily
break irom the red during the operation. Thefe fmall
pieces are then collected and piled upon circular Hones,
which are an inch thick, nine inches in diameter, and
about ten inches high. They are aitemards put into a
furnace, in which the fire is reverberated upon them
until they are in a femi-fluid Hate. The wmrkmen
then take one out of the furnace and draw it into a
bar under the hammer •, which being finiihed, they ap¬
ply the bar to another of the piles of femi-duid metal,
to which it quickly cements, is taken again to the ham¬
mer, the bar firll drawn ferving as a handle, and drawn
down as before. The imperfedlions in the bars are re¬
medied by putting them into another fire called the
chafery, and again fubjefting them to the adion of the
forge hammer.
“ The above method is now mod in ufe, and is
called flourilhing j but the iron made by this procefs is
in no refpeft fuperior to that which I am going to de-
feribe. It is, however, not fo expenfive, and requires
lefs labour.
“ The procefs for refining crude iron, which was moil
common previoudy to the introduction of douridiing, is
•as follows.
“ The pigs of cad iron are put into the refinery, as
above, where they remain until they have acquired a
confidence refembling pade, which happens in about
two hours and a half. The iron is then taken out of
the refinery and laid upon a cad iron plate on the door,
and beaten by the workmen with hand hammers, to
knock off the cinders and other extraneous matters
wffiich adhere to the metal. It is afterwards taken to
the forge hammer and beaten, fird gently, till it has ob-
^ tained a little tenacity j then the middle part of the
piece is drawn into a bar, about half an inch thick,
three inches broad, and four feet long ; leaving at each
end a thick fquare lump of imperfeft iron. In this
form it is called ancony. It is now taken to the fire call¬
ed the chafery, made of common coal; after which the
two ends are drawn out into the form of the middle, and
the operation is finidied.
9 ] FUR
“ There is alfo a third method of rendering crude Furnac®.
iron malleable, which, I think, promifes to be abun- T '
dantly more advantageous than either of the two for- ^aved
mer, as it will difpenle both with the refinery andproceis.
chafery •, and nothing more will be neceffary than a
reverberating furnace, and a furnace to give the me¬
tal a malleable heat, about the middle of the opera¬
tion. The large forge hammer will alfo fall into dif-‘
repute, but in its place mud be fubdituted metal rol¬
lers of different capacities, which, like the forge ham¬
mer, mud be worked either by a water wheel or a deam
engine.
“ It is by the operation of the forge hammer or metal
rollers, that the iron is deprived of the remaining por¬
tion of impurity, and acquires a fibrous texture.
“ The iron made by the three foregoing proceffes is
equally valuable, for by any of them the metal is ren¬
dered pure ; but after thofe different operations are fi-
nilhed, it is the opinion of many of the mod judicious
workers in iron, that laying it in a damp place, for
forne time, improves its quality ; and to this alone, fome
attribute the fuperiority of foreign iron, more time elap-
fing between making and uiing the metal. To the lat¬
ter part ot this opinion I can by no means accede, as it
is well known that the Swedilh (o) ores contain much
lefs heterogeneous matter than ours, and are generally
much richer, as they ufually yield about 70 per quintal
of pure iron, whereas the average of ours is not more
than 30 or 40 (p) : add to this, that the Swediffi ores
are fmelted in wood fires, which gives the iron an addi¬
tional fuperiority.
“ Iron indruments are cafe-hardened by heating them
in a cinder or charcoal fire; but if the fird be ufed, a
quantity of old leather, or bones, mud be burnt in the
fire to fupply the metal with carbone. The fire mud
be urged by a pair of bellows to a fudicient degree of
heat j and the whole operation is ufually completed in
an hour.
* The procefs for cafe-hardening iron, is in fa£l the
fame as for converting iron into deel, but not continued
fo long, as the furface only of the article is to be im¬
pregnated with carbone.
“ Some attempts have been made to give cad iron,
by cafe-hardening, the texture and duftility of deel,
but they have not been very fuccefsful. Table and
penknife blades have been made of it, and, when
ground, have had a pretty good appearance; but the
edges are not firm, and they foon lofe their polifh.
Common table knives are frequently made of this me¬
tal.
“ The cementation of iron converts it into deel : 
a fubdance intermediate between crude and malleable
iron.
“ The furnaces for making deel are conical build-Furnace for
ings; about the middle of which are two troughs of fna!jin&
brick or fire done, which will hold about four tons offtee ’
iron in the bar. At the bottom is a long grate for
fire.
“ A layer of charcoal dud is put upon, the bottom of
P p 2 the
(o) “ Steel is commonly made of Swedilh iron.”
(p) “ The iron made from the ore found in the neighbourhood of Sheffield, contains a great deal of phofphate
of iron, or liderite, which renders the metal brittle when cold*”
w
Btifterevl
fteel.
German
ffceel.
FUR [3:
Turnaoe tlie trough j and, upon that, a layer of bar iron, and
_—y-— p0 Qn a]ternately until the trough is full. It is then co¬
vered over with clay to keep out the air •, which, if ad¬
mitted, would effe&ually prevent the cementation.
When the fire is put into the grate, the heat paffes
round by means of dues, made at intervals, by uie fides
of the trough. The fire is continued until the conver-
fion is complete, which generally happens in about eight
or ten days. There is a hole in the fide by which the
workmen draw out a bar occafionally, to fee how far
the tranfmutation has proceeded. This they determine
by the blifters upon the furface of the bars. If they be
not fufficiently changed, the hole is again clofed care¬
fully to exclude the air 5 but if, on the contrary, the
change be complete, the fire is extinguidred, and the
fleel is left to cool for about eight days more, when the
procefs for making bliftered fteel is finilhed.
“ For fmall wares, the bars are drawn under the tilt
hammer, to about half an inch broad and three-fix-
teen ths of an inch thick.
Tilted ftcal. “ The change wrought on bliftered fteel by the tilt
hammer, is nearly fimilar to that effefted on iron from
the refinery by the forge hammer. It is made of a
more firm texture, and drawn into convenient forms for
ufe.
“ German fteel is made by breaking the bars of blif¬
tered fteel into fmall pieces, and then putting a number
of them into a furnace 5 after which they are welded'
together and drawn to about 18 inches long j then
doubled and welded again, and finally drawn to the
fize and ftiape required for ufe. This is alfo called
ftiear fteel, and is fuperior in quality to the common
tilted fteel.
“ Call fteel is alfo made from the common bliftered
fteel. The bars are broken and put into large cruci¬
bles with a flux. The crucible is then clofed up w ith a
lid of the fame ware, and placed in a wind furnace.
By the introduftion of a greater or fmaller quantity of
flux, the metal is made harder or fofter. When the
fufion is complete, the metal is call into ingots, and
then called ingot fteel j and that which afterwards
undergoes the operation of tilting, is called tilted caft
fteel.
“ The caft fteel is the moft valuable, as its texture
is the moft compaft and it admits of the fineft polifti.
“ Sir T. Frankland has communicated a procefs, in
the TranfacHons of the Royal Society *, for welding
caft fteel and malleable iron together ; which, he fays,
is done, by giving the iron a malleable, and the fteel a
white heat j but, from the experiments wdiich have
been made at my requeft, it appears, that it is only
foft caft fteel, little better than common fteel, that will
wreid to iron : pure fteel will not; for, at the heat de~-
fcribed by Sir T. the beft caft fteel either melts or wall
not bear the hammer.
“ It may here be obferved, as was mentioned before,
that fteel is an intermediate ftate between crude and
malleable iron, except in the circumftance of its reduc¬
tion being complete j for, according to the experiments
of Reaumur and Bergman, fteel contains more hydro¬
gen gas than caft iron, but lefs than malleable iron ;—
lefs plumbago than the firft, but more than the latter ;
—an equal portion of manganefe with each ;—lefs fili-
ceous earth than either—more iron than the firft, but
lefs than the fecond. Its fufibility is likewife interme-
Furrtace.
fteel.
,0 ] FUR
diate, between the bar iron and the crude. When fteel
has been gradually cooled from a ftate of ignition, it is
malleable and loft, like bar iron ; but when ignited and
plunged into cold water, it has the hardnefs and brittle-;
nefs of crude iron.
“ From the foregoing fa£ts, we are juftified in draw¬
ing the fame conclufions with Reaumur and Bergman,
but which have been more perfectly explained by Van¬
dermonde, Berthollet, and Monge, that crude iron is
a regains, the reduction of which is not complete ; and
which confequently will differ according as it approach¬
es more or lefs to the metallic ftate. Forged iron,
when previoufly well refined, is the pureft metal; for
it is then the moft malleable and the moft ductile, its
powder of welding is the greateft, and it acquires the
magnetic quality fooneft. Steel confifts of iron per¬
fectly reduced and combined -with charcoal ; and the
various differences in bliftered fteel, made of the fame
metal, confift of the greater or lefs proportion of char¬
coal imbibed.
* “ Iron gains, by being converted into fteel, about the
hundred and eightieth part of its weight.
“•In order to harden fteel, it muft be put into a clean Hardening
charcoal, coal, or cinder fire, blown to a fufficient de- fteel.
gree of heat by bellows. The workmen fay, that nei¬
ther iron nor fteel will harden properly without a blaft.
When the fire is fufficiently hot, the inftrument intend¬
ed to be hardened muft be put in, and a gradual blaft „
from the bellow's continued until the metal has acquir¬
ed a regular red heat ; it is then to be carefully quench¬
ed in cold water. If the fteel be too hot when immer-
fed in water, the grain will be of a rough and coarfe
texture j but if of a proper degree of heat, it will be
perfectly fine. Saws and feme other articles are quench¬
ed in oil.
“ Steel is tempered by again fubje&ing it to the ac- Tempering
tion of the fire. The inftrument to be tempered we it.
wrill fuppofe to be a razor made of caft fteel. Firft rub
it upon a grit ftone until it is bright; then put the back
upon the fire, and in a ffiort time the edge will become
of a light ftraw colour, wdiilft the back is blue. The
ftraw colour denotes a proper temper either for a razor,
graver, or penknife. Spring knives require a dark
brown ; feiffars,. a light brown, or ftraw, colour •, forks
or table knives, a blue. The blue colour marks the
proper temper for fwords, wratch-fprings, or any thing
requiring elafticity. The fprings for penknives are co¬
vered over with oil before they are expofed to the fire
to temper.
'Explanation of the Figures.
“ Fig. 28. is a plan of the furnace, and fig. 29. is a
fedtion of it taken at the line AB. The plan is taken
at the line CD. The fame parts of the furnace are
marked with the fame letters in the plan and in the
fedlion. EE are the pots or troughs into which the
bars of iron are laid to be converted. F is the fire- #
place ; P, the fire bars j and R, the affipit. GG, &c.
are the flues. HH is an arch, the infide of the bottom
of which correfponds with the line 1III, fig. 28. and
the top of it is made in the form of a dome, having a
hole in the centre at K, fig. 29. LL, &.c. are fix chim¬
neys. MM is a dome, fimilar to that of a glafs-houfe,
covering the whole. At N there is an arched opening,
at which the materials arc taken in and out of the fur¬
nace, .
1
F U R
[ 3°
Furnace- nace, and which is clofely built up when the furnace is
'   charged. At OO there are holes in each pot, through
which the ends of three or four of the bars are made to
proje£l quite out of the furnace. Thele aie for the
purpofe of being drawn out occalionally to fee if the
iron be fufhciently converted.
“ The pots are made of fire tiles, or fire Hone, ihe
bottoms of them are made of two courfes, each couife
being about the thicknefs of the fingle couife which
forms the outfides of the pots. Hie mfides of the pots
are of one courfe, about double the thicknefs of the
outfide. The partitions of the flues are made of fire
brick, which are of different thickneffes, as reprefented
in the plan, and by dotted lines in the bottom of the
pots. Thefe are for fupporting the fides and bottoms
of the pots, and for directing the flame equally round
them. The great objeft is to communicate to the
whole an equal degree of heat in every part. 1 he fuel
is put in at each end of the fire-place, and the fire is
made the whole length of the pots and kept up as equal¬
ly as poffible.”
Improved a memoir publifhed by Du Hamel, the inconve-
procefs of nience and expence which attend the procefs commonly
cupella- in ufe> for refining lead or feparating the filver from
tions. this metal, are pointed out, and a more economical
procefs is propofed. This procefs, which is known by
the name of cupellation, is performed in a veffel called
the cupel, which is made of the allies of the bones of
animals, or of vegetables, after feparating, by means
• of water, the faline parts which adhere to them. But
the difficulty and expence of obtaining a fufficient quan¬
tity of thefe materials, led him to contrive fomething
elfe as a fubftitute, which might be lefs coftly and more
ealily obtained.
For the purpofe of performing the procefs in the way
here recommended, it is not neceffary to make any al¬
teration in the general conftruftion of the furnace. All
that is required is, to have a fufficient number of canals
or openings towards its bafe, to allow the efcape of the
moifture. Thefe canals are covered with a bed of fco-
ria, on which is raifed a pavement formed of the molt
porous bricks, and about a brick in thicknefs. On this
floor or area, which Ihould be a little concave, in the
fame way as the ordinary cupels are formed when they
are made ol allies, is placed a quantity of calling or
moulding fand, flightly moiltened j and if the fand has
not a fufficient quantity of earth, fome clay is added,
to give it confiftqnce, and the whole is carefully mixed
together. This ’fand is beaten together, and a concave
veffel is made of it, of an equal thicknefs in all its parts.
When the bafon has been uniformly beaten, it will be
proper to fift over its whole furface a fmall quantity of
wood afties, well wafhed with water, and thefe are alfo
beaten down with a peftle.
The cupel being thus prepared, the head of the fur¬
nace is put on, and a moderate fire is kindled and kept
up for fome hours, to carry off part of the moillure of
the fand. The remainder is diffipated without inconve¬
nience, by means of the canals, during the procefs.
After it has been fufficiently dried, the head of the. fur¬
nace is again taken off, and allowed to cool a little.
A quantity of llraw or hay is put upon the bafon or cu¬
pel, to prevent any injury from the weight of the. bars
of lead on the fand. To avoid this Hill more, it is re-
1 ] FUR
commended to have the lead to be purified caff into the lurnac^q
form of hemifpheres, in place of bars.
A fufficient quantity of lead being introduced into
tlie furnace, the head is luted on with baked clay, and
the fire is applied in the ufual way. As foen as the
lead is completely fufed, the bafon appears covered with
the burnt ftraw: this is removed by means of an iron in-
ftrument, and this operation is repeated feveral times.
When the lead begins to grow red, the aftion of . the
bellows commences, at firft foftly, and the blaft is fo
directed that it may ftrike the centre of the cupel. To
effeft this more completely, a fmall round plate of iron
is attached to the extremity and upper part of the pipe
by means of a hinge, fo that at each blaft it is half rai¬
fed, and the current of air is dire&ed to the furface of
the fufed metal.
After the whole of the fcum that rifes has been re¬
moved, and the lead is covered with a llratum of li¬
tharge, a fmall gutter is made by means of a hook for
the purpofe, in the fand of the cupel. 1 his is gradual¬
ly and cautioufly hollowed, till it is on a level with the
furface of the bath, and then the litharge driven.by the
blaft towards the anterior part of the furnace, will flow
this way, and fpread itfelf on the floor in the ufual way.
When the operator perceives that the litharge has been
removed, he flops up the gutter with moiftened afties,
till another quantity of litharge appears on the furface.
He then re-opens the gutter, which is now made deeper
in proportion to the diminution of the fufed metal, but at
the fame time taking care that no part of the lead ef-
capes, efpecially towards the end of the procefs, be-
caufe then a confiderable portion of filver would be car¬
ried off.-
In this way the procefs is conduced till the fepara-
tion of the filver begins to take place, obferving at the
fame time to increafe the heat as the quantity of fufed
metal diminifties, becaufe then the filver is colle&ed to- •
gether} and fince it is much more difficult to keep it in
fufion than the fmall portion of lead which remains
combined with it, the feparation would be very imper-
fedt, without the application of a fufficient temperature.
Inftead of having only one-twentieth of lead, which is
the ufual proportion in the common procefs, the quan¬
tity would be much greater, and this would render the
fecond operation, the refining of the filver, much more
difficult.
Du Hamel obferves, that a cupel of fand, wTell made,
will anfwer for the repetition of the procefs feveral
times, without renewing it at the end of each opera¬
tion, as is the cafe with thofe of afties. The only pre¬
caution to be obferved is, to remove the kind of varnifti
of oxyde of lead which remains on the fides of the gut¬
ter by which the litharge flowed out, that the new
fand with which it is to be -filled up may combine ealily
with the old. •
The length of time which the reverberatory furnace
may be employed in fmelting the ores of lead, and even
in reducing litharge, is a proof that the oxyde of lead
adts only on the fuiface of the cupel, and penetrates a
very fmall thicknefs. After the procefs has been feve¬
ral times repeated, this cruft is removed, and it is fufed
for the purpofe of obtaining the lead. This procefs will „
be as eafy as the reduction of the metal contained ■t,
the allies of the ordinary cupels, and in much final
qqar'J .
Furnace
F U R [ 302 1 F U R
Furnace, quantity. By the new method, therefore, a greater
. proportion of litharge is obtained and it may be add¬
ed, that the fand abforbing a fmaller quantity of oxyde
of lead, it will contain alfo a fmaller proportion of lil-
ver ; for it is well knowrf that the lead which is re¬
duced from the athes, contains always much more
than that which is produced from the redudlion of li¬
tharge.
In place of fand, argillaceous earth may be employ¬
ed in the conftruftion of cupels ; but it is neceffary that
this earth be well beaten together, and that this procefs
Ihould be feveral times repeated, for feveral days, with¬
out which the clay would be apt to crack, and the
melted lead would flow into the crevices ) an inconve¬
nience which does not arife from the ufe of fand, even
although it fhould be mixed with a little earth. And
beiides, it is to be obferved, that the cupel conftrudled
of this fubdance, becomes too hard to allow a gutter
to be eafily made for the paffage of the litharge. In
this cafe it would be necelfary that the place by
which the oxyde is to How out, be made up of fand, or
of aflres.
In the formation of the bafon or cupel, which is here
propofed, it feems to be advantageous to employ two
kinds of fand, the one fine, like that which is ufed by
the founders, the other coarfer, and free from earth.
It is of the latter, the coarfe kind, that the firll llratum
is formed 5 and this, after being made of fufficient;
thicknefs, is well beaten with peftles for the purpofe j
on this the fine fand is to be placed, containing a pro¬
per proportion of earth, and it is to be beaten together
in the fame way. Both the coarfe and the fine fand
are to be moiftened a little, that they may adhere toge¬
ther, and afterwards acquire a fufficient degree of foli-
dity under the pellles. The fand of the inferior layer
being coarfer than the other, will abforb the moifture
from it as it evaporates, and will allow it to pafs off ea-
fily, by means of the canals or openings which are left
for that purpofe. This ftratum, too, is to remain in its
place, when the fine fand of the cupel is removed, and
that the furface of the ftratum of coarfe fand may not
be difturbed when the other is removed, a thin layer of
allies may be thrown upon it, and beaten down, before
* Mm. de t^e ot^er ftratum is laid on *.
Vlhji. The French fchool of mines appointed a commiffion,
iii. 306. compofed of Hafl'enfratz, Brochant, and Miche, to
confider the beft form for the conftrudlion of a furnace
for burning lime-ftone, or plafter of Paris. After conli-
dering different forms of furnaces, and reafoning on their
effefls, they propofe in their report to adopt the follow¬
ing, which is reprefented in fig. 30. and 31.
Fig. 30. is a plan of the furnace propofed.
D, the fire-place. E, E, openings for taking out
the lubftances which are converted into lime or plaf¬
ter.
P, half of the plan taken at the height of the line
AK of fig. 31.
& half of the plan taken at the height of the line,
XY of fig. 31..
Fig. 3 1. exhibits a feflion of the fame furnace.
B, C, are places which remain empty after the intro-
dudlion of the fubilances to be expofed to heat.
B, D, the fires.
E, the opening for the extraftion of the fubftances
after they are converted into lime or plafter.
, 3
O, the throat dr vent.
а, b, openings for regulating the heat.
We fiiall now conclude this article with a fiiort ac¬
count of the conftruction and management of furnaces
for chemical purpoles.
The following is a defeription of an efi'ay or cupel-chemical
ling furnace. 1. A hollow, quadrangular prifm, 11 furnace,
inches broad and nine inches high, is conilru&ed with
iron plates, and it ends at top in a hollow quadrangular
pyramid, feven inches high 5 the latter terminating in
an opening feven inches iquare. The prifm is doled at
bottom with another iron plate, which ferves as a bot¬
tom.
2. Near the bottom a door three inches high and
five inches broad, is opened. This leads to the alii
hole. ' ; .
3. Above this door, and fix inches from the bans, ano¬
ther door is opened, of the figure of a fegment of a
circle, four inches broad at the bottom, and three inches
and a half high in the middle.
4. Three iron plates are then to be faftened to the
fore-part of the furnace, the firft of them Ihould be 11
inches long, half an inch high, and fo faftened with
three or four rivets, that its lower edge may reft againft
the bottom of the furnace. Between this plate and the
fide of the furnace a fpace mull be left, fo wide that the
fliders of the lower door, which are made of a thicker
iron plate, may move eafily in the groove. The fe-
cond iron plate, which is 1 x inches long, and three
inches high, is faftened parallel to the firft, in the fpace
between the two doors. Both the upper and lower
edges of this plate form grooves with the fide of the
furnace, for receiving the fiiders which that the doors.
The third plate of the fame dimenfions with the firft,
is rivetted clofe above the upper door, and forms *
groove for receiving the edge of the fliders which move
that door.
5. For the purpofe of doling the doors, two fiiders
of iron-plates mull be adapted to each of them. Thefe
fliders are moved in the grooves. The two fiiders be¬
longing to the upper door have each a hole near the
top 5 in the one there is a fmall bole ^ of an inch broad,
4 inch long 5 and the other a femicircular opening one
inch high and two broad. To each Aider there is a
handle attached, to lay hold of it when it is moved.
б. hive round holes, an inch diameter, are bored in
the furnace, two in the back part, and two in the fore
part, five inches from the bottom ; but 34 inches from
each fide of the furnace. The fifth hole is at the height
of an inch above the upper edge of the upper door.
7. The in fide of the furnace mull be armed with
iron hooks, about 3 inches from each other, and pro-
jedting 4 inch. The ufe of thefe hooks is to fecure the
lute with w lich the furnace is to be lined.
8. A moveable, hollow, quadrangular pyramid, alfo
of iron, and 3 inches high, is to be fitted to the upper
opening of the furnace, 7 inches broad, and ending
above in a hollow tube, 3 inches in diameter, about
2 inches high, nearly cylindrical, but converging a
little at the top. This tube ferves to fupport a funnel
for conveying the fmoke into the chimney. This cover
has 2 handles to lay hold of it. To fecure the cover
on the furnace, an iron plate is rivetted to the right
and left of its upper edge, and turned down towards
the infide, fo that a furrow may be made, open be¬
fore
FUR [ 303 ]
, Furnace. £ore and bcliind, for receiving the lateral edges of the wood,
FUR
Coating for
furnaces,
Mode
operatinS
with this
furnace.
9. A Iquare ledge, made of thick iron plate, is fixed
at the top of the upper edge of the lower door, for
fupporting the grate and the lute, and that it may be
e a lily introduced into the cavity of the furnace, it Ihould
be of two pieces.
10. Iron bars are then to be fixed in the infide of
the furnace, for fupporting the fuel. Thefe mull be
equal in length with the diameter of the furnace, about
4 inch thick, and 4 diftant from each other.
They are fupported at their extremities by a fquare
iron ledge.
11. To prevent the diflipation of the heat, and the
deftru&ion of the iron, by being repeatedly made red
hot, the infide of the furnace muft be lined with
lute, about a finger’s breadth, or rather more, in
thicknefs.
For luting furnaces, Dodtor Black recommended a
fimple mixture of fand and clay. The proportions for
refilling the violence of fire are four parts of fand to
one of clay 5 but when defigned for the lining of
furnaces, he ufes fix or feven of fand to one of clay,
the more effedlually to prevent the contradlion of the
latter; for it is known from experiments, that clay,
ivhen expofed to a ftrong heat, contradls the more in
proportion to its purity. The fand fettles into lefs
bulk when rvet, and does not contradl by heat, which
it alfo refifts as well as the clay itfelf.
Befides this outfide lining next the fire, Dr Black
ufes another to be laid on next the iron of the furnace 5
and this confifts of clay mixed with a large proportion
of charcoal dull. It is more fit for containing the
heat, and is put next to the iron, to the thicknefs of
an inch and an half. That it may be pretty dry when
firft put in, he takes three parts by weight of the
charcoal dull, and one of the common clay, which
muft be mixed together when in dry pow'der, other-
wile it is very difficult to mix them perfectly. As
much water is added as will form the matter into balls j
and thefe are beaten very firm and compact by means of
a hammer upon the infide of the furnace. The other
lute is then fpread over it to the thicknefs of about half
an inch, and this is alfo beaten folid by hammering 5
alter which it is allowed to dry (lowly, that all cracks
and fiffures may be avoided ; and after the body of the
furnace is thus lined, the vent is fcrewed on and lined
in the fame manner. It muit then be allowed to dry
for a long time ; after which a fire may be kindled,
and the furnace gradually heated for a day or two.
'I'he fire is then to be raifed to the greateft intenfity j
and thus the luting acquires a hardnefs equal to that
of free-Hone, and is afterwards as lading as any part
of the furnace.
To perform an operation in this furnace, two iron bars
an inch thick, and of fufficient length, to projeft a little
beyond the holes of the furnace, are paffed through/our
lower holes, which are placed before and behind, direftly
oppofite to each other. Thefe bars fupport the muffle,
which is introduced through the upper opening of the
furnace, and placed upon the bars, in fuch a way that
the open fide of it may be near the inner border of the
upper door. The fuel is introduced through the top of
the fhrnace, and the bell fuel is charcoal made of hard
It fhould be reduced to fmall pieces, that they Furnace,
may readily fall between the muffle and the fides of the v v '
furnace. The muffle is to be covered with fuel, to the
height of feveral inches. The pieces of charcoal fhould
not be too fmall, becaufe they may fall immediately
through the interflices of the grate, or be too rapidly
confumed, and thus increafing the quantity of allies,
obilrudl the current of air.
As the management of the fire is of great importance, Manage-
for the fuccefs of operations in the furnace, the follow- ment of the
ing directions may be attended to. To increafe the^re*
heat to the utmoft, the door of the afh-hole may be
left open j the Aiders of the upper door drawn towards
each other, fo as to touch in the middle, and the cover
and funnel adapted to its tube, placed on the top of
the furnace. The heat is ftill farther increafed by
putting red burning coals into the open upper door.
By (hutting the upper door with the Aider, which
has a narrow oblong hole in it, the heat is dimi-
nilhed, and it is ftill farther diminiftied by (hutting
the door with the other Aider, having the femicircular
hole. The heat is alfo diminiAied by removing the
funnel at the top of the cover 5 and the heat is lei's
by partially or totally (hutting the door of the aAi-
hole, becaufe then the current of air necelfary to ex¬
cite combuftion is obftru&ed.
The heat of the furnace is alfo increafed in propor¬
tion to the diminiAied Aze of the muffle. The heat is
ftronger too, according as the muffle has more and larger
fegments cut out of it, as the Ades of it are. thinner, and
as the number of veffels placed in the hinder part of it
is increafed ; and the contrary. It may be here ob-
ferved, that when many of the conditions neceffary to
produce ftrong heat are wanting, the operator, with all
his fagacity, will fcarcely be able to excite combuftion
in fuch a degree in common aflay furnaces as to fucceed .
well in his operations } and even when he employs bel¬
lows, and introduces coals by the upper door. The
grate, therefore, ought to be placed nearly three inches
below the muffle, that the air ruffling through the afh-
hole, may not cool its bottom, and that the fmaller
coals, almoft already confumed, and the afties, may more
eaftly fall through the interftices of the grate 5 larger
coals, fit for keeping up the requifite degree of heat,
muft be ufed. The funnel is added, that the blowing
of the fire being increafed by means of it as much as
poftible, may be brought to the degree that is wanted 5
for the fire may be at any time diminiAied, but without
the afliftance of proper apparatus, it cannot always be
increafed at pleafure.
Explanation of Fig. 32, 33, and'34.
Fig. 3 2. o, a, b, b, body of the affay furnace.
b b, c c, top of the fame.
//, opening at the top of the furnace.
e, door leading to the affl-hole.
f, upper door.
gg,h h, it, the iron plates rivetted on the furnace,
which form the grooves in which the doors Aide.
k k, 11, the Aiding doors.
m, the hole in one of the doors: «, the femicircular
hole.
0 0, the holes for receiving the bars which fupport the
muAle,,
h-
Furr,ace.
; F u R t
J a liolc above the upper edge of tbe upfer door, for
introducing R rod to ftir the fire.
g, the pyramidal cover,
r, tube or funnel at the top-
s s. its handles.
and I irna- Furnace.
Portable
furnace.
longitudinal feclion of a
feet long, 12 broad, and
9i
Fig. 33. reprefents a
verberatory furnace, 18
liigh.
a, the building.
b, the afli-hole.
c, channel for the evaporation of the moiflure,
//, the grate.
e, the fire-place.
f the inner part of the furnace.
g, a bafon formed of fand.
/, the cavity containing the melted metal.
f, a hole through which the fcoria is removed.
£, the paffage for the flame and fmoke, or the lower
part of the chimney, to be carried to the height of 30
feet. _ . .
/, a hole in the roof, through which the ore is intro¬
duced into the furnace.
is a longitudinal feclion of a refining fur-
FJg- 34-
nace.
a a, the building.
b, the channels to carry off the moifture.
c, other fmall channels, which meet in the middle of
the bafon.
d, the bafon made of bricks.
e, a layer of allies.
y, the hollow or bafon containing the melted metal.
g, the hole for the fmoke and flame.
h h, two openings for admitting the pipes of the bel¬
lows.
/, the vault or dome of the furnace.
£, the fire-place.
/, the grate.
7ti, a hole below for the adrfiiflion of air.
//, a hole in the vault, which ferves to cool the fur¬
nace.
A convenient portable blafi: furnace, contrived by
Mr Aikin, and defcribed by him in the 17th vol. of the
Philofophical Magazine, will probably be ufeful to fome
of our chemical readers. “ It is (he fays) particularly
adapted to thofe who, like myfelf, can only devote a
fmall room and a moderate ftiare of time to thefe pur-
fuits.
“ Dr Lewis, in his Commerce of the Arts (page 27),
defcribes a very powerful blaft furnace formed out of a
black-lead pot, which has a number of holes bored at
fmall diftances in fpiral lines all over it, from the bot¬
tom up to fuch a height as the fuel is defigned to reach
to. This is let half way into another pot, which laft
receives the nozzle of the bellows, fo that all the air
-fent in is diftributed through the fpiral holes of the up¬
per pot, and concentrates the heat of the fuel upon the
crucible, which is placed in the midft.
“ The furnace which I am going to defcribe re-
fembles very clofely this of Dr Lewis 5 with this dif¬
ference, however, that the air-holes are only bored
through the bottom of the pot, and this merely Hands
Upon another piece, inftead of being let into it. It is
3
304 ] F u R
on this account fomewhat more commodious
gine not lefs powerful.
“ Fig. 35. is a view, and fig. 36. a fe£lion, of the
furnace. It is compofed of three parts, all made out
of the common thin black-lead melting pots fold in Lon¬
don for the ufe of the goldfmiths. The lower piece, A,
is the bottom of one of thele pots cut off fo low as on¬
ly to leave a cavity of about one inch, and ground
fmooth, above and below. The outfide diameter over
the top is 54- inches. The middle piece or fireplace,
B, is a larger portion of a fimilar pot with a cavity
about fix inches deep, and meafuring 74 inches over
the top, outfide diameter, and perforated with fix blaft
holes at the bottom. Thefe two pots are all that are
effentially neceffary to the furnace for molt operations :
but when it is wifhed to heap up fuel over the top of a
crucible contained within, and efpecially to proteft the
eyes from the intolerable dazzle of the fire when in full
heat, an upper pot, C, is added of the fame dimenfions
as the middle one, and with a large fide opening cut
out to allow an exit to the fmoke and flame. It has
alfo an iron Hem with a wooden handle (an old chifel
will do very well), to lift it off and on.
“ The bellows (which are double) are firmly fixed,
by a little contrivance which will take off and on, to a
heavy ftool, as is reprefented in the plate} and their
handle flrould be lengthened, to make them work ealier
to the hand. To increafe their force on particular oc-
cafions, a plate of lead may be tied on the wood of the
upper flap. The nozzle is received into a hole in the
pot A, which condu&s the blaft into its cavity. From
hence the air paffes into the fire-place, B, through fix
holes, of the fize of a large gimlet, drilled at equal
diftances through the bottom of the pot, and all con¬
verging in an inward direftion, fo that, if prolonged,
they would meet about the centre of the upper part of
the fire. The larger hole through the middle of the
bottom of the fame pot is for another purpofe. Fig. 37.
is a plan of the fame, ftiowing the diftribution of thele
holes.
“ As a ftand or fupport for the crucible, I have
found no method fo good as to fit an earthen ftopper
into the bottom of the pot B, through the large centre
hole which is made for this purpofe. I his keeps the
crucible in its proper place$ in ftirring down the coals
and managing the fuel. Thefe Hoppers are made with
great eafe and expedition out of the foftened fire-brick
fold in London. A piece of this brick, made to re¬
volve a few times within a portion of iron or earthen¬
ware tube, prefently takes the form of its cavity, and
comes out a very neat portion of a cylinder or cone, ac¬
cording to the fhape of the tube, from which the
ftoppers may readily be fafluoned. Fig. 38. reprefents
one of thefe ftoppers, which is alfo feen in its proper
place in fig. 36. fupporting a crucible.
“ As the conftrmSlion of this furnace (exclufive of
the bellows and its ftool) is eafy to any one at all ufed
to thefe little manual operations, I truft that the working
chemift will allow me to add a few words on the method
which I have found the moft convenient and economi¬
cal. Almoft any broken pot of the proper width will
furnilh the lower piece A ; and often the middle and
upper pieces may be contrived out of the fame refufe
matter. Dr Lewis advifes a faw to cut theie pots j
but
/ / (33,
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Plate CCXXVI]
c7
/<-/ . 30.
r^wp 22
F U H [ 305 ] FUR
Furnace, but molt faws are too thick, and when a little ufed,
"’’•"''v “ the teeth get rounded oft', which makes them work
intolerably flow. I have found by far the belt: tool
to be an old table knife, or rather two of them, worn
thin by ufe, and hacked and jagged as deeply as pof-
fiole, by linking the edges flrongly againft each other.
Thefe wTork well and expeditioufly, and when they
become dull are again roughened by the fame Ample
means. The holes may be drilled with a common
gimlet of the largeft flze, and a little fteadinefs of
hand will eaflly enable the operator to give them the
oblique direction with fufficient accuracy; for much is
not required. To make a fmooth furface to the parts
intended to adapt to each other, flrft wear them down
.a little with the foft Are-brick, and then grind them
with water on a flat free-ftone (a Ank ftone for ex¬
ample), and laftly make them entirely At by rubbing
one furface on the other.
“ No luting of any kind is ever required ; fo that
the whole may be fet up and taken down immediately.
Nor is it neceflary to bind the pots udth metal hoops j
for they are thick enough to endure conAderable
blows without breaking ; and yet they will bear, with¬
out cracking, to be heated as fuddenly and intenfely as
poliible. In Ihort, the black-lead crucible feems to be
the belt material that could poflibly be devifed for thefe
purpofes.
“ The heat w7hich this little furnace will afford is fo
intenfe, and fo much more than would at Aril fight be
expected from lb trifling an apparatus, that it wras only
the accidental fufton of a thick piece of caff iron in it
that led us to fufpedt its power. The utmoft heat which
we have procured in this furnace has been 167° of a
Wedgwood pyrometer piece, which was withdrawn
from a very fmall Heilian crucible when actually Ank-
ing down in a ftate of porcellanous fuAon. A fteady
heat of 15°° to 155* may be ufually depended on, if
the Are be properly managed and the bellows worked
with vigour. This is fufficient for moft operations in
chemiftry j and the economy in time and fuel is ex¬
treme, ftnce a furnace of the given dimenAons will very
well raife to the above point of heat in from Ave to ten
minutes a Heflian crucible of fuch a diameter, that the
average thicknefs of burning fuel around its bottom is
not more than one inch and a half. A fmaller crucible
will take a higher heat, but at the riik of its foftening
and falling in by the weight of the incumbent fuel.
“ Coak, or common cinders taken from the Are juft
when the coal ceafes to blaze, and broken into very
fmall pieces, with the dull: Afted away, form the bell:
fuel for the higheft heat. A light fpongy kind of coak,
formed of a mixture of coal and charcoal, called Davey's
patent coal, alfo anfwers extremely well. Charcoal
alone has not weight enough, when broken fo fmall as
it muft be to lie clofe in this little Are-place, to with-
iland the force of the blaft when very violent. A bit
of lighted paper, a handful of the very fmall charcoal,
called in London fmall coal, and ten or a dozen ftrokes
of the bellows, will kindle the Are in almoft as many
feconds.
“ Various little alterations and arrangements, which
will readily occur to the praiftical chemift, wall At this
little apparatus for diftillation with an earthen retort,
heating a gun-barrel palled through the Are, bending
glafs tubes, &c.
Vol. IX. Part I.
“ I ftiall only add, that the dimenAons of this fur- Furniture
nace were determined merely by the circumftance of 1!
having at hand pieces of black-lead pots of this Aze, fo F"' r~ .
that doubtlefs they may be varied without any diminu¬
tion, and probably with fome increale of the effedl.
The fame may be laid of the number of holes; for in
another inftance four appeared to anfwgr as well as Ax,
with this difference, however, that, by long working,
the melted flag of the coak will now and then partially
block up one or two of the holes; on which account
perhaps the greater number is preferable.* * pin
FURNITURE, a term in dialling, which denotes Mag xvii.
certain additional points and lines drawn on a dial, by l0°*
way of ornament, fuch as the Agns of the zodiac, length
of days, parallels of declination, azimuths, points of the
compafs, meridians of chief cities, Babylonic, Jewilh, or
Italian hours, &c.
FUROR uterinus, a diforder peculiar to women.
See Medicine Index.
FURR, or Fur, in Commerce, Agnifles the fkin of
feveral wild hearts, dreffed in alum with the hair on ;
and ufed as a part of drefs, by princes, magiftrates, and
others. The kinds moft in ufe are thofe of the ermine,
fable, caftor, hare, rabbit, &c. See Mu^ela.
It was not till the later ages that the Turs of beafts
became an article of luxury. The more reflned nations
of ancient times never made ufe of them •, thofe alone
w'hcm the former ftigmatized as barbarians were clothed
in the {kins of animals. Strabo deferibes the Indians
covered with the {kins of lions, panthers, and bears 5
and Seneca, the Scythians clothed wdth the {kins of
foxes and the leffer quadrupeds. Virgil exhibits a
pifture of the favage Hyperboreans, Amilar to that
w'hich our late circumnavigators can witnefs to in the
clothing of the wild Americans, unfeen before by any
poliftied people.
Gens effreena virum Riphceo tunditur Euro ;
Et pecudum fulvis velantur corpora fetis.
Moft part of Europe was at this time in Amilar cir-
cumftances. Caefar might be as much amazed with
the {kin-dreffed heroes of Britain, as our celebrated
Cook ■was at thofe of his new-difeovered regions.
What time has done to us, time, under humane
conquerors, may effetft for them. Civilization may
take place j and thofe fpoils of animals, which are at
prefent effential for clothing, become the mere objects
of ornament and luxury.
It does not appear that the Greeks or old Romans
ever made ufe of furs. It originated in thofe regions
where they moft abounded, and where the feverity of
the climate required that fpecics of clothing. At flrft
it conflfted of the Ikins only, almoft in the ftate in
wffiich they W’dre torn from the body of the beaft ; but
as foon as civilization took place, and manufadures
were introduced, furs became the lining of the drefs,
and often the elegant facing of the robes. It is pro¬
bable that the northern conquerors introduced the
faftiion into Europe. We find, that about the year
522, wdien Totila king of the Vifigoths reigned in
Italy, the Suethons (a people of modern Sweden),
found means, by help of the commerce of numberlefs
intervening people, to tranfmit, for the ufe of the Ro¬
mans, faphilinas pelles, the precious {kins of the fables.
As luxury advanced, furs, even of the moft valuable
Q, q fpecies,
q6
FUR t 3
furr. fpccies, were ufed by princes as linings for tbexr tents :
 1 thus Marco Polo, in 125?, found thofe of the Cham
of Tartary lined with ermines and fables. He calls
the laft ‘zibelines and zamholines. He fays that thofe
and other precious furs were brought from countries
far north ; from the land of Darinefs, and regions
almoit inaccedible by reafon of moralfes and ice.. The
Wei Hi fet a higu value on furs as early as the time of
Howel Dda, who began his reign about 940. In the
next age, furs became the falhionable magnificence of
Europe. When Godfrey of Boulogne and his follow¬
ers appeared before the emperor Alexis Comnenus, on
their way to the Holy Land, he was ftruck with the
richnefs of their dreffes, tam ex ojlro quam aurifrigio et
niveo opere harmelino et ex mardrino grifioque et vano.
How different was the advance of luxury in France
from the time of their great monarch Charlemagne,
who contented himfelf with the plain fur of the
otter ! Our Henry I. wore furs •, yet in his diftrefs was
obliged to change them for warm Welfh flannel. But
in the year 1337 the luxury had got to fuch a head,
that Edward III. ena£ted, that all perfons who could
not fpend a hundred a-year ftiould abfolutely be pro¬
hibited the ufe of this fpecies of finery. Thefe, from
their great expence, muff have been foreign furs, ob¬
tained from the Italian commercial ffates, whofe traffic
was at this period boundlefs. How ftrange is the re¬
volution in the fur-trade ! The north of Afia at that
time fupplied us with every valuable kind 5 at prefent
we fend, by means of the poffeflion ©f Hudfon’s Bay,
furs, to immenfe amount, even to Turkey and the
diftant China.
Hifory of the Fur Trade.—During Captain Cook’s
.laft voyage to the Pacific ocean, befides the various
fcientific advantages which were derived from it, a
new fource of wealth was laid open to future navigators,
by trading for furs of the moft valuable kind on the
north-weft coaft of America. The firft veffel which
engaged in the new branch of trade pointed out by
that great navigator, was equipped by fome gentlemen
in China. She was a brig of 60 tons and 10 men,
commanded by James Hanna. She failed from the
Typa the end ®f April 1785 5 proceeded to the north¬
ward, along the coaft of China) paffed through
Diemen’s ftraits, the fouth end of Japan j and arrived
at Nootka in Auguft following. Soon after her ar¬
rival, the natives, whom Captain Cook had left un¬
acquainted with the effeft of fire-arms, tempted pro¬
bably by the diminutive fize of the veffel (fcarce longer
than fome of their own canoes) and the fmall number
of her people, attempted to board her in open day *,
but were repulfed with confiderable daughter. This
was the introdudlion to a firm and lading friendfhip.
Captain Hanna cured fuch of the Indians as were
wounded •, an unreferved confidence took place ; they
traded fairly and peaceably j a valuable cargo of furs
was procured j and the bad weather fetting in, he left
the coaft in the end of September, touched at the
Sandwich iflands, and arrived at Macao the end of
December of the fame year.
Captain Hanna lailed again from Macao in May
1786, in the fnow Sea-Otter of 120 tons and 30 men,
and returned to Macao in February 1787. In this
fecond voyage he followed his former track, and ar¬
rived at Nootka in Auguft 5 traced the coaft from
J FUR
thence as far as 53 degrees, and explored the extenuve Furr,
found difcovered a ihort time before by Mr Strange,'
and called by him Queen Charlotte’s found, the la¬
titude of which is 51 degrees north, longitude 128
weft.
The fnow Lark, Captain Peters, of 220 tons and
40 men, failed from Macao in July 1786. Her defti-
nation was Kamtfchatka (for which {lie was provided
with a fuitable cargo of arrack, tea, &c.), Copper
iflands, and the N. W. coaft. Captain Peters was di-
re&ed to make his paffage between Japan and Corea,
and examine the iflands to the north of Japan, laid to
be inhabited by hairy people j which, if Captain Cook
had lived, would not have been left to the French to
determine. No account having been received of this
veffel fince her departure, there is every reafon to fear
{he has periihed.
In the beginning of 1786, two coppered veffels
were fitted out at Bombay, under the direction of
James Strange, Efqj who was himfelf a principal owner.
Thefe veffels were, the fnow Captain Cook of 300
tons, and fnow Experiment of zoo tons. They pro¬
ceeded iu company from the Malabar coaft to Batavia j
paffed through the ftraits of Macaflar, where the Ex¬
periment was run upon a reef, and w^as obliged to haul
affiore upon Borneo to repair •, from thence they fleer¬
ed to the eaftward of the Palaos iflands *, made Sul¬
phur ifland j and arrived at Nootka the end of June
following. From Nootka, where they left their fur-
geon’s mate (Mackay) to learn the language and col-
left {kins againft their intended return (but who was
brought away in the Imperial Eagle the following
year), they proceeded along the coaft to Queen Char¬
lotte’s found, of which they were the firft difcoverers j
from thence in a direft courfe to Prince William’s
found. After fome flay there, the Experiment pro¬
ceeded to Macao (their veffels being provided with
paffes by the governor-general of Goa) : the Captain
Cook endeavoured to get to Copper ifland, but with¬
out fuccefs, being prevented by conftant weft winds.
Two coppered veffels were alfo fitted out by a fo-
ciety of gentlemen in Bengal, viz. the fnow Nootka
of 200 tons, and the fnow Sea Otter of 100 tons,
commanded by John Meares and William Tipping,
lieutenants in the royal navy. The Nootka failed in
March 1786 from Bengal-, came through the China
feas; touched at the Baffiees, where they were very
civilly treated by the Spaniards, wdio have taken pof-
feffion of thefe iflands •, arrived at Oonalaflika the be¬
ginning of Auguft j found there a Ruffian galliot and
fome furriers •, difcovered accidentally near Cape Gre-
ville a new ftrait near Cook’s river, 15 leagues wdde
and 30 long j faw fome Ruffian hunters in a fmall bay
between Cape Elizabeth and Cape Bear; and arrived
in Prince William’s found the end of September.
They determined wintering in Snug Corner Cove,
lat. 60. 30. in preference to going to the Sandwich
iflands, which feem placed by Providence for the com¬
fort and refrefhment of the adventurers in this trade,
and were frozen up in this gloomy and frightful fpot
from the end of November to the end of May. By
the feverity of the winter they loft their third and
fourth mates, furgeon, boatfwain, carpenter, and cooper,
and twelve of the fore-maft-men ; and the remainder
were fo enfeebled as to be under the neceffity of apply¬
ing
/
FUR [ 307 ] FUR
ing to the commanders of the King George and Oueen
Charlotte, who jult at this time arrived in the found,
for feme hands to aflift in carrying the veffel to the
Sandwich iflands, where, giving over all further
thoughts of trade, they determined (after getting a
fea-ftock of fiih off Cape Edgecumbe) immediately to
proceed. The Nootka arrived at Macao the end of
(Dffober 1787.
The Imperial Eagle, Captain Barkley, fitted out by
a fociety of gentlemen at Oftend, failed from Offend
the latter end of November 1786 ; went into the bay
of All Saints; from thence, without touching any
where, to the Sandwich iflands, and arrived at Noot¬
ka the beginning of June ; from thence to the fouth,
as far as 470 30', in which fpace he difeovered fome
good and fpacious harbours. In the lat. of 470 46',
loft his fecond mate, purfer, and two feamen, who
Were upon a trading party with the long-boat, and im¬
prudently trufting themfelves afliore unarmed, were
cut off' by the natives. This place feems to be the
fame that Don Antonio Mourelle calls the Ilha de los
Do/ores, where the Spaniards going afliore to water,
were alfo attacked and cut off.
The King George of 320, and the Queen Char¬
lotte of 200 tons, commanded by Captains Portlock
and Dixon, who ferved under Captain Cook in his laft
voyage, were fitted out by a fociety of gentlemen in
England, who obtained a privilege to trade to the north-
weft coaft of America, from the South Sea and Eart In¬
dia companies.
Thefe veffels failed from England the beginning of
September 1785 •, touched at the Falkland iflands,'
Sandwich iflands, and arrived at Cook’s river in the
month of Auguft. From thence, after colledting a
few furs, they fleered in the end of September for
Prince William’s found, intending, it is laid, to winter
there ; but were prevented entering, by heavy ftorms
and extreme bad weather, which obliged them to bear
away, and feek fome other part of the coaft to winter
at. The ftorms and bad weather accompanied them
till they arrived off" Nootka found, when they were fo
near the ftiore, that a canoe came off to them: but
though thus near accomplilhing their purpofe, a frefti
ftorm came on, and obliged them finally to bear away
for the Sandwich iflands, where they remained the win¬
ter months •, and returning again to the coaft, arrived
in Prince William’s found the middle of May. The
King George remained in Prince William’s found j
and during her ftay, her long-boat difeovered a new
paffage from the found into Cook’s river. The Queen
Charlotte proceeded along the coaft to the fouth j
looked into Behring’s bay, where the Ruffians have
now a fettlement; examined that part of the coaft
from 55° to 50°, which was not feen by Captain Cook,
and which confifts of a duller of iflands, called by Cap¬
tain Dixon ^ueen Charlotte's IJlands, at a confiderable
diftance from the main, which is thus removed farther
to the eaftward than it was fuppofed to be : fome part
of the continent may, however, be feen from the eaft
fide of thefe iflands ; and it is probable the diftance
does not anywhere exceed 50 leagues. On this efti-
mation, Hudfon’s Houfe, lat. 530, long. 1060 27' weft,
will not be more than 800 miles diftant from that part
of this coaft in the fame parallel. I» is therefore not
improbable, that the enterprifing fpirit of our Cana¬
dian furriers may penetrate to this coaft (the com- -Furr,
munication with which is probably much facilitated
by lakes or rivers), and add to the comforts and luxu¬
ries of Europe this invaluable fur, which in wrarmth,
beauty, and magnificence, far exceeds the richeft furs
of Siberia. Queen Charlotte’s iflands are inhabited
by a race of people differing in language, features, and
manners, from all the other tribes of this coaft. Among
other peculiarities, they are diftinguifhed by a large in-
cifion in the under lip, in which is inferted a piece of
poliftied wood, fometimes ornamented wdth mother of
pearl fliell, in ftiape and fize like a weaver’s ftiuttle,
which undoubtedly is the moft effedlual mode of de¬
forming the human face divine that the ingenious de¬
pravity of tafte of any favage nation has yet difeovered.
Thefe fliips, after difpofing of their furs in China,
were loaded with teas on account of the Englilh com¬
pany, failed from Wampoa, and arrived in England, af¬
ter an abfence of three years.
The year after the departure of the King George
and Queen Charlotte, the fame fociety to which they
belonged fitted out two other veffels, viz. the Princefs
Royal of 60 tons, and the Prince of Wales of 200
tons, commanded by Captains Colnet and Duncan,
the former of wEom had ferved under Captain Cook.
Thefe veffels left England in Auguft 1786 ; touched
at New Year’s harbour on Staten Land, where they
left an officer and 1 2 men to kill feals againft the ar¬
rival of a veffel which was to follow them from Eng¬
land ; from thence they proceeded diredftly to Noet-
ka, where they arrived the 6th of July, fickly and in
bad condition, and found here the Imperial Eagle,
which had left Europe fome months after them. Leav¬
ing Nootka, they fleered along the fliore to the north¬
ward, and foon after fell in with the Queen Charlotte.
In the beginning of 1788, Captain Mears failed
again with twm other veffels, the Felice, wffich he
commanded himfelf, and the Iphigenia, Captain Dou¬
glas, to Nootka found. Here he purchafed of the
chief of the diftridl a fpot, on which he built a houie
for his refidence and more convenient intercourfe with
the natives, hoifting the Britifh colours thereon, fur¬
rounding it with a breaft-work, and mounting a three
pounder on the front. Having fo done, he fent Mr
Douglas in the Iphigenia to trade along the northern
coaft, while he himfelf proceeded to the fouth ; and by
prefents to the chiefs obtained the ports Cox and
Effingham, and the promife of an exclufive trade with
the natives of the diltricl, and alfo fome other places,
which he took poffeffion of in the name of the king.
Captain Douglas likewife, by prefents to the chiefs of
the countries he vifited, obtained fimilar privileges,
no other European veffel having failed there before
him.
On their return to Nootka, they found a veffel fi-
niflied which the commander had laid down before his
departure. This, which he named the North Weft
America, he left at Nootka with the Iphigenia,
while he failed with a cargo of furs in the Felice to
China.
A few days after his arrival at China, two veffels,
the Prince of Wales and Princefs Royal, came to Can¬
ton from their trading voyage above mentioned. Cap¬
tain Mears, fearing a competition of interefts might
be injurious to both parties, propofed a copartnerfliip,
Q q 2 w'hich
s
FUR [ 308 ] * U K
which was mutually agreed to j and another flap was
purchafed by the him, and called the Argonaut. In
the month of April 1787, Captain Mears gave Mr
Colnet the command of the Princefs Royal and Ar¬
gonaut, which were loaded with flores and articles elti-
mated fufficient for three years trade, befides feveral
artificers, and near 70 Chinefe, who intended to be¬
come fettlers on the north-well coall of America, un¬
der protediion of the new company.
In the mean while, the Iphigenia, and North-Well
America (the veffel built at Nootka) having wintered
in Sandwich illands, returned to Nootka in the latter
end of April. Soon after which, two Spanilh Ihips of
war, under the command of Don Martinez, anchored
in the found. For a few days mutual civilities palfcd
betrveen the Spanilh captain and Mr Douglas \ but
at the end of about a w7eek, Don Martinez fummoned
the latter on board his own (hip the Princeffa, telling
him he was his prifoner, and that the king of Spain
had commanded him, Don Martinez, to feize all vef-
fels he Ihould find on that coall. He therefore in-
llrudled his officers to take poffeffion of the Iphigenia,
which they accordingly did in the name of his Catho¬
lic majelly ; and the officers and crew were conveyed
as prifoners on board the Spaniffi ffiips, where they
were put in irons, and otherwife ill treated. Imme¬
diately after this, Don Martinez took pofl'effion of the
little fettlement, hoifting the llandard of Spain, and
modeftly declaring all the lands from Cape Horn to
60 degrees north latitude belonged to his mader. To
aggravate the infult, he forcibly employed the crew of
the Iphigenia in building batteries, &c. and offered no
kind of violence to two American veffels that were at
the fame time in the harbour. At this time the
North-Well America was fent to explore the Archipe¬
lago of St Lazarus. On her return to Nootka, Ihe
met with a fimilar treatment, and the fkins Ihe had col-
le6led were feized, with the reft of her cargo.
A few days after the Princefs Royal (which we
have mentioned as leaving Canton in company with the
Argonaut) arrived. The Spaniffi commander, for rea-
fons that do not appear, fuffered her to depart. The
{kins collefted by the North Well-America were (hip¬
ped on board her for the benefit of her owner, and lire
proceeded to trade in the neighbouring iiles. On the
3d of July, the Argonaut arrived at the found \ and
Don Martinez, after making every profeffion of civi¬
lity to Mr Colnet the commander, took poffeffion of
the faid ffiip in the name of his mailer, and made pri¬
foners of the crew. Soon after, the Princefs Royal
returning to receive inllruflions from Mr Colnet, direc¬
tor of the enterprife,. was feized by the Spaniffi cap¬
tain.
The crews of the Britiffi veffels were differently dif-
pofed of; fome fent to China by. the American veffels,
and others to Spaniffi America : but the Chinefe w7ere
all detained, and employed in the mines wffiich were
opened on the lands purchafed by Captain Mears.
What thefe mines confided of, we are nowhere in¬
formed. Mr Colnet w7as fo much affefted at the failure
of the enterprife, as to be deprived of realon.
This, as loon as known, occafioned a fpirited re-
prefentation from the Britiffi court to that of Spain ;
at the fame time that vigorous preparations were made
for war in cafe adequate fatisfa&icn ffiould be refufed0
Matters, however, were prevented from coming to ex¬
tremities, by a compliance on the part of Spain, alter
many delays and much artifice ol negotiation, with the
requifitions of Britain: in confequence of which, among
other advantages unneceffary to be here recited, the
whole trade from California to China is completely
laid open 5 and the Britidi allowed the full exercife of
navigation and commerce in thole parts of the world
which were the fubjecl of difcuffion.
In fome accounts of the voyages above mentioned,
the fur trade in thofe parts has been greatly magni¬
fied. In that publiffied by Captain Portlock, however,
this officer obferves, that the gains hitherto have cer¬
tainly not been enviably great -7 though the merchants
have no doubt found the trade lucrative.
Hi [lory of the Fur Trade from Canada to the Forth-
FoeJL—The following account of this trade is extracted
from Mr Mackenzie’s Narrative of his Voyages and
Travels from Montreal, through the North-weft Con¬
tinent of America, and to the Pacific ocean.
“ The fur trade, he fays, from the earliell fettlement
of Canada, was confidered of the firll importance to
that colony. The country was then fo populous, that,
in the vicinity of the eftablilhments, the animals whole
Ikins were precious, in a commercial view, foon be¬
came very fcarce, if not altogether extindl. They were,
it is true, hunted at former periods, but merely for food
and clothing. The Indians, therefore, to procure the
neceffary fupply, were encouraged to penetrate into the
country, and wrere generally accompanied by fome oi
the Canadians, who found means to induce the remoteft
tribes of natives to bring the Ikins which were mod in-
demand, to their fettlements, in the way of trade.
“ It is not neceffary for me to examine the caufe,
but experience proves that it requires much lels time
for a civilized people to deviate into the manners and"
culloms of favage life, than for favages to rife into a-
Hate of civilization. Such was the event with thofe
who thus accompanied the natives on their hunting and
trading excurfions 5 for they became fo attached to the
Indian mode of life, that they loll all reliffi lor their for¬
mer habits and native homes. Hence they derived
the title of Coureurs des Bois, became a kind of pedlars,
and were extremely ufeful to the merchants engaged in
the fur trade 5 who gave them the neceffary credit t&
proceed on their commercial undertakings. Three or
four of thefe people would join their Hock, put their
property into a birch-bark canoe, which they worked
themfelves, and either accompanied the natives in their
excurfions, or went at once to the country where they
knew they wrere to hunt. At length, thefe voyages ex¬
tended to I 2 or 15; months, when they returned with
rich cargoes of furs, and followed by great numbers
of the natives. During the Ihort time requifite to fet¬
tle their accounts with the merchants, and procure
freffi credit, they generally contrived to fquander a-
way all their gains, wffien they returned to their
favourite mode of life : their views being anfwer-
ed, and their labour fufficiently rewarded, by indulging
themfelves in extravagance and diffipation during the
Ihort fpace of one month in 1 2 or 15.
“ The indifference about amaffing property, and the
pleafure of living free from all rellraint, foon brought
on a licentioufnefs of manners which could not long
efcape the vigilant obfervation of the miffionaries, who
had
Furr.
F U R
Bad much reafon to complain of their being
grace to the Chriftiau religion j by not only fwerving
from its duties themfelves, but by thus bringing it^ in¬
to difrepute with thofe of the natives who had be¬
come converts to it; and, confequently, obltructing
the great object to which thofe pious men. had de¬
voted their lives. They, therefore, exerted their in¬
fluence to procure the fuppreffion of thefe people, and
accordingly, no one was allowed to go up the country
to traffic with the Indians, without a licence from the
government.
“ At length, military pofts were eftabliihed at the
confluence of the different large lakes of Canada,
which, in a great meafure, checked evil confequences
that followed from the improper conduct of thefe foref-
ters, and, at the fame time, prote&ed the trade. Be-
ffdes, a number of able and refpeftable men retired
from the army, profecuted the trade in perfon, under
their refpective licences, with great order and regulari¬
ty, and extended it to fuch a diffance, as, in thofe
days, -was conudered to be an aftonifhing effort of com¬
mercial enterprize. Thefe perfons and the miflionaries
having combined their views at the fame time, fecured
the refpe£t of the natives, and the obedience of the peo¬
ple neceffarily employed in the laborious parts of this
undertaking. Thefe gentlemen denominated them¬
felves commanders, and not traders, though they were
intitled to both thofe charadlers : and, as for the mif-
fionaries, if fuft'erings and hardfhips in the profecution
of the great work which they had undertaken, deferv-
ed applaufe and admiration, they had an undoubted claim
to be admired and applaudedthey fpared no labour and
avoided no danger in the execution of their important of¬
fice 5 and it is to be ferioufly lamented, that their pious en¬
deavours did not meet with the fuccefs which they deferv-
ed : for there is hardly a trace to be found, beyond the
cultivated parts, of their meritorious fundions.
“ This caufe of the failure muff be attributed to a
want of due confideration in the mode employed by the
miffionaries to propagate the religion of which they
were the zealous minifiers. They habituated them¬
felves to the favage life, and naturalifed themfelves to
the favage manners, and, by thus becoming dependant,
as it were, on the natives, they acquired their contempt,
rather than their veneration. If they had been as well
acquainted with human nature, as they were with the
articles of their faith, they would have known, that the
uncultivated mind of an Indian muff be difpofed by
much preparatory method and inftruffion to receive the
revealed truths of Chriftianity, to acf under its fandtions,
and be impelled to good by the hope of its rewards, or
turned from evil by the fear of its punifhments. They
fhould have begun their work by teaching fome of thofe
ufeful arts which are the inlets of knowledge, and lead
the mind by degrees to objedls of higher comprehenfion^
Agriculture fo formed to fix and combine fociety, and
fo preparatory to objedls of fuperior confideration, ftiould
have been the firft thing introduced among a favage
people : it attaches the wandering tribe to that fpot
where it adds fo much to their comforts 3 while it gives
them a fenfe of property, and of lafting poffeffion, in-
ffead of the uncertain hopes of the chafe, and the fugi¬
tive produce of uncultivated wilds. Such wTere the
means by w7hich the foreff s of Paraguay were converted
F U R
into a fcene of abundant cultivation, and its favage in¬
habitants introduced to all the advantages of a civilized
life.
The Canadian miflionaries fhould have been con¬
tented to improve the morals of their own countrymen,-
fo that by meliorating their character and conduft,
they would have given a linking example of the effect
of religion in promoting the comforts of life to the fur-
rounding lavages ; and might by degrees have extend¬
ed its benign influence to the renioteft region of that
country, which was the obje£t, and intended to be the
fcene, of their evangelic labours. But by bearing the
light of the gofpel at once to the diffance of 2500 miles
from the civilized part hf the colonies, it was foon ob-
feured by the cloud of ignorance that darkened, the
human mind in thofe diftant regions.
“ The whole of their long route I have often travel¬
led, and the recollection of fuch a people as the mif¬
fionaries having been there, was confined to a few fu-
perannuated Canadians, w'hn had not left that country
lince the ceflion to the Englifh, in 1763, and who par¬
ticularly mentioned the death of fome, and the diitref-
fing fituation of them all. But if thefe religious men
did not attain the objedtsof their perfevering piety, they
were, during their million, of great fervice to the com¬
manders who engaged in thofe dillant expeditions,
and fpread the fur trade as far welt as the bank of
tbe Salkatchiwine river, in 530 north latitude, and lon¬
gitude 1020 w7eff.
“ At an early period of their intercourfe with the
favages, a cuftom was introduced of a very excellent
tendency, but is now unfortunately difeontinued, of not
felling any fpirituous liquor to the natives. This ad¬
mirable regulation wTas for fome time obferved, with all
the refpe£t due to the religion by which it was fan&ion-
ed, and whofe fevereff cenfures follow'ed the violation
of it. A painful penance could alone reftore the of¬
fender to the fufpended rites of the facrament. The
cafuiftry of trade, however, difeovered a way to gratify
the Indians with their favourite cordial, without incur¬
ring the ecclefiaftical penalties, by giving, inilead of
felling it to them.
“ But notwithftanding all the reflrlctions with which
commerce was oppreffed under the French government,
the fur trade was extended to the immenfe diffance
which has been already Hated j and furmounted many
moll difeouraging difficulties, which will be hereafter
noticed 5 while, at the fame time, no exertions were
made from Hudfon’s Bay to obtain even a ffiare of the
trade of a country which, according to the charter of
that company, belonged to it, and, from its proximity,
is fo much more acceffible to the mercantile adventurer.
“ Of thefe trading commanders, I underftood, that
two attempted to penetrate to the Pacific ocean, but
the utmoft extent of their journey I could never learn *,
which may be attributed, indeed, to a failure of the un¬
dertaking.
“ For fome rime after the conqueft of Canada, this
trade was fulpended, which mult have been very ad¬
vantageous to the Hudfon’s Bay company, as all the
inhabitants to the weftward of Lake Superior were ob¬
liged to go to them for fuch articles as their habitual
ufe had rendered neceffary. Some of the Canadians *
who had lived long with them, and were become at-
tachstB
[ 309 1
a dif-
Vr.it.
FUR [ 310 ]
tacKed to a {iivage life, accompanied them. tldtlier an- himfelf had in
nually, till mercantile adventurers again appeared from
their own country, after an interval ol leveral years,
owincr, X fuppofe, to an ignorance of the country in
and their want of commercial confi-
There were, indeed, other
FUR
it, when in the year I7&5> he was af-
the conquerors,
dence in the conquered. There were,
difcouragements, fuch as the immenfe length of the
journey neceffary to reach the limits beyond which this
commerce mult begin •, the rilk of-property 5 the ex-
pences attending fuch a long tranfport •, and an igno¬
rance of the language of thole who, from their ex¬
perience, mull be neceffarily employed as the interme¬
diate agents between them and the natives. But, not-
rvithftanding thefe difficulties, the trade, by degrees, be¬
gan to fpread over different parts to which it had been
carried by the French, though at a great rifk of the
lives, as well as the xiroperty, of their new polfeffors, for
the natives had been taught by their former allies to
entertain hoftile difpofitions towards the Englifh, from
their having been in alliance with their natural enemies
the Iroquois j and there were not wanting a fufficient
number of difcontented, difappointed people to keep
alive fuch a notion ; fo that for a long time they were
confidered and treated as objeifs of holfility. To prove
this difpofition of the Indians, we have only to refer to
the condu£t of Pontiac, at Detroit, and the furprife and
taking of Michilimakinac, about this period.
“ Hence it arofe, that it was fo late as the year
1766, before which the trade I mean to confider
commenced from Michilimakinac. The firft who at¬
tempted it were fatisfied to go the length of the river
Cameniffiquia, about 30 miles to the eattward of the
Grande Portage, where the French had a principal
eflablifhment, and was the line of their communication
with the interior country. It was once deftroyed
by fire. Here they went, and returned fuccefsful in
the following fpring to Michilimakinac. Their fuc-
cefs induced them to renew their journey, and incited
others to follow their example. Some of them remained
at Cameniffiquia, wdiile others proceeded to and beyond
the Grande Portage, wdiich fince that time has become
the principal entrepot of that trade, and is fituated in a
bay, in latitude 48. north, and longitude 90. weft. Af¬
ter pafling the ufual feafon there, they went back to
Michilimakinac as before, and encouraged by the trade,
returned in increafed numbers. One of thefe, Thomas
Curry, with a fpirit of enterprife fuperior to that of his
contemporaries, determined to penetrate to the furtheft
limits of the French difcoveries in that country j or at
lead; till the froft fhould flop him. For this purpofe he
procured guides and interpreters, who were acquainted
with the country, and with four canoes arrived at Fort
Bourbon, which was one of their polls, at the weft end
of the Cedar lake, on the waters of the Safkatchiwine.
His rifk and toil were well recompenfed, for he came
back the following fpring with his canoes filled with
fine furs, with which he proceeded to Canada, and
was fatisfied never again to return to the Indian
country.
“ From this period people began to fpread over every
part of the country, particularly where the French had
ehahhfhed fettlements.”*
Trade p’'I After continuing the detail of thehiftory of the trade
for which we muft refer to the work itfelf, Mr Mac*
kenzie proceeds to inform us of the concern which he
3
Furr.
fumed as a partner, on condition of going into the In¬
dian country to take an aftive {hare in the bufmefs.
After fome ftruggles, from jealoufy and rivalfhip, with
another company who had been fome time in the trade,
a union between the two companies was formed, ihis
happened in 1787, and the following is Mr Mac¬
kenzie’s account of its fucceis, and of the extent and
mode of conducing this trade.
“ This commercial eftablifliment, “ he proceeds,” was
now founded on a more folid bafts than any hitherto
known in the country •, and it not only continued in full
force, vigour, and profperity, in fpite of all interference
from Canada, but maintained at leaft an equal fhare of
advantage with the Hudfon’s Bay Company, notwith-
ftanding the fuperiority of their local fituation. The
following account of this felf-ere6ted concern will mani-
feft the caufe of its fuccefs.
“ It aflumed the title of the North-Weft Company,
and was no more than an affbciation of commercial men,
agreeing among themfelves to carry on the fur trade,
unconnected with any other bufinefs, though many of
the parties engaged had extenfive concerns altogether
foreign to it. It may be faid to have been fupported
entirely upon credit j for, whether the capital belonged
to the proprietor, or was borrowed, it equally bore in-
tereft, for which the affociation was annually account¬
able. It confifted of twenty fliares, unequally divided
among the perfons concerned. Of thefe, a certain pro¬
portion was held by the people who managed the bufi¬
nefs in Canada, and were ftyled agents for the Compa¬
ny. Their duty was to import the neceffary goods from
England, rtore them at their own expence at Montreal,
get them made up into the articles luited to the trade,
pack and forward them, and fupply the cafh that might
be wanting for the outfits •, for which they received, in¬
dependent of the profit on their fhares, a commiflion on
the amount of the accounts, which they were obliged
to make out annually, and keep the adventure of each
year diftintt. Two of them went annually to the
Grande Portage, to manage and tranfafl the bufinefs
there, and on the communication at Detroit, Michili¬
makinac, St Mary’s, and Montreal, where they recei¬
ved ftores, packed up, and fhipped the company’s furs
for England, on which they had alfo a fmall commiflion.
The remaining ihares wrere held by the proprietors, who
were obliged to winter and manage the bufinefs of the
concern with the Indians, and their refpeflive clerks,
&c. They were not fuppofed to be under any obliga¬
tion to furnifh capital, or even credit. If they obtain¬
ed any capital by the trade, it was to remain in the
hands of the agents 5 for which they were allowed in-
tereft. Some of them, from their long fervices and in¬
fluence, held double fhares, and were allowed to retire
from the bufinefs at any period of the exifting concern,
with one of thofe fliares, naming any young man in the
company’s fervice to fucceed him in the other. Senio¬
rity and" merit were, however, confidered as affording a
claim to the fucceflion, which, neverthelefs, could not
be difpofed of without the concurrence of the majority
of the concern *, who, at the fame time relieved the fe-
ceding perfon from any refponfibility refpefting the
fhare that he transferred, and accounted for it accord¬
ing to the annual value qr rate of the property *, fo that
the feller could have no advantage but that of getting
the
FUR [31
Furr, the fhare of ftock which he retained realiied, and re-
'■Jl" v-’1 ■; ceiving for the transferred fhare what was fairly deter¬
mined to be the worth of it. The former was alfo dif-
charged from all duty, and became a dormant partner.
Thus, all the young men who were not provided for at
the beginning of the contraft, fucceeded in fucceflion to
the chara&er and advantages of partners. They enter¬
ed into the company’s fervice for five or feven years, un¬
der fuch expe&ations, and their reafonable profpedls
Were feldom difappointed : there were, indeed, inftances
when they fucceeded to fliares, before their apprentice-
!fhip was expired, and it frequently happened that they
were provided for w-hile they were in a flate of articled
clerkfinp. Shares were transferable only to the con¬
cern at large, as no perfon could be admitted as a part¬
ner w’ho had not ferved his time to the trade. The
dormant partner indeed might difpofe of his intereft to
any one he chofe, but if the tranfaftion were not ac¬
knowledged by his affociates, the purchafer could only
be confidered as his agent or attorney. Every fhare
had a vote, and two-thirds formed a majority. This
regular and equitable mode of providing for the clerks
of the company, excited a fpirit of emulation in the dif-
charge of their various duties, and in fad!, made every
agent a principal, who perceived his owm profperity to
be immediately connedled with that of his employers.
Indeed, without fuch a fpirit, fuch a trade could not
have become fo extended and .advantageous, as it has
been and now is.
1“ In 1788, the grofs amount of the adventure for
the year did not exceed 40,000!.: but by the exertion,
enterprife, and induflry of the proprietors, it was brought
in eleven years to triple that amount and upwards ;
yielding proportionate profits, and furpafiing, in fhort,
any thing known in America.
“ Such, therefore, being the profperous flate of the
company, it, very naturally, tempted others to inter¬
fere with the concern in a manner by no means benefi¬
cial to the company, and commonly ruinous to the un¬
dertakers.
“ In 1798 the concern underwent a new form, the
fliares wrere increafed to forty-fix, new partners being
admitted, and others retiring. This period was the ter¬
mination of the company, which was not renewed by
all the parties concerned in it, the majority continuing
to a£f upon the old flock, and under the old firm ; the
others beginning a new one ; and it now remains to be
decided, whether two parties, under the fame regula¬
tions and by the fame exertions, though unequal in
number, can continue to carry on the bufinefs to a fuc-
i ] FUR
cefsful iflue. The contrary opinion has been held, Furr,
which, if verified, will make it the intereft of the par-
ties again to coaiefce j for neither is deficient in capital
to fupport their cbflinacy in a lofing trade, as it is not
to be fuppofed that either will yield on any other terms
than perpetual participation.
“ It will not be fuperfluous in this place, to explain
the general mode of carrying on the fur trade.
“ The agents are obliged to order the neceffary goods
from England in the month of Oilober, eighteen
months before they can leave Montreal ; that is, they
are not dripped from London until the fpring following,
when they arrive in Canada in the fummer. In the
courfe of the following winter they are made up into fuch
articles as are required for the favages j they are then
packed into parcels of ninety pounds weight each, but
cannot be fent from Montreal until the May following 5
fo that they do not get to market until the enfuing
winter, when they are exchanged for furs, which come
to Montreal the next fall, and from thence are (hipped,
chiefly to London, where they are not fold or paid for
before the fucceeding fpring, or even as late as June j
which is forty-two months after the goods were ordered
in Canada ; thirty-fix after they had been flapped from
England } and twenty-four after they had been for¬
warded from Montreal $ fo that the merchant, allowing
that he has twelve months credit, does not receive a re¬
turn to pay for thofe goods, and the neceffary expences
attending them, which is about equal to the value of
the goods themfelves, till two years after they are con¬
fidered as cafli, which makes this a very heavy bufinefs.
There is even a fmall proportion of it that requires
twelve months longer to bring round the payment,
owing to the ipimenfe diftance it is carried, and from
the (hortnefs of the feafons, which prevent the furs,
even after they are collefled, from coming out of the
country for that period (a).
“ The articles neceffary for this trade, are coarfe
woollen cloths of different kinds j milled blankets of
different fizes ; arms and ammunition ; twlfi: and carrot
tobacco ; Manchefter goods j linens, and coarfe (heel¬
ings ; thread, lines, and twine} common hardware j
cutlery and ironmongery of feveral deferiptions ; ket¬
tles of brafs and copper, and (heet-iron *, filk and cot¬
ton handkerchiefs 5 hats, (hoes, and hofe j calicoes and
printed cottons, &c. &c. &c* Spirituous liquors and
provifions are purchafed in Canada. Thefe, and the
expence of tranfport to and from the Indian country,
including wrages to clerks, interpreters, guides, and ca¬
noe-men, with the expence of making up the goods for
the
(a) “ This will be better illuftrated by the following ftatement:
We will fuppofe the goods for 1798;
The orders for the goods are fent to this country _ . . 25th Oft. 1796.
They are dripped from London _ - _ _ _ March 1797.
They arrive in Montreal _ - _ - June j 797.
They are made up in the courfe of that fummer and winter.
They are fent from Montreal _ _ . _ _ _ May 1798.
They arrive in the Indian country, and are exchanged for furs the following winter 1708-9.
Which furs come to Montreal - - . - - - - Sept. 1799.
And are (hipped for London, wdrere they are fold in March and April, and paid for in
May or June - - - - - o » •
1800.
F - U R [31
tKe market, form about half the annual amount againfi:
the adventure.
“ This expenditure in Canada ultimately tends to the
encouragement of Britifh manufactory, for thofe who
are employed in the different branches of this bufinefs,
are enabled by their gains to purchafe fach Britith arti¬
cles as they muft otherwife forego.
“ The produce of the year of which I am now (peak¬
ing, confided of the following furs and peltries t
106,000 Beaver fkins,
2100 Bear fkins,
1500 Fox fkins,
4000 Kitt fox fkins,
4600 Otter fkins,
17,000 Mufquafh fkins,
32,000 Marten fkins,
i8co Mink fkins,
500 Buffalo robes, and
6000 Lynx fkins,
6co Wolverine fkins,
1650 Fiflier fkins,
100 Rackoon fkins,
3800 Wolf fkins,
700 Elk fkins,
750 Deer fkins,
1 200 Deer fkins dreffed,
a quantity of cafloreum.
