' s V EISA Encyclopedia Britannica. Scripture continued from lafl Volume. Senile. JEREMIAH was called to the prophetic office in the * 55 Jeremiah. JE] i 13th year of the reign of Jofiah the fori of Amon M- 3376> A- C. 628, an-3 continued to prophecy upwards of 40 years, during the reigns of the degene¬ rate princes of Judah, to whom he boldly threatened thofe marks of the divine vengeance which their rebelli¬ ous condufl drew on themfelves and their country. Af¬ ter the^ deftruftion of Jerufalem by the Chaldeans, he was fuffered by Nebuchadnezzar to remain in the defb- fate land of Judea to lament the calamities of his infatu¬ ated countrymen. He was afterwards, as he himfelf in¬ forms us, carried with his difciple Earuch into Egypt by Johanan the fon of Kareah. 6 ^ ’ .It appears from leveral paflages that Jeremiah com- mitted his prophecies to writing. In the 36th chapter we. are informed, that the prophet was commanded to write upon a roll all the prophecies which he had ut¬ tered and when the roll was deftroyed by Jehoiakim the king, Jeremiah diftated the fame prophecies to Ba¬ ruch, who wrote them together with many additional circumftances. The works of Jeremiah extend to the iaft veife of the 31ft chapter ; in which we have thefe words, “ Thus far the words of Jeremiah.” The 5 2d chapter was thei-efore added by fome other xvriter. ~ It is, however, a very important fupplement, as it illuftrates the accompliffiment of Jeremiah’s prophecies refpecline the fate of Zedekiah. ^ The prophecies of Jeremiah are not arranged in the rangement th^ Were Slivered, of his wri- occafioned this tranipofition cannot now be determined. It is generally maintained, that if we eon- iuit their dates, they ought to be thus placed : In the reign of Jofiah the firft 12 chapters. In the reign of Jehoiakim, chapters xiii. xx. xxi. v. 11, 14. ; xxii. xxiii. xxv. xxvi. xxxv. xxxvi. xlv xlix* 33- In the reign of Zedekiah, chap. xxi. i-_x0. xxiv. xxvii. xxxiv. xxxvii. xxxix. xlix. 34—39. 1. and jj. ^ Under the government of Gedaliah, chapters xl. xliv. 1'he prophecies wJiich related to the Gentiles were con- Vol. XIX. Part I. 56 Chronolo¬ gical ar- rangeme:. of his wri tings tamed m the 46th and five following chapters, being Scripture, placed at tne end, as in fome meafure unconnefled with ‘ • l the rdf. But in forae copies of the Septuagint thefe fix chapters follow immediately after the 13th verfe of the 25th chapter. Jeremiah, though deficient neither in elegance nor fublimity, muft give place in both to Ifaiah. Jerome feems to objeft againft him a fort of rufticity of lan¬ guage, no veftige of which Dr Lowth was able to dif- cover. His fentiments, it is true, are not always the moft elevated, nor are his periods always neat and com- pacl j but thefe are faults common to thole writers whole principal aim is to excite the gentler affe&ions, and to call forth the tear of fympathy or forrow. This obfer- vation is very ftrengly exemplified in the Lamentations, vvnere thele are the prevailing paffions j it is, however, frequently inftanced in the prophecies of this author, and moll of all in the beginning of the book (t), which is. chiefly poetical. The middle of it is almoft entirely In Iron cal. The latter part, again, confifting of the laft fix chapters, is altogether poetical (mJj it contains fe- veral difterent predidions, which are diftindly marked • and in thefe the prophet approaches very near the fubli¬ mity of Ilaiah. On the whole, however, not above half the book of Jeremiah is poetical. The book of Lamentations, as we are informed in The book the tiUe, was compofed by Jeremiah. We lhall prefent ■Lamefe* to our reader an account of this elegiac poem from the tat*on5‘ elegant pen of Dr Lowth. The Lamentations of Jeremiah (for the title is pro¬ perly and fignfficantly plural) confift of a number of plaintive effufions, compofed on the plan of the funeral dirges all on the fame, fubjea, and uttered without connexion as they rofe in the mind, in a long courfe of feparate ftanzas. Thefe have afterwards been put together, and xormed into a colleaion or correfpondent whole. If any reader, however, fhould expeft to find m them an artificial and methodical arrangement of the general fubjed, a regular difpofition of the parts, a per- fed connedion and orderly fucceffion in the matter, and (l) See the whole of chap. ix. chap. xiv. 17, &c. xx. 14—18 exordium. P" ‘# ^ ^ "> *e Lamentatioor, to which it fervea as an A t 58 How di¬ vided. SCR [2 Scripture. and with all this an uninterrupted feries of elegance and corre&nefs, he will really expefl what was foreign to the prophet’s defign. In the character of a mourn¬ er, he celebrates in plaintive ftrains the obftquies of his ruined country : whatever prefented ilfelf to his mind in the midft of defolation and mifery, whatever ftruck him as particularly wretched and calamitous, whatever the inftant fentiment of forrow dictated, he pours forth in a kind of fpontaneous effufion. He frequently paufes, and, as it tvere, ruminates upon the fame objeft ; fre¬ quently varies and illuftrates the fame thought with different imagery, and a different choice of language; fo that the whole bears rather the appearance of an ac¬ cumulation of correfponding fentiments, than an accu¬ rate and connedted feries of different ideas, arranged in the form of a regular treatife. There is, however, no wild incoherency in the poem } the tranfftions are eafy and elegant. The work is divided into five parts : in the firft, fe- cond, and fourth chapters, the prophet addreffes the . people in his own perfon, or introduces Jerufalem as fpeaking. In the third chapter a chorus of the Jews is reprefented. In the fifth the whole captive Jevts pour forth their united complaints to Almighty God. Each of thefe five parts is diftributed into 22 ftanzas, according to the number of the letters of the alphabet. In the fir ft three chapters thefe ftanzas confift of three lines. In the firft four chapters the initial letter of each period follows the order of the alphabet •, and in the third chapter each verfe of the fame ftanza be¬ gins with the fame letter. In the fourth chapter all the ftanzis are evidently diftichs, as alfo in the fifth, which is not acroftic. The intention of the acroftic was to affift the memory to retain lentences not much conneffed. It deferves to be remarked, that ths verfes of the firft four chapters are longer by almoft one half than Hebrew verfes generally are : The length of them feems to be on an average about 12 fyllables. The prophet appears to have chofen this meafure as being folemn and melancholy. “ That the fubjeft of the Lamentations is the deftruc- tion of the holy city and temple, the overthrow of the ftate, the extermination of the people ; and that thefe events are defcribed as actually accomplilhed, and not in the ftyle of prediftion merely, muft be evident to every reader 5 though fome authors of confiderable re¬ futation * have imagined this poem to have been com- pofed on the death of King Jofiah. The prophet, in¬ deed, has fo copioufly, fo tenderly, and poetically, be¬ wailed the misfortunes of his country, that he feems completely to have fulfilled the office and duty of a mourner. In my opinion, there is not extant any poem which difplays fuch a happy and fplendid feledtion of imagery in fo concentrated a ftate. What can be more elegant and poetical, than the defeription of that once fiqurifhing city, lately chief among the nations, fitting in the charafter of a female, foiitary, afRidted, in a ftate of widowhood, deferted by her friends, betrayed by her deareft connections, imploring relief, and feeking confo- lation in vain ? What a beautiful perfonification is that of “ the ways of Sion mourning becaufe none are come to her folemn feafts ?” How tender and pathetic are the following complaints ? Chap. i. Is this nothing to all you who pafs along the way ? be- 12> 1<5- hold and fee, Trtwih. 59 The fub- jeil and beauty of yerome, VJferius, &c. ] SCR. If there be any forrow, like unto my forrow, which is Scripture. inflidted on me ; v ' '',l Which Jehovah inflicted on me in the day of the vio¬ lence of his wuath. For thefe things I weep, my eyes flream with water 5 Eecaufe the comforter is far away, that ftiould tranqui- lize my foul: My children are defolate, becaufe the enemy was ftrong. But to detail its beauties would be to tranferibe the entire poem.” 60 Ezekiel tvas carried to Babylon as a captive, and re- Ezekiel, ceived the firft revelations from heaven, in the fifth year of Jehoiakim’s captivity, A. C. 595. The book of Ezekiel is fometimes diftributed under different heads. In the three firft chapters the commiflion of the prophet is defcribed. From the fourth to the thirty-fecond chapter inclufive, the calamities that befel the enemies of the Jews are predicted, viz. the Ammonites, the Moab¬ ites, and Philiftines. The ruin of Tyre and of Sidon, and the fall of Egypt, are particularly foretold 5 prophe¬ cies which have been fulfilled in the moft literal and af- toniftiing manner, as w’e have been often affured by the relation of hiftorians and travellers. From the 3 2d chapter to the 40th he inveighs againft the hypocrify and murmuring fpirit of his countrymen, admoniihing them to refignation by promifes of deliverance. In the 38th and 39th chapters he undoubtedly predifts the final return of the Jews from their difperfion in the lat¬ ter days, but in a language fo obfeure that it cannot be underftood till the event take place. The nine laft chapters of this book furnifh the defeription of a very remarkable vifion of a new temple and city, of a new religion and polity. “ Ezekiel is much inferior to Jeremiah in elegance; Character in fublimity he is not even excelled by Ifaiah : but his ^ a wri- fublimity is of a totally different kind. He is deep,ter’ vehement, tragical 5 the only fenfation he affefls to ex¬ cite is the terrible ; his fentiments are elevated, fervid, full of fire, indignant j his imagery is crouded, magni¬ ficent, terrific, fometimes almoft to difguft : his lan¬ guage is pompous, folemn, auftere, rough, and at times unpolilhed: he employs frequent repetitions, not for the fake of grace or elegance, but from the vehemence of paflion and indignation. Whatever fubjeft he treats Lowti* of, that he fedulouffy purfues, from that he rarely de¬ parts, but cleaves as it were to it; whence the connec¬ tion is in general evident and ■well preferved. In many refpefls he is perhaps excelled by the other prophets 5 hut in that fpecies of compofition to which he feems by nature adapted, the forcible, the impetuous, the great and folemn, not one of the facred writers is fupe- rior to him. His di&ion is fufficiently perfpicuous j all his obfeurity confifts in the nature of the fubjefl. Vi¬ llons (as for inftance, among others, thofe of Hofea, Amos, and Jeremiah') are neceffarily dark and confufed. The greater part of Ezekiel, towards the middle of the book efpecially, is poetical, whether we regard the mat¬ ter or the diction. His periods, however, are frequent¬ ly fo rude and incompadft, that I am often at a lofs how to pronounce concerning his performance in this refpeft. “ Ifaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, as far as relates to ftyle, may be faid to hold the fame rank among the He¬ brews, as Homer, Simonides, and JEfchylus among the Greeks.” So 6? Character of his pro¬ phecies. S C It | Scripture. So full an account of Daniel and his writings has been already given under the article Daniel, that little remains to be laid on that fubjeft. Daniel flourilhed during the fucceflive reigns of feveral Babylonith and Median kings to the conqueft of Babylon by Cyrus. The events recotded in the 6th chapter were contempo¬ rary with Darius the Mede; but in the 7th and 8th chapters Daniel returns to an earlier period, to relate the Villons which he beheld in the three firfl years of Bel- fhazzar’s reign ; and thofe which follow^ in the four laft chapters were revealed to him in the reign of Darius. The laft fix chapters are compofedof prophecies delivered at different times; all of which are in fome degree con- nefted as parts of one great fcheme. They extend through many ages, and f'urnifh themoft ftriking delcrip- tion of the fall of fucceflive kingdoms, wdiich w'ere to be introduftory to the eftabliftnnent of ihe Meftiah’s reign. They charafterrize in defcriptive terms the four great monarchies of the world to be fucceeded by “ that king¬ dom which fhould not be deftroyed.” The whole book of Daniel being no more than a plain relation of fa£ts, partly part and partly future, muft be excluded the clafs of poetical prophecy. Much indeed of the parabolic imagery is introduced in that book ; but the author introduces it as a prophet only j as vifionary and allegorical fymbols of objedls and events, totally untin£tured with the true poetical colouring. The Jews, indeed, would refufe to Daniel even the cha- rafter of a prophet: but the arguments under which they {belter this opinion are very futile; for thofe points which they maintain concerning the conditions on which the gift of prophecy is imparted, the diffe¬ rent gradations, and the difcrimination between the true prophecy and mere infpiration, are all trifling and ab- (urd, without any foundation in the nature of things, and totally deftitute of fcriptural authority. They add, that Daniel wTas neither originally educated in the pro¬ phetic difcipline and precepts, nor afterwards lived con¬ formably to the manner of the prophets. It is not, however, eafy to comprehend how this can diminifh his claim, to a divine million and infpiration j it may poflibly enable us, indeed, to aflign a reafon for the diflxmilarity between the ftyle of Daniel and that of the other pro¬ phets, and for its poffeffing fo little of the di&ion and charavrter of poetry, wrtiich the reft feem to have imbibed in common from the fchools and difcipline in which they wTere educated. The prophecies of Daniel appear fo plain and intel- thenticity. Jigible after their accomplifhment, that Porphyry, who wrote in the 3d century, afhms, that they were written after the events to which they refer took place. A little refleflion will (how the abfurdity of this fuppo- tion. Some of the prophecies of Daniel clearly refer to Antiochus Epiphanes, with whole oppreffions the Jews were too well acquainted. Had the book of Daniel not made its appearance till after the death of Eniphanes, every Jew who read it muft have difcovered the forgery. And what motive could induce them to receive it among their facred books ? It is impoflible- to conceive one. Their character was quite the reverfe : their refpeft for the Scripture had degenerated into fuperftit? m. But we are not left to determine this imnortant point from the chara&er of the jews ; we have accefs to more de¬ ceive evidence ; we are fare that the book of Daniel contains prophecies, for fome of them have been accom- . 64 Their au- 3 1 SCR plilhed flnce the time of Porphyry; particularly thofe Scripture, refpedling Antichrift : now, if it contains any prophe- —“v— cies, who will take upon him to affirm that the divine Spirit, which dictated thefe many centuries before they were fulfilled, could not alio have delivered prophecies concerning Antiochus Epiphanes ? The language in which the book of Daniel is com- poled proves that it was written about the time of the Babylonilh captivity. Part of it is pure Hebrew: a lan* guage in which none of the Jewilh books werecompofed after the age of Epiphanes. Thefe are arguments to a deift. To a Chriftian the internal marks of the book itfelf will (how the time in which it was written, and the teftimony of Ezekiel will prove Daniel to be at leaft *Eze^:.xiv’4 his contemporary*. The twelve minor prophets were fo called, not from Twelve any fuppofed inferiority in their writings, but on ac- minor pro¬ count of the fmall fize of their works. Perhaps it wras phets* for this reafon that the Jews joined them together, and confidered them as one volume. Thefe 12 prophets prefented in fcattered hints a lively {ketch of many parti¬ culars relative to the hiitory of Judah and of Xfrael, as Gray’s Key iveli as of other kingdoms 5 they prophefy with hiftori- cal exaftnefs the fate of Babylon, of Nineveh, of Tyre, 7pJlamenh of Sidon, and of Damafcus. The three laft prophets elpecially illuftrate many circumftances at a period when the hiftorical pages of Scripture are clofed, and when pro¬ fane writers are entirely wanting. At firft the Jewifh prophets appeared only as Angle lights, and followed each other in individual fucceffion \ but they became more numerous about the time of the captivity. The light of infpiration was collefled into one blaze, previous to its fufpenfion} and it ferved to keep alive the expec¬ tations of the Jews during the awful interval which pre¬ vailed between the expiration of prophecy and its grand completion on the advent of Chrift. 66 Hofea has been fuppofed the moft ancient of the 1 2 PropVdes minor prophets. He flourifhed in the reign of Jero-Hoiea” boam II. king of lifael, and during the fucceffive reigns ot Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Ju¬ dah. He was therefore nearly contemporary with I- faiah, Amos, and Jonah. The prophecies of Hofea be¬ ing fcattsred through the book without date or con¬ nexion, cannot with any certainty be chronologically arranged. Hofea is the firft in order of the minor praphets, and Charafler is perhaps, Jonah excepted, the moft ancient of them°f|heir all. His ftyle exhibits the appearance of very remote ltj C‘ < antiquity ; it is pointed, energetic, and concife. It hears a diftinguiflied mark of poetical compofition, in that priftine brevity and condenfation which is obfer- vable in the fentences, and which later writers have in fome meafure negledled. This peculiarity has not efca- ped the obfervation of Jerome: “ He is altogether (fays he, fpeaking of this prophet) laconic and fententious.” But this very circumftanee, which anciently was fup¬ pofed no doubt to impart uncommon force and elegance, in the prefent ruinous ftate of the Hebrew literature is produXive of fo much obfcurily, that although the ge¬ neral fubjeX of this writer be fufficiently obvious, he is the moft difficult and perplexed of all the prophets. There is, however, another reafon for the cbfcurity of his ftyle : Hofea prcphefied during the rei?ns of the four kings of Judah, Uzziah, Jothara, Ahaz, and Heze¬ kiah. The duration of his miniftry, therefore, in what- A 2 ever SCR [ , Scripture ever manner we calculate, muft include a very confider- ^ able fpace of time. We have now only a fmall volume of his remaining, which feems to contain his principal prophecies ; and thefe are extant in a continued feries, with no marks of diitimflion as to the times in which they were publilhed, or the fubjefts of which they treat. There is, therefore, no caufe to wonder if, in perufing the prophecies of Hofea, we fometimes find ourfelves in a fimilar predicament with thofe who confulled the fcat- tered leaves of the Sibyl. As a ipecimen of Hofea’s ftyle, we feledl the follow¬ ing beautiful pathetic -paffage : How (hall I refign thee, O Ephraim ! How fhall I deliver thee up, O Ifrael! How (hall I refign thee as Admah! How fhall I make thee as Zeboim ! My heart is changed within mej I am warmed alfo with repentance towards thee. I will not do according to the fervour of my wrath ; I will not return to deftroy Ephraim : For I am God, and not man j Holy in the midft of thee, though I inhabit not thy ci tiesv Prophecies Concerning the date of the prophecy of Joel there of Joel. are various conjeftures. The book itfelf affords nothing by which wTe can dilcover when the author lived, or upon what occafion it was written. Joel fpeaks of a great famine, and of mifchiefs that happened in confe- quence of an inundation of locufts •, but nothing can be gathered from fuch general obfervations to enable us to fix the period of his prophecy. St Jerome thinks (and it is the general opinion) that .Tael was contemporary with Hofea. This is poffibly true \ but the founda¬ tion on which the opinion refts is very precarious, viz. That when there is no proof of the time in which a - prophet lived, we are to be guided in our conjesftures refpe&ing it by that of the preceding prophet whofe epoch is better known. As this rule is not infallible, it therefore ought not to hinder us from adopting any other opinion that comes recommended by good rea- fons. Father Calmet places him under the reign of Jofiah, at the fame time writh Jeremiah, and thinks it probable that the famine to which Joel alludes, is the ijp fame with that which Jeremiah predidled, ch. viii. 13. Charadter The ftyle of Joel is effentially different from that of of their Hofea ; but the general character of his didlion, though of a different kind, is not lefs poetical. He is elegant, perfpicuous, copious, and fluent; he is alfo fublime, ani¬ mated, and energetic. In the firft and fecond chapters Loivth he difplays the full force of the prophetic poetry, and 0poetr >eriV ^ows h°w naturally it inclines to the ufe of metaphors Sea. 21. allegories, and comparifons. Nor is the connexion of the matter lefs clear and evident than the complexion of the flyle : this is exemplified in the difplay of the impending evils which gave rife to the prophecy , the exhortation to repentance ; the promifes of happinefs and fuccefs both terreflrial and eternal to thofe who be¬ come truly penitent*, the reftoration of the Ifraelites; and the vengeance to be taken of their adverfaries. But while we allow this juft commendation to his perfpi- cuity both in language and arrangement, we muft not deny that there is fometimes great obfcurity obfervable in his fubjett, and particularly in the latter part of the prophecy. * ] SCR I he following prophecy of a plague of locufts is de- Scripture, fcribed with great fublimity of exprelfion : •~~v— For a nation hath gone up on my land, Who are ftrong, and without number : They have deftroyed my vine, and have made my fig- tree a broken branch. They have made it quite bare, and cafl it away : the branches thereof are made white. The field is laid wafte : the ground mourneth *. * Joel i. 6. & 7, io, See. Amos was contemporary with Hofea. They both „ j’0 . began to prophecy during the reigns of Uzziah over of Am^'63 Judah, and of Jeroboam II. over Ifrael. Amos faw bis firft vifion two years before the earthquake, wdiich Zechariah informs us happened in the days of Uzziah. See Amos. Amos was a herdfman of Tekoa, a fmall town in the territory ot Judah, and a gatherer of fycamore fruit. In the fimplicity of former times, and in the happy cli¬ mates of the Eaft, thefe were not confidered as dilho- n our able occupations. He was no prophet (as he in¬ formed Arnaziah j-), neither was he a prophet’s fon, . ^nios ^ that is, he had no regular education in the fchools of j4. m°S the prophets. The prophecies of Amos confift of feveral diftinft difeourfes, which chiefly refpedl the kingdom of Ifrael; yet fometimes the prophet inveighs againft Judah, and threatens the adjacent nations, the Syrians, Philiftines, Tyrians, Edomites, Ammonites, and Moabites. Jerome calls Amos “ rude in fpeech, but not in j knowledge J j” applying to him what St Paul modeftly j PrleJ.*' profeffes of himfelfj. “ Many (fays Dr Lowth) have Comment. followed the authority of Jerome in fpeaking of thisin Amos' prophet, as if he were indeed quite rude, ineloquent, $ 4 Cor‘XI* and deftitute of all the embellilhments of compofition.<>" The matter is, however, far otherwife. Let any perfon who has candour and perfpicacity enough to judge, not from the man but from his writings, open the volume of his predi&ions, and he will, I think, agree with me, that our Ihepherd ‘ is not a whit behind the very chief of the prophets j|.’ He will agree, that as in fublimity y 2 Cor. mid magnificence he is almoft equal to the greateft, fo in fplendour of di&ion and elegance of expreflion he is fcarcely inferior to any. The fame celeftial Spirit in¬ deed aftuated Ifaiah and Daniel in the court and Amos in the ftieep-folds; conftantly felefling fuch interpreters of the divine will as were bell adapted to the occafion, and fometimes ‘ from the mouth of babes and fucklings perfefting praife occafionally employing the natural eloquence of fbrne, and occafionally making others elo¬ quent.” Mr Locke has obferved, that the comparifons of this prophet are chiefly drawn from lions and other animals with which he was moft accuftomed j but the fineft images and allufions are drawn from feenes of nature. There are many beautiful paffages in the writings of A- mos, of which we ftiall prefent one fpecimen : Wo to trhem that are at eafe in Zion, And trull in the mountains of Samaria} Who are named chief of the nations, To whom the houfe of Ifrael came ; Pafs ye unto Calneh and fee, And from thence gp to Hamath the Great j Then S C R , Then go down to Gath of the Phillftines; Are they better than thefe kingdoms ? Or their borders greater than their borders ? Ye that put far away the evil day, And caufe the feat of violence to come near j That lie upon beds of ivory, And flretch yourfelves upon couches; 1 hat eat the lambs out of the flock, And the calves out of the midft of the flail 3 i hat chant to the found of the viol, And like David devife inftruments of mufic 3 That drink wine in bowls, And anoint yourfelves with chief ointments 3 Bui are not grieved for the affliBion of Jofeph |[, H Ch. vi. 1. —5. 72 Of Obadiah 73 OfJonah * 2 Kings xiv. 25. Matth. xii. 39. 41. xvi 4- Luke xi. 29 , 74 Of Micah. f Jer. xxv. 1S—-24. XJofAnt. lib. x. c. 7. Micah iii. 12. || Matt. ii. 5. John vii. 42. . . 75 His ft vie i he writings of Obadiah, which confift of one chap¬ ter, are compofed with much beauty, and unfold a very interefting fcene of prophecy. Of this prophet little can be faid, as the fpecimen of his genius is fo fliort and the greater part of it included in one of the pro¬ phecies of Jeremiah. Compare Ob. 1—9. with Jer. xlix. 14, 15, 16. See Obadiah. - Though Jonah be placed the fixth in the order of the minor prophets both in the Hebrew and Septua- gint, he is generally confidered as the moft ancient of all the prophets, not excepting Hofea. He lived in the kingdom of Ifrael, and prophefied to the ten tribes under the reign of Joalh and Jeroboam. The book of Jonah is chiefly hiftorical, and contains nothing of poe¬ try but the prayer of the prophet. L'he facred writers, and our Lord himfelf, fpeak of Jonah as a prophet of confiderable eminence *. See Jonah. Micah began to prophefy foon after Ifaiah, Hofea, Joel, and Amos 3 and he prophefied between A. M. 3246, when Jotham began to reign, and A. M- 3305, .when Hezekiah died. One of his prediflions is faid-J to have fayed the life of Jeremiah, who under the remn of Jehoiakim would have been put to death for prophe- fying the deftru&ion of the temple, had it not appeared that Micah had foretold the fame thing under Heze¬ kiah above 100 years before f. Micah is mentioned as a prophet in the book of Jeremiah and in the New Teftament ||. He is imitated by fucceeding prophets (n), as he himfelf had borrowed expreflions from his prede- ceffors (o). Our Saviour himfelf fpoke in the language of this prophet (p). & . Tlle of Micah is for the moft part clofe, for¬ cible, pointed, and concife 3 fometimes approaching the obfcurity of Hofea 3 in many parts animated and fub- lime 3 and in general truly poetical. In his prophecies there is an elegant poem, which Dr Lowth thinks is a citation from the anfwer of Balaam to the king of the Moabites : Wherewith fliall I come before Jehovah ? Wherewith fliall I bow myfelf unto the High God ? Shall I come before him with burnt-offerings, With calves of a year old ? Will Jehovah be pleafed with thoufands of rams ? With ten thoufands of rivers of oil -•? 5 ] SCR Shall I give my /irfi-bom for my tranrgreiTion f Scripture, The fruit of my body for the fin of my foul ? ' He hath ftiowed thee, O man, what is’good : And what doth Jehovah require of thee, But to do juftice, and to love mercy, And to be humble in walking with thy God ? Jofephus afferts, that Nahum lived in the time of Jo- Of Nahum, loam king of Judah 3 in which cafe he may be fuppofed to have prophefied againft Nineveh when Tiglath-Pilefer king of Affyria carried captive the natives of Galilee and other parts about A. M. 3264- It is, however, pro¬ bable, that his prophecies were delivered in the reivn Hezekiah 3 for he appears to fpeak of the taking of No-Ammon a city of Egypt, and of the infolent mef- fengers of Sennacherib, as of things paft 3 and he like- wife defcribes the people of Judah as ftill in then- own country, and defirous of celebrating their fefti- vals. While Jerufalem was threatened by Sennacherib, Na¬ hum promifed deliverance to Hezekiah, and prediHed that Judah would loon celebrate her folemn feafts fecure from invafion, as her enemy would no more difturb her peace. In the fecond and third chapters Nahum fore- tels the downfal of the Affyrian empire and the final deftruaion of Nineveh, which was probably accomplfth- ed by the Medes and Babylonians, wdrofe combined forces overpowered the Affyrians by furprife “ while they were folden together as thorns, and while they were diunken as drunkards,” when the gates of the ri¬ ver were opened, the palace demoliftred, and an “ over¬ running flood” aflifted the conquerors in their devafta- tion ; who took an endlefs ftore of fpoil of gold and filver, making an utter end of the place of Nineveh, of that vart and populous city, whofe walls were 100 feet high, and fo broad that three chariots could pafs abreaft. Yet lo completely was this celebrated city deftroyed, that even in the 2d century the fpot on which it flood could not be afcertained, every veftige of it beino- gone. & It is impoflible to read of tire exaff accomplilhment of the prophetic denunciations againft the enemies of the Jews, without reflecfting on the aftoniftiing proofs which that nation enjoyed of the divine origin of their rehgion From the Babyloniflr captivity to The time of Thrift they had numberlefs inftances of the fulfilment of their prophecies. The charafter of Nahum as a writer is thus defcribed by 1 ^ None the minor prophets feem to equal Nahum in boldnefs, ardour, and fublimity. His prophecy, too, forms a regular and perfeft poem 3 the exordium is not merely magnificent, it is truly mai'eftic- the preparation for the deftruaion of Nineveh, and the delcription of its downfal and defolation, are expreffed l" ^5 ,vivid colours, and are bold and luminous in the higheft degree.” a ^S-tbe ProP^et Habakkuk makes no mention of the of h/k v Affynans and fpeaks of the Chaldean invafions as nearkuk ' at hand, he probably lived after the deftruaion of the Affyrian (tO Compare Zephan. id. 19. with Micah. iv. 7. and Ezek. xxii. 27. with Micah iii. 11. ( ) Compare Micah. iv. 1—3. and Ifaiah ii. 2—4. Micah iv. 13. with Ifaiah xli. 1 c (p) Compare Micah vm. 6. .with Matt. x. 35, 36. 5 Scripture. j] Heb. x. 37. 3s: Rom. i- 17- Gal. 11!. 2. Adb-xiii. 41. com¬ pare with Hab. i. 5. 7s _ Prophecies of Zepha- niah. SCR [6 Afiyrian empire in the fall of Nineveh A. M. 3392> and not long before the devaftation of Judea by Nebu¬ chadnezzar. Habakkuk was then neatly contempora¬ ry with Jeremiah, and predicated the fame events. A general account of Habakkuk’s prophecies has already been given under the word Habakkuk, which may be confulted. We fhould, however, farther obferve, that the prayer in the third chapter is a molt beautiful and perfect ode, poffefllng all the fire of poetry and the pro¬ found reverence of religion. God came from Teman, And the Holy One from Mount Paran : His glory covered the heavens, And the earth was full of his praife. His brightnefs was as the light; Beams of glory iffued from his fide $ And there was the hiding of his power. Before him went the peftilence •, And burning coals went forth at his feet. He ftood and meafured the earth j He beheld and drove afunder the nations *, The everlafting mountains were fcattered j The perpetual hills did bowk The prophet illuftrates this fubjeft throughout with equal fublimity fele&ing from fuch an aflemblage of miraculous incidents the moft noble and important, dif- playing them in the moft fplendid colours, and embel- lifhing them with the fublimeft imagery, figures, and diftion ; the dignity of which is fo heightened and re¬ commended by the fuperior elegance of the conclufion, that were it not for a few fliades which the hand of time has apparently call over it in two or three paffa- ges, no compofiiion of the kind would appear more elegant or more perfeft than this poem. Habakkuk is imitated by fucceeding prophets, and his words are borrowed by the evangelical writers ||. Zephaniah, who was contemporary with Jeremiah, prophefied in the reign of Jofiah king of Judah ; and from the idolatry which he defcribes as prevailing at that time, it is probable that his prophecies were deli¬ vered before the laft reformation made by that pious prince A. M. 3381. The account which Zephaniah and Jeremiah give of the idolatries of their age is fo fimilar, that St Ifiodore aOferts, that Zephaniah abridged the defcriptions of Je¬ remiah. But it is more probable that the nrophecies of Zephaniah were wife ten fome years before thofe of his contemporary 5 for Jeremiah feems to reprefent the abufes as partly removed which Zephaniah defcribes as flagrant and exceffive (o). In the firft chapter Zephaniah denounces the wrath of God againft the idolaters who worshipped Baal and the hoft of heaven, and againft the violent and deceitful. In the fecond chanter the prophet threatens deftruc- tion to the Philiftines, the Moabites, the Ammonites, and Elhi/ plans •, and defcribes the fate of Nineveh in emphatic terms: “ Flocks fhall lie down in the midft of her *, all the beafts of the nations, both the cormo¬ rant and bittern, fhall lodge in her ; their voice fhall ,nng in the windows j defolation fhall be in the threfli- ] SCR olds.” In the third chapter the prophet inveigns Scripture, againft the pollutions and oppreflions of the Jews j and concludes with the promife, “ That a remnant would be faved, and that multiplied bleflings would be bellow¬ ed upon the penitent.” The ftyle of Zephaniah is poe¬ tical, but is not diftingulihed by any peculiar ele¬ gance or beauty, though generally animated and im- preftive. ^ Haggai, the tenth of the minor prophets, was theofHaggan firft who flourifhed among the Jews after the Babylo- nifh captivity. He began to prophefy in the fecond year of Darius Hyftafpes, about 520 years before Chrift. The intention of the prophecy of Haggai was to en¬ courage the difpirited Jews to proceed with the build¬ ing of the temple. The only prediction mentioned re*, fers to the Meftiah, whom the prophet affures his coun¬ trymen would fill the new temple with glory. So well was this prediction underftood by the Jews, that they looked with earneft expectation for the Mefliah’s ap¬ pealing in this temple till it was deftroyed by the Ro¬ mans. But as the victorious Mefliah, whom they ex- peCted, did not then appear, they have fince applied the prophecy to a third temple, which they hope to fee reared in fome future period. The ftyle of Haggai, in the opinion of Dr Lowth, is profaic. Dr Newcome, on the contrary, thinks that a great part of it is poetical. g0 Zechariah was undoubtedly a contemporary of Hag-o Zedia* gai, and began to prophefy two months after him, in uah.' the eighth menth of the fecond year of Darius Hyf¬ tafpes, A. M. 3484, being commiflioned as well as Haggai to exhort the Jews to proceed in the building of the temple after the interruption which the work had fuffered. We are informed by Ezra (vi. 14.), that the Jews profpered through the prophefying of Zechariah and Haggai. Zechariah begins with general exhortations to his countrymen, exciting them to repent from the evil ways of their fathers, whom the prophets had admo- niihed in vain. He defcribes angels of the Lord inter¬ ceding for mercy on Jerufalem and the defolate cities of Judah, which had experienced the indignation of the Moft High for 70 years, while the neighbouring nations were at peace. He declares, that the houfe of the Lord ftiould be built in Jerufalem, and that Zion ftiould be comforted. The prophet then reprefents the in- creafe and profperity of the Jews under feveral typical figures. He defcribes the eftablifhment of the Jewifh government and the coming of the Mefliah. He ad- monilhes thofe who obferved folemn fafts without due contrition, to execute juftice, mercy, and compaflion, every man to his brother •, not to opprefs the widow nor the fatherlefs, the ftranger nor the poor. He pro-, mifes, that God would again (how favour to Jerufalem ; that their mournful fafts Ihould be turned into cheerful feafts; and that the church of the Lord ftiould be en¬ larged by the acceffion of many nations. The 12th verfe of the nth chapter of this book, which exhibits a prophetic defeription of fome circum- ftances afterwards fulfilled in our Saviour, appears to be (q_) Compare Zephaniah i. 4, 5, 9. with Jeremiah ii. 5, 20, 32, 4 SCR [ Scripture, be eked by St Matthew (xx'vii. 9, 10.) as fpoken by ^ Jeremiah; and as the lith, 12th, and 13th chapters have been thought to contain fome particulars more fuiiable to the age of Jeremiah than to that of Zecha- riah, fome learned writers are of opinion that they were written by the former prophet, and have been from fi- milarity of fubjeft joined by miftake to thofe of Zecha- riah. Eut others are of opinion, that St Matthew might allude to fome traditional prophecy of Jeremiah, or, what is more probable, that the name of Jeremiah was fubftituted by midake in place of Zechariah. The 12th, 13th, and 14th chapters contain prophe¬ cies which reter entirely to the Chriilian difpenfation ; the circumftances attending which he deferibes with a clearnefs which indicated their near approach, The llyle of Zechariah is fo fimilar to that of Jere¬ miah, that the Jews were accuftomed to remark that the fpirit of Jeremiah had paffed into him. He is ge¬ nerally profaic till towards the conclufion of his work, when he becomes more elevated and poetical. The whole is beautifully conneffed by eafy tranfitions, and prefent and future feenes are blended with the greateft St ' delicacy. Of Malachi. Malachi was the laft prophet that flourifhed under the Jewilh difpenfation; but neither the time in which he lived, nor any particulars of his hiftory, can now be af- certained. It is even uncertain whether the word Ma- lachi be a proper name, or denote, as the Septuagint have rendered k, his angel (r), that is, “ the angel of the Lord.” Origen fuppofed, that Malachi was an an¬ gel incarnate, and not a man. The ancient Hebrews, the Chaldee paraphraft, and St Jerome, are of opinion he was the fame perfon with Ezra : but if this was the cafe, they ought to have afligned fome reafon for giving two different names to the fame perfon. As it appears from the concurring teftimony of all the ancient Jewifli and Chrilxian writers, that the light of prophecy expired in Malachi, we may fuppofe that the termination of his miniftry coincided with the ac- complilhment of the firft feven weeks of Daniel’s pro¬ phecy, which was the period appointed for fealing the vifion and prophecy. This, according to Prideaux’s account, took place in A. M. 3595 ; but, according to the calculations of Bilhop Lloyd, to A. M. 3607, twelve years later. Whatever reckoning we prefer, it muff be allowed that Malachi completed the canon of the Old Teffament about 400 years before the birth of vChrift. It appears certain that Malachi prophefied utider Nehemiah, and after Haggai and Zechariah, at a time when great diforders reigned among the priefts and people of Judah, which are reproved by Malachi. He inveighs againft the priefts (i. 6, &c. ii. 1, 2, &c.) ; he reproaches the people with having taken ftrange wives (ii. 11.); he reproves them for their inhumanity to¬ wards their brethren (ii. 10. iii. 5.) ; their too frequent¬ ly divorcing their wives; their negledl of paying their tithes and firft-fruits (Mai. iii. 13.). He feems to al- jude to the covenant that Nehemiah renewed with the Lord (iii. 10. and ii. 4, 5, &c.), aflifted by the priefts end the chief of the nation. He fpeaks of the facrifice 7 ] SCR of the new law, and of the abolition of thofe of the old, Scripture, in thefe words (i. 10, 11, 12, 13.) : “ I have no plea- ' v— fure in you, faith the Lord of hofts, neither will I ac¬ cept an oifering at your hand. For from the riling of the fun, even unto the going down of the fame, my name (hall be great among the Gentiles, and in every place incenfe lhall be offered unto my name, and a pure offering : for my name lhall be great among the Hea¬ then, faith the Lord of hofts.” He declares that the Lord was weary with the impiety of Ifrael ; and affures them, that the Lord whom they fought flioul4 fuddenly come to his temple preceded by the meflenger of the covenant, who was to prepare his -way ; that the Lord when he appeared Ihould purify the Ions of Levi from their unrighteoufnefs, and refine them as metal from the drofs ; and that then the offering of Judah, the fpiritual facrifice of the heart, Ihould be pleafant to the Lord, lire prophet, like one who was delivering a laft mef- faget denounces deftruftion againft the impenitent in emphatic and alarming words. He encourages thofe who feared the name of the Lord with the animating promile, that the “ Sun of righteoufnefs Ihould arife with falvation in his rays,” and render them triumphant over the wicked. And now that prophecy was to ceafe, and miracles were no more to be performed till the com¬ ing of the Meffiah ; now7 that the Jews were to be left to the guidance of their own reafon, and the written in- ftruflions of their prophets—.Malachi exhorts them to remember the law of Mofes, which the I„ord had re¬ vealed from Horeb for the fake of all Ifrael. At length he feals up the prophecies of the Old Teftament, by predifting the commencement of the new difpenfation, which Ihould be ufhered in by John the Baptift with the power and fpirit of Elijah ; who Ihould turn the hearts of fathers and children to repentance ; but if his admo¬ nitions ftiould be rejedled, that the Lord would finite the land with a curfe. The colle&ion of writings compofed aftef the afcen-NEwTES- fion of Chrift, and acknowledged by his followers to be tament. divine, is known in general by the name of xxivti hufaxy. This title, though neither given by divine command, T^Je nor applied to thefe writings by the apoftles, was adopt- 1 f ed in a very early age, though the precife time of its in¬ troduction is uncertain, it being juftified by feveral paf- fages in Scripture f, and warranted by the authority off Mattb. St Paul in particular, who calls the facred books before KXV1, 2^- the time of Chrift vcthctix dtxfaxn J. Even long before GaL ui:.17' that period, either the whole of the Old Teftament, or Heb‘Vli^ the five books of Mofes, were entitled/3A "q’ '^ or book of the covenant §. j 2 cor. As the word haSnxn admits of a two-fold interpreta- § 1 u lion, we may tranflate this title either the New Cove- S7' riant or Nexv Tejlament. The former tranflation muft be adopted, if refpeft be had to the texts of Scripture, fi om which the name is borrowed, fince thofe paffages evidently convey the idea of a covenant; and, befides, a being incapable of death can neither have made an old nor make a new teftament. It is likewife probable, that the earheft Greek difciples, who made ufe of this expreffion, had no other notion in view than that of co¬ venant (r) 'sxbD Malachi fignifies properly my angel. SCR t 3 Scripture, vehant. We, on the contrary, are accuAomed to give l*-‘ v this facred colleftion the name of Tcjlamcnt; and fince it would be not only improper, but even abfurd, to fpeak of the Tefl ament of God, we commonly underhand the Teflament of Chrift ; an explanation which removes but half the difficulty, fince the new only, and not the old, had Chrift for its teftator. Importance In ftating the evidence for the truth of Chriftianity, of the argu- there is nothing more worthy of confideration than the th^a tit fen authenticity of the books of the New Teftament. This ticity of the ^e foundation on which all other arguments reft 5 books. and if it is folid, the Chriftian religion is fully eftablifb- ed. The proofs for the authenticity of the New Tefta¬ ment have this peculiar advantage, that they are plain and fimple, and involve no metaphyfical fubtilties.— Ev'ery man who can diftinguifh truth from falfehood muff fee their force ; and if there are any fo blinded by prejudice, or corrupted by licentioufnefs, as to attempt by fophiftry to elude them, their fophiftry will be eafily detefted by every man of common underftanding, who has read the hiitorical evidence with candour and atten¬ tion. Inftead, therefore, of declaiming againft the in¬ fidel, we folicit his attention to this fubjeft, convinced, that where truth refides, it will ftiine with fo conftant and clear a light, that the combined ingenuity of all the deifts fince the beginning of the world will never be 'able to extinguifti or to obfcure it. If the books of the New Teftament are really genuine, oppofition wdll in¬ cite the Chriftian to bring forward the evidence ; and thus by the united efforts of the deift and the Chriftian, the arguments will be ftated with all the clearnefs and accuracy of which they are fufceptible in fo remarkable a degree. It is furprifing that the adverfaries of Chriftianity have not always made their firft attacks in this quar¬ ter ; for if they admit that the waitings of the New7 Te¬ ftament are as ancient as wTe affirm, and compofed by the perfons to whom they are afcribed, they muff al¬ low7, if they reafon fairly, that the Chriftian religion is true. The apoftles frequently allude in their epiftles to the gift of miracles, which they had communicated to the Chriftian converts by the impofition of hands, in con¬ firmation of the doflrine delivered in their fpeeches and writings, and fometimes to miracles which they them- Mtchaeli's felves had performed. Now if thefe epiftles are really Introduc- genuine, it is hardly poffible to deny thofe miracles to tioji to the he true. The cafe is here entirely different from that J e~ta~ of an hiftorian, who relates extraordinary events in the courfe of his narrative, fince either credulity or an ac¬ tual intention to deceive may induce him to defcribe as true a feries of falfehoods refpefting a foreign land or diftant period. Even to the Evangelifts might an ad¬ versary of the Chriftian religion make this objeftion : but to write to perfons with whom we ffand in the neareft conne6fion, “ I have not only performed mira¬ cles in your prefence, but have likewife communicated to you the fame extraordinary endowments,” to write in this manner, if nothing of the kind had ever hap¬ pened, would require fuch an incredible degree of ef¬ frontery, that he who poffeffed it would not only ex- pofe himfelf to the utmoft ridicule, hut by giving his ad¬ verfaries the faireft opportunity to deleft his impof- ture, would ruin the caufe which he attempted to fup- jpert. 3 ] S C R St Paul’s Firft; Epiftle to the Theffalonians is addref- Scripture, fed to a community to which he had preached the gof- ~y~mJ pel only three Sabbath days, when he was forced to quit it by the perfecution of the populace. In this epiftle he appeals to the miracles which he had per¬ formed, and to the gilts of the Holv Spirit which he had communicated. Now, is it poffible, without for¬ feiting all pretenfiors to common fenfe, that, in writing to a community which he had lately eftabliffied, he could fpeak of miracles performed, and gifts of the Holy Ghoft communicated, if no member of the fociety had feen the one, or received the other ? To fuppofe that an impoftor could wTrite to the con¬ verts or adverfaries of the new7 religion fuch epiftles as thefe, with a degree of triumph over his opponents, and yet maintain his authority, implies ignorance and ftupidxty hardly to be believed. Credulous as the Chri- ftians have been in later ages, and even fo early as the third century, no lefs fevere w7ere they in their inqui¬ ries, and guarded againft; deception, at the introduftion of Chriftianity. This character is given them even by Lucian, a writer of the fecond century, who vented his fatire not only againft certain Chriftians *, who * x>e tfzorfe had fupplied Peregrinus with the means of fubfift- Peregrini, ence, but alfo againft: heathen oracles and pretended $ I2> ^16- wonders. He relates of his impoftor (Pfeudomantis),^^^^' that he attempted nothing fupernatural in the prefence p. ^ of the Chriftians and Epicureans. This Pfeudomantis 338. 341. exclaims before the wffiole affembly, “ -Aw7ay with the Chriftians, aw7ay v.uth the Epicureans, and let thofe on¬ ly remain who believe in the Deity !” (V/s-svemj -jy ©sw) on which the populace took up ft ones to drive away the fufpicious •, while the other philofophers, Py¬ thagoreans, Platonifts, and Stoics, as credulous friends and proteftors of the caufe, were permitted to re¬ main f. ^ Alexan It is readily acknowledged, that the arguments drawm from the authenticity of the New Teftament iyeWo- only eftablifti the truth of the miracles performed mantis, the apoflles, and are not applicable to the miracles of^o^'.-?2, our Saviour; yet, if we admit the firft: three gofpels tOp’ 232*23' be genuine, the truth of the Chriftian religion will be -44,245." proved from the prophecies of Jefus. For if thefe go¬ fpels were compofed by Matthew, Mark, and Luke, at the time in w'hich all the primitive Chriftians affirm, that is, previous to the deftruiftion of Jerufalem, they muft be infplred ; for they contain a circumftantial pro¬ phecy of the deftruflion of Jerufalem, and determine the period at which it w7as accompliihed. Now it was impoffible that human fagacity ceuld forefee that event; for when it was predifled nothing wTas more impro¬ bable. The Jew’s w7ere refolved to avoid an open re¬ bellion, well knowing the greatnefs of their danger, and fubmitred to the oppreffions of their governors in the hope of obtaining redrefs from the court of Rome.— Tbe circumftance which gave birth to theTe misfortunes is fo trifling in itlelf, that independent of its confe- quences, it would not deferve to be recorded. In the narrow entrance to a fynagogue in Csefarea, fome per- fon had made an offerirg of birds merely with a view to irritate the Jew s. I he infult excited their indig¬ nation, and occafioned the {bedding of blood. With¬ out this trifling accident, which no human wifdom could forefee even the day before it happened, it is pof¬ fible that the prophecy of Jeius would never have been fulfilled. Their au¬ thenticity proved. SCR \ [ Scripture, fulfilled. But Floras, who was then procurator of Ju- dea, converted this private quarrel into public hoftili- ties, and compelled the Jewilh nation to rebel contrary to its with and refolution, in order to avoid what the Jews had threatened, an impeachment before the Ro¬ man emperor for his exceffive cruelties. But even af¬ ter this rebellion had broken out, the deftruftion of the temple was a very improbable event. It was not the praftice of the Romans to deftroy the magnificent edifices of the nations which they fubdued ; and of all the Roman generals, none was more unlikely to de- molilh fo ancient and auguft a building as Titus Vef- pafian. So important then is the queftion, Whether the books of the New Teftament be genuine ? that the arguments which prove their authenticity, prove alfo the truth of the Chriftian religion. Let us now confider the evi¬ dence which proves the authenticity of the New Te- ftament. We receive the books of the New’ Teftament as the genuine works of Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, and Paul, for the fame reafon that we receive the writings of Xenophon, of Polybius, of Plutarch, of Caefar, and of Livy. We have the uninterrupted teftimony of all ages, and we have no reafon to fufpeft impofition. This argument is much ftronger when applied to the books of the New Teftament than when applied to any other writings j for they were addreffed to large focie- ties, w’ere often read in their prefence, and acknow¬ ledged by them to be the writings of the apoftles. Whereas, the moft eminent profane writings which ftill remain W’ere addreffed only to individuals, or to no per- fons at all: and we have no authority to affirm that they wrere read in public } on the contrary, we know that a liberal education was uncommon ; books were fcarce, and the knowledge of them was confined to a few individuals in every nation. The New Teftament was read over three quarters of the world, while profane writers were limited to one nation or to one country. An uninterrupted fuccef- fion of writers from the apoftolic ages to the prefent time quote the facred writings, or make allufions to them : and thefe quotations and allufions are made not only by friends but by enemies. This cannot be afferted of even the beft claffic authors. And it is highly probable, that the tranflations of the New Teftament were made fo early as the fecond century ; and in a century or two after, they became very numerous. After this period, it was impoffible to forge new writings, or to corrupt the facred text, unlefs we can fuppofe that men of dif¬ ferent nations, of different fentiments and different lan¬ guages, and often exceedingly hoftile to one another, fhould all agree in one forgery. This argument is fo llrong, that if we deny the authenticity of the New Teftament, we may with a thoufand times more pro¬ priety rejeft all the other writings in the world : we rnay even throw afide human teftimony itfelf. But as this fubjeft is of great importance, we fhall confider it at more length; and to enable our readers to judge with the greater accuracy, we {hall ftate, from the valuable work of Michaelrs, as tranflated by the judicious and learned Mr Marfti, the reafons which may induce a cri¬ tic to lulpeft a work to be fpurious. Negatively. I- When doubts have been made from its firft appear¬ ance in the world, whether it proceeded from the au- Vol. XIX. Part I. 86 9 ] SCR thor to whom it is afcribed. 2. When the immediate Scripture, friends of the pretended author, who were able to de-~v—~' cide upon the fubjedt, have denied it to be his produc- Tjie ^Jafon3 tion. 3. When a long feries of years has elapfed af- that would ter his death, in which the book was unknown, and in prove a which it muft unavoidably have been mentioned andbook t0 be quoted, had it really exifted. 4. When the ftyle is dif-il>u“ou3' ferent from that of his other writings, or, in cafe no other remain, different from that which might reafon- ably be expedted. 5. When events are recorded which happened later than the time of the pretended author. 6. When opinions are advanced which contradidt thofe he is known to maintain in his other writings. Though this latter argument alone leads to no pofitive con- clufion, fince every man is liable to change his opi¬ nion, or through forgetfulnefs to vary in the circum- ftances of the fame relation, of which Jofephus, in his Antiquities and War of the Jews, affords a ftriking ex¬ ample. ^ 88 1. But it cannot be ffiown that any one doubted ofDo not aP- its authenticity in the period in which it firft appeared. Pj^0, 2. No ancient accounts are on record whence we may 6 ** conclude it to be fpurious. 3. No conliderable period elapfed after the death of the apoftles, in which the New Teftament was unknown •, but, on the contrary, it is mentioned by their very contemporaries, and the ac¬ counts of it in the fecond century are ftill more nume¬ rous. 4. No ax-gument can be brought in its disfavour from the nature of the ftyle, it being exadtly fuch as might be expedled from the apoftles, not Attic but Jewiffi Greek. 5. No fadts are recorded which hap¬ pened after their death. 6. No dodlrines are main¬ tained which contradidl the known tenets of the au¬ thors, fince, befide the New Teftament, no writings of the apoftles exift. But, to the honour of the New Te¬ ftament be it fpoken, it contains numerous contradic¬ tions to the tenets and dodlrines of the fathers in the fe¬ cond and third century, whofe morality was different from that of the gofpel, which recommends fortitude and fubmiffion to unavoidable evils, but not that enthufiaftic ax-dour for martyrdom for which thofe centuries are di- ftinguiihed; it alludes to ceremonies which in the fol¬ lowing ages were either in difufe or totally unknown : all which circumftances infallibly demonftrate that the New Teftament is not a produdlion of dither of thofe centuries. We {hall now confider the pofitive evidence for the Politivel*. authenticity of the New Teftament. Thefe may be ar¬ ranged under the three following heads : 1. The impoffibility of a forgery, arifing from the nature of the thing itfelf. 2. The ancient Chriftian, Jewiffi, and Heathen teftimony in its favour. 3. Its own internal evidence. 1. The impoffibility of a forgery arifing from the na- Iitipoflibiik' ture of the thing itfelf is evident. It is impoffible totyofa(or* eitabliftx forged writings as authentic in any place where there are perfons ftrongly inclined and well qualified to nature of de^j^l the fraud. Now the Jews were the moft violent the thing enemies of Chriftianity. They put the founder of it to death ; they perfecuted his difciples with implacable fury 5 and they were anxious to ftifle the new religion in its birth. If the writings of the New Teftament had been forged, would not the Jews have detecled the impofture ? Is there a fingle inftanee on record where a feiv individuals have impofed a hiftory upon the w orld ® againft SCR [ 3gainft the teftimony of a whole nation r Would the inhabitants of Paleftine have received the gofpels, if they had not had fufficient evidence that Jefus Chrift really appeared among them, and performed the mira¬ cles afcribed to him ? Or w'ould the churches of Rome or of Corinth have acknowledged the epiftles addrefled to them as the genuine works of Paul, if Paul had never preached among them ? We might as well think to prove, that the hiftory of the Reformation is the in¬ vention of hilforians; and that no revolution happened in Great Britain during the laft century. 2. I he fecond kind of evidence w7hich we produce to prove the authenticity of the New Teftament, is the teftimony of ancient workers, Chriftians, Jews, and Hea¬ thens. In reviewing the evidence of teftimony, it will not be expe&ed that we ftiould begin at the prefent age, and trace backwards the authors who have written on this fubjeft to the firft ages of Chriftianity. This in¬ deed, though a laborious talk., could be performed in the moll complete manner; the whole feries pf authors numerous in every age, who have quoted from the books’ of the New Teftament, written commentaries upon them, tranllated them into different languages, or who have drawn up a lift of them, could be exhibited fo as to form fuch a perfefl body of evidence, that we imagine even a jury of deifts would find it impoflible, upon a de¬ liberate and candid examination, to rejeft or dilbelieve it. We do not, however, fuppofe that fcepticifm has yet arrived at fo great a height as to render fuch a tedi¬ ous and circumftantial evidence neceffary. Palling over the intermediate fpace, therefore, we lhallafcend at once to the fourth century, wken the evidence for the authen¬ ticity of the New Teftament w7as fully eftabliffed, and trace it back from that period to the age of the apoftles. We hope that this method of ftating the evidence will ] SC II appear more natural, and will afford more fatisfaction, Scr than that which has been ufually adopted. It is lurcly more natural, when we inveftigate the truth or any fact which depends on a feries of teftimo¬ ny, to begin with thofe witneffes who lived neareft the Prefent age, and whofe chara&ers are beft eftablilhed. In this way we {hall learn from themfelves the founda¬ tion of their belief, and the charafters of thole from whom they derived it; and thus we afeend till we ar¬ rive at its origin. This mode of inveftigation will give more fatisfaftion to the deift than the dual way ^ and we believe no Chriftian, who is confident of the goodnefs of his cade, will be unwilling to grant any proper conceftions. The deift will thus have an oppor¬ tunity of examining, feparately, what he will confider as the veakeft parts of the evidence, thofe which are exhibited by the earlieft Chriftian writers, confifting of expreflions, and not quotations, taken from the New Teftament. The Chriftian, on the other hand, ought to wifh, that thefe apparently weak parts of the evi¬ dence were diftin&ly examined, for they will afford an irrefragable proof that the New Teftament was not for¬ ged : and ftiould the deift rejeft the evidence of t'jofe early writers, it will be incumbent on him to account for the origin of the Chriftian religion, which he will find more difficult than to admit the common hypo- thefis. _ In the fourth century we could produce the teftimo- nies of numerous witntffes to prove that the books of the New Teftament exifted at that time; but it will be fufficient to mention their names, the time in which they wrote, and the fubftance of their evidence. This- we lhall prefent in a concife form in the following table, which is taken from Jones’s New and Full Me¬ thod of cftablilhing the canon of the New Teftament. • 7/h? Names of the Writers. Athanafius bilhop of A- lexandria, n. Cyril biffiop of Jerufa- lem. III. The bilhops affembJed in the council of Lao- dicea. IV. Epiphanius bilhop of Sa- lamis in Cyprus. V. Gregory Nazianzen bi¬ lhop of Conftantino- ple. Times in which they lived. A. C. 340* 364* 37°» 375- The variation or agreement of their catalogues with ours now received. The boohs in which thefe catalogues are. The fame perfectly with ours now received. The fame with ours, only the Re¬ velation is omitted. The Revelation is omitted. The fame with ours now’ received. m Omits the Revelation^ Fragment. Epif. Tefal, tom. ii. in Synopf. tom. i. Catech. IV. § ulh p. 101. Canon LIX. N. B. The Canons of this council were not long aftenvards recei¬ ved into the body of the canons of the univerfal church. Heeref. y6. cent. Anom, p. 399. Carm. de veris et genuin. Scriptur. SCR Srftipture. The Names of the Writers. f it ] SCR Times in which theij lived. VL Philaftriusbifhopof Brix ia in Venice. Jerome. VII. VIII. Ruffin prefbyter of Aqui- legium. IX. Auftin biffiop of Hippo in Africa. X. The XLIV biffiops af- fembled in the third council of Carthage. 380. I he variation or agreement of their catalogues with ours now received. The hooks in which thefe catalogues 382. 390. 394- St Auftin was pre- fent at it. The fame with ours now received ; except that he mentions only 13 of St Paul’s epiitles (omitting very probably the Epiftle to the Hebrews), and leaves out the Revelations. Phe fame with ours ; except that he fpeaks dubiouily of the £- piftle to the Hebrews j though in other parts of his writings he receives it as canonical. It perfe&ly agrees with ours. It perfectly agrees with ours. It perfe&ly agrees with ours. Sciipture, Lib. de lice ref. Numb. 87. pz Teftimo- t)ies of the ancient "Chriftians. Ep. ad Paulin. Traci. 6. p. 2. Alio commonly prefixed to the Latin vulgar. Expof. in Symb. Slpoftol. § 36. int. Ep. Hieron. Par. 1. Trail. 3. p. 110. et inter Op. Cypr. p. 573. De Doilrin. Thrift, lib. ii. c. 8. Tom. Op. 3. p. 25. Vid. Canon XLVII. et cap. u/t. Pa try's E- "Mtlences of Chriftia- nity. 93 Of Eufe- bius. We now go back to Eufebius, who wrote about the 3I5» and whofe catalogue of the books of the New left ament we ihall mention at more length. “ Let us oblerve (fays he) the writings of the apoftle John, which are uncontradBed; and, firft of all, mu ft be men- tioned, as acknowledged of all, the gofpel, according to him, well known to all the churches under heaven ’’ The author then proceeds to relate the occafions of writing the gofpels, and the reafons for placing St John’s the laft, manifeftly fpeaking of all the four as equal in their authority, and in the certainty of their original. I he iecond paffage is taken from a chapter, the title of whicn !s “ Of the Scriptures univerfally acknowledged, and of thofe that are not fuch.” Eufebius begins his enumeration in the following manner : “ Jn the firft place, are to be ranked the facred four Gofpels, then the book of the Ads of the Apoftles ; after that are to be reckoned the epiftles of Paul : in the next place, that called the firft Epiftle of John and the Epiftle of Peter are to be efteemed authentic : after this is to be placed 1 1 nbe„th°oUrght fit’ the Revelati°n of John 5 about which we ftiall obferve the different opinion's at proper feafons. Ut the controverted, but yet well known or approved by the moft, are that called the Epiftle of James and that °f Jude, the fecond of Peter, and the fecond and tnird of John, whether they were written by the evan- gehft or by another of die fame name.” He then pro¬ ceeds to reckon up five others, not in our canon, which he calls in one place fpurious, in another controvert- ed; evidently meaning the fame thing by thefe two words (s). . A* I}- 290, Vi (florin bilhop of Pettaw in Germany, Of Victo. ™ ? commentary upon this text of the Revelation,™- 1 he firft was like a lion, the fecond was like a calf t..e third like a man, and the fourth like a flying eatde ” makes out, that by the four creatures are intended^ the lour gofpels ; and to ffiow the propriety of the fymbols he recites the fubjeft with which each evangelirt opens his hiftory.. The explication is fanciful, but the tefti- ApoftlesfitlVe’ HC alf° eXprefsly cites the A&s of the A. p. 230, Cyprian biihop 0f Carthage gives the^^95- followmg teilimony: “ The church (favs^this fatherl 0f Cypa" is rie!;,;d ^Paradife four --s, that is,s by San- go pels. The A S Of Irenseus. ] SCR who w'as a difciple of John. He afferts of himfelf and Scripture, his co-ntemporaries, that they were able to reckon up in r~v all the principal churches the fucceffion of biftiops t.o their firft inftitution. His teftimony to the four gofpels and A£ls of the ^.poftles is exprefs and pofitive. “ We have not received,” fays Irenteus, “ the knowledge of the way of our falvation by any others than thofe by whom the gofpel has been brought to us. Which goi- pel they firft preached, and afterwards by the will of God, committed to writing, that it might be for time to come the foundation and pillar of our faith. For after that our Lord rofe from the dead, and they (the apoftles) were endowed from above with the power of the Holy Ghoft coming down upon them, they received a perfeft knowledge of all things. They then went forth to all the ends of the earth, declaring to men the bleffing of heavenly peace, having all of them, and every one alike, the gofpel of God. Matthew then, among the Jews, wrote a gofpel in their own language, while Peter and Paul were preaching the gofpel at Rome, and founding a church there. And alter their exit, Mark alfo, the difciple and interpreter of Peter, delivered to us in writing the things that had been preached by Peter. And Luke, the companion of Paul, put down in a book the gofpel preached by him (Paul). Afterwards John, the difciple of the Lord, who alfo leaned upon his breaft, likewife publifhed a gofpel while he dwelt at Ephefus in Afia.” Irenaeus then relates how Matthew begins his gofpel, how Mark begins and ends his, and gives the fuppofed reafons for doing fo. He enumerates at length all the paffages of Chrift’s hiftory in Luke, which are not found in any of the other evangelifts. He ftates the particular defign with which St John compofed his gofpel, and accounts for the doftrinal declarations which precede the narra¬ tive. If any modern divine Ihould write a book upon the genuinenefs of the gofpels, he could not affert it more exprefsly, or ftate their original more diftindtly, than Irenaeus hath done within little more than 100 years after they were publiffied. Refpefting the book of the A£ls of the Apoftles, and its author, the teftimony of Irenseus is no lefs explicit. Referring to the account of St Paul’s converfion and vocation, in the ninth chapter of that book, “ Nor can they (fays he, meaning the parties with whom he argues) ffiow that he is not to be credited, who has re¬ lated to us the truth with the greateft exa&nefs.” In another place, he has a£lually colledled the feveral texts, in which the writer of the hiftory is reprefented as ac¬ companying St Paul, which led him to exhibit a fum- mary of almoft the whole of the laft twelve chapters of the book. According to Lardner, Irenaeus quotes twelve of Paul’s epiftles, naming their author 5 alfo the firft epiftle of Peter, the two firft epiftles of John, and the Revelation. The epiftles of Paul which he omits are thofe addreffed to Philemon and the Hebrews. Eufe¬ bius fays, that he quotes the epiftle to the Hebrews, though he does not aferibe it to Paul. The work, how¬ ever, is loft. A. D. 172, Tatian, who is fpoken of by Clemens Of Tatian. Alexandrinus, Origen, Eufebius, and Jerome, compofed a harmony of the four gofpels, which he called Diatef/h- ron of the four. This title, as wTell as the work, is re¬ markable, * John JEVi. 2. 100 Of Jullin Martyr. SCR t i Scripture, markable, becaufe it (hows that then as well as now "_v there were four, and only four, gofpels in general uie among Chriftians. A. D. 170, the churches of Lyons and Vienne in France fent an account of the fuflferings of their martyrs to the churches of Alia and Phrygia, which has been preferved entire by Eufebius. And what carries in fome meafure the teftimony of thefe churches to a higher age is, that they had now' for their bilhop Po- thinus, who was 90 years old, and whofe early life con- fequently muft have immediately followTed the times of the apoftles. In this epiftle are exatt references to the gofpels of Luke and John, and to the A£ts of the Apoftles. The form of reference is the fame as in all the preceding articles. That from St John is in thefe words : “ Then was fulfilled that which was fpoken by the Lord, that whofoever killeth you, will think that he doth God fervice Diftinift references are alfo made to other books, viz. Afts, Romans, Ephefians, Philippians, 1 limothy, 1 Pe¬ ter, 1 John, Revelation. A. D. 14©, Juftin Martyr compofed feveral books, which are mentioned by his difciple Tatian, by lertul- lian, Methodius, Eufebius, Jerome, Epiphanius, and Photius. In his writings between 20 and 30 quota¬ tions from the gofpels and A61s of the Apoftles are rec¬ koned up, which are clear, diftinft, and copious ; if each verfe be counted feparately, a much greater number *, if each exprcffion, ftill more. Jones, in his book on the Canon of the New Teftament, ventures to affirm that he cites the books of which it confifts, particularly the four gofpels, above 200 times. We meet with quotations of three of the gofpels within the compafs of half a pag® j (i and in other words, he fays, Depart from me into outer darknefs, which the Father hath prepared for Satan and his An¬ gels,” (which is from Matthew xxv. 4t-)* “ And again he faid in other words, I give unto you power to tread upon ferpents and fcorpions, and venomous beafts, and upon all the power of the enemy.” (This from Luke x. 19.). “ And, before he was crucified, he faid, The fon of man muft fuffer many things, and be rejefted of the Scribes and Pharifees, and be crucified, and rife again the third day.” (This from Mark viii. 31.). All the references in Juftin are made without men¬ tioning the author; which proves that thefe books w'ere perfectly well known, and that there were no other ac¬ counts of Chrift then extant, or, at leaft, no others fo received and credited as to make it neceiTary to add any marks of diftin&ion. But although .Tuftin mentions not the authors names, he calls the books Memoirs com¬ pofed by the Apqflles ; Memoirs compofed by the Apofles and their Companions; which deferiptions, the latter efpecially, exaftly luit the titles which the Gofpels and A61s of the Apoftles now bear. He informs us, in his firft apology, that the Memoirs of the Apofles, or the writings of the prophets, are read according as the time allows j and, when the reader has ended, the prefident makes a difeourfe, exhorting to the imitation of fuch excellent things. A few ftiort obfervations will ftiow the value of this teftimony. 1. The Memoirs of the Apoftles, Juftin in another place exprefsly tells us are what are called gof¬ pels. s And that they were the gofpels which we now 3 ] SCR ufe is made certain by Juftin’s numerous quotations of Scripture- them, and his filence about any others. 2. He de- feribes the general ufage of the Chriftian church. 3* He does not fpeak of it as recent or newly inftituted, but in the terms in which men fpeak of eftabliftied cuftoms. Juftin alfo makes fuch allufions to the following books- as (hews that he had read them : Romans, 1 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephefians, Philippians, Coloffians, 2 Iheffa- lonians, Hebrews, 2 Peter 5 and he aferibes the Revela¬ tion to John the Apoftle of Chrift. ' . 101 A. D. 116, Papias, a hearer of John, and companion Of Papia?. of Polycarp, as Irenaeus attefts, and of the apoftolical age as all agree, in a paffage quoted by Eufebius, bona a work now loft, exprefsly aferibes the two firft gofpels to Matthew and Mark ; and in a manner which proves that thefe gofpels muft have publicly borne the names of thefe authors at that time, and probably long before ; for Papias does not fay, that one gofpel was written by Mat¬ thew, and another by Mark 5 but, affuming this as per- feftly well known, he tells us from what materials IVIark collefted his account, viz. from Peter’s preaching, and in what language Matthew wrrote, viz. in Hebrew- Whether Papias was well informed in this ftatement or not, to the point for which this teftimony is produced, namely, that thefe books bore thefe names at this time, his authority is complete. Papias himfelf declares that he received his accounts of Chriftianity from thofe who wrere acquainted with the apoftles, and that thofe accounts which he thus received from the older Chriftians, and had committed to memory, he inferted in his books. He farther adds, that he w'as very folicitous to obtain every poffible information, efpe¬ cially to learn w7hat the apoftles faid and preached, va- luincr fuch information more than what was written in * Prcefat. books *. ■ q. J A. D. 108, Polycarp was the bilhop of Smyrna, and . difciple of John the Apoftle. This teftimony concern-y^ ffif. ing Polycarp is given by Irenaeus, who in his youth had£t/. lib. iii- feen him. “ I can tell the place,” faith Irenaeus, “ inc. 39. which the bleffed Polycarp fat and taught, and his go- of ing out and coming in, and the manner of his life, andcarp> the form of his perfon, and the difeourfes he made to the people, and how he related his converfation with John and others who had feen the Lord, and how he related their fayings, and wffiat he had heard concern¬ ing the Lord, both concerning his miracles and his doc¬ trine, as he had received them from the eye-witneffes of the word of life j all which Polycarp related agreeable to the feriptures.” Of Polycarp, whofe proximity to the age and country and perfons of the apoftles is thus attefted, we have one undoubted epiftle remaining ; which, though a fhort performance, contains nearly 40 clear allufions to the books of the New Teftament. This is ftrong evidence of the refpeft which was paid to them by Chriftians of that age. Amongft thefe, although the writings of St Paul are more frequently ufed by Polycarp than other parts of feripture, there are copious allufions to the gof—- pel of St Matthew, fome to paffages found in the gofpels both of Matthew and Luke, and fome which more near¬ ly referable the wrords in Luke. He thus fixes the authority of the Lord’s Prayer, and the ufe of it among Chriftians. If,, therefore, we pray. the- sen r , Sc nature, the Lord to forgive us, we ought alfo to forgive. And again, With {application befeeching the all-ieeing God not to lead us into temptation. In another place, he quotes the words of our Lord : But remembering what the Lord faid, teaching, Judge not, that ye be not judged. Forgive, and ye fhall be forgiven; be ye merciful, that ye may obtain mercy ’ "1^ w^at meafore ye mete, it {hall be meaiured viii to y°u again*. Suppofmg Polycarp to have had thefe v. 7. ' ' ' ^vor(is (rf.om t-iie bocks in which we now find them, it is manifeft that thefe books were confidered by him, and by his readers, as he thought, as authentic accounts of Chnft’s dilcourfes : and that this point was inconteft- able. He quotes alfo the following books, the firft of which he afcribes to St Paul: i Corinthians, Ephefians, Phi- lippians, i and 2 Theflalonians \ and makes evident re¬ ferences to others, particularly to A£ts, Romans, 2 Co¬ rinthians, Galatians, i Timothy, 2 Timothy, i Peter, x&2 i John. Oflgna- Ignatius, as it is teftified by ancient Chriftian writers, became biihop of Antioch about 37 years after Chrifl’s afcenfion ; and therefore, from his time, and place, and Ration, it is probable that he had known and converfed with many of the apoftles. EpifUes of Ignatius are re¬ ferred to by Polycarp his contemporary. Paffages, found in the epiftles now extant under his name, are quoted by Ireneeus, A. D. 178, by Origen, A. D. 230 ; and the occafion of writing them is fijlly ex¬ plained by Eufebius and Jerome. What are called the imaller epiftles of Ignatius are generally reckoned the fame which were read by Irenaeus, Origen, and Eufe¬ bius. They are admitted as genuine by Voflius, and have been proved to be fo by Bifiiop Pearfon with a force of argument which feems to admit of no reply. In thefe epiftles are undoubted allufions to' Matt. iii. 15. xi. 16. to John iii. 8, ; and their venerable author, who often fpeaks of St Paul in terms of the highefl refpeft, once 104 quotes his epiftle to the Ephefians by name. Of Her- Near the conclufion of the epiftle to the Romans, mar. St Paul, amongft others, fends the following falutation : “ Salute Afyncritus, Phlegon, Hennas, Patrobus, Hermes, and the brethren which are with them.” Of Hermas, who appears in this catalogue of Roman Chri- ftians as contemporary with St Paul, there is a book ftiil remaining, the authenticity of which cannot be difputed. It is called the Shepherd, or Pajlor of Her. mas. Its antiquity is inconteftable, from the quotations of it in Irenaeus, A. D. 178, Clement of Alexandria, A. D. 194, Tertullian, A. D. 200, Origen, A. D. 230. The notes of time extant in the epiftie itfelf agree with its title, and wnth the teftimonies concerning it, which intimate that it was written during the lifeiime of Clement. In this piece are tacit allufions to St Matthew’s, St Luke’s, and St John’s gofptls; that is %o fay, there are applications of thoughts and expref- 4 I sen lions found in thefe gofpels, without citing the place or Scripture, writer from which they were taken. In this form ap- pear in Hermas the confeffing and denying of Chrift f j f Matt. the parable of the feed {own 3 J the comparifon of32,33,or Chrift’s difciples to little children ; the faying, “ he Luke xi<. that putteth away his wife, and marrieth another, com- mitteth adultery § the lingular expreffion, “ having X1p. received all power from his Father,” is probably an allu- Luke fion to Matt, xxviii. 18. and Chrift being the “ gate,” viii. 5. or only way of coming “ to God,” is a plain allufion to § Luke KvL John xiv. 6. x. 7. 9. There is alfo a probable allufion l8‘ to Ane/l in the pro¬ per fenfe of the word, though Jofephus has fometimes given him the title of taken in the more exten- live meaning of a pneft who had a feat and voice In the Sanhedrim } and Jonathan, though we are not ac¬ quainted with the circumftances of his elevation, bad been railed in the mean time to the fupreme dignity in the Jewilh church. Between the death of Jonathan, who was murdered by order of Felix, and the high- prielthood of Ifmael, wffio was invefted with that dignity by Agrippa, elapfed an interval during which the la- cerdotal office was vacant. Now? it happened preciftly in this interval that St Paul was apprehended in jeiufa- lern : and, the Sanhedrim being deftitute of a prefident, he undertook of his own authority the diloharge of that office, which he executed with the greateft tyranny. It is poffible therefore that St Paul, wffio had been on¬ ly a few7 days in Jerufalem, might be ignorant that A- nanias, wffio had been difpovTeffed of the prielthood, had taken upon himielf a truft to which he wras not entitled', be might therefore very naturally exclaim, ‘ I wift not, brethren, that he was the high-prielt !’ Admitting him on the other hand to have 'been acquainted wnth the faCl, the expreffion muft be confidered as an indirect reproof, and a tacit refufal to recognize ufurped au¬ thority.” Could fjch A correfpondence as this f.ffifift between truth and falfehood, between a forgery and an authen¬ tic hiftory? or is it credible that thefe events could be related by any perfon but a contemporaiy ? Impreffed with the love of truth, and feeling con¬ tempt as well as deteftation at pious frauds, we hefitate ] SCR not to acknowledge, that in fome particular fafts there Scri. ure. is a difference either real or apparent between Jofephus' v —' and the writers of the New Teftament. The objec- Thl^^e tions arifing from thefe differences are of two kinds : a!fo appa. j. Such as w7ould prove a book not to have been writ-rent incon* ten by the author to whom it is aferibed. 2. Such asiHenckfe, would prove that the author was miftaken, and there- fore not divinely infpired. To the firft clafs belongs arife the following objeftion : St Paul fays (2 Cor. xi. 32 •) overfight that the governor of Damafcus was under Aretas the in Jofe- king: but if we are to judge from the 18th book oflffiusJ the Jewifh Antiquities, which correfponds with the pe¬ riod of St Paul’s journey to Damatcus, that city muft have belonged at that time to the Romans j and what authority could Aretas, a petty king in Arabia Petr sea, have in fuch a city ? In anfwer to this queftion, J. G. Hyne, in a differtation publiffied in 1755, has {howm it to be highly probable that Aretas, again!! whom the Romans, °not long before the death of Tiberius, made a declaration of war, which they negledfed to put in ex¬ ecution, took the opportunity of leizing Hamaicus^ which had once belonged to his anceftors; an event omitted by Jofephus, as forming no pait of the Jewifti hiftory, and by the Roman hiftorians as being a matter not flattering in itfelf, and belonging only to a diftant province. Secondly, 1 hat Aretas w as by religion a Jew ^ nnn 1— mm-f credible, when we retied! that Judaifm had been widely propagated in that country,, and that even kings in Arabia helix had recognized tnc law of Mofes. The difficulty then is fo far removed, that it ceales to create lulpicion agamft an epifile which has fo many evident tnarks of authenticity j and it is onlv to be regretted that, m oicier to place t! e fubjed! in the c lea re ft point of view7, vve- are not luf- ficiently acquainted with the particular hiftory of IJa-' tnafcus. , Examples of the fecond kind are fuch as, it allowed their full force, might indeed prove a winei not divine¬ ly infpired, but could, afford no reafon to conclude that he was not the author of the writings which bear his name, fince iniftakes may be committed by the moll ac- curate hiftotian. The chief difficulties of this nature or to his are found in the gofpel according to St Luke, and do not apply to the writings of MaU-hew, John, Paul, and forn]atjcn Peter. Laying afide the idea of infpiration altogether, concerning7 let us inquire whether Luke or Jofephus be moil in-the events titled to credit in thofe paffages where they differ 5 ^thap- wffiich of them is moft accurate, and which of them hadj^^ the bell opportunities ol exploring the truth of the fadls which they relate. Now Jofephus relates the fame ftory d fferently m different parts o! his woiks, and is fometimes equally nnftaken in them all. W e do not recoiled! to have feen inch mconfiftencies in tire w 11- tings of St Luke. I,uke knew the cliaradlcrs, and witneffed many of the fadls, of which he fpeaks p and lie could receive the bell information relpedling thole fadls which were tranfadled in his abfence. Jofepbus was born A. D. 37, fome years after our Saviour’s afeenfion. Now7 it is a very important obfervation of Michaelis,. that the period of hiftory with which mankind are leaf! acquainted is that which includes the time of their childhood and youth, together with the twenty or thir¬ ty years immediately preceding their birth. Concern¬ ing the affairs tranfadled during that period, we are much more liable to fall into millakes than concerning thole SCR [ 19 ] SCR f, •i ii.turp, thofe of a remoter age. The reafon is, that authentic w—y—[torv never comes down to the period of our birth j our knowledge of the period immediately preceding de¬ pends on hearfay ; and the events, which pafs within the firit eighteen or twenty years of our lives, we are too young and heedlefs to obferve with attention. . This muft have been more remarkably the cale in the time of Jofephus than at prefent, when there were neither daily papers nor periodical journals to fupply the want of re¬ gular annals. There was no hiftorian from whom Jo- lephus could derive any knowledge of the times that immediately preceded bis birth. There is a period then of forty or fifty years, in which, even with the mod di¬ ligent inquiry, he was expofed to error. When we find therefore the relations of Luke and Jofephus fo different as not to be reconciled, it would be very unfair to determine without any further inquiry in favour of Jofephus. Let their chara&er, and works, and fituation, be driftly examined 5 let their tedimony be duly weighed and compared} and then let the pre¬ ference be given to that author who, according to the drifted rules of equity and judice, feems intitled to the highed degree of credit. The decifion of a jury, we fhall venture to fay, would in every indance turn out in It5 favour of Luke. Infy:ration Having thus afcertained the authenticity of the books of die New 0f the New- Tedament, the next thing to be confidered Teftament, |s tjlejr Jnfpiration. It is certainly of fome importance to know how far the apodles and evangelids were gui¬ ded in their writings by the immediate influence of the fpirit of God •, though this knowledge, if attainable, is not equally important with that of the authenticity of thefe writings. Michaelis indeed afferts, that the divi¬ nity of the New Tedament may be proved whether we can evince it to be "written by immediate infpiration or * Chap. iii. not *. “ The quedion (fays he), whether the books of 4 1* the New Tedament are infpired ? is not fo important as the quedien, whether they are genuine ? The truth of our religion depends upon the latter, not abfolutely on the former. JJad the Deity infpired not a {ingle book of the New Tedament, but left the anodles and evan¬ gelids without any other aid than that of natural abili¬ ties to commit what they knew to writing, admitting their works to be authentic, and poffeffed of a fufficient degree of credibility, the Chridian religion would dill Ko/necef- be well founded. The miracles by which it is con- fary to the firmed would equally demondrate its truth, even if the truth of perfons who atteded them were not infplred, but {imply Chriftianity hurnan witneffes •, and their divine authority is never to "the oil prefuppofed, when we difcufs the quedion of miracles, nion of but merely their credibility as human evidence. If the •Michaelii.) miracles are true which the evangelids relate, the doc¬ trines of Chrid recorded in the gofpels are proved to be the infallible oracles of God j and, even if we admit the apodles to be midaken in certain not effential cir- cumdances, yet as the main points of the religion which Chrid commiflioned them to preach are fo frequently repeated, their epidles would indruft us as well in the tenets of the Chridian fydem, as the ivorks of Maclau- rin in the philofophy of Newton. It is poffible there¬ fore to doubt, and even deny, the infpiration of the New Tedament, and yet be fully perfuaded of the truth of the Chridian religion : and many really entertain thefe fentiments either publicly or in private, to whom we diould render great injudice, if we ranked them in the script-art- clafs of unbelievers. ' v "" “ Yet the Chridian religion would be attended with difficulty, if our principium cognofcendi reded not on firm¬ er ground ; and it might be objefted, that fufficient care had not been taken for thofe whole confciences were tender, and who were anxioully fearful of mida- king the fmalled of the divine commands. The chief articles indeed of Chridianity are fo frequently repeat¬ ed, both by Chrid and his apodles, that even were the New Tedament not infpired, we could entertain no doubt of the following doftrines: ‘ Jefus was the Mef- fias of the Jews, and an infallible meffengerof God : he died for our iniquity ; and by the fatisfaftion made by his death we obtain remiffion of fins, if on our part be faith and amendment of life : the Levitical law is abo- lidied; and moral precepts, with the ceremonies of Bap- tifm and the Supper of the Lord, are appointed in its dead ; after the prefent follows an everlading life, in which the virtuous diall be rewarded and the wicked punifhed, and where Chrid himfelf diall be the Judge.’ “ To the epidles indeed (fays Michaelis), infpiration is of real confequence 5 but with refpeft to the hidori- cal books, viz. the Gofpels and the Afts of the A- podles, we diould really be no lofers if we abandoned the fydem of infpiration, and in fome refpefts have a real advantage. We ffiould be no lofers, if we confidered the apodles in hidorical faffs as merely human witneffeS, as Chrid himfeif has done in faying, ‘ Ye alfo diall bear witnefs, becaufe ye have been with me from the begin¬ ning And no one that attempts to convince an un-*I°hnxV' believer of the truth of Chridianity, would begin his demondration by prefuppofing a doftrine which his ad- verfary denies, but would ground his arguments on the credibility of the evangelids as human hidorians, for the truth of the miracles, the death, and the refurreclion of Chrid. Even thofe who examine the grounds of their faith for their own private conviftion, mud treat the evangelids as human evidence 3 fince it would be argu¬ ing in a circle to conclude that the fafts recorded in the gofpels are true, becaufe they are infpired, when ive conclude the Scriptures to be infpired in confequence of their contents. In thefe cafes, then, we are obliged to confider the evangelids as human evidence $ and it would be no detriment to the Chridian caufe to confider them at all times as fuch in matters of hidorical faft. We find it noivhere exprefsly recorded that the public tranf- aftions which the apoftles knew by their own experi¬ ence, and of which St Imke informed himfelf by dili¬ gent inquiry, fhould be particular objefts of divine in¬ fpiration. We fliould even be confiderable gainers, in adjuding the harmony of the gofpels, if we were permit¬ ted to fuppofe that fome one of the evangelids had com¬ mitted an immaterial error, and that St John has refti- fied fome trifling midakes in the preceding gofpels. The mod dangerous objeftions which can be made to the truth of our religion, and fuch as are mod difficult to anfwer, are thofe drawn from the different relations of the four evangelids.” TlS Before any inquiry is made refpefting the infpiration Different of the books of the New Tedament, it is neceffary to meanings'0f- determine the meaning of the term; for theologians w ^ have given to it a variety of fignifications. Mod of the2;^ " * German divines make it to confid in an infufion of C 2 ’words V Scripture. 119 The proof of it de¬ fends on the decla¬ rations of Chrift and his apoftle 120 The decla rations of Chrift. * Matt, x, zy, 20. SCR words as well as ideas. Luther, Beza, and reftrift it to ideas alone. Doddridge underftands by it an intervention of the Deity, by which the natural fa¬ culties of the mind were directed to the difcovery of truth. Warburton and Law think it was a negative intervention to preferve the facred writers from eft’ential errors. Some believe every circumflance was didb’.ted by the Holy Ghoft ; others fuppofe that no fupernatural aiiiftance -was granted except in the epitfolary writings. See Inspiration. As there is an evident diftimflion between infpiration and revelation, and as the origin of the Chriftian reli¬ gion may be flill proved divine, even though it were de¬ nied that thofe who record its fadfs and dodlrines were infpired in the aft of writing, it will be mo ft judicious and fafe to employ the wTord infpiration in that fenfe which can be moft ealily defended and fupported. By doing this, much may be gained and nothing loft. It is difficult to prove to a deift that the wmrds of Scrip¬ ture are divine, becaufe be fees that every writer has words and phrafes peculiar to himfeif. It is difficult alfo to prove that the ideas wrere infufed into the mind of the authors while they were engaged in the aft ol writing \ becaufe concerning fafls they appeal not to divine infpiration, but declare what tlmj have feen and heard. In reafoning they add their own fentiments to what they had received from the Lord, and fubjoin, ef- pecially in their epiftles, things not connefted with reli¬ gion. The definition wdiich Doddridge gives, feems applicable to ordinary gifts or the ufual endowments of rational creatures, rather than to the extraordinary gifts of the Holy Spirit, which w'ere beftow'ed on the apoftles. Thofe who maintain that every faff or circumftance wfas fuggefted by divine infpiration, wall find it no eafy mat¬ ter to prove their pofition. The opinion of Warburton and Law, with proper explanations, feems moft probable. The opinion of Grotius, that only the epiftles w?ere in¬ fpired, may be eafily refuted. The proof of the authenticity of the New Teftament depends on human teflimony : The proof of its infpi¬ ration is derived from the declaration of infpired per- fons. In proving that the New Teftament is infpired, we prefuppofe its authenticity, that the facred books were written by the apoftles whofe names they bear, and that they have been conveyed to us pure and uncor¬ rupted. This we have already attempted to prove, and e. we hope with fuccefs. The evidence of infpiration is the teftimony of Chrift and his apoftles, which wre re¬ ceive as credible, becaufe they confirmed their do&rines by miracles. From the important million of Cbrift and his apoftles, w7e infer that every power w7as bellowed wdiich divine wifdom thought expedient; and from their conduct we conclude, that it is morally impoflible that they could lay claim to any powers which they did not poffefs. It is proper therefore to inquire into the de¬ clarations of Chrift and his apoftles concerning the na¬ ture, degree, and extent, of the infpiration beltow7ed on the writers of the facred books. If w7e confider Chrift’s more immediate promifes of inspiration to the apoftles, we (hall find that he has given them, in the moft proper fenfe of the word,, at three feveral periods, iff, When he fent the apoftles to preach the gofpel * ; zdly, In holding a public difeourfe relating to the gofpel, at which were prefent a conli- [ 20 ] SCR Salmafius, derable multitude •, 3dly, In his prophecy of the de- Scripture, ftruftion of Jerufalem f. When he fent the apoftles to preach the gofpel, he thus addreffed them : “ When | they deliver you up, take no thought how or what yexxif’l^) t ’ fhall fpeak, for it thall be given you in that fame hour what ye Iball fpeak •, for it is not you that fpeak, but the fpirit of your father that fpeaketh in you.” The fame promife was made almoft in the lame words in the prefence of an immenfe multitude (Luke xii. 11, 12.). From thefe paffages it has been urged, that if the a- poftles were to be infpired in the prefence of magiftrates in delivering fpeeches, which were loon to be forgotten, it is furely reafonable to conclude that they would be infpired when they were to compofe a ftandard of faith for the ufe of all futu^ generations of Chriftians. If this conclufion be fairly deduced, it would follow that the writings of the New Teftament are the dictates of infpiration, not only in the doctrines and precepts, but in the very words. But it is a conclufion to which fincere Chriftians have made objections 5 for, fay they, though Chrift promifes to aflift his apoftles in cafes of great emergency, where their own prudence and forti¬ tude could not be fufficient, it does not follow that he would dictate to them thofe fads which they knew al¬ ready, or thofe reafonings which their own calm reflec¬ tion might fupply. Befides, lay they, if the New Tef¬ tament was dictated by the Holy Spirit, and only pen¬ ned by the apoftles, what reafon can be given for the care with which Chrift inftruCted them both during his miniftry and after his crucifixion in thole things per¬ taining to the kingdom of God ? I2I In anfwer to this, we may obferve, that though it be Proper idea difficult to prove that the identical words of the NewofiHpira- Teftament were diClated by the Holy Spirit, or the traintlon* of ideas infufed into the minds of the facred writers, there is one fpecies of infpiration to which the New Teftament has an undoubted claim. It is this, that the memories of the apoftles w7ere ftrengthened and their underftandings preferved from falling into effential errors. This we prove from thefe words of our Saviour, “ and I will pray the Father, and he will give you another comforter, that he may abide with you for ever. He {hall teach you all things, and bring all things to your remembrance whatfoever I have laid unto you * John xir. This promife was furely not reftrained to the day ofI<5»26* Pentecoft : it muft have been a permanent gift, enabling the apojlles at all times to remember with accuracy the difeourfes of our Saviour. When the apoftles there¬ fore (Matthew and John) relate thofe precepts of Chrift which they themfelves had heard, they write indeed from memory, but under the protection of the Ipirit who fecures them from the danger of miftake : and we muft of courfe conclude that their gofpels are infpired. Were we called upon more particularly to declare what parts of the New Teftament we believe to be in¬ fpired, we would anfwer, The doCtrines, the precepts, and the prophecies, every thing effential to the Chriftian religion. From thefe the idea of infpiration is infepa- rable. As to the events, the memory of the apoftles was fufficient to retain them. If this opinion be juft, it would enable us to account for the difcrepancies be¬ tween the facred writers, which are chiefly confined to the relation of faCIs and events. All the books of the New Teftament were originally written in Greek, except the Gofpel according to Mat¬ thew Scripture. 117, Language in which the New Teftament was com- pofech. my the greateft part of it is written in Greek. Micbaelis, vol. i. chap iv. fedh. I. p. xoi. SCR [ thew and the epiftle to the Hebrews, which there is reafon to believe were compofed in the Syro-Chaldaic language, which in the New Teftament is called He¬ brew. Various reafons have been affigned why the greateft part of the New Teftament was written in Greek ; but the true reafon is this, It was the language beft under- ftood both by writers and readers. Had St Paul written to a community in the Roman province of Africa, he might have written perhaps in Latin ; but epiftles to the inhabitants of Corinth, Galatia, Ephefus, Philippi, and Theflalonica, to Timothy, Titus, and Philemon, from a native of Tarfus, could hardly be ex¬ pelled in any other language than Greek. The fame may be faid of the epiftles of St Peter, which are ad- dreffed to the Chriftians of different countries, who had no other language in common than the Greek j and like wife of the epiftles of St James, who wrote to Jews, that lived at a diftance from Paleftine, and were igno¬ rant of Hebrew. The native language of St Luke, as well as of Theophilus, to whom he addreifed his gofpel, and A£ts of the apoftles, appears to have been Greek j and that St John wrote his gofpel in that language, and not in Hebrew, is by no means a matter of furprife, fince he wrote at Ephefus. With refpeft to the epiftle to the Romans, it may be afked indeed wby St Paul did not write in Latin ? Now, whoever propofes this queftion, muft prefuppofe that St Paul was matter of the Latin language in fuch a degree as to find no difficulty in writing it ; a matter which remains to be proved. It is very probable that St Paul was acquainted with the Latin •, but between underftanding a language, and being able to write it, there is a very material difference. As St Paul was a native of Tarfus, his native language was Greek } he had travelled during feveral years through countries in which no other language was fpoken, and when he ad- dreffed the Roman centurion at Jerufalem, he fpoke not Latin, but Greek. Is it extraordinary, then, that in writing to the inhabitants of Rome he fhould have ufed a language which \vas there fo generally under- ftood ? It has been long remarked, that Greek was at that time as well known in Rome as French in any court of modern Europe ; that according to Juvenal even the female fex made ufe of Greek as the language of familiarity and paffion ; and that in letters of friend- fliip Greek words and phrafes were introduced with greater freedom than French expreflions in German letters, as appears from Cicero’s epiftles to Atticus, and from thofe of Auguftus preferved in the works of Suetonius. To this muft be added a material circum- ftancc, that a great part of the Roman Chriftians con- fifted of native Jews, who were better acquainted with Greek than with Latin, as either they themfelves or their anceftors had come from Greece, Afia Minor, or Egypt, in which Greek was the language of the coun¬ try. At leatl they read the Bible in that language, as no Latin tranflation of the Old Teftament at that time exifted ; and the Chriftian church at that period con¬ fining chiefly of Jews, the heathen converts in Rome were of courfe under the neceftity of accuftoming them- felves to the Greek language. In fhort, St Paul in his epiftle to the Romans made ufe of a language in which alone thofe who were ignorant of Hebrew could read the Bible. What has been here advanced refpefting the 21 ] SCR epiftle to the Romans is equally applicable to the Greek Scripture,^ of St Mark, on the fuppofttion that it was written at' ^ “** Rome. To the above arguments may be added the example of Jofephus, who, as well as the apoftles, was by birth a Jew. He even lived in Rome, which is more than can be faid of St Paul and St Mark, who refided there only a certain time : he was likewife younger than either; he came to Italy at an age which is highly fuitable to the learning of a language, and previous to that period had fpent feveral years in the Roman camp. The Jewifh antiquities, the hiftory of the Jewifh war, and the account of his own life, he wrote undoubtedly with a view of their being read by the Romans ; and yet he compofed all thefe writings in Greek. He ex- prefles his motive for writing his Greek account of the Jewifh war in the following terms : “ That having writ¬ ten in his native language (i. e. the Hebrew dialed! at that time fpoken) a hiftory of the war, in order that Parthians, Babylonians, Arabians, Adiabenes, and the Jews beyond the Euphrates, might be informed of thofe events, he was now refolved to write for the Greeks and Romans, who had not been engaged in the cam¬ paigns, a more certain account than had hitherto been given.” The motives which induced Jofephus to write in Greek are fully as applicable to St Paul and St Mark. Michaelis has thus charadlerized the ftyle of the New Michaelti,- Teftament. “ The New Teftament (fays he) was writ-vol. i. ten in a language at that time common among the Jews,chap- w. which may be named Hebraic Greek j the firft traces of which we find in the tranflation of the LXX. “ Every man acquainted with the Greek language,Is full of who had never heard of the New Teftament, muft im- Hebraifms, mediately perceive, on reading only a few lines, that the ftyle is widely different from that of the claflic au¬ thors. We find this charadter in all ihe books of the New Teftament in a greater or lefs degree, but we muft not therefore conclude that they poffefs an uni- formity of ftyle. The harfheft Hebraifms, which ex¬ tended even to grammatical errors in the government of cafes, are the diftinguiftring marks of the book of Re¬ velation ; but they are accompanied with tokens of ge¬ nius and poetical enthufiafm of which every reader muft; be fenfible who has tafte and feeling. There is no. tranf¬ lation of it which is not read with pleafure even in th,e days of childhood j and the very faults of grammar are fo happily placed as to produce an agreeable effedl. The gofpels of Sc Matthew and St Mark have ftrong marks of this Hebraic ftyle *, the former has hardier Hebr^ifms than the latter, the fault of which may be afcribed to the Greek tranftator, who has made too literal a ver- fion, and yet the gofpel of St Mark is written in worfe language, and in a manner that is lefs agreeable. The epiftles of St James and St Jude are fomewhat better j but even thefe are full of Hebraifms, and betray in other refpedls a certain Hebrew tone. St Luke has in feveral paflages written pure and claftic Greek, of which the firft four verfes of his gofpel may be given as an inftance ; in the fequel, where he defcribes the aflions of Chrift, he has very harfh Hebraifms, yet the ftyle is more agreeable than that of St Matthew or St Mark. In the A6ls of the apoftles he is hot free from Hebraifms, which he feems to have never ftudioufty avoided; but his pe¬ riods are more claftically turned, and icmetimes poffefs- bcauiy Scripture. I25 and fo¬ reign idi¬ oms. 126 Peculiari¬ ties in the compofr- tion. Dr Camp¬ bell's Preli¬ minary Differta- . iions to his Travjla- tions of the Gofpcls SCR [2 beauty devoid of art. St John has numerous, though not uncouth, Hebraifms both in his gofpel and epiftles j but he has written in a fmooth and flowing language, and furpaffes all the Jewifli writers in the excellence ot narrative. St Paul again is entirely different from them all; his ffyle is indeed neglected and full of Hebraifms, but he has avoided the concife and verfe-like conftruc- tion of the Hebrew language, and has upon the whole a confiderable (hare of the roundnefs of Grecian compoli- tion. It is evident that he was as perfedtly acquainted with the Greek manner of expreflion as with the He¬ brew, and he has introduced them alternately, as either the one or the other fuggefted itfelf the firft, or was the bed approved.” Michaelis has (hown that the New Teftament not only contains Hebraifms but Rabbinifms, Syriafms, Chaldaifms, Arabians, Latinifms, and Perfian words, of rvhich he has exhibited many fpecimens. To theolo¬ gians, whofe duty it certainly is to ftudy the language of the New Teflament with attention, we would ftrenuouf- ly recommend the perufal of this work, which in the Hnglifh tranflation is one of the moft valuable acceffions to fcriptural criticifm that has yet appeared. We fpeak of the Engliflr tranflation, which the large and judicious notes of Mr Marlh has rendered infinitely fuperior to the original. To the obfervations which have been made refpe£ling the language of the New Teftament, a few remarks may be added concerning the peculiarities of the ftyle and manner of the facred writers, particularly the hiftorians. Thefe remarks extend to the Old Teftament as well as to the New.—Thejfr/? quality for which the facred hi- ftory is remarkable is fimplicity in the ftnnffure of the fentences. The firft five verfes of Genefis furnifh an example, which confift of eleven fentences. I he fubftantivss are not attended by adje&ives, nor the verbs by adverbs, no lynonymas, no fuperlatives, no effort at exprefling things in a bold, emphatical, or uncommon manner. 2. The fecond quality is fimplicity of fentiment, par¬ ticularly in the Pentateuch, arifing from the very nature of the early and uncultivated ftate offociety about which that book is converfant. 3. Simplicity of defign. 1 he fubject of the narra¬ tive lo engrofl’es the attention of the writer, that he himfelf is as nobody. He introduces nothing as from himfelf, no remarks, doubts, conjeftures, or reafonings. Our Lord’s biographers particularly excel in this qua¬ lity. This quality of ftyle we meet with in Xenophon and Ctefar. The Evangelifts may be ranked next to Genefis for fimplicity of compofition in the fentences. John and Matthew are diftinguilhed for it more than Mark and Luke. But the fentiment is not fo remarkable for fimplicity in the Evangelift as the Pentateuch. Ihe reafons of this difference are, the ftate of the Jews was totally changed ; their manners, euftoms, &c. fplit into cfaftions both in religion and politics. 2. T he objefl of our Lord’s miniftry, which is the great fubjeft of the gofpels, was to inculcate a doilrine and morality with which none of their fyftems perfedftly coincided : befides, being conftantly oppofed by all the great men, the greater part of his hiftory confifts of inftruftions and dif- putes. 3. As it is occupied with what our Saviour faid and what he did, this makes two diftinftions of ftyle 2 2 ] SCR and manner; that of our Saviour, and the facred pen- Scripture. man’s. In their own charafter, they neither explain nor command, promife nor threaten, praile nor blame. They generally omit the names of our Lord s enemies; thus directing our hatred at the vices they committed, not at the perfons. They never mention fuch pei ions without neceflity } which is the cafe with the high-prieft, Pilate, Herod, and Judas: the three firft for the chro¬ nology, the fourth to do juftice to the eleven. Herodias is indeed mentioned with dilhonour*, but her crime was a public one. On the other hand, all perfons diftinguiftied for any thing virtuous are carefully men¬ tioned, Jofeph of Arimathea, Nicodemus, Zaccheus, Bartimeus, Jairus, Lazarus, Mary, and Martha. They record their own faults (Peter’s, Thomas’s), nor do they make any merit of their confefiion. In one uniform ft rain they relate the moft fignal miracles and moft ordi¬ nary fa£ts. _ . From the narrative is excluded that quality of ftyle which is called animation. Nothing that difeovers paf- fion in the writer or is calculated to excite the paftions of the reader. Every thing is diretted to mend the heart. _ ^ . But in the difeourfes and dialogues of our Saviour the expreflion, without lofing any thing of its fimplicity, is often remarkable for Ipirit and energy. Refpe£ling harmony and fmoothnefs, qualities which only add an external polifh to language, they had not the leaft feii- citude. As to elegance, there is an elegance which refillts from the ufe of fuch words as are moft in ufe vith thofe who are accounted fine writers, and from luch arrangements in the words and claufes as have generally obtained their approbation. This is difclaimed by the facred authors. But there is an elegance of a fuperior order more nearly ccnne6Ied with the fentiment } and in this fort of elegance they are not deficient. In all tne onental languages great ufe is made of tropes, efpecialty meta¬ phors. " When the metaphors employed bear a ftrong refemblance, they confer vivacity : if they be borrowed from objects which are naturally agreeable, beautiful, or attractive, they add alfo elegance. The Evangehfis furnifli us with many examples of this kind of vivacity and elegance* Our Lord borrows tropes fiom corn¬ fields, vineyards, gardens, &c. . As a valuable appendage to this part of our fiibjert, we {ball fubjoin Dr Campbell’s method of ftudyipg the books of the New 'Teftament. This we offer to our readers as a beautiful inftance of the judicious applica¬ tion of philofophy to facred fludies. It is the fame method of difeovering truth by analyfis and induction, which was purfued by Sir Ifaac Newton with fuch afto- nifhing fuccefs, which fince his time has been unhormly praCtifed in natural philofophy, and has been alfo ap¬ plied to chemiftry, to medicine, to natural hiftory, and to the philofophy of mind, by the ingenious Dr Reid. This is the path of found philofophy, which can alone lead to the difeovery of truth. In following it, our progrefs may be flowr, but it will be fare. If all theolo¬ gians would fteadily adhere to it, we might then enter¬ tain the pleafing hope of difearding forever thofe ab.urd fyftems of religion which are founded on Angle paffages and detached fragments of fc rip lure, and of eftablifhing opinions and doClrines cn a folid foundation. u 1.10 127 Proper me¬ thod of thidying the New Teftament by analyfis and induc¬ tion. SCR t ] SCR Sc ripturr. 128 Dr Camp¬ bell’s me- « !. To get acquainted with each writer’s ilyle j to obferve his manner of compofition, both in fsntences and paragraphs; to remark the words and. phrafes peculiar 1 ell’s me. to him, and the peculiar application that he may ^me¬ thod. Prel. times make of ordinary words-, for there are lew or thorn X>i[% to the writers who have not their peculiarities in ail the relpeeis now mentioned. This acquaintance with each can be attained only by the frequent and attentive reading of his wrorks in his own language. « 2. To inquire into the character, the fituatxon, celTary attention j and Stephens, in particular, varied his points in every edition (d). The meaning of many paffages in the Scripture has been altered by falfe pointing. We fliall produce one initance of this : Mat. v. 34. is commonly pointed in this manner, iyu et Myu vpiv, (in ofits-xi oXaf (cnn n and confequently tranflated, “ But I fay unto you, fwear not at all.” But if, inftead of the colon placed after cA»f, we fubflitute a comma, the tranflation will be, “ But I fay to you that you ought by no means to fwear, either by heaven, for it is his throne, or by earth, for it is his footftool.” The command of Chriit therefore applies particularly to the abufe of oaths among the Pharifees, who on every trivial occafion fwore by the heaven, the earth, the temple, the head, &c. but it implies no prohibition to take an oath in the name of the Deity on folemn and important occa- fions. The ancients divided the New Teftament into two kinds of chapters, fome longer and fame fhorter. This method appears to be more ancient than St Jerome, for he expunged a paflage from the New Teftament which makes an entire chapter. The longer kind of chap¬ ters were called breves, the fhorter capilu/a. St Mat¬ thew contained, according to Jerome, 68 breves 5 Mark contained 48 j Luke 83 ; and John 18. All the evan- gelifts together confifted of 217 breves and 1126 capi- tula. The inventor of our modern divifion into chap¬ ters was Hugo de S. Caro, a French Dominican friar, who lived in the 13th century. The ancients had two kinds of verfes, one of which they called and the other gn[M,rx. The remat a were lines which contained a certain number of letters, like our printed books, and therefore often broke off in the middle of a word. Jofephus’s 20 books of Antiqui¬ ties contained 60,000 of them, though in Ittiquis’s edi¬ tion there are only 40,000 broken lines. Stichi were lines meafured by the fenfe : according to an ancient written lift mentioned by Father Simin, there were in the New Teftament 18,612 of thefe. The verfes into which the New Teftament is now divided are more modern, and an imitation of the di¬ vifion of the Old Teftament. Robert Stephens, the firft inventor, introduced them in his edition in the year 1.38 Divifion into verfes. 8 ] SCR I55I» He made this divifion on a journey from Lyons ScnpturJ. to Paris 5 and, as his fon Henry tells us in the preface to the Concordance of the New Teftament, he made it inter equitandum. I his phrafe probably means, that wdren he was weary of riding, he amufed himfelf with this work at his inn. I his invention of the learned printer was foon intro-its difad. duced into all the editions of the New Teftament j and vantages, it mull be confefled, that in confulting and quoting the Scriptures, and in framing concordances for them, a fub- divifion into minute parts is of the greateft utility. But all the purpoles of utility could furely have been gain¬ ed, without adopting the hafty and indigefted divifion of Stephens, which often breaks the fenfe in pieces, renders plain paffages obfcure, and difficult pafiages un¬ intelligible. . To the injudicious divifion of Stephens we may afcribe a great part of the difficulties which at¬ tend the interpretation of the New' Teflament, and a great many of thole abfurd opinions which have dif- graced the ages of the Reformation. For as feparate verfes appear to the eyes of the learned, and to the minds of the unlearned, as fo many detached fentences, they have been fuppofed to contain complete fenfe, and they have accordingly been explained without any re¬ gard to the context, and often in diredl oppofition to it. _ Were any modern hiftory or continued difcourfe divided into fragments with as little regard to the fenfe, we ftiould foon find, that as many oppofite meanings could be forced upon them as have been forced upon the books of the New leftament. The divifion into verfes has been ftill more injurious to the Epiftles than to the Gofpels, for there is a clofe conneftion between the different parts of the Epiftles, which the verfes en¬ tirely diffolve. It is therefore to be wfiflied that this divifion into verfes were laid afide. The Scriptures ought to be divided into paragraphs, according to the fenfe; and the figures ought to be thrown into the mar¬ gin. In this way, the figures will retain their utility without their difadvantages. Dr Campbell, in his beautiful tranflation of the Gofpels, has adopted this method with great judgement and fuccefs; and he who will read that tranflation, will perceive that this Angle alteration renders the Gofpels much more intelligible, and, w'e may add, more entertaining (e). The word EYAITEAION fignifies any joyful tidings, Meaning of and the word GofpeU (d) The reader will perceive that the account of the origin of points is different from that given under Punc¬ tuation. But the belt authors differ upon this fubjeft. We fliall perhaps reconcile the difference, by fuppofing that points were invented at the time here mentioned, but w'ere not in general ufe till the time mentioned under the article Punctuation. (e) We fliall here fubjoin, as a curiofity, what the anonymous author terms the Old and New Teftament diffeB- ed. It contains an enumeration of all the books, chapters, verfes, words, and letters, which occur in the Engliffi Bffile and Apocrypha. It is faid to have occupied three years of the author’s life, and is a Angular inftance of the trifling employments to which fuperftition has led mankind. Books in the Old Chapters Verfes Words Letters The Old and New Testament differed 39 929 23,214 59M39 2,728,100 in the New 27 260 - *7959 181,253 838,380 Total 66 - 1189 ' 3GI73 - 773,692 3,566,480 Apocryph. Chapters 183 Verfes 6081 Words 152,185 The Scripture 141 Gofpel ac¬ cording to St Mat¬ thew. 142 Its authen¬ ticity. lib.vi cap. 25. SCR [ and exaiflly correfponds to our Englifh, word Gospel. ' In the New Teftament this terra h confined to “ The glad tidings of the coming of the Mefiiah.” Thus, in Mat. xi. 5. our Lord fays, “ The poor have the Go¬ fpel preached that is, The coming of the Mefliah is preached to the poor. Hence the name of Gofpel was given to the hitfories of Chrift, in which the good news of the coming of the Meffiah, with all its joyful circum- ftances, are recorded. That the Gofpel according to Matthew was compo- fed, fays Dr Campbell, by one born a Jew, familiarly- acquainted with the opinions, ceremonies, and cultoms of his countrymen j that it was compofed by one con- verfant in the facred writings, and habituated to their idiom 3 a man of plain fenfe, but of little or no learning, except what he derived from the Scriptures of the Old Teftament; and finally, that it was the production of a man who wrote from conviction, and had attended clofely to the fafts and fpeeches which he related, but who in writing entertained not the moft diftant view of fetting off himfelf—we have as ftrong internal evi¬ dence as the nature of the thing will admit, and much ftronger than that wherein the mind ninety-nine cafes out of a hundred acquiefces. That the author of this hiftory of our blefled Savi¬ our was Matthew, appears from the tellimony of the early Chriftians. It is attefted by Jerome, Auguftin, Epiphanius, and Chryfoftom, and in fuch a manner as fiiews that they knew the faift to be uncontroverted, and judged it to be incontrovertible. Origen, who flouriflied in the former part of the 3d century, is alfo refpe&able authority. He is quoted by Eufebius in a .chapter* wherein he fpecially treats of Origen’s account of the facred canon. “ As I have learned (fays Ori¬ gen) by tradition concerning the four gofpels, which alone are received without difpute by the whole church of God under heaven ; the firft was written by Mat¬ thew, once a publican, afterwards an apoftle of Jefus Chrift, who delivered it to the Jewijh believers, compofed in the Hebrew language.'1'1 In another place he fays, “ Matthew writing for the Hebrews who expected him who was to defcend from Abraham and David, fays 29 ] SCR the lineage of Jefus Chrift, fon of David, fon of Abra- Scripture, ham.'” It muft be obferved, that the Gi'eek word v™—-* does not exactly correfpond to the Englifh word tradition, which figniiies any thing delivered orally from age to age. properly implies any thing tranfmitted from former ages, whether by oral or writ¬ ten teftimony. In this acceptation we find it ufed in Scripture-f : “ Hold the traditions (-nx? Teoieflicxrutd) which fThefi". ii*, ye have been taught, whether by word or our epifle.'1'1 ‘S- The next authority to which we ftiall have recourfe is that of Irenseus biihop of Lyons, who had been a difciple of Polycarp. He fays in the only book of his extant, that “ Matthew, among the Hebrews, wrote a Eufeb. Hiji: gofpel in their own language, whilft Peter and Paul ^■ccl- v- were preaching the gofpel at Rome and founding thecap‘ 8* church there.” To the teftimony of thefe writers it may be objefted, that, except Irenaeus, they all lived in the third and fourth centuries, and confequently their evidence is of little importance.. Eut there is fuch unanimity in the teftimony, that it muft have been derived, from fome authentic fource. And is it fair to queftion the veraci¬ ty of refpeftable men merely becaufe we knew not from what writings they received their information ? Many books which were then extant are now loft 3 and how do we know but thefe might have contained fuf- ficient evidence ? Irenseus at leaft had the beft opportu¬ nities of-information, having been well acquainted in his youth with Polycarp, the difciple of John 3 no objec¬ tion can therefore be made to his evidence. But we can quote an authority ftill nearer the times of the apoftles. Papias biftiop of Hierapolis, in Caefarea, who ftouriftied about A. D. 116, affirms that Matthew wrote his gofpel in the Hebrew tongue, which every one in¬ terpreted as he was able Papias was the companion? Eufeb. of Polycarp, and befides muft have been acquainted with many perfons who lived in the time of the apoftles. ^ The fa6t therefore is fully eftablithed, that Matthew,'5’ the apotlle of our Saviour, was the author of that gof¬ pel which is placed firft in our editions of the New Tef¬ tament. The next fubjeft of inquiry refpe&s the language in which. The middle Chapter and the leaft in the Bible is Pfalm 117. The middle Verfe is the 8th of the 118th Pfalm. The middle time is the 2d of Chronicles, 4th Chap. 16th Verfe.. The word And occurs in the Old Teftament 35,543 times. The fame in the New Teftament occurs 10,684 times. The word Jehovah occurs 6855 times. Old Testament. The middle Book is Proverbs. The middle Chapter is Job 29th. The middle Verfe is 2d Chron. 20th Chap, between 17th and 18th \V4- The leaft Verfe is x Chron. ift Chap, and ift Verfe. New Testament. The middle Book is Theffalonians 2d. The middle Chapter is between the 13th and 14th Romans. The middle Verfe is 17th Chap. A efts, 17th Verfe. The leaft Verfe is nth Chap. John, Verfe 3 i he 2ift Verfe of the 7th Chapter of Ezra has all the letters of the alphabet. ? he 19th Chapter of 2d Kings and 37th of Ifaiah are alike. £> ripture. 144 Date, 1.aril tier's Hi ft of the Hpojies. MS awl defign ol it. Dr Camp¬ bell's Pre¬ face to Matthe'w 'Oofpel. SCR [ 3 which it was written. This we are affured by Papias, by Irenfcus, and Origen, was the Hebrew; but the truth of this fa f" I *•« 1 f'.-, 1 ^A 11 *1 _ • 1 164 Is a fuj.p’e ment to the other three gof¬ pels. Dr Camp- beirs Pre- face to John's Gofpel. to the dellru&ion of Jerufalem. Vol. XIX. Part I. All the miracles re- ] SCR corded by the other evangelifts are paffed over, except §<*ripture. the miraculous fupply of provifion, by which five thou- V*— fand wTere fed : and it is probable that this miracle wTas related for the fake of the difeourfe to which it gave birth. The other miracles which are mentioned are few in number, but in general they are minutely de¬ tailed. _ They confift of thefe : the turning of w'ater into wine at Cana ; the cure of the difeafed man at the pool of Betfcefda ; the cure of the man that had been blind from his birth ; the-reftoring of Lazarus to life ; and the healing of the fervant’s ear which Peter had cut off. But valuable would this gofpel be, though it had only recorded the confolation of Jefus to his dif- ciples previous to his departure 5 which exhibits a moft admirable view of our Saviour’s character, of his care and tender regard for his difciples. Having opened every fource of comfort to their defponding minds • exhorted them to mutual love, and to the obedience of bis Father’s precepts; having warned them of the im¬ pending dangers and forrow's—our Saviour concludes with a prayer, in the true fpirit of piety and benevo¬ lence j ardent without enthufiafm, fober and rational without lukew'armnefs. l6. Ihe time in which this gofpel was written has not Time at been fixed with any precifion. Iren reus informs us, thatwhich it was written at Ephefus, but leaves us to conjeCture was'Vnt” whether it was written before or after John’s return^0* from Patmos. He was banifhed to Patmos by Domi- tian, who reigned 15 years, and according to the belt computation died A. D. 96. The perfecution ivhich occafioned. the exile of John commenced in the 14th year of Domitian’s reign. If John wrote his gofpel after his return to Ephefus, which is affirmed by Epi- phanius to have been the cafe, we may fix the date of it about the year 97 (f). ^ This gofpel is evidently the produ&ion of an illite-Style of it- rate Jew, and its fiyle is remarkable for fimplicity. It abounds more with Hebraifms than any of the other gofpels ; and contains fome flrong oriental figures which are not readily underftood by an European. c This gofpel is cited once by Clemens Romanus, Ijy OfteV quo^ Barnabas three times, by Ignatius five times, by Juftintec* by an;' Martyr fix times, by Irenaeus, and above forty times bycieilt chri' Clemens Alexandrinus. * ftians. The book which we intitle the Afts of the Apoftles Ads of the connects the gofpels and the epiftles. It is evidently aaP°ftks. continuation of Luke’s gofpel, which appears both from the introduction and from the atteftations of ancient Chri- fhans. Both are dedicated to Theophilus; and in the beginning of the Ads a reference is made to his gofpel, Vvhich he calls a former treatife, recording the aCIions and difeourfes of Jefus till his afeenfion to heaven. Luke is mentioned as the author of the Ads of the* A poflles by Irenaeus, by Tertullian, by Origen, and Eufebius. From the frequent ufe of the firft perfon plural, it is manifeft that Luke the author was prefent at many of the (f) It has been argued from a paffage in this gofpel, that it muft have been written before the deftrudion of ZSS&SSZ d JSaES ssz'l” “ ^ R 169 Contents of that book. SCR [ 34 Scripture, the tranfa&ions which he relates. He appears to have "'"""v ■ 1 accompanied Paul from Troas to Philippi. He attend¬ ed him alfo to Jerufalem, and afterwards to Rome, where he remained for two years. He is mentioned by Paul in feveral of thofe epiitles which were written from Rome, particularly in the 2d epiftle to Timothy, and in the epiftle to Philemon. This book contains the hiftory of the Chriftian church for the fpace of about 28 or 30 years, from the time of our Saviour’s afcenfion to Paul’s arrival at Rome in the year 60 or 61. As it informs us that Paul reflded two years in Rome, it muft have been written after the year 63 ; and as the death of Paul is not mentioned, it is probable it was compofed before that event, which hap¬ pened A. U. 65. The Afts of the Apoftles may be divided into feven parts. 1. The account of our Saviour’s afcenfion, and of the occurrences which happened on the firft Pente- coft after that event, contained in chap. i. ii. 2. The tranfattions of the Chriftians of the circumcifion at Jerufalem, in Judea, and Samaria, chap. hi.—ix. xi. I—21. xii. 3. Tranfaflions in Ctefarea, and the admif- fion of the Gentiles, chap. x. 4. The firft circuit of Bar¬ nabas and Paul among the Gentiles, chap. xi. 22. xiii. xiv. 5. Embafly to Jerufalem, and the firft council held in that city, chap. xv. 6. Paul’s fecond journey, chap. xvi.—xxi. 7. His arreftment, trial, appeal to Caifar, and journey to Rome, chap. xxi. to the end of the book. The Affs of Apoftles are cited by Clemens Romanus, by Polycarp, by Juflin Martyr, thirty times by Irenaeus, and feven times by Clemens Alexandrinus. All the eflential do&rines and precepts of the Chri¬ ftian religion were certainly taught by our Saviour him- felf, and are contained in the gofpels. The epiftles may be confidered as commentaries on the do&rines of the gofpel, addreffed to particular focieties, accommodated to their refpective fituations •, intended to refute the errors and falfe notions which prevailed among them, and to inculcate thofe virtues,in which they were moft deficient. The plan on which thefe Letters are written is, firft, to decide the controverfy, or refute the erroneous notions which had arifen in the fociety to which the epiftle was addreffed : And, fecondly, to recommend thofe duties which their falfe doftrines might induce them to negleft; at the fame time inculcating in ge¬ neral exhortations the moft important precepts of Chri¬ ftian morality. Of the epiftles fourteen were written by St Paul. Tbefe are not placed according to the order of time in which they were compofed, but according to the fup- pofed precedence of the focieties or perfons to whom they were addreffed. It will be proper therefore to exhibit here their chronological order according to Dr Lardner. 170 Often cited by the ear¬ ly Chrilti- a»s. I7I The epif¬ tles. 172 General plan of shem. 173 , Arranged in chrono¬ logical or- *itr. Epiftles. Theffalonians Theffalonians Galatians Place'. Corinth Corinth \ Corinjh or \ Ephefus ] Epiftles, I Corinthians 1 Timothy Titus 2 Corinthians Romans Ephefians 2 Timothy Philippians Coloflians Philemon Hebrews s c Ptices. Ephefus Macedonia C Macedonia \ or near it Macedonia Corinth Rome Rome Rome Rome Rome f Rome or Italy I A. D. Scripture, the beginning of 53 v ' 56 ^■bef. the end of 56 about 06lober 57 about February ?8 about April 61 about May 61 bef. the end of 62 bef. the end of 62 bef. the end of 6-2 in Spring ©£ 63 y/ Table of the Catholic Epistles, and the Reve¬ lation, according to Dr Lardner. Epiftle. James The two Epiftles of Peter 1 Johu 2d and 3d of John Jude Revelation Place. Judea ^ Rome Ephefus Ephefus Unknown C Patmos or Ephefus { or beg. of A. D 61 62 about C between \ and 64 80 80 90 64 or 65 95 or 96 174 J Table of St Paul's Epistles, with the Places where, and times when, written, according to Dr Lardner. A. D. 52 52 near the end of 5 2 3 or beginning of 53 It is more difficult to underftand the epiftolary wri- Caufes of tings than the gofpels ; the caufe of which is evident. the‘r oblcu- Many things are omitted in a letter, or (lightly mention-' ed, becaufe fuppofed to be known by the perfon to whom it is addreffed. To a ftranger this will create much difficulty. The bufinefs about which St Paul wrote was certainly well known to his correfpondents ; but at this diftance of time we can obtain no information concern¬ ing the occafion of his writing, of the chara£ler and circumftances of thofe perfons for whom his letters were intended, except what can be gleaned from the writings themfelves. It is no wonder, therefore, though many allufions (hould be obfeure. Befides, it is evident from many paffages that he anfwers letters and queftions which his correfpondents had fent him. If thefe had been preferved, they would have thrown more light up¬ on many things than all the notes and conjeddures of the commentators. 175 The caufes of obfeurity which have been now men-Caufes of tioned are common to all the writers of the epiftles \ oblcl*nty but there are fome peculiar to St Paul. 1. As he had an acute and fertile mind, he feems to have written epiftles. with great rapidity, and without attending much to the common rules of method and arrangement. To this caufe we may aferibe his numerous and long parenthe- fes. In the heat of argument he fometimes breaks off abruptly to follow out fome new thought ; and when he has exhaufted it, he returns from his digreffion with¬ out informing his readers; fa that it requires great at¬ tention to retain the connexion. 2. His frequent change of perfon, too, creates ambiguity : by the pronoun / he fometimes means himfelf; fometimes any Chriftian ; fometimes a Jew, and fometimes any man. In ufing the pronoun WE he fometimes intends himfelf; fome¬ times comprehends bis companions) fometimes the apof- tle$.) T?5 , Mr Locke s plan of ftu- tlying the epiftles. SCR [35 Scripture. ^]es 5 at one time he alludes to the converted Jews,, at 'Y- another time to the converted Gentiles. 3. There is a third caufe of obfcurity •, he frequently propofes ob- ieddions, and anfwers them without giving any formal intimation. There are other difficulties which arife from our uncertainty who are the perfons he is addref- fing, and what are the particular opinions and praftices to which he refers. To thefe we may add two exter¬ nal caufes, which have increafed the difficulty of under- flanding the epitlles. i. i he dividing them into chap¬ ters and verfes, which diffolves the connexion of the parts, and breaks them into fragments. If Cicero’s epiftles had been fo disjointed, the reading of them would be attended with lefs pleafure and advantage, and with a great deal more labour. 2 We are accuftomed to the phrafeology of the epiftles from cur infancy 5 but we have either no idea at all when we ufe it, or our idea of it is derived from the articles or fyftem which we have efpoufed. But as different fefts have arbitrary definitions for St Paul’s phrafes., we fhall never by fol¬ lowing them difcover the meaning of St Paul, who cer¬ tainly did not adjuft his phrafeology to any man’s fyf¬ tem. . The beft plan of ftudying the epiftles is that which was propofed and executed by Mr Locke. I his we fhall prefect to our readers in the words of that acute and judicious author. “ After I had found by long experience,, that the reading of the text and comments in the ordinary way proved not fo fuccefsful as I wiftied to the end propo¬ sed, I began to fufpefl that in reading a chapter as was ufual, and thereupon fometimes confulting expofitors upon fome hard places of it, which at that time moft affedted me, as relating to points then under confidera- tion in my own mind, or in debate againft others, was not a right method to get into the true lenfe of thefe epiftles. I faw plainly, after I began once to refletl on it. that if any one ftiould write me a letter as long as St Paul’s to the Romans, concerning fuch a matter as that is in a ft vie as foreign, and expreffions as dubious as his feem to be, if I ftiould divide it into fifteen or fixteen chapters, and read one of them to-day, and another to¬ morrow, &c. it is ten to one I ftiould never come to a full and’ clear comprehenfion of it. The way to under- ftand the mind of him that writ it, every one would agree, was to read the whole letter through from one end to the other all at once, to fee what was the main fub- jeft and tendency of it : or if it had feveral views.and purpofes in if, not dependent one of another, nor in a fubordination to one cnief atm and end, to oifcover wffiat thofe different matters were, and where the author con¬ cluded one, and began another ; and if there were any neceffity of dividing the epiftle into parts, to make the boundaries of them. “ In the profecution of this thought, I concluded it neceffary, for the underftanding of any one of St Paul’s epiftles, to read it all through at one fitting, and to ob- ferve as well as I could the drift and defign of his wri¬ ting it. If the firft reading gave me fome light, the fe- cond gave me more ; and fo I perfifted on reading con- ftantly the whole epiftle over at once till I came to have a good general view of the apoftle’s main purpofe in wri¬ ting the epiftle, the chief branches of his difeourfe where¬ in he profecuted it, the arguments he ufed, and the dif- pofition of the whole. . ] SCR “ This, I confefs, is not to be obtained by one or Scripture... _ two hafty readings; it muft be repeated again and again v ^"‘ with a clofe attention to the tenor of the difeourfe, and a perfeft negledt of the divifions into chapters and ver¬ fes. On the contrary, the fafeft way is to fuppofe that the epiftle has but one bufmefs and one aim, till by a frequent perufal of it you are forced to fee there are di- ftinft independent matters in it, which will forwardly enough ftiow themfelves. “ It requires fo much more pains, judgement, and ap¬ plication, to find the coherence of obfeure and abftrufe writings, and makes them fo much the more unfit to ferve prejudice and preoccupation when found ; that it is not to be wondered that St Paul’s epiftles have with many paffed rather for disjointed, loofe, pious dftcourfes, full of warmth and zeal, and overflow's of light, rather than for calm, ftrong, coherent reafonings, that car¬ ried a thread of argument and confiftency all through them.” Mr Locke tells us he continued to read the fame epiftle over and oter again till he difeovered the fcope. of the whole, and the different fteps and arguments by which the writer accomplifhes his purpofe. For he wTas convinced before reading his epiftlcs, that Paul was a man of learning, of found fenfe, and knew all the doc¬ trines of the gofpel by revelation. The fpeeches record¬ ed in the Adis of the Apoftles convinced this judicious critic that Paul was a clofe and accurate reafoner : and therefore he concluded that his epiftles would not be written in a loofe, confufed, incoherent ftyle. Mr Locke accordingly followed the chain of the apoftle’s difeourfe, obferved his inferences, and carefully examined from what premifes they were drawn, till he obtained a general out¬ line of any particular epiftle. If every divine would follow this method, he would foon acquire fuch a know¬ ledge of Paul’s ftyle and manner, that he w’ould perufe his other Epiftles with much greater eafe. . 177 That the Epiftle to the Romans was written at Co-Epiftteto rinth by St Paul, is afeertained by the teftimony of thethe Ro~ ancient Chriftians. It w'as compofed in the year 58, inmdllS‘ the 24th year after Paul’s converfton, and is the feventh epiftle which he w'rote. From the Adis of the Apoftles ^ . (chap. vii.). 2. He inftrudls them how to a£l with refpecl to idol offerings. It could not be unlawful in itfelf to eat the food which had been offered to idols ; for the confecra- tion of flelh or wine to an idol did not make it the pro¬ perty of the idol, an. idol being nothing, and therefore- incapable.. 185 scr r .38 Scripture, incapable of property. But fome Corinthians thought v—lawful to go to a feaft in the idol temples, which at the fame time were places of refort for lewdnefs, and to eat the facrifices whilft praifes were fung to the idol. This was publicly joining in the idolatry. He even advifes to abftain from fuch participation as was lawful, rather than give offence to a weak brother ; which he enforces by his own example, who had abfrained from many lawful things, rather than prove a fcandal to the gofpel, (chap. viii. ix. x.). 3. He anfwers a third query concerning the manner in which women fhould deliver any thing in public, when called to it by a divine impulfe. And here he cenfures the unufual drefs of both fexes in prophefying, which expofed them to the contempt of the Greeks, among whom the men ufually went uncovered and the women veiled. Being thus led to the confideration of the abufes that prevailed in their public worfhip, he goes on to cenfure the irregularities which were committed at their love- feafts, or, as rve term them, the LorcPs Supper. It was a common practice with the Greeks at their facial fup- pers for every man to bring his own provifions along with him, not, however, to fhare them with the com¬ pany, but to feaft on them in a folitary manner. Thus the rich ate and drank to excefs, whilft: the poor were totally negle&ed. The Corinthians introduced the fame practice in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper, thus confounding it with their ordinary meals, and without ever examining into the end of the inftitution. It was this grofs abufe that Paul reproves in the nth chapter. He alfo cenfures their eondud! in the exercifc of the ex¬ traordinary gifts of the Holy Ghoft ; he fhows them they all proceeded from the fame fpirit, and were in¬ tended for the inftrudlion of Chriflian focieties *, that all Chrillians ought to be united in mutual love ; and that tendernefs ought to be fliown to the moft inconfiderable member, as every one is fubfervient to the good of the whole (chap. xii.). In the 13th chapter he gives a beautiful defeription of benevolence, which has been much and juftly admired. He reprefents it as fuperior to the fupernatural gifts of the fpirit, to the moft exalt¬ ed genius, to univerfal knowledge, and even to faith. In the 14th chapter he cautions the Corinthians againft oftentation in the exercife of the gift of languages, and gives them proper advices. 4. He afferts the refttrredlion of the dead, in oppofi- tion to fome of the Corinthians who denied it, founding it on the refurreftion of Jefus Chrift, which he confiders as one of the moft efiential doddrincs of Chriftianity. He then anfwers fome objeddions to the refurredlion, drawn from our not being capable of underftanding bow it will be accomplilhed, (chap. xv.). He then concludes with fome direddions to the Corinthian church concerning the manner of colledding alms •, promifes them a vifit, and falutes fome of the members. The fecond Epiftle to the Corinthians was written from Macedonia in the year 57, about a year after the former. See 2 Cor. ix. 1 — 9. viii. and xiii. 1. St Paul’s firft Epiftle bad wrought different effedds S-ate of the among the Corinthians : many of them examined their Corinthian corKludd ; they excommunicated the inceftuous man ; requefted St Paul’s return with tears; and vindicated him and his office againft the falfe teacher and his adhe¬ rents. Others of them ftill adhered to that adverfary 4 iS<5 The fecond E .iftle to the Corin¬ thians. 1S7 ] SCR of St Paul, cxprefsly denied his apoftolic office, and even Scripture, furniftted themfelves with pretended arguments from that Epiftle. He had formerly promifed to take a journey from Ephelus to Corinth, thence to vifit the Macedo¬ nians, and return from them to Corinth (2 Cor. i. 15, 16.). But the unhappy ftate of the Corinthian church made him alter his intention (verfe 23.), fince he found he muft have treated them with feverity. Hence his adverfaries partly argued, 1. That St Paul was irrefo- lute and unfteady, and therefore could not he a prophet: 2. The improbability of his ever coming to Corinth again, fince he was afraid of them. Such was the ftate of the Corinthian church when St Paul, after his depar¬ ture from Ephefus, having vifited Macedonia, (Adds xx. 1.), received an account of the above particulars from Titus (2 Cor. vii. 5, 6.), and therefore wrote them his fecond Epiftle about the end of the fame year, or the beginning of 58. i$8 But to give a more diftindl view of the contents of View of • tt content tins Epiftle: ... . ^ of this E- 1. The apoftle, after a general falutation, exprelies hispiftle. grateful fenfe of the divine goodnefs; profeffing his con- fidence in God, fupported by a fenfe of his own integri¬ ty ; makes an apology for not having vifited the Corin¬ thians as he had intended, and vindicates himfelf from the charge of ficklenefs, (chap. i.). 2. He forgives the inceftuous man, whofe condudt had made fo deep an impreflion on the apoftle’s mind, that one reafon why he had deferred his journey to Co¬ rinth was, that he might not meet them in grief, nor till he had received advice of the effect of his apoftolical admonitions. He mentions his anxiety to meet Titus at Troas, in order to hear of their welfare ; expreffes his thankfulnefs to God for the _ fuccefs attending his miniftry, and fpeaks of the Corinthians as his cre¬ dentials, written by the finger of God, (chap. ii. iii. I.—6.). 3. He treats of the office committed to him of preaching the redemption; and highly prefers it to preaching the law : to which probably his adverfaries had made great pretences. T hey had ridiculed his fuf- ferings; which he fhows to be no difgrace to the go¬ fpel or its minifters ; and here he gives a fhort abftraft. of the doftrine he preaches, (chap. iii. 6. v. to the end). He expatiates with great ccpioufnefs on the temper with which, in the midft of affliftions and perfecutions, he and his brethren executed their important embaffy ; and with great affedftion and tendernefs he exhorts them to avoid the pollution of idolatry, (chap. vi.). He en¬ deavours to win their confidence, by telling them how much he rejoiced in their amendment and welfare, and how forty he had been for the diftrefs which his necef- fary reproofs had occafioned, (chap. vii.). He then ex¬ horts them to make liberal contributions for the Chri- flians in Judaea. He recommends to them the example of the Macedonians, and reminds them of the benevo¬ lence of the Lord Jefus. He expreffes his joy for the readmefs of I itus to afiift in making the collefLon , and makes alfo honourable mention of other Chnftian bre¬ thren, whom he had joined with Titus in the fame com- miffion, chap, viii.)/ He then, with admirable addrefs, urges a liberal contribution, and recommends them to the divine bleffmg, (chap. ix.). a. Next he obviates fome reflections which had been thrown S G R r 3 Scripture, thrown on him tor the niildneis of his conduft, as if it had proceeded from fear. He afferts his apoi'tolical -power and authority, cautioning his opponents againit urging him to give too fenfible demonftrations of it, (chap. x.). He vindicates himfelf againft the infinua- tions of fome of the Corinthians, particularly for having declined pecuniary fupport from the church •, an aftion which had been ungeneroully turned to his difadvan- tage. To (how his fuperiority over thofe defigning men who had oppofed his preaching, he enumerates his fufferings •, gives a detail of fome extraordinary revela¬ tions which he had received 5 and vindicates himfelf from the charge of boafting, by declaring that he had been forced to it by the defire of fupporting his apoftoli- cal charadler, (chap. xi. xii.). He clofes the Epiftle, by affuring them with great tendernefs how much it would grieve him to demonftrate his divine commiffion o by feverer methods. Epiftle to The Galatians were defcended from thofe Gauls who the Gala- had formerly invaded Greece, and afterwards fettled in bans. Lower Afia. St Paul had preached the gofpel among them in the year 51, foon after the council held at Jeru- falem, (Afts xvi. 6.). Afia fwarmed at that time with zealots for the law of Mofes, who wanted to impofe it on the Gentiles, ( A£ts xv. 1.). Soon after St Paul had left the Galatians, thefe falfe teachers had got among them, and wanted them to be circumcifed, &c. This occafioned the following Epiftle, which Michaelis thinks was written in the fame year, before St Paul left Thef- Th/date faloniea. Dr Lardner dates it about the end of the year 52, or in the very beginning of 53, before St Paul fet out to go to Jerufalem by way of Ephefus. and'con- The fubjeft of this Epiftle is much the fame with tentsefit. that of the Epiftle to the Romans-, only this queftion is more fully confidered here, “ Whether circumcifion, and an obfervance of the Levitical law, be neceflary to the falvation of a Chriftian convert ?” It appears, thefe Judaizing Chriftians, whofe indirect views St Paul ex- pofes (Acfts xv. 1. Gal. v. 3, 9.), at firft only repre- fented circumcifion as neceflary to falvation j but after- wards they infilled upon the Chriftians receiving the Jewifti feftivals, (Gal. iv. 10.). As St Paul had founded the churches of Galatia, and inftru&ed them in the Chriftian religion, he does not fet before them its principal do&rines, as he had done in the Epiftle to the Romans ; but referring them to what he had already taught (chap. i. 8, 9.), he proceeds at once to the fubjeft of the Epiftle, As it appears from feveral paflages of this Epiftle, particularly chap. i. 7, 8, 10, and chap. v. 11. that the Judaizing Chriftians had endeavoured to perfuade the Galatians that Paul himfelf had changed his opi¬ nion, and now preached up the Levitical law ; he de¬ nies that charge, and affirms that the doflrines which he had taught were true, for he had received thein from God by immediate revelation. He relates his miracu¬ lous converfion ; aflerts his apoftolical authority, which had been acknowledged by the difciples of Jefus ; and, as a proof that he had never inculcated a compliance with the Mofaic law, he declares that he had oppofed Peter at Antioch for yielding to the prejudices ef the Jews. Having now vindicated his character from the fufpi- cion of ficklenefs, and ftiown that his commiffion was 9 ] SCR divine, he argues that the Galatians ought not to fub- Scripture.^ mit to the law ot Mofes ; 1. Becaufe they had received ^ ^ the Holy Ghoft and the gift of miracles, not by the ArgUnients law, but by the gofpel, (chap. iii. 1—5•)• 2- Becauleby which the promifes which God made to Abraham were nottheapoftle reftrifted to his circumcifed defendants, but extended to all who are his children by faith, (chap. iii. 6—Motes was In anfwer to the objeflion, To what then ferveth not obliga- /aw? he replies, That it was given becaufe of tranf-tory on the greflion that is, to preferve them from idolatry till theGalatian?- Meffiah himfelf Ihould come. 3. Becaufe all men, whe-Locke on ther Jews or Gentiles, are made the children of God by faith, or by receiving the Chriftian religion, and there-7 16 ' fore do not Hand in need of circumcifion, (chap. iii. 26 —29.). From the lit verfe of chap. iv. to the 11th, he argues that the law was temporary, being only fitted for a ftate of infancy } but that the world, having at¬ tained a ftate of manhood under the Mefliah, the law was of no farther ufe. In the remaining part of chap¬ ter iv. he reminds them of their former affedlion to him, and affures them that he was ftill their fincere friend. He exhorts them to Hand faft in the liberty with which Chrift had made them free ; for the fons of Agar, that is, thofe under the law given at Mount Sinai, are in bondage, and to be cart out ; the inheritance being de- figned for thofe only who are the free-born fons of God under the fpiritual covenant of the gofpel. 193 The apoftle next confutes the falfe report which had^0^ been fpread abroad arnang the Galatians, that Paul himfelf preached up circumcifion. He had already in-charaoJitor. nf rea]Jty of the change ; and, when he had made a fufficient trial of him, and found that his beha¬ viour w^as entirely agreeable to his profeffion, he would not detain him any longer for his own private conveni¬ ence, though in a fituation that rendered fuch an affilt- ant peculiarly defirable (compare ver. 13, 14.), but fent him back to his maflerj and, as a mark of his elteem, entrufted him, together with Tychicus, with the charge ot delivering his Epiltle to the church at Coloffe, and giving them a particular account' of the Hate of things at Rome, recommending him to them, at the fame time, as a faithful and beloved brother (Col. iv. 9.). ! ] SCR. And as Philemon might well be fuppofed to be ftrongly Scripture, prejudiced againft one who had left his fervice in fo '“■“'v-*--' infamous a manner, he fends him this letter, in which he employs all his influence to remove his fufpicions, and reconcile him to the thoughts of taking Onelimus into his family again. And wdiereas St Paul might have exerted that authority which his charabler as an apoftle, and the relation in which he flood to Philemon as a fpiritual father, would naturally give him, he choo- fes to entreat him as a friend ; and with the lofteft and moft infinuating addrefs urges his fuit, conjuring him by all the ties of Chriftian friendlhip that he would not deny him his requeft : and the more effeblually to pre¬ vail upon him, he reprefents his own peace and happi- nefs as deeply interefted in the event; and Ipeaks of O- nefimus in fuch terms as were belt adapted to foften his prejudices, and difpofe him to receive one who was fo dear to himfelf, not merely as a fervant, but as a fellow Chriftian and a friend. It is impoffible to read over this admirable Epiftle, The {kill without being touched with the delicacy of fentiment,;inci addn fs and the mafterly addrefs that appear in every part of it. We fee here, in a moft ftriking light, how perfe&ly con- cover5 ;n fiftent true politenefs is, not only with all the warmth this Epiftle. and fincerity of the friend, but even with the dignity of the Chriftian and the apoftle. And if this letter were to be conlldered in no other view than as a mere human compofition, it mull be allowed a mafter-piece in its kind. As an illuftration of this remark, it may not be improper to compare it with an epiftle of Pliny, that feems to have been written upon a fimilar occalion, (lib, ix. lit. 21) ; which, though penned by one that was rec¬ koned to excel in the epiitolary ilyle, and though it has undoubtedly many beauties, yet muft be acknowledged, by every impartial reader, vaftly inferior to this anima¬ ted compofition of the apoftle. 217 The epiftle to the Hebrews has been generally a- Epiftle to fcribed to Paul ; but the truth of this opinion has been t^ie Ke" fufpe&ed by others, for three reafons: 1. The name of the writer is nowhere mentioned, neither in the begin- ^ p‘auj. ning nor in any other part of the Epiftle. 2. The ftyle is faid to be more elegant than Paul’s. 3. There are expreffions in the Epiftle which have been thought un- fuitable to an apoftle’s cbarafter. 1. In anfwer to the firft objeclion, Clemens Alexandrinus has affigned a very good reafon : “ Writing to the Hebrews (fays he), who had conceived a prejudice againft him, and were ^7/7^ fufpicious of him, he rvifely declined fetting his name at the beginning, left he ffiould offend them.” 2. Ori- gen and Jerome admired the elegance of the ftyle, and reckoned it fuperior to that which Paul has exhibited in bis Epiftles : but as ancient teftimony had affigned it to Paul, they endeavoured to anfwer the objeftion, by fuppofing that the fentiments were the apoftle’s, but the language and compofition the work of fome other perfon. If the Epiftle, however, be a Iranflation, which we believe it to be, the elegance of the language may belong to the tranflator. As to the compofition and arrangement, it cannot be denied that there are many fpecimens in the writings of this apoltle not in- F 2 fevior to be led gradually to deny the thing fi?nified. This appears to have been the caufe of moft difputes, and the general beginning of fcepticifm and infidelity. Scripture. 218 Quoted as his by an¬ cient wri¬ ters. 219 Written in the Syro- Chaldaic language. 220 Date of it. Percy’s Key to the New Te~ Jlament. 221 Defign of k to prove to the Jews the truth of the Chri- ftian reli¬ gion and its fuperi- prity to the law of Motks; SCR [ 4+ ] SCR ferior in thefe qualities to the Eplitle to the Hebrews. 3. It is obje&ed, that in Heb. ii. 3. the writer of this Epitlle joins hirafelf with thofe who had received the gofpel from Chrilt’s a pottles. Now Paul had it from Chrill himfelf. But Paul often appeals to the teftimony of the apoitles in fupport of thofe truths which he had received from Revelation. We may infiance 1 Cor. xv. 5, 6, 7, 8. j 2. Tim. ii. 2. This Epittle is not quoted till the end of the feccnd century, and even then does not feem to have been uni- verfally received. This filence might be owing to the Hebrews themfelves, who fuppofing this letter had no relation to the Gentiles, might be at pains to diii'ufe co¬ pies of it. The authors, however, on whofe teftimony we receive it as authentic, are entitled to credit j for they lived fo near the age of the apoftles, that they were in no danger of being impofed on ; and from the numerous lift of books which they rejedfed as fpurious, we are affured that they were very careful to guard againft impofition. It is often quoted as Paul’s by Cle¬ mens Alexandrinus, about the year 194. It is recei¬ ved and quoted as Paul’s by Origen, about 230 ; by Dionyfius biftiop of Alexandria in 247 } and by a nu¬ merous lift of fucceeding writers. The Epiftle to the Hebrews was originally written in Hebrew, or rather Syro-Chaldaic ; a fa£t which we believe on the teftimony of Clemens Alexandrinus, Je¬ rome, and Euiebius. To this it has been objected, that as thefe writers have not referred to any authority, we ought to confider what they fay on this fubjedl mere¬ ly as an opinion. But as they Rate no reafons for adopting this opinion, but only mention as a fadt that Paul wrote to the Hebrervs in ,their native language, we muff allow that it is their teftimony which they produce, and not their opinion. Eufebius informs us, that fume fuppofed Luke the Evangelift, and others Clemens Romanus, to have been the tranflator. According to the opinion of ancient writers, particu¬ larly Clemens Alexandrinus, Jerome, and Euthalius, this Epiftle' was addreffed to the Jews in Paleftine.—The fcope of the Epiftle confirms this opinion. Having now given fufficient evidence that this E- piftle was written by Paul, the time when it was writ¬ ten may be eafily determined : For the falutation from the faints of Italy (chap. iv. 24.), together with the apoftle’s promife to fee the Hebrews (ver. 23.), plain¬ ly intimate, that his confinement was then either ended or on the eve of being ended. It muft therefore have been written foon after the Epiftles to the Coloftians, Ephefians, and Philemon, and not long before Paul left Italy, that is, in the year 61 or 62. As the zealous defenders of the Mofaic law would naturally infill on the divine authority of Mofes, on the majefty and glory attending its promulgation by the miniftry of angels, and the great privileges it afforded thofe who*adhered to it; the apoftle ftiows, I. That in all thefe feveral articles Chriftianity had an infinite fuperiority to the law. This topic he purfues from chap. 5. to xi. wdierein he reminds the believing Hebrews of the extraordinary favour Ihown them by God, in fending them a revela¬ tion by his own fon, whofe glory was far fuperior to that of angels (chap. i. throughout) ; very naturally inferring from hence the danger of defpifing Chrift on account of his humilitation, which, in perfect confift- ence with his dominion over the world to come, was Scripture, voluntarily fubmitted to by him for wife and important reafons; particularly to deliver us from the fear of death, and to encourage the freedom of our accefs to God (chap. ii. throughout). With the fame view he magnifies Chrift as fuperior to Mofes, their great legif- lalor; and from the puniihment infiifted on thofe who rebelled againft the authority of Mofes, infers the dan¬ ger of contemning the promifes of the gofpel (chap. hi* 2 13.). And as it was an eafy tranfition to call to mind on this occafion that reft in Canaan to which the authority invefted in Mofes was intended to lead them ; the apoitle hence cautions them againft unbelief, as what would prevent their entering into a fuperior ftate of reft to what the Jews ever enjoyed (^chap. iii. 14. iv. 11.). This caution is ilill farther enforced by aw¬ ful views of God’s omnifcience, and a lively reprelenta- tion of the high-priefthood of Chrift (chap. iv. to the end ; and chap. v. throughout). In the next place, he intimates the very hopelefs fituation of thofe who apo- ftatife from Chriftianity (chap. vi. 1—9.) 5 and then, for the comfort and confirmation of fincere believers, difplays to them the goodnefs of God, and his faithful adherence to his holy engagements ; the performance of which is fealed by the entrance of Chrift into heaven as our forerunner (chap. vi. 9. to the end). Sail far¬ ther to illuftrate the charadter of our Lord, he enters into a parallel between him and Melchizedec as to their title and defcent •, and, from inftances wherein the priefthood of Melchizedec excelled the Levitical, infers, that the glory of the priefthood of Chrift furpaffed that under the law (chap. vii. 1—17). From thefe premifes the apoftle argues, that the Aaronical priefthood was not only excelled, but confummated by that of Chrift, to which it was only introdudlory and iubfervient ; and of courfe, that the obligation of the law was henceforth diffolved (chap. vii. 18. to the end). Then recapitu¬ lating what he had already demonftrated concerning the fuperior dignity of Chrift’s priefthood, he thence illu- ftrates the diftinguiftied excellence of the new cove¬ nant, as not only foretold by Jeremiah, but evidently enriched with much better promifes than the old (ch. viii. throughout) : Explaining farther the dodlrine of the priefthood and interceflion of Chrift, by comparing it with what the Jewifh high-priefts did on the great day of atonement (chap. ix. 1 —14). Afterwards he enlarges on the neceftity of (bedding Chrift’s blood, and the (ufficiency of the atonement made by it (chap. ix. 15. to the end) j and proves that the legal ceremonies could not by any means purify the confcience : whence he infers the infufficiency of the Mofaic law, and the neceftity of looking beyond it (chap. x. 1—15.). He then urges the Hebrews to improve the privileges which fuch an high-prieft and covenant conferred on them, to the purpofes of approaching God with confidence, to a conftant attendance on his-worfhip, and moft benevo¬ lent regards to each other (chap. x. 15—25.). The apoftle having thus obviated the infinuations and objedftions of the Jews, for the fatisfadlion and eftablifti- ment of the believing Hebrew’s, proceeds, 222 If. To prepare and fortify their minds againft the and to anr- ftorm of perfecution which in part had already befallen nme them them, which was likely to continue and be often renew- ed, he reminds them of thofe extremities they had endu- with forti- red, and of the fatal effefts which would attend theirtude. apoftacy SCR [ 45 ] SCR Scripture, apoftacy (chap. x. 26. to the end) ; calling to their remembrance the eminent examples of faith and forti¬ tude exhibited by holy men, and recorded in the Old Teftament (chap. xi. I—29.). He concludes his dif- courfe with glancing at many other illuftrious worthies 5 and, belides thole recorded in Scripture, refers to the cafe of feveral who fuffered under the perfecution of An- 123 The feven Catholic epiftles. Macknight on the E- fijiles. 224 Epiftlf of James the Lefs. tiochus Epiphanes (2 Maccab. chap. viii. &c. chap. xi. 30. xii. 2.). Having thus finifhed the argumentative part of the Epiftle, the apoftle proceeds to a general application j in which he exhorts the Hebrew Chriftians to patience, peace, and holinefs (chap. xii. 3—14.) j cautions them againft fecular views and fenfual gratifications, by lay¬ ing before them the incomparable excellence of the bledings introduced by the gofpel, which even the Jew- ifh economy, glorious and magnificent as it was, did by no means equal; exhorts them to brotherly affection, purity, compaffion, dependence on the divine care, ited- faltnefs in the profedion of truth, a life of thankfulnefs to God, and benevolence to man : and concludes the whole with recommending their pious minifters to their particular regard, intreating their prayers, faluting and granting them his ufual benedidlion. The feven following Epiftles, one of James, two of Peter, three of John, and one of Jude, have been di- ftinguiftied by the appellation of catholic or general epif¬ tles, becaufe moft: of them are infcribed, not to parti¬ cular churches or perfons, but to the body of Jewiftr or Gentile converts over the world. The authenticity of fome of thefe has been frequently queftioned, viz. the Epiftle of James, the fecond of Peter, the Epiftle of Jude, and the fecond and third of John. The ancient Chriftians were very cautious in admitting any books into their canon whofe authenticity they had any reafon to fufpecf. They rejected all the writings forged by heretics in the name of the apoftles, and certainly, there¬ fore, would not receive any without firft fubjecling them to a fevere fcrutiny. Now, though thefe five ^piftles were not immediately acknowledged as the writings of the apoftles, this only Ihows that the perfons who doubted bad not received complete and inconteftable evidence of their authenticity. But as they were af¬ terwards univerfally received, we have every reafon to conclude, that upon a ftrict examination they were found to be the genuine productions of the apoftles. The truth is, fo good an opportunity had the ancient Chriftians of examining this matter, fo careful were they to guard againft impofition, and fo well founded was their judgement concerning the books of the New Tefta¬ ment, that, as Dr Lardner obferves, no writing which they pronounced genuine has yet been proved fpurious, nor have we at this day the leaft reafon to believe any book genuine which they rejefted. That the Epiftle of James was written in the apofto- lical age is proved by the quotations of ancient authors. Clemens Romanus and Ignatius feem to have made re¬ ferences to it. Origen quotes it once or twice.—There are feveral reafons why it was not more generally quoted by the firft Chriftian writers. Being written to cor- reft the errors and vices which prevailed among the Jews, the Gentiles might think it of lefs importance to them, and therefore take no pains to procure copies of it. As the author was ibmetimes denominated James the Juft, and often called bifhop of Jerufalem, it might be doubt¬ ed whether he was one of the apoftles. But its au- Scriptueai thenticity does not feem to have been fufpefted on ac- count of the doctrines which it contains. In modern times, indeed, Luther called it a ftrawy epiftle {cpiftola Jlraminca), and excluded it from the facred writings, on account of its apparent oppofition to the apoftle Paul concerning juftification by faith. This Epiftle could not be written by James the Elder, the fon of Zebedee, and brother of John, who was be¬ headed by Herod in the year 44, for it contains paffages which refer to a later period. It muft, therefore, have been the compofition of James the Lefs, the fon of Alpheus, who was called the Lord's brother, becaufe he was the fon of Mary, the fifter of our Lord’s mother. 223 As to the date of this Epiftle, Lardner fixes it in the The date year 61 or 62. James the Lefs ftatedly refided at Jerufalem, whence he hath been ftyled by fome ancient fathers bifhop of that city, though without fufficient foundation. Now Doddrid- James being one of the apoftles of the circumcifion,an prian, by Origen, and Eufebius. There is fuch a refem- blance between the ftyle and fentiments of this Epiftla and thofe of the gofpel according to John, as to afford the higheft degree of internal evidence that they are the compofilion of the fame author. In the ftyle of this apoftle there is a remarkable peculiarity, and efpecially in this Epiftle. His fentences, confidered feparately, are exceeding clear and intelligible ; but when wefearch for their conneblion, w^e frequently meet with greater dif¬ ficulties than wje do even in the Epiftles of St Paul. The principal fignature and charableriftic of his manner is an artlefs and amiable fimnlicity, and a Angular mo- defty and candour, in conjurbtion with a wonderful fub- limity of fentiment. His conceptions are apparently de¬ livered t© us in the order in which they arofe to his own mind, and are not the produbt of artificial reafoning or laboured inveftigation. It is impoffible to fix with any precifion the date of this Epiftle, nor can we determine to what perfons it was addreffed. The leading defign of the apoftle is to ffiow’ the fufficiency of faith, and the external profeffion of reli-it^ 'S11 05 gion, feparate from morality ; to guard the Chriftians to whom he writes againft the delufive arts of the cor¬ rupters S C R [ 47 ] SCR Sferipture. rupters of Chriflianity, whom he calls Antichrift j and ~~~~v to inculcate univerfal benevolence. His admonitions concerning the neceflity of good morals, and the inef¬ ficacy of external profeffions, are featured over the Epidle, but are molt frequent in the id, 2d, and 3d chapters. The enemies or corrupters of Chriftianity, againft whom he contends, feem to have denied that Jefus was the Meffiah, the Son of God (chap. ii. 22. v. 1.), and had addually come into the world in a human form, (chap. iv. 2, 3.). The earnellnefs and frequency with which this apotlle recommends the duty of bene¬ volence is remarkable. He makes it the diftinguiihing charafteridic of the difciples of Jefus, the only fure pledge of our love to God, and the only affurance of eternal life, (chap. iii. 34, 15.). Benevolence wTa$ his favourite theme, which he affectionately preffed upon other®, and condantly praCtifed himfelf. It was confpi- cuous in his conduct to his great Mafter, and in the reci procal affeCtion which it infpired in his facred bread, fie continued to recommend it in his lad words. When his extreme age and infirmities had fo waded his drength that he was incapable to exercife the duties of his office, the venerable old man, anxious to exert in the fervice of his Mader the little drength which dill remained, caufed himfelf to be carried to church, and, in the midd of the congregation, he repeated thefe words, “ Little children, love one another.” It has been obferved by Dr Mill that the fecond and third Epidles of John are fo ffiort, and referable the fird fo much in fentiment and dyle, that it is not worth while to contend about them. The fecond Epidle con- fids only of 13 verfes; and of thefe eight may be found in the id Epittle, in which the fenfe or language is pre- cifely the fame. The fecond Epidle is quoted by Irenseus, and was received by Clemens Alexandrinus. Both were ad¬ mitted by Athanafius, by Cyril of Jerufalem, and by Jerome. The fecond is addreffed to a woman of di- dinflion whofe name is by fome fuppofed to be Cyrta (iaking itvyet for a proper name), by others Eclecla. The third is infevibed to Gains, or Gains according to the Latin orthography, who, in the opinion of Lardner, was an eminent Cbridian, that lived in fome city of Alia not far from Epbefus, where St John chiefly redded after his leaving Judea. The time of writing thefe two Epiftles cannot be determined with any certainty. They are fo fliort that an analyfis of them is not necef- fary. The Epiflle of Jude is cited by no ancient Chriflian writer extant before Clemens Alexandrinus about the year 194; but this author has tranferibed eight or ten verfes in his Stromata and Pedagogue. It is quoted once by Tertullian about the year 200 ; by Oiigen frequently about 230. It was not however received by many of the ancient Chriftians, on account of a fuppofed quotation from a book of Enoch. But it is rot certain that Jude quotes any book. He only fays that Enoch prophefied, faying, The Lord cometh with ten thoufand of his faints. Thefe might be words of *35 , Second and third E- pitlles of John. 236 Epiftle of Jude. Its authenti¬ city a prophecy preferved by tradition, and inferted occafion- Scripture, ally in different writings. Nor is there any evidence that there was fuch a book as Enoch’s prophecies in the time of Jude, though a book of that name was ex¬ tant in the fecond and third centuries. As to the date of this Epiftle nothing beyond conje£lure can be pro- duC£?* . . . . 237 ine defign of it is, by deferibing the charafler of theanddefign. falfe teachers, and the punifliments to which they were liable, to caution Chriflians againft liftening to their fug- geftions, and being thereby perverted from the faith and purity of the gofpel. The Apocalypfe or Revelation has not always been The Apo- unanimoufly received as the genuine produftion of thetaI-vPf'\ Its apoftle John. Its authenticity is proved, however, by the teftimony of many refpe&able authors of the firitvU.^ centuiies. It is referred to by the martyrs of Lyons : it was admitted by Juftin Martyr as the” work of the apoftle John. It is often quoted by Irenteus, by The- ophilus biihop of Antioch, by Clement of Alexandria, by Tertullian, by Origen, and by Cyprian of Carthage. It was alfo received by heretics, by Novatus and his fol¬ lowers, by theDonatifts, and by the Arians. For the fnft two centuries no part of the New Teftament was more univerfally acknowledged, or mentioned with higher re- fpect. But a difpute having arifen about the millennium, Caius with fome others, about the year 212, to end the controverfy as fpeedily and effectually as poffible, ventu¬ red to deny the authority of the book which had given occafion to it. 2.,s) The book of Revelation, as we learn from Rev. i. 9. The dale was written in the ifle of Patmos. According to theofit“ general teftimony of ancient authors, John was baniftied into Patmos in the reign of Domitian, and reftored by his fucceffor Nerva. But the book could not be pu- blifhed till after John’s releafe, when he returned to E- phefus. As Domitian died in 96, and his perfecution did not commence till near the end of his reign, the Re¬ velation might therefore be publithed in 96 or 97. Here we thould conclude j but as the curious reader may Percy's defire to be informed how the prediclions revealed in this Keyto tha book of St John have ufually been interpreted and ap-1 Tf~ plied, we fliall confidently with our fubjecl fubjoin aJ amai ‘ key to the prophecies contained in the Revelation. This is extracted from the learned diflertations of Dr Newton, biffiop of Bnftol (l) : to which the reader is referred for a more full illuftration of the feveral parts, as the concife- nefs of our plan only admits a fliort analyfis or abridg¬ ment of them. 0 Nothing of a prophetical nature occurs in the firfl three Dr I\ew- chapters, except, 1. What is faid concerning the church ton’se*' of Ephefus, that her “ candleftick fliall be removed out °f of its place,” which is now verified, not only in this, but pe des’ in all the other Afiatic churches which exifted at that which have time; the light of the gofpel having been taken frombe£nal- them, not only by their herefies and divifions from with-readtyr^', in,but by the arms of the Saracens from without: And,CJWi>U S 2. Concerning the church of Smyrna, that (lie fliall “ have tribulation ten daysthat is, in prophetic lan¬ guage, '"•orld °n tlie pro^ec^es which have remarkably been fulfilled, and at this time are fulfilling , in the SCR [48 Scripture guage, “ ten years j” referring to tire perfecuticm of Dioclefian, which alone of all the general peri’ecutions laited fo long. The next five chapters relate to the opening of the Seven Seals ; and by thel'e feals are intimated fo many different periods of the prophecy. Six of thefe feals are opened in the fixth and feventh chapters. The JirJl feal or period is memorable for conquefts. It commences with Vefpafian, and terminates in Nerva j and during this time Judea was fubjugated. The yi?