“ Of thefe were diverted from the Britifh market,
iaeing fent through the United States to China, 13,364
fkins, fine beaver, weighing 19,283 pounds ; I 250 fine
otters, and 1724 kitt foxes. They would have found
their way to the China market at any rate, but this de¬
viation from the Britifh channel arofe from the follow¬
ing circumflance :
“ An adventure of this kind was undertaken by a re-
fpeClable houfe in London, half concerned with the
North-Weft Company in the year 1792. The furs
■were of the beft kind, and fuitable to the market j and
the adventurers continued this connexion for five fuc-
ceflive years, to the annual amount of 40,000!. At
the winding up of the concern of 1792, 1793, 1794,
1795, in the year 1797, (the adventure of 1796 not
being included, as the furs were not fent to China, but
difpofed of in London), the North-Weft Company ex¬
perienced a lofs of upwards of 40,000!. (their half,)
which was principally owing to the difficulty of getting
home the produce procured in return for the furs from
China, in the Eaft India Company’s fhips, together
wdth the duty payable, and the various reftriftions of
that company. Whereas, from America there are no
impediments 5 they get immediately to market, and the
produce of them is brought back, and perhaps fold in
the courfe of twelve months. From fuch advantages
the furs of Canada will no doubt find their wray to Chi¬
na by America, which w7ould not be the cafe if Britifh
fubjedls had the fame privileges that are allowed to fo¬
reigners, as London would then be found the beft and
fafeft market.
“ But to return to our principal fubjecl.—We ffiall
now proceed to confider the number of men employed
in the concern: viz. 50 clerks, 71 interpreters and
clerks, 1 ] 20 canoe men, and 35 guides. Of thefe, five
clerks, 18 guides, and 35° canoe men, were employed
for the fummer feafon in going from Montreal to the
Grande Portage, in canoes, part of whom proceeded
from thence to Rainy Lake, as will be hereafter ex¬
plained, and are called pork-eaters, or goers and comers.
Thefe were hired in Canada or Montreal, and were
abfent from the 1 ft of May till the latter end of Sep¬
tember. For this trip the guides had from 800 to 1000
livres, and a fuitable equipment ; the foreman and
fteerfujan from 40040 600 livres; the middle men from
2 ] FUR
250 to 350 livres, with an equipment of one blanket, Furr,
one fhirt, and one pair of trowfers ; and were maintain- v —1
ed during that period at the expence bf their employ¬
ers. Independent of their w'ages, they were allowed to
traffic, and many of them earned to the amount of their
wages. About one-third of thefe went to winter, and
had more than double the above w7ages, and equipment.
All the others were hired by the year, and fome times
for three years 5 and of the clerks many w-ere appren¬
tices, who were generally engaged for five or feven
years, for which they had only icol. provilion and
clothing. Such of them wffio could not be provided for
as partners, at the expiration of this time, were allowed
from 100I. to 3col. per annum, with all neceftaries, till
provilion wras made for them. Thofe who afted in the
twofold capacity of clerk and interpreter, or were fo
denominated, had no other expectation than the pay¬
ment of wTages to the amount from 1000 to 4C00 livres
per annum, with clothing and provifions. The guides,
who are a very ufeful fet of men, a£led alfo in the ad¬
ditional capacity of interpreters, and had a ftated
quantity of goods, confidered as fufficient for their
wants, their wages being from 1000 to 3000 livres.
The canoe men are of twro defcriptions, foremen and
fteerfmen, and middlemen. The twTo firft were allow¬
ed annually 1200, and the latter 400, livres each. The
firft clafs had wffiat is called an equipment, conlifting of
two blankets, two ffiirts, tw'o pair of trowfers, two
handkerchiefs, 14 pounds of tobacco, and fome trilling
articles. The latter had 1 o pounds of tobacco, and all
the other articles : thofe are called north men, or win¬
terers; and to the laft clafs of people w'ere attached up¬
wards of 700 Indian women and children, viftuailed at
the expence of the company.
The firft clafs of people are hired in Montreal five
months before they fet out, and receive their equip¬
ments, and one-third of their w'ages in advance} and
an adequate idea of the labour they undergo may be
formed from the following account of the country
through which they pafs, and their manner of proceed-
ing.
“ The neceffary number of canoes being purchafed,
at about 300 livres each, the goods formed into pack¬
ages, and the lakes and rivers free of ice, wffiich they
ufually are in the beginning of May, they are then dif-
patched from La Chine, eight miles above Montreal,
with eight or ten men in each canoe, and their bag¬
gage \ and 65 packages of goods, 600 weight of bif-
cuit, 200 weight of pork, three buffiels of peafe, for
the men’s provifion j two oil cloths to cover the goods,
a fail, &c. an axe, a towing-line, a kettle, and a
fponge to bail out the water, with a quantity of gum,
bark, and watape, to repair the veffel. An European
on feeing one of thefe flender veffels thus laden, heaped
up, and funk with her gunw'ale within fix inches of the
water, w'ould think his fate inevitable in fuch a boat,
when he reflefled on the nature of her voyage $ but
the Canadians are fo expert that few accidents hap¬
pen.”* * Gen. Hip.
FURSTENBURGH, a town and caftle of Gtr-ofthe Fur
many, the capital of a comity of the fame name, 30
miles north-weft of Conftance. E. Long. 8. 30. N.F 2°’
Lat. 47. 50.
FURTHCOMING, in Laiv, the name of an a£Hon
competent
4
Fururtcle
F U S [ 3
Competent to any perfon who has ufed arreftment in
the hands of his debtor’s creditor, for having the fub-
jecf arrefted declared his property.
• FURUNCLE, or Boil, in Surgery, a fmall refitt¬
ing tumour, with inflammation, rednefs, and great pain,
arifing in the adipofe membrane, under the fkin. bee
Surgery Index.
FURZE. See Ulex, Botany Index.
F US AN US, in Botany, a genus of plants, belong¬
ing to the polygamia clals* The hermaphrodite calyx
is quinquefid 5 there is no corolla ; there are four fta-
mina •, the germen beneath ; there are four ftigmata j
the fruit a plum.
FUSAROLE, in Archil eelure, a moulding or or¬
nament placed immediately under the echinus, in the
.Doric, Ionic, and Compofite capitals.
FUSE or Fuze, in artillery. See Fusee.
FUSEE, in clock-work, is that conical part drawn
by the fpring, and about which the chrrin or firing is
wound ; for the ufe of which, fee Clock and Watch.
Fusee, or Firelock, See Musquet.
Fusee, Fuze, or Fu/e, of a bomb or grenado, is that
which makes the whole powder or compofition in the
fliell take fire, to do the defigned execution.
Fuzes are chiefly made of very dry beech wood, and
fometimes of hornbeam, taken near the root. They
are turned rough, and bored at firft, and then kept
for feveral years in a dry place •, the diameter .of the
hole is about one-fourth of an inch the hole does not
come quite through, leaving about one-fourth of an
inch at the bottom 5 and the head is made hollow, in
the form of a bowl.
The compofition for fu2es is faltpetre 3, fulphur 1,
and mealed powder 3, 4, and fometimes 5. This com¬
pofition is driven in with an iron driver (whofe ends are
capped with copper to prevent the compofition from
taking fire), and equally hard as poflible ; the laft
fhovelfull being all mealed powder, and two Hands of
quicicmateh laid acrofs each other being driven in wdth
it, the ends of which are folded up into the hollow top,
and a cap of parchment tied over it till ufed.
When thefe fuzes are driven into the loaded fhell,
the lower end is cut off in a Hope, fo that the compo¬
fition may inflame the powder in the {hell : the fuze
mutt have fuch a length as to continue burning all the
time the fhell is in its range, and to fet fire to the
powxler as loon as it touches the ground, which in-
ttantly burtts into many pieces. When the diftance of
the battery from the objeft is known, the time of the
fhell’s flight may be computed to a fecond or two j
which being known, the fuze may be cut accordingly,
by burning two or three, and making ufe of a watch
or a firing by way of a pendulum to vibrate feconds.
FUSIBILITY, in Natural Philofophy, that quality
of bodies which renders them fufible. Gold is more
lufible than iron or copper 5 but lefs fo than filver, tin,
and lead. Borax is frequently mixed with metals, to
render them more fufible.
FUSIL, in Heraldry, a bearing of a rhomboidal fi¬
gure, longer than the lozenge, and having its upper
and lower angles more acute and fharp than the other
two in the middle. It is called in Latin fufus, “ a
fpindle,” from its ttiape.
FUSILIERS, Fusileers, or Fuzileers, in the mi¬
litary art, are foldiers armed as the reft of the infantry,
Vol. IX. Part I.
t.3 1 F U S
but formerly wore caps like the grenadiers, though forfte- Fufiort
what fhorter. There are three regiments in the Britifh II.
fervice : the royal regiment of Scotch fuzileers railed ,
in 16785 the royal regiment of Englifh fuzileers raifed
in 16855 and the royal regiment of Welfli fuzileers
raifed in 16.18-9.
k US ION, the ftate of a body rendered fluid by fire.
See Fluidity, and Chemistry Index.
FUST, or Faust, John, w^as a goldfmith of Mentz,
and one of the three artills to whom the valuable in¬
vention of printing has been ulually aferibed. The
names of the other two were Guttemberg and Schoeffer,
It^ feems impoffible, however, to determine with cer¬
tainty, whether Fuft had any other merit in the bufinefs
than that of fupplying Guttemberg wuth money, w'ho
had been making feme attempts with carved blocks at
Strafburgh, before he vifited Mentz. To Schoeffer,
the fon-in-law of Fuft, we are indebted for the inven-*
tion of punches and matrices, by means of which this
noble art was afterwards carried to perfection. That
wrork which may be regarded as the origin of the true
typographic art, w^as the “ Durandi Rationale Divino-
rum Officiorum,” publiihed in 1459, by Fuft and
Schoeffer, which was foon followed by a copy of the
bible, both executed in a very mafterly manner.
We are informed that Fuft went to Paris in 1462,
in order to difpofe of a part of the fecond edition of his
bible, which he was enabled to fell confiderably lower
than bibles in manufeript, yet fome reckoned themfelves
overcharged by him, and fome pretend that he was even
accufed of magic, but for the belief of this there ap¬
pears to be no rational foundation. It feems Certain
that Fuft was never in Paris after the year 1466 5 but
that he was in that metropolis then, is proved by a note
at the end of a copy of -Cicero’s Offices, intimating that
the firft poffeffor received it from John Fuft at Paris, in
1466. It is extremely probable that he died that year
of the plague, to which 40,000 of the inhabitants fell
a facrifice in the months of Auguft and September,
ft his opinion is farther corroborated by this circum-
ftance, that the name of Schceffer alone was prefixed
to the books which were publiffied at Mentz after that
period.
This man has been frequently confounded with John
Fault, better known by the name of Dr Fauftus, a pre¬
tender to the art of magic, who was firft a theologian,
then a ftudent of medicine, and laft of all fold himfelf
to the devil for 24 years, at the expiration of which
period it feems the devil came to carry off his purchafe,
and dalhed out the doctor’s brains againft the w7all
about mid-night. This wretched romance has no doubt
been invented by the monks, to blacken the reputation
of the great Fuft, whofe art deprived them of the
emoluments arifing from the copying of manuferipts.
See (Hiftory of) Printing.
Fust, in Archite&ure, the fhaft of a column, or the
part comprehended between the bafe and the capital,
called alfo the naked.
FUSTIAN, in Commerce, a kind of cotton fluff,
which feems as it were whaled on one fide.
Right fuftians fliould be altogether made of cotton-
yarn, both woof and warp 5 but a great many are made,
the warp of ■which is flax, or even hemp.
There are fuftians made of feveral kinds, wide, nar¬
row, fine, coarfe 5 with {hag or nap, and without it.
R r Fustian
GAB [ 31
Fuflian Fustian is alfo ufed for a boxnbaft ftyle, or a high
.11 . fwelling kind of writing, made up of heterogeneous
Fuftigatio. . 0
-y * FUSTICK, or Fustock, a yellow wood, that
grows in all the Caribbee iflands, and is ufed in dying
vellow It is a fpecies of Morus. See BoxaNY Index.
And for its properties, fee Chemistry and Dyeing
ft rjpx • •
FUSTIGATIO, in the Roman cuftoms, a pumlh-
ment inflifted by beating with a cudgel. This punifh-
ment was peculiar to freemen } for the Haves wxre
fcourged or lalhed with whips.
4 J GAB
FUTTOCKS, in a {hip, the timbers raifed over the Futtocks
keel, or the encompaffing timbers that make lier j<uz||jers>
breadth. r ' 
FUTURE, fomething to come ^hereafter. YVe lay,
* future ftate, a future contingency •, there is none but
God to whom future things are prefent.
Future, or Future Fenfe, in Grammar^ denotes an
inflexion of verbs, whereby they denote,^ that a thing
will be in feme time yet to come. See Grammar.
FUZES, or Fusees, in artillery. See Fusee.
FUZILEERS. See Fusileers.
Cn THE feventh letter and fifth confonant of our
X, alphabet-, though in the alphabets of all the
oriental languages, the Hebrew, Phenician, Chaldee,
Syriac, Samaritan, Arabic, and even Greek, G is the
third letter. The Hebrews call it ghmiel or gwiel, q. d.
“ camel •” by reafon it refembles the neck of that ani¬
mal ; and the fame appellation it bears in the Samari¬
tan, Phenician, and the Chaldee in the Syriac it is
called gamel, in Arabic giim, and in Greek gamma. _
The gamma (r) of the Greeks is manifeftly the gi-
mel (i) of the Hebrews or Samaritans. All the dif¬
ference between the gamma and gimel ccmfiils in this,
that the one is turned to the right, and the other, to
the left, according to the different manners of writing
and reading which obtained among thofe different na¬
tions \ fo that all the pains Salmafius has taken on So-
linus, to prove that the G was derived from the GreetC
kappa, is loft. . , . , . r
From the Greeks the Latins borrowed their rorm
of this letter ; the Latin G being certainly a corrup¬
tion of the Greek gamma F, as might eafily be ftiown
had our printers all the chara£!ers and forms of this
letter which we meet with in the Greek and Latin
MSS. through which the letter palled from F to G.
Diomed, lib. ii. cap. De Litera, calls G a new letter.
His reafon is, that the R omans had not introduced it
before the firft Punic war -, as appears from the roftral
column ereded by C. Duilius, on which we every¬
where find a C in lieu of G. It was Sp. Carvilius who
firft diftinguifhed between thofe two letters, and in-
vented the figure of the G *, as we are affured by Te-
rentius Scaurus. The C ferved very well for G it
being the third letter of the Latin alphabet, as the F
or y w-as of the Greek.
The G is found inftead of C on feveral medals :
VaMant, Num. Imperat. tom. i. p. 39.
M. Beger produces a medal of the Famiha Qgulma,
where Gar is read inftead of Car, which is on thofe
cf M. Patin. But the C is more frequently feen on
medals in lieu of G} as, Aucustalis Callaecia
CartaCinensis, ’&c. for Augustalis, &c. Not
that the pronunciation of thofe words was altered, but
only that’ the G was unartfully or negligently cut by
the workmen : as is the cafe in divers inferiptions of
the eaftern empire j where AVC, aucc, auccc, are
frequently found for aug, &c.
The northern people frequently change the G into
V or W; as in Callus, Wallus ; Gallia, Wallia, Vallia,
See. For in this inftance it muft not be faid that the
French have changed the W into G ; becaufe they
wrote Gallus long before Wallus or Wallia wTas known,
as appears from all the ancient Roman and Greek
writers. And yet it is equally true, that the French
change the W of the northern nations, and V confo¬
nant,0 into G; as, Willielmus, “ William,” into Guil¬
laume ; Wulphilas into Gulphilas; Vafcon into Gafcon,
G.
The letter G is of the mute kind, and cannot be
any w-ay founded wathout the help of a vowel. It is
formed by the refledion of the air againft the palate,
made by the tongue as the air paffes out of the throat ;
which Martianus Capella expreffes thus, Gfpiritus cum
palato ; fo that G is a palatal letter.
The modern G takes its form from that of the La¬
tins. In Englifh it has two founds, one from the
Greek F and the Latin, which is called that of the
hard G, becaufe it is formed by a preffure fomewhat
hard on the fore part of the tongue againft the upper gum 5
•which found it retains before a, 0, u, l, r; as gate, go,gull.
At the end of a word it is always hard, as ring, fing, &c.
The other found, called that of the foft G, refembles
that of j\ and is commonly, though not always, found
before e and i, as in gefure, giant, &c. To this rule,
however, there are many exceptions ; G is often hard
before i, as give, &c. and fometimes before e, as get,
Sec. It is alfo hard in derivatives from words ending
in g, asfnging,f ranger, Sue. and generally before er, at
the ends of words, as finger. G is mute before n, as
gnajh, fis>n. Gh has the found of the hard. G in the
beginning of a word, as ghufify > in the middle, and
fometimes at the end, it is quite filent, as right, though.
At the end of a word Gh has often the found of/, as
laugh, rough, tough.
As a numeral, G wTas anciently uled to denote ^j.00 ,
and with a dafh over it thus G, 40,000.
As an abbreviature, G. ftands for Gains, Gelhus,
gens,
GAB r 3
Gabalc gerts, genius, &c. G. G. for gemma, geflit, gejferunt,
li. &c. G. C. for genio civitatis or Ceefaris. G. L. for
^k'1 Gains libertus, or genio loci. G. V. S. for genio urbis
facrum. G. B. for genio bono. And G. T. for genio
tutelari.
In mufic, G is the character or mark of the treble
cleff; and from its being placed at the head, or mark¬
ing the firft found in Guido’s fcale, the whole fcale
took the name gamut.
GABALE, in Mythology, a deity worfhipped at
Heliopolis under the figure of a lion, with a radiant
head ; and it is thus reprefented on many medals of
Caracalla.
GABARDINE, from the Italian gavardina, has
been fometimes ui’ed to denote a coarfe frock, or mean
drefs. In this fenfe it is ufed by Shakefpeare in his
Tempeft and Merchant of Venice, and by Butler in his
Hudibras, book i.
GABARA, or GaBBARA, in antiquity, the dead
bodies which the Egyptians embalmed, and kept in
their houfes, efpecially thofe of fuch of their friends as
died with the reputation of great piety and holinefs, or
as martyrs. See Embalming, and Mummy.
GABEL {Gabella, Gablum, Gablagiuni), in French
Gabelle, i. e. VeBigal, hath the fame fignification among
the ancient Englifh writers that gabelle hath in France.
It is a tax ; but hath been varioufly ufed, as for a rent,
cuftom, fervice, &c. And ■where it was a payment of
rent, thofe who paid it were termed gablatores. When
the word gabel was formerly mentioned without any
addition to it, it fignified the tax on fait, though after¬
wards it was applied to all other taxes.
In the French cuftoms, the gabel, or tax on fait,
computed to make one-fourth of the whole revenue of
the kingdom, is faid to have had its rife in France in
1286, under Philip the Fair. Philip the Long took
a double per livre on fait, by an edibl in 13»8, which
he promifed to remit when he was delivered from his
enemies 5 which was renewed by Philip de Valois in
1345 } and the duty was raifed to four deniers per
livre 5 King John refumed it in 13 95, and it was grant¬
ed to the dauphin in 1358, to ranfom King Johns It
was continued by Charles V. in 1366 j after his de-
ceafe it was fupnreffed, but revived again by Charles
VI. in 1381. Louis XI. raifed it to 1 2 deniers per
livre; and Francis Lin 1543 to 24 livres per muid:
and it has been confiderably augmented fince that time;
fo that a minot of fait latterly paid a duty of 52 livres
8 fols and 6 deniers. Philip de Valois firft eftablilhed
granaries and officers of the gabelles, and prohibited
any other perfons from felling fait: from which time
the whole commerce of fait for the inland confump-
tion continued wholly in the king’s hands, every grain
thereof being fold and diftributed by his farmers and
officers created for the purpofe.—This oppreffive tax
has lately been aboliffied by the National Affembly.
GAB 11, in Ancient Geography, a town of Laiium,
midway almoft between Rome and Prenefte to the eaft,
often mentioned in the hiftory of Tarquin the Proud.
CinSlus Gabinus denoted a particular way of tucking
the gown, by drawing it forwards on the breaft, and
tying it into a knot; as the people of Gabii did at a
folemn facrifice, on the fudden attack of an enemy, in
order to be fitter for a6Hon. In this manner the conful
ufed to declare war, to facrifice, and burn the fpoils of
is 1 GAB
the enemy; and then he was faid to be prceclnEitu. The
place now extin ft.
GABINIAN laws, in Roman antiquities; laws
inftituted upon feveral occafions by perfons of the name
of Gabmius. The firft -was the Gabinia lex de Comitiis, by
A. Gabinius the tribune, in the year of Rome 614. It
required, that in the public affemblies. for elefting ma-
giftrates, the votes thould be given by tablets, and not.
mva voce.—Another de Comitiis, which made it a ca¬
pital puniffiment to convene any clandeftine affembly,
agreeable to the old law of the 1 2 tables.— Another de
Militia, by A. Gabinius the tribune, year of Rome
685. It granted Pompey the power of carrying on
the war againft the pirates, during three years, and of
obliging all kings, governors, and dates, to fupply him
with all the neceffaries he wanted, over all the Medi¬
terranean fea, and in the maritime provinces as far as
400 Jladia frorp the fea.—Another de Ufura by Aul.
Gabinius the tribune, year of Rome 685. It ordain¬
ed that no aftion fiiould be granted for the recovery of
any money borrowed upon imall intereft to be lent upon
larger. This was an ufual pradtice at Rome, which
obtained the name of verfuram facere.—Another againft
fornication.
GABIONS, in Tonification, balkets made of ozier
twigs, of a cylindrical form, fix feet high and four
wide ; which, being filled with earth, ferve as a ihelter
from the enemy’s fire.
GABLE or Gabel End, of a houfe (from gaval,
Welftr), is the upright triangular end from the cornice
or eaves to the top of the houfe.
GABRES, or Gavres, a religious feft in Perfia
and India; called alfo Gcbres, Guebres, Gevres, Gaurs,
" &c. See Magi.
The Turks call the Chriftians Gabres, q. d. Infidels,
or people of a falfe religion ; or rather, as Leunclavius
obferves, Heathens or Gentiles: the word Gabre, among
the Turks, having the fame fignification as Pagan or
Infidel among the Chriftians, and denoting any thing
not Mahometan.
In Perfia the word has a more peculiar fignification;
wherein it is applied to a feft difperfed through the
country, and faid to be the remains of the ancient Per-
fians or followers of Zoroafter, being worfhippers of
fire. They have a fuburb at Ifpahan, which is called
Gauralad, or “ the town of the Gaurs,” where they
are employed in the meaneft and vileft drudgery ; fome
of them are difperfed through other parts of Perfia ;
but they principally abound in Kerman, the moft bar¬
ren province in the whole country, where the Maho¬
metans allow' them liberty and the exercife of their re¬
ligion. Several of them fled many ages ago into India,
and fettled about Surat, wffiere their pofierity remain
to this day. There is alfo a colony of them at Bom¬
bay. They are a poor, ignorant, inoffenlive people,
extremely fuperftitious, and zealous for their rites, ri¬
gorous in their morals, and honeft in their dealings.
They profefs to believe a refurreftion and a future
judgment, and to worlhip only one God. And though
they perform their wofftiip before fire, and direft their
devotion towards the riling fun, for which they have
an extraordinary veneration, yet they ftrenuoufly main¬
tain that they w orfhip neither; but that thefe are the
moft expreffive fymbols of the Deity, and that for this
reafon they turn towards them in their devotional fer-
R r g vices=
GAD [ 31
Gabriel vices.—However, fome have fuppofed, that thefe are
•I Perfians converted to Chriidianity, who, being after-
Gad‘ , wards left to themfelves, mingled their ancient fuper-
ftitions with the truths and praclices of Chriftianity,
and fo formed for themfelves a religion apart : and they
allege, that throughout the whole of their fyflem of
doctrine and practice, we may difcern the marks and
traces of Chriftianity, though grievoufty defaced ; the
annunciation, the magi, the malfacre of the infants,
our Saviour’s miracles, his perfecutions, afcenfion,
&c. ,
GABRIEL, the name of one of the principal an¬
gels in heaven. It fignifies thejirength of God. There
are a few events, in which this exalted being was con¬
cerned, recorded in Scripture. He was fent to the pro¬
phet Daniel, to explain to him the vifton of the ram and
goat, and the myftery of the feventy \\eeks, which had
been revealed to him. He was fent to Zecharias, to
declare to him the future birth of John the Baptift. Six
months after, he was fent to Nazareth to the Virgin
Mary, to warn her of the birth of Jefus Chrift.
The Orientalifts add feVeral particulars to what the
Scriptures inform us concerning the angel Gabriel.
The Mahometans call him the faithful fpirit; and the
Perfians, by way of metaphor, the peacock of heaven.
We read, in the fecond chapter of the Koran, that
whofoever is an enemy to GabrielJhall be confounded. It
was Gabriel, they believe, who brought to Mahomet
their falfe prophet the revelations which he publilhed j
and it was he who conduced him to heaven mounted
upon the animal Borak.
Gabriel, St, an ifland lying in the great river La
Plata, South America, w'hich was difcovered by the
celebrated navigator Sebaftian Cabot, in the year
1526.
GABRIELITES, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a fe£l of
Anabaptifts that appeared in Pomerania in 1530.
They derive their name from Gabriel Scherling •, who,
after having been for fome time tolerated in that coun¬
try, w as obliged to remove, and died in Poland.
GAD, a Jewifti prophet, the feer, or domeftic prophet
of King David, who was his advifer in all matters of im¬
portance. When the difpleafure of the Almighty was
roufed againft David and the children of Ifrael for
numbering the people, Gad received a commiflion to
wait upon the king, and make him an offer of three
evils as a purrifhment for his offence. Thefe were fa¬
mine, war, or peftilence, the laft of which was chofen
by David, the ravages of which wrere terrible beyond
defcription, and produced genuine repentance in the
hearts of furvivers. To perpetuate the memory of this
event, Gad ordered an altar to be erefted in the threlh-
ing-floor of Oman the Jebuftte, around which place, it
is faid, the temple was afterwards built. We learn
from the Old Teftament that Gad was an author, who
wrote a hiftory of his own times, of which much ufe
appears to have been made by the compilers of the
books of Samuel and Chronicles. Gad wTas alfo the
the name of one of the twelve patriarchs, or fons of
Jacob.
Gad, in Ancient Geography, a diftri£t of the Tranf-
jordan Paleftine, fituated between Gilead and the king¬
dom of Balkan to the n6rth, and the kingdom of Amo-
riteSj to the fouth '7 having the Jordan to the weft, and
5 ] G A F
bounded by various peoples on the eaft $ fo called from Gad
a tribe of that name. _ Gaftarel.
Gad, among miners, a fmall punch of iron, with a 
long wooden handle, ufed to break up the ore.
One of the miners holds this in his hand, direfting
the point to a proper place, while the other drives it
into the vein, by itriking it with a fledge hammer.
Gad-Bcc, or Gad-Fly. See Oestrus, Entomolo¬
gy Index.
GADARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Persea, or Transjordan, in the Decapolis, a very ftrong
place. Reftored by Pompey after its demolition by the
Jew’s (Jofephus). After Herod’s death it was joined to
the province of Syria by Auguftus.
GADARENORUM Ager, in Ancient Geography,
the country of the Gadarenes, called by Matthew the
country of the Gergefenes, becaufe it was a diftridl that
lay between Gadara and Gergefa, otherwife called Ge
rafa, both which lay within the Decapolis on the other
fide Jordan.
GADES, or Gadira, in Ancient Geography, a
fmall ifland in the Atlantic, on the Spanilh coaft, 25
miles from the Columns of Hercules. It was fometimes
called Tarteffus and Erythia according to Pliny. Ge-
ryon, whom Hercules killed, fixed his refidence there.
Hercules, furnamed Gaditanus, had there a celebrated
temple in which all his labours wTere engraved with ex¬
cellent w'orkmanlhip. The inhabitants are called Ga-
ditani.
GADUS, a genus of fifties belonging to the order of
jugulares. This genus includes the cod, the whiting,
the torlk, &c. See Ichthyology Index.
GAELIC Language. See Highlands.
GiETULIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of
Africa, lying to the louth of Mauritania^ called Gcctu-
lia Propria, and Fetus. Gcetuli, the people, w-ere dif-
tinguilhed by different epithets •, as FUgri, Autololes,
Darce and Baniurce, (Pliny). The Gattuli were among
the firft inhabitants of Africa *, a rough, unpolilhed peo¬
ple, living on venifon and the fpontaneous produftions
of the earth; a roving, wandering people, w-ho took
up wdth the firft place in which night furprifed them,
(Salluft).
GAFF, a fort of boom or pole, frequently ufed in
fmall {hips, to extend the upper edge of the mizen
and always employed for the fame purpofe on thofe fails
whofe foremoft edges are joined to the maft by hoops or
lacings, and wdiich are ufually extended by a boom be¬
low. Such are the main fails of all Hoops, brigs, and
fchooners.
GAFFAREL, James, a French divine, and very
learned writer, born about 1601. He acquired great
{kill in the oriental and feveral other languages ; and
was particularly verfant in the cabbaliftic and occult
fciences, which he learned, expofed, and refuted. Car¬
dinal Richelieu made choice ot him for his library
keeper, and fent him into Italy to colledl the beft ma-
nuferipts and books. He publilhed a book entitled Cu-
riofite% Innouies, i. e. Unheard-of Curiofities. It is faid
the cardinal defigned to employ him in his grand pro¬
ject for the reunion of religions. He died in 1681,
aged 80. He had been labouring for many years, and
had aim oft finiflied a hiftory of the fubterranean world
containing an account of the caves, grottoes, vaults,
catacombs.
GAG [ 317 ] GAG
Gagate?,r catacombs, and mines, he had met with in 30 years tra¬
vels.
GAGAiES, or Jet.
See Jet, Mineralogy
Index.
GAGE, in our ancient cuftqms, fxgnifies a pledge
or pawn, given by way of fecurity. 1 he word is only
properly ufed in fpeaking of moveables ; for immove¬
ables, hypothcca is ufed.
If the gage perilh, the perfon who received it is
not to anfwer for it, but only for extreme negli¬
gence, &c.
Gage is alfo ufed for a challenge to combat : (See
Cartel). In which fenfe, it was a pledge, which the
accufer or challenger caft on the ground, and the other
took up as accepting the challenge ; it was ufually a
glove, gauntlet, chaperoon, or the like. See Combat,
and Duel.
Gage, is only now retained as a fubllantive. As a
verb, the G is changed into IY, and of gage is form¬
ed wage: as to wage law, to wage deliverance,
q. d. to give fecurity a thing {hall be delivered. See
Wage.
If a perfon who has diftrained be fued for not having
delivered what he had taken by diftrefs, he (hould wage,
or gage, or gager, deliverance j that is, put in furety
that he will deliver them.
MovI-Gage, is that which is left in the hands of the
proprietor, fo that he reaps the fruits thereof.
In oppofition to vif-gage, where the fruits or reve¬
nues are reaped by the creditor, and reckoned on the
foot of the debt, which diminiihes in proportion there¬
to. The fecond acquits or difcharges itfelf j the firil
does not.
Gage, in the fea language. When one {hip is to
windward of another, {he is faid to have the weather-
gage of her. They likewife call the number of feet
that a veffel'finks in the water, the fliip’s ; this
they find by driving a nail into a pike near the end, and
putting it down befide the rudder till the nail catch
hold under it ; then as many feet as the pike is under
water is the fhip’s gage.
Gage, among letter founders, a piece of box, or
other hard wood, varioufly notched ; the ufe of which
is to adjufl the dimenfions, fiopes, &c. of the different
forts of letters. See Foundery.
Gage, in joinery, is an inftrument made to {trike a
line truly parallel to the ftraight fide of any board or
piece of Huff. Its chief ufe is for gaging of tenons
true, to fit into mortifes •, and for gaging fluff of an
equal thicknefs. It is made of an oval piece of wood,
fitted upon a fquare Hick, to Hide up and down ftiffly
thereon, and with a tooth at the end of a ftaff, to fcore,
to {trike a line upon the ftaff at any dittance, according
to the diitance of the oval from it.
Sliding Gage, a tool ufed by the mathematical in¬
ftrument makers for meafuring and fetting off dif-
tances.
Sea Gage, an inftrument invented by Dr Hales and
Dr Defaguliers for finding the depth of the fea ; the
Plate defcription whereof is this. AB (fig. I.) is the gage
GCXXVIII in winch is cemented the gage tube Ff in the
brafs cape at G. The upper end of tube F is hermeti¬
cally fealed, and the open lower end/is immerfed in
mercury, marked C, on which fwims a fmall thicknefs
or furface of treacle. On the top of ike bottle is fcrew-
ed a tube of brafs HG, pierced with feveral holes to ad¬
mit the water into the bottle AB. The bodyr K is a '
weight hanging by its {hank L, in a focket N, with a
natch on one fide at m, in which is fixed the catch / of
the fpring S, and paffmg through the hole L, in the
fhank of the weight K, prevents its falling out when
once hung on. On the top, in the upper part of the
brafs tube at H, is fixed a large empty ball, or full
blown bladder I, which mull not be fo large, but
that the weight K may be able to fink the whole under
water.
The inftrument thus conftru&ed is ufed in the fol¬
lowing manner. The weight K being hung on, the
gage is let fall into deep wrater, and finks to the bot¬
tom : the focket N is fomewrhat longer than the {hank
L } and therefore, after the weight K comes to the
bottom, the gage will continue to defcend till the
lowTer part of the focket ftrikes againft the weight ;
this gives liberty to the catch to fly out of the hole L,
and let go the weight K: when this is done, the ball
or bladder I inftanv/y buoys up the gage to the top
of the water. While the gage is under water, the wra-
ter having free accefs to the treacle and mercury in the
bottle, will by its preffure force it up into the tube
and the height to which it has been forced by the
greateft preffure, viz. that at the bottom, will be ftiown
by the mark in the tube which the treacle leaves behind
it, and which is the only ufe of the treacle. This
{how s into what fpace the whole air in the tube Fy is
compreffed j and confequently the height or depth of
the water which by its weight produced that compref-
fion, which is the thing required.
If the gage tube Fy be of glafs, a fcale might be
drawn on it with the point of a diamond, ftiowing, by
infpe&ion, wdiat height the water Hands above the bot¬
tom. But the length of 10 inches is not fufticient for
fathoming depths at fea, fince that, when all the air in
fuch a length of tube is compreffed into half an inch,
the depth of w7ater is more than 634 feet, which is
not half a quarter of a mile.
If, to remedy this, wTe make ufe of a tube 50 inches
long, which for ftrength may be a mulket barrel, and
fuppofe the air comprefled into an hundredth part of
half an inch j then by faying, as 1 : 99 : : 400 : 39600
inches, or 3300 feet j even this is but little more than
half a mile, or 2640 feet. But fince it is reafonable
to fuppofe the cavities of the fea bear fome proportion
to the mountainous parts of the land, fome of which
are more than three miles above the earth’s furface j
therefore, to explore fuch great depths, the Doctor
contrived a new form for his fea gage, or rather for
the gage tube in it, as follows. BCDF (fig. 2.)
is a hollow metalline globe communicating on the top
with a long tube AB, wdiofe capacity is a ninth part
of that globe. On the lower part at D, it has alfo a
fliort tube DE, to ftand in the mercury and treacle.
The air contained in the compound gage tube is com¬
prefled by the water as before j but the degree of com-
preflion, or height to which the treacle has been for¬
ced, cannot there be feen through the tube: there¬
fore, to .anfwer that end, a {lender rod of metal or
wood, with a knob on the top of the tube AB, will
receive the mark of the treacle, and ftrow it whenta*.
ken out.
If the tube AB be 50 inches long, and of ftich a -
bore:
GAG [ 318 ] GAG
■Gage, bore that every inch in length (hould be a cubic inch
■"-V—""1 of air, and the contents of the globe and tube toge¬
ther 500 cubic inches •, then when the air is com-
preffed within an hundredth part of the whole, it is
evident the treacle will not approach nearer than live
inches of the top of the tube, which will agree to the
depth of 3300 feet of water as above. Twice this
depth will comprefs the air into half that fpace nearly,
viz. 2h inches, which correfpond to 6600, which is a
mile and a quarter. Again, half that fpace, or inch,
will (how double the former depth, viz. 13200 feet, or
2 1 nnles ; which is probably very nearly the greateit
depth of the lea.
Bucket Sea Gage, an inllrument contrived by Dr
Hales to-find the difterent degrees of cooinefs and falt-
nefs of the fea, at different depths : it conlifts of a
common houfehold pail or bucket, with two heads :
Thefe heads have each a round hole in the middle,
about four inches in diameter, covered with fquare
valves opening upward ; and that they may both open
and Hint together, there is a fmidl iron rod fixed to
the upper part of the lower valve, and the other end to
the lower fide of the upper valve. So that as the buc¬
ket defcends with its finking weight into the fea, both
the valves may open by the force of the water, which
by that means has a free palfage through the bucket.
But when the bucket is drawn up, then both the valves
ihut by the force of the water at the upper part of the
bucket ; fo that the bucket is drawn up full of the
lowTeft fea water to which it has defcended. When the
bucket is drawn up, the mercurial thermometer fixed
in it is examined •, but great care muff be taken to ob-
ferve the degree at which the mercury Hands, before
the lower part of the thermometer is taken out of the
water in the bucket, left it be affedted by the different
temperature of the air. In order to keep the bucket
in a right pofition, there are four cords fixed to it,
reaching about three feet below it j to which the fink¬
ing weight it fixed. The refult of feveral trials with
this gage was, that when it was let down to different
depths, from 360 feet to 5346 feet, in lat. 25. 13. N.
•and long. 25. 1 2. W. it was difcovered by the ther¬
mometer, that the cold increafed gradually in propor¬
tion to the depths, till it defcended to 3900 feet, viz.
near ^ths of a mile, whence the mercury in the ther¬
mometer came up at 530 j and though it wTas afterwards
funk to 5346 feet, i. e. a mile and t 6 feet, it came up
no lower : the warmth of the water upon the furface,
and that of the air, was all that time 84°. When the
water in the bucket was become of the fame tempera¬
ture with that on the furface of the fea, equal quanti¬
ties of both were weighed and tried by the hydrometer;
that from below was found to be the heavieft, and con-
fequently the falteft.
Dr Hales was probably led to the conftruftion of
this fea gage from an inftrument invented by Dr Hook,
and defigned for the fame purpofe. This confifts of a
fquare wooden bucket C, whofe bottoms are fo con¬
trived, that as the weight of A finks the iron B, to
which the bucket C is faftened by two handles D, D,
on the end of which are the moveable bottoms or valves
£E, and thereby draws down the bucket, the reiift-
ance of the water keeps up the bucket in the pofture
C, whereby the water, whilft the bucket was defcending,
hath a free paffage through it; whereas, as foon as the
bucket is pulled upwards by the line F, the refiftance Gag
of the water to that motion beats the bucket down- v
wards, and keeps it in the pofture G, whereby the in¬
cluded water is kept from geUing out, and the ambient
water kept from getting in. Phil. Tranf. N° ix. p. 149.
and N° xxiv. p. 447. or Abr. vol. ii. p. 260.
Aqueo-mercurial Gage, is the name of an apparatus
contrived by Dr Hales, and applied in various forms
to the branches of trees, in order to determine the
force wdth which they imbibe moifture. Let e r, Fig. 4
be a cylindric glafs, e. gr. of an inch diameter with¬
in, and eight inches long. Into this glafs is in¬
troduced the branch of a young thriving apple tree
b, about three feet long, with lateral branches ; the
diameter of the traniverfe cut i being ^ths of an
inch. Having fitted the joint r to the tube at r, by-
folding a piece of Iheep’s Ikin round the Item, it is ce- .
mented with a mixture of bees wax and turpentine
melted together, in luch proportion as to make a
very ftiff clammy pafte wdien cold, and over the cement
folds of w^et bladders are bound firmly wdth pack
thread. To the lower end e of the large tube, a final-
ler tube 2; ^ is cemented, being about \ of an inch dia¬
meter, and l8 inches long, and in fubftance full £ of
an inch thick. Thefe tubes are cemented together at
e with common hard brick dull or powdered chalk ce¬
mented, and the joint is farther fecured with the cement
of bees wax and turpentine, over which a wet bladder
is bound. The apparatus being thus prepared, the
branch is turned downwards, and the glals tube up¬
wards, and then both tubes are filled with water ; with
the finger applied to the open end of the fmall tube,
it is inverted and immerfed in the glafs ciftern x, full
of mercury and water. In this fituation the lower end
of the branch was immerfed fix inches in water, viz.
from r to i; the v'ater wTas imbibed by the branch at
its tranfverfe cut/,- and during its afcent into the fap
veffels of the branch, the mercury rofe in the tube e
from the ciftern x, fo that in half an hour it was rifen
inches high, as far as $$. The height of the mer¬
cury indicated, in iome meafure, the force with which
4he fap w'as imbibed, though not the whole force ; be-
caufe, while the wrater was imbibed by the branch, its
tranfverfe cut was covered with innumerable little he-
mifpheres of air, and many air bubbles iffued out of the
fap veffels, which partly filled the tube e r, as the water
was drawn out of it: and therefore the height of the
mercury could only be proportionable to the excefs of
the quantity of water drawn off above the quantity of
the air which iffued out of the wood. If the quantity
of air bluing from the wood had been equal to the
quantity of water imbibed, it is plain that the mercu¬
ry could not rife at all, becaule there wmuld be no
room for it in the tube : but if nine parts in tw-elve of
the w’ater be imbibed by the branch, and only three
fuch parts of air iffue into the tube in the fame time
the mercury muft rife near fix inches, and lo proper*
tionably in other cafes. Dr Hales obferved, that the
mercury role higheft, in moft cafes, when the lun was
clear and warm, and that it fubfided three or four
inches towards evening, but rofe again the next day
as it grew warm, though feldom fo high as at firft.
Dr Hales adapted the fize and lhape of the glafs appa¬
ratus t« a great Variety of branches of feveral fizes and
of different kinds of trees, and repeated the experiment
above
^ T
O 1
GAG [
Gage, above defcribed, mutatis tnulandus, in a variety of in-
-—v~' ftances. See his Vegetable Statics, vol. i. chap. ii. p.
84, &c.
Tide Gjgg, the name of an inftrument tiled for
determining the height of the tides by Mr Bayly, in
the courfe of a voyage towards the fouth pole, &c. m
the Refolution and Adventure, in 1772, 1773, 1774,
and 1775. This inilrument confifts of a glafs tube,
whole internal diameter was feven tenths ot an mA,
ladled fall to a ten feet fir rod, divided into feet, inches,
and quarters : this rod was faftened to a Itrong poll
fixed upright and firm in the water. At the lower end
of the tube was an exceeding fmall aperture, through
which the water was admitted. In confequence of
this conftruaion, the fur face of the water in the tube
was fo little affefled by the agitation of the fea, that
its height was not altered one tenth of an inch, when
the fwell of the fea was two feet j and Mr Bayly
was certain, that with this inftrument he could dii-
cern a difference of one tenth of an inch in the height
of the tide.
Wind Gage, an inftrument for meafuring the force
of the wind upon any given furface. It was invented
by Dr Bind, who gives the following defcription ot it,
Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixv.
Fig. 5. This inftrument confifts of two glafs tubes AB,
CD, of five or fix inches in length. Their bores, which
are fo much the better for being equal, are about four
tenths of an inch in diameter, they are connected
together like a fiphon, by a fmall bent glafs tune n b,
the bore of which is about one tenth of an inch in
diameter. On the upper part of the leg AB there is
a tube of latten brafs, which is kneed, or bent per¬
pendicularly outwards, and has its mouth open to¬
wards F. On the other leg CD,_ is a cover with a
round hole G in the upper part of it two tenths^ of an
inch in diameter. This cover and the kneed tune are
connected together by a flip of brafs e d, which not
only gives ftrength to the whole inftrument, but alfo
ferves to hold the fcale HI. The kneed tube and co¬
ver are fixed on with hard cement or fealing wax.
To the fame tube is foldered a piece of brafs <?, with
a round hole in it to receive the fteel Spindle KL •, and
at f there is juft fuch another piece of brafs foluered to
the brafs hoop g h, which furrounds both legs of the
inftrument. There is a fmall (boulder on the fpindle
at f, upon which the inftrument refts, and a (mail nut
at q5to prevent it from being blown off the fpindle by
the wind. The whole inftrument is eafily turned round
Upon the fpindle by the wind, fo as always to prefent
the mouth of the kneed tube towards it. The end of
the fpindle has a fcrew on it j by which it may be
fcrewed into the top or a poll or a (land made on
purpofe. It has alfo a hole at L, to admit a fmall lever
for (crewing it into wood with more readinefs and (a-
cility. A thin plate of brafs h is foldered to the kneed
tube about half an inch above the round hole G fo as
to prevent ram from falling into it. I here is like 41 fe
a crooked tube AB (fig* 6.) to be put occafionally up¬
on the mouth of the kneed tube h, in order to prevent
rain from being blown into the mouth of the ^ wind
gage when it is left out all night, or expofed in the
time of rain.
The force or momentum of the wind may be alcer-
tained by the affiftance of this inftrument, by filling
9 ] GAG
the tubes half full of water, and puihing the fcale a Gage,
little up or down, till the o of the fcale, when the in¬
ftrument is held up perpendicularly, be on the line vyith
the furface of the water in both legs of the wind-
gage. The inftrument being thus adjufted, hold it up
perpendicularly, and turning the mouth or the kneed
tube towards the wind, obferve horv much the water
is depreffed by it in the one leg, and raifed in the
other. The fum of the two is the height of a column
of water which the wind is capable ot fuftaining at
that time ; and every body that is oppoled to that
wind will be preffed upon by a force equal to the
weight of a column of water, having its bafe equal to
the altitude of the column of water fuftained by the
wind in the wind gage. Hence the force of the wind
upon any body where the furface oppofed to it is
known may be eafily found ; and a ready comparifon
may be made betwixt the ftrength of one gale of wind
and that of another.
The force of the wind may be likewife meafwued
with this inftrument, by filling it until the water runs
out of the hole G. For if we then hold it up to the
wind as before, a quantity of water will be blown out j
and if both legs of the inftrument are of the fame
bore, the height of the column fuftained will be equal
to double the column of water in either leg, or the ium
of what is wanting in both legs. But if the legs are
of unequal bores, neither of thefe will give the true
height of the column of water which the wind fuftain¬
ed. But the true height may be obtained by the fol¬
lowing formulae.
Suppofe that after a gale of wind which had blown
the water from A to B (fig. 7)> forcing h a* fame
time through the other tube out at E, the furface of
the water Ihould be found (landing at (bme level DG,
and it were required to know what was the height ct
the column EF or AB, which the wind fuftained.
In order to obtain this, it is only neceffary to find the
height of the columns DB or GF, which are con-
ftantly equal to one another 5 for either of thefe added
to one of the equal columns AD, EG, will give the
true height of the column of water which the wind
fuftained.
1. Let the diameters AC, EH, of the tubes, be
refpedlively reprefented by cd; and let <7—AD, or
EG, and DB, or FG : Then it is evident, that
the column DB is to the column EG, as dx to d1a.
But thefe columns are equal. Therefore c'xzzd'a;
d*a
and confequently xz=.—.
2. But if at any inftant of time whilft the wind was
blowing, it was obferved, that, when the _ water flood
at E, the top of the tube out of which it is forced,
it was depreffed in the other to feme given level BE,
the altitude at which it would have flood in each, had
it immediately (ubfided, may be found in the follow—-
ing manner : Let £=:AB or EF.—Then it is evident
that the column DB is equal to the difference of co¬
lumns EF, GF. But the difference of thefe columns
, d'b
is as d1b—d1x ; and confequently x=-rj~j%.
For the cafes when the wind blows in at the narrow
leg of the inftrument: Let AB—EFzr/', EG, or
AD=:<?, GF=DB=x’, and the diameters EH, GA,
reipectively' ^
G A ] [ 320 ] ' GAL
Cahhia refpetKvely ~J, c, as before. Then it is evident,
. II thrvt the column AD is to the column GF as a c* to
.Gamage. ^ columns are equal, therefore dlx—a c*;
d c*
and confequently x~-^. It is alfo evident that the
column AD is equal to the difference of the columns
AB, DB j but the difference of thefe columns is as
be1 c2x. Therefore dxx~bcx—cix. Whence w6 get
b c*
X~d^‘
The ufe of the fmall tube of communication a b
(fig. 5.) is to check the undulation of the water, fo
that the height of it may be read oft’ from the fcale
with eafe and certainty. But it is particularly defigned
to prevent the wrater from being thrown up to a much
greater or lefs altitude than the true height of the co¬
lumn which the wind is able at that time to fuftain,
from its receiving a fudden impulfe whilft it is vi¬
brating either in its afeent or defeent. As in fome
cafes the wrater in this inftrument might be liable to
freeze, and thus break the tubes, Dr Lind recommends
a faturated folution of fea fait to be ufed inftead of it,
which does not freeze till Fahrenheit’s thermometer
falls to o.
GAHNIA, a genus of plants belonging to the hex-
andria clafs. See Botany Index.
GAIETA, an ancient, handfome, and ftrong town
of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples and in the Terra
di Lavoro, with a fort, citadel, harbour, and bifhop’s
fee. It w*as taken by the Auftrians in 1707, and by
the Spaniards in 1734. It is feated at the foot of a
mountain near the fea, in E. Long. 13. 37. N. Lat.
4r-30-
GAIN, the profit or lucre a perfon reaps from his
trade, employment, or induftry. Some derive the word
from the German gewin: whereof the Italians had made
guadagno ; the French aild Englifh gain.
There are legal and reputable gains, as well as fordid
and infamous ones. What is gained beyond a certain
fum, by gaming, is all liable to be reftored again, if the
lofer will take the benefit of the law.
Gain, in JlrchiteElure, is the workman’s term for
the bevelling Ihoulder of a joift or other timber. It
is ufed alfo for the lapping of the end of the joift,
&c. upon a trimmer or girder 5 and then the thick-
nefs of the Ihoulder is cut into the trimmer; alfo
bevelling upw-ards, that it may juft receive the gain j
and fo the joift and trimmer lie even and level wnth
the furface. This way of working is ufed in floors
and hearths. ,.
To Gain the Wind, in fea language, is to arrive on
the weather fide or to windward of fome other veffel in
fight, wdien both are plying to windward or failing as
near the wund as poflible.
GAINAGE, Gainagium, in our ancient xvriters,
fignifies the draught oxen, horfes, wain, plough, and
furniture, for carrying on the work of tillage by the
bafer fort of fokemen and villains.
Gainage is the fame with what is othenvife called
wain age. Bradton, lib. i. cap. 9. fpeaking of lords and
fervants, fays, Ut Ji eor dejiruant, quodfalvum non pojftf
eis effh wainagium fuum. And again, lib. iii. traft. 2.
cap. 1. Vi/ianus non amerciahitur, niji falvo wainagio
fuo; For anciently, as it appears both by Magna
3
Charta and other books, the villain, when amerced, Gainagffe
had his gainage or wrainage free, to the end his plough Gajl|tja
might not ftand ftill: and the law, for the fame reafon, ' /
does ftill allow a like privilege to the hufbandmen $
that is, his draught horfes are not in many cafes
diftrainable.
Gainage is alfo ufed for the land itfelf, or the profit
railed by cultivating it.
GAINSBOROUGH, a town of Lincolnfliire in
England, 150 miles from London, feated on the river1
Trent near the fea. It is a large well built town,
with a pretty good trade, and has the title of an earl¬
dom. W. Long. C. 40. N. Lat. 53. 26. The north
marlh in its neighbourhood noted for horfe races.
The Danes who invaded the kingdom brought their
fhips up to this place. It was here that Sweno the
Dane was murdered by one of the Englilh, who was
never difeovered.
GALACTITES, in the hiftory of foffils, a fub-
ftance much refembling the ixiorochthus or French
chalk, in many refpe&s; but different from it in
colour. The ancients found it in the Nile and in
fome rivers in Greece, and ufed it in medicine as an
aftringent, and for defluxions and ulcers of the eyes.
At prefent it is common in Germany, Italy, and
fome parts of France, and is wholly overlooked, being
efteemed a wmrfe kind of morochthus. See Moroch-
THUS.
GALACTOPHAGI, and Galactopotae, in an¬
tiquity, perfons who lived wholly on milk, without
corn or the ufe of any other food. The words are
compounded of yxhet, yocXxdlos, milk ; to eat; and
5rCT})5 of Tcmt), I drink.
Certain nations in Scythia Afiatica, as the Gette,
Nomades, &c. are famous, in ancient hiftory, in quality
of ga/adtophagi, or milk-eaters. Homer makes their
eloge, Iliad, lib. iii.
Ptolemy, in his geography, places the Gala&ophagi
between the Riphaean mountains on one fide, and the
Hyrcanian fea on the other.
GALANGALS, in the Materia Medico. See
KasAIPFERIA.
GALANTFIUS, the Snow-drop, a genus of plants
belonging to the hexandria clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the ninth order, Spathacece. See
Botany Index.
GAL AT A, a great fuburb belonging to Conftan-
tinople, oppofite to the feraglio, on the other fide of the
harbour. It is here the Greeks, Armenians, Franks,
Chriftians, and Jews inhabit, and are allowed the exer-
cife of their refpedftive worlhips.
GAL AT ALA and Galathaea, in fabulous hiftory,
a fea nymph, daughter of Nereus and Doris. She was
paflionately loved by the Cyclops Polyphemus, whom
ftie treated with coldnefs and difdain j while Acis, a
fhepherd of Sicily, enjoyed her unbounded affedlion.
The happinefs of thefe tw7o lovers was difturbed by the
jealoufy of the Cyclops, who cruftied his rival to pieces
with a piece of a broken rock while he repofed on the
bofom of Galataea. The nymph w7as inconlolable for
the lofs of Acis j and as Are could not reftore him to
life, fhe changed him into a fountain.
GALATIA, the ancient name of a province of
Afia Minor, now called Amajia. It was bounded on
the eaft by Cappadocia, on the weft by Bithynia, on
the
% -
)
\
ttelax
II
Galba.
GAL [ 3
tlie foutK by Paraphylia, and on the north by the Luxme
fea. It was the north part of Phrygia Magna ; but
uoon being occupied by the Gauls was called Galatia;
' and becaufe fituated amidll Greek colonies, xt e
mixed with Greeks, GciUogrxcia. Strabo calls it Ga¬
latia and Gallogra’cia; hence a twofold tiame of -e
people ; GalaUv and GaUcgracu J he Greeks called it
Gallia Parva; to diftingurfh it from the Tranfalpma
both which they called Galana. It was reduced under
the fubjeftion of the Romans in the time of Augn ,
and is now in the hands of the lurks Heie St Paul
founded a church, to which he directed that epiiue
which is ilill known by the name of the Epijlle to tlie
Galatians, and was written to reclaim them from t
tjbfervation of Jewifli ordinances, into which they had
been feduced by fome falfe teachers. _
GALAX, a genus of plants belonging to the pen-
tandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking with
thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany. _
GALAXY, in AJlronomy, that long, white, lumi¬
nous track, which feems to encompafs the heavens like
a fwath, fcarf, or girdle: and which is eafily per¬
ceivable in a clear night, efpecial y v\ ien tne moon
does not appear. The Greeks call it Galaxy
of rx*x, Milk; on account of its colour and
appearance : the Latins, for the fame reafons call it
via lalien; and we, the milky way. It pa&s betvveen
Sagittarius and Gemini, and divides the fphere into
two parts V it is unequally broad ; and in fome parts is
fingie, in others double. r . r i r
The ancient poets, and even philofophers, fpeah ol
the Galaxy as the road or way by which the heroes
wrent to heaven. j c „
Ariftotle makes it a kind of meteor, formed of a
crowd of vapours, drawn into that part by certain
large ftars difpofed in the regions of the heavens an-
^"Othl^r&rding that the Galaxy was feen all over
the globe, that it always correfponded to the fame
fixed8 bars, and that it tranfeended the height of e
higheft planets, fet afide Anftotle s opinion, and placed
the Galaxy in the firmament, or region of the fixe
ftars, and concluded it to be nothing but an affemblage
of an infinite number of minute ftars.
Since the invention of the telefcope, this op i
has been abundantly confirmed. By dire&mg a g<?oc
•telefcope to any part of the milky way ; where before
we only faw a confufed whitenefs, we now defery an
innumerable multitude of little ftars, fo remote, tnat
a naked eye confounds them. See Astronomy,
^G^-LBA, Sergius Sulpicius, a Roman emperor,
bom the 24th of December, five years before the
Chriftian era. He was gradually ra.fcd to the greateft
offices of the ftate, and exercifed his power m the p -
vinces with the greateft equity and unremitted dili¬
gence. He dedicated the greateft part of his time
fo fol tary purfuits, chiefiy to avoid the fufp.cions of
Nero. 5isPdifapprobation of the emperor’s oppreffive
command in the provinces was the caufe of new di-
fturbances. Nero ordered him to be put to death but
he efcaped from the hands of the executioner, and was
publicly faluted emperor. When he was feated on the
throne,^ he fuffered himfelf to be governed by favour-
kes, who expofed the goods of the citizens to fale to
Yol. IX. Part I.
2t ] GAL
gratify their avarice. Exemptions were fold at a high
price; and the crime of murder was blotted out, aim —
impunity purchafed, with a large fum of money. Such
irregularities in the emperor^ mimfters greatly d -
pleated the people ; and when Galba refuted to pay ^ -
foldiers the money which he had promifed them wmen
he was raifed to the throne, they affaffinated him m the
7.d year of his age, and the eighth month of his
reign. The virtues which had fhone fo bright m
Galba when a private man, totally difappeared when
he afeended the throne; and he who fhow’ed himieit
the moft impartial judge, forgot the duties of an em¬
peror and of a father of his people.
GALBANUM, in Pharmacy, a gum iflumg from
the ftem of an umbelliferous plant growing m Periia
and many parts of Africa. See BuBON. ^
The juice, as brought to us, is femipellucid, fott,
tenacious; of a ftrong, and to fome unpleafant, _lmel ;
and a bitterifh warm' tafte : the better fort is m pale
coloured maffes, which, on being opened, appear com-
pofed of clear white tears. Geoffroy relates, that a
dark greenifh oil is to be obtained from this hmple by
diftillation, which, upon repeated redifications, becomes
of an elegant fky blue colour. The purer forts of gal-
banum are faid by fome to diffolve entirely m wine
vinegar, or water; but thefe liquors are only partial
menftrua with regard to this drug; nor do Ipint of
wine or oils prove more effedual in this refped: the
heft diffolvent is a mixture of two parts fpirit- ot wine
and one of water. Galbanum agrees in virtue with
gum ammoniacum ; but is generally accounted left effi¬
cacious in afthmas, and more fo in hyfterical complaints.
It is an ingredient in the gum pills, the gum plailer,
and fome other officinal compofitions.
GALE, in the fea language, a term of various im¬
port When the wind blows not fo hard but that a Imp
may carry her top-fails a-trip (that is hoifted up to
the' higheft), then they fay it is a loom gale. W hen
it blows very ftrong, they fay it is a ftiffi, ftrong, or
frefti gale. When twm {hips are near one another at
fea, and, there being but little wind blowing, one of
them finds more of it than the other, they fay that t.ie
one fhip sales away from the other. , . .A
Gale, Dr John, an eminent and learnee minuter
among the Baptifts, was born at London m i 680. He
ftudied at Leyden, where he diftmguiftied himfelf very
early and afterwards at Amfterdam, under. Dr L.im-
borch. He was chofen minifter of the Baptift congre¬
gation at Barbican ; where his preaching, being chiefiy
practical, was greatly reforted to by people of al per-
fuafions. Four volumes of his fermons were puohfhed
after his death, which happened in 1721. His Re-
fieefions on Dr Wall’s Hiftory of Infant Baptifm is the
heft defence of the Baptifts ever publifhed, and die
reading of that performance induced the learned Air
William Whifton and Dr Fofter to become Baptifts. .
Gale, Theophilus, an eminent nonconformift mi¬
nifter, born in 1628. He was invited to Wmchelter
in 160; and continued a ftated preacher there until
the re-eftabliftiment of the church by Charles II. when
he rather chofe to fuffer the penalties of the aft ot
conformity, than to fubmit to it contrary to his con-
feience. He was afterwards engaged by Philip lord
Wharton as tutor to his fons, whom he attended to an
academy at Caen in Normandy; and when this duty
Sf "as
G'Lh.'.rmtflj
Gale.
Gale
GAL | 3:
was fulfilled, he became paftor over a congregation of
Ga’en. Priva.te conventiclers in Holborn. He died in 16785
'-.i—.,-*—> and is principally known by an elaborate work, in-
titled, the Court of the Gentiles, calculated to Ihow,
that the Pagan philofophers derived their moil: fublime
fentiments from the Scriptures.
Gale, Dr Thomas, a learned divine, born at
Sen;ton in Yorkfhire, in the year 1636, was educated
at Cambridge, and at length became profeffor of the
Greek language in that univerfity. He was after¬
wards chofen head mafter of St Paul’s fchool, London 5
and was employed by the city in writing thofe elegant
inferiptions on the monument eredted in memory of
the conflagration in 1666. In 1676 he was collated
to a prebend in the cathedral of St Paul’s ; and was
like wife elected a fellow of the Royal Society, to
w hich he prefented a Roman urn with its allies. About
■ ne year 1697? he gave to the new library of Trinity col-
^ Cambridge, a great number of Arabic manu-
mripts; and in the fame year he was admitted dean of
York. He died in that city in 17025 and w as interred in
the cathedral, where a monument, with a Latin inferip-
tion, was ereffed to his memory. He was a learned
divine, a great hillorian, one of the belt Greek fcholars of
his age, and maintained a correfpondence with the molt
learned men abroad as well as at home. Lie publilhed,
I. /1 Jlorue Poe f icas Anliqui Script ores, octavo. 2. Opuf-
Cultp Mythologica, Ethica, ct Phyftca, in Greek and
Latin, octavo. 3. Herodoti Hiforia, folio. 4. Hfo-
nce Anglican# Scrlptores quinque, in folio. 5. Hijlorne
Lritanmcee, Saxonicce, sdnglo-Danicce, Scrlptores ouinde-
cim, in folio. 6. Rheiores Se/efli, &c.
GALEA, in antiquity, a light cafque, head piece,
or mornon, coming down to the Ihoulders, and com¬
monly of ^brafs 5 though Camillus, according to Plutarch,
craered ttiole Oi his army to be of iron, as being the
ilronger metal. I he lower part of it was called buccula,
and on the top was a crelt. The velites wore a light
galea, made of the Ikin of fome wild bealt to make it
more terrible.
GALEAJSE, a large low-built-velfel, ufing both
.ails and oars, and the biggelt of all the veffels that
maive me of the latter. It may carry tw7enty guns,
and has a Hein capable of lodging a great number of
marines. It has three malls, which are never to be
lowered or taken down. It has alfo thirty-two benches
of rowers5 and to each bench fix or feven flaves, who
ut under cover. I ais veffel is at prefent ufed only by
the Venetians. }
GALEGA, a genus of plants belonging to the dia-
nelphia clafs 5 and in the natural method ranking
under the 32d order, Papilionacece. See Botany
.Index.
GALEN Claudius, in Latin Galenus, prince of
the Greek phyficians after Hippocrates, w^as born at
Pergamus m the lefl’er Alia, about the year 1 31 His
father was poffeffed of a confiderable fortune 5 was well
venea in polite literature, philofophy, aftronomy, and
geometry 5 and was alfo w7ell fkilled in architeffure.
He himfelf inftruefed his Ion in the firff rudiments of
learning, and afterwards procured him the greateft
matters of the age in philofophy and eloquence. Galen
having finilhed his ftudies under their care, chofe phyfic
for his profeflion, and chiefly ftudied the works of
Hippocrates. Having at length exhaufled all the
!2 ] G A L
fources of literature that were to be found at home, Galen
ne reiolved to travel, m order to convert with the moft . II
able phyficians in all parts, intending at the fame time Gatenic*
to take every opportunity of infpecling on the fpot " V
the plants and drugs of the countries through which
he palled. With this view' he went to Alexandria,
and ftaid fome years in that metropolis of Egypt-
from thence he travelled through Cilicia ; p’afied
through Paleftine 5 vifited the ifles of Crete and Cy¬
prus 5 and made two voyages to Lemnos, in order to
examine the Lemnian earth, which, was then efteemed
an admirable medicine. With the fame view7 he went
into the Lower Syria, in order to obtain a thorough
infight into the nature of the opobalfamum, or balm
of Gilead 5 and having completed his defign, returned
home by the way of Alexandria.
Galen had been four years at Pergamus, where his
prabhee was attended with extraordinary applaufe,
when lome feditious commotions induced him to go to*
Rome, where he refolved to fettle : but the proofs he
gave of his fuperior fkill, added to the refpecl ttrown
him by feveral. perfons of very high rank, created him
lo many enemies among his brethren of the faculty,
that he was obliged to quit the city, after having
refided there tour or five years. But he had not long
1 .-tinned to Pergamus, when he was recalled by the
emperors Aurelius and Verus. After their death, he
retired to his native country ; where he died about the
year 200. He wTote in Greek ; and is faid to have
compofed two hundred volumes, which were unhappily
burnt in the temple of Peace. The belt editions of
thofe that remain, are, that printed at Bafil in 1538,
m five volumes, and that of Venice in 1625, in feven
volumes. Galen was of a weak and delicate conftitu-
tion, as he himfelf afferts 5 but he neverthelefs, by his
temperance and fkill in phyfic, arrived at a great age 5
for it was his maxim, always to rife from table with
iome degree of appetite. He is juflly confidered as
the greateft phyfician of antiquity, next to Hippo-
ciates 5 and he performed fuch furprifing cures, that he
was accufed of magic.
^ Galen, a miltary towmfhip in the ftate of New-
Y ork, fituated on the creek of Cauadaque, about 12 miles
north-weft of Cayuga lake, and 13 fouth by eaft of
Great Sodus.
GALENA, a name given by mineralogifts to a
fpecies of lead ore. It was alfo the original name
given by Andromachus to the theriaca, from its effeH
in bringing on a pleafing calm over the blood and fpi-
rits on taking it.
GALENIA, a genus of plants belonging to the oc-
tandria clals 5 and in the natural method ranking under
the 13th order, Succulentce. See Botany Index.
GALENIC, or Galenical, in Medicine, is that
manner of confidering and treating difeafes, founded
on the principles of Galen, or introduced by Galen.
1 his author, collefting and digefting what the phyfi¬
cians before him had done, and explaining every thing
according to the ftriddeft dobfrine of the Peripatetics,
fet phyfic on a new footing : he introduced the doc¬
trine of the four elements 5 the cardinal qualities and
their degrees 5 and the four humours or temperaments.
Galenic is more frequently ufed as contradiftin-
guifhed from chemical.
I he diftimftion of galenical and cheTnical occa-
lioned
,G A L .. t 3
Galemfts fioned by a divilion of the prafKtioners of medicine
Galilee ^nt° ,'WO vvhich happened on the introduction of
‘ . ’ , chemiitrv into medicine. Then the chemifts, arrogat¬
ing to themfelves every kind of merit and ability, ftir-
red up an oppofttion to their pretentions, founded on
the invariable adherence of the other party to the an¬
cient practice. And though this divition into the two
feCts of galenitts and ch^mitts has long tince ceafed, yet
the diltinClion of medicines which refulted from it is
ftill retained.
Galenical medicines are thofe which are formed by
the ealier preparations of herbs, roots, &c. by infution,
decodtion, &c. and by combining and multiplying in¬
gredients ; while thofe of chemiltry draw their more
intimate and remote virtues by means of fire and ela¬
borate preparations, as calcination, digeftion, fermen¬
tation, &e.
Q ALENISTS, a denomination given to fuch phy-
ficians as praCtife, prefcribe, or write, on the galeni¬
cal principles j and Hand oppofed to the chemijis. See
Galenical. At prefent the galenifts and chemiils are
are pretty well accommodated •, and mod of our phy-
licians ufe the preparations and remedies of both.
Galenists, or Ga/enites, in church hiftory, a branch
of Mennonites or Anabaptifts, who take in feveral of
the opinions of the Socinians, or rather Arians, touch¬
ing the divinity of our Saviour. In 1664 the Water-
landians were divided into two parties, of wThich the
one were called Galenijls, and the other Apqflolians.
T hey are thus called from their leader Abr. Galenus,
a learned and eloquent phyfician of Amfterdam, who
confidered the Chriltian religion as a fyftem that laid
much lefs ftrefs on faith than pradfice \ and who was
for taking into the communion of the Mennonites all
thole who acknowledged the divine origin of the books
of the Old and New’ Teftament, and led holy and vir¬
tuous lives.
GALEON. See Galleon. ,
GALEOPSIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs 5 and in the natural method ranking
under the 42d order, Verticillatce. See Botany
Index.
GALERICULUM, wTas a cap worn both by men
and women amongft the ancient Romans. It confift-
ed of fldn, which was fo neatly dreffed with human
hair, that the artificial covering could fcarcely be di-
ftinguilhed from the natural. It was ufed by thofe
whofe hair was thin 5 and by WTeftlers, to keep their
own hair from receiving any injury from the nafty oils
with which they were rubbed all over before they ex-
ercifed. It feems to have refembled our wigs.
GALIC, or GjiKiic Language. See Highlands.
GALICIA, a province of Spain, bounded on the
north and weft by the ocean, on the fouth by Portugal,
and on the eaft by Afturias and the kingdom of Leon.
The air is temperate along the coaft ; but, in other
places, it is cold and moift. It is but thin of people :
and the produce is wine, flax, and citrons : here alfo are
good paftures, copper, and lead ; and the forefts yield
wood for building of fhips. St Jago di Compoftefla is
the capital town.
r GALILEE, once a province of Judea, now of
J urkey in Alia, was bounded by Mount Lebanon on
tne north, by the river Jordan and the fea of Galilee
on the eaft, by the Chifon on the fouth, and by the
3 j O .A ti
Mediterranean on the weft. It was the fcene of many Galilean**
of our Saviour’s miracles ; but the bounds of the coun- Galileo,
try are not now well known, nor yet the places where
many of the towns flood.
GALILEANS, a fe£l of the Jews. Their foun¬
der w7as one Judas a native of Galilee, from which
place they derived their name. Their chief, efteeming
it an indignity for the Jews to pay tribute to ftrangers,
raifed up his countrymen againft the edict of the em¬
peror Auguftus, which had ordered a taxation or en¬
rolment of all the fubjedfs of the Roman empire.
Ihey pretended that God alone fhould be owned as
Mafter and Lord, and in other refpedls tvere of the
opinion of the Pharifees •, but, as they judged it un¬
lawful to pray for infidel princes, they feparated them¬
felves from the reft of the Jews, and performed their
facrifices apart.
As our Saviour and his apoftles were of Galilee,
they were fufpedled to be of the fed! of Galileans ;
and it was on this principle, as St Jerome obferves, that
the Pharifees laid a fnare for him ; afking, Whether it
was lawful to give tribute to Caefar ; that in cafe he
denied it, they might have an occafion of accufing
him.
GALILEO, Galilei, the famous mathematician
and aftronomer, was the fon of a Florentine nobleman,
and born in the year 1564. He had from his infancy
a ftrong inclination to philofophy and the mathema- '
tics j and made prodigious progrefs in thefe fciences.
In 1592, he was chofen piofeffor of mathematics at
Padua ; and during his abode there he invented, it is
faid, the telefcope ; or, according to others, improved
that inftrument, fo as to make it fit for aftronomical ob-
fervations: (See Astronomy, N° 27.) Ini6n,Cof-
mo II. grand duke of Tufcany fent for him to Pifa,
where he made him profeffor of mathematics with a
handfome falary, and ioon after inviting him to Florence,
gave him the office and title of principal philofopher and
mathematician to his highnefs.
He had been but a few years at Florence, before he
was convinced by fad experience, that Arifiotle’s doc¬
trine, however ill grounded, was held too facred to be
called in queftion. Having obferved fome folar fpots
in 1612, he printed that difcovery the following year
at Rome 5 in which, and in fome other pieces, he ven¬
tured to affert the truth of the Copernican fyftem, and
brought feveral new arguments to confirm it. For thefe .
he was cited before the inquifition; and after fome
months imprifonment, was releafed upon a fimple pro-
mife, that he would renounce his heretical opinions,
and not defend them by word or writing. But having
afterwards, in 1632, publiffied at Florence his “ Dia¬
logues of the two greateft fyftems of the world, the
Ptolemaic and Copernican,” he w’as again cited before
the inquifition, and committed to the prifon of that
ecclefiaftical court at Rome. In June 22d N. S. that
year, the congregation convened : and in his prefence
pronounced fentence againft him and his books, ob-
hging him to abjure his errors in the moft folemn man¬
ner j committed him to the prifon of their office dar-
mg pleafure ; and enjoined him, as a faving penanne,
for three years to come, to repeat once a-week the
feven penitential pfalms : referring to themfelves, how¬
ever, the power of moderating, changing, or taking
away altogether or in part, the above-mentioned punifh-
b f 2 ment
G
A L [ 324 1 . GAL
On this fentence, he was detained of the bile, owing to the heat of the preceding fummer
Gall.
Gallinaeeus ment and penance^
!l a prifoner till ib34 > ant^ C4 Dialogues of the fyftem
of the World” were burnt at Rome.
He lived ten years after this, feven of which were
employed in making ftill further difcoveries with his te-
lefcope. But by the continual application to that in-
ftrument, added to the damage he received in his fight
from the nodturnal air, his eyes grew gradually weak¬
er, till he became totally blind in 1639. He bore
this calamity with patience and refignation, worthy oi
a great philofopher. The lofs neither broke his fpirit,
nor hindered the courfe of his ftudies. He fupplied
the defeft by confiant meditation : whereby he prepared
a large quantity of materials, and began to diftate his
own conceptions j wrhen, by a diftemper of three months
continuance, waiting away by degrees, he expiied at
Arcetti near Florence, in January 1642, N. S. in the
78th year of his age.
Among various ufeful inventions of which Galileo was
the author, is that of the fimple pendulum, which he
had made ufe of in his altronomical experiments. He
had thoughts of applying it to clocks ; but did not exe¬
cute it : the glory of that invention was referved for
Vieenzio his fen, who made the experiment at Venice
in 1649 j and M. Huygens afterwards carried this in¬
vention to perfection. He wrote a great number of
treatifes, feveral of which were publifhed in a collec¬
tion by Signior Mendefii, under the title of Dopera eh
Galileo Galilei Lynceo. Some of thefe, with others of
his pieces, wTere tranflated into Englilh and publilhed
by Thomas Saliibury, Efq. in his mathematical collec¬
tions, &c. in two volumes folio. A volume alfo of his
letters to feveral learned men, and folutions of feveral
problems,' wrere printed at Bologna in quarto. Befides
thefe, he wTrote many others, which were unfortunately
lofi: through his wife’s devotion •, who, folicited by her
confeffor, gave him leave to perufe her hulband’s manu-
feripts } of which he tore and took away as many as he
4aid were not fit to be publilhed.
GALINACEUS lapis. See Gallinaceus.
GALIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the te-
trandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 47th order, Stellated. See Botany Index.
GALL, in the animal economy. See Bile.
Gall was generally given amongft the Jews to per-
fpns fuffering death under the execution of the law, to
make them lefs fenfible of their pain 5 but gall and
myrrh are fuppofed to have been the fame thing j be-
r.aufe at our Saviour’s crucifixion, St Matthew fays,
they gave him vinegar to drink mingled with gall j
whereas St Mark calls it wine mingled with myrrh :
The truth of the matter perhaps is, that they difiin-
guilhed every thing bitter by the name of gall. The
Greeks and Romans alfo gave fuch a mixture to perfons
fuffering a death of torture.
A great number of experiments have been made
upon the gall of different animals, but few conclufions
can be drawn from them with any certainty. Dr Per-
cival, however, hath ftiown, that putrid bile may be
perfectly corrected and fweetened by an admixture of
the vegetable acids, vinegar, and juice of lemons. Ihefe,
he obferves, have this effeCt much more completely than
the mineral ones : and hence, he thinks, arifes the great
ufefulnefs of the vegetable acids in autumnal difeafes j
which are always attended with a putrefeent difpofition
On this occafion he takes notice of a common miftake ^
among phyficians, who frequently preferibe elixir of vi¬
triol in thofe difeafes where vinegar or lemon juice
would be much more effectual.
From this effeCt of acids on the gall, he alfo thinks,
we may fee why the immoderate ufe of acids is fo per¬
nicious to digeition. It is neceffary to health that the
gall Ihould be in fome degree acrid and alkalefcent :
but as acids have the property of rendering it perfectly
mild and fweet, they muff be proper tionably pernici¬
ous to the due concoction and afiimilatron of the food j
which without an acrid bile cannot be accomplifired.
Hence the body is deprived of its proper nourilhment
and fup port, the blood becomes vapid and watery,
and a fatal cachexy unavoidably enfues. This hath
been the cafe with many unfortunate perfons, who, in
order to reduce their excefiive corpulency, have indul¬
ged themfelves in the too free ufe of vinegar. From
the mild Hate of the gall in young children. Dr Per-
cival alfo thinks it is, that they are fo much troubled
with acidities.
GALL-Bladder. See Anatomy, N° 97. $
Gall, in Natural Hijlory, denotes any protuberance
or tumour produced by the punClure of infeCts on plants
and trees of different kinds.
Thefe galls are of various forms and fizes, and no
lefs different with regard to their internal ffruClure.
Some have only one cavity, and others a number of
fmall cells communicating with each other. Some of
them are as hard as the wood of the tree they grow
on, whilft others are foft and fpongy ; the firft being
termed gall nuts, and the latter berry galls, or apple
galls.
The general hiftory of the gall is this. An infeft of
the “fly kind (the cynips) is inffruded by nature to take
care for the fafety of her young, by lodging her eggs
in a woody fubftance, where they will be defended
from all injuries : (he for this purpofe wounds the leaves
or tender branches of a tree j and the lacerated velfels,
difeharging their contents, foon form tumours about the
holes thus made. The external coat of this excrefcence
is dried by the air } and grows into a figure which bears
fome relemblance to the bow of an arch, or the round-
nefs of a kernel. This little ball receives its nutriment,
growth, and vegetation, as the other parts of the tree,
by flow degrees, and is what we call the gall nut. The
worm that is hatched under this fpacious vault, finds in
the fubftance of the ball, which is as yet very tender, p
fubfiftence fuitable to its nature ; gnaws and digefts it
till the time comes for its transformation to a nymph,
and from that ftate of exiftence changes into a. fly. Af¬
ter this, the infe£l, perceiving itfelf duly provided with
all things requifite, difengages itfelf foon from, its con¬
finement, and takes its flight into the open air. Hie
cafe, however, is not fimilar with refpect to the gall
nut that grows in autumn. The cold weather.frequent¬
ly comes on before the worm is transformed into a fly,
or before the fly can pierce through its enclofure. jl he
nut falls with the leaves : and although you may ima¬
gine that the fly which lies within is loft, yet in reality
it is not fo ; on the contrary, its being covered up fo
clofe, is the means of its prefervation. Thus it fpend^
the winter in a warm houfe, where every ciack and
cranny of the nut is well ftopped up } and lies buried as
Gall.
G A [3
Gall, it were under a heap of leaves, which preferves it from
Galla. the injuries of the weather. This apartment, however,
” V" though fo commodious a retreat in the winter, is a per-
fea prifon in the fpring. The fly, roufed from its le¬
thargy by the fir It heats, breaks its way through, and
ranges where it pleafes. A very fmall aperture is fuffi-
cient, fince at this time the fly is but a diminutive crea¬
ture/ Beiides, tire ringlets whereof its body is compo-
fed dilate and«become pliant in the paffage. _
Oak galls put, in a very fmall quantity, into a folu-
tion of vitriol in water, though but a very weak one,
give it a purple or violet colour : which, as it glows
Stronger, becomes black ; and on this property depends
the art of making our writing ink, as alfo the arts of
dyeing and drefling leather, and other manufactures.
See Ink, Chemistry Index.
The belt galls come from Aleppo: thefe are not
quite round and fmooth like the other Torts, but have
feveral tubercles on the furface. Galls have a very
auftere llyptic tafte, without any fmell: they are very
ftrong aitringents, and as fuch have been lometimes
made ufe of both internally and externally, but are not
much taken notice of by the prefent practice. Some
recommend an ointment of powdered galls and hogs
lard as very effeftual in certain painful ftates of haemor-
rhois; and it is alleged, that the internal ufe of galls
has cured intermittents after the Peruvian bark has fail¬
ed. A mixture of galls with a bitter and aromatic has
been propofed as a fubftitute for the bark..
Gall, 57, a confiderable town in Swifferland, and
in the Upper Thurgow, with a rich and celebrated ab¬
bey, whofe abbot is a prince of the empire. This place
has for fome time been a republic, in alliance with the
cantons. It is not very large •, but is well built, neat,
populous. It contains about 10,000 inhabitants, who
are chiefly employed in the linen manufadlure . and
make annually/it is faid, 40,000 pieces of linen, of 200
ells each •, which renders it one of the richeft towns m
Swifferland. The inhabitants are Proteftants •, for
which reafon there are often great contefts between them
and the abbey about religious affairs. It is feated in a
narrow barren valley, between two mountains, and up¬
on two fmall itreams. E. Long. 29. 5. N. Lat. 47.
38. .
Gall-F/ij. See Cynips, Entomology Index.
GALLA, an Abyffmian nation, originally dwelling,
as Air Bruce fuppofes, under the line, and exercifing
the profeflion of fhepherds, which they ftill continue
to do. For a number of years, our author tells us,
they have been conftantly migrating northwards, though
the caufe of this migration is not known. At firft they
had no horfes •, the retifon of which was, that the coun¬
try they came from did not allow thefe animals to breed :
but as they proceeded northward and conquered fome
of the Abyflinian provinces, they foon furnifhed them-
felves with fuch numbers, that they are now almoft en¬
tirely cavalry, making little account of infantry in their
armies Gn advancing to the frontiers of Ahytiima,
the multitude divided, and part direaed their courfe to¬
wards the Indian ocean ; after which, having made a
fettlement in the eaftern part of the continent, they
turned fouthward into the countries of Bali and Bawaw,
which they entirely conquered, and fettied there in the
year 1537. Another divifion having taken a weiterly
courfe, fpread themfelves in a femicircle along the banks
25] GAL
of the Nile} furrounding the country of Gojam, ami
pafling eaftward behind the country of the Agows, ex¬
tended their poffeflions as far as the territories 01 the
Gongas and Gafats. Since that time the Nile has been
the boundary of their polleflions} though they have ve¬
ry frequently plundered, and fometimes conquered, the'
Abyflinian provinces on the other lide of the river, but
have' never made any permanent fettlement, in thefe
parts. A third divifion has fettled to the fouthward of
the low country of Shoa, which the governor of that
province has permitted, in order to form a barrier be¬
twixt him and the territories of the emperor, on whom
he fcarcely acknowledges any dependence.
The Galla are of "a brown complexion, and have
long black hair 5 but fome of them who live in the val¬
leys are entirely black. At firft their common food was
milk and butter ; but fince their intercourfe with the
Abyflinians, they have learned to plough and fow their
land, and to make bread. They feem to have predi-
letlion for the number feven, and each of the three di -
vifions already mentioned are fubdivided into lever*
tribes. In behaviour they are extremely barbarous j and
live in continual war with the Abyflinians, whom they
murder without mercy as often as they fall into their
hands. They cut off the privities of the men, and hang
them up in their houfes by way of trophies; and are fo
cruel as to rip up women with child, in hopes of thus
deftroying a male. Yetnotwithftanding their exceflive
cruelty abroad, they live under the ftrifteft difciplinc
at home ; and every broil or quarrel is inftantly punith-
ed according to the nature of the offence. Each Oi the
three divifions of the Galla aoove mentioned has a king
of its own 'f and they alfo have a kind of nobility, ironi
among whom the fovereign can only be cholen.: how¬
ever, the commonalty are not excluded from rifing to
the rank of nobles if they diflinguifh themfelves verj.
much in battle. None of the nobility can be eledled
till upwards of 40 years of age, unlefs he. has with his
own hand killed a number of enemies which added to
his own age makes up 40 • There is a council of each
of the feven tribes, which meets feparately in its own di-
ftridl, to fettle how many are to be left behind for the
governing and cultivating of the territory, and other
matters of importance. Thefe nations have all. a great
veneration for a tree which grows plentifully in theii
country, called ’wcinney^ and which thefe fuperftitious
people are even faid to adore as a god. I heir affem-
blies for the choice of a king are all held under one of
thefe trees ; and when the fovereign is chofen, they put
a bludgeon of this wood in his hand by way of fceptre,
and a garland of the flowers upon his head.
The Galla are reported to be very good foldiers,
efpecially in cafes of furprife } but, like moll other bar¬
barians, have no conftancy nor perfeverance after the
firit attack. They will, however, perform extraordi¬
nary marches, fwimming rivers holding by the horfe s.
tail, and thus being enabled to do very great milchief
by reafon of the rapidity of their movements. 1 hey
are excellent light horfe for a regular army in a hoftile
country ; but are very indifferently armed on account
of the fcarcity of iron among them, iheir principal
arms are lances made of wood lharpened at the end
and hardened in the fire j and tlteir fhields are com-
pofed only of one Angle fold of bull’s hide; fo that
they are extremely apt to warp by heat, or become too«
c a l r .5
foil in Wet weather. They are exceedingly cruel ;
and make a Ihrill horrid noife at the beginning of
every engagement, which greatly terrifies the horfes, and
very often the barbarous riders which onpofe them.
The Galla, according to Mr Bruce’s account, are
fomewhat below the middle fize, but extremely light
and nimble. The women are fruitful j and fuffer fo
little in childbearing, that they do not even confine
themfelves for a {ingle day after delivery. They
plough, fow, and reap the corn, which is trodden out
by the cattle ; but the men have all the charge of the
cattle in the fields. In their cufloms they are filthy
to the laft degree 5 plaiting their hair with the guts of
oxen, which they likewife twill round their middle, and
which by the quick putrefadlion occafion an abominable
flench. They anoint their heads and whole bodies with
butter or greafe ^ in which, as well as in other refpehts,
they greatly referable the Hottentots. It has been fup-
pofed that they have no religion whatever ; but Mr
Bruce is of opinion that this is a miflake. The wanzey,
he fays, is undoubtedly worfhipped by all the nations as
a god } and they have likewife certain flones which are
worfhipped as gods : befides thefe, they worfhip the
moon, and fome flars, when in certain pofitjons, and at
fome particular feafons of the year. They all believe in
a refurreflion 5 and have fome faint notions of a Hate of
happinefs, but no idea of future punifhment. Some of
them to the fouthward profefs the Mahometan religion,
but thofe to the eaft and weft are generally Pagans.
AH of them intermarry with each other; but will not
.allow flrangers to live among them, though the Moors
have at lafl found out a method of trading fafely with
them. The commodities they deal in are blue Surat
cloths, myrrh, and fait j the laft being the moft valua¬
ble article.
The marriages among the Galla are celebrated with
fome of the difgufting cuftoms of the Hottentots ; and
after thefe ceremonies the bridegroom promifes to give
the bride meat and drink while fhe lives, and to bury
her when dead. Polygamy is allowed among them j
but it is lingular, that among thefe people the women
folicit their hufhands to take others to their embraces.
The reafon of this cuftom is, that the men may have
numerous families of children, who may be capable of
defending them againft their enemies 5 as the Galla, ac¬
cording to our author, always fight in families, whether
againft foreign enemies or with one another,
GALLAND, Anthony, a learned antiquarian,
member of the Academy of Infcriptions, and profefibr
of Arabic in the Royal College of Paris, was born of
poor parents at Rollo, a village in Picardy. Having
ftudied at the Sorbonne and other univerfities, he tra¬
velled into the eaft ; where he acquired great fkill in the
Arabic tongue, and in the manners of the Mahome¬
tans. He wrote feveral works 5 the principal of which
are, 1. An Account of the Death of the Sultan Ofman,
and the Coronation of the Sultan Muftapha. 2. A
Colleclion of Maxims, drawn from the works of the O-
rientals. 3. A Treatife on the Origin of Coffee. 4.
The Arabian Nights Entertaiments, &c.
GALLANT, or Galant, a French term adopted
into our language, and fignifying polite, civil, and well
bred, with a difpofition to pleafe, particularly the ladies.
It alfo fignines brave or courageous.
GALLE, the name of feveral engravers, of whom
1
>6 ] GAL
the principal was Cornelius, who flouriihed about the Gallr
i6co. He learned the art of engraving from his fa- ^ II
ther, and imitated his ftiff ftyle, till he went to Rome,
where he reftded a confiderable time, and there acquir¬
ed that freedom, tafte, and corredlnefs of drawing,
which are found in his beft works. He fettled at
Antwerp upon his return from Italy, where he carried
on a confiderable commerce in prints. His beft prints
are thofe done after Rubens.
GALLEON, in naval affairs, a fort of (hips em¬
ployed in the commerce of the Weft Indies. The Spa¬
niards fend annually two fleets ; the one for Mexico,
which they call the Jlota; and the other for Peru,
which they call the galleons. See Flota .
By a general regulation made in Spain, it has been
eftabliflied, that there fhould be twelve men of war and
five tenders annually fitted out for the armada or gal¬
leons ; eight fhips of 600 tons burden each, and three
tenders, one of 100 tons, for the ifland Margarita,
and two of 80 each, to follow the armada 5 for the
New Spain fleet, two (hips of 600 tons each, and twro
tenders of 80 each j and for the Honduras fleet, two
fhips of 500 tons each : and in cafe no fleet happened
to fail any years, three galleons and a tender fhould be
fent to New Spain for the plate.
They are appointed to fail from Cadiz in January,
that they may arrive at Porto Bello about the middle
of April •, where, the fair being over, they may take
aboard the plate, and be at Havannah with it about
the middle of June ; where they are joined by the flota
that they may return to Spain with the greater fafety.
GALLEOT, a fmall galley defigned only for chafe,
carrying but one maft and two pattereroes 5 it can
both fail and row, and has 16 or 20 oars. All the
feamen on board are foldiers, and each has a mufket by
him on quitting his oar.
GALLERY, in ArchiteBure, a covered place in a
houfe, much longer than broad, and ufually in the wings
of a building, its ufe being chiefly to walk in.
GALLERIES, in Gardening, are certain orna¬
ments made with trees of different kinds 3 which are
very common in all the French gardens, but are feldom
introduced into the Britifh ones, efpecially fince the,
tafte for clipped trees has been exploded. For thofe,
howxver, who may ftill choofe to have them, Mr Mil¬
ler gives the following directions.
In order to make a gallery in a garden with porticoes
and arches, a line muft firft be drawn of the length you
defign the gallery to be 3 which being done, it is to be
planted with hornbeam, as the foundation of the galle¬
ry. The management of galleries is not difficult. They
require only to be digged round about 3 and fheered a
little when there is occafion. The chief curioiity re¬
quired is in the ordering the fore part of the gallery,
and in forming the arches. Each pillar of the porticoes or
arches ought to be four feet diftant from another, and the
gallery 12 feet high and ! o feet wide, that there may be
room for two or three perfons to walk abreaft. When the
hornbeams are grown to the height of three feet, the
diftance of the pillars well regulated, and the ground
work of the gallery finiflied, the next thing to be done
is to form the frontifpiece 3 to perform which, you muft
flop the hornbeam between two pillars for that purpofe,
which forms the arch. As it grows, you muft with
your fheers cut off thofe boughs which outftioot the o-
thers.
Gallery,
Galley.
GAL [3
ther?. In time they will grow ftrong, and may be kept-
in torm by the dicers. Portico galleries may be cover¬
ed with lime trees. ,
G alPer in. Fortification, a covered walk acrofis the
diten or a town, made of flrong beams covered over
; ---—- — ‘-*^>6 Luveieu over
wua planks, and loaded with earth : fometimes it is
covered with raw hides, to defend it from the artificial
fires of the befieged.
Gslls.ru of a Mine, is a Harrow paffage or branch of
a mine carried on under ground to a work defigned to
be blowm up. See Mine.
Gallery, in a ihip, that beautiful frame, which is
made in the form of a balcony, at the Hern of a fivn
without board ; into which there is a pafl'age out of the
admiral’s or captain’s cabin, and is for the ornament of
the Ihip.
GALLE x , a kind of low flat built veffel, furnifhed
with one deck, and navigated with fails and oars, par¬
ticularly m the Mediterranean. By the Greek authors
under the eaftern empire, this kind of veffel was called
and and by the Latin authors of the fame
time, galea; whence, according to fome, the modern
denomination. Some fay it was called galea, on ac¬
count of a caique or helmet which is carried on its prow
as Ovid attefts, deTriflibus. The French call it ?alere-
by reafon, they fay, that the top of the malt is ufually
cut m the form of a hat, which the Italians call gal era.
Others derive both galea, and galere, from a filh by
tne Greeks called or and by us the
Jwordji/h, which this veflel refembles. Laftly, Others
derive the galea, galere, galeaj/b, &c. from the
Syriac and Chaldee goal, and galln, a man expofed on
the water m a veffel of wood.
The largeft fort of thefe veiTels is employed only by
the Venetians. They are commonly 162 feet long
above, and vi33 feet by the keel j 32 feet wide, with
23 feet length or ftern poll. They are furniflied with
tnree mails, and 32 banks of oars 5 every bank con¬
taining two oars, and every oar being managed by fix
or leven Haves, who are ufually chained thereto. In
the fore part they have three little batteries of cannon
o which the loweft is of two 36 pounders, the fecond5
ot two 24 pounders, and the uppermoft of two 2 poun-
ders : three 18 pounders are alfo planted on each quar¬
ter. 1 he complement of men for one of thefe galleys
is 1000 or 1200. They are efteemed extremely con¬
venient for bombarding or making a defeent upon
an enemy’s coafl, as drawing but little water: and
having by their oars frequently the advantage of a Ihip
of war, in light winds or calms, by cannonading the lat¬
ter near the furface of the water 5 by fcouring her
whole length with their fhot, and at the fame time
keeping on her quarter or bow, fo as to be out of the
direction of h er cannon.
n1 jezgfiIeyf/ nCXt ia flZe to thefe’ which are alfo
called half galleys, are from 120 to 130 feet long, 18
feet broad, and nine or ten feet deep. They have two*
mafls which may be flruck at pleafure ; and are fur-
Hilhed with two large lateen fails, and five pieces of
cannon. They have commonly 25 banks of oars, as
defenbed above. A fize Hill lefs than thefe are called
quarter galleys, carrying from 12 to 16 banks of oars
Ihere are very few galleys now befides thofe in the
e iterranean, which are found by experience to be of
mGe utility except in fine weather j a circumflance
27 ] CAL
which renders their fervice extremely precarious. They
generally keep clofe under the fliore, but fometimes
venture out to fea to perform a fummer cruife.
T GjLlEJ-lVorm> 111 'Zoology. See iuLus, Entomo¬
logy Index.
Vn antfIuIty’ aname g^ento the priefls
of Cybele, from the river Gallus ia Phrygia : but of
the etymobgy of the name we have no certain account.
All that we learn with certainty about them is, that
they were eunuchs and Phrygians, and that in their
rmT STa th7 danced’ bawled, drummed,
cut and flafhed themfelves, playing upon timbrels
Th’Tf315’, &C- a,'d Tafitaded
vvith the facred rites and trumpery of their goddefl
[nan WaS t0 be initiated» he was to
hrow qH his clothes, run crying aloud into the midft
}°- Vur TP’ iand, there draw 3 lvvord and caflrate
.{ 1 ’ after this he was to run into the Hreet vvith
Ue parts cut off m his hand, throw them into fome
dTels!’ 3 m W h°ufe put 011 a woman’s
Thefe prieHs had the names alfo of Curetes, Cory,
bantes, and Da&yh. lhe chief priefl was called Mrchi-
GaUs. I his order of pneHhood is found both amongft
r Greebs ,fnd Romans. See an account of them in
Lucret. hb. ii. and Juv. Sat. vi.
Galli, the Gauls. See Gallia and Gauls.
Gall!, fiv'e fmall defolate iHands on the coafl of the
Pnncipato Citra of Naples. They are fuppofed to be
the Syrenufae, or iflands once inhabited by the Sirens
which Ulyffes paffed with fo much cautio/and hazard’
Great revolutions, however, have been occafioned in
their lhape, fize, and number, by the efreds of
ubteiranean fire j and fome learned perfons go fo
far as to affert that thefe rocks have rifen from the
bottom of the fea fince Homer fang his rhapfodies •
consequently, that thofe monflers dwelt on fome othe^
ipot, probably Sicily or Capri. The tradition of Si-
aZin^111? heruab0?S 13 Very andent and ^niverfally
adm tted ; but what they really were, divefled of their
abulous and poetical difguife, it is not eafy to difeo-
ver. See Siren.
„ Xl‘e Srenufe were only three in number : and there-
fore .f thefe and the Galli be the fame, two more mull
f fince 1 , en’ or tlle three have been fplit into five by
a fuuterraneoua convulfion. On the largell is a watch,
tower, and the next has a deferted hermitage. The
principal .fland is only a narrow femicircnlar ridge
co.ered with a fhallow coat of foil; two other little
1 nds and 'ome jagged rocks juft peeping above the
waves correlpond with this one fo as to trice the out-
l dL V°lcan,pI Crater- The eompofition of them
all is at top a calcareous rock extremely (liaken, tum-
bled and cor.fufed, mixed with maifes of breccia, dif.
and ^he d m0fl tteegf'-ar manner j below thefe is lava,
and the deeper the eye follows it the ftronger are the
marks of fire : below the furface of the wafer, and in
m*. pxetces above it, the layers are complete blocks o^
have'he 7™ * ls Prffun!ed ^ fom^ tbat central fires^
have heaved up to light the torrefied fubflances that
originally lay near their focus, with all the intermediate
Plata that covered them from the fea. The layers in¬
cline downwards from eafl to wefl; the air feems to
have forced its way into part of the mafs while in fu-
hou, and by, checking its Workings caufed many large
caverns
Galley,
Galli.
32
Gallia,
GalliSti'd.
G A L J ,
. v. in it Thefe iflands are uncultivated
f-nce' Ae ^ he^ of St Antcn.0
"•a^A XgeTount c'f Europe, called Cala-
• rSe rfreets The iuhabltants were called G<r//:,
Ce/Ly CMbni, and Celtofcylhx. Ancient Gaul was dr-
vided into four different pants
’bounded by
Gennai^, Gr-llla Narbonenlis, and tb^^erman^ocean^,
and contained the modern cou y ’d 0f Cham-
Picardy, with ^'1*1 ^00 GallU Narbonenfi,,
pagne, and of ,'ie incts now called Languedoc,
which contained the provinces now
^"wS='hsi”«,s;
Gallia Narbonenfis, the Alps, and 1^ ^ of
T^no^TouraiL Frmc/Tcompte, Senenois, Switzer- '
Ftjonnoii, lo. _ 5 'Rp^des thefe grand di-
*¥ ^‘<^1 o^.
V‘ or Ckerior Tranfalpina or Ulterior, which re,ers
- f r ,of HrKc
the Gauls who crofted the 1\ p .y , u- v. i;es in
it"rb;"ih:xr ^ **
Ate in regard only to the inhabitants of Rome. Gal-
UaCkpadana, and Tranfpadana applied to a part of
ScIlS’—, - account of the
of the W"/“X cait beclute Speople
SS rlf'hairto0^ to an’ un^inon le^h.
The inhabitants were great wamors^a d h ^ ,lome
■overcame the Roman arnne, ■ They fpread
•and invaded Greece m different a0e . / t
themfelves oyer the greateff part of
;edtyrevf“Ped i'e Lerdotal order as if they had
reS’ “is They long maintained a bloody war
been gods. ^ ond Ca,far reMed ten years in
ihek country before he could totally fubdue them. See
G'r ALEIARD, or GaGLIAEDA, a fort of dance
-ndettly in great requeft ; confifting of very difter-
morions and affions, fometimes proceeding erra
T.eZ or fmoothly along ; fometimes capering ; fome-
timL along the room, and fometunes acrofs. Tim
times mu g cn'illiarde or rather Italian •, and li-
word is French, gai ? ... , ,, T'hi<; dance
terally fignifies « gay, merry, fpnghtly. I his dance
was1 W called Romanefque, becaufe brought from
aSte12iol.’s o"
^t^nct pe^ed before each other, and
Q 1 fjr A J-*
whereof he gives us the fcore or tabfeture, which Is of <*».**
fix minims* and two triple tunes. name of GallipoH'-
GALLIARDA, in the Italian mufic, the na .
a tune that belongs to a dance called a Galhcnd. I t
511G AlsLi'c)6acid^!See Chemistry Index. .
GALLIC AN, anything belonging to Fmnce ^ t as
the term Galilean church denotes Rie church of Fiance,
-feJESSKtSSCW?”,* *•
S phmt of llod°es of fpeech iu Englilh as are
"’g At LIN ACEU S lapis, a gloffy mineral fubftance
which is fuppofed by fome to be prouuced by thc ope .
tion of volcanic fires-, and is thought to be the lame
with the lapis ohfidianus oi the ancaents.
GALLING, an order of birds. See ORNITHOLO
GYGALLINACIOUS, an appellation given to the
h^GALLING^or^ Excoriation, in Medicine. See
^G°ALu™ofa Horfe's Back a diforder ^°ned by
heat and the chafing or pinching of the laddie. _
In order to prevent it, fome take a hind’s fiem we
crarnifhed with hair, and lit it neatly under the pannel
of the faddle, fo that t*ie hairy fide may be next
When a horfe’s back is galled upon a journey, take
out a little of the Huffing of the pannel over the fu ell-
• 'd few a niece of loft white, leather on the mfide
oTihe pannel • anoint the part with fait butter, and
every evening wipe it clean, rubbing it till * §r™
TaLLINULK. See Ful.ca, Orjiithology
^c’aLLIPOLI, a feaport town of Italy, m the
a . f 'Mn-Aes and in the Terra-di-Otranto, with
'hffhoo’s fee It Hands on a rocky ifland, joined to
a biihop s lee. uu‘11 -prorn the remotefl anti-
the continent by a bridge. commerce
V this was a Ration fo favourable to ccminc ct-
Lfevery maritime power wrihed to fecure .t; and vt
is a reproach to government, that nothing -as
done to improve its natural
ftelte teXplr ewL n. demoliibed Galli-
“ for TtsSrelce to Frederick of Arragou Tte
To'preferve it from future calamities, Charles V. re-
V*? and Rrengthenedyits
Idde" which 1-e jndered it the “/0
gayeft town ^n numbfr Confumptions and fpit-
2
GAL [ 329 l G A L
•Gallipoli the churches have good paintings. The cotton
j| trade brings in about 30,000 ducats a-year. Good
, muflins, cotton dockings, and other parts of apparel,
are manufa£tured here, and purchafed by the Proven¬
cals ; for Gallipoli has no direct trade with the metro¬
polis. Silk and faffron were formerly objects of
traffic } but heavy duties and oppreffion have caufed
them to be abandoned. The wine of this territory is
good} but from drynefs of climate, and Ihallownefs of
loil, the vintage frequently fails in quantity; and
then the Gallipolitans have recourfe to Sicily for a
fupply. Oil is the great fupport of the place : two
thirds of the produce of its olive plantations are ex¬
ported to France, and the north of Italy j the re¬
mainder is fent to Naples, and other ports of the king¬
dom. Neapolitan merchants, by means of agents fet¬
tled at Gallipoli, buy up the oils, from year to year,
long before an ’olive appears upon the tree •, and the
price is afterwards fettled by public authority. The
Neapolitans fell their oil to the merchants of Leghorn ;
and, if faithfully ferved by their fadiors in Terra di
Otranto, ought to double their capital in two years.
But, to balance this advantage, .they run great rilks,
pay exorbitant intereft, and have frequent bankrupt¬
cies to guard againil. E. Long. 18. 10. N. Lat. 40.
20.
Gallipoli, a fea-port town of Turkey in Europe,
in the province of Romania, feated at the mouth of
the fea of Marmora, with a good harbour, and a biffiop’s
fee. It contains about 10,000 Turks, 3500 Greeks,
befides a great number of Jews. The bazar or be-
zeftein, the place where merchandifes are fold, is a
handfome ftrudure, with domes covered with lead. It
is an open place, and has no other defence than a paltry
iquare caftle. The houfes of the Greeks and Jews have
doors not above three feet and a half high, to prevent
the Turks riding into their houfes. E. Long. 26. fo.
N. Lat. 40. 30.
GALLIUM. See Galium, Botany Index.
GALLO, an illand of the South fea, near the fea-
coalf of Peru, in South America, which was the find
place poffeffed by the Spaniards when they attempted
the conqueft of Peru 5 it is alfo the place where the
bucaniers ufed to come for wood and w^ater, and to refit
their veffels when they were in thefe parts. W. Long
88. o. N. Lat. 2. 30. 6
GALLO-Greecia, a country of Afia Minor, near Bi-
thynia and Cappadocia. It w^as inhabited by a colony
of Gauls, who affumed the name of Gallogrceci becaufe
a number of Greeks had accompanied them in their
emigration. See Galatia.
GAL LOIS, John, born at Paris in 1632, was
an univerfal fcholar, but chiefiy noted for having been,
in conjunftion w-ith M. de Sallo who formed the plan,
the firlt publifher of the ’journal des Spavans. The
firlt journal wras publiihed January 5. 1665; but thefe
gentlemen criticifed new works fo rigoroufly, that the
Avhole tribe of authors united and cried it down. De
Sallo declined entirely after the publication of the
third number: but Gallois ventured to fend out a
fourth, on January 4. 1666; though not without a
molt humble advertifement at the beginning, wherein
it was declared, that the author “ would not prefume
to criticile, but limply give an account of the books.”
This, with the proteftion of M. Colbert, who was
Vol. IX. Part I.
greatly taken with the work, gradually reconciled the
public to it : and thus began literary journals, which
have been continued from that time to this, under
various titles, and by various writers. Gallois con¬
tinued his journal to the year 1674, when more im¬
portant occupations obliged him to turn it over to 0-
ther hands. M. Colbert had taken him into his houfe
to teach him Latin 5 and when he loft his patron in
1683, he was firft made librarian to the king, and
then Greek profeffor in the royal college. He died in
1707-
GALLON, a meafure of capacity both for dry and
liquid things, containing four quarts. But thefe quarts,
and confequently the gallon itfelf, are different, ac¬
cording to the quality of the things meafured : For in-
ftance, the wine gallon contains 231 cubic inches, and
holds eight pounds avoirdupois of pure water j the
bser and ale gallon contains 282 folid inches, and
holds ten pounds three ounces and a quarter avoirdu¬
pois. of water -, and the gallon for corn, meal, &c. 272^-
cuoic inches, and holds nine pounds thirteen ounces of
pure water.
GALLOP, in the manege, is the fwifteft natural
pace of a horfe, performed by reaches or leaps; the
two fore feet being raifed almoft at the fame time j
and when thefe are in the air, and juft ready to touch
the ground again, the two hind feet are lifted almoft
at once. The word is borrowed from the barbarous
Latin calupare, or ca/pare, “ to run.” Some derive it
from caballicare ; others from the Greek or
xxt.TrctVy to fpur a horfe.
GALLOPER, in artillery, is the name of a car¬
riage w’hich ferves for a pound and a half gun. This car¬
riage has drafts fo as to be drawn without a limber, and
is thought by fome to be more convenient and prefer¬
able to other field carriages; and it may likewife ferve
for our light three and fix pounders.
GALJ^OWAY, a county of Scotland, which gives
tire title of Earl to a branch of the noble family of
Stuart. It is divided into two diftrifts 5 the weftern,
called Upper Galloway, being the fame with Wigton-
ftiire ; and the eaftern, or ftewartry of Kirkcudbright,
called Lower Galloway. See Kirkcudbright and
WlGTONSHIRE.
Mull of Galloway, the moft foutherly cape or pro¬
montory of all Scotland, in the county of Galloway,
and on the Iriftr fea.
Galloways is the name of a peculiar fort of hor
fes, fo called from the county of Galloway in Scot¬
land, where they are bred. Tradition reports that
this kind of horfes fprang from fome Spaniffi ftallions
which fwam on Ihore from fome of the (hips of the fa¬
mous. Spaniffi armada, wrecked on the coaft 5 and
coupling with the mares of the country, furniffied the
kingdom with their pofterity. They were much efteem-
ed, and of a middling fize, ftrong, aftive, nervous, and
hardy.
GALLOWS, an inftrument of puniffiment, where¬
on perfons convi6ted capitally of felony, &c. axe exe¬
cuted by hanging.
Among our anceftors it was called furca, “ fork f
a name by which it is ftill denominated abroad, parti¬
cularly in France and Italy. In this latter country,
the reafon of the name ftill fubfifts j the gallows being
a real fork driven into the ground, acrofs the legs
t whereof
G A. L t
Callus whereof is laid a beam, to which the rope is tied.
II . Furca.
,GaWam' , GALLUS, Cornelius, an ancient Roman poet,
^orn at forum Julium, now called Frejus, in France.
He was a particular favourite with Auguftus. Ctefar,
who made him governor of Egypt: but his mal-
adminiftration there occafioned his banifhment, and
the lofs of his eftate } for grief of which he put an
end to his own life.- He wrote four books of love
elegies ; and Virgil has complimented him in many
places.
Gallus, or Cock. See Phasianus, Ornithology
Index.
GALLY, in printing, a frame into which the
compofltor empties the lines out of his compofmg-
llick, and in which he ties up the page when it is com¬
pleted.
The gaily is formed of an oblong fquare board, -with
a ledge on three fides, and a groove to admit a falfe
bottom called a galley Jlice.
GALVANI, Lewis, was bom at Bologna in Italy,
in the year 1737. There many of his relations had
arrived at diifinguifhed eminence in jurifprudence and
divinity, and he himfelf had the honour of giving his
name to a fuppofed new principle in nature, which of
confequence is called Galvanifm, although this great
man gave it the name of animal eleElncity. From a
boy he became enamoured of the greateft aufterities of
the Catholic religion, and joined himfelf to a convent,
the monks of which were celebrated for their attach¬
ment to the folemn duty of vhiting the dying. He
wilhed much to become a member of this ordpr, but
was prevailed on to relinquifli the idea by one of the
brotherhood, after which he turned his whole attention
to the ftudy of medicine in its various branches. He
ftudied under Beccari, Tacconi, Galli, and in a parti¬
cular manner Galleazzi, who took him into his own
heufe ; and he afterwards became his fon-in-law. He
acquired great reputation by his inaugural thefis, He
OJfibus, in 1762, and was foon after chofen public lec¬
turer in the univerfity of Bologna, and reader in ana¬
tomy to the inftitute of that city. So much admired
was his talent for ledluring, that vaft numbers conftantly
attended him j and he employed his few leifure hours in
making experiments, and in the ufeful ftudy of compa¬
rative anatomy. We find in the Memoirs of the Infti¬
tute of Bologna, a number of curious obfervations on
the urinary organs, and on the organs of hearing in
birds.
Soon after his anatomical and phyfiological know¬
ledge was fully eftablilhed throughout the Italian fchools,
a mere accident led him to that interefting difcovery
which will tranfmit his name with honour to the lateft
pofterity. His amiable wife, for whom he cherilhed
the moft ardent love, and wdth whom he had been
united for a number of years, wras in a declining ftate
of health, and w7as ufing a foup of frogs by way of re-
ftorative. Some of thefe animals being Ikinned for this
purpofe, were lying on a table in Galvani’s laboratory,
where alfo ftood an eledlrical machine. One of tht)fe
who aftifted him in conducing his experiments, unin¬
tentionally brought the point of a fcalpel near the crural
nerves of a frog wEich lay near the conductor, when
the mufcles of the limb were very ftrongly convulfed.
Madame Galvani, who was a woman of a penetrating
330 ] GAL
See underftanding, and a lover of fcience, happened to Galvan*,
witnefs the phenomenon, of which (he inftantly informed »
her hufhand. On his arrival he repeated the experi¬
ment, and difcovered that the convulfions only hap¬
pened when the fcalpel was in contaft with the nerve,
and a fpark was drawn from the conduftor at the fame
time. After an almoft endlefs variety of experiments,
conduced with great ingenuity, which it would be
foreign to the defign of this article to enumerate here,
he concluded that all animals have within them an
eleflricity of a peculiar nature •, that this fluid is con¬
tained in moft parts, but is moft apparent in the nerves
and mufcles} that it is fecreted by the brain, and
diffufed by the nerves through various parts of the
body.
He compared each mufcular fibre to a fmall Leyden
phial, and attempted to explain the phenomena of mul-
cular motion by analogies taken from that inftrument.
He firft thought of its pathological influence in regard to
rheumatic, convulfive, paralytic, and other nervous affec¬
tions. His firft publication on this grand difcovery w7as
entitled Aloysii Galvani de viribus EleElricitatis in Motu
Mufculari Commentarius, which made its appearance in
4to, in the year 1791, and was printed for the Inftitute
of Bologna. By this work the attention of philofophers
both in Italy and other countries was inftantly roufed,
and it was foon followed by numerous publications, in
fome of which the fentiments of Galvani were defended,
and in others they wrere oppofed. The celebrated Volta
turned his attention to the fubjedf, and adduced a
number of arguments to prove that Galvani’s opinion
refpeding animal eledlricity was erroneous, deriving the
phenomena from the eledlric matter of the atmofphere,
and allowing the nerves and mufcles no higher a place
than that of the moft fenfible lefts hitherto difcovered.
The doftrine of Volta received many admirers and ad¬
vocates ; yet there are ftill numbers to be met W'ith in
the learned world who fupport the lentiments of Galva¬
ni, who ftill adhere to his original theory, in the defence
of which he difplayed much candour and modefty, as
well as ingenuity, by which he may be juftly confidered
as deferving that diftinguiftied place among experi¬
mental philofophers, which the union of his name with
the moft interefting natural phenomena will probably
fecure to him for ever. See Galvanism.
Thefe important inquiries, joined to the duties of his
office as a profeffor, and his extenfive pra&ice in the
capacity of furgeon and man-midwife (accoucheur), in
both which he eminently excelled, afforded abundant
fcope for his indefatigable induftry. He compofed a
variety of memoirs on topics connedfed with his pro-
felfion $ but thefe, as far as we know, have never been
publilhed. He delighted to converfe with men of
fcience, in whofe company new publications were read,
and their merits inveftigated, which was certainly a va¬
luable fource of intelledlual improvement.
The charafter of Galvani in private life is allowed to
have been moft amiable ; and his fenfibility, which was
naturally ftrong, received a violent ftiock in the death
of his amiable wife, in the year 179°* 'Ihis event
brought upon him the moft alarming melancholy, which
he even delighted to encourage, by vifiting her tomb
in the nunnery of St Catharine, and pouring forth his
unavailing lamentations over her grave. He was ever
pun&ual in the difcharge of the duties of his rehgion.
GAL [ 331 ] GAL
fialvani. even to tKe mmuteft rite, as he never loft the pious im-
'“■’"'v preffions which were made upon his mind at an early
period of life. To this caufe we may probably trace
back his determination never to take what was called
the civic oath of allegiance to the Cifalpine republic,
for which he was barbaroufly deprived of all his offices
and dignities. Devoured by melancholy, and nearly
reduced to a ftate of indigence, he took up his reftdence
in the houfe of his brother James, a man of refpedtabi-
lity, where he fell into a ftate of extenuation and debi¬
lity. At this time even republican governors appear Galvani.
to have been affiamed of their brutal conduct towards ■—-’■v'—"•
fuch an extraordinary man; in confequence of which a
decree was paffed for reltoring him to his chair in the
univerfity, together with its emoluments j but this fit of
generofity was too long in feizing them. He departed
this life on the 5th of November, 1798, in the 61ft
year of his age, amidft the tears of his triends, and the
regret of the public, in whofe death the learned world
has been deprived of one of its brighteft ornaments.
GALVANISM.
Ex-peri- TF TWO pieces of metal, the one of zinc, and the
ments A other of filver, or the one of zinc and the other of cop-
fljewing per, or, what anfwers the purpofe equally well, a penny
piece and a half crown piece, be fo placed that the one
fhall touch the upper furface of the tongue, and the
other {hall touch its under furface, while the edges
project over the point; as often as the edges of the
metals in this fituation are brought into contadt, a pe¬
culiar fenfation is produced in the tongue j there is
fomerhing like a flight ffiock of feledtricity, and there is
perceived at the fame time an auftere, aftringent, or
metallic tafte.
If a bit of tin-foil be placed on one of the eyes, and
a bit of copper held between the teeth or touching
the tongue, and a communication be formed by means of
a wire between the piece of metal on the eye and that
on the tongue,, a flafh of light is been, and this is
produced as often as the communication is completed.
But, in the above experiments, if metals of the fame
kind be enaployed, no perceptible effedt whatever is
produced.
If a pile compofed of 50 or 60 pairs of plates of zinc
and filver, or zinc and copper, be arranged in a regular
feries, with pieces of cloth moiftened in a folution of
common fait placed between each pair; and if one hand
previoufly moiftened with water touch the lower pair,
and the other hand, alfo moiftened, touch the upper pair
of plates, the moment the communication between the
bottom and top of the pile is completed, a fmart ffiock
is felt; and if 50 or 60 pairs of plates of copper
and zinc be arranged in a trough as will be afterwards
defcribed, and the fpaces between the pairs be filled
with water, to which about Tr7 of pretty ftrong nitric
acid has been added, a fimilar ffiock is perceived, •when
the hands wetted with water touch the plates at the ex¬
tremities of the trough. If a communication by means
of wires and two pieces of well-prepared charcoal be
made between the extremities of the trough, a very
brilliant combuftion is excited every time the two pieces
of charcoal are brought into contaift. By placing tin-
foil, gold leaf, white or yellow Dutch metal or brafs
leaf, on a wire connected with one end of the trough,
and touching the metallic leaves with a plate of copper
or zinc connected with a ware from the other end of
the trough, a rapid and brilliant deflagration is exhibited
every time that the communication is effected. 2
The phenomena which are thus produced have re- what is un-
ceived the name of Galvanifni) from the name of Gal- by
vani, who firft obferved and publiffied an account 0f Sd van m*
fome of them, and the power by which thefe effefts are
produced has been denominated the galvanic power or
fluid. From its effects on animals being fimilar to
thofe of the eleftrical fluid, it was at firft called animal
eleBricity; but then the knowledge of galvanifm was
limited to its effedls on animals, and it was fuppofed to
depend on fomething peculiar to animal life.
In the following treatife we propofe to give a view
of the progrefs and prefent ftate of galvanifm ; and for
this purpofe we fhall arrange the whole under two great
divifions. Under the firft, we {hall confider the phe¬
nomena of galvanifm, or detail the fafts which have
been afeertained with regard to this power. The fecond
part will be occupied in the hiftory, progrefs, and
theories, which have been held with regard to the na¬
ture of galvanifm.
PART I. OF THE PHENOMENA OF GALVANISM.
3
Arrange¬
ment.
IN treating of the phenomena of galvanifm, its pro-
greffive hiftory fuggefts an arrangement fufficiently con¬
venient for taking a view of the effefts of the galvanic
fluid. Thofe effedls which are to be regarded as ftriflly
chemical, were altogether unknown, till after its appli¬
cation to animals, and a great mafs of fafts relative to
its effefls on animal life had been accumulated. We
may therefore firft confider the effedls produced on
animals by the operation of the galvanic fluid, and in
the next place thofe eftedls which are ftridlly chemical.
But before we proceed to this, it is neceflary that the
nature and conftrudlion of the apparatus, by which thefe
effe&s were produced, ffiould be underftood. Thefe
topics, therefore, ffiall be the fubjedts of the three fol¬
lowing chapters. In the firft we ffiall treat of the con-
ftrudtion of the apparatus by which the phenomena of
galvanifm are produced ; the fecond will be employed
in confidering the effedts of the galvanic fluid on ani¬
mals ; an4 the third will comprehend a view of its che¬
mical effedls.
T t 2
ChaPc
332
Conftruc-
tion of
Apparatus
4
Apparatus
at firft
fimple
Plate
CCXX1X.
Methods of
preparing
frogs for
experi¬
ment?.
G A L V A
Chap. I. Of the Conjlruction of the Apparatus for
exhibiting the Phenomena of Galvanifm.
On the fir ft difcovery of galvanifm, tlie apparatus for
exhibiting its effefts was extremely Ample. It con-
fifted merely of two pieces of different metals, fuch as
has been defcribed above, by which a peculiar fenfation
is produced on the tongue. i nis, it has been ftated, is
effefted by means of a piece of zinc and a piece of cop¬
per, the one placed on the upper furface, and the other
on the under furface of the tongue, while the proje&ing
edges are brought into contact. In the fame way, and
with fuch an apparatus, a great variety of experiments,
efpecially in cold blooded animals, were exhibited, when
the knowledge of this remarkable power was firft -an¬
nounced and inveftigated.
For the purpofe of exhibiting fome of the Ampler
effects of galvanifm, we fliall deferibe the. following
apparatus, which is of very eafy conftruction. ^ AL,
fig. i. is an iron wire, ftiarp at the point A, and fixed
in the wooden ftand C. If a irog prepared in the way
which we (hall immediately deferibe, be fixed on the
point of the wire at A, and a gold or a filver wire (a
filver tea fpoon will anfwer the purpofe) be brought
into contaft with the Ade of the wire, as at the point
D j and while in contaft with the wire at D, it is
brought into contact with the feet of the frog at E, or
F, the effeft of the galvanic power will be immediate¬
ly perceived. TL'he limbs of the animal will be ftrong-
ly convulfed, and wall exhibit as much motion by the
contraftion of the mufcles as if it were alive, and in
full vigour. But if an iron wire, Amilar to AB, were
fubftituted for the gold or Aiver wire, no fuch effect
would be produced.
Frogs, as they are moft eaAly found, and as they
are, perhaps, more convenient in other refpefts, have
been oftener the fubjeft of galvanic experiments than
any other animal. To prepare them for thefe experi¬
ments, various methods have been followTed. Some
phyAologifts propofe to remove only the integuments,
and lay bare the mufcles, while others open the cavi¬
ties of the thorax and abdomen, remove the vifeera
which are contained in thefe cavities, and bring into
view the nerves and mufcles which are there diftribut-
ed. Some again, after the above previous preparation,
feparate all the parts between the origin of the nerve
and its infertion in the mufcle, fo that the latter may
be attached by means of the nerves only, to the trunk
of the body while others, after a Amilar preparation,
cut off the animal’s head, that the effefts produced by
galvanifm may not be confounded with the voluntary
movements of the living animal. By another mode
of preparation, each of the parts is feparated from the
body by diffeftion, after laying bare the mufcles and
nerves.
But in general a frog is underftood to be prepared
when it is divided with a pair of feiffars into two por¬
tions, through the middle of the body and fpine. The
vifeera are then removed, as well as the integuments of
the inferior extremities. As the fciatic nerves of this
animal rife very high upon the fpine, they are diftindly
feen after this treatment. When it is intended, as in
fome experiments, to arm the nerves, as it is called, a
pair of {harp-pointed feiffars is introduced beneath
N I S M. Part I.
them, and the fpine is cut through, but without divid- Couftmc-
ing the nerves. A portion of the inferior part of the Ap°£r”tus<
fpine is afterwards to be feparated, that room may be ^ ^
left for covering the nerves with a bit of tin-foil. This
is what is ufually underftood by arming or coating tne
nerves. In fome experiments it will be found more
convenient to feparate the lower extremities from the
trunk, and to employ the crural nerve.
Phenomena Amilar to the above may be produced by
placing a frog A prepared in the way defcribed auove,
on a plate of zinc B, fig. 2. and on a plate of filver or
copper C. If the communication between the plates A
and B be completed by means of the conduftor D, the
mufcles of the frog are immediately thrown into ftrong
convulfions, and thefe motions are renewed as often as
the contaft is made by the conducting wire and the
tvro metals. _ 6
The apparatus we have now defcribed affords an single gal-
example of the Amp left galvanic combination, or what vanic com-
is ufually denominated a Angle galvanic combination.bmations
Here it may be obferved, that this combination muft con-
fift of three different conductors. The conductors of elec¬
tricity have been arranged into two principal claffes . to
the firft belong the metallic fubftances and charcoal,
which have been otherwife called dry and perfect con¬
ductors 5 the fecond clafs conAfts of the imperfect con-
ductors, which are water and . other oxidating fluids,
and the fubftances which contain thefe fluids. But al¬
though the conductors of eleCtricity, for the lake of
conveniency, are thus arranged, they differ from each
other in their conducting power, and this difierence is
greateft among the fubftances comprehended under the
fecond clafs. Now, if the three conduftors of the gal¬
vanic fluid be all of the firft clafs, or all ot the fecond,
the effeCt is fcarcely perceptible. An aftive, Ample
galvanic combination, then, muft confift of three dn-
ferent bodies, one conductor muft belong to one clais,
and two different conductors muft be taken from the ^
other clafs. In fig. 3* antf 4* are exhibited examples
of aCtive Ample galvanic combinations. In fig. 2. the
letters AB mark the bodies belonging to the firft clafs
or perfeCt conductors 5 and a marks the bodies belong¬
ing to the fecond clafs, or imperfeCt conduftors ; and
in fig. 3. A marks one body belonging to the firft
clafs, and ab two bodies belonging to the fecond
clafs, or the imperfeCt conductors. Of the three
bodies forming a galvanic combination, if two of them
belong to the firft clafs, and one to the fecond, this
combination is faid to be of the firft order } but if one
of the three bodies only belong to the firft clafs, and
two to the fecond, the combination is faid to be of the
fecond order. Fig. 3* is a galvanic combination of the
firft order, and fig. 4. is one of the fecond. This may
be further illuftrated by examining fig. 5, 6, 7, which
confift of two bodies only, and therefore are not a Clive
combinations 5 and alfo by examining fig. 8 and 9,
which confift of three bodies, but two of them are of
the fame kind, and therefore ad as a Angle body. In
the laft five figures, the capital letters denote the bodies
belonging to the firft clafs, and the fmall letters thofe
belonging to the fecond.
In the fingle aClive galvanic combination, or the Am¬
ple galvanic circle, the two bodies of one clafs muft.be
in contaCl with each other in one or more points, while,
at the fame time, they are connected together at other
nomts
Conft ruc¬
tion of
A pparatus.
Aft:on of
galvanifm
accompa¬
nied by
chemical
aftion.
Part I. G A L V
points with the body belonging to the other clafs. Thus,
if a prepared frog is convulfed by the contafl of the fame
piece of metal in two different places, the fluids o: thofe
parts which mufl be fomewhat different from each other,
are the twro conaufilors of the fecond clafs, and the me¬
tal conilitutes the third body for the conductor of
the firft clafs. But if two metals be employed, the
fluids of the prepared animal differing little from each
other, are to be coniidered as one body of the fecond
clafs.
Here it may be neceffary to anticipate a little, by ob-
ferving, that in a Ample galvanic circle, the conductor
or conductors of one clafs muft have fome chemical ac¬
tion upon the other conductor or conductors, other-
wife no galvanic aftion would be produced, or at leaft
a very feeble one, from the combination of three bodies.
This galvanic adtion, too, feems to be in proportion to
the degree of chemical adtion, from which fome have
fuppofed, that this chemical agency is the primary cauie
of the phenomena.
It is found that the molt adtive galvanic combinations,
or galvanic circles belonging to the firft order, are
thofe in which twro folids pofTefling different degrees of
oxidability, are combined with a fluid which is capable
of oxidating at ieaft one of the folids. Gold, filver,
and water, do not form an adtive galvanic combination,
becaufe water is incapable of oxidating either of thefe
metals ; but if a fmall quantity of nitric acid, or any
other fluid which may be decompofed by the filver, be
mixed with water, an adtive galvanic circle may thus
be formed.
If zinc, filver, and water, or zinc, copper, and wa¬
ter, be combined together, an adtive galvanic circle is
formed, and the water will be found to oxidate the
zinc, if it hold any portion of atmofpherical air in folu-
tion, and ftill more fo, if it contain oxygen. But the
combination of the fame fubftances forms a much more
powerful galvanic circle, if a little nitric acid be add¬
ed to £he water, becaufe then the fluid has a ftrong ac¬
tion on the zinc, and oxidates it.
Galvanic combinations belonging to the fecond or¬
der are found to be moft powerful, when two conduc¬
tors of the fecond clafs have different chemical adtions
on the condudtors of the firlt clafs, while at the fame
time they have an action upon each other. As an ex¬
ample of this, copper, filver, or lead, combined with 3
folution of an alkaline fulphuret, and diluted nitric acid,
conftitute a very adtive galvanic circle.
The following is a lift of galvanic circles of the firft
order, compofed of two conductors of the firft clafs, and
one of the fecond.
Zinc with gold, or charcoal, or filver, or copper, or
tin, or iron, or mercury ; and water containing a fmall
quantity of any of the mineral acids.
Iron, with gold, or charcoal, or filver, or copper,
or tin, and a weak folution of any of the mineral acids,
as above.
Tin, with gold, or filver, or charcoal, and a weak fo¬
lution of any of the mineral acids, as above.
Lead, with gold, or filver, and a weak acid folution,
as above.
Any of the above metallic combinations, and com¬
mon water, viz. water containing atmofpherical air, or
efpecially water containing oxygen air.
Copper, with gold, or filver, and a folution of nitrate
A N I S M.
333
8
Galvanic
circles of
the firft
order.
of filver and mercury 5 or the nitric acid j or the acetous Conftruc-
acid. tion oi
Silver, with gold, and the nitric acid. a,Apparatus.
The following is a lift of galvanic circles of the fe- ^
cond order, coniifting of one conductor of the firft clafs, Of the ie-
and two of the fecond. cosd order„
Charcoal, or
Copper, or
Silver, or
Lead, or
Tin, or
Iron, or
Zinc.
with water, or with
a folution of any hy¬
drogenated alkaline
fulphurets, capable
of adding on the
firft three metals on¬
ly i
and a folution of
nitrous acid, or
oxygenated mu¬
riatic acid, &.c.
capable of aiding
upon all the me¬
tals.
But the eifeids of the galvanic fluid are extremely
feeble, when they are limited to the operation of even
the moft powerful fimple combinations. In the pro-
grefs of the knowdedge of galvanifm it was foon found,
that thefe effedds might be combined and increafed to
almoft any degree. This is done by connedding toge¬
ther a number of aidive fimple combinations, which,
it is to be obferved, muft be fo difpofed that they may t5)
not counteraid each other. A number of fimple com- Batteries,
binations thus connedded together have received the
name of batteries ; and thefe batteries are faid to be¬
long to the firft or fecond order, according as the fim¬
ple combinations of which they are formed, are coiti-
pofed of fubftances of the firft or fecond order of con-
duiding powers. Thus, for example, if a plate of zinc
be laid upon a plate of copper, and a piece of moiften-
ed card or leather be laid upon the zinc, and a fimilar
arrangement of three other pieces be laid upon the firft,
and any number of combinations of the fame kind be
continued, taking care that they are always arranged
in the fame order, the whole will form a battery of the
firft order. But if a plate of copper be conneided with
a piece of cloth moiftened wuth water, and the latter
with another piece of cloth, moiftened with a folution
of fulphuret of potalh, and this be conne&ed wuth ano¬
ther piece of copper, repeating the fame feries to any
convenient number, a battery of the fecond order will
be formed of the whole.
Batteries of the fecond order have been arranged by
Mr Davy into the three following clafles. I. The moft
feeble battery is compofed, when fingle metallic plates
are fo arranged that two of their furfaces or oppofite
extremities are in contaift: with different fluids, the one
of which is capable, and the other is incapable, of oxi¬
dating the metal, a regular feries of fuch combinations
are formed. 2. When fingle combinations or elements
of the feries are each compofed of a fingle plate of a-
metallic fubftance, capable of adling upon fulphurated
hydrogen, or upon fulphurets diffblved in water, ac¬
companied with portions of a folution of fulphuret of
potalh on one fide, and water on the other. 3. The
third clafs is the moft powerful, being formed when
metallic fubftances oxidable in acids, and capable of
afting on folutions of fulphurets, are connefted as plates
with oxidating fluids, and folutions of fulphuret of
potafh, and fo arranged that the oppofite Aides of every
plate may undergo different chemical changes, the mode
of alternation being regular.
The firft attempt to increafe the effe&s of the gal¬
vanic fluid, by combining a feries of fimple circles, was couronne
made by Volta } to this he gave the name couronne de de tafiea*
iajjes.
->34
Dj
Con ftr ac¬
tion of
Apparatus.
12
File of
Yolta.
G A L V A
laj'es. Tlie following is the conflmftimi and mode of
applying this apparatus. a -n r1
Take any number of cups or glafs tumolers A, B, L,,
D, E, fig. io. Till them about three fourths full with
any of the faline folutions, which will be afterwards de-
fcribed, as that of common fait or fal ammoniac in wa¬
ter. To one extremity of a bent brafs wire folder a
plate of zinc of about two inches m diameter, and to
the other extremity of the lame wire, lolderin the fame
manner a plate of copper of the fame diameter. Thefe
connefting wires are reprefented in the figure by the
letters <7, a, a, a ; and the plates of the dilferent metals
are marked with the letters Z. and C, viz. zinc and cop¬
per. In arranging the plates in the veflels, it ought to
be obferved, that a plate of zinc and a plate of copper
belonging to different wires, mull be in the fame veffel,
and never two plates of the fame kind. Ihus in the
firft veffel A, there is a plate of copper j in the fecond
."B, connected by the fame wire, there is a plate of zinc ;
in the fame veffel B, there is alfo a plate of copper,
which is conne&ed by means of another wire to a p^ate
of zinc in the third veffel C. The fame order and ar¬
rangement are to be obferved to whatever number of
plates and veffels the feries may extend.
Suppofe now' that the apparatus has been arranged in
the way defcribed above, and the veffels have been fill¬
ed with a folution of common fait in water } if the num¬
ber of veffels be not lefs than ten or twelve, a flight
fhock will be felt by immerfing one hand in the veffel,
at one extremity of the feries, and the other hand in
the veffel at the other extremity } as for inftance, by
putting the fingers of one hand in the veffel A, fig. i o.
and fuddenly plunging the fingers of the other hand in
the veffel E. The fhock will perhaps be more fenfibly
felt by previoufly wetting the palms of both hands, and
taking a filver or pewter fpoon in each hand, immerfe
.the handle of the one into the veffel A, and the handle
of the other into the veffel E.
The ftrength of this apparatus depends on the num¬
ber of feries of plates and veffels' empldyed. But it is
obvious that this feries from the nature of the apparatus
could not be greatly extended fo as to afford any great
increafe of power. This occurred very early to the in¬
genious difcoverer, as an infurmountable objedfion to
the ufe of this apparatus. The views of this philofopher
in inveftigating the nature of galvanifm, feem at this
time to have been chiefly diredled to the difcovery of
inflruments or apparatus, by means of which he might
be enabled to augment its power. In the profecution
of his inquiries, therefore, he contrived another appa¬
ratus, which was afterwards known by the name of the
galvanic pile, and fometimes, but more rarely by that
of the voltaic pile or pile of Volta, from the name of
the difcoverer. This apparatus is conftrudled in the
following manner.
A pile of moderate ftrength ma^be conftrudled^ of
6o pairs of plates of zinc and copper, each plate being
about two inches diameter; it may be conftrufted alfo
with fimilar plates of zinc and filver, or of almoft any
two other diflimilar metals. Such piles have been very
conveniently conftru&ed, with half crown pieces and
plates of zinc of the fame fize, or more conveniently
with penny pieces and plates of zinc of the fame dia¬
meter. But of whatever different metals this kind of
apparatus is to be conftrudled, the fame order of ar-
N I S M.
Fart T.
is to be obferved throughout the whole Conftruc-
° -tion of
rangement
feries.
Suppofe the metals to be employed in the conftruc- _
tion of the pile are zinc and copper, (and thefe from
views of economy have been moft frequently employed),
an equal number of pieces of cloth, pafteboard, or
leather, of the fame diameter with the metallic plates,
is to be nrepared. The ule of thefe pieces of cloch is
to retain the moifture, by means of which the com¬
munication between the plates is formed, and the gal¬
vanic combinations are completed •, and in proportion
to the length of time during which the pieces of cloth
or ether fubftances retain the fluid which they have ab-
forbed, the operation of the pile continues. I he pile
is formed by placing a pair of plates, one of zinc, and
one of copper, upon a ftand, the one immediately above
the other. Upon this pair of plates is then placed a
piece of cloth which has been foaked in fome faline fo¬
lution, as that of common fait, or fal ammoniac. Up¬
on this piece of cloth is placed another pair of plates,
arranged in the fame order as the firft pair. It makes
no difference which of the metals is placed tirft in the
feries, only it is neceffary' to take care that the fame
order be preferved throughout the whole pile. If
the feries, for inftance, begins with copper, it runs in
the following order : copper, zinc, cloth ; copper, zinc,
cloth, &c. to whatever number of pairs of plates and
pieces of cloth the feries may extend.
But if the number of feries amount to 6o pairs, it
will be neceffary to have rods to confine the pairs of
plates, and to retain them in a perpendicular column •,
for without this the weight at top would be fo confi-
derable, that the leaft inclination to one fide (and this
could not well be avoided) would derange the whole
apparatus. The rodswhich have been employed for this
purpofe have been fometimes made of glafs, and iome-
tim'es of wood. When wood is ufed, it fhould be pret¬
ty dry, or baked, by which means its conducing
powrer is either greatly diminiihed or entirely de-
ftroyed.
The pile being conftrutted in this manner, its effedls
may be obferved, by applying the fingers of one hand
moiftened with water to the loweft pair of plates, and
then touching with the fingers of the other hand moif¬
tened in the fame manner, the upper pair of plates,
thus completing the communication between the extre¬
mities of the pile. Every time that this communica¬
tion is made, a fenfation is experienced, fimilar to a
flight Ihock of eleftricity. The intenfity of this (hock
is in proportion to the number of the pairs of plates,
the nature of the fluid employed, and the care with
which the pile has been erefted, or the time that it has
continued in action. With a pile of 6o pairs of plates,
the (hock will be perceptible through the fingers,
or the whole of the hand, and in lome perfons, when
it is in full a&ivity, it will extend as high as the
elbows.
In making experiments with this kind of apparatus,
it wflll be found that 50 or 6o pairs of plates wfill be a
fufficient number to be erefted in one pile $ but to in¬
creafe the power of the galvanic fluid, a number of
piles may be connected together. Phis may be done
in two ways 5 either by combining the feparate. a61ion
of the different piles employed *, as, for inftance, if three
piles are conftnnfted, let the pairs of plates be arranged
Apparatus
Parti. G A L V
Conftruc- Jn each exa£lly in the fame way, and let the conducl-
tion of -jjg fubftances, as wires, pafs from the top and bottom
t of each to one common condudtor. In this cafe we
have the action of three different currents of the gal¬
vanic fluid $ but whatever number of piles may be em¬
ployed, their mutual a£lion may be fo combined, that
the whole effeiff; may be produced by one fingle cur¬
rent. Suppofe the metallic plates of one pile are ar¬
ranged in the following order 5 copper, zinc, cloth 5
copper, zinc, cloth, &c. then the plates of the fecond
muff be arranged in a different order, namely, zinc,
copper, cloth ; zinc, copper, cloth, &c. and the plates
of the third in the fame way as the firff, viz. copper,
zinc, cloth j copper, zinc, cloth, &c. The three piles
being thus arranged, let a metallic conduftor, as a flip
of copper or zinc, be placed between the tops of the
firft and fecond pile, and a limilar conduftor be placed
between the bottom of the fecond and third piles; and
when they are thus connected together, let the fingers
of one hand moiftened, be placed at the loweft pair of
plates of the firft pile, and the fingers of the other hand,
alfo moiftened, be brought in contact with the upper
pair of plates of the third, a violent {hock will be felt.
The ftiock will be the fame as if the whole number of
pairs of plates of which the three piles are compofed
were formed into a fingle pile ; for the fame order of
arrangement being obferved from the bottom of the fint
pile to the top, and from the top of the fecond pile to
the bottom, and again from the bottom of the third
pile to the top, the current paffes uninterruptedly
through the whole feries, as if it were uniformly ar¬
ranged in one pile.
The effefts of this apparatus may be farther obferv¬
ed in its chemical aftion. If the circle is completed,
or the communication between the extremities of the
apparatus by means of charcoal be formed, a fpark is
produced. This is done by attaching a piece of well pre¬
pared charcoal to a wire which communicates with one
extremity of the apparatus, and another fimilar piece
of charcoal to another wire communicating with the
other extremity 5 if the two pieces of charcoal be
brought into contafl, .thus completing the circle, a
fpark will be obferved, and this may be repeated as
long as the aftivity of the pile continues. The chemi¬
cal effefts of fuch an apparatus are alfo exhibited in the
decompofition of water. The apparatus for effefling
this decompofition, and the method of ufing it, will be
afterwards defcribed.
But it was foon found that the effedfs of this pile,
although when it is firft eredled it poflefies confidera-
ble energy, in a very ftiort time it becomes extremely
feeble, and at laft altogether imperceptible. This is
owing to the pieces of cloth or other fubftance which
is interpofed between the pairs of plates being deprived
of their moifture, either by evaporation, or by being
fqueezed out, from the weight of the plates., The lat¬
ter effeft, it is obvious, muff be in proportion to the
height, and confequently the incumbent preflure of the
upper on the lower part of the pile ; and befides this,
the liquid as it oozes out, trickles down the fides of the
pile, fo that the different pairs of plates are lefs perfe ft-
ly infulated than they otherwife ought to be, to produce
the full effect.
Various contrivances were thought of to obviate
thefe. inconveniences, and the firft; which was propofed
A N I S M. 335
was announced by the ingenious inventor of the pile Conftruc-
himfelf. Volta inclofed his piles, after they were eredted, ft011 of
with wax or pitch. By this contrivance, wdfich he put APParatus;
in pradtice on two columns or piles, each conlifting of ” _v ^
20 plates, he fucceeded fo far in preventing the incon¬
veniences alluded to above, that their effedts continued
nearly undiminifhed for feveral weeks. By other con¬
trivances the plates and pieces of cloth or pafteboard
were arranged horizontally, by w'hich means fome of
the inconveniences of the upright column were avoid¬
ed ; among thefe the unequal preflure was removed, but
ftill it was found that the evaporation continued, fo-
that it was not long before its operation began to dimi-
niftr, and at laft; to be entirely interrupted.
As it was found that the chemical effedls of the'pile
were greatly increafed by employing plates of a larger
furface, even when the number was greatly diminifti-
ed, piles were eredfed both on the continent and in
Britain, with plates from xo to 14 inches fquare.,
Twelve or fourteen pairs of plates of the above fizer.
arranged in the fame wTay as thofe which have been
already defcribed, produced very confiderable chemical
effedfs, fuch as, burning phofphorus, fetting fire to
gunpowder, and deflagrating gold and filver leaf. The
pieces of thick cloth or pafteboard moiftened with wa¬
ter, to which a certain proportion of nitric acid was
added, were ufually employed in the conftrudtion of
this pile; but it is unneceffary to mention that it was
attended with fimilar inconveniences to thofe which
accompanied the fmaller pile. Thefe inconveniences
probably led to another and more effedbual contrivance
for exhibiting the effedts of galvanifm. But before we
give an account of thefe, we (hall farther illuftrate the
nature and conftrudtion of the pile with an explana¬
tion of fig. 11. and 12. l
Fig. 11. is a reprefentation of a pile compofed of
copper, zinc, and pieces of pafteboard, focked in fome
faline folution. The pile is eredted on the ftand A,
and the different parts of which it is compofed are
retained in their perpendicular pofition by means of the
three rods made of glafs or baked wood, b, by b. The
pieces of metal are marked c, z, and the pafteboard
/>, in the order in which they are placed, The pile
being eredted from bottom to top in the fame order,
let a piece of ware e be inferted under the lower pair
of plates, and let another wire yj be kept in contadl
with the upper furface of the upper pair of plates;
the different parts being thus difpofed, if the fingers of
one hand moiftened be brought in contadt with the
wire e, and the fingers of the other hand alfo moiften¬
ed, be brought in contadl with the wire fy . a {hock
will be felt, and thus it wall be found that the energy
of the pile will continue till the moifture of the pieces
of pafteboard has evaporated, or the peculiar change
which takes place on one of the metals during its ac¬
tion, and which will be taken notice of afterwards, has
been effedled.
Fig. 12. exhibits a view of a combination of three
piles, A, B, C. In the column A the arrangement is
copper, zinc, pafteboard •, copper, zinc, pafteboard, &c,
in the column A, this arrangement is reverfed, from
the bottom of the column, which is zinc, copper, pafte¬
board ; zinc, copper, pafteboard, &c. 5 becaufe it muff
be the fame as if the column B were placed upon the
top of the column A, the points A and B being brought
/
33^
Conftruc-
tion of
Apparatus.
G A L V
into cotitaft, only having a piece of pafteboard inter-
pofed. The third column C is arranged m the lame
manner as the column A, viz. copper, zinc, pafteboard j
copper, zinc, pafteboard, &c. Thus, then, the three
columns are fo arranged, that the different fenes fuc-.
teed each other from the bottom of column A to
the top, from the top of column B to the bottom, and
^ the bottom of column C to the top, as if the
J3.
Galvanic
trough.
i4
Calling of
the zinc
plates.
whole had been difpofed in one column A. A com-
inunication is then formed between the top of the column
A and the top of column B, by a metallic conduitor D,
and between the bottom of column B, and the bottom of
column C, by means of the metallic conductor E. It
then the fingers of one hand moiftened are brought
into contact with the wire F, which communicates
with the bottom of column A, and the fingers of the
other hand alfo moiftened are brought into contact
with the wire G5 a faiart Ihock will be felt, from tue
combined aftion of the three columns or piles.
The inconveniences of the pile, as we have already
hinted, were foon felt by thofe who were eager in the
inveftigation of galvanifm, and who wdftied their ex¬
periments to continue with undiminilhed energy, that
they might be enabled to afeertain with precilion the
new and curious fads which prefented themfelves.
Thefe inconveniences, it is very probable, fuggefted the
improvements in galvanic apparatus which we are now
to deferibe.
By the invention of the trough, for which we are
indebted to the ingenuity of IV'Ir Cruiklhank. of W ool-
wich, the progrefs of galvanifm became rapid and bril¬
liant ; for by this means philofophers were enabled not
only to give a longer duration to their experiments,
but to command a degree of energy in the galvanic
fluid, which, before the difeovery of this apparatus,
was not even fufpe&ed. This apparatus, we believe,
is now almoft univerfally employed for galvanic ex¬
periments. We (hall therefore give a more detailed ac¬
count of the method of conftrudling and ufing it.
Troughs with plates of various fizes have been con-
ftrufted, from 2 to 6, 8, and even 14 inches fquarej
but as an example, we {hall fiippofe the following
trough to be conftrufted with plates of about four
inches fquare. A wooden trough AB, fig. 13* i§ to he
made of baked mahogany j the length may be about
go inches, and, as we {hall fuppofe the number of
pairs of plates to be 50, an equal number of grooves
is to be cut on the fides and bottom in the infide of
the trough. Thefe grooves are to be cut at equal dif-
tances from each other, and the width of each groove
is to be fuch, as to correfpond nearly to the thicknefs of
each pair of plates, fo that the latter may flip eafily into
the grooves.
The plates are like thofe which have been already
deferibed in the' conftrudtion of the pile made of zinc
and copper. No difficulty has ever occurred in pro¬
curing plates of copper for this purpofe ; becaufe all
that is neceffary is to cut them out of ffieets of cop¬
per of the requifite thicknefs to any fize that is want¬
ed. But the cafe has been very different with regard
to plates of zinc, efpecially where large plates were re¬
quired. Attempts have been made to caft them in
moulds of fand, fuch as are ufed for cafting different
utenfils of other metals; but thefe attempts, it would
appear, have been generally unfuccefsfuh The method
A N I S M. Part I.
which it is faid has fucceeded bed in forming plates of Conftrac-
any confiderable fize is the following, ine zme Apparatus>
which the plates are to be compofed is to be melted     
in a narrow-mouthed veffel, fo that a Imall lurface^ of
fufed metal may be expofed. The reafon of tms is, that
the metal when it reaches a certain temperature is very
rapidly oxidated in confequence of the ftreng affinity
between this metal and oxygen. The metal m this ftate
is converted into a fine flocculent fubftance, known iy
the name of flowers of zinc. 1 his change therefore,
as it is attended with a lofs of the metal, is to be as
much as poffible avoided. A mould of ftone of the ai-
menfions of the propofed plates (in this cale four ni¬
ches), and about one-eighth of an inch in thickneis, is
to be prepared j but one formed of brafs is found to
anfwer the purpofe {fill better. W hen the metal is m
perfedl fufion, the plates ffiould be caft as quickly as
poffible, becaufe, as the metal cools rapidly, cavities and
imperfehlions would appear on the furface from its tiowT-
ing unequally.
The plates of zinc being prepared, plates of copper
which need not exceed one-tenth of the thicknefs of the
zinc plates are to be cut out of a ftieet of copper to the
requifite dimenfions, viz. correlponding to the fize of the
plates. The copper plates muft be reduced by
hammering to a fmootli and plane furfUce that they may
apply exactly to the furface of the^ zinc plates, and be
in contatl in as many points as poinble. 15
The plates being thus prepared are to be foldered to-Soldering
gether j but it muft be obferved that it is not to be^P1*163'
through the whole extent of the plate. It is found
quite fufficient to iolder them about one-fourth of an
inch from the edges. The folder employed for this
purpofe is foft folder •, and great precaution muft be
obferved that the union at the edges be fo clofe as to
prevent any of the liquid with wffiich the cells in tht.
trough are to be filled rrom entering between the plates j
for otherwife the power of its ablion would be greatly
interrupted or perhaps entirely deftroyed.
The operation of foldering w^as performed with con¬
fiderable difficulty by many workmen 3 at leaf!, it was
found that in many cafes the plates were either not in
contaft when the dimenfions were large, or the joints
were not perfectly fecure. We are not certain in what
way this operation is generally performed, but we know
that this difficulty has been obviated by the following
contrivance. The infide angles on the edges of the
plates, that is, on the fides of the plates which are to
be united together, are filed awTay, lo that, when the
plates are brought into clofe contatf, a triangular groove
all round the edge of the pair of plates remains.. I his
groove is filled tvith folder, and the operation is con-
dufled in the ufual way. Plates foldered according to
this contrivance have been found to anfwer the purpo e
extremely well. But this inconvenience is now rendered
lefs embarraffing fince the difeovery of rendenng zinc
malleable and flexible w7as made, for plates of .zinc of
this defeription are of a much more equal thicknefs,
are thinner and fmoother, fo that the copper can be
brought into a clofer contaCl. I he plates which have
been prepared of malleable zinc have the copper folded
over the edge of the zinc plates, and in this way they
are fecured without difficulty, by foldering.
In whatever way the pairs of plates are to be fecured,
fo that they may remain in clofe contact, they are a ter-
wards
Part I.
GA LVANISM.
Conftruc- wards to be fixed m the grooves of the box prepared
tion of for their reception ; and here it is to be obferved that
, ~ ^ each individual pair of plates is to be completely infu-
lated. This is done by means of a particular kind of
cement, the life of which is not only to retain the pairs
of plates in their places, and to render their infulation
complete, but alfo to defend the wood of the box again!!
the a£lion of the fluid which is employed to fill the cells
of the trough.
Cement for The cement which is employed for this purpofe is
fecming thecompofed of rofin, bees-wax, and fine brick dull, or
plates. powdered red ochre. Different proportions of thefe
fubftances, it would appear, have been recommended in
the conftrudlion of galvanic troughs. According to
fome, five parts of roan, four of bees-wax, and two of
powdered red ochre, are found to anfwer this purpofe
extremely well. The rofin and bees-wax are melted
together, that they may be completely incorporated,
and the red ochre is afterwards added. According
to others, four ounces of bees-wax, eight ounces of rofin,
and about an ounce of fine brick dull, melted together
in the fame way, are alfo found to anfwer the fame
purpofe equally well. With this cement the pairs of
plates are fecured in the grooves, and the intervening
fpaces on the iniide of the bottom and fides of the
trough are alfo covered with it, to defend the wood
from the aflion of the fluid. It is fcarcely neceflary
to obferve, that the plates are to be arranged in the
fame way throughout the trough as the firft pair j that
is, if the copper fide of the firfl: pair of plates be
towards the end of the trough at B, all the other
pairs are to be fo arranged e;s to have their copper
fides towards the fame point B, and the zinc fides
towards the other end of the trough A. The plates
being arranged in this way, the end of the trough B
is called the copper end of the trough or battery, and
the end A is called the zinc end.
Superior advantages are derived from arranging the
plates in this way, to that of conllrudting them in the
method defcribed for the pile 5 for in this way the
fluid can be applied more equally and with greater
facility j the apparatus is more convenient for per¬
forming experiments; its aftion continues for a con-
fiderably longer time, and there is little or no trouble
in cleaning the plates after the operation. It is other-
wife with the pil£, for, after it has been once ufed,
the furface of the zinc plates is fo much oxidated,
that before they can be employed again, they mult
be fcourfcd or filed, which, it is obvious, mull be a
troublefome and tedious procefs •, but in the trough
the oxidated furface of the plates is cleaned in every
fucceflive operation, the fluid wThich is employed dif-
iblving the oxide which has colle&ed on the furface
of the zinc plates.
l;quid to tre&ting t^ie eonftruftion and aftion of the pile,
fill the we have already obferved that different faline folutions
trough. were employed, to moiften the pieces of cloth or pafte-
board interpofed between the pairs of plates. Thefe folu¬
tions were muriate of foda or common fait, muriate of
ammonia or fal ammoniac, and fometimes fulphate of
potalh. Similar folutions will anfwer the purpofe of
filling the cells of the trough, but thefe are found to be
• weaker than folutions of the acids; and, befides, as they
are apt to cryftallize on the plates, it becomes extreme¬
ly trov.blefome to clean the trough. Acid folutions,
Vol. IX. Part I.
therefore, which are more powerful, have been ptcperly
preferred ; and the acid which feems to anfwer bell, on
different accounts, is the nitric ; the proportion to be
employed, it is obvious, muff vary according to the
flrength of the acid. Of the common acid of the fhops,
one part with 16 of water will form a pretty a£Iive
mixture $ but when the acid is ftronger, it may be ne-
ceffary to add 20 parts of water. But this mixture is
attended with the inconvenience of the evolution of ni¬
trous gas, which, it is well known, rs extremely difa-
greeable, and is injurious to refpiration j and, on ac^-
count of the high price of nitric acid, when a large
quantity of this mixture is required, it becomes very
expenfive. Sulphuric acid mixed with water has alfo
been employed for the fame purpofe, and it is found to
anfwer very well. The ufe of this acid, however, is
liable to many ferious objeflions. Its action is too
rapid j and, by its operation on the zinc, hydrogen gas is
difengaged in fuch quantity as to be inconvenient to
the operator. So much heat is evolved during its
aftion, that the cement w'hich is ufed for fecuring the
plates in the trough, is apt to be rendered foft and
loolened. Muriatic acid alfo has been employed, and
this is recommended by fome as in different refpefls the
mol! convenient. One part of muriatic acid and 16 of
water form a mixture which anfwers the purpofe ex¬
tremely well. The aflion of this mixture is flow and
uniform, and the quantity of hydrogen gas which is
evolved is fo fmall as to produce little inconvenience.