- cond feal is noted for war and daughter. It commences with Trajan, and continues through his reign, and that of his fucceffors. in this period, the Jews were entire¬ ly routed and difperfed ; and great was the daughter and devaftation occafioned by the contending parties. The third feal is charafterifed by a rigorous execution of judice, and an abundant provifion of corn, wine, and oil. It commences with Septimius Severus. He and Alexander Severus were juft and feveie emperors, and at the fame time highly celebrated for the regard they paid to the felicity of their people, by procu¬ ring them plenty of every thing, and particularly corn, wine, and oil. This period lafted during the reigns of the Septimian family. The fourth feal is dif- tinguifhed by a concurrence of evils, fuch as war, fa¬ mine, peftilence, and wild beafts ; by all which the Ro¬ man empire was remarkably infefted from the reign of Maximin to that of Dioclefian. The fifth feal begins at Dioclefian, and is fignalized by the great perfecution, from whence arofe that memorable era, the Era of Martyrs. With Conftantine begins the fixth feal, a period of revolutions, pictured forth by great commo¬ tions in earth and in heaven, alluding to the fubverfion of Paganifm and the eftablilhment of Chriftianity. This period lafted from the reign of Conftantine the Great to that of Theodofius the firft. The feventh feal includes under it the remaining parts of the prophecy, and com¬ prehends feven periods diftinguilhed by the founding of feven trumpets. As the feals foretold the ftate of the Roman empire before and till it became Chriftian, fo the trumpets fore- ftiow the fate of it afterwards ; each trumpet being an alarm to one nation or other, roufing them up to over¬ throw that empire. Four of thefe trumpets are founded in the eighth chapter. At the founding of the firft, Alaric and his Goths invade the Roman empire, befiege Rome twice, and fet it on fire in feveral places. At the founding of the fe- cond, Attila and his Huns wafte the Roman provinces, and compel the eaftern emperor Theodofius the fecond, and the weftern emperor Valentinian the third, to fub- mit to fhameful terms. At the founding of the third, Genferic and his Vandals arrive from Africa 5 fpoil and plunder Rome, and fet fail again with immenfe wealth and innumerable captives. At the founding of the fourth, Odoacer and the Heruli put an end to the very name of the weftern empire ; Theodoric founds the kingdom of the Oftrogoths in Italy ■, and at laft Italy becomes a province of the eaftern empire, Rome being governed by a duke under the exarch of Ravenna. As the foregoing trumpets relate chiefly to the downfal of the weftern empire, fo do the following to that of the eaftern. They are founded in the ninth, tenth, and part of the eleventh chapters. At the founding of the ] SCR fifth trumpet, Mahomet, that blazing ftar, appears, 0- Scripture. pens the bottomlels pit, and with his locufts the Arabi- ans darkens the fun and air. And at the founding of the fixth, a period not yet finiftied, the four angels, that is, the four fultans, or leaders of the Turks and Othmans, are loofed from the river Euphrates. The Greek or Eaftern empire was cruelly “ hurt and tormented” un¬ der the fifth trumpet •, but under the fixth, was “ fiain,” and utterly deftroyed. The Latin or Weftern Church not being reclaimed by the ruin of the Greek or Eaftern, but itill perfifting in their idolatry and wickednefs j at the beginning of the tenth chapter, and under the found of this fixth trumpet, is introduced a vifion preparative to the prophecies re- fpe£Hng the Weftern Church, wherein an angel is repre- fented, having in his hand a little book, or codicil, de- feribing the calamities that fhould overtake that church. The meafuring of the temple ftiows, that during all this period there will be fome true Chriftians, who will con- form themfelves to the rule of God’s word, even whilft the outer court, that is, the external and more extenfive part of this temple or church, is trodden under foot by Gentiles, i. e. fuch Chriftians as, in their idolatrous worihip and perfecuting pradf ice, referable and outdo the Gentiles themfelves. Yet againft thefe corrupters of re¬ ligion there will always be fome true witneffes to proteft, who, however they may be overborne at times, and in appearance reduced to death, yet will arife again from time to time, till at laft; they triumph and glorioufly a- feend. The eleventh chapter concludes witn the found¬ ing of the feventh trumpet. In the twelfth chapter, by the woman bearing a man- child is to be underftood the Chriftian church j by the great red dragon, the heathen Roman empire ; by the man-child whom the woman bore, Conftantine the Great} and by the war in heaven, the contefts between the Chriftian and Heathen religions. In the thirteenth chapter, by the bead with feven heads and ten horns, unto whom the dragon gave his power, feat, and great authority, is to be underftood, not Pagan but Chriftian, not imperial but papal Rome j in fubmitting to whole religion, the world did in efteft fubmit again to the religion of the dragon.. The ten¬ horned beaft therefore reprefents the Romifti church and ftate in general : but the beaft with two horns like a lamb is the Roman clergy j and that image of the ten-horned beaft, which the two-horned beaft caufed to be made, and infpired with life, is the. pope 5 whofe number is 666, according to the numerical powers of the letters conftituting the Roman name Auhvei, Latinus^ or its equivalent in Hebrew, JV'D-Ti Romitft. A A T E 1 N O 2 3° I 300 5 lO 50 70 200 666 200 6 ■> 40 » 10 s 1 o » 400 n 666 Chapter xiv. By the lamb on Mount Sion is meant Jefus ; by the hundred forty ind four thoufan i, ins church and iui.o>,ers j by the angel preaching the ever- lafting- SCR [ 49 ] S C U Scripture lafting gofpel, the firft principal effort made towards a II reformation by that public oppofition formed againft the Scruple. worftjjp 0f faints and images by emperors and bifhops in the eighth and ninth centuries j by the angel crying, “ • Babylon is fallen,” the Waldenfes and Albigenfes, who pronounced the church of Rome to be the A- pocalyptic Babylon, and denounced her deftruflion ; and by the third angel Martin Luther and his fellow reformers, who protefled againft all the corruptions of the church of Rome, as deftruftive to falvation. For an account of the doftrines and precepts contained in the Scriptures, fee Theology. For proofs of their divine origin, fee Religion, Prophecy, and Mira¬ cles. SCRIVENER, one who draws contradfts, or wdiofe bufinefs it is to place money at intereft. If a fcrivener be entrufted with a bond, he may receive the intereft j and if he fail, the obligee fhall bear the lofs : and fo it is if he receive the principal and deliver up the bond; for being entrufted with the fecurity itfelf, it muft be prefumed that he is trufted with power to receive inte¬ reft or principal j and the giving up the bond on pay¬ ment of the money (hall be a difcharge thereof. But if a fcrivener {hall be entrufted with a mortgage-deed, he hath only authority to receive the intereft, not the principal j the giving up the deed in this cafe not being fufficient to reftore the eftate, but there muft be a re¬ conveyance, &c. It is held, where a fcrivener puts out his client’s money on a bad fecurity, which upon in¬ quiry might have been ealily found fo, yet he cannot in equity be charged to anfwer for the money ; for it is here faid, no one would venture to put out money of another upon a fecurity, if he were obliged to warrant and make it good in cafe a lofs ftiould happen, without any fraud in him. SCROBICULUS cordis, the fame as Anticar- SIUM. SCROFANELLO, in Ichthyology, a name by which fome have called a fmall fi(h of the Mediterra¬ nean, more ufually known by the name of the fcor- pcena. SCROLL, in Heraldry. See that article, chap. iv. feft. 9. When the motto relates to the creft, the fcroll is properly placed above the achievement; otherwife it (hould be annexed to the efcutcheon. Thofe of the order of knighthood are generally placed round (hields. SCROPHULA, the king’s evil. See Medicine, N° 349- SCROPHQLARIA, Figwort, a genus of plants belonging to the didynamia clafs, and in the natural method ranking under the 40th order, Perfonatcv. See Botany Index. SCROTUM. See Anatomy, N° 220. SCRUPLE, Scrupulus, or Scrupulum, the leaft of the weights ufed by the ancients, which amongft the Romans was the 24th part of an ounce, or the 3d part of a dram. The fcruple is ftili a weight among us, containing the 3d part of a dram, or 20 grains. Among goldfmiths it is 24 grains. SCRUPLE, in Chaldean Chronology, is TsVo Part °f an hour, called by the Hebrews helakin. Thefe fcruples are much ufed by the Jews, Arabs, and other eaftern people, in computations of time. Scruples of half Duration, an arch of the moon’s Vol. XIX. Part I. orbit, which the moon’s centre deferibes ftom the be¬ ginning of an eclipfe to its middle. SCRUPLES of Immerjion or Incidence, an arch of the moon’s orbit, which her centre deferibes from the be¬ ginning of the eclipfe to the time when its centre falls into the fliadow. SCRUPLES of Emerjton, an arch of the moon’s orbit, which her centre deferibes in the time from the firft emerfion of the moon’s limb to the end of the eclipfe. SCRUTINY, (Scrutinium), in the primitive church, an examination or probation pradtifed in the lalt week of Lent, on the catechumens, who were to receive bap- tifm on the Eafter-day. The ferutiny was performed with a great many ceremonies, Exorcifms and prayers were made over the heads of the catechumens j and on Palm Sunday, the Lord’s Prayer and Creed were given them, which they were afterwards made to rehearfe. This cuftom was more in ufe in the church of Rome than anywhere elfe; though it appears, by fome miffals, to have been likewife ufed, though much later, in the Gallican church. It is fuppofed to have ceafed about the year 860. Some traces of this practice ftili remain at Vienne, in Dauphine, and at Liege. Scrutiny, is alio ufed, in the Canon Law, for a ticket or little paper billet, wherein at eledtions the electors write their votes privately, fo as it may not be known for whom they vote. Among us the term ferutiny is chiefly ufed for a ftridt perufal and examination of the feveral votes haftily taken at an eledtion j in order to find out any irregularities committed therein, by un¬ qualified voters, &c. SCRUTORE, or Scrutoir (from the French ef- critoire), a kind of cabinet, with a door or lid opening downwards, for conveniency of writing on, See. SCRY, in falconry, denotes a large flock of fowl. SCUDDING, the movement by which a ftiip is car¬ ried precipitately before a tempeft. As a Ihip flies with amazing rapidity through the water whenever this ex¬ pedient is put in pradtice, it is never attempted in a contrary wind, unlefs when her condition renders her incapable of fuftaining the mutual effort of the wind and waves any longer on her fide, without being expofed to the moft imminent danger of being over- fet. A (hip either feuds with a fail extended on her fore- maft, or, if the ftorm is exceflive, without any fail : which, in the fea-phrafe, is called feudding under bare poles. In {loops and Ichooners, and other fmall veffels^ the fail employed for this purpofe is called the fquare fail. In large {hips, it is either the forefail at large, reefed, or with its goofe-wings extended, according to the degree of the tempeft ; or it is the fore-top fail, clofe reefed, and lowered on the cap ; which laft is particularly ufed when the fea runs fo high as to becalm the forefail occafionally, a circumftance which expofes the fliip to the danger of broaching to. The principal hazards incident to feudding are generally, a pooping fea 5 the difficulty of fleering, which expofes the veffel perpetually to the rifk of broaching to; and the want of fufficient fea-room. A fea ftriking the fliip violently on the ftern may dafli it inwards, by which ffie muft inevi¬ tably founder. In broaching to (that is, inclining fud- denly to windward), fire is threatened with being imme¬ diately overturned 5 and, for want of fea-room, Ihe is en- G dangered Scruple I! Scudding. S C U [ s° ] S C U cwdding, dangered by fhipwreck on a lee-fliore, a circumftance flioes worn by Haves of both fexcs. Thefe (hoes were Scu’p-^e?d Scuiponea;. t00 jreadfai to require explanation. only blocks of wood made hollow, like the French fa-v-* SCULPONE/E, among the Romans, a kind of bots. S C U I, P T U 11 E, Definition of fculp- ture. Origin of it, # Apucl Syncellum, P- 37^ f Hijl. Nat Jib. vii. cap 5«- not folely from idola¬ try; IS the art of carving wood or hewing ftone into ima¬ ges. It is an art of the moll remote antiquity, being praftifed, as there is reafon to believe, before the general deluge. We are induced to affign to it this early origin, by confidering the expedients by which, in the firit llages of fociety, men have everywhere hip- plied the place of alphabetic characters. Thefe, it is univerfally known, have been picture-writing, fuch as that of the Pdexicans, which, in the progrefs of refine¬ ment and knowledge, was gradually improved into the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians and other ancient na¬ tions. See Hieroglyphics. That mankind fliould have lived near 1700 years, from the creation of the world to the flood of Noah, without falling upon any method to make their concep¬ tions permanent, or to communicate them to a diitance, is extremely improbable ; efpecially when we call to mind that fuch methods of writing have been found, in modern times, among people much lefs enlightened than thofe mud have been who were capable of building fuch a velfel as the ark. But if the antediluvians weie acquainted with any kind of writing, there can be little doubt of its being hieroglyphical writing. Mr Bryant has proved that the Chaldeans were poffeffed of that art before the Egyptians ; and Berofus * informs us, that a delineation of all the monftrous forms which inhabit¬ ed the chaos, when this earth was in that date, was to be feen in the temple of Belus in Babylon. This deli¬ neation, as he deferibes it, mult have been a biftory in hieroglyphical characters; for it confilted of human fi¬ gures with wings, with two heads, and fome with the horns and legs of goats. This is exaCtly fimilar to the hieroglyphical writing of the Egyptians ; and it was preferved, our author fays, both in drawings and engra¬ vings in the temple of the god of Babylon. As Chal¬ dee was the firit peopled region of the earth after the flood, and as it appears from Pliny f, as well as from Berofus, that the art of engraving on bricks baked in the fun was there carried to a confiderable degree of perfection at a very early period, the probability cer¬ tainly is, that the Chaldeans derived the art of hierogly¬ phical writing, and confequently the rudiments of the art of fculpture, from their antediluvian anceftors. It is generally thought that fculpture had its origin from idolatry, as it was found neceflfary to place betore the people the images of their gods to enliven the fer¬ vour of their devotion : but this is probably a miltake. The worlhip of the heavenly bodies, as the only gods of the heathen nations, prevailed fo long before the dei¬ fication of dead men was thought of (fee Polytheism), that we cannot fuppofe mankind to have been, during all that time, ignorant of the art of hieroglyphical wri¬ ting. But the deification of departed heroes undoubt¬ edly gave rife to the almoft univerfal praCtice of repre- fenting the gods by images of a human form ; and therefore we mufl conclude, that the elements of fculp¬ ture were known before that art was employed to en¬ liven the devotion of idolatrous worfhippers. The py¬ ramids and obelifks of Egypt, which were probably7 temples, or rather altars, dedicated to the fun (fee Py¬ ramid), were covered from top to bottom with hiero- giyphical emblems of men, bealts, birds, fillies, and rep¬ tiles. at a period prior to that in which there is any un¬ exceptionable evidence that mere ftatue-worihip pre¬ vailed even in that nurlery of idolatry. But though it appears thus evident that picture- writing was the firit employment of the fculptor, we probably are far from imagining that idolatrous worlhip did not contributed contribute to carry his art to that perfection which itt0 carry attained in fome of the nations of antiquity. Even in ^fedlion the dark ages of Europe, when the other fine arts were'01*' almoft extinguithed, the mummery of the church of Rome, and the veneration which Ihe taught tor her faints and martyrs, preferved among the Italians fome veltiges of the filler-arts of fculpture and painting ; and therefore, as human nature is everywhere the lame, it is reafonable to believe that a fimilar veneration fo'r he¬ roes and demigods would, among the ancient nations, have a fimilar eftcCt. But if this be fo, the prefump- tion is, that the Chaldeans were the firft wrho invented the art of hewing blocks of wood and flone into the fi¬ gures of men and other animals; for the Chaldeans were unqueftionably the firft idolaters, and their early pro¬ grefs in fculpture is confirmed by the united tellimonies of Berofus, Alexander Polyhiftor, Apollodorus, and Pliny ; not to mention the eaftern tradition, that the father of Abraham was a ftatuary. ^ Again!! this conclufion Mr Bromley, in his late Hi-Mr Brom- ftory of the Fine Arts, has urged fome plaufible argu-ley’s theo- ments. In dating thefe he profefles not to be original, D, that or to derive his information fiom the fountain-head was^iwe^it- antiquity. He adopts, as he tells us, the theory of a td by the French writer, who maintains, that in the year of the scythians, world 1949, about 300 years after the deluge, the Scy- ians under Brouma, a defeendant of Magog the fon of Japhet, extended their conquefts over the greater part of Afia. According to this fyftem, Brouma was not only the civilizer of India, and the author of the brami- nical doCtrines, but alfo diffufed the principles of the Scythian mythology over Egypt, Phoenicia, Greece, and the continent of Afia. Of thefe principles Mr Bromley has given us no di- ftinCt enumeration ; the account which he gives of them is not to be found in one place, but to be collected from a variety of diftant paffages. In attempting therefore to prefent the fubftance of his fcattered hints intone view, we will not be confident that we 'have omitted none of them. The ox, fays he, was the Scythian em¬ blem of the generator of animal life, and hence it be¬ came the principal divinity of the Arabians. The fer- pent was the fymbol of the fource of intelligent nature. Thefe were the common points of union in all the firft religions X SCULP religions of the earth. From Egypt the Ifraelites car¬ ried with them a religious veneration for the ox and the ierpent. Their veneration for the ox appeared foon af¬ ter thev marched into the wildernefs, when in the ab- fence of Mofes they called upon Aaron to make them gods which fhould go before them. The idea of ha¬ ving an idol to go before them, fays our author, was completely Scythian 5 for fo the Scythians a&ed in all their progrefs through Alia, with this difference, that their idol was a living animal. The Ifraelites having gained their favourite god, which was an ox (not a calf as it is rendered in the book of Exodus), next proceed¬ ed to hold a feftival, which was to be accompanied with dancing ■, a fpecies of gaiety common in the fefti- vais which were held in adoration of the emblematic Urotal or ox in that very part of Arabia near Mount Sinai where this event took place. It is mentioned too as a curious and important fa£f, that the ox which was revered in Arabia was called Adovsz. According¬ ly Aaron announcing the feait to the ox or golden calf, fbeaks thus, to-morrow is a feajl to Adonai, which is in our translation rendered to the Lord. In the time of Jeroboam we read of the golden calves fet up as objefts of worship at Bethel and Dan. Nor was the reverence paid to the ox confined to Scythia, to Egypt, and to Afia ; it extended much farther. The ancient Cimbri, as the Scythians did, carried an ox of bronze before them on all their expeditions. Mr Bromley alfo informs us, that as great refpect was paid to the living ox among the Greeks as was offered to its fymbol among other na¬ tions. The emblem of the ferpent, continues Mr Bromley, was marked yet more decidedly by the exprefs direc¬ tion of the Almighty. That animal had ever been confidered as emblematic of the fupreme generating power of intelligent life : And was that idea, fays he, difcouraged, fo far as it went to be a fign or fymbol of life, when God faid to Mofes, “ Make thee a brazen ferpent, and fet it on a pole, and it fhall come to pafs that every one who is bitten, when he lookelh on it, fhall live.” In Egypt the ferpent furrounded their Ills and Ofiris, the diadems of their princes, and the bon¬ nets of their priefts. The ferpent made a diftinguifhed figure in Grecian fculpture. The fable of Echidne, the mother of the Scythians, gave her figure termina¬ ting as a ferpent to all the founders of Hates in Greece ; from which their earlieft fculptors reprefented in that form the Titan princes, Cecrops, Draco, and even Eric- thonius. Beiides the fpear of the image of Minerva, which Phidias made for the citadel of Athens, he pla¬ ced a ferpent, which wras fuppofed to guard that god- defs. The ferpent was combined with many other figures. It fometimes was coiled round an egg as an emblem of the creation ; fometimes round a trident, to fhow its power over the fea ; fometimes it encircled a flambeau, to reprefent life and death. In F.gypt, as well as in Scythia and India, the di¬ vinity was reprefented on the leaves of the tamara or lotus. Pan was worfhipped as a god in that country, as well as over the eaft. Their fphinxes, and all their combined figures of animal creation, took their origin from the mother of the Scythians, who brought forth an offspring that was half a woman and half a ferpent. Their pyramids and obelifks arofe from the idea of flame j T U R E. ' S' the fir ft emblem of the fupreme principle, introduced by the Scythians, and which even the influence of Zoroa- fter and the Magi could not remove. We are told that the Bacchus of the Greeks is de¬ rived from the Brouma of the Indians; that both are reprefented as feated on a fwan fwimming over the waves, to indicate that each was the god of humid na¬ ture, not the god of wine, but the god of waters. The mitre of Bacchus was fliaped like half an egg 5 an em¬ blem taken from this circumftance, that at the creation the egg from which all things fprung wras divided in the middle. Pan alfo was revered among the Scythians ; and from that people wrere derived all the emblems by which the Greeks reprefented this divinity. It would be tedious to follow7 our author through the whole of this fubjeft ; and were we to fubmit to the la¬ bour of collecting and arranging his fcattered materials, we fhould ftill view his fyftem with fome degree of fuf- picion. It is drawn, as he informs us, from the work of M. D’Ancarville, intitled, Recherches fur ROrigwe, I'Efprit, et tes Progres, des Arts de la Grece. . To form concluiions concerning the origin of nations, jp founded, the rife and progrefs of the arts and fciences, without the aid of hiftorical evidence, by analogies which arc fometimes accidental, and often fanciful, is a mode of reafoning which cannot readily be admitted. 1 here may indeed, w7e acknowledge, be refemblances in the re¬ ligion, language, manners, and cuftoms, of different na¬ tions, fo ftriking and fo numerous, that to doubt of their being defcended from the fame flock would favour of fcepticifm. But hiftorical theories muft not be adopt¬ ed raflfty. We muft be certain that the evidence is credible and fatisfa&ory before we proceed to deduce any conclufions. We muft firft know whether the Scythian hiftory itfelf be authentic, before we make any comparifon with the hiftory of other nations. But what is called the Scythian hiftory, every man of learn¬ ing knows to be a colleftion of fables. Herodotus and Juftin are the two ancient writers from whom we have the fulled; account of that warlike nation ; butthefe two hiftorians contradict each other, and both write what cannot be believed of the fame people at the fame pe¬ riod of their progrefs. Juftin tells us, that there was a long and violent conteft between the Scythians and E- gyptians about the antiquity of their refpeCtive nations 5 and after Hating the arguments on each fide of the que- ftion, which, as he gives them *, are nothing to the pur- * p. pofe, he decides in favour of the claim of the Scy-cap. i. thians. Hefodotus was too partial to the Egyptians, not to give them the palm of antiquity : and he was probably in the right 5 for Juftin defcribes his mort an¬ cient of nations, even in the time of Darius Hyftafpes, as ignorant of all the arts of civil life. “ They occu¬ pied their land in common (fays he), and cultivated none of it. They had no houfes nor fettled habitations, but wandered with their cattle from defert to defert. In thefe rambles they carried their wives and children in tumbrels covered with the {kins of beafts, which fer- ved as houfes to proteft them from the ftorms of win¬ ter. They were without laws, governed by the diftates of natural equity. They coveted not gold or filver like the reft of mankind, and lived upon milk and honey. Though they were expofed to extreme cold, and had abundance of flocks, they knew not how to make gar¬ ments of wool, but clothed themfelves in the {kins of 52 t Lib. ii. cap. i. $ Lib. vii. j Lib. iv. cap. 6i. 6 Egyptian fculpture. SCULPTURE. wild hearts f.” This is the moft favourable account which any ancient writer gives of the Scythians. By Strabo X and Herodotus § they are reprelented as the molt favage of mortals, delighting in war and bloodihed, cutting the throats of all ftrangers who came among them, eating their flefh, and making cups and pots of their fkulls. Is it conceivable that fuch favages could be fculptors j or that, even fuppofing their manners to have been fuch as Juftin reprefents them, a people fo fxmple and ignorant could have impofed their mytho- logy upon the Chaldeans, Phenicians, and Egyptians, whom we know by the moil incontrovertible evidence to have been great and polifhed nations fo early as in the days of Abraham ? No ! We could as foon admit other novelties of more importance, with which the French of the prefent age pretend to enlighten the world, as this origin afligned by Mr Bromley to the art of fculpture, unlefs fupported by better authority than that of D’Ancarville. The inference of our author from the name of the facred ox in Arabia, and from the dancing and gaiety which were common in the religious feftivals of the Arabians, appears to us to be very haftily drawn. At the early period of the departure of the Ifraelites from Egypt, the language of the Hebrews, Egyptians, and Arabians, differed not more from each other than do the different dialebts of the Greek tongue which are found in the poems of Homer (fee Philology, Sed>. III.) ; and it is certain, that for many years after the iormution of the golden-calf, the Hebrews were flran- gers to every fpecies of idolatry but that which they had brought with them from their houfe of bondage. See Remfhan. Taking for granted, therefore, that the Scythians did not impcfe their mythology on the eaftern nations, and that the art of fculpture, as well as hieroglyphic writing and idolatrous worlhip, prevailed firft among the Chal¬ deans, -we rtrall endeavour to trace the progrefs of this art through fome other nations of antiquity, till we bring it to Greece, where it was carried to the higheft per- fe&ion to which it has yet attained. The firrt intimation that we have of the art of fculp¬ ture is in the book of Genefis, where we are informed, that when Jacob, by the divine command, wras return¬ ing to Canaan, his wife Rachel carried along with her the teraphim or idols of her father. Thefe we are af- fured were fmall, fmce Rachel found it fo eafy to con¬ ceal them from her father, notwithftanding his anxious fearch. We are ignorant, however, how thefe images were made, or of what materials they were compofed. The firil perfon mentioned as an artift of eminence is Bezaleel, who formed the cherubims which covered the mercy- feat. The Egyptians alfo cultivated the art of fculpture *, but there were two circumftances which obftrufted its progrefs, i. The perfons of the Egyptians were not poffeffed of the graces of form, of elegance, or of fym- metry } and of confequence they had no perfeft ftandard to model their tafle. They refembled the Chinefe in the cart of their face, in their great bellies, and in the clumfy rounding of their contours. 2. They were re- ftrained by their laws to the principles and praflices of their anceftors, and were not permitted to introduce any innovations. Their ftatues were always formed in the fame ftiff attitude, with the arms hanging perpendicular¬ ly down the {ides. What perfection were they capable of who knew no other attitude than that of chairmen ? So far were they from attempting any improvements, that in the time of Adrian the art continued in the fame rude ftate as at firrt ; and when their llavilh adu¬ lation for that emperor induced them to place the fta- tue of his favourite Antinous among the objefts of their worfhip, the fame inanimate fliffnefs in the atti¬ tude of the body and pofition of the arms was obferved. We believe it will fcarcely be neceffary to inform our readers that the Egyptian ftatue juft now mentioned is very different from the celebrated ftatue of Antinous, of which fo many moulds have been taken that imita¬ tions of it are now to be met with almoft in every cabi¬ net in Europe. Nothwithftanding the attachment of the Egyptians to ancient ufages, Winkelman thinks he has difcovered two different ftyles of fculpture which prevailed at different periods. The firft of thefe ends with the conqueft of Egypt by Cambyfes. The fecond begins at that time, and extends beyond the reign of Alexander the Great. ^ In the firft ftyle, the lines which form the contour are Firft ftyle. ftraight and projeCling a little j the pofition is ftiff and unnatural : In fitting figures the legs are parallel, the feet fqueezed together, and the arms fixed to the fides j but in the figures of women the left arm is folded aerofs the breaft j the bones and mufcles are faintly difcernible j the eyes are flat and looking obliquely, and the eyebrows funk—features which deftroy entirely the beauty of the head ; the cheek-bones are high, the chin fmall and piked ; the ears are generally placed higher than in na¬ ture, and the feet are too large and flat. In ftiort, if we are to look for any model in the ftatues of Egypt, it is not for the model of beauty but of deformity. The ftatues of men are naked, only they have a fhort apron, and a few folds of drapery furrounding their waift : The veftments of women are only diftinguifhable by the border, which rifes a little above the furface of the ftatue. In this age it is evident the Egyptians knew little of drapery. 8 Of the fecond ftyle of fculpture pradiced among the Second Egyptians, Winkelman thinks he lias found fpecimensftyie. in the two figures of bafaltes in the Capitol, and in an¬ other figure at Villa Albani, the head of which has been renewed. The firft two of thefe, he remarks, bear vifible traces of the former flyle, which appear efpecial- ly in the form of the mouth and ftiortnefs of the. chin. The hands pofi'efs more elegance; and the feet are placed at a greater diftance from each other, than was cuftomary in more ancient times. In the firft and third figures the arms hang down clofe to the fides. In the fecond they hang more freely. Winkelman fufpe&s that thefe three ftatues have been made after the con¬ queft of Egypt by the Greeks. They are clothed with a tunic, a robe, and a mantle. The tunic, which is puckered into many folds, defcends from the neck to the ground. The robe in the firft and third ftatues feems clofe to the body, and is only perceptible by fome little folds. It is tied under the breaft, and cover¬ ed by the mantle, the two buttons of which are placed under the epaulet. The Antinous of the Capitol is compofed of two pieces, which are joined under the haunches. But as all the Egyptian ftatues which now remain have been hewn out of one block, we muff; believe that Diodorus, in 53 SCULP in faying the (tone was divided, and each half finifhed by a feparate artizan, fpoke only of a coloffus. The fame author informs us, that the Egyptians divided the human body into 24^ parts j but it is to be regretted that he has not given a more minute detail of that dh vilion. The Egyptian ftatues were not only formed by the chifel, they were all'o polifhed with great care. Even thofe on the fummit of an obelilk, which could only be viewed at a diftance, were finilhed with as much labour and care as if they had admitted a clofe infpeftion. As they are generally executed in granite or bafaltes, Hones of a very hard texture, it is impoflible not to admire the indefatigable patience of the artifts. The eye was often of different materials from the reft of the ftatue j fometimes it was compofed of a precious ftone or metal. We are affured that the valuable dia¬ mond of the emprefs of Ruffia, the largeft and moft beautiful hitherto known, formed one of the eyes of the famous ftatue of Scheringham in the temple of Bra- ma. Thofe Egyptian ftatues which ftill remain are com¬ pofed of wood or baked earth : and the ftatues of earth are covered with green enamel. Phenfcian The Phenicians poffeffed both a charafter and fitua- iculpture. ti°n highly favourable to the cultivation of ftatuary. They had beautiful models in their own perfons, and their induftrious charafter qualified them to attain per- fedlion in every art for which they had a tafte. Their fituation raifed a fpirit of commerce, and commerce in¬ duced them to cultivate the arts. Their temples ftione with ftatues and columns of gold, and a profufion of emeralds was everywhere fcattered. All the great works of the Phenicians have been unfortunately deftroyed ; but many of the Carthaginian medals are ftill preferved, ten of which are depofited in the cabinet of the grand duke of Florence. But though the Carthaginians were a colony of Phenicians, we cannot from their works 10 jU(^Ke °‘ ^ie merit of their anceftors. This art not The Perfians made no diftinguifhed figure in the arts cultivated of defign. They were indeed lenfible to the charms of t*ie beauty, but they did not ftudy to imitate them. Their 1 ‘ drefs, which confifted of long flowing robes concealing the whole perfon, prevented them from attending to the beauties of form. Their religion, too, which taught them to worfhip the divinity in the emblem of fire, and that it was impious to reprefent him under a human form, feemed almoft to prohibit the exercife of this art, by taking away thofe motives which alone could give it dignity and value ; and as it was not cuftomary among them to raife ftatues to great men, it was impoflible that „ ftatuary could flourilh in Perfia. Etrurian The Etrurians or ancient Tufcans, in the opinion of fculpture. Winkelman, carried this art to fome degree of perfec¬ tion at an earlier period than the Greeks. It is faid to have been introduced before the firge of Troy by De- dalus, who, in order to efcape the reientment of Minos king of Crete, took refuge in Sicily, from whence he paffed into Italy, where he left many monuments of his art. Paufanias and Diodorus Siculus informs us, that (ome works afcribed to him were to be feen when they wrote, and that thefe poffeffed that charafter of majef- ty which afterwards diftinguilhed the labours of Etru¬ ria. A character ftrongjy marked forms the chief diftinc- T U R E. lion in thofe produ&ions of Etruria which have defcend- ed to us. Their ftyle was indeed harflr and overchar¬ ged ; a fault alfo committed by Michael Angelo the ce¬ lebrated painter of modern Etruria •, for it is not to be luppoled that a people of fuch rude manners as the E- trurians could communicate to their works that vivid- nefs and beauty which the elegance of Grecian manners infpired. On the other hand, there are many of the Tufcan ftatues which bear fo clofe a refemblance to thofe of Greece, that antiquarians have thought it pro¬ bable that they were conveyed from that country, or Magna Graecia, into Etruria, about the time of the Ro¬ man conqueft, when Italy was adorned with the fpoils of Greece. J2 Among the monuments of Etrurian art two different pirft ftyle*. ftyles have been obferved. In the firft the lines are ftraight, the attitude ftiff, and no idea of beauty ap¬ pears in the formation of the head. The contour is not well rounded, and the figure is too flender. The head is oval, the chin piked, the eyes flat, and looking afquint. Thefe are the defefts of an art in a ftate of infancy, which an accompliflied mafter could never fall into, and are equally confpicuous in Gothic ftatues as in the pro- du&ions of the ancient natives of Florence. They re- femble the ftyle of the Egyptians fo much, that one is almoft induced to fuppofe that there had once been a communication between thefe two nations; but others think that this ftyle was introduced by Dedalus. 13 Winkelman fuppofes that the fecond epoch of this Second art commenced in Etruria, about the time at which had reached its greateft perfe&ion in Greece, in the age of Phidias j but this conjefture is not fupported by any proofs. To defcribe the fecond ftyle of fculpture among the Etrurians, is almoft the fame as to defcribe the ftyle of Michael Angelo and his numerous imita¬ tors. The joints are ftrongly marked, the mufcles raifed, the bones diftinguifhable } but the whole mien harfh. In defigning the bone of the leg, and the fepa- ration of the mufcles of the calf, there is an elevation and ftrength above life. The ftatues of the gods are de- figned with more delicacy. In forming them, the ar- tifts w'ere anxious to Ihow that they could exercife their power without that violent diftenfion of the mufcles which is neceflary in the exertions of beings merely human ; but in general their attitudes are unnatural, and the aftions ftrained. If a ftatue, for inftance, hold any thing with its fore fingers, the reft are ftretched out in a ftiff pofition. According to ancient hiftory, the Greeks did not emerge from the favage ftate till a long time after the Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Indians, had arrived at a confiderable degree of civilization. The original rude inhabitants of Greece were civilized by colonies which arrived among them, at different times, from Egypt and Phenicia. Thefe brought along with them the re, ligion, the letters, and the arts of their parent coun¬ tries : and if fculpture had its origin from the worfhip of idols, there is reafon to believe that it was one or the arts which were thus imported ; for that the gods of Greece were of Egyptian and. Phenician estraftioa is a fa£t incontrovertible (fee Mysteries, Mytho¬ logy, Philology, Seft. VII. Philosophy, N° 19, and Titan). The original ftatues of the gods, how¬ ever, were very rude. The earlieft objects of idolatrous wcrfliip 54 SCULPT U R E. vvorfliip have everywhere bees the heavenly bodies •, and the fymbols confecrated to them were generally pillars of a conical or pyramidal ligure. It was not till hero- worlhip was engrafted on the planetary, that the fculp- tor thought of giving to the facred flatue any part of the human form (lee Polytheism, N° 19, 23.); and ‘t appears to have been about the era of their revolution in idolatry that the art of fculpture was introduced among the Greeks. The firfi: reprefentations of their gods were round Hones placed upon cubes o* pillars ; and thefe Hones they afterwards formed roughly, lo as to give them fomething of the appearance of a head. Agreeable to this defcription was a Jupiter, which Pau- fanias faw in Tegeum, in Arcadia. Thefe reprefenta¬ tions were called Hermes; not that they reprefented Mercury, but from the word Herma, which fignified a rough Hone. It is the name which Homer gives to the Hones which were ufed to fix velfels to the flrore. Paufanias faw at Pheres 30 deities made of unformed blocks or cubical Hones. The Lacedemonians repre¬ fented Caflor and Pollux by two parallel polls ; and a tranfverfe beam was added, to exprefs their mutual af¬ fection. If the Greeks derived from foreign nations the rudi¬ ments of the arts, it mufi redound much to their ho¬ nour, that in a few centuries they carried them to fuch wonderful perfeftion as entirely to eclipfe the fame of their mafiers. It is by tracing the progrefs of fculpture among them that we are to Hudy the hifiory of this art 5 and we fliall fee its origin and fucccffive improvements correfpond with nature, which always operates fiowly and gradually. View of Grecian Sculpture. Caufes The great fuperiority of the Greeks in the art of which pro- fculpture may be afcribed to a variety of caufes. ihe rooted the Jnfiuence of climate over the human body is fo Hriking, ture tCUiP" that it muff have fixed the attention of every thinking Greece. man who has refle&ed on the fubjefl. The violent heats of the torrid zone, and the exceffive cold of the polar regions, are unfavourable to beauty. It is only in the mild climates of the temperate regions that it appears in its moH attraftive charms. Perhaps no coun¬ try in the world enjoys a more ferene air, lefs tainted with miHs and vapours, or poffeffes in a higher degree tl-it mild and genial warmth which can unfold and expand the human body into all the fymmetry of mufcular Hrength, and all the delicacies of female beauty in great¬ er perfection, than the happy climate of Greece; and never was there any people that had a greater tafie for beauty, or were move anxious to improve it. Of the four wiflies of Simonides, the fecond was to have a hand- fome figure. The love of beauty was fo great among the Lacedemonian women, that they kept in their chambers the flatues of Nereus, of Narciffus, of Hya- cinthus, and of Caflor and Pollux *, hoping that by often contemplating them they might have beautiful children. There was a variety of circumflances in the noble and virtuous freedom of the Grecian manners that rendered thefe models of beauty peculiarly fubfervient to the cultivation of the fine arts. There were no tyrannical laws, as among the Egyptians, to check their progrefs. Thevhad the belt opportunities to fludy them in the 2 public places, where the youth, who needed no other veil than chaflity and purity of manners, performed their various exercifes quite naked. They had the flrongeft motives to cultivate fculpture, for a Hatue was the high- efl honour which public merit could attain. It was an honour ambitioufly fought, and granted only to thole who had diflinguithed them'elves in the eyes of their fellow citizens. As the Gi-eeks preferred natural qua¬ lities to acquired accomplifliments, they decreed the firfl rewards to thofe who excelled in agility and Hrength of body. Statues were often raifed to wrefllers. Even the mofl eminent men of Greece, in their youth, fought renown in gymnaflic exercifes. Chryfippus and Cle- anthes diflinguilhed themfelves in the public games be¬ fore they were known as phiiofophers. Plato appeared as a wrefller both at the Iflhmian and Pythian games j and Pythagoras carried off the prize at Elis, (lee Py¬ thagoras). The paflion by which they were infpired was the ambition of having their Hatues ereffed in the moff facred place of Greece, to be feen and admired by the whole people. The number of flatues erected on different occafions was immenle ; of courfe the number of artiHs mult have been great, their emulation ardent, and their progrefs rapid. As mofl: of their ftatues were decreed for thofe who vanquilhed in the public games, the artifts had the op¬ portunity of feeing excellent models ; for thafe who furpaffed in running, boxing, and wreftling, mult in ge¬ neral have been well formed, yet would exhibit different kinds of beauty. The high eftimation in which fculptors were held was very favourable to their art. Socrates declared the artifts the only wife men. An artift could be a legifla- tor, a commander of armies, and might hope to have his flatue placed befide thofe of Miltiades and Themii- tocles, or thofe of the gods themfelves. Befides, the honour and fuccefs of an artift did not depend on the caprice of pride or of ignorance. The produftions of .art w’ere eflimated and rewarded by the greateft fages in the general affembly of Greece, and the fculptor who had executed his wTork wdth ability and tafte was confi¬ dent of obtaining immortality. It was the opinion of Winkelman, that liberty was highly favourable to this art ; but, though liberty is ab- folutelv neceffary to the advancement of fcience, it may be doubted whether the fine arts owe their improvement to it. Sculpture fiourithed mofl: in Greece, when Pe¬ ricles exercifed the powder of a king ; and in the reign of Alexander, when Greece was conquered. It attain¬ ed no perfetHon in Rome till Auguftus had enflaved the Romans. It revived in Italy under the patronage of the family of Medici, and in France under the defpotic rule of Louis XIV. It is the love of beauty, luxury, wealth, or the patronage of a powerful individual, that promotes the progrefs of this art. 15 It will now be proper to give a particular account of Grecian the ideas which the Greeks entertained concerning the“!ea^of flandard of beauty in the different parts of the human ' body. And with refpeft to the head, the profile which 1ot l^e 1 the beauty of which the ancients made to confift in'a gentle elevation. So anxious were the wTcmen to re- femble this ftandard, that they ufed feveral arts to re- ftrain the growth of their breafts. The breafts of the nymphs and goddeffes were never reprefented fwelling, becaufe that is peculiar to thofe wromen 'who fuckle. The paps of Venus contraCt and end in a point, this being confidered as an effential charaderiftic of perfed beauty. Some of the moderns have tranfgreffed thefe ruleSj and have fallen into great improprieties. The 56 S C U L I The lower part of the body in the flatues of men was formed like that of the living body after a profound fleep and good digeftion. The navel was confiderably funk, efpecially in female flatues. Ideal beau- As beauty never appears in equal perfe&ion in every ty- part of the fame individual, perfect or ideal beauty can only be produced by feledling the moft beautiful parts from different models} but this muff be done with fuch judgement and care, that thefe detached beauties when united may form the moft exaft fymmetry. Yet the ancients fometimes confined themfelves to one indivi¬ dual, even in the moft flourifhing age. Theodorus, whom Socrates and his difciples vifited, ferved as a mo¬ del to the artifts of his time. Phryne alfo appears to have been a model to the painters and fculptors. But Socrates, in his converfation with Parrhafius, fays, that when a perfeft beauty was to be produced, the artifts joined together the moft ftriking beauties which could be colle&ed from the fineft figures. We know that Zeuxis, when he wfas going to paint Helen, united in one picture all the beauties of the moft handfome women of Crotona. 26 The dra- The Grecian fculptors, who reprefented wdth fuch pery ol fta- fuccefs the moft perfedt beauty of the human form, were tues‘ not regardlefs of the drapery of their ftatues. They clothed their figures in the moft proper fluff, which they wrought into that fhape which was beft calculated to give effedl to their defign. The veftments of women in Greece generally con- fifted of linen cloth, or fome other light fluff, and in latter times of filk and fometimes of woollen cloth. They had alfo garments embroidered wdth gold. In the works of fculpture, as wrell as in thofe of painting, one may diftinguifh the linen by its tranfparency and fmall united folds. The other light fluffs which were worn by the wTomen (a) were generally of cotton produced in the ifle of Cos 5 and thefe the art of ftatuary was able to diftinguifh from the linen veftments. The cotton cloth was fometimes ftriped, and fometimes embellifhed with a profufion of flowers. Silk was alfo employed ; but whether it wras known in Greece before the time of the Roman emperors cannot eafily be determined. In paint¬ ings, it is diftinguifhable by changing its colour in dif¬ ferent lights to red, violet, and fky-blue. '.Lhere were two forts of purple ; that which the Greeks called the colour of the fea, and Tyrian purple, which refembled lac. Woollen garments are eafily known by the ampli¬ tude of their folds. Befides thefe, cloth of gold fome¬ times compofed their drapery : but it vcas not like the modern fabric, confifting of a thread of gold or of filver fpun w ith a thread of filk ; it was compofed of gold or filver alone, without any mixture. The veftments of the Greeks, which deferve particu- lar attention, are the tunic, the robe, and the mantle. The tunic. The tunic wras that part of the drefs which wras next to the body. It may be feen in {leeping figures, or in thofe in diftiabille j as in the Flora Farnefe, and in the flatues of the Amazons in the Capitol. The youngeft of the daughters of Niobe, who throws herfelf at her —— — — (a) Men fometimes wore cotton, but 1 T U ft fi. mother’s fide, is clothed only with a tunic. It was of linen, or fome other light fluff, without fleeves, fixed to the fhoulders by a button, fo as to cover the whole breaft. None but the tunics of the goddefs Ceres and comedians have long ftraight fleeves. 23 The robes of wTomen commonly confifted of two long The robe.- pieces of woollen cloth, without any particular form, at¬ tached to the {boulders by a great many buttons, and fometimes by a clafp. They had ftraight fleeves which came down to the wrifts. The young girls, as wTell as the wmmen, faftened their robe to their fide by a cinc- tui'e, in the fame w’ay as the high-prieft of the Jew’s fa¬ ftened his, as it is ftill done in many parts of Greece. The cinflure formed on the fide a knot of ribbons fometimes refembling a rofe in flrape, which has been particularly remarked in the two beautiful daughters of Niobe. In the younger of thefe the cindlure is feen puf¬ fing over the fhoulders and the back. Venus has two cindlures, the one pafling over the fhoulder, and the other furrounding the waift. The latter is called cejlus by the poets. 2p The mantle was called peplon by the Greeks, which The ma». fignifies properly the mantle of Pallas. The name was tie. afterwards applied to the mantles of the other gods, as w’ell as to thofe of men. This part of the drefs was not fquare, as fome have imagined, but of a roundifh form. The ancients indeed fpeak in general of fquare mantles, but they received this fhape from four taffels which were affixed to them ‘x two of thefe were vifible, and two were concealed under the mantle. The mantle w7as brought under the right arm, and over the left fhoulder •, fometimes it was attached to the fhoulder by two buttons, as may be feen in the beautiful flatue of Leucothoe at Villa Albani. ,0 The colour of veftments peculiar to certain ftatues is The colour too curious to be omitted. To begin writh the figures of of the veft- the gods.—The drapery of Jupiter wras red, that of Nep- ments. tune is fuppofed by Winkelman to have been fea-green. The fame colour alfo belonged to the Nereids and Nymphs. The mantle of Apollo was blue or violet. Bacchus was dreffed in white. Martianus Capella af- figns green to Cybele. Juno’s veftments were fky-blue, but fhe fometimes had a white veil. Pallas was robed in a flame-coloured mantle. In a painting of Hercula¬ neum, Venus is in flowing drapery of a golden yellow. Kings were arrayed in purple ; priefts in white j and conquerors fometimes in fea-green. With refpedl to the head, women generally wmre no covering but their hair ; when they wifhed to cover their head, they ufed the corner of their mantle.— Sometimes wre meet with veils of a fine tranfparent tex¬ ture. Old women wmre a kind of bonnet upon their head, an example of which may be feen in a flatue in the Capitol, called the Prafica ; but Winkelman thinks it is a ftatue of Hecuba. The covering of the feet confifted of flioes or fandals. The fandals were generally an inch thick, and compofed of more than one foie of cork. Thofe of Pallas in Villa Albani has two foies, and other ftatues had no lefs than five. Winkelman who did fo were reckoned effeminate. Tour fty'e' of thi< a t amO'ig the Creek-. 32 The ao- «teut Ityle. 33 t 'The grand ftyle. SCULP WiNKELMAV has afligned four different ftyles to this art. The ancient ftyle, which continued until the time of Phidias ; the ttyle, formed by that celebrated Italuary \ the beautiful, introduced by Praxiteles, A- pelles, and Ly lip pus; and tile imitative Uyle, pratlifed by thole artids who copied the works of the ancient mailers. The molt authentic monuments of the ancient ityle are medals, containing an infeription, which leads us back to very ddlant tunes. The writing is from right to left in the Henrew manner ; a ufage which was aban¬ doned be* e the tune of Herodotus. The ilatue of Agamem Elis, which was made by Ornatas, has an iniedpdo from tight to left. This artiian tiourifh- ed 50 years beiore Phidias ; it is in the intervening pe¬ riod ib ere lore between thefe two artids, tnat we are to look for the ceffation of this pradice. The ilatues formed in the ancient ft)le were neither diilmguiihed by beauty of (nape nor by proportion, but bore a ciofe refemblance to thole of ihe Egyptians and Etrurians (b) j the eyes were long and flat } the fedion of the mouth not horizontal ; the chin was pointed ; the curls of the hair were ranged in little rings, and refembled grains inclofed in a heap of raifins. What was ftill worfe, it was impoflible by infpeding the head to diltin- guifh the fex. The charaders of this ancient flyle were thefe : The defigning was energetic, but harfh ; it was animated, but without gracehdnefs j and the violence of the ex- preffion deprived the whole figure of beauty. The grand flyle was brought to perfedion by Phi¬ dias, Polycletus, Scopas, Alcamenes, Myron, and other illuflrious artifls. It is probable, from fame paffages of ancient writers, that in this llyle were preferved fome charaders of the ancient manner, fuch as the ftraight lines, the fquares and angles. The ancient mailers, fuch as Polycletus, being the legiflators of proportions, fays Winkelman, and of confequence thinking they had a right to diflribute the meafures and dimenfions of the parts of the human body, have undoubtedly facrificed ibrne degree of the form of beauty to a grandeur which is harfh, in comparifon of the flowing contours and graceful forms of their fucceffors.—'Che moft confider- able monuments of the grand flyle are the flatties of Niobe and her daughters, and a figure of Pallas, to be leen in Villa Albani ; which, how'ever, mull not be confounded with the flatue which is modelled according to the firfl flyle, and is alfo found in the fame place. The head poffeffes all the charaders of dignified beauty, at the fame time exhibiting the rigidnefs of the an¬ cient ftyle. The face is defedive in gracefulnefs; yet it is evident how eafy it would have been to give the features more roundnefs and grace. The figures of Niobe and her daughters have not, in the opinion of Winkelman, that auflerity of appearance which marks the age of the flatue of Pallas. They are charaderifed by grandeur and fimplicity : fo fimple are the forms, that they do not appear to be the tedious produdions of art, but to have been created by an inflantaneous effort of nature. Vol. XIX. Part I. TUBE. , 57 The third ftyle was the graceful or beautiful. Ly- 34 fippus was perhaps the artill who introduced this Being more converfant than his predeceffois with the ^ fweet, the pure, the flowing, and the beautiful lines of nature, he avoided the fquare forms which the mafters of the fecond llyle had too much employed. He was of opinion that the ufe of the art was rather to pleafe than to aftonifti, and that the aim of the artilf fhould be to raife admiration by giving delight. Ihe artifts who cultivated this ftyle did not, however, negled to ftudy the fublime works of their predeceffors. They knew that grace is confiftent with the moft dignified beauty, and that it poffeffes charms which mult ever pleale ; they knew alfo that thefe charms are enhanced by dig¬ nity. Grace is infufed into all the movements and atti¬ tudes of their ftatues, and it appears in the delicate turns of the hair, and even in the adjufting of the drapery. Every fort of grace was well known to the ancients ; and great as the ravages of time have been amongft the works of art, fpecimens are ftill preferved, in which can be diftinguifhed dignified beauty, attraBive beauty, and a beauty peculiar to infants. A fpecimen of dignified beauty may be feen in the ftatue of one of the mules in the palace of Barberini at Rome ; and in the garden of the pope, on the Quirinal, is a ftatue of another mufe, which affords a fine inllance of attrablive beauty. Win¬ kelman fays that the moil excellent model of infant beauty which antiquity has tranfmitted to us is a fatyr of a year old, which is preferved, though a little muti¬ lated, in Villa Albani. 35 . The great reputation of Praxiteles and Apelles railed 1"lie i™*1* an ardent emulation in their fucceffors, who defpairing to furpafs luch illuftrious mafters, were fatisfied with imitating their works. But it is well known that a mere imitator is always inferior to the mafter whom he at¬ tempts to copy. When no original genius appears, the art mult therefore decline. 36 Clay was the firft material which was employed in Materials ftatuary. An inftance of this may be feen in a figure o* Grecian of Alcamenes in bas-relief in Villa Albani. The an- kdtues- cients ufed their fingers, and efpecially their nails, to render certain parts more delicate and lively : hence arofe the phrafe ad ungue/n faftus homo, “ an accom- clay ani pliftied man.” It was the opinion of Count Caylus thatplafter. the ancients did not ufe models in forming their ftatues. But to difprove this, it is only neceffary to mention an engraving on a Hone in the cabinet of Slofch, which re- prefents Prometheus engraving the figure of a man, with a plummet in his hand to meafure the proportions of his model. The ancients as well as the moderns made works in plafter ; but no fpecimens remain except fome figures in bas-relief, of which the moft beautiful were found at Baia. The works made of ivory and filver were generalty ivory fij„ of a fmall fize. Sometimes, however, ftatues of a pro-ver) a’ri4 digious fize were formed of gold and ivory. The co- gold, loffal Minerva of Phidias, which was compofed of thefe materials, was 26 cubits high. It is indeed fcarcely PI poflible (b) This is a proof additional to thofe that will be found in the articles to which we have referred, that the Greeks received the rudiments of the art of fculpture from the nations lo which they were confeffedly indebted for ths elements of fcience. .'9 Marble. 40 Porphyry. 4r Expreffion and atti¬ tude. 42 In the fta- tues of the *ods. Iw the ft.l- *uts of heroes SCULP pofllble to believe that ftatues of fuch a fize could en¬ tirely confifl of gold and ivory. The quantity of ivory neceffary to a coloffal fiatue is beyond conception. M. de Paw calculates that the ftatue of Jupiter Olympus, which was 54 feet high, would confume the teeth of 300 elephants. The Greeks generally hewed their marble flatues out of one block, though they after worked the heads fepa- rately, and fometimes the arms. The heads of the famous group of Niobe and her daughters have been adapted to their bodies after being feparately finifned. It is proved by a large figure reprefen ting a river, which is preferved in Villa Albani, that the ancients firft hewed their ftatues roughly before they attempted to finilh any part. When the ftatue had received its per¬ fect figure, they next proceeded to polfth it with pumice- ftone, and again carefully retouched every part with the chifel. The ancients, when they employed porphyry, ufually made the head and extremities of marble. It is true, that at Venice there are four figures entirely compofed of porphyry ^ but thefe are the productions of the Greeks of the middle age. They alfo made ftatues'of bafaltes and alabafter. Without expreffi.on, gefture, and attitude, no figure can be beautiful, becaufe in thefe the graces always re- fide. It was for this reafon that the graces are always reprefented as the companions of Venus. The exprefiion of tranquillity was frequent in Grecian ftatues, becaufe, according to Plato, that was confider- ed as the middle ftate of the foul between pleafure and pain. Experience, too, fhows that in general the moft beautiful perfons are endowed with thefweeteft and moft engaging manner. Without a fedate tranquillity digni¬ fied beauty could not exift. It is in this tranquillity, therefore, that we muft look for the complete difplay of genius. The moft elevated fpecies of tranquillity and repofe was ftudied in the figures of the gods. The father of the gods, and even inferior divinities, are reprefented with¬ out emotion or refentment. It is thus that Homer paints Jupiter (baking Olympus by the motion of his hair and his eyebrows. Shakes his ambrofial curls, and gives the nod, The ftamp of fate and fan ft ion of the god. Jupiter is not always exhibited in this tranquil ftate. In a bas-relief belonging to the marquis Ilondini he ap¬ pears feated on an arm-chair with a melancholy afpeft. The Apollo of the Vatican reprefents the god in a fit of rage againft the ferpent Python, which he kills at a blow. The artift, adopting the opinion of the poets, has made the nofe the feat of anger, and the lips the feat of difdain. To exprefs the aftion of a hero, the Grecian fculptors delineated the countenance of a noble virtuous charafter xeprefting his groans, and allowing no expreffion of pain to appear. In defcribing the aftions of a hero the poet has much more liberty than the artift. The poet can paint them fuch as they were before men were taught to fubdue their paffions by the reftraints of law, or the refined cuftoms of focial life. Eut the artift, obliged to feleft the moft beautiful forms, is reduced to the neceffity of giving fuch an expr effion of the paffions T U It E. as may not (hock our feelings and difguft us with his produftion. The truth of thefe remarks will be ac¬ knowledged by thofe who have feen two of the moft beau¬ tiful monuments of antiquity j one of which reprefents the fear of death, the other the moft; violent pains and fufferings. The daughters of Niobe, againft whom Diana has difcharged her fatal arrows, are exhibited in that ftate of ftupefaftion which vve imagine muft take place when the certain profpeft of death deprives the foul of ail fenfibility. The fable prefents us an image of that ftupor which Efchylusdefcribes as feizingthe daughters of Niobe when they were transformed into a rock. The o- ther monument referred to is the image of Laocoon, which exhibits the moft agonizing pain that can affeft the mufcles, the nerves, and the veins. The fufterings of the body and the elevation of the foul are expreffed in every member with equal energy, and form the mod fublime contraft imaginable. Laocoon appears to fuf- fer with fuch fortitude, that, whilft Iris lamentable fitu- ation pierces the heart, the whole figure fills us with an ambitious defire of imitating his conftancy and magna¬ nimity in the pains and fuffeiings that may fall to our lot. Philoftetes is introduced by the poets (bedding tears, uttering complaints, and rending the air with his groans and cries; but the artift exhibits him filent and bear¬ ing his pains with dignity. The Ajax of the celebra¬ ted painter Timomachus is not drawn in the aft of de- ftroying the (beep which he took for the Grecian chiefs, but in the moments of refleftion which fucceeded that frenzy. So far did the Greeks carry their love of calmnefs and (low movements, that they thought a quick ftep always announced rufticity of manners. De- mofthenes reproaches Nicobulus for this very thing j and from the words he makes ufe of, it appears, that to fpeak with infolence and to walk haftily were reckoned fynonymous. ^ In the figures of women, the artifts have conformed1:1 ft»e fta- to the principle obferved in all the ancient tragedies, andtues of recommended by Ariftolle, never to make women (how "0me11* too much intrepidity or exceffive cruelty. Conforma¬ ble to this maxim, Clytemneftra is reprefented at a little diftance from the fatal fpot, watching the murderer, but without taking any part with him. In a painting of Timomachus reprefenting Medea and her children, when Medea lifts up the dagger they fmile in her face, and her fury is immediately melted into compaffion for the innocent viftims. In another reprefentation of the fame fubjeft, Medea appears hefitaling and indecifive. Guided by the fame maxims, the artifts of moft refined tafte were careful to avoid all deformity, choofing rather to recede from truth than from their accuftomed refpeft: for beauty, as may be feen in feveral figures of Hecuba. Sometimes, however, (he appears in the decrepitude of age, her face furrowed with wrinkles, and her breads hanging down. ^ Illuftrious men, and thofe invefted with the offices oH11 the ffa- dignity, are reprefented with a noble affurance and firmtues t^e afpeft. The ftatues of the Roman emperors refemble^er"^n thofe of heroes, and are far removed from every fpecies of flattery, in the gefture, in the attitude, and aftion. They never appear with haughty looks, or with the fplendor of royalty ; no figure is eyer feen prefenting any thing to them with bended knee, except captives ; and none addrcffcs them with an inclination of the head. In 59 46 Of propor¬ tions. SCULPT UR E. In modern works too little attention has been paid to the ancient cojlume. Winkelman mentions a bas-relief, which was lately executed at Rome for the fountain of Trevi, reprefenting an architcdl in the act of prefenting the plan of an aquedudt to Marcus Agrippa. I he mo¬ dern fculptor, not content with giving a long beard to that illuftrious Roman, contrary to all the ancient mar¬ ble ftatues as well as medals which remain, exhibits the architedf on his knees. In general, it was an eftablifned principle to banilh all violent paffions from public monuments. This will ferve as a decifive mark to diftinguifh the true antique from fuppofititious works. A medal has been found exhibiting two Aflyrians, a man and woman tearing their hair, with this infcription, Assyria, et. ta- EAESTINA. IN. POTEST. P. R. REDAC. S. C. The for¬ gery of this medal is manifeft from the word Palaefti- tia, which is not to be found in any ancient Roman me¬ dal with a Latin infcription. Befides, the violent ac¬ tion of tearing the hair does not fuit any fymbolical figure. This extravagant ftyle, which was called by the ancients parenthyrfis, has been imitated by moil: of the modern artills. Their figures refemble comedians on the ancient theatres, who, in order to fuit the diftant fpec- tators, put on painted mafks, employed exaggerated geilures, and far overleaped the bounds of nature. This flyle has been reduced into a theory in a treatife on the paliions compofed by Le Brim. The defigns which ac¬ company that work exhibit the paffions in the very higheft degree, approaching even to frenzy : but thefe are calculated to vitiate the tafle, efpecially of the young", for the ardour of youth prompts them rather to feize the extremity than the middle ", and it will be dif¬ ficult for that artifl who has formed his taile from fuch empaffioned models ever to acquire that noble fimplicity and fedate grandeur which diltinguilhed the works of ancient tafte. Proportion is the bafis of beauty, and there can be no beauty without it on the contrary, proportion may exilt where there is little beauty. Experience every day teaches us that knowledge is diftintfl from tafte ; and proportion, therefore, which is founded on knowledge, may be ftridlly obferved in any figure, and yet the figure have no pretenfions to beauty. The an¬ cients confideving ideal beauty as the moft perfeft, have frequently employed it in preference to the beauty of nature. The body confifts of three parts as well as the mem¬ bers. The three parts of the body are the trunk, the thighs, and the legs. The inferior parts of the body are the thighs, the legs, and the feet. The arms alfo confift of three parts. Thefe three parts muft bear a certain proportion to the whole as well as to one an¬ other. In a well formed man the head and body muft be proportioned to the thighs, the legs, and the feet, in the fame manner as the thighs are proportioned to the legs and the feet, or the arms to the hands. The face alfo confifts of three parts, that is, three times the length of t he nofe •, but the head is not four times the length of the nofc, as fome writers have afterted. From the place where the hair begins to the crown of the head are only three-fourths of the length of the nofe, or that part is to the nofe as 9 to 12. It is probable that the Grecian, as well as Egyptian artifts, have determined the great and fmall proportions by fixed rules 5 that they have eftablilhed a pofitive meafure for the dimenfions of length, breadth, and cir¬ cumference. This fuppofition alone can enable us to account for the great conformity which we meet with in ancient ftatues. Winkelman thinks that the foot was the meafure which the ancients ufed in all their great dimenfions, and that it 'was by the length of it that they regulated the meafure of their figures, by giving to them fix times that length. This in fadt is the length which Vitruvius affigns, Pcs vero altiludinis cor¬ poris fextee, lib. iii. cap. 1. That celebrated antiquary thinks the foot is a more determinate meafure than the head or the face, the parts from which modern painters and fculptors too often take their proportions. This pro- portiois of the foot to the body, which has appeared ftrange and incomprehenfible to the learned Huetius, and has been entirely rejedted by Perrault, is however found¬ ed upon experience. After meafuring with great care a vaft number of figures, Winkelman found this pro¬ portion obferved not only in Egyptian ftatues, but alfo in thofe of Greece. This fact may be determined by an infpedtion of thofe ftatues the feet of which are per¬ fect. One may be fully convinced of it by examining fome divine figures, in which the ar.tifts have made fome parts beyond their natural dimenfions. In the Apollo Belvidere, which is a little mere than feven heads high, the foot is three Roman inches longer than the head. The head of the Venus de Medicis is very fmall, and the height of the ftatue is feven heads and a half : the foot is three inches and a half longer than the head, or precifely the fixth part of the length of the whole ftatue. Practice of Sculpture. VtE have been thus minute in our account of thscsrcfan Grecian fculpture, becaufe it is the opinion of the ableftfcuipture critics that modern artifts have been more or lefs emi-tobeftu- nent as they have ftudied with the greater or lefs atten-c*]ecl by ‘he tion the models left us by that ingenious people : 11 ar" Wfinkelman goes fo far as to contend that the moft fi-' 1 “ niffied wrorks of the Grecian mafters ought to be ftudied in preference even to the works of nature. This ap¬ pears to be paradoxical; but the reafon affigned by the Abbe for his opinion is, that the faireft fines of beauty are more eafily difeovered, and make a more ftriking and powerful impreffion, by their reunion in thefe fub- lime copies, than when they are fcattered far and wide in the original. Allowing, therefore, the ftudy of na¬ ture the high degree of merit it fo juftly claims, it muft neverthelefs be granted, tha*- it leads to true beauty by a much more tedious, laborious, and difficult path, than the ftudy of the antique, which prefents immediately to the artift’s view the objedt of his refearches, and com¬ bines in a clear and ftrong point of light the various rays of beauty that are difperfed through the wide do¬ main of nature. As foon as the artift has laid this excellent founda¬ tion, acquired an intimate degree of familiarity with the beauties of the Grecian ftatues, and formed his tafte af¬ ter the admirable models they exhibit, he may then pro¬ ceed with advantage and afiurance to the imitation of nature. The ideas he has already formed of the perfec¬ tion of nature, by obferving her difperfed beauties com¬ bined and colletfted in the compofitions of the ancient K 2 aftifts, 6o SCULP artifts, will enable him to acquire with facility, and to employ with advantage, the detached and partial ideas of beauty which will be exhibited to his view in a liir- vey of nature in her a&ual date. When he difcovers thefe partial beauties, he will be capable of combining them with thofe perfect forms of beauty with which he is already acquainted. In a word, by having always prefent to his mind the noble models already mentioned, he will be in fome meafure his own oracle, and will draw rules from his own mind. Two ways ^ere are> however, two ways of imitating nature, ftfimita- in the one a Angle objedt occupies the artift, wjho en- ting na- deavours to reprefent it with precifion and truth ^ in taie* the other, certain lines and features are taken from a variety of objects, and combined and blended into one regular whole. All kinds of copies belong to the firlt kind of imitation ; and produftions of this kind muft be executed neceflarily in the Dutch manner, that is to lay, with high finifhing, and little or no invention. But the lecond kind of imitation leads diredlly to the invefti- gation and difcovery of tru» beauty, of that beauty whofe idea is connate with the human mind, and is only to be found there in its higheft perfection. This is the kind of imitation in which the Greeks excelled, and in which men of genius excite the young artifts to ex¬ cell after their example, vi*. by ftudying nature as they did. After having ftudied in the productions of the Gre¬ cian mafters their choice and expreflion of feleCt na¬ ture, their fublime and graceful contours, their noble draperies, together with that fedate grandeur and ad¬ mirable limplicity that conftitute their chief merit, the curious artifts will do well to ftudy the manual and me¬ chanical part of their operation?, as this is abfolutely neceffary to the fuccefsful imitation of their excellent 49 manner. Models of It is certain that the ancients almoft always formed ftatues. mcxlels in wax ; to this modern artifts have fubftituted clay, or fome Inch compofttion : they prefer day before vrax in the carnations, on account of the yielding nature of the latter, and its {ticking in fome meafure to every thing it touches. We muft not, how¬ ever, imagine from hence that the method of forming models of wet clay was either unknowm or negleCled among the Greeks ; on the contrary, it was in Greece that models of this kind w^ere invented. Their author was Dibutades of Sicyon ; and it is well known that Arcefilas, the friend of Lucullus, obtained a higher de¬ gree of reputation by his clay models than by all his other productions. Indeed, if clay could be made to pn fcrve its original moifture, it would undoubtedly be the fitteft fubftance for the models of the fculptor j but when it is placed either in the fire or left to dry im¬ perceptibly in the air, its folid parts grow more com- paCt, and the figure lofing thus a part of its dimenfions, is neceffarily reduced to a fmaller volume. This dimi- nution would be of no confequence did it equally aiteCI the ivhole figure, fo as to prelerve its proportions en¬ tire. But this is not the cafe: for the fmaller parts of the figure dry fooner than the larger; and thus lofing more of their dimenfions in the fame fpace of time than the latter do. the fymmetry and proportions of the figure inevitably fuffer. This inconveniency does not take place in thofe models that are made in wax. It is in¬ deed extremely difficult, in the ordinary method of T U R E. working the wax, to give it that degree of fmoothnefs that is neceffary to reprefent the foftnefs of the carnations or fleftiy parts of the body. This inconvenience may, however, be remedied, by forming the model firft in clay, then moulding it in plafter, and laftly calling it in wax. And, indeed, clay is feldom ufed but as a mould in which to caft a figure of plafter, ftucco, or wax, to ferve henceforth for a model by which the meafures and proportions of the ftatue are to be ad- jufted. In making waxen models, it is common to put half a pound of colophony to a pound of wax ; and fome add turpentine, melting the whole wdth oil of olives. So much for the firft or preparatory fteps in this j 0j- procedure. It remains to confider the manner of work-working ing the marble after the model fo prepared 5 and the the mar- method here followed by the Greeks feems to haveble’and been extremely different from that which is generally cbferved by modern artifts. In the ancient ftatues we find the moft ftriking proofs of the freedom and boldnefs that accompanied each ftroke of the chifel, and which refulted from the artift’s being perfedlly fure of the accuracy of Ins idea, and the precifion and fteadinefs of his hand : the moft minute parts of the figure carry thefe marks of affurance and freedom ; no indication of timoroufnefs or diffidence appears j no¬ thing that can induce us to fancy that the artift had occafion to correft any of his ftrokes. It is difficult to find, even in the fecond-rate productions of the Gre¬ cian artifts, any mark of a falfe ftroke or a random touch. This firmnefs and precifion of the Grecian chi¬ fel were certainly derived from a more determined and perfect fet of rules than thofe which are obfervedin mo¬ dern times. The method generally obferved by the modern fculp- tor is as follows : Firft, out of a great block of marble he faws another of the fize required, which is perform¬ ed with a fmooth fteel faw, without teeth, calling water and fand thereon from time to time ; then he faffiions it, by taking off what is fuperfluous with a fteel point and a heavy hammer of foft iron ; after this, bringing it near the meafure required, he reduces it ftill nearer with another finer point} he then ufes a flat cutting inftrument, having notches in its edge j and then a chifel to take off the fcratches which the former has left; till, at length, taking rafps of different degrees of finenefs, by degrees he brings his work into a condition for polifhing. After this, having ftudied his model with all poffiblc attention, he draws upon this model horizontal and per¬ pendicular lines which interfefl each other at right angles. He afterwards copies thefe lines upon his marble, as the painter makes ufe of fuch tranfverfal lines to copy a picture, or to reduce it to a fmaller fize, Thefe tranfverfal lines or fquares, drawn in an equal number upon the marble and upon the model, in a man¬ ner proportioned to their refpeCtive dimenfions, exhibit accurate meafures of the furfaces upon which the artift is to work •, but cannot determine, with equal precifion, the depths that are proportioned to thefe furfaces.—- The fculptor, indeed, may determine thefe depths by obferving the relation they bear to his model 5 but as his eye is the only guide he has to follow in this efti- mate, he is always more or lefs expofed to error, or at leaft to doubt. He is never fure that the cavities made *>7 SCULP Iby his chifel are exaft j a degree of uncertainty accom¬ panies each ftroke j nor can he be affured that it has carried away neither too much nor too little of his mar¬ ble. It is equally difficult to determine, by fuch lines as have already been mentioned, the external and inter¬ nal contours of the figure, or to transfer them from the model to the marble. By the internal contour is un- derftood that which is delcribed by the parts which ap¬ proach towards the centre, and which are not marked in a ftriking manner. It is farther to be noticed, that in a complicated and laborious work, which an artiif cannot execute without affiftance, he is often obliged to make ufe of foreign hands, that have not the talents or dexterity that are neceffary to finiffi his plan. A fingle ftroke of the chifel that goes too deep is a defeft not to be repaired ; and fuch a ftroke may eafily happen, where the depths are fo imperfeftly determined. Defeats of this kind are inevitable, if the fculptor, in chipping his marble, begins by forming the depths that are requifite in the figure he defigns to reprefent. Nothing is more liable to error than this manner of proceeding. The cautious artift ought, on the contrary, to form thefe depths gradually, by little and little, with the utmoft circumfpeftion and care 5 and the determining of them with precifion ought to be confidered as the laft part of his work, and as the -! finiftu'ng touches of his chifel. of copying The various inconveniences attending this method ancient fta- determined feveral eminent artifts to look out for one tues. wou}j foe fia^le to lefs uncertainty, and productive of fewer errors. The French academy of painting at Rome hit on a method of copying the ancient ftatues, which fome fculptors have employed with fuccefs, even in the figures which they finithed after models in clay or wax. This method is as follows. The ftatue that is to be copied is inclofed in a frame that fils it exaftly. The upper part of this frame is divided into a certain number of equal parts, and to each of thefe parts a thread is fixed with a piece of lead at the end of it. TURK. , 6k Thefe threads, which hang freely, (how what parts of the ftatue are moft removed from the centre with much more perfpicuity and precifion than the lines which are drawn on its furface, and which pafs equally over the higher and hollow parts of the block : they alfo give the artift a tolerable rule to meafure the more ftriking varia¬ tions of height and depth, and thus render him more bold and determined in the execution of his plan. But even this method is not without its defeCls : for as it is impoffible, by the means of a ftraight line, to determine with precifion the procedure of a curve, the artift has, in this method, no certain rule to guide him in his contours ; and as often as the line w'hich he is to defcribe deviates from the direftion of the plumb line, why^h is his main guide, he muft neceffarily feel himfelf at a lofs, and be obliged to have recourfe to conjecture. It is alfo evident, that this method affords no certain rule to determine exadlly the proportion which the va¬ rious parts of the figure ought to bear to each other, confidered in their mutual relation and connections. The artift, indeed, endeavours to fupply this defeCt by interfeCting the plumb-lines by horizontal ones. This recourfe has, neverthelefs, its inconveniences, fince the fquares formed by tranfverfal lines, that are at a diftance from the figure (though they be exaftly equal), yet re¬ prefent the parts of the figure as greater or (mailer, ac¬ cording as they are more or lefs removed from our pofi- tion or point of view. But, notwithftanding thefe in¬ conveniences, the method now under confideration is certainly the beft that has hitherto been employed : it is more practicable and lure than any other we know, though it appears, from the remarks we have now been making, that it does not exhibit a fure and univerfal cri¬ terion to a fculptor wdro executes after a model. ^ To poliih the ftatue, or make the parts of it fmooth Of polifu*- and (leek, pumice-ftone and fmelt areufed; then tripoli •, ingthe and when a (till greater luftre is required, burnt draw is^atue> employed. For the Cqjling of Statues, fee FoundERY, and Plaster of Paris. s c u Scutn, SCUM, properly denotes the impurities which a Scurvy, liquor, by boiling, calls up to the furface. The term is allb ufed for what is more properly called the fcor’a of metals. SCUPPF.RS, in a (hip, are certain channels cut through the water-ways and fides of a (hip, at proper diftances, and lined with plated lead, in order to carry the wrater off from the deck into the fea. The fcuppcrs of the lower deck of a (hip of war are ufually furniffied v-uh a leathern pipe, called the fcupper-hofe, which 1 .mgs downward from the mouth or opening of the frupper. The intent of this is to prevent the water from entering when the (hip inclines under a weight of fail. SCURVY, in Medicine, fee that article, N° 351, where we have given an account of the fymptoms, caufes, and modes of prevention and cure, according to fome of the moft eminent writers in medicine. We have here only to add, that, in the opinion of Dr Beddoes, the mineral acids, efpecially the nitric and vitriolic, may s c u be employed in the prevention or cure of this dreadful Scurvy difeafe with as much fuccefs as the vegetable acids.— SI But of all the fubftances that can at once be cheaply , s"ute‘ i procured and long preferved, he thinks the concrete acid of tartar by far the moft promifing. It is very grateful, and comes near to the citric acid. In tropical countries the fcurvy is feldom known. SCURVT-Grafs. See Cochlearea, Botany Index. SCUTAGF. (fcutagiurn, Sax. fcildpeningf was a tax or contribution raifed by thofe that held lands by knights fervice, towards furniihing the king’s army, at one, two, or three merks for every knight’s fee. Hen¬ ry III. for his voyage to the Holy Land, had a tenth granted by the clergy, and fcutage, three merks of every knight’s fee by the laity. This was alfo levied by Hen¬ ry II. Richard I. and King John. See KNIGHT-Service. SCUFF (fcutum), a French gold coin of 3s. qffi in the reign of King Henry V. Catharine queen of Eng¬ land had an affurance made her of fundry caftles, manors, lands, &c. valued at the fum of 40,000 /cutes, every Scytala S C Y [ 62 Scutellaria every Itvo whereof were worth a noble. Rot. Par/. 1. Hen. VI. SCUTELLARIA, Skull-cap, a genus of plants, belonging to the didynamsa clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the 40th order, Perfonatrv. See Botany Index. SCUTTLES, in a fliip, fuLuare holes cut in the deck, big enough to let down the body of a man, and which ferve upon lome occahons to let the people down into any room below, or from one' deck to another. SCYLAX, a celebrated mathematician and geogra¬ pher of Caria, flouriihed under the reign of Darius Hyf- tafpes, about 558 B. C. Some have attributed to him the invention of geographical tables. We have under his name a geographical work publithed by Hoefchelius; but it is written by a much later author, and is perhaps only an abridgement 6f Scylax’s Ancient Geography. SCYLLA, in Ancient Geography, a rock in the Fretum Siculum, near the coaft of Italy, dangerous to flapping, oppohte to Charybdis, a whirlpool on the coal! of Sicily 5 both of them famous in mythology. Suther- Scylla and Charybdis have been almoft" fubdued by land's Tour the repeated convulfions of this part of the earth, and in zip the Straits, Letter xh by the violence of the current, which is continually in- creafmg the breadth of the ftraits. If proper allowance be made for thefe circumtfances, we (hall acquit the an¬ cients of any exaggeration, notwithdanding the very dreadful colours in which they have painted this nafiage. It is formed by a low peninlula, called Cape Pe/orus, firetching to the ealhvard on the Sicilian fide, immedi¬ ately within which lies the famous whirlpool of Charyb¬ dis, and by the rocks of Scylla, which a few miles be¬ low on the Calabrian fhore projeft towards the weft. 1 he current runs with furprifing force from one to the other alternately in the di reft ion of the tide, and the tides themfelves are very irregular. Thus veffels, by fhunning the one, were in the utmoft danger of being fwallowed up by the other. At prefent, in moderate weather, when the tide is either at ebb or flood, boats pafs all over the whirlpool: but, in general, it is like the meeting of two contending currents, with a number of eddies all around ; and, even now, there is fcarcely a winter in which there are not feme wrecks. “ At the time when we palled the flraits (fays Cap¬ tain Sutherland, from whom xve have obtained this ac¬ curate information) the weather was as favourable as we could with ; and yet, in fpite of a ftrong breeze and the current, which hurried us on with furpriling velo¬ city, the fhip’s head was fuddenly whirled round near three points ; but the wind blowing frefh, in a few fe- conds the daihed through the eddy that had caught her ; for, to avoid Scylla, and fecure Medina, we had kept pretty clofe to Charybdis.” For a later account of thefe rocks, fee Sicily. SCYROS, an ifland in the EEgean fea, at the di¬ llance of about 28 miles north-e a ft from Euboea. It is 60 miles in circumference. It was originally in the pof- feftion of the Pelafgians and Carians. Achilles retired there to avoid going to the Trojan war, and became fa¬ ther of Neoptolemus by Deidamia the daughter of King Lyccmedes. Scyros was conquered by the Athenians under Cimon. It was very rocky and barren. Now Sciro. E. Long. 25. o. N. Lat. 38. 15. SCYTALA LACONICA, in antiquity, a ftratagem or 4 ] S C Y . * device of the Lacedemonians, for the fecret writing of letters to their correfpondents, fo that if they ihould chance to be intercepted, nobody might he able to read ' them.