The ufe of this acid is attended with another advantage,
that the plates are kept uniformly clean.
Whatever mixture has been employed, unlefs the
operation has been continued for a very long time,
when it is emptied from the trough, it may be bottled
up, and referved for future ufe j rtnd if the moft power¬
ful affion of the trough is not required, the fame mix¬
ture may be employed feveral times. Here it, may be
worth while to notice, that the precaution of emptying
the trough fhould be invariably obferved, as foon as the
experiments for which it was filled and prepared are
finiihed j by this management there will be a confider-
able faving,' both of the fluid and of the furface of the
plates, which undergo oxidation. In filling the trough
with the fluid, it fhould be obferved that it does not
rife higher than about -J of an inch from the upper edge
of the plates; and after the filling of the trough is
completed, the upper edges of the plates, as well as the
edges of the trough, fhould be carefully wiped dry, that
there may be no communication between the fluid in the
cells, but through the metallic fubftances.
A trough compofed of 50 plates of three inches fquare,
will be found fuitable for a great variety of ufeful and
entertaining experiments j but when it is found neceffkry
to produce a more powerful adtion of the galvanic fluid,
a greater number of pairs of plates* or the fame number
with a larger furface, according to the nature of the
adlion required, muff be employed. We have already
obferved, that feveral columns or piles may be fo con-
ftrudted as to have the full eftedt of their combined
adfion, in the fame way as if they formed a Angle pile.
By fimilar management, different troughs or batteries
may be fo arranged as to combine together the. effedts
of each, as if they conftituted a fingle trough or battery.
And all that is neceffary to obferve is, that to whatever
extent the leries may be carried, the furface of' each of
U u the
337
C«nfi»uc-
Gcn of
Apparatus.
©
33g
^onftruc- tile nlates niuft be
G A L V
^ppsfetl to the furface of a different
tion of p(]ate •, as, for inftance, the zinc furface of one of the
Apparatus. pjates mur(; ke collftantly oppoiite to the copper furface of
w—^ £erjes> 'p}ie different troughs thus
uniformly arranged, are to be conne&ed together by
means of metallic conduftors. A flip of copper, for
inftance, about half the width of the trough, is inferted
by its oppofite extremities in the cells of the ends of
two of the troughs.
When the plates are of very large fize, their weight,
v with that of the quantity of fluid required to fill the
cells, renders the trough very unmanageable. It is then
neceffary to fix it in a frame of fufticient flrength, to
fupport its weight by means of axles of brafs or iron,
fixed to the cutfide of the box. By this contrivance
the fluid can be eafily poured out into a proper veffel,
placed under the trough.
We fhall afterwards fpeak more particularly of the
effefts of plates of different extent of furface 5 here,
however, it may be neceffary to obferve, that in com¬
bining together two or more troughs or batteries, to
have the full efted of fuch a number of plates as may
be employed, in proportion to the extent of their fur-
faces, the furface of the plates in each trough fliould be
the fame, otherwife, if troughs of different extent of
furfaces be employed, the a&ion of that trough which
has the largeft furface is diminifhed, and reduced to that
of the adion of the trough whofe plates have the fmalleft
extent of furface. This circumftance is neceffary to be
attended to, for, if it is overlooked in the conflrudion
or combination of different batteries, the effeds will be
fo feeble as to produce difappointment without the caufe
being known. y
In making experiments with the trough, the com¬
munication is to be formed between the two extremities,
or the circle is to be completed in the fame way as has
been already direded in the management of the pile.
For this purpofe there is a projeding piece of wood
fixed to the upper edge of each of the ends of the trough •,
this is perforated fo as to admit a piece of wore which
paffes through to the fluid in the twro laft cells at the
extremity of the trough. If then the wires are placed
in this fituation, and the moiftened fingers of one hand
touch the wire at one extremity, while the moiflened
fingers of the other hand are brought into contad with
the wire at the other extremity of the trough, a fhock
will be felt j and in this way the circle is completed.
The other parts of the apparatus which are neceffary
to condud experiments with a trough of this defeription,
are fo fimple as fcarcely to require any particular de¬
feription. All that is wanted for deflagrating metals is
to have a bent wTire fixed at one extremity of the
trough, and. to have a poliflied plate of copper or zinc
communicating with the other extremity of the trough
by means of a flexible wire. The metal to be defla¬
grated is placed upon the bent wire, and the metallic
plate is brought into contad with it.
The apparatus for the decompofition of wrater $is the
following. A glafs tube, G, H, fig. 11. about three
inches long, and A inch in diameter, is furnifhed with a
tight cork at the upper end G, through which cork the
wire i communicating with the upper part of the pile,
paffes. It may be alfo furnifhed with a cork at the
other extremity H, but this muff have grooves cut on
A N I s M. Part r."
its fides, to allow the water to efcape from the tube, tor.ftruc-
The wire K communicating with the bottom of the tl0B °r
pile, paffes through this cork j or without the cork at
this extremity, if the tube is retained in its perpendi¬
cular pofition by any other contrivance, the wire K may
be paffed within the tube. When this operation is to
commence, the tube is to be filled with water, the cork
at the upper extrepfity G being made air-tight, and
then it is to be inverted, and the extremity H to be
placed in a fmall cup or bafon of water j after which the
wire K being introduced, the circle is completed be¬
tween the wires through the medium of the water in
the tube, the decompofition of which will go on as long
as the communication and the adion of the
18
Apparatus
for decom-
pofing
■water;
pile are
continued. This procefs will be obferved by bubbles
of air efcaping from one of the wires, and rifing to the
top of the tube 5 or if the wires are of gold or of platina,
bubbles of air will be feen pafiing from the extremity
of both wires, and this air colleding at the top of the
tube, forces out a quantity of water equal to the fpace
which it occupies. The fame experiment may be made
by means of a ftill fimpler apparatus. *If the wires com¬
municating with the extremities of the pile are intro¬
duced into a fmall glafs phial filled with water, and in¬
verted in a bafon of water, the fame procefs of decom¬
pofition wall go on.
But an apparatus which is rather more complicated,
Tut at the fame time fufficiently convenient, is ufually
employed for this purpofe. A fmall brafs cup E, fig.
13. is fupported by the wire F, which is fixed in the
hole of the projeding piece of wood D, at one end of
the trough •, from the centre of the cup there arifes a
pair of brafs pincers, which bold a piece of ware of gold
or platina G. Over the pincers is placed a glafs tube
HI, which has at the upper extremity, I, a brafs cap,
to the infide of which is fixed another piece of wire of
gold or platina. The two wires fhould be at a little
diftance from each other, as they appear in the figure.
The tube is then filled with water, and is inverted over
the pincers in the brafs cup, which is alfo filled with
water ; and thus, by means of the water in the tube, a
communication is formed between the two wires. A
wire proceeding from the other extremity of the trough
C, is conneded with the top of the tube 1, and, as foon
as this communication is formed, the procefs of the de¬
compofition of the water in the tube commences j for
the galvanic circle, or the communication between the
extremities of the trough or battery is completed. The
gafes, as they are difengaged from the wires in the
tube, rife to the top, and the water which occupied the
fpace now filled with air, is forced out into the cup.
This procefs goes on as long as the communication con¬
tinues, or till the furface of the water is lower than the
extremity of the upper wire, when the communication
is interrupted, and then the operation ceafes.
With tliefe obfervations we conclude what wras intend¬
ed to be faid concerning the conftrudion of galvanic ap¬
paratus. We {hall notice what may be farther necef¬
fary to be explained, in the courfe oi the detail which
is to be given of the experiments in galvanifm, or of
the influence of the galvanic fluid on animals, as well
as its chemical effeds. We, therefore, now proceed,
in the following chapter, to the confideration of feme of
thefe phenomena.
Chap.
Part I.
G A L V
Effecfls of
Galvanifm Chap> JJ
on Animals.
Of the Effects of the Galvanic Fluid on
Animals.
. 19
Animal
eleftncity.
2*>
Experi¬
ments of
Valli and
the French
philofo-
phers.
n
%
It has been already obferved, that the firft effefts of
galvanifm were exhibited on animals j and indeed it was
fuppofed that thefe effeSls could only be exhibited by
means of animals, and hence, from the coincidence
which w7as obferved with the properties of ele&ricity
already known, it was denominated animal ele&ricity.
The firft experiments which were made in invefti-
gating the nature and properties of the galvanic fluid,
were chiefly performed on cold-blooded animals. It
was indeed from obferving its effefts on them, as we
fhall find afterwards in tracing its hiftory, that the
difeovery was firft made. This difeovery was made on
the frog, and fince that time the frog has been oftener
the fubjeft of galvanic experiments than any other
animal. From being found in great numbers, from
being conveniently got, as well as from the irritability
of the mufcular fibre, as it is denominated by phyliolo-
gifts, continuing for a long time, it has perhaps be¬
come the devoted victim of thefe inveftigations.
We have already mentioned a fimple experiment
with a prepared frog, in which it forms the communi¬
cation between two diffimilar metals. When the frog,
as in fig. 1. is prepared, that is, fkinned, and the lower
extremities feparated from the fpine, and fufpended on
the iron wire AB, if the extremities of the frog be
touched with a different metallic fubftance, fuch as gold
or filver, -while this metallic fubftance is in contadl
with the iron wire at the point D, the limbs of the frog
are thrown into convulfions, and this takes place as often
as the communication is formed.
Soon after the difeovery of Galvani, and after the
refult of his experiments and opinions on the fubjeft of
this difcpvery was announced to the world, the attention
of philofophers became much occupied in repeating and
extending thefe experiments. Among others, Valli, an
Italian phylician, inftituted a feries of experiments, an
account of which wras communicated to the French
philofophers, who foon after repeated them. As thefe
experiments afford us not only a pretty full view of
the effects of the galvanic fluid on animals, but alfo
the ftate of galvanifm at the time, we fhali here detail
them.
Experiment 1.—When two metallic coatings or flips
of metal, the one of lead, and the other of filver,
were placed on a frog, faftened to a table, the coating
of lead being placed on the belly of the animal, and that
of filver on the pelvis, and a communication being formed
by means of a flip or wire of copper, ftrong convuliive
motions were produced in the animal.
Exper. 2.—The coating or flip of lead which was
employed in the preceding experiment, was removed,
and the abdomen w-as left bare. The copper wire was
then applied to the abdomen the fame way as before •,
while its other extremity was in contact with the
coating of filver on the pelvis, convulfive motions were
ftill produced, but they were lefs fenfible than in the
former experiment, and fometimes did not fucceed at
all.
Exper. 3.—When two coatings of the fame metal
were employed, as, for inftance, filver or gold, the
effefts produced by means of copper forming the com-
A N I S M. J5JQ
munication, were found to be much fuller j and when Effedts o*
the coatings were of fimilar metals, fuch as copper, lead, Galvanifm
or tin, and the metal forming the communication wasQn
the fame, no effe£l whatever was produced.
Exper. 4.—By placing the coating on the abdomen
in a horizontal diredlion, fo that the points of contact
became lefs numerous, the effedts were found to be pro¬
portionally diminilhed; but when the coating w'as
brought into full contafl: with the furface of the ab¬
domen, it was obferved that they became equall}
powerful as before.
Exper. 5.—A frog was fkinned and cut tranfverfelv
through the middle j the nerves of the thighs were laid
bare, joined together, and placed on a flip of gold,
while the thighs themfelves were in conttuft with a
piece of filver. When the metallic condudfor of copper
■was applied, flight contradlions were produced. It was
found alfo that contradlions took place when both the
coatings were of filver 5 but when coatings of tin,
copper, or lead, were fubftituted for the filver coating
which furrounded the nerves, powerful contractions
took place. The gradation obferved in the action of
the metals, is the following. Lead produced the
ftrongeft contradtions, next the tin, and laftly the
copper; but in proportion as the vitality of the animal
diminilhed, the metals were found alio to lofe their
power of producing motion. The metals which re¬
tained this property longeft were lead, tin, and zinc.
Exper. 6.—When plumbers lead was employed on
each tide as a coating, and when the metal forming the
communication was the fame, no effect was produced ;
but when lead of different qualities, as, for inftance, lead
of the affayer and plumbers lead, was ufed, and the
metal forming the communication being either the one
or the other, very lingular effedls took place.
While it was found that thefe two kinds of lead, by
changing the different metals, were no longer fufeep-
tible of producing any effedt in one of the coatings,
filver, gold, bifmuth, antimony, or zinc, fubftituted for
the lead, produced very powerful contradfions j and,
what feeined ftill more lingular, when the pieces of lead
in the firft part of this experiment were re-applied,
flight convulfions took place.
Exper. 7.—After a Ihort interruption of the experi¬
ments on the fame animal, it appeared that it became
fufceptible of pretty ftrong convulfive motions, when
the fame experiments were repeated.
Exper. 8. When the galvanic power feemed to be
nearly exhaufted in the frog, it w-as found that the
different metals, when they produced, by their contadf,
new convullions, did not, when this effedt could be no
longer produced, leave to the animal the power of ex¬
hibiting anew any contradtions with coatings of the dif¬
ferent kinds of lead, as in experiment 6.
Exper. 9.—-The following is the gradation of the
diminution of effedt, till it entirely ceafed, when the
plumbers lead always formed one of the coatings.
With the affayers lead forming the other coating,
the adtion became feeble, and it at laft ceafed. The
next in order was tin, the next antimony, and fo on
in the order in which they are named as follows :
zinc, copper, gold, filver. iron, it was obferved, had
loft its power of producing any effedt before the anti¬
mony ; but whether it w'as deprived of this property
before lead and tin, wras not afeertained.
U u 2
Exper. io.
34-0 tr A L % V
Effedls of Exper. 10.—-Zinc, on loling the property of exciting
Galvanifm convulfions in a frog, on which experiments had been
on Animals. niaje £or an }10ur) was not found fufceptible of any
v ' farther a£lion, when the communication was formed
by means of lead *, but it was obferved as a very
fingular circumftance, that contra£lions were ftill pro¬
duced by this metal the moment that the perfon en¬
gaged in the experiment removed the conductor, and
interrupted the circle. This experiment was frequently
repeated.
Exper. 11.—The upper part of a frog which was
• fkinned, and divided tranfverfely, had the crural nerves,
as in the former experiments, armed with a piece
of lead, and placed in a glafs filled with water, while
the lower part was placed in another glafs, alfo filled
with water. Strong contractions were produced when
the communication w?as formed by means of different
perfons holding each other by the hand, while two of
them touched the water in the glaffes. One of them
held in his hand a piece of metal, which was brought
into eontaCt with the coating of lead.
Exper. i 2.—When any one individual of the perfons
who thus formed’ the chain of communication between
the two glaffes withdrew' himfeif, fo that the com¬
munication w7as interrupted, no effeCt was perceptible.
Exper. 13.—When the frog was arranged in the
fame way as in experiment 11. having its parts placed
in two glaffes, no motion was excited when a communi¬
cation w'as eftablifhed with two fingers *, nor w^as any
motion produced, when a perfon wdth one hand armed
with a piece of metal, touched the body of the frog,
while he brought a finger of the other hand in con-
taft with the metallic coating of the crural nerves. But
by placing one finger on the inferior part of the frog,
he touched with a piece of metal the coatings of the
nerves, powerful contractions w:ere produced.
Exper. 14.—When the animal w7as touched with a
metallic fubftance in an infulated ftate, no perceptible
effeCt was obferved •, but when the metals ceafed to be
infulated, very confiderable motions were invariably pro¬
duced.
Exper. 15 The fore leg of a rabbit was feparated
from the body $ the brachial nerves were laid bare,
and armed with a bit of {beet lead. The communi¬
cation between the lead on the nerve and one of the
contiguous mufcles was made with a piece of filverj and
Itrong convulfive contractions took place in the limb }
but when this experiment was varied, by fubftituting
for the metallic conductors, plumbers and affayers
lead, no farther motion was produced. When one of
the coatings employed was lead, and the other iron,
no perceptible motion was obferved. But when lead as
one of the coatings, was employed with filver, gold,
copper, zinc, or antimony, as the other coating, the
motigns and contractions of the limb were renewed.
The motions were very flight, which were produced
by means of a coating of bifmuth, along with a coat¬
ing of lead.
Exper. 16.—This experiment was inftituted to afcer-
tain the ftate of the eleCtricity in the animal which was
the fubjeCl of it. With this view, the animal was pla¬
ced in a veffel containing one or two of Coulomb’s elec¬
trometers, and it was then fucceflively eleCtrified, both
pofitively and negatively 5 and in both of thefe cafes
the balls of the ele&rometer were fo much influenced
A N I S M. Part 1
by the animal, as to {hew, not only that its ele&ricity Effefts of
was in a ftate of perfeft reft, both before and during Galvanifm
the time of the experiment, but alfo to exhibit in theon A"ltn‘i
fyftem of the body on which the experiment was made,
in a very diftinCf and ftriking manner, phenomena quite
analogous to thofe of the Leyden phial.
Exper. 17.—The left crural nerve of a living frog
being tied with a ligature fo ftrongly, that the animal
was deprived of the power of motion in that part of the
limb below the point where the ligature was fixed \ but
when the nerve was armed with a metallic coating, in
the way defcribed in the former experiments, and a
communication was formed between the part of the
nerve above the ligature and the mufcle, the motion and
contraction of the limb were excited.
Exper. 18.—The ligature was afterwards placed on
the left crural nerve, and brought in contaCt with the
mufcle. It was alfo fixed in fuch a way on the right
crural nerve, fo that part of it projeCled : the left part
©f the animal was then quite paralytic, and without mo ¬
tion, and the convulfive contractions which were pro¬
duced when the communication was formed, were en¬
tirely limited to the right fide •, but when the fame
left crural nerve was more completely laid bare, and fe¬
parated from the mufcular iubftance which furroundea
it, its conducting power was reftored, and the communi¬
cation being eftabliftred, the convulfive motions became
pretty ftrong. When, however, the ligature was again
brought into contaCt with the mufcle, the limb was again
deprived of its power of motion.
Exper. 19.—One of the crural nerves of a frog be¬
ing laid bare, was armed with a piece of ftieet lead; and
a communication having been formed between this
nerve and the other crural nerve, which was unarmed,
very ftrong convulfive motions were produced.
Exper 20.—When one of the crural nerves was arm¬
ed with two pieces of lead at different places in its
courfe, and a communication formed between the two
parts by a metallic conduClor, violent agitations follow¬
ed. It was obferved, too, that the fame effeCls took
place, when the -whole of the nerve was laid bare, and
completely feparated from the furrounding mufcle.
Exper. 21.—A fimilar experiment was made on a
hot-blooded living animal. The animal felefted for
this purpofe was a guinea pig } but when the communi¬
cation was eftabliihed in the ufual way, no effeCl follow¬
ed, from which any thing precife or fatisfaClory could
be deduced. 3*
With a view to difeover during what length
time frogs, which were made the fubjefts of thefe ex- mot;on caI
periments, could refill their effedls, and retain the be pro¬
power of having motion excited in them, Valli madeducedon
a number of experiments. At 10 o’clock at night he
prepared two frogs, which on the following morning
at feven o’clock he found had become extremely feeble,
but not entirely deprived of the power of motion.
Slight convulfions were excited in both by means of the
galvanic apparatus j but an hour having elapfed, they,
ceafed to afford any farther fymptoms of vitality. No
effort that could be made, fucceeded in producing mo¬
tion. In other cafes he prepared frogs, which by the
following morning were found to be quite dry, and
then no iymptoms of motion could be exhibited. He
feparated feveral of the mufcles from the body of a
frog, and after having torn them, he found it impoffible
Part I.
Effe(5b of to excite the irritability by any mechanical ftimulus
Galvanifm whatever ; but, after previous preparation, and by
on AtumaIs. means 0f a metali:c conduftor, motion was produced.
2Z The fame natrfralift made a variety of experiments,
Effc&s of to afcertain the effedts of galvanifm on animals which
narcotics ■Were deftroyed with opium, and other narcotic fubilan-
nVMfTd5 ces ’ ^ut ^ ie^ults expei'iments on animals to
to galva- which opium had been exhibited internally, as well as
»ifm. applied externally, were found to be very different from
each other. Four frogs were deflroyed by means of
powdered tobacco, were rendered completely infenfible
to any mechanical flimulus, and feemed to be in a date
of total ftupefadion *, but by the application of the gal¬
vanic apparatus, fymptoms of vitality appeared,^ and
flight motions were produced. A number of lizards
being poifoned with tobacco, exhibited, at the time of
their death, convulfive motions j but they flill conti¬
nued to afford fymptoms of vitality and motion on the
application of galvanifm.
Of hydro- Animals were deltroyed in a variety of ways, with a
g«n gas, view of afcertaining what were the effe&s of galvanifm,
after the principle of life feemed to be extinguifired. A
fmall bird, which was for fome time immerfed in hy¬
drogen gas, or inflammable air, fhewed no fymptoms of
vitality or motion j but, on the application of galva¬
nifm, convullive contradfions of its limbs were produ¬
ced. Two kittens were killed in azotic gas, and the
fore legs wTere feparated and prepared in the ufual way.
The fame effedls were produced as in the experiment
with the bird.
Some animals were deflroyed with the extra# of
hemlock •, but it did not appear that the effe#s on the
application of the galvanic apparatus were at all dimi-
niihed by means of this poifon. In frogs which were
expofed to the exhalation of corrupted animal matters,
perceptible motions were obferved by means of galva¬
nifm ; but thefe were very feeble.
Mofcati deprived feveral frogs of life, by placing
them in the vacuum of an air pump j and when thefe
were fubjecled to experiment with the galvanic appara¬
tus, flight motions were produced ; but it was obferved
that thefe, although they followed each other in rapid
fucceflion, were excited with fome difficulty. Here it
was found that the blood was extravafated in the cellu¬
lar membrane of tne mufcles, by which the fleih was
tinged with a deep red colour. To this circumflance
was afcribed the feeble effeds produced in the above
• experiment, as it was fuppofed that the blood carried
off part of the galvanic fluid, and thus prevented its
adion on the mufcular fibres, through the medium of
the nerves. This opinion was fupported by another ex¬
periment, which was made on prepared frogs, in which
there was no extravafation of blood ^ and in this cafe
the galvanic effeds did not feem to be in any degree di-
miniffied.
Before proceeding farther with an account of the ex¬
periments of the particular effeds of galvanifm on ani-
0 mals, we fhall here relate two of a more general nature,
the one with regard to the effeds produced by the pe¬
culiar application of the metallic condudor, and the
24 other with refped to the velocity of the galvanic fluid
Difference being increafed, without increafing its intenfity.
©t effect in ^ difference, which appeared to be very Angular
the con- fad, was obferved in the mode of applying the metallic
diiftor. condudor, to' excite motion in animals by means of
galvanifm. It was found, that the motions produced Effects of
in the animal by this means were generally more power- Ga!vanilip
ful, when the condudor was applied, firft to the°n
mufcles, and then to the coating, than if the reverie
had taken place 5 that is, by applying firft to the coat¬
ing, and afterwards to the mufcles 5 and indeed when
the galvanic power began to be nearly exhaufted, no
motion whatever could be excited when the application
was made, firft to the coating and then to the mufcles,
while at the fame time, by the contrary mode of appli¬
cation, motion could be eafily produced. 25
The other fad alluded to is, that the velocity of the Velocity of
galvanic fluid may be increafed without increafing the*^
degree of its intenfity. This was proved by M. Valliinci.eafecj
in the following experiment. By means of a chain, without in-
which was in contad with the nerves of a prepared frog, create of
he completed the galvanic circle. The animal at firit'nten^ltf*
exhibited convulfive contradions, but afterwards re¬
mained for fome time without motion. When the con¬
dudor was removed to a very fmall diftance, motion
was again excited in the animal; foon after, however,
this ceafed. But when an infulated condudor was
brought to the mufcles of the frog, the motions were
immediately renewed $ and when they again ceafed, a
communication being formed between the operator him-
felf and the condudor, the contradions were agauf ex¬
cited. The conclufion which he deduced from the
above experiment was, that the galvanic influence is
conftantly the fame, however various the modes of its
application. The fame refult, however, he obferves,
would not be obtained, if the experiment were made
on an animal in which the principle of life was in full’
vigour.
From a number of experiments which were made by
the fame phyfiologift, it appeared that certain intervals
were neceffary, in order to obtain the fame intenfity of
adion in animals fubjeded to the influence of the gal¬
vanic fluid. Frogs, mice, rats, and tortoifes, were the
fubjeds of thefe experiments j they were deftroyed by
means of different poifons, or by refpiring fome of the
noxious gafes. In applying the galvanic apparatus to
thefe animals, an interval of feveral minutes was requir¬
ed, when the motions excited became feeble, or had
nearly ceafed ; and then, after this interval had elapfed,
the fame effeds, and aknoft equally powerful as before,
were produced. 26
With regard to the conduding power of the blood- Conducing
veffels, two queftions were propofed to Valli, by Vicq p'}w*ir
D’Azyr. 1. Whether the blood-veffels are to be
fidered as condudors of the galvanic fluid. And,- 2. gated.
Whether, by coating the blood-veffels inftead of the
nerves, any motion through their medium could be ex¬
cited ? In the folution of thefe queftions Valli obferved,
that the blood-veffels are undoubtedly to be conlidered
as condudors of the galvanic fluid ; but in whatever
way this is effeded, it feems to be through the
nerves alone, in confequence of the way in which they
are difpofed, that mufcular motion can be excited.
The arteries and veins, he farther obferves, are to be
confidered as lefs powerful condudors than the nerves;
for no motion is obtained, if the veffels, without hav¬
ing any communication with the nejves, be diftributed
diredly to the mufcles. The tendons alfo, wffien the
fame communication is eftabliffied, are alfo condudors
as well as the bones, if they have not been deprived of
GALVANISM.
2?
Effedts on
drowned
animafs,
■&:c.
342 G A L V
Effedls of the periodeuvn. The membranes alfo pofTefs this con-
Galvamfm (}U(c^;ng. pOWer : but exhibit no motions when the com-
mumcatxon with the r\erves is interrupted.
It had been obferved, that the nerves, when dry,
exhibited, by means of friftion, fome fymptoms of elec¬
tricity. With a view to afcertain whether, in this dry
Hate, the nerves were conductors of the galvanic fluid,
and whether motions could be excited through this me¬
dium, Valli made feveral experiments ; but in all thefe
he w7as unfuccefsful, for no motion was produced. In
a feries of experiments which were made on fowls, he
found that ligatures applied to the nerves, did not pre¬
vent the contractions of the mufcles, provided thefe li¬
gatures were not applied to the nerves in immediate
contact with the mufcles.
In order to afcertain what w'ould be the effects of the
galvanic fluid on animals which were drowmed or fuffo-
cated, Valli made a number of experiments. Several
pullets wrere drowned, and kept fo long under water,
that no fymptoms of life appeared. By the application
of the galvanic apparatus, mufcular contrations wrere
produced in fome, while others, by the fame applica¬
tion, exhibited no motion whatever. The fame experi¬
ment was repeated on fix pullets, which were alfo
drowned 5 and on the application of the apparatus,
ilrong convulfive motions were produced. Thefe con¬
tinued for nearly the fpace of an hour. In others which
w'ere alfo drowmed, the brain and wdngs were laid bare;
and after this previous preparation, when the galvanic
apparatus was applied, ftrong mufcular contraftions
were excited : none of the animals, however, as was
expedited, were reftored to life. Similar experiments,
followed by the fame refult, wrere made on rabbits.
Several pullets were expofed to the adtion of different
gafes, as hydrogen, nitrous, and azotic gafes, and did
not aftemards, by any mechanical ftimulus whatever
that could be applied, exhibit fymptoms of life. The
galvanic apparatus being applied, very feeble contrac¬
tions were produced ; and thefe fucceeded each other
after Iqng intervals. Similar experiments were made
with the fame view, on frogs, and it appeared that thefe
animals could refill the effedts of thofe gafes better than
the others. Nitrous gas, he found, wms more injurious
than hydrogen gas. In fome of the frogs on wdiich the
experiments wTere made, the application of the galvanic
apparatus produced violent agitations ; but having re¬
peated three or four ihocks, no farther motion could be
excited, not even after fome interval had elapfed.
To afcertain what were the effedls of different kinds
of air on animals fubjedled to the galvanic apparatus,
he feparated the hinder extremities of a frog, expofed
the one to the adlion of nitrous gas, and the other to
that of atmofpherical air. After being fubjedled for a
fhort time to the adlion of thefe airs, the galvanic appa¬
ratus was applied. Contradlions were produced in
both ; but thofe which were induced in the limb ex¬
pofed to the nitrous air, were feebler than the other ;
and when the adlion of the nitrous air was continued be¬
yond a very limited time, no motion whatever could be
excited. The fame experiment was made on limbs ex¬
pofed to the adlion of hydrogen gas ; and it appeared
that its effedls in destroying the irritability of the muf¬
cular fibre, or *in diminilhing its fufceptibility of being
adted upon by galvanifm, were lefs powerful than the
pitrous gas. Azotic gas wras alfo found to produce ef-
A N I S M. Part I.
feels on frogs fomewhat fimilar. The heart was indeed Eire ft s of
obferved to palpitate after the death of the animal ; Galvanifm
but, in general, the contradlions which were induced °n A“lliia‘s;
by galvanifm were extremely feeble. •
It would lead us too much into detail to mention all
the experiments which were made by this naturaliil.
We fiiall therefore only add a fliort account of the ge¬
neral refults. 23
1. In frogs newly killed, he found, th^t a finglc me-Refults of
tallic condudlor was fufficient to excite convulfive con-ex*
tradlions ; and that in producing thefe motions, it was Ptnmerits-
not found effentially neceffary to apply a coating either
to the mufcle or nerve. Sciffars, in which the fteel ap¬
peared to be of a bad quality, might be fuccefsfully
employed as a condudlor; but gold, filver, copper,
lead, and tin, in general, produced no effedl.
2. The galvanic fluid was found to pafs through glafs
and fealing wax ; but it was neceffary that thefe fub-
ilances flrould have their temperature confiderably in-
creafed.
3. Water, in which the temperature was pretty high,
or when raifed to the boiling point, feemed to prevent
the effedls of galvanifm from faking place, or at lead
diminilhed them greatly.
4. Water, the temperature of wdiich was very much
reduced, feemed alfo to be deprived of the property of
eondudling the galvanic fluid.
5. It was found, that when an individual formed
part of the chain in cafes where the galvanic apparatus
was applied to the prepared feet of rabbits, cats, and
dogs, the latter were unfufceptible of motion.
6. The diaphragm of a dog was immerfed in a veffel
of wrater, and fo placed in the veflel, that the phrenic
nerve, previoufly armed, projedted from it ; and on
touching the coating with a piece of gold or filver coin,
while one of the fingers of the other hand was put into
the water, feeble contradlions were excited in the
mufcle. In fome other experiments on the fame mufcle
of horfes, it was found that no motion could be induced
by means of galvanifm, while the fame power, with the
fame intenfity, conftantly excited contradlions in that of
dogs.
7. A metallic wire, which was entirely covered
with fealing wax, produced no motion in frogs,
which began to be exuaufted when it was employed as
a condudlor. This was Hated by Valli, as a proof that
the galvanic fluid paffes along the' furface of con-
dudtors. , #
8. A ligature on the nerve, when placed near to the
mufcle, or in contadl with it, interrupted or diminifhed
the effedts of galvanifm ; it was found alfo, that a liga¬
ture, applied in the fame way, prevented the effedls of
artificial eledlricity.
9. A ligature was applied, at a fmall diftance from
the mufcle, to the crural nerve of a frog, and another
wTas prepared in the fame way, but without any liga¬
ture ; thefe being fubjedted to experiment, it appeared
that galvaniim produced a more perceptible adlion in the
latter than in the former.
10. Weak fliocks of artificial eledlricity produce mo¬
tion in the mufcles of thai leg only where no ligature
has been applied to the nerve ; but in the other, mufcu¬
lar contradlions can be excited by means of the galva¬
nic apparatus. * From this experiment, it was attempted
to deduce a method of fubjedling the interifity of galva- .
. . — nifm
Part T.
Efleft-- cr riifm to calculation.
G A L V
If, for example, it is found that
Gn \ aniim t]le efpe£vs 0£ artificial eleftricity are confldered as
on Animats. s ^ r r r t J .
. -   amounting to hve, lix, or leven degrees, and this power
is infufficient to excite contraftions, w’hile tliey are pro¬
duced by means of galvanifm, it may be faid that the
latter is five, fix, or feven degrees ilronger than the
former.
ix. Valli did not fucceed in effecting the mufcular
contraction of the heart by means of galvanifm ; nor
did he fucceed in fimilar experiments made on the ito-
mach, inteftines, or bladder, although he armed or ap¬
plied metallic coatings to the nerves of all thefe or¬
gans.
12. To produce contractions in the wing of a fowl,
the nerves of which were coated and previoully fteeped
in oil, very powerful fhocks of artificial eleCtricity were
found requifite ; but the efteCts of the galvanic fluid did
not, by this procels, feem to be at all diminiihed : it
retained its whole energy.
Fontana, in his experiments and inveftigations on
this fubjeCt, found, that he could accelerate the mo¬
tions of the heart, when thefe motions were going on j
and when the motions had ceafed, could bring it’to
produce contraClions, By placing the heart between
two pieces of metal, zinc and antimony, fo that it {hall
be in contaCl with both, and then forming a communi¬
cation by means of a metallic conductor between the
'two metals, its motions are excited, even after it is fe-
parated from the body and cut in pieces. According
to the experiments of Marfigli, part of the heart of a
fowl, placed on a piece of charcoal, and another por¬
tion put on a piece of pafieboard, covered with tinfoil,
gave repeated contradlions, and wras ilrongly con-
vulfed.
by Delame- Delamefherie made a variety of experiments, at a
29
Experi¬
ments by
Fontana,
therie,
31
by Volta.
very early period, on this fubjeff. The following
fome of the general refults of thefe experiments.
1. Fie found that the effects of galvanifm in a pre¬
pared frog were feeble.
2. That it poffeffes the greateft intenfity at the time
when the animal has been juft deprived of life j from
this he infers, that the intenfity of the effedl muft be
greater in the living animal ; from which he thinks it
follow’s, that it is only by means of good conductors
that the galvanic fluid can be conveyed from the nerves
to the mufcles of a frog ; and it is by means of the me¬
tals, which may vary in the degree of their conducing
power, that this communication is eftablifhed,
3. Plumbago and charcoal were found to be inferior
in their conduCling power to metallic fubftances ; but
by their means the galvanic fluid could be conveyed
from the nerves to the mufcles of a frog;.
4. He did not find from his experiments that this ef-
feCf could be produced by forming the communications
by means of animal fubftances ; for when a perfon
touched at the fame time the nerves and mufcles of a
frog which had been laid bare, the fame effeCl did not
follow.
Volta, wdiofe name has been already mentioned as
the inventor and improver of the apparatus by means of
which the galvanic power could be greatly increafed,
was, at the fame time, one of the moft zealous and the
moft indefatigable inquirers into its nature and proper¬
ties. The views which this philofopher entertained
with regard to the nature of this fluid, were different
A N I S M. . 343
from thofe of Galvani. They are diftinguifhed for their Efle&s of
originality, exhibit a train of careful inveftigation, and Galvanifm
have ferved as an excellent foundation on wFich the fu-on Animals;
perftruflure of galvanifm was quickly railed. We fhall v '
therefore give a pretty full detail of the experiments
and reafonings of this philofopher ; and from the im¬
portance of his views, which we have ftated above, it'
will not be lefs acceptable to the reader, if this detail
be. given, as we propofe to do, in his own wmrds. In
this, indeed, fomething of what belongs to the fecond
part of tins treatife, will be unavoidably anticipated ;
but the facrifice of Itricft method to perfpicuity, will,
w-e are perfuaded, be readily admitted as a fufticient
apology for this deviation.
To underftand clearly the peculiar views w’hich Volta
has embraced in the obfervations which we have now
referred to, it will be necefiary to anticipate a little
farther, by {fating, that, according to Galvani, the
fluid which bears his name is a peculiar kind of electri¬
city, which refides in the organs of the animal, and is
eifentially and infeparably connected with them. But,
according to the theory of Volta, the w’hole phenomena
of the galvanic fluid depend entirely on artificial elec¬
tricity, which is excited into aClion, or put in motion,
when conductors of a different nature are brought into
contaCt •, and thefe, he thinks, are to be confidered as
the primary exciters. The motion of this fluid is indu¬
ced in th;:ee different ways, that is, by means of three
conductors at leaft, which are of a different nature, be¬
ing fo arranged as to form the communication or circle. ■
In the firft way, two metals or conductors of the firft
clafs, of a diflimilar nature, are employed. Thefe are
brought direCtly into contaCt - by one of their extremi¬
ties ; but the communication between the other extre¬
mities is eftabliflred by means of moift conductors, or
conductors belonging to the fecond clafs. This fluid is
put in motion in another way, by a fingle metallic con¬
ductor of the firft clafs, placed between two moift con¬
ductors of a diflimilar nature, between the latter of
which a communication is eltabliflied. In the third
way of exciting the aCtion of this fluid, or putting it in
motion, a communication is formed among three con¬
ductors, each of which is of a different nature. To il-
luftrate the variety of aCtion obferved in thefe conduct¬
ing fubftances, the following account of the experiments
of this naturalift, with his views and reafonings, was
communicated by him in letters to Gren.
. “ If a tin bafon, fays he, be filled with foap-fuds,
lime -water, or a ftrong ley, which is ftill better, and
if you then lay hold of the bafon with both your hands,,
having firft moiftened them with pure water, and apply
the tip of your tongue to the fluid in the bafon, you
will immediately be fenfible of an acid tafte upon your
tongue, which is in contaCt with the alkaline liquor.
This tafte is very perceptible, and, for the moment,
pretty ftrong ; but it is changed afterwards into a dif¬
ferent one, lefs acid, but more faline and pungent, until
it at laft becomes alkaline and fliarp in proportion as
the fluid aCts more upon the tongue, and as the aCtivity
of its peculiar tafte and its chemical pow'er, more called
forth., produce a greater effect in regard to the fenfation
of acidity occafioned by the ftream of the eleCtric fluid,
which, by a continued circulation, paffes from the tin
to the alkaline liquor, thence to the tongue, then
through the perfon to the w'ater, and thence to the.
tin -
344 G A L V
jEffe&s of tin again. I explain the phenomenon in this manner,
Galvanifm accordhig to my principles } and indeed it cannot be
on Animals. exp]ajnetj jn any other, as every thing tends to eonfirm
my ailertion, and to prove it in various ways. The
contact of different condu&ors* particularly the metallic,
including pyrites and other minerals as well as charcoal,
which I call dry conductors, or of the firft clafs, with
moift condu£tors, or conductors of the fecond clafs,
agitates or difturbs the eleCtric fluid, or gives it a cer¬
tain impulfe. Do not afk in what manner; it is enough
that it is a principle, and a general principle. This
impulfe, whether produced by attraction or any other
force, is different or unlike, both in regard to the dif¬
ferent metals and to the different moift conductors, fo
that the direction, or at leaft the power with which the
eleCtric fluid is impelled or excited, is different when
the conductor A is applied to the conductor B, and to
another, C. In a perfeCt circle of Conductors, where
either one of the fecond clafs is placed between two
different from each other of the firft clafs, o£, contrari-
wife, one of the firft clafs is placed between two of the
fecond clafs different from each other, an eleCtric ftreatn
is occafioned by the predominating force either to the
right or to the left •, a circulation of this fluid, which
ceafes only when the circle is broken, and which is re¬
newed when the circle is again rendered complete.
This method of connecting the different conductors
will be mote readily comprehended by turning to the
figures, where the capital letters denote the different
Conductors or exciters {moteurs') of the firft clafs, and
the fmall letters thofe of the fecond clafs. Fig. 3. and
4. exprefs the two cafes abovementioned.
“ I confider it as almoft fuperfluous to obferve, that
when the circle confifts merely of two kinds of con¬
ductors, however different or however numerous the
pieces may be of which each cohfifts, two equal powers
are oppofed to each other j that is, the eleCtric fluid
is impelled with "equal force in two different directions,
and confequently no ftream can be formed from right
to left, or, contrariwife, capable of exciting convulfive
movements.
“ There are other cafes, however, and other modes
of combination, where the powers are equally in equi¬
librium, and where no current of the eleCtric fluid can
take place *7 or, at leaft, none of fuch a force as to make
an impreflion on the tendereft nerves, or to excite any
convulfive movement in the belt prepared frog that
may be plated in the circle, notwithftanding the inter¬
vention of two or more different kinds of metals. This
is the cafe when each of thefe metals is placed between
two moift conductors, or of the fecond clafs, and which
are very nearly of the fame kind *, * or when, in a circle
of three pieces, two of them of the fame metal, and one
of a different metal, are fo connected, that the latter is
immediately between the other two.
“ When one of the ends of a piece of metal, which
is a conductor of the firft clafs, is immediately applied
to another of the fame clafs, but, inftead of immediately
touching with the other end, the other piece touches an
intermediate conductor of the fecond clafs, either great
or fmall, either a drop of water, a piece of raw or boiled
flefti, or of fponge not moift, pafte of meal, jelly, foap,
cheefe, or the white of an egg boiled to hardaefs ; in
this new combination, where a conductor of the fecond
clafs is between two of the firft clafs, the powers are no
A N I S M. Part I,
longer oppofed to each other; and this is fufficient to Efftdls 0f
determine an eleCtric ftream. When, therefore, a pre- Gdlvanlfm
pared frog is placed as the conductor of the fecondon A"imaH
clafs, it will always be violently agitated as often as this v—
circle is made complete.
“ It may be readily perceived that the two laft ex¬
periments coincide with thofe announced by M. Hum¬
boldt, where a drop of water, a fmall bit of frelh meat,
or a very thin ftratum of any fluid, performs the whole
wonder. When another drop of water, or any other
aqueous conductor, is applied between the other end of
the firft conduftor and the other correfponding piece,
each piece of metal is infulated, as I {hall exprels it,
between two aqueous conductors} but then the powers
from right to left, and from left to rignt, are again
completely oppofed to each other j confequently the
eleCtric ftream is impeded, and the frog remains without
any movement. It is, therefore, abfolutely neceffary
that two different metals or conductors of the firft clafs,
fhould be in immediate contaCt with each other, on the
one fide, -while with their oppofite ends they touch con¬
ductors of the fecond clafs.
•“ We might confider this mutual contaCt of two
different metals as the immediate caufe which puts the
eleCtric fluid in motion, inftead of aferibing that power
to the contaCt of the two metals with the moift con¬
ductors. Thus, for example, in fig. 3. inftead of ad¬
mitting twro different aCtions, at leaft, in regard to the
magnitude of the powrer, one where B comes in contaCt
with a, and another where A comes in contaCt with a
alfo, by which an eleCtric current arifes in the direction
from A to B, we might fuppofe only one aCtion at the
point where B comes in contact with A, which impels
the fluid in that direction. In both fuppofitions the
refult, as may eafily be feen, is the fame. But though
I hifcve reafons for adopting the firft as true rather than
the fecond, yet the latter reprefents the propofition wdth
more fimplicity, and it may be convenient to adhere to
it in the explanation, as it affords a readier view of it.
We may then fay, that in the cafes above ftated, no
effeCt will be produced, becaufe here there is no mutual
contaCt of different metals \ the effeCt alfo will be null,
when a conductor of the firft clafs, on two oppofite
fides, is in contaCt with two others of the fame clafs j
for the aCtions therefore are in equilibrium •, and, laftly,
that an eleCtric current will be occafioned by the aCtion
which arifes from the contaCt of conductors of the firft
clafs, and which is counteracted by no other contact of
the like kind*
“ Having feen the refult of employing three pieces
of metal, or conductors of the firft clafs, viz. two of
one kind and one of a different, when combined
fometimes in one way and fometimes in another, with
conductors of the fecond clafs, we fhall now try what
will be the refult, according to my principles, with
four pieces of metal, twTo of wdiich are of one kind,
for example, zinc, when connected with moift con¬
ductors of different kinds.
“ I fhall firft obferve, that when they are connected
in a circle, the powers which endeavour to put the .
eleCtric fluid in a ftreaming movement, will be op¬
pofed to each other, and in perfeCt equilibrium, and
that confequently no movement can take place in the
frog, here fuppofed to be the moift conduCtor a, or a
part of it, however irritable and well prepared it may
be 3
Part I. G A L V A N I S M. 345
Effedls of be j and if tbe experiment be made with accuracy and the
Galvanifm neceffary precaution, fo that the metals, in particular, be
®n very clean and dry at the points of contadf, it will per-
v ~ feitly confirm what I have above faid; the frog will ex¬
perience no agitation, no convulfive movement.
“ Thefe movements, on the other hand, took place,
as might be forefeen from my principles, as often as
I omitted one of the middle pieces, or changed the
order.
“ The conductors of the fecond clafs, which, in all
the figures, are denoted by fmall letters, may be cups
with water, in which the ends of the pieces of metal
denoted by the large letters arc immeried •, or fponges
or other bodies winch have imbibed aqueous moiliure.
They may be either large or fmall, and may conlifi: of
one or more pieces, provided they be in proper contadfg
they may alfo be perfons, if their Ikin be moiftened at
the places of contact, &c. By the laft method the ex¬
periments will be very beautiful and inceflant, when the
circle confifts of three or more perfons (I have formed
it frequently of ten, and even more), of two or more
frogs properly prepared, and of four pieces of metal, twro
of lilver and two of iron, tin, and particularly zinc.
The change of effe61, when you change the connection,
is linking.
“ Let the pofition be as reprefented in fig. 14, w’here
g is the prepared frog, winch the two perfons /),/>, hold
in their hands, one on the one fide by the feet, and the
other on the oppofite by the rump. Z, Z, are twm plates
of zinc, which are held alfo by thele perfons, and A, A
two pieces of filver, wLich are held by a third perfon, de¬
noted alfo by />. It muft not be forgotten that the hands
ihould be very moilt, as the dry Ikin is not a conductor
fufficiently ftrong. As in this chain the actions of the
eleblric exciters are oppofed to each other, and in exa£t
equilibrium, as may be readily perceived, no convullion
or agitation in the frog will take place.
“ Now, let one of the metallic pieces A, Z, w’hich
Hand between the two perfons />,/>, or between any
' other moift conduftors, be left in combination as it is j
and let the pofition of the two other metallic pieces
A, Z, be reverfed, by converting fig. 1 4. into fig. 15.
(fo that the a&ions, inftead of being contrary, will aft
together to impel the eleftric fluid to one fide or to
produce the fame current) ; or introduce between A
and Z another perfon, or any other conduftor of the
iecond clafs, fo that the chain be formed as in fig. 16.5
or take away one of the pieces A, Z, in fig. 14. and
make-the chain like thofe of fig. 17. and 19.; or, in
the laft place, remove the whole two pieces A, Z, either
in the one or the other fide, as reprefented fig. 19. (by
which means it wall correfpond with fig. 17. as tbe
whole chain p,g,/>,/>, may be conlidered as a Angle
moift conduftor of the fecond clafs.) In all thefe
combinations, which are reprefented by fig. 15. 16. 17.
18. and 19. the aftions arifing from the metallic con-
tafts are no longer contrary to each other, or in equi¬
librium, as they were in fig. t 4.; confequently an
eleftric ftream is produced, and the^ frog g, which I
fuppofe to be properly prepared, and which forms a part
of the chain, will be violently agitated as often as the
circle, when broken at any one place, particularly be¬
tween metal and metal, is again reftored.
“ In regard to the experiment \vhere a moift con¬
duftor, or one of the fecond clafs, is to be introduced
i Vol. IX. Part I.
between the two pieces A, Z (fig. t6-) that is, between EfwdL ot
two different metals, a drop of water, or a fmall bit of^^^l™
rnoiftened fponge, or a thin ftratum of any fluid, foap, ■, . A
or any other vifcous matter, will be quite (uflicient, as
has been already obferved. This furprifing experi¬
ment I generally make in fuch a manner, that, inftead
of the piece of the metal, I employ a cup or fpoon
filled with water, and then caufe the perfon who holds
the perfeftly dry and pure Hick of tin, to touch with
that ftick fometimes the perfeftly dry iides of the fpoon
or cun, and fometimes the water contained in them.
It is wonderful to fee, that, as by the latter method,
the violent agitation of the frog never ceafes, the firft
method, which correfponds with fig. 14. does not pro¬
duce the leaft irritation j unlefs by accident there be a
fmall drop of water, or a thin ftratum of moifture, at
the place of contaft, by which the cafe reprefented fig.
i 6. would be reftored. This may ferve to fliew with
what care and attention the experiment muft be made,
in order to guard againft error cr deception, which
might fo eafily arife, and every where exhibit ano¬
malies.
“ When I introduce water or any other moift body,
great or fmall, not merely between one pair of metallic
pieces, A, Z, as fig. 16. but between two pairs, as re¬
prefented fig. 20. each piece of metal is between like
moift conduftors, and by thefe means all the aftions
are again rendered contrary, or brought into equili¬
brium ; or, according to the other mode of viewing
the matter, there is no longer any aft ion, for want of
the mutual contaft of two different metals, which, as
we have feen, is certainly neceffary to excite an eleftric
current; and it is always found that the frog experi¬
ences no agitation.
“ I fhall not enlarge farther on thefe combinations,
which may be varied ad infinitum with a greater number
of metallic pieces, and by which one may be enabled
to foretel the phenomena which, according to my prin¬
ciples, will always be found to take place. It wall be
fufficient, for the prefent, to draw this conclufion, that
in a circle confifting merely of two conduftors, how¬
ever different they may be, their mutual contaft can
produce no eleftric ftream fufficient to excite fenfibility,
or mufcular movement; and that, on the contrary,
this effeft infallibly follows as often as the chain is
formed of three conduftors, one of one clafs, and two
different from each other of another clafs, which come
into mutual contaft with each other, and that this effeft
will be ftronger, the greater the difference is between
the latter; that in other cafes, where there are more
than three different conduftors, the effeft either is not
produced, or will be produced in different degrees, ac¬
cording as the forces called forth by the different com¬
binations, which will be expanded at each heterogeneous
contaft, and which are often in oppofition, and endea¬
vour to impel the eleftric fluid in oppofite direftions,
are perfeftly in equilibrium with each other (which
muft be a very rare cafe), or when the fum of thofe
which exert themfelves in one direftion is more or lefs
exceeded by the fum of thofe which aft in another di¬
reftion.
“ 1 fhall here, however, leave the two complex
combinations, and return to the Ample cafes, thofe with
three different conduftors, reprefented by fig. 3. which
are more demonftrative j or, in other words, thofe with
X x two
^6 v G A L V A N I S M. Parti.
Effects of two different metals ot Conciliators of the firfl: clafs,
Animal are contact with each other, and are applied
' 'on the other iide to moift conduftors, or conductors of
the fecond clafs. This method has been commonly
employed finee Galvani’s difeovery, and is in exaCl
proportion with the diverlity of metals, on which I con-
iider the whole phenomena to depend.
“ Tlie other method of combination, which is ex-
preffed by fig. 4. or that of a metal placed between two
different moift conductors, for example, between water
on the one fide, and an aqueous, faponaceous, or faline
fluid on the other, I difeovered in the autumn of 1794;
and though fince that period I have repeated the much
varied experiments of different perfons, both foreigners
and others, among which was that of Humboldt, and
though I wrote to feveral correfpondents refpeCting it,
that light has not yet been thrown on this new pheno¬
menon which it feems to deferve.
“ The lingular circumftance before mentioned, in
regard to the acid tafte when the tongue is brought
into contaCf with an alkaline liquid, belongs, as you
may perceive, to this fecond method of exciting the
eleftric fluid, and putting it in circulation (if the tin
vefiel be touched on the outfide by the hand moiftened
with water, and on the infide by the alkaline liquor),
and fhews that this current is no lefs ftrong and aCtive
than that excited by the firft method, viz. by em¬
ploying two fufficiently well-chofen metals, fuch as
lead and copper, iron and filver, zinc and tin. I
muff here obferve, that though with tin alone, placed
between water and an alkaline liquor, you obtain
nearly the effeCf which is produced by two of the
moft different metals, as filver and zinc, combined
with any conduftor whatever of the fecond clafs ; you
can obtain the fame, and even in a higher degree,
with iron alone or filver alone, w’hen the iron is in¬
troduced between water on the one fide and nitrous
acid on the other, or when the filver is applied be¬
tween water and a folution of fulpllur of pot-afli.
“ If you take a frog, the head of which has been
cut off, and which has been deprived of all life by
thrufting a needle into the fpinal marrow, and immerfe
it, without Ikinning it, taking out the bowels, or any
other preparation, into two glaffes of water, the rump
into one, and the leg into the other as ufual, it will
he ftrongly agitated and violently convulfed when you
conneft the water in both glaffes by a bow formed
of two very different metals, fuch as filver and tin or
lead, or, what is better, filver and zinc 5 but this will
by no means be the cafe when the two metals are lefs
different in regard to their powers, fuch as gold and
filver, filver and copper, copper and iron, tin and lead.
But what is more, the effedt will be fully produced
on this iO little prepared frog when you immerle in
one of the two glaffes the end of a bow merely of tin
or zinc, and into the other glafs the other end of this
bow, which has been rubbed over with a little alkali.
You may perform the experiment ftill better with an
iron how, one end of which has beeen covered with
a drop or thin coating of nitrous acid ; and beyond all
expectation, when you take a filver bow having a little
fulpbur of potafli adhering to the end of it.
“ Fig. 21. reprefents the form of this experiment,
where g is the frog, a, a, the two gbffes with water,
A the how formed of one fingle metal, and m the drop
or a thin ftratum of a mucous, faline, &c. fluid, with Eflfedb of
which the bow has been rubbed over, and which on ^alvamlrn
this fide is between the metal and the water. on - niina.^,
“ The very confiderable difference in regard to the
quantity of effedb in the before-mentioned experiments
already fhews, that if the elediric ftream excited by
contadl is ftrongeft towards a certain metal, when that
metal is placed between a certain fluid on the one fide,
and another fluid on the other, there are other fluids
which produce a greater effedf with another kind of
metal 5 fo that it will be neceffary to difco-#cr by expe¬
riment the particular arrangement of contiudtors fuited
to each metal, in which the fluids or conductors of the
fecond clafs muft be difpofed according to their adti-
vity. I have paid great attention to this circumftance,
and have formed feveral tables, which I fhall puhlilh as
fcon as I have brought them to perfediion.
“ I fhall here, however, only obferve, that in order
to clafs, in fome manner, the innumerable different
moift condudlors of this kind, I diftinguith them into
aqueous, fpirituous, mucous, and gelatinous, faccharine,
faponaceous, faline, acid, alkaline, and fulphurous (livers
of fulphur) liquids; that I make fubdivifions in the acids
down to the heft known Ample mineral acids, (as I find
in this refpedl great difference between the nitrous and
the_ muriatic acids,) comprehending the principal vege¬
table acids and the acid of galls ; and do the fame in
regard to the faline fluids, according as they are folu-
tions of neutral falts, earthy falts, and particularly me¬
tallic falts.
“ When it can be determined in what order all thefe
kinds of fluids follow each other, in regard to the
power in queftion, for the metal A, and another for
the metal B, &c. we fhall then be in a condition to
determine what place muft be afligned to a great num¬
ber of other heterogeneous fluids, whether mineral, ve¬
getable, or animal, which belong to feveral of the
above dalles. In general, the order for the greater
part of the metals hitherto obferved is as follow7s : ill,
pure water; 2d, water mixed with clay or chalk (which
fhews a pretty different eft eel when the before-mention¬
ed experiment is made with two glaffes, a bow of t:n
or zinc, and a properly prepared frog, which has a
fufficient degree of vitality) ; 3d, a folution of fugar ;
4th, alcohol; ^th, milk; 6th, mucilaginous fluids;
7th, animal gelatinous fluids; 8th, wine; 9th, vinegar,
and other vegetable juices and acids; 10th, faliva;
I ith, mucus of the nofe ; 1 2th, blood ; 13th, brains;
14th, folution of fait; 15th, foap-fuds ; 16th, chalk-
water ; 17th, concentrated mineral acids; I 8th, ftrong
alkaline leys; 19th, alkaline fluids; 2Cth, livers of ful¬
phur. With fome metals there is, however, a confi¬
derable deviation from this order, in regard to livers,
of fulphur, alkaline fluids, and the nitrous and faline
acids.
“ As to the metals, which in their pofition between
thefe different fluids are more or lefs proper for the
ele&ric effedl in queftion, I have found in general,
that tin exceeds all others, and that filver is the worft ;
except when one of the fluids betwixt which the filver
is placed is water, or any other aqueous conduftor,
and the other liver of fulphur: in this cafe filver far
exceeds zinc, and even tin. Iron alfo produces a much
greater efleft than any other metal, when it is in con-
taft, on the one fide, with mere water or an aqueous
conduftor,
Fart I. G ‘ A L V
Effects ot condus^or, and on tlie other with the nitrous acid,
on Animals ?vere ^ even on^y a drop. The excitement occafioned
in both cafes is wonderful 5 lince it exceeds, as I have
already remarked, that produced, according to the
ufual method, by means of a double metallic bow, even
of different metals, as zinc and filver, applied to con-
dudlors of the fecond clafs of the fame kind. It is fuf-
ficiently ftrong and powerful to produce convulfive
movements in a half-prepared frog, the bowels of which
have not been taken out, when one of the two moift
condudlors is a concentrated alkaline folution, and the
metal placed between them is zinc, or rather tin.
With other metals and other fluids you can feldom pro¬
duce convulfions in a frog, if it be not perfeftly prepa¬
red, or at leaf! embowelled.
“ The reader will readily perceive, that when a bow
of one and the fame metal touches with both its ends
the fame kind of faline water, the fame acid, the fame
alkaline fluid, &c. an eledtric ftream will' not take
place, as happens alfo when it touches on each fide
merely water : in that cafe two oppofite adlions are op-
pofed to each other, and keep each other in equili¬
brium. That thefe contrary powers, however, may be
in perfedl equilibrium, it is neceflary that the fluids ap¬
plied to both ends of the homogeneous metalline bow
be exadlly of the fame kind and of the fame ftrength.
For this reafon the moft careful attention and a certain
dexterity are required, in order to enfure fuccefs to the
experiment, which I have often performed to the great
aftonifhment of the fpedlators, and which any one may
repeat as was done by my friend Humboldt. That
philofopher has already publifhed fome of the moft
ftriking and decifive of thefe experiments in his fecond
letter ; and I lhall here give a more particular account
of them.
“ Having placed a completely or only half-prepared
frog as ufual in two glafles of water, take a very clean
Low of filver (it wdll be belt when it has been waflied
with rvater from the glafles), and immerfe both ends of
it at once, or the one after the other, in the glafles j no
agitation of the frog will be occafioned. Repeat the
experiment, after you have daubed over one end of the
bow wdth the white of an egg, liquid glue, faliva, mu¬
cus, blood, a folution of tartar, or any other fluid or
conduding fubftance fufficiently diflerent from pure
water. Firft, immerfe the pure end, or that moiftened
merely with water, in the water of one of the glafles;
and afterwards the other end, daubed over with the
above fubflances, in the water of the other glafs 5 you
will then infallibly produce convulfive movement in
the frog, and feveral times in fucceflion, if you draw
out the bow and again immerfe it until nothing more
of the above fubflances is left adhering to the metal,
or until the metal, with its ends in both the glafles,
touches only pure, or nearly pure, water. Daub both
the above fubftances uniformly over both ends of the
bow, and immerfe them at the fame time in both the
glafles of water, and no convulfions will arife. They
will often be produced in newly prepared and highly
irritable frogs, when the faline fluid, or in general, the
fubflance with which the two ends of the bow are
daubed over, is not perfedly the fame, or when the
iubftance at the one end is more diluted than at the
other, &c. Wafh and clean carefully the one end of
the bow, daub over the other more or lefs, and convul-
A N I S JVL 34)
fions will be again produced as foon as the circle is made LffVfts of
complete by the double immerfion of the bow. Clean Galv.nirn
both ends completely, and no agitation will arife, as in°n AmmaK
the firfl experiment.
“ For comparative experiments of this kind, I would
recommend vifeous fluids or fubftances rather than falinc,
becaufe the latter are too foon diffolved in the water.
It oft-times happens that the convulfions of the froiq
when it is completely prepared and highly irritable,
take place, though both ends of the. metallic bow are
daubed over with the fame kind of faline fluid. The
caufe of this is, that when one end is immerfed in the
water after the other (and it may be eafiiy feen that it
is impoftible to do fo in a moment with fufticient ac¬
curacy), the one end of the bow lofes a portion of its
ialine lubftance fooner than the other, or at leaft the
adhering part is more diluted by the water, fo that the
fluid with which both ends have been daubed over is
no longer the fame.
“ For thefe experiments I would alfo recommend fil¬
ver, as a metal that is lefs liable than others to be at¬
tacked and changed by faline and other liquids. Tin,
lead, copper, and in particular iron, are more fufeepti-
ble of lafting variations; fo that bows of thefe metals,
and of iron above all, retain for a long time the power
of producing convulfions in a newly prepared and high¬
ly irritable frog, even when both the ends of the bow
are immerfed in two glafles of water, although the
places of the metal, attacked by any of the faline fluids,
have been carefully walhed and cleaned. A fuperfi-
cial alteration in the metal is fufficient to produce this
change, as may be eafiiy feen. Thefe variations often
fliew themfelves to the eye by a yellow blackifh fpot,
&c. which it is difficult to remove. I do not here
fpeak of lading variations, that proceed to a greater
depth, which can be produced in the end of the metal¬
lic bow, and particularly in iron, when its hardnefs is
changed 5 a procefs by which fuch a bow can be ren¬
dered capable of producing not only convulfions in
frogs, but alfo a particular lenfation on the tongue, and
light before the eyes, if both its ends, made perfedlly
clean, are only brought into contadf with pure water.
Thefe, and many other experiments of the like kind,
form the chief fubjedl of my firft letter to the abbe
Vafialli, profeflbr of natural philofophy at Turin, writ¬
ten in the beginning of the year 1794, and afterwards
publiflied with the other in Brugnatelli’s Journal.
“If filver be lefs expofed to be attacked by faline
and other fluids (except by liver of fulphur, which in-
ftantaneoufly renders it black) ; if it be lefs fufceptible
of confiderable and lafting variations, and has therefore
this advantage over other metals, that it is liable to
fewer irregularities; tin, on account of its greater ac¬
tivity, that is, the ftrength of the effefts which it pro¬
duces by being brought into contaift with almolt all
moift conduftors, as 1 have already obferved, is to be
preferred to filver, and in a certain degree to all other
metals. The experiment I have already deferibed with
a tin bafon filled with an alkaline fluid, and held in the
hands moiftened with water, by which an acid fenfa-
tion is excited on the tongue when brought into con-
tatft with the above fluid, is a proof of it; for it would
be vain to expeft a like eftedl from a bafon of lead,
iron, or copper, and much more fo from one of filver.
With the latter it would be obtained only when it con-
X x 2 tained
3+8
GALVANISM.
Lfte<£ls of
Git; .r ifm
on Animals
tained liquid liver or fulpliur j and in that cafe die acid
tafte would be pretty ftrong.
“ The eledric fluid is excited alfo with the greatcft
ftrength and aclivity, when the metal is tin, between
water and a faline fluid : but it will be excited with
full greater energy to produce an acid fenfation on the
tongue when the tin is between water and an infipid
mucilaginous fluid 3 or when the experiment is made with
a tin bafon filled with a folution ot gum, liquid glue,
white of an egg, &c. The other metals, in like cir-
cumflances, produce feme effecl, but much weaker :
filler produces the weakeft, except with liver or ful-
phur, as I have already obferved.
“ A like experiment, which I made three years ago,
and exhibited to various perfons, not with two dilrerent
fluids and one metal, as in that above deferibed, but
contrariwife, with two metals of a different kind and a
fluid, is already known. I took a bafon of tin (one of
zinc is better), placed it on a iilver Hand, and filled it
with water. When any of the perfons in company ap¬
plied the tip of his tongue to the water, he found it
perfectly taftelefs as long as he did not touch the hlver
Hand but as foon as he laid hold ol the Hand, and
grafped it in his hands well moiflened, he experienced
on the tongue a very perceptible and pretty flrong acid
tafte. This experiment will fucceed, though the effect
is proportionably weaker, with a chain of feverai per¬
fons who hold each other’s hands, after they have been
moiftened with water, while the firft applies the tip of
his tongue to the water in the bafon, and the lad lays
hold with his hands of the filver Hand.
“ If thefe experiments, in regard to the tafte excited
on the tongue by the action of two different metals, are
flriking, the others, in regard to the tafte excited, mo¬
dified and changed by one metal between two different
fluids, are no lefs fo, and they are alfo newer. They
are ftill interefting on this account, that they difeover
to us the caufe of that tafte often perceived in water
and other liquids, which is more or lefs confiderable or
various when drunk from veflels of metal, and particu¬
larly of tin. When the outer extremity of the veffel
is applied to the under lip, rendered moift by the fali-
va, and the tongue is extended fo as to be in contact
with the water, beer, wane, &c. in the veffel, or when
the tongue is bent as is done in drinking, is there not
then a complete circle, and is not the metal between
two more or lefs different liquids, that is, between the
faliva of the under lip and the liquor in the cup or vef¬
fel ? A ftronger or weaker eleftric ftream muft thereby
be occafioned, according as the fluids arc different—a
ftream which will not fail in its way to affeft the fenli-
ble organs of the tongue in the faid circle.
“ Befides the two methods already confidered, of
producing an ele&ric current, that is, by means of one
or more moift conduCfors, or conduftors of the fecond
clafs, placed between two different metals or conduftors
of the firft clafs j or contrariwife by means of a con-
duftor of the firft clafs placed between two of the fe¬
cond clafs, alfo different •, there is ftill a third method
of exciting the eleflric fluid, though in a degree fo
much weaker, that it is fcarcely capable of caufing con-
vullions in a perfeftly prepared frog, in which there is
ftill a ftrong degree of vitality. This new method
confifts in forming the circle of three different conduc¬
tors, all of the fecond clafs, without the intervention
Part I.
of one of the firft or a metal one; Some think they Effedb of
find in this method a ftrong objeftion againft my prin-^^™^.
ciple. . —y—s
Fig. 22. reprefents this third method compared with
the other two. In the experiments of Profeffor Valli,
refpefting which fo much noife has been made without
any reafon, t reprefents the leg of the frog, and parti¬
cularly the hard tendinous part of the mufcuhis gojlroc-
nemius ; vi the rump, or the mufcles of the back, or the
ifebiatic nerves, to which the faid tendinous parts are
applied 5 and a the blood, or the vifeous faponaceous
or faline fluid, applied to the point of contadl.
“ I have fully deferibed this new method, where no
metal is ufed, in my third and fourth letter to Profeffor
Vaffali, written in the autumn and winter of the year
1795. I have there (hewn, that thefe new fails, far
from altering my ideas and principles, ferve rather to
eftablilh them •, and that they render more general the
principle that the conductors, by heterogeneous contail,
that is, of two different from each other, become ex¬
citers of electricity, and confirm the beautiful law ari-
fing from it, that to produce an eleCtric ftream, the
circle muft neceffarily be formed of three different con-
duftors. You now fee in what the whole fecret, the
whole magic conlifts \ and that it depends not merely
on metals, as might have been believed, but on all the
different conductors. As long as we adhere to thete
principles, it will be eafy to explain all the before-men¬
tioned experiments without being reduced to the necei-
fity of having recourfe to any imaginary principle, or
any peculiar and aCtive eleCiricity of the organs. By
their afllftance you will be enabled to invent new ex¬
periments, and to foretell the refult of tnem, as I har e
feverai times done, and ftill do daily. It you, however,
abandon thefe principles, you will find nothing but un¬
certainty and contradiction, and the whole will be an
inexplicable problem.
44 Some new faCts, be obferves in a farther communica¬
tion, lately difeovered, feem to fhew' that the immediate
caufe which excites the electric fluid, and puts it in motion,
whether it be an attractive or a repulflve power, is to be
aferibed much rather to the mutual contaCt of two dif¬
ferent metals, then to their contaCt with moift conauc-
tors. But, though it cannot be denied, that in the lat¬
ter cafe there exifts an aCtion, it is proved that it exerts
itfelf in a far more confiderable degree when the two
metals mutually touch each other. I here arifes by^the
mutual contaCl, for example, of filver arid tin, an acrion
or power by which the former communicates the elec¬
tric fluid, and the latter receives it*, or the filver fuf-
fers it to efcape, and the tin attraCls it. his produ¬
ces, when the circle is rendered complete by rnoift con-
duffors, a ftream, or continual circulation of the fluid.
When the circle is complete, there is an accumulation
in the tin at the expence of the filver ; wdiich indeed is
very fmall, and far under the point neceuary to ename
it to announce itfelf by the moft delicate elecliometer.
I have however been able, by the affiftance of my con-
deofer, conftrudted on a new plan, and ftill bettei by
Nicholson’s doubler, to render it very perceptible ; I
fhall here communicate the refult obtained^ by my
experiments, which I made fome time ago with great
fatisfadlion.
44 Experiment I. The three plates of the doubler a.e
of brafs, I took two ftrong wires, one of filver and
the
GAL YANIS
Fart I.
Effedh of the other of tin, and brought the former into contaft
Galvanifm m0veable plates, and the other with one of
orAti'.mal-.^e gxe(j plates; while they both reftcd on the table,
or, what is better, on moift pafteboard, or any other
moitl conductor, fo as to be in communication by the
intervention of one or more conduftors of the fecond
clafs. I fuffered the apparatus to remain feme hours in
this ft ate, then removed the two wires, and put the ma¬
chine in motion. After 20, 30, or 40 revolutions (or
more when the atmofphere was not dry, or the infula-
tion imperfedft), I brought one of my ftraw eleffrome-
ters into contaft with the moveable plate, and obferved
indications of pofitive electricity (-fE), which arofe to
4, 6, 10 degrees, and more. If I fuffered it to touch
the fixed plates, I had the correfponding indications of
the oppoftte kind of electricity (—E).
“ The filver, therefore, poured the elaft .c fluid into
the brafs plate, when it had been feme time in contact
with it; and the tin -attracted it from the other plate,
which was alfo of brafs, while in contaCt with it. 1 his
was confirmed by the following experiment, which is a
real experimentum cruets.
“ II. I reverfed the experiment, fo that the ftlver was
in contaCt with one of the fixed plates, and the tin with
the moveable one. The eleCtricity which I obtained
from the latter, after the apparatus had remained a fuf-
ficient time in that pofition, was negative (—E) ; while
that of the fixed plate was pofitive ( +E).
“ III. I applied only the tin wire to the moveable
plate, and infulated the two fixed ones, or brought
them into communication with the table or any other
moift conduCIors with which the tin wire wras in contaCt.
This fimple contaCt of the tin with the brafs of which
the moveable plate confifts, is fufficient to excite in it a
very fmall degree of negative eleCtricity ; only a longer
time is required.
“ Thofe acquainted with the aCtiqn of eleCtric at-
mofpheres, and the conftruCtion of the doubler, will
need no farther explanation, to enable them to com¬
prehend the mode of aCtion of this very ingenious in-
ftrument; how the eleCtricity, once obtained from the
moveable plate, mult occafion an oppohte kind in the fix¬
ed plate, and vice verfa; how the oppofite kinds of
eleCtricity are increafed by each revolution of the ma¬
chine, &"c. In the prefent experiment, therefore, when
the moveable plate is — E, the fixed plate muft be
+ E-
“ IV. This is the reverfe of the former. 1 he piece
of tin was applied to one of the fixed plates, and the
metallic one was infulated from all metallic contaCt.
The refult was now reverfed ; that is, the fixed plates
were eleCtrified negatively, and the moveable one had
pofitive eleCtricity.
“ All thefe experiments fucceed much better, and
in a fliorter time, if, during the mutual contaCt of the
different metals, the moveable plate be oppofite to ei¬
ther of the other two that are fixed; but ftill better
when a piece of thick paper, fuch as a card, not moift,
and of a thicknefs equal to the intermediate fpace, is
placed between the two plates that ftand oppofite to
each other. It is of advantage to leave the card fome
time in its place, and not to remove it till the moment
when the metals in contaCt are removed and the ma¬
chine put. in motion. To render the infulation com-
M. ‘ 349
plete, and make the contaCt of the metals immedi- Effects of
ate, without the leaf! moifture, v;hich would be high-^
would be
ly prejudicial, it will be proper to place the appara¬
tus in the fun. Half an hour, and often lefs, will
then be fufficient to obtain the required eleCtrici¬
ty, &c.; whereas, in other cafes, leveral hours are
neceffary before the delired relult can be obtained.
This experiment is reprefented in fig. 23. 24. 25. and
26. LLL (fig. 22. and 23.) are the three brafs plates
of the doubler; A the piece of filver which is in
contaCt with one of thefe plates; E the piece of tin
applied to the other plate, which is oppofite to the for¬
mer ; a <2, the moift conductor, or chain of moift con¬
ductors which form a communication with the pieces
of metal. When the filver, as in fig. 23. is in contaCt
with the anterior moveable plate, it gives up to it a
little of the eleCtric fluid, and the latter accumulates
as much of it as poffible ; confequently the eleCtricity
of the plate becomes pofitive, as the fign -j- of the
plate Ihews : whereas the tin attraCts the eleCtric fluid
from the correfponding fixed plate, which by thele
means has negative eleCtricity, as the fign (—) of the;
plate indicates ; and it even communicates this elec¬
tricity to the other fixed plate, which therefore has-
the fign (—) alfo.
“ In fig. 24. every thing is reverfed : the moveable
plate is negatively eleCIrified (—E), while the two fixed
plates become pofitive ( -{- E).
“ Laftly, in the 23th and 26th figure, it is feen that
the tin abftraCts the eleClric fluid from the brafs plate
with which it is in contaCE This plate is therefore ne¬
gatively eleCtrified, or has — E ; and by the aCtion of
its atmofphere occafions pofitive eleCtricity ( + E) in
the other plate ftanding oppofite, which is in communi¬
cation, either with the third plate, as fig. 25, or, what
is ftill better, with other conductors, as fig. 26. Theie
oppofite eleCtricities increafe afterwards with each re¬
volution of the machine ; the aCtion of which, accord¬
ing to the theory of eleCtric atmofpheres, produces this
effeCt to the degree mentioned, and juftifies the appella¬
tion of doubler of eleCtricity, which has been given to
this inftrument.
“ I now come to the experiments, which fhew that
we are to feek for the caufe which calls forth the aCtion
of the eleCtric fluid ; which excites it, of whatever kind
it be ; determines its tranution, &c. much rather in the
mutual contaCt of the metals, than in the contaCt of the
moift conductors with thefe metals. Though, according
to every circumftance, we muft admit fome aCtion of
this kind in the latter contaCt, it cannot be denied that
the former is certainly the moft effeCtual. At prefent
I ftiall only mention the two following experiments, which
I contrived in fuch a manner that they may ferve to
explain a queftion of this kind,
“ V. I left the two fixed plates of brafs without
making any alteration ; took oft' the third moveable
plate, and fupplied its place by one of tin ; and arran •
ged the machine in fuch a manner, that the latter flood
oppofite to one of the other two plates. I then ap¬
plied to this tin plate a bit of brafs, and to the oppolite
fixed plate of brafs a piece of tin. After a convenient
time, (for example an hour, when the weather was per-
feftly dry), I took away the two pieces of metal, or
only that of brafs, and made the moveable plate of tin,
which.
Galvanifm
Animals.
G A L V A N I S M. Part I
Effeds of wliIcK was in contact vsitli tlie piece of brafs, to revolve
Galvaniim about times. It then gave me very perceptible
Q-i Anim^. marjis 0f p0fltive eleflricity.
“ VI. I reverfed the former experiment, and made
the piece of brafs touch the brafs plate, and the piece
of tin the plate of the fame metal. I, however, obtain¬
ed nothing, or almofl nothing ; even when the appara¬
tus was left a much longer time in that fituation, and
when the machine had made twice or three times as ma¬
ny revolutions.
“ Thefe two experiments are reprefented by fig. 27.
and 28. ; where L is the piece of brals, E that of tin,
and a a the moiit conductors which conned the two dif¬
ferent pieces of metal.
“ In the arrangement of fig. 28. the fame contaCl of
different metals, viz. brafs on the one fide, and tin on
the other, with the fame kind of moift conductor, takes
place, as well as in the preceding experiment of fig. 27.