—To tnis end they had two wooden rollers or cy¬ linders, perfectly alike and equal; one whereof was kept in the city, the other by the perfon to whom the letter was direfted. For the letter, a fkin of very thin parchment was wrapped round the roller, and thereon was the matter written 5 which done, it was taken off, and fent away to the party, who, upon putting it hi the fame manner upon his roller, found the lines and words in the very fame diipoiltion as when they were firft written, i his expedient they let a very high value on ; though, in truth, artlefs and grcls enough : the moderns have improved vaftly on this method of writing. See Cipher. SCYTALIA, a genus of plants belonging to the oftandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking with thofe that are doubtful. See Botany Index. SCYTHE, in Hijbandnjp a well known inftrument which has been long employed for cutting grafs for hav. The fame inftrument with certain modifications its conllruftion has been ufed in reaping grain, in place of the fickle the ufe of which is far more common, and in Scotland at leaft: prevails almoft univerfally, al¬ though it muft be admitted that the method of reaping by the feythe, where it is practicable, is attended with leis labour, is more expeditious, and therefore mere economical. But againft the ufe of the feythe, as a reaping inftrument, many objections have been raifed. Some of thefe are probably founded in prejudice, while others, confidering the flow progrefs which has been made in introducing this inftrument as a fubftitute for the fickle, reft on a more fo’id foundation. It is laid that this inftrument (hakes the ear, fo that many of the grains are loft ; that it lets the corn fall after it is cut, in a fcattered confufed manner, in confe-i quence of which either a great deal of it is loft, or much time is wafted in gathering it together. It is al- fo affirmed that it can only be made ufe of in very even land, and which is free from ftones ; that it does not leave length enough of ftubble on the ground, on which to lay the corn when it is cut \ that it mixes noxious weeds with tbe corn, the feeds of which are fown the enfuing year *, and finally, that the life of the feythe is prejudicial to the health of the reaper. It appears, however, that thefe objeftions have either no weight, or they are made by thofe who are unac¬ quainted with the feythes peculiarly adapted to this pur- pofe, and with the manner in which they ought to be ufed. With a good feythe properly managed, the corn when cut, remains at firft upright, afterwards fal- ling gently on the rake fixed to the feythe, without any {baking or jolting, or at leaft with lefs than what is occafioned by the fickle. The lofs of grain chiefly arifes from the corn being too dry, and therefore it ought to be reaped on proper days, and fuitable limes of the day, which is more eafily accomplifhed by the fevthe than the fickle, becaufe the one requires lefs time than the other. The ftaiks, held together by the rake, may be laid on the ground, or againft the corn not yet cut down, in a ftate fo regular and connefted, that thofe by whom the (heaves are collefted and bound have them¬ felves alone to blame, fhould any thing be left behind. It is fufficiently even when lands are ploughed and har¬ rowed Scytala, Sen the. 1 S C Y [ 63 ] SC Y Scythe, rowed in a proper manner 5 and the only necefTary pre- caution in ftony ground, is to keep the fey the a little higher, that it may not ftrike againft the Hones. If the itubble be fhort, the It raw cut off will of courfe be the longer, and of confequence more valuable j and long ffubble only incommodes the cattle afterwards lent to feed upon it. Thefe and ffmilar confiderations, prevailed with the patriotic fociety of Milan, to fend to thefe places where feythes are ufed for reaping ; and having procured a model from Silefia, they ordered one of a proper fize to be made. It was firft tried on corn, and afterwards on millet •, and notwithstanding the firff was far from be¬ ing made with accuracy, and although luch an inftru- ment had never before been made ufe of by the reaper, nearly half the ufual time was found to be faved, and the wonted fatigue and labour were much diminilhed. The corn was cut without receiving any injurious (hock, falling in an even and regular Hate, by which means it was afterwards bound up with eafe in compact (heaves. Plate Thefe inffruments are fo ffmple in their conitruftion, cccclxxvib. that a figure of one of them renders a defeription almoff Fig. 1. unneccfiary. Fig. 1. reprefents the Silelian fey the tried by the fociety, the difference between which and the Authian one we ffiall mention in our defeription. The Silelian fevthe differs little from that commonly employ¬ ed in mowing grafs, except that the blade is rather fmaller ; to it four teeth of wood are added, parallel to the blade, fixed and fecured in a proper manner, and defigned to keep the corn together after it is cut 5 fo that inftead of its falling in a confufed ftate, the reaper can lay it down in a regular and ccmpafl manner. The Auftrian feythe is fimilar to the former, but the blade is larger ; of courfe the wooden teeth, being five in number, are longer ; the handle is alfo flatter, and rather crooked. In the firff, the handle ab (fee fig. 1.) is four feet three inches in length ; the blade is about two feet ; the piece of wood in which the teeth are fixed, one foot ten inches and a half. In the fecond, the handle is four feet one inch ; the blade, two feet eight inches \ the piece in which the teeth are fixed, 1inches. ’I"he difference in the conftruttion of thefe two feythes renders it. neceffary to ufe them in a different manner, which will be better acquired in pra&ice than by pre¬ cept. Such as are accuffomed to the ufe of the com¬ mon feythe will foon find out the moft advantageous manner of ufing thefe new kinds of feythes, and of lay¬ ing down the corn properly after it is cut. It is neceffary to obferve, that, in mowing grafs, the feet are held in a pofition nearly parallel to each other, whereas in reaping corn they ffiould be kept on a line, the one behind the other, bringing the right foot for¬ ward, and drawing the left towards it. The reafon is, that when grafs is mowed it is left to fall where it is cut j but when corn is cut down, it is to be laid in a proper manner againft that which is not yet cut, and which is at the reaper’s left hand. Were tire feet kept parallel to each other, the reaper would be under the neceflity of extending and turning his body in a very in¬ convenient manner. I hefe obfervations having been publifhed, the fociety made farther expe.imenis on the fubjeft, by which they difcoveved, that when the ftalks of corn are bent down by realon of extremely wet weather, the wooden teeth of the feythes are apt to lay hold of fome ears, to the Scythe, ftalks ot which the iron does not extend 5 and therefore thele not being cut below, are pulled fo that the grain is fcattered. This chiefly happens from the reapers not being accuftomed to that kind of feythe, and therefore not knowing how to adapt it to particular exitting cir- cumftances. It occurred to an ingenious blackfmith, that, in or¬ der to remedy this inconvenience, a colleBor made of cloth ftiould be added to the common Icythe, as may be feen at fig. 2. where abc is a common feythe, cdmlofne Fig. 2. is the gatherer, which at c d e is compofed of a thin plate of iron, having a hollow at its extremity for re¬ ceiving the point of the blade. At c d are holes for lewing in the cloth, which is coarfe, light, and of low price 5 it is allb fixed to two thick iron wires, of which the upper one is continued to/^ where it terminates in a hole in the handle ; the other is fixed to the back of the blade. The manner of fixing this gatherer to the back of the feythe will be better underttood by referring to fig. 3. which reprefents one of the irons which, byp;,r means of the ferew, are faftened to the back of the feythe. Thefe proceed from, and make part of the up¬ right irons m «, / 0, which ferve to keep the gatherer extended. This contrivance is both cheap and fimple ; but an attempt was made to render it more fo, by fubflituting two iron hoops for the gatherer, which are (hewn in fig. 2. by the dotted lines h g, k 1, with a crofs piece />, 2* which connedls them. Experience has (hewn, however, & that the gatherer is in general preferable to thefe hoops, as it does not leave an ear of corn behind. SCYTHIA, an ancient name lor the northern parts of Afia, now known by the name of Tavtary ; alio for fome of the north-eaffern parts of Europe. I his vaft territory, which extends itfelf from the Ifter or Danube, the boundary of the Celts, that is, from about the 25th to almoft the noth degree of eaft lon¬ gitude, was divided into Scythia in Europe and Scythia in Afia, including, however, the two Sarmatias; or, as they are called by the Greeks, Sauroniatias, now the Circadian J artary, which lay between and levered the two Scythias from each other. Sauromatia was alfo di-' ffinguithed into European and Afiatic ; and was divided from the European Scythia by the river Don or Tanais, . which falls into the Palus Meotis ; and from the Afiatic by the Elia, now Volga, which empties itfelf into the Cafpian fea. 1. The Afiatic Scythia comprehended, in general, great 1 artary, and Rudia in Alia j and, in particular, the Scythia beyond or without Imaus, contained the re¬ gions of Bogdoi or Oftiacoi, and Tanguti. That within, or on this fide Imaus, had Turkeftan and Mongal, the U(heck or Zagatai, Kalmuc and Nagaian Tartars; be- fides Siberia, the land of the Samoiedes, and Nova Zem- blst. 'I hefe three iaft not being fo foon inhabited as the former, as may be reafonably fuppofed, were wholly un¬ known to the ancients ; and the former were peopled by the Baftrians, Sogdians, Gandari, Sacks, and Mafiagetes. As for Sarmatia, it contained Albania, Iberia, and Colchis; which makes now the Circadian Tartary, and the province of Georgia. 2. Scytl ha in Europe reached (towards the flouth- weft) to the Po and the Alps, by which it was divided from Cclto-Gallia. It was bounded on the foulh by the.. SEA r 64 ] SEA Sea. Srytbia tile Ifler or Danube and the Euxine Tea. Its northern limits have been fuppofed to itretch to the fpring-heads of the Borifthenes or Nieper, and the Rha or Volga, and fo to that of the Tanais.—The ancients divided this Country into Scythia Arimafpasa, which lay eattward, joining to Scythia in Afia •, and Sarmatia Europeana on the weft. In Scythia, properly fo called, '\ere the Arimafpaei on the north ; the Get® or Dacians along the Danube, on the fouth ; and the Neuri between thefe two. So that it contained the European Ruflia or Mufcovy, and the Leflfer Grim Tartary eaftward •, and, on the weft, Lithuania, Poland, part of Hungary, Tranfiivania, Walachia, Bulgaria, and Moldavia. Sar¬ matia is fuppofed to have reached northward to that part of Swedeland called Feningia, now Finland; in which they placed the Ocenes, Panoti, and Hippopodes. This part they divided from Northern Germany, now the weft part of Sweden and Norway, by the Mare Sarmaticum or Scytkicum, which they fuppofed ran up into the northern ocean, and, dividing Lapland into two parts, formed the weftern part of Sweden, with Norway, into one ifland, and Finland into another ; fuppofing this alfo to be cut off from the continent by the gulf of that name. Although the ancient Scythians were celebrated as a warlike people, yet their hiftory is too uncertain and obfcure to enable us to give any detail which would not prove equally tirefome and uninterefting to the reader. Mr Pinkerton, in a diflertation on their origin, endeavours to prove that they were the moft ancient of nations; and he affigns for the place of their firft habitation the country knowm by the name of Perfia. From Perfia, he thinks, they proceeded in numerous hordes w’eftward, fiirrounded the Euxine, peopled Germany, Italy, Gaul, the countries bordering on the Baltic, with part of Britain and Ireland. That the Scythians were of Afia- txc origin cannot, we think, bequeftioned ; and as Perfia was peopled at a very early period, it may not impro¬ bably have been their parent country : but when our author contends that their empire had fubfifted for more than 1 500 years before Ninus the founder of the Affy- rian monarchy, and that it extended from Egypt to the Ganges, and from the Perfian gulf and Indian fea to the Cafpian, we cannot help thinking that his prejudices againft the Celts, and his defire to do honour to his fa¬ vourite Goths, have made him advance a paradox incon- liftent with the moft authentic records of antiquity. His differtation however is ingenious, and replete with a va¬ riety of curious learning. SCYTHIAN Lamb, in Natural Hi/lory. See Scythian Lamb. SCY S'HROPS or Channel bilx, a genus of birds belonging to the order of Pkae. See Ornithology, N° 149. SEA, in a ftrift fenfe, fignifies a large portion of water almoft furrounded by land, as the Baltic and Mediterranean feas; but it is frequently ufed for that vaft body of wate,r which encompaffes the whole earth. What proportion the fuperficies of the fea bears to portioiTthe that of the land cannot eafily be afcertained. Buffon has fkrfaee of fuppofed that the furface of our globe is equally divided between land and water, and has accordingly calculated the fuperficies of the fea to be 85,490,506 fquare miles. But it is now well known that the ocean covers much more than the half of the earth’s furface. Buffou be- 3 Wlait pro- the fea feears to that of tha lioi lieved the exiftence of a vaft fouthern continent, which Sea. Captain Cook has fliown to be vifionary. It was this ■ circumft.mce wdiich milled him. According to the moft accurate obfervations hitherto made, the furface of the fea is to the land as three to one j the ocean therefore extends over 128,235,759 fquare miles, fuppofing the fuperficies of the w hole globe to be 170,981,012 Iquare 2 miles. To afeertain the depth of the lea is ftill more Depth of difficult than its fuperficies, both on account of thefts tea- numerous experiments which it would be neceffary to make, and the w^ant of proper inftruments for that pur- pofe. Beyond a certain depth the fea has hitherto been found unfathomable •, and though feveral methods have been contrived to obviate this difficulty, none of them has completely anfwered the purpofe. We know in general that the depth of the fea increafes gradually as we leave the Ihore ; but if this continued beyond a certain d.fiance, the depth in the middle of the ocean wrould be prodigious. Indeed the numerous iflands everyw’here fcattered in the fea demonftrate the con¬ trary, by fhowfing us that the bottom of the water is unequal like the land, and that fo far from uniformly finking, it fometimes rifes into lofty mountains. If the depth of the fea be in proportion to the elevation of the land, as has generally been fuppofed, its greateft depth will not exceed five or fix miles, for there is no mountain fix miles perpendicular above the level of the fea. The fea has never been adlually founded to a greater depth than a mile and 66 feet 5 every thing be¬ yond that therefore rells entirely upon conje6lure and analogical reafoning, which ought never to be admitted to determine a fingle point that can be afcertained by experiment, becaufe, when admitted , they have too often led to falfe conclufions. Along the coafts, where the depth of the fea is in general well known, it has always been found proportioned to the height of the ffiore : when the coaft is high and mountainous, the fea that wafhes it is deep ; when, on the contrary, the coaft is low, the water is thallow. Whether this analogy holds at a diftance from the fhore, experiments alone can de¬ termine. 3 To calculate the quantity of w-ater contained in the Quantitj- fea, while its depth is unknown, is impoffible. But ifof water we fuppofe with Buffon that its medium depth is thewflirVt fourth part of a mile, the ocean, if its fuperficies bfr001-31115, 1 20,23 5,7 ^9 fquare miles, will contain 32,058,939.75 cubic miles of water. Let us now' endeavour to compute the quantity of water which is conftantly difeharged into the fea. For this puroofe let us take a river whofe velocity and quan- , tity of w'ater is known, the Po, for inftance, which ac- x^orv of cording to Riccioli is 1000 feet (or 100 perches of^ Earib, Bologna) broad, 10 feet deep, and runs at the rate o^art. ic. four miles in an hour ; confequently that river dif- charges into the fea 200,000 cubic perches of water in an hour, or 4,800,000 in a day. A cubic mile con¬ tains 12 $,000,000 cub e perches $ the Po therefore will take 26 days to difeharge a cubic mile of water into the fea. Let us now' fuppofe, wffiat is perhaps not very far from the truth, that the quantity of water which the fea receives from the rivers in any country is proportioned to the extent of L Mammalia Index. Sea-Cow. See Trichecus,J ] SEA SEA-Crow, Mire-Crow, or Pewit. NITHOLOGY Index. Sea, Dead. See Asphaltites. Sea-Devil. See Lophius, Ichthyology Index. Sea-Dragon, a monfter of a very Angular nature. In the Gentleman’s Magazine for the year 1749, we have the account of a fea-dragon which was faid to be taken between Orford and Southwould, on the coaft of Suf¬ folk, and afterwards carried round the country as a cu- riofity by the filhermen who caught it. “ Its head and tail (fays the writer) refemble thofe of an alligator ; it has two large fins, which lerve it both to fi\ im and to fly j and though they were fo dried that I could not extend them, yet they appear, by the folds, to be (haped like thole which painters have given to dragons and other winged monfters that ferve as fuppor- ters to coats of arms. Its body is covered with impene¬ trable feales; its legs have two joints, and its feet are hoofed like thofe of an afs : it has five rows of very white and fliarp teeth in each jawr, and is in length about four feet, though it was longer when alive, it having ftirunk as it became dry. “ It was caught in a net wdth mackerel *, and being dragged on fhore, was knocked down with a ftretcher or boat-hook. The net being opened, it fuddenly fprung up, and flew above 50 yards: the man who firlt feized it had feveral of his fingers bitten off; and the wound mortifying, he died. It afterwards faftened on the man’s arm who {hows it, and lacerated it fo much, that the mufcles are fhrunk, and the hand and fingers diftorted ; the wound is not yet healed, and is thought to be incurable. It is faid by fome to have been deferibed by naturalifls under the name of the Sea- drggon.'1'1 We muft add to the account now given of the monfter called a fea-dragon, that we think it ex¬ tremely probable that the animal was nothing more than a diftorted or overgrown individual of fome of the well known fpecies of fifh, SEA-Gage. See Sea-GAGE. SEA-Hare. See Laplysia, Helminthology In¬ dex. SEA-Horfe, in Ichthyology, the Englifh name of the Hippocampus. See Syngnathus, Ichthyology In¬ dex. SEA-Lemon. See Doris, Helminthology Index. SEA-Lion. See Phoca, Mammalia Index. Sea-MoII, or Sea-Mcw. See Larus, Ornitholo¬ gy Index. SEA-Man. See Mermaid. SEA-Marks. The ereftion of beacons, light-houfes, and fea-marks, is a branch of the royal prerogative. By 8 Eliz. 13. the corporation of the Trinity-houfe are empowered to fet up any beacons or fea-marks wherever they {hall think them neceffary 5 and if the owner of the land or any other perfon {hall deftroy them, or take down any fteeple, tree, or other known fea-mark, he {hall forfeit 100I. fterling 5 or, in cafe of inability to pay it, he {hall be ipfo faSlo outlawed. SEA-Ncedle, Gar-ffh. See Esox, Ichthyology In¬ dex. SEA-Ncttle. See ANIMAE-Plower. SEA-Pie, or Oyjler-Catcher, See PLematopus, Or¬ nithology Index. SEA-Plants, are thofe vegetables that grovT in falt- water within the fhores of the fea. The old botanifts. di vifte cl SEA [ 69 ] SEA Sea. divided thefe into three claffes. 1. The firll clafs, ac- ~ cording to their arrangement, contained the algce, the fuci, the fea-mojfes or confervas, and the different fpe- cies of fponges. 2. The fecond contained fubftances of a hard texture, like ftone or horn, which feem to have been of the fame nature with what we call %oophjta, with this difference, that we refer fponges to this clafs and not to the firll. The third clafs was the fame with our lithophjta, comprehending corals, mandrepora, &c. It is now well known that the genera belonging to the fecond and third of thefe claffes, and even fome refer¬ red to the firft, are not vegetables, but animals, or the productions of animals. See Cor.al.lina, Madrepora, SPONGIA. Sea-plants, then, properly fpeaking, belong to the clafs of cryptogamia, and the order of algae j and, according to Bomare, are all comprehended under the genus of fucus. We may alfo add feveral fpecies of the ulva and conferva and the fargazo. The fuci and marine ulvas are immerfed in the fea, are feflile, and without root. The marine confervae are either feflile or floating. The fargazo grows beyond foundings. As fome fpecies of the fucus, when dried and pre- ferved, are extremely beautiful, the curious, and efpeci- ally thofe who profecute the ftudy of botany, muft be anxious to know the bed method of preferving them, without deftroying their colour and beauty. The fol¬ lowing method is recommended by M. Mauduyt. Take a fheet of paper, or rather of palteboard, and cover it with varnifh on both fldes 5 and having rowed in a boat to the rock where the fucus abounds, plunge your var- nifhed paper into the water, and, detaching the fucus, receive it upon the paper. Agitate the paper gently in the water, that the plant may be properly fpread over it j and lift them up together foftly out of the water: then fix down with pins the ftrong ftalks, that they may not be difplaced, and leave the plant lying upon the varnifhed paper to dry in the open air. When it is fully dry, the different parts will retain their pofition, and the plant may be preferved within the leaves of a book. To free it from the fume and fait which adhere to it, wrafi it gently in frelh water, after being removed from the rock on which it grewr. SEA-Serpent, a monffrous creature, faid to inhabit the northern feas about Greenland and the coafts of Nor¬ way. The following marvellous account of this monfter is given by Guthrie. “ In 17 56, one of them was (hot by a mafter of a {hip: its head refembled that of a horfe; the mouth was large and black, as wrere the eyes, a white mane hanging from its neck : it floated on the furface of the water, and held its head at leaft. two feet out of the fea : between the head and neck were feven or eight folds, which were very thick ; and the length of this fnake was more than 100 yards, fome fay fa¬ thoms. They have a remarkable averflon to the fmell of caftor •, for which reafon, fhip, boat, and bark mafters provide themfelves with quantities of that drug, to pre¬ vent being overfet, the ferpent’s olfactory nerves being remarkably exquifite. The particularities related of this animal would be incredible, were they not attefted upon oath. Egede, a very reputable author, fays, that on the 6th day of July 1734, a large and frightful fea-moniter raifed itfelf fo high out of the water, that its head reached above the main-top-maft of the fhip ; that it had a long fliarp fnout, broad paw's, and fpouled water like a whale 5 that the body feemed to be covered with feales j the {kin was uneven and wrinkled, and the lower Seas, part was formed like a fnake. The body of this monfter is faid to be as thick as a hogfhead ; his fkin is varie¬ gated like a tortoife fhell 5 and his excrement, which floats upon the furface of the water, is corroftve.” Not- withftanding the belief of Guthrie, and the teftimony which he produces, we cannot help doubting of the ex- iftence of the fea-ferpent. Its bulk is faid to be fo dif- proportionate to all the known animals of our globe, that it requires more than ordinary evidence to render it credible ; but the evidence which is offered is fo very feeble and unfatisfaftory, that no man of found judge¬ ment would think it fufficient to eltablifti the truth of an extraordinary faft. Attempts have lately been made to revive the opi¬ nion of the exiftence of fea-mermaids and fea-ferpents. An individual^of the latter, it is fuppofed, was fome time ago thrown on fhore in Orkney. Part of the fkeleton is faid to be in the mufeum of the Univerfity of Edin¬ burgh, and another part is in the pofl'eflion of Mr Home of London, w'ho thinks that it may have belonged to an individual of fome of the whale tribe, perhaps a monfter of that tribe 5 but according to others it is to be con- fidered as conftituting a diftincl genus. We cannot avoid obferving, that this point muft remain unfettled- till other fpecies of this new genus have been difeover- ed, or at leaft till an entire individual have been de- feribed by an experienced naturalift. SEA-Sicknefs, a diforder incident to moft perfons on their firft going to fea, occafioned by the agitation of the veffel. This diforder has not been much treated of, although it is very irkfome and diftrefling to the pa¬ tient during its continuance. It has, however, been found beneficial in afthmntic and pulmonary complaints^, and the inllances in which it has proved fatal, are ex¬ tremely rare. The fea-ficknefs appears to be a fpafmo- die affedlion of the ftomach, occafioned by the alternate preffure and recefs of its contents againft its lower inter¬ nal furface, according as the rife and fall of the fhip op- pofe the adlion of gravity. The feas in which the attacks of this diforder are ac¬ companied with the greateft violence, are thofe where the waves have an uninterrupted freedom of action j and of confequence bays, gulfs and channels, may be navigated with lefs inconvenience, as the wTaves, meet¬ ing with more frequent refiftance, the veffel does not experience that gentle uniform vacillation which in¬ duces ficknefs, and renders the head giddy. A perfoiv feels lefs inconvenience from the diforder in a finall vef¬ fel on the wide ocean, on wThich the flighteft motion of the w-aves makes a ftrong impreflion. He is alfo lefs expofed to it in a very large veffel deeply laden, as the- waves, in this cafe, fcarcely affedt the veffel. It is in fliips of an ordinary fize, and which carry but a light cargo, that the paffenger fuffers moft from the fea-fick¬ nefs. The fooner it takes place after embarkation, the continuance of it becomes the more probable. It does not ahvays ceafe immediately on landing, but in fome cafes continues for a confiderable time. Many methods of preventing, or at leaft: of mitigat¬ ing this diforder, have been recommended, of which the moft efficacious appear to be the following. r. Not to go on board immediately after eating, and not to eat, when on board, any large quantity at a. time. 2. To SEA [ 2. To take muck exercife, with as little intevmiflion as poflible ; as indolent paffengers are always the great- eft fufferers from the diforder. 3. To keep much upon deck, even when the weather is ftormy, as the fea breeze is not io apt to aft'ebf the ftomach as the impure air of the cabin, rendered fo for wyant of proper circulation. 4. Not to watch the motion of the waves, particularly when ftrongly agitated with tempeft. 5. Carefully to thun all employments by which the mind may be haraffed, as reading, ftudying, gaming, &c. and to feek all opportunities of mental relaxation. 6. To drink occafionally liquids containing carbonic acid, as the froth of beer ftrongly fermented, or wine and Seltzer water mixed together, and fweetened with pounded fugar. 7. It will alfo be beneficial to take fulphuric acid dulcified, dropped on a bit of fugar, or in peppermint w'ater, or ten drops of ether. The proper diet confifts of bread and frefti meat, to be eaten cold with pepper. All fweet favoured food ftiould be carefully avoided, and the paflenger ought to refrain from fat, and particularly from fuch meat as is in the ftnalleft degree tainted. Even the fmell of flowers is injurious, for which reafon marine productions ought not to be examined ; but the fumes of vinegar may be advantageoufiy inhaled. The drink fhould confift of lemonade or tart wines, but never of common water. An accidental diarrhoea has often relieved the patient from fea-ficknefs, and therefore a gentle laxa¬ tive in fuch a diforder feems to be indicated. It will alfo be found ufeful to apply a tonic anodyne plafter to the pit of the ftomach, fpread upon leather, and covered with linen. When fymptoms of vomiting appear, they may often be remedied by the patient placing himfelf in a horizon¬ tal petition on his back or belly, and lying perfectly Hill. If the fits of vomiting are too violent to be re- prefled, they fhould be promoted by a ftrong dofe of fait water; not, however, to be often repeated, as it debilitates the ftomach. When the emetic operates, the patient fhould bend his body, bringing his knees to¬ wards his breaft, and fupporting his head againft a firm refting-place. His garters and cravat muft be untied, a precaution which will fecure him from the danger of a rupture. The vomiting having fubfided, a ftate of repofe will prevent its return, and the eyes may be kept flrut for a confiderable time. The patient muft make choice of a cool, ventilated place, remembering to keep himfelf warm and well clothed, as perfpiration is highly bene¬ ficial. A gargle of fugar diffolved in vinegar is to be taken in the morning, accompanied with frequent and 70 ] S E A fpaie eating. Water mud never be taken in its pure S ftate, but mixed with wine, \inegar, or brandy. A ' glafs of wine may be taken in the morning, with an in- fufion of orange peel, gentian root, or peruvian bark. A glafs of punch occafionally taken will be extremely beneficial, by which perfpiration is promoted. Perfons accuftomed to fmoke tobacco, will find the ufe of the pipe falutary on fuch occafions, but the praClice of fmoking will he injurious to all others. We may add that warm clothing, flannel fhirts, caps, trowfers, &c. are powerful remedies againft excefhve expectoration, with every other fymptom of this dread¬ ful malady. SEA-Star. See Asterias, “I Helmintholocy ///- Sea-Urchin. See Echinus, 5 dex. SEA-Water, the fait w^ater of the fea. The principal falts contained in fea-water are, iff, Common marine or culinary fait, compounded of foflil alkali or foda and marine acid ; 2dly, A fait formed by the union of the fame acid with magnetian earth ; and, laftly, A fmall quantity of felenite. The quantity of faline matter contained in a pint of fea-water, in the Britifti teas, is, according to Neumann, about one ounce in each pint (a). The faltnefs of this water is fuppofed to arife from numerous mines and mountains of fait difperfed here and there in the depths of the fea. Dr Halley fuppofes that it is probable the greateft part of the fea-falt, and of all fait lakes, as the Cafpian lea, the Dead fea, the lake of Mexico, and the Titicaca in Peru, is derived from the water of the rivers which they receive : and fince this fort of lakes lias no exit or difeharge but by the exhala¬ tion of vapours, and alfo fince thefe vapours are entirely frefh or devoid of fuch particles, it. is certain that the faltnefs of the fea and of fuch lakes muft from time to time increafe ; and therefore the faltnefs at this time muft be greater than at any time heretofore. He further adds, that if, by experiments made in differ¬ ent ages, we could find the different quantity of fait which the fame quantity of water (taken up in the fame place, and in all other the fame circumftances) would afford, it would be eafy from thence, by rules of proportion, to find the age of the world very nearly, or the time wherein it has been acquiring its prefent faltnefs. This opinion ©f Dr Halley is fo improbable, that it is furprifing fo acute a philofopher could have adopted it. That frefh water rivers fhould in the courfe of many thoufand years produce faltnefs in the fea, is quite incredible. If this were the cale, every lea or great body of water which receives rivers muft be fait, and muft poffefs a degree of faltnefs in proportion to the quantity of water which the rivers difeharge. But fo (a) In Bergman’s analyfis of fea-water taken up in the beginning of June 1776, about the latitude of the Cana¬ ries, from the depth of 60 fathoms, the folid contents of a pint of the wafer were, Of common fait Saiited magnelia Gyplum Grs. I 253 A | 69tt ! 8A f 33° A J 3. or 5 Grs. 10 T°T Total 2 SEA [ fo fjr is this from being true, that the Palus Meotis and the great lakes in America do not contain fait but frefh water. It may indeed be objected, that the quan¬ tity of fak which the rivers carx-y along with them and depofxt in the iea, mud depend on the nature of the foil through which they How, which may in fome places contain no fait at all: and this may be the reafon why the great lakes in America and the Palus Meotis are freth. But to this opinion, which is merely hypotheti¬ cal, there are unfurmountable objections. It is a curious fadl that the faltnefs of the fea is greateft under the line, and diminiihes gradually as v/e advance to the poles : We mutt therefore fuppofe, if Dr Halley’s theory be true, that the earth contains more fait in the tropical regions than in the temperate zones, and more in the temperate zones than in the frigid ; and confequently that the rivers in thefe different regions contain a quan¬ tity of fait proportionable to their diftance from the equator. This, however, muff be firft proved by ex¬ periment, and cannot be affumed as an eftablifhed faft. But there is another circumftance that entirely deftroys this theory. If we allow that the fea receives its falt¬ nefs from the livers, it mud be equally fait or nearly fo in every part of the earth. For, according to a dimple and well known principle inchemidry, “ when any fub- dance is diffolved in water with the abidance of agita¬ tion, at whatever part of the water it is introduced, it will be equally diffufed through the whole liquid.” Now though it were true that a greater quantity of fait were introduced into the iea under the line than towards the poles, from the condant agitation occadoned by the wind and tide, the fait mud foon pervade the whole mafs of water. To fay that the fuperior degree of heat in the tropical regions may did'olve a greater quantity of ialt, will not dedroy our argument •, for it is an eba- bliihed principle in chemibry, that cold water will dif- folve nearly as great a quantity of fait as hot water can dixTolve. The faltnefs of the fea has alfo been afcribed to the folution of fubterraneous mines of fait which is fuppofed to abound in the bottom of the fea and along its xhores. But this hypotheds cannot be fupported. If the fea were condantly diffblving fait, it would foon become faturated 5 for it cannot be faid that it is depri¬ ved of any part of its fait by evaporation, dnee rain¬ water is frelh. If the fea were to become faturated, •neither ddxes nor vegetables could live in it. We mud therefore defpair of being able to account for the falt¬ nefs of the fea by fecond caufes ; and mud fuppofe that it has been fait from the creation. It is impodible in¬ deed to fuppofe that the waters of the fea were at any period fredx dnee the formation of ddxes and fea-plants : for as thefe will not live in water faturated with fait, neither will they live in water that is fredx; we therefore conclude that the faltnefs of the fea has been nearly the lame in all ages. This is the dmpled hypotheds of the three that has been mentioned. It explains bed the various phenomena, and is involved in feweb difficulties. W e ffiall, however, allow that there may be fome ex¬ ceptions j that the faltnefs of fome feas, or of particular parts of the lame fea, may be increafed by mines of rock-falt difperfed near its ffiores. With regard to the ufe of this fait property of fea- water, it is obferved, that the faltnefs of the fea pre- ferves its waters pure and fweet, which otherwife would n ] SEA' corrupt and dink like a filthy lake, and confequently that none of the myriads of cx-eatures which now live therein could then have a being. From thence alfo the fea water becomes much heavier, and therefore flxips of greater fize and quantity may be ufed thereon. Salt¬ water alfo doth not freeze fo foon as fredx-water, whence the feas are more free for navigation. Wre have a dif- fertation, by Dr Ruffel, concerning the medical ufes of fea-water in difeafes of the glands, &c. wherein the au¬ thor premxfes lome obfervations upon the the nature of fea-water, confidered as impregnated with particles of all the bodies it paffes over, fuch as fubmarine plants, fibi, falts, minerals, &c. and faturated with their feveral ef- fluvia, to enrich it and keep it from putrefaction : whence this Hind is fuppofed to contract a loapinefs ; and the whole collection, being pervaded by the fulphureous beams paffing through it, to conditute what we call fca-vjater ; the confeffed didinguulxing charateridics of which are faltnefs, bitternefs, nitrofity, and unctuofity .- whence the author concludes, that it may be judly ex¬ pected to contribute fignaily to the improvement of phyfic. The cafes in which our author informs us we are to expect advantages from fea-water are, 1. In all recent obbractions of the glands of the intedines and mefentery. 2. All recent obbructiens of the pulmo¬ nary glands, and thofe of the vifeera, whiclx frequently produce confumptions. 3. All recent glandular fwel- Ixngs of the neck, or other parts. 4. Recent tumors cf the joints, if they are not fuppurated, or become fchirrous or cancerous, and have not carious bones for their caufe. 5. Recent defluxions upon the glands of the eyelids. 6. All defeedations of the Ikin, from an erydpelas to a lepra. 7. Difeafes of the glands of the nofe, with their ufual companion a thicknefs of the lip. 8. ObdrucRions of the kidneys, where there is no in- flammation, and the done not large. 9. In recent ob- drudions of the liver, this method will be propexq where it prevents condipations of the belly, and affids other medicines direded in iderical cafes. The fame remedy is faid to be of fignal fervice in the bronchocele 5 and is hkewife recommended for the prevention of thoie bilious colics that fo frequently affed our ma¬ riners. Prcfervation of SEA-Water from Putrefa&ion. As it is fometimes necelTary to prelerve feawater in calks for bathing and other purpofes, it is of importance to know l ow to keep it from putrefadion. Many experiments were made to determine this point by Mr Henry, and are recorded in the firb volume of the Memoirs of the Literary and Philofophical Society of Mancheder. His firb experiment we diall here prefent to our readers. “To one quart of fea-water were added two fcruples of frelh quick-lime } to another, half an ounce of com¬ mon culinary fait; and a third was kept as a dandard without any addition. The mouths of the bottles being loofely covered with paper, they were expofed to the adion of the fun in fome of the hotted weather in fummer. In about a week the dandard became very offenfive ; and the water, with the additional quantity of fait, did not continue fweet many hours longer j whereas that with lime continued many months without ever exhibiting the lead marks of putridity.” When he added a dram more of quicklime, the whole of the magnefia contained in the water -was feparated ; and when a further addition was made, a lime-water was immediately Sea, Different S E A immediately farmed. He therefore two fcruples of quicklime are fufficient to preferve a quart of fea-water. The proportions, however, may vary a little, according to the flrength of the quick¬ lime employed. Fre/hening of SEA-Water. Tlfe method of making methods of fea_water frefh was long a defideratum in navigation frefliening - - & - - - - - fea-water, frefliening ]yjany methods have been propofed for this purpofe. Mr Appleby publifhed an account of a procefs w'hich he had inftituted in the year 1734. He diftilled fea-water •with a quantity of lapis infernalis and calcined bones j but this procefs was foon laid afide, as it was not only difficult in itfelf, but rendered the water unpalatable. .Dr Butler propofed foap-leys in place of Mr Appleby’s ingredients ; but the water was Hill liable to the fame objection. Dr Stephen Hales recommended powdered chalk ; but his method was expenfive, and did not im¬ prove the tafte of the water. Dr Lind of Portfmouth diftilled fea-water without any ingredients; but as the experiment he made was performed in a veffel contain¬ ing only two quarts, with a glafs receiver, in his ftudy, 2 nothing conclulive can be drawn from it for the ufe of ©r Irving’s failors. At length Dr Irving brought the procefs to a very high degree of ftmplicity and perfeftion, by which the water is obtained pure, without much expence of fuel or a complicated apparatus. For this valuable dif- covery he received a reward of 5000I. The advantages of this method remain to be ftated, which may be redu¬ ced to the following : 1. The abolifhing all ftills, ftill- heads, worm-pipes, and their tubes, which occupy fo much fpace as to render them totally incompatible with the neceffary bufinefs of the (hip ; and uftng in the room of thefe the (hip’s kettle or boiler, to the top wffiereof may occaftonally be applied a fimple tube, which can be eafily made on board a veffel at fea, of iron plate, ftove funnel, or tin ffieet •, fo that no fituation can prevent a (hip from being completely fupplied wuth the means of diftilling fea-water. 2. In confequence of the principles of diftillation being fully afeertained, the contrivance of the fimpleft means of obtaining the greateft quantity of diftilled water, by making the tube fufficiently large to receive the whole column of vapour, and placing it nearly in a horizontal direction, to prevent any com- preffion of the ftuid, wffiich takes place fo much with the common worm. 3. The adopting of the fimpleft and moft efficacious means of condenfing vapour j for nothing more is required in the diftillation but keeping the furface of the tube always wet, which is done by having fome fea-water at hand, and a perfon to dip a mop or fwab into this water, and pafs it along the upper furface of the tube. By this operation the vapour con¬ tained in the tube will be entirely condenfed with the greateft rapidity imaginable ; for by the application of the wet mop thin (beets of water are uniformly fpread, and mechanically preffed upon the furface of the hot tube \ wffiich being converted into vapour make way for a fucceffion of frefti (beets j and thus, both by the eva¬ poration and clofe contaft of the cold water conftantly repeated, the heat is carried off more effeftually than by any other method yet known. 4. The carrying on the diftillation without any addition, a correft chemical ana- lyfis of fea-water having evinced the futility of mixing ingredients with it, either to prevent an acid from rifing with the vapour, or to deftroy any bituminous oil fup- pqfed to exift in fea-water, and to contaminate the di- r 72 ] s u a concluded, that (filled water, giving it that fiery unpalatable tafte infe- Sea, parable from the former proceffes. 5. The afeertaining the proper quantity of fea-water that ought to be diftil¬ led, whereby the frefti wrater is prevented from con trac¬ ing a noxious impregnation of metallic falls, and the veffel from being corroded and otherwife damaged by the falls caking on the bottom of it. 6. The produ¬ cing a quantity of fweet and w'holefome water, per¬ fectly agreeable to the tafte, and fufficient for all the purpofes of (hipping. 7. The taking advantage of the dreffing the (hip’s provifions, fo as to diftil a very confi- derable quantity of water from the vapour, which would otherwife be loft, without any addition of fuel. To fum up the merits of this method in a few words : The ufe of a fimple tube, of the moft eafy conftruCtion, applicable to apy (hip’s kettle. The rejecting all ingre¬ dients 5 afeertaining the proportion of w'ater to be di¬ ftilled, with every advantage of quality, faring of fuel, and prefervation of boilers. The obtaining frefti w'ater, wholefome, palatable, and in fufficient quantities. Ta¬ king advantage of the vapour which afeends in the ket¬ tle while the (hip’s provifions are boiling. All thefei advantages are obtained by the above mentioned fimple addition to the common Chip’s kettles. But Dr Irving propofes to introduce twm further improvements. 'The firft is a hearth, or ftove, fo conftru&ed that the fire w’hich is kept up the whole day for the common bufinefs of the (hip ferves likew'ife for diftillation 5 whereby a fufticient quantity of water for all the economical pur¬ pofes of the (hip may be obtained, -with a very inconfi- derable addition to the expence of fuel. The other im¬ provement is that of fubftituting, even in the largeft: (hips, caft-iron boilers, of a new conftruftion, in the place of coppers. As foon as fea-w'ater is put into the boiler, the tubep>;re^tiom is to be fitted either into the top or lid, round which, iffor diftill- neceffary, a bit of wet linen may be applied, to make 'ng fea-wa- it fit clofe to the mouth of the veffel 5 there will be noter' occafion for luting, as the tube aCIs like a funnel in car¬ rying off the vapour. When the water begins to boil, the vapour ffiould be allowed to pafs freely for a minute, which will effeCfually clean the tube and upper part of the boiler. The tube is afterwards to be kept con¬ ftantly wret, by palling a mop or fw’ab, dipped in fea water, along its upper furface. The wafte water run¬ ning from the mop may be carried off by means of a board made like a fpout, and placed beneath the tube. The diftillation may be continued till three-fourths of the w'ater be drawn off, and no further. This may be afeertained either by a gauge-rod put into the boiler, or by meafuring the w'ater diftilled. The brine is then to be let out. Water may be diftilled in the fame manner- while the provifions are boiling. When the tube is made on ftrore, the beft fubftance for the purpofe is thin copper well tinned, this being more durable in long voyages than tin-plates. Inftead of mopping, the tube, if required, may have a cafe made alfo of copper, fo much larger in diameter as to admit a thin (heet of wra- ter to circulate between them by means of a fpiral cop¬ per thread, with a pipe of an inch diameter at each end of the cafe ; the lower for receiving cold water, and the upper for carrying it off when heated. When only a very fmall portion of room can be con¬ veniently allow'ed for diftillation, the machine (fig. 2.), which is only 27 inche* long, may be fubftituted, as was- SCYTHES. Plate CCCCLXXVDI. SE C TOR. A X) Sea. Plate cccclxxviii Fig. x. Fig. 2. 4 Lorgna’s method of frefhening it by conge Jation S' E was done in this voyage. ' this machine, however, is to diftil rum and other li¬ quors ; for which purpofe it has been employed with extraordinary fuccefs, in preventing an empijreuma, or fiery tafle. Figure i. reprefcnts in perfpe&ive a feftion of the two boilers taken out of the frame. In the back part at D, E, are feen openings for the cocks. On the top is a diftilling tube A, B, C, five inches diameter at A, and decreafing in fize to three inches at C ; the length from B to C is five feet. Near C is a ring to prevent the water which is applied to the furface from mixing with the diftilled water. In the infide of the tube, be low B, is a fmall lip or ledging, to hinder the diifilled water from returning into the boiler by the rolling of the ihip. In figure 2. A, B, C, D, reprefent a vertical fedtion of a copper box, 27 inches long, feven inches wide, and I x in height, tinned on the infide. In the bottom F is an aperture about fix inches in diameter, having a ring to fit on the ftill or boiler. The dotted lines which run nearly horizontal, are veffels of thin copper, tinned on the outfide, two feet long, feven inches wide, and three quarters of an inch deep. At G is a funnel to receive cold water, which is conveyed into the vefiels by com¬ municating pipes, contrived in fuch a manner as to form a complete and quick circulation of the water through their whole extent. When the water is become hot by the aftion of the fleam, it is difcharged by the horizon¬ tal pipe at A. E is a pipe from which the diftilled wa¬ ter or fpirits run, and is bent in fuch a form that the li¬ quor running from it a6ls as a valve, and hinders any fleam from efcaping that way. On the top of the box, at H, is a fafety-valve, which prevents any danger from a great accumulation of vapour not condenfed for want of a proper fupply of cold water. We fhall now mention a different method, difcovered by the Chevalier Lorgna, by congelation of fea-water. Sea-water requires a very great degree of cold in order ■- to become ice. Our author found that a freezing mix¬ ture, made by mixing three parts of pounded ice with two parts of common fait, was quite fufficient to freeze it. The cold produced by this mixture is equal to about 40 below o of Fahrenheit’s thermometer. A quantity of fea-water is never entirely congealed, a portion of it always remaining fluid ; and, what is very remarkable, this fluid part is incomparably more full of fait and more naufeous than the reft : hence, if this be feparated from the congealed part, the latter on being melted will be found to contain much lefs fait than it did before congelation. This we fhall call the water of the firji purification. If the water of the firft purification be again congeal¬ ed,^ part of it will remain fluid as in the firft operation. This fluid portion will contain a greater proportion of fait than the reft, which is of courfe more pure, and, be¬ ing melted, forms the water of the fecond purification. 11ms, by repeatedly freezing the fame fea-water, and feparating the fluid from the congealed part in every operation, it is at laft perfe&ly purified, fo as to be en¬ tirely diverted oi fait, and as fit for drink and other pur- pofes as the pureil water that is ufed. At firft the fea-water, in order to be congealed, re¬ quires a very great degree of cold, as mentioned above, the ice formed in it confifts rather of fcales or filaments Vol. XIX. Part I. A [ 73 ] SEA; The principal intention of than of a compa£l body, and the quantity of the fluid parts bears a confiderable proportion to the quantity of ice. But as the water, by undergoing the iucceflive congelations, becomes more and more pure, fo it be¬ comes capable of being congealed by a fmailer and fin after degree of cold ; the ice is at the fame time more compadl, and in greater quantity j the fluid part at laft becoming very inconfiderable. &EA-Weed, or Alga Marina, is commonly ufed as a manure on the fea-coail, where it can be procured in abundance. The belt fort grows on rocks, and is that from which kelp is made. The next to this is called the peafy fea-weed; and the woril is that with a long ilalk. In the neighbourhood of Berwick, the farmers mix it with liable-dung and earth, and thus obtain a great quantity of excellent manure. Sea-weed is found alfo to be a very fit manure for gardens, as it not only enriches them, but deftroys the vermin by which they are ufualiy infefted. SeaWo//. See Anarrhxcas, Ichthyology Index, Sa/tnefs of the SEA. See SEA-Water. South SEA. See PACIFIC Ocean, and SOUTH Sea. SEAL, a puncheon, piece of metal, or other matter, ufually either round or oval 3 whereon are engraven the arms, device, &c. of fome prince, flate, community, ma- giflrate, or private perfon, often with a legend or infcrip- tion 3 the impreflion whereof in wax ferves to make a6ts, inftruments, &c. authentic. The ufe of feals, as a mark of authenticity to letters and other inftruments in writing, is extremely ancient. We read of it among the Jews and Perfians in the ear- liefl and moft facred records of hiftory. And in the book of Jeremiah there is a very remarkable inftance, not only of an atteftation by feal, but alfo of the ether ufual formalities attending a Jewifh purchafe. In the civil law alfo, feals were the evidence of truth, and were required, on the part of the witneffes at leafl, at the atieflation of every teftament. But in the times of our Saxon anceflors, they were not much in ufe in England. For though Sir Edward Coke relies on an inftance of King Edwyn’s making ufe of a feal about 100 years before the Conqueft, yet it does not follow that this was the ufage among the whole nation : and perhaps the charter he mentions may be of doubtful authority, from this very circumitance of its being feal- ed 3 fince we are allured by aft our ancient hiftorians that fealing was not then in common ufe. The method of the Saxons was, for fuch as could write to fubfcribe their names, and, whether they could write or not, to affix the fign of the crofs 3 which cuftom our illiterate vulgar do for the moft part to this day keep up, by figning a crofs for their mark when unable to write their names. And indeed this inability to write, and therefore making a crofs in its Head, is honeftly avow¬ ed by Caedwalla, a Saxon king, at the end of one of his charters. In like manner, and for the fame infurmount- able reafon, the Normans, a brave but illiterate nation, at their firil fettlement in France ufed the praflice of fealing only, without writing their names 3 which cuftom continued when learning made its way among them, though the reafon for doing it had ceafed ; and hence the charter of Edward the Confeflor to Weftmmfter- abbey, himfelf being brought up in Normandy, was witnefled onlv by his feal, and is generally thought to be the oldeft fealed charter of any authenticity in Eng- K land.. Sea, Seal. Seal. SEA [ 74 ] SEA land. At the Conqueft, the Norman lords brought over into this kingdom their own fathions j and intro¬ duced waxen feals only, inllead of the Englilh method of writing their names, and figning with the fign of the crofs. The impreffions of thefe feals were fometimes a knight on horfeback, fometimes other devices ; but coats of arms were not introduced into feals, nor in¬ deed ufed at all till about the reign of Richard I. who brought them from the croifade in the Holy Land, where they were firft invented and painted on the fhields of the knights, to diftinguifli the variety of perfons of every Chriftian nation who reforted thither, and who could not, when clad in complete Reel, be otherwife known or afcertained. This negledl of figning, and refting only upon the authenticity of feals, remained very long among us; for it was held in all our bodes, that fealing alone was fuf- ficient to authenticate a deed: and fo the common form of attefting deeds, “ fealed and delivered,” continues to this day; notwithftandiag the fiatute 29 Car. II. c. 3. revives the Saxon cuftom, and exprefsly dire&s the fign¬ ing in all grants of lands and many other fpecies of deeds : in which, therefore, figning feems to be now as neceffary as fealing, though it hath been fometimes held that the one includes the other. The king’s great feal is that whereby all patents, com- miffions, warrants, &c. coming down from the king are fealed ; the keeping whereof is in the hands of the lord chancellor. The king’s privy feal is a feal that is ufual- ly firft fet to grants that are to pafs the great feal. Seal. See Keeper of the Privy-Seal. Seal is alfo ufed for the wax or lead, and the im- preflion thereon affixed to the thing fealed. An amalgam of mercury with gold, reduced to the confiftence of butter, by ftraining oft' part of the mer¬ cury through leather, has been recommended as a pro¬ per material for taking off the impreflion of feals in wax. In this ftate, the compound fcarcely contains one part of mercury to tavo of gold ; yet is of a filver whitenefs, as if there was none of the precious metal in it. In this ftate it grew’S foft on being w'armed or wmrked be¬ tween the fingers; and is therefore proper for the pur- pofe above-mentioned, but is not fuperior to fome amal¬ gams made with the inferior metals, as is well knowm to fome impoftors, who have fold for this ufe amalgams of the bafe metals as curious preparations of gold. Seal. See Phoca, Mammalia Index. SEALER, an officer in chancery appointed by the lord chancellor or keeper of the great feal, to feal the W'rits and inftruments there made in his prefence. SEALING, in Architecture, the fixing a piece of wood or iron in a wall with plafter, mortal', cement, lead, or other folid binding. For ftaples, hinges, and joints, plafter is very proper. Sealing Wax. See Wax. SEAM, or Seme, of corn, is a meafure of eight bu- Scal 11 Seam. ftiels. SEAM of Glafs, the quantity of 120 pounds, or 24 ftones, each five pounds weight. The feam of wood is an horfe-load working. Seam, in mines, the fame with a ftratum or bed; as a feam of coal. SEAMANSHIP. Definition. "QN word we ^'prefs that noble art, or, more E) purely, the qualifications which enable a man to exercife the noble art of working a ffiip. A seaman, in the language of the profeffion, is not merely a mari¬ ner or labourer on board a {hip, but a man who under- Hands the ftru&ure of this wonderful machine, and every Subordinate part of its mechanifm, fo as to enable him to employ it to the beft advantage for puftnng her for¬ ward in a particular dire&ion, and for avoiding the numberlefs dangers to which fire is expofed by the vio¬ lence of the winds and waves. He alfo knows what courfes can be held by the {hip, according to the wind that blows, and what cannot, and which of thefe is moft conducive to her progrels in her intended voyage ; and he muft be able to perform every part of the neceffary operation with his own hands. As the feamen exprefs 2 it, he muft be able “ to hand, reef, and fteer.” Importance We are juftified in calling it a noble art, not only by importance, which it is quite needlefs to amplify or embellifir, but by its immenfe extent and difficulty, and the prodigious number and variety of principles on w-hich it is founded—all of which muft be poffeffed in fuch a manner that they {hall offer themfelves without reflec¬ tion in an inftant, otherwife the pretended feaman is but a lubber, and cannot be trufted on his watch. The art is praffifed by perfons without what we call -education, and in the humbler walks of life, and there¬ fore it fuffers in the eftimation of the carelefs fpe&ator. It is thought little of, becaufe little attention is paid to it. But if multiplicity, variety, and intricacy of principles, and a fyftematic knowledge of thefe prin¬ ciples, intitle any art to the appellation of feientife and liberal, feamanffiip claims thefe epithets in an eminent degree. We are amufed with the pedantry of the fea¬ man, which appears in his whole language. Indeed it is the only pedantry that amufes. A fcholar, a foldier, a lawyer, nay, even the elegant courtier, would difguft us, were he to make the thoufandth part of the allufions to his profeffion that is well received from the jolly fea¬ man ; and we do the feaman no more than juflice. His profeffion mujl engrofs his whole mind, otherwife he can never learn it. He poffcffes a prodigious deal of know¬ ledge ; but the honeft tar cannot tell what he knows, or 3 rather what he feels, for his fcience is really at his fin-oftheualti gers ends. We can fay with confidence, that if a per- fon of education, verfed in mechanics, and acquainted with the ftrutture of a ffiip, were to obferve with atten¬ tion the movements which are made on board a firft or fecond rate ftiip of war during a ffiifting ftorm, under the direflion of an intelligent officer, he would be rapt in admiration. What a pity it is that an art fo important, fo diffi¬ cult, and fo intimately connedled with the invariable laws of mechanical nature, ftiould be fo held by its poi- feffors, that it cannot improve, but muft die with each individual. Having no advantages of previous educa- 75 S E A M A lion, tney cannot arrange their thoughts; they can hardly be faid to think. They can far lefs exprefs or communicate to others the intuitive knowledge which they pofl'efs ; and their art, acquired by habit alone, is little different from an inftinft. We are as little in- titled to expeft improvement here as in the architec¬ ture of the bee or the beaver. The fpecies (pardon the allufion, ye generous hearts of oak) cannot improve. Yet a (hip is a machine. We know the forces which act on it, and we know the refults of its conftrudfion— all thefe are as fixed as the laws of motion. What hin¬ ders this to be reduced to a let of praftical maxims, as well founded and as logically deduced as the working of a Iteam engine or a cotton mill. 1 he ftoker or the fpinner a£ts only with his hands, and may “ whiffle as he works, for want of thoughtbut the mechanift, the engineer, thinks for him, improves his machine, and di- re&s him to a better praaice. May not the rough Tea¬ man look for the fame affiftance ; and may not the inge¬ nious fpeculatiff in his clofet unravel the intricate thread of mechanifm which conneas all the manual operations with the unchangeable laws of nature, and both furmfli the teaman with a better machine and direa him to a A more dexterous ufe of it ? which has We cannot help thinking that much may be done ; been ze< 1- nay, we may fay that much has been done. We think oufly culti- hip-jjiy 0f the progreffive labours of Renaud, Pitot, Bou- the^rench g»cr, Du Hamel, Groignard, Bernoulli, Euler, Romme, philofo- and others ; and are both furprifed and forry that Bri- phers. tain has contributed fo little in thefe attempts. Gor¬ don is the only one of our countrymen who has given a profeffedly fcientific treatife on a fmall branch of the fubjedt. The government of France has always been ffrongly xmprefled with the notion of great improve ments being attainable by fyftematic ffudy of this art*, and wc are indebted to the endeavours of that ingenious nation for any thing of pra6fical importance that has been obtained. M. Bouguer was profefibr of hydro¬ logy at one of the marine academies of France, and was enjoined, as part of his duty, to compofe diflerta- tions both on the conftruflion and the working of ffiips. His Traite clu Navire, and his Manoeuvre des Vai/Jeaux, are undoubtedly very valuable performances : So are thofe of Euler and Bernoulli, confidered as mathemati¬ cal ditTcrtations, and they are wonderful works of ge¬ nius, confidered as the productions of perfons who hard¬ ly ever faw a (hip, and were totally unacquainted with the profeflion of a Teaman. In this reffect Bouguer had great fuperiority, having always lived at a fea port, and having made many very long voyages. His trea- tifes therefore are infinitely better accommodated to the demands of the feaman, and more dire6tly inffruftive ; but Itill the author is more a mathematician than an ar- tift, and his performance is intelligible only to mathe¬ maticians. It is true, the academical education of the young gentlemen of the French navy is fuch, that a great number of them may acquire the preparatory knowledge that is neceffary and we are well informed that, in this refpeft, the officers of the Britiffi navy are greatly inferior to them. ^ But this very circumftance has furnilhed to many n'uunft t ie Per^ons an argument againft the utility of thofe per- utility of formances. It is faid that, “ notwithftanding this fu their per- perior mathematical education, and the poffeflion of fomunces, boafted performances of M. Bouguer, the French N S H I P. are greatly inferior, in point of feamanffiip, to cur coun¬ trymen, who have not a page in their language to in- Itruft them, and who could not perule it it they had it.” Nay, fo little do the French themlelves feem fenfible cl the advantage of thefe publications, that no perfon a- meng them has attempted to make a familiar abridge¬ ment of them, written in a way fitted to attraft atten¬ tion *, and they ftill remain neglefted in their original abftrufe and uninterefting form. We wifti that we could give a fatisfaclory anfwer to this obfervation. It is juft, ard it is importan*-. Thefe very ingenious and learned differtations are by no means fo ufeful as we (hould expeft. They are large books, and appear to contain much ; and as their plan is logical, it feems to occupy the wffiole fubjefl, and therefore to have done almoft all that can be done. But, alas ! they have only opened the fubjeci, and the ftudy is yet in its infancy. The whole fcience of the art muff proceed on the knowledge of the impulfions of the wind and water. Thefe are the forces which adl on the machine j and its motions, which are the ultimatum ot our re- fearch, whether as an end to be obtained or as a thing to be prevented, muff depend on thefe forces. Now it is with refpedt to this fundamental point that we are as yet almoft totally in the dark. And, in the perform-whic ha re ances of M. Bouguer, as alfo in thofe of the other au- thors we have named, the theory of thefe forces, by in thejr which their quantity and the direflion of their action fundamen- are afeertained, is altogether erroneous j and its refults tal princi- deviate fo enormoufly from vffiat is obferved in the mo- Ples > tions of a ffiip, that the perfon vffio ihould direft the operations on Chipboard, in conformity to the maxims deducible from M. Bouguer’s propofitions, would be baffled in moft of his attempts, and be in danger of lofing the ftiip. The xvhole proceeds on the fuppofed truth of that theory which ftates the itnpulfe of a fluid to be in the proportion of the fquare of the fine of the angle of incidence *, and that its aftion on any fmall portion, fuch as a fquare foot of the fails or hull, is the fame as if that portion w*ere detached from the reft, and were expofed, fingle and alone, to the wind or water in the fame angle. But we have ffiown, in the article Resistance of Fluids, both from theory and experi¬ ence, that both of thefe principles are erroneous, and this to a very great degree, in cafes which occur moft frequently in praftice, that is, in the fmall angles of in¬ clination. When the wind falls nearly perpendicular on the fails, theory is not very erroneous : but in thefe cafes, the circumftances of the Chip’s fituation are gene¬ rally fuch that the practice is eafy, occurring almoft without thought; and in this cafe, too, even confider- able deviations from the very beft praftice are of no great moment. The interefting cafes, where the in¬ tended movement requires or depends upon very oblique actions of the wind on the fails, and its pra&icability or imprafficability depends on a very fmall variation of this obliquity ; a miitake of the force, either as to in- tenfity or dire&ion, produces a mighty efte<5t on the re- fulting motion. This is the cafe in failing to windward ; the moft important of all the general problems of fea- manfhip. The trim of the fails, and the courfe of the fhip, fo as to gain moft on the wind, are very nice things j that is, they are confined within very narrow limits, and a fmall miflake produces a very confiderabie effect. The fame thing obtains in many of the nice pro- K 3 blems 76 7 though ufe i»a> be made of them. « Beflgn of this article. SEAMANSHIP. blems of tacking, box-hauling, wearing after lying to in a ftorm, &c. ° The error in the fecond affertion of the theory is fiill greater, and the a6lion on one part of the fail or hull is fo greatly modified by its aftion on another adjoining part, that a ftay-fail is often feen hanging like a loofe rag, although there is nothing between it and the wind ; and this merely becaufe a great fail in its neighbourhood fends oft a lateral ftream of wind, which completely hindeis the wind from getting at it. Till the theory of the adtion of fluids be eftablilhed, therefore, we cannot tell what are the forces which are adding on every point of the fail and hull: Therefore we cannot tell either the mean intenfity or diredlion of the w-hole force which adds oil any particular fail, nor the intenfity and mean diredlion of the refiftance to the hull j circumftances abfolutely neceflary for enabling us to fay what will be their energy in producing a rotation round any particu¬ lar axis. In like manner, we cannot, by fuch a com¬ putation, find the fpontaneous axis of converfion (fee Rotation), or the velocity of fuch converfion. In fhort, we cannot pronounce with tolerable confidence a priori what will be the motions in any cafe, or what difpofitions of the fails wull produce the movement we with to perform. The experienced feaman learns by habit the general effedls of every difpofition of the fails 5 and though his knowledge is far from being accurate, it feldom leads him into any very blundering operation. Perhaps he feldom makes the bell adjuftment poflible, but feldomer Hill does he deviate very far from it ; and in the moll general and important problems, fuch as working to windward, the refult of much experience and many corredlions has fettled a trim of the fails, which is certainly not far from the truth, but (it mull be acknowledged) deviates widely and uniformly from the theories of the mathematician’s clofet, The honell tar, therefore, mull be indulged in his joke on the ufe- lefs labours oi the mathematician, who can neither hand, reef, nor fleer. After this account of the theoretical performances in the art of feamanlliip, and what we have faid in another place on the fmall hopes we entertain of feeing a perfect theory of the impulfe of fluids, it will not be expe&ed that we enter very minutely on the fubjeft in this place ; • nor is it our intention. But let it be obferved, that the theory is defeftive in one point only j and although this is a moll important point, and the errors in it dellroy the conclufions of the chief propolitions, the reafonings remain in full force, and the modus operandi is precifely fuch as is Hated in the theory. The principles of the art are therefore to be found in thefe treatifes j but falfe inferences have been drawn, by computing from errone¬ ous quantities. The rules and the praflice of the com¬ putation, however, are ft’ll beyond controverfy : Nay, fince the procefs of invelligation is legitimate, we may make ufe of it in order to difcover the very circumftance in which wc are at prefent miltaken : for by converting the propolition, inllead of finding the motions by means of the fuppofed forces, combined with the known tue- chanifm, w7e may difcover the forces by means of this rnechanifm and the obferved motions. We lhall therefore in this place give a very general view of the movements of a fhip under fail, fhowing how they are produced and modified by the aflion of the wind on her fails, the water on her rudder and on her bows. We fhall not attempt a precife determina¬ tion of any of thefe movements ; but we lhall fay enough to enable the curious landfman to underlland how this mighty machine is managed amidil the fury of the winds and waves: and, what is more to our with, we hope to enable the uninllrudled but thinking feaman to gene- ralife that knowledge which he pofleffes 5 to clafs his ideas, and give them a fort of rational fyltem ; and even to improve his praftice, by making him fenfible of the immediate operation of every thing he does, and in what manner it contributes to produce the movement which he has in view. A Ihip may be confidered at prefent as a mafs of inert a flap con- matter in free fpace, at liberty to move in every direc-iklered as tion, according to the forces which impel or refill her :10 free. and when Ihe is in actual motion, in the diredlion of her fP^e im", courfe, we may Hill confider her as at reft in abfolute refifte/by fpace, but expofed to the impulfe of a current of water oppofite " moving equally fall in the oppolite diredlion : for in forces, both cafes the preflu re of the water on her bows is the fame 5 and we know that it is poflible, and frequently happens in currents, that the impulfe of the wind on her fails, and that of the water on her bows, balance each other fo precifely, that Ihe not only does not liir from the place, but alfo remains fteadily in the fame poll tion, with her head diredled to the fame point of the compafs. I his Hate of things is ealily conceived by any perfon accuftomed to confider mechanical fubjedts, and every feaman of experience has obferved it. It is of importance to confider it in this point of view, be¬ caufe it gives us the moll familiar notion of the man¬ ner in which thefe forces of the wind and water are fet in oppofttion, and made to balance or not to balance each other by the intervention of the Ihip, in the fame manner as the goods and the weights balance each other in the feales by the intervention of a beam orlleelyard. When a Ihip proceeds fteadily in her courfe, without Im changing her rate of failing, or varying the diredlion of th/wind her head, we mull in the firll place conceive the accu- on the fails mulated impulfes of the wind on all her fails as precife-0PPollte to ly equal and diredlly oppofite to the impulfe of the wa-^ter^a'6 ter on her bows. In the next place, becaufe the Ihip the bow”, does not change the diredlion of her keel, the refembles the balanced fteelyard, in which the energies of the two weights, which tend to produce rotations in oppofite diredlions, and thus to change the pofition of the beam, mutually balance each other round the fulcrum $ fo the energies of the adlions of the wind on the different fails balance the energies of the water on the different parts of the hull. The feaman has two principal talks to perform. The firll is to keep the Ihip lleadily in that courfe which will bring her farthell on in the line of her intended voyage. This is frequently very different from that line, and the choice of the bell courfe is fometimes a matter of confiderable difficulty. It is fometimes pof- fible to lhape the courfe precifely along the line of the feaman d;f« voyage; and yet the intelligent feaman knows that hep!ayed in will arrive fooner, or with greater fafety, at his port,lll;iP‘n§llis by taking a different courfe; becaufe he will gain morecouli”' by increaling his fpeed than he lofcs by increafing the dillance. Some principle mull diredl him in the felec- tion of this courfe. This we mull attempt to lay before the reader. Having chofen fuch a courfe as he thinks moll advan¬ tageous, 17 Imimlfe of the water computed in ounces on the fquare foot. S E A M A tageous, he mart fet fuch a quantity of fail as the flrength of the wind will allow him to carry with fafety and ef* feft, and mart trim the fails properly, or fo adjaft their pofitions to the direction of the wind, that they may have the greateft pofhble tendency to impel the fhip in the line of her courfe, and to keep her fteadily in that direction. His other talk is to prodace any deviations which he fees proper from the prefent coarle of the fhip 5 and to prodace thefe in the molt certain, the fafelt, and the molt expeditious manner. It is chiefly in this movement that the mechanical nature of a fhip comes into view, and it is here that the fuperior addrefs and refource of an expert feaman is to be perceived. Under the article Sailing fome notice has been taken of the firlt talk of the feaman, and it was" there fliown how a (hip, after having taken up her anchor and fitted her fails, accelerates her motion, by degrees which con¬ tinually diminilh, till the increafing refiltance of the wa¬ ter becomes precifely equal to the diminiihed impulfe of the wind, and then the motion continues uniformly the fame fo long as the wind continues to blow with the fame force and in the fame direction. It is perfeftly confonant to experience that the impulfe of fluids is in the duplicate ratio of the relative velocity. Let it be fuppofed that when water moves one foot per fecond, its perpendicular preffure or impulfe on a fquare foot is m pounds. Then, if it be moving with the velo¬ city V eftimated in feet per fecond, its perpendicular impulfe on a furfa.ce S, containing any number of fquare feet, mull be m SVS. In like manner, the impulfe of air on the fame fur- face may be reprefented by ra S V1; and the proportion of the impulfe of thefe two fluids wdll be that of m to ??. We may exprefs this by the ratio off to 1, making m M. Bouguer’s computations and tables are on the fuppofition that the impulfe of fea-w^ater moving one foot per fecond is 23 ounces on a fquare foot, and that the impulfe of the wind is the fame when it blows at the rate of 24 feet per fecond. Thefe mealures are all French. They by no means agree with the experi¬ ments of others \ and what we have already faid, when treating of the RESISTANCE of Fluids, is enough to Ihow us that nothing like precife meafures can be ex¬ pected. It was (hown as the refult of a rational invef- tigation, and confirmed by the experiments of Buat and others, that the impulfions and refiflances at the fame furface, with the fame obliquity of incidence and the fame velocity of motion, are different according to the form and fituation of the adjoining parts. Thus the total refiltance of a thin board is greater than that of a long priftn, having this board for its front or bowq &c. We are greatly at a lofs what to give as abfolute mea¬ fures of thefe impulfions. 1. With refpeCt to water. The experiments of the trench academy on a prifm tivo feet broad and deep and four feet long, indicate a refiftance of 0,973 pounds avoirdupois to a fquare foot, moving with the velocity of one foot per fecond at the furface of ftill water. Mr Boat’s experiments on a fquare foot wholly im- merfed in a ft re am were as follow ; N S H I P. 77 A fquare foot as a thin plate - 1,81 pounds. Ditto as the front of a box one foot long . - - . 1,42 Ditto as the front of a box three feet long - - - # - 1,29 The reliftance of fea-water is about Aj- greater. 2. With refpeCl to air, the varieties are as great.—- The refiftance of a fquare foot to air moving with the velocity of one foot per fecond appears from Mr Ro¬ bins’s experiments on 16 fquare inches to be on a fquare foot ... 0,001596 pounds, Chevalier Borda’s on 16 inches 0,001757 on 81 inches 0,002042 Mr Roufe’s on large furfaces 0,002291 Precife meafures are not to be expeCIed, nor are they neceffary in this inquiry. Here we are chiefly intereft- ed in their proportions, as they may be varied by their mode of aftion in the different circumftances of obliqui¬ ty and velocity. We begin by recurring to the fundamental propofi-- tion concerning'the impulfe of fluids, viz. that the abfo¬ lute preffure is always in a direftion perpendicular to the impelled furface, whatever may be the direction of the ftream of fluid. We muft therefore illuftrate the,... ^. ^ doctrine, by always fuppofing a flat furface of lail |)Ujie on ftretched on a yard, which can be braced about in any the fail direftion, and giving this fail fuch a pofiticn and fuch perpendi- an extent of furface that the impulfe on it may be thecu^‘r 1:0 t'1‘ fame both as to direction and intenfity with that on^a‘ ' the real fails. Thus the confideration is greatly fimpli- fied. The direftion of the impulfe is therefore perpen¬ dicular to the yard. Its intenfity depends on the ve¬ locity with which the wind meets the fail, and the obli¬ quity of its ftroke. We {hall adopt the conflrmftions founded on the common dodtrine, that the impulfe is as the fquare of the fine of the inclination, becaufe they are fimple ; whereas, if we were to introduce the values of the oblique impulfes, fuch as they have been obfer- ved in the excellent experiments of the Academy of Paris, the conftrudtions would be complicated in the extreme, and we could hardly draw any confequences which would be intelligible to any but expert mathema¬ ticians. The conclufions will be erroneous, not in kind but in quantity only; and we fhall point out the necef¬ fary corrections, fo that the final refults will be found not very different from real obfervation. If a fliip were a round cylindrical body like a flat A A4 tub, floating on its bottom, and fitted with a maft andcom])are4 fail in the centre, fhe would always fail in a diredtion to an ob- perpendicular to the yard. This is evident. But flue l°nS box* is an oblong body, and may be compared to a cheft, whofe length greatly exceeds its breadth. She is fo fliaped, that a moderate force will pufli her through the water with the head or flem foremofl; 5 but it re¬ quires a very great force to pufli her fidewife with the fame velocity. A fine failing fhip of war wfill require about 12 times as much force to pufh her fidewife as to pufli her head foremoft. In this relpedt therefore ihe will very much referable a cheft whofe length is 12 times its breadth ; and whatever be the proportion of thefe refiftances in different fliips, we mav always fubftitute a box which {hall have the fame refiftances headwife and fidewife. Let EFGH (fig. 1.) be the horizontal fedtion of fuch 4 78 , S E A M A Plate fucli a foox, and AB its middle line, and C its centre. cccclxxix jn whatever direction this box may chance to move, the dire&ion of the whole refiftance on its two tides will pafs through C. For as the whole ifream has one incli¬ nation to the fide EF, the equivalent of the equal im- pulfes on every part will be in a line perpendicular to the middle of EF. For the fame reafon, it will be in a line perpendicular to the middle of FG. Thefe per¬ pendiculars muft crofs in C. Suppofe a mail eredled 15 at C, and YCt/ to be a yard hoifted on it carrying a Makes lee- fail. Let the yard be firft conceived as braced right way when aj]lwarj- rJglu angles to the keel, as reprefented by direftlj^be-Y'#'• Then, whatever be the diredlion of the wind fore the " abaft this fail, it will impel the veffel in the direction wind CB. But if the fail has the oblique pofition Y y, the impulfe will be in the direflion CD perpendicular to CY, and rvill both pufh the vefiel ahead and fidewife : For the impulfe CD is equivalent to the trvo impulfes CK and Cl (the fides of a reclangle of which CD is the diagonal). The force Cl pulhes the veffel ahead, and CK puflies her fidewife. She muft therefore take fome intermediate diredlion a b, (itch that the refiftance of the water to the plane FG is toils refiftance to the plane EF as Cl to CK. The angle b CB between the real courfe and the di- reclion of the head is called the Leeway; and in the courfe of this differtation we {hall exprefs it by the fymbol x. It evidently depends on the lhape of the vefiel and on the pofition of the yard. An accurate knowledge of the quantity of leeway, correfponding to different circumftances of obliquity of impulfe, extent of furface, &c. is of the utmoft importance in the pradlice of navigation ; and even an approximation is valuable. The fubjeft is fo very difficult that this muft content us 16 for the prefent. How to Let V be the velocity of the flap in the direction (ukI the r b, and let the furfnees FG and FE be called A' and Lew ay ^ ° B'. Then the refiftanee to the lateral motion is V1 X B' X fine L £CB, and that to the direcl motion is mV1 X A' X fine s, b(^K, or m V1 X A' X cof.2bCB. Therefore thefe refiftances are in the proportion of B' X ftne*, x to A' X cof.% x (reprefenting the angle of leeway b CB by the fymbol y). Therefore we have Cl : CK, or Cl : ID = A!’ fine* x cof. zx : B'* fine* ~ A': B'-—jr—— A : B • tap- coi. x gent * x. Let the angle YCB, to -which the yard is braced up, be called the Trim of the fails, and expreffed by the fymbol b. This is the complement of the angle DCI. Notv Cl : ID = rad. : tan. DCI, = 1 : tan. DCI, 1 : cotan. b. Therefore we have finally 1 : co¬ tan. b — A!: Br' tan. * x, and A' • cotan. rr B' • tan- A gent 1 x, and tan. 12 x ■=. b. This equation evi¬ dently afeertains the mutual relation between the trim of the fails and the leeway in every cafe where we can tell the proportion between the refiftances to the direct and broadfide motions of the ffiip, and where this pro- ponion does not change by the obliquity of the courfe. Thus, fuppofe the yard braced up to an angle of 30° with the keel. Then cotan. 3o° r= 1,732 very nearly. Suppofe alfo that the refiftance fidewife is 12 times greater than the refiftance headwife. This gives 4 N S H I P. A' — 1 and B' zr 12. Therefore 1,732 =2 12 X tan- gent * xf and tangent x ~ —, ru: 0,14434, ana tAn. x — 0,3799, and x— 20° 48', very nearly two points of leeway. This computation, or rather the equation which gives room for it, fuppofes the refiftahees proportional to the fquares of the fines of incidence. The experiments of the Academy of Paris, of which an abftrafl is given in the article RESISTANCE of Fluids, ftrow that this fuppofition is not far from the truth when the angle of incidence is great. In the prefent cafe the angle of in¬ cidence on the front EG is about 70°, and the experi¬ ments juft now mentioned ftrow that the real refinances exceed the theoretical ones only But the angle of incidence on EF is only 20° 48'. Experiment fliows that in this inclination the refiftance is aimoft quadruple of the theoretical refiftances. Therefore the lateral refiftance is affumed much too Imall in the pre¬ fent inftance. Therefore a much fmaller leeway will fuffice tor producing a lateral refiftance which will ba¬ lance the lateral impulle CK, anting trem the obliquity of the fail, viz. 30°. 't he matter of fad is, that a pret¬ ty good failing ffiip, vith her fails braced to this angle at a medium, will not make above five or fix degrees leeway in fmcoth water and eafy weather; and yet in this iituation the hull and rigging prelent a very great furface to the tvind, in the moft improper pofitions, to as to have a very great effed in increafing her leeway. And if we compute the refiftances tor this leeway of fix degrees by the adual experiments of the French A- cademy on the angle, we ffiall find the refult not far from the truth ; that is, the dired and lateral refiftances will bp nearly in the proportion of Cl to ID. It refults from this view of the matter, that the lee¬ way is in general much finaller than what tire ufual theo¬ ry affigns. 17 We alfo fee, that according to whatever law the re-which de- fiftances change by a change of inclination, the leeway remains the fame while the trim of the fails is the fame. ^ la^s The leeway depends only on the diredion of the im¬ pulfe of the wind ; and this depends folely on the pofi¬ tion of the fails with refped to the keel, whatever may be the diredion of the wind. This is a very important obfervation, and will be frequently referred to in the progrefs of the prefent inveftigation. Note, however, that we are here confidering only the adion 'on the fails, and on the fame fails. We are not confidering the ac¬ tion of the wind on the hull and rigging. This may be very confideiable ; and it is always in a lee diredion, and augments the leeway; and its influence muft be fo much the more fer.fible as it bears a greater proportion to the impulle on the fails. A fliip under courfes, or clofe-reefed topfails and courfes, muft make more leeway than when under all her canvas trimmed, to the fame angle. But to introduce this additional caufe of devia¬ tion here would render the inveftigation too complicated to be of any ufe. j3 This dodrine will be confiderably killu ft rated by at- Illuttration tending to the manner in which a lighter is tracked a- ofttm doc- long a canal, or fwings to its anchor in a ftream. Thetnne track rope is made fall to fome llaple or bolt E on the^f^" deck (fig. 2.), and is pafied between two of the timber- fjg. 2. heads of the bow D, and laid hold of at F on fliore. The men or cattle walk along the path FG, the rope keeps 79 S E A M A keeps extended in the directions DF, and the lighter ar¬ ranges itfelf in an oblique pofition AB, and is thus .dragged along in the direction ab, parallel to the hde of the canal. Or, if the canal has a current in the op- poiite direction b a, the lighter may be kept fteady in its place by the rope DF made fait to a poft at F. In this cafe, it is always obferved, that the lighter fwings in a polition AB, which is oblique to the ftream a b. Now7 the force which retains it in this pofition, and which precifely balances the aCtion of the Hr earn, is cer¬ tainly exerted in the direction DF ; and the lighter would be held in the fame manner if the rope were made fait at C amldlhip, without any dependence on the timbevheads at D •, and it would be held in the fame pofition, if, inftead of the fmgle rope CF, it were riding by two ropes CG and CH, of which CH is in a diiec- tion right ahead, but oblique to the ftream, and the other CG is perpendicular to CH or AB. And, draw¬ ing DI and DK perpendicular to AB and CG, the ftrain on the rope CH is to that on the rope CG as Cl to CK. The aCtion of the rope in thefe cafes is pre¬ cifely analogous to that of the fail ij \ \ and the obliquity of the keel to the direction of the motion, or to the direction of the itream, is analogous to the lee¬ way. All this mult be evident to any perfon accuftom- jp ed to mechanical difquifitions. On models A moll important ufe may be made of this illuftra- and tion. If an accurate model be made of a Ihip, and if it be placed in a ftream of water, and ridden in this manner by a rope made fall at any point D of the bow, it will arrange itfelf in fome determined pofition AB. There will be a certain obliquity to the ftream, mea- fured by the angle Bo^; and there will be a corre- fponding obliquity of the rope, meafured by the angle FCB. Let ij CY be perpendicular to CF. I hen C\ will be the pofition of the yard, or trim of the fails cor- refponding to the leeway b CB. Then, if we fhift the rope to a point of the bow diftant from D by a fmall quantity, we {hall obtain a new pofition or the Ihip, both with refpeCt to the ftream and rope ; and in this way may be obtained the relation between the pofition of the fails and the leeway, independent of all theory, and fufceptible of great accuracy •, and this may be done with a variety of models fuited to the molt ufual 20 forms of fhips. onthlpi. In farther thinking on this fubjeCt, we are perfuaded Fig. 3. that thefe experiments, inftead of being made on mo¬ dels, may with equal eafe be made on a {hip of any fize. Let the (hip ride in a ftream at a mooring D (fig. 3.) by means of a fliort hawfer BCD from her bow7, ha¬ ving a fpring AC on it carried out from her quarter. She will fwing to her moorings, till fiie ranges herfelf in a certain pofition AB with refpeCt to the direction c b of the ftream ; and the direction of the hawfer DC will point to feme point E of the line of the keel. Now, it is plain to any perfon acquainted with mechanical dif- <}uifitions, that the deviation BE£ is precifely the lee¬ way that the lhip will make when the average pofition of the fails is that of the line GEH perpendicular to ED ; at lead this will give the leeway which is produ¬ ced by the fails alone. By heaving on the fpring, the knotC may be brought into any other pofition we pleafe ; turd for every new pofition of the knot the Ihip wall take a new pofitiuo with refpeCt to the ftream and to the haw - N S H I P. fer. And we perfift in faying, that more information will be got by this train of experiments than from any mathematical theory : for all the theories of the impulfes of fluids muft proceed on phyfical poftulates with refpeCl to the motions of the filaments, which are exceedingly conjeCtural. 2r And it muft now be farther obferved, that the fub- The com- ftitufion which we have made of an oblong paralielopi- ped for a Ihip, although vrell fuited to give us clear no- an Ob!ong lions of the fubjeCt, is of fmall ufe in praCtice ; for it is body is next to impoffible (even granting the theory of oblique only ufe- impulfions) to make this fubftitution. A ftfip is of a'^o gwe form which is not reducible to equations j and therefore tlons on the aCHon of the water on her bow or broadfide can only the fubjeCt. be had by a moft laborious and intricate calculation for almoft every fquare foot of its furface. (See Re'zouOs Cours de Mathem. vol. v. p. 72, &c.) And this muft be different for every fhip. But, which is more un¬ lucky, when we have got a parallelepiped which will have the fame proportion of direCt and lateral refiftance for a particular angle of leewvay, it wall not anfwer for another leeway of the fame fhip } for when the leeway changes, the figure aCtually expofed to the aCtion of the water changes alfo. When the leeway is increafed, mote of the lee-quarter is aCted on by the water, and a part of the weather-bow is now removed from its aCtion. Another parallelepiped muft therefore be difeovered, whofe refiltances (hall fuit this new pofition of the keel with refpeCt to the real courfe of the {hip. We therefore beg leave to recommend this train of experiments to the notice of the Association for the Improvement of Naval Architecture as a very promifing method for afeertaining this important point. And we proceed, in the next place, to afeertain the re¬ lation between the velocity of the ftfip and that of the wind, modified as they may be by the trim of the fails and the obliquity of the impulfe. 22 Let AB (fig/4, 5, and 6.) reprefent the horizontal The rela- feCtion of a Ihip. In place of all the drawing fails, thatUon be- is, the fails which are really filled, we can always fubfti-^ef tute one fail of equal extent* trimmed to the fame angle tjie fhip with the keel. This being fuppofed attached to the and wind yard DCD, let this yard be firft of all at right angles aReitamed- to the keel, as reprefented in fig. 4. Let the winu'W’^' blow in the direction WC, and let CE (in the direction WC continued) reprefent the velocity V of the wind. Let CF be the velocity v of the fhip. It muft alfo be in the direction of the flrip’s motion, beeaufe when the fail is at right angles to the keel, the abfolute impulfe- on the fail is in the direction of the keel, and there is no lateral impulfe, and confequently no leeway. Draw EF, and complete the parallelogram CFE, and a perfon on hoard feeing it pafs through C and p wTill fay that its 2 ^ motion w as in the line C/>. When a Thus it happens, that when a Ihip is in motion the ft' - -’•1 apparent dire&ion of the wnnd is always ahead of its motion the reaj diredlion. The line uj C is always found within dm dtion oft^!e an^e WCB. It is eafy to fee from the conftruc- the wind tion, that the difference between the real and apparent isal ■■■ays direffions of the wind is lo much the more remarkable different as t}ie velocity of the Ihip is greater : For the angle reaTd'irec WC w or EC e depends on the magnitude of E £> or tion. in proportion to CE. Perfons not much accuf- tomed to attend to thefe matters are apt to think all at¬ tention to this difference to be nothing but affedtation of nicety. They have no notion that the velocity of a Ihip can have any fenfible proportion to that of the wind. “ Swift as the wind” is a proverbial expref- ffon ; yet the velocity of a Ihip always bears a very fen¬ fible proportion to that of the wind, and even very fre¬ quently exceeds it. We may form a pretty exadt no¬ tion of the velocity of the wind by obferving the Iha- dows of the fummer clouds flying along the face of a country, and it may be very well meafured by this me¬ thod. The motion of fuch clouds cannot be very diffe¬ rent from that of the air below ; and when the preffure of the wind on a flat furface, while blowing with a ve¬ locity meafured in this way, is compared with its pref¬ fure when its velocity is meafured by more unexcep¬ tionable methods, .they are found to agree with all de- firable accuracy. Nowr obfervations of this kind fre¬ quently repeated, {how that w’hat we call a pleafanl briik gale blows at the rate of about 10 miles an hour, or about 15 feet in a fecond, and exerts a preflure of half a pound on a fquare foot. Mr Smeaton has fre¬ quently obferved the fails of a windmill, driven by fuch a wind, moving fafter, nay much faffer, towards their extremities, fo that the fail, inffead of being prefled to the frames on the arms, v.'as taken aback, and flutter¬ ing on them. Nay, w7e know that a good (hip, with all her fails fet and the wind on the beam, will in fuch a fituation fail above ten knots an hour in finooth wTa- ter. There is an obfervation made by every experienced feaman, which fhows this difference between the real and apparent directions the wind very diftindiy. When a (hip that is failing brdkly with the wind on the beam tacks about, and then fails equally well on the other tack, the wind always appears to have (hifted and come more ahead. This is familiar to all feamen. The fea¬ man judges of the dire^ion of the wind by the pofition of tl e {hip’s vanes. Suppofe the {hip-Tailtng due weft on the ftarboard tack, with the wind apparently N. N. W thr vane pmnt'rg S. S. E. If the flijr put about, and {lands due naff on th ■ Inboard tack, the vane will be . found no longer to point S. S. E. but perhaps S.S.W. the 4 wind appearing N.N.E. and the flap muff be nearly clofe- hauled in order to make an eatt courfe. The wind ap¬ pears to have fliifted four points. If the fliip tacks ' again, the wind returns to its old quarter. We have often obferved a greater difference than this. The ce- f ^ lebrated aftronomer Dr Bradley, taking the amufement of {ailing in a pinnace on the river Thames, obferved Bradley on this, and was turprifed at it, imagining that the change this fubjedl. of wind was owing to the approaching to or retiring from the fliore. The boatmen told him that it always happened at fea, and explained it to him in the belt manner they were able. The explanation itruck him, and let him a mufing on an aftronomical phenomenon which he had been puzzled by for fome years, and which he called THE aberration of the fixed stars. Every ffar changes its place a fmall matter for half a year, and returns to it at the completion of the year. He compared the ffream of light from the ftar to the wind, and the telefcope of the allronomer to the ffiip’s vane, while the earth was like the {hip, mo¬ ving in oppofite directions when in the oppofite points of its orbit. The telelcope muff aUvays be pointed a- head of the real direction of the ftar, in the fame man¬ ner as the vane is always in a direction ahead of the wind 5 and thus- he afeertained the progreflive motion of light, and difeovered the proportion of its velocity to the velocity of the earth in its orbit, by obferving the deviation which was neceflarily given to the tele¬ fcope. Obferving that the light {bitted its diredtion about zj-O", he concluded its velocity to be about 11,000 times greater than that of the earth ; juff as the intelli¬ gent feaman would conclude from this apparent ffiifting of the wind, that the velocity of the wind is about triple that of the fhip. This is indeed the beft method for difeovering the velocity of the wind. Let the di- redtion of the vane at the maft-head be very accurately noticed on both tacks, and let the velocity of the {hip be alfo accurately meafured. The angle between the diredtions of the fhip’s head on thefe different tacks be¬ ing halved, will give the real diredtion of the wind, which muff be compared with the pofition of the vane in order to determine the angle contained between the real and apparent diredlions of the wind or the angle EC e ; or half of the obferved fluffing of the wind will fliow the inclination of its true and apparent diredfions, This being found, the proportion of EC to FC (fig. 6.) is eafily meafured. We have been very particular on this point, becaufe fince the mutual adtions’ of bodies depend on their rela¬ tive motions only, we fliould make prodigious miftakes if we eftimated the adfion of the wind by its real diredfion and velocity, when they differ fo much from the rela¬ tive or apparent. We now refume the inveftigation of the velocity of Velocity of the (hip (fig. 4.), having its fails at right angles to thea keel, and the wind blowing in the diredlion and with ('v^t n lts the velocity CE, while the fhip proceeds in the direc-rf(!htare at tion of the keel with the velocity CF. Produce E e, angles to which is parallel to BC, till it meet the yard in g, and the keekj draw FG perpendicular to E^. Let a reprefent the angle WCD, contained between the fail and the real diredlion of the wind, and let b be the' angle of trim DCB. CE the velocity of the wind was expreffed by V, and CF the velocity of the fliip by v. The abfolute impulfe on the fail is (by the ufual theory S E A M A theory) proportional to the fquare of the relative velo¬ city, and to the fquare of the line of the angle of inci¬ dence ; that is, to FE* X fin.1 w CD. Now the angle GFE rr xo CD, and EG is equal to FExfin. GFE ; and EG is equal to E g—g G. But E g~ EC X fin. EC^, rrVxfin. a; and ^ G=CF, =zv. Therefore EG == V X fin. a—d, and the impulfe is proportional to V x fin. a—v1. If S reprefent the fur- face of the fail, the impulfe, in pounds, will be n S(Vx fin. a—v')i. Let A be the furface which, when it meets the wa¬ ter perpendicularly with the velocity v, will fuftain the fame preflure or refiftance which the bows of the Ihip actually meets with. This impulfe, in pounds, will be m A f*. Therefore, becaufe we are confidering the fhip’s motion as in a Hate of uniformity, the two pref- fures balance each other $ and therefore m A v%z=n S (V N s H I P. 81 X fin. a—v)*, and — A S (V X fin. a—x;)* j therefore v- X vz=a/SxV X fin. a—*—V—v* n b V, and n S n b and —- zz u rr V — x/, a — 7T7 r* j and becaufe m A (V—x;)* 7 n and m and A are conilant quantities, S is propor- . v* tional to or the furface of fail is proportional to the fquare of the (hip’s velocity dire&ly, and to the fquare of the relative velocity inverfely. Thus, if a (bin Vol. XIX. Part I. * > v be failing with one-eighth of the velocity of the wind, and we would have her (ail with one-fourth of it, we mud quadruple the fail. J his is more eaiily feen in another way. 1 he velocity of the (hip is proportional to the ve¬ locity of the wind j and therefore the relative veloci¬ ty is alfo proportional to that of the wind, and the impulfe of the wind is as the fquare of the relative velo¬ city. Therefore, in order to increafe the relative velo¬ city by an increafe of fail only, we mud make this in¬ creafe of fail in the duplicate proportion of the increafe of velocity. Let us, in the next place, confider the motion of a drip whole fails (land oblique to the keel. The condru£Hon for this purpole differs a little from Tts velocity the former, becaufe, when the fails are trimmed to any wher. the oblique petition DCB (fig. 5. and 6.), there mud be al!,li.5 ftand deviation from the direftion of the keel, or a leeway BC b. Call this x. Let CF be the velocity of rhe (hip. C EC " - Draw, as before, £_§• perpendicular to the yard, andJIS-5‘an FG perpendicular to E^y alio draw FFI perpendicu¬ lar to the yard : then, as before, EG, which is in the fubduplicate ratio of the impulfe on the fail, is equal to Now E^ is, as before, —V X fin. rt, and is equal to FH, which is =CFxfin. FCH, or — ^ Xfin. Therefore we have the impulfe =« S (V • fin. a—v • fin. 1 his expreflron of the impulfe is perfedlly fimilar to that in the former cafe, its only difference confiding ir* the fubdu&ive part, which is here x>xfin. b-\-x indead! of v.' But it expreffes the fame thing as before, viz. the diminution of the impulfe. The impulfe being rec¬ koned folely in the diredfion perpendicular to the fail, it is diminiflred folely by the fail withdrawing itfelf in that direction from the wind j and as ^ E may be confi¬ dered as the real impulfive motion of the wind, GE mud be confidered as the relative and effe^/A24-B*, and which will therefore have the fame perpendicular refiftance to the water having the velocity v) it may be expreffed by »z C v*. Therefore, becaufe there is an equilibrium between the impulfe and refiftance, we have m C vz—n S (V • fin. a—v • fin. b-\-xy and — C “u*, or q Ct;1—S (V* fin. a—v ' fin. £-J-a)*, and q \/ C v= y/ S (V • fin. a—v' fin. ^4-a). S'V-fin. a Therefore v — V • fin. a ^ y' C -ft- v' S • fin. _j_.v 5 Sin. a - — V 1 q -ft- fin. b -ft x. >y/ S ever may be the angle ECD, fo long as the angle TCI is conftant. We alfo fee that it is very poftible for the velocity of the (hip on an oblique courle to exceed that of the wind. This will be the cafe when the number Obferve that the quantity which is the coefficient of V in this equation is a common number } for fin. a is a number, being a decimal fraftion of the radius I, Sin. b-\-x is alfo a number, for the fame reafon. And fince m and n were numbers of pounds, — or ^ is a common number. And becaufe C and S are furfaces, C or quantities of one kind, -g- is alfo a common num¬ ber. This is the fimpleft expreffion that we can think of for the velocity acquired by the ffiip, though it muft be acknowledged to be too complex to be of very prompt ufe. It,s complication arifes from the necefiity of introducing the leeway x. I his affedfs the whole of the denominator \ for the furface C depends on it, be- cau fe C is rr ^A’ + and A and B are analogous ,,§ to A' cof. ax and B' fin. 1 x. Important But we can deduce fome important confequences from confequen- this theorem. ces dedu- While the furface S of the fail adlually filled by the the fore1 wind remains the fame, and the angle DCB, which in goino theo- future we ffiall call the Trim of the fails, alfo remains lem.’ the fame, both the leeway * and the fubftituted furface C remains the fame. The denominator is therefore con- flant; and the velocity of the Ihip is proportional to y' S-V‘ fin. <7 ; that is, diredlly as the velocity of the wind, diredlly as the abfolute inclination of the wind to the yard, and diredlly as the fquare root of the fur¬ face of the fails. We alfo learn from the conftrudlion of the figure that FG parallel to the yard cuts CE in a given ratio. For CF is in a conftant ratio to E^, as has been juft now demonftrated. And the angle DCF is conftant. There¬ fore CF-fin. £, or FH or G^, is proportional to E^, and OC to EC, or EC is cut in one proportion, what- fin. a ^ q-^—ft fin. b -ft x exceeds unity, or when fin. a is greater than V fin.b-\-x. Now this may eafily be by fufficiently enlarging S and diminilhing £-ft*. It is indeed frequently feen in fine failers with all their fails fet and not hauled too near the wind. We remarked above that the angle of leeway .r af- fefts the whole denominator of the fra&ion which ex- preffes the velocity. Let it be obferved that the angle JCL is the complement of LCD, or of b. I he re fore, CL : LI, or A : B = i : tan. ICL, = I : cot. b, and B—A- cotan. b. Now A is equivalent to A'' cof. 1 xy and thus b becomes a function of x. C is evidently fo, being v/A2-ftB\ Therefore before the value of this fraction can be obtained, wx muft be able to compute, by our knowledge of the form of the fhip, the value of A for every angle x of leeway. Ibis can be done omy by refolving her bows into a great number of elementary planes, and computing the impulfes on each and adding them into one ium. A he computation is of immenie la¬ bour, as may be leen by one example given by Bouguer. When the leeway is but (mall, not exceeding ten de¬ grees, the fubftitution of the rectangular prifm of one determined form is abundantly exaCt for ail leeways con¬ tained within this limit j and we ffiall foon fee reafon for being contented with this approximation. We may now make ufe of the formula expreffing the velocity for folvmg the chief problems in this part of the feaman s talk. # And fir ft let it be required to determine the belt pofi- probjem j. lion of the fail for Handing on a given courfe a b, when To deter- CE the direction and velocity of the wind, and its angle mine the with the courfe WCF, are given. This problem has^ exercifed the talents of the mathematicians ever fince failsfor the days of Newton. In the article Pneumatics weftanchng gave the folution of one very nearly related to it, name-on a given ly, to determine the pofition of the fail which would produce the greateft impulfe in the direCfion of the^ire(q;on courfe. The folution was to place the yard CD in fuch and veloci- a pofition that the tangent of the angle I CD may be ty of the one half of the tangent of the angle DCW. This wiH.^md and indeed be the beft pofition of the fail for beginning motion ; but as foon as the fhip begins to move in thecourfe are direCfion CF, the effeClive impulfe of the wind is di-given, miniffied, and alfo its inclination to the fail. The angle DC-iu diminifhes continually as the ffiip accele¬ rates •, for CF is now accompanied by its equal e E, and by an angle EC e or WC w. CF increafes, and the impulfe on the fail diminifhes, till an equilibrium obtains between the refiftance of the water and the im¬ pulfe of the wind. The impulfe is now meafured by CE2xfin‘* e CD inftead of CE2xftn*1 ECD, that is, by EG2 inftead of Eg1. . _ . This introduefion of the relative motion of the wind renders the aCfual folution of the problem extremely diffirnll. S E A M A difficult. It is very eafily expreffed geometrically : Divide the angle iv CF in inch a manner that the tan¬ gent of DCF may be half of the tangent of DC w, and the problem may be conltrudled geometrically as fol¬ lows. *7. Let WCF (fig. 7.) be the angle between the fail and courfe. Round the centre C defcribe the circle WDFY •, produce WC to Q, fo that CQbrrjWC, and draw QY parallel to CF cutting the circle in Y ; bifect the arch WY in D, and draw DC. DC is the proper pofition of the yard. Draw the chord WY, cutting CD in V and CF in T ; draw the tangent PD cutting CF in S and CY in R. It is evident that WY, PR, are both perpendicular to CD, and are bife£led in V and D ; therefore (by reafon of the parallels QY, Cb) 4:3“ QW : CW, —YW : TW, rzRP : SP. Therefore PD : PS=2 :3, and PD : DS = 2 : 1. E. D. But this divifion cannot be made to the heft advantage till the {hip has attained its greateft velocity, and the angle U’ CF has been produced. We tnuft confider all the three angles, a, b, and x, as variable in the equation which exprcffes the value of v, and we muft make the fluxion of this equation ~ 0; then, by means of the equation B = A* cotan. b, we muft obtain the value of b and of b in terms of x and x. With refpeft to a, obferve, that if we make the angle WCF—/), we have p— a-\-b-\-x ; and p being a con- ftant quantity, we have rf-j-^-j-Arro. Subftituting for and the angle MC/// is 370 30k This added to ECM makes EC/// 107° 30', leaving WC m—^20 30', and the fhip muft hold a courfe making an angle of 72® 30' with the real dire&ion of the wind, and WCD will be 370 30'. This iuppofes no leeway. But if we know that un-. der all the fail which the fhip can carry with fafety and advantage fhe makes 5 degrees of leeway, the angle DC m of the lail and courie, or b-!f-x, is 40°. Then CO-f-OM—220°, which being taken from 360° leaves 140°, of which the half is 7°°? m, and the angle MC m — 350, and EC m — 105°, and WC /// = 750, and the fhip muft lie with her head 70° from the wind, making 5 degrees of leeway, and the angle WCD is 35\ J he general rule for the pofition of the (hip is, t/uit the line on fhipboard which bifetls the angle b-}-x may alfo bifedi the angle WCM, or make the angle between the courfe and the line from which we with to withdraw equal to the angle between the fail and the real direc¬ tion of the wind. ^5 It is plain that this problem includes that of plying Corollari£& to windward. We have only to fuppofe ECM to be 90° j then, taking our example in the fame fhip, with the fame trim and the fame leeway, we have This taken from 90® leaves 50° and WC«—90—25= 65, and the fhip’s head muft lie 6o°from the w’ind, and the yard muft be 25° from it. It muft be obferved here, that it is not always eligi- ble to fele& the courie which will remove the fhip fart- eft from the given line CM j it may be more prudent to remove from it more fecurely though more flowly. In fuch cafes the procedure is very fimple, viz. to fhape the courfe as near the wind as is poflible. 1 he reader will alfo eafily fee that the propriety of thefe pra&ices is confined to thofe courfes only where the pra&icable trim of the fails is not fufficiently fharp. Whenever the courfe lies fo far from the wind that it is poflible to make the tangent of the apparent angle of the wfind and fail double the tangent of the fail and courfe, it fliould be done. Thefe are the chief pra&ical confequences whicti can Xjje3a^jlt{4_ be deduced from the theory. But w e fliould confider ment of the how far this adjuftment of the fails and courfe can be fails fup(x>- performed. And here occur difficulties fo great as to ^ tfie make it almoft impraaicalile. We have always led the pofition or the lurrace or the fail to be diftin&ly obfervable and meafurable ; but this can hardly be af¬ firmed even with refpeft to a lail ftretched on a yard. Here w'e fuppofed the furface of the fail to have the fame inclination to the keel that the yard has. This is by no means the cafe 5 the fail affumes a concave form, of which it is almoft: impoflible to affign the dire&ion of the mean impulfe. We believe that this is always con- fiderably to leeward of a perpendicular to the yard, ly¬ ing between Cl and CE (fig. 6.). This is of fome ad¬ vantage, being equivalent to a (harper trim. We can¬ not affirm this, however, with any confidence, becaufe it renders the impulfe on the weather-leech of the fail fo exceedingly feeble as hardly to have any effe&. In failing clofe to the wind the fhip is kept fo near that the weather-leech of the fail is almoff ready to receive the w-ind edgewife, and to flutter or fliiver. The moft effe&ive or drawing fails with a fide-wind, efpecially when S E A M A Tvhen plying to windward, are the ftayfails. We be¬ lieve that it is impoflible to fay, with any thing ap¬ proaching to precifion, what is the petition of the gene¬ ral furface of a ftayfail, or to calculate the intenfity and direftion of the general impulfe j and we affirm with confidence that no man can pronounce on thefe points with any exaftnefs. If we can guefs within a third or a fourth part of the truth, it is all we can pretend to ; and after all, it is but a guefs. Add to this, the fails coming in the way of each other, and either becalming them or fending the wind upon them in a direction widely different from that of its free motion. All thefe points we think beyond our power of calculation, and therefore that it is in vain to give the feaman mathema¬ tical rules, or even tables of adjuifment ready calcula¬ ted 5 fince he can neither produce that medium pofition of his fails that is required, nor tell what is the pofition which he employs. This is one of the principal reafons why fo little ad¬ vantage has been derived from the very ingenious and promifing difquifitions of Bouguer and other mathemati¬ cians, and has made us omit the a£tual folution of the chief problems, contenting ourfelves with pointing out the procefs to fuch readers as have a reliih for thefe ana- ,g lytical operations. The theory But there is another principal reafon for the fmall itfelf erro- progrefs which has been made in the theory of feaman- aeous, fhip : This is the error of the theory itfelf, which fup- pofes the impulfions of a fluid to be in the duplicate ra¬ tio of the fine of incidence. The moft careful compari- fon which has been made between the reiults of this theory and matter of fadt is to be feen in the experi¬ ments made by the members of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, mentioned in the article RESISTANCE of Fluids. We fubjoin another abftraft of them in the following table ; where col. lit gives the angie of inci¬ dence \ col. 2d gives the impulfions really obferved j col. 3d the impulfes, had they followed the duplicate ratio of the fines ; and col. 4th the impulfes, if they were in the fimple ratio of the fines. Angle 90 84 78 72 66 60 54 48 42 36 3° 24 18 12 6 ItnpuU fion • ferve- IOOO 989 958 908 845 771 693 615 543 480 440 424 414 406 400 Impuil'e Sine IOCO 989 957 905 835 75° 655 552 4 48 346 250 !65 96 43 11 [mpulf; as Sine. IOOO 99 i 978 951 9T4 866 809 743 669 587 coo 407 3°9 208 I°5 Here we fee an enormous difference in the great obli¬ quities. When the angle of incidence is only fix de¬ grees, the obferved impulfe is forty times greater than N s H I P. 85 the theoretical impulfe j at 12° it is ten times greater j at 18° it is more than four times greater 5 and at 24° it is almoft three times greater. ^ No wonder then that the dedu&ions from this theory and the de- are fo ufelefs and fo unlike what wTe familiarly obferve.duftions We took notice of this when we were confidering the ufe* leeway of a rectangular box, and thus law a reafon for admitting an incomparably fmaller leeway than what would reiult from the laborious computations neceffary by the theory. This error in theory has as great an in¬ fluence on the impulfions of air when aCting obliquely on a fail ; and the experiments of Mr Robins and of the Chevalier Borda on the oblique impulfions of air are perfectly conformable (as far as they go) to thofe of the academicians on water. The oblique impulfions of the wind are therefore much more efficacious for pref- fing the fhip in the direction of her courfe than the theory allows us to fuppofe j and the progrefs of a fhip plying to windward is much greater, both becaufe the oblique impulfes of the wind are more effeCtfve, and be¬ caufe the leeway is much fmaller, than we fuppofe. Were not this the cafe, it would be impoffible for a. fquare-rigged fhip to get to windward. The impulfe on her fails when dole hauled would be fo trifling that fhe would not have a third part of the velocity which we fee her acquire : and this trilling velocity would be wafted in leeway 5 for we have feen that the diminution of the oblique impulfes of the water is accompanied by an increafe of leeway. But wTe fee that in the great ob¬ liquities the impulfions continue to be very confiderable, and that even an incidence of fix degrees gives an impulie as great as the theory allows to an incidence of 40. We may therefore, on all occafions, keep the yards more fquare ; and the lofs which we fuftain by the dimi¬ nution of the very oblique impulfe will be more than compenfated by its more favourable direCUon with re- fpeCt to the fhip’s keel. Let us take an example of this. Suppofe the wind about two points before the beam, making an angle of 68° with the keel. The theory afligns 43° for the inclination of the wfind to the fail, and 150 for the trim of the fail. The perpen¬ dicular impulfe being fuppofed 1000, the theoretical im¬ pulfe for 450 is 465. This reduced in the proportion of radius to the fine of 250, gives the impulfe in the direc¬ tion of the courfe only 197. But if we eafe off the lee-braces till the yard makes an* angle of 50° with the keel, and allows the wind an inci¬ dence of no more than i8f, we have the experimented impulfe 414, which, when reduced in the proportion of radius to the fine of 50°, gives an effe£five impulfe 317. In like manner, the trim 56°, with the incidence I2°K, gives an t'ffedlive impulfe 3374 and the trim 62°, with the incidence only 6°, gives 353- Hence it would at firff fight appear that the angle. DCB of 62° and WCD of 6° would be better for hold ing a courfe within fix points of the wind than any more oblique pofition of the fails 5 but it will only give a greater initial impulfe. As the fhip accelerates, the wind apparently comes ahead, and we mufl continue to brace up as the {hip frefhens her way. It is not unufual for her to acquire half or two thirds of the velocity of the wind ; in which cafe the wind comes apparently ahead more than two points, when the yards mufl be braced up to 350, and this allows an impulfe n© greater than about 70. Now this is very frequently obferved 86 40 Experi¬ ments pro¬ per for efta- blifhing an¬ other 3 E A M A N S II I P. obfei ved in good fitips, winch in a brilk gale and fmooth water will go five or fix knots clofe hauled, the fhip’s head fix points from the wind, and the fails no more than juft full, but ready to Oliver by the fmalleft luff. All this wrould be impoftible by the ufual theory ; and in this refpeft thefe experiments of the French academy gave a fine illuftration of the feaman’s practice. They account for wdiat we fhould otherwife be much puzzled to explain ; and the great progrefs which is made by a fhip clofe hauled being perfedlly agreeable to what we (hould expect from the lawr of oblique impulfion deducible from thefe fo often mentioned experiments, wdiile it is totally incompatible with the common theory, fliould make us abandon the theory without hefitation, and ftremioufly fet about the eftabiiftiment of another, founded entirely on experiments. For this purpofe the experiments fhould be made on the oblique impulfions of air on as great a fcale as poftible, and in as great a variety of circumftances, fo as to furnifh a feries of im¬ pulfions for all angles of obliquity. We have but four or five experiments on this fubjed!, vi’Z. two by Mr Robins and two or three by the Chevalier Borda. Ha¬ ving thus gotten a feries of impulfions, it is very practi¬ cable to raife on this foundation a practical inftitute, and to give a table of the velocities of a ftvpfuited to every angle of inclination and of trim ; for nothing is more certain than the refolution of the impulfe perpendicular to the fail into a force in the diredfion of the keel, and a lateral force. W e are alfo difpofed to think that experiments might be made on a model very nicely rigged with fails, and trimmed in every different degree, which, would point out the mean diredlion of the impulfe on the fails, and the comparative force of thefe impulfes in different di- re61 ions of the wand. The method would be very fi- milarto that for examining the impulfe of the wmter on the hull. If this can alfo be afcertained experimental¬ ly, the intelligent reader will eafily fee that the wrhole motion of a {hip under fail may be determined for every cafe. Tables may then be conftrudled by calculation, or by graphical operations, which will give the velo¬ cities of a fhip in every different courfe, and correfpon- ding to every trim of fail. And let it be here obferved, that the trim of the fail is not to be eftimated in de¬ grees of inclination gf the yards; becaufe, as w:e have already remarked, we cannot obferve nor adjuft the la¬ teen fails in this way. But, in making the experiments for afcertaining the impulfe, the exa61: pofition of the tacks and fheets of the fails are to be noted \ and this combination of adjufiments is to pafs by the name of a certain trim. Thus that trim of all the fails may be called 40, wbofe diredfion is experimentally found equivalent to a fiat furface trimmed to the obli¬ quity 400. Having done this, we may conftrudl a figure for each trim fimilar to fig. 8. where, inftead of a circle, w^e fhall have a curve C O M' F', whole chords CF', c f, &c. are proportional to the velocities in thefe courfes ; and by means of this curve wTe can find the point m', which is moft remote Tom any line CM from w hich we wifli to withdraw : and thus we may folve all the principal pro¬ blems of the art. We hope that it will not be accounted prefumpiion in us to expe61: more improvement from a theory founded on judicious experiments only, than from a theory of the impulfe of fluids, which is found fo in- confiftent with oblervation, and of whole fallacy all its authors, from Newton to D’Alembert, entertained ftrong fufpicions. Again, we beg leave to recommend 41 this view of the fubjedt to the attention of the SociET'/rec°m for the Improvement" of Naval Architecture.™enclec!.!o Should thele patriotic gentlemen entertain a favourable opinion of the plan, and honour us with their corre-provement fpondence, we will cheerfully impart to them our no-or Naval tions of the way in which both thefe trains of experi-A!C*11tec* ments may be profecuted with fuccefs, and rcfults ob-tl‘re‘ tained in which we may confide •, and u'e content our- felves at prefent with offering to the public thefe hints, which are not the fpeculations of a man of mere fcience, but of one who, with a competent knowledge of the lawrs of mechanical nature, has the experience of feveral years fervice in the royal navy, where the art of work¬ ing of {hips was a favourite objedf of his Icier.tific at¬ tention. With thsfe obfervations we conclude our difcuffion ofMeans em- the firft part of the leaman’s talk, and now proceed to pieced to confider the means that are employed to prevent or toPrever,t or produce any deviations from the uniform re6tilineal courfe de~ which has been fele61ed. f10m 3 Here the {hip is to be confidered as a body in free cun te. fpace, convertible round her centre of inertia. For whatever may be the point round which {lie turns, this motion may always be confidered as compounded of a rotation round an axis pafiing through her centre of gravity or inertia. She is impelled by the wind and by the water ailing on many furfaces differently inclined to each other, and the impulfe on each is perpendicular to the furface. In order therefore that ftie may con¬ tinue fieadily in one courfe, it is not only neceffary that the impelling forces, eftimated in their mean diredtion, be equal and oppofite to the refilling forces eftimated in their mean dire61ion ; but alfo that thefe two direc¬ tions may pafs through one point, otherwife fine will be affe61ed as a log of wrood is when puftred in oppofite diredlions by two forces, which are equal indeed, but are applied to different parts of the log. A fhip muft be cor.fidered as a lever, acted on in different parts by forces in different dire6tions, and the whole balancing each other round that point or axis where the equiva¬ lent of all the refilling forces paffes. This may be con¬ fidered as a point fupported by this refilling force and as a fort of fulcrum : therefore, in order that the Ihip may maintain her pofition, the energies or momenta of all the impelling forces round this point muft balance each other. ^ When a {hip fails right afore the w ind, with her yards Impulfes fquare, it is evident thai the impulfes on each fide of the on a flap’ keel are equal, as alfo their mechanical momenta round fifing right any axis palling perpendicularly through the keel. Sobefoie;it|’e are the adhonsof the wuiter on her bow s. But when lhe(nt from fails on an oblique ccurfe, with her yards braced up onthofe on either fide, fhe fuftains a preffure in the dire6Hon Cl her when (fig. y.) perpendicular to the fail. This, by giving her|a^'nS °h- a lateral preffure LI, as w-ell as a preffure CL ahead, u*ue caufes her to make leeway, and to move in a line C b in¬ clined to CB. By this means the balance of adticn on the two bows is deftroyed ; the general impulfe on the lee-bow is increafed ; and that on the weather-bow? is di¬ mini Ihed. 2 8y SEA M A minlfhed. The combined impulfe is therefore no longer in the direftion BC, but (in the ftate of uniform mo¬ tion) in the direction IC. Suppofe that in an indant the whole fails are annihi¬ lated and the impelling preffure Cl, which ptecifely ba¬ lanced the refilling preiTure on the bows, removed. 1 he drip tends, by her inertia, to proceed in the direction Cl. This tendency produces a continuation of tne re- fiilance in the oppofite diredlion IC, which is not di¬ rectly oppofed to the tendency of the {hip in the direc¬ tion C ; therefore the drip’s head would immediately come up to the wind. The experienced feamen will re¬ coiled fomething like this when the fails are fuddenly lowered when coming to anchor. It does not hap¬ pen folely from the obliquity of the action on the bows : It would happen to the parallelepiped of fig. 2. wnich was fultaining a lateral impulfion B’fin.3ar, and a diredt impulnon A cof.3 x. Thefe are continued for a mo¬ ment after the annihilation of the lad : but being no longer oppofed by a force in the direction CD, but by a force in the direction C £, the force B • fin.3 x mult prevail, and the body is not only retarded in its motion, but its head turns towards the wind. But this efDdt of the leeway is greatly increafed by the curved form of the fhip’s bows. This occafions the centre of effort of all the impullions of the water on the leefide of the {hip to be very far forward, and this fo much the more remarkably as fhe is (harper afore. It is in general not much abaft the foremalt. Now the centre of the fhip’s tendency to continue her motion is the fame with her centre of gravity, and this is generally but a little be¬ fore the mainmaft. She is therefore in the fame con¬ dition nearly as if the were pulhed at the mainmaft in a diredlion parallel to C b, and at the foremalt by a force parallel to IC. The evident confequence of this is a tendency to come up to the wind. This is inde¬ pendent of all fituation of the fails, provided only that they have been trimmed obliquely. This tendency of the drip’s head to windward is call¬ ed GRIPING in the Teaman’s language, and is greatelt in drips which are drarp forward, as we have laid al¬ ready. This circumftance is eafily underdood. What¬ ever is the diredtion of the drip’s motion, the abfolute impulfe on that part of the bow immediately contigu¬ ous to B is perpendicular to that very part of the fur- face. The more acute, therefore, that the angle of the bow is, the more will the impulfe on that part be per¬ pendicular to the keel, and the greater will be its ener¬ gy to turn the head to windward. Propriety of Thus we are enabled to underdand or to fee the pro- the difpofi- priety of the difpodtion of the fails of a drip. We fee tion of the ller crowded with fails forward, and even many fails ex- fai sofa tended far before her bow, fuch as the fpritfail, the bowfprit-topfail, the fore-topmaft ftayfail, the jib, and flying jib. The fails abaft are comparatively fmaller. The fails on the mizenmad: are much fmaller than thole on the foremaft. All the dayfails hoifted on the main- mad may be conddered as headfails, becaufe their cen¬ tres of effort are condderably before the centre of gra¬ vity of the drip : and notwithdanding this difpodtion, it generally requires a fmall adtion of the rudder to counteradl the windward tendency of the lee-bow. This is conddered as a good quality when moderate; be¬ caufe it enables the feaman to throw the fails aback, and ftop the drip’s way in a moment, if die be in danger 44 Griping. N S H I P. from any thing a dread j and the drip which dqes not carry a little of a weather helm, is always a dull Jailer. In order to judge fomewhat more accurately of the Acdion of adlion of the water and fails, fuppofe the drip AB the water (fig. 9.) to have its fails on the mizenmad; D, the main- ailfl t^c marl B, and forenrail F, braced up or trimmed alike, and that the three lines D i, E e, F f perpendicular to Fig. j. the fails, are in the proportion of the impulfes on the fails. The drip is driven a-head and to leeward, and moves in the path aCb. This path is fo inclined to the line of the keel that the medium direclion of the reddance of the water is parallel to the diredlion of the impulfe. A line Cl may be drawn parallel to the lines D i, E e, Ff and equal to their fum : and it may be drawn from fuch a point C, that the adlions on all the parts of the hull between C and B may balance the momenta of all lire actions on the hull between C and A. ^ This point may judly be called the centre of effort, or Centre of the centre of rejijhince. We cannot determine this point effort for want of a proper theory of the reddance of fluids. Nay, although experiments like thole of the Paridan academy flrouid give us the mod perfect knowledge of the intenfity of the oblique impulfes on a fquare foot, we flrouid hardly be benefited by them : for the aftion of the water on a fquare foot of the hull at />, for indance, is fo modified by the intervention of the dream of wa¬ ter which has druck the hull about B, and glided along the bow Bo/>, that the preiTure on /> is totally different from what it would have been were it a fquare foot or furface detached from the reft, and prefented in the fame podtion to the water moving in the direction b C. For it is found, that the reddances given to planes join¬ ed fo as to form a wedge, or to curved furfaces, are widely different from the accumulated refidances, calcu¬ lated for their feparate parts, agreeably to the experi¬ ments of the academy on dngle iurfaces. Wc therefore do not attempt to ascertain the point C by theory ; but it may be accurately determined by the experiments which we have fo ftrongly recommended ; and we offer this as an additional inducement for profecuting them. ^3 Draw through C a line perpendicular to Cl, that is, to be de¬ parallel to the fails ; and let the lines of impulfe of the teimined three fails cut it in the points z, k, and m. This line cxPen" im may be conudered as a lever, moveable round C,1" and a£ted on at the points z, k, and m, by three forces. The rotatory momentum of the fails on the mizenmaft is Dz’ X i C 5 that of the fails on the mainmaft is E z* X ^ C j and the momentum of the fails on the fore¬ maft is Yf X m C. The two firft tend to prefs forward the arm C z, and then to turn the (hip’s head towards 49 the wind. The aflion of the fails on the foremaft tends to pull the arm C m forward, and produce a contrary je^^ ^e“ rotation. If the drip under thefe three fails keeps Ilea- the pofiuon dily in her couife, without the aid of the rudder, we ot the fails, muft have DzxzC-J-Ez’X^C — Fy'x tnC. This is very poffible, and is often feen in a Jhip under her mizen-topfail, main-topfail, and fore-topfail, all parallel to one another, and their furfaces duly proportioned by reefing. If more fails are Jet, we muft always have a fimilar equilibrium. A certain number of them will have their efforts directed from the larboard arm of the lever im lying to leeward of Cl, and a certain number will have their efforts directed from the (larboard arm lying to windward of Cl. The fum of the produ£ts of each of the firil fet, by their diilances from C, muft be equal 88 S E A M A equal to the Turn of the fimilar products of the other fet. As this equilibrium is all that is neceffary for pre- ferving the {hip’s pofition, and the ceffation of it is im¬ mediately followed by a converfion; and as thefe ftates of the {hip may be had by means of the three fquare fails only, when their furfaces are properly proportion¬ ed—it is plain that every movement may be executed and explained by their means. This will greatly Amplify our future difcuffions. We {hall therefore fuppofe in future that there are only the three topfails fet, and that their {iirfaces are fo adjufted by reefing, that their aftions exaftly balance each other round that point C of the middle line AB, where the actions of the water on the different parts of her bottom in like manner balance each other. This point C may be differently fituated in the {hip according to the leeway fire makes, depend¬ ing on the trim of the fails j and therefore although a certain proportion of the three furfaces may balance each other in one {fate of leeway, they may happen not to do fo in another ftate. But the equilibrium is evidently attaina- 50 ble in every cafe, and we therefore {hall alwTays fuppofe it. Confe- It muft now be obferved, that when this equilibrium deftrov-0 c^e^:royeci> as> f°r example, by turning the edge of the ing it. mizen-topfail to the wind, which the feamen call Jhiver- ing the mizen-topfail, and which may be confidered as equivalent to the removing the mizen-topfail entirely, it does not follow that the {hip will round the point C, this point remaining fixed. The Ihip muft be confi¬ dered as a free body, {fill a£fed on by a number of forces, which no longer balance each other ; and {he muft therefore begin to turn round a fpontaneous axis of converfion, wThich muft be determined in the tvay fet forth in the article Rotation. It is of importance to point out in general where this axis is fituated. There¬ fore let G (fig. 10.) be the centre of gravity of the Fig- 10. {hip. Draw the line qQ v parallel to the yards, cut¬ ting D in E will produce the fame rotation round any point as the two forces IC and op applied in their proper dire&ions at t and 0. Let us examine the fitua- tion of the point .v. The force IC—0p is evidently =r D •r (fee Rotation, N° 18.) The ftiip, impelled in the point D by a force in the direc¬ tion • r* vity is (fee Rotation, N° 96.), and it is M-Gy taken on the oppofite fide of G from y, that is, S and q are on oppofite fides of G. Let us exprefs the external force by the fymbol F. It is equivalent to a certain number of pounds, being the preiTure of the wind moving with the velocity V and inclination a on the furface of the fail D ; and may therefore be computed either by the theoretical or ex¬ perimental law of oblique impulfes. Having obtained this, we can afeertain the angular velocity of the rota¬ tion and the abfolute velocity of any given point of the {hip by means of the theorems eftabliflied in the article Rotation. Aflion of But before wre proceed to this invefiigation, we (hall the rudder, confider the action of the rudder, which operates pre- Fig. ii. cifely in the fame manner. Let the (hip AB (fig. 11.) have her rudder in the pofition AD, the helm being hard a-ftarboard, while the (hip failing on the {lar¬ board tack, and making leexvay, keeps on the courfe ab. The lee furface of the rudder meets the water obliquely. The very foot of the rudder meets it in the diredtion DE parallel to a b. The parts farther up meet it with various obliquities, and with various velo¬ cities, as it glides round the bottom of the {hip and falls into the wake. It is abfolutely impoffible to cal¬ culate the accumulated impulfe. We fhall not be far mifiaken in the defledlion of each contiguous filament, as it quits the bottom and glides along the rudder ; but we neither know the velocity of thefe filaments, nor the deflecfion and velocity of the filaments gliding without them. We therefore imagine that all compu¬ tations on this fubjedl are in vain. But it is enough for cur purpofe that wre know the direcllon of the ab¬ folute preffure which they exert on its furface. It is in the diredlion D r/, perpendicular to that furface. We alfo may be confident that this preffure is very confider- able, in proportion to the adtion of the water on the flip’s bows, or of the wind on the fails; and we may fuppofe it to be nearly in the proportion of the fquaie of the velocity of the ftiip in her courfe ; but we cannot affirm it to be accurately in that proportion, for reafons that will readily occur to one who confiders the way in which the water falls in behind the {hip. Greateft in It is obferved, however, that a fine failer always a fine failer. fleers well, and that all movements by means of the rudder are performed with great rapidity when the velocity of the {hip is great. We {hall fee by and by, that the fpeed with which the {hip performs the angu¬ lar movements is in the proportion of her progreflive velocity : For we {hall fee that the fquares of the times of performing the evolution are as the impulfes inverfe- ly, which are as the fquares of the velocities. There is perhaps no force which adls on a {hip that can be more accurately determined by experiment than this. Let the flip ride in a flream or tideway whofe velocity is accurately meafured ; and let her ride from two moor- ings, fo that her bow may be a fixed point. Let a fmall tow-line be laid out from her flera or quarter at right angles to the keel, and connedled with fome ap¬ paratus fitted up on {here or on board another (hip, by Vol. XIX. Part I. which the ftrain on it may be accurately mdafured ; a perfon converfant with mechanics will fee many ways 54 in which this can be done. Perhaps the following may How to de. be as good as any : Let the end of the tow-line be fixedterrnine ,r’ to fome point as high out of the water as the point of the fliip from which it is given out, and let this be very high. Let a block with a hook be on the rope, and a confiderable weight hung on this hook. Things be¬ ing thus prepared, put down the helm to a certain angle, fo as to caufe the {hip to fiieer off from the point to which the far end of the tow-line is attached. This will ftretch the rope, and raife the weight out of the water. Notv heave upon the rope, to bring the fhip back again to her former pofition, with her keel in the direction or the ftream. When this pofition is attained, note care¬ fully the form of the rope, that is, the angle which its two parts make with the horizon. Call this angle a. Every perfon acquainted with thefe fubjetffs knows that the horizontal ftrain is equal to half the weight multi¬ plied by the cotangent of a, or that 2 is to the co¬ tangent of a as the weight to the horizontal ftrain. Now it is this ftrain which balances and therefore mea- fures the aftion of the rudder, or De in fig. 11. There¬ fore, to have the ahfolute impulfe Dff, we muft increafe D e in the proportion of radius to the fecant of the angle b which the rudder makes with the keel. In a great ftiip failing fix miles in an hour, the impulfe on the rudder inclined 30° to the keel is not lefs than 3000 pounds. The furface of the rudder of fuch a ftiip contains near 80 fquare feet. It is not, however, very neceffary to know this abfolute impulfe D d, be- caufe it is its part D c alone which meafures the energy of the rudder in producing a converfion. Such expe¬ riments, made with various pofitions of the rudder, will give its energies correfponding to thefe pofilions, and will fettle that long difputed point, which is the belt pofition for turning a (hip. On the hypothefis that the impulfions of fluids are ,in the duplicate ratio of the fines of incidence, there can be no doubt that it ftiould make an angle of 540 44' with the keel. But the form of a large ihip will not admit of this, becaufe a tiller of a length fufiicient for managing the rudder in failing with great velocity has not room to deviate above 30° from the direflion of the keel; and in this pofition of the rudder the mean obliquity of the filaments of wa¬ ter to its furface cannot exceed 40® or 450. A greater angle would not be of much fervice, for it is never for want of a proper obliquity that the rudder fails of producing a converfion. A fltip miffes ftays in rough weather for want of a , fufficient progreflive velocity, and became her bows are miffes fta's beat off by the waves: and there is feldom any diffi-&c. culty in wearing the fhip, if ftie has any progreflive motion. It is, however, always defirable to give the rudder as much influence as poflible. Its furface fhould be enlarged (efpecially below) as much as can be done confidently with its ftrength and with the pov/er of the fteerfmen to manage it; and it ftiould be put in the moft favourable fituation for the water to get at it with great velocity; and it fhould be placed as far from the axis of the fhip’s motion as poflible. Thefe points are obtained by making the ftern-poft very upright, as has always been done in the French dockyards. The Bri- tifti fhips have a much greater rake; but our builders are gradually adopting the French form?, experience ha- M ving 99 c(5 The aclion nf ibe rud¬ der fimilar 10 that of the fails, and very great. Employed as an exam¬ ple of the motions of Converfion. S E A M A N S II I P. Ving lauglit us tLat tl:eir (hips, when in our pofleffion, are much more obedient to the helm than our own.— In order to afcertain the motion produced by the ac¬ tion of the rudder, draw from the centre of gravity a line Gy perpendicular to D// (D<^ being drawn through the centre of effort of the rudder). Then, as in the confideration of the aftion of the fails, we may con¬ ceive the line y G as a lever connefted wdth the {hip, and impelled by a force Dr/ adting perpendicularly at y. The confequence of this will be, an incipient converfion of the fhip about a vertical axis pafTmg through fome point S in the line y G, lying on the other fide of G from y; and we have, as in the former cafe, GS = J p - r\ M • G y * Thus the aftion and effedfs of the fails and of the rudder are perfectly fimilar, and are to be confidered in the fame manner. We fee that the adtion of the rud¬ der, though of a fmall furface in comparifon of the fails, muft be very great : For the impulfe of water is many hundred times greater than that of the wind j and the arm y G of the lever, by wThich it adts, is incomparably greater than that by which any of the impulfions on the fails produces its effed! ; accordingly the fhip yields much more rapidly to its adtion than fhe does to the la¬ teral impulfe of a fail. Ohferve here, that if G were a fixed or fupported axis, it would be the fame thing whether the abfolute force D d of the rudder adls in the diredfion D d, or its tranfverfe part D e adts in the diredtion D e, both would produce the fame rotation ; but it is not fo in a free body. The force D d both tends to retard the ihip’s motion and to produce a rotation : It retards it as much as if the fame force D d had been immediately applied to the centre. And thus the real motion of the fhip is compounded of a motion of the centre in a di¬ redtion parallel to D r= ’ and, as was fhowm in that article, this velocity of rota¬ tion increases in the proportion of the time of the forces unifoim adlion, and the rotation wrould be uniformly ac¬ celerated if the forces did really adt uniformly. This, however, cannot be the cafe, becaufe, by the fhip’s change of pofition and change of progieflive velocity, the diredlion and intenfity of the impelling force is con¬ tinually changing. But if two (hips are performing fimilar evolutions, it is obvious that the changes of force sy:e Gmilar in fimilar parts of the evolution. Therefore the confideration of the momentary evolution is fufficient for enabling us to compare the motions of ihips adfuated by fimilar forces, which is all rve have in view at prefent. The velocity v, generated in any time i by the con¬ tinuance of an invariable momentary acceleration (which is all that we mean by faying that it is produced by the adlion of a conftant accelerating force), is as the acce¬ leration and the time jointly. Nowr what we call the angular velocity is nothing but this momentary accele¬ ration. Therefore the velocity v generated in the time F-yG t is = “ t. P y . . cs The expreffion of the angular velocity is alfo the ex-Angular prefuon of the velocity v of a point fituated at the di-velocity, fiance 1 from the axis G. Let ss be the fpace or arch of revolution deferibed in the time t by this point, whofe diflance from G is Then % t = t /, and taking the fluent £ rr p r- G /*. This arch meafures the whole . angle of rotation accomplifhed in the time t. Thefe are therefore as the fquares of the times from the begin¬ ning of the rotation. Thofe evolutions are equal which are meafured by equal arches. Thus two motions of 45 degrees each are equal. Therefore becaufe » is the fame in both, F-yG . J . the quantity ~~g /2 is a conftant quantity, and P />' reciprocally proportional to F-yG ft"' ’ or is proportional f, to ~ p 1" F- and t is proportional to Jj'p r‘ That ?G’ x-,—-- . ^F-yG is to fay, the times of the fimilar evolutions of two {hips are as the fquare root of the momentum of iner¬ tia diredfly, and as the fquare root of the momentum of the rudder or fail inverfely. This wdll enable us to make the comparifon eafily. Let us fuppofe the fhips perfedlly fimilar in form and rigging, and to differ only in length L and /; * R2 is 10ft r2 as Ls to /5. For the fimilar particles P and p contain quantities of matter which are as the cubes of their lineal dimenfions, that is, as L* to /3. And becaufe the particles are fi- milarly fituated, R2 is to r2 as L2 to/2. Therefore P • R2 : p - r‘—Ls : P. Now F is to / as L2 to l1. For the furfaces of the fimilar rudders or fails are as the fquares of their lineal dimenfions, that is, as L2 to A And, lafUy, G y is to £ y as L to /, and therefore F-Gy:/-^y — L3 :/3. Therefore we have T2 : /P-R* //»-r2_Ls IJ_ F ’ G y, f'gq L3 /3 /:=L:/- Therefore the times of performing fimilar evolutions Times of fi- with fimilar fhips are proportional to the lengths of the m lar evo- fhips when both are failing equally faft j and fince thef^,°^vut evolutions are fimilar, and the forces vary fimilarly in ^p;. their P L2 : /*, and T : 59 SEAM A their different parts, what is here demonilrated of the i'mallelt incipient evolutions is true of the whole. They therefore not only defcribe equal angles of revolution, but alto timilar curves., A fmall (hip, therefore, works in lefs time and in let’s room than a great Ihip, and this in the proportion of its length. This is a great advantage in all cafes, particulatly in wearing, in order to fail on the other tack cloie-hauled. In this cafe the will always be to windward and a-head of the large (hip, when both are got on the other tack. It would appear at fidl fight that the large drip will have the advantage in tacking. Indeed the large Ihip is farther to windward when again trimmed on the other tack than the fmall fhip when the is jull trimmed on the other tack. But this happened before the large ilnp had completed her evolution, and the hnall thip, in the mean time, has been going forward on the other tack, and going to windward. She will therefore be before the large (hip’s beam, and perhaps as far to windward. We have feen that the velocity of rotation is propor¬ tional, aeteris paribus, to F X y- F means the ab- folute impulle on the rudder or fail, and is always per¬ pendicular to iis furface. This abfolute impulfe on a fail depends on the obliquity of the wind to its furface. The ufual theory fays, that it is as the fquare of the fine of incidence : but we find this not true. We mull content ourfelves with exprefling it by (ome as yet un- knmvn function

-<1, . than recruit the ftrength. Salt bacon may be kept at fea 18 months; it does not lofe its moift and nutri- mental parts, and unites better with pulfe, but ffiould not be ufed wffien rancid. Live animals kept on board (hips tend to produce difeafes amongft the crewu Rice ffiould be ufed largely. Our puddings are bad food: the flour wmuld be much better made into bread, which might be done at fea with no great trouble. Sour krout ffiould be ufed freely. Muftard, vinegar, fugar, melaf- fes, and honey, are good antifcorbutics. Of drinks, wine is the beft ; wTort, fpruce-beer, or the Ruffian quasy are good fubftitutes. Spirits are only to be ufed in cold climates, and in fmall quantity. The greater part of the excellent memoir in anfwer to the fecond queftion, perfeftly coincides wdth M. Duhamel du Monceaux’s “ Means of Preferving the Health of Seamen,” and M. Poiffonnier des Perrieres’s treatifes “ On the Dif¬ eafes of Seamen,” and “ On the advantages of changing the Diet of Seamen,” and his “ Examination of Pringle’s Differtation.” SEAPOYS, or Sepoys, natives of Indoftan ferving in a military capacity under the European powers, and difeiplined after the European manner. The Seapoys of the Englilh Eaft India company compofe perhaps the moft numerous, regular, and beft difeiplined body of black troops in the wrorld. They are raifed from among the natives of the country, and confift of Moors or Mahometans, Raja-poots, Hindoos, Pariars, befides many intermediate cafts peculiar to themfelves; the whole modelled in all correfponding particulars, and difeiplined in every refpect as the army of Great Britain. The military eftabliffiments of Bengal, Madras and Bombay, have each their refpedtive numbers, that of Bengal exceeding the reft. The Seapoys are formed into complete, uniform, and regular battalions, as our marching regiments at home, being intended to xepre- fent and anfwer fully to every purpofe in India to the like troops in Europe. A battalion confifts of 700 men, of complete effective ftrength. In each there are eight companies, including two flank ones or grena¬ diers. They are refpeftively commanded by their own black and European officers ; to each company there is attached a fubaltern, who takes the command, under whom are two native commiffioned officers, bearing the rank of fubidar and jimindar; of eight fubalterns, fix are lieutenants, the other enfigns ; exclufive is a ftaft, of adjutant and furgebn. The black non-commiffioned officers anfwer to our ferjeants and corporals, and are called havildars and naigues. There is alfo to each corps an Engliih ferjeant-major, drill and ftore ferjeant; to each battalion is a band of drums and fifes, and to N e?xh A captain commands the S E Scapoys. each a pair of colours. y whole. Their jackets, which are made entirely after the Eu¬ ropean fafhion, are of a red colour with yellow facings (as worn by all the infantry of the company on the Co romandel coaft). The remaining part of their at¬ tire refembles mere the country or Indian habit, and conlifts of a dark blue turban, broad and round at . top, defending deep to the bottom, the fides of which, of a concave form, are crofied by a white band, running in front, fattened under a rofe above. As an under garment, they have a jacket of linen. A dark blue fafh girding, to anfvver the turban, goes round their middle. On the thighs they have fhort drawers, faf- tened by a fcolloped band. Their legs are bare, which renders them more ready for aftion or fervice. Their arms are a firelock and bayonet ; their accoutrements or crofs belts black leather, with pouches the fame. A battalion drawn out cannot but ftrike the fpefta- tors with a lively and fanciful military impreffion, as they unite in their exterior traits refpedlively Indian and European. They are brought to the utmofl: exa&nefs of difci- pline; go through their evolutions and manoeuvres with a regularity and precifion ecpial to, and not furpaffed by European troops. In aflion they are brave and fteady, and have been known to Hand where Europeans have given way. Their difcipline puts them on a footing with Euro¬ pean troops, with whom they are always ready to aft in concert. Their utility and fervices are evident: they fecure to the company the internal good order and prefervation of their territorial diilrifts, which, though pofiible to be enforced with a ftrong hand by Europeans, requires numbers, and can only be condufted with that eafe and addrefs peculiar to the native forces of the country. They are confidered with refpeft in the eyes of the other natives, though they fufficiently, and with a good grace, feel and afiert theft own confequence. In large garvifons, where the duty is great, as Madras, Pondi¬ cherry, Trichinopoly, Vellore, &c. two or three batta¬ lions might be prefent together, exclufive of Europeans. Iffentfingly up the country, they are liable to be de¬ tached, fometimes by one or more companies being fent to a llation dependent on the chief garrifon or head¬ quarters, otherwife they are difperfed through the di¬ ilrifts, four or five together, with a non-commiffioned officer (this is a part of the fervice which is called going on command'), on hills, or in villages, to preferve order, convey intelligence, and affift the tafildar, renter, or cutwall of the place, in cafes of emergency. They al- fo enforce the police, and prevent in fuch cafes the coun¬ try from being infeiled.with thieves, which otherwife have combined, forming a banditti, to rob paffengers and plunder cattle, of which there are fo many inllances upon record. As for fuch Britifir officers in the com¬ pany’s fervice as are attached to battalions, they are obliged to follow the fortunes find deflinations of their men, with their refpeftive corps, leading a life often replete with adventures of a peculiar nature. An in¬ dividual in fuch cafes is frequently fecluded from thofe of his own colour when up the country, or detached upon command, where in a frontier garrifon or hill fort in the interior parts of India none but natives are to be [ 98 ] SEA found. ^ Here he might live as he pleafe', being perfeft- Seap ys 3y abiolute within his jurifdiftion. Such Hal ions being lucrative, with management may produce great for¬ tunes. Neither is the condition hard to a perfon conver- fant in the language of the country, or that of the Sea- poys called Moors (which mod officers in the company’s fervice acquire) ; otherwife the lofs of fociety is not re- compenfed by other advantages, as you forget your own language, grow melancholy, and pafs your days without comfort. 1 he peace efiablifliment at Madras confiils of 30 Sea- poy battalions, but in time of war is augmented as oc- cafion requires ; or frequently each corps is ftrengthen- ed by the addition of two companies, which are redu¬ ced again in time of peace, the officers remaining fuper- numeraries in the fervice. In garrifon they are quar¬ tered in barracks : they live agreeably to the ufage of the country, fieep on the ground on a mat or thin car- pet. In their perfons they are cleanly, but appear to bed advantage in their uniform. Off duty they go as the other natives in poor circumdances ; and have only a cloth round their middle and over their Ihoulders. As to the different cads, the Moormen or Muffulmen affert pre-eminence, as coming into the country by conqued. In their perfons they are rather robud, and in their tempers vindiftive. Their religion and drefs is didinft from the Hindoos, who are mild and paffive in their temper, faithful, deady, and good foldiers. The Pa- riars are inferior to the others, live under different cir¬ cumdances, dwell in huts, and affociate not on equft terms with the red 5 they do all menial offices, are fer- vants to Europeans, and think themfelves happy when by them employed, though they are equally good Sea- poys. Having thus treated of the company’s Seapoys, we lhall obferve that they are kindly attentive to their offi¬ cers when otten in circumdances requiring their affid- ance 5 are guilty of few vices; and have a ftrong at¬ tachment for thofe who have commanded them. That acute hiftorian Dr Robertfon has remarked, as a proof that the ingenuity of man has recourfe in fimilar fitua- tions to the fame expedients that the European powers, have, in forming the eftablifliment of thefe native troops, adopted the fame maxims, and, probably without know¬ ing it, have modelled their battalions of Seapoys upon the fame principles as Alexander the Great did his phalanx of Perfians. SEARCH-WARRANT, in Law, a kind of general warrant iffued by juftices of peace or magiftrates of towns for fearching all fufpefted places for ftolen goods. In Scotland this was often done formerly ; and in fome Englifh law-books there are precedents requiring the conftable to fearch all fuch fufpefted places as he and the party complaining {hall think convenient ; but fuch praftice is condemned by Lord Hale, Mr Hawkins, and the beft authorities both among the Englifli and Scotch lawyers. However, in cafe of a complaint, and oath made of goods ftolen, and that the party fufpefts that thofe goods are in a particular houfe, and fhows the caufe of fuch fufpicion, the juftice may grant a warrant to fearch not only that houfe but other fufpefted pla¬ ces ; and to attach the goods, and the parly in whofe cuftody they are found, and bring them before him or fome other juftice, to give an account how he came by them, and to abide fuch order as to law (hall appertain ; which SEA [ s Searcher veil loll warrant fhould be directed to the conftable or li other public officer, who may enter a ffilpefted houfe Sealoii'pg. an(| mai-e fearch. ' SEARCHER, an officer in the cuftoms, whofe bu- finefs it is to fearch and examine ihips outwards bound, if they have any prohibited goods on board, &c. (12 Car. II.). There are alfo fearchersof leather, &c. See AtNAGER. Searcher,, in ordnance, is an iron focket with branches, from four to eight in number, a little bent outwards, with fmall points at their ends j to this fock¬ et is fixed a wooden handle, from eight to twelve feet long, of about an inch and a quarter diameter. After the gun has been fired, this fearcher is introduced into it, and turned round, in order to difeover the cavities within. The diltances of thefe cavities, it any be found, are then marked on the outfide with chalk, when another learcher that has only one point, about which a mixture of wax and tallow is put, is introduced to take the impreffion oi the holes} and if there be any hole, a quarter of an inch deep, or of any confiderable length, the gun is rejected as unferviceable. S E ARC LOT H, or Cerec loth, in Surgenj, a form of external remedy fomewhat harder than an unguent, yet fofter than an emplalter, though it is frequently ufed both for the one and the other. The cerecloth is always fuppofed to have wax in its compofition, which diftinguilhes and even denominates it. In eflfedt, when a liniment or unguent has wax enough in it, it does not differ from a cerecloth. SEASIN, in a Ihip, the name of a rope by which the boat rides by the (hip’s fide when in harbour, &c. SEASONING, the firft illnefs to which perfons habituated to colder climates are fubject on their arrival Mo relev on™ the Weft Indies. This feafoning, unlefs they live Tropical very temperately, or are in a proper habit of body DiJcafes, (though fome people are unmolefted for many months), fieldom fuffers them to remain long before it makes its appearance in fome mode or other 3 particularly if at firft they expofe themfelves in a fhovyer of rain, or too long in the fun, or in the night-air 3 or when the body is much heated, if they drink large draughts of cold li¬ quors, or bathe in cold water 3 or ufe much exercife 3 or commit excefs in drinking wine or fpirits 3 or by * heating the body and inflaming the blood 3 or by fub- jeffing themfelves to any caufe that may fuddenly check perfpiration, which at firft is generally exceftive. Some people, from a favourable liate of body, have no feafoning. Thin people, and very young people, are moft likely to efcape it. Women generally do from their temperance, and perhaps their menftruation con¬ tributes to their fecurity 3 indeed hot climates are fa¬ vourable to the delicacy of tneir habits, and fuitable to their modes of life. Some efcape by great regularity of living 3 fome, by the breaking out of the rafti, called the prickly heat; fome by a great degree of perfpira¬ tion 3 and fome by obferving a cooling regimen. The diforders are various that conflitute this (eafoning of new-comers as-they are called 3 depending on age, con- ftitution, and habit of body. But all feafoning difeafes are of the inflammatory kind 3 and yield to antiphlo- giftic treatment proportioned to their violence. When all precaution to guard againft ficknefs has failed, and prudence proved abortive to new-comers, they will have this comfort at leaft for their pains, that their diforders ) ] S E B will feldom be fevere or expenfive, and will generally Seafoning have a fpeedy termination 3 and that their feafoning, as gebu£ej< it is emphatically called, will be removed by bleeding, „—^ ^ a dofe of falls, reft, and a cooling regimen. Seasoning of Timber. See Timber. SEASONS, in Cofmography, certain portions or quarters of the year, diftinguithed by the figns which the fun then enters, or by the meridian altitudes of the fun 3 confequent on which are different temperatures of the air, different works in tillage, &c. See Wea¬ ther. The year is divided into four feaffins, fpring, fum- mer, autumn, and winter. Ihe beginnings and endings of each whereof, fee under its proper article. It is to be obferved, the feafons anciently began differently fiom what they nowr do : witnefs the old verfes, Dat Clemens hyemem ; dat Petrus ver cathedratus ; JEfuat Urbanus ; auiumnat Bartholomccus. SEAT, in the manege, is the pofture or fituation of a horfeman upon the faddle. SEATON, a fmall fifhing town on the feuth coaft of Devon, between Lyme and Sidmouth. Rifdon fays “ our learned antiquarians would have it to be that Maridunum whereof Antonine fpake, placed between Dunnovaria and Ifca 3 for Maridunum in Britiffi is the fame with Seaton in Englifh, “ a town upon a hill by the fea-ftde.” This place is memorable for the Daniih princes landing therein the year 937’ SEBACIC acid, fo called, becaufe it is procured from fat. For an account of its preparation and pro¬ perties, fee Chemistry, page 540. and N° 802. St SEBASTIAN, a handfome, populous, and ftrong town of Spain, in the province of Guipuicoa, with a good and well frequented harbour. It is feated at the foot of a mountain 3 and the harbour fecured by two moles, and a narrow entrance for the fhips. The town is furrounded with a double wall, and to the fea-fide is fortified with baftions and half moons. The ftreets are long, broad, and ftraight, and paved with white ftag- ftones. At the top of the mountain is a citadel, with a garrifon well furnifhed with cannon. The town car¬ ries on a confiderable trade, the greateft part of which ^ confifts of iron and fteel, which fome reckon to be the beft in Europe. They alfo deal ki wood, which comes from Old Caftile. W. Long. 1. 59. N. La). 43. 23.— The capital of Brafil in Soufh America is likewife call¬ ed Sehaflian. SEBASTIANO, called Del Piombo, from an office in the lead mines given him by Pope Clement VII. was an eminent Venetian^painter, born in 1485. He was firfi: a difciple of oldTEovanni Bellino 3 continued his ftudies under Giorgione 3 and having attained an excellent manner of colouring, went to Rome, where he infinuated himfelf into the favour of Michael Ange¬ lo. He has the name of being the firft who invented the art of preparing plafter-walls for oil-painting 3 but was fo flow and lazy in his work, that other hands were often employed to finifh what he began. He died in 1547. • SEBESTEN. See Cordia, Botany Index. SEBU7EI, a fed among the ancient Samaritans, whom St Epiphanius accufes of changing the time ex- preffed in the law, for the celebration of the great an¬ nual feafts of the Jews. N 2 - SEBURAI, i Seburai I! Secale. SEC [i SEBURAI, Seburjei, a name which the Jews give to Rich of their rabbins or doftors as lived and taught fome time after the finilhing of the Talmud. SECACUL, in the Materia Mcdica of the ancients, a name given by Avicenna, Serapion, and others, to a root which was like ginger, and was brought from the Eaft Indies, and ufed as a provocative to venery. The interpreters of their works have rendered this word irivgo ; and hence fome have fuppofed that our enjngium or enjngo was the root meant by it: but this does not appear to be the cafe on a ftrift inquiry, and there is lome reafon to believe that the famous root, at this time called ginfeng, was what they meant. SEC ALE, Rye, a genus of plants belonging to the tiiandria clals j and in the natural method ranking under the 4th order, Gramina. See Botany and A- cr 1 culture Index. . iie or common rye, has glumes with rough fringes. It is a native of the idand of Candia, was in- troduced into England many ages ago, and is the only ipecies of rye cultivated in this kingdom. There are, however, two varieties, the winter and fpring rye. The winter rye, which is larger in the grain than the fpring rye, is fown in autumn-at the fame time with wheat, and fometimes mixed with it; but as the rye Jipens fooner than the wheat, this method muft be very exceptionable. ^ The fpring rye is fown along with the oats, and ulually ripens as foon as the winter rye ; but the grain produced is lighter, and it is therefore fel- dom iown except where the autumnal crop has failed. Rye is commonly fown on poor, dry, limeftone, or fandy foils, _ where wheat will not thrive. By continu¬ ing to fow it on fuch a foil for two or three years, it will at length ripen a month earlier than that which has been raifed for years on ftrong cold ground. Rye is commonly ufed for bread either alone or mix¬ ed with wheat. Ihis mixture is called mejlin, and was formerly a very common crop in fome parts of Britain. Mr Marfhall tells us, that the farmers in Yorklhire be¬ lieve that this mixed crop is never affe£fed by mildew, and that a fmall quantity of rye fown among wheat will prevent this deflrublive difeafe. Rye is much ufed for bread in fome parts of Sweden and Norway by the poor people.. About a century ago rye-bread was alfo much uled in England ; but being made of a black Rind ot rye, it was of the fame colour, clammy, very detergent, and confequently not fo nouriihing as w’heat. Rye is lubjeft to a difeafe which the French call er- got, and the Englith horned rije ; which fometimes hap¬ pens when a very hot fummer fucceeds a rainy fpring. According to 1 iiTot, horned rye is fuch as fullers an irregular vegetation in the middle fubflance between tne grain and the leaf, producing an excrefcence of a brownilh colour, about an inch and a half long, and two-tenths of an inch broad. Bread made of this kind or rye has a naufeous acrid tafte, and produces fpafmo- dic and grangrenous diforders. In 1596, an epidemic difeafe prevailed in Heffe, which the phylrcians afcribed to bread made of horned rye. Some, wre are told, were feized with an epilepfy, and thefe feldom ever re- Secale II Seceders. CO ] SEC covered ; others became lunatic, and continued ftupid the reft of their lives : thofe w?ho apparently recovered had annual returns of their diforder in January and Fe¬ bruary ; and the difeafe was faid to be contagious at lead in a certain degree. The fadbs which we have now mentioned are taken from a work of Tiffot, which was never printed. The fame difeafe was occafioned by the. ufe of this bread in feveral parts of the con¬ tinent in the years 1648, 1675, 1702, 1716, 1722, and 1736} and has been very minutely defcribed by Hoffman, A. O. Goelicke, Vater Burghart, and J. A. Snnk. In the year 1709, one fourth part of all the rye railed m the province of Salonia in France was horn¬ ed and the furgeon to the hofpital of Orleans had no lels than 500 patients under his care that were diftem- pered by eating it: They were called ergots, from er- got (a), the French name for horned rye ; they confift- ed chiefly of men and boys, the number of women and ghls being very fmall. Ihe lirfl: fymptom was a kind of drunkennefs, then the local diforder began in the toes, and thence extended fometimes to the thigh, and the trunk itfelf, even after amputation, wdiich is a good argument againft that operation before the gangrene is Hopped. In the year 1710, the celebrated FonteneUe defcribes a cafe in the Hiftory of the Academy of Sciences of France, which exadly refembles that of the poor fa¬ mily at Wattilham. A peafant at Blois, who had eaten horned rye in bread, was feized with a mortification which firff caufed all the toes of one foot to fall off, then the toes of the other, afterwards the remainder of the feet, and, lallly, it ate off the flelh of both his legs and thighs, leaving the bones bare. & Horned, rye is not only hurtful to man, but to other animals ; it has been known to deftroy even the flies that fettled upon it ; Iheep, dogs, deer, geefe, ducks, fwine, and poultry, that were fed with it for experi¬ ment, died miferably, fome convulfed, others mortified and ulcerated. . SECANT, in Geojnetry, a line that cuts another or divides it into parts. The fecant of a circle is a line drawn from the circumference on one fide to a point without the circumference on the other; and it is de- mon ft rated by geometers, that of feveral fecants drawm to the fame point, that, is the longeft which paffes thiough the centre of the circle. The portions, h©wTever, of thefe feveral fecants that are without the circle are fo much the greater as they recede from the centre, and the leaft external portion is of that fecant which paffes through it. Secant, in Trigonometry, denotes a right line drawn from the centre of a circle, which, cutting the circum¬ ference, proceeds till it meets with a tangent to the fame circle. See Geometry. Line of SECANTS, one of thofe lines or fcales which are ufually put upon feftors. See Sector, n° 12. t SECEDERS, a numerous body of Prefbyterians in Secederj. Scotland, who have withdrawn from the communion of the eftablifhed church. As they take up their ground ls Frencil if°r a cock’s fpur, and horned rye w'as called ergot from the refemblance of its excrefcence to tiiat part. SEC [ Seceders. ground upon the eftablifhment of religion from 1638 to 1650, which they hold to be the pureft period of the Scottiih church, we (hall introduce our account of them by a ihort view of ecclefiaftical hiitory from that pe¬ riod to the era of their feceffion. With our ufual can¬ dour and impartiality we mean to give a fair ftatement of thofe events with which, as they lay, their feceflion is connected. James I. having for fome time previous to his death entertained a wiih to form the church of Scotland as much as poffible upon the model of that in England, his fon Charles, with the ailiftance of Archbiihop Laud, endeavoured to carry the defign into execution, by eda- blilhing canons for ecclefiaftical difcipline, and introdu¬ cing a liturgy into the public fervice of the church.— Numbers of the clergy and laity of all ranks took the alarm at what they confidered to be a bold and dan¬ gerous innovation j and after frequent applications to the throne, they at laft obtained the royal proclamation for a free parliament and general affembly. The aflem- bly met in 1638, and began their labours with a repeal of all the a£ts of the fix preceding parliaments, w7hich had favoured the defigns of James. They condemned the liturgy, together wuth every branch of the hierarchy. They cited all the Scottiih bilhops to their bar j and after having excommunicated nine of them, and depofed five from their epifcopal office, they reftored kirk-fef- fions, prelbyteries, and fynods provincial as well as na¬ tional. See Presbyterians. Thefe proceedings were ratified by the parliament which met in 1640. The law of patronage was in full force for feveral years after this period 5 yet great care was taken that no minifter ffiould be obtruded on the Chriftian people contrary to their inclinations j and in 1649 it was abolilhed as an oppreffive grievance. The reftoration of Charles II. in 1660 changed the face of affairs in the church of Scotland. All that the general affembly had done from 1638 to 1650 was ren¬ dered null and void, the covenants were pronounced to be unlawful, epifcopacy was reftored, and the king was declared to be the fupreme head of the church in all caufes civil and ecclefiaftical. During this period the Prefbyterians were fubjefted to fines and imprifonment, while numbers of them were publicly executed for their adherence to their political and religious tenets. The Revolution in 1688 gave a different turn to the affairs of the church. The firft parliament which met after that event, abolifhed prelacy and the king’s fupre- macy in ecclefiaftical affairs. They ratified the Weft- minfter Confeffion of Faith, together with the Prefby- terian form of church-government and difcipline, “ as agreeable to the word of God, and moft conducive to the advancement of true piety and godlinefs, and the eftablithment of peace and tranquillity within thefe realms.” That fame parliament aboliffied patronage, and lodged the eleftion of minifters in the hands of heritors and elders, with the confent of the congre¬ gation. In the reign of Queen Anne the true Proteftant re¬ ligion was ratified and eftabliffied, together with the Prefbyterian form of church-government and difcipline j and the unalterable continuance of both was declared to be an effential condition of the union of the two king¬ doms in all time coming. ' In 1 ■y 1 2 the law refpefling patronage was revived, in refentment, it has been faid, 01 ] SEC of that warm attachment which the church of Scotland Seceder*,. difcovered to the family of Hanover j but the feverity «-v~J of that law was greatly mitigated by the firft parliament of George I. ftat. 50. by which it is enadled, that, if the prefentee do not fignify his acceptance, the prefen- tation ffiall become void and null in law. The church, however, did not avail herfelf of this ftatute 5 and an event which happened not many years afterwards gave rife to the fecejjion. In 1732 more than 40 minifters prefented an addrefs^j to the general affembly, fpecifying in a variety of in- ° * fiances what they confidered to be great defeftions from the eftabliftied conftitution of the church, and craving a redrefs of thefe grievances. A petition to the fame effeft, fubfcribed by feveral hundreds of elders and pri¬ vate Chriftians, was offered at the fame time j but the affembly refufed a hearing to both, and enafted, that the eleilion of minifters to vacant charges, where an ac¬ cepted prefentation did not take place, fhould be com¬ petent only to a conjumft meeting of elders and heri¬ tors, being Proteftants. To this aft many objeftions were made by numbers of minifters and private Chri¬ ftians. They afferted that more than 30 to one in every pariftr were not poffeffed of landed property, and were on that account deprived of what they deemed, their natural right to choofe their own paftors. It was alfo faid, that this aft was extremely prejudicial to the honour and intereft of the church, as well as to the edi¬ fication of the people 5 and in fine, that it was dircftly contrary to the appointment of Jefus Chrift, and the- praftice of the apoftles, when they filled up the firft: vacancy in the apoftolic college, and appointed the eleftion of deacons and elders in the primitive church. —Many of thofe alfo who were thought to be the belt friends of the church, expreffed their fears that this aft would have a tendency to overturn the ecclefi- aftical conftitution which was eftabliftied at the Revo¬ lution. Mr Ebenezer Erfkine, minifter at Stirling, diftin- They op- guiftied himfelf by a bold and determined oppofition to pofe the the meafures of the affembly in 1732. Being at that meafures ^ time moderator of the fynod of Perth and Stirling,. he^^er.al opened the meeting at Perth with a fermon from Pfalm * * cxviii. 22. “ The ftone which the builders rejefted is become the head ftone of the corner.” In the courfe of his fermon he remonftrated with no fmall degree of freedom againft the aft of the preceding affembly with regard to the fettlement of minifters, and alleged that- it was contrary to the wmrd of God and the eftablifti¬ ed conftitution of the church. A formal complaint' was lodged againft him for uttering feveral offenfive ex- preffions in his fermon before the fynod. Many of the members declared that they heard him utter no¬ thing but found and feafonable doftrine ; but his accu- fers infifting on their complaint, obtaihed an appoint¬ ment of a committee of fynod to colleft what w7ere called the offenfive expreffions, and to lay them before the next diet in writing. This was done accordingly 5 and Mr Erfkine gave in his anfwers to every article of the complaint. After three days warm reafoning on this affair, the fynod by a majority of fix found him cenfurable j againft which fentence he protefted, and por appealed to the next general affembly. When the af-their mini- fembly met in May 1733, it affirmed the fentence of and the belt anfwers that w'ere publiftied to fome of the late bold apologies for popery were written a,t his inftance, and under his dire&ion. , With (a) See particularly his feimons &n the rebellion in J745 j on the Proteftant working fchools in Ireland j on the jth SEC [i With the Diffenters his Grace was lincerely defirous of cultivating a good underftanding. He conlidered them, in general, as a confcientious and valuable clafs of men. With fome of the moft eminent of them, Watts, Doddridge, Leland, Chandler, Lardner, he maintained an intercourfe of friendlhip or civility. By the moft candid and confiderate part of them he was highly re¬ verenced and efteemed j and to fuch among them as needed help he {howed no lefs kindnefs and liberality than to thofe of his own communion. Nor was his concern for the Proteftant caufe confined to his own country. He was well known as the great patron and proteftor of it in various parts of Europe ; from whence he had frequent applications for adillance, which never failed of being favourably received. To feveral foreign Proteftants he allowed penfions, to others he gave occafional relief, and to fome of their univerfi- ties was an annual benefaftor. In public affairs, his Grace afted the part of an honeft citizen, and a worthy member of the Britilh legiilature. From his firft entrance into the houfe of peers, his parliamentary conduct wras uniformly upright and noble. He kept equally clear from the extremes of faflious pe¬ tulance and fervile dependence j never wantonly thwart¬ ing adminiftration from motives of party zeal or private pique, or perfonal attachment, or a paffion for popula¬ rity 5 nor yet going every length with every minifter from views of intereft or ambition. He admired and loved the conftitution of his country, and wifhed to preferve it unaltered and unimpaired. So long as a due regard to this was maintained, he thought it his duty to fupport the meafures of government; but whenever they were evidently inconfiftent with the public welfare, he oppofed them with freedom and firmnefs. Yet his op- pofition was always tempered with the utmoft fidelity,, refpeff, and decency, to the excellent prince upon the throne; and the moft candid allowances for the una¬ voidable errors and infirmities even of the very belt mi- nifters, and the peculiarly difficult fituation of thofe who govern a free and high-fpirited people. He feldom fpoke in parliament, except where the interefts of re¬ ligion and virtue feemed to require it j but whenever he did, he fpoke with propriety and ftrength, and was heard with attention and deference. Though he never attached himfelf blindly to any fet of men, yet his chief political connexions were with the late duke of New- caftle and Lord.Chancellor Hardwicke. To thefe he principally owed his advancement ; and he had the good fortune to live long enough to {how his gratitude to them or their defcendants. For more than ten years, during which Dr Seeker enjoyed the fee of Canterbury, he refided conftantly at his archiepifcopal houfe at Lambeth. A few months before his death, the dreadful pains he felt had compelled him to think of trying the Bath wraters : but that de- iign was Hopped by the fatal accident which put an end to his life. His Grace had been for many years fubjeX to the gout, which, in the latter part of his life, returned with 09 ] SEC more frequency and violence, and did not go off in a regular manner, but left the parts affeXed for a long, time very weak, and was fucceeded by pains in different parts of the body. About a year and a half before he died, after a fit of the gout, he was attacked with a- pain in the arm, near the {boulder, which having conti¬ nued about x 2 months, a fimilar pain feized the upper and outer part of the oppofite thigh, and the arm foon became eafier. This was much more grievous than the former, as it quickly difabled him from walking, and kept him in almoft continual torment, except when he was in a reclining pofition. During this time he had two or three fits of the gout; but neither the gout nor the medicines alleviated thefe pains, which, with the want of exercife, brought him into a general bad habit of body. On Saturday July 30. 1768, he was feized, as he fat at dinner, with a ficknels at his ftomach. He re¬ covered before night j but the next evening, while his phyficians were attending, and his fervants railing him on his couch, he fuddenly cried out that his thigh-bone was broken. The {hock was fo violent, that the fervants perceived the couch to {hake under him, and the pain fo acute and unexpeXed, that it overcame the firmnefs he fo remarkably poffeffed. He lay for fome time in great agonies j but when the furgeons arrived, and dif- covered with certainty that the bone was broken, he was perfeXly refigned, and never afterwards alked a queftion about the event. A fever foon enfued. On Tuefday he became lethargic, and continued fo till about five o’clock on Wednefday afternoon, when he- expired with great calmnefs, in the 75th year of his age. On examination, the thigh-bone was found to be ca¬ rious about four inches in length, and at nearly the fame diftance from its head. The difeafe took its rife from the internal part of the bone, and had fo entirely deftroyed its fubftance, that nothing remained at the part where it wTas broken but a portion of its outward integument 5 and even this had many perforations, one. of which was large enough to admit tw’o fingers, and was filled with a fungous fubftance arifing from within the bone. There wras no appearance of matter about the caries, and the furrounding parts were in a found flate. It was apparent that the torture which he un¬ derwent during the gradual corrofion of this bone muft have been inexpreftibly great. Out of tendernefs to his family he feldom made any complaints to them, but to his phyficians he frequently declared his pains were fo excruciating, that unlefs fome relief could be procured he thought it would be impoffible for human nature to fupport them long. Yet he bore them for upwards of fix months with aftoniihing patience and fortitude ; fat up generally the greater part of the day, admitted his particular friends to fee him, mixed wuth his family at the ufual hours, fometimes with his ufual cheerfulnefs 5 and, except fome very flight defeXs of memory, retain¬ ed all his faculties and fenfes in their full vigour till within a few days of his death. Fie, was buried, pur- fuant Seeker. 