The addition of the eleCtric fluid in the one, and the
abftraCtion of it in the other, ought therefore equally to
take place, though in an inverted order, when the
aCIion on the fluid calls forth the moving power, by this
contaCt of the two metals L, E, w ith the moill con¬
ductor between them ; and yet this is not the cafe, as
no ligns of eleCtricity are obtained even after a long
time, and when the machine has been caufed to make
twice or three times as many revolutions. The condi¬
tion efientially neceffary to obtain electricity is, that the
different metals muft be in contaCt with each other, which
is the cafe in fig. 27. but not in fig. 28.
“ When the machine has been repeatedly turned,
fomething may be obtained. This arifes either from
fmall remains of old eleCtricity, wdiich could not be
.deftroyed or diffipated in the time during which the ar¬
rangement of fig. 26. was continued j or even from frefh
eleCtricity, which the moveable plate may have obtain¬
ed from the atmofphere or vapours during the pretty
confiderable time of the machine being in a ftate of re¬
volution ; or fome accidental difference, either between
the two tin or the two brafs pieces, may be the caufe of
fome aCtion on the electric fluid, or of fome derange¬
ment in regard to the equilibrium. In the laft place,
the contaCt of the moift conductor wdth the tin on the
one fide, or with the brafs on the other, may have a
different aCtion, which, in my opinion, muft be very
fmall, but yet is not entirely without effeCt.
“ As it is now proved that, according to the arrange¬
ment of the fixth experiment, nothing, or almoft no¬
thing, is obtained by 40, 60, and even 80 revolutions
of the doubler, wTile a great deal is obtained by that
of the fifth wdth 20 or 30, we muft therefore conclude
that the contaCl of tw7o metals of a different kind wdth
moift conductors, without the mutual contaCt of thefe
metals themfelves (wdiich is wanting in the fixth experi¬
ment, where brafs is in contaCt with brafs, and tin wdth
tin), produces nothing, or almoft nothing •, and that,
on the contrary, the mutual contaCt of the two metals
* Phil. a different kind, w'hich takes place in the fifth ex-
ilfagr.vi. 59,periment, produces the whole, or almoft the whole,
163,306. effeCt.”*
3.z j)r Eowler inftituted an elaborate feries of experiments
merits of on fiibjeCt, in which he confirmed and extended
-Fowler. many of the refults which had been already obtained in
the experiments and inveftigations of other naturalifts.
He found that metallic fubftances were the beft agents
I
or conductors, and be concluded that the contact of Effects of
tw'o diilimilar metals is an effential condition in the pro- Galvanilm
duCtion of the phenomena of galvanifm. It did notoa _pn f" 1
indeed efcape his obfervation, that in fome cafes a
fingle metal produced mufcular contraction, but this he
aferibed to mechanical ftimulus, wdrich excited a painful
fenfation in the animal, not quite dead, or to the im¬
purity of the metal, containing fome portion of alloy,
or folder. Future obfervation, howTever, proved, that
thefe motions could be produced without any metal
whatever. He found that the moft powerful effects
were produced by employing zinc, in combination with
gold or filver. By means of thefe metals he produced
contractions twenty-four hours after they had ceafed.
In the experiment by which this was eftablifhed, the
nerve was coated with tin, and a different metal w as
employed to complete the circle between the coating
and the mufcle. The fame philofopher alfo found that
the effeCts were increafed in proportion to the bulk of
the metals employed, and the extent of furface brought
into contaCt j that a communication might be formed
between the metals in contaCl, and the nerves of the
animal wdiich wrere expofed, by means of w ater ; and
that the temperature of the feafon and the nature of the
animal’s death feemed to have confiderable influence on
the duration of the phenomena. In many cafes he w7as
able to produce contractions in a frog, after three days
had elapfed from the time that the head had been Se¬
parated from the body. He feems to have direCted his
attention particularly to the conducting powrer of the
fubftances employed in galvanic apparatus, and in
tracing the analogy between this property and elec¬
tricity. Although metals were found to be good con¬
ductors, this wras not the cafe with the metallic
oxides, or with the falts which have thefe oxides, for
their bafis.
An earth-worm placed on a circular piece of zinc,
exhibited contractions fimilar to tbofe produced in living
frogs, wdien a piece of filver was brought in contaCt to
complete the circle. Worms of the fame kind, fufpended
acrofs a lilver rod, and the head and tail being at the fame
time brought in contaCt with a piece of zinc, fuftained a
fliock which feemed to pafs through the wdiole body.
A fimilar experiment, followed by the fame refult, was
made on leeches. If an earth-worm or leech be placed
on a piece of filver, retting on a plate of zinc, the ani¬
mal experiences a painful fenfation, when any part of
its body comes in contaCt with the zinc. It teems to
have the fame difagreeable fenfation when it is placed
on the zinc, and any part of the body is brought into
contaCt with the filver.
The inquiries of the fame philofopher wrere alfo di¬
rected to afeertain whether the nerves in general are all
equally fubjeCt to the galvanic influence, or whether
its effeCts are limited to thofe which are fubjeCt to the
power of the will. With this view the heart of a cow
w7as feparated from the body, foon after the animal was
killed, and prepared in the wray which has been already
deferibed, in the preparation of frogs 5 and wEile the
contractions of the auricles ftill continued, the intercoftal
nerve being coated, and the apparatus arranged, the
metals were brought into contaCt, but feemed to have
no effeCt whatever on the contractions while they con¬
tinued, and after they had ceafed, had not the power of
renewing them. He failed in many fimilar attempts on
Part I. G A L V
LiutL'- of not-blooded animals, but fucceeded in producing muf-
on Anima” C,Ula^ COn.tra£llORS in Part of a frog, after an hour had
>—~v   elapfed iroin the time that the natural motions had
cealed. He made a fimilar experiment on the heart of
a cat which had been drowned in warm water, and he
found that in this- cafe the motion of the heart could
be excited by means of galvanifm; but when the
animal was drowned in cold water, no effeel could be
23 produced.
Effe«5ts on It ivas another objedl of his invefligations, to afcertain
the organs the efFecls ol galvanifm on the organs of the fenfes. The
outlie fen- difagreeable tafte which remains on the tongue, when
two diflimilar metals, the one placed on the upper fur-
face, and the other touching the under furface, are
brought into cofita&, has been already taken notice of,
and the method of applying the metals particularly de-
fcribed. d he ftrongetl impreflion, it was obierved, was
produced, when gold and zinc tvere employed. He
introduced a metallic fubftance of a different kind into
each ear, and having formed a communication between
them, he experienced a (hock in the head when thefe
two metals were brought into contadl. A bit of tin-
foil was placed on the point of the tongue 5 the rounded
end of a filver pencil cafe was applied to the internal
angle of the eye ; and when the other extremity of the
pencil cafe and the tin-foil on the tongue were brought
into contaff,. he perceived a flalh of pale light, as well
as the metallic talle in the tongue which is produced in
a preceding experiment. The flafli feemcd mold vivid
when gold and zinc were employed. A fimilar effeft
is produced^ by introducing one of the metals between
tne upper lip and the gum, and the other between
tbe under lip and the gum, and retaining them in this
pofition to bring the edges in contadl: or, by in-
fcrting one of the metals into the nofe, and placing
the other on the tongue, to form the communication
between them.
ExpeS ^Similar experiments _ w^ere made by the late Pro-
ments by feffor Robifon of Edinburgh. He particularly ob-
Robifon. ferved, that the effefts of the galvanic fluid were
more fennbly lelt wdien one of the condufling metals
a as placed on a w’ound, or on the nerve of a carious
tooth. From the peculiar impreflion on the tongue
on tne application of gold or filver trinkets, he could
afcertain whether any folder w'as employed about
them.
In another experiment the fame philofopher feemed
to think tnat he had proved that the effect was pro¬
duced even before the metallic conduflors were brought
into direft contaff. A piece of zinc wras introduced
between the gums and cheek on one fide of the head,
and a piece of filver was placed in the fame way on tlm
other fide of the head. A rod of zinc was then applied
to the zinc piece, and a rod of filver to the filver piece
on the different fides of the head ; the extremities of
thefe rods which proje&ed from the moutli were then
cautioufiy brought into contaft; and, as foon as this
was completed, a firong fenfation was produced in the
gums. But before the direct contact wTas made be¬
tween the extremities of the rods, he perceived a flafli
of light which was repeated when the rods were again
feparated to a fmall diftance from each other. It is
.carcfcj.y neceiTary to add, that when the arrangement
of the rods, was reverfed, the effe&s ceafed : that is,
■V N 1 s M. 35I
when the zinc rod was fubflxtuted for the filver rod, Effects of
and the filver one for that of zinc. Galvanifm
I o the account of the experiments on animals nowT cn ^n'ni;i'^
given, which were chiefly made on cold-blooded ani¬
mals, we (hall now add thofe of Aldini, the nephew of
Galvani, which were made on the body of a man exe- Aldin3^s
cuted in London for murder. This man who was exe-experiments
cuted on the 17th January 1803, was-26 years of age,on tl*6 body
and feemed to have been of a firong, vigorous conftitu-of a male'
tion. I he body wjas expofed for an hour to a tempe-^a<^°r‘
rature two degrees below the freezing point Fahrenheit,
at the end of which it was conveyed to a houfe not far
diftant, where the apparatus for the experiments had
been arranged. The followung is the account of thefe
experiments in the author’s own words.
“ Experiment 1.—One arc being applied to the
moutn,. and another to the ear, wetted with a folution
ol muriate of foda (common fait), galvanifm was com-
mumcated by means of three troughs combined together,
each of which contained 40 plates of zinc, and as many
ol copper. On the firfl application of the arcs the jaw
egan to quiver, the adjoining mufclcs wrere horribly
contorted, and the left eye adlually opened.
. Exper. 2. On applying the arc to both ears, a
motion of the head was manifefted, and a convulfive
action of all the mufcles of the face j the lips and
eyelids were alfo evidently affefted, but the adion
eemed mucE increafed by making one extremity of
the arc to communicate with the nollrils, the other
continuing in one ear.
Exper. 4.— I he conductors being applied to the
ear, . and to the reCtum, excited in the mufcles con-
traChons much itronger than in the preceding experi¬
ments. I ne aCtion even of thofe mufcles furtheit
diftant from the points of contaCt with the arc was fo
much increafed as almoft to give an appearance of
re-animation.
Exper. 4.—In this ftate, wifhing to try the power
of ordinary ilimulants, I applied volatile alkali to the
noftrils and to the mouth, but without the leaft fenfible
a Chon ; on applying galvanifm great aCtion was con-
uantly produced. I then adminiftered the galvanic fti-
nmlus and volatile alkali together j the convulfions ap¬
peared to be much increafed by this combination, and
extended from the mufcles of the head, face, and neck
as far as the deltoid. The effeCt in this cafe furpaffed
our moft fangume expectations, and vitality might, per¬
haps, have been reftored, if many circumftances had not
rendered it impoflible.
Exper. 5. I next extended the arc from one ear
to the biceps Jiexor cubiti, the fibres of which had been
laid bare by diheChon. '{'his produced violent convul-
fions of all the mufcles of the arm, and efpecially in the
biceps and the coraco-brachialis, even wuthout the in- -
intervention of falt-water.
“ Exper. 6.—An incifion having been made in the
wri!t, among the fmall filaments ef the nerves and cel¬
lular membrane, on bringing the arc into contaCl with
this part, a very ftrong aCtion of the .mufcles of the
iore-ann and hand was immediately perceived. In
this, as m the laft experiment, the animal rnoifture was
luthcient to conduCt the galvanic flimulus without the
intervention of fait water.
Exper. 7.—'x he ihort mufcles of the thumb were
diffeCtedj v
G A L V
Melof diffeaed, and fubmittcd to the aaion of tlie galvanic
Galvartifni apparatuSl which indaced a forcible effort to clencn tne
on Animals* u j
  " Awr 8.—The effeAs of galvamfm m this expe¬
riment"'wer'e compared with thofc of other fWlants.
For this purpol'e, the point of the fcalpel was applied to
the fibres^ and even introduced into the fubftance of t
tLi fixer cbm without producing the dighteil mo-
dof The fame refult was obtained from the ufe of
cauttic volatile alkali and concentrated lulphunc acid
The latter even corroded the mufcle, without inducing
u finer Q Having opened the thorax and the pe-
ricanhum^'expoiing thlheart
to excite ■d&ion in the ventricles, but without iucce .
The arc was firft applied upon the urfaee then in the
The arc was tint appucu ujuu,!. ;7 tn the
fubftance of the fibres, to the earner column#, to the
tilTZricJoren,, ’and laftly, » the courfe o the
nerves by the coronary arteries, even with fait u uter .m-
terpofed, but without the flighteft vifible adion emg
.nuuc^. this experiment the arc was con¬
veyed tef the right auricle, and produced a confiderable
contraaion, without the intervention of fait water but
efpecially in that part called the append aunculuns ;
in the left auricle fcarcely any a^on was exhibited.
“ Exber 11Conduaors being applied irom the
fpinal marrow to the fibres of the biceps Jlexor cubiti,
the gluteus maximus, and the gajlrocnemius, feparately,
no crmfiderable adion in the mufcles ox the arm and leg
VV a« Expert —The fciatic nerve being expofed between
the gieat trochanter of the femur and the tuberofity of
the ffehium, and the arc being eftabhthed from tne pi-
nal marrow to the nerve diverted of its theca we ob-
ferved, to our aftonilhment, that no contraaion what¬
ever enfued in the mufcles, although fait water was ufed
at both extremities of the arc. But the con^aor be
ing made to communicate with the fibres of the mulcles
auSd the cellular membrane, as ftrong an acTion as be¬
fore was manifefted. .
u Exber. 15.—By making the arc to communicate
with the fciatic nerve and the gaftrocnemms mufcle, a
very feeble aaion was produced m the latter.
U Exber. 14.—Conduaors being applied from the
fciatic to the peronseal nerve, fcarcely any motion was
excited in the mufcles. ., , , .
“ Exber. I ?.—The fciatic nerve being divided about
the middle of the thigh, on applying the conduaors
from the biceps flexor cruris to the gaftrocnemius tl e
enfued a powerful contraaion of both. I mult here
obferve that the mufcles continued excitable foi {even
hours and a half after the execution. The troughs were
frequently renewed, yet towards the clofe they were
very much exhaufted. No doubt, with a ftronger appa¬
ratus we might have obferved mufcular aaion much
longer j for, after the experiments had been continued
for three or four hours, the power of a Angle troug i
was not fufficient to excite the aaion of the mulcks .
the afliftance of a more powerful apparatus was requir¬
ed. This (hows that fuch a long feries of experiments
could not have been performed by the Ample applica¬
tion of metallic coatings. I am of opinion that, m
general, thefe coatings, invented m the firft mftance
by Galvani, are paflive. They ferve merely to con.
A N I S M. "raJ;t
dua the fluid pre-exirtent in the animal o'dvtnifm
as with the galvanic batteries of tiie “ “.‘ cm a nima)s.
excited to aaion by the influence of the apparatus it-  
fcl f
t: From the above experiments there is reafon to con-
J That galvanifin, confid«red by
fiderable power over the nervous and mufcular iy Items, a A
operates univerfally on the whole of the animal economy.
“ 2. That the power of galvamfm, as a ftimulant, is
ftronger than any mechanical aaion whatever.
a ,, Xhat the effeas of galvamfm on the human frame
differ from thofe produced by eledricity communicated
with common eleancal machines. .
“ 4. That galvanifm, whether admiruftered by means
of troughs, or piles, differs in its effeas from thofe
Ot trOURilb, Ul ^ ill
produced by the Ample metallic coatings employed oy
« C. That when the furfaces of the nerves and mufcles
are armed with metallic coatings, the influence ot the
galvanic batteries is conveyed to a greater number o-
points, and aefts with confiderably more force m pro¬
ducing contraftions of the mufcular fibre. . ,.f
“ 6. That the aaion of galvamfm on the heart is de¬
ferent from that on other mufcles. lor, when tne
heart is no longer fufceptible of the galvanic influence,
the other mufcles remain ftill excitable for a certain
time. It is alfo remarkable that the acTion produced
by galvanifm on the auricles is different W that pro¬
duced on the ventricles of the heart, as is demonftrated
in experiment the tenth. ,.
“ 7 That galvanifm affords very powerful means o. re-
fufeitation in cafes of Mpended animation ^er com¬
mon citcumftances. The remedies already adopted in
afphyxia, drowning, &c. when combined with the i -
tluence of galvaniim, will produce much greater effec.
than either of them feparately. . . , , P-
Excenfmg the experiments of Ald.m which we have
iuft detailed, the gveater number of thofe oi w.nc i an
account has been8 given, it has been ^
were made on cold-blooded animals, and befides tne
apparatus ufually employed, was a Angle galvanic com-
bmation. After the conftrueffmn ot the pile was known
and ftill more fo after batteries in the form of troughs
were invented and employed, very different effeTs were
exhibited on the animal body, both m the dead and
With batteries compofed of 200, 300, or 400 p.ms
of plates arranged in troughs, very powerful (hocks
win be felt when the circle is completed between the
extremities of the battery by means of the two hands
of any perfon, fo that the fluid (hall pafs through the
body? This experiment maybe performed by touch-
• ^ • u Vionrl \vetted a wire connefled with one
mg with one nana wettea, a wiic
extremity of the battery, and with the o.ner hand al: o
moiftened a wire proceeding from the other end of the
battery- Every time that the contaa is made a ihock
is felt'. The elM will be more powerful it round
balls Of brafs haying brafs rods attached to them after
being well wetted, be placed m the P?lms
alfo well wetted, and a eommumcation be eftabl.lhed
between the ends of the battery. The ^ rs
produced when the circle is completed by “ “
number of perfons joining hands together , but ft mtffl
be obferved, that each perfon mull take care to lia
8.
37.
Galvanic
ftioc k com
pared.
3?
ESedl on
wounds.
39
Diredled
Part I. GAL V
Eft'edts of the hands wdll moiidened, otherwife the intenflty of the
car Animals grea^y diminifhed, or its effedl entirely
, ^ . ‘ obftrufted. No experiments have been made, fo far as
v/e recolleft, to afcertain with any degree of precifion,
how far the inteniity of the (hock is diminished by in-
crealing the number of perfons compofing the circle of
communication, or whether indeed, when the experi¬
ment is made wdth the requilite degree of caution and
attention, it fuffers any diminution.
It has been obferved by fome, (and fo far as we can
judge from our own feelings in numerous experiments
made with a pile compofed of 6o pairs of plates, or with a
trough of 50 pairs, and fometimes with two and four
troughs of 50 pairs each combined, the obfervation
which we have made coincides with that of others), that
the Ihock from the galvanic battery poffefied fome pe¬
culiarity, by which the fenfation it excited was much
more difagreeable than a (hock of artificial eleftricity
which feemed to be of no greater intenfity. But it
muft be allowed, that in the comparifon of experi¬
ments of fuch delicacy, the refult of which depends
on the feelings, great ambiguity muft prevail; and
therefore, when the comparifon is unavoidably fo inac¬
curate, it can afford no precife conclufion.
The fenfation is extremely unpleafant when the (hock
of galvanifm, even when it is very flight, paffes through
the fingers, if they have been fcratched or wounded.
A flight Ihock dire&ed through the head between
through the the temples, produces the fenfation of a flafti of light
before the eyes, and an irrefiftible contradtion of the
mufcles of the upper eyelids, fo that the perfon who is
the fubjeft of the experiment involuntarily winks every
time that the circle is completed. This experiment,
which Ihould be repeated with caution, is performed in
the following manner : Place a bit of tin foil which will
adhere by wetting with W'ater to the part to which it is
applied, on each temple. Then having formed the
communication between one end of the trough and one
temple by means of a metallic condudlor, flat like a
fmall button, in that part which touches the tin-foil j
this is retained in contact with the tin-foil by an affift-
ant 5 and by means of another afliftant, another fimi-
lar condudtor is applied to the tin-foil o'n the other
temple. Things being thus arranged, the wire connec¬
ted with the latter, is by the operator brought in con-
tadt with the other extremity of the battery, or with
that part of it to which the extent or intenfity of the
(hock is to be limited. Every time that this contadl is
repeated, the fenfation of the flafti of light, and the
other effedls, are produced. It has been hinted above,
that this experiment fliould be performed with caution.
Not more than from 1 2 to 20 pairs of plates (hould be
employed, at leaft on thofe on whom the effedls of a
fmall number have not been previoufly tried j and per¬
haps with that number, at leaft in the experiments of
this kind which w7e have feen made, there are not many
perfons who would chufe to have them repeated on
themfelves. But thefe effedts, it may be added', will be
more or lefs powerful in proportion to the period that
the battery has continued in adiion with the fame
fluid.
A battery compofed of 200 pairs of plates will pro¬
duce ftrong contradlions in the limbs of a fowl or rab¬
bit, which has been recently killed. Thefe effedls may
be conveniently exhibited by introducing one of the con-
Vol. IX. Part I.
40
Cautions.
Effects on
dead ani¬
mals.
A N I S M. . 353
* dudting wires, by means of a hook, into the mouth, or Chemical
fixing it about the back part of the head of the animal,
and fixing a fimilar hook from another wire connedled v~™~’
with the other end of the battery near the rump, fo
that the current of galvanic fluid (hall pafs through the
body. When the communication between the extre¬
mities of the battery is formed, the convulfive motions
, of the limbs of the animal take place, and are repeated
as often as the circle is completed. Similar effedls are
produced on a dog or (heep ; but to induce (Irong con -
vulfions in the larger animals, a more powerful ap¬
paratus muft be employed. It will be neceflary to put
in adiion a battery confiding of at leaft 300 or 400
pairs of plates arranged in troughs.
With a battery of fuch extent and power, the con¬
vulfive motions produced on the limbs of horfes that
were fubjedled to its adtion, were fo ftrong that they
could fcarcely be refilled by the ftrength of two per¬
fons.
The head of an ox, foon after it was feparated from
the body, and while it was yet warm, was adled on bv
fix batteries, amounting to about 300 pairs of plates.
Strong convulfive motions were produced the eyes
opened, and the pupils were greatly dilated j the ears
were alfo put in motion ; and the tongue drawn out
and fixed to the table with an iron (kewer which entered
the wood above half an inch, was retradled with fuch
force as to detach itfelf from the (kewer which was
thrown to fome height into the air.
It has been faid that the motions thus induced on the
limbs of animals by means of galvanifm, referable the
convulfive motions of epilepfy. Perhaps the motions
of animals during the druggies of death may be con-
(idered as nearly fimilar. Whether this be fo or not,
we have obferved that the convulfive contraftions of
animals fubjedled to galvanifm, greatly referable the
peculiar motions of each animal in the druggies of
death. This obfervation however only extends to what
has happened to fowls, rabbits, and (heep j but fo far
as it goes, it has been allowed by thofe to whom we
have remarked the circumftance to be pretty cor-
redl.
With thefe obfervations we conclude this long detail
of the effedls of galvanifm on animals. This feem¬
ed to be neceffary in order to give the reader a diftindl
view of what may be confidered as the dawn of this
department of fcience $ for as we have already hinted,
the experiments and inveffigations of naturalifts were at
firft limited to its effedls on animals} and from their la¬
bours an immenfe body of fadls was accumulated before
its chemical effedls were much known or diftindlly aft-
certained. We now therefore proceed to the confidera-
tion of the chemical effedls of galvanifm. Thefe (hall
be the fubjedl of the next chapter.
Chap. III. Of the Chemical Effects of Galvanifm,
In the account we propofe to lay before our readers,
of thofe effedls of the galvanic fluid which are to be
confidered as more (Iridlly chemical, we (hall firft (late
more generally fome of the experiments by means of
which thefe effedls are illuftrated, and defcribe the me¬
thod of performing them, and then enter into a more
particular detail of the experiments of different philofo-
Y y pliers
I
3S4 G A L V A N I S M. .
themical pliers which tended to improve and enlarge the know-* be done with a very fimple apparatus.
Part I.
A bent wlr:
42
-Ccmbuflion
Efiects. ledge 0f galvanifm.
We iliall limit the account of the experiments firft
alluded to above to the combuftion of charcoal, the de¬
flagration and combuftion of metallic fubflances, the
decompofition of water and fome other fluids, and the
precipitation of metals from their folution in acids.
Exper. i..—With a battery compofed of 50 pairs of
Ci charcoa’. tijree or four inches fquare, with proper ma¬
nagement, a brilliant light may be produced from the
combuftion of charcoal. The charcoal for this experi¬
ment fhould be well prepared, from fome of the harder
woods, fuch as beech or boxwood. It has been faid
that it could only be properly prepared by expofing it
to a degree of heat equal to that of a glafs-houfe fur¬
nace ; but we know from experience that fo high a
temperature is by no means abfolutely neceffary. We
have prepared charcoal which was found to anfwer the
purpofe of the prefent experiment, with fuch a heat as can
be eafily commanded in a fmall chemical furnace. The
wood which is to be converted into charcoal is divided
into flips of about one-fourth of an inch fquare ; it is
then put into a crucible, which is filled up with fand, and
may be covered with another crucible inverted, fo as
flill more effedlually to prevent the accefs of air. The
crucible is then placed in the middle of the furnace,
which is to be filled up with charcoal, and a ftrong
heat maintained for eight or ten hours. After this
the charcoal will be found fufficiently prepared, and
this is of fctne confequence to be attended to, becaufe
on the complete converfion of the wood into this ftata
much of the fuccefs of the experiment depends.
Slips of charcoal reduced to a fine point are attached
to wires, which communicate with the extremities of the
battery. The charcoal may be fixed to the conducing
wires by means of a bit of thread, or fine iron or brafs
wire, or they may be fixed in pincers, or an inftrument
fimilar to that which is ufed for holding crayons or
blacklead pencils 5 but in whatever way this part of the
apparatus is contrived, when the two pieces of charcoal
connedted by means of metallic conductors with the ex¬
tremities of the battery are brought into contaft, com-
buflion immediately takes place. The rapidity or bril¬
liancy of this combuftion is proportioned to the ftrength
and aClivity of the battery. The light produced by
f'uch a battery as that we have defcribed above, will be
at times pretty vivid j but with two fuch batteries,
whofe aftion is combined, it is ftill more brilliant.
When four batteries, confifting each of 50 pairs of plates
of eight inches fquare, are employed for this experi¬
ment, nothing perhaps can exxeed the brilliancy of the
light which is given out during the combullion of the
charcoal. With the fmaller battery, the process is oc-
cafionally interrupted j but with the larger apparatus
the combufti-on goes on for a (hort time, giving out a
continued and uniform brilliant light. When this is
the cafe, the rays feem to proceed from the point where
the combuftion is going on, and exhibit all the variety
of the prifmalic colours. When the pieces of charcoal
are immerfed in water, and brought into ccntaCt under
its furface, the cornbuftion aifo goes on with confider-
able rapidity.
Exper. 2 —The deflagration and combuftion of many
metallic fubftances may be alfo effeCfed with a battery
compofed of 50 pairs of three inch plates, and this may
— 45
Cf iiietals
fuch as we have already defcribed, is inferted into the
perforated, projedfing piece of wood, at the extremity
of the battery. The wire is to be bent at a right angle
to that part of it which is fixed perpendicularly into
the extremity of the trough, and on the horizontal part
of it is placed the metallic fubftance to be deflagrated.
A plate of copper, which muft be perfecdly clean and
free from oxide, is to be connedted with the other end
of the battery by means of a condudting wire. When .
the apparatus is thus arranged, if the copper plate be
brought into contadt with gold or filver leaf, for inftance,
the combuftion of thefe fubftances will take place, and
this combuftion, it is fcarcely neceffary to add, will be
in proportion to the power of the battery and its energy.
In the fame way tin-foil, rvhite and yellow Dutch
metal, as it is called, may be fubjedted to experiment,
and with a battery of moderate power, a brilliant com¬
buftion may be produced.
When a battery of greater power is employed, a very
brilliant and rapid combuftion of fteel wire can be ef-
fedted. This experiment is made by ftretching a piece
of wire, fuch as that which is ufed for the fmaller firings
of muffcal inftruments, between the two metallic con-
dudtors connedfed with the oppofite extremities of the
battery; and thus completing the circle, the combuftion
takes place. When the experiment fucceeds, feveral
inches of the wire are almoft inftantaneoufly reduced to
the ftate of oxide. In this rvay the energy of the bat¬
tery may be in fome meafure afeertained, as it muft be
un proportion to the length of the wire which is burnt.
When a very powerful battery is in adlion, 10 or 1 2
inches of fuch wore may be completely burnt) that is,
not merely made red hot, but having undergone the
procefs of combuftion, and having palled from the me¬
tallic ftate to that of oxide. 44
Exper. 3.—We have already defcribed the apparatus Decompofi-
for the decompofition of water. To exhibit this ex-t!onc^wa“
periment, it is only neceffary to fill fome of the tubes ter‘
which have been mentioned for this purpofe with water,
and to complete the circle of communication betrveen
the extremities of the battery, the water in the tube to
be decompofed forming part of this circle. If the con¬
dudting wires terminating in the tube confift of metals
which do not readily undergo oxidation, fuch as gold
or platina, the gafes which are the conftituent parts of
water are feparated from the wires, the oxygen gas from
the one, and the hydrogen gas from the other, and are
feen rifing in bubbles to the top of the tube, difplacing
a quantity of water equal to the fpace occupied by
the gafes evolved. This procefs goes on till the furface
of the water falls below the condudting wire palling
through the top of the tube ) and the circle being then
interrupted, the procefs Hops. When this is the cafe,
if the two conducting wires within the tube can by
any contrivance be brought into contadl, a fpark is pro¬
duced, by which the gafes are fet fire to, and are again
converted into the ftate of water. This combuftion is
attended with an explofion. Or if the tube be careful¬
ly taken from the apparatus under water, while the fin¬
ger is placed upon the open end, and then inverted,
the gas colledted’will rife through the water 5 it may
then be fet fire to by means of a burning body, a fimi¬
lar combuftion will take place, attended with an ex¬
plofion.
But
Part I,
Chemical
Effedls.
Other li¬
quids de-
compofed.
46
Precipita¬
tion of me¬
tals.
47
Experi¬
ments of
Cruick-
Sianks.
G A L V
But if the wires terminating in the tube be of brafs
or iron, or any metal which is eafxly oxidated, only one
of the gafes is colledled in the tube ; the other (the
oxygen) combines with the metal, forming an oxide,
which colledls on the point of the wire.
By a very fimple contrivance the gafes may be col-
ledled feparately. With this view two tubes in which
the conducing wires terminate, are employed. Thefe
tubes being filled with water, muft be inverted in the
fame bafon of water, the latter of wdiich forms the com¬
munication between the extremities of the battery.
Other fluids, as oil, alcohol, ether, and ammonia in fo~
lution, may be alfo decompofed by a fimilar procefs.
For the decompofition of oil, alcohol, and ether, the
pieces of charcoal may be immerfed in velfels contain¬
ing thefe liquids *, and, when they are brought into con¬
tact, the dec»mpofion is effe&ed, wnth the formation
and evolution of carbonic acid gas, which is feen rifing
in bubbles to the furface.
Exper. 4.—By means of galvanifm, and with a bat¬
tery of moderate pow7er, metals may be precipitated
from their folutions in acids. The apparatus to be em¬
ployed for this purpofe is fimilar to that for the decom¬
pofition of svater, and the tube is filled with a folution
of the metallic fait. The communication being then etta-
blilhed, the metal is precipitated, and appears in an ar-
borefcent form on the point of the wire. In this way
the acetate of lead, or fugar of lead, the nitrate of fil-
ver, and many other metallic falls, may be revived.
Many other curious and amufing experiments might
have been related, but what we have now given will
enable the reader to have a diftimft notion of the che¬
mical effedls of galvanifm. Many other of the chemi¬
cal effefls of the galvanic fluid are fo clofely connefled
with the-peculiar view's and theories of thofe who have
difcovered and obferved them, that we lhall not en¬
ter into any detail of them till we come to confider
that part of the fubjedl. In the mean time we fhall oc¬
cupy the remaining part of the prefent chapter with an
account of fome of the experiments on the chemical ef-
fedls of galvanifm wFich w'ere obferved by philofophers
in the earlier part of its progrefs.
Mr Cruickfhank, the inventor of the galvanic trough,
very early direfted his attention to this inquiry, and pro-
fecuted it with great ardour and fuccefs. In one of his
early communications on this fubjeft we have a compre-
henfive view of fome of the chemical phenomena of gal¬
vanifm. We {hall, therefore, give it in his owm words.
“ I lhall not, fays he, give any particular account of
the apparatus employed, being a pile, and not differing
materially from that in ufe. I lhall only juft obferve,
that it^confifted of plates of zinc and filver, of about
1.6 inches fquare, and that the number of each employ¬
ed in the following experiments varied from 40 to 100,
according to the powrer required.
“ I found that a folution of the muriate of ammonia
anfwered better for moiftening the interpofed papers than
common water.
“ When the machine was in full action, fparks which
were perfectly vifible in the day time, cculd be taken
at pleafure, by making a communication in the ufual
wray between the extremities of the pile, and a fmall re¬
port or fnap could be heard ; the (hock given at that
time was very Itrong, and a gold-leaf eleftrometer, pla¬
ced m the circle of-communication, was very ftnfibly
A N t 3 M. 355
affe&ed : thefe circumftances, fome of which, I believe, Chemical
have been already afeertained by Meflrs. Nicholfon and Effe<as-
Carlifle, Ihewr the ftrong refemblance of this influence to
. eleftricity. Thefe gentlemen have Hkewife difcovered
that galvanifm decompofes water wdth much greater
facility than eledlricity, but with phenomena ^ fome-
what different.
“ Exper. 1.—A quantity ¥>f common w7aterw7as introdu¬
ced into a glafs tube, being confined at each end by corks,
but perfeflly at one by a cement of rofm and bees-wax :
pieces of filver ware w'ere palled through the corks, and
brought within an inch of each other if* the fluid, their
other extremities being at the fame time conne&ed with
thofe of the machine or pile, one with the lower zinc
plate, and the other with the upper lilver plate. In
future, to avoid circumlocution, I lhall call the wire
attached to the filver plate, the filver wire, and the
other the zinc wire. The tube was then placed upright
in a cup containing water, with the uncemented end v
downwards. As foon as the communication was made
between the extremities of the pile by the wires, a,rjuan-
tity of fmall air bubbles began to afeend from the end
of the wire connected with the filver, as obferved by
Meffrs. Nicholfon and Carlifle 5 but a white cloud at
the fame time made it£ appearance at the one, proceed¬
ing from the zinc, or the zinc ware. This cloud gradu¬
ally increafed, and affumed a darker colour, andatlafiit
became purple, or even black. A very few air bubbles
w'ere likewife collefted upon and afeended from this
wire, but when the machine wras in full force, a cou-
fiderable flream could be obferved.
“ The gas was collefted, and found to be a mixture
of hydrogen and oxygen, in the proportion of three
parts of the former to one of the latter. No great de¬
pendence, however, was placed upon this in point of
accuracy. The zinc ware w’as found to be much cor¬
roded, and looked as if a confiderable portion of it had
been diflblved. As the cloud which was formed around
this wire became purple on expofure to the light, I
fufpedied it might be luna cornea, _pr muriate of filver
proceeding from the filver, which had been fomehow
diffolved, and aftenvarejs precipitated in this ftate, by
the muriatic falts in the common water. This led to
the following experiments :
“ Exper. 2.—The glafs tube was now filled with dif-
tilled water, to which a little tincture of litmus was ad¬
ded ; when the communication was made by the wires
as in the former experiment, a quantity of gas arofe
from both wares, but in the greatell quantity from that
connedted with the filver. In a few minutes a fine red
line, extending fome way upwards, was perceived at
the extremity of the zinc wire j this increafed, and in
a ftiort time the whole fluid below the point of this wire
became red; the fluid how'ever, above the filver wire,
looked of a deeper blue than before, the flight tinge of
purple being deftroyed.
“ Exper. 3.—I next filled the tube with diftiiled wTa-
ter, tinged with the tincture of Brazil wmod; it was no
fooner placed in the circle of communication,than the fluid
futrounding the filver wire, particularly towards its ex¬
tremity, became purple, and this tinge increafed fo faft,
that the whole fluid furrounding this wire, and occupy¬
ing the upper part of the tube, foon affumed as deep a.
colour, as could be produced by ammonia.
“ The portion of the fluid in contact wfith the zinc
Y y 2 • wire
>56
G A L V
Chemical wire Decanae very pale, and almoft colourlefs, nor couid
Effeds. pUrple tinge extend below its upper extremity.
v From thefe experiments it would appear, that an acid,
probably the nitrous, is produced at the wire proceed¬
ing from the zinc, and an alkali, probably ammonia,
at that in contadd with the filver. Thefe facls fuffi-
ciently explain the action upon the fdver wire, and the
nature of the whitifh cloud proceeding from it, and af¬
terwards becoming purple. When lime water was em¬
ployed inftead of common or dhtilled water, the wire
was likewife acted upon, but in a lefs degree, and the
cloud had at firft an olive colour, exadtly refembling
the precipitate of filver by lime-water.
“ The quantity of filver diffolved or corroded, if I
may ufe the expreffion, in thefe experiments, was very
confiderable, and where common or diftilled water had
been employed, a fmall portion 6f it remained in folu-
tion, which was difcovered by the addition of the mu¬
riatic acid. Indeed a much larger quantity wmuld pro¬
bably have been fufpended, had it not been for the al¬
kali generated at the fame time, and which manifeftly
produced a precipitate at, or near, the upper extremi¬
ty of the zinc wire, where, after a certain time, a dark
zone or ftratum wras always formed.
“ Exper. 4.—It is a well knowm fa£f, that hydro¬
gen gas when heated, or in its nafcent date, reduces
the cakes of the metals ; I expected, therefore, that
by filling the glafs tube with a metallic folution, I
might be enabled to feparate the hydrogen from the
oxygen gas, and thus procure the latter in its fimple or
pure date. With this view the tube was filled wdth a
folution of the acetite of lead, to which an excefs o*.
acid was added, to counteract the effects of the alkali.
When the communication wras made in the ufual way,
no gas could be perceived, but after a minute or two,
feme fine metallic needles were perceived at the extre¬
mity of the wire conneCted with the filver. Thefe
foon increafed, and affumed the form of a feather, or
rather that of the crydals of the muriate of ammonia.
The lead thus precipitated was perfeClly in its metallic
date, and very brilliant j a little gas efcaped from the
wire connected with the zinc, and it was confiderably
corroded as ufual.
“ A folution of the fulphate of copper was next em¬
ployed, and with the fame refalt, the copper being pre¬
cipitated in its metallic form by the wire connected
with the filver. In this indance the metal did not cry-
dallize, but formed a kind of button at the end of the
wire, which adhered fo completely to the filver, that it
was found impodible to feparate it.
“ The mod beautiful precipitate, however, was
that of filver from its folution in the nitrous acid. In
this cafe, the metal (hot into fine needle-like crydals,
articulated, or joined to each other, as in the Arbor
Diana?.
“ What became of the oxygen gas ufually produced
in thefe experiments ?
“ Exper. 5.—A quantity of pure water mixed with
diddled vinegar was introduced into the tube, and
placed in the circle of communication 5 feme gas was
difengaged from the filver wire, but no cloud appeared
at the extremity of the zinc. After fome time, how¬
ever, a quantity of metallic filver was precipitated by
the filver wire, and this precipitate at lad became very
ennious; a perfeClly fimilar effeCI was produced, when
A N I S M. Part I.
the tube was filled with very dilute fulphuric acid ; in Chemical
thefe cafes the precipitated diver had the appearance of £ffe^3' ,
diining feales, like that thrown down by copper in the “ v '
ufual way. It may be proper to obferve, that in all
thefe precipitations and reduftions, nothing but wires of
pure filver were employed, The refults in this lad ex¬
periment were exaftly what was expelled j the vinegar
prevented the alkali from precipitating the filver, dif¬
folved by the generated acid j in confequence of which,
when a fudicient quantity of the metal was taken up, it
was again thrown down by the filver wire in its metallic
form.
“ Exper. 6.—A folution of the muriate of ammo¬
nia being introduced into the tube, and expofed to
this influence, a little gas was difengaged from the di¬
ver wire, while the zinc one was incruded with a fub-
flance which foon became black, and was found to be
lima cornea. The liquor which remained in the tube
after the operation had been finidied, was highly alka¬
line, and fmelled drongly of ammonia; common fait
was decompofed in a fimilar manner. This experiment
accounts for the decompofition of the muriate of foda
and ammonia, which always takes place when the pa¬
pers in the pile are moidened with a folution of thefe
falts.
“ A folution of the nitrate of magnefia appeared to
be likewife decompofed by this procefs; for after fome
time, a white powder refembling magnefia, was preci¬
pitated on the furface of the filver wire, very little gas
was difengaged*
“ Exper. 7.—In order to afeertain how far this in¬
fluence might be carried, provided the circle of com¬
munication was complete, two tubes were employed,
and conne&ed by a filver wire paffing through corks j
the tubes were filled with water and lecured by corks;
two other wires being then paffed through thefe corks,
the arc was conne&ed with the filver, and the other
with the zinc, at the extremity of the pile. A quan¬
tity of gas as ufual was difengaged at the extremity of
the filver wire, and the portion of the conne&ing wire
in the fame tube was partly diflblved, and as mention¬
ed in experiment id ; but the other portion of the fame
wire in the other tube gave out gas, while the commu¬
nicating zinc wire was corroded. And I make no
doubt that a fimilar effeft would be produced, if any
number of tubes were conne&ed in a fimilar manner,
by which means a large quantity of gas might be pro¬
cured in a flrort time.
“ Befides filver wires, I likewife employed thofe of
copper or iron, and it did not appear that thefe were
more corroded or a6ted upon than the filver; indeed, in
fome of the above experiments, not lefs than half, or
three-quarters of an inch of the wire was entirely con-
fumed. The copper wire conne£led with the zinc
gives out a greenilh blue.fubdance refembling the ni-,
trate of copper with excefs of the metal, or when part
of the acid has been expelled by heat, &c. In exa-,
mining the gas which was procured at different times,
I always found it mixed with a little oxygen gas, but
fometimes this did not exceed one-eighth of the whole,
in bulk; however, I paid but little attention to this
part of the procefs, for as my wires were always cor¬
roded, no conclufion with regard to the compofition of
water could be drawn from it.” * . * Nlcheif.
We might have here detailed a greater variety of ex- Jour. 4to.
& t>eriments.vo1-IV-18 7
Part II. ' GALVANISM.
Hiftory. pediments, winch have been made to afcertain the
^ chemical efFefls of galvanifm, and to elucidate the na^
ture and properties of the fluid which is fuppofed to be
concerned in thefe changes. In particular we might
give an account of the later experiments and refearches
of philofophers, in inveftigating the formation of mu¬
riatic acid, and an alkali which is fuppofed to be foda,
by means of this power. This forms one of the moft
curious fubjedls of inquiry which has yet occurred with
regard to galvanifm j but as fome part of the invelliga-
tions of thofe who have occupied their attention with
this inquiry, is connefled with theoretical views, we
ftrall referve the confideration of the whole to the fe-
cond part of this treatife, the objeft of which is, to give
a hiftorical detail of the progrefs of galvanifm, with
the opinions of philofophers concerning the nature of
the galvanic fluid. To this therefore we now proceed.
357
Hiftory.
PART II. OF THE HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF GALVANISM.
IN the firft part of this treatife we have given a
pretty full view of the method of conftru£ling appara¬
tus for the purpofe of exhibiting the phenomena of gal¬
vanifm, and we have entered at conflderable length in¬
to a detail of the experiments which have been made,
to afcertain the effeAs of the galvanic fluid on animals,
as well as thofe experiments by which its chemical ef-
fedts are illuftrated, with fome of the theoretical views
and opinions of thofe who have been engaged in re¬
fearches concerning the properties of this fluid. It is
now propofed, in the fecond part, firft, to confider the
progreflive hiftory of galvanifm, with the theories by
which philofophers have attempted to account for its
effedls j fecondly, we fhall endeavour to trace the ana¬
logy between artificial eledlricity and galvanifm j and
laftly, give an account of the experiments and inquiries
which have been made concerning the formation of
muriatic acid and foda by means of this power. Thefe
will form the fubjedls of the three following chapters.
Chap. I. Hiftory of the Difcovery and Progrefs of
Galvanifm.
a9
Firft hint The firft hint which is ufually quoted as connedled
ofgalva- with the phenomena of galvanifm, is extradled from a
niftn. book entitled the General Theory of Pleafures, by Sult-
zer, which was publiftied in the year 1767. In this
work the author particularly defcribes the experiment
with two diflimilar pieces of metal which we have re¬
lated at the beginning of this treatife, and by which
we have endeavoured to illuftrate what is underftood by
galvanifm, in its effedls on the living body. The ex-
• periment alluded to is that in which a piece of zinc and
a piece of filver being placed, the one in contact with
the upper, and the other with the under furface of the
tongue, and their projecting edges being brought into
eontaft, a tafte is produced, which the author obferves,
refembles vitriol of iron. This fenfation is afcribed to
a vibration of the particles of the metals affefting the
. nerves of the tongue.
Other hints and experiments have been quoted,
which feem to be conne&ed with the phenomena of
galvanifm j but as they were not profecuted, and as no
conclufion, with the view of eftablifliing any particular
point, was deduced from them, it would be unnecef-
fary to give an account of them, excepting thofe of
Vaflalli, member of the royal academy of Turin, wrho
publiflied in 1789, a theory on this fubjeCl, fupported
by a feries of experiments which he had inftituted.
Here he throws out a conjefture, that a provifion has
been made by nature in the fyftem of a living animal,
by which the eleflricity accumulated in any particular
part of the body is preferved and retained for fome ne~
ceffary purpofe of its exiftence. It had indeed been
fuppofed by fome, that the animation of the blood de¬
pended on the eledlric fluid, but according to others,
this fluid and the nervous fluid were to be confidered
as one and the fame. 49
This fubjefl was particularly inveftigated and illuftra- Galvani 3
ted, when in the year 1791 a remarkable difcovery
which w^as made by Dr Galvani, profefibr of anatomy
in the univerfity of Bologna in Italy, was announced to
the world. This difcovery, like moft others, was ac¬
cidental. Some frogs deprived of the {kin were placed
upon a table near which the profeffor happened to be
engaged in experiments with an electrifying machine.
The crural nerve of one of the frogs was touched by a
perfon prefent, with the point of a fcalpel during the
time that the machine wras working. The whole ani¬
mal was thrown into convulfions. The fame experi¬
ments were afterwards repeated with the fame fuccefs.
Every time that the fcalpel was applied to the nerve,
while the machine was in motion, violent convulfions
were produced. But when the machine ceafed to
move, on the application of the fcalpel to the nerve no
effedl followed. To this accidental difcovery this
branch of fcience owed its origin, and from the name
of the difcoverer ivas called Galvanifm.
Since the period of this difcovery, a great many ex¬
periments have been made, and many curious pheno¬
mena have been obferved, which have excited much in-
tereft and attention among philofophers. We ihall now
prefent our readers with a hiftorical Iketch of the pro¬
grefs of thefe difcoveries.
The experiment which has been mentioned was re¬
peated by Galvani in every poflible way he could think
of. He varied it both by means of artificial and at-
mofpherical eledlricity, and the refult of all thefe ex¬
periments he found to be uniform aad confiftent.
When Galvani firft began his refearches, he fuppofed
that the phenomena depended on common ele&ricity^.
pafling through the animals on which the experiments
were made. He had obferved that the fame effects
were produced, but in a fmaller degree, in living frogs
and in other animals, as in thofe which had been newly
deprived of life. In the courfe of fome experiments "
which he made on atmofpherical ele&ricity, he fufpend-
ed fome frogs, by means of metallic hooks fixed in the
fpine, from iron palifades j and he obferved that the
mufcles of thefe animals were frequently and involun¬
tarily ccntra&ed, as if they had received a (hock ol
eleftricity. At firft he afcribed thefe convolfions to.
GALVANISM. Fart II
Hiftory. the changes in the ftate of the eleftricity in the atmo-
v,—.<r—_ fphere •, but after a repetition of the experiments he
found that he was xniftakeri. He difcovered, however,
at laft, after many ingenious experiments, that he could
at pleafure produce the convulfions, by touching tw-’O
different parts of the animal, each with a piece of me¬
tal, and then bringing thefe pieces of metal into contaft.
The experiment may be made in the following manner.
Let the crural nerve of a frog be laid bare to about an
inch in extent j let a piece of zinc be placed in contaft
with the nerve, and let a piece of iilver be placed on
the mufcles with which the nerve communicates. Then
bring the zinc and filver into contaft, and the whole
jo limb will be inilantly thrown into convulfions.
His theory. After Galvani had publifhed his experiments, the
convulfions thus excited were afcribed td the aftion of
fome unknown fluid to which the name Galvanifm was
given, or Animal Ele&ricity. According to Galvani,
a fluid is fecreted in the brain, the fame with the ner¬
vous fluid ; but being analogous to common ele&rici-
ty, might with more propriety be termed animal elec¬
tricity. The conduftors of this fluid are the nerves.
It is carried off by them as it is fecreted, and depofited
on the interior furface of the mufcular fibres, which be¬
ing non-conduftofs of the fluid, do not permit it to pafs
through them. The flatc of the mufcular fibres exact¬
ly refembled that of a charged Leyden jar. Their in¬
ner furface is electrified pofitively, and the outer fur-
face is electrified negatively. The communication be¬
tween the exterior and interior furfaces of the mufcular
fibres is formed by the nerves. They convey the re¬
dundant eleCtricity from the internal to the external
furface, and, like the effeCt of the eleCtrical ftimulus,
every difcharge is attended with a mufcular contrac-
51 tion,
Volta’s. On the other hand Volta, another philofopher who
Carried his refearches far into this fubjeCt, and of whofe
experiments and view’s we have given a long detail,
adopted a different opinion. He thought that the con¬
vulfions occafioned by the galvanic apparatus were en¬
tirely independent of the aClion of the nervous fluid, and
were to be afcribed to common eleClricity excited by
. the metallic conduClors which are employed. Thefe
different opinions were fupported with much ingenuity
* in a controverfy which commenced between Galvani
and Volta. The writers on galvanifm divided them-
felves .into two parties. While one party maintained
with Volta, that the phenomena were owing to the
aClion of common eleClricity on the mufcular fibres,
another party thought that they were entirely depend¬
ent upon fomething peculiar to animal matter. By
many this feemed to have been confidered as the nervous
fluid, which was fuppofed to be the lame with, or ana¬
logous tq, common eleClricity.
It had been long afferted, that porter, and fome other
liquors, drank cut of a pewter pot, had a different tafte
from what it has when drank out of glafs or earthen
ware. Pure mercury, it has been obferved, retains its
metallic iplendour for a long time 5 but when amalga¬
mated with any other metal, it is foon tarnilhed or oxi¬
dated. The Etrufcan inferiptions on pure lead are in
good prefervation to this day •, whereas fome medals of
lead and tin, of no great antiquity, are much corroded •,
and works of metal, whole parts are foldered together
by the rr.terpoikion of other rcettfls, fcon tarnilh about
'' , " 4
the places where the different metals are joined. When Hiftcrv. •
the copper fheeting of fliips is faftened on by means of
iron nails, the nails, but particularly the copper, are
readily corroded about the place of contaCl. A piece
of zinc placed in wra,ter for a confiderable time fcarcely
undergoes any change ; but if a piece of filver happen
to touch the zinc whilll it is in the water, it is loon
corroded or oxidated.
In the courfe of a very few’ years after the publica¬
tion of Galvani’s difeovery, a great number of writers
appeared, and prefented to the wmrld a great body of
faCls which they had afeertained by experiments and
obfervations. The following are among the moll im¬
portant : 1. When a piece of metal is placed on the RecaSpjtlI„
mufcle of an animal juft dead, and ftill moift, and ano-ktionof
ther piece of a different metal is placed on the nerve fads,
which leads to the mufcle, or on another part of the
mufcle, and if the two pieces of metal be brought into
contad, a contraction or convulfion of the mufcle takes
place. 2. A Angle piece of metal, or tw7o pieces of
the fame metal, have no effeCt in exciting contraction
of the mufcle. It is neceffary to have two perfeCt con¬
ductors of eleCtricity in contaCt, before any convulfion
can be produced. 3. The mufcle mult be moift. The
effeCt is not prevented by a ligature on a nerve ; but
the fufeeptibility of a mufcle to be thrown into convul¬
fions isdiminilhed, andat laft deftroyed by the application
of opium, which deftroys its irritability. The fame
change takes place if the mufcle be allowed to remain
for fome time after death. 4. The different mufcles of
the body are differently affeCted by the galvanic in¬
fluence. They are not equally fufceptible of the fame
degree of convulfive effeCE 5. If a plate of zinc be
placed on the upper furface of the tongue, and a plate
of lilver or copper be applied to its under furface j and
if the two pieces of metal thus placed be brought into
contaCl, a ftrong metallic tafte is immediately per¬
ceived. An acid tafte is perceived, when the tongue
is dipt into an alkaline folution contained in a tin or
zinc cup held in the moift hand. 6. If a piece of me¬
tal, as a filver fpoon, be placed on the ball of the eye,
and another piece of a different metal, as a piece of
zinc, be placed on the tongue, and if the two pieces
of metal be brought into contaCl, a flafh of fire is in-
ftantly perceived \ and it is perceived, both when the
metals are brought into contaCl, and when they are fe-
parated. 7. Another faCl, w'hich was afeertained by
Aldini, who performed a great many experiments in
galvanifm during his vifit to this country, is, that con¬
vulfions may be excited merely by forming a proper
chain of mufcles and nerves. This is proved by the
following experiment. He took a prepared frog, and
held it fufpended in one hand by the foot. The fciatic
nerves w’ere brought into contaCl W’ith the tongue of an
ox, the head of w’hich had been recently feparated from
the body. Jrle then introduced the other hand moift-
ened with a folution of common fait in water into the
ear of the animal, thus completing the circle. Every
time that the communication was formed, the mufcles of
the frog were thrown into convulfions.
Mofl of the faCls'which w’e have now related, were af¬
eertained by the different philofophers, whofe refearches
were direCled to the fubjeCl of galvanifm, between the
years 1791 and 1794. Hitherto the conneclion be¬
tween galvanifm and animal bodies was confidered by
snoit
Part II.
Hiftory.
GALVANISM.
ni-fin afcri
bed to che
tnical ac¬
tion.
moft writers, fo clofe and intimate, that they fuppofed
T the one could not exiil: independent of the other. Some
fadts, however, which were eftabliidied by Fabroni and
others, feemed to favour the opinion of thofe who con-
lidered galvanifm as the adlion of a peculiar fluid on
the animal fibre. This fluid is developed by the mutual
adtion of the metals employed as exciting caufes, and it
exifts in other bodies as well as in thofe which are en¬
dowed with life. We have already mentioned that two
pieces of different metals put into water produce changes
on the water which neither of them feparately could
eifedl. This was obferved by Fabroni, from which he
concluded that a chemical change was elfedled by the
metals on each other. To this change he fuppofed part
53 at lead of the phenomena of galvanifm was owing.
Phenomena Thus he explained the neceffity of two different metals
or galva- amj Qf mQifture Jn the production of thefe phenomena.
Thofe metals, he alfo obferved, which occafioned the
moft rapid changes on each other in water, were inolf
powerful in exciting galvanic convulfions.
Metals and charcoal, it was afcertained by Volta,
being good condudtors of electricity, attraCl and repel
that fluid with different forces. When two different
metals in their natural flate of eleClricity are brought
into contaCt, eleCtric matter paffes from the one to the
other ; the one becomes eleCtrified pofitively, and the
other negatively. From this he concluded, that the
eleClricity which occafioned the galvanic phenomena
did not refide in the animal fibres, but in the metals
employed as exciters, and that the convulfions were
produced by the eleCtric matter pafling through thefe
fibres.
The feeming inconfiftency which appeared in the
opinions of Volta and Fabroni was removed by fuc-
ceeding difcoveries, which demcnftrated that both elec¬
tricity and chemiftry were concerned in the galvanic
phenomena. Galvanifm was now no longer confidered
as fomething connected with living matter, which was
totally inexplicable, but as fomething developed by the
mutual aClion of inorganized fubitances on each other,
the cffeCt or energy of which might be eftimated and
meafured by its aCtion on the mufcular fibres. The
difcovery of the galvanic pile by Volta put it in the
power of philofophers to increafe the pewer or energy
of the galvanic influence at pleafure. This pilej and
the method of conftruCfing it, have been already de-
fcribed.
A defcription has alfo been given of a different ap¬
paratus, the invention of Mr Cruickfliank of Woolwich,
which has been employed in place of Volta’s pile.
This is called the galvanic trough, and it confifts of a
number of fquare plates of different metals as in' the
other, which are foldered together in pairs, and fixed
by means of cement in a box of baked wood, at a fmall
diftartce from each other.
A ftriking analogy was at Once obferved between \
deCtricity t^s aPParatus and charged eleCtrics. A great deal of
difcuflion took place on the fubjecl; much inveftigation
followed ; and philofophers held different opinions con¬
cerning the phenomena of galvanifm, whether it was to
be confidered as the fame with common eleclricity, or
as fomething fpecifically different.
It was at laft afcertained by Nicbolfon and Carlifle
that the zinc end of the pile was in the flute of pofitive
deflricity, and the filvef or copper end in the negative
359
54
Analogous
"to thofe of
flate. The zinc end of the pile, then, according to the Hiftory.
commonly received theory of eleftricity, gives out the ' v
eledlric fluid, which enters at the hlver or copper end.
And if the circle be completed by means of metallic
wires or charcoal, when the pile is fufficiently powerful,
fparks iimilar to what take place by the difcharge of
common eledlricity may be perceived. Elehlric batte¬
ries have been charged by means of the pile ; metallic
wires, tin-foil, gold leaf are burnt; and nrxtures of hy¬
drogen and oxygen gas are exploded in the fame way
as happens when eledtric difcharges are made to pais
through them. From the whole of the phenomena,
there feems now to be little doubt of the identity of the
two fluids.
Chemiftry, however, has a very confiderable fhare in
the phenomena of galvanilm. The adfion of the pile is
moft powerful in oxygen gas : it ceafes entirely in the
vacuum of an air-pump, or in azotic gas. The eledlrical
machine alfo, it has been afcertained, cannot be excited
in any gas unlefs it contain oxygen ; and it feems pro¬
bable, that the eifedl of the amalgam, which is em¬
ployed in exciting the eledlrical machine, bears a propor¬
tion to the facility or rapidity of its Oxidation. But
we {hall difcufs this point more fully in the fecond
chapter.
When the adlion of the pile has continued for fome
time, it gradually becomes weaker, till at laft its energy
is entirely loft. This power can only be renewed by ,
cleaning the plates, the furfaces of which have been very
much changed. It was obferved that the time in which
the action of the pile ceafed, was in proportion to the
energy which it originally poffefled. When it was
ftrongeft, the duration of its a£Hon was ftiorteli. It
was obferved alfo, that one of each pair of plates was
covered with a coat of oxide ■, and when this procefs of
oxidation was finilhed, and the furface of the plate Was
entirely covered, the action ceafed. Of the two metals
employed in the conftruction of the pile, that which is
moft eafily oxidated, always undergoes this procefs.
When zinc and filver, or zinc and copper, are ufed,
the zinc is always oxidated ; and unlefs this oxidation
take place, there is no action of the pile. Its a&ion
or energy is proportional to the oxidation of the metal j
and thus it appears that this oxidation is eflentially ne-
ceffary to the adtion of the pile. For, unlefs the liquid
which is employed to moiften the pieces of card or cloth
between the pairs of plates, or that which fills the cells
in the trough, be capable of oxidating the zinc, no
adion follows. There is qo adtion at all with filver
and zinc, and perfedtly pure water. In vacuo the adlion
of the pile foon ceafes, even with common water j for
the oxygen which is held in folution by the water foon
combines with the zinc, and then the procefs flops.
The adlion is increafed by oxygen gas, ‘ becaufe the
oxidation of the zinc is facilitated. Its adlion is alfo
increafed, and goes on even in vacuo, when nitric acid,
which fupplies oxygen for the procefs of oxidation, is
fubftituted for the water. Thus, by eftimating the pro¬
portion between the oxidation of the metals and the
adion of the pile, it may be determined what metals
are proper for forming piles, a'nd with what liquids they
may be employed. In the choice of the difterent metals,
it mult be obferved, that one of them mufi. always be
more eafily oxidated than the other. Two perfed
condudors which are unequally oxidable, with an im-
perfedh
chemical
effect
O A L V" A
Hiftory. perfe£l conduftor whicli is capable of oxidating the
'   moft oxidable of the perfea conduftors, conftitute the
elements of the galvanic battery.
But fome of the moft important phenomena or galva-
nifm are exhibited in its chemical effedts. Moft of
thefe were firft obferved by the chemical philofophers of
this country. We have already detailed many of the
experiments by which thefe eftedls are illuftrated j and
we lhall here only, for the fake of giving a conne&ed
view of the fubjedt, merely recapitulate fome of
55 them.
Rrcapita- When water forms part of the circle between the
lation of the extreinxtjes 0f the battery, and the condudting wires are
brought within a fmall diftance of each pther, being
knmerfed in a glafs of water, the water is decompofed,
and it will be recolledled that the phenomena are dif¬
ferent according to the nature of the_ wires employed.
When the wires are of gold or platifia, they undergo
no change •, oxygen gas is evolved in fmall bubbles
from the pofitive wire, and hydrogen gas from the ne¬
gative wire ^ and if the gafes be colledted icparately by
the apparatus formerly deferibed, they are found to be
in the proportions of the component parts of water. If
one of the wires be immerfed into one glafs,. and ano¬
ther into a feparate glafs, by completing the circle with
a finger plunged into each glafs, the procefs goes on,
and the hydrogen gas is extricated in the one veffel,
while the oxygen is given out from the wire in the
other. This fadl was firft difeovered by Mr Davy.
When fpring water is ufed, or water having azotic gas
in folution, an acid is formed at the extremity of the
pofitive wire, and an alkali at the extremity of the ne¬
gative wire. The acid w’as found to be nitric, and the
wikali ammonia. If the wires be plunged in different
glades, and the connexion be formed by means of an
animal body, the pofitive wire produces in the water
tinged with an infufion of litmus, a red colour, while
the negative wire alfo reddens an infufion of brafil
wood.
If other wires befide thofe of gold or platina be ufed,
it is found that the pofitive wire undergoes oxidation,
but little or no gas is feparated from it •, while the nega¬
tive wire, as in the former cafe, gives out hydrogen
gas. When the wires are immerfed into metallic folu-
tions, as acetate of lead, nitrate of filver, &c. the fil-
ver or lead is revived, and depofited on the negative
wire *, and if folutions which contain fulphuric, nitric,
or oxymuriatic acids, are ufed for the immerfion of the
conducting wires, the acids are decompofed, oxygen
gas is evolved from the pofitive wire, and fulphur or
hydrogen gas makes its appearance at the negative wire.
The decompofition of ammonia has already been men¬
tioned. This was difeovered by Mr Henry- The hy¬
drogen is given out by the negative wire, while the azo¬
tic gas is evolved by the pofitive wire. When plum¬
bago or charcoal are employed as conductors in place of
metals, it is found that carbonic acid is evolved from
the pofitive end, and hydrogen gas from the nega¬
tive.
It may be neceffary here to deferibe a galvanic bat¬
tery, conftruCted by Mr Davy, on principles fomewdiat
different from that of Volta. In the Voltaic pile there
are two perfeCt conductors, and one imperfeCt conduc¬
tor j but this confifts of two imperfeCt, and one perfeCt
conduCtor : the two imperfeCt conductors are nitrous
3
N I S M.
Part IT.
A trough is di- Theory.
acid and liquid fulphuret of potalh.
vided into cells with flips of horn and plates of zinc,
arranged alternately $ nitrous acid is poured into the firft
cell, and fiilphuret of potaih into the fecond j the two
liquids being feparated by the flip or horn, a commu¬
nication is formed between them by means of a moift
piece of cloth laid over the horn, and in the fame way
the reft of the cells are filled. In this cafe the liquids
are the imperfeCt conductors, and the zinc is the per-
fed one j and the aaion of the battery continues till
the oxidation of one of the furfaces of the zinc takes
place, the other furface remaining unchanged.
Having finiftied the fliort view which rye propofed to
give of the hiftory and progrefs of galvanifm, we fhould
next proceed to detail fome of the later experiments
and difeoveries which have been made on this fubjea.
Wbat we here chiefly allude to, is the difeovery of the
formation of muriatic acid and foda by means of the
galvanic fluid. But this is propofed to be the fubjeCb
of a feparate chapter. We (hall therefore proceed in
the next chapter to confider the hypothefis by means of
which the phenomena of galvanifm have been ex¬
plained, and to point out the analogy between ekari-
city and galvanilm.
Chap. II. 0/ the Theory of Galvanifm, and the Ana¬
logy between the Galvanic Fluid and Electricity.
We have already obferved, that the philofophers
who were occupied in refearches on galvanifm, eany di¬
vided themfelves into two parties. According to one
party, with Volta at their head, the phenomena of gal¬
vanifm, were aferibed to the aaion of common electri¬
city on the mufcular fibres j while another party main¬
tained the opinion that they depended entirely on fome-
thing peculiar to animal matter. I his was the opinion
of Galvani himfelf, the original difeoverer, and it was
fupported by his nephew Aldini, with certain modifica¬
tions. The greater number of philofophers have now-
adopted the opinion of Volta, as being more confiftent
with the phenomena. We (hall therefore now give a
more particular account of the hyppthefis which has
been more generally followed in explaining thefe pheno¬
mena on the principles of eleftricity. _ ^ r
According to the received principles of electricity, Theory
there is a fubtile fluid which exifts in all bodies j buteIedlnat?‘J
the exiftence of this fluid can only be recognifed when
the proportion which a body contains is greater or lefs
than the quantity which is natural to it. When the quan¬
tity is greater than ufual, the body is faid to be eleCtri-
fied pofitivehf or plus i and when the quantity is lefs
than ufual, the body is faid to be eleCtrified negatively
or minus. The eleCtric fluid penetrates certain bodies,
and paffes through them with facility, and thefe bodies
are called conduitors of ele&ricity; but there are other
bodies which it cannot pafs through without difficulty,
thefe bodies are called ncn-ccnduSors or cleBrics. Of
condu£lors there are two kinds ; one of which is de¬
nominated perfea, becaufe the dearie fluid paffes
through them with eafe j the other is called imperfefl
conduaors, becaufe the fluid paffes through them with
difficulty. The perfe6t conduaors are folid bodies
which are fufceptible of oxidation and when they en¬
ter into combination with oxygen, they lofe their pro¬
perties as perfea conduaors. I he metals and charcoal
^ are
Part IT
Theory.
G A L V
57
Affinity of
the electric
fluid for
conduiftors;
. 53
for hydro¬
gen.
are the on]3* pexieci conductors which are known. The
imperfeCt conductors are thoie bodies which contain
oxygen, and when they are deprived of it, they lofe the
properties of impertect Conductors. They are all liquid
bodies, and uiually contain water as one of their com¬
ponent parts. See Electricity.
'1 here is an affinity between the perfeCt conductors
and the eleCtric fluid, in confequence of which this
fluid remains in combination with the perfeCt conduCtor,
till it is attracted by feme body, for which it has a
itronger affinity, or is expelled by fome body combining
with the conduCtor, for which the conduCtor has a
itronger affinity than it has for the eleCtric fluid. Per¬
feCt conductors pofiefs different forces or decrees of affi¬
nity for the eleCtric fluid. Thus, if two perfeCt con¬
ductors be brought into contaCt, the proportion of elec¬
tric matter in each of them changes. That conductor
which has the ftrongeft affinity for the fluid, is eledrified
pofitively, or plus; and the conduCtor which has the
the weaker affinity is electrified negatively, or minus.
It a plate of zinc and one of copper, each of which pol-
fefles its natural proportion of eleCtric fluid, be brought
into contaCt, the zinc is eleCtrified plus, and the copper
minus j or, if iron and filver be brought into contaCt,
the iron is eleCtrifted plus, and the filver minus 5 and if
no other circumfiances operate to change the ffate of
the eleCtricity, thefe two ftates will be permanent.
But, when a perfeCt conductor in the poiitive ftate
of eleCtricity, enters into combination with oxygen, it
parts with the excefs of eleCtnc fluid which it con¬
tained, and the difeharge is made towards that fide of
the conduCtor which is combined with oxygen. The
affinity of imperfeCt conductors for the eleCtric fluid
is weaker than that of the perfeCt conductors, fo that,
it a perfeCt and imperfeCt conduCtor be brought into
contaCt, the perfeCt conduCtor becomes plus, and the
imperfeCt, minus •, and this ffate is not changed, if the
imperfect conduCtor cannot communicate oxygen to the
perfeCt one.
Between the eleCtric fluid and hydrogen there is alfo
an affinity, fo that the eleCtric fluid combines with hy¬
drogen, provided this lattfcr be prefent when the fluid is
feparated from a perfeCt conductor. The eleCtric fluid
is differently conducted through the bodies which are
called perfeCt and imperfeCt conductors. The fluid pafles
through the perfeCt conductors, in its fimpie and un-
combined ftate 5 but unlefs the fluid be combined with
hydrogen, it cannot pafs through the imperfect con¬
ductors, and this compound of eleCtricity and hydrogen
is capable of paffing invifibly through liquid conduce
tors.
Let us now fuppofe a plate of copper and another of
ic, to be brought into contaCt, the zinc is immedi¬
ately eleCtrified plus, and the copper minus •, but let us
iuppofe alfo, that the furface of the zinc fartheft from
the copper, is brought into contaCt with a liquid which
can communicate oxygen to that furface, fo that it be¬
comes oxidated, fuch, for Inftance, is water impregna¬
ted with common air, or with an acid. As foon, then,
as the oxygen of the imperfeCt conduCtor combines with
the zinc, the excefs of its eleCtricity is feparated, and
paffes towards the imperfeCt conduCtor 5 but the zinc is
oxidated by the decompofition of the water, the oxygen
of which combines with the metal, while the hydrogen
is fet free. The eleCtricity of the perfeCt conduCtor en-
Vql. IX. Part I.
T61
Theory.
zinc.
A N I S M.
ters into combination with the hydrogen, and in this
ftate it can pafs through the imperfeCt conduCtor. If v'—•“
then the imperfeCt conduCtor be in contaCt on the other
fide with a perfeCt conductor, fuch as a plate of cop¬
per, which cannot, in this cafe, be oxidated, the elec¬
tric fluid leaves the imperfeCt conduCtor, and enters the
perfect one ; but it cannot combine with a perfeCt con¬
ductor while it is in union with hydrogen ; the hydro¬
gen, therefore, is left behind, and accordingly, when
the eleCtric fluid paffes from the perfect to the imperfeCt
conductor, a portion of hydrogen gas is given out at the
furface of the perfeCt conduCtor ; or, if that furface has
undergone any degree of oxidation, the hydrogen com¬
bines with the oxygen, and thus leaves the conduClor
m the metallic ftate. But, farther, if a plate of zinc
be in contaCt with a plate of copper, thg fluid having a
greater affinity for the zinc, will enter it 5 and if the
zinc be again followed by another imperfeCt conduCtor,
its furface is oxidated, the eleCtricity is difengaged ; it
combines with hydrogen, and paffes through the imper¬
feCt conduCtor as in the former cafe. Whatever the
number of theie fets of bodies may be, if they are ar¬
ranged in the fame order, the fame phenomena will be
exhibited.
Let us now fuppofe, that a battery is conltruCted, ei¬
ther in the form of a pile or trough, of any given num¬
ber of pairs of plates \ and fuppole, if this battery is in
the form of a pile, that the uppermoft plate is zinc,
the lowed is therefore of copper ; the zinc is eleCtrified
plus, and the copper minus. If, then, a communica¬
tion is eftabliffied between the upper and lower plates of
the pile, by means of conductors, according to the laws
of eleClricity, the excefs at the top of the pile immedi¬
ately paffes to the bottom. A current of eleCtricity,
therefore, will pafs through the pile, and will continue
till the furfaces of the zinc next the imperfeCt conduc¬
tors are completely oxidated, when the action ceafes,
becauie the double decompofitions on which this aCtion
depends, can no longer take place. zr>
The number of repeated charges which pals, through Different
the pile, mult be in proportion to the number of plates, effe(fts from
to that the intenfity of the pile increafes with the num-tlie1numbei’
ber of plates of which it is compofed. Hence it is, that° b a'’e?’
the effeCls of galvanifm on animals is found to be in pro¬
portion to the number of plates employed in the batte¬
ry ; but this depends upon its intenfity, or the number
of difeharges followed by intervals, which pafs through
the body in a given time.
But, on the other hand, the effeCt of the galvanicanc^ extent
fluid on metallic fubftances depends on the abfolute0* ^urtaCf'
quantity which paffes through the metal in a given
time. But the abfolute quantity of fluid difeharged
from a Angle pair of plates, muft be proportional to the
furface of thefe places 5 and hence it is, that the quan¬
tity of eleClricity difeharged from a pile in a given time,
depends upon the furface of the plates. When a bat¬
tery is difeharged, the fmall charge contained in each
pair of plates, paffes through the difeharger ; but there
muft be an interval between each of thofe feparate
charges, for they cannot be fuppofed to pafs inftantane-
oully, although the interval being too fmall to be per¬
ceptible, the difeharge of the battery feems to be in-
ftantaneous. As then the number of fmall difeharges
which are apparently inftantaneous, when a battery is
difeharged, is in proportion to the number of plates,
Z z the
362
6i
( nemical
ctedls.
^ 2 O A. L V A
Theory, the intenfity of each little dii'charge is proportional to
 the places which the pair of plates occupies in the bat¬
tery 5 and hence it is, that the (hock is increafed by the
number of plates more rapidly than the effea of the
battery on metals is increafed; but, on the contrary,
the furface of the plates being^ increafed, the effea on
metals is alfo increafed, becauie the quantity difcharged
at once from the upper pair is increafed ; and it (eems
to be in this way that the effect on metallic fubftances
is produced. .
In the fame way the chenlical changes which arc et-
fedled by means of galvanifm may be explained. Let
it be expofed, that a gold wire, ccnnefted with the up¬
per plate of the battery, terminates in a glafs of water,
and another gold ware from the lower plate ol the
battery, terminates in the fame water.. ^ The circle is
then completed by the gold wire, wdiich is a penect
conduftor. The current of elearicity paffes through
the wire which is conneaed with the uppermoft plate
to the bafe of the battery, and it would pafs uninter¬
ruptedly, if there were no interval between the wares.
This interval is lupplied with water, and, when the
elearic fluid reaches the extremity of the wire, it muff
pafs through the water, but it can only pafs through an
imperfea conduaor when it is in combination with hy¬
drogen. It therefore combines with the hydrogen of
the water, which is accordingly decompofed at the
point of the wire. The oxygen is difengaged, and the
hydrogen in combination with the eleancity paiies
through the water till it reach the point of the other
wire ; and the affinity betiveen this wire and the elec¬
tric fluid being greater than the affinity of the latter for
water, the elearic fluid enters the wire, and paffes on
to the other end of the battery; but. the hydrogen is
previoufly feparated from the extremity of this lecond
wire, in the form of gas, becaufe the fluid cannot enter
the wire in combination with hydrogen.
If the wires are immerfed in ammonia, the hydrogen
is derived from that fubftance of which it forms one
of the component parts ; the azotic gas, the bafe of
which is its other conftituent, is evolved at the extre¬
mity of the firft wire, and hydrogen gas at the extre¬
mity of the fecond. But, if the wires are plunged in
the water which contains common air, and consequently
a certain portion of azote, as oxygen gas combines with
azote in its nafeent flate, or at the moment of its evo¬
lution, the compound refulting from this combination
is nitric acid. Hydrogen gas alto, in its nafeent Hate,
will combine with azote, and ammonia is the refult of
this combination. Hence it is, that in fome experiments
nitric acid is found at the point of the pofitive wire, and
ammonia at the point of the negative wire, when com¬
mon water is employed.
When liquids holding in folution a metallic fait, the
bafe of which is an oxide of the metal, are employed ;
as hydrogen gas poffeffes the property of reducing or
reviving metals, if in its nafeent (late it comes in con-
taft with their oxides, the metallic falts are in this cafe
decompofed, and the metal is revived. It is found.de-
polited on the negative wire. When copper or iron
wires are employed to complete the circle, inftead of
N I S M. Part II.
he completed by means of charcoal or pAumbago, and Theory,
the interval between tbefe conducting fubftances. be wa- v '
ter, carbonic acid gas is feparated from the poiitive con-
duftor, becaufe the oxygen in its nafeent ftate is fufeep-
tible of combination with carbone ; and the hydrogen
in the fame ftate combining with carbone, carbureted hy¬
drogen is given cut by the negative conductor.
Such is the hypothetical explanation which has been
given of the aaion of galvaniim, and the phenomena
which it exhibits. A fuller view of the analogy be¬
tween galvanifm and elearicity has been given by Dr
Woliafton.