5th of November ; and a great number of occafional paffages to the fame purpofe, in various parts of his leXure?;'- fiirmonsj.and other works,.. SEC Seeker fuant to his own directions, in a covered paffage, lead- Se" ind ^rom a private door of the palace to the north door "V ' , of Lambeth church ; and he forbade any monument or epitaph to be placed over him. By his will he appointed the Rev. Dr Daniel Bur¬ ton, canon of Chrift-church, and Mrs Catherine Tal¬ bot, already mentioned in the courfe of thefe memoirs, his executors ; and left 13,000!. in truft to the Drs Porteous and Stinton, his chaplains; to pay the interelt thereof to Mrs Talbot and her daughter during their joint lives, or the life of the furvivor j and after the deceafe of both thofe ladies, ii,ocol. of the laid 13,000!. are to be transferred to charitable purpofes j amongft which are local, to the Society for the Pro¬ pagation of the Gofpel, and 1000I. to the fame fociety for a billiop or bilhops in the king’s dominions in America. The following defeription is given of his perfon : He was tall and comely j in the early part of his life llen- der, and rather confumptive but as he advanced in years his conftitution gained ftrength, and his lize in- creafed, yet never to a degree of corpulency that was difproportionate or troublelbme. The dignity of his form correfponded with the great- nefs of his mind, and infpired at all times refpeft and awe ; but peculiarly fo when he was engaged in any of the more folemn fun&ions of religion, into which he en¬ tered with fuch devout earneffnefs and warmth, with fo juft a confcioulhefs of the place he was in, and the bufinefs he was about, as feemed to raife him above him- felf, and added new life and fpirit to the natural grace- fulnefs of his appearance. His countenance was open, ingenious, and expreflive of every thing right. It varied eafily with his fpirits snd his feelings, fo as to be a faithful interpreter of his mind, which was incapable of the lead diffimulation. It could fpeak dejeftion, and, on occafion, anger, very Ifrongly j but when it meant to iliow pleafure or appro¬ bation, it foftened into a mod gracious Anile, and dif- 'fufed over all his features the mod benevolent and re¬ viving complacency that can be imagined. SECOND, in Geometry, Chronology, &c. the 60th part of a prime or minute, whether of a degree or of an hour. Second, in Mujic, one of the mufical intervals ; be¬ ing only the difference between any found and the next neared found, whether above or below it. Second Major, in Mujic. See Interval. Second Minor, in Mujic. See INTERVAL. SECOND Sight, in Erfe called Taifch, is a mode of feeing fuperadded to that which nature generally be¬ llows. This gift or faculty, which is neither voluntary nor condant, is in general rather troublefome than agree¬ able to the poffeffors of it, who are chiefly found among the inhabitants of the Highlands of Scotland, thofe of the Wedern ides, of the ifle of Man, and of Ireland. It is an impredion made either by the mind upon the eye, or by the eye upon the mind, by which things aidant or future are perceived, and feen as if they were prefent. A man on a journey far from home falls from his horfe; another, who is perhaps at work about the houfe, fees him bleeding on the ground, commonly with a landfcape of the place where the accident befals him. Another feer, driving home his cattle, or wandering in idlenefs, or ^nufing in the funfhine, is fuddenly furprifed by the ap- S E C pearance of a bridal ceremony, or funeral proccffion, and Serord. counts the mourners or attendants, of whom, if he knows ‘—““v—■ them, he relates the names 5 if he knows them not, he can deferibe the dreffes. Things didant are feen at the indant they happen. Of things future, Johnfon fays that he knows no rule pretended to for determining the time between the fight and the event 5 but we are informed by Mr Grofe, that in general the time of accompliiliment bears fome relation to the time of the day in which the impreffions are re¬ ceived. Thus vifions feen early in the morning (which feldom happens) will be much fooner accomplidted than thofe appearing at noon •, and thofe feen at noon will take place in a much diorier time than thofe happening at night 5 fometimes the accomplidiment of the lad does not fall out within a year or more. Thefe vifions are not confined to folemn or important events} nor is it true, as is commonly reported, that to the fecond fight nothing is prefented but phantoms of evil. The future vifit of a mountebank, or piper j a plentiful draught of filh } the arrival of common travel¬ lers ; or, if poffible, dill more triding matters than thefe, —are forefeen by the feers. A gentleman told Dr John- fon, that when he had once gone far from his own ifland, one of his labouring fervants predicted his return, and deferibed the livery of his attendant, which he had never w'orn at home ; and which had been, without any pre¬ vious defign, occafionally given him. As many men eminent for fcience and literature have admitted the reality of this apparently ufelefs gift, we (hall, without interpoung our own opinion, give the reflections of two of the fird charafters of the age upon it, and leave our readers to form their own judgment. By Dr Beattie of Aberdeen it is thus ac¬ counted for. The Highlands of Scotland are a pichirefque but a melancholy country. Long trafls of mountainous de- fert, covered with dark heath, and often obfeured by midy weather ; narrow valleys, thinly inhabited, and bounded by precipices refounding with the fall of tor¬ rents ; a foil fo rugged, and a climate fo dreary, as in many parts to admit neither the amufements of paf- turage nor the labours of agriculture ; the mournful daflring of waves along the friths and lakes that inter¬ fere the country ; the portentous noifes which every change of the wind and every increafed diminution of the waters is apt to raife in a lonely region full of echoes and rocks and caverns the grotefipie and ghadly appearance of fuch a landfcape by the light of the naoon : objefts like thefe diftufe a gloom over the fancy, which may be compatible enough with occadon- al and focial merriment, but cannot fail to tinrffure the thoughts of a native in the hour of filence and folitude. If thefe people, notwithdanding their reformation in religion, and more frequent intercourfe with drangers, do dill retain many of their old fuperditions, ive need not doubt but in former times they mud have been much more endaved to the horrors of imagination, when befet with the bugbears of Popery and Paganifm. Mod of their fuperditions are of a melancholy cad. That of fecondJight, by which fome are dill fuppofed to be haunt¬ ed, is confidered by themfelves as a misfortune, on ac¬ count of the many dreadful images it is faid to obtrude upon the fancy. It is faid that fome of the Alpine re¬ gions do likewife lay claim to a fort of fecond fight. Nor f 110 ] SEC [ i Second. Nor is it wonderful, that perfons of a lively imagination, immured in deep folitude, and furrounded with the ilu- pendous fcenery of clouds, precipices, and torrents, fhould dream (even when they think themfelves awake) of thofe few linking ideas with which their lonely lives are diverfiried : of corpfes, funeral proceffions, and other fubjefts of terror 5 or of marriages, and the arrival of Grangers, and fuch like matters of more agreeable cu- riofity. Let it be obferved alfo, that the ancient Highlanders of Scotland had hardly any other way of fupporting themfelves than by hunting, fifhing, or war ; profeffions that are continually expoled to fatal accidents. And hence, no doubt, additional horrors would often haunt their folitude, and a deeper gloom overlhadow the ima¬ gination even of the hardieft native. A fuflicient evidence can hardly be found for the re¬ ality of the fecondfight, or at leaft of what is commonly underftood by that term. A treatife on the fubjedt was publiihed in the year 1762, in which many tales w'ere told of perlons whom the author believed to have been favoured, or haunted, with thefe illuminations •, but moft of the tales were trifling and ridiculous: and the whole work betrayed, on the part of the compiler, fuch extreme credulity, as could not fail to prejudice many readers a- gainft his fyilem. That any of thefe viflonaries are apt to be fwayed in their declarations by finifter views, we will not fay: but this may be faid with confidence, that none but ig¬ norant people pretend to be gifted in this way. And in them it may be nothing more, perhaps, than (liort fits of hidden fleep or drowfinefs, attended with lively dreams, and arifing from fome bodily diforder, the ef- fe<5l of idlenefs, low fpirits, cr a gloomy imagination. For it is admitted, even by the moft credulous High¬ landers, that as knowledge and induftry are propaga¬ ted in their country, the fecond fight difappears in pro¬ portion ) and nobody ever laid claim to the faculty who was much employed in the intercourfe of focial life (a). Nor is it at all extraordinary, that one fhould have the appearance of being awake, and fhculd even think one’s felf lb, during thefe fits of doling ; that they Ihould come on fuddenly, and while one is engaged in fome bufinefs. The fame thing happens to perfons much fatigued, or long kept awake, who frequently fall afleep for a moment, or for a long fpace, while they are Hand¬ ing, or walking, or riding on horfeback. Add but a lively dream to this llumSer, and (which is the frequent eifeef of difeafe) take awTay the confcioufnefs of having been alleep, and a fuperftitious man may eafily miftake his dream for a waking vilion which, however, is foon forgotten when no fubfequent occurrence recals it to his memory ; but which, if it lhall be thought to re- femble any future event, exalts the poor dreamer into a Highland prophet. This conceit makes him more re- clufe and more melancholy than ever 5 and fo feeds his difeafe, and multiplies his vifions : which, if they are not diftipated by bufinefs or fociety, may continue to haunt ii ] SEC him as long as he lives ; and which, in their progrefs Second, through the neighbourhood, receive fame new tinctures of the marvellous from every mouth that promotes their circulation. As to the prophetical nature of this fe¬ cond fight, it cannot be admitted at all. That the Deity Ihould work a miracle in order to give intimation of the frivolous things that thefe tales are made up of, the arrival of a ftranger, the nailing of a coffin, or the colour of a fuit of clothes; and that thefe intimations fhould be given for no end, and to thofe perfons only who are idle and folitary, who (peak Gaelic, or who live among mountains and deferts—is like nothing in nature or providence that we are acquainted with; and mult therefore, unlels it were confirmed by fatisfahtory proof (which is not the cafe), be rejected as abfurd and incre¬ dible. Thefe vifions, fuch as they are, may reafonably enough be aferibed to a diftempered fancy. And that in them, as well as in our ordinary dreams, certain ap¬ pearances Ihould, on fome rare occafions, refemble cer¬ tain events, is to be expected from the laws of chance y and feems to have in it nothing more marvellous or fu- pernatural, than that the parrot, who deals out his feur- rilities at random, fhould iometimes happen to falute the paffenger by his right appellation. To the confidence of thefe obje£tions Dr Johnfon re¬ plies, that by preluming to determine what is fit, and what is beneficial, they prefuppole more knowledge of the univerial fyftem than man has attained ; and there¬ fore depend upon principles too complicated and exten- five for our comprehenfion ; and that there can be no fecurity in the confequence when the premifes are not underftood ; that the fecond fight is only tvonderful be- caufe it is rare, for, confidered in itfelt, it involves no more difficulty than dreams, or perhaps than the regu¬ lar exercife of the cogitative faculty ; that a general opi¬ nion of communicative impulfes, or vifionary reprefenta- tions, has prevailed in all ages and all nations •, that par¬ ticular inftances have been given with fuch evidence, as neither Bacon nor Bayle has been able to refift ; that fudden impreffions, which the event has verified, have been felt by more than own or publifh them 5 that the fecond fight of the Hebrides implies only the local fre¬ quency of a power, which is nowhere totally unknown j and that where we are unable to decide by antecedent reafon, we muft be content to yield to the force of tef- timony. By pretenfion to fecond fight, no profit was ever fought or gained. It is an involuntary affeflion, in which neither hope nor fear are known to have any part. Thofe who profefs to feel it do not boaft of it as a privilege, nor are confidered by others as advanlage- cufly dillinguilhed. They have no temptation to feign, and their hearers have no motive to encourage the im- poffure. SECOND Terms, in Algebra, thofe where the unknown quantity has a degree of power lefs than it has in the term where it is raifed to the higheft. The art of throwing thefe fecond terms out of an equation, that is, (a) This, however, is denied by Jobnfon, who affirms that the Iflanders of all degrees, whether of rank or un- derrtanding, univerfally admit it exceot the minifters, who, according to him, rejedt it, in conf quence of a fyftem, againft conviction. He affirms, too, that in 1773, was in the Hebrides a fscond-fighted gentleman, who com* plained of the terrors to which he was expofed. Secretary. SEC [i Secondary's, of forming a new equation where they have no place, is one of the moft ingenious and ufeful inventions in all ,algebra. SECONDARY, in general, fomething that a£ls as fecond or in fubordination to another. SECOND JR T or Secundary, an officer who a£ls as fe¬ cond or next to the chief officer. Such are the feconda- ries of the courts of king’s bench and common pleas ; the fecondaries of the compters, who are next the ffie- riffs of London in each of the twro compters j two fe¬ condaries of the pipe j fecondaries to the remembran¬ cers, &c. SECOND JR T Circles of the Ecliptic are circles of lon¬ gitude of the liars } or circles which, paffing through the poles of the ecliptic, are at right angles to the ecliptic. See CIRCLES of Latitude. Secondary Qualities of Bodies. See Metaphy¬ sics, N° 153. SECONDAT. See Montesquieu. SECRETARIES bird, the falco ferpentarius and fagiltarius of Linnaeus, but claffed by Latham under the genus Vultur. See Ornithology Index. SECRETARY, an officer who, by his mailer’s or¬ ders, writes letters, difpatches, and other inltruments, which he renders authentic by his hgnet. Of thefe there are feveral kinds •, as, 1. Secretaries of Rate, who are officers that have under their management and direttion the moft important affairs of the kingdom, and are obliged conftantly to attend on the king : they receive and difpatch whatever comes to their hands, ei¬ ther from the crown, the church, the army, private grants, pardons, difpenfations, &c. as likewife petitions to the fovereign, which, when read, are returned to them \ all which they difpatch according to the king’s direflion. They have authority to commit perfons for treafon, and other offences againft the ftate, as confer- vators of the peace at common law, or as juftices of the peace throughout the kingdom. They are members of the privy-council, which is feldom or never held with¬ out one of them being prefent. As to the bulinefs and correfpondence in all parts of this kingdom, it is mana¬ ged by either of the fecretaries without any diftinftion j but with refpe£t to foreign affairs, the bufinefs is divi¬ ded into two provinces or departments, the fouthern and the northern, comprehending all the kingdoms and ftates that have any intercourfe with Great Britain j each fecretary receiving all letters and addreffes from, and making all difpatches to, the feveral princes and ftates comprehended in his province. Ireland and the Plantations are under the direftion of the elder fecreta¬ ry, who has the fouthern province, which alfo compre¬ hends, France, Italy, Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, and Turkey j tire northern province includes the Low Coun¬ tries, Germany, Denmark, Swreden, Poland, and Muf- covy. Each of the fecretaries has an apartment in all the royal houfes, both for their own accommodation and their officers’’, they have alfo a table at the king’s charge, or elfe board-w^ages. The two fecretaries for Britain have each two under fecretaries, and one chief clerk *, with an uncertain number of other clerks and tranflators, all wholly depending on them. To the fe¬ cretaries of ftate belong thecuftody of that feal properly Called the fgnet, and the direftion of two other offices, one called thepaper-ojfce, and the pther \\\e fignet-office. In addition to thefe, there is a fecretary for the war de- f- 12 ] SEC partment, whofe office muft be temporary. 2. Score- Secretary tary of an embaffy, a perion attending an ambaffador, || for writing difpatches relating to the negociation. There Seftor». ^ is a great difference between the fecretaries of an em* y baffy and the ambaffador’s fecretary j the laft being a domeftic or menial of the ambaffador, and the firft a ler- vant or minifter of the prince. 3. The fecretary of war, an officer of the war-office, who has two chief clerks under him, the laft of which is the fecretary’s meffenger. There are alfo fecretaries in moft of the other offices. SECRETION, in the animal economy. See Phy¬ siology Index. SECT, a collective term, comprehending all fuch as follow the dodtrines and opinions of fome famous divine, philofopher, &c. SECTION, in general, denotes a part of a divided thing, or the divifion itfelf. Such, particularly, are the fubdivifions of a chapter j called alfo paragraphs and articles : the mark of a fedtion is $. Section, in Geometry, denotes a lide or furface of a body or figure cut off by another ^ or the place wffiere lines, planes, &c. cut each other. SECTOR, in Geometry, is a part of a circle com¬ prehended between two radii and the arch : or it is a mixed triangle, formed by twro radii and the arch of a circle. Sector, is alfo a mathematical inftrument, of great seftor ufe in finding the proportion betwreen quantities of the fame kind : as between lines and lines, furfaces and fur- faces, &c. whence the French call it the compafs of pro¬ portion. The great advantage of the fedlor above the common feales, &c. is, that it is made fo as to fit all ra¬ dii and all feales. By the lines of chords, fines, &c. on the feftor, we have lines of chords, fines, &c. to any radius betwixt the length and breadth of the fedtor when open. The real inventor of this valuable inftrument is un¬ known •, yet of fo much merit has the invention appear¬ ed, that it was claimed by Galileo, and difputed by na¬ tions. The fedtor is founded on the fourth propofition of the fixth book of Euclid j where it is demonftrated, that fimilar triangles have their homologous fides pro¬ portional. An idea of the theory of its conftrudlion may be conceived thus. Let the lines AB, AC (Plate Plate CCCCLXXVIII. fig. I.) reprefent the legs of the fee- ccccIkxvu?. tor j and AD, AE, two equal fedlions from the centre : **8’ x* if, now the points CB and DE be connedted, the lines CB and DE will be parallel •, therefore the triangles ADE, ACB will be fimilar j and confequently the fides AD, DE, AB, and BC, proportional; that is, as AD : DE : : AB : BC : whence, if AD be the half, third, or fourth part of AB ; DE will be a half, third, or fourth part of CB : and the fame holds of all the 'reft. If, therefore, AD be the chord, fine, or tangent, of any number of degrees to the radius AB j DE will be the fame to the radius BC. 2 Defcription of the SeBor. The inftrument connfts of deferibed. two rules or legs, of brafs or ivory, or any other mat¬ ter, reprefenting the radii, moveable round an axis or joint, the middle of which expreffes the centre ; whence are drawn on the faces of the rulers feveral feales, which mav be diftinguifhed into fingle and double. The double feales, or lints graduated upon the faces rjg. ^ ,, of SEC [ i Se&or. of the Ihftrument, and which are to be ufed as feftoral 1 n> v-~- lines? proceed from the centre j and are, I. Two fcales of equai parts, one on each kg, marked LIN. or L. j each of thele Icales, from the great extenfivenefs of its ule, is called the line of lines. 2. Two lines of chords mark¬ ed ctio. or C. 3. Two lines of fee ants marked SEC. or s. A ime ot polygons marked POL. Upon the other face the fecloral lines are, 1. Twm lines of fines marked SIN. or s. 2 Two lines of tangents marked TAN. or T. 3. Between the line of tangents and lines there is another line ot tangents to a lelfer radius, to fupply the defect of the former, and extending hom 43° to 730, marked t. Each pair of thefe lines (except the line of poly¬ gons) is lo adjuited as to make equal angles at the centre j and coni quentiy at whatever diltance the fec- tor be opened, ihe angles will be always reflectively equal. That is, the didance between 10 and 10 on the line of lines, will be equal to 60 and 60 on the line of chords, 90 and 90 on the line of lines, and 45 and 45 on the line of tangents. Befides the fedtoral Icales, there are others on each face, placed parallel to the outward edges, and ufed as thofe of the common plane feale. 1. Theie are a line of inches. 2. A line of latitudes. 3. A line of hours. 4. A line of inclination of meridians. 3. A line of chords. Three logarithmic fcales, namely, one of num¬ bers, one of fines, and one of tangents. Thefe are ufed when the feftor is fully opened, the legs forming one line (a). To read The value of the divifions on moft of the lines are de- and elti- termined by the figures adjacent to them ; thefe pro¬ mate the ceed by tens, which conftitute the divilions of the firfl: thV'f°<£t °n 01^er, anc^ are numbered accordingly ; but the value of ard ike* divifions on the line of lines, that are diftinguifhed by figures, is entirely arbitrary, and may reprefent any value that is given to them j hence the figures, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. may denote either 10, 20, 30, 40, or 100, 200, 300, 400, and fo on. The line of lines is divided into ten equal parts, num¬ bered 1, 2, 3, to 10 ; thefe may be called divifons of the firfl order ; each of thefe is again fubdivided into 10 other equal parts, which may be called divifions of ihe fc- cond order ; each of thefe is divided into two equal parts, forming divifions of the third order. The divifions on all the fcales are contained between four parallel lines j thofe of the third order extend to the moll diflant j thofe of the third to the leaft j thofe of the fecund to the intermediate parallel. When the wdiole line of lines reprefents 100, the di¬ vifions of the firfl: order, or thofe to which the figures are annexed, reprefent tens ; thofe of the fecond order units 5 thofe of the third order the halves of thefe units. If the whole line reprefent ten, then the divifions of the firfl order are units } thofe of the fecond tenths j the thirds twentieths. In the line of tangents, the divifions to which the numbers are affixed, are the degrees expreffed by thofe numbers. Every filth degree is denoted by a line fome- what longer than the reft ; between every number and each fifth degree, there afe four divifions longer than Vol. XIX. Part I. 3 ) SEC the intermediate adjacent ones, thefe are whole de- Seder, grees j the ftiorter ones, or thofe of the third order, are 30 minutes. From the centre, to 60 degrees, the line of fines is divided like the line of tangents, from 60 to 70 ; it is divided only to every degree, from 70 to 80, to every two degrees, from 80 to 90 3 the divifion muft be elli- mated by the eye. The divifions on the line of chords are to be eftima- ted in the fame manner as the tangents. The IclTer line of tangents is graduated every two degrees, from 45 t@ 50 3 but from 50 to 60 to every degree 3 from 60 to the end, to half degrees. The line of fecants from o to 10 is to be eftimated by the eye 3 from 20 to 50, it is divided to every two degrees 3 from 30 to 60, to every degree 3 from 60 to the end, to every half degree. ^ If of the Line of Equal Parts on the SECTOR. X. To Divifion of divide a given line into any number of equal parts, fup-a given line pole feven. Take the given line in your compaffes 3 t^e ^;rie and felting one foot in a divifion of equal parts, that| ,J,CJ”U may be divided by feven, for example 70, whofe feventh 1 part is 10, open the feflor till the other point fall ex¬ actly on 70, in the fame line on the other leg. In this difpofition, applying one point of the compafies to 10 in the fame line 3 ihut them till the other fall in 10 in the tame line on the other leg, and this opening will be the feventh part of the given line. Note, if the line to be divided be too long to be applied to the legs of the fec- tor, divide only one half or one fourth by feven, and the double or quadruple thereof will be the feventh part of the whole. 2. To meafure the lines of the perimeter of a poly- -jy, m^ea_ gon, one of which contains a given number of equal lure the ne parts. Take the given line in your compaffes, and fet rionter of it parallel, upon the line of equal parts, to the number a k^A011’ on each leg exprefling its length. The feftor remaining thus, fet off the length of each of the other lines paral¬ lel to the former, and the number each of them falls on will exprefs its length. 3. A right line being given, and the number ofsubtrac- parts it contains, fuppofe 120, to take from it a ftiorter tion. line, containing any number of the fame parts, fuppofe 23. Take the given line in your compaffes, open the feiftor till the two feet fall on 1 20 on each leg 3 then will the diflance between 23 on one leg, and the fame number on the other, give the line required. 4. To multiply by the line of equal parts on the Multiplies- fedlor. Take the lateral diftance from the centre of the tion. line to the given multiplicator 3 open the fe£lor till you fit that lateral diftance to the parallel of 1 and 1, or 10 and 10, and ke°p the fedftor in that difpofition 3 then take in the compaffes the parallel diftance of the multiplicand, which diftance, meafured laterally on the fame line, will give the product required. Thus, fup¬ pofe it were required to find the produft of 8 multi¬ plied by 4 : take the lateral diftance from the centre of the line to 4 in your compaffes, i. e. place one foot of the compaffes in the beginning of the divifions, and extend the other along the line to 4. Open the feflor till you fit this lateral diftance to the parallel of 1 and P 1, or <1 ^ ^ <^'eren^ or^ers on different fedtors^ but they may eaffy be found by thefe general SEC [ii Sector, i, or io and 10. Then take the parallel alliance of 8, the multiplicand ; i. e. extend the compaffes from 8, in this line, on one leg, to 8 in the fame line on the other; and that extent, raeafured laterally, will give the pro- 8 dudf required. Divifion in 5- To divide by the line of equal parts on the fe£lor. general. Extend the compalt'es laterally from the beginning of the line to i, and open the feftor till you fit that extent to the parallel of the divifor ■, then take the parallel di- ftance of the dividend, which extent, meafured in a late¬ ral diredlion, will give the quotient required. Thus, fuppofe it was required to divide 36 by 4 : extend the compaffes laterally, the beginning of the line to x, and fit to that extent the parallel of 4, the divifor j then ex¬ tend the compaffes parallel, from 36 on one leg to 36 on the other, and that extent, mealured laterally, will 9 give 9, the quotient required. Proportion. 6. Proportion by the line of equal parts. Make the lateral diftance of the fecond term the parallel diitance of the firft term, the parallel diftance of the third term is the fourth proportional. Example. To find a fourth proportional to 8, 4, and 6, take the lateral diftance of 4, and make it the parallel diftance of 8 5 then the pa¬ rallel diftance of 6, extended from the centre, fhall reach to the fourth proportional 3. In the fame manner, a third proportional is found to two numbers. Thus, to find a third proportional to 8 and 4, the fedlor remaining as in the former example, the parallel diftance of 4, extended from the centre, fhall reach to the third proportional 2. In all thefe cafes, if the number to be made a parallel diftance be too great for the fector, feme aliquot part of it is to be taken, and tbe anfvver is to be multiplied by the number 10 by which the firft number was divided. j.ine of life of the Line of Chords on the SECTOR. I. To open c&ards. the fedtor fo as the two lines of chords may make an angle or number of degrees, fuppofe 40. Take the di¬ ftance from the joint to 40, the number of the degrees propofed, on the line of chords; open the fe^lor till the diftance from 60 to 60, on each leg, be equal to the given diftance of 40 •, then will the two lines on the fec¬ tor form an angle of 40 degrees, as was required. 2. The feftor being opened, to find the degrees of its aperture. Take the extent from 60 to 60, and lay it off on the line of chords from the centre ; the num¬ ber whereon it terminates will Ihow the degrees, &c. required. 3. To lay off any number of degrees upon the cir¬ cumference of a circle. Open the fe&or till the di¬ ftance between 60 and 60 be equal to the radius of the given circle *, then take the parallel extent of the chord of the number of degrees on each leg of the feclor, and lay it off on the circumference of the given circle.— Hence any regular polygon may be eafily inferibed in It a given circle. Line of Ufe of the Line of Polygons on the SECTOR. I. To polygons. Jnfcribe a regular polygon in a given circle. Take the femidiameter of the given circle in the compaffes, and adjuft it to the number 6, on the line of polygons, on each leg of the feiffor : then, the feftor remaining thus opened, take the diftance of the two equal numbers, exprefling the number of fides the polygon is to have ; f. gr. the diftance from 5 to 5 for a pentagon, from 7 to 7 for a heptagon, &c. Thefe■"diftances carried about 4 ] SEC the circumference of the circle, will divide it into fo Sceftor. many equal parts. v——- 2. To deferibe a regular polygon, c. gr. a penta¬ gon, on a given right line. Take the length of the line in the compaffes, and apply it to the extent of the number 5, 5, on the lines of polygons. The fec¬ tor thus opened, upon the fame lines take the extent from 6 to 6 : this will be the femidiameter of the circle the polygon is to be inferibed in. If then, with this diftance, from the ends of the given line, you deferibe two arches of a circle, their interfedlion will be the centre of the circle. 3. On a right line, to deferibe an ifoceles triangle, having the angles at the bafe double that at the ver¬ tex. Open the fedlor, till the ends of the given line fall on 10 and 10 on each leg ; then take the diftance from 6 to 6. This will be the length of the two equal fides of the triangle. U/e of the Lines of Sines, Tangents, and Secants, on sines, tan- the SECTOR. By the feveral lines difpofed on the fee-gents’, and tor, we have feales to feveral radii; fo that having afecants. length or radius given, not exceeding the length of the fe&or when opened, we find the chord, fine, &c. thereto : e. gr. Suppofe the chord, fine, or tangent of 10 degrees, to a radius of 3 inches required ; make 3 inches the aperture between 60 and 60, on the lines of chords of the two legs 5 then will the fame extent reach from 45 to 45 on the line of tangents, and from 90 to 90 on the line of the fines on the other fide ; fo that to whatever radius the line of chords is fet, to the fame are all the others fet. In this difpofition, therefore, if the aperture between 10 and 10, on the lines of chords, be taken with the compaffes, it will give the chord of 10 degrees. If the aperture of 10 and 10 be in like man¬ ner taken on the lines of fines, it will be the fine of 10 degrees. Laftly, if the aperture of 10 and 10 be in like manner taken on the lines of tangents, it gives the tangent of 10 degrees. If the chord, or tangent, of 70 degrees were re¬ quired ; for the chord, the aperture of half the arch, viz. 35, muft be taken, as before ; which diftance, re¬ peated twice, gives the chord of 70 degrees. To find the tangent of 70 degrees to the fame radius, the fmall line of tangents muft be ufed, the other only reaching- to 45 : making, therefore, 3 inches the aperture between 45 and 45 on the ftnall line ; the extent between 70 and 70 degrees on the fame, will be the tangent of 70 de¬ grees to 3 inches radius. To find the fecant of an arch, make the given radius the aperture between o and o on the lines of fecants ; then will the aperture of 10 and 10, or 70 and 70, on the faid lines, give tire tangent of io° or 70°. If the converfe of any of thefe things wer e required, that is, if the radius be required, to which a given line is the fine, tangent, or lecant, it is but making the given line, if a chord, the aperture on the line of chords between 10 and 10, and then the fe&or will ftand at the radius required ; that is, the aperture between 60 and 60 on the faid line is the radius. If the given line were a fine, tangent, or fecant, it is but making it the -aperture of the given number of degrees ; then will the diftance of 90 and 90 on the fines, of 45 and 4 c on the tangents, of o and o on the fecants, be the radius. SECTOR of an Ellipfe, of ail Hyperbola, bs'e. is a part refcmbUng Settlor, Secular. SEC [ i refembllng the circular fe&or, being contained by three lines, two of which are radii, or lines drawn from the ‘ centre of the figure to the curve, and the intercepted arc or part of that curve. SECTOR of a sphere, is the folid generated by the re¬ volution of the fedtor of a circle about one of its radii; the other radius deferibing the furtace of a cone, and the circular arc a ciicul r portion of the furface of the fphere of the fame radius. So that the ipherical fe£lor confifts of a right cone, and of a fegment of the fphere having the fame common bafe with the cone. Hence the folid content of it will be found by multiplying the bafe or fpherical furface by the radius of the fphere, and taking one third of the product:. Sljlronomical SECTOR. See ASTRONOMICAL Sector. Dialing SECTOR. See Dialing. SECULAR, that which relates to affairs of the pre- fent world, in which fenfe the word itands oppofed to fpiritual, ecclejiajlical: thus we fay fecular power, &c. Skcular, is more peculiarly ured for a perfon who lives at liberty in the world, not {hut up in a monafiery, nor bound by vows, or fubjecled to the particular rules of any religious community ; in which fenfe it Hands op¬ posed to regular. The Romhh clergy are divided into fecular and regular, of which the latter are bound by monaftic rules, the former not. SECULAR Games, in antiquity, folemn games held among the Romans once in an age. Thefe games laft- ed three days and as many nights; during which time facrifices were performed, theatrical fhewrs exhibited, with combats, fpoits, &c. in the circus. The occafion of thefe games, according to Valerius Maximus, was to flop the progrefs of a plague. Valerius Publicola w^as the firft who celebrated them at Rome in the year of the city 245. The folemnity w'as as follows : The whole world was invited by a herald to a feaft which they had never feen already, nor ever finould fee again. Some days before the games began, the quindecemviri in the Capitol and the Palatine temple, diftributed to the people purifying compofitions, of various kinds, as ilambeaus, fulphur, &c. From hence the populace paffed to Diana’s temple on the Aventine mount, with wheat, barley, and oats, as an offering. After this, whole nights were fpent in devotion to the Deftinies. When the time of the games -was fully come, the people afiembled in the Campus Martius, and facrificed to Ju¬ piter, Juno, Apollo, Latona, Diana, the Parcae, Ceres, Pluto, and Proferpine. On the firff night of the feaft the emperor, with the quindecemviri, caufed three altars to be eredted on the banks ol the Tiber, which they fprinkled with the blood of three lambs, and then pro¬ ceeded to regular facrifice. A fpace was next marked cut for a theatre, which w^as illuminated with innumer¬ able flambeaus and fires. Here they fang hymns, and celebrated all kinds of fports. On the day after, having offered vidtims at the Capitol, they went to the Campus Martius, and celebrated fports to the honour of Apollo and Diana. Thefe lafled till next day, when the noble matrons, at the hour appointed by the oracle, went to the Capitol to ling hymns to Jupiter, On the third day, which concluded the folemnity, twenty feven boys, and as many girls, lung in the temple of Palatine Apollo hymns and verfes in Greek and Latin, to recommend the city to the protedfion of thofe deities whom they defigned particularly to honour by their facrifices. is ] SEC The inimitable Carmen Seculare of Horace was com- pofed for this laft day, in the Secular Games, held by Auguftus. ^ It has been much difputed whether thefe games were held every hundred, or every hundred and ten years. Valerius Antius, Varro, and Livy, are quoted in fup- port of the former opinion : In favour of the latter may be produced the quindecemviral regitJers, the edidls of Augufius, and the words of Horace in the Secular poem, Cectus unde nos decies per annos. It was a general belief, that the girls who bore a part in the fong fliould be looneft married ; and that the children who did not dance and fing at the coming of Apollo, flrould die unmarried, and at an early period of life. SECULAR Poem, a poem fung or rehearfed at the fe¬ cular games ; of which kind we have a very fine piece among the works of Horace, being a fapphic ode at the end ot his epodes. SECULARIZATION, the aft of converting a re¬ gular perfon, place, or benefice, into a (ecular one. Al- moit all the cathedral churches were anciently regular, that is, the canons were to be religious ; but they have been fince fecularized. For the lecularization of a re¬ gular church, there is required the authority of the pope, that ol the prince, the bifhop of the place, the patron, and even the content of the people. Religious that want to be releafed from their vow, obtain briefs of fecu- larization from the pope. SEC UNDINES, in Anatomy, the feveral coats or membranes wherein the foetus is wrapped up in the mother’s womb ; as the chorion and amnios, with the placenta, &c. SECUNDUS, Joannes Nicolaius, an elegant wri¬ ter of Latin poetry, was born at the Hague in the year 1511. His defeent was from an ancient and honour¬ able family in the Netherlands ; and his father Nicolaus Everardus, who was born in the neighbourhood of Mid- dleburg, feems to have been high in the favour of the emperor Charles V. as he was employed by that monarch in leveral ftations of confiderable importance. We find him firft a member of the grand parliament or council of Mechelen, afterwards prefident of the ftates of Hol¬ land and Zealand at the Hague, and laftly holding a ftmilar office at Mechelen, where he died, Auguft 5, Thefe various employments did not occupy the whole of Everardus’s time. Notwithftanding the multiplicity of his bufinefs, he found leifure to cultivate letters with great fuccefs, and even to aft as preceptor to his own children, who were five fons and three daughters. They all took the name of Nicolaii from their father ; but on what account our author was called Secundus is not known. It could not be from the order of his birth, for he was the youngeft ion. Perhaps the name was not given him till he became eminent; and then, ac¬ cording to the faihion of the age, it might have its rife from fome pun, fuch as his being Poet arum nemini Secundus. Poetry, however, was by no means the pro- fellion which his father wiflied him to follow. He in¬ tended him for the law, and when he could no longer direft his ftudies himfelf, placed him under the care of P 2 Jacobus Secular il Secundus, Seeuridus. SEC [ n Jacobus Valeardus. This man is faid to have been every¬ way well qualified to difeharge the important trull which was committed to him ; and he certainly gained the affe&ion of his pupil, who, in one of his poems, mentions the death of Valeardus with every apppearance of unfeigned forrow. Another tutor was foon provi¬ ded } but it does not appear that Secundus devoted much of his time to legal purfuits. Poetry and the lifter arts of painting and iculpture had engaged his mind at a very early period ; and the imagination, on which ihefe have laid hold, can with difficulty fubmit to the dry ftudy of mufty civilians. Secundus is faid to have written verfes when but ten years old 5 and from the vaft quantity which he left behind him, we have reafon to conclude that fuch writing was his principal employ¬ ment. Pie found time, however, to carve figures of all his own family, of his miftrefles, of the emperor Charles V. of feveral eminent perfonages of thofe times, and of many of his intimate friends ; and in the laft edition of his works publilhed by Scriverius at I^eyden, 1631, there is a print of one of his miftrelTes with this inferipdon round it; Vatis amatoris Julia sculpta MANU. Secundus having nearly attained the age of twenty- one, and being determined, as it would feem, to comply as far as poffible with the wifhes of his father, quitted Mechelen, and went to P'rance, where at Bourges, a city in the Orleanois, he ftudied the civil law under the cele¬ brated Andreas Alciatus. Alciatus was one of the moft learned civilians of that age ; but what undoubtedly endeared him much more to our author was his general acquaintance with polite literature, and more particular¬ ly his tafte in poetry. Having ftudied a year under this eminent profeffor, and taken his degrees, Secundus returned to Mechelen, where he remained only a very few months. In 1533 went into Spain with warm recommendations to the count of Naffau and other per- fons of high rank \ and foon afterwards became fecre- tary to the cardinal archbilhop of Toledo in a depart¬ ment of bufinefs which required no other qualifications than what he poffeffed in a very eminent degree, a faci¬ lity in writing with elegance the Latin language. It was during his refidence with this cardinal that he wrote his Bafia, a feries of wanton poems, of which the fifth, feventh, and ninth car mm a of Catullus feem to have given the hint. Secundus was not, however, a fervile imitator of Catullus. His expreffions feem to be bor¬ rowed rather from Tibullus and Propertius j and in the warmth of his deferiptions he furpaffes every thing that has been written on fimilar fu! jefts by Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, C. Gallus, Ovid, or Horace. In 153 5 he accompanied the emperor Charles V. to the fiege of Tunis, but gained no laurels as a foldier. The hardfhips which were endured at that memorable fitge were but little fuited to the foft difpofition of a votary of Venus and the mufes 5 and upon an enterprife which might have furniffied ample matter for an epic poem, it is remarkable that Secundus w’rote nothing whicli has been deemed worthy of prefervation. Ha¬ ving returned from his martial expedition, he was fent by the cardinal to Rome to congratulate the pope upon the fuccei's of the emperor’s arms ; but was taken fo ill on the road, that he was not able to complete his journey. He was advifed to feck, without a moment’s 6 ] SEC delay, the benefit of his native air j and that happily re- Secundus covered him. ^ !l Having now quitted the fervice of the archbiffiop . ^ ~ e ’ of Toledo, Secundus was employed in the fame office of fecretary by the bilhop of Utrecht •, and fo much had he hitherto diftinguifhed himlelf by the claffical elegance of his compofitions, that he was (oon called upon to fill the important poll of private Latin fecretary to the em¬ peror, who was then in Italy. This was the molt ho¬ nourable office to which our author was ever appointed j but before he could enter upon it death put a flop to his career of glory. Having arrived at Saint Amand in the diftrifl of Tournay, in order to meet, upon bufinefs, with the biffiop of Utrecht, he was on the 8th of Octo¬ ber 1536 cut off by a violent fever, in the very flower of his age, not having quite completed his twenty-fifth year. He was interred in the church of the Benedic¬ tines, of which his patron, the biffiop, was abbot or pro¬ abbot ; and his near relations erefted to his memory a marble monument, with a plain Latin infeription. The works of Secundus have gone through feveral editions, of which the bell and moft copious is that of Scriverius already mentioned. It confifts of Julia, Eleg. lib. i.; Amores, Eleg. lib. ii.; AD Diversos Eleg. lib. iii. •, Basia, ftyled by the editor incomparabihs et divinus prorfus liber ; Epigrammata ; OdaRUM liber unus ; Epistolarum liber unus Elegiaca ; Epistola- Rum liber alter, heroico carmine feriptus; Funerum liber units; SylvvE et CARMINUM fragmenta; Poemata nonnulta fratrum; Itineraria Secundi tria, &c.; Epistol^ totidem, foluta oratione. Of thefe works it would be fuperfluous in us to give any charadler after the ample teftimonies prefixed to them of Lelius Greg. Gyraldus, the elder Scaliger, Theodore Beza, and others equally celebrated in the republic of letters, who all fpeak of them with rapture. A French critic, indeed, after having affirmed that the genius of Secundus never produced any thing which was not excellent in its kind, adds, with too much truth, Mais fa tnufe ejl un peu trap lafeive. For this fault our author makes the following apology in an epigram addreffed to the grammarians j Carmina cur fpargam cundlis lafeiva libellis, Queritis ? Infulfos arceo grammaticos. Fortia magnanimi canerem fi Ceefaris arma, Fadlave Divorum religiofa virum : Quot mifer exciperemque notas, patererque lituras ? Quot fierem teneris fupplicium pueris ? At nunc uda mihi diftant cum Basia carmen, j Pruriet et verfu mentula multa meo : Me leget innuptae juvenis placiturus arnicas, Ft placitura nova blanda puella viro : Ft quemeunque juvat lepidorum de grege vatum Otia feftivis ludere deliciis. Lufibus et laetis procul hinc abfiftite, s^vi Grammatici, injuftas et cohibite manus. Ne puer, ab malleis caefus lacrymanfque leporis j Duram forte meis ossibus optet humum. SECURIDACA, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs diadelphia. See Botany Index. SFCUTORFS, a fpecies of gladiators among the Romans, whofe arms were a helmet, a fhield, and a fword or a leaden bullet. They wrere armed in this man¬ ner, becaufe they had to contend with the retiarii, who were Secutores It. Sedition. S E D [u were dreffed in a fhort tunic, bore a three-pointed lance in their left hand, and a net in their right. T he reti- arius attempted to caft his net over the head of the fe- cutor ; and if he fucceeded, he drew it together and flew him with his trident: but if he miffed his aim, he im¬ mediately betook himfelf to flight till he comd find a fecond opportunity of entangling his adverfary with his net. He was purfued by the fecutor, who endeavoured to difpatch him in his flight. Secutores was alfo a name given to fuch gladiators as took the place of thole killed in the combat, or who engaged the conqueror. This poll was ufually taken by lot. SEDAN is a town in France, in the department of the Ardennes, in E. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat. 49. 46. I his is the capital of a principality of the fame name, filuated on the Maefe, fix miles from Bouillon, and fifteen from Charleviile. Its fituation on the frontiers of the territory of Liege, Namur, and Limburg, formerly rendered it one of the keys of the kingdom. It is extremely well fortified, and defended by a itrong citadel. The cattle is fituated on a rock, furrounded with large towers and ffrong walls •, here you fee a molt beautiful magazine of ancient arms. The governor’s palace is oppofite the caftle. From the ramparts you have a molt agree¬ able profpedt of the Maefe and the neighbouring coun¬ try. Though the town is but final!, yet it is full of tradefmen, as tanners, weavers, dyers, &c. the manu- fadture of fine cloth in this city employing a great number of hands. The principality of Sedan former¬ ly belonged to the duke of Bouillon, who was obliged in the beginning of the laft century to refign it to the crown. SEDAN-CHAIR is a covered vehicle for carrying a fingle perfon, fufpended by twTo poles, and borne by two men, hence denominated chairmen. They were firlt introduced in London in 1634, when Sir Sanders Dun- comb obtained the foie privilege to ufe, let, and hire a number of the faid covered chairs for fourteen years. SEDGMOOR, a large and rich traft of land in Somerfetfhire, memorable for the defeat of the duke of Monmouth, in 1685. It lies between Somerton and Bridgev,later. SEDITION, among civilians, is ufed for a fa&ious commotion of the people, or an affembly of a number of citizens without lawful authority, tending to difturb the peace and order of the fociety. This offence is of different kinds : fome feditions more immediately threat¬ ening the fupreme power, and the fubverfion of the prefent conftitution of the ftate ; others tending only towards the redrefs of private grievances. Among the Romans, therefore, it was varioufly punilhed, according as its end and tendency threatened greater mifehief. See lib. i. Cod. de Seditiojis, and Mat. do Crimin. lib. ii. n. 5. de Lcefa Majejlate. In the punifhment, the authors and ringleaders were juftly diffinguilhed from thofe who, with lefs wicked intention, joined and made part of the multitude. The fame diffinftion holds in the law of England and in that of Scotland. Some kinds of fedition in England amount to high treafon, and come within the Hat. 25 Edw. III. as levying war againft the king. And feveral feditions are mentioned in the Scotch aiffs of parliament as treafonable. Bayne's Crim. Law of Scotland,$>. 33, 34* The law of Scotland makes riot-. 7 ] S E D ous and tumultuous affemblies a fpecies of fedition. But the law there, as well as in England, is now chiefly regulated by the riot ad, made 1 Geo. I. only it is to be ^ obferved, that the proper officers in Scotland, to make the proclamation thereby enaded, are fheriffs, ftewards, and bailies of regalities, or their deputies j magiffrates of royal boroughs, and all other inferior judges and magiffrates j high and petty conffables, or other officers of the peace, in any county, ftewartry, city, or town. And in that part of the illand, the punifhment of the offence is any thing fhort of death which the judges, in their diferetion, may appoint. SEDATIVES, in Medicine, a general name for fuch medicines as weaken the powers of nature, fuch as blood-letting, cooling falts, purgatives, &c. SE-DEFENDENDO, in Laxv, a plea ufed for him that is charged with the death of another, by alleging that he was under a neceffity of doing what he did in. his own defence : as that the other affaulted him in fuch a manner, that if he had not done what he did, he muff have been in hazard of his own life. See Homicide and Murder. SEDIMENT, the fettlement or dregs of any thing, or that grofs heavy part of a fluid body which links to the bottom of the veffel when at reft. SEDLEY, Sir Charles, aa Englifh poet and wit, the ion of Sir John Sedley of Aylesford in Rent, was born about the year 1639. At the refforation he came to London to join the general jubilee •, and commen¬ ced wit, courtier, poet, and gallant. He was fo much admired, that he became a kind of oracle among the poets j which made King Charles tell him, that Na¬ ture had given him a patent to be Apollo’s viceroy. The productions of his pen were fome plays, and feveral delicately tender amorous poems, in which the foftnefs of the verfes was fo exquifite, as to be called by the duke of Buckingham Sedlefs witchcraft. “ There were no marks of genius or true poetry to be deferied, (fay the authors of the Biographia Britannica); the art wholly coniifted in raifing loofe thoughts and lewd defires, without giving any alarm; and fo the poifon worked gently and irrefiftibly. Our author, we. may be fure, did not efcape the infection of his own art, or rather was firft tainted himfelf before he fpread the in- feftion to others.”—A very ingenious writer of the pre¬ fent day, however, fpeaks much more favourably of Sir Charles Sedley’s writings. “ He ftudied human na¬ ture -y and was diiiinguilfied for the art of making him¬ felf agreeable, particularly to the ladies ; for the verfes of Lord Rochefter, beginning with, Sed/ey has that pre¬ vailing gentle art, Sic. fo often quoted, allude not to his writings, but to his perfonal addrefs." ^Longhorn’s Effufons, &c.].—But while he thus grew in reputation for wit and in favour with the king, he grew poor and debauched : his effate was. impaired, and his morals were corrupted. One of his frolics, however, being followed by an indiSlment and a heavy fine, Sir Charles took a more ferious turn, applied himfelf to bufinefs, and be¬ came a member of parliament, in which he was a fre¬ quent fpeaker. We find him in the jhoufe of com¬ mons in the reign of James II. whofe attempts upon the conffitution he vigoroufly withftood ; and he was very adlive in bringing on the revolution. This was thought more extraordinary, as he had received favours from James. But that prince had taken a fancy to Siv Charles’s Sedition II Sedley. S E D [II Sidiey Charles’s daughter (though it Teems (lie was not very „ i],. ^ handfome), and, in coniequence of his intrigues with her, he created Mifs Sedley countefs of Dorchefter. This honour, To far from plealing, greatly fhocked Sir Charles. However libertine he himfelf had been, yet he could not bear the thoughts of his daughter’s dif- honouv ; and with regard to her exaltation, he only confidered it as rendering her more confpicuoully in¬ famous. He therefore conceived a hatred for the king; and from this, as well as other motives, readily joined to difpofl’efs him of the throne. A witty laying of Sedley’s, on this occafion, is recorded. “ I hate in¬ gratitude, (faid Sir Charies) ; and therefore, as the king has made my daughter a countefs, I will endeavour to make his daughter a queen meaning the princefs Mary, married to the prince of Orange, who difpoffelled James of the throne at the revolution. He lived to the beginning of Queen Anne’s reign ; and his works were printed in two vols. 8vo. 1719. SEDI1, or Sf.dre, the high-prieft of the fed of Ali among the Perfians. The fedre is appointed by the emperor of Perfia, who dually confers the dignity on his nearetl relation. The jurifdiftion of the iedre ex¬ tends over all effects deftined for pious purpofes, over all mofques, hofpitals, colleges, fepulchres, and mo- nafteries. He difpofes of all ecclefiaftical employments, and nominates all the fuperiors of religious houles. His decifions in matters of religion are received as fo many infallible oracles: he judges of all criminal matters in his own houfe without appeal. His authority is ba¬ lanced by that of the mudiitehid, or firft theologue of the empire. SEDUCTION, is the aft of templing and drawing afide from the right path, and comprehends every en¬ deavour to corrupt any individual of the human race. This is the import of the word in its largeft and moll general fenfe ; but it is commonly employed to exprefs the add of tempting a virtuous woman to part with her chaftity. The feducer of female innocence praftifes the fame llratagems of fraud to get pofTefiion of a woman’s per- fon, that the /windier employs to get poffeffion of his neighbour’s goods or money ; yet the law of honour, which pretends to abhor deceit, and which impels its vo¬ taries to murder every man who prefumes, however juil- ly, to fufpeft them of fraud, or to quelfion their vera¬ city, applauds the addvefs of a fuccefsful intrigue, though it be well known that the feducer could not have ob¬ tained his end without fwearing to the truth of a thou- Tand falfeheods, and calling upon God to witnefs pro- mifes which he never meant to fulfil. The law of honour is indeed a very capricious x'ule, which accommodates itfelf to the pleafures and conve¬ niences of higher life ; but the law of the land, which is enafted for the equal proteftion of high and low, may be fuppofed to view the guilt, of feduftion with a more impartial eye. Vet for this offence, even the laws of this kingdom have provided no other punilhment than a pecuniary fatisfaftion to the injured family; which, in England, can be obtained only bv one of the quainteft fiftions in the world, by the father’s bringing his aftion againft the feducer for the lofs of his daugh¬ ter’s fervice during her pregnancy and nurturing. See Paley’s Moral Pfiilofophy, Book III. Part iii. Chap. 3. The moralift, however, who eflimates the merit or 4 3 ] S E D demerit of aftions, not by laws of human appointment, Seduction, but by their general conlequences as eftablhhed by the laws of nature, muft confider the feducer as a criminal of the deepelt guilt. In every civilized country, and in many countries where civilization has made but imall progrefs, the virtue of women is collefted as it were in¬ to a lingle point, which they are to guard above all things, as that on whiqh their happineis and reputation wholly depend. At firft fight this may appear a capri¬ cious regulation ; but a moment’s reiieftion will con¬ vince us of the contrary. In the married ftate fo much confidence is neceflarily repofed in the fidelity of wo¬ men to the beds of their hufbands, and evils fo great refult from the violation of that fidelity, that whatever contributes in any degree to its prefervation, muft be agreeable to him who, in ertablilhing the law’s of na¬ ture, intended them to be fubfervient to the real happi- nefs of all his creatures. But nothing contributes fo much to preferve the fidelity of wives to their hufbands, as the impreffing upon the minds of women the higheff veneration for the virtue of chaftity. She who, when unmarried, has been accuftomed to grant favours to dif¬ ferent men, will not find it eafy, if indeed poltible, to refiit afterwards the allurements of variety. It is there¬ fore a wite inftituticn, and agreeable to the will of Blim who made us, to train up vvemen fo as that they may look upon the lofs of their chaftity as the molt ditgrace- ful of all crimes; as that which finks them in the order of fociety, and robs them of all their value. In this light, virtuous women actually look upon the lofs of chaftity. The importance of that virtue has been fo deeply impreffed upon their minds, and is fo clofely afr fociated with the principle of honour, that they cannot think but wfith abhorrence upon the very deed by which it is loft. He therefore who by fraud and faltehood perfuades the unfufpefting girl to deviate in one inllance from the honour of the fex, weakens in a great degree her moral principle; and if he reconcile her to a repe¬ tition of her crime, he deftroys that principle entirely, as the has been taught to confider all other virtues as inferior to that of chaftity. Hence it is that the hearts of proftitutes are generally fteeled againft the miferies of their fellow’-creatures ; that they lend their aid to the feducer in his practices upon other girls'; that they lie and fwear and fteal without compunftion ; and that too many of them hefitale not to commit murder if it can ferve any felfifh purpofe of their own. The lofs of virtue, though the greateft that man or w’oman can fuftain, is not the only injury which the fe¬ ducer brings on the girl whom he deceives. She cannot at once reconcile herfelf to proftitution, or even to the lofs of charafter ; and while a fer.fe of thnme re¬ mains in her mind, the mifery which fhe fuffers muff be exquifite. She knows that fhe has forfeited what in the female charafter is moft valued by both fexes ; and ftie muft; be under the perpetual dread of a difeovery. She cannot even confide in the honour of her feducer, wTo may reveal her fecret in a fit of drunkennefs, and thus rob her of her fame as well as of her virtue ; and while fire is in this ftate of anxious uncertainty, the agony of her mind muft be infupportable. That it is To in faft, the many inftances of child murder by unmar¬ ried women of every.-rank leave us no room to doubt. The affeftion of a mother to her new-born child is one of the moft unequivocal and ftrongeft inftinfts in human nature 1 S E D [ i Seduction, nature (fee Instinct) and nothing fliort of the ex- tremity of diftrefs could prompt any one fo far to op- pofe her nature as to embrue her hands in the blood of her imploring infant. Even this deed of horror feldom prevents a detec¬ tion of the mother’s frailty, which is indeed commonly difcovered, though no child has been the confequence of her intrigue. He who can feduce is bafe enough to betray ; and no woman can part with her honour, and retain any well-grounded hope that her amour fliall be kept fecret. The villain to whom fire furrendered will glory in his viftory, if it was with difficulty obtained and if {he furrendered at difcretion, her own behaviour will reveal her fecret. Her reputation is then irretrie¬ vably loft, and no future circumfpedtion will be of the fmafleft avail to recover it. She will be ihunned by the virtuous part of her own fex, and treated as a mere in- ftrument of pleafure by the other. In fuch circum- ftances ftie cannot expeft to be married with advantage. She may perhaps be able to captivate the heart of a heedlefs youth, and prevail upon him to unite his fate to her’s before the delirium of his paffion (hall give him time for refleftion •, ftie may be addreffed by a man who is a flranger to her ftory, and married while he has no fufpicion of her fecret ; or ftie may be folicited by one of a ftation inferior to her own, who, though acquaint¬ ed with every thing that has befallen her, can barter the delicacy of wedded love for fome pecuniary advantage 5 but from none of thefe marriages can the look for hap- pinefs. The delirium which prompted the firft will foon vanifh, and leave the hufband to the bitternefs of his own reflections, which can hardly fail to produce cruelty to the wife. Of the fecret, to which, in the fecond cafe, the lover was a ftranger, the hufband wall foon make a difcovery, or at leaft find room for har¬ bouring ftrong fufpicions and fufpicions of having been deceived in a point fo delicate have hitherto been uni¬ formly the parents of mifery. In the third cafe, the man married her merely for money, of which having got the poffeffmn, he has no farther inducement to treat her with refpeft. Such are fome of the confequences of feduftion, even when the perfon feduced has the good fortune to get afterwards a hufband ; but this is a for¬ tune which few in her circumftances can reafonably ex¬ pert. By far the greater part of thofe who have been defrauded of their virtue by the arts of the feducer fink deeper and deeper into guilt, till they become at laft common profHtutes. The public is then deprived of their fervice as wives and parents ; and inftead of con¬ tributing to the population of the ftate, and to the fum of domeitic felicity, thefe outcafts of fociety become fe~ ducers in their turn, corrupting the morals of every young man whofe appetites they can inflame, and of every young woman whom they can entice to their own pra&ices. All this complication of evil is produced at firft by arts, which, if employed to deprive a man of his pro¬ perty, would fubjett the offender to the execration of his fellow fubjcfls, and to an ignominious death : but while the forger of a bill is purfuel with relentlefs ri¬ gour by the min'ftevs of juflice, and the fwindler load¬ ed with univerfal reproach, the man who by fraud and forgery has enticed an innocent girl to gratify his de¬ fires at the expence of her virtue, and thus introduced her into a path which muft infallibly lead to her own Seeds. 19 ] SEE ruin, as well as to repeated injuries to the public *at Seduiftfon large, is not defpifed by his own fex, and is too often careffed even by the virtuous part of the other. Yet; the lofs of properly may be eafily repaired j the lofs of honour is irreparable ! It is vain to plead in alleviation of this guilt, that women ftrould be on their guard againft the arts of the feducer. Moft unqueftionably they fhould ; but arts have been ufed which hardly any degree of caution would have been fufficient to coun- teraft. It may as well be faid that the trader fhould be on his guard againft the arts of the forger, and ac¬ cept of no bill without previoully confulting him in whole name it is written. Cafes, indeed, occur in trade, in which this caution would be impoffible; but muft be little acquainted with the workings of the human heart, who does not know that fituations like- wife occur in life, in which it is equally impoflible for a girl of virtue and tendernefs to refill the arts of the man who has completely gained her affections. The mentioning of this circumftance leads us to con- fider another fpecies of fedudtion, which, though not fo highly criminal as the former, is yet far removed from innocence ; we mean the praftice which is too prevalent among young men of fortune of employing every art in their power to gain the hearts of heedlefs girls whom they refolve neither to marry nor to rob of their ho¬ nour. Should a man adhere to the latter part of this relolution, which is more than common fortitude can always promife for itfelf, the injury which he does to the objeCl of his amufement is yet very great, as he raifes hopes of the moft fanguine kind merely to difappoint them, and diverts her affeffions perhaps for ever from filch men as, had they been fixed on one of them, might have rendered her completely happy, Difap- pointments of this kind have fometimes been fatal to the unhappy girl j and even when they have neither de¬ prived her of life, nor difordered her reafon, they have often kept her wholly from marriage, which, whatever it be to a man, is that from which every woman ex¬ pects her chief happinefs. We cannot therefore con¬ clude this article more properly than with warning our female readers not to give up their hearts haftily to men whole ftation in life is much higher than their own 5 , and we beg leave to Stlure every one of them, that the man who folicits the laft favour under the moft folemn promife of a fubfequent marriage, is a bafe feducer, who prefers a momentary gratification of his own to her honour and happinefs through life, and has no intention to fulfil his promife. Or, if he fhould by any means be compelled to fulfil it, fhe may depend upon much ill treatment in return for her premature compliance with his bafe defires. SEDUM, orpine, a genus of plants belonging to the decandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking under the 13th order, Sucailentce. See Botany Index* SEED, in Physiology, a fubftance prepared by na¬ ture for the reproduction and confervation of the fpecies both in animals and plants. See Botany and Physio¬ logy. SEEDLINGS, among gardeners, denote fuch roots of gilliflowers, &c. as come from feed fown. Alfo the young tender ftioots of any plants that are newly fown. SEEDS, PRESERVATION OF, in a ftate fit for vege¬ tation, is a matter of great and general importance, be- caufe. SEE [ 12 Seeds caufe, if it be poffible to accomplifh It, we fliall thus be c, H enabled to rear many ufeful plants m one country which ' ^ ‘ are there unknown, being indigenous only in others at a great diftance from it. A gentleman informs us, that many years ago he ob- ferved fome feeds which had got accidentally among rai- hns, being fuch as are raifed in England with difficulty, after being lent from abroad in the ulual manner. He fowed them in pots within a framing •, and as every one of them grew, he fent orders to his Ions, who were at that time abroad, to pack up all kinds of feeds they could procure, in abforbent paper, and lend fome of them furrounded by railins, and others by brown moiit fugar ; concluding, that the prefervation of the fori|ier feeds had been owing to a peculiarly favourable Hate of the moifture thus afforded them. He likewife concluded that, as many of our common feeds, fuch as clover, charlock, &c. would lie dormant for ages within the earth, well preferved for vegetation whenever they were thrown to its furface, and expofed to the influence of the atmofphere, fo likewife might thefe foreign leeds be equally preferved, at lead for many months, by the kindly covering and genial moifture afforded them by fugar or raifins. This opinion was fully verified, as not one in twenty of them faded to vegetate, while the fame fpecies of feeds fsnt home in common parcels along with them, did not vegetate at all. Having examined them prior to their being committed to the earth, he ob- ferved that there was a prevailing drynefs in the latter, while the former looked healthy and frelh, not being in the frnalleft degree infefted by infedls, as was the cafe with the others, {t has been repeatedly tried to convey feeds clofed up in bottles, but this method has failed of fuccefs, a larger proportion of air, as well as a proper Hate of moifture, perhaps being necellary. It may be requi- fite to obferve, that no difference was made in the package of the feeds, refpe&ing their being kept in hu&s, pods, &c. fo as to give thofe preferved in raifins or fugar any advantage over the others, the whole being * Tranfac- *ent equaby guarded by their natural teguments *. tions of the SEEDY, in the brandy trade, a term ufed by the Society of dealers to denote a fault that is found in feveral parcels Arts, 0f french brandy, which renders them unfaleable. The French fuppo e that thefe brandies obtain the flavour wffiich they exprefs by this name, from weeds that grow among the vines from whence the wine of which this brandy is preffed was made. SEEING, the perceiving of external objeffs by means of the eye. For an account of the organs of fight, and the nature of vifion, fee Anatomy and Optics Index. SEEKS, a religious fefl fettled at Patna, and fo cal¬ led from a word comained in one of the commandments of their founder, which fignifies learn thou. In books giving an account of oriental lefts and oriental cuftoms, we find mention made both of Seeks and Seiks ; and we are ftrongly inclined to think that the fame tribe is meant to be denominated by both words. If fo, differ¬ ent authors write very differently of their principles and manners. We have already related fomething of the cha¬ racter of the Seiks under the article Hindoos j but in the Afiatic Refearches, Mr Wilkins gives a much more amiable account of the Seeks, which we lay before our readers with pleafure. The Seeks are a fe£t diftinguiftied both from the 3 voL xvi. o ] SEE Muffulmans and the worfliippers of Brahma ; and, from our author’s account of them, muff be an amiable peo- ”” pie. He afked leave to enter into their chapel: They laid it was a place of worfhip, open to all men, but in¬ timated that he mult take off his (hoes. On complying with this ceremony, he was politely conduced into the hall, and ieated upon a carpet in the midtt of the affem- bly. The whole building forms a fquare of about 40 feet. The hall is in the centre, divided hum four other apartments by wooden arches, upon pillars of the fame materials. The walls above the arches were hung with European looking-glaffes in gilt frames, and with pic¬ tures. On the left hand, as one enters, is the chancel, which is fumiflied with an altar covered with cloth of gold, raifed a little above the ground in a declining po- fition. About it were feveral flower-pots and rofe-water bottles, and three urns to receive the donations of the charitable. On a low defic, near the altar, flood a great book, of folio fize, from which fome portions are daily read in the divine fervice. When notice was given that it was noon, the congregation arranged them- felves upon the carpet on each fide of the hall. The great book and defk were brought from the altar, and placed at the oppofite extremity. An old fdver-haired man kneeled down before the defk, with his face to¬ wards the altar, and by him fat a man writh a drum, and two or three with cymbals. The book was now opened, and the old man began to chant to the time of the infhuments, and at the conck fion of every verfe moft of the congregation joined chorus in a refponfe, wfith countenances exhibiting great marks of joy. Their tones were not harfh j the time was quick •, and Mr Wil¬ kins learned that the fubjeff was a hymn in pra'fe of the unity, omniprefence, and omnipotence of the Deity. The hymn concluded, the whole company got up and prefented their faces, with joined hands, towards the al¬ tar in the attitude of prayer. The prayer was a fort of litany pronounced by a young man in a loud and di- flinft voice 3 the people joining, at certain periods, in a general refponfe. This prayer was followed by a fliort blefiing from the old man, and an invitation to the affembly to partake of a friendly feaft. A fliare was offered to Mr Wilkins, who was too polite to refufe it. It was a kind of fweetmeat compofed of fugar and flower mixed up with clarified butter. They were next ferved with a few fugar plums 3 and thus ended the feaft and ceremony. In the courfe of converfation Mr Wilkins learned that the founder of this fe£! was Naneek Salt, who lived about 400 years ago j who left behind him a book, compofed by himfelf in verfe, containing the doftrines he had eftabliffied 3 that this book teaches, that there is but one God, filling all fpace, and pervading all mat¬ ter 3 and that there will be a day of retribution, when virtue will be rewarded, and vice punifhed. (Our au¬ thor forgot to afk in wffiat manner). It forbids murder, theft, and fuch other deeds as are by the majority of mankind efteemed crimes, and inculcates the prattice of all the virtues; but, particularly, a univerfal philan¬ thropy and hofpitality to ftrangers and travellers. It not only commands univerfal toleration, but forbids difputes with thofe of another perfuafion. If any one fhow a fincere inclination to be admitted among them, any five or more Seeks being affembled in any place, even on the highway, they fend to the firft (hop where fwTeet- meats Seek?. S E G [I Seeks, meals are fold, and procure a very fitnall quantity of a Segahen, particular kind called bataja (Mr Wilkins does not tell us of what it is compol’ed), which having diluted in pure water, they fprinkle fome of it on the body and eyes of the profelyte, whilft one of the bed inftrufted repeats to him the chief canons of their faith, and ex- a£ts from him a folemn promife to abide by them the reit of his life. They offered to admit Mr Wilkins into their fociety ; but he declined the honour, contenting himfelf with their alphabet, -which they told him to guard as the apple of his eye, as it was a facred charac¬ ter. Mr Wilkins finds it but little different from the Dewanagari. The language itfelf is a mixture of Per- fian, Arabic, and Shanfcrit, grafted upon the provincial dialedl of Punjab, which is a kind of Hindowee, or, as we commonly call it, Moors. SEGAL1EN, a large illand feparated from the coaft of Chinefe Tartary by a narrow channel. It is called Tchoka by the natives, and Oku-Jeffu by the Chinefe. It is fituated between 46° and 540 N. Lat j but its breadth from call to weft is unknown. The frigates un¬ der the command of Peroufe came to anchor in different bays, to the finefl of which, in 48° 59' N. Lat. and 140° 32' E. Long, from Paris, the French commodore gave the name of Baie d’Eftaing. Segalien is well wooded, and mountainous towards the centre, but flat and level along the coaft, the foil of which is peculiarly favourable to agriculture j and vege¬ tation is extremely vigorous. The whole furface is al- moft covered with forefts of pine, birch, oak, and wil¬ low trees j and the feas, rivers, and brooks, abound with excellent falmon and trout. In general, the weather is mild and foggy ; and the inhabitants are healthy and ftrong, and many of them live to an extreme old age. The prefents received by the natives from the French, rvere only valued in proportion to their utility. They make ufe of looms, which are complete inftruments, though fmall. The inhabitants in general do not exceed five feet in height, although fome of the tailed: meafure about five feet four inches. Their countenances are ani¬ mated and agreeable j their cheeks are large, their nofe rounded at the extremity $ they have ftrong voices, and rather thick lips, which are of a dull red. The women are not fo tall as the men, but of a more rbunded and delica*e form, with dreffes nearly fimilar j their upper lip is tattoed all over of a blue colour; the hair of their head is black, fmooth, and of a moderate ftrength, worn about fix inches long behind, and they cut it into a brufh on the top of their head and over the temples. They wear furtouts of fkin or quilted nankeen, which reaches to the calf of the leg, and fometimes lower, by which the ufe of drawers is in a great mea¬ fure rendered unneceflary. They all wear girdles, like the lower orders among the Chinefe, from which a knife is fufpended as a defence againft the bears, and a number of fmall pockets for holding their flint and fted, pipe and box of tobacco, for they are very great fmok- ers. Their huts are fmall in proportion to the number of inhabitants they contain, but fufficient to defend them againft the rain and other inclemencies of the atmo- fphere. The roof confifts of two inclined planes, from 10 to 12 feet high at their union, and three or four on the fidesj the breadth of the roof is 15, and its length 18 feet. They ufe iron pots in cooking, alfo (hells, Vol, XIX. Part I. 21 ] S E G veffels made of wood and birch bark, of different forms and workmanftiip. They have two meals a-day, the one at noon, and the other in the evening. Each fa- - mily has its own hunting and fiftiing implements, and their arms are bows, javelins, and a kind of fpontoon, which laft is employed in hunting the bear. The only domeftic animals are dogs, of a middling fize, with lhaggy hair, pricked ears, and a long (harp muzzle, with a loud but not favage cry. The people of Segalien are of a mild and unfufpicious difpofition, and appear to hold a commercial intercourfe. with the Chinefe through the medium of the Mantchou Tartars, with the Ruffians to the north of their ifland, and the Japanefe to the fouth ; but the articles of trade confift only of a few furs and whale oil. SEGEBERG, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Holftein, and in Wagria ; w ith a caftle (landing on a high mountain, confiding of limeftone, large quantities of which are carried to Hamburg and Lubeck. It be¬ longs to Denmark, and is feated on the river Treve, in E. Long. 10. 9. N. Lat. 54. o. SEGEDIN, a ftrong town of Lower Hungary, in the county of Czongfad, with a caftle. 7'he Imperia- lifts took it from the Turks in 1686. It is feated at the confluence of the rivers Teffe and Mafroch, in E. Long. 20. 35. N. Lat. 46. 28. SEGMENT of a Circle, in Geometry, is that part of the circle contained between a chord and an arch of the fame circle. SEGMENTS, Like of, two particular lines on Gunter’s fe£tor. They lie between the lines of fines and fuperficies, and are numbered, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. They reprefent the diameter of a circle, fo divided into 100 parts, that a right line drawn through thefe parts, and perpendicular to the diameter, (hall cut the circle into two fegments, the greater of which (hall have the fame proportion to the whole circle, as the parts cut off have to 100. SEGNA, a city of Croatia, belonging to the houfe of Auftria, and feated on the coaft of the gulf of Ve¬ nice. It was formerly a place of ftrength and great importance; but it has fuffered many calamities, and its inhabitants at prefent do not amount to jooo. In the beginning of this century it fent 50 merchant (hips to fea •, but the inconveniency of its fituation and badnefs of its harbour, in which the fea is never calm, difeou- raged navigation, and Segna has now very few (hips be- longing to it. Among the cuftoms of the Segnans, Mr Fortis mentions ©ne relative to the dead, which for its fingularity may be worthy of notice. “ All the relations and friends of the family go to FortiYs kifs the corpfe, by -way of taking leave, before burial. Travels Each of them uncovers the face, over which a hand-t0 Dalma‘ kerchief is fpread, more or lefs rich according to the1 family j having killed the dead perfon, every one throws another handkerchief over the face ; all which remain to the heirs, and fometimes there are 20, 30, and more at this ceremony. Some throw all thefe handkerchief into the grave with the corpfe •, and this, in former times, was the general cuftom ; but then they were rich. This feems to have been brought into ufe as a fubftitute for the ancient ^4/? lachrymatoriiy E. Long. 15. 21, N. Lat. 49. 22. SEGNI, an ancient town of Italy, in the Campagna S. O- tis. Swin¬ burne's Travels through Spain. S E G [12 of Rome, with a biiliop’s fee, and the title of duchy. , It is faid that organs were firft invented here. It is feated on a mountain. E. Long. 13. 15. N. Lat. 41. 50. SEGO, the metropolis of the kingdom of Bambarra in Africa, on the banks of the Niger, in N. Lat. 14. 4. and W. Long. 2. 1. It confifts of four diftin6t towns, two on the northern bank of the river, called Sego Korro, and Sego Boo} and two on the fouthern bank, called Sego Soo Korro, and Sego See Korro, all fur- rounded with lofty mud walls, and the houles are con- ftrudded of clay, leveral of them two dories high, and even wdiite-waihed. Mofques are to be feen in every quarter, and the llreets, though narrow, are fufficiently broad for every ufeful purpofe, where wheel-carriages are wholly unknown. According to Mr Park, the in¬ habitants of Sego amount to 30,000 ; and it is the con- fiant relidence of the king of Bambarra, a confiderable part of whofe revenue arifes from the fare given by paf- lengers for croiTmg the river. The people, however, are not fo holpitable as in many other African towns, as the Moors are here very numerous, whofe bigotry ren¬ ders them the implacable enemies of every white man, if fufpefted of being a Chriftian. Mr Park being therefore prohibited from living in Sego, redded for three days in an adjacent village, and was difmiffed on the fourth, after receiving 5000 kowries from the king, to enable him to buy provifions in the courfe of his journey ; and although it amounted only to 20s. derling, fo very cheap were the necelfartes of life in Bambarra, that he found it fufficient to procure provi- fions for himfelf, and corn for his horfe, for not fewer than 50 days. SEGORBE, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Valencia, with the title of a duchy, and a bifhop’s fee. It is feated on the fide of a hill, between the mountains, in a foil very fertile in corn and wine, and where there are quarries of fine marble. It was taken from the Moors in 1245 ; and the Romans thought it worth their while to carry fome of the matble to Rome. W. Long. O. 3. N. Lat. 39. 48. SEGOVIA, an ancient city of Spain, of great powTer in the time of the Csefars, is built upon two hills near the banks of the Arayda in Old Caftile. W. Long. 3. 48. N. Lat. 41. o. It is Rill a bilhop’s fee, and is di- ftinguiilied for fome venerable remains of antiquity. In the year 1525 the city contained 5000 families, but now- they do not furpafs 2000, a fcanty population for 25 pariflies; yet, befide 21 churches and a cathedral, there are 21 convents. The firR objeft in Segovia that attrafls the eye is the aquedutt, which the lingular fituation of the city renders neceffary. As it is built upon two hills, and the valley by which they are feparated, and extends confidcrably in every diredlion, it was difficult for a part of the citizens to be fupplied with water. The difficulty was removed, according to the opinion of the learned, in the reign of Trajan, by this aqueduft, which is one of the moR aRonifliing and the bed preferved of the Roman works. In the opinion of Mr Swinburne, who furveyed it in 1776, and who feems to have given a very accurate account of the curiofities of Segovia, it is fuperior in elegance of proportion to the Pont du Card at Nifmes. It is fo perfedlly well preferved, that it does not feem leaky in any part. From the firR low arches to the refervoir in the town, its length is 2400 2 ] S E G SpaniRi feet; its greatefl height (in the Plaza del Azo- Segovia. btjo at the foot of the rvalls) is 104 ; it is there compo-' —’’ led of a double row of arches, built of large fquare Rones without mortar, and over them a hollow wall of coarfer materials for the channel of the water, covered with large oblong flags. Of the lower range of arcades, which are 15 feet wide by 65 high, there are 42. The upper arches are 119 in number, their height 27 Spanilh feet, their breadth feventeen, the tranfverfal thicknefs, or depth of the piers, eight feet. The cathedral is a mixture of the Gothic and Moor-Travels in iffi architecture. The infide is very fpacious and of ma- sP“inby jeflic flmplicity. The windows are well difpofed, and the great altar has been lately decorated with the fineft^^'* Grenadan marble. But it is to be regretted, that iri this cathedral, as well as in moR others of Spain, the choir is placed in the middle of the nave. The church is nearly upon the model of the great church of Sala¬ manca, but it is not fo highly fmiihed. The alcazar, or ancient palace of the Moors, Rands in one of the finefl pofitibns poflible, on a rock rifing above the open country. A fine river wadies the foot of the precipice, and the city lies admirably well on each fide on the brow of the hill; the declivity is woody,, and the banks charmingly rural; the fnovvy mountains and dark forefis of Saint Ildefonzo compofe an awful back-ground to the picture. Towards the town there is a large court before the great outward tower, which, as the prifon of Gil Bias, is fo well deferibed by Le Sage, that the fabjedt requires no farther explanation. The refl of the buildings form an antique palace, which has feldom been inhabited by any but prifoners fince the reign of Ferdinand and Ifabella, who were much at¬ tached to this fituation. There are fome magnificent halls in it, with much gilding in the ceilings, in a femi- barbarous tafle. All the kings of Spain are feated in Rate along the cornice of the great faloon ; but it is doubtful whether they are like the princes whofe names they bear ; if that refemblance, however, be wanting, they have no other merit to claim. The royal apart¬ ments are now occupied by a college of young gentle¬ men cadets, educated at the king’s expence in all the faiences requifite for forming an engineer. The grand- mafler of the ordnance refides at Segovia, winch is the head eflabliffiment of the Spaniffi artillery. The mint is below the alcazar, a large building, the mofl ancient place of coinage in the kingdom. The machines for melting, Ramping, and milling the coin, are worked by water: but there is reafon to believe that Seville has at prefent more bufinefs, as being nearer the fource of riches, the port of Cadiz, where the ingots of America are landed. The unevennefs of the crown of the hill gives a wild look to this city. MoR of the flreets are crooked and dirty, the houfes wooden and very wretched ; nor do the inhabitants appear much the richer for their cloth manufactory. Indeed, it is not in a very flourifliing condition, but what cloth they make is very fine. The country about Segovia has the reputation of be- ing the befl for rearing the kind of flieep that produces the beautiful Spanilh wool *, but as thofe Rocks wander over many other parts of the kingdom, Segovia feems to have no exclulive title to this reputation. Segovia (fays Mr Townfend, whofe valuable travels will be read with much pleafure) was once famous for its cloth made on the S E J [ 1 Segovia the king’s account; but other nations have fince become . SI rivals in this branch, and the manufacture in this city , Stjanus. jias gradually declining. When the king gave it Townfcnd,s'a'? to a Private company, he left about 3000I. in trade j Journey but now he is no longer a partner in the bufinefs. In through the year 1612 were made here 25,500 pieces of cloth, sI’uin‘ which confumed 44,625 quintals of wool, employed 34,189 perfons j but at prelent they make only about 4000 pieces. The principal imperfeCtions of this cloth are, that the thread is not even, and that much greafe remains in it when it is delivered to the dyer j in confe- quence of which the colour is apt to fail. Yet, inde¬ pendently of imperfeCtions, fo many are the difadvanta- ges under which the manufafture labours, that foreign¬ ers can afford to pay 3I. for the aroba of fine wool, for which the Spaniard gives no more than 20s. and after all his charges can command the market even in the ports of Spain. Segovia, New, a town of North America, in New Spain, and in the audience of Guatimala 5 feated on the river Yare, on the confines of the province of Honduras. W. Long. 84. 30. N. Lat. 13. 25. Segovia, a town of America, in Terra Firma, and in the province of Venezuela, feated on a river, near a very high mountain, where there are mines of gold. W. Long. 65. 30. N. Lat. 8. 20. Segovia, a town of Alia, in the ifland of Manila, and one of the largeft of the Philippines, feated at the north end of the iiland, 240 miles north of Manila, and fubjeCt to Spain. E. Long. 120. 59. N. Lat. 18. 36* SEGREAN F, is the herald’s word for a griffin when drawn in a leaping pofture, and difplaying his wings as if ready to fly. SEGUE, in the Italian mufic, is often found before aria, alleluja, amen, &c. to fliow that thofe portions or parts are to be fung immediately after the laft note of that part over which it is writ ; but if thefe wrords Ji placet, or ad libitum, are joined therewith, it fignifres, that thefe portions may be fung or not at pleafnre. SEGUIERIA, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs polyandria. See Botany Index. SEJANT, a term ufed in heraldry, when a lion, or other beaft, is drawn in an efcutcheon fitting like a cat with his fore-feet Rraight. SEJANUS, ALlius, a native of Vulfinum in Tuf- cany, who ditfinguilhed himfelf in the court of Tiberi¬ us. His father’s name was Seius Strabo •, a Roman knight, commander of the pretorian guards. His mo¬ ther wras defeended from the Junian family. Sejanus Srft gained the favour of Caius Ceefar, the grandfon of. Auguflus, but afterwards he attached himfelf to the in- tereft and the views of Tiberius, who then fat on the imperial throne. The emperor, vffio was naturally of a fufpieious temper, was free and open with Sejanus, and while he diftrufted others, he communicated his •Lempri- greateft fecrets to this fawming favourite. Sejanus im- tre's Lie- proved this confidence 5 and when he had found that he iionary. poffeffed the efieem of Tiberius, he next endeavoured to become the favourite of the foldiers, and the darling of the fenate. As commander of the pretorian guards he was the fecond man in Rome, and in that important office he made ufe of infinuations and every mean arti¬ fice to make himfelf beloved and revered. His affability and condcnfcenfion gained him the hearts of the common 2.5 ] S E J foldiers, and, by appointing his owm favourites and ad- S-jinu?. herents to places of trull and honour, all the officers and/'”—"v'""”' centurions of the army became devoted to his intereft. The views of Sejanus in this -were well known ; yet, to advance with more fuccefs, he attempted to gain the af¬ fection of the fenators. In this he met with no oppo- fition. A man who has the difpofal of places of ho¬ nour and dignity, and wffio has the command of the pub¬ lic money, cannot but be the favourite of thofe who are in need of his affiitance. It is even faid, that Sejanus gained to his views all the wives of the fenators, by a private and molt facred promife of marriage to each of them, whenever he had made himfelf independent and fovereign of Rome. Yet, however fuccefsful wdth the belt and nobletl families in the empire, Sejanus had to combat numbers in the houfe of the emperor; but thefe Teeming oblfacles wYere loon removed. All the children and grandchildren of Tiberius were facrificed to the ambition of the favourite under various pretences 5 and Drufus the fon of the emperor, by ftriking Sejanus, made his dellruflion fure and inevitable. Livia, the wife of Drufus, w'as gained by Sejanus; and, though the mother of many children, fire wras prevailed upon to affill her adulterer in the murder of her hulband, and file confented to marry him wffien Drufus was dead. No fooner was Drufus poifoned, than Sejanus openly decla¬ red his wiih to marry Livia. This was ftrongly oppo- fed by Tiberius; and the emperor, by recommending Germanicus to the fenators for his fucceffor, rendered Sejanus bold and determined. He was more urgent in his demands; and, when he could not gain the confent of the emperor, he perfuaded him to retire to folitude from the noife of Rome and the troubles of the govern¬ ment. Tiberius, naturally fond of eafe and luxury, yield¬ ed to his reprefentatioiw, and retired to Campania, leav¬ ing Sejanus at the head of the empire. This was highly gratifying to the favourite, but he was not without a ma¬ iler. Prudence and moderation might have made him what he wiffied to bej but having offended the emperor beyond forgivenefs, he refolved to retrieve his lofs, and by one vigorous effort to decide the fate of the empire. He called together his friends and followers; he paid court to fuch as feemed diffaffedted; he held forth re¬ wards and promifes; and, having increafed the number of his partifans, formed a bold conspiracy, refolved by any means to feize the fovereign power. A powerful league was formed with affoniihing rapi¬ dity, and great numbers of all deferiptions, fenators as well as military men, entered into the plot. Among Murphy'* thefe, Satrius Secundus was the confidential friend and prime agent of the minifter. Whatever was this man’s J° ^ motive, whether fear, or views of intereft, or ingratitude (for no principle of honour can be imputed to him), he refolved to betray the fecret to Tiberius. For this pur- pofe he addreffed himfelf to Antonia, the daughter of Anthony the triumvir, the widow of Drufus, and the mother of Germanicus. When this illuftrious woman, who was honoured by the court and revered by the people, heard the particulars, lire fent difpatches to the emperor by one of her flaves. Tiberius was aftonifhed, but not difmayed. The danger preffed ; his habitual ffownefs was out of feafon ; the time called for vigour and decifive meafures. He fent Macro to Rome, with a fpecial commiffion to take upon him the command of the prastorian guards. He added full inftru&ions for Q, 2 his s E J [ 124 ] S E I his conduct in ail emergencies. Early in the morning on the 15th, before the kalends of November, a report >vas fpread, that letters had arrived at Hume, in which the emperor fignffied his intentions to affociate Sejanus with hjmfelf in the tribunitian power. The fenate was fammoned to meet in the temple of Apollo, near the imperial palace. Sejanus attended without delay. A party of the praetorians followed him. Macro met him in the veftibule of the temple. He approached the minifter with all demonftrations of profound re- fpeft, and taking him afide, “ Be not furprifed (he faid) that you have no letter from the prince : it is his plea- lure to declare you his colleague in the tribunitian power; but he thinks that a matter of fo much impor¬ tance thovH be communicated to the fathers by the voice ot the confuls. I am going to deliver the emperor’s orders.” Sejanus, elated with joy, and fluflied with his new dignity, entered the fenate-houfe 5 Macro followed him. As foon as the confuls arrived, he delivered the letter from Tiberius, and immediately went forth to the prretorian guards. He informed them, that by or¬ der of the prince, a large donative was to be diftributed among the foldiers. He added, that, by a new com- miflion, he himfelf was appointed their commanding officer; and, if they followed him to the camp, they would there receive the promifed bounty. The lure was not thrown out in vain : the praetorian guards quitted their ifation. Laco, who flood near at hand, immedi¬ ately furrounded the fenate-houfe with a body of the city cohorts. The letter to the confuls was confufed, obfeure, and tedious, only glancing at Sejanus, till at laft the lan¬ guage of inveftive left no room for doubt. Sejanus kept his feat like a man benumbed, fenfelefs and ftupid with afloniffiment. His friends, who a little before congratulated him on his new dignity, deferted him on every fide. He was commanded by the conful to rife and follow him, and being loaded with irons, was con¬ duced to prifon. His downfal filled the city with ex¬ ultation. The populace, who worffiipped him in the hour of profperity, rejoiced to fee the fad cataftrophe to which he was now reduced. They followed in crowds, rending the air with {bouts, and pouring forth a torrent of abufe and fcurrilous language. The prifoner endea¬ voured to hide his face ; but the mob delighted to fee remorfe and ihame and guilt and horror in every fea¬ ture of his diflra&ed countenance. They reviled him for his a£ts of cruelty; they laughed at his wild ambi¬ tion ; they tore down his images, and dallied his flatues to pieces. He was doomed by Tiberius to fuffer death on that very day ; but, as he had a powerful faftion in the fenate, it wa$ not thought advifeable, for the mere tormality of a regular condemnation, to hazard a de¬ viate. Private orders were given to Macro to difpatch him without delay ; but the conful, feeing the difpofi- tions of the people, and the calm neutrality of the prse- torian guards, judged it beft to re-affemble the fathers. They met in the temple of Concord. With one voice S^anus was condemned to die, and the fentence was executed without delay. He was ftrangled in the pri- fjn. His body was dragged to the Gemonite, and, af¬ ter every fpecies of infult from the populace, at the end o? three days was thrown into the Tiber. Such was the tragic end of that ambitious favourite. He fell a terrible example to all, who, in any age or country, may hereafter endeavour by their vices to rife above their fel- Seignior low-citizens. j| SEIGNIOR, is, in its general fignification, the fame , with lord, but is particularly ufed for the lord of the fee as of a manor, as feigneur among the feudifts is he who grants a fee or benefit out of the land to another ; and the reafon is, becaufe having granted away the ufe and profit of the land, the property or dominion he flill re¬ tains in himfelf. SEIGNIORAGE, is a royalty or prerogative of the king, whereby he claims an allowance of gold and filver brought in the mafs to be exchanged for coin. As feig- niorage, put of every pound weight of gold, the king had ror his coin 5s. of which he paid to the mafter of the mint fometimes is. and fometimes is. 6d. Upon every pound weight of filver, the feigntorage anfwered to the king in the time of Edwrard III. was 18 penny¬ weights, which then amounted to about is. out of which he fometimes paid 8d. at others pd. to the mafter. In the reign of King Henry V. the king’s feigniorage of every pound of ftlver was I5d. &c. SEIGNIORY, is borrow'ed from the French feig* neune, i. e. dominatus, itnperium, principatus ; andfigni- fies with us a manor or lordlhip, feignionj de fokemans. Seigniory in grofs, feems to be the title of him who is not lord by means of any manor, but immediately in his own perfon; as tenure in capite, whereby one holds of the king, as of his crown, is feigniory in profs. SEIKS. See Hindostan. SEISIN, in Law, fignifies poffeffion. In this fenfe we fay, premierfei/in, for the firft poffefixon, &c. Seifin is divided into that in deed or in faEl, and that in law. A feifin in deed is where a poffeflion is aflually taken : but a feifin in law is, where lands defeend, and the party has not entered thereon ; or, in other words, it is where a perfon has a right to lands, &c. and is by wrong difleifed of them, A feifin in law is held to be fufficient to avow on ; though to the bringing of an af- fize, aftual feifin is required ; and where feifin is alleged, the perfon pleading it muft ftiow of what eftate he is feifed, &c. Seifin of a fuperior fervice is deemed to be a feifin of all fuperior and cafual fervices that are incident thereto; and feifin of a leffee for years, is fufficient for him in reverfion. Livery of SEISIN, in Law, an eflential ceremony in the conveyance of landed property; being no other than the pure feodal inveftiture, or delivery of corpo¬ ral poffeflion of the land or tenement. This was held abfolutely neceffary to complete the donation ; Nam feud am fine invefiitura nullo nwdo confiitui potuit: and an eftate was then only perfeft when, as Fleta expreffes it in our law', fit juris et feifince conjunclio. See Feof- MENT. Inveflituves, in their original rife, were probably in¬ tended to demonftrate in conquered countries the adlual poffeflion of the lord; and that he did not grant a bare litigious right, which the foldier was ill qualified to pro- fecute, but a peaceable and firm poffeflion. And, at a time when writing was feldom prattifed, a mere oral gift, at a diftance from the fpot that was given, was not like¬ ly to be either long or accurately retained in the memo¬ ry of byftanders, who were very little interefted in the grant. Afterwards they were retained as a public and notorious aO, that the country might take notice of and teftiCy SET [ 125 3 S E I ■fin. teftify the transfer of the eftate *, and that fuch as claimed title by other means might know againft whom to bring their actions. _ . In all well governed nations, fome notonety of this kind has been ever held requifite, in order to acquire and afcertain the property of lands. In the Roman law,plenum dominium was not faid to iubfift unleis where a man had both the right and the corporal pqjfeffion ; which pofTefTion could not be acquired without both an aftual intention to poffels, and an aftual leihn or entry into the premiffes, or part of them in the name or the whole. And even in ecclefiaftical promotions, where the freehold paffes to the perfon promoted, corporal poffeflion is required at this day to veil the property completely in the new proprietor j who, according to the diftinftion of the canonilts, acquires thejw ad rem, or inchoate and imperfedt right, by nomination and in- llitution ; but not the jus in re, or complete and full right, unlefs by corporal poffeffion. i herefore in dig¬ nities poffeffion is given by inltalment \ in re£lories and vicarages by indudlion j without which no temporal rights accrue to the minifter, though every ecclefiatlical power is veiled in him by inftitution. So alio even in defcents of lands, by our law, which are call on the heir by a£t of the law itfelf, the heir has not pieman domim- tan, or full and complete ownerlhip, till he has made an a&ual corporal entry into the lands : for if he dies before entry made, his heir lhall not be entitled to take the pof- ielbon, but the heir of the perfon who was lalt adlually feifed. It is not therefore only a mere right to enter, but the aftual entry, that makes a man complete owner; fo as to tranfmit the inheritance to his own heirs: non jus, fed feijina, facit jlipitem. Yet the corporal tradition of lands being fometimes inconvenient, a fymbolical delivery of pofl'ellion was in many cafes anciently allowed •, by transferring fome- thing near at hand, in the prefence of credible wit- neflfes, which by agreement Ihould ferve to reprefent the very thing deligned to be conveyed j and an occu¬ pancy of this fign or lymbol was permitted as equiva¬ lent to occupancy of the land itfelf. Among the Jewrs we find the evidence of a purchafe thus defined in the book of Ruth : “ Now this was the manner in former time in Ifrael, concerning redeeming and concerning changing, for to confirm all things : a man plucked off his Ihoe, and gave it to his neighbour ; and this was a tellimony in Ifrael.” Among the ancient Goths and Swedes, contra&s for the fale of lands were made in the prefence of witneffes, who extended the cloak of the buyer, while the feller call a clod of the land into it, in order to give pofieffion; and a ftaft' or wand was alfo delivered from the vender to the vendee, which palled through the hands of the witneiTes. With our Saxon anceftors the delivery of a turf was a neceiTary. folemnity to eftablith the conveyance of lands. And, to this day, the conveyance of our copyhold eflates is ufually made from the feller to the lord or his Reward- by delivery of a rod or verge, and then from the lord to the purchafer by re-delivery of the fame in the prefence of a jury of tenants. Conveyances in writing were the lad and mofl re¬ fined improvement. The mere delivery of poffeffion, either aftual or fymbolical, depending on the ocular teftimony and remembrance of the witneffes, was liable to. be forgotten or mifreprefented, and became frequent¬ ly incapable of proof. Befides, the new occafions and' Seiftn-. neceffities introduced by the advancement of commerce, required means to be devifed of charging and incumber¬ ing ellates, and of making them liable to a multitude of conditions and minute deiignations, for the purpofes of raifing money, without an abfolute fale of the land 5 and lometimes the like proceedings wrere found ufeful in order to make a decent and competent provifion for the numerous branches of a family, and for other dc- mefxic views. None of which could be effe&ed by a mere, fimple, corporal transfer of the foil from one man to another, which was principally calculated for convey¬ ing an abfolute unlimited dominion. Written deeds were therefore introduced, in order to fpecify and per¬ petuate the peculiar purpofes of the party who convey¬ ed : yet (till, for a very long feries of years, they were never made ufe of, but in company with the more an¬ cient and notorious method of transfer by delivery of corporal poffeffion. Livery of feifin, by the common law, is neceffary to be made upon every grant of an eftate of freehold in he¬ reditaments corporeal, whether of inheritance or for life only. In hereditaments incorporeal it is impoffxble to be made •, for they are not the objedt of the fenfes : and in leafes for years, or other chattel interefts, it is not necef¬ fary. In leafes for years indeed an adtual entry is necef¬ fary, to veil the eftate in the leffee : for a bare leafe gives- him only a right to enter, which is called his intereft in the term, or intereffe termini: and when he enters in pur- fuance of that right, he is then, and not before, in poffef¬ fion of his term, and complete tenant for years. This entry by the tenant himfelf ferves the purpofe of notorie¬ ty, as well as livery of feifin from the granter could have done ; which, it wrould have been improper to have gi¬ ven in this cafe, becaufe that folemnity is appropriated to the conveyance of a freehold. And this is one reafon why freeholds cannot be made to commence in f/turo, becaufe they cannot (at the common law) be made but by livery of feifin ; which livery, being an adlual ma¬ nual tradition of the land, muft take effedl in preefenti, or not at all. Livery of feifin is either in deed or in law. Livery in deed is thus performed. The feoffor, leffor, or his attorney, together with the feoffee,.leflee, or his attorney, (for this may as effedlually be done by de¬ puty or attorney as by the principals themfelves in per¬ fon), come to the land or to the houfe; and there, in the prefence of wutneffes, declare the contents of the feoftment or leafe on which livery is to be made. And then the feoffor,, if it be of land, doth deliver to thai feoffee, all other perfons being out of the ground, a clod or turf, or a twig or bough there growing, with words to this effedt : “ I deliver thefe to you in the name of feifin of all the lands and tenements contained in this, deed.” But, if it be of a houfe, the feoffor muft take the ring or latch of the door, the houfe being quite empty, and deliver it to the feoffee in the fame form and then the feoffee muft enter alone, and flint the door, „ and then open it, and let in the others^ If the convey¬ ance or feoffment be of divers lands, lying .fcattered in. one and the fame county, then in the feoffor’s poffeffion,: livery of feifin of any parcel, in the name of the reft, fufficeth for all; but if they be in feverai counties, there muft be as many liveries as there are counties. For, if the title to thefe lands comes, to be difpuled, there.: malt s E L r 126 '1 S E L muft be as many trials as there are counties, and the jury of one county are no judges of the notoriety of a facf in another. Befides, anciently, this feifm was ob¬ liged to be delivered coram paribus dc vicincto, before the peers or freeholders of the neighbourhood, who attefted fuch delivery in the body or on Hhe back of the deed ; according to the rule of the feodal law, Pares debent mtereffe inveJHturce feudi, et non alii: for which this reafon is exprefsly given ; becaufe the peers or vaffals of the lord, being bound by their oath of fealty, will take care that no fraud be committed to his prejudice, which flrangers might be apt to con¬ nive at. And though afterwards the ocular atteifa- tion of the pares was held unneceffary, and livery might be made before any credible witneffes, yet the trial, in cafe it was difputed, (like that of all other at- teftations), was ftill referved to the pares or jury of the county. Alfo, if the lands be out on leafe, though all lie in the fame county, there muft be as many li¬ veries as there are tenants : becaufe no livery can be made in this cafe, but by the confent of the particular tenant ; and the confent of one will not bind the reft. And in all thefe cafes it is prudent, and ufual, to en- dorfe the livery of feifin on the back of the deed, fpeci- fying the manner, place, and time of making it j together with the names of the witneffes. And thus much for livery in deed. Livery in law is where the fame is not made on the land, but in Jight of it only •, the feoffor faying to the feoffee, “ I give you yonder land, enter and take pof- reflion.” Here, if the feoffee enters during the life of the feoffor, it is a good livery, but not otherwife ; unlefs he dares not enter through fear of his life or bodily harm ; and then his continual claim, made yearly in due form of law, as near as poffible to the lands, will fuffice without an entry. This livery in law cannot, however, be given or received by attorney, but only by the parties themfelves. SEIZE, in the fea-language, is to make faft or bind, particularly to faften two ropes together with rope-yarn. The feizing of a boat is a rope tied to a ring or little chain in the fore-fhip of the boat, by which means it is faftened to the fide of the fhip. SEIZURE, in commerce, an arreft of fome mer- chandife, moveable, or other matter, either in con- lequence of fome law or of fome exprefs order of the fovereign. Contraband goods, thofe fraudulently entered, or landed without entering at all, or at wrong places, are fubieft to feizure. In feizures among us, one half goes to the informer, and the other half to the king. SELAGO, a genus of plants belonging to the di:!y- namia clafs •, and in the natural method ranking under the 48th order, A^gregatee. See Botany Index. SELDEN, John, called by Grotius the glory of England, was born at Salvington in Suffex in 1 ^84. He was educated at the free fchool at Chichefter ; whence he was fent to Hart Hall in the univerfity of Oxford, -where he ftaid four years. In 1612, he enter¬ ed himfelf in Clifford’s Inn, in order to ftudy the law ; and about two years after removed to the Inner Tem¬ ple, where he foon acquired great reputation by his learning. He had already publilhed feveral cf his works; and this year wrote verfes in Latin, Greek, and Eng- J.iih, upon Mr William Browne’s Britannia’s Paftorals. 3 In 1614, he publithed his Titles of Honour j and in Se 1616, his Notes on Sir John Fortefcue’s book De Lau- '~~ dibus Legum Anglice. In 1618, he publiffied his Hiftory of Tythes j which gave great offence to the clergy, and was animadverted upon by feveral writers ; and for that book he was called before the high commiftion court, and obliged to make a public acknowledgment of his forrow for having publilhed it. In 1621, being fent for by the parliament, though he was not then a member of that houfe, and giving his opinion very ftrongly in favour of their privileges in oppofition to the court, he was committed to the cuftody of the fheriff of Lon¬ don, but w7as fet at liberty after five weeks confinement. In 1623, he was chofen burgefs for Lancafter j but, amidft all the divifions of the nation, kept himfelf neu¬ ter, profecuting his ftudies with fuch application, that though he was the next year chofen reader of Lyon’s Inn, he refufed to perform that office. In 1625, he was chofen burgefs for Great Bedwin in Wiltlhire, to ferve in the firft parliament of King Charles I. in which he declared himfelf warmly againft the duke of Buckingham •, and on his Grace’s being impeached by the Houfe of Commons, -was appointed one of the ma¬ nagers of the articles againft him. In 1627 and J628, he oppofed the court party with great vigour. The parliament being prorogued to January 20. 1629, Mr Selden retired to the earl of Kent’s houfe at Wreft, in Bedfordfliire, where he finilhed his Marmora Arunde- liana. The parliament being met, he, among others, again diftinguilhed himfelf by his zeal againft the court j when the king diffolving the parliament, ordered feveral of the members to be brought before the King’s Bench bar, and committed to the Tower. Among thefe was Mr Selden, who infilling on the benefit of the laws, and refufing to make his fubmiffion, was removed to the King’s Bench prifcn. Being here in danger of his life on account of the plague then raging in Southwark, he petitioned the lord high trealurer, at the end of Trini¬ ty term, to intercede wdth his Majefty that he might be removed to the Gate-houfe, Weftminller, which was granted : but in Pvdichaelmas term following, the judges objecting to the lord treafurer’s warrant, by which he had been removed to the Gate-houfe, an order was made for conveying him back to the King’s Bench, wffience he was releafed in the latter end of the fame year ; but fifteen years after, the parliament ordered him rood, for the Ioffes he had fuftained on this occafion. He was afterwards committed with feveral other gentlemen, for difperfing a libel; but the author, who was abroad, be¬ ing difcovered, they were at length fet at liberty. In 1634, a difpute arifing between the Englifh and Dutch concerning the herring-filhery on the Britiih coaft, he vTas prevailed upon by Archbiffiop Laud to draw up his Mare Claufum, in anfvver to Grotius’s Mare Liberum : wffiich greatly recommended him to the favour of the court. In 1640, he was chofen member for the uni¬ verfity of Oxford ; when he again oppofed the court, though he might, by complying, have raifed himfelf to very confiderable polls. In 1643, he w-as appointed one of the lay-members to fit in the affembly of divines at Weftminfter, and w7as the fame year appointed keeper of the records in the Tower. Whilft he attended his duty in the affembly, a warm debate arofe refpedling the diftance of Jericho from Jerufalem. The party which contended for the Ihorteft diftance, urged, as a proof S E L M»n proof of their opinion being well founded, that fifhes H were carried from the one ciLy to.the other, and fold in the market. 1 ueir adveriai ics were ready to yield to the force of this conclufive argument, when Selden, who delpifed both parties, as well as the frivoloufnefs of their difpute, exclaimed, “ Perhaps the fiihes were fak¬ ed !” This unexpefted remark left the viftory doubt¬ ful, and renewed the debate ; and our author, who was iick of fuch trilling, foon found employment more fuit- ed to his genius; for, in 1645, he was made one of the commitTioners of the admiralty. The fame year he was unanimoufly elecled mailer of Trinity college, Cam¬ bridge •, but declined accepting. He died in 1654 ; and was interred in the Temple-church, where a monu¬ ment is ere&ed to his memory. Dr Wilkes observes, that he was a man of uncommon gravity and greatnefs of foul, averfe to flattery, liberal to fcholars, charitable to the poor •, and though he had great latitude in his prin¬ ciples with regard to ecclefiaftical power, yet he had a fincere regard for the church of England. Ke wrote many learned works belides thofe already mentioned j the principal of which are, I. De Jure Naturali et Gen¬ tium juxta Dlfciplinani Hebrceorum. 1. De Nup tits et Divorciis. 3. De Anno Civili veterum Hebra-orum, 4. Dc Nummis. 5. De Diis Sijris. 6. Uxor Hcbraica. 7. Jani Anp lor urn Facies altera, &c. All his works were printed together in 1726, in 3 vols folio. SELENITE, in Mineralogy, the cryltallized ful- phate of lime or gypfum. See Lihie, in Mineralogy Index. Selenite literally lignifies tnoon-jlone, and is predive of the colour and foft luilre of the mineral. SELENOGRAPHY, a branch of cohnography, which defcribes the moon and all the parts and appear¬ ances thereof, as geography does thofe of the earth. See Moon, and Astronomy Index. SELEUCIA, in Ancient Geography, furnamed Ba¬ bylonia, becaufe fituated on its confines, at the conflu¬ ence of the Euphrates and Tigris. Ptolemy places it in Mefopotamia. It is called alfo Seleucia ad Tigrim, (Polybius, Strabo, Ifidorus Characenus) ; walhed on the louth by the Euphrates, on the call by the Tigris, (Theophyladlus) 5 generally agreed to have been built or enlarged by Seleucus Nicanor, mailer of the ealt after Alexander ; by means of which Babylon came to be deferted. It is laid to have been originally called Cache, (Ammian, Eutropius) ; though others, as Arrian, diilinguilh it, as a village, from Selucia : and, accord¬ ing to Zoflmus, the ancient name of Selucia was Zocha- fia. Now called Bagdad. E. Long. 44. 21. N. Lat. 33. JO. There were many other cities of the fame name, all built by Seleucus Nicanor. SELEUCID/E, in Chronology. Era of the Se- fcucidae, or the Syro-Macedonian era, is a computa¬ tion of time, commencing from the ellablifhment of the Seleucidae, a race of Greek kings, who reigned as fuc- ceilors of Alexander the Great in Syria, as the Ptole¬ mies did in Egypt. This era we find exprefl'ed in the books of the Maccabees, and on a great number of Greek medals ftruck by the cities of Syria, &c. The Rabbins call it the era of contrails, and the Arabs iherih dilkarnain, that is, the “ era of the two horns.” According to the bell accounts, the firfi year of this era falls in the year 311 B. C. being 12 years after Alex¬ ander’s death. SELEtJCUo, Nicawor, one of the chief generals SEE under Alexander the^Great, and, after his death, found- Seleucus er of the race of princes called Seleucidee. He is equal- ,1! ly celebrated as a .renowned warrior, and as the father , S~'if' of his people -r yet his virtues could not proteft him from the fatal ambition of Ceraunus, one of his courtiers, by whom he was affaffinated 280 B. C. SELF-Heal, the Prunella Vulgaris, Lin. This herb was recommended by the older phyficians as a mild rellringent and vulnerary; but its virtues appear to be very feeble, and therefore it is now' rarely ufed. SELT Command, is that Ready equanimity which en-i ables a man in every fituation to exert his reafoning faculty with coolnefs, and to do what the prefent cir- cumllances require. It depends much upon the natural temperament ot the body, and much upon the moral cul¬ tivation of the mind. He who enjoys good health4 and has braced his frame by exercife, has always a greater command of himfelf than a man of equal mental powers, who has fuffered his conftitution to become re¬ laxed by indolence 5 and he who has from his early youth been accuitomed to make his pafiions fubmit to his reafon, mud, in any hidden emergency, be more capable of afting properly than he who has tarmdy yielded to his paffion. Hence it is that reclufe and literary men, when forced into the bullle of public life, are incapable of afting where promptnefs is requifite; and that men who have once or twice yielded to a fenfe of impending danger feldom acquire afterwards that command of themfelves which may be neceflary to ex¬ tricate them from fubfequent dangers. In one of the earlieft battles fought by the late king of Pruflia, the fo- vereign was among the firit men who quitted the field : had he behaved in the fame manner a fecond and a third time, he would never have become that hero whole ac¬ tions aflonifhed Europe. A celebrated engineer among ourfelves, who was well known to the writer of this mort article, had little Lienee, and was a ftrangcr to the principles of his own art; but being poffeffed of a firm and vigorous frame, and having been accuitomed to firuggle with dangers and difficulties, he had fuch a conftant command of himfelf, as enabled him to employ with great coolnefs every neceifary refource in the day of battle. _ But it is not only in battle, and in the face of imme¬ diate danger, that felf-command is neceffary to enable a man to aft with propriety. There is no fituation in life where difficulties, greater or lefs, are not to be encoun¬ tered 5 and he who would pafs through life with com¬ fort to himfelf, and with utility to the public, mull en¬ deavour to keep his paffions in conflant fubjeftion to his reafon. No man can enjoy without inquietude what he cannot lofe without pain; and no man who is overwhelm¬ ed with defpondency under any fudden misfortune can exert the talents necefifary to retrieve his circumftances. We ought, therefore, by every means to endeavour to obtain a conllant command of ourfelves y and nowhere {hall we find better leffons for this purpofe than in an¬ cient Lacedemon. I here certain occupations were ap¬ pointed for each fex, for every hour, and for every fea- fon of lire. In a life always aftive, the paffions have no opnortunity to deceive, feduce, or corrupt ; and the nervous fyftem acquires a firmnefs which makes it a fit inflrument to a vigorous mind. SELF Defence implies not only the prefervation of one’s life, but alfo the protection of his property, be¬ caufe [ 127 ] S E L [ 128 ] S E L Caufc without property life cannot be preferred in a ci¬ vilized nation. The extent of property efl'ential to life is indeed fmall, and this eonfideration may enable us to decide a queftion which fome moralifts have made intri¬ cate. By what means, it has been afked, may a man protedt his property ? May he kill the perfon who at¬ tacks it, if he cannot otherwife repel the attack ? That a man, in the Hate of nature, may kill the per¬ fon who makes an attack on his life, if he cannot other- wife repel the attack, is a truth which has never been controverted 5 and he may do the fame in civil fociety, if his danger be fo imminent that it cannot be averted fey the interpolition of the protection provided for indi¬ viduals by the date. In all poffible fituations, except the three following, whatever is abfolutely neceffary to the prefervation of life may be lawfully performed, for the law of felf-prefervation is the firfl; and molt facred of thofe laws which are impreffed on every mind by the author of nature. The three excepted fituations are thofe of a foldier in the day of battle, of a criminal about to fuller by the laws of his country, and of a man called upon to re¬ nounce his religion. The foldier hazards his life in the molt honourable of all caufes, and cannot betray his trull, or play the coward, without incurring a high de¬ gree of moral turpitude. He knows that the very pro- fellion in which he is engaged neceffarily fubjedls him to danger 5 and he voluntarily incurred that danger for the good of his country, which, with great propriety, annexes to his profelTion peculiar privileges and much glory. The criminal under fentence of death cannot, without adding to his guilt, refill the execution of that fentence } for the power of inflicting punilhment is ef- fential to fociety, and fociety is the ordinance of God, (fee Society). The man who is called upon to re¬ nounce his religion ought to fubmit to the cruelleft death rather than comply with that requell, fince reli¬ gion is his only fecurity for future and permanent hap- pinefs. But in every other fituation, that which is ab¬ folutely neceffary to the prefervation of life is undoubt¬ edly lawful. Hence it is, that a perfon finking in wa¬ ter is never thought to be guilty of any crime, though he drag his neighbour after him by his endeavours to lave himfelf; and hence, too, a man in danger of perilh- ing by Ihipwreck may drive another from a plank which cannot carry them both, for fince one of tw7o lives mull be loll, no law, human or divine, calls upon either of them to prefer his neighbour’s life to his own. But though the rights of felf-defence authorife us to repel every attack made upon our life, and in cafes of extremity to fave ourfelves at the expence of the life of our innocent neighbour, it is not fo evident that, rather than give to an unjuft demand a few Ihillings or pounds, we may lawfully deprive a fellow creature of life, and the public of a citizen. A few pounds loll; may be eafily regained j but life when loll can never be recovered. If thefe pounds, indeed, be the whole of a man’s property } if they include his clothes, his food, and the houfe where he Ihelters his head—there cannot be a doubt but that, rather than part with them, he may lawfully kill the aggreffor, for no man can exilt with¬ out Ihelter, food, and raiment. But it is feldom that an attempt is made, or is indeed prafticable, to rob a man at once of all that he poffeffes. The quellion then of any importance is, May a man put a robber to death Self, rather than part with a fmall part of his property ? Mr '——V'3 Paley doubts whether he could innocently do lb in a Hate of nature, “ becaufe it cannot be contended to be for the augmentation of human happinefs, that one man Ihould lole his life or lirpb, rather than another a pennyworth of his property.” He allows, that in civil fociety the life of the aggreffor may be always taken array by the perfon aggrieved, or meant to be aggrieved, wdren the crime attempted is fuch as would lubject its perpetrator to death by the laws of his country. It is not often that we feel ourfelves diipoled to dif. fer in opinion from this rnolt valuable and intelligent writer; but on the prefent occafion we cannot help thinking that he does not reafon with his ufuai preci- fion. To us he even feems to lofe fight ol his own prin¬ ciples. No legillature can have a right to take away life in civil fociety, but in luch cafes as individuals havd the fame right in a itate of nature. If therefore a man in the Hate of nature, have not a right to protedl his property by killing the aggreffor, when it cannot be otherwife protetted, it appears to us felf-evident that no legillature can have a right to inflift the punifliment of death upon fuch offences j but if the laws inflicting death upon the crime of robbery be morally evil, it is certain that an individual cannot be innocent when he prevents robbery by the death of the robber, merely becaufe he knows that the laws of bis country have de¬ creed that punifliment againlt thofe conviCled of that crime. But we think that the proteftion of property by the death of the aggreffor may be completely vindi¬ cated upon more general principles. It is neceffary, in every llate, that property be protefted, or mankind could not fubfill *, but in a Hate of nature every man mull be the defender of his own property, which in that Hate mull neceffarily be fmall: and if he be not al¬ lowed to defend it by every mean in his power, he will not long be able to protedl it at all. By giving him fuch liberty, a few individuals may, indeed, occafionally lofe their lives and limbs for the prefervation of a very fmall portion of private property j but we believe that the fum of human happinefs will be more augmented by cutting off fuch worthlefs wretches than by expofing property to perpetual depredation j and therefore, if general utility be the criterion of moral good, we muft be of opinion that a man may in every cafe lawfully kill a robber rather than comply with his unjuft demand. But if a man may without guilt preferve his proper¬ ty by the death of the aggreffor, when it cannot be pre- ferved by any other means, much more may a w7oman have recourfe to the laft extremity to proteft her chaf- tity from forcible violation. This, indeed, is admitted by Mr Paley himfelf, and will be controverted by no man who reflefts on the importance of the female cha¬ racter, and the probable confequences of the fmalleft deviation from the eftablifhed laws of female honour. See Seduction. SELF-Knowledge, the knowledge of one’s own cha¬ racter, abilities, opinions, virtues, and vices. This has always been confidered as a difficult though important acquifition. It is difficult, becaufe it is difagreeable to inveftigate our errors, our faults, and vices ; becaule we are apt to be partial to ouvfelves, even when we have done wrong 5 and becaufe time and habitual attention are S E L [ 129 ] S E L Self. are reqaifite to enable us to difcover our real chara&er. J3ut thefe difficulties are more than counterbalanced by the advantages of felf-knowledge. By knowing the extent of our abilities, we ffiall ne¬ ver ralhly engage in enterpiifes where our inefie&ual exertions may be produftive of harm : by inveftigating our opinions, we may difcover thofe which have no foundation, and thofe alfo which lead us infenfibly into vice. By examining our virtues and vices, we fhall learn what principles ought to be ftrengthened, and what habits ought to be removed. Man is a rational and intelligent being, capable of great improvement, and liable to great vices. If he aft without examining his principles, he may be hurried by blind pafiion into crimes. If he afpire at noble and valuable acquifitions, he muft aft upon a plan, with de¬ liberation and fore thought; for he is not like a vege¬ table, which attains perfection by the indue».ce of ex¬ ternal caufes : he has powers within himfelf which mult be exerted, and exerted with judgement, in order to at¬ tain the perfection of his nature. To enable him to employ tbefe powers aright, he muft know, firft, what is his duty ; and, fecondly, he muft often review his principles and conduft, that he may difcover whether he is performing his duty, or in what circumftances he has failed. When he finds that he has fallen into er¬ ror and vice, he will naturally inquire what caufes have produced this effeft, that he may avoid the fame for the time to come. This is the method by which every re¬ formation in religion and fcience has been produced, and the method by which the arts have been improved. Before Lord Bacon introduced the new way of philo- fophizing, he muft firft have confidered wherein true philofophy confifted ; fecondly, he muft have inquired in what refpefts the ancient method of philofophizing uras falfe or ufelefs : and after determining thefe two points, he was qualified to defcribe the v.'ay by which the lludy of philofophy could be fuccefsfully purfued without deviating into hypotbefis and error. Luther found out the errors of the church of Rome by com¬ paring their doftrines with the Scriptures. But had this comparifon never been made, the reformation could never have taken place. Without felf-knowledge, or without that knowledge of our charafter which is de¬ rived from a comparifon of our principles and conduft with a perfeft ftandard of morality, we can never form plans and refolutions, or make any exertion to aban¬ don the vicious habits which we have contrafted, and llrengthen thofe virtuous principles in which we are deficient. As much may be learned from the errors of thofe who have been in fimilar fituations with ourfelves } fo many ufeful cautions may be obtained from our own errors •, and he that will remember thefe, will feldom be twice guilty of the fame vice. It was evidently the intention of Providence that man (hould be guided chiefly by experience. It is by the obfervations which we make on what we fee pafling around us, or from what we fuffer in our own perfon, that we form maxims for the conduft of life. The more minutely therefore we attend to our principles, and the more maxims we form, we ihall be the better fitted to attain morrd perfeftion. With refpeft to our underftanding, to mark the errors which we have fallen into, either by its natural Vol. XIX. Part I. defefts or by negligence, is alfo of great importance ; Self for the greateft genius and moft profound fcholar are u“—■v- liable to thefe errors, and often commit them as well as the weak and illiterate. But by obferving them, and tracing them to their caufes, they at length acquire an habitual accuracy. It is true, that men of feeble minds can never by knowing their own defefts exalt themfelves to the rank of genius j but fuch knowledge will enable them to improve their underitandings, and fo to appre¬ ciate their own powers, as feldom to attempt what is beyond their ftrength. They may thus become ufeful members of fociety j and though they will not probably be admired for their abilities, they will yet efcape the ridicule which is poured upon vanity. It is difficult to lay down precife rules for the acqui- fltion of this felf-knowledge, becaufe almoft every man is blinded by a fallacy peculiar to himfelf. But when one has got rid of that partiality which arifes from felf- love, he may eafily form a juft eftimate of his moral im¬ provements, by comparing the general courfe of his conduft with the ftandard of his duty j and if he has any doubt of the extent of his intelleftual attainments, he will moft readily difcover the truth by comparing them with the attainments of others who have been molt fuccefsful in the fame purfuits. Should vanity arife in his mind from fuch a comparifon, let him then compare the extent of his knowledge with what is yet to be known, and he will then be in little danger of thinking of himfelf more highly than he ought to think. See Prejudice and Self Partiality. SELF-Love, is that inftinftive principle which impels every animal, rational and irrational, to preferve its life and promote its own happinefs. It is very generally confounded with felfifhnefs ; but we think that the one propenfity is diftinft from the other. Every man loves himfelf 5 but every man is not felfifti. The felfirti man grafps at all immediate advantages, regardlefs of the con- 1'equcnces which his conduft may have upon his neigh¬ bour. Self-love only prompts him who is aftuated by it to procure to himfelf the greateft poffible fum of hap¬ pinefs during the whole of his exiftence. In this pur- fuit the rational felf-lover will often forego a prefent enjoyment to obtain a greater and more permanent one in reverfion 5 and he will as often fubmit to a prefent pain to avoid a greater hereafter. Self-love, as diftin- guifhed from felfiftmefs, always comprehends the whole of a man’s exiftence, and in that extended fenfe of the phrafe, we hefitate not to fay that every man is a felf- lover ; for, with eternity in his view, it is furely not poffible for the moft difinterefted of the human race not to pre er himfelf to all other men, if their future and everlafting interefts could come into competition. This indeed they never can do ; for though the introduftion of evil into the world, and the different ranks which it makes neceflary in fociety, put it in the power of a man to raife himfelf, in the prefent ftate, by the depreffion of his neighbour, or by the praftice of injuftice, yet in the purfuit of a prize which is to be gained only by fo- bernefs, righteoufnefs, and piety, there can be no rivai- fhip among the different competitors. The fuccefs of one is no injury to another ; and therefore, in this fenfe of the phrafe, felf-love is not only lawful, but abfolutely unavoidable. It has been a queftion in morals, whether it be not likewife the incentive to every aftion, however, virtuous or apparently difinterefted ? R Thofe S E L [i,pj S E L Thofe who maintain the affirmative fide of this queftion lay, that the profpeft of immediate pleafure, or the dread of immediate pain, is the only apparent motive to aftion in the minds of infants, and indeed of all who look not before them, and infer the future from the paft. They own, that when a boy has had fome experience, and is capable of making comparifons, he will often decline an immediate enjoyment which he has formerly found pro- duftive of future evil more than equivalent to all its good } but in doing fo they think, and they think jultly, that he is dill actuated by the principle of felf-love, pur- fuing the greateft good of which he knows himfelf to be capable. After experiencing that truth, equity, and benevolence in all his dealings is the readied, and indeed the only certain method of fecuring to himlelf the kind- nefs and good offices of his fellow creatures, and much more when he has learned that they will recommend him to the Supreme Being, upon whom depends his exitlence and all his enjoyments, they admit that he will practice truth, equity, and benevolence j but dill, from the fame principle, purfuing his own ultimate happinefs as the object which he has always in view. The pro- Ipeft of this great objedt will make him feel an exqui- fite pleafure in the performance of the actions w'hich he conceives as neceffary to its attainment, till at lad, with¬ out attending in each indance to their confequences, he will, by the great affbciating principle which has been explained elfewhere (fee Metaphysics, Part I. chap, i.) feel a refined enjoyment in the adtions themfelves, and perform them, as occafions offer, without deliberation or refledtion. Such, they think, is the origin of benevo¬ lence itfelf, and indeed of every virtue. Thofe who take the other fide of the quedion, can hardly deny that felf-love thus modified may prompt to virtuous and apparently difinterelled condudt ; but they think it degrading the dignity of a man to fuppofe him actuated folely by motives which can be traced back to a defire of his own happinefs. They obferve, that the Author of our nature has not left the prefervation of the individual, or the continuance of the fpecies, to the de- dudtions of our realbn, computing the futn of happinefs which the adtions neceffary to thefe ends produce to curfelves : on the contrary, He has taken care of both, by the furer impu'fe of indindt planted in us for thefe very purpofes. And is it conceivable, fay they, that He would leave the care of our fellow-creatures a matter of indifference, till each man fliould be able to difeover or be taught that by loving his neighbour, and doing him all the good in his power, he would be mod effedfually promoting his own happinefs ? It is didionouring virtue, they continue, to make it proceed in any indance from a profpedt of happinefs, or a dread of mifery ; and they appeal from theory to fad!, as exhibited in the condudl of favage tribes, who deliberate little on the confequences of their adlions. Their antagonids reply, that the condud! of favage tribes is to be confidered as that of children in civilized nations, regulated entirely by the examples which they have before them ; that their adlions cannot be the offspring of innate indindls, other wife favage virtues would, under fimilar circumdances, everywhere be the fame, which is contrary to fad! •, that virtue proceeds from an intereded motive on either fuppofition •, and that the motive which the indindtive fcheme holds up is the mod felfifh of the two. The other theory fup- pofes, that the governing motive is the hope of future Self, happinefs and the dread of future mifery ; the inftinc- 'y— tive fcheme fupplies a prefent motive in the felf-compla- cency arifing in the heart from a confcioufnefs of right condud!. The former is a rational motive, the latter has nothing more to do with reafon than the enjoyment arifing from eating or drinking, or from the intercourfe between the fexes. But we mean not to purlue the fubjed! farther, as we have faid enough on it in the articles Benevolence, Instinct, Passion, and Phi¬ lanthropy. We ffiall therefore conclude with ob- ferving, that there is certainly a virtuous as well as a vicious felf-love, and that “ true felf-love and focial are the fame.” SELF-Murder. See Suicide. Sel,F-Partiality, is a phrafe employed by fome philo- fophers * to exprels that weaknefs of human nature if See Lord through which men overvalue ihemfelves when com- Kaiwes’s pared with ethers. It is difiinguiffied from general ^ partiality, by thofe wffio make ufe of the expreffion, be- caufe it is thought that a man is led to overrate his own accomplidmients, either by a particular indindt, or by a procefs of intelledl different from that by which he over¬ rates the accompliffiments of his friends or children. The former kind of partiality is w'holly felfiffi j the latter partakes much of benevolence. This diftindlion may perhaps be deemed plaufible by thofe who confider the human mind as little more than a bundle of inftindls ; but it mud; appear perfedlly ridi¬ culous to fuch as refolve the greater part of apparent indindls into early and deep-rooted affociations of ideas. If the partialities which mod men have to their friends, their families, and themfelves, be indindlive, they are certainly indindls of different kinds j but an inftindlive partiality is a contradidlion in terms. Partiality is founded on a comparifon between twm or more objedls ; but genuine indindls form no comparifons. See In¬ stinct. No man can be faid to be partial to the late Dr Johnfon, merely for thinking highly of his intel- ledtual powers 5 nor was the dodlor partial to himfelf, though he thought in this refpedl with the generality of his countrymen ; but if, upon a comparifon with Milton, he was deemed the greater poet of the two, fuch a judgement will be allowed to be partial, whether formed by himfelf or by any of his admirers. We apprehend, however, that the procefs of its formation was the fame in every mind by which it wras held. The origin of felf-partiality is not difficult to be found ; and our partialities to our friends may be traced to a fimilar fource. By the conditution of our nature we are impelled to ffiun pain and to purfue pleafure ; but remorfe, the fevered of all pains, is the never-fail¬ ing confequence of vicious condudl. Remorfe arifes from the dread of that puniffiment which we believe will in a future date be inflidled on vice unrepented of in this ; and therefore every vicious perfon endeavours by all peffible means to baniffi that dread from his own mind. One way of effedling this is to compare his own life with the lives of others ; for he fancies that if numbers be as wicked as himfelf, the benevolent Lord of all things will not involve them in one common ruin. Hence, by magnifying to himfelf the tempta¬ tions which led him adray, and diminifiiing the injuries which his condudl has done in the world, and by adopt¬ ing a courfe diametrically the reverfe, when edimating S E L [ 131 1 SEE Self, the morality or immorality of the condu£l of his neigh- Sellm. hours, he foon comes to believe that he is at leaft not —'r more wicked than they. Thus is felf-partiality formed in the mind, and quickly blinds him who is under its influence fo completely, as to hide from him the very faults which he fees and blames in others. Hence the coward thinks himfelf only cautious, the mifer frugal, Partiality is formed in the very fame manner to natural or acquired accomplifliments, whether mental or corpo¬ real. Thefe always procure refpeft to him who is pof- feifed of them j and as refpeft is accompanied with many advantages, every man wiflies to obtain it for him¬ felf. If he fail in his attempts, he confoles himfelf with the perfuafion that it is at leail due to his merits, and that it is only withheld by the envy of the public. He compares the particular branch of fcience or bodily ac- complilhment in which he himfelf moft excels, with thofe which have conferred fplcndor on his rival and eafily finds that his ow.n excellencies are of the higheft order, and entitled to the greateil (hare of public efteem. Hence the polite fcholar defpifes the mathematician ; the reader of Ariftotle and Plato all the modern dif- coveries in phyfical and moral fcience *, and the mere ex- perimentalift holds in the moft fovereign contempt a cri¬ tical knowledge of the ancient languages. The pupil of the ancients denies the merits of the moderns, whilft the mere modern allows nothing to the ancients ^and thus each becomes partial to his own acquifitions, ahd of courfe to himfelf, for having been at the trouble to make them. Partiality to out friends and families is generated in the very fame way. Whenever we acquire fuch an af- fe&ion for them as to confider their happinefs as adding to our own (fee Passion), we magnify their excel¬ lencies, and diminilh their defeats, for the fame rea- fon, and by the fame procefs, that we magnify and di- minifti our own. All partialities, however, are preju¬ dices, and prejudices of the worft kind. They ought therefore to be guarded againft with the utmoft care, by the fame means which we have elfewhere recom¬ mended (fee Prejudice and Metaphysics, N° 98.) $ and he who is partial to his own virtue or his own knowledge, wall do well to compare the former, not with the conduft of his neighbour, but with the exprefs rule of his duty j and to confider the latter as no farther valuable than as it contributes to the him of human hap¬ pinefs. SELIM I. emperor of the Turks, was the fecond fon of Bajazet II. He made wTar upon his father, and though defeated in 1511, he at laft dethroned him and took him prifoner, and immediately difpatched him by poifon, together with his elder brother Achmet, and his younger Korkud, an amiable and enlightened prince. Having eftablifhed his throne by thefe crimes, he march¬ ed againft Campfon-Guary fovereign of Egypt, gained a great vi&ory at Aleppo, and flew their general. But though the .fultan periftied in that battle, the Mame- luks determined to oppofe the emperor. Selim enter¬ ing their country at the head of his army, defeated the Egyptians in two battles, and ordered Toumonbai, the new defied fullan, w'ho had fallen into his hands, to be hung on a gibbet. He then took Cairo and Alexandria, •and in a Ihort time reduced all Egypt to fubjeflion. Thus ended the dominion of the Mameluks in Egypt, which had continued for more than 260 years. He Selim confirmed the ancient privileges of the Venetians in 11 Egypt and Syria, by which they carried on their com- Se^r^ merce with India, and formed a league with them to deftroy the power of the Portuguefe in that country. (See India, N° 37.) Selim had before this gained a great viflory over the Perfians, and ftripped them of Tauris and Keman. He was preparing to attack Chri- ftendom when he was feized with an ulcerous fore in the back. Thinking that the air of Adrianople w’ould reftore his health, he ordered himfelf to be condufled thither j but he died at Clari in Thrace on his road to that city, in the year 1520, in the very fpot where he had poifoned his father. He reigned eight years, and lived 54. He was a prince of great courage, fobriety, and liberality : he was fond of hiftory, and wrote fome verfes. But thefe good qualities were obfeured by the moft abominable crimes that ever difgraced human na¬ ture ; he made his way to the throne by fhedding the blood of his father, and fecured it by murdering his bro¬ thers and eight nephews, and every balhaw who had been faithful to his duty. SELINUM, a genus of plants belonging to the pent- andria clafs $ and in the natural method ranking under the 45th order, Umbellate?. See Botany Index. SELKIRK, Alexander, wdiofe adventures gave rife to a well-knowrn hiftorical romance, was born at Largo, in Fife-fture in Scotland, about the year 1676, and was bred a feaman. He went from England, in 1703, in the capacity of failing-mailer of a fmall veffel called the Cinque-Ports Galley, Charles Pickering cap¬ tain, burthen about 90 tons, with 16 guns and 63 men j and in September the fame year failed from Cork, in company with another fhip of 26 guns and 120 men, called the St George, commanded by that famous na¬ vigator William Dampier, intended to cruife againft the Spaniards in the South fea. On the coaft of Brazil, Pickering died, and was fucceeded in his command by his lieutenant Thomas Stradling. They proceeded on their voyage round Cape Horn to the iftand of Juan Fer¬ nandes, whence they were driven by the appearance of two French Ihips of 36 guns each, and left five of Strad- ling’s men there on Ihore, who were taken off by the French. Hence they failed to the coaft of America, where Dampier and Stradling quarrelled, and feparated by agreement, on the 19th of May 1704. In Septem¬ ber following, Stradling came again to the ifland of Juan Fernandes, where Selkirk and his captain had a differ¬ ence, which, with the circumftance of the Ihip’s being very leaky, and in bad condition, induced him to deter¬ mine • n llaying there alone •, but when his companions were about to depart, his refolution was lhaken, and he defired to be taken on board again. The captain, how¬ ever, refufed to admit him, and he was obliged to re¬ main, having nothing but his clothes, bedding, a gun, and a finall quantity of powder and ball ■, a hatchet, knife, and kettle j his books, and mathematical and nau¬ tical inftruments. He kept up his fpirits tolerably till he faw the veffel put off, when (as he afterwards relat¬ ed) his heart yearned within him, and melted at parting with his comrades and all human fociety at once. Yet believe me, Areas, Such is the rooted love we bear mankind, R 2 All S E L [ 132 ] s E L All ruffians as they were, I never heard A found fo difmal as their parting oars.” Thom/on's Agamemnon. Thus left foie monarch of the ifland, with plenty of the neceffaries of life, he found himfelf in a fituation hardly fupportable. He had fifh, goat’s flefli, turnips and other vegetables ; yet he grew deje&ed, languid, and melancholy, to fuch a degree, as to be fcarce able to refrain from doing violence to himfelf. Eighteen months pafled before he could, by reafoning, reading his bible, and ftudy, he thoroughly reconciled to his condition. At length he grew happy, employing him¬ felf in decorating his huts, chafing the goats, whom he equalled in fpeed, and fcarcely ever failed of catching. He alfo tamed young kids, laming them to prevent their becoming wild $ and he kept a guard of tame cats about him, to defend him when afleep from the rats, rvho were very troublefome. When his clothes were worn out, he made others of goats Ikins, but could not lucceed in making ffioes, with the ufe of which, how¬ ever, habit, in time, enabled him to difpenfe. His on¬ ly liquor was water. He computed that he had caught 1000 goats during his abode in the ifland; of which he had let go 500, after marking them by flitting their ears. Commodore Anfon’s people, who were there about 30 years after, found the firfl goat which they fhot upon landing, was thus marked, and as it appeared to be very old, concluded that it had been under the power of Selkirk. But it appears by Captain Carteret’s account of his voyage in the Swallow Hoop, that other perfons praftifed this mode of marking, as he found a goat wdth his ears thus flit on the neighbouring ifland of Mas-a-fuera, where Selkirk never w^as. He made companions of his tame goats and cats, often dancing and finging with them. Though he conftantly per¬ formed his devotions at ftated hours, and read aloud ; yet, when he was taken off the ifland, his language, from difufe of converfation, had become fcarcely intelli¬ gible. In this folitude he continued four years and four months; during which time only twm incidents happened which he thought w-orth relating, the occur¬ rences of every day being in his circumflances nearly fimilar. The one was, that, purfuing a goat eagerly, he caught it juft on the edge of a precipice, which was covered with bufhes, fo that he did not perceive it, and he fell over to the bottom, where he lay (according to Captain Roger’s account) 24 hours fenfelefs; but, as he related to Sir R. Steele, he computed, by the alteration of the moon, that he had lain three days. When he came to himfelf, he found the goat lying under him dead. It was with great difficulty that he could crawd to his habitation, whence he wras unable to ftir for ten days, and did not recover of his bruifes for a long time. The other event was the arrival of a fhip, which he at firft fuppofed to be French : and fuch is the natural love of fociety in the human mind, that he was eager to aban¬ don his folitary felicity, and furrender himfelf to them, although enemies; but upon their landing, approach¬ ing them, he found them to be Spaniards, of whom he had too great a dread to truft himfelf in their hands. They were by this time fo near that it required all his agility to efcape, which he effe&ed by climbing into a thick tree, being {hot at feveral times as he ran off. Fortunately the Spaniards did not difcover him, though they flayed fome time under the tree where he was hid, Selkirk, and killed fome goats juft by. In this folitude Selkirkv— remained until the 2d of February 1709, when he favv two (hips come into the bay, and knew them to be Englilh. He immediately lighted a fire as a fignal; and on their coming on fhore, found they were the Duke Captain Rogers, and the Duchefs Captain Court¬ ney, two privateers from Briftol. He gave them the beft entertainment he could afford ; and, as t}rey had been a long time at fea without frefh provifions, the goats which he caught wrere highly acceptable. His habitation confifting of twTo huts, one to fleep in, the other to drefs his food in, was fo obfcurely fituated, and fo difficult of accefs, that only one of the ftiip’s officers would accompany him to it. Dampier, who was pilot on board the Duke, and knew Selkirk very well, told Captain Rogers, that, when on board the Cinque- Ports, he was the beft feaman in the veffel ; upon which Captain Rogers appointed him mailer’s mate of the Duke. After a fortnight’s flay at Juan Fernandes, the {hips proceeded on their cruize againft the Spa¬ niards ; plundered a town on the coaft of Peru ; took a Manilla {hip off California ; and returned by way of the Eaft Indies to England, where they arrived the 1 ft of Oftober 1711 ; Selkirk having been abfent eight years, more than half of which time he had fpent alone in the ifland. The public curiofity being excited refpeft- ing him, he was induced to put his papers into the hands of Defoe, to arrange and form them into a re¬ gular narrative. Thefe papers muft have been drawn up after he left Juan Fernandes, as he had no means of recording his tranfaftions there. Captain Cooke re¬ marks, as an extraordinary circumftance, that he had contrived to keep an account of the days of the week and month ; but this might be done, as Defoe makes Robinfon Crufoe do, by cutting notches in a poll, or many other methods. From this account of Selkirk, Defoe took the idea of writing a more extenfive work, the romance of Robinfon Crufoe, and very diftioneftly * defrauded the original proprietor of his {hare of the profits. Of the time or place or manner of this extra¬ ordinary man’s death we have received no account; but in 1798 the cheft and mulket which Selkirk had with him on the ifland were in the poffeffion of his grand¬ nephew, John Selkirk weaver in Largo. The circumftances of Selkirk’s feclufion from human fociety during his ftay on Juan Fernandes, and the fen- timents which that fituation naturally infpired, have been fo finely and chara6leriftically depifted by Mr Cowper, that many of our readers, we doubt not, will be gratified if we give the verfes alluded to a place here. I am monarch of all I furvey, My right there is none to difpute ; From the centre all round to the fea, I am lord of the fowl and the brute. Oh, folitude ! where are the charms That fages have feen in thy face ? Better dwell in the midft of alarms, Than reign in this horrible place. I am out of humanity’s reach, I muft finifti my journey alone, Never hear the fweet mufic of fpeech ; I ftart at the found of my own. The S E L [i Selkiik. Xhe beafls that roam over the plain, My form with indifference fee >' They are fo unacquainted with man, Their tamenefs is (hocking to me. Society, friendfhip, and love, Divinely bellow’d upon man, Oh, had I the wings of a dove, How foon wrould I tafte you again ! My furrows I then might affuage In the ways of religion and truth, Might learn from the wifdom of age, And be cheer’d by the fallies of youth. Religion ’ what treafure untold Refides in that heavenly word ! More precious than filver and gold, Or all that this earth can afford. But the found of the church-going bell Thefe valleys and rocks never heard, Ne’er figh’d at the found of a knell, Or fmil’d when a fabbath appear’d. Ye winds that have made me your fport, Convey to this defolate fhore Some cordial endearing report Of a land I (hall vifit no more. My friends, do they now and then fend A wi(h or a thought after me ? O tell me I yet have a friend, Though a friend 1 am never to fee. How fleet is a glance of the mind ! Compar’d with the fpeed of its flight, The temped itfelf lags behind, And the fwift-winged arrows of light. When I think of my owm native land, In a moment I feem to be there } But alas ! recollection at hand Soon hurries me back to defpair. But the fea-fowl is gone to her nefl, The bead is laid down in his lair, Ev’n here is a feafon of red, And I to my cabin repair. There’s mercy in every place ; And mercy, encouraging thought! Gives even affliction a grace, And reconciles man to his lot. SELKIRK, the capital of the county of the fame name, is a fmall towm pleafantly fituated on a riflng ground, and enjoys an extenfive profpeCt in all directions, efpe- cially in the courfe of the river Ettrick. It is remark¬ able for thofe plaintive airs produced in its neighbour¬ hood, the natural fimplicity of which are the pride of Scotland and the admiration of drangers. The citizens of this burgh, like the other inhabitants of the flieriffdom oi Ettrick fored, rendered themfelves famous by adhering to the fortune of their fovereign , .lames IV. Of 100 citizens who followed that monarch to the plains of Flodden, a few returned loaded with (polls taken from the Englifli. Of the trophies of that day, there yet remains in the poffeflion of the corporation of weavers, a dandard taken by a member of that body. It may alfo be mentioned, that the fword of William Brydone, the town-clerk, who led the citizens to the t attle, and was knighted for his valour, dill remains, it is laid, in the poffcflion of a citizen of Selkirk, his li- 33 1 SEE neal defcendent. The defperate valour of the citizens, Selkirk however, fo exafperated the Englidi, that they reduced their defencelefs towm to afhes ; but tbeir grateful fo- f[1.-re_' vereign, James V. (hewed bis fenfe of their fervices by t—y— a grant of an extenfive track of Ettrick fored, the trees for building their houfes, and the property as a reward for their heroifm. Selkirk is a royal burgh, uniting with Lanark, Linlithgow and Peebles, in fending a member to parliament. W. Long. 2. 46. N. Lat. 55. 26. SELKIRK-SHIRE, called alfo the Sheriffdom of Ettrick Forejl, a county of Scotland, extending about 20 miles in length from ead to wed, and about 1 2 in breadth from fouth to north. It borders on the north wdth part of Tw^eeddale and Mid-Lothian 5 on the fouth and ead with Teviotdale j and on the wed wdth Annandale. This county wms formerly referved by the Scottidi princes for the pleafure of the chace, and where they had houfes for the reception of their train. At that time the face of the country wras covered with wroods, in which there wrere great numbers of red and fallow deer, whence it had the name of Ettrick Eoreft. The woods, however, are nowr almod entirely cut dowm, and the county is chiefly fupported by the breed of (beep. They are generally fold into the fouth, but fometimes into the Highlands, about the month of March, where they are kept during fummer; and after being improved by the mountain-grafs, are returned into the Lowlands in the beginning of winter. This county, though not very populous at prefent, was once the nurfe of heroes, who were juftly account¬ ed the bulwark of their native foil, being ever ready to brave danger and death in its defence. Of this w’e have a memorable proof in the pathetic lamentations of their w’ives and daughters for the difaiter of the field of Flodden, “ where their brave forefters were a’ wed away.” The rivers Ettrick and Yarrow unite a little above the town of Selkirk, and terminate in the Tweed. Account oj For five miles above its jundtion with the Etterick, the^°^”rf’ Tweed is (till adorned with woods, and leads the pleafed imagination to contemplate what this country muff have been in former times. The Yarrow, for about five miles above its jundtion with Ettrick, exhibits na¬ ture in a bold and (triking afpedt. Its native woods (till remain, through which the ftream has cut its turbid courie, deeply ingulphed amidfl: rugged rocks. Here, certainly in a flood, flood the defcriptive Thomfon when he faw it “ Work and boil, and foam and thunder through.” On a peninfula, cut out by the furrounding ftream, in the middle of this fantaftically wild fcene of grandeur and beauty, (lands the caftle of Newark, which has been luppofed by many to be the birthplace of Mary Scot the flower of Yarrow. The population of this county in 1801 amounted to 5070, but the following is the population of the differ¬ ent pariihes at two different periods, according to the Statiftical Hiftory. Parifhes. Ettrick, Galafliiels, Population Population in in r7SS* 1790—1798. 397 47° 998 914 . Carry forward, 1395 *384 Selkirk S E M [ 134 ] S. E M Parises Population Population in ‘ in 1755. 1790—1798. Brought over, I395 I384 Selkirk, 1793 1700 Yarrow, 1180 I230 4368 4314 43 r4 Decreafe, 54 SELL, or Sill, in building, is of two kinds, viz. Ground Se//, denoting the lowed; piece cf timber in a wooden building, and that on which the whole fuper- ftrudlure is railed ; and fell of a window or of a door, which is the bottom piece in the frame of them on which they reft. SELLA turcica, is a deep impreflion between the clinoid procel’s of the fphenoid bone. See Anatomy Index. SE LTZER water, is a mineral water which fprings up at Lower Seltzer, a village in the eleftorate of Triers, about 10 miles from Frankfort on the Mayne, and 36 from Coblentz. Seltzer water is brought to this country in ftone bottles, which are clofely corked and fealed, and con¬ tain about 3 pints each ; and when they are well fecu- red, it keeps unchanged for a confiderable time. Seltzer water, according to the analyfts of Bergman, contains in an Englifti wine pint, gn. Carbonate of lime 3 • of magnefia 5 -—. of foda 4 Muriate of foda 17.5 29-5 The fame quantity of water alfo yields 17 cubic inches of a gafeous fubftance, which is found to be almoft en¬ tirely pure carbonic acid gas. This rvater has been long in high repute, on account of its medical virtues, and we have no doubt that it may be ufed with confiderable benefit in many of thofe complaints which arife from a deranged ftate of the fto- mach and bowels. The ufual dofe of this water is from half a pint to a pint •, but in moft cafes it may be drunk freely. From its agreeable tafte, and its exhilaiating effefts on the fpirits, it is extenlively employed at table as a common drink in Germany and Holland. In this country alfo, both the real and artificial Seltzer water is largely ufed for the fame purpofe. Seltzer water may be artificially imitated, by adding the ingredients diluted by analyfis, and in the fame proportion. SEM, or Shem, the fon of Noah, memorable for his filial piety in concealing the folly and difgrace of his father, for which he received a remarkable Senedidlion, about 2476 B. C. Fie lived to the age of 600 years. Pas SEM. See Ras Sem and PETBIFIED City. SEMECARPUS, a genus of plants belonging to the pentandria clafs. See Botany Index. SEMEN, Seed. See Botany Index. With refpedt to number, plants are either furnifhed ■with one feed, as fea-pink and biftort 5 two, as wood- roof and the umbelliferous plants; three, as fpurge 5 four, as the lip-flowers of Tournefort and rough-leaved 4 plants of Ray ; or many, as ranunculus, anemone, and Semen, poppy. ... . . ^ The form of feeds is likewife extremely various, being either large or fmall, round, oval, heart-fhaped, kidney- ihaped, angular, prickly, rough,, hairy, wrinkled, lleek or (hining, black, W'hite, or brown. Moft feeds have only one cell or internal cavity } thofe of leiTer burdock, valerian, lamb’s lettuce, cornelian, cherry, and febeilen, have two. With refpedt to fubftance, feeds are either foft, mem¬ branaceous, or of a hard bony fubftance j as in grom- wrell, tamarind, and all the nuciferous plants. In point of magnitude, feeds are either very large, as in the cocoa-nut j or very final!, as in campanula, cm- rnannia, rampions, and throat-wort. With xefpedl: to fituation, they are either difperfed promifeuoufly through the pulp (femina nidulantia), as in wrater-lily ; affixed to a future ©r joining of the valves of the feed-vefiel, as in the crofs-fhaped and pea-bloum flowers ; or placed upon a placenta or receptacle within the feed veffel, as in tobacco and thorn-apple. Seeds are faid to be naked (femina nuda^ which are not contained in a cover or veffel : fuch are thofe of the lip and compound flowers, the umbelliferous and rough¬ leaved plants. Covered feeds (femina te£la() are con¬ tained in fome veffel, whether of the capfule, pod, ber- ry, apple, or cherry kind. A Ample feed is fuch as bears neither crowm, wing, nor downy pappus; the varieties in feeds, arifing from thefe circumftanees, are particularly enumerated under their refpedlive heads. In affimilating the animal and vegetable kingdoms, Linnaeus denominates feeds the eggs of plants. The fecundity of plants is frequently marvellous 5 from a fingle plant or ftalk of Indian Turkey wheat, are pro¬ duced, in one fummer, 2000 feeds j of elecampane, 3000 } of fun-flower, 4000 ; of poppy, 32,0005 of a fpike of cat’s tail, 10,000 and upwards: a fingle fruit, or feed-veffel, of tobacco, contains loco feeds; that of white poppy, 8cco. Mr Ray relates, from experi¬ ments made by himfelf, that 1012 tobacco feeds are equal in weight to one grain ; and that the weight of the whole quantum of feeds in a fingle tobacco plant, is fuch as muft, according to the above proportion, de¬ termine their number to be 360,000. The fame author eflimates the annual produce of a fingle ftalk of fpleen- wort to be upw ards of one million of feeds. The diffemination of plants refpedls the different me¬ thods or vehicles by which nature has contrived to dif- perfe their feeds for the purpofe of increafe. Thefe by naturalifts are generally reckoned four. 1. Rivers and running whalers. 2. The wind. 3. Ani¬ mals. 4. An elaftic fpring, peculiar to the feeds them- felves. 1. The feeds which are carried along by rivers and torrents are frequently conveyed many hundreds of leagues from their native foil, and call upon a very dif¬ ferent climate, to which, however, by degrees they ren¬ der themfelves familiar. 2. Thofe which are carried by the wind, are either winged, as in fir-tree, trumpet-flower, tulip-tree, birch, arbor-vitae, meadow rue, and jeffamine, and fome um¬ belliferous plants; furnifhed with a pappus, or downy crown, .as in valerian, poplar, reed, fucculent-fwallow- wort, cotton tree, and many of the compound flowers; placed S E M [ 135 ] s E M •Semen placed vvlllini a winged calyx or leed-vefifel, as in f^a- I! bious, fea-pink, dock, diofeorea, afli, maple, and elm- Semi- treeS) logwood and woad ; or laftly, contained within a v_”"iy fwelled ’calyx or feed veffel, as in winter eherry, cucuba- lus, melilot, bladder-nut, fumatory, bladder fena, heart- feed, and chick-peafe. g. Many birds fwallow the feeds of vanelioe, juniper, milletoe, oats, millet, and other graffes, and void them entire. Squirrels, rats, parrots, and other animals, fuf- fer many of the feeds which they devour to efcape, and thus in effedt diffeminate them. Moles, ants, earthworms, and other infedls, by ploughing up the earth, admit a free paffage to thofe feeds which have been fcattered upon its furface. Again, fome feeds attach themfelves to animals, by means of crotchets, hooks, or hairs, which are either affixed to the feeds themfelves, as in hound’s tongue, moufe-ear, vervain, carrot, ballard-par- .fley, fanicle, water hemp-agrimony, arBopits and verbe- fina ; to their calyx, as in burdock, agrimony, rhexia, Ymall wild buglofs, dock, nettle, pellitory, and feed-wort, or to their fruit or feed-velfel, as in liquorice, enchan¬ ter’s nightffiade, crofs-wort, cleavers, French honey- fuckle, and arrow-headed grafs. 4. The feeds which ditperfe themfelves by an elaftic force, have that force refident either in their calyx, as in oats, and the greater number of ferns ; in their pap¬ pus, as in centaurea crupina ; or in their capfule, as in gerannium, herb-bennet, African fpiraea, fraxinella, horfe- tail, balfam, Malabar nut, cucumber, elaterium, and male balfam apple. Semen, in the animal economy. See Physiology .and Anatomy Index. SEMEN SanSlum, or Santonicum. See Artemisia. SEMENDRIAH, a town of Turkey in Europe, in the province of Servia, with a good citadel. It is the capital of a fangiacate, was taken by the Turks in 1690, and is feated on the Danube, in E. Long. 21. 45. N. Lat. 45. o. SEMENTINiE FERINE, in antiquity, feafts held an¬ nually among the Romans, to obtain of the gods a plen¬ tiful harveft. They were celebrated in the temple of >Tellus, where folemn facrifices were offered to Tellus and Ceres. Thefe feafts were held about feed-time, ufu- ally in the month of January y for, as Pvlacrobius ob- ferves, they were moveable feafts. SEMI, a word borrowed from the Latin, fignifyirg- half; but only ufed in compofttion with other words, as in the following articles. SEMI-Arians, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a branch of the ancient Arlans, confifting, according to Epiphanius, of fuch as, in appearance, condemned the errors of that herefiarch, but yet acquiefced in fome of the principles thereof, only palliating and hiding them under fofter and more moderate terms. Though they feparated from the Arian faflion (fee Arians), they could never be brought to acknowledge that the Son was homoouftos, that is, confubftantial, or of the fame fubftance with the Father : they would only allow him to be homo- oufios, that is, of a like fubftance with the Father, or fimilar to the Father in his effence, not by nature, but by a peculiar privilege. The femi-arianifm of the moderns conlifts in their maintaining that the Son v, as from ail eternity begot¬ ten by the U’z’// of the Father, contrary to the doctrine of the orthodox, who feem to teach that the eternal ge- Semi Deration is necejfary. Such at leaft are the refpeftive gem'rar„ opinions of Dr Clarke and Bifliop Bull. See Theology. - . — Semicircle, in Geometry, half a circle, or that fi¬ gure comprehended between the diameter of the circle and half its circumference. Semicolon, in Grammar, one of the points or flops ufed to diftinguiih the feveral members of a fentence from each other. The mark or charafler of the femicolon is ($), and has its name as being of fomewhat lefs effedl than a co¬ lon j or as demanding a ffiorter paufe. The proper ufe of the femicolon is to diftinguiffi the conjundt members of a fentence. Now, by a conjundl member of a fentence is meant fuch a one as contains at leaft two fimple members.—Whenever, then, a fen¬ tence can be divided into leveral members of the fame degree, which are again divifible into other fimple mem¬ bers, the former are to be feparated by a femicolon. For inftance : “ If fortune bear a great fway over him, who has nicely ftated and concerted every circumftance of an affair ; we muft not commit every thing, without referve, to fortune, left ffie have too great a hold of us.” Again: Si quantum in agro locifquedefertis audacia po- tejl, tantiwi in foro atque judiens impudentia valeret ; non minus in caufa cederet Aulus Cceemna Sexta ALbutu im- pudenticc, quam turn in vi facienda cejjit audacue. An inftance in a more complex fentence we have in Cicero : Res familiaris primum bene parta Jit, nulloque turpi qucejlu : turn quam plurimis, niodo digms, fe utilem pree- beat; deinde avgectur ratione, diligentia, parjimonia ; nec libidini potius luxurieeque, quam liberalitati et beneji- centiae parent. But though the proper ufe of the femicolon be to diftinguiffi conjunct members, it is not neceffary that all the members thus divided be conjundt. for upon di¬ viding a fentence into great and equal parts, if one of them be conjundt, all thofe other parts of the fame de¬ gree are to be diftinguiftied by a femicolon.-—-Sometimes alfo it happens, that members that are oppofite to each other, but relate to the fame verb, are feparated by a femicolon. Thus Cicero : Ea? hac parte pudor, illinc petulantia hinc jides, illinc fraudatio; June pietas, illinc fcelus, &c. To this likewife may be referred fuch len¬ iences, where the whole going before, the parts follow : as “ The parts of oratory are four ; invention, difpofi- tion, elocution, and pronunciation.” Semicubium, in Medicine, an half-bath, wherein the patient is only placed up to the navel. Semidiameter, half the diameter, or a right line drawn from the centre of a circle or fphere to its cir¬ cumference : being the fame with what is otherwife called the radius. Semiflosculus, in Botany, a term ufed to exprefs the flowers of the fyngenefia clafs. Thefe femiflofculi are petals, hollow in their lower part, but in their up¬ per flat, and continued in the ffiape of a tongue. Semitone, in Mujic. See Interval. SEMINiiL, fomething belonging to the femen or feed. SEMINARY, in its primary fenfe, the ground where any thing is fown, to be afterwards tranfplanted. Seminary, in a figurative fenfe, is frequently ap¬ plied to places of education, -whence fcbolars are tranf¬ planted S E M [ 136 ’] :s E M Semination planted into life.—-In Catholic countries it is particu- SetmLla ar^ ^or H co^e§e or where youth giam.a* are inftrufted in the ceremonies, &c. of the facred mi- u-niftry. Of thefe there are great numbers, j it being ordained by the council of Trent, that there be a le- minary belonging to each cathedral, under the direc¬ tion of the bifhop. SEMINATION, denotes the manner or aft of fhedding and difperfing the feeds of plants. See Se¬ men. SEMIPELAGIANS, in EccleftaJHcal Hi/lory, a name given to fuch as retain fome tinfture of Pelagian- ifm. See Pelagians. The doftrines of this feft, as well as thofe of their predeceffors the Pelagians, have their common fource in Pelagius, a native of Britain, of w'hom w^e have already taken notice. He is faid to have been but a Ample monk, and not in orders. Having gone to Rome about the end of the fourth century, he lived there for fome years with reputation, and was xconfidered both pious and virtuous. Rufinus a prieft of Aquileia, having come to Rome in the year 397, is affirmed by fome to have been the perfon who fuggefted to Pelagius his pe¬ culiar doftrines. In the year 400 Pelagius began to teach his opinions at Rome, both by fpeech and writing. He wTas not the only perfon who taught thefe doftrines, of which vTe have elfewhere enumerated the heads. His friend and companion Celeftius, an abler man than himfelf, main¬ tained them likewife, and wdth much more addrefs and fubtlety. After having promulgated them in Rome, they went into Sicily, where they lived for fome time. Thence, in the year 411, they paffed over into Africa. Pelagius foon after went into Paleftine, wffiilft Celeftius remained at Carthage, and was preparing himfelf to take the order of priefthood-, but it being foon difcovered * Jafa/Zm, that he taught a new doftrine *, he was accufed by the I'b- “• . deacon Paulinus in a fynod held at Carthage in 412, at e ratia. Aure]iuS the biihop prefided. Celeftius, on being charged by Paulinus with denying original fin, madean- fwer, “ That in truth he doubted whether the fin of Adam wTas tranfmitted to his pofterity.” He did not however own that children had no need of baptifm, although this was one of the Pelagian tenets : on the contrary, he •wrote a little difcourfe, in which he acknowledged, that children had need of redemption, and that they could not obtain it without baptifm. The bifhops at the council of Carthage condemned the doftrines of Cele¬ ftius, and excommunicated him. From this fentence he appealed to the biihop of Rome ; but he neglefted to purfue his appeal, and went to Ephefus, where he endea¬ voured to get himfelf ordained prieft. In the mean time, Pelagiws having retired into Paleftine, was kindly received by St Jerome’s enemy, John of Jerufalem. With him he entered into an engagement to attack the reputation of that author. St Jerome defended himfelf from their aflault, and attacked the doftrines of Pela¬ gius f, and in this undertaking he was foon aflifted by St Auftine. About this time, Orofius having gone thTApobf k°m Spa^n ‘nto -Africa and thence into Paleftine, pub- c/Orq/iut? Hlhed there the proceedings againft Celeftius at Car¬ thage, and was prevailed upon by the biihop of Jerufa¬ lem to enter into a conference with Pelagius in his pre¬ fence but the biihop having Ihown too much partiality for Pelagius, Orofius would not acknowledge him for 4 f St > rome' judge, but demanded that the decifion of that affair, Sc-mipela- which was among the Latins, might be referred to gian;- ; judges who underllood the language. This happened v in the year 415, at which time there were in Paleftine two French prelates, who, being driven from their dio- cefes, fled into that country, and having been apprized of the opinions of Pelagius and Celeftius, drew up an abridgement from their owm books of the errors imputed to them L To this they joined the articles condemned t St Au- in the fynod of Carthage, and fome others, which were^?;'f fent from Sicily by Hilarius to St Auguftine, and then ^^and prefented the abridgement to the biihop of Csefarea. againft the The matter was referred to a council of 14 bilhops, at which, -when the memoir was read, Pelagius explained himfelf upon fome articles, and denied that he was the author of others. He alfo difowned the propofitions condemned at Carthage, and fome others afcribed to Celeftius. He did not even hefitate to condemn them ; upon which the bilhops decided, that, fince Pelagius approved the doftrine of the church, and rejefted and condemned what was contrary to its belief, they ac¬ knowledged him to be of the ecclefiaftical and catholic communion. Orofius returning to Africa, took with him the me¬ moir againft Pelagius, and prefented it to a meeting of bilhops * held at Carthage in 416. Having read over# The Epi- what had been done at a former meeting againft Cele-yf/^/0/Jr ftius, they declared, that both he and Pelagius ought to Augu/line* be anathematized if they did not publicly renounce and condemn the errors imputed to them. The bilhops of this meeting, and thofe of Numidia affembled the fame year at Milivetum, wrote upon the fubjeft to Pope In¬ nocent, who approved of the judgement of the African prelates, and declared Pelagius, Celeftius, and their fol¬ lowers excommunicated f. Innocent gave an account f Marius of this judgement to the bilhops of the Eaft, and the Mercator s matter feemed altogether at an end, when he died j but^”””*”' Celeftius having been made prieft at Ephefus, and hav- ing gone to Conftantinople, wffience he was driven by Atticus biihop of that city, who alfo wrote againft him to Alia and to Africa, he came to Rome in the begin¬ ning of the pontificate of Zozimus, and undertook to purfue the appeal, which he had formerly made from the judgement of the fynod of Carthage. Having cited his accufer Paulinus, and offered to juftify himfelf, he prefented a Confeflion of Faith, in which he acknowledg¬ ed that children ought to be baptized, in order to inhe¬ rit the kingdom of heaven ; but he denied that the fin of Adam w^as tranfmitted to his children. He appeared before the bilhops and clergymen affembled by the pope, and declared, that he condemned all the errors with which he had been charged. The pope delayed his judgement for two months, and in the mean time re¬ ceived a letter and a confeffion of faith from Pelagius, very artfully drawn up. When the time for judgement arrived, Zozimus held a fynod, and faid, that he thought the declarations of Pelagius and Celeftius fufficient for their juftification. He was difpleafed at the two French bilhops for not appearing againft them, and w rote tw’O letters on that head, one to the bilhops of Africa, and another in particular to Aurelius, biihop of Carthage. The African bilhops, to the number of 214, without regarding the judgement paffed at Rome, affembled at Carthage, and, having confirmed their former decifions, condemned the doftrines of the Pelagians. Tljey wrote to S E M r 137 ] S E M SemipeU. to the bifiiop of Heme to acquaint him, that he had w Aian5* been deceived by Celeftius, and difeovered to him the ■r—w equivocations of his letter and of the Confeffion of Faith of Pelagias, fending him a memoir of the errors of which he fliould require a diilincf and precife revocation from the two heretic*. The pope made anfwer, that, although his authority was fo great, that none durft diffent from his judgement, ftill that he was willing to communicate the matter to them, and would let it remain in the fame (late, until a new deliberation could take place. This letter was prefented to a coun¬ cil held at Carthage in 418, at which eight canons were drawn up againft the Pelagian herefy. The bilhop of Rome, in the mean time, was inclined to examine again the affair of Celeftius, and to endeavour to draw from him diltinft and precife anfwers according to the plan fuggefted by the African bifhops in their memoir; but Celeftius would not come forward, and accordingly withdrew from Rome. From his flight the pope con¬ cluded, that he impofed upon him formerly, and that he held the new doftrines •, and, accordingly, changing his opinion with refpeft to him, he approved of the decrees of the African prelates, and renewed the condemnations of his predeceffor, Pope Innocent, againft him and Pela- ^ See the gius *. This judgement he publiftied in a letter which SLetten of was fent to all the bithops. About the fame time an St At/gu- was publifhed by the emperor Honorius againft * " Pelagius and Celeftius, ordering, that they fhould be banilhed from Rome, and that all their followers fhould be fent into exile. In the following year Honorius publifhed another edi£t, by which it was ordered, that the bifhops who wTould not fign the pope’s letter, fhould be deprived of their churches. Accordingly, Julian the bifhop of Eclana, who was afterwards head of the party, and feventeen other bifhops, were cafhiered •, upon which they wrote a letter to Rufus, bifhop of Theffalonica, and demanded a univerfal council from the emperor, which he refufed. Celeftius returned again to Rome, but was again expel¬ led the city ; whilft his followers, being expelled from Italy, retired to different countries. Some of them came over into Britain, and others went into the Eaft. At- ticus banifhed them from Conftafttinople, and they were alfo banifhed from Ephefus. Theodotus, bifhop of An¬ tioch, condemned them in a fynod held at Diofpolis, and banifhed Pelagius and his followers out of Paleftine, Whither they had returned. Julian the bifhop was condemned in a provincial fynod of Cilicia, wThither he had retired to Theodorus bifhop of Mopfuefta, who was obliged to anathematize him. What became of Pela¬ gius is unknown, as hiftory gives no farther account of him ; but Celeftius having returned to Rome, and being driven thence by Pope Celeftin, wrent with Julian and fome other bifhops of their party to Conftantinople, where they endeavoured to prevail upon the emperor Theodofius to affemble a council, inftead of which he ordered them to leave the city. After this they joined } Profper ^le Neftorians f, and were condemned together in his CA/ o-vv*th them in a general souncil held at Ephefus in 43 1 j tiide. and there now remained but a fmall number of Pela¬ gians difperfed in the Weft. Julian after having endea¬ voured feveral times to get himfelf reinftated in his bi- fhopric, was at laft obliged to retire into Sicily, where he died. To the Pelagians fucceeded the Semipelagians, who Vol. XIX. Part I. rejected the doftrines of the former with refpeiff to orl- Sefiiipela*-. ginal fin and the power of free will to do good %. They ®iai owned, that man had need of the grace of God to perfe- ^ff-/arys vere in well-doing ^ but they believed, that the begin- Letters to ning of good will and faith did not neccflarily depend Augujluie. upon grace j for that man, by the mere force of nature, might defire to do good, and that God feconded that good will by his afliftance, which depended upon liber¬ ty, and was given to all men. Befides thefe, they main¬ tained fome other peculiar tenets. The origin of fome of their opinions is founded in this, that lome of the books which were written by St Auguftine in his laft years, with refpeft to the controverfies which arofe in the ruonaftery of Adrumetum, relative to correction, grace, and predeftination, having been carried into Gaul, happened to give offence to feveral perfons, and particularly to the monks of Lerins, who confideied his doftrines hoftile to that of free wrill. This led them to think and-to maintain, that, in order to be faved, it was neceffary to leave to man the power of knowing and defiring good by the force of nature, fo that the begin¬ ning might come from man. Several confiderable per¬ fons in Gaul, and even fome bithops, but particularly the priefts, -were of this opinion. Caflian, deacon of Conftantinople, and afterwards prieft at Marfeilles, au¬ thorized it in his conferences, and Fauftus, bilhop of Riez, fupported it very ftrenuoufly. St Auguftine ftcod up to oppofe this do&rine from its very firft appearance, and was fupported by Profper and Hilarius. Pope Ce¬ leftin complained to the bilhops of Gaul, that they fuf- fered their priefts to fpeak ill of the doClrines of St Au- guftine j and Popes Gelafius and Hormifdas condemned the books of Fauftus j and laft of all, the council of Orange, held in 529, condemned particularly the prin¬ cipal tenets of the Semipelagians, and put an end at that time to the controverfy, about 100 years after the death of St Auguftine.