“ Notwithflanding, he obferves, the power of Mr Vol-
ta’s eledfnc pile is now known to be propoitional to the
difpofition of one of the metals to be oxidated by the
fluid interpofed, a doubt has, been entertained by many
perfons, whether this power arifes from the chemical
aaion of the fluid on the metal, or, on the contrary,
whether the oxidation itfelf may not be occaffoned by
elearicity, fet in motion by the contaa of metals that
have different conduaing powers. . _ <j2
“ That the oxidation of the metal is the primary Eiedlricity
caufe of the elearic phenomena obferved, is, I think, to evolved .
be inferred from the following experiments, which ex- y 'f e.
hibit the galvanic procefs reduced to its moil Ample
^•at;e- • • r i-i
“ Exfter. T. If a piece of zinc and a piece of filver
have each one extremity immerfed in the fame v.effel,
containing fulphuric or muriatic acid diluted with a
large quantity of wTater, the zinc is diffolved, and yields
hydrogen gas, by decompofition of the water; the fil¬
ver, not being aaed upon, has no power of decompoffng
water ; but, whenever the zinc and (ilver are made to
touch, or any metallic communication is made between
them, hydrogen gas is alfo formed at the mriace of the
filver. _
“ Any other metal befides zinc, which by afliftanee
of the acid employed is capable of decompoling water,
will fucceed equally, if the other wire conlifts of a metal
on which the acid has no effedl.
“ Exper. 2.—If zinc, iron or copper, is. employed
with gold in diluted nitric acid, nitrous gas is formed ^
in the fame manner, and under the fame circumftances,
as the hydrogen gas in the former experiment.
“ Exper. 3.—Experiments analogous to the former,
and equally iimple, may alio be made with many me¬
tallic folutions. If, for inftance, the folution. contains
copper, it will be precipitated by a piece of iron,
appear on its furface. Upon filver merely immened
in the fame folution, no fuch e lie cl is produced ; but as
foon as the two metals are brought into contadl, the fil¬
ver receives a coating of copper. . _
“ In the explanation of theie experiments, it is nccei-
fary to advert to a point eftablifned by means of the
eledlric pile. . . ~
“ We know that when water is placed m a circuit ot
conductors of electricity, between the two extremities
of a pile, if the power is fufficient to oxidate one.of the
wares of communication, the wwe connected with the
oppofite extremity affords hydrogen gas.. .
“ Since the extrication of hydrogen, in this in (lance,
rg»isr&“. Topi;g™ m ;f a «»* hr'Set: &
combining with thefe metals, at the moment of its dif- other inltances, eleflricity may e a o ‘ j
enpagement, it is depofited on the pofitive wire, and converfion into gas. It would appear, the etore that
k this cafe none is feparated from it; but if the circle in the folution of a metal, eleclinc.ty ts evolved durmg
Part II.
G A L V
Theory, the a£Hon of the acid upon it; and that the formation
' v of hydrogen gas, even in that cafe, depends on a tranii-
tion of eleftricity between the fluid and the metal.
“ We lee, moreover, in the firfl: experiment, that
the zinc, without contaft of any other metal, has the
power of decompofxng water •, and we can have no reafon
to luppofe that the contaft of the filver produces any
new power, but that it ferves merely as a condudtor
of electricity, and thereby occafions the formation of
hydrogen gas. •
“ In the third experiment alfo, the iron by itfelf has
the powrer of precipitating copper, by means, I prefume,
of electricity evolved during its folution 5 and here like-
wife the filver, by conducting that eleCtricity, acquires
the power of precipitating the copper in its metallic Hate.
“ The explanation here given receives additional
confirmation from comparative experiments which I have
made with common eleCtricity j for it will be feen, that
the lame transfer of chemical powder, and the fame ap¬
parent reverfion of the ufual order of chemical affini¬
ties in the precipitation of copper by filver, may be ef¬
fected by a common eleCtrical machine.
“ The machine with which the followung experi¬
ments were Conducted, confifts of a cylinder feven inches
in diameter, with a conductor on each fide, 16 inches
long, and three and a half inches diameter, each fur-
niffied with a Hiding electrometer, to regulate the
ftrength of the fpark received from them.
“ Exper. 4.—Having a wire of fine filver T4o- of an
inch in diameter, I coated the middle of it for two or
three inches, with fealing wax, and by cutting through
in the middle of the wax, expofed a feCtion of the wire.
The two coated extremities of the wire, thus divided,
were immerfed in a folution of fulphate of copper, placed
in an eleftric circuit between the two conduCtors; and
fparks, taken at — of an inch diftance, were palled by
means of them through the folution. After 100 turns
of the machine, the wire wffiich communicated with
(what is called) the negative conductor, had a precipi¬
tate formed on its furface, wffiich, upon being bur-
nilhed, was evidently copper; but the oppofite wire
had no fuch coating.
“ Upon reverling the direction of the current of
eleCtricity, the ord^r of the phenomena was of courfe
reverfed •, the copper being fhortly re-diflblved by affilt-
ance of the oxidating power of pofitive eleCtricity, and
a fimilar precipitate formed on the oppofite wire.
“ Exper. 5.—A fimilar experiment made with gold
wires tT_ 0f an inch diameter, in a folution of corrofive
fublimate, had the fame fuccefs.
“ The chemical agency, therefore, of common elec¬
tricity, is thus proved to be the fame wdth the powder
excited by chemical means 5 but, fince a difference has
■ been obferved in the comparative facility with wffiich
the pile of Volta decompofes water, and produces other
efieCls of oxidation and de-oxidation of bodies expofed
to its aCtion, I have been at feme pains to remove this
difficulty, and can at leaft produce a very clofe imita¬
tion of the galvanic phenomena, by common eleCtri¬
city.
“ It has been thought neceflary to employ powerful
machines, and large Leyden jars, Tor the decompo-
fition of w'ater ; but when I confidered that the decom-
pofition mult depend on duly proportioning the ftrength
of the charge of eleCtricity to the quantity of water,
63
T‘Teels of
galvanifm
imitated
by eleClri-
city,
A N I S M;
and that the quantity expofed to its aCtion at the fur-
face of communication depends on the extent of that
furface, I hoped that, by reducing the furface of com¬
munication, the decompofition of wrater might be effect¬
ed by fmaller machines, and with lefs powerful excita¬
tion, than have hitherto been ufed for that purpofe 5
and, in thL hope, I have not been difappointed.
“ Exper. 6.—Having procured a fmall wire of fine
gold, and given it as fine a point as I could, I in-
ferted it into a capillary glafs tube ; and after heat¬
ing the tube, fo as to make it adhere to the point and
cover it in every part, I gradually ground it down,
till, with a pocket lens, T could difeern that the point
of the gold was expofed.
“ The fuccefs of this method exceeding my ex- 5*n decom-
peftations, I coated feveral wires in the fame manner, P°^ng 'v8-'
and found, that when fparks from the conduClors be- ter’
fore-mentioned were made to pafs through wrater, by
means of a point fo guarded, a fpark pafling to the
diftance of one-eighth of an inch would decompofe
water, when the point expofed did not exceed of
an inch in diameter. With another point, which I
64
eltimated at
TTo"o>
a fucceffion of fparks of an inch
in length, afforded a current of fmall bubbles of air.
“ I have fince found, that the lame apparatus will
decompofe water, with a wire ^5- of an inch diameter,
coated in the manner before deferibed, if the fpark
from the prime conductor paffes to the diftance of -A-
of an inch of air.
“ Exper. 7.—In order to try how far the ftrength of
the . eleCtric fpark might be reduced by proportional
diminution of the extremity of the wire, I palled a fo¬
lution of gold in aqua regia through a capillary tube,
and, by heating the tube, expelled the acid. There
remained a thin film of gold, lining the inner furface of
the tube, which, by melting the tube, was converted
into a very fine thread of gold, through the fubftance
of the glafs.
“ When the extremity of this thread was made the
medium of communication through water, I found that
the mere current of eleCtricity would occafion a ftream
of very fmall bubbles to rife from the extremity of the
gold, although the wire, by which it communicated
with the pofitive or negative conductor, was placed in
abfolute contaCt with them. Hence it appears, that
decompofition of water may take place by common
eleCtricity, as well as by the eleCtric pile, although no
difcernible fparks are produced.
“ The appearance of two currents of air may alfo
be imitated, by occafioning the eleCtricity to pafs by fine
points of communication on both fades of the waiter :
but, in faCt, the refemblance is not complete ; for, in
every w^ay in which I have tried it, I obferved that
each wire gave both oxygen and hydrogen gas, in-
ftead of their being formed feparately, as by the elec¬
tric pile.
“ I am inclined to attribute the difference in this
refpeCt to the greater inteniity with which it is neceffarv
to employ common eleCtricity , for, that pofitive and
negative eleCtricity, fo excited, have each the fame
chemical power as they are obferved to have in the'
eleCtric pile, may be afeertained by other means.
^ “ In the precipitation of copper by filver, an inftance
of de-oxidation (or phlogifticationj by negative elec¬
tricity has been mentioned ; the oxidating power of po-
Z z 2 fitive
2 6/j. GAL v A
Theory* fitive eleSridty may be alfo proved, by its effefts on
' ^ vegetable blue colours.
» Exper. 8.—Having coloured a card with a ftrong
changing infufion of litmus, I palled a current-of electric (parks
the blue'’ along it, by means of two fine gold points, touching it
colour at the difiance of an inch from each other. I he effect,
vegetables. as ;n otper cafe^? depending on the fmallnefs of the
quantity of water, was moft difcernible when the card
was nearly dry. In this date a very few turns of the
machine were fufticient to occafion a rednefs at the po-
litive wire, very manifeft to the- naked eye. the nega¬
tive wire, being afterwards placed on the fame ipot,
foon reftored it to its original blue colour.
“ By Mr Volta’s apparatus the fame effects are pro¬
duced in a much lefs time.
“ Befides the fimilarity which has thus been traced
between the effects of electricity excited by the com¬
mon machine, and thofe obferved from the eleCtric pile,
I think it appears alfo probable, that they originate from
the fame fource.
“ With regard to the latter, its power is known to
depend on oxidation 5 fo alfo does the excitement in
tbb former appear very much to depend on the fame
procefs; for,
“ Exper. p.—I have found that, by ufing an amalgam
of filver or of platina, which are not liable to be oxi¬
dated, I could obtain no eleClricity. An amalgam of
tin, on the contrary, affords a good degree of excitement.
Zinc aCfs ftill better ; but the beft amalgam is made
with both tin and zinc, a mixture which is more eafily
oxidated than either metal feparately.
“ Exper. io.—But, as a farther trial whether oxida¬
tion atfifts in the production of electricity, I mounted
a fmall cylinder, with its culhion and conductor, in a
veffel fo contrived, that I could at pleafure change the
contained air.
“ After trying the degree of excitement in common
air, I fubftituted carbonic acid gas, and found that the ex¬
citement was immediately deftroyed, but that it returned
upon re-admiflion of atmofpheric air.
“ In conformity to this hypothefis, we find that the
metal oxidated is, in each cafe, in a limilar ftate of elec¬
tricity ; for the culhion of the machine, by oxidation
of the amalgam adhering to it, becomes negative *, and
in the fame manner, zinc, oxidated by the accumulated
power of an eleftric pile, or fimply by aCtion of an
acid, is alfo negative.
“ This limilarity in the means by which both elec¬
tricity and galvanifm appear to be excited, in addition
to the refemblance that has been traced between their
effeffs, (hews that they are both v-ffentially the fame, and
confirms an opinion that has already been advanced by
others, that all the differences dilcoverable in the effects
of the latter, may be owing to its being lefs intenfe, but
produced in much larger quantity
•Tw’iSoi analogy was Itill farther eftablilhed by the ex-
p. TJ?*1 periments of Van Marum, in which he fucceeded in
charging an ele&rical battery, coniifting of 1374 fquare
feet," by means of the galvanic pile. On examining
the power of the {hocks which were given by the bat¬
tery charged with the pile, it was found that the
fhock from 100 pairs of plates was about equal to a
{hock from the battery, when it was charged by means
of 20Q. A pile of 20c pairs of plates feemed t© have
N I S M. Part II.
fix times the power of an electrical machine, having a Theory. ^
plate of 31 inches diameter. 6‘5
The following experiments made by Mr Cuthbertfon, D ftjngUjfi1.
with galvanic batteries, are fuppofed by him to afford mg pro-
a diftinguifiring property between the galvanic and elec- perty be-
tric fluids. 1. Charcoal was deflagrated _ and ignited -
for above an inch in length. 2. Iron wire ^ ot an e;eLq.nclty,
inch diameter was melted into a ball of Ao inch diame¬
ter. 3. Platina wire -Ao inc^ diameter, was melted in¬
to a ball Ao inch diameter. 4. Brais wire As- i^ch di¬
ameter, three-fourths of an inch in length was ignited.
5. Brafs wire Ag- inch diameter was red hot at the end.
6. Iron wire T'-- inch diameter was red hot for 16 in¬
ches in length. 7. Iron wire, t 2 inches deflagrated, and
melted into a ball. 8. Iron wire fix inches in length
was deflagrated. 9. lion wire eight inches in length
was ignited.
The firft feven experiments above were made with
two troughs, each containing 30 pairs of plates, fix in¬
ches fquare, but in the lafi two experiments, one of
thefe troughs only was ufed. The conclufion drawn frorn
the four laft experiments is, that douole quantities ot
galvanic fluid only burn double lengths ol wire, and
not the fquare, as ele&rical difehafges do*. _ _ * Phil.
To difeover what quantity of coated glafs would be Mug. xviii.
required to take a charge fuflicient to ignite the fame 358.
lengths of wire, the two laft experiments were compared
with common eleffrical difeharges. I wo jars, each
containing about 1 7° fquare inches of coating, were fet
to the conduftor of a 24-inch fingle-plate electrical ma¬
chine, with the author’s univerfal electrometer, loaded
■with 3 1 grains. Eight inches of the lame kind oi wire
were laid in the circuit, and with 57'revolutions of
the plate the eledtrometer difeharged the jars, and the
wire was ignited as perfectly as in experiment 9th.
Afterwards fix inches of the wire being laid in the cir¬
cuit, a difeharge was produced with tire lame number of
revolutions of the machine, and the wire was deflagrated,
and fuled into balls, in the lame manner as in the 8th
experiment. Hence he concluded, that 340 fquare in¬
ches of coated glafs, properly conftru&ed, are fufficient
to bear a charge equal to a galvanic battery oi 1080
fquare inches of furface. On comparing the above ex¬
periments with lome others made fome time before, the
-author finds it neceffary to modify the conclufion which
he had deduced from them. With a pile of 16 pairs
of plates, of 10 inches diameter, eight of which were
laid upon each other in the ufual manner, and cloths
moifiened with diluted muriatic acid interpofed, he
burnt half an inch of wire of inc^ diameter ; and
when the other eight pairs were added, he burnt four
inches of the fame wire. This was repeated with the
eight in pairs with the fame reiult, with relpecf to the
burning of metals, but it gave ftrong and loud fparks
from metal to metal, which might be heard at the oi-
ftance of 300 yards. This refiflt, he obferves, bad not
been attained from troughs, to be heard at any diilance.
In the laft experiment the cloths were moiftened with
a ftrong folution of muriate of ammonia. Comparing
this eftea of the pile and the trough, Mr Cuthbertfon
thinks, there is fome defea in the arrangement or con-
ftruaion of the latter.
In many experiments which Volta made on piles
ccmpofed of a fingle metal, and a fingle wet ftratum,
which
Part II.
GALVANISM.
3^5
Format.on wliicli of tliemfelves are Inactive, it was found that they
became mcfre or lefs aclive, after affording a paffrge for
i "‘’■I a lostger or (horter time to an eledlric current, which
was fet in motion by an aclive pile. According to
Ritter, the active pile or common eleftrometer tranlinits
a real charge to th. pile, which is itielf inadlive, and
this he calls the charged pile. Volta, however, is of
opinion, that no charge is tranfmitted but by means of
the ordinary chemical aftion 5 for the eleclrical current
being continued, changes the fingle wet ftratum inter-
poled between two pieces of gold, for example, into
two different tluids •, one acid, by which the eleclric
current iffues out of the metal, and the other alkaline,
by which it enters, thus conftituting a pile of the fe-
cond order, compofed of one metal, and two fluids of dif¬
ferent natures. The a£ffon 'of this pile, however, foon
* Nichol. ceales, becaufe the fluids foon mix together *.
yourn. XL
1"ld' Chap. III. Of the Formation of Muriatic Acid and
Soda, by means of Galvan fm.
Some of the moil curious phenomena which have yet
been exhibited in galvanifm, relate to the formation of
muriatic acid by means of this power. In the account
which has been given of Mr Cruicklhank’s experi¬
ments, it will be recolledfed that he made the difeovery
of the formation of an acid and alkali, during the a£tion
of the galvanic battery. This acid, he concluded, was
the nitric, and the alkali, ammonia. The theory of the
production of thele fubflances in the galvanic pile has
been already mentioned, and it correfponds with the
explanation of the principles which have been adopted
for explaining the phenomena of galvanifm ; later re-
fearches, however, have been conducted with more ac¬
curate obfervation, or have opened a wider field of
difeovery. The truth of this remark will be fully con¬
firmed, if it be at lafl: finally afeertained, that common
fait, the component parts of which are muriatic acid
and foda, is produced by the action of galvanifm.
The firfl: hint of this difeovery was given by Mr
Peel of Cambridge, in a letter dated April 1805, ad-
f Vol. xxi drefled to the editor of the Philofophical Magazine f, of
P 275- which the following account is given in his own words.
Mr Peel’s “ ^ to°h, (fays he), about a pint of difiilled water, and
difeovery of decompofed one half of it by means of galvanifm ; the
the forma- other half I evaporated, and I found to remain at the
riate^ffo11" ^0't0rn t:^e a quantity of fait, which upon
‘ ‘ " examination I found to be muriate of foda, or common
fait.—What induced me to try the experiment was this 5
I knew that when water was decompofed by means of
galvanifm, the water near one of the wires had alkaline,
while that near the other had acid properties. This
being the cafe, I inferred, that if an alkali and an acid
were really produced, I fhruld, by decompofing a large
quantity of water, obtain a fmall quantity of fome kind
of neutral fait: as was actually the cafe on trying the
experiment. The fait could not have been contained
in the water before I made the experiment, becaufe I
ufed every precaution to have it free from impurities.
I even took the trouble to repeat the experiment,
though a tedious one, and I again obtained the fame
refult.” He adds, that a fimiiar experiment being re¬
peated by a friend of his, afforded a fimilar refult.
It having been fuggelled to Mr Peel, that it might
he worth while to vary the experiment, by employing
water formed of its elements, he gives the following ac¬
count of the refult of this procefs, in another letter,
dated June 1805.
“ Having proceeded, he obferves, to the formation
of water from its elements, with which to repeat my
former experiment, I found when the oxygen and hy¬
drogen gales were quite pure, and exactly in due pro¬
portion, that r.o refiduum of air was left, and that the
water formed was not in the flighted degree acidulous.
When the procefs was not conducted with great accu¬
racy, or any precaution to have it accurate was omitted,.
I then found the wrater acidulous, and the acid that
cauled this acidity to be the nitric acid.
The acidulous water thus obtained I neutralized
with lime, from which I diddled the water, and this
Formation
of Muriatic
Acid, &cc.
water I decompofed by the galvanic procefs, as in the
experiment detailed in my former letter.
“ I did not imagine the ufing water fo obtained could
make the leaf! cifference on the refult of the experi¬
ment $ but as a with was expreiied to have the trial
made, I again undertook that interefting but very tedi¬
ous labour.
“ When I came to examine the refiduum, to my
great aftonxlhment I found that not muriate of loda, but
muriate of potalh, was produced. I mult own I feel
niylelf entirely at a lofs how to account for this, nor
fhall I attempt it j all I can fay is, that this, as well as
my former experiment, was conducted with the greatefl
care and accuracy that I could beflow
Aboufthe fame time a difeovery of a fimilar nature MaZ' x&“* 7
was made by Profeflbr Pacchiani of Pifa. This dif- 1' 68
covery, which relates to the compofition of muriatic Pacchianfs,
acid, was firfl; announced in this country in the number of muriatic
of the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, pub- ac’c^
liflied the ill July 1805. The following is an account
of his experiments, and the conclufions which he dedu¬
ces from them in his own words. “ The fimplicity of
the apparatus, (he fays), and of the means adopted to
attain my views, the care with which I endeavoured to
avoid every fource of error, have, I hope, fufliciently
fecured me againfl: thofe illufions which frequently de¬
ceive young men ardent in the purfuit of fcience, and
even thofe praftifed in the art of extorting from nature
her fecrets. Want of time prevents me from relating.
the feries of experiments by which I arrived at the dif¬
eovery I have mentioned ; but you may fee it by per-
ufing the manufeript of my memoir, which will be im¬
mediately publiflied, to fubmit my refearches and their
refults to the judgment of the learned. For the pre-
fent, I (hall felebf from the experiments and fafts there¬
in deferibed thofe whofe which are decifive, and which
ellabliih, in an evident manner, the following truths:
“ I. Muriatic acid is an oxide of hydrogen, and con-
fequently compofed of hydrogen and oxygen.
“II. In the oxygenated muriatic acid, and therefore, .
a fortiori, in muriatic acid, there is a much lefs propor¬
tion of oxygen than in water.
“ III. Hydrogen is lufceptible of very many and
different degrees of oxidation, contrary to what is uni-
verfally believed by pneumatic chemifts, who affert .
that hydrogen is fufceptible only of one invariable de¬
gree of oxidation, that in which it forms water.
“ Iffaving at firfl: examined the phenomenon of the
decompofition of water by the galvanic pile, and ha-,
ving, by accurate experiments, afeertained the true •
theory,.
^6 6
G A L V
Formation theory, I readily difcovered a very fimple and exaft ap-
°f Muriat e paratus^ jn j could diilinclly perceive the
.Acid, Su. cinanges wycn happen to water, which, from the con¬
tinued a6tion/of the galvanic pile, is continually loling
its oxygen at the furface of a wire of very pure gold
immerfed in it.
“ I therefore proceeded to examine thefe gradual
changes of water thus lofing its oxygen 5 and I at laft
obferved a very lingular fadf, which unequivocally in¬
dicated the formation of an acid. In other antecedent
experiments I had examined the nature of the air ob¬
tained before arriving at this remarkable point, and I
always found, by means of the eudiometer of Giobert,
that it was very pure oxygen, as the refiduum fcarcely
amounted to one-lixtieth.
“ Having thus examined the nature of the air form¬
ed in various experiments, from the firft moment of de-
compoiition, until there were evident indications of the
formation of an acid, I began to endeavour to deter¬
mine, in a-more pofitive manner, the exiftence and na¬
ture of this acid.
“ When the water, or, to fpeak more accurately, the
refidual fluid, occupied about half the capacity of the
receiver, which at firft contained the water, this refi¬
dual fluid prefented the following chara£ters :
“ Its colour was an orange yellowq more or lefs deep,
according as the bulk of the refidual liquor w7as greater
or lefs, and it refembled in appearance a true folution
of gold.
“ From the inferior orifice of the vefiel, which w7as
.clofed with a piece of taffety, and then with double
-bladder, there efcaped a fmell which was eafily recog¬
nized to be that of oxygenated muriatic acid.
“ The gold w7ire had in part loft its metallic luflre,
and its furface appeared as if corroded by a folvent.
“ The bit of taffety which had been in contact with
the coloured fluid, in confequence of its a£fion, was
.eafily torn, as is ufual with fimilar bodies when half
burnt {fcmi-combujlo).
u Around the edges of the veffel, on the bladder,
there was formed a deep purple ring, which furrounded
a circular fpace rendered entirely colourlefs, or white.
“ A drop of this fluid tinged the fkin of the hand,
after fome hours, with a beautiful rofe colour.
“ Having obtained, in various fucceffive experiments,
the fame liquid, poffeffing conftantly the fame proper¬
ties, I chofe that obtained in the laft experiment to fub-
jedf it to chemical examination. The very able chemift
of this univerfity, Signior Giufeppe Branchi, had the
goodnefs to enter zealaufly into my views ; and in his
laboratory w7e eafily proved,
“ x. The exiftence of a volatile acid, by the white va¬
pours which were formed by ammonia placed near it.
“ 2. That this acid w7as certainly oxygenated muria¬
tic acid, fince it formed in nitrate of filver a curdy preci¬
pitate, the luna cornea of the antients, or the muriate
of filver of the moderns. From thefe fafts w7e may draw7
the following pofitive and undeniable refults:
“ 1. Muriatic acid is an oxide of hydrogen, and is
therefore compofed of hydrogen and oxygen.
“ 2. Oxygenated muriatic acid, and of courfe muri¬
atic acid, contains lefs oxygen than w7ater does.
“ 3. Hydrogen has not one degree of oxygenation,
but many. One of thefe conftitutes water, another be-
A N I S M. Part II.
low it oxygenated muriatic acid, and, below tins, there Formation
is another which conftitutes muriatic acid.” ^M^uriattc
Mr Henry of Manchefter, in an account of his in- j
veftigations on this fubjeft, obferves that there is a 69
confiderable point of difference between the Englifti Henry’s re-
and the Italian chemift. The refuh of Mr Peel’s ex- markn
periment vras found to be muriate of foda 5 but in
Profefibr Pacchiani’s, in wdiich an interrupted gold
wire w7as employed, it appeared to be muriate of gold.
This ingenious chemift, with the fame view, made the
following experiment. He took a glafs tube 4^ inches
long, .35 inches diameter, in wftuch were fecured with
corks, two flips of platina, having their extremities at
a proper diftance to eft’ecl the decompofition of the
water. The quantity of water, at the beginning of
the experiment, amounted to two drams. After being
expofed to the galvanic aftion for fix days, it was fo
far diminifhed, that ^ inch of the tube was unfilled.
The water w7hich was employed wras carefully puri¬
fied, by being firft diftilled, and then, after adding
nitrate of filver, by a fecond diftillation. After the
experiment w7as finilhed, w7ith the addition of nitrate
of filver, it became opalefcent in a few feconds, and
being expofed to the light, exhibited thofe changes
which indicate the prefence of muriatic acid. It did
not appear that muriate of platina had been produced,
for muriate of ammonia being added to one portion,
and carbonate of foda to another, produced no preci¬
pitation.
In making this experiment, Mr Henry fuggefts a
very ufeful precaution. The w7ater employed, he ob¬
ferves, fhould never, on any account, come into contact
with the fingers, becaufe there is a conftant excretion
of muriate of foda from the fkin, and in this wray the
pureft water is very foon contaminated. He recom¬
mends alfo, that glafs ftoppers fhould be employed
in place of corks, for tranfmitting the conducing
wIres*' . . . * Ibid. 183.
In another communication by Mr Peel on the fame
fubjeft, he relates the following experiments, w7hich
were undertaken, he fays,
“ xft, To determine whether the difference in the New ex-
refult of the before-mentioned experiments was owing periments
in any degree to my having employed lime to neutralize^)’ Mr Feel
the water employed in my fecond experiment, before it
was diftilled.
“ 2d, To afeertain whether th& falts found in
the refidual water, or any component part of them,
came from the galvanic battery by means of the
wires.
“ To determine the firft point, I varied my experi¬
ment by employing for decompofition water diftilled
under different circumftances.
“ Exper. 1.—The water employed in this experi¬
ment was diftilled from water containing lime. A
portion of it wa* decompofed in the manner that has
before been ftated. The remaining water yielded
muriate of potafli.
“ Exper. 2.—Water diftilled from water containing
magnefia was decompofed in the fame manner. The
refult was muriate of foda.
“ Exper. 3.—In this experiment double diftilled
fnow water was employed. The refult was muriate of
foda.
“ Exper. '
Part If.
G A L V
VviTUt -U Ex per. 4.-—Water diililled from barytes was now
°Ac d'firc0 u^e<^* ^le re^u^ vvas muriate of foda.
>—•—Y-—— . U ^ water which I ufed in the experiment detailed
in my firil: letter was dildilled from pump water (the
pump is on the premifes where I live), which I have
not m^ielf analyzed, but a Iriend has been fo good as
to take upon him that trouble. He has not been able
to deleft in it the minuted: portion of magnefia. In one
of the above experiments, having ufed water diftilled
from magneha, I obtained muriate of foda 5 but, having
obtained the fame refult from diftilled fnow water, and
from water diftilled from barytes, I conclude that the
produftion of the loda has nothing to do with the pre¬
fence of magnefia. #
“ .But, in the produftion of potafh, the prefence of
lime feems to be eflcntial, and, as you hinted, a portion
of. lime muft have been carried over with the diftilled
water 5 a faft which few would fufpeft, and which pro¬
bably may often be the caufe of differences in the refults
of chemical inveftigations, condufted, to all appearance,
m a fimilar manner.
_ “ To determine the fecond point which I had in
view, namely, whether the falls found in the refidual
water, or any component part of them, came from the
galvanic battery by means of the condufting wires, I
made fimilar experiments to thofe before ftated, em¬
ploying for the decompofition of the diftilled water a
*lb'd xxii l'°"er U1 eleftrical machine inftoad of a galvanic bat-
25S.; tery> kut without obtaining refults different from what
71 have been already ftated
and others. It is ftated in the fame number of the Philofophical
Magazine, that the following refult was obtained in an
experiment on the fame fubjeft. By continuing to pafs
the galvanic fluid from a trough compoled of 40 pairs
of Iquare inch plates, through diftilled water, contained
in a glafs tube, the tube being furnifhed at one end
with a wire of gold, and at the other with a wire of
platina, it was found that a coating of oxide of gold
was depofited on the gold wire, from which it is con-
dp- i-5- eluded, that oxymuriatic acid was found in the procefs f.
A more particular account was afterwards given by the
author of this experiment, and of the precautions he ob-
feryed in repeating it. He took a clean glafs tube,
which wms bent as in the former experiment •, but, in-
ftead of the gold wire, he employed one of platina, fo
that both wires were of the fame metal. One of the
wires was only introduced a fnort way into the tube
containing the diftilled water; the other wire intro¬
duced at the ether extremity, paffed nearly through its
whole length, till it reached beyond the point at which
the (hort wire terminated. After the apparatus had
flood for three days, with the zinc end of the trough
connefted with the fliort platina wire, the latter af-
fumed the colour of gold, and the long one became
black from the lower end to the height of the fliort
wire, and continued fo for the fpace of three weeks.
The water being diminifhed one-third, the fhort wire
was connefted with the copper end of the trough, and
in one day’s time the long wire became bright, and the
fhort one black. After two days had elapfed, that part
of the long wire which reached to the height of the
fhort one, affumed a yellowifh golden tinge. Both the
wires remained fo for three days, when they were placed
in their firft fituation. The black powder then left the
fhort wire, and the long one became black. A flip of
367
A N I S M.
buie left paper being immerfed in the remaining wrater, Formation
its colour was changed, which indicates the produftionoflvIuriatic
of an .laid. Acid,
Pacchiani, the difeoverer, in another letter on this * ' ' '
fubjeft addreffed to Fabroni, feems to think that thofe
who have failed in obtaining the fame refults in the de¬
compofition of water, have either been influenced in
condufting their experiments by preconceived opinions,
or have deviated from the procefs which he followed.
But for an account of his views and reafonings, fee An.
de Chim. tom. Ivi. or Phil. Mag. xxiv. 176. We fliali
only ohferve, that he fhil conkders himfelf warranted to
diau the fame conclufion with regard to the formation
of the acid, by the aftion of galvauifm.
P»Ir Sylvefter of SneflieJd made the following experi¬
ment on this fubjeft. The water which he employed
was not changed by adding nitrate of filver. This
water was introduced into a tube which was fecured
at one end with a bit of bladder. At the other end
was a cork, through which a ware of platina was
palled, nearly to the bottom of the tube. The tube
was then fet in a wine glafs, containing alfo pure
water, and into this was alfo introduced another wire
of platma, the extremity of wdiich came under the end
of the tube, and as near as poflible to the bladder.
1 he wire within the tube was connefted with the zinc
end of the trough, and the wire in the glafs, which
was in contaft with the bladder, proceeded from the
copper end. After the procefs had continued for an
hour, the liquid in the tube was put to the left of
nitrate of filver, and when a fufficient precipitate was
obtained, to afeertain the prefence of muriatic acid,
the liquid in the glafs contained an alkali, which the
author fufpefted was ammonia *. *N!cbol.>
Brugnatelli obferves, that, after having galvanifed 3W'w/‘
feveral times, both negatively and pofitiveiy, a certainX1V‘^*
quantity of pure water with golden wires, inferted in
feparate tubes, till he found, by the ufual tells, that
acid was produced on the one part, and alkali on the
otner, w'hen the two liquids were mixed , to perfeft
faturation, and evaporated in the air, he always ob¬
tained muriate of foda cryftallized in cubes. He has
therefore no doubt, that water negatively and pofi¬
tiveiy galvanifed, by means of gold wires, produces
or difengages muriatic acid in the one cafe, and foda
in the other f.
Such are the authorities for this curious phenomenon
which we have hitherto had an opportunity of confult-66.°
ing j but although in general it would appear that the
expenments made with the view of afeertainmg the
truth of the difeovery announced by Pacchiani, have
mofl: generally fucceeded, fome other experiments, made
with the fame view, have failed. For this purpofe a
feries of expenments was inftituted by the Galvanic
Society of Paris, whofe attention was direfted to endea¬
vour, as well by means of electricity as of galvanifm, to
confirm this important difeovery 5 but although they
employed a very fimple apparatus, and one which
feemed leaf! fufceptible of any foreign influence, they
do not think it poflible to produce any thing by the
aftion of the galvanic pile, except the decompofition
of a greater or lefs proportion of the water fubmitted
to its aftion. ft he water remaining in the tube being
carefully examined, produced no effeft on the tinftures
of tumfole or brazil wood, or the folution of nitrate of
filver.
368 G A L V
Formation filver. Hence it is concluded tliat neither muriatic acid
°Ac'Jir&t!C nor was torme^ experiment.
■ y ’■ Some other experiments made with the fame view
have alfo failed j but according to De Buch, certain pre¬
cautions feem to be neceffary in conducing this experi¬
ment, which, if overlooked, it cannot be expefted, he
thinks, to be followed with fuccefs. For the particulars
of thefe, fee Phil. Mag. xxiv. 244. For an account of
the analogy between the peculiarity of iirudture of the
torpedo, by which it is enabled to give electric Ihocks,
and the galvanic battery, fee Torpedo 5 and for the
medical effedls of galvanifm, fee Materia Medica.
The following fadfs, which feem to extend the ana¬
logy of galvanifm with electricity on the one hand, and
with magnet?’(in on the other, were omitted in the pre¬
ceding treatife.
Ritter, one of the moft indefatigable philofophers,
in profecuting experiments and inquiries on this fubjedf,
has Ibcceeded in charging a piece of money with the
galvanic fluid, and with this feme of the phenomena of
galvanifm can be exhibited. To effeft this, he places
a louis d’or between two pieces of pafteboard, thorough¬
ly wetted, and keeps it for fix or eight minutes in the
chain of circulation connected with the pile. In this
way the louis becomes charged, without being imme¬
diately in contaft with the conducting wires. If this
louis be afterwards applied to the crural nerves of a
frog, recently prepared, the ufual contractions will be
produced. It is found that the charge is retained, in
proportion to the time that the piece has remained in
the circuit of the pile. Some have retained it for five
A N ISM. . Tart II.
minutes. Ritter has alfo difeovered, that the piece of Formation
gold thus galvanifed, exerts at once the action of twoXiuri;m;:
metals ; the half next the negative pole, while in the Acih
circle, became pofitive, and the half towards the poiitive
pole became negative. He alfo tried the effect of golden
needles charged with galvanifm, and balanced on a
pivot, and he perceived, to his furprife, that thefe needles
had a certain dip and variation 5—that the angle of va¬
riation was uniformly the fame, differing, however, from
that of the magnetic needle, and that the pofftive pole
always dips *Nhholf,
If the fafts which the above experiments feem to Journal,
prove, Ihould be fully afeertained, there is an obvious 99-
analogy, not only between eleclricity and galvanifm,
but alfo between the latter and magnetifm.
A galvanic pile has been conftrucfed by Dr Baronio
of Milan, entirely of vegetable matters. For this pur-
pofe he cut difes of horfe-radith and beet-root, of two
inches in diameter. He then prepared equal difes of
walnut-tree wood •, the latter difes were railed at their
edges, to contain a little folution of acidulous tartrate of
potalh in vinegar, in which they had been previouffy
boiled to free the wood from rofin. Sixty pairs of difes
were employed in the following order ; viz. horie-ra-
diffi, beet-root, difes of wood, in each of which the fo¬
lution was put. The fpinal marrow of a prepared frog
was connefted with the pile, by means of a leaf of cock*
Icaria ; the mufcles of the frog were connecled with
the top of the pile by means of a double band of gray
paper wetted with vinegar, and as often as this circuit
was completed, contractions were excited in the animal.
GAL
GALWAY, or Galloway, a county of Ireland,
which is 82 miles in length, and 42 in breadth, bounded
by the counties of Clare, Tipperary, King’s County,
Rcfcommon, and the fea. The river Shannon wadies
the frontiers of the eaff and fouth-eaft, and forms a lake
feveral miles in length. There, is another great lake
called Corbis or Canb, which is near 20 miles long,
and five broad. This county contains 15,420 houfei,
136 parifhes, baronies, and 13 boroughs. The ca¬
pital torvn is of the fame name.
Galway, a town of Ireland, in the county of the
fame name, and province of Connaught, of which it
is the capital. It is feated on the bay of Galway on the
weftern ocean, 108 miles weft of Dublin, and gives title
of Vifcount to the family of Monkton. It is furround-
ed with fxrong walls, has large ftraight ftreets, and the
houfes are generally well built with ftone. It has a
good trade into foreign parts, on account of its har¬
bour, which is defended by a fort. It is governed by
a mayor, fhenffs, and recorder, and returns two mem¬
bers ta parliament. It has but one parifh church,
which is a large and beautiful Gothic ftruClure, an
exchange, barracks for 10 companies of foot, a
charter fchool, and an hofpital. This was one of the
ftrongeft towns in the kingdom ; it held out fome time
againft General Ginkle, who invefted and took it after
the battle of Aughrim. Its fortifications were then
repaired. Ihe walls are flanked by baffions, but are
inoftly gone to decay. The falmon and herring fith-
2 •
GAL
eries are carried on here with great fpirit, and employ Galway.
700 boats; the quantity of kelp manufactured and ex- —
ported is conliderable ; and the growth of the linen
manufadture, though of late introduction, is become very
important. In 1 296, Sir William de Burgh founded a
monaffery here for Francifcan friars, on St Stephen’s
bland, fituated without the north gate of the town. In
1381, there being twm popes at Rome, and the people
of Ireland being doubtful to -which they Ihould pay
obedience, Pope Urban, to fix them entirely to his in-
tereff, empowered the guardian of this monaftery to ex¬
communicate every perfon in the province of Connaught
who Ihould adhere to his rival, Clement VII. who he
affured them was antipope.—Near the weft gate of the *
town, without the walls, was the monaftery of St Mary
of the Hill: on the nuns ferfaking it, the fecular clergy
entered into and kept pofl'efiion of it for a confider-
able time 5 but on the petition of the inhabitants of
the town to Pope Innocent VIII, it was granted to
the Dominican friars, by a bull dated the 4th Decem¬
ber 1488. There are no remains of this foundation
except the cemetery \ the whole building having been
demolifhed by the townfmen in the year 1652, in order
to prevent Cromwell from turning it into a fortification
againft themfelves: there was alfo an Auguftinian friary,
on a hill near this town, founded by Stephen Lynch,
and Margaret his wife, in the year 1508, at the earneft
folicitation of Richard Nangle, a friar of the fame order,
who afterwards became biftiop of Tuam.
GAMA,
c r
gam
Gama
GAMA, Vasco, or Vasques de, a celebrated navi-
Game. A1",’ WaS. t,0^n at Sines> a ^aport town in the province
 y—— ^ Alentejo, in Portugal. When King Emanuel re-
lolved to extend the difcoveries formerly made of the
iouthern parts of Africa, and the feas lying between
thele and the Eaft Indies, the well-known prudence and
courage of^ De Gama pointed him out as a proper per-
lon to conduct fuch an enterprife. He failed from Lif-
bon m the month of July 1497, with no more formid¬
able a Iquadron than three fmall armed veffels and a
Itorc- ihip, with which he did not reach the Cape of
Good Hope till the end of four months, owing to
•viojent and contrary winds. He doubled this promon-
tory, and afterwards coafted along the fouth-eaft fide of
Alrica, till he reached Melinda, having touched at dif-
ferent ports on his way. At this place he procured a
Mahometan pilot, by whom he was conduced in fafety
to the coaft of Malabar, and he reached Calicut in the
month of May. The prince at fir ft received him in a
holpitable manner, but & plot being at length laid for
his deftruchon by the Mahometan merchants, he made
the beft of his way to Europe as foon as he difcovered
fr r e,arnVe.<i at i11 September 1409, with the
loft of the majority of his crew, arifing from fatigue
and diieafe. Having fpent fome time in devotion at a
Hermitage, he made a fplendid entrance into the city
and belkles pecuniary rewards, w’as honoured by the
king with the title of count of Videgueira. By this
voyage the pradhcability of a new paffage to the Indies
was fully eftablifhed. De Gama undertook a fecond
voyage, with the title of admiral of the Indian, Perfian,
and Arabian leas, having 20 fail of Ihips under his
command. Phis voyage began in February 1502, and
after compelling feveral princes in his route to pay
tribute to him, he arrived at Cochin, where a deputa¬
tion from the Chriftians of St Thomas, to whom he
promned protection, waited upon him. The Zamorin
being extremely lufpicious of thefe new' vifitors, fitted
cut a iieet, but De Gama anticipated the defign, and
began the attack, making a prize of two large vef-
lels of prodigious value. He left a fquadron at Cana-
nor aiter this vidory, and failed for Lifbon, at which
place he arrived in the month of September 1 502. On
the acceflion of John III. to the throne, De Gama, then
very far advanced in years, was prevailed upon to un¬
dertake a third voyage, with the exalted rank of vice¬
roy of the Indies. He conquered the people of Cali¬
cut m a naval engagement, and died at Cochin in the
year 1525.
GAMBIA, a large river of Negroland in Africa
running from eaft to weft to the Atlantic ocean : it’
is luppofed to be a branch of the Niger.
GAMBOGE is a concreted vegetable juice, partly
of a gummy and partly of a refinous nature, chiefiy
brought in large cakes or rolls from Cambaja in the
Eaft Indies. See Chemistry and Materia Medi-
GA Index.
GAME, in general, fignifies any diverfion or fport,
that is performed with regularity, and reftrained to cer¬
tain rules. See Gaming.
Games are ufually diftinguifhed into thofe of exer-
cife and addrefs, and thofe of hazard. To the firft
belong chefs, tennis, billiards, &c. and to the latter
thofe performed with cards, or dice, as back-gam-
Vol. IX. Part I. &
[ 369 1
GAM
piquet, whift, &c. See Back Gam* Games.
mon, ombre,
mon, &c.
. Games, in antiquity, were public diverfions, exhi¬
bited on folemn occafions. Such among the Greeks
were the Olympic, Pythian, Ifthmian, Nemean, &c.
games •, and, among the Romans, the Apollinarian,
Circenlian, Capitoline, &c. games. See Olympic,
Pythian, Funeral, &c.
1 in Law’ fl8nIfies birds, or prey, taken or kil¬
ted by fowling or hunting.
I he property of fuch animals ferce naturce as are
known under the denomination of game, with the right
of puriuing, taking, and deftroying them, is veiled" in
the king alone, and from him derived to fuch of his
lubjects as have received the grants of a chafe, a park
or a free warren.
.By the law of nature, indeed, every man, from the
prince to the peafant, has an equal right of puriuing
and taking to his own ufe, all fuch creatures as are
Jerce naturce, and therefore the property of nobody,
but liable to be feized by the firft occupant. But it
toilows from the very end and conftitution of fociety,
tnat. this natural right, as well as many others be-
as an individual, may be reftrained by
pofitive law's enadled for reafons of ftate, or for the
luppofed benefit of the community. This reftriftion
may be either with refpecft to the place in which this
right may or may not, be exercifed j with refpefl to
the animals that are the fubje&s of this right; or w'ith
reipecl to the perfons allowed or forbidden to exercife
it. And, in confequence of this authority, w'e find
that the municipal law's of many nations have exerted
iuch power of reftraint j have in general forbidden
the entering on another man’s grounds, for any caufe,
w^hout the owner’s. leave ; have extended their pro-
teftion to fuch particular animals as are ufually the
objects of purfuit ; aed have invefted the prerogative of
hunting and taking luch animals in the fovereign of
the ftate only, and fuch as he fhall authorife. Many
realons have concurred for making thefe conftitutions :
as, 1. For the encouragement of agriculture and im-
piovement. of lands, by giving every man an exclu-
five dominion over his own foil. 2. For the prefer-
vation of the feveral fpecies of thefe animals, which
would loon be extirpated by a general liberty. 3 For
prevention of idlenefs and diffipation in huibandmen
artificers,. and others of lower rank ; which would be’
the unavoidable confequence of univerfal licenfe. 4. For
prevention of popular infurreftions and refiftance to
tne government, by difarming the bulk of the people :
which aft is a reafon oftener meant than avowed, by
the makers of foreft or game laws. Nor certainly, in
tnefe prohibitions is there any natural injuftice, as fome
have weakly enough fuppofed : lince, as Puffendorf
obferves, the law does not hereby take from any man
his prefent property,_ or what was already his own :
ut barely abridges him of one means of acquiring a
uture property, that of occupancy ; which indeed the
Jaw of nature would allow him, but of which the laws
nHociety have in moft inftances very juftly and reafon-
ably deprived him.
Yet, however defenfible thefe provifions in general
may be, on the footing of reafon, or juftice, or civil
po icy, we muft, notwithftanding, acknowledge, that,
3 ^ ' 411
GAM [ 37
Game, in their prefent fhape, they owe their immediate ori-
—'-v 1 ginal to flavery. It is not till after the irruption of
the northern nations into the Roman empire, that we
read of any other prohibitions, than that natural one
of not fporting on any private grounds without the
owner’s leave.
With regard to the rife and original of our prefent
civil prohibitions, it will be found, that all forelt and
game laws were introduced into Europe at the fame
' time, and by the fame policy, as gave birth to the
feodal fyftem ; when thofe fwarms of barbarians iffued
from their northern hive, and laid the foundation or
moft of the prefent kingdoms of Europe, on the ruins
of the weftern empire. For when a conquering gene¬
ral camfe to fettle the economy of a vanquilhed coun¬
try, and to part it out among his foldiers or feudato¬
ries, who were to render him military fervice for fuch
donations ; it behoved him, in order to fecure his new
acquifitions, to keep the rujlici or natives of the coun¬
try, and all who were not his military tenants, in as
low a condition as poffible, and efpecially to prohibit
them the ufe of arms. Nothing could do this more
o ] GAM
game, which our royal fportfmen referved for their Game,
own diverfion, on pain of a pecuniary forfeiture for v 1
fuch as interfered with their fovereign. But eve¬
ry freeholder had the full liberty of fporting upon
effectually than a prohibition of hunting and fporting :
and therefore it was the policy of the conqueror to re-
ferve this right to himfelf, and fuch on whom he
fhould beftcw it j which wTere only his capital feudato¬
ries, or greater barons. And, accordingly, we find,
in the feudal conftitutions, one and the fame law pro¬
hibiting the rujUci in general from carrying arms, and
alfo profcribing the ufe of nets, fnares, or other en¬
gines for deftroying the game. This exclufxve privi¬
lege well fuited'the martial genius of the conquering
troops, who delighted in a fport which in its purfuit
and daughter bore fome refemblance to war. Vita
(minis (fays Cmfar, fpeaking of the ancient Germans)
in venationibus atque in Jiudiis rei mihtaris conjiflit. And
Tacitus in like manner obferves, that qnoties bclla non
meant, multam venatibus, plus per otium tranjigunt. And
indeed, like fome of their modern fucceifors, they had
no other amufement to entertain their vacant hours j
for they defpifed all arts as effeminate, and had no
other learning than what was couched in fuch rude ditties
as were fung at the folemn caroufals which fucceeded
thefe ancient huntings. And it is remarkable, that, in
thofe nations where the feodal policy remains the moll
uncorrupted, the foreft or game laws continue in their
higheft rigour. Formerly in France, all game was pro¬
perly the king’s \ and in fome parts of Germany it is
death for a peafant to be found hunting in the woods of
the nobility.
With us, in Britain, alfo hunting has ever been
efieemed a moft princely diverfton and exercife. The
whole ifland was replenifhed with all forts of game in
the time of the Britons 5 who lived in a wild and paf-
toral manner, without enclofing or improving their
grounds; and derived much of their fubfiftence from
the chafe, which they all enjoyed in common. But
when hufbandry took place under the Saxon govern¬
ment, and lands began to be cultivated, improved, and
enclofed, the beafts naturally fled into the woody and
defert trafts, which were called the forejls ; and, ha¬
ving never been difpofed of in the firft diftribu-
tion of lands, were therefore held to belong to the
Thefe were filled with great plenty of
his territories, provided he abftained from the king’s
crown.
forefts.
However, upon the Norman conqueft, a new doc¬
trine took place 5 and the right of purfuing and ta¬
king all beafts of chafe or senary, and fuch other ani¬
mals as were accounted game, was then held to belong
to the king, or to fuch only as were authorized under
him. And this, as well upon the principles of the
feodal law, that the king is the ultimate proprietor of
all the lands in the kingdom, they being all held of
him as the chief lord, or lord paramount of the fee ;
and that therefore he has the right of the univerfal foil,
to enter thereon, and to chafe and take fuch creatures
at his pleafure ; as alfo upon another maxim of the
common law, that thefe animals are bona vacantia, and,
having no ether owner, belong to the king by his
prerogative. As therefore the former reafon was held
to veil in the king a right to purfue and take them
anywhere, the latter was fuppofed to give the king,
and fuch as he ftiould authorife, a foie and exclufive
right.
This right, thus newly veiled in the crown, was ex¬
erted with the utmoft rigour, at and after the time of
the Norman eftabliihment 5 not only in the ancient fo¬
refts, but in the new ones which the Conqueror made,
by laying together vaft trails of country, depopulated
for that purpofe, and referved folely for the king’s
royal diverfion 5 in which were exercifed the moft hor¬
rid tyrannies and oppreftions, under colour of foreft
law, for the fake of preferving the beafts of chafe j
to kill any of which, within the limits of the foveft,
was as penal as the death of a man. And, in pur-
fuance of the fame principle, King John laid a total in-
terdiil upon the winged as well as x\\e four-footed crea¬
tion : capturam avium per tot am Ang Ham inter dixit *.* M. Parh,
The cruel and infupportable hardlhips -which thefe fo-3°J-
reft laws created to the fubjedl, occafioned our an-
ceftors to be as zealous for their reformation, as for
the relaxation of the feodal rigours and the other ex-
ailions introduced by the Norman family 5 and ac¬
cordingly we find the immunities of chart a de for efa as
warmly contended for, and extorted from the king
with as much difficulty, as thofe of magna chart a itfelf.
By this charter, confirmed in parliament f, many fo-|p p[en>-[ii,
refts were difafforefted, or ftripped of their oppreffive
privileges, and regulations were made in the regimen
of fuch as remained j particularly killing the king’s
deer was made no longer a capital offence, but only pu-
nifhed by a fine, imprifonment, or abjuration of the
realm. And by a variety of fubfequent ftatutes,_toge¬
ther with the long acquiefcence of the crown without
exerting the foreft laws, this prerogative is now be¬
come no longer a grievance to the fubje<ft.
But as the king referved to himfelf thzforef for his
own exclulive diverfion, fo he granted out from time
to time other tra&s of lands to his fubjefts under the
names of chafes or parks ; or gave them licenfe to make
fuch in their own grounds; which indeed are fmaller
forefts in the hands of a fubjed, but not governed bjT
the foreft laws j and by the common law no perfon is
at
GAM
Gam«. at liberty to take or kill any beafls of cbafe, but fucli
““v""' as have an ancient chafe or park j unlefs they be alfo
beads of prey.
As to all inferior fpecies of game, called beafts and
fowls of warren ; the liberty of taking or killing them
is another franchife or royalty, derived likewife from
the crown, and called free warren ; a word which dig¬
nifies prefervation or cuftody : as the exclufive liberty
of taking and killing filh in a public ftream or river
is called a free fjbery ; of which, however, no new
franchife can at prefent be granted by the exprefs
provifion of magna charta, c. 16. The principal inten¬
tion of granting a man thefe franchifes or liberties was
in order to prote£t the game, by giving him a foie and
exclufive power of killing it himfelf, provided he pre¬
vented other perfons. And no man but he who has
a chafe or free warren, by grant from the crown, or
prefcription, which fuppofes one, can juftify hunting
or fporting upon another man’s foil j nor indeed, in
thorough ftriclnefs of common law, either hunting or
fporting at all.
However novel this dodlrine may feem, it is a regu¬
lar confequence from what has been before delivered,
that the foie right of taking and deftroying game be¬
longs exclufively to the king. Thi& appears, as well
from the hiftorical deduftion here made, as becaufe he
may grant to his fubje&s an exclufive right of taking
"l which he could not do, unlefs fuch a right was
[ 371 1
G A M
them
firft inherent in himfelf. And hence it will follow7
that no perfon whatever, but he who has fuch deriva¬
tive right from the crown, is by common law entitled
to take or kill any beaft of chafe, or other game what-
foever. It is true, that, by the acquiefcence of the
crown, the frequent grants of free warren in ancient
times, and the introduction of new penalties of late by
certain ftatutes for preferving the game, this exclufive
prerogative of the king is little known or confidered 5
every man that is exempted from thefe modern penal¬
ties looking upon himfelf as at liberty to do what he
pleafes with the game : w'hereas the contrary is ftriCtly
true, that no man however well qualified he may vul¬
garly be efieemed, has a right to encroach on the royal
prerogative by the killing of game, unlefs he can fiiow
a particular grant of free warren ; or a prefcription
which prefumes a grant •, or fome authority under an
aft of parliament. As for the latter ; there are but
two inftances wherein an exprefs permillion to kill
game wras ever given by ftatute : the one by 1 Jac. I.
c. 27. altered by Jac. I. c. 12. and virtually repeal¬
ed by 22 and 23 Car. II. c. 25. w'hich gave authori¬
ty, fo long as they remained in force, to the owners
of free warren, to lords of manors, and to all freehold¬
ers having 40I. per annum in lands of inheritance, or
Sol. for life or lives, or 400I. perfonal eflate (and
their fervants), to take partridges and pheafants, upon
their own, or their mailer’s free warren, inheritance,
or freehold : the other by 5 Ann. c. 14. which em¬
powers lords and ladies of manors to appoint game-
keepers, to kill game for the ufe of fuch lord or lady 5
which with fome alteration Hill fublifts, and plainly
fuppofes luch power not to have been in them before.
The truth of the matter is, that thefe game laws do
indeed nobody, except in the inlfance of a game-
keeper, to kill game : but only to fave the trouble
and formal procefs of an aftion by the perfon injured,
who perhaps too might remit the offence, thefe Ifatutes Game,
inflift additional penalties, to be recovered either in a ' “ "~v 1
regular or fummary way, by any of the king’s fubjefts,
from certain perfons of inferior rank who may be found
offending in this particular. But it does not follow
that perfons excufed from thefe additional penalties
are therefore authorized to kill game. The circum-
ilance of having icol. per annum, and the reft, are not
properly qualifications, but exemptions. And thefe per¬
fons fo exempted from the penalties of the game fta¬
tutes, are not only liable to aftions of trefpafs by the
owners of the land ; but alfo if they kill game within
the limits of any royal franchife, they are liable to the
aftions of fuch who may have the right of chafe or
free warren therein.
Upon the whole, it appears, that the king, by his
prerogative, and fuch perfons as have, under his au¬
thority, the ROYAL FRANCHISE of CHACE, PARK, or
Free Warren f, are the only perfons who may acquire See thofe
any property, however fugitive and tranfitory, in thefe articles,
animals ferx nature?, while living •, which is faid to be
veiled in them propter privilegium. And it mull alfo
be obferved, that fuch perfons as may thus lawfully
hunt, fifh, or fowl, ratione privilegii, have only a qua¬
lified property in thefe animals; it not being abfolute
or permanent, but lading only fo long as the creatures
remain within the limits of fuch refpeftive franchife or
liberty, and ceafing the inftant they voluntarily pafs
out of it. It is held indeed, that if a man ftarts any
game within his own grounds, and follows it into an¬
other’s and kills it there, the property remains in him¬
felf. And this is grounded on reafon and natural juf-
tice : for the property confifts in the poffeftion 5 which
pcffeftion commences by the finding it in his own li¬
berty, and is continued by the immediate purfuit. And
fo, if a ftranger ftarts game in one man’s chafe or free
warren, and hunts it into another liberty, the proper¬
ty continues in the owner of the chafe or warren ; this
property arifing from privilege, and not being changed
by the aft of a mere ftranger. Or if a man ftarts game
on another’s private grounds, and kills it there, the
property belongs to him in whofe ground it was killed,
becaufe it wras alfo ftarted there ; this property arifing
ratione foli. Whereas if, after being Ilarted there, it is
killed in the grounds of a third perfon, the property
belongs not to the owner of the firft ground, becaufe
the property is local ; nor yet to the owrner of the fe-
cond, becaufe it wras not ftarted in his foil ; but it veils
in the perfon who ftarted and killed it, though guilty
of a trefpafs againlt both the owners. See the article
Game Laivs.
It will probably be confidered by fportfmen wdio have
not an opportunity of feeing the book, as a curious
piece of information, to have the following, which we
extraft from Daniel’s Rural Sports, concerning the
quantity of game killed in different countries.
“ The lifts of the game, fays he, that has been killed
upon particular manors in England by parties, and
even by fingle gentleman, exhibit fuch a wanton regiftry
of daughter, as no fportfman can read without regret;
but to prove that Britifh are rather more merciful than
French Ihooters, the account of the former game eftab-
lilhment at Chantilli is firft prefented to the reader, in
the wrords of the very ingenious perfon wTho recorded
it.
$ A 2
“ The
GAM [ 372 ]
GAM
“ The game eftablifhment at Chantilli was the moft
extraordinary eftablifhment of the kind in Europe.
“ The following liil of the quantity of different kinds
of game killed at Chantilli, in a period of 3 2 years,
beginning with the year 1748, and ending with the
year 1779, was copied from the houfehold regifters
there, and what feems unaccountable, never was print¬
ed before, not even in France ! The copy was taken in
1788, and theftatement, as an objeft in natural hiftory,
is no fmall curiofity, and as fuch it is philofophically
interefling.
Hares
Rabbits
Partridges
Red, ditto
Pheafants
Quails
Ralles
Woodcocks
Snipes
Ducks
Wood pigeons
Curlews
Buftards
Larks
Thrufhes
Stags
Hinds
Fawns
Does
Young does
Roe-bucks
Young, ditto
Wild boars
Marcaffins
. 77,75°
587,47°
116,574
12,426
86,193
19,696
449
2,164
2,856
D353
3*7
32
2
106
L3T 3
1,682
1,682
5I9
1,921
J35
4,669
810
1,942
818
Connected with this elfablifliment, there was a park
of 21 miles, and a foreft of 48 miles in extent, and
while the family were at the place, they had 500
horfes, as many fervants, and from 60 to 80 couple of
dogs.
“ The Germans too, fays Mr Daniel, have a happy
knack at a maffacre. In 1788 a party of 10 perfons at
the chateau of Prince Adam Daverfperg, in Bohemia,
were out five hours on the 9th and 10th of September,
allowed that the firft day 6168 fliots wrere fired, and
876 hares, 259 pheafants, 362 partridges, befide quails,
rabbits, &c. were bagged, or rather wraggoned. On
the fecond day 5904 fhots were difcharged, and 181
hares, 634 pheafants, and 736 partridges were killed,
befides fome that wTere picked up in the evening. The
number of fhots in the two dayswjere 11,972, the game
carried home wrere
Hares, J099
Pheafants 958
Partridges 1 2C1
befides fmall game. It is added that the birds were all
fhot on the wing.
“ In Germany, during the month of October 1797,
Prince Lichtenllein, and eleven other gentlemen, killed
in one day, when they were out fourteen hours, 39,000
pieces of game} it was of all forts, but chiefly hares and
partridges. The king of Naples and Sir W. Hamilton
killed 800 head of game in the neighbourhood of Ca-
farte, of which 640 were partridges, in a very fhort Gamelia
fpace of time. II
“ Upon Mr Colquhoun’s manor in our owm country, Gar”ing-
at Writham in Norfolk, the late duke of Bedford,
and fix other gentlemen, in 1796, killed 80 cock
pheafants, 40 hares, befides partridges, in ®ne day.
At Houghton, in the fame county, the duke of
Bedford, and feven others, killed in the fame fpace,
165 hares, 42 pheafants, 5 rabbits, a couple of wmod-
cocks, and a brace of partridges 5 and this was done, al¬
though the woods had been beat five times before dur¬
ing the feafon.” * * Y»l, ii.
Game Cock, fighting cock, or one kept for fport ;
a barbarous pra£tice, which is a difgrace to any civiliz¬
ed nation. See Cocn-Vighting.
GAMELIA, in Grecian antiquity, a nuptial feafl,
or rather facrifice, held in the ancient Greek families
on the day before a marriage *, thus called from a cu-
flom they had of {having themfelves on this occafion,
and prefenting their hair to fome deity to whom they
had particular obligations.
GAMELION, in the ancient chronology, was the
eighth month of the Athenian year, containing 29
days, and anfwering to the latter part of our January
and beginning of February. It was thus called, as be¬
ing, in the opinion of the Athenians, the molt proper
feafon of the year for marriage.
GAMING, the art of playing or praftifing any
game, particularly thofe of hazard 5 as cards, dice,
tables, &c.
Gaming has at all times been looked upon as\ a
thing of pernicious confequence to the commonwealth 5
and is therefore feverely prohibited by law7. It is con-
fidered as a practice generally intended to fupply, or
retrieve, the expences occafioned by luxury : it be¬
ing a kind of tacit confeflion, that the company enga¬
ged therein do, in general, exceed the bounds of their
refpedtive fortunes j and therefore they caft lots to de¬
termine upon w?hom the ruin (hall at prefeut fall, that
the reft may be faved a little longer. But taken in
any light, it is an offence of the moft alarming nature,
tending by neceffary confequence, to promote public
idlenefs, theft, and debauchery, among thofe of a
lower clafs 5 and, among perfons of a fuperior rank, it
hath frequently been attended with the hidden ruin and
defolation of ancient and opulent families, and abandon¬
ed proftitution of every principle of honour and virtue,
and too often hath ended in felf-murder. To reftrain
this pernicious vice among the inferior fort of people,
the ftatute 33 Hen. VIII. c. 9. was made \ wLich
prohibits to all but gentlemen, the games of tennis, ta¬
bles, cards, dice, bonds, and other unlawful diverfions
there fpecified, unlefs in the time of Chriftmas, under
pecuniary pains and imprifonment. And the fame law,
and alfo the ftatute 23 Geo. II. c. 24. inflift pecuni¬
ary penalties, as well upon the mafter of any public
houfe wherein fervants are permitted to game, as upon
the fervants themfelves, who are found to be gaming
there. But this is not the principal ground of modern
complaint: it is the gaming in high life that demands
the attention of the magiftrate j a paftion to wdiich
every valuable confideration is made a facrifice, and
which we feem to have inherited from our anceftors,
the ancient Germans j whom Tacitus defcribes to have
been bewitched with the fpirit of play to a moft exor¬
bitant
GAM [ 373 ] GAM
Gaming, bitant degree. “ They addiil themfelves (fays he)
v ‘ to dice (which is wonderful) when fober, and as a
ferious employment, with fuch a mad defire of win¬
ning or lollng, that, when ftript of every thing elfe,
they will Hake at lad their liberty, and their very
felves. The lofer goes into a voluntary llavery ; and,
though younger and ftronger than his antagonift, buf¬
fers himfelf to be bound and fold. And this perfe-
verance in fo bad a caufe they call the point of ho¬
nour : ea ej} in re prava pervicacia, ipjiJiclem vacant.”
One would almoft be tempted to think Tacitus was de-
fcribing a modern Englilhman. When men are thus
intoxicated with fo frantic a fpirit, laws will be of
little avail : becaufe the fame falfe fenfe of honour that
prompts a man to facrifice himfelf, will deter him from
appealing to the magiftrate. Yet it is proper that law's
Ihould be, and be known publicly, that gentlemen may
conlider what penalties they wilfully incur, and what
a confidence they repofe in (harpers ; who, if fuccefs-
ful in play, are certain to be paid with honour, or, if
unfuccefsful, have it in their powrer to be flill greater
gainers by informing. For, by flat. 16. Car. II. c. 7.
if any perfon by playing or betting fliall lofe more than
look at one time, he lhall not be compellable to pay
the fame ; and the winner lhall forfeit treble the value,
one moiety to the king, the other to the informer.
The ftatute 9 Ann. c. 14. enafts, that all bonds and
other fecurities, given for money wmn at play, or
money lent at the time to play withal, {hall be utterly
void : that all mortgages and encumbrances of lands,
made upon the lame confideratien, (hall be and endure
to the heir of the mortgager : that, if any perfon at
one time lofes rol. at play, he may fue the winner,
and recover it back by aftion of debt at law j and, in
cafe the lofer does not, any other perfon may fue the
winner for treble the fum fo loft ; and the plaintiff in
either cafe may examine the defendant himfelf upon
oath : and that in any of thefe fuits no privilege of
parliament fhall be allowed. The ftatute farther enadls,
that if any perfon cheats at play, and at one time wins
more than 10I. or any valuable thing, he may be in-
dicifted thereupon, and ftiall forfeit five times the value,
fhall be deemed infamous, and fuffer fuch corporal
puniftiment as in cafe of wilful perjury. By feveral
ftatutes of the reign ot King George II. all private
lotteries by tickets, cards, or dice, (and particularly
the games of faro, baffet, ace of hearts, hazard, paf-
fage, roily polly, and all other games with dice, ex¬
cept backgammon), are prohibited under a penalty of
200I. for him that (hall erevft fuch lotteries, and 50I.
a-time for the players. Public lotteries, unlefs by au¬
thority of parliament, and all manner of ingenious de¬
vices, under the denomination of fales or otherwife,
which in the end are equivalent to lotteries, were be¬
fore prohibited by a great variety of ftatutes under
heavy pecuniary penalties. But particular defcriptions
will ever be lame and deficient, unlefs all games of
mere chance are at once prohibited ; the invention of
fharpers being fwifter than the puniihment of the law,
which only hunts them from one device to another.
The flat. 13 Geo. II. c. 19 to prevent the multipli¬
city of horfe races, another fund of gaming, dire&s,
that no plates or matches under 50I. value fhall be run,
upon penalty of 200I. to be paid by the owner of
each horfe running, and look by fuch as advertife the
plate. By ftatute 18 Geo. I. c. 34. the ftatute Gaming.
9 Ann. is farther enforced, and fome deficiencies fup- v 1 ‘
plied : the forfeitures of that acl may now be reco¬
vered in a court of equity; and, moreover, if any
man be convnfted, upon information or indiftment, of
winning or lofing at any fitting 10I. or 20k within 24
hours, he {hall forfeit five times the fum. Thus care¬
ful has the legiflature been to prevent this deftruflive
vice : which may {how that our laws againft gaming
are not fo deficient as ourfelves and our magiftrates in
putting thofe laws in execution.
Chance, or Hazard, in Gaming. Hazard, or chance,
is a matter of mathematical confideration, becaufe it
admits of more and lefs. Gamefters either fet out up¬
on an equality of chance, or are fuppofed to do fo.
This equality may be altered in the courfe of the game,
by the greater good fortune or addrefs of one of the
gamefters, whereby he comes to have a better chance, fo
that his (hare in the flakes is proportionably better than
at firft. This more and lefs runs through all the ratios be¬
tween equality and infinite difference, or from an infinite¬
ly little difference till it come to an infinitely great one,
whereby the game is determined. The whole game,
therefore, with regard to the iffue of it, is a chance of
the proportion the two (hares bear to each other.
The probability of an event is greater or lefs, ac¬
cording to the number of chances by which it may hap¬
pen, compared with the number of all the chances by
which it may either happen or fail.
M. de Moivre, in a treatife de Menfura Sortis, has
computed the variety of chances in feveral cafes that
occur in gaming, the laws of which may be underitood
by what follows.
Suppofe p the number of cafes in which an event
may happen, and q the number of cafes wherein it may
not happen, both fides have the degree of probability,
which is to each other as p to q.
If two gamefters, A and B, engage on this footing,
that, if the cafes p happen, A (hall win ; but if q hap¬
pen, B ftiall win, and the ftake be a; the chance of
A will be ~—, and that of B - ^— : confequently, if
q + P /.-fV 4 ^
they fell the expedftancies, they ihould have that for
them refpedfively.
If A and B play with a fingle dice, on this condition,
that, if A throw two or more aces at eight throw’s,
he (hall win •, otherwife B (hall win 3 What is the ra¬
tio of their chances ? Since there is but one cafe where¬
in an ace may turn up, and five wherein it may not,
let 1, and b—$. And again, fince there are eight
throws of the die, let « = 8 3 and you will have
a-H|n—6”—nabn — 1, to bn + nahn—1 : that is, the
chance of A wall be to that of B as 663991 to
10156525, or nearly as 2 to 3.
A and B are engaged at fingle quoits ; and, after
playing fome time, A wants 4 of being up, and B 6 3
but B is fo much the better gamefter, that his chance
againft A upon a fingle throw would be as 3 to 23 What
is the ratio of their chances ? Since A wants 4, and
B 6, the game wall be ended at nine throw's ; there¬
fore, raife a-^-b to the ninth powder, and it will be
a9-\-g 36 a7bb -j- 84 a6k^ -J- 126 a$b* -j-126 a*Is
to 84 dab7-\-6ab‘i-\-L9 : call 173, and bl, and
you will have the ratio of chances in numbers, viz.
1759077 to 194048.
A
Gaming.
GAM [ 3
A and B play at fxngle quoits, and A is the heft
garaefter, fo that he can give B 2 in 3 : What is the
ratio of their chances at a fmgle throw ? Suppofe the
chances as 2; to x, and raife ss-}-! to its cube, which
will be »3 + 3 + 3 »+ !• Now fince A could give B
2 out of 3, A might undertake to win three throws
running ; and confequently the chances in this cafe will
be as a3 to 3»I-f-3;2 + I* Hence :z3i=32;1-J-32;+1 ; or
3
25S3zr»3-|-3^*—And therefore % \/2~'Z -\-l j
and, confequently,
2 1
The chances, there-
ty of miffing it four times together is -|x4-Xix4
-/Ars’? which being fabtracled from 1, there will re¬
main AW f°r t^ie probability of throwing it once or
oftener in four times : therefore the odds of throwing an
ace in four times, is 671 to 625..
But if the flinging of an ace was undertaken in three
times, the probability of miffing it three times wmuld
be 4 X -g- X 7 which being fubtradfed from 1, there
will remain A1* the probability of throwing it once
x
fore, are ^2—1, and 1, refpedlively.
V ...
Again, fuppofe I have two wagers depending, in the
fir ft of wffiich I have 3 to 2 the beft of the lay, and in
the fecond 7 to 4 *, What is the probability I win both
wagers ?
1. The probability of winning the firft is J-, that is
the number of chances I have to wdn, divided by the
number of all the chances : the probability of winning
the fecond is A : therefore, multiplying thefe twm frac¬
tions together, the produdl wall be which is the
probability of wanning both wragers. Now, this fraction
being fubtradfed from 1, the remainder is f £, which is
the probability I do not wdn both wagers ; therefore the
odds againft me are 34 to 21.
2. If I would know what the probability is of wan¬
ning the firft, and lofmg the fecond, I argue thus •, the
probability of winning the firft is -3-, the probability of
lofing the fecond is A : therefore multiplying ^ by A,
the produdf ^ probability of my winning
the firft, and lofing the fecond *, which being fubtradf-
ed from I, there wall remain Aa which is the probabi¬
lity I do not win the firft, and at the fame time lofe the
fecond.
3. If I W'ould know what the probability is of wan¬
ning the fecond, and at the fame time lofmg the firft,
I fay thus: The probability of wanning the fecond is
A j the probability of lofing the firfl: is £ : therefore,
multiplying thefe twro fractions together, the produdt
A is the probability I wan the fecond, and alfo lofe the
firfl:.
4. If I wmuld know what the probability is of lofing
both wagers, I fay, the probability of lofing the firft is
A and the probability of lofing the fecond A : there¬
fore the probability of lofing them both is T8f : which,
being fubtradted from x, there remains A ; therefore,
the odds of lofing both v/agers is 47 to 8.
This wray of reafoning is applicable to the happening
or failing of any events that may fall under confidera-
tion. Thus if I would know what the probability is of
miffing an ace four times together with a die, this I con-
fider as the failing of four different events. Now the
probability of miffing the firft is the fecond is alfo 4,
the third 4> and the fourth 4 j therefore the probabili- ace
*74 j G A M
or oftener in three times: therefore the odds againft Gaming,
throwing it in three times are 125 to 91. Again, fup-
pofe we would know the probability of throwing an ace
once in four times, and no more j fince the probability
of throwing it the firft time is 4* and of miffing it the
other three times, is 4 X i X 4? 3t follows, that the pro¬
bability of throwing it the firft time, and miffing it the
other three fucceffive times, is 4 X 4 X 4 X •§■—AVs »
but becaufe it is poffible to hit every throw as well as
the firft, it follows, that the probability of throwing it
once in four throws, and miffing it the other three, is
4 * 1 — ----- • which being fubftradled from 1, there
1296 1296’ 6
will remain A9A f°r tl'6 probability of throwing it
once, and no more, in four times. Therefore, if one
undertake to throw an ace once, and no more, in four
times, he has 500 to 796 the worft of the lay, or 5 to
8 very near.
Suppofe two events are fuch, that one of them has
twice as many chances to come up as the other; what
is the probability that the event, which has the greater
number of chances to come up, does not happen twice
before the other happens once, which is the cafe of
flinging 7 with two dice before 4 once ? Since the
number of chances is as 2 to 1, the probability of
the firft happening before the fecond is -f-, but the pro¬
bability of its happening twice before it is but 4 X y or
* : therefore it is 5 to 4, feven does not come up twice
before four once.
But, if it were demanded, wdiat muft be the pro¬
portion of the facilities of the coming up of two events,
to make that which has the moft chances come up
twice, before the other comes up once ? The anfwer
is, 12 to 5 very nearly : whence it follows, that the
probability of throwing the firft before the fecond is 44»
and the probability of throwing it twice is t4Xt4> or
4y 4 ; therefore the probability of not doing it is >
therefore the odds againft it are as 145 to 144, which
comes very near an equality.
Suppofe there is a heap of thirteen cards of one
colour, and another heap of thirteen cards of another
colour; What is the probability, that, taking one card
at a venture cut of each heap, I fhall take out the two
aces ?
The probability of taking the ace out of the firft:
heap is A 7 t^e probability of taking the ace out of
the fecond heap is A j therefore the probability of
taking out both aces is A X iy— 1 A? which being
fubtradted from 1, there will remain 4 A : therefore the
odds againft me are 168 to 1.
In cafes where the events depend on one another,
the manner of arguing is fomewhat altered. Thus,
fuppofe that out of one fingle heap of thirteen cards
of one colour I fhould undertake to take out firrt the
and, fecondly, the two : though the probability
of taking out the ace be A» an^ t^ie probability of
taking out the two be likewife A • Jet’ t^ie ace being
fuppofed as taken out already, there will remain only
twelve cards in the heap, which will make the proba¬
bility of taking out the two to be A j therefore the
probability of taking out the ace, and then the two,
will be A X A-
In this laft queftion the txvo events have a dependence
on each other; which conlifts in this, that one of the
events
GAN'
Gamieig events being fuppofed as having happened, the proba-
C t^le other’s happening is thereby altered. But
J“~ ,e’L,s the cafe is not fo in the two heaps of cards.
If the events in queflion be n in number, and be
fuch as have the fame number a of chances by which
they may happen, and likewife the fame number b of
chances by which they may fail, raife a-\-b to the
power n. And if A and B play together, on condition
that if either one or more of the events in queftion
happen, A fhall win, and B lofe, the probability of
. , . . .,, , o + lM—bn
A s winning will be —'—  •
[ 375 1
GAO
ning will be
bn
  , and that of B’s win-
a + b\n
for when a-\-b is actually railed
to the power r?, the only term in wdiich a does not oc¬
cur is the laft bn ; therefore all the terms but the laft
are favourable to A.
Thus if n—i,, railing #-(-£ to the cube a*+1,0* b-\.
b%-\-b*, all the terms but b* will be favourable to
A ; and therefore the probability of A’s winning will
v. 03-f-3 a*a-^-bY3—b*
u —b b j
' Z>J
of B’s winning will be “
ty
’ a+b\
and the probabili-
But if A and B
play on condition, that if either two or more of the
events in queftion happen, A ftrall win ; the probabi-
v r ai • • i a-\-b\n—nabn—T
Jity or A s winning wnl be
7i -\-b\n
for
the only twro terms in wdiich a a does not occur are
the two laft, viz. n a bn—1 and bn.
GAMMONING, among feamen, denotes feveral
turns of a rope taken round the bowfprit, and reeved
through holes in knees of the head, for the greater
fecurity of the bowftprit.
GAMMUT, Gamut, Gam-tit, in Mujic, a fcale
whereon wre may learn to found the mufical notes,
re, mi, fa, fol, la, in their feveral orders and difpo-
fitions. See Music.
The invention of this fcale is owing to Guido Are-
tin, a monk of Arezzo, in Tufcany, about the year
1009 i though it is not fo properly an invention, as an
improvement on the diagram or fcale of the ancients.
See Aretin.
Several alterations have been made in the gammut.
M. Le Maire, particularly, has added a feventh note ^
\iz.f; and the Englifh ufually throw out both ut and
f, and make the other five ferve for all.
GANDER, in Ornithology, the male of the goofe
kind. See Anas, Ornithology Index.
GANG-way, is the feveral paftages or wTavs from
one part of the ftiip to the other ; and whatfoever is
laid in any of thofe paflages is faid to lie in the gang¬
way.
GANGANELLI. See Clement XIV.
GANGES, a large and celebrated river of India.
It has its fource in the mountains which border on Little
Thibet, in 96 degrees of longitude, and 3 ,° 45' of
latitude. It crofies feveral kingdoms, running from
north to fouth 5 and falls into the bay of Bengal by
feveral mouths. The waters are lowxft in April and
May, and higheft before the end of September. It
overflows yearly like the Nile 5 and renders the king¬
dom of Bengal as fruitful as that of the Delta in E- Ganglion
gypG The people in thefe parts hold the water of II
this river in high veneration 5 and it is vifited annually , <^a°h
by a prodigious number of pilgrims from all parts of
India. The Engliih have feveral fettlements on this
river, which will be taken notice of in their proper
places. . Ihe greateft happinefs that many of the In¬
dians with for, is to die in this river.
GANGLION, in jdnatomij, denotes a knot fre¬
quently found in the courfe of the nerves, and which
is not morbid ; for wherever any nerve fends out a
branch, or receives one from another, or where tw'o
nerves join together, there is generally a ganglion or
plexus, as may be leen at the beginning of all the
nerves of the medulla fpinalis, and in many other pla¬
ces of the body.
Ganglion, in Surgery, a hard tubercle, generally
moveable, in the external or internal part of the car¬
pus, upon the tendons or ligaments in that part j ufu¬
ally without any pain to the patient.
GANGRENE, a very great and dangerous degree
of inflammation, wherein the parts affected begin to
corrupt, and put on a ftate of putrefaftion. See Me¬
dicine, and Surgery.
GANNET, or Soland Goofe, in Ornithology. See
Pelicanus, Ornithology Index.
GANTLET, or Gauntlet, a large kind of glove
made of iron, and the fingers covered with fmall plates.
It wras formerly worn by the cavaliers, when armed at
all points. The word is derived of the French gante-
let ; and that from gand, or gant, “ glove.”
The cafque and gauntlets were always borne in the
ancient marches in ceremony. Gauntlets were not in¬
troduced till about the 13th century.
The gauntlet was frequently thrown like the glove*
by w?ay of challenge.
GANTLOPE. See Gauntlope.
GANYMEDE, in mythology, a beautiful youth
of Phrygia, fon of Tros and brother to Ilus 5 accord¬
ing to Lucian, he was the fon of Dardanus. Jupiter was
charmed with him j and carrying him away, made him
his cupbearer in the room of Hebe. Some fay that
he caufed him to be carried away by an eagle, and
.others affirm he wTas himfelf the raviflier under the form
of that bird. He deified this youth j and to comfort
his father made a prefent to him of fome of thofe very
fwift horfes upon which the gods rode.
GAOL {Gaola. Fr. Geo/e, i. e. Caveo/a, “ a cage
for birds”), is ufed metaphorically for a prifon. It is
a ftrong place or houfe for keeping of debtors, &c.
and wherein a man is reftrained of his liberty to an-
fwer an offence done againft the laws : and every coun¬
ty hath two goals, one for debtors, which may be any
houfe where the fheriff pleafes j the other for the
peace and matters of the crown, which is the county
gaol.
If a gaol be out of repair, or infufficient, &c. ju-
ftices of peace, in their quarter feffions, may contraft
with workmen for the rebuilding or repairing it ; and
by their warrant order the fum agreed on for that
purpofe to be levied on the feveral hundreds, and
other divifions in the county by a juft rate, 11 and 12
Will. III. c. 19. See Prison.
Gaol Delivery. The adminiftration of juftice be- *
ing originally in the crown, in former times our kings
Gao'cr
il
Garamond,
GAR [37
in petfon rode tlirougK the realm once in feven years,
to judge of and determine crimes and offences 5 after¬
wards juftices in eyre were appointed 5 and fince, ju-
fiices of affize and gaol delivery, &c. A commiffion of
gaol delivery, is a patent in nature of a letter from the
king to certain perfons, appointing them his juftices,
or two or three of them, and authorizing them to de¬
liver his gaol, at fuch a place, of the prifoners in it :
for which purpofe it commands them to meet at fuch
a place, at the time they themfelvcs fliall appoint; and
informs them, that, for the fame purpofe, the king
hath commanded his iherifT of the fame county to bring
all the prifoners of the gaol, and their attachments,
before them at the day appointed
The judices of gaol delivery are empowered by the
common law to proceed upon indi&ments of felony,
trefpafs, &c. and to order to execution or reprieve :
they may likewife difcharge fuch prifoners, as on their
trials are acquitted, and thofe againd whom, on pro¬
clamation being made, no evidence has appeared :
they have authority to try offenders for treafon, and
to punifh many particular offences, by datute, 2 Hawk.
24. 2. Ha/e\f HiJL P/acit. Cor. 35.
GAOLFR, the keeper of a gaol or prifon. She¬
riffs are to make fuch gaolers for whom they will be
anfwerable : but if there be any default in the gaoler,
an adfion lies againd him for an efcape, &c. yet the
dreriff is mod ufually charged j 2d Ind. 592. Where
a gaoler kills a prifoner by hard ufage, it is felony j 3
Ind. 52. No fee fhall be taken by gaolers, but what
is allowed by lawq and fettled by the judges, who may
determine petitions againd their extortions, &c. 2. Geo.
II. C. 22.
GAONS, a certain order of Jewifh do£!ors, wTho
appeared in the Ead, after the clodng of the Talmud.
The wmrd Goons dgnifies “ excellent, fut^ime as in
the divinity fchools we formerly had Irrefragable, Sub¬
lime, Refolute, Angelic, and Subtile do£fors. 'I he
Gaons fucceeded the Seburaeans or Opiners about the
beginning of the dxth century. Chanan Meifchtia
was the head and fird of the excellents. Pie redored
the academy of Pandebita, which had been dmt up for
30 years.
GAR fish, Horn Jifi, or Sea needle. See Esox,
Ichthyology Index.
GARAMA, in Ancient Geography, the capital of
the Garamantes in Libya Interior j near the fprings of
the Cinyphus, now in ruins. Garamantes the people.
It lay to the fouth of Gaetulia, extending from the
fprings of the Cinyphus, and the adjacency of the river
Gir, to the mountains which form at the Vallis Gara-
rnantica (Pliny) : or from the fprings of the Bagrades
to the lake Nuba (Ptolemy).
GARAMOND, Claude, a very ingenious letter-
founder, was born at Paris j wdrere he began, in the
year 1310, to found his printing types free from all
the remains of the Gothic, or (as it is generally called)
the black letter, and brought them to fuch perfedlion,
that he had the glory of furpading all who wrent before
him, and of being fcarcely ever excelled by his fuc-
ccdbrs in that ufeful art. His types were prodigioudy
multiplied : both by the great number of matrices he
druck, and the types formed in refemblance of his
in all parts of Europe. Thus in Italy, Germany,
England, and Holland, the bookfellers, by way of
2
6 ] GAR
recommending their books, didinguidied the type by
his name •, and in particular the fmall Roman was
by way of excellence known among the printers of
thefe nations by the name of Garamond'’s fmall Roman.
By the fpecial command of King Irancis I. he founded
three dzes of Greek types for the ufe of Robert. Ste¬
phens, wdro wdth them printed all his beautiful editions
of the New Tedament, and other Greek authors. He
died at Paris in 1561.
GARASSE, Francis, a remarkable Jefuitical wri¬
ter, the fird author of that irreconcilable enmity that
dill fubfids between the Jefuits and Janfenids, in the
church of Rome, wTas born at Angoulefme in I5^5>
and entered the Jefuits college in 1600. As he had
a quick imagination, a drong voice, and a peculiar
turn to wit, he became a popular preacher in the chief
cities of France *, but not content with this honour,
he didinguidied himfelf dill more by his writings,
which were bold, licentious, and produced much con-
troverfy. The mod confiderable in its confequences
was entitled La fomme theologique des veritez capiiales de
la religion Gretienne j which was fird attacked by the
abbot of St Cyran, who obferving in it a prodigious
number of falfifications of the Scriptures and of the
fathers, befides many heretical and impious opinions,
conceived the honour of the church required him to
undertake a refutation. Accordingly he publifhed a
full anlwrer to it } wThile Garaffe’s book was alio under
examination of the doftors of the Sorbonne, by whom
it was afterwards condemned. Garaffe replied to St
Cyran j but the two parties of Jefuits and Janfenids, of
wdrom thefe were refpeftively the champions, grew to
an implacable animofity againd each other, that is not
even now likely to fubfide. The Jefuits were forced to
remove their brother to a didance from Paris 5 where,
probably weary of his inadhve obfeurity, when the
Garafle
Garcilaflb-
plague raged at Poiftiers in 1631, he begged leave of
his fuperior to attend the lick, in which charitable of¬
fice he caught the diforder, and died.
GARBE, in Heraldry, a dreaf of any kind of grain,
borne in feveral coats of arms, and laid to reprelent
dimmer, as a bunch of grapes does autumn.
GARBLE, a wrord ufed to fignify the aflion of
feparating the drofs and dud from fpice, arugs, &c.
Garbling is the cleanfing and purifying the good from
the bad j and may come from the Italian garbo, i. e.
finery or neatnefs : and hence, probably, we fay, when
wre fee a man in a neat habit, that he is in handfome
garb.
GARCILASSO, DE LA Vega, an eminent Spanilh
poet, w’as born at Tole o, in I5°3- -^e was
younger fon of a man of rank, who had been employed
in negociating bulinefs of importance. Garcilaffb was
didinguilhed for his wit and bravery, and in a particu¬
lar manner for his poetical talents. He was chiefly in-
drumental in giving popularity to an innovation of his
friend Bofcan, who introduced meafures borrowed from
the Italians. His wTorks confid chiefly of padorals,
which have a tedious prolixity. He is chiefly noted
for tendernefs, which is remarkably confpicuous in
fome of his fonnets. He is freer of bombad than the
generality of his countrymen, owing to his familiar ac¬
quaintance wdth the ancients j and it is faid that his
learning and tade were fuperior to his genius. He fol¬
lowed the profeflion of arms, and attended Charles V.
in
GAR [ 377 1 GAR
Garcinia in a number of his expeditions. He loft his life at the
^ attack of a fortrefs in Provence, when only 33 years of
' age. Garcilafib is alfo the name of an author, a native
of Cufco in Peru, who compofed a hiftory of Florida
in the Spanith language, and another of Peru and its
Incas.
GARCINIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dodecandria clafs ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 18th order, Bicornes. See Botany
Index.
GAR CON, or Garsoon, a French term, literally
fignifying a boy or male child any time before his mar¬
riage.—It is alfo applied to divers inferior officers,
among us called groo/n, garpioncs. Thus all the fer-
vants in the French king’s chambers, wardrobe, &c.
who do the Idler offices thereof under the proper
officers, are called garpons de la chambre, de la garde-
robe, &c.
GARDANT, or Guardant, in Heraldry, denotes
any bead full faced, and looking right forward.
GARDEN, Francis, better known to the public
by the title of Lord Gardenjlone, was born at Edin¬
burgh June 24th, in the year 1721. His father was
Alexander Garden of Troup, an opulent landholder
in Aberdeenfhire *, his mother was Jane, daughter of
Sir Francis Grant of Cullen, S. C. I.
After palling through the ufual courfe of liberal edu¬
cation at the fchool and the univerfity, he betook him-
felf to the ftudy of law for his profeffion ; and in the year
1744 he was admitted a member of the Faculty of Ad¬
vocates, and called to the Scottiffi bar.
In his pradlice as an advocate he foon began to be
diftinguiffied, by a ftrong, native redHtude of under-
itanding ; by that vivacity of apprehenlion and imagi¬
nation, which is commonly denominated genius; by
manly candour in argument, often more perfuafive than
lubtlety and fophiftical artifice ; by powers which, with
diligence, might eafily attain to the higheft eminence
of the profeffion. But the fame 'ftrength, opennefs,
and ardour of mind, which diftinguiffied him fo advan-
tageoufly among the pleaders at the bar, tended to
give him a fondnefs for the gay enjoyments of convi¬
vial intercourfe, which was unfavourable to his progrefs
in juridical erudition. Shining in the focial and con¬
vivial circle, he became lefs folicitoufly ambitious than
he might otherwife have been, of the charadler of an
eloquent advocate, or of a profound and learned law¬
yer. The vivacity of his genius was averfe from au-
ftere and plodding ftudy, while it was captivated by
the fafcinations of polite learning, and of the fine arts.
Nor did he always efcape thofe excefles in the purfuit
of pleafure into which the temptations of opening life
are apt, occafionally, to feduce the moft liberal and in¬
genuous youth. But his cheerful conviviality, his wit,
humour, tafte, good-nature, and benevolence of heart,
rendered him the delight of all his acquaintance. He
became his majefty’s folicitor July 3d, 1764.
At length the worth of his charadler, and his abi¬
lities as a lawyer, recommended him to the office of a
judge in the courts of feffion and judiciary, the
fupreme judicatures, civil and criminal, for Scot¬
land. His place in the court of feffion he continued
to occupy till his death ; but had, feme years before,
refigned the office of a commiffioner of jufticiary, and
in recompence got a penfion of 200I. per annum.
VOL. IX. Part I.
Clear difeernment, ftrong good fenfe, confcientious ho- Garden,
nefty, and amiable benevolence, remarkably diftinguiffi-
ed ail his opinions and conduct as a judge.
In the year 1762 he purchafed the eftate of John-
fton, in the county of Kincardine. Within a few
years after he began to attempt a plan of the moft li¬
beral improvement of the value of this eftate, by an ex-
tenfion of the village of Laurencekirk, adjoining. Fie
offered leafes of fmall farms, and of ground for building
upon, which were to laft for the term of one hundred
years ; and of which the conditions were extremely in¬
viting to the labourers and tradefmen of the furround¬
ing country. Thefe offers were eagerly liftened to.
More delirous to make the attempt beneficial to the
country than to derive profit from it to himfelf, he
was induced, within a few years, to reduce his ground-
rents to one-half of the original rate.—Weavers, join¬
ers, (hoemakers, and other artifans in a confiderable
number, reforted to fettle in the rifing village. His
lordftiip’s earneftnefs for the fuccefs of his projedt,
and to promote the profperity of the good people
whom he had received under his prote&ion, led him to
engage in feveral undertakings; by the failure of which
he incurred confiderable Ioffes. Projedls of a print-
field, and of manufadtures of linen and of ftockings,
attempted with fanguine hopes in the new village, and
chiefly at his lordftiip’s rilk and expence, mifgave in
fuch a manner as might well have finally difgufted a man
of lefs fteady and ardent philanthropy with every fuch
engagement. But the village ftill continued to advance.
It grew up under his lordffiip’s eye, and was the fa¬
vourite objedl of his care. In the year 1779, he pro¬
cured it to be eredted into a burgh of barony ; having
a magiftracy, an annual fair, and a weekly market. He
provided in it a good inn for the reception of travel¬
lers ; and with an uncommon attention to the enter¬
tainment of the guefts who might refort to it, furniffied
this inn with a library of books for their amufement.
He invited an artift for drawing, from the continent,
to fettle at Laurencekirk. He had the pleafure of
feeing a confiderable linen-manufadture at length fixed
in it. A bleachfield was alfo eftabliflied as a natural
counterpart to the linen-manufadture. Before his
lordffiip’s death, he faw his plan of improving the
condition of the labourers, by the formation of a new
village at Laurencekirk, crowned with fuccefs beyond
his moft fanguine hopes. He has acknowledged, with an
amiable franknefs, in a memoir concerning this village,
“ That he had tried, in fome meafure, a variety of the plea-
fures which mankind purfue $ but never reliffied any fo
much as the pleafure arifing from the progrefs of his
village.”
In the year 1785, upon the death of his elder bro¬
ther, Alexander Garden of Troup, M. P. for Aberdeen-
ffiire, Lord Gardenftone fucceeded to the poffeffion of
the family eftates, _which ■were very confiderable. Un¬
til this time his lordffiip’s income had never been
more than adequate to the liberal expence into which
his rank, and the generofity of his nature, unavoidably
led him. But the addition of a fortune of about
three thoufand pounds a-year to his former revenue,
gave him the power of performing many adts of bene¬
ficence with which he could not before gratify his
good heart. It was happy, likewife, that his fuccef-
iion to this ample income, at a period when the vigour
3 B 0/
GAR [378
Garden, of liis coftftitution was rapidly yielding to tlie infinni-
ties of old age, enabled him to leek relief, by a partial
ceffation from bufmefs, by travel, and by other means,
which could not have been eafily compatible with the
previous Hate of his fortune.
In the month of Sept. 1786, he fet out from Lon¬
don for Dover, and paffcd over into France. After vilit-
' ing Paris, he proceeded to Provence, and fpent the
w inter months in the genial climate of Hieres. In the
fpring of 1787 he returned northwards, vifiting Ge¬
neva, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and the Dutch
provinces, and palling through Germany into Italy.
With a fond curiofity, attentive alike to the wonders
of nature, to the noble monuments of the arts, and
to the awful remains of ancient grandeur, with which
Italy abounds, he vifited all its great cities, and fur-
veyed almoft every remarkable and famous fcene that it
exhibits.
His firfl objcdf, in thefe travels, was to obtain the
reftoration of his declining health by the influence of a
milder climate, by gentle, continued, and varied exer-
cifc } by that plealing exhilaration of the temper and
fpirits, which is the bell medicine to health, and is mofl
fuccefsfully produced by frequent change of place, and
of the objedls of attention. But the curiofities of na¬
ture and art, in thofe countries through which he tra¬
velled, could not fail to attradl, in a powerful manner,
the curiofity of a mind cultivated and ingenious as his.
He, whofe bread glowed with the mod ardent philan¬
thropy, could not view the varied works and manners
of a diverfity of nations of his fellow men, without be¬
ing deeply intereded by all thofe circumdances which
might appear to mark their fortunes as happy or
wretched. He eagerly colle&ed fpecimens of the fpars,
the {hells, the drata, of rocks, and the veins of metals,
in the feveral countries through which he paffed. He
amaffed alfo cameos, medals, and paintings. He en¬
quired into fcience, literature, and local inditutions.
He wrote down his obfervations, from time to time •,
not indeed with the minute care of a pedant, or the
odentatious labour of a man travelling with a defign to
publidi an account of his travels but limply to aid
memory and imagination in the future remembrance of
objefls ufeful or agreeable.
After an abfence of about three years, he returned
to his native county. The lad years were fpent in
the difcharge of the duties of his office as a judge j in
focial intercourfe with his friends, among whom was
the venerable Lord Monboddo, and others of the mod
refpeiSlable charafters that our country has to boad
of; in the performance of a thoufand generous oifices
of benevolence and humanity ; in cherilhing thofe fine
arts, of which he was an eminent admirer and judge 5
and above all, in promoting the comfort, and encou¬
raging the indudry of his dependants, and in lending
his aid to every rational attempt at the improvement of
public economy and public virtue.
St Bernard’s Well, in the neighbourhood of Edin¬
burgh, had been, long fince, didinguidied for the me¬
dicinal virtues of its waters. But various circumdan¬
ces had alfo concurred of late to throw it into negledt.
Yet its waters being ilrongly mineralized by a fulphu-
rated hydrogenous gas, were, by this means, unquef-
tionably qualified to operate, with highly beneficial ef-
fefts, in the cure of various difeafes. The qualities of
| GAR
this mineral water falling under Lord Gardendone’s
notice, he was induced to purchafe the property of the
well, to dire ft it to be cleared from furrounding ob-
dacles, which contaminated the virtues of the water, or
made it inacceffible 5 to ereft a beautiful and commo¬
dious edifice over it j and to appoint proper perfons to
didribute the water, for a very trivial compenfation, to
the public. The well lies at a didance from Edin¬
burgh, which is very convenient for a dimmer morn¬
ing’s walk. Within the few years which have palled
fince Lord Gardendone’s benevolent care brought it
into notice, it has attracted many of the inhabitants of
that city to vifit in the mornings ol fpring and dimmer.
And, undoubtedly, the agreeable exercile to which they
have thus been allured, and the faint ary eftefls of the
water, have contributed, in no mean degree, to difpel
difeafe, and to condrm, or re-edablifh health. Such
monuments are worthy to preferve the memory of a
patriotic and a good man !
As an amufement for the lad two or three years of
his life, when his increafing infirmities precluded him
from more active exercife, and from mingling fo fre¬
quently in the fociety of his friends as was agreeable
to his focial and convivial temper, he bethought him-
felf of reviling fome of the jtux d'efprit, and light fugi¬
tive pieces, in wdiich he had indulged the gaiety of his
fancy, in his earlier days 5 and a fmall volume of poems
was publidied, in which the bed pieces are, upon good
authority, afcribed to Lord Gardendone. He revifed
alfo the memorandums which he had made upon his
travels, and permitted them to be fent to prefs. d he
two former volumes were publilhed one after another
while his lordlhip was yet alive 5 the third after his
death. They met with a very favourable reception in
the world, and were honoured with tjie high approba¬
tion of the mod refpeftable writers of periodical criti-
cifm. They convey much agreeable information, and
befpeak an elegant, enlightened, and amiable mind.
The lad volume is filled chiefly with memorandums of
his lordlhip’s travels in Italy ; and contains many in-
tereding criticifms upon fome of the nobled produc¬
tions of the fine arts of painting and fculpture.
His lorddnp’s health had long been declining •, and
he died a bachelor on the 22d of July 1793, lamented
by his relations and friends, by his tenants and humble
dependants, and by all true patriots and good men to
whom his merits and virtues were known.
GARDEN, a piece of ground properly laid out,
cultivated, and ornamented with a variety of plants,
flowers, fruits, &c. See Gardening.
Gardens are ufually didinguilhed into flower garden,
fruit garden, and kitchen garden : the fird of which,
being deligned for pleafure and ornament, is to be pla¬
ced in the mod confpicuous part, that is, next to the
back front of the houfe; and the two latter, being de-
figned for ufe, ftiould be placed lefs in fight. But
though the fruit and kitchen gardens are here mention¬
ed as two didinft gardens, yet they are now ufually in
one $ and that with good reafon, fince they both re¬
quire a good foil and expofure, and equally require to
be placed out of the view of the houfe.
In the choice of a place proper for a garden, the
mod effential points to be confidered are, the lituation,
the foil, the expofure, water, and profpedt.
id, As to the iituation, it ought to be fuch a- one
G A R r 3
Garden, as is wholefome, and in a place neither too high nor
—"V'""”-' too low j for if a garden be too high, it will be ex-
pofed to the winds, which are very prejudicial to trees;
and if it be too low, the dampnefs, the ve*rmine, and
the venomous creatures that breed in ponds and mar-
ftiy places, add much to their infalubrxty. The moft
happy fituation is on the fide of a hill, efpecially if the
dope be eafy, and in a manner imperceptible j if a
good deal of level ground be near the houfe ; and if it
abounds with fprings of water : for, being flickered
from the fury of the winds and the violent heat of the
fun, a temperate air will be there enjoyed ; and the
water that defcends from the top of the hill, either from
fprings or rain, will not only fupply fountains, canals,
and cafcades for ornament, but, when it has performed
its office, will water the adjacent valleys, and, if it be
not fuffered to ftagnate, will render them fertile and
wholefome.
2dly, A good earth or foil is next to be confidered ;
for it is fcarce poflible to make a fine garden in a bad
foil. There are indeed ways to meliorate ground, but
they are very expenfive ; and fometimes, when the ex¬
pence has been beftowed of laying good earth three
feet deep over the whole furface, a whole garden has
been ruined, when the roots of the trees have come
to reach the natural bottom. To judge of the quality
of the foil, obferve whether there be any heath, thiftles,
or fuch like wTeeds, growing fpontaneoufly in it; for
they are certain figns that the ground is poor. Or if
there be large trees growing thereabouts, obferve whe¬
ther they grow crooked, ill ftiaped, and grubby ; and
whether they are of a faded green, and full of mofs, or
infefted with vermine : if this be the cafe, the place is
to be rejected. But, on the contrary, if it be covered
with good grafs fit for pafture, you may then be encou¬
raged to try the depth of the foil. To know this, dig
holes in feveral places, fix feet wide and four deep ; and
if you find three feet of good earth it will do very well,
but lefs than two will not be fufficient. The quality of
good ground, is neither to be ftony nor too hard to
work j neither too dry, too moift, nor too fandy and
light 3 nor too ftrong and clayey, which is the work of
all for gardens.
S^ly, The next requifite is water 3 the want of which
is one of the greateft inconveniences that can attend a
garden, and will bring a certain mortality upon what¬
ever is planted in it, efpecially in the greater droughts
that often happen in a hot and dry fituation in fummer 3
befides its ufefulnefs in fine gardens for making foun¬
tains, canals, cafcades, &c. which are the greatefl orna¬
ments of a garden.
4thly, The lafl; thing to be confidered is the profpe6t
of a fine country 3 and though this is not fo abfolutely
neceffary as water, yet it is one of the moll agreeable
beauties of a fine garden : befides, if a garden be plant¬
ed in a low place that has no kind of profpedt, it wall
not only be difagreeable but unw-holefome.
In the laying out and planting of gardens, the beau¬
ties of nature Ihould always be lludied 3 for the nearer
a garden approaches to nature, the longer it wall pleafe.
According to Mr Miller, the area of a handfome gar¬
den may take up 30 or 40 acres, but not more 3 and
the following rules Ihould be obferved in the difpofition
of it. There ought always to be a defcent of at leak
79 ] GAR
three ileps from the houfe to the garden 3 this will ren-' Garden,
der the houle more dry and wholefome, and the profpett —v—
on entering the garden more extenfive.—The firk thing
that ought to prefent itfelf to view Ihould be an open
lawn of grafs, which ought to be conliderably broader
than the front of the building 3 and if the depth be
one half more than the width, it will have a better ef¬
fect : if on the fides of the lawn there are trees planted
irregularlyby vray of open groves, the regularity of
the lawn will be broken, and the whole rendered more
like nature. For the convenience of walking in damp
weather, this lawm Ihould be furrounded wfith a gravel
walk, on the outfide of which Ihould be borders three
or four feet wide for flowers : and from the back of
thefe the profpeft will be agreeably terminated by a
flope of evergreen ftirubs 3 which, however, fliould ne¬
ver be fuffered to exclude agreeable profpe&s, or the
view of handfome* buildings. Thefe w^alks may lead
through the different plantations, gently winding about
in an eafy natural manner 3 which will be more agree¬
able than either thofe long kraight walks, too frequent¬
ly feen in gardens, or thofe ferpentine windings that
are twiked about into fo many fhort turns as to render
it difficult to walk in them 3 and as no garden can be
pleafing where there is a want of flrade and ffielter, thefe
walks ihould lead as foon as poffible into plantations,
where perfons may walk in private, and be flickered
from the wind.
Narrow rivulets, if they have a conkant kream, and
are judicioufly led about a garden, have a better effedl
than many of the large kagnating ponds or canals fo
frequently made in large gardens. When wildernefles
are intended, they ffiould not be cut into kars and
other ridiculous figures, nor formed into mazes of laby¬
rinths, which in a great defign appear trifling.
In ffiort, the feveral parts of a garden ftiould be di-
verfified 3 but in places where the eye takes in the
whole at once, the two fides fliould be always the fame.
In the bufinefs of defigns, the aim ffiould be always at
what is natural, great, and noble. The general difpo¬
fition of a garden and of its parts ought to be accom¬
modated to the different fituations of the ground, to hu¬
mour its inequalities, to proportion the number and forts
of trees and ffirubs to each part, and to ffiut out from
the view of the garden no objedls that may become or¬
namental. But for a more extended view of this fub-
je6l, fee the article Gardening.
A practical attention to a garden, is by fome ekeem-
ed a degrading employment. It is true, indeed, that
pakoral and agricultural manners, if we may form a
judgment from the dignified defcriptions of Virgil, are
greatly degenerated. The employments of thepherds
and huffiandmen are now become mean and fo did. The
work of the garden is ufually left to a peafant. Nor is
it unreafonable ito affign the labour, which wearies with¬
out amufement, to thofe who are fufficiently amufed by
the profpedl of their wages. But the operations of
grafting, of inoculating, of pruning, of tranfplanting,
are curious experiments in natural philofophy 3 and that
they are pleafing as well as curious, thofe can tekify
who remember what they felt on feeing their attempts
in the amufement of practical gardening attended with
fuccefs. Among the employments fuitable to old age,
Cicero has enumerated the fuperintendence of a garden.
3 B 2 It
GAR [
Garden. It requires no great exertion of mind or body •, and its
' fatisfaflions are of that kind which pleafe without vio¬
lent agitation. Its beneficial influence on health is an
additional reafon for an attention to it at an age when
infirmities abound. _ r ,
In almoft every defcription of the ieats oi the
bleffed, ideas of a garden feem to have predominated.
The word Paradife itfelf is fynonymous with garden.
The fields of Elyfium, that fweet region of poefy, are
adorned with all that imagination can conceive to be
delightful. Some of the moft pleafing paffages of Mfl-
ton, are thofe in which he reprefents the happy pair
engaged in cultivating their blifsful abode. Poets have
always been delighted with the beauties of a garden.
Lucan is reprefented by Juvenal as repofing in his
garden. Virgil’s Georgies prove him to have been
captivated with rural fcenes 5 though, to the furprife of
his readers, he has not afligned a book to the fubje&.of
380 ] GAR
mixed with a great quantity of bitumen, over which Garden,
were two rows of bricks clofely cemented together by'
plafter, and over all were laid thick fheets of lead j
and laftly, Upon the lead was laid the mould of the gar¬
den. The mould or earth was of fuch a depth as to ad¬
mit the largelt trees to take root and grow ; and it was
covered with various kinds of trees, plants, and flowers.
In the upper terrace there was an aqueduft or engine,
whereby water was drawn up out of the river for water¬
ing the whole garden.
Floating Gardens. We are informed by the abbe
Clavigero in his Hiftory of Mexico, that when the
Mexicans were brought under fubjeftion to the Col-
huan and Tepanecan nations, and confined to the
miferable little iflands in the lake of Mexico, they
ceafed for fome years to cultivate the land, becaule
they had none, until neceflity and induftry together
taught them to form moveable fields and gardens, which
a garden, it his ftudy; but”, with flowed on ^ ~f the wJch thTy'
all his tafte and fondnefs for it, he was not happy m they purfued to make drele^and whm^they mn p^ac^
it. The captivating fcenes which he created at the
Leafowes, afforded him, it is faid, little pleafure in
the abfence of fpeftators. The truth is, he made the
embellifliment of his grounds, which fhould have been
the amufement of his life, the bufinefs of it j and
involved himfelf in fuch troubles, by the expences
it occafioned, as neceffarily excluded tranquil enjoy¬
ment.
It is the lot of few, in comparifon, to poflfefs territo¬
ries like his, extenfive, and fufficiently well adapted to
conftitute an ornamented farm. Still fewer are ca¬
pable of fupporting the expence of prefervmg it in
good condition. But let not the rich fuppofe
have appropriated the pleafures of a garden. Ihe
poffeffor of an acre, or a fmaller portion, may receive
a real pleafure, from obferving the progrefs of vegeta¬
tion, even in a plantation of culinary plants. . A. veiy
limited tra£f, properly attended to, will furnifh ample
employment for an individual. Nor let it be thought
a mean care } for the fame hand that raifed the cedar,
formed the hyffop on the wall. Even the oichaid,
cultivated folely for advantage, exhibits beauties une¬
qualled in the fhrubbery j nor can the greenhoufe pro¬
duce an appearance to exceed the blolfom of the apple
and the almond.
Hanging Gardens, in antiquity, gardens raifed on
arches by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, in or¬
der to gratify his wife Amydlis, daughter of Aftyages
king of Media. Quintus Curtius makes them equal in
height to the walls of the city, viz. 50 feet. Ihey
contained a fquare of 400 feet on every fide, and were
carried up into the air in feveral terraces laid above
one another, and the afcent from terrace to terrace was
by flairs 10 feet wide. The arches fuftaining the
whole pile were raifed above one another, and it was
flrengthened by a wall, furrounding it on every fide,
of 22 feet in thicknefs. The floors of each of the ter¬
races were laid in the following manner •, on the top
of the arches were firft laid large flat ftones 16 feet
long and 4 broad, and over them was a layer of reeds
tife' is extremely Ample. They plait and twift willows
and roots of marfti plants or other materials together,
which are light, but capable of iuppoitmg the earth
of the garden firmly united. Upon this foundation they
lay the light bulhes which float on the lake ", and over
all, the mud and dirt which they draw up from the bot¬
tom of the fame lake. Their regular figure is quadran¬
gular 5 their length and breadth various: but generally
they are about eight perches long, and not more than
three in breadth, and have lefs than a foo1- of elevation
above the furface of the water. Tnele were the firft fields
which the Mexicans owned after the foundation of
Mexico; there they firft cultivated the maize, great pep¬
per, and other plants neceffary for their lupport. In
progrefs of time, as thofe fields grew numerous from
the induftry of the people, there were among them
gardens of flowers and odoriferous plants, which were
employed in the worlhip of their gods, and ferved foi
the recreation of the nobles. At prefent they culti¬
vate flowers and every fort of garden herbs upon them.
Every day of the year, at funrife, innumerable velfels
loaded with various kinds of flowers and herbs, which
are cultivated in thofe gardens, are feen ailiving, by
the canals, at the great market place of that capital.
All plants thrive there furprifingly ; the mud of the
lake is an extremely fertile foil, and requiies no water
from the clouds. In the large!! gardens there is com¬
monly a little tree, and even a little hut to ftielter the
cultivator and defend him from rain or the fun. W hen
the owner of a garden, or the Chinampa as he is ideal¬
ly called, wifties to change his fituation, to remove
from a difagreeable neighbour, or to come neaiei to
his own family, he gets into his little veffel, and by his
own ftrength alone, if the garden is fmalJ, or with the
afliftance of others if it is large, he tows it after
him, and conduUs it wherever he pleafes with the
little tree and hut upon it. That part of the lake
where thofe floating gardens are, is a place of ir*^^e
recreation, where the fenfes receive the higheft poflibie
gratification.
GARDENING j
[ 38i 1
•r j
GARDENING;
E art of planning and cultivating gardens. In
•*' its utmoft extent, whatever contributes to render
the fcenes of nature delightful, is among the fubjefts
of gardening $ and animate as well as inanimate objebls
are circumftances of beauty or charafter. The whole
range of nature is open to the gardener, from the par¬
terre to the foreft ; and whatever is agreeable to the
fenfes or the imagination, he may appropriate to the
fpot he is to improve ; it is a part of his bulinefs to col-
left into one place the delights which are generally dif-
perfed through different fpecies of country.
Hi/lory of Gardening.
f Rifi. *f Gardening, Mr Walpole f obferves, was probably
Mod. Gar- one of the firft arts that fucceeded to that of building
dtningt fub- houfes, and naturally attended property and individual
the^thvol P°ffeffion. Culinary, and afterwards medicinal herbs,
ofhfs Artec- were the objefts of every head of a family : it became
dotet of convenient to have them within reach, without feeking
Painting, them at random in wroods, in meadows, and on moun¬
tains, as often as they were wanted. When the earth
ceafed to furnifh fpontaneoufly all thofe primitive luxu¬
ries, and culture became requilite, feparate enclofures
for rearing herbs grew expedient. Fruits were in the
fame predicament 5 and thofe moft in ufe or that de¬
mand attention muff have entered into and extended
the domeftic enclofure. The good man Noah, we are
told, planted a vineyard, drank of the wine, and was
drunken j and every body knowrs the confequences.
Thus we acquired kitchen gardens, orchards, and vine¬
yards. No doubt the prototype of all thefe forts was
the garden of Eden j but as that Paradife was a good
deal larger than any we read of afterwards, being en-
clofed by the rivers Pifon, Gihon, Hiddekel, and Eu¬
phrates 5 as every tree that wras pleafant to the light
and good for food grew7 in it ; and as two other trees
were likewufe found there, of which not a flip or fuck¬
er remains •, it does not belong to the prefent difeudion.
After the fall, no man living was fuffered to enter into
the garden ; and the poverty and neceffities of our firft
anceftors hardly allowed them time to make improve¬
ments in their eftates in imitation of it, luppoling any
plan had been preferved. A cottage and a flip of
ground for a cabbage and a goofeberry bulh, fucji as
we fee by the fide of a common, were in all probability
the earlieft feats and gardens : a wrell and bucket fuc¬
ceeded to the Pifon and Euphrates. As fettlements
increafed, the orchard and the vineyard followed ; and
the earlieft princes of tribes poffeffed juft the neceffaries
of a modern farmer.
Matters, we may well believe, remained long in this
fituation •, and w e have reafon to think that for many
centuries the term garden implied no more than a
kitchen garden or orchard.
The garden of Alcinous, in the Odyffey, is the moft
renowmed in the heroic times. Is there an admirer of
Homer who can read his defeription without rapture ?
or who does not form to his imagination a feene of de¬
lights more pifturefque than the landfcapes of Tinian
or Juan Fernandez ? “Yet (continues our author)
what was that boafted Paradife with which.
the gods ordain’d
To grace Alcinous and his happy land ?
Why, divefted of harmonious Greek and bewitching
poetry, it was a fmall orchard and vineyard, with fome
beds of herbs and two fountains that watered them,
enclofed wfithin a quickfet hedge. The whole compafs
of this pompous garden enclofed—four acres ;
Four acres wras th’ alloted fpace of ground,
Fenc’d with a green enclofure all around.
The trees were apples, figs, pomegranates, pears, olives,
and vines.
Tall thriving trees confefs’d the fruitful mold ;
The red’ning apple ripens into gold.
Here the blue fig wfith lufeious juice o’erflows,
With deeper red the full pomegranate glows j
The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear,
And verdant olives flourilh round the year.
******
Beds of all various herbs, for ever green.
In beauteous order terminate the feene.
Alcinous’s garden wras planted by the poet, enriched
by him with the fairy gift of eternal fummer, and no
doubt an effort of imagination furpaffmg any thing he
had ever leen. As lie has beftowred on the fame happy
prince a palace with brazen walls and columns of fil-
ver, he certainly intended that the gardens ftiould be
proportionably magnificent. We are fure, therefore,
that, as late as Homer’s age, an enclofure of four acres,
comprehending orchard, vineyard, and kitchen garden,
w7as a ftretch of luxury the world at that time had ne¬
ver beheld.”
Previous to this, however, w7e have in the facred
writings hints of a garden ftill more luxurioufly fur-
nifhed. We allude to the Song of Solomon, part of
the feene of which is undoubtedly laid in a garden f. + ^jiap_
Flowers and fruits are particularly fpoken of as the or-1.
naments and the produce of it ; and befides thefe, aro¬
matic vegetables formed a confiderable part of the gra¬
tifications it afforded. The camphor and the cinna¬
mon tree, with all trees of frankincenfe, and all the
chief fpices, flouriftied there J. Solomon tells us in an¬
other place ||, That he made him great works ;—gar- f Cant,
dens and orchards, and planted in them trees of every i*-
kind. Indeed wre muft fuppofe his gardens to have been 'I Ecc^
both amply and curioufly furnifhed, feeing the kinds,4’ 5’
nature, and properties of the vegetable tribes, feem to
have been a favourite, ftudy with the royal philofopher,
and to have been deemed a fubjeft wmrthy of his pen :
for we are told, that he wrote of plants, from the great
cedar of Lebanon down to the hyffop of the wall Kings
Fountains and ftreams of water appear alfo to have33.
had a (hare in the compofition, and probably for orna¬
ment as well as ufe.
The hanging gardens of Babylon, mentioned in a
preceding
382 GARDE
preceding article, were a dill greater prodigy. But as
they are fuppofed to have been formed on terraces and
the walls of the palace, whither foil was conveyed on
purpofe, Mr Walpole concludes, ‘ they were wdiat
fumptuous gardens have been in all ages till the prefent,
unnatural, enriched by art, podibly with fountains, fta-
tues, baluftrades, and fummer houfes, and wTere any
thing but verdant and rural.”
Others, however, have allowed them greater praife.
They feem in many refpefts, to have been laid out
with good tafte. Their elevation not only produced
a variety and extent of view, but was alfo ufeful in mo¬
derating the heat. Such a fituation would likewife
fuit a greater variety of trees and plants than a plain
furface, and would contain a larger as well as a more
diverfified extent.
The fuiting of the fituation to the nature of the
trees 'feems, from the account given by Jofephus, to
Contra ^ave been one view J in the creeling the building in
i.fuch a manner. And the fuccefs feems to have been
§ 19. anfwerable, as the trees are faid to have fiourilhed ex-
tremely well f, and to have growm as tall as in their
Kb^v UrU nat*ve htuations. On the whole, then, however differ¬
ent thefe may appear from modern gardens, they feem
to have been formed with judgment and tafte, and well
adapted to the fituation and circumftances.
It feems probable, from feveral circumftances, that
the eaftern gardens were adjoining to the houfe or pa¬
lace to wdiich they belonged. Thus, King Ahafuerus
goes immediately from the banquet of wine to walk
.. in the garden of the palace §. The garden of Cyrus,
5 Eft er vu. ^ garjjs^ mentioned by Xenophon *, was probably con-
Oeccn. tiguous to the palace : as was that of Attalus, men-
. . tioned by Juftin ||. The hanging gardens at Babylon,
*! ^ ‘ V ’were not fo much adjacent to the palace, as a part of
the palace itfelf, fince feveral of the royal apartments
were beneath them^[.
^ It is not clear what the tafte for gardening was among
the Greeks. The Academus, we know, was a wooded
ftiady place 5 and the trees appear to have been of the
olive Ipecies. It was fituated beyond the limits of the
walls, and adjacent to the tombs of the heroes ; and
though We are nowhere informed of the particular man¬
ner in which this grove was difpofed or laid out, it
may be gathered from Paufanias, in his Attica, that it
was an elegant ornamented place. At the entrance
was an altar dedicated to Love, which was faid to be
the firft erefled to that deity. Within the Academus,
were the altars of Prometheus, of the Mufes, of Mer¬
cury, of Minerva, and Hercules; and at a fmall di-
ftance was the tomb of Plato. So that in all proba¬
bility, it was highly adapted by art, as well as nature,
to philofophic refle&ion and contemplation.
We are told by Plutarch, that before the time of
Cimon, the Academus was a rude and uncultivated
fpot: but that it was planted by that general, and had
water conveyed to it *, whether this water was brought
merely for ufe to refrefh the trees, or for ornament, does
not appear. It was divided into gymnafia, or places
of exercife, and philofophic walks, (haded with trees.
Thefe are faid to have flourifhed very well, until de»-
ftroyed by Sylla (when he befieged Athens), as well
as thofe in the Lyceum.
Near the academy were the gardens of the philofo-
phers, of Plato and of the Epicurus) which, however,
N I N G. Hifbry.
were probably but fmall. The feene of Plato’s Dia¬
logue concerning Beauty is elegantly deferibed as be¬
ing on the banks of the river Iliftus, and under the
(hade of the plantain ; but no artificial arrangement of
objedis is mentioned, nor any thing which will lead us to
imagine the profpe£t to be any other than merely natural.
Among the Romans, a tafte of gardening, any
other wife than as a matter of utility, feems not to have
prevailed till a very late period 5 at leaft the writers on
hufbandry, Cato, Varro, Columella, and Palladius,
make not the leaft mention of a garden as an objefl of
pleafure, but folely with refpeft to its productions of
herbs and fruits. The Lucullan gardens are the
firft we find mentioned of remarkable magnificence )
though probably from the extravagance to which thefe
were arrived, they were not the firft. Plutarch fpeaks
of them as incredibly expenfive, and equal, to the mag¬
nificence of kings. They contained artificial elevations
of ground to a furprifing height, of buildings project¬
ed into the fea, and vaft pieces of water made upon
land. In ftiort, his extravagance and expence were fo
great, that he acquired thence the appellation of the
Roman Xerxes. It is not improbable, from the above
account, and from the confideration of Lucullus hav¬
ing fpent much time in Afia, in a fituation wherein he
had an opportunity of obferving the moft fplendid
conftrudtions of this kind, that thefe gardens might be
laid out in the Afiatic ftyle. The .vaft mafles of build¬
ing faid to have been ereCted, might have borne fome re-
femblance, in the arrangement and ftyle, to the Baby¬
lonian gardens; and the epithet of the Roman Xerxes
might be applicable to the tafte, as well as to the fize
and expence of his works.
The Tufculan villa of Cicero, though often men¬
tioned, is not anywhere deferibed in his works, fo as to
give an adequate idea of the ftyle in which his gardens
or grounds were difpofed.
There is but little to be traced in Virgil relative to
this fubjeft. Pines f, it feems probable, were a fa--j- Eclvg. \ru
vourite ornament in gardens j and flowers rofes^s, &c.
efpecially, were much efteemed, perfumes indeed hav- § Geon ‘v'
ing been always highly valued in warm climates. Vir-IlS"
gil places Anchifes in Elyfium, in a grove of bays :
and is careful to remark, that they were of the fweet
feented kind. The Pseftan rofes were chiefly valued
for their excellent odour •, and the fame quality ap¬
pears to be the caufe why they were placed by Tibul¬
lus as ornaments to the Elyfian fields. There appears
alfo to have prevailed among the Romans a piece of
luxury relative to gardens, which is equally prevalent
at prefent among us, namely the forcing of flowers at
feafons of the year not fuited to their natural blowing:
and rofes were then, as at prefent, the principal flowers
upon which thefe experiments were tried, as appears
from Martial X and others. 1 Vide
When Roman authors (Mr Walpole remarks), £I,,gr-
whofe climate inftilled a wifti for cool retreats, fpeak^ ek‘v '
of their enjoyments in that kind, they figh for grottoes, I27> and r
caves, and the refrelhing hollows of mountains, near ir- Lampridius
riguous and ftiady founts ; or boaft of their porticoes,
walks of planes, canals, baths, and breezes from the£^-
fea. Their gardens are never mentioned as affording
lhade and ftielter from the rage of the dog ftar. Pliny
has left us deferiptions of two of his villas. As he
ufed his Laurentine villa for his winter retreat, it is not
furprifing
Hiftory. CARD
furpriling triat the garden makes no confiderable part
ct the account. All he fays of it is, that the geftatio
or place of exercife, which furrounded the garden (the
latter confequently not being very large), was bounded
by a hedge of box, and, where that was perilhed, with
rofemary ; that there was a walk of vines ; and that
moft of the trees were fig and mulberry, the foil not
being proper for any other forts. On his Tufcan villa
he is more diffufe 5 the garden makes a cordiderable
part of the defcription :—and what was the principal
beauty of that pleafure ground ? Exaftly what was the
admiration of this country about threefcore years ago $
box trees cut into monfters, animals, letters, and the
names of the mafter and the artificer. In an age when
architeflure difplayed all its grandeur, all its purity,
and all its tafte $ when arofe Vefpalian’s amphitheatre,
the temple of Peace, Trajan’s forum, Domitian’s baths,
and Adrian’s villa, the ruins and veftiges of which ftill
excite our aftonifhment and curiolity ; a Roman con-
ful, a polilhed emperor’s friend, and a man of elegant
literature and talie, delighted in what the mob now
fcarce admire in a college garden. All the ingredients
of Pliny’s correfponded exaftly with thofe laid out by
London and Wife on Dutch principles. He talks of
dopes, terraces, a wildernefs, fhrubs methodically trim¬
med, a marble bafon, pipes fpouting water, a cafcade
falling into the bafon, bay trees alternately planted
with planes, and a ftraight walk from whence iffued
others parted off by hedges of box and apple trees-, with
obelifks placed between every two. There wants no¬
thing but the embroidery of a parterre, to make a gar¬
den in the reign of Trajan ferve for a defcription of
one in that of King William. In one paffage above,
Pliny feems to have conceived that natural irregularity
might be a beauty } m opere urbanijjimo, fays he^fubita
veiut Mali runs irmtatio. Something like a rural view
was contrived amidft fo much polilhed compofition.
But the idea foon vanifhed, lineal walks immediately en¬
veloped the flight fcene, and names and infcriptions in
box again fucceeded to compenfate for the daring in-
trodu&ion of nature.
In the paintings found at Herculaneum are a few
traces of gardens, as may be feen in the fecond volume
of the prints. They are fmall fquare enclofures, formed
by trellis-work and efpaliers, and regularly ornamented
with vafes, fountains, and careatides, elegantly fymme-
trical, and proper for the narrow fpaces allotted to the
garden of a houfe in a capital city.
From what has been faid, it appears how naturally
and infenfibly the idea of a kitchen garden Aid into
that which has for fo many ages been peculiarly term¬
ed a garden, and by our anceftors in this country de-
fHnguifhed by the name of a pleafure garden. A fquare
piece of ground was originally parted off in early ages
for the ufe of the family :—to exclude cattle, and af-
certain the property, it was feparated from the fields by
a hedge. As pride and defire of privacy increafed,
the enclofure was dignified by walls ; and in climes
where fruits were not lavifhed by the ripening glow of
nature and foil, fruit trees were aflifted and fheltered
from furrounding winds by the like expedient : for the
inundation of luxuries, which have fwelled into general
neceflities, have almoft all taken their fource from the
fimple fountain of reafon.
When the cuftom of making fquare gardens enclof-
ENIN G. 383
ed with walls was thus eflablnhed to the exclufion of
nature and profpeft, pomp and folitude combined to
call for fomething that might enrich and enliven the
infipid and unanimated partition. Fountains, firfl; in¬
vented for ufe, which grandeur loves to difguife and
throw out of the queflion, received embellifliments from
coftly marbles, and at lalf, to contradict utility, toffed
their wafte of waters into the air in fpouting columns.
Art, in the hands of rude man, had at firft been made
a fuccedaneum to nature \ in the hands of oflentatious
wealth, it became the means of oppofing nature; and
the more it traverfed the march of the latter, the
more nobility thought its power was demonftrated.
Canals meafured by the line were introduced in lieu of
meandering itreams, and terraces were hoifted aloft in
oppofition to the facile flopes that Imperceptibly unite
the valley to the hill. Baluftrades defended thefe pre¬
cipitate and dangerous elevations, and flights of fteps
rejoined them to the fubjacent flat from which the ter¬
race nad been dug. Vafes and fculpture were added
to thele unneceflary balconies, and ftatues furniflied
the lifelefs fpot with mimic reprefentations of the ex¬
cluded fons of men. Thus difficulty and expence were
the conflituent parts of thofe fumptuous and felfifli fo-
litudes 5 and every improvement that was made, was
but a ftep farther from nature. The tricks of water¬
works to wet the unwary, not to refrefli the panting
fpeClator j and parterres embroidered in patterns like a
petticoat, were but the childilli endeavours of falhion
and novelty to reconcile greatnefs to what it had fur-
feited on. To crown thefe impotent difplays of falfe
tafte, the ffieers were applied to the lovely wildnefs of
form with which nature has diftinguiflied each various
fpecies of tree and Ihrub. The venerable oak, the ro¬
mantic beech, the ufeful elm, even the afpiring cir¬
cuit of the lime, the regular round of the chefnut,
and the almofl: moulded orange tree, were correfted
by fuch fantaftic admirers of fymmetry. The com-
pafs, and fquare were of more ule in plantations than
the nurferyman. The meafured walk, the quincunx,
and the etoile, impofed their unfatisfying famenefs on
every royal and noble garden. Trees were headed,
and their fides pared away; many French groves feem
green chefts fet upon poles. Seats of marble, arbours,
and fummer houfes, terminated every villa; and fym-
metry, even where the fpace was too large to permit
its being remarked at one view, was fo elfential, that,,
as Pope obferved,
- — each alley has a brother,
And half the garden juft reflefls the other.
Knots of flowers were more defenfibly fubje&ed to the
fame regularity. Leifure, as Milton expreffed it,]
 in trim gardens took his pleafure.
In the garden of Marflial de Biron at Paris, confifting
of 14 acres, every walk is buttoned on each fide by
lines of flower pots, which fucceed in their leafons.
It does not preciiely appear what our anceftors meant
by a bower: it was probably an arbour \ fometimes it
meant the whole frittered enclofure, and in one inftance
it certainly included a labyrinth. Rofamond’s bower
was indifputably of that kind j though whether com-
pofed of walls or hedges, we cannot determine. A
fquare and a round labyrinth were fo capital ingredients
of
384 GAUD
of a garden formerly, that in Du Cerceau’s architec¬
ture, who lived in the time of Charles IX. and Hen¬
ry III. there is fcarce a ground plot without one of
each.
In Kip’s Views of the Seats of our Nobility and
Gentry, we fee the fame tirefome and returning uni¬
formity. Every houfe is approached by two or three
gardens, confiding perhaps of a gravel walk and two
grafs plats or borders of flowers. Each rifes above
the other by two or three fteps, and as many walls and
terraces, and fo many iron gates, that we recoiled
thofe ancient romances in which every entrance was
guarded by nymphs or dragons. Yet though theie
and fuch prepofterous inconveniences prevailed from
age to age, good fenfe in this country had perceived
the want of fomething at once more grand and more
natural. Thefe reflections, and the bounds fet to the
wade made by royal fpoilers, gave origin to Parks.
They were contraded foreds, and extended gardens.
Mentzner fays, that, according to Rous of Warwick,
the fird park was that at Wooddock. If fo, it might
be the foundation of a legend that Henry II. fecured
his midrefs in a labyrinth : it was no doubt more diffi¬
cult to find her in a park than in a palace, where the
intricacy of the woods and various lodges buried in co¬
vert might conceal her adual habitation.
It is more extraordinary that, having fo long ago
dumbled on the principle of modern gardening, we
Ihould have perfided in retaining its reverfe, fymme-
trical and unnatural gardens. Mhat parks were rare
in other countries, Hentzner, who travelled oyer great
part of Europe, leads us to iuppofe, by obferving that
they were common in England. In France they retain
the name, but nothing is more different both in com-
pafs and difpodtion. Their parks are ufually fquare or
oblong enclofures, regularly planted with walks of
chefnuts or limes, and generally ^very large town has
one for its public recreation.
“ One man, one great man we had (continues Mr
Walpole), on whom nor education nor cudom could
impofe their prejudices *, who, ‘ on evil days though
fallen, and with darknefs and folitude compaffed round,’
judged that the midaken and fantadic ornaments he had
feen in gardens, were unworthy of the Almighty hand
that planted the delights of Paradife. He feems with
the prophetic eye of tade to have conceived, to have
forefeen modern gardening ; as Lord Bacon announced
the difcoveries flnce made by experimental philofophy.
The defcription of Eden is a warmer and more jud pic¬
ture of the prefent dyle than Claud Lorraine could have
painted from Hagley or Stourhead. I he fird lines we
fhall quote exhibit Stourhead on a more magnificent
fcale :
Thro’ Eden went a river large,
Nor chang’d his courfe, but thro’ the fhaggy hill,
Pafs’d underneath ingulph’d : for God had thrown
That mountain as his garden mound, high rais’d
Upon the rapid current 
Hagley feems pictured in what follows :
Which thro’ veins
Of porous earth with kindly third updrawn,
Rofe a frefh fountain, and with many a rill
Water’d the garden———
E N I N G. Hiftory
What colouring, what freedom of pencil, what land-
fcape in thefe lines !
 from that fapphire fount the crifped brooks,
Rolling on orient pearl and fands of gold,
With mazy error under pendant fliades,
Ran nedlar, vifiting each plant, and fed
Flow’rs worthy of Paradife, which not nice art
In beds and curious knots, but nature boon,
Pour’d forth profufe on hill, and dale, and plain,
Both w7here the morning fun fird wTarmly fmote
The open field, and where the un pierc’d fhade
Imbrowm’d the noontide bow’rs—Thus %vas this place
A happy ruralfieat of various view.
Read this tranfporting defcription, paint to your mind
the fcenes that follow, contrad them with the favage
but refpeftable terror wnth which the poet guards the
bounds of his p.aradife, fenced
 with the champaign head
Of a deep wildernefs, whofe hairy fades
With thicket overgrown, grotefque and wild,
Accefs denied ; and over head up grew
Infuperable height of loftied fhade,
Cedar and pine, and fir, and branching palm,
A fylvan fcene, and, as the ranks afcend,
Shade above diade, a woody theatre,
Of datelied view 
and then recolka, that the author of this fublime vifioft
had never feen a glimpfe of any thing like what he has
imagined ‘ that his favourite ancients had dropped not
a hint of fuch divine fcenery j and that the conceits in
Italian gardens, and Iheobalds and Nonfuch, were the
brighteff originals that his memory could furnifh. His
intelledtual eye faw a nobler plan, fo little did he differ
by the lofs of fight. It fufficed him to have feen the
materials with which he could work. I he vigour of a
boundlefs imagination told him how a plan might be
difpofed, that wrould embellifh nature, and re-dore art
to its proper office, the jud improvement or imitation
°f it. ...
“ Now let us return to an admired writer, podenor to
Milton, and fee how cold, how infipid, how tadelefs,
is his account of what he pronounced a perfed garden.
We fpeak not of his dyle, which it was not neceffary
for him to animate with the colouring and glow of
poetry. It is his want of ideas, of imagination, of
tade, that deferve cenfure, when he didated on a fub-
jed which is capable of all the graces that a knowledge
of beautiful nature can bedow. Sir William Temple
was an excellent man j Milton, a genius of the fird
order.
“ We cannot wonder that Sir William declares m fa¬
vour of part'erres, fountains, and datues, as neceffary to
break the famenefs of large grafs plots, wffiich he thinks
have an ill effed upon the eye, when he acknowledges
that he difcovers fancy in the gardens of Alcinous.
Milton dudied the ancients with equal enthufiafm, but
no bigotry i and had judgment to didinguiffi between
the want of invention and the beauties of poetry. Com¬
pare his paradife with Homer’s garden, both afcribed
to a celedial defign. For Sir William, it is jud to ob-
ferve, that his ideas centered in a fruit garden. He
had the honour of giving to his country many delicate
fruit Sj
2
Hittory. GARDENING. 385
fruits, and lie thought of little elfe than difpofing
them to the beft advantage.
“ The beft figure of a garden (lays he) is either a
fquare or an oblong, and either upon a flat or a de-
fcent: they have all their beauties, but the beft I
efteem an oblong upon a defcent. The beauty, the
air, the view make amends for the expence, which is
very great in finifhing and fupporting the terrace walks,
in levelling the parterres, and in the ftone flairs that
are neceffary from one to the other. The perfedteft
figure of a garden I ever faw, either at home or abroad,
was that of Moor Park in Hertfordfhire, when I knew
it about 30 years ago. It was made by the Countefs
ef Bedford, efteetned among the greateft wits of her
time, and celebrated by Dr Donne ; and with very
great care, excellent contrivance, and much coft; but
greater fums may be thrown away without effedt or ho¬
nour, if there wrant fenfe in proportion to money, or
' if nature be not followed which I take to be the
great rule in this, and perhaps in every thing elfe, as
far as the conduct not only of our lives but our govern¬
ments.’ [We (hall fee how natural that admired gar¬
den was.] ‘ Becaufe I take the garden I have named
to have been in all kinds the moil beautiful and per-
fedl, at leaf! in the figure and difpefition, that I ever
have feen, I will defcribe it for a model to thofe that
meet with fuch a fituation, and are above the regards
of common expence. It lies on the fide of a hill, upon
w’hich the houfe ftands, but not very fteep. The
length of the houfe, where the beft rooms and of moft
ufe or pleafure are, lies upon the breadth of the gar¬
den ; the great parlour opens into the middle of a ter¬
race gravel walk that lies even with it, and wTich may
be, as I remember, about 300 paces long, and broad
in proportion ; the border fet with ftandard laurels and
at large diftances, wTich have the beauty of orange
trees out of fiowTer and fruit. From this walk are three
defcents by many ftone fteps, in the middle and at each
end, into a very large parterre. This is divided into
quarters by gravel walks, and adorned with two foun¬
tains and eight ftatues in the feveral quarters. At the
end of the terrace walk are two lummer houfes, and the
fides of the parterre are ranged with two large cloifters
open to the garden, upon arches of ftone, and ending
with two other fummer houfes even with the cloifters,
which are paved with ftone, and defigned for w^alks of
ihade, there being none other in the wdiole parterre.
Over thefe two cloifters are twTo terraces covered with
lead and fenced with balufters j and the paflage into
thefe airy walks is out of the two fummer houfes at the
end of the firft terrace walk. The cloifter facing the
fouth is covered with vines, and would have been proper
for an orange houfe, and the other for myrtles or other
more common greens, and had, I doubt not, been caft
for that purpofe, if this piece of gardening had been
then in as much vogue as it is now. From the middle
of this parterre is a defcent by many fteps flying on
each fide of a grotto, that lies between them, covered
with lead and fiat, into the lower garden, which is all
fruit trees ranged about the feveral quarters of a wil-
dernefs, which is very fhady ; the walks here are all
green, the grotto embelliftied with figures of (hell rock-
work, fountains, and wTater wmrks. If the hill had not
ended with the lower garden, and the wall were not
bounded by a common way that goes through the
Vol. IX. Part I.
park, they might have added a third quarter of all
greens j but this want is fupplied by a garden on the
other fide the houfe, which is all of that fort, very wild,
lhady, and adorned with rough rock work and foun¬
tains. This, was Moor Park when I was acquainted
with it, and the fvveeteft place, I think, that I ha^c
feen in my life, either before or iince, at home ot
abroad.’
“ It is uiineceffary to add any remarks on this de-
feription. Any man might defign and build as fweet a
garden, who had been born in and never ftirred out oi
Holborn. It was not, however, peculiar to Sij Wil¬
liam Temple to think in that manner. How many
Frenchmen are there who have fden our gardens, and
ftill prefer natural flights of fteps and lhady cloifters co¬
vered with lead ! Le Nautre, the architeft of the
groves and grottoes at Verfailles, came hither on a mif-
fion to improve our tafte. He planted St James’s and
Greenwich Parks—no great monuments of his inven¬
tion.
“ To do farther juftice to Sir William Temple, we
muft: not omit what he adds. ‘ What I have faid of
the beft; forms of gardens is meant only of fuch as are
in fome fort regular 5 for there may be other forms
wholly irregular, that may, for ought I know, have
more beauty than any of the others: but they muft owe
it to fome extraordinary difpofitions of nature in the
feat, or fome great race of fancy or judgment in the
contrivance, which may reduce many difagreeing parts
into fome figure, which (hall yet, upon the whole, be
very agreeable. Something of this I have feen in fome
places, but beard more of it from others who have li¬
ved much among the Chinefes, a people whofe way of
thinking feems to lie as wide of ours in Europe as their
country does. Their greateft; reach of imaghiation is
employed in contriving figures, where the beauty (hall
be great and ftrike the eye, but without any order or
difpofition of parts, that (hall be commonly or eafily ob-
ferved. And though we have hardly any notion of this
fort.of beauty, yet they have a particular word to ex-
prefs it: and when they find it hit their eye at firft
fight, they fay the Sharawadgi is fine or is admirable,
or any fuch expre(iion of efteem : but I fhould hardly \
advife any of thefe attempts in the figure of gardens
among us •, they are adventures of too hard achieve¬
ment for any common hands •, and though there may
be more honour if they fucceed well, yet there is more
dhhonour if they fail, and it is twenty to one they will ;
whereas in regular figures it is hard to make any great
and remarkable faults.’
“ Fortunately Kent and a few others were not quite
fo timid, or we might ftill be going up and down (lairs
in the open air. It is true, we have heard much lately,
as Sir William Temple did, of irregularity and imita¬
tions of nature in the gardens or grounds of the Chi-
nefe. The former is certainly true : they are as whim--
fically irregular, as European gardens are formally
uniform and unvaried :—but with regard to nature,
it feems as much avoided, as in the fquares and oblongs
and ftraight lines of our anceftors. An artificial perpen¬
dicular rock ftarting out of a flat plain, and eonnetted
with nothing, often pierced through in various places
with oval hollows, has no more pretenfion to be deem¬
ed natural than a lineal terrace or a parterre. The
late Mr Jofeph Spence, who had both tafte and zeal
3 C for
3%6 GARB
for the prefent ftyle, was fo perfuaded of the Chinefe
emperor’s pleafure ground being laid out on principles
refembling ours, that he tranflated and publiihed, un¬
der the name of Sir Harry Beaumont, a particular
account of that enclofurc from the colle&ion of the
letters of the Jefuits. But except a determined irre¬
gularity, one can find nothing in it that gives any
idea of attention being paid to nature. It is of vaft
circumference, and contains 200 palaces, befides as ma¬
ny contiguous for the eunuchs, all gilt, painted, and
varnifhed. There are railed hills from 20 to 60 feet
high, llreams and lakes, and one of the latter five
miles round. Thefe waters are paffed by bridges :—
but even their bridges mull not be ftraight—they fer-
pentize as much as the rivulets, and are fometimes fo
long as to be furnilhed with reding places, and begin
and end with triumphal arches. The colonnades un¬
dulate in the fame maimer. In fhort, this pretty gau¬
dy feene is the work of caprice and whim, and, when
we refleft on their buildings, prefents no image but
that of unfubdantiai tawdrinefs. Nor is this all.
Within this fantadic paradife is a fquare town, each
lide a mile long. Here the eunuchs of the court, to
entertain his imperial majedy with the budle and bu-
dnefs of the capital in which he refides, but which it
is not of his dignity ever to fee, aft merchants and all
forts of trades, anU- even defignedly exercife for his
royal amufement every art of knavery that is praftif-
ed under his aufpicious government. Methinks this is
the childilh folace and repofe of grandeur, not a retire¬
ment from affairs to the delights of rural life. Here
too his majefty plays at agriculture : there is a quarter
_et a part for that purpofe } the eunuchs fow, reap, and
carry in their harved, in the imperial pretence } and
his majedy returns to Pekin, peifuaded that he has
been in the country.
i6 Having thus cleared our way by afeertaining what
have been the ideas on gardening in all ages as far
Ho we have materials to judge by, it remains to fhow
to what degree Mr Kent invented the new dyle, and
what hints he had received to fugged and conduft his
undertaking.
“ We have feen Svhat Moor Park was, when pro¬
nounced a dandard. But as no fucceeding generation
in an opulent and luxurious country contents itfelf with
the perfeftion edablifhed by its ancedors, more perfeft
perfeftion was dill fought 3 and improvements had
gone on, till London and Wife had docked all our
gardens with giants, animals, monders, coats of arms,
and mottoes, in yew, box, and holly. Abfurdity could
go no farther, and the tide turned. Bridgman, the next
falhionable defigner of gardens, was far more chade 3
and whether from good fenfe, or that the nation had
oeen brack and reformed by the admirable paper in
the Guardian, N° 173, he banilhed verdant fculpture,
and did not even revert to the fquare precifion of the
foregoing age. He enlarged his plans, difdained to
make every divifion tally to its oppofite 3 and though
he dill adhered much to ftraight walks with high clip¬
ped hedges, they were only his great lines 3 the reft he
diverfified by wildernefs, and with loofe groves of oak,
though dill withm furroundmg hedges. A.s his refor¬
mation gained footing, he ventured, in the royal gar¬
den at Richmond, to introduce cultivated fields, and
siveii- morfels of a foreft appearance, by the fides of
E N I N G. Hiftory.
thofe endlefs and tirefome walks that dretchcd out of
one into another without intermiffion. But this was
not till other innovators had broke loofe too from ri¬
gid fymmetry.
“ But the capital droke, the leading dep to all that
has followed, was the dedruftion of walls for bounda¬
ries, and the invention of foffes—an attempt then
deemed fo adonidiing, that the common people called
them I la ! Ha’s ! to exprefs their furprife at finding
a hidden and unperceived check to their walk.
“ A funk fence may be called the leadingJlep, for thefe
rcafons. No fooner was this fimple enchantment made,
than levelling, mowing, ^nd rolling, followed. The
contiguous ground of the park without the funk fence
was to be harmonized with the lawn within 3 and the
garden in its turn was to be fet free from its prime re¬
gularity, that it might affort with the wilder country
without. The funk fence afeertained the fpecific gar¬
den 3 but that it might not draw too obvious a line of
didinftion between the neat and the rude, the conti¬
guous out-lying parts came to be included in a kind of
general defign 3 and when nature was taken into the
plan, under improvements, every ftep that was made
pointed out new beauties, and infpired new ideas. At
that moment appeared Kent, painter enough to tafte
the charms of landfcape, bold, and opinionative enough
to dare and to diftate, and born with a genius to ftrike
out a great fyftem from the twilight of imperfeft ef-
fays. He leaped the fence, and faw that all nature
was a garden. He felt the delicious contraft of hill
and valley changing imperceptibly into each other,
tafted the beauty of the gentle fwell or concave fcoop,
and remarked how loofe groves crowned an eafy emi¬
nence with happy ornament 5 and while they called
in the diftant view between their graceful Items, re¬
moved and extended the perfpeftive by delufive com-
parifon.
“ Thus the pencil of his imagination beftowed all the
arts of landfcape on the feenes he handled. The great
principles on which lie worked were perlpeftive, and
light and fhade. Groupes of trees broke too uniform
or too extenfive a lawn 3 evergreens and woods were
oppofed to the glare of the champaign 3 and where
the view was lei's fortunate, or fo much expofed as to
be beheld at once, he blotted out fome parts by thick
lhades, to divide it into variety, or to make the richeft
feene more enchanting by referving it to a farther ad¬
vance of the fpeftator’s ftep. Thus, felefting favourite
objefts, and veiling deformities by fereens of plantation 3
fometimes allowing the rudeft 'wafte to add its foil to
the richeft theatre 3 he realized the compofitions of
the greateft mailers in painting. Where objefts were
wanting to animate his horizon, his tafte as an ar-
chiteft could bellow immediate termination. His
buildings, his feats, his temples, were more the works
of his pencil than of his compaffes. We owe the re¬
iteration of Greece and the diffufion of architefture to
his Ikill in landfcape.
“ But of all the beauties he added to the face of this
beautiful country, none furpaffed his management of
water. Adieu to canals, circular bafons, and cafcades
tumbling down marble fteps, that laft abfurd magnifi¬
cence of Italian and French villas. The forced eleva--
tion of catarafts w’as no more. The gentle Itream w’as
taught to ferpentize feemingly at its pleafure 3 and
wheye
Part I
CARD
where difcontinucd by different levels, its courfe ap¬
peared to be concealed by thickets properly interfperf-
ed, and glittered again at a diftance, where it might
be luppofed naturally to arrive. Its borders were
fmoothed, but preferved their waving irregularity. A
few trees fcattered here and there on its edges fprink-
led the tame bank that accompanied its meanders;
and when it difappeared among the hills, (hades de*
fcending from the heights leaned towards its progrefs,
and framed the diftant point of light under which it
was loft, as it turned afide to either hand of the blue
horizon.
“ Thus, dealing in none but the colours of nature,
and catching its moft favourable features, men faw a
new creation opening before their eyes. The living
landfcape was chaftened or poliftied, not transformed.
Freedom was given to the forms of trees : they ex¬
tended their branches unreftri&ed j and where any
eminent oak, or mafter beech, had efcaped maiming
and furvived the foreft, bufti and bramble Was removed,
and all its honours were reftored to diftinguiih and
(hade the plain. Where the united plumage of an
ancient wood extended wide its undulating canopy, and
flood venerable in its darknefs, Kent thinned the fore-
moft ranks, and left but fo many detached and fcattered
trees, as foftened the approach of gloom, and blended
a chequered light with the thus lengthened lhadows of
the remaining columns.
“ Succeeding artifts have added new mafter ftrokes
to thefe touches; perhaps improved or brought to per¬
fection fome that have been named. The introduc¬
tion of foreign trees and plants, which we owe prin¬
cipally to Archibald duke of Argyle, contributed ef-
fentially to the richnefs of colouring fo peculiar to our
modern landfcape. The mixture of various greens,
the contrail of forms between our foreft trees and the
northern and Weft Indian firs and pines, are improve¬
ments more recent than Kent, or but little known to
him. The weeping willow, and every florid Ihrub,
each tree of delicate or bold leaf, are new tints in the
compofition of our gardens.
“ But juft as the encomiums are that have been be¬
llowed on Kent’s difeoveries, he was neither without
afliftance or faults. Mr Pope undoubtedly contributed
to form his tafte. The defign of the prince of Wales’s
garden at Carlton houfe was evidently borrowed from
the poet’s at Twifckenham. There was a little of af-
fefted modefty in the latter, when he faid, of all his
works he was moft proud of his garden. And yet
E N I N G. 7
it was a fingular effort of art and tafte to im-
prefs fo much variety and feenery on a fpot of five
acres. The palling through the gloom from the
grotto to the opening day, the retiring and again
affembling lhades, the dulky groves, the larger lawn,
and the folemnity of the termination at the cypreffes
that lead up to his mother’s tomb, are managed with
exquifite judgment j and though Lord Peterborough
aflifted him
To form his quincunx and to rank his vines,
thofe were not the-moft pleafing ingredients of his little
perfpeflive.
“ Having routed profeffed art (for the modern gar¬
dener exerts his talents to conceal his art), Kent, like
other reformers, knew not how to Hop at the juft
limits. He had followed Nature, and imitated her fo
happily', that he began to think all her works were
equally proper for imitation. In Kenfington garden he
planted dead trees to give a greater air of truth to the
feene—but he was foon laughed out of this excefs.
His ruling principle was, that nature abhors a ftraigLt
line. His mimics (for every genius has his apes,) Teem¬
ed to think that Ihe could love nothing but what was
crooked. Yet fo many men of tafte of all ranks de¬
voted themfelves to the new improvements, that it is
furpriling how much beauty has been ftruck out, with
how few abfurdities. Still in fome lights the reforma¬
tion feems to have been puflred too far. Though an
avenue crofting a park or feparating a lawn, and inter¬
cepting views from the feat to which it leads, are capita!
faults j yet a great avenue cut through woods, perhaps
before entering a park, has a noble air, and,
Like footmen running before coaches
To tell the inn what lord approaches,
announces the habitation of fome man of diftimftion.
In other places the total banilhment of all particular
neatnefs immediately about a houfe, which is frequent¬
ly left gazing by itfelf in the middle of a park, is a
defedl. Sheltered and even clofe walks, in fo very un¬
certain a climate as ours, are comforts ill exchanged
for the few pifilurefque days that wc enjoy j and when¬
ever a family can purloin a warm and even fomething
of an old-falhioned garden from the landfcape defigned
for them by the undertaker in falliion, without inter¬
fering with the pi£lure, they will find fatisfadlions in
thofe days that do not invite ftrangers to come and fee
their improvements.”
PART I. PRINCIPLES OF GARDENING.
GARDENING, in the perfeflion to which it
has been lately brought in Britain, is entitled to a
place of confiderable rank among the liberal arts. It
is (fays Mr Wheatley) as fuperior to landfcape paint¬
ing as a reality to a reprefentation : it is an exertion of
fancy; a fubjecl for tafte j and being releafed now from
the reftraints of regularity, and enlarged beyond the
purpofes of domeftic convenience, the moft beautiful,
the moft fimple, the moft noble feenes of nature, are all
within its province. For it is no longer eonfified to the
fpots from which it takes its name j but, as already ob-
ferved, regulates alfo the difpofition and embellilhment
of a park, a farm, a foreft, &c.: and the bufinefs of a
gardener is to felefl and apply whatever is great, ele¬
gant, or charafleriftic in any of them j to difeover, and
to Ihow all the advantages of the place upon which he
is employed } to fupply its defefts, to cor re 61 its faults^
and to improve its beauties.
3 C 2 Sect.
GAR
D
jS8
E N I N G.
Fart I,
Ground,
Wood.
Sect. I. Materials of Gardening.
These may be divided into two general claffes;
Natural and FaBitious.
§ I. Of the Natvral Materials.
Thefe, according to Mr Wheatley’s enumeration,
are—Ground, Wood, Water, and Rocks.
I. GROUND. By this is meant that portion of
naked furface which is included within the place to
be improved ; whether that furface be fwamp, lawn,
roughet, or broken ground j and whether it be a
height, a valley, a plain, or a compofition of fwells,
dips, and levels.
The following paffage has been quoted from Mr
| Page 62j Gilpin’s obfervations on the Wye f, as affording a
fublime idea of what ground ought to be.—“ No¬
thing (fays he) gives fo juft an idea of the beautiful
fwellings of ground as thofe of water, where it has
fufficient room to undulate and expand. In ground
which is compofed of very refractory materials, you
are prefented often with harfh lines, angular infertions,
and difagreeable abruptneffes. In water, whether in
gentle or in agitated motion, all is eafy, all is foftened
into itfelfj and the hills and valleys play into each
other in a variety of the molt beautiful forms. In
agitated water, abruptneffes indeed there are, but yet
they are fuch abruptneffes as in fome part or other
unite properly with the furface around them ; and are
on the whole peculiarly harmonious. Now, if the
ocean in any of thefe fwellings and agitations could be
arrefted and fixed, it would produce that pleafing va¬
riety which wre admire in ground. Hence it is common
to fetch our images from water, and apply them to
land : we talk of an undulating line, a playing lawn,
and a billowy furface ; and give a much ftronger and
more adequate idea by fuch imagery, than plain lan¬
guage could poffibly prefent.”
The exertions of art, however, are here inadequate j
and the artifl ought not to attempt to create a mountain,
a valley or a plain : he fhould but rarely meddle even
with the fmaller inequalities of grounds. Roughets and
broken ground may generally be reduced to lawn, or
hid with wood •, and a fwamp may be drained or covered
with water $ whilfl lawn may be variegated at pleafure
by wood, and fometimes by water.
II. OOD, as a general term, comprehends all trees
and fhrubs in whatever difpofition j but it is fpecifically
applied in a more limited fenfe, and in that fenfe we
ihall now ufe it.
Every plantation muft be either a iuoo^/, a grove, or
clump. A wood is compofed both of trees and under¬
wood, covering a confiderable fpace. A grove confills
of trees without underwood. A clump differs from
either, only in extent: it may be either clofe or open j
when clofe, it is fometimes called a thicket; when open,
a group of trees j but both are equally clumps, what-
x ever may be the lhape or iituation.
Of the fur- 1 • khie of the noblert objects in nature (Mr Wheat-
faee of a ‘ley obfervts) is the furface of a large thick wood, com-
wovd. itunded from an eminence, or feen from below hanging
on the fide of a hill. The latter is generally the more
interefting objeCf. Its afpiring fituation gives it an air
of greatnefs j its termination is commonly the horizon j
and, indeed, if it is deprived of that fplendid boundary,
if the brow appears above it (unlefs fome very peculiar
effect charadlerifes that brow), it lofes much of its
magnificence : it is inferior to a wood which covers
a lefs hill from the top to the bottom j for a whole
fpace filled is feldom little. But a wood commanded
from an eminence is generally no more than a part
of the fcene below $ and its boundary is often ina¬
dequate to its greatnefs. To continue it, therefore,
till it winds out of fight, or lofes itfelf in the horizon,
is generally defirable : but then the varieties of its fur¬
face grow confufed as it retires •, while thofe of a hang¬
ing wood are all diftinft, the furthelt parts are held up
to the eye, and none are at a diffance though the whole
be extenlive.
The varieties of a furface are effential to the beauty
of it: a continued fmooth {haven level of foliage is
neither agreeable nor natural j the different growths
of trees commonly break it in reality, and their Iha-
dows ftill more in appearance. Thefe fhades are fo
many tints, which, undulating about the furface, are
its greateft embellifhment 5 and fuch tints may be pro¬
duced with more effedl, and more certainty, by a ju¬
dicious mixture of greens; at the fame time an addi-
■tional variety may be introduced, by grouping and
contraffing trees very different in fliape from each
other •, and whether variety in the greens or in the
forms be the defign, the execution is often eafy, and
feldom to a certain degree impoffible. In railing a
young wood, it may be perfedl. In old woods, there
are many fpots which may be either thinned or thick¬
ened : and there the charadleriftic dillindlions fhould
determine vdrat to plant, or which to leave} at the leaft
will often point out thofe which, as blemifhes, ought
to be taken awTay} and the removal of twyo or three
trees wall fometimes accomplifh the defign. The
number of beautiful forms and agreeable maffes, which
may decorate the furface, is fo great, that where the
place will not admit of one, another is alwrays ready;
and as no delicacy of finilhing is required, no minute
exadlnefs is worth regarding great effefls will not be
difconcerted by fmall obftrudions and little di‘ap¬
pointments.
The contrails, hovrever, of maffes and of groups muff
not be too ftrong, where greatnefs is the chafa&er of
the wood } for unity is effential to greatnefs : and if di-
redl oppofites be placed clofe together, the wood is no
longer one objedt; it is only a confufed collection of
feveral feparate plantations. But if the progrefs be gra¬
dual from the one to the other, fhapes and tints widely
different may affemble on the fame furface ; and each
fhould occupy a confiderable fpace : a fingle tree, or a
fmall duller of trees, in the midff of an extenfive wood,
is in fize but a fpeck, and in colour but a fpot j the
groups and the maffes muff be large to produce any fen-
lible variety.
When, in a romantic fituation, very broken ground
is overfpread with wood, it may be proper on the fur¬
face of the wood to mark the inequalities of the ground.
Rudenefs, not greats efs, is the prevailing idea 5 and a
choice dire&ly the reverie of that which is productive
of unity will produce it. Strong contrails, even oppo-
fitions.
Wood.
Part I.
GARDENING.
389
Wood,
2
Of the out¬
line of a
wood.
litions, may be eligible •, the aim is rather to disjoint
than to conne£t : a deep hollow may link into dark
greens 5 an abrupt bank may be Ihown by a riling Itage
of afpiring trees, a {harp ridge by a narrow line of co¬
nical lhapes : firs are of great ufe upon fuch occafions j
their tint, their form, their Angularity, recommend
them.
A hanging wood of thin forejl trees, and feen from
below, is ieldom pleafing : thefe few trees are by the
perfpeftive brought nearer together; it lofes the beauty
of a thin wood, and is defeftive as a thick one : the
moll obvious improvement, therefore, is to thicken it.
But, when feen from an eminence, a thin wood is often
a lively and elegant circumllance in a view 5 it is full
of objefls *, and every feparate tree fhows its beauty.
To increafe that vivacity which is the peculiar excel¬
lence of a thin wood, the trees Ihould be chara£lerilli-
cally dillinguilhed both in their tints and their lhapes j
and fuch as for their airinefs have been profcribed in a
thick wood, are frequently the moll eligible here.
Differences alfo in their growths are a further fource
of variety ; each Ihould be coniidered as a dillinfl ob-
jecl, unlefs where a fmall number are grouped toge¬
ther ; and then all that compofe the little duller mull
agree : but the groups themfelves, for the fame reafon
as the feparate trees, Ihould be llrongly contralled j
the continued underwTood is their only connexion, and
that is not affedled by their variety.
Though the furface of a wrood, when commanded,
deferves all thefe attentions, yet the outline more fre¬
quently calls for our regard : it is alfo more in our
power j it may fometimes be great, and may always
be beautiful. The firll requifite is irregularity. That
a mixture of trees and underwood Ihould form a long
llraiglit line, can never be natural ; and a fucceffion of
eafy fweeps and gentle rounds, each a portion of a
greater or lefs circle, compofing all together a line lite¬
rally ferpentine, is, if poflible, worfe. It is but a num¬
ber of regularities put together in a diforderly manner,
and equally dillant from the beautiful both of art and
of nature. The true beauty of an outline conlills more
in breaks than in fw7eeps j rather in angles than in
rounds 5 in variety, not in fucceffion.
Every variety in the outline of a wood mull be a
prominence or a recefs. Breadth in either is not fo im¬
portant as length to the one and depth to the other.
If the former ends in an angle, the latter diminilhes to
a point ; they have more force than a ihallow dent, or
a dwarf excrefcence, how wide foever. They are great¬
er deviations from the continued line which they are in¬
tended to break ; and their efifefl is to enlarge the wood
itfelf, which feems to Aretch from the moll advanced
point, back beyond the moll diilant to which it retires.
The extent of a lar£e wood on a flat, not commanded,
can by no circurallance be fo manifeftly fhowm as by a
deep recefs ; efpecially if that recefs wind fo as to con¬
ceal the extremity, and leave the imagination to purlue
it. On the other hand, the poverty of a fhallow wood
might fometimes be relieved by here and there a promi¬
nence, or clumps which by their apparent jun&idn
fhould feem to be prominences from it. A deeper wood
with a continued outline, except when commanded,
would not appear fo confiderable.
An inlet into a wood feems to have been cut, if the
oppofite points of the entrance tally ) in* that ihotv of
art depreciates its merit: but a difference only in the Wood,
fituation of thofe points, by bringing one more forward f
than the other, prevents the appearance, though their s
forms be fimilar. Other points, wduch dillinguilh the 0/l Modem
great parts, fhould in general be llrongly marked : a Gardening.
Ihort turn has more fpirit in it than a tedious circuity j
and a line broken by angles has a precifion and firm-
nefs, which in an undulated line are wanting j the
angles Ihould indeed commonly be a little foftened }
the rotundity of the plant which forms them is fome¬
times fufficient for the purpofe $ but if they are mellowr-
ed down too much, they lofe all meaning. Three or
four large parts thus boldly diilinguilhed, will break a
very long outline. When two woods are oppofed on
the fides of a narrow glade, neither has fo much occa-
fion for variety in itfelf as if it were Angle ; if they are
very different from each other, the contraft fupplies the
deficiency to each, and the interval between i them is
full of variety. The form of that interval is indeed of
as much confequence as their own : though the outlines
of both the woods be feparately beautiful, yet if toge¬
ther they do not call the open fpace into an agree¬
able figure, the whole fcene is not pleafing *, and a *
figure is never agreeable, when the Ades too clofely
correfpond : whether they are exaflly the fame, or ex-
aflly the reverfe of each other, they equally appear ar¬
tificial.
Every variety of outline hitherto mentioned may he
traced by the underwood alone \ but frequently the fame
effedts may be produced with more eafe, and with much
more beauty, by a few trees Handing out from the thick¬
et, and belonging, or feeming to belong, to the wood,
fo as to make a part of its figure. Even where they are
not w7anted for that purpofe, detached trees are fuch
agreeable objedls, fo diftinfl, fo light, wrhen compared
to the covert about them, that fldrting along it in fome
parts, and breaking it in others, they give an unaffedl- 3
ed grace, which can no otherwife be given to the out- ^ a £rove'
line. They have a Hill further effedl, when they llretch
acrofs the whole breadth of an inlet, or before part of
a recefs into the wrood 5 they are themfelves Ihown to
advantage by the fpace behind them ; and that fpace,
feen between their llems they in return throw into an
agreeable perfpedlive.
2. The prevailing charafler of a wood is generally
grandeur : the principal attention therefore which it re¬
quires, is to prevent the exceffes of that charadler, to di-
verfify the uniformity of its extent, to lighten the un-
wieldinefs of its bulk, and to blend graces with great-
nefs. The charadler of a grove is beauty. Fine trees
are lovely objedls : a grove is an affemblage of them j
in which every individual retains much of its own pecu¬
liar elegance, and whatever it lofes is transferred to the
fuperior beauty of the whole. To a grove, therefore,
which admits of endlefs variety in the difpofition of the
trees, differences in their lhapes and their greens are
feldom very important, and fometimes they are detri¬
mental. Strong contrafis fcatter trees which are thinly
planted, and which have not the connexion of under¬
wood 5 they no longer form one plantation ; they are a
number of Angle trees. A thick grove is not indeed ex -
pofed to this mifchief, and certain Atuations may recom¬
mend different Ihapes and different greens for their ef-
fedls upon the furface } but in the outline they are fel¬
dom much regarded. The eye attracted into the depj.h
- at :
39° CARD
Wo0(-- of the grove, paiTes by little circumftances at the en-
trance ; even varieties in the form of the line do not al¬
ways engage the attention ; they are not fo apparent as
in a continued thicket, and are Icareely feen if they are
not confiderable.
But the furfacc and the outline are not the only cir-
cumftances to be attended to. Though a grove be
beautiful as an object, it is befides delightful as a fpot
to walk or to fit in ; and the choice and the difpofition
of the trees for effedts within, are therefore a principal
confideration. Mere irregularity alone will not pleafe;
ftrid order is there more agreeable than abfolute confu-
fion r and fome meaning better than none. A regular
plantation has a degree of beauty j but it gives no fatis-
faftion, becaufe we know that the fame number of trees
might be more beautifully arranged. A difpofition,
however, in which the lines only are broken, without
varying the diftances, is equally improper. The trees
fhould gather into groups, or Hand in various irregular
lines, and deferibe feveral figures : the intervals between
them (hould be contrafied both in fhape and in dimen-
fions : a large fpace fhould in fome places be quite
open j in others the trees fhould be fo clofe together,
as hardly to leave a paffage between them; and in
others as far apart as the connexion will allow. In the
forms and the varieties of thefe groups, thefe lines, and
thefe openings, principally confifts the interior beauty
of a grove.
The force of them is moll flrongly illuftrated at
4 New Claremont f, where the walk to the cottage, though
Eflier in deftitute of many natural advantages, and eminent lor
Sun-y. none . though it commands no profpeft 5 though the
water below it is a trifling pond ; though it has nothing,
in fhort, but inequality of ground to recommend it j is
yet the fine A part of the garden : for a grove is there
planted in a gently curved direftion, all along the fide
of a hill, and on the edge of a wood, which rifes above
it. Large recefles break it into feveral clumps, which
hang down the declivity : fome of them approaching,
but none reaching quite to the bottom. Thefe recefles
are fo deep as to form great openings in the midfl of the
grove ; they penetrate almoA to the covert: but the
clumps being all equally fufpended from the wood ; and
a line of open plantation, though fometimes narrow,
running conflantly along the top ; a continuation of
grove is preferved, and the connexion between the parts
is never broken. Even a group, which near one of the
extremities Aands out quite detached, is ftill in Ayle fo
fimilar to the reA as not to lofe all relation. Each of
thefe clumps is compofed of feveral others Aill more in¬
timately united j each is full of groups, fometimes of no
more than two trees, fometimes of four or five, and now
and then in larger cluAers} an irregular waving line,
ifluing from fome little crowd, lofes itfelf in the next j
or a few fcattered trees drop in a more diAant fucceAion
?rom the one to the other. The intervals, winding
here like a glade, and widening there into broader open¬
ings, differ in extent, in figure, and direftion ; but all
the groups, the lines^ and the intervals, are colledled
together into large general clumps, each of which is at
the fame time both compadl and free, identical and va¬
rious. T he whole is a place wTherein to tarry with fe-
cure delight, or faunter with perpetual amufement.
The grove at EAier place was planted by the fame
maAerly hand j but the neceffity of accommodating the
ENIN G.
Part 1,
young plantation to fome large trees which grew there
before, has confined Its variety. The groups are few
and fmall: there was not room for larger or for more j
there were no opportunities to form continued narrow
glades between oppofite lines *, the vacant fpaces are
therefore chiefly irregular openings, fpreading every
way, and great differences of diAance between the trees
are the principal variety ; but the grove winds along
the bank of a large river, on the fide and at the foot
of a very hidden afeent, the upper part of which is co¬
vered with wood. In one place, it preffes clofe to the
covert; retires from it in another ; and Aretches in a
third acrofs a bold recefs, which runs up high into the
thicket. The trees fometimes overfpread the flat be¬
low 5 fometimes leave an open fpace to the river; at
other times crown the brow of a large knoll, climb up
a Aeep, or hang on a gentle declivity. Thefe varieties
in the fltuation more than compenfate for the want of
variety in the difpofition of the trees; and the many-
happy circumAances which concur,
Wood.
• —In EAier’s peaceful grove,
Where Kent and Nature vie for Pelham^s love,
render this little fpot more agreeable than any at Clare¬
mont. But though it was right to preferve the trees al¬
ready Aanding, and not to facrifice great prefent beau¬
ties to Aill greater in futurity; yet this attention has
been a reAraint; and the grove at Claremont, confider-
ed merely as a plantation, is in delicacy of taAe, and
fertility of invention, fuperior to that at EAier.
It is, however, poflible to fecure both a prefent and
a future effe£i, by fixing firA on a difpofition which will
be beautiful when the trees are large, and then inter¬
mingling another which is agreeable while they are
fmall. Thefe occafional trees are hereafter to be taken
away; and muA be removed in time, before they be¬
come prejudicial to the others.
The confequence of variety in the difpofition, is va¬
riety in the light and fiiade of the grove 5 wdiich may
be improved by the choice of the trees. Some are
impenetrable to the fierceA funbeam ; others let in
here and there a ray between the large maffes of their
foliage ; and others, thin both of boughs and of leaves,
only chequer the ground. Every degree of light and
Aiade, from a glare to obfeurity, may be managed,
partly by the number, and partly by the texture, of the
trees. Differences only in the manner of their growths
have alfo correfponding effefts: there is a clofenefs
under thofe whofe branches defeend low, and fpread
wide ; a fpace and liberty where the arch above is high -f
and frequent tranfitions from the one to the other are
very pleafing. Thefe Aill are not all the Varieties of
which the interior of a grove is capable ; trees, indeed,
whofe branches nearly reach the ground, being each a
fort of thicket, are inconflAent with an open planta¬
tion : but though fome 6f the chara&eriAic diAindtions
are thereby excluded, other varieties more minute fuc-
ceed in their place } for the freedom of paffage through¬
out brings every tree in its turn near to the eye, and
fubjedls even differences in foliage to obfervation.
Thefe, flight as they may feem, are agreeable when they
occur 3 it is true, they are not regretted when want¬
ing 5 but a defedt of ornament is not neceffarily a ble-
mifli. ,
3. It has Been already obferved, that clumps differ Of Clumps.
only
Part. I. G A R D
Wood- only In extent from woods ; if they are clofe ; or from
IbiJ Sroves5 ^ they are open : they are fmall woods, and
imall groves, governed by the fame principles as the
larger, after allowances made for their dimenfions. But
belides the properties they may have in common "with
woods or with groves, they have others peculiar to
themfelves which require examination.
I hey are either independent or relative: when inde¬
pendent, their beauty, as fingle obje&s, is folely to be
attended to ; when relative, the beauty of the "indivi¬
duals mull be facrificed to the effedt of the whole, which
is the greater conlideration.
The occajions on which independent clumps may be
applied, are many. They are often defirable as beauti¬
ful objedls in themfelves j they are fometimes neceflary
to break an extent of lawn, or a continued line whether
of ground or of plantation j but on all occafions a jea-
louly of art conflantly attends them, which irregularity
in their figure will not always alone remove. Though
elevations Ihow them to advantage, yet a hillock evi¬
dently thrown up on purpofe to be crowned with a
clump, is artificial to a degree of difgult: fome of the
trees Ihould therefore be planted on the fides, to take
off that appearance. Ihe fame expedient may be ap-
plied to clumps placed on the brow of a hill, to inter¬
rupt its famenefs : they will have lefs oftentation of de-
fign, if they are in part carried down either declivity.
The objedlion already made to planting many along
fuch a brow, is on the fame principle : a fingle clump
is lefs fufpedted of art \ if it be an open one, there can
be no finer fituation for it, than juft at the point of an
abrupt hill, or on a promontory into a lake or a river.
It is in either a beautiful termination, diftindl by its po-
fition, and enlivened by an expanfe of Iky or of rvater
about and beyond it. Such advantages may balance
little defeats in its form : but they are loft if other
clumps, are planted near it j art then intrudes, and the
whole is difpleafing.
But though a multiplicity of clumps, when each is
an independent objedl, feldom feems natural j yet a
number of them may, without any appearance of art,
be admitted into the fame feene, if they bear a rela¬
tion to each other : if by their fucceffion they diverfify
a continued outline of wood, if between them they
form beautiful glades, if altogether, they caft an ex-
tenfive lawn into an agreeable ftiape, the effeEi prevents
any ferutiny into the means of producing it. But when
the reliance on that effeft is fo great, every other con-
uderation muft give way to the beauty of the wrhole.
The figure of the glade, of the lawn, or of the wood,
are principally to be attended to : the fineft clumps, if
they do not fall eafily into the great lines, are blemilh-
es; their connexions, their contrails, are more import¬
ant than their forms.
5
Os a Lake. III. WATER. All inland water is either running
or Jlagnaled. When ftagnated, it forms a lahe or a
pool, which differ only in extent; and a pool and a
pond are the fame. Running waters are either a rivu¬
let, a river, or a rill; and thefe differ only in breadth :
a rivulet and a brook are fynonymous terms} a Jiream
and a current are general names for all.
x. Space or expanfion is effential to a lake. It can¬
not be too large as a fubjedl of defeription or of
contemplation ; but the eye receives little fatisfacliou
e n i n g. 3S
when it has not a form on which to rell : the ocean Water"
Jtielf uardly atones by all its grandeur for its infinity • y—“•
and a profpedl of it is, therefore, always moil agree¬
able, when in fome part, at no great diitance, a reach
of fhore, a promontory, or an ifland, reduces the im-
menfity into thape. An artificial lake, again, may be
comparatively extravagant in its dimenfions. It may
be fo out of proportion to its appendages, as to feem
a wafte of water j for all fize is in fome refpedts re¬
lative : if this exceeds its due dimenfions, and if a
ftatnefs of Acre beyond it adds ftill to the drearinefs
of the feene j wood to raife the banks, and objeds to
diftinguifti them, are the remedies to be employed. If
the length of a piece of water be too great for its
breadth, fo as to deftroy all idea of circuity, the extre-
mities fhould be confidered as too far off, and made im¬
portant to give them proximity; while at the fame-
time the breadth may be favoured, by keeping down
the banks on the fides. On the fame principle, if the
lake be too Imall, a low fhore will, in appearance, in~
creafe the extent.
But it is not neceffary that the whole feene be
bounded : if form be impreffed on a confiderable part,
tlie eye can, without difguft, permit a large reach to’
ftretch beyond its ken; it can even be pieafed to ob-
ferve a tremulous motion in the horizon, which fhows
that the water has not there yet attained its termina¬
tion. Still fhort of this, the extent may be kept in
uncertainty; a hill or a wood may conceal one of the
extremities, and the country beyond it, in fuch a man¬
ner as to leave room for the fuppofed continuation of
fo large a body of water. Opportunities to choofe this
fhape are frequent, and it is the moft per fed of any :
the feene is clofed, but the extent of the lake is un¬
determined ; a complete form is exhibited to the
ej?e., while a boundlefs range is left open to the imagi¬
nation.
But mere form will only give content, not delight :
that depends upon the outline, which is capable of ex-
quifite beauty; and the bays, the creeks, and the pro¬
montories, which are ordinary parts of that outline, to¬
gether with the accidents of i/iands, of inlets, and of
outlets to rivers, are in their fhapes and their combina -
tions an inexhauftible fund of variety.
Bays, creeks, and promontories, however, though
extremely beautiful, fhould not be very numerous : for
a fhore broken into little points and hollows has no
certainty of outline ; it is only ragged, not diverfi-
fied ; and the diftinftnefs and fimplicity of the great
parts, are hurt by the multiplicity of fubdivifions.
But ihands, though the channels between them be
narrow, do not fo often derogate from greatnefs : they
intimate a fpace beyond them whofe boundaries do
not appear ; and remove to a diftance the fhore which
is feen in perlpe&ive between them. Such partial in¬
terruptions of the.fight fuggeft ideas of extent to the
imagination. ^
2. Though the windings of a river are proverbially of a River,
deferiptive of its courfe ; yet without being perpetual¬
ly wreathed, it may be natural. Nor is the charader
expreffed only by the turnings. On the contrary, if
they are too frequent and fudden, the current is redu¬
ced into a number of feparate pools, and the idea of
progrefs is obfeured by the difficulty of tracing it.
Length is the ftrongeft fymptom of continuation .
long
G A Pv B E N I N G.
392
Water, long readies are therefore charaderiftic of a river, and
" J they conduce much to its beauty ; each is a condder-
^J ^ able piece of water, and variety of beautiful forms may
be .given to their outlines.
A river requires a number of accompaniments. The
•changes in its courfe fumilh a variety of fituations j
while the fertility, convenience, and amenity, which
attend it, account for all appearances of inhabitants
and improvement. Profufion of ornament on a ficfi-
tious river, is a juft imitation ot cultivated nature.
Every fpecies of building, every ftyle of plantation,
may abound on the banks •, and whatever be their cha-
raders, their proximity to the water is commonly the
happiell circumftance in their fituation. A lultre is
from thence diffufed on all around j each derives an
importance from its relation to this capital feature :
thofe which are near enough to be refleded, immedi¬
ately belong to it •, thole at a greater diliance Hill
thare in the animation of the fcene •, and objeds total¬
ly detached from each other, being all attraded towards
the fame interefting connexion, are united into one
compolition.
In the front of Blenheim was a deep broad valley,
which abruptly feparated the caftle from the lawn and
the plantations before it j even a dired approach could
not be made without building a monftrous bridge over
the vaft hollow j but this forced communication was
only a fubjed of raillery; and the fcene continued
broken into two parts, abfolutely diftind from each
other. This valley has been lately Hooded : it is not
filled j the bottom only is covered with water ; the
fides are Hill very high \ but they are no longer the
•eps of a chafm, they are the bold fhores of a noble
liver. The fame bridge is Handing wdthout altera¬
tion : but no extravagance remains *, the water gives
it propriety. Above it the river firH appears, wind¬
ing from behind a fmall thick wood in the valley 5
«nd foon taking a determined courfe, it is then broad
enough to admit an iHand filled with the fined trees •,
others correfponding to them in growth and difpofi-
tion, Hand in groups on the banks, intermixed with
vounger plantations. Immediately below the bridge,
the river fpreads into a large expanfe : the fides are
open lawm. On that furtheH from the houfe formerly
Hood the palace of Henry II. celebrated in many an
ancient ditty by the name of Fair Rofamond’s Bower.
A little clear fpring, which riles there, is by the
country people Hill called Fair Rofamond’s Well. The
fpot is now marked by a fingle willow7. Near it is
a fine collateral fiream, of a beautiful form, retaining
its breadth as far as it is feen, and retiring at lad behind
a hill from the view. The main river, haying received
this acceffion, makes a gentle bend : then continues
for a confiderable length in one wude direfl reach; and,
jufl as it difappears, throws itfelf dowm a high cafcade,
which is the prefent termination. On one of the
banks of this reach is the garden : the deeps are there
diverfified with thickets and with glades 5 but the co¬
vert prevails, and the top is crowned with lofty trees.
On the other fide is a noble hanging wood in the park:
it w7as depreciated when it funk into a hollow, and
w?as poorly lod in the bottom •, but it is now a rich
appendage to the river, falling down an eafy Hope
quite to the water’s edge, where, with overfhadow-
ing, it is reflected on the furface. Another face of
the fame wood borders the collateral ftream, with an
outline more indented and various •, while a very large
irregular clump adorns the oppolite declivity. Ihis
clump is at a confiderable diflance from the principal
river : but the dream it belongs to brings it dowm to
conned w ith the red ; and the other objects, which
were before difperfed, .» e now, by the intered of each
in a relation, which is common to all, collected into
one illuHrious fcene. The cadleitfelf is a prodigious
pile of building •, which, with all the faults in its
architeclure, will never feem lefs than a truly princely
habitation 5 and the confined fpot where it was placed,
on the edge of an abyfs, is converted into a proud fitua¬
tion, commanding a beautiful profped of water, and
open to an extenfive lawn, adequate to the manfion,
and an emblem of its domain. In the midft of this
lawn Hands a column, a dately trophy, recording the
exploits of the duke of Marlborough and the grati¬
tude of Britain. Between this pillar and the cadle is
the bridge, which now, applied to a fubjeft worthy of
it, is edablillied in all the importance due to its great-
nefs. The middle arch is wider than the Rialto, but
not too wide for the occafion \ and yet that is the nar¬
rowed part of the river ; but the length of the reaches
is everywhere proportioned to their breadth. Each
of them is alone a noble piece of w7ater; and the lad,
the fined of all, lofes itfelf gradually in a wmod, which
on that fide is alfo the boundary of the lawn, and rifes
into the horizon. All is great in the front of Blen¬
heim : but in that vad fpace no void appears j fo im¬
portant are the parts, fo magnificent the objetd. I he
plain is extenfive, the valley is broad, the w7ood is deep.
Though the intervals between the building are large,
they are filled w7ith the grandeur which buildings of
fuch dimenfions and fo much pomp difiufe all around
them •, and the river in its long varied courfe, approach¬
ing to every objeid, and touching upon every part,
fpreads its influence over the whole.
In the compofition of this fcene, the river, both as
a part itfelf, and as uniting the other parts, has a
principal ihare. But water is not lod though d be
in fo confined or fo concealed a fpot as to enter into
no view; it m =y render that fpot delightful. It is
capable of the mod exquifite beauty in ks form •, and
though not in fpace, may yet in difpofition have pre-
tenfions to greatnefs \ for it may be divided into feve-
ral branches, which will form a clufler of iflands all
conne&ed together, make the whole place irriguous,
and, in the dead of extent, fupply a quantity of water.
Such a fequedered fcene ufually owes its retirement
to the trees and the thickets w'ith which it abounds j
but, in the difpofition of them, one diflin&ion fliould
be condantly attended to. A river flowing through
a wood which overfpreads one continued lurface of
ground, and a river between tw7o wroods, are in very
difl'erent circumdances. In the latter cafe, the wmods
are feparate 5 they may be contraded in their forms
and their charadbers, and the outline of each fliould be
forcibly marked. In the former no outline ought to
be difcernible j for the river paffes between trees, not
between boundaries j and though in the progrefs of
its courfe, the flyle of the plantations may be often
changed, y7et on the oppofite banks a fimdanty fhould
condantly prevail, that the identity of the wood may
never be doubtful.
raft I.
G A R D
Water.
Ibid.
*Vale of
Aylftmry,
Buckirg-
“iamfliire.
fiver between two woods may enter into a view j
and then it muft be governed by the principles which
regulate the conduct and the accompaniments of a ri¬
ver in an open expofure. But when it runs through a
wood, it is never to be feen in a profpedt ; the place is
naturally full of obllrudtions 5 and a continued open-
ing, large enough to receive a long reach, would feem
an artificial cut. Lhe river muft therefore neceffarily
wind more than in crofting a lawn, where the paffage
is entirely free. But its influence will never extend fo
far on the fides : the buildings muft be near the banks :
and, if numerous, will feem crowded, being all in one
track, and in fituations nearly alike. The fcene, how¬
ever, does not want variety : on the contrary, none is
capable of more. The objects are not indeed fo differ-
rent from each other as in an open viewr 5 but they are
very different, and in much greater abundance 5 for
this is the interior of a wrood, where every tree is an
objeft, every combination of trees a variety, and no
large intervals are requifite to diftinguiih the feveral
difpofitions j the grove, the thicket or the groups,
may prevail, and their forms and their relations may be
conftantly changed without reftraint of fancy, or limita¬
tion of number.
Water is fo univerfally and fo defervedly admired
in a profpedt, that the naoft obvious thought in the
management 0? it, is to lay it as open as poffible ; and
purpofely to conceal it would generally feem a fevere
felf-denial : yet fo many beauties may attend its paf¬
fage through a wood, that larger portions of it might
be allowed to fuch retired fcenes than are commonly
fpared from the view, and the different parts in dif¬
ferent ftyles wmuld be fine contrafts to each other. If the
wrater at Wotton * wTere all expofed, a wTalk of near two
miles along the banks would be of a tedious length,
from the want of thofe changes of the fcene which
now7 fupply through the whole extent a fucceffion of
perpetual variety. The extent is fo large as to admit
of a divifion into four principal parts, all of them great
in ftyle and in dimenfions, and differing from each
other both in charadler and fituation. The two firft
are the leaft. The one is a reach of a river, about the
third of a mile in length, and of a competent breadth,
flowing through a lovely mead, open in lome places
to views of beautiful bills in the country, and adorned
in others wdth clumps of trees, fo large, that their
branches ftretch quite acrofs, and form a high arch
over the water. The next feems to have been once a
formal bafin encompaffed Avith plantations, and the
appendages on either fide ftill retain fome traces of
regularity j but the Ihape of the water is free from
them ; the fize is about 14 acres ; and out of it iffue
two broad collateral ftreams, w’inding towards a large
river, which they are feen to approach, and fuppofed
to join. A real junftion is however irapoflible, from
the difference of the levels 5 but the terminations are
fo artfully concealed, that the deception is never fu-
fpefted, and when known is not eafily explained. The
river is the third great divifion of the w7ater 3 a lake
into wdrich it falls, is the fourth. Thefe two do ac¬
tually join ; but their characters are direClly oppo-
fite 3 the fcenes they belong to are totally diftinCl 3
and the tranlition from the one to the other is very
gradual 3 for an ifland near the conflux, dividing the
breadth, and concealing the end of the lake, mode-
Vol- IX. Part I,
E N 1 N G.
rates for fome way the fpace 3 and permitting it to ex¬
pand but by degrees, raifes an idea of greatnefs, from
uncertainty accompanied with increafe. The reality
does not difappoint the expectation 3 and the ifland,
which is the point of view7, is itfelf equal to the fcene :
it is large, and high above the lake j the ground is ir¬
regularly broken 3 thickets hang on the fides 3 and to¬
wards the top is placed an Ionic portico, which com¬
mands a noble extent of water, not lefs than a mile
in circumference, bounded on one fide writh wood, and
open on the other to twro doping lawns, the leaft of
an hundred acres, diverfified with clumps, and bor¬
dered hy plantations. Yet this lake, when full in view,
and with all the importance which fpace, form, and
fituation can. give, is not more interefting than the
fequeftered river, which has been mentioned as the
third great divifion of the water. It is juft within the
verge of a w7ood, three quarters of a mile long, every-
where broad, and its courfe is fuch as to admit of in¬
finite variety without any confufion. The banks are
cleared of underwood 3 but a few7 thickets ftill remain,
and on one fide an impenetrable covert foon begins:
the interval is a beautiful grove of oaks, fcattered over
a green fward of extraordinary verdure. Between thefe
trees and thefe thickets the river feems to glide gently
along, conftantly winding, without one fhort turn or
one. extended reach in the whole length of the w7ay.
This even temper in the ftream fuits the fcenes through
which it paffes 3 they are in general of a very fober
call, not melancholy, but grave 3 never expofed to a
glare 3 never darkened with gloom; nor, by ftrong
contrafts of light and fhade, exhibiting the excefs of
either. Undifturbed by an extent of profpecl without
or a multiplicity of obje&s within, they retain at all
times a mildnefs of chara&er 3 which is ftill more for¬
cibly felt w7hen the fhadows grow faint as they lengthen
when a little ruftling of birds in the fpray, the&leap¬
ing of the filh, and the fragrancy of the woodbine,
denote the approach of evening 3 while the fettino- fut!
fhoots its laft gleams on a Tufcan portico, which is
clofe to the great bafin, but which from a feat near
this river is feen at a diftance, through all the obfcu-
rity of the wood, glowing on the banks, and reflected
on the Surface of the water. In another ftill more
diftinguiflied fpot is built an elegant bridge, with a
colonnade upon it, which not only adorns the place
where it Hands, but is alfo a pidlurefque objedt to an
oflagon building near the lake, where it is fhown in
a Angular fituation, overarched, encompafled, and
backed with wrood, without any appearance of the
water beneath. This building in return is alfo an
objedt. from the bridge 3 and a Chinefe room, in a
little ifland juft by, is another : neither of them are
confiderable, and the others which are vifible are at a
diftance 3 but .more or greater adventitious ornaments are
not required in a fpot fo rich as this in beauties pecu¬
liar to its charadter. A profufiou of w7ater pours in
from all fides round upon the view 3 the opening of the
lake appears ; a glimpfe is caught of the large’ bafin :
one of the collateral ftreams is full in fight,° and the
bridge itfelf is in the midft of the fineft part of the
river : all feem to communicate the one with the other.
Though thickets often intercept, and groups perplex
the view7, yet. they never break the connexion between
the feveral pieces of water 3 each may ftill be • traqe'd
. 3 & along
393
Water.
394
Water.
Ibid.
7
Of a Rill
and a Rivu¬
let.
CARD E
along large brandies or little catches ; which in fome
places are overihadowed and dim ; in others gliflen
through a glade, or glimmer between the boles of
trees in a diilant perfpe&ive ; and in one, where they
are quite loft to the view, fome arches of the ftone
bridge, but partially feen among the wood, preferve
their connexion.
3. If a large river may fometimes, a fmaller current
undoubtedly may often, be condu&ed through a wood :
it feldom adorns, it frequently disfigures, a profped,
where its courfe is marked, not by any appearance of
water, but by a confufed line of clotted grafs, which
difagrees with the general verdure. A Rivulet may,
indeed, have confideration enough for a home fcene,
though it be open 5 but a Rill is always moft agreeable
when moft retired from public view. Its charaderiftic
excellencies are vivacity and variety, which require at¬
tention, leifure, and filence, that the eye may pore
upon the little beauties, and the ear liften to the low
murmurs of the flream without interruption. To fuch
indulgence a confined fpct only is favourable 5 a clofe
copfe is therefore often more acceptable than a high
wood, and a fequeftered valley at all times preferable to
any open expofure : a fingle rill at a very little diftance
is a mere water courfe *, it lofes all its charms ; it has
no importance in itfelf, and bears no proportion to the
Icene. A number of little ftreams have indeed an ef-
fed in any fituation, but not as objeds j they are
interefting only on account of the charader they ex-
prefs, the irriguous appearance which they give to the
whole.
The full tide of a large river has more force than
adivity, and feems too unwieldy to allow of very
quick tranfiticns. But in a rill, the agility of its mo¬
tion accounts for every caprice; frequent windings
difguife its infignificance j fhort turnings ftiow7 its vi¬
vacity ; hidden changes in the breadth are a fpecies of
its variety 5 and however fantaftically the channel may
be wreathed, contraded, and widened, it ftill appears
to be natural. We find an amufement in tracing the
little ftream through all the intricacies of its courfe,
and in feeing it force a paffage through a narrow ftrait,
expatiate on every opportunity, ftruggle with obftruc-
t.ions, and puzzle out its way. A rivulet, which is
the mean betwixt a river and a rill, partakes of the cha¬
rader of both : it is not licenfed to the extravagance
'of the one, nor under the fame reftraints as the other :
it may have more frequent bends than the river, longer
reaches than a rill: the breadth of a ftream deter¬
mines whether the principal beauty refults from extent
or from variety.
The murmurs of a rill are amongft the moft pleaf-
ing circumftances which attend it. If the bed of the
ftream be rough, mere declivity will occafion a con-
ftant ripling noife : when the current drops down a
defcent, though but of a fewT inches, or forcibly
babbles up from a little hollow, it has a deep gurgling
tone, not uniformly continued, but inceffantly repeat¬
ed, and therefore, more engaging than any. The
flatteft of all, is that found rather of the fplafliing than
the fall of water, which an even gentle flope, or a tame
obftrudion, will produce : this is lefs pleafing than
the others j but none ftiould be entirely excluded : all
-in their turns are agreeable j and the choice of them
is, ir.uch in._our power. By obferving their caufes, we
N I N G.
Part 1.
may often find the means to ftrengthen, to weaken, or Rocks,
to change them •, and the addition or removal of a -v——J
fingle ftone, or a few pebbles, will fometimes be fuffi-
cient for the purpofe. ^
A rill cannot pretend to any found beyond that of 0f Ca)-
a little water fall : the roar of a cafcade belongs onlyca(ies.
to a larger ftream *, but it may be produced by a rivu¬
let to a confiderable degree, and attempts to do more
have generally been unfuccefsful. A vain ambition to
imitate nature in her great extravagancies betrays the
w^eaknefs of art. Though a noble river, throwing it¬
felf headlong down a precipice, be an object truly
magnificent, it muft however be confeffed, that in »
fingle ftieet of water there is a formality which its vaft-
nefs alone can cure. But the height, not the breadth,
is the wonder : when it falls no more than a few feet,
the regularity prevails ; and its extent only ferves to
expofe the vanity of affedling the ftyle of a cataradl in
an artificial cafcade. It is lefs exceptionable if divided
into feveral parts : for then each feparate part may be
wide enough for its depth 5 and in the whole, variety,
not greatnefs, wdll be the predominant charafter. But
a ftrudfture of rough, large, detached ftones, cannot
eafily be contrived of ftrength fufficient to fupport a
great weight of water: it is fometimes from neceflity
almoft fmooth and uniform, and then it lofes much of
its effefts. Several little falls in fucceftion are preferable
to one great cafcade w'hich in figure or in motion ap¬
proaches to regularity.
When greatnefs is thus reduced to number, and
length becomes of more importance than breadth, a ri¬
vulet vies with a river : and it more frequently runs in
a continued declivity, which is very favourable to fuch a
fucceflion of falls. Half the expence and labour which
are fometimes beftowed on a river, to give it at the beft
a forced precipitancy in one fpot only, would animate
a rivulet through the whole of its courfe. And, after
all, the moft interefting circumftance in falling waters
is their animation. A great cafcade fills us with fur-
prife : but all furprife muft ceafe 5 and the motion, the
agitation, the rage, the froth, and the variety of the
water, are finally the obje&s which engage the atten¬
tion : for thefe a rivulet is fufficient 5 and they may
there be produced without that appearance of effort
■which raifes a fufpicion of art.
To obviate fuch a fufpicion, it may be fometimes
expedient to begin the defcent out of fight j for the
beginning is the difficulty : if that be concealed, the
fubfequent falls feem but a confequence of the agitation
which charafterifes the water at his firft appearance;
and the imagination is, at the fame time, let loofe to
give ideal extent to the cafcades. When a ftream ifliies
from a wood, fuch management will have a great ef-
fe<ft : the bends of its courfe in an open expofure may
afford frequent opportunities for it ; and fometimes a
lowr broad bridge may furnifti the occafion : a little
fall hid under the arch will create a diforder j in con¬
fequence of which, a greater cafcade below will appear
very natural.
IV. ROCKS. Rocks are 'themfelves too vaft andofRoCk«.
too ftubbom to fabmit to our controul j by the ad¬
dition or removal of appendages which we can com¬
mand, parts may be fhown or concealed, and the cha¬
racters with their impreffions may be weakened, or-en¬
forced ;
Part I. GAUD
Rocks, forced : to adapt the accompaniments accordingly, is
v utmoit ambition of art when rocks are the lub-
Ihid.
1 heir moft dillinguiflied characters are, dignity, ter¬
ror, and fancy : the expreffions of all are conllantly
Mold : and lometimes a rocky fcene is only wild, with¬
out pretentions to any particular charafler.
Rills, rivulets, and cafcades, abound among rocks :
they are natural to the fcene ; and tuch fcenes common¬
ly require every accompaniment which can be procured
for them. Mere rocks, unlefs they are particularly adapt¬
ed to certain impreffions, though they may furprife,
cannot be long engaging, if the rigour of their charac¬
ter be not foftened by circumftances which may belong
either to thefe or to more cultivated fpots: and when
the drearinefs is extreme, little dreams and waterfalls
are of themfelves infufficient for the purpofe j an inter¬
mixture of vegetation is alfo necelfary, and on feme oc-
cafions even marks of inhabitants are proper.
Large clefts, Hoping or precipitous, with a dale at
bottom, furnifh feenes^ of the wildell nature. In fuch
ipots, verdure alone will give fome relief to the dreari¬
nefs of the fcene j and Hirubs or bulhes, without trees,
are a fufficiency of wood : the thickets may alfo be ex¬
tended by the creeping plants, fuch as pyracantha,
vines, and ivy, to wind up the tides or clufter on the
tops of the rocks. And to this vegetation may be
added fome fymptoms of inhabitants, but they mud be
flight and few; the ufe of them is only to cheer, not
to dedroy, the folitude of the place } and fuch there¬
fore diould be chofen as are fometimes found in dtua-
tions retired from public refort j a cottage may be
lonely, but it mud not here feem ruinous and neglect¬
ed ; it diould be tight and wrarm, with every mark of
comfort about it, to which its polition in fome dickered
recefs may greatly contribute. A cavity alfo in the
rocks, rendered eafy of accefs, improved to a degree
of convenience, and maintained in a certain date of
prefervation, will fugged fimilar ideas of protection
from the bittered inclemencies of the Iky, and even of
occafional refrediment and repofe. But we may venture
dill further $ a mill is of necelfity often built at fome
didance from the towrn which it fupplies j and here it
would at the fame time apply the water to a ufe, and
increafe its agitation. The dale may betides be made
the haunt of thofe animals, fuch as goats, which are
fometimes wild, and fometimes domedic j and which
accidentally appearing, will divert the mind from the
fenfations natural to the fcene, but not agreeable if
continued long without interruption. Thefe and fuch
other expedients will approximate the fevered retreat
to the habitations of men, and convert the appearance
of a perpetual banidiment into that of a temporary re¬
tirement from fociety.
But too drong a force on the nature of the place al¬
ways fails. A winding path, which appears to be worn,
not cut, has more effeCt than a high road, all artificial
and level, which is too weak to overbear, and yet con-
tradiCls, the general idea. The objeCls therefore to be
introduced mud be thofe which hold a mean between
folitude and population ; and the inclination of that
choice towards either extreme, fhould be direfted by
the degree of wildnefs which prevails 5 for though that
runs fometimes to an excefs which requires corre&ion,
at other times it wants encouragement, and at ail times
E N I N G.
it ought to be preferved : it is the predominant charac¬
ter of rocks, which mixes with every other, and to which
all the appendages mud be accommodated j and they
may be applied fo as greatly to increafe it: a licentious
irregularity of wood and of ground, and a fantadic con-
dud! of the dreams, neither of which would be to¬
lerated in the midd of cultivation, become and improve
romantic rocky Ipots j even buildings, partly by their
dyle, but dill more by their podtion, in drange, dif¬
ficult, or dangerous fituations, didinguiih and aggravate
the native extravagancies of the fcene.
Greatnefs is a chief ingredient in the charadter of
dignity, with lefs of wildnefs than in any ether. The
edeci here depends more upon amplitude of furface,
than variety of forms. The parts, therefore, mud .be
large : if tlie rocks are only high, they are but dupen-
dous, not majedic : breadth is equally effential to their
greatnefs; and every flender, every grotefque diape,
is excluded. Art may interpofe to diow thefe large
parts to the eye, and magnify them to the imagina¬
tion, by taking away thickets w'hich dretch quite
acrofs the recks, fo as to difguife their dimenfions ; or
by filling with wood the fmall intervals between them,
and thus, by concealing the want, preferving the ap¬
pearance of continuation. When rocks retire from the
eye down a gradual declivity, we can, by raifing the
upper ground, deepen the fall, lengthen the perfpec-
tive, and give both height and extent to thofe at a
didance : this effeft may be dill increafed by covering
that upper ground w-ith a thicket, which ihall ceafe-,
or be lowered, as it defeends. A thicket, on other
occadons, makes the rocks which rife out of it feem
larger than they are. If they dand upon a bank over-
fpread with dirubs, their beginning is at the lead un¬
certain ; and the prefumption is, that they dart from
the bottom. Another ufe of this bruHiy underwood is
to conceal the fragments and rubbifh which have fallen
from the Tides and the brow, and which are often un-
fightly. ^ Rocks are feldom remarkable for the ele¬
gance oi their forms} they are too vad, and too rude,
to pretend to delicacy: but their diapes are often
agreeable : and we can affect thofe diapes to a certain
degree, at lead we can cover many blemifhes in them,
by conducting the growth of fhrubby and creeping
plants about them.
For all thefe purpofes mere underwood fufhees : but
for greater effefls larger trees are requifite : they are
worthy of the fcene ; and not only improvements, but
acceffions to its grandeur : we are ufed to rank them
among the nobleft objects of nature \ and when we fee
that they cannot afpire to the midway of the heights
aiound them, the rocks are raifed by the comparifon.
A fingle tree is, therefore, often preferable to a clump :
the fize, though really lefs, is more remarkable: and
clumps are befides generally exceptionable in a very-
wild fpot, from the fufpicion of art which attends them j
but a wood is free from that fufpicion, and its own
charafter of greatnefs recommends it to every fcene of-
magnificence.
On the fame principle all poffible confideration
diould be given to the dreams. No number of little
rills are equal to one broad river ; and in the principal
current, feme varieties may be fecrificed to importance :
but a degree of drength diould always be preferved :
the vater, though it needs not be furious, diould not be
3 F> 2 dull 5
395
Rocks.
396
Rocks.
ibid?
GARDEN 1 N G. Parti,
dull j for dignity, when moft ferene, is not languid; and
fpace will hardly atone for want of animation.
This character does not exclude marks of inhabi¬
tants, though it never requires them to tame its wikl-
nefs : and without inviting, it occaiionally admits an
intermixture of vegetation. It even allows ox build¬
ings intended only to decorate the fcene : but they
muft be adequate to it, both in fiz*; and in charadter.
And if cultivation is introduced, that too Ihould be
conformable to the reft; not a Angle narrow patch
cribbed out of the wafte •, but the confines of a coun¬
try {helving into the vale, and fuggefting the idea of
extent: nothing trivial ought to find admittance. But,
on the other hand, no extravagance is required to fup-
port it 5 ftrange drapes in extraordinary pofitions, enor¬
mous weights unaccountably fuftaincd, trees rooted in
the fides, and torrents raging at the foot of the rocks,
are at the beft needlefs excefles. There is a temperance
in dignity, which is rather hurt by a wanton violence
on the common order of nature.
The terrors of a fcene in nature are like thofe of a
dramatic reprefentation : they give an alarm j but the
fenfations are agreeable, lo long as they are kept to
fuch as are allied only to terror, unmixed with any that
are horrible and difgufting. Art may therefore be
u'fed to heighten them, to difplay the obje&s which are
diftinguifhed by greatnefs, to improve the circumftances
which denote force, to mark thofe which intimate
danger, and to blend withal here and there a caft of
melancholy.
Greatnefs is as effential to the character of terror as
Co that of dignity : vaft efforts in little objects are but
ridiculous j nor can force be fuppofed upon trifies inca¬
pable of refiftance. On the other hand, it muft be al¬
lowed, that exertion and violence fupply fome rvant of
fpace. A rock wonderfully fupported, or threatening
to fall, acquires a greatnefs from its fituation, which
it has not in dimenfions j fo circumftanced, the fize ap¬
pears to be monftrous 5 a torrent has%a confequence
which a placid river of equal breadth cannot pretend
to : and a tree, which -would be inconfiderable in the
natural foil, becomes important when it burfts forth
from a rock.
Such circumftances ftiould be always induftrioufly
fought for. It may be wmrth while to cut down fe-
veral trees, in order to exhibit one apparently rooted in
the ftone. By the removal perhaps of only a little
bruftiwood, the alarming difpofition of a rock, ftrangely
undermined, rivetted, or fufpended, may be Ihown j
and if there be any foil above its brow, fome trees
planted there, and impending over it, will make the
objetft ftill more extraordinary. As to the ftreams,
great alterations may generally be made in them : and
therefore it is of ufe to afcertain the fpecies proper to
each fcene, becaufe it is in our power to enlarge or
contract their dimenfions •, to accelerate or retard their
rapidity } to form, increafe, or take away obftrudtions j
and always to improve, often to change, their cha¬
racters.
Inhabitants furnfth frequent opportunities to ftrength-
en the appearances of force, by giving intimations of
danger. A houfe placed at the edge of a precipice,
any building on the pinnacle of a crag, makes that
fituation feem formidable, which might otherwife have
keen unnoticed ; a fteep, in itfelf hot very remarkable,
becomes alarming, when a path is carried aflant up the Rocks,
fide : a rail on the brow of a perpendicular fall, Ihows 1 v
that the height is frequented and dangerous : and a
common foot bridge thrown over a cleft between rocks
has a fcill ftronger effecf. In all thefe inftances, the
imagination immediately tranfports the fpecftator to the
fpot° and fuggefts the idea of looking down fuch a
depth’: in the laft, that depth is a chafm, and the fi¬
tuation is dire&ly over it.
In other inftances, exertion and danger feem to
attend the occupations of the inhabitants :
 Half way down
Hangs one that gathers famphire j dreadful trade !
is a circumftance chofen by the great poet of nature,
to aggravate the terrors of the fcene he defcribes.
The different fpecies of rocks often meet in the
fame place, and compofe a noble fcene, which is not
diftinguiftred by any particular character j it is only
when one eminently prevails, that it deferves fuch a
preference as to exclude every other. Sometimes a
fpot, remarkable for nothing but its wildnefs, is highly
romantic : and when this wildnefs rifes X.o fancy ; when
the moft: lingular, the moft oppofite forms and combi¬
nations are thrown together } then a mixture alfo of
feveral characters adds to the number of inftances
which there concur to difplay the inexhauftible variety
of nature.
So much variety, fo much fancy, are feldom found
within the fame extent as in Dovedale *. It is about
two miles in length, a deep, narrow, hollow valley :
both the fides are of rock ; and the Dove in its paffage
between them is perpetually changing its courfe, its
motion, and appearance. It is never lefs than ten,
nor fo much as twenty, yards wide, and generally about
four feet deep } but tranfparent to the bottom, except
when it is covered with a foam of the pureft white,
under waterfalls, which are perfectly lucid. Thefe
are very numerous, but very different. In fome places
they ftretch ftraight acrois, or aflant the ftream : in
others, they are only partial j ami the water either
dalhes againft the ftones, and leaps over them, or,
pouring along a fteepi rebounds upon thofe below j
fometimes it rulhes through the feveral openings be¬
tween them ; fometimes it drops gently down ; and at
other times it is driven back by the obfiruftion, and
turns into an eddy. In one particular fpot, the valley
almoft doling, leaves hardly a paffage for the river,
which, pent up and ftruggling for a vent, rages, and
roars, and foams, till it has extricated itfelf from the
confinement. In other parts, the ftream, though never
languid, is often gentle} flows round a little defert
ifland, glides between bits of bulruihes, difperfes
itfelf among tufts of grafs or of mots, bubbles about
a water dock, or plays with the flender threads ot
aquatic plants which float upon the furface. The
rocks all along the dale vary as often in their ftruClure
as the ftream in its motion. In one place, an extended
furface gradually diminithes from a broad bafe almoft to
an edge : in another, a heavy top hanging forwards,
overftradows all beneath: fometimes many different
thapes are confufedly tumbled together •, and fome¬
times they are broken into {lender {harp pinnacles,
which are upright, often two or three together, and
often in. ciore numerous eluftcrs. On this fide of the
Part I.
GARDENING.
Rocks.
Ibid.
dale, they are uruverfally bare j on the other, they are
intermixed with wood ; and the vail; height of both the
fides, with the narrownefs of the interval between
them, produces a further variety: for whenever the
fun fhines from behind the one, the form of it is di-
Itindlly and completely calf upon the other •, the rugged
lurface on which it falls diverfifies the tints j and a
ifrong remedied light often glares on the edge of the
deepeit lhadow. The rocks never continue long in
the fame figure or fituation, and are very much fepa-
rated from each other: fometimes they form the fides
of the valley, in precipices, in ifeeps, or in ifages j
fometimes they feem to rife in the bottom, and lean
back againft the hill j and fometimes they Hand out
quite detached, heaving up in cumbrous piles, or ftart-
ing into conical fhapes, like vaft fpars, 100 feet
high} fome are firm and folid throughout j fame are
cracked; and fome, fplit and undermined, are wonder¬
fully upheld by fragments apparently unequal to the
weight they fuftain. One is placed before, one over
another, and one fills at fome dilfance behind an in¬
terval between trvo. The changes in their difpofition
■are irtfinite; every ftep produces fome new combina¬
tion ; they are continually croffing, advancing, and re¬
tiring : the breadth of the valley is never the fame 40
yards together: at the narrow pafs which has been
mentioned, the rocks almoft meet at the top, and the
Jky is feen as through a chink between them : juft by
this gloomy abyfs, is a wider opening, more light,
more verdure, more cheerfulnefs than anywhere elfe
in the dale. Nor are the forms and the Situations of
the rocks their only variety: many of them are per¬
forated by large natural cavities, fome of which open
to the Iky, fome terminate in dark receffes, and through
fome are to be feen feveral more uncouth arches, and
rude pillars, all detached, and retiring beyond each
other, with the light fliining in between them, till a
rock far behind them clofes the perfpeflive : the noife
of the cafcades in the river echoes amongft them 5 the
water may often be heard at the fame time gurgling
near, and roaring at a diftance •, but no other founds
difturb the filence of the fpot: the only trace of men
is a blind path, but lightly and but feldom trodden, by
thofe whom curiofity leads to fee the wonders they
have been told of Dovedale. It feems indeed a fitter
haunt for mere ideal beings : the whole has the air of
enchantment. The perpetual fhifting of the fcenes;
the quick tranfitions, the total changes, then the forms
all around, grotefque as chance can caft, wild as nature
can produce, and various as imagination can invent;
the force which feems to have been exerted to place
fome of the rocks where they are now fixed immove¬
able, the magic by which others appear ftill to be fuf-
pended ; the dark caverns, the illuminated receffes, the
fleeting ftiadows, and the gleams of light glancing on
the fides, or trembling on the ftream •, and the loneli-
nefs and the ftillnefs of the place, all crowding toge¬
ther on the mind, almoft realize the ideas which natu¬
rally prefent themfelves in this region of romance and
of fancy.
The folitude of fuch a fcene is agreeable, on ac¬
count of the endlefs entertainment which its variety
affords, and in the contemplation of which both the
eye and the mind are delighted to indulge : marks of
inhabitants and cultivation would difturb.that folitude j
397
and ornamental buildings are too artificial in a place Fence, Stc.
fo abfolutely free from reftraint. The only accom- —-y--'-'
paniments proper for it are wood and water 5 and by
thefe fometimes improvements may be made. When
two rocks fimilar in fhape and pofition are near toge¬
ther, by fkirting one of them with wood, while the
other is left bare, a material diftinffion is eftablifhed
betw’een them: if the ftreams be throughout of one
charadler, it is in our power, and fliould be our aim,
to introduce another. Variety is the peculiar pro¬
perty of the fpot, and every acceflion to it is a valuable
acquifition. On the fame principle, endeavours fhould
be ufed not only to multiply, but to aggravate differ¬
ences, and to increafe diftinclions into contrafts : but
the fubjecft; will impofe a caution againft attempting
too much. Art muft almoft defpair of improving
a fcene, wdiere nature feems to have exerted her in¬
vention.
§ 2. Of Factitious Accompaniments.
These confift of Fences, Walks, Roads, Bridges,
Seats, and Buildings. pZlTg*
and Garden*
“ I. The FENCE, where the place is large, becomes p. 593,
neceffary; yet the eye diflikes conftraint. Our ideas&c.
of liberty carry us beyond our own fpecies: the ima¬
gination feels a diflike in feeing even the brute creation
in a ftate of confinement. The birds wTafting them¬
felves from wood to grove are objects of delight} and
the hare appears to enjoy a degree of happinefs un¬
known to the barriered flock. Befides, a tall fence fre¬
quently hides from the fight objects the moft pleafing ;
not only the flocks and herds themfelves, but the furface
they graze upon. Thefe confideratious have brought
the unfeen fence into general ufe.
This fpecies of barrier it muft be allowed incurs a.
degree of deception, which can fcarcely be warranted
upon any other occafion. In this inftance, howrever,
it is a fpecies of fraud which we obferve in nature’s
praftice : how often have we feen two diftinft herds
feeding to appearance in the fame extended meadow;
until coming abruptly upon a deep funk rivulet, or an
unfordable river, we difcover the deception.
Befides the funk fence, another fort of unfeen bar¬
rier may be made, though by no means equal to that,
efpecially if near the eye. This is conftrufted of paling,
painted of the invifible green. If the colour of the
back ground were permanent, and that of the paint
made exactly to corrcfpond with it, the deceptiorr-
would at a diftance be complete j but back grounds
in general changing with the feafon, this kind of fence,
is the lefs eligible.
Clumps and patches of woodinefs fcattered protnif*
cuoufly on either fide of an unfeen winding fence, affift
very much in doing away the idea of conftraint. For
by this means
The wand’ring flocks that browfe between the (hades,
Seem oft to pafs their bounds 5 the dubious eye
Decides not if they crop the mead or lawn.
Mason. .
“ II. The WALK, in extenfive grounds, is as ne-
ceffary as the fence. The beauties of the place are dif-
clofed that they may be feen j and it is the office of the
walk
398
GARDENING.
Part I
&c. walk to lead the eye from view to view; in order that
whilft the tone of health is preferved by the favourite
^xercife of nature, the mind may be thrown into unifon
by the harmony of the furrounding objefls.
The direction of the walk mult be guided by the
• points of view to which it leads, and the nature of the
ground it paffes over : it ought to be made fubfervient
to the natural impediments (the ground, wood, and
water) which fall in its way, without appearing to
have any direftion of its own. It can feldom run with
propriety .any diftance in a llraight line j a thing which
rarely occurs in a natural wTalk. The paths of the Ne¬
groes and the Indians are always crooked ; and thofe of
the brute creation are very limilar. Mr Mafon’s defcrip-
tion of this ptith of nature is happily conceived.
The peafant driving through each (hadow’y lane
His team, that bends beneath th’ incumbent weight
Of laughing Ceres, marks it wdth his wheel;
At night and morn, the milkmaid’s carelefs Hep
Has through yon pafture green, from (tile to flile
Impreft a kindred curve : the fcudding hare
Draws to her dew' fprent feat, o’er thymy heaths,
A path as gently waving 
Eng. Card. v. 60.
u III. The ROAD may be a thing of neceflity, as
an approach to the manfion ; or a matter of amufement
only, as a drive or a ride, from which the grounds and
the furrounding country may be feen to advantage.
It fliould be the fludy of the artift to make the fame
road anfwTer, as far as may be, the twofold purpofe.
The road and the walk are fubjeft to the fame rule
of nature and ufe. The direflion ought to be natural
and eafy, and adapted to the purpofe intended. A road
of neceility ought to be ftraighter than one of mere
conveniency : in this, recreation is the predominant
idea 5 in that, utility. But even in this the direfl line
may be difpenfed with. The natural roads upon heaths
and open downs, and the graffy glades and green roads
acrofs forells and extenfive waftes, are proper fubje&s
to be fludied.
“ IV, The BRIDGE fliould never be feen where it is
not wanted: a ufelefs bridge is a deception ; deceptions
are frauds ; and fraud is always hateful, unlefs when
praftifed to avert fome greater evil. A bridge with¬
out water is an abhirdity j and half a one ftuck up
as an eye-trap is a paltry trick, which, though it may
ftrike the ftranger, cannot fail of difgufting when the
fraud is found out.
In low fituations, and wherever water abounds,
bridges become ufeful, and are therefore pleafing ob-
jefts: they are looked for ; and ought to appear not
as objefts of ornament only, but likewife as matters of
utility. The walk or the road therefore ought to be
directed in fuch a manner as to crofs the water at the
point in which the bridge will appear to the greateft
advantage.
In the conftru&ion of bridges alfo, regard muff be
had to ornament and utility. A bridge is an artificial
production, and as fuch it ought to appear. It ranks
among the nobleft of human inventions j the fhip and
the fortrefs alone excel it. Simplicity and firmnefs
are the leading principles in its conftruCtion. Mr Wheat-
ley’s obfervation is juft when he fays, “ The Angle
4
wmoden arch, now much in falhion, feems to me gene- Buildings,
rally mifapplied. Elevated without occafion fo much
above, it is totally detached from the river; it is
often feen ftraddling in the air, without a glimpfe
of water to account for it j and the oftentation of it
as an ornamental object, diverts all that train of ideas
which its ufe as a communication might fugge^L,,
But w-e beg leave to differ from this ingenious wrriter
when he tells us, “ that it is fpoiled if adorned ; it is
disfigured if only painted of any other than a dulky
colour.” In a ruftic fcene, where nature w'ears her
own coarfe garb, “ the vulgar foot bridge of planks
only guarded on one hand by a common rail, and fup~
ported by a few ordinary piles,” may be in charaCler j
but amidit a difplay of ornamented nature, a contrivance
of that kind would appear mean and paltry j and would
be an affeClation of limplicity rather than the lovely-
attribute itfelf. In cultivated fcenes, the bridge ought
to receive the ornaments which the laws of architec¬
tural tafte allow'; and the more polilhed the fituation,
the higher fliould be the ftyle and finiihings.
“ V. SEATS have a twofold ufe ; they are ufeful as
places of reft and converfatkm, and as guides to the
points of view in which the beauties of the furround¬
ing fcene are difclofed. Every point of view fhould
be marked with a feat 5 and, fpeaking generally, no
feat ought to appear but in fome favourable point of
view. This rule may not be invariable, but it ought
feldom to be deviated from.
In the ruder fcenes of negle&ed nature, the Ample
trunk, rough from the woodman’s hands, and the
butts or llools of rooted trees, wfithout any other marks
of tools upon them than thofe of the faw which fe¬
vered them from their ftems, are feats in chara£terj
and in romantic or reclufe Atuations, the cave or the
grotto are admiflible. But wdierever human defign has
been executed upon the natural objects of the place, the
feat and every other artificial accompaniment ought to
be in unifon j and whether the bench or the alcove
be chofen, it ought to be formed and finilhed in fuch a
manner as to unite with the wmod, the lawn, and the
W'alk, which lie around it.
The colour of feats ftiould likewife be fuited to fi¬
tuations : where uncultivated nature prevails, the na¬
tural brown of the wmod itfelf ought not to be altered j
but where the rural art prefides, white or ftone colour
has a much better effed.”
“ VI. BUILDINGS probably were firft introduced
into gardens merely for contrivance, to afford refuge Mr Wheat-
from a hidden fhower, and flielter againft the wind; or, ^ \ Vbf*,.
at the muft, to be feats for a party j or for retirement. re~
They have Ance been converted into objeds, and now
the original ufe is too often forgotten in the greater
purpoles to which they are applied : they are confi-
dered as objeds only } the infide is totally negleded,
and a pompous edifice frequently wants a room bare¬
ly comfortable. Sometimes the pride of making a
lavifli difplay to a vifitor without any regard to the
owner’s enjoyments, and fometimes too fcrupulous an
attention to the ftyle of the ftrudure, occaAons a po¬
verty and dulnefs within, which deprive the buildings
of part of their utility. But in a garden they ought
to be conAdered both as beautiful objeds and as a-
greeable
Part I.
t)f build¬
ings intend
ed for ob-
jefls.
Buiklings greeable retreats : if a charaaer becomes them, it is
' ~v t^e fcene^ they belong to 5 not that of their
primitive application. A Grecian temple or Gothic
church may adorn fpots wher$ it would be affbaation
to preferve that folemnity within which it is proper for
places of devotion : they are not to be exad models,
Objects only of curiofity or ftudy : they are alfo feats :
and fuch feats will be little frequented by the proprie-
tor ; his mind muft generally be indifpofed to fo much
iimphcity, and fo much gloom, in the midfl of gaiety,
nchnefs, and variety.
-But though the interior of buildings Ihould not be
difregarded, it is by their exterior that they become
objects; and fometimes by the one, fometimes by the
other, and fometimes by both, they are entitled to be
confidered as charabiers.
I. As obje&s, they are deligned either to dijiinguijh,
or to break, or to adorn, the fcenes to which they are
applied.
1 be differences between one wood, one lawn, one
piece of water, and another, are not always very appa¬
rent : the feyeral parts of a garden would, therefore, of¬
ten feem fimilar, if they were not diftinguifhed by build-
ings; but thefe are fo oMervable, fo obvious at a
glance, fo eafily retained in the memory, they mark,
the fpots where they are placed with fo much flrength,
they attract the relation of all around with fo much
power, that parts thus diltinguilhed can never be con¬
founded together. Yet it by no means follows, that
therefore every fcene muft have its edifice: the want
of one is fometimes a variety 3 and other circumftances
are often fufficiently charafteriftic: it is only when thefe
too nearly agree, that we muft have recourfe to build¬
ings for differences : we can introduce, exhibit, or
contraft them as we pleafe : the moft ftriking objeft is
thereby made a mark of dift-indlion 3 and the force of
this firft impreflion prevents our obferving the points of
refemblance.
The uniformity of a view may be broken by fimi¬
lar means, and on the fame principle : when a wide
heath, a dreary moor, or a continual plain, is in pro-
fpeft, objefts which catch the eye fupplant the want of
variety : none, are fo effedtual for this purpofe as build¬
ings. Plantations or water can have no very fen-
fible effedt, unlefs they are large or numerous, and
almoft change the charafter of the fcene : but a fmall
fingle building diverts the attention at once from the
famenefs of the extent 5 which it breaks, but does not
divide 3 and diverfifies, without altering its nature.
The defign, however, muft not be apparent. The me¬
rit, of a cottage applied to this purpofe, confifts in its-
being free from the fufpicion : and a few trees near it
will both enlarge the objeft, and account for its pofi-
tion. Ruins are a hackneyed device immediately de-
te&ed, unlefs their ftyle be fingular, or their dimen-
fions extraordinary. The femblance of an ancient
Britilh monument might be adapted to the fame end,
with little trouble, and great fuccefs. The materials
might be brick, or even timber plaftered over, if
ftone could not eafily be procured : whatever they
were, the fallacy would not be difcernible 5 it is an
object to be feen at a "diftance, rude, and large, and
in character agreeable to a wild open view. But no
building ought to be introduced, which may not in
isality belong to fuch a fituation ; no Grecian tem-
gardening.
399
Chferv. on
Mod. Gar
dening.
pies., no Turkifh mofques, no Egyptian obelilks or py- Buildings
ramids 3 none imported from foreign countries, and
unufual here. The apparent artifice would deftroy an
effetft, which is fo nice as to be weakened, if objedls
proper to produce it are difplayed with too much often-
tation ; if they feem to be contrivances, not accidents 3
and the advantage of their pofition appear to be more
laboured than natural.
But in a garden, where obje&s are intended only
to adorn, every fpecies of archite&ure may be admit¬
ted, from the Grecian down to the Chinefe 3 and the
choice is fo free, that the mifchief moft to be appre¬
hended is an abufe of this latitude in the multiplici¬
ty of buildings. Few fcenes can bear more than two
or three: in iome, a fingle one has a greater effedt than
any number : and a carelefs glimpfe, here and there, of
fuch as. belong immediately to different parts, frequent¬
ly enliven, the landfcape with more fpirit than thofe
which are induftrioufly fhown. If the eftedt of a par¬
tial fight, or a diftant view, were more attended to,
many fcenes might be filled, without being crowded 5
a greater number of buildings would be tolerated, when
they feemed to be cafual, not forced 3 and the anima¬
tion, and the richnefs of the objedts, might be had
without pretence or difplay.
Too fond an oftentation of buildings, even of thefe
which are principal, is a common error ; and when all
is done, they are not always fhown to the greateft ad¬
vantage. Though their fymmetry and their beauties
ought in general to be diftindtly and fully feen, yet an
oblique is fometimes better than a diredt view : and
they are often lefs agreeable objedts when entire, than
when a part , is covered, or their extent is interrupted ;
when they are bofomed in wood, as well as backed bv
it 3 or appear between the Items of trees which rife
before or above them : thus thrown into perfpedtive,
thus grouped and accompanied, they may be as impor¬
tant as if they were quite expofed, and are frequently
more pidturefque and beautiful.
But a ftill greater advantage arifes from this ma¬
nagement, in connedting them wdth the fcene : they
are confiderable, and different from all around them 3
inclined therefore to feparate from the reft 5 and yet
they are fometimes ftill more detached by the pains
taken to exhibit them : that very importance which is
the caufe of the diftindtion ought to be a reafon for
guarding againft the independence to wrhich it is natu¬
rally prone, and by which an objedl, which ought to
be a part of the whole, is reduced to a mere indivi¬
dual. An elevated is generally a noble fitu^tion. When
it is a point or a pinnacle, the ftrudture may be a conti¬
nuation of the afcent 3 and on many occafions, fome •
parts of the building may defcend lower than others,
and multiply the appearances of'connexion : but an
edifice in the midft of an extended ridge, commonly
feems naked alone, and impofed upon the brow, not
joined to it. If wood, to accompany it, will not
grow there, it had better be brought a little way down
the declivity 3 and then all behind, above, and about
it, are fo many points of contadl, by which it is incor-.
porated into landfcape.
Accompaniments are important to a building 3 but
they lofe much of their effedt when they do not ap- •
pear to be cafual. A little mount juft large enough <
for it 3 a fmall piece of water below, of no other ufe c
than
400
'* fcene of nature into which it is introduced, and to
.•which it ought to be reconciled. Thcfe appendages
therefore ihoukl be fo difpofed, and fo connected with
tlje adjacent parts, as to anfwer other purpofes, though
applicable to this,: that they maybe bonds of union,
not marks of difference ^ . and that the fituation may
appear to have been chqien at the.mod, not made, for
the building. • * ~ ;
In the choice of a fituation, that which fhows the
building beft ought "generally to be preferred : emi¬
nence, relief, and every other advantage which can
be, ought to be given to an object of fo much conffder-
ation : they are for the moil part defirable } fometimes
necefiary j and exceptionable only when, inftead of rif-
ing out of the- f«ne, they are forced into it, and a
^contrivance to procure them at any rate is avowed
without any difguife. There are, however, occafions,
in which the moll tempting advantages of lituation
muff be waved ; the general competition may forbid a
building in one fpot, or require it in another } at
other times, the intereft of the particular group it be¬
longs to may exadl a facrifice of the opportunities to
exhibit its beauties and importance ; and at all times,
the pretenffons of every individual objedl muff give
way to the greater effect of the whole.
Of tbofe 2* T*16 faine ftriidlure which adorns as an object, may
expreffive alfo be expreffive as a charaEier. Where the former is
of charac- not wanted, the latter may be defirable : or it may be
tcr* weak for one purpofe, and ftrong for the other 5 it
may be grave, or gay ; magnificent, or fimple : and
according to its llyle, may or may not be agreeable to
the place it is applied to. But mere confiftency is not
all the juerit ivhich buildings can claim : their charac¬
ters are fometimes ftrong enough to determine, improve,
or correff, that of the fcene : and they are fo confpicu-
ous, and fo diftinguiftied, that whatever force they
have is immediately and fenfibly felt. They are fit
therefore to make a firft impreffion •, and when a fcene
is but faintly characterized, they give at once a call
which fpreads over the whole, and which the weaker
parts concur to fupport, though perhaps they were not
able to produce it.
- Nor do they flop at fixing an uncertainty, or re-
• moving a doubt j they raife and enforce a charafter
* already marked : a temple adds dignity to the nobleft,
a cottage fimplicity to the.moft rural, feenes j the
lightnefs of a fpire, the airinefs of an open rotunda,
the fplendour of a continued colonnade, are lefs orna¬
mental than expreffive; others improve cheerfulnefs
into gaiety, gloom into folemnity, and richnefs into
profufion: a retired fpot, which might have been paffed
unobferved, is noticed for its tranquillity, as foon as it
is appropriated by fome ftruhlure to retreat j and
the moll unfrequented place feems lefs folitary than
one which appears to have been the haunt of a fingle
individual, or even of a fequeftered family, and is
marked by a lonely dwelling, or the remains of a de¬
ferred habitation.
The means are the fame, the application of them
only is different, when buildings are ufed to corredl
the charadler of the fcene ; to enliven its dulnefs, miti¬
gate its gloom, or to check its extravagance \ and, on
3
N I N G. Parti:
a variety of occafions, to foften, to aggravate, or to Buildings,
counteract, particular circumftances attending it. But ^
care mull be taken that they do not contradict too
ftrongly ihe prevailing idea: they may leffen the
dreai-inefs of a wafte, but they cannot give it pmnity ;
they may abate horrors, but they will never i OU\ert
them into graces j they may make a tame Icene agiec
able, and even intereiling, not romantic ; or. turn lo-
lemnity into cheerfulnefs, but not into gaiety. In
thefe, and lin many other inftances, they correct the
characteV, by giving it an inclination towards a better
which is not very different 5 but they can hardly alter
it entirely : when they are totally inccnfiftent with it,
they are at the beft nugatory.
The great effects which.have been aferibed to build¬
ings do not depend upon thofe trivial ornaments and
appendages which are often too much relied on ; .fiich
as the furniture of a hermitage, painted glafs in a
Gothic church, and fculpture about a Grecian tem¬
ple ; grotefque or bacchanalian figures to denote
gaiety, and death’s heads to fignify melancholy.
Such devices are only deferiptive, not expreflive, of
character •, and muff not be fubftituted in the Head of
thofe fuperior properties, the want of which they ac¬
knowledge, but do not fupply. Ihey befides often
require time to trace their meaning, and to. fee their •
application •, but the peculiar excellence of buildings is,
that their effects are inftantaneous, and therefore the
impreffions they make are forcible. In order to pro¬
duce fuch effects, the general llyle of the ftructure,
and its pofition, are the principal confiderations : either
of them will fometimes be ftrongly characteriftic alone j
united, their powers are very great •, and both are fo
important, that if they do not concur, at leaft the^
muft not contradict one another. I2
Every branch of architecture furnifhes, on different Species and
occafions, objects proper for a garden ^ and there is nofituations
reftraint on our felection, provided it be conformable to build-
the ftyle of the fcene, proportioned to its extent, andings*
agreeable to its character.
The choice of fituations is alfo very free. A hermi¬
tage, indeed, muft not be clofe to a road; but whether it
be expofed to view on the fide of a mountain, or conceal¬
ed in the depth of a wood, is almoft a matter of indif¬
ference ; that it is at a diftance from public refort is fuf-
ficient. A caftle muft not be funk in a bottom; but that
it fhould Hand on the utmoft pinnacle of a hill, is not
neceffary : on a lower knoll, and backed by the rife, it
may appear to greater advantage as an objeeft, and be
much more important to the general compofition.
Many buildings, which from their fplendoui bell become
an open expofure, will yet be fometimes not ill bellow¬
ed on a more fequeftered fpot, either to characterize or
adorn it^ and others, for which a folitary would in ge¬
neral be preferred to an eminent fituation, may occa-
fionally be objeCls in very confpicuous pofitions. A
Grecian temple, from its peculiar tafte and dignity,
deferves every diftinftion ; it may, however, in the
depth of a wood, be fo circumftanced, that the w’ant
of thofe advantages to which it feems entitled will not
be regretted. A happier fituation cannot be devifed,
than that of the temple of Pan on the fouth lodge on
Enfield Chafe. It is of the ufual oblong form, encom-
paffed by a colonnade ‘y in dimenfions, and in ftyle, it
is .equal to a moft extenfive. landfcape : .and yet by. the
antique
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