—See the hiftories of Mofiieim, Dupin and Fleury, &c. &c. The Semipelagians were very numefous j and their doftrines, though varioufly explained, were received in many of the monaftic fchools in Gaul, whence they fpread themfelves far and wide through Europe. With refpeCt to the Greeks and other Chriltians of the Eaft, wTe may remark, that they had adopted the Semipelagian tenets, even before they were promulgated in Gaul by Caflian and Fauftus. After the period, however, at wh'ch the Semipelagian doCtrines wrere condemned in the council of Orange, we find but little notice taken of this feCt by hiltorians. Although its tenets w’ere maintained by a few in the fucceeding centuries, the feCt could boaft of no eminent leaders, and funk into obfeurity. In the beginning, in¬ deed, of the reformation, fome of the Pelagian tenets wrere again brought into circulation. Every one is ac¬ quainted with the hoftility of Luther to the doClrine of free will, who went fo far into the oppofite extreme as to entitle one of his works againft the celebrated Erafc mus on this fubjeCl, “ De Servo Arbitrio” But not- withftanding that Luther was their leader, this doCtrine of his was not adopted by fome of the moft eminent of the reformers. His learned friend, the mild and w'orthy MelanCthon, although he at firft (either from not hav¬ ing fufficiently confidered the fubjeCt, or becaufe this doftrine wras fo unpalatable to the great body of the re¬ formers on -account of the authority of Luther), joined 6 with S E M [I Scmipela- vviih Luther in Iris hoftility to tire do£lriue of free will, w glan^ l'ar as 1:0 fay> that free will could have no effeft, un- ”v der the influence of grace, fhortly after changed his opinion fo as to run into the oppofite extreme. For al¬ though Luther at his outfet had affirmed, that tire pre- fcience of God annihilated free will in all his creatures, he was lo foftened down into moderation at the time of the drawing up of the famous Confeffion of Augiburg, as to allow Melandfhon, who compofed it, to infert thefe words, “ that it was neceffary to allow free-will to all who poflefled the ufe of reafon, not however in luch things as regarded God, which they could not commence, or at Icajl which they could not complete, without his affiifance and grace, but in the affairs, or works, of the prelent life folely, and in or der to perform *b«T'w ^ tliC^r dut7 towards fociety In this pallage two tide, and tru^ls are clearly admitted : i. That there is free-w ill Melanc- in man •, and 2. That of itfelf it has no efficacy in fuch then's Ape- w'orks as are purely Chriflian or religious. Flat although lcSy- this be evident, and although it would feem as if he at¬ tributed the efficacy of religious woiks folely to the grace of God, yet the reilriblirig words “ at leajlj'1 fhow, that he was of opinion, that free-will, by its ow n natural force and efficacy, though it could not complete, could at leajl commence, Chriftian or religious works, without the afiutance of grace. To fuch of our readers as are acquainted with eccleiiaftical hiflory, it is unne- ceffary to remark, that this wTas one of the leading te¬ nets of the Semipelagians. But Meiandlhon did not flop here. It is true, that, in order to keep well with the reformers, he was obliged, in thofe public infiru- ments which he drew up, to infmuate rather than avow his partiality for the doftrine of free-will, the exercife of which, we fee, he confined in the Confeffion of Augf- fiurg lo fuch aclions merely as regarded civil fife and our duties to fociety. In the Saxon Confeffion of Faith, hoAvever, he proceeds a ftep farther, and fays “ that the will is free •, that God neither wifhes for, nor approves, nor co-operates in the produftion of fin j but that the free-will of man and of the devils is the true caufe of their fin and of their fall.” Many no doubt will be of opinion, that Melanclhon merits praife for having thus correfted Luther, and for having more clearly exprefl’ed his own opinion, than he had done in the Confeffion of Augfburg, lie even proceeds farther, and extends the exercife of free-will to religious or Chriftian works. For after having explained in the Saxon Confeffion of iaith the nature of free-will, and the manner in winch it makes a choice, and having alfo fhown, that it is not of ittelf fufficient in thefe works, or aflions, which re¬ gard a future life, he affirms twice “ that the will, even after having received the influence of the Holy Spirit, does not remain idle,” that is to fay, it is not merely paffive under the influence of grace, but can reject it, or co-operate with it, at pleafute. Neceffity, it is true, obliged him to exprefs his opinion rather obfeurely. But what he infinuates only in thefe lad quoted wrords, is clearly and fully exprtfied in one of his letters to Calvin. “ I had, fays he, a friend who, in reafoning upon predeflination, believed equally the two following things 5 namely, that every thing happens smongft men as it is ordained by Providence, but that there is, ne- verthelefs, a contingency in affions or in events. He confeffed, however, that he was unable to reconcile thefe two things. For my part, (continues Melanc- s? ] S E M thon), who am of opinion, that God neither withes for, SL-nv> te¬ nor is the caufe of fin, I acknowledge this contingency £iiUS- in the feeblenefs of our judgement, in order that the ig- v— norant may confefs, that David fell of himfelf, and vo¬ luntarily, into fin 5 that he had it in his power to pre- ferve the grace of the Holy Spirit which lie had within him, and that in this combat, or trial, it is necefiary to acknowledge fome exercii’e or ablion of the will *”. * See Cal- This opinion he confirms and illulirates by a paffage from St Bafil, where he fays, “ Have but the will, oxtL>s’ the inclination, and God is with you.” By which wmrds Melanfthon feems to infinuate, that the will is not only aftive in the works of religion, but even be¬ gins them without grace. This, however, was not the meaning of St Bafil, as is evident from feveral other parts of his writings ; but that it wras the opinion of Melanfthon appears fully from this paffage, as well as from that which we have cited from the Confeffion of .Augfburg, in w'hich he infinuates, that the error is not in laying, that, the will can of itlelf commence, but in thinking, that it can without grace finiffi or complete, religious or Chriftian works. Thus it appears, that he confidered the will capable of rejecting the influence of grace, fince he declares, that David could preferve the Holy Spirit when fie lolt it, as well as he could lole rt when he kept it within him. But although this was his decided opinion, he durft not avow it fully in the Saxon Confeffion of Faith, but w'as obliged to content himfelf with infinuating it gently in thefe words, “ The wall, even after receiving the grace of the Floly Spirit, is not idle or without action.” All this precaution, however, was infufficient to fave Melanflhon from cen- fure. Francowitz, better known by the name of Illyri- cus, being jealous of him and his enemy, by his influ¬ ence with bis party procured the condemnation of thefe words of the Saxon Confeffion, and of the paflage from St Bafil, at two fynods held by the Reformers ; at the fame time, that one party of the Lutherans were un¬ willing to adopt Melancflion’s opinion, “ that the will is not paffive, when under the influence of grace,” we are at a lofs to think how they could deny it, fince they almoft unanimoufly confefs, that a perfan under the in¬ fluence of grace may vejeft and lofe it. This opinion .is avowed in the Confeffion of Augfburg and in Me- lanfthon’s Apology. It was even, long after that, de¬ cided upon anew, inculcated ftrongly in their book of Concord, and was brought frequently againft them by their opponents as a proof of inconfiftency and contra- didfion. Thefe are not the only inflances in which the Luthe¬ rans were charged with Semipelagian principles. One of the ableft and the mofc learned of their opponents, we cannot help thinking, had in more than one inftance made good the charge againft them. To prove this we need only refer to the remarks that have been made on the eight celebrated propofitions in the third book of Concord, relative to the co-operation of the will with grace. According to the firft feven of thefe propofi¬ tions, an attentive liftening to the preaching of the word of God produceth grace ; and according to the fifth, any man, even a libertine or an infidel, is free, or has it in his power to liften attentively to the preaching of the word of God. He has it then in his power to give to himfelf that which to him is produ£five of grace, and may thus be the foie author of his own converfion or S E M t I Semipela- or regeneration. In tlie eiglitli propoiition it is affinn- gians, {.hat we are not permitted to doubt, but that the Semiramis. grace 0f t-]ie Holy Spirit, even though it may not be "v felt, does accompany an attentive hearing of the word of God ; and to do away every doubt about the fpecies of attention which they mean, we muft obferve, that they fpeak of attention in as much as it precedes the grace of the Holy Spirit, and of that attention which, in confequence of its dependence on free-will, we have it in our power to bellow upon the word or not, juft as we pleafe. It is the exercife of this free attention which they fay operates grace. But here it w’ould feem, that they w’ere in extremes •, for, as they faid upon one hand, that, when the Holy Spirit begins to move us, we aCl not at all; fo they maintained on the other, that this operation of the Holy Spirit, which converts us without any co-operation on our part, is neceffarily attendant upon an aft of our walls, in which the Holy Spirit has no Hi a re, and in which our liberty afts purely by its na¬ tural force or power. Such of our readers as are anxious to examine the progrefs of the Pelagian and Semipela¬ gian principles after the dawn of the Reformation, we muft refer to the works of the principal reformers atid to thofe of their adverfaries, as well as to the different writers upon ecclefiaftical hiftory. SEMIRAMIS, in fabulous hiftory, a celebrated queen of Alfyria, daughter of the goddefs Derceto, by a young Aflyrian. She wras expofed in a defert; but her life was preferved by doves for one whole year, till Simmas, one of the Ihepherds of Ninus, found her and brought her up as his own child. Semiramis, when grown up, married Menones, the governor of Nineveh, and accom¬ panied him to the fiege of Baftria; where, by her ad¬ vice and prudent direftions, ftie haftened the king’s ope¬ rations, and took the city. Thefe eminent fervices, to¬ gether with her uncommon beauty, endeared her to Ni¬ nus. The monarch alked her of her hulband, and offer¬ ed him his daughter Sofana in her Head 5 but Menones, who tenderly loved Semiramis, refufed } and when Ni¬ nus had added threats to entreaties, he hanged himfelf. No fooner was Menones dead, than Semiramis, wftiowas of an afpiring foul, married Ninus, by whom fhe had a fon called Ninyas. Ninus vras fo fond of Semiramis, that at her requeft he refigned the crown, and commanded her to be proclaimed queen and foie emprefs of Affyria. Of this, however, he had caufe to repent : Semiramis put him to death, the better to eftahlifh herfelf on the throne •, and when fhe had no enemies to fear at home, ftie began to repair the capital of her empire, arid by her means Babylon became the moft fuperb and mag¬ nificent city in the world. She vifited every part of her dominions, and left everywhere immortal monuments of her greatnefs and benevolence. To render the roads paffable and communication eafy, fhe hollowed moun¬ tains and filled up valleys, and water was conveyed at a great expence by large and convenient aquedufts to barren deferts and unfruitful plains. She was not lefs diftinguiftied as a warrior : Many of the neighbouring nations were conquered ; and when Semiramis was once told as ftie was dreffmg her hair, that Babylon had re¬ volted, ftie left her toilette with precipitation, and though only half drefled, (lie refufed to have the reft of her head adorned before the fedition was quelled and tran¬ quillity re-eftablifhed. Semiramis has been accufed of Kcentioafnefs j and feme authors have obferved that fhe 39 ] § E N regularly called the fliongefl and ftoutefl men in hex- army to her arms, and afterwards put them to deatn, that they might not be living witneffes of her incontin¬ ence. Her paflion for her ion was alfo unnatural 5 and it was this criminal propensity which induced Ninyas to deftroy his mother with his own hands. Some fay that Semiramis was changed into a dove after death, and re¬ ceived immortal honours in Alfyria. It is fuppoled that fhe lived about 11 centuries before the Chnftian era, and that fixe died in the 62d year of her age and the 25th of her reign. Many fabulous reports have been pro¬ pagated about Semiramis, and lome have declared that for fome time ftie difguifed herfelf and palled for her fon Ninyas. Lernpriere1 s Bibliotheca Clajjica. SEMPERV1VUM, House leek, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs dodecandria } and in the natural method ranking under the 13th order, SucculenUv. See Botany Index. SEN AAR, or Sennaar. See SennAaR. SENATE, in general, is an affembly or council of fenators \ that is, of the principal inhabitants of a ftate, who have a fhare in the government. The fenate of ancient Rome is of all others the moft celebrated. It exercifed no contentious jurifdxftion 3 but appointed judges, either from among the lenators or knights, to determine proceffes : it alfo appointed go¬ vernors of provinces, and difpofed of the revenues of the commonwealth, &c. Yet did not the whole iovereign power refide in the fenate, lince it couxd not elect ma- giftrates, make laws, or decide of war and peace 3 in all which cafes the fenate was obliged to confult tlie people. The fenate, when firft inftituted by Romulus, con¬ fided of xoo members 3 to whom he afterwards added the fame number when the Sabines had migrated to Rome. Tarquin the ancient made the fenate confilt of 300, and this number remained fixed for a long time 3 but afterwards it lluftuated greatly, and was increafed firit to 700, and afterwards to 900 by Julius Ciefar, who filled the fenate with men of every rank and order. Under Auguftus the fenators amounted to 1000, but this num¬ ber was reduced, and fixed to 600. ihe place of a le- nator was always beftowed upon merit: the monarchs had the privilege of choofing the members; and after the expulfion of the Tarquins, it was one of the rights of the confuls, till the eleftion of the cenfors, who from their office feemed molt capable of making choice of men whofe charafter was irreproachable, whole morals were pure, and relations honourable. Only particular families were admitted into the fenate 3 and when the plebeians were permitted to fiiare the honours of the ftate, it was then required that they fhould be born of free citizens. It was alfo required that the candidates fhould be knights before their admiffion into the fenate. They were to be above the age of 25, and to have previoufly paffed through the inferior offices of quaeftor, tribune of the people, edile, pretor, and ccnful. The fenate always met of courfe on the ift of Janua¬ ry, for the inauguration of the new confuls 3 and in all months, univerfally, there were three days, viz. the ka¬ lends, nones, and ides, on which it regularly met: but it always met on extraordinary occafions, when called together by conful, tribune, or diftator. To render their decrees valid and authentic, a cer¬ tain number of members was requifite, and fuch as S Z . were SEN [ Mo ] S E N were abfent without fome proper caufe were always lined. In the reign of Auguftus, 400 fenators were requilite to make a fenate. Nothing was tranfadled be¬ fore funrife or after funfet. In their office the fena¬ tors were the guardians of religion, they difpofed of the provinces as they pleafed, they prorogued the affem- blies of the people, they appointed tharikfgivings, no¬ minated their ambaffadors, diftributed the public mo¬ ney, and in ffiort had the management of every thing political or civil in the republic, except the creating of magiiirates, the enafling of laws, and the declaration of war or peace, which were confined to the affemblies of the people. SENATOR, in general, denotes a member of fome fenate. The dignity of a Roman fenator could not be fup- ported without the poffeffion of 80,000 feiferces, or about 7000I. Englilh money j and therefore fuch as fquandered away their money, and whofe fortune was reduced below this fum, were generally ftruck out of the lilt of 1'enators. This regulation was not made in the firft ages of the republic, when the Romans boalted of their poverty. The fenators were not permitted to be of any trade or profeffion. They were diltinguilhed from the reft of the people by their drefs; they wore the laticlave, half-boots of a black colour, with a cref- cent or filver buckle in the form of a C ; but this laft honour was confined only to the defendants of thofe hundred fenators who had been elefted by Romulus, as the letter C feems to imply. See the preceding ar¬ ticle. Among us, fenator is a member of parliament. In the lawTs of King Edward the Confeflbr, we are told that the Britons called thofe fenators whom the Saxons called afterwards aldermen and borougli-mafers ; though not for their age, but their wifdom ; for fome of them were young men, but very well Ikilled in the laws. Kenulph king of the Mercians granted a charter, which ran thus, viz. Confillo et confenfu epifeoporum et fenato- lum gentis face largitus fait diBo monajlerio, &c. In Scotland, the lords of feflion are called fenators of the college of juftice. SENATUS auctoritas. See the next article. SENATUS-Confultum, which made part of the Ro¬ man law. When any public matter was introduced into the fenate, which was always called referre ad fe- natum, any fenator whofe opinion was alked, was per¬ mitted to fpeak upon it as long as he pleafed, and on that account it was often ufual for the fenators to pro- traft their fpeeches till it was too late to determine. When the queftion was put, they pafled to the fide of khat fpeaker whofe opinion they approved, and a majo¬ rity of votes was eafily collefted, without the trouble of counting the numbers. "When the majority was known, the matter was determined, and a fenatus conful- tum was immediately written by the clerks of the houfe, at the feet of the chief magiftrates, and it was figned by all the principal members of the houfe. When there was not a fufficient number of members to make a fenate, the decifion was called fenatus auBoritas, but it was of no force if it did not afterwards pafs into a fena- tus confultum. The fenatus confnlta were at firft left in the cuftody of the kings, and afterward of the confuls, who could foppiefs or preferve them 5 but about the year of Rome 304, they were always depofited in the temple of Ce- Seneca, res, and afterwards in the treafury, by the ediles of the —y-—’ people. SENECA, Lucius Annjeus, a Stoic philolbpher, was born at Corduba in Spain, about the beginning of the Chriftian era, of an equeftvian family, which had probably been tranfplanted thither in a colony from Rome. He was the fecond fon of Marcus Annseus Se¬ neca, commonly called the rhetorician, whofe remains are printed under the title of Suaforice et Controverfee, cum Declamationum Excerpt is; and his youngeft bro¬ ther Annaeus Mela (for there were three of them) had the honour of being lather to the poet Lucan. He was removed to Rome, together with his father and the reft of his family, while he was yet in his infancy. There he was educated in the mort liberal manner, and under the heft matters. He learned eloquence from his fa¬ ther ; but his genius rather leading him to philofophy, he put himfelf under the ftoics Attains, Sotion, and Papirius Fabianus ; men famous in their wry, and of wffiom he has made honourable mention in his writings. It is probable, too, that he travelled when he was young,, lince we find him, in feveral parts of his wmrks, parti¬ cularly in his ^ucef tones Natura/es, making very exa£t and curious obfervations upon Egypt and the Nile.—- But this, though entirely agreeable to his own humour, did not at all correfpond with that fcheme or plan of life which his father had drawn out for him 5 uffio, therefore, forced him to the bar, and put him upon foli- citing for public employments •, fo that he afterwards be¬ came qureftor, praetor, and, as Lipfius will have it, even conful. In the firft year of the reign of Claudius, when Ju¬ lia the daughter of Germanicus was accufed of adul¬ tery by Mefialina, and baniffied, Seneca was baniffied too, being charged as one of the adulterers. Corfica was the feat of his exile, where he lived eight years 'y “ happy in the midft of thofe things which ufually make other people miferable j” inter eas res beatus, quee folent miferos facere : and here he w7rote his books of confolation, addrefl'ed to his mother Helvia, and to his friend Polybius, and perhaps fome of thofe trage¬ dies which go under his name ; for he fays, modo fe levioribus fudiis ibi obleBaJfe. Agrippina being mar¬ ried to Claudius, upon the death of Meffalina, ffie pre¬ vailed with the emperor to recal Seneca from banith- ment ; and afterwards procured him to be tutor to her fon Nero, whom ffie defigned for the empire. Africa- nus Burrhus, a praetorian praefed, was joined with him. in this important charge : and thefe two preceptors, who were entrufted with equal authority, had each his refpec- tive department. By the bounty and generolity of his royal pupil, Seneca acquired that prodigious wealth which rendered him in a manner equal to kings. His houfes and walks were the moft magnificent in Rome.. His villas were innumerable : and he had immenfe fums of money placed out at intereft in almoft every part of the world. The hiftoriap Dio reports him to have had 250,0001. fterling at intereft in Britain alone $ and rec¬ kons his calling it in all at a fum, a» one of the caufes. of a war with that nation. All this ivealth, however, together with the luxury and effeminacy of a court, does not appear to have had any ill effect upon the temper and difpofition of Se¬ neca, He continued abftexnious, exa£t in his manners* and 'SEN [ Seneca, and, above all, free from the vices fo commonly preva- ■—lent in fuch places, flattery and ambition. “ I had ra¬ ther (laid he to Nero) offend you by fpeaking the truth, than pleafe you by lying and flattery : tiialuenm vern offenjere, cjuam placerc adulando.'1'1 How well he ac¬ quitted himfelf in quality of preceptor to his prince, may be known from the live find years of Nero's reign, which have always been confidered as a perfeit pattern of good government; and if that emperor had but been as ob- fervant of his mafter through the whole courle of it, as he was at the beginning, he would have been the de¬ light, and not, as he afterwards proved, the curie and detefiation of mankind. But when Poppaea and Ti- gellinus had got the command of Ins humour, and hur¬ ried him into the mod extravagant and abominable vices, he foon grew weary of his mailer, whole life mult indeed have been a conllant rebuke to him. Seneca, percei¬ ving that his favour declined at court, and that he had many accufers about the prince, who were perpetually whilpering in his ear the great riches ol Seneca, his magnificent houfes and fine gardens, and what a favou¬ rite through means of thefe he wTas grown with the peo¬ ple, made an offer of them all to Nero. Nero refufed to accept them : which, however, did not hinder Seneca from changing his way of life ; for, as I'acitus relates, he “ kept no more levees, declined the ufual civilities which had been paid to him, and, under a pretence of indifpofition, or fome engagement or other, avoided as much as poflible appearing in public.” Nero, in the mean time, who, as it is fuppofed, had difpatched Burrhus by poifon, could not be eafy till he had rid himlelf of Seneca alfo: For Burrhus w7as the manager of his military concerns, and Seneca con¬ duced his civil affairs. Accordingly, he attempted, by means of Cleonicus, a freedman of Seneca, to take him off by poifon ; but this not fucceeding, he ordered him to be put to death, upon an information that he wfas privy to Fi¬ fe’s confpiracy againlt his perfon. Not that he had any real proof of Seneca’s being concerned in this plot, but only that he w’as glad to lay hold of any pretence for deftroy- ing him He left Seneca, hoxvever, at liberty to choofe his manner of dying ; who caufed his veins to be opened immediately. His wife Paulina, who was very young in comparifon of himfelf, had yet the refolution and affeCion to bear him company, and thereupon ordered her veins to be opened at the fame time; but as Nero was not willing to make his cruelty more odious and infupport- able than there feemed occafion for, he gave orders to have her death prevented : upon which her wounds were bound up, and the blood flopped, in juft time enough to fave her ; though, as Tacitus fays, ftie looked fo mi- ferably pale and wan all her life after, that it was eafy to read the lofs of her blood and fpirits in her counte¬ nance. In the mean time, Seneca,, finding his death flow and lingering, defired Statius Annaeus his phyfi- cian to give him a dofe of poifon, which had been pre* pared fome time before in cafe it fliould-be wranted 5 but this not having its ufual effeCy he was carried to a hot bath, where he was at length ftifled with the fleams. He died, as Lipfius conjediures, in the 63d or 64th year of his age, and in about the loth or nth of Ne¬ ro’s reign. Tacitus, on mentioning his death, obferves, that, as he entered the bath, he took of the water, and with it fprinkled fome of his neareft domeftics, faying* “ That he offered thofe libations to Jupiter the Deli¬ verer.” Thefe words are an evident proof that Seneca 141 1 s E . N. was not a Chriftian, as fome have imagined him to Have been } and that the 13 epiftles from Seneca to St Paul, and from St Paul to Seneca, are fuppofititious pieces. _ His philofophical works are well known.—They confift of 124 epijiles and diftindt treatifes j and, except his books of phyfical queflions, are chiefly of the moral kind,, treating of anger, confolation, providence, tranquillity of mind, conflancy, clemency, the fliortnels of life, a happy life, retirement, benefits. He has been juftly cenlured by Quintilian and other critics, as one of the firlt corrupters of the Roman ftyle j but his works are highly valuable, on account of the vaft erudition which they difeover, and the beautiful moral fentiments which they contain. SENECIO, Groundsel •, a genus of plants belong¬ ing to the clals fyngenefia, and to the order ol polyga- mia fuperflua j and in the natural method ranking under the 49th order, Compojitce. See Botany Index. SENEGAL, a part of Negroland in Africa, the boundaries of which are not known. See Guinea. IJle of Senegal, fometimes called Saint Louis, is a fmall ifland in the mouth of the river Senegal, and ac¬ cording to Maikelyne’s tables is fituated in N. Lat. 15.- 53. VV. Long. 16. 31. The Dutch were the firft Eu¬ ropeans who fettled at Senegal j but their colony was expelled by the French in 1687. It was taken by the Englilh in 1692 j and retaken by the French the year following. It was a fecond time taken pofleflion of by the Englilh in 1758 j but in 1779 the French recover¬ ed it, and it was ceded by the Britilh crown by the treaty of 1783. The bell account of this ifland which we have feen, is given in the interefting voyage of M. Saugnier to the. coaft of Africa. This adventurer vifited Senegal in June 1785.. “ The ifland (fays he), properly fpeaking, is only a bank of fand in the middle of the river. It is 1000 geometrical paces long, and about 60 in its greatell width j is almoft on a level with the river and with the fea, being defended from the latter by Barbary points which is of greater elevation than the colony. Ihe eaftern branch of the river is the more confiderable oT the two, being about 400 toifes acrofs y the weitern branch is only from 50 to 200 toifes wide. The ifle conlifts entirely of burning lands, on the barren lurface of which you fometimes meet with feattered flints.,' thrown out among their ballall by veffels coming from- Goree, or with the ruins of buildings formerly eredled by Europeans. There is fcarcely fuch a thing as a- garden upon the ifland j European feeds in general not thriving, here. It is not furprifing that the loil is lo un-- productive j for the air is ftrongly impregnated with lea- fait, which pervades every thing, and confumes even iron in a very Ihort fpace of time. The heats are excef- five, and rendered ftill more infapportable by-the reflec¬ tion of the fand $ fo that from ten in the morning until four in the afternoon it is almoft impoflible to do any- work. During the months of January,, lebruary^-r March, and April, the heats are moderated j but in Auguft and the following months they become fo op- prelfive as even to affeCt the natives themfelves. What effeCt then mnft they have upon the Europeans,^ fudden- ly tranfported into this burning: climate ? The nights are a little lefs fultryy not always, however, but only when the fea-breeze fets in. It is then that the inhabitantsu of the colony breathe a frelher air, for which they have ; be ear. Seneca Senegal, I Senega!. SEN [ 14 been longing the whole of the day • but this air in our cl mate would feem a burning vapour. The nights are neverthelefs troublefome, notwithftanding the comforts or the iea-breeze. i. he inftant the iun is let, we are availed by an infinity of gnats, which are called mufqui- tos; their flings are very painful, and their multitudes incredible. The inhabitants find but a poor defence in their gauze-curtains. For my own part, accufiomed as I had been to live among the Moors, I was but little annoyed by thefe infeas. Being half a favage, I felt no defire to recommend myfelf to the favourable regard cf the fair fex, and I was therefore under no neceflity of taking care of my perfon. In imitation of my former maflers, I fmeared myfelf with butter, and this expedi¬ ent preferved me at all times from thefe impertinent ftingers, thefe fpiteful enemies to the repofe of the hu¬ man kind. “ M the profpea of Senegal is not agreeable to the eye, much lefs are its environs, which are covered over only with land, and overrun with mangoes. It may be laid, without exaggeration, that there is not a more for¬ lorn fituation to be found on the face of the inhabited globe, or a place in which the common neceffaries of life are procured with greater difficulties. Water, that indifpenfable aliment of man, is here not potable. Wells are dug in the fand to the depth of five or fix feet, and water is obtained by thefe means 5 but whatever pains are taken to frefhen it, it ever retains a brackilh tafte. I have diflilled this water myfelf, and obferved that it always had a difagreeable favour, which cannot fail to tie hurtful to the health : it is true, that when the river is high, its ftreams are frefli, but the water is only the more dangerous. It proves the caufe of moft of thofe maladies which carry off the Europeans fo rapidly, that at the end of every three years the colony has a freffi let or inhabitants. Ihe blacks themfelves, although ac- cuftomed to the climate, are not in this feafon free from difeafe.” i he fort of St Louis is a quadrangle, and has two baftions of confiderable ftrength ; but the greateft fecu- rity of the fort is its natural fituation. The cannon of ihe fort are numerous, and the arfenal well fupplied with fmall arms and floras. Befides this fort the 1‘rench had no other upon the river, except Fort St jofeph, which hands about four leagues below the ca- iaraft at Govina, though they had a few faftories in dif¬ ferent parts. The principal commodity of this country is that of gum Senegal (fee GUM-Senegal), which is a valuable branch of commerce, as it is ufed in many arts and ma- nufadtures, particularly by the painters in water-colours, the filk weavers, and dyers. The French import from the river Senegal not only gum-arabic, but elephants teeth, hides, bees-wax, gold- dufl, cotton, oflrich feathers, ambergris, indigo, and civet. Notwithftanding the barrennefs of the fpot, Senegal contains more than 6000 negroes, including the cap¬ tives of the Tapades, or negroes born of the black in¬ habitants of the country. They are never put up to fale, unlefs convi&ed of fome crime. Their huts, con- ftrudfed in the form of bee-hives, and fupported upon lour flakes, furround the habitations of the negro inha¬ bitants. The entire height of thofe huts may rife to about 12 feet, the width in every direflion is commonly 2 2 ] SEN from 10 to 12. 'The beds are compofed of hurdles laid Senegal. upon crofs-bars, fupported by forked flakes at the height' V— of about a foot from the ground, flere the Haves ileep promilcuoully, men, women, girls, and boys. A fire is made in the middle of the hut, which is filled with fmoke, fufficient to ftifle any man but a negro. x he men are tall, and the women are accounted the handfomeft negreffes or all Africa. The Senegalians may be confidered as the moft courageous people of that part of the world, without even excepting the Moors, I heir courage, however, is more nearly allied to teme¬ rity than to bravery. In the courfe of the voyage to Galam, they meet the greateft dangers with gaiety and long •, they dread neither mulket nor cannon, and are equally fearlefs of the cayman or Crocodile. Should one of their companions be killed, and devoured by thefe animals before their face, they are not deterred from plunging into the water, if the working of the (hip re¬ quire it. Thefe excellent qualifications which diftinguifh them, and on which they value themfelves fo much, do not, however, preferve them from the common conta¬ gion of the country, which inclines them all to rapine. They are emulous to furpafs one another in all the arts of over-reaching and fraud. The conduft of the Eu¬ ropeans has, no doubt, encouraged thefe vices as much as the leflbns of the marabous, who inculcate the duty of plundering the Chriftians to the utmoft of their power. The Yolof negroes of Senegal are either Chriftians or Mahometans, or rather one and the other, or with more truth neither ; religion being a matter of indifi'er- ence to them. Thofe on the continent are of the fame way of thinking, and their religious practices are kept up only for the fake of form. A bar of iron, a few beads, will make them change their opinion at will. By fuch means are they afted upon ; a fufficient proof of their want of all religious principle. The marabous, or priefts, and the men of their law, are no better than the reft. “ I have examined the charafter of feveral of this order of men (fays M. Saugnier), and even among the nation of the Poules, who are confidered as great fana¬ tics, I difeovered that they were only publicly attached to their opinions. ‘ This white man (fay they) does fo ; he is better informed than I, and why fhould not I imi¬ tate his example i’'” This way of reafoning is common to all that traft of country. I he colony of Senegal is furrounded with iflands, which, on account of the proximity of the fea, are all more unhealthy than that on which the town is built. They are full of Handing pools, that, when dried up by the fun, exhale a putrid vapour that carries mortality with it, and defolates thefe iflands. It is doubtlefs the fame caufe that takes off fo many of ihe French at Sene¬ gal during the dangerous feafon of the year. This alfo may be in part occafioned by the bad quality of the. wa¬ ter, which flows from the ponds in the neighbourhood of the colony, and though incorporated with that of the river, comes down little agitated by the current, and is eafily diftinguilhed by a vapidnefs of tafte. This parti¬ cular is, in my opinion, effentially worthy of notice, and if properly attended to by our medical men, might be¬ come the means of preferving many lives. SENEGJL-Rtver, fee Nicer. As fo little is known refpefting this river, which is one of the greateft in Africa, any additional information mult be interefting. We S E N f 143 1 SEN We fhall therefore prefent our readers witH the account contained in the communications prefented to the Affo- ciation for promoting the difcovery of the Interior Parts of Africa, which, as far as we know, is the lateft and moft authentic. The river known to Europeans by the name of Niger or Senegal runs on the fouth of the kingdom of Cafhna, in its courfe towards Tombuftou ; and if the report which Ben Alii heard in that town may be credited, it is afterwards loft in the fands on the fouth of the coun¬ try of Tombudtou. In the map (a), only the known part of its courfe is marked by a line j and the fuppofl- titious part by dots. It may be proper to obferve, that the Africans have two names for this river \ that is, Neel il Abeed, or river of the Negroes ; and Neel il Ki- heer, or the great river. They alto term the Nile (that is the E-jyplian river) Neel Shetn; fo that the term Neel, from whence our Nile, is nothing more than the appellative of river ; like Ganges, or Sinde. Of this river the riie and termination are unknown, but the courfe is from eaft to weft. So great is its ra¬ pidity, that, no veffel can afeend its ftrearn ; and fuch is the want of fkill, or fuch the abfence of commercial inducements among the nations who inhabit its borders, that even with the current, neither veflels nor boats are feen to navigate. In one place, indeed, the traveller ftuds accommodations for the paftage of himfelf and or his goods } but even there, though the ferrymen, by the indulgence of the fultan of Cafhna, are exempted from all taxes, the boat which conveys the merchandife is nothing more than an ill-conftn.nfted raft ; for the planks are faftened to the timbers with ropes, and the feams are clofed both within and without by a plafter of tough clay, of which a large provifton is always carried on the raft, for the purpofe of excluding the ftream wherever its entrance is obferved. The depth of the river at the place of paflage, which is more than a hundred miles to the fouth of the city of Cafhna, the capital of the empire of that name, is efti- mated at 23 or 24 feet Englilh. Its depth is from 10 to 1 2 peeks, each of which is 27 inches. Its width is fuch, that even at the illand of Gongoo, where the ferrymen refide, the found of the loudeft voice from the northern ftiore is fcarcely heard ; and at Tom- fcuflou, where the name of Gnewa, or black, is given to the ftream, the width is deferibed as being that of the Thames at Weftminfter. In the rainy feafon it fwells above its banks, and not only floods the adja¬ cent lands, but often fweeps before it the cattle and cottages of the fhort-ftghted or too confident inhabi¬ tants. That the people who live in the neighbourhood of the Niger fliould refufe to profit by its navigation, may :uftly furprife the traveller: but much greater is his uftonilhment, when he finds that even the food which the bounty of the ftream would give, is ufelefsly offered to their acceptance *, for fuch is the rvant of fkill, or furh the fettled dillike of the people to this fort of pro- vifion, that the fifh with which the river abounds are left in undifturbed poffeftion of its waters. SENE it A, or Senega, Rattlefnake-root-, Mill-wort. See Poly gala, Botany and Materia Medica Index. SENESCHAL, QSenefchallus'), derived from the German fein, “ a houfe or place,” and fcale, “ an of¬ ficer,” is a fteward, and fignifies one who has the dif- penfing of juftice in fome particular cafes: As the high lenefchal or fteward of England } fenefchal de la hotel de rei, “ fteward of the king’s houfehold, fenefchal, or fteward of courts, &c.” Co. Lit.6\. Crake's Jurifd. 102. Kitch. 83. See Steward. SENN, a fort of itinerant cow-keeper in Switzerland, particularly in the canton of Appenzeil Theie men do not raife as much hay as is requihte for their cattle during the winter, and fome of them have no grafs lands. To fupply this defect, they employ agents throughout the canton, whofe province it is to inform them where good hay may be obtained, when the fenn, who is in want of fodder, agrees with the more opulent farmers for the winter, to whom he fucceflively drives his cattle when they return from the grafs, in conle- quence of which he often vifits five different places du¬ ring the winter. The perfon who fells the hay provides the fenn with {tabling for his beafts, and with board and lodgings for himfelf and family. The fenn pa^s the ftipulated price for the hay, and allows his hoft as much milk, whey, and a kind of lean cheefe, as may be made ufe of in the family, and alio leaves him the manure of his cows. In the middle of April, the fenn again iffues forth with his herd to the fertile Alps, which he rents during the fummer. Fine cattle are the pride of the cow-keeper who inha¬ bits the Alps. He adorns his heft cows with large bells fufpended from broad thongs, which are manufactured and fold by the inhabitants of the Tyrol. Theie are faftened round the cow’s neck by means of a large buckle. The largeft of thefe bells meafure a foot in diameter, fwelling out in the middle, and tapering to¬ wards the end. The whole peal of bells, including the thongs, is worth 150 guilders, while the apparel of the fenn himfelf, even in his belt attire, is not worth more than 20 guilders, Thefe bells are chiefly worn in the fpring, when driven to the Alps, and in the autumn or winter. It is furprifing to fee how proud and pleafed the cows ftalk forth when ornamented with their bells. One would fcarcely imagine how fenfible thefe animals are of their rank, and even touched with vanity and jealoufy ! Should the leading cow be deprived of her honours, (lie is grieved at the difgrace, which is mani- fefted by her conftant lowing, abftaining from food, and growing lean. The rival, on whom the badge of diftimftion has devolved, feels her marked vengeance, being wounded and perfecuted by her in the moft furir ous manner, until the former either recovers her bell, or is removed from the herd. However Angular this may appear, it is rendered indifputable by the concur¬ ring teftimony of centuries. The voice of the fenn brings the cows together, when difperfed on the Alps, who is then faid to allure them. That the cattle can well diftinguilh the note of their ' keeper, Senr-ka II Serin. (a) The map alluded to is that which accompanies the volume which contains the proceedings of the A facia- tions. This work was printed in 1791. ■Senna, Sennaar. JVoodville's Medical botany. S.ond. Med. your. vol. viii. SEN [ *44 1 SEN keeper, appears from their haftening to him, though at a great diftance. He furnidies that cow which is in the habit of ftraying fartheft with a fmall bell, and by her arrival he knows that all the reft are affembled. SENNA, the leaf of the caffia fentta of Linmeus. See Cassia, Botany and Materia Medic a Index. Senna appears to have been cultivated in England in the time of Parkinfon (1640) j and Miller tells us, that by keeping thefe plants in a hotbed all the fummer, he frequently had them in flower *, but adds, it is very rarely that they perfe6t their feeds in England. There can be little doubt, however, but that fome of the Bri- tifh poffeflions may be found well enough adapted to the growth of this vegetable, and that the patriotic views of the Society for encouraging Arts, See. which has offered a reward to thofe who fucceed in the at¬ tempt, will be ultimately accompliihed. Senna, which is in common ufe as a purgative, was firft known to the Arabian phyficians Serapion and Mefue : the firft among the Greeks who takes any no¬ tice of it is Aftuarius, but he only fpeaks of the fruit, and not of the leaves. To remove the difagreeable tafte of this medicine, Dr Cullen recommends coriander feeds $ and, for preventing the gripings with which it is fome- t?imes attended, he thinks the warmer aromatics, as car¬ damoms or ginger, would be more effe&ual. The Senna Italica, or blunt-leaved fenna, is a variety ©f the Alexandrian fpecies j which, by its cultivation in the fouth of France (Provence), has been found to af- fume this change. It is lefs purgative than the pointed¬ leaved fenna, and is therefore to be given in larger do- fes. It was employed as a cathartic by Dr Wright at Jamaica, where it grows on the fand banks near the fea. SENNAAR, a country of Africa, bordering upon Abyflinia, with the title of a kingdom ; the prefent go¬ vernment of which was eftablilhed in the 16th century by a race of negroes named, in their own language, Skillook. This country, together with all the northern parts of Africa, had been overrun by the Saracens du¬ ring the rapid conquefts of the caliphs; but inftead of erecting any diftimft principalities here, as in other parts, they had incorporated themfelves with the old inhabitants called Shepherds, whom they found at their arrival *, had converted them to their religion, and be¬ come one people with them. In 1504 the Shillook, a jpeople before unknown, came from the weftern banks of the river Bahiar el Abiad, which empties itfelf into the Nile, and conquered the country j allowing the A- rabs, however, to retain their poffeflions on condition of paying them a certain tribute. Thefe founded the city of Sennaar, and have ever fince continued to carry on an intercourfe with Egypt in the way of merchandife. At the eftablilhment of their monarchy the whole na¬ tion were Pagans, but foon after became converts to Mohammedanifm, and took the name of Funge, an ap¬ pellation fignifying “ lords or conquerors,” and like- wife free citizens. Mr Bruce, who paffed through this country in his return from Abyflinia, gives a lift of 20 kings who have reigned in it fince the conqueft of the Shillook. This country is inhabited by a people fo barbarous and brutifh, that no hiftory of them can be expefted. ^Jne of the moft remarkable of their cuftoms is, that the king afeends the throne with the expectation of be- J ing murdered whenever the general council of the ua- SernaaP- tion thinks proper. The dreadful office of executioner belongs to one Angle officer, ftyled, in the language of the country, Sid el Coom ; and who is always a relation j>rl/ce>s of the monarch himfelf. It was from his regifters that Travels, Mr Bruce took the lift of the kings already mention- vpl. iv. ed, with the number of years they reigned, and which may therefore be received as authentic. The Sid el Coorn in office at the time that Mr Bruce vifited this country was named Achmet, and was one of his beft friends. He had murdered the late king, with three of his fons, one of whom was an infant at its mothers bread j he was alfo in daily expectation of performing the fame office to the reigning fovereign. He was by no means referved concerning the nature of his office, but anfwered freely every queftion that was put to him. When alked by Mr Bruce why he murdered the king’s young fon in his father’s prefence ? he anfwered, that he did it from a principle of duty to the king himfelf* who had a right to fee his fon killed in a lawful and re¬ gular manner, which w as by cutting his throat with a fword, and not in a more painful or ignominious way, which the malice of his enemies might poflibly have in- flidled. The king, he faid, was very little concerned at the fight of his fon’s death, but he was fo very unwilling to die himfelf, that he often preffed the executioner to let him efcape j but finding his intreaties ineffe&ual, he fubmitted at laft without refiftance. On being alked whether he was not afraid of coming into the prefence of the king, confidering the office he might poffibly have to perform ? he replied, that he was not in the lead; afraid on this account $ that it was his duty to be with the king every morning, and very late in the evening j that the king knew he would have no hand in promoting his death ; but that, when the matter was abfolutely deter¬ mined, the reft was only an affair of decency *, and it would undoubtedly be his own choice, rather to fall by the hand of his own relation in private than by a hired affaffin, an Arab, or a Chriftian flave, in the fight of the populace. Baady the king’s father, having the misfor¬ tune to be taken prifaner, w*as fent to Atbara to Welled Haffan the governor of that province to be put to death there. But the king, who was a ftrong man, and always armed, kept fo much upon his guard, that Welled could •find no opportunity of killing him but by running him through the back with a lance as he was walhing his hands. For this Welled himfelf was afterwards put to death; not on account of the murder itfelf, but becaufe, in the firft place, he, who was not the proper executioner^ had prefumed to put the king to death 5 and, in the next, becaufe he had done it with a lance, whereas the only lawful inftrument was a fword. On the death of any of the fovereigns of this coun¬ try, his eldeft fon fucceeds to the throne of courfe j on which as many of his brothers as can be found are ap¬ prehended, and put to death by the Sid el Coom in the manner already related. Women are excluded from the fovereignty here as well as in Abyffinia. The princeffes of Sennaar, however, are worfe off than thofe of Abyflinia, having no fettled income, nor being treat¬ ed in any degree better than the daughters of pri¬ vate perfons. The king is obliged, once in his life¬ time, to plough and fow a niece of ground ; whence* he is named Baady, the “ countryman or peafant j” a SEN .Sennaar. title as common among the monarchs of Sennaar as Cas- ‘•“■""Y""”—' fat was among the Romans. The royal family were originally negroes} but as the kings frequently marry Arab women, the white colour of the mother is commu¬ nicated to the child. Jfhis, we are told by hii 11 ruee, is invariably the cafe, when a negro man of Sennaar mar¬ ries an Arab woman 5 and it holds equally good, when an Arab man marries a negro wmman ; and he likewife informs us, that he never law one black Arab all the time he was at Sennaar. _ * The foil and climate of this country is extremely un¬ favourable both to man and beaft. The men are ftrong and remarkable for their fize, but (hort lived; and there is fuch a mortality among the children, that were it not for a conilant importation of (laves, the metropolis would be depopulated. The fhortnets of their lives, however, may perhaps be accounted for, irom then in¬ dulging themfelves from tneir infancy in every kind of excefs. No horfe, mule, or afs, will live at Sennaar or for many miles round it. X"he cale is the fame with bullocks, flieep, dogs, cats, and poultry ; _ all of them muft go to the lands every half-year. It is difficult to account for this mortality ; though Mr Bruce affures us it is the cafe everywhere about the metropolis of this country, where the foil is a fat earth, during the firft feafon of the rains. Two greyhounds which he brought along with him from Atbara, and the mules he brought from Abyffinia, lived only a few weeks after their arri¬ val at Sennaar. Several of the kings of Sennaar have tried to keep lions, but it was always found impoffible to preferve them alive after the rains. They will live, however, as well as other quadrupeds, in the fands, at no great diftance from the capital. No fpecies of tree ex¬ cept the lemon flowers near this city ; the cultivation of the rofe has often been attempted, but always without fuccefs. In other refpefts, however, the foil of Sennaar is exceedingly fertile, being faid to yield 300 fold ; but this is thought by Mr Bruce to be a great exaggeration. It is all (own with dora or millet, which is the principal food of the people ; wheat and rice are alfo produced here, which are fold by the pound, even in years of plen¬ ty. The foil all round is ftrongly impregnated with fait, fo that a fufficient quantity to ferve the inhabitants is ex¬ tra fted from it. Sennaar, a city of Africa, the capital of the king¬ dom of that name. It Hands according to Mr Bruce’s cbfervations, in N. Lat. 130 34' 36", E. Long. 330 30' 30", on the weft fide of the Nile, and clofe upon the banks of it; the ground on which it Hands being juft high enough to prevent the inundation. The town is very populous, and contains a great many houfes. In Poncet’s time they were all of one ftory; but now moft of the officers have houfes of two ftories high. They are built of clay mixed with a very little ftraw, and have all flat roofs; which (hows that the rains here muft be much lefs in quantity than to the fouthward. During the time of Mr Bruce’s refidence here, however, there was one week of continual rain, and the Nile, af¬ ter loud thunder and great darknefs to the fouth, in- creafed violently ; the whole ftream being covered with the wrecks of houfes and their furniture ; fo that he fuppofed it had deftroyed many villages to the fouth¬ ward. About t 2 miles to the north-weft of Sennaar is a colleftion of villages named Shaddly, from a great faint of. that name, who conftrufted feveral granaries here. Yol. XIX. Part I. SEN Thefe are no other than large pits dug in the ground, Sennaar, and well plaftered in the infide with clay, then filled with grain when it is at its loweft price, and afterwards covered up and plaftered again at top : thefe pits they call matamores. On any profpeA of dearth they are opened, and the corn fold to the people. About 24 miles north of Shaddly there is another fet of granaries name Wed- Aboud, ftill greater than Shaddly ; and upon thefe two the fubfiftence of the Arabs principally de¬ pends : for as thefe people are at continual war with each other, and direct their fury rather againft the crops than the perfons of their enemies, the whole of them would be unavoidably ftarved, were it not for this ex¬ traordinary refource. Small villages of foloiers are fcat- tered up and down this country to guard the grain af¬ ter it is town, which is only that fpecies of millet named dora; the foil, it is faid, being incapable of producing any other. There are great hcilows made in the earth at proper diftances throughout the country, which fill with water in the rainy feafon, and are afterwards of great ufe to the Arabs as they pafs from the cultivated parts to the fands. The fly, which is fuch a dreadful enemy to the cattle, is never feen to the northward of Shaddly. To the weftward of thefe granaries the country is quite full of trees as far as the river Abiad, or El-aice. In this extenfive plain there arife two ridges of moun¬ tains, one called Jibbed Moira, or the Mountain of water; the other Jibbel Segud, or the Cold Mountain. Both of them enjoy a fine climate, and ferve for a protection to the farms about Shaddly and Aboud already mentioned. Here alfo are fortrefles placed in the way of the Arabs, which ferve to oblige them to pay tribute in their flight from the cultivated country, during the rains, to the dry lands of Atbara. Each of thefe diftrifts is governed by a defeendant of their ancient and native princes, who long refilled all the power of the Arabs. Sacri¬ fices of a horrid nature are faid to have been offered up on thefe mountains till about the year 1554, when one of the kings of Sennaar befieged firft one and then the other of the princes in their mountains; and having forced them to furrender, lie faftened a chain of gold to each of their ears, expofed them in the market place at Sennaar, and fold them for Haves at lefs than a farthing each. Soon after this they were circumcifed, convert¬ ed to the Mahometan religion, and reftored to their kingdoms. “ Nothing (fays Mr Bruce) is more pleafant than Yol. iv. the country,around Sennaar in the end of Auguft and P-475- beginning of September. The grain, being now fprung up, makes the whole of this immenfe plain appear a le¬ vel green land, interfperfed with great lakes of water, and ornamented at certain intervals with groups of vil¬ lages ; the conical tops of the. houfes prefenting at a di¬ ftance the appearance of finall encampments. Through this very extenfive plain winds the Nile, a delightful ri¬ ver there, above a mile broad, full to the very brim, but never overflowing. Everywhere on thefe banks are feen herds of the moft beautiful cattle of various kinds. The banks of the Nile about Sennaar referable the plea- fanteft part of Holland in the fummer feafon ; but. foon after, when the rains ceafe, and the fun exerts its utmoft influence, the dora begins to ripen, the leaves to turn yellow and to rot, the lakes to putrefy, fmell, become full of vermin, and all its beauty fuddenly difappears: bare fcorched Nubia returns, and all its terrors of poi- T fonous [ 145 J 4 SEN r 146 ] SEN fonous winds and moving fands, glowing and ventilated ^ with fultry blafts, which are followed by a troop of ter- rible attendants; epilepfies, apoplexies, violent fevers, obftinate agues, and lingering painful dyfenteries, Hill more cbflinate and mortal. “ War and treafon feem to be the only employment of this horrid people, whom Heaven has feparated by al- molt impalfable deterts from the reft of mankind ; con¬ fining them to an accurfed fpot, feemingly to give them an earneft in time of the only other curfe which he has referved to^them for an eternal hereafter.” With regard to the climate of the country round Sennaar, Mr Bruce has feveral very curious obferva- tions. The thermometer rifes in the fliade to 119 de¬ grees ; but the degree indicated by this inftrument does not at all correfpond with the fenfations occafioned by it; nor with the colour of the people who live under it. “ Nations of blacks ( '* s he) live within latitude 13 and 14 degrees; about 10 degrees fouth of them, nearly under the line, all the people are white, as we had an opportunity of obferving daily in the Galla. Sennaar, which is in latitude 13 degrees, is hotter by the ther¬ mometer 50 degrees, when the fun is moft diftant from it, than Gondar, wdiich is a degree farther fouth, when the fun is vertical.—Cold and hot (fays our author) are terms merely relative, not determined by the lati¬ tude, but elevation of the place. When, therefore, w'e fay //o/, fome other explanation is necelfary concerning the place where we are, in order to give an adequate idea of the fenfations of that heat upon the body, and the ef- fcdls of it upon the lungs. The degree of the ther¬ mometer conveys this but very imperfedlly; 90 degrees is exceflively hot at Loheia in Arabia Felix ; and yet the latitude of Loheia is but 15 degrees; whereas 90 degrees at Sennaar is only warm as to fenfe ; though Sennaar, as we have already faid, is in latitude 13 de¬ grees. “ At Sennaar, then, I call it cold, when one fully clothed and at reft feels himfelf in vrant of fire. I call it cool, when one fully clothed and at reft feels he could bear more covering all over, or in part, than he has at that time. I call it temperate, when a man fo clothed, and at reft, feels no fuch want, and can take moderate exercife, fuch as walking about a room without fweat- ing. I call it Do arm, when a man, fo clothed, does not fweat when at reft; but, on taking moderate exer¬ cife, fweats, and again cools. I call it hot, when a man at reft, or with moderate exercife, fweats exceffively. I rail if very hot, when a man with thin, or little clo¬ thing, fweats much, though at reft. I call it excejfive hot, when a man, in his fhirt and at reft, fweats excef¬ fively, udien all motion is painful, and the knees feel feeble, as if after a fever. I call it extreme hot, when the (Length fails, a difpofition to faint comes on, a ftraitnefs is found in the temples, as if a fmall cord was drawn tight about the head, the voice impaired, the Ikin dry, and the head feems more than ordinarily large and light. This, I apprehend, denotes death at hand ; but this is rarely if ever effefted by the fun alone, without the addition of that poifoneus wind which purfued us through Atbara, where it has, no doubt, contributed to the total extinfrion of every thing that hath the breath of life. A thermometer, graduated upon this fcale, would exhibit a figure very different from the common one; for I am convinced by experiment, that a web of the fineft mufiin, wrapt round the body at Sennaar, will occafion at mid-day a greater fenfation of heat in the bo¬ dy, than a rife oi 5 degiees in the thermometer ol Fah¬ renheit. “ At Sennaar, from 70 to 78 degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer is cool; from 79 to 92 temperate ; at 92 degrees begins warmth. Although the degree of the thermometer marks a greater heat than is felt by the body of us ft rangers,< it feems to me that the fenfations *'f the natives bear ftill a lefs proportion to that degree than ours. On the 2d of Auguft, while I was lying perfectly enervated on a carpet in a room deluged with water at 12 o’clock, the thermometer at 116, I faw feveral black labourers pulling down a houfe, working with great vigour, without any fymptoms of being in¬ commoded.” The drefs of the people of Sennaar confifts only of a long fliirt of blue cloth, which wraps them up from the under part of the neck to the feet. It does not, however, conceal the neck in the men, though it does in the women. The men fometimes have a falh tied about their middle ; and both men and women go bare¬ footed in the houfes, whatever their rank may be. The ftoors of their apartments, efpecially thofe of the wo¬ men, are covered with Perfian carpets. Both men and women anoint themfelves, at leaft once a-day, with ca¬ mel’s greafe mixed with civet, which, they imagine, foftens their Ikins, and preferves them from cutane¬ ous eruptions; of which they are fo fearful, that they confine themfelves to the houfe if they obferve the fmalleft pimple on their ikins. With the fame view of preferving their ikins, though they have a clean fhirt every day, they ileep with a greaied one at night, having no other covering but this. Their bed is a tanned bull’s hide, which this conftant greafing foftens very much ; it is alfo very cool, though it gives a fmell to their bodies from which they cannot be freed by any: waftung. Our author gives a very curious defcription of the queens and ladies of the court at Sennaar. He had accefs to them as a phyiician, and was permitted to pay his vifit alone. He was firft ihown into a large fquare apartment, where there were about 50 black women, all quite naked excepting a very narrow piece of cotton rag about their waifts. As he was mufing whether thefe were all queens, one of them took him by the hand, and led him into another apartment much better lighted than the former. Here he faw three women fitting upon a bench or fofa covered with blue Surat cloth ; they themfelves being clothed from the neck to the feet with cotton fhirts of the fame colour. Thefe were three of the king’s waves; his favourite, who was one of the number, appeared to be about fix feet high, and fo corpulent that our traveller imagined her to be the largeft creature he had feen next to the elephant and rhinoceros. Her features perfectly refembled thofe of a negro : a ring of gold paifed through her under lip, and weighed it down, till, like a flap, it covered her chin, leaving her teeth bare, which w^ere fmall and very fine. The iniide of her lip was made black with anti¬ mony. Her ears reached down to her ihoulders, and had the appearance of wings : there was a gold ring in each of them about five inches in diameter, and fome- WThat fmaller than a man’s little finger ; the weight of w’hich had drawn down the hole where her ear was SEN [ 147 ] SEN Setihaar pierced fo much that three fingers might eafily pafs !1 above the ring. She had a gold necklace like that Senones. capej Efc/avage, of feveral rows, one below another } v—^ w^jc^ were hUng ro vs of feqjins pierced. She had two manacles of gold upon her ancles larger than thofe ufed for chaining felons. Our author could not imagine how it was polliole for her to walk with them, till he was informed that they were hollow. The others were drefied much in the lame manner j only there was one who had chains coming from her ears to the outiide of each noliril, where they were fattened. A ring was alfo put through the griltle ot her nofe, and which hung down to the opening of her mouth-, having ail together fomething of the appearance of a horfe’s bridle ; and Mr Bruce thinks that (lie mult have breathed with dif¬ ficulty. The poorer fort of the people of Sennaar live on the dour or bread of millet •, the rich make puddings of this, toafling the Hour before the fire, and putting milk and butter into it ; befides which they ule beef partly roaited and partly raw. They have very fine and fat horned cattle, but the meat commonly fold in the market is camel’s flelh. The liver and fpare rib of this animal are always eaten raw } nor did our author fee one in da nee to the contrary all the time he was in the country. Hog’s flelh is not fold in the market; but all the com¬ mon people of Sennaar eat it openly ; thofe in office, who pretend to be Mahometans, doing the fame in fecret. There are no manufaflures in this country, and the principal article of trade is blue Surat cloth. In for¬ mer times, when caravans could pafs withfafety, Indian goods were brought in quantities from Jidda to Sen¬ naar, and then difperfed over the country of the blacks. The returns were made in gold, a powder called tibbar, civet, rhinocerofes horns, ivory, oftrich feathers, and above all Haves or giafs, more of thefe being exported from Sennaar than from all the eaft of Africa. This trade, however, as well as that of the gold and ivory, is almofl: deftroyed ; though the gold is Hill reputed to be the bell and pureft in Africa, and is therefore bought at Mocha to be carried to India, where it all centres at laffr SENNERTUS, Daniel, an eminent phyfician, was born in 1572 at Breilaw ; and in 1593 he was lent to Wittemberg, where he made great progrefs in philo- fophy and phyfic. He vifited the univerfities of Letp- lic, Jena, Francfort on the Oder, and Berlin ; but foon returned to Wittemberg, w'here he was promoted to the degree of doftor of phyfic, and foon after to a profelfor- ffiip in the fame faculty. He was the firtl who intro¬ duced the fludy of chemifiry into that univerfity ; he gained a great reputation by his works and prafiice, and was very generous to the poor. He died of the plague at Wittemberg, in 1637. He raifed himfelf enemies by contradicting the ancients. He thought the ieed of all living creatures animated, and that the foul of this feed produces organization. He was accufed of imniety for afierting that the fouls of beads are not ma¬ terial 5 for this was affirmed to be the fame thing with > itfierting that they are immortal ; but he rejeCIed this confequence, as he well might do. See METAPHYSICS, Part III. chan. vi. SENONES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gal¬ lia Celtica, fituated on the Sequana to the fouth of the Pariiii, near the confluence of the Jeauna or Yonne with Seiiones the above mentioned river. Their molt confiderable ex- t! ploit was their invafion ol Italy, and taking and burn- . S£r'^‘ ing Rome, as related under that article. This was done by a colony of them long before tranfported into Italy, and fettled on the Adriatic. Their capital, Agendicum in Gaul, was in the lower age called Senones, now Sens, In Italy the Senones extended themfelves as far as the river Aefis 5 but were afterwards driven beyond the Ru¬ bicon, which became the boundary of Gallia Cifalpina? (Polybius, Strabo.) SENSATION, in Philofophy, the perception of ex¬ ternal objeCIs by means of the fenfes. See Metaphy¬ sics, Part I. chap. i. SENSE, a faculty of the foul whereby it perceives external objeCls by means of the impreffions they make on certain organs of the body. See METAPHYSICS, Part I. and Anatomy, N° 137, &c. Common SENSE, is a term that has been varioufiy ufed both by ancient and modern writers. With fome it has been fynonymous with public fenfe; with others it has denoted prudence ; in certain inftances, it has been confounded with fome of the powers of taile ; and, ac¬ cordingly, thofe who commit egregious blunders with regard to decorum, faying and doing what is offenfive to their company, and inconfiftent with their own cha- rafler, have been charged with a defeft in common fenfe. Some men are diftingulffied by an uncommon acutenefs in difeovering the characters of others; and this talent has been fometimes called common fenfe; fi- milar to which is that ufe of the term, which makes it to fignify that expeiience and knowledge of life which is acquired by living in fociety. To this mean¬ ing Quintilian refers, fpeaking of the advantages of a public education : Senfum ipjum qui communis dicitur, ubi dfeet, cum fe a congrejfu, qui non hominibus fo/um, fed mutis quoque animalibus naturalis cf,fegregarit ? Lib. i. cap. 2. But the term common fenfe hath in modern times been ufed to fignify that power of the mind which perceives truth, or commands belief, not by progreffive argumen¬ tation, but by an inflantaneous, inftindlive, and irrefifti- ble impulfe ; crerived neither from education nor from habit, but from nature ; a£ling independently of our will, whenever its objeft is prelented, according to an eitn- blilhed law, and therefore called fenfe ; and afting in a fimilar manner upon all, or at leaf! upon a great majo- * rity of mankind, and therefore called common fenfe. See Metaphysics, N° 127. Moral SENSE, is a determination of the mind to be pleafed with the contemplation of thofe affeClions, ac¬ tions, or ch?.ra£lers, of rational agents, which we call good or virtuous. This moral fenfe of beauty in aftions and affeflions may appear ftrange at firfl view ; fome of our moralifts themfelves are offended at it in Lord Shaftefbury, as be¬ ing accuftomed to deduce every approbation or averfion from rational views of intend!. It is certain that his Lordffiip has carried the influence of the moral fenre very far, and fome of his followers have carried it far¬ ther. The advocates for the felnfli fyftem feem to drive their opinions to the oppofite extreme, and we have elfe- where endeavoured to fhow that the truth lies between the contending parties. See Moral Philosophy, N® Public Senfes. SEN [ 148 ] SEN Public SENSE is defined by the noble author of the Chaiafteriilics to be an innate propenfity to be pleafed with the happinefs of others, and to be uneafy at their mifery. It is found, he fays, in a greater or lefs degree in all men, and was fometimes called or fenfus communis, by ancient writers. Of the reality of this public fenfe we have great doubts. The conduct of favages, who are more under the influence of original inltindt than civilized men, gives no countenance to it. Their affedtions feem all to be lelfilh, or at leafi: to fpring from felt-love variouf- ly modified. For the happinefs of their wives they have very little regard, confidering them merely as in- flruments of their own pleafure, and valuing them for nothing elfe. Hence they make them toil, while they themfelves indulge inliftlefs idlenefs. To their children we believe they exhibit ftrong fymptoms of attachment, as foon as they derive afliftance from them in war, or in the bufinefs of the chace 5 but during the helplefs years of infancy, the child is left by the lelfifh father wholly to the care and protedlion of its wretched mother 5 who, impelled by the Jlorge of all females to their young, cheriflies her offspring with great fondnefs.— The lavage is, indeed, fufceptible of ftrong attachments, fimilar to that which we call friendlhip ; but fuch at¬ tachments are no proofs of difinterefted benevolence, or what his Lordihip calls the public fenfe. Two barbarous heroes are probably firft linked together by the ob- fervation of each other’s prowTefs in war, or their Ikill in purfuing their game 5 for fuch obfervalion cannot fail to fhow them that they may be ufeful to one another; and we have elfewhere fhown how real friendfhip may Ipring from fentiments originally felfifh. The favage is very much attached to his horde or tribe, and this at¬ tachment refembles patriotifm : but patriotifm itfelf is not a fentiment of pure benevolence delighting in the happinefs of others, and grieving at their mifery 5 for the patriot prefers his own country to all others, and is not very fcrupulous with relpcdf to the redlitude of the means by which he promotes its intereft, or deprefles its rivals. The favage purines with relentlefs rigour the enemies of himfelf or of the tribe to whjch he belongs; fticws no mercy to them when in his power, but puts them to the cruelleft death, and carries their fcalps to the leader of his party. Thefe fadls, which cannot be controverted, are perfedlly irreconcileable with innate benevolence, or a public fenfe comprehending the whole race of men ; and {hew the truth of that theory by which we have in another place endeavoured to account for all the paflions, focial as well as felfifh. See Pas¬ sion. SENSES, Pleasures and Pairs of. The natural agreeablenefs, difagreeablenefs and indifference of our ienfations and perceptions, prefent to the mind an im¬ portant and extenfive field of inquiry ; and on this fub- je£f we ftiall here make a few obfervations. All our fenfes have been certainly beftowed upon us for wife and beneficent purpofes; and, accordingly, we find, that all of them, when properly cultivated, orexercifed and im¬ proved, are capable of affording us much pleafure. The ienfes of fmell and of tafte feem rather intended for the prefervation of our animal exiftence, and in this point of view are properly an objeff of the natural hiftciy of man 5 whilft the other three feem to be more peculiarly in¬ tended for our mental improvement, and accordingly form an objeft of intclledfual and of moral philofophy. Senfes. And agreeably to this we know that we derive a great11 N~~ deal of very ufeful knowledge, in an eafy and fimple manner, concerning the objedls that furround us, in the early part of life, from all the fenfes, particularly from fight and touch, and this too without labour or ftudy. But this is not the only purpofe for which the fenles were defigned. It being thus certain, that the fenfes were beftowed upon us partly to prelerve our animal exiftence, and partly for our mental improvement, it feems reafonable, even a prion, to expedt that nature would attach fome pleafure to fuch ufe and exercife of them, as are calcu¬ lated to promote thefe ends, and pain to the contrary; particularly in thole inftances in which fhe has left the management of them fubjeft to our own controul. And accordingly we cannot but obferve what delight we de¬ rive from our fenfes, efpecially in the morning of life, by which it would feem, that nature intended thus win- ningly to invite us to the proper exercife and improve¬ ment oi them •, and as it were unconfcioufly, acquire much ufetul knowledge. It is this fpecies of pleafure that fupports and excites boys in the conftant and often immoderate exercife of their organs of voluntary mo¬ tion ; the powers of which are thus increafed and invi¬ gorated. The exercife and improvement of the fenfes being fubfervient to our intelledfual improvement, nature has alfo kindly attached much refined and rational pleafure to the mental exertions; fo that we are thus {educed, as it wrere, to the cultivation of the various extraordinary powers and faculties of the mind. It is evident that nature has given fuch organs and faculties to man, as are calculated not only to make him live, but alfo to render life agreeable. Here too we obtain a flight glimpfe at leail of fome of the final cau- fes of the pleafures of fenfe. But if it be alkcd how it happens, that there are fuch wide diverfities between our fenfations, fomc being by nature very agreeable to all men, and fome as difagreeable, whilft there are others fo indifferent, as to give neither pleafure nor pain, we muft contefs, that we can give no fatisfadory anfwer, to fliew how fo many very different fenfations are pro¬ duced by various kinds of impreffiens made on certain organs of the body, and how all thefe different impref- fions excite fuch fenfations as fuggeft not only corief- ponding perceptions and external qualities, but at the fame time affeft the mind with pleafure, pain, trouble, anxiety, or difguft. To be fuccefsful in thefe inquiries, we muft prefuppofe fome knowledge of the nature of the connexion fubfifting between the mind and body, which there is reafon to think is placed beyond the limits pre- {cribed by nature to human refearch. The pleafure or pain which conftantly attends certain fenfations is rot uniform in degree, but varies confider- ably, not only in different individuals, but even in the fame perfons at different times. It is not thus with the fenfations themfelves. Thefe are always conftant and uniform. The fame kind of impreflion, when the or¬ gans &c. are found, uniformly and invariably produce fimilar fenfations; and thefe are as invariably followed by the perception of their own peculiar exciting caufes.- For any particular imprefficn is never known to excite in the fame perfon a new fenfation, or the perception of an external objeff different from that which itprevioufty fuggefted, SEN [ 149 ] SEN, Senfes. fueecfled excepting in cafes of difeafe. And when it manner, we are unable to explain it farther than by s™fa' does r^r-lv occur, as in thofe who cannot dhtinguhh a faying, fince the taft is unqueftxonable, that iuch is the —^ particular colour, fraell or tafte, from certain others, nature of the human conihtution. Of the efteds them- we uniformly attribute it to difeafe or malconformation. felves, no man can entertain a doubt j and them cauies, Were we not thus to have uniformly fimilar fenfations though at prefent unknown, may by tune and inquiry -nd perceptions of external objeds from limilar impref- be further developed and Amplified. “ I he labyrinth, lions the fenfes would not be at all fubfervient to our fays Dr Reid, “ may be too intricate, and. the thread inteliedual improvement ; fince, by giving different lef- too fine, to be traced through all its windings 5 but it fons concerning the fame or fimilar objeds at 'different we flop where we can trace it no farther, and fecure the times, they would render it impofiible for us to be cer- ground we have, gained, there is no harm done } a tain of any thing, or to benefit by experience. quicker eye may in time trace it further. . The effeds of cuftom, which are at all times fo con- Thefe principles are capable m affording us ftill far- fiderable and evident with refped both to the mind and ther explanations. Why are new femations always more body, (as in the cafe of particular organs or faculties agreeable and variety fo pleafing ? Eecaufe they fix the much improved by attention and exercife,) have little or attention more, and are not as yet blunted by frequent no influence at all in interrupting or modifying this uni- repetition or by habit. It is becaufe fome fenfatrons formity in our fenfations and perceptions. For no found, lofe their wonted effeds by cuftom and by repetition, or properly organized perfon will, either naturally or that we require ftronger ones, or at leaft ftronger im- by cuftom, ever miftake hardnefs for foftnefs, red for p.reffions on the organs and nerves, to mcreafe or con- green, or fweet for bitter. But the influence of cuftom tinue our pleafur.es. It is alfo m confequence o± then in modifying the pains and pleafures of fenfe is well becoming lefs poignant through habit that we neglect known and confiderable. For a perfon, who can moft fo many pleafures, which we hardly know' to be iuch, accurately diftinguifh fweetnefs from fournefs, will at till they have flown for ever ; and it is oecaufe m the fame time, either by particular conformation, or the morning of life evdy thing has moie no1, ej.y, and be- more frequently in confequence of ufe and habit, prefer caufehabit hasnot deftroyed theii leliin,that the pleafnres wormwood or tobacco to honey. °f youth are much more intenfe than thofe of ago. -f f 0 But although we may defpair of being ever able to degree of pleafure is fimilar to that which a blind man difeover the phyfical caufe of the pleafures and pains of would feel on being made to ice, or to that whicn a man the fenfes, we may, however, advance a little by ob- would enjoy on fuddenly acquiring a. new lenfitive fa- fervlng and regiftering particular fa£ls. It is, accord- cu-lty, although by long uie and haoit tnefe pleamres jngly, of ufe to remark, that every fpecies of fenfation, are at prefent for the moft part or wholly blotted away, if its nature be otherwife unchanged, is agreeable or Although moft fenfations, when ftrong and livery difagreeable in proportion to its • ftrenglh or intenfenefs. enough to make themfelves accurately and eafily diflin- FoMthere is no" fenfation, however agreeable, that will guifhed, generally pleafe moft, each in its own kind and not become difagreeable, and even intolerable, if it be manner $ full, as there are difierent kinds ci pw:aure, dif- immoderately intenfe. Whilft on the contrary, thofe, ferent fenfations may pleafe the mind in various ways 5 and which by their ftrength and nature are very troublefome, accordingly, it is not rrom the luftre of the midday fun, if rendered more mild and moderate become not only nor from the beautiful and lively appearance of all na- lolerable, but agreeable. Thus, with refpedl to the ture at noon, lolely that the ejes deuve pleaiine, any fenfes it would ftem, that pain and pleafure are only more than grand mufical founds are the only things that different degrees of the fame feeling, and when we con- pleafe the ear. For we often contemplate with a very fider the great varieties of which the fenfation, not on- different and a very confiderable degree of pleafure the ]y of different organs, but even of any one of them, is fubhme and awful icenes of natuie, the twilight uarkireis. fufceptible, and that each degree of thefe may be ac- of the. ftiady grove, and even the gloomy horror of companded with pleafure or pain, more or lefs, rve muft right itfelf, \v e liften with delight to the tempeft. conclude that the pains and pleafures of fenfe are capa- fhaking the foreft, as well as to the genUe muimurs. or ble-of numberlefs modifications both in degree and 111 the palling ftream. i here is even a.time when nothing j.jncg gives fo much pleafure as darknefs, filence, and the ab- We frequently obferve, that fenfations which were at fence of all fenfation. firft agreeable, if often repeated, lofe their relith, Amidil the-great variety of good and evil vvitn wnich though the nature and ftrength of the impreftions be we are eveiy where furrounded, it. is a matter of the the fame ; whilft others from being at firft very difa- higheft importance to be able, to oifeern aright. I his greeable, as the tafte of tobacco and opium, become we ftioukl be incapable of doing were we not endowed very pleafing, though the nature and ftrength of the with agreeable as well as painful femations. dhele fcr\e impreftions have fuffered no change. For the cxplana- to direQ our choice.. Whatever contributes in any de- lion of fuch faffs as thefe we muft have recourfe to the gree to our prefervation and .to the improvement of cur eftecls of cuftom. Thus, in both thefe oppofite cafes, organs and faculties, is accompanied with pleafure} and tire fenfations from being often repeated, lofe part of on the contrary, wrhen we aie thieatened vyith dangei a the ftrength, and of the novelty, of courfe, of their firft painful fenfation gives us the alarm. It is to the efta- imprefiions ■, and, with refpecl to the former inftance, bhfhment of this law that we are rndebted .01 the oura- being unable to command the attention, become in the tion of our lives, the improved and vigoious llaie of our courfe of time almoft wholly, or altogether neglected, faculties, and the enjoyment of that fmall poition of whilft in the latter cafe, from being very offenfive, they happinefs allotted fo us oy nature. “ Goa, (fajs a French, become higlrly agreeable. But if it be afkcd why writer) having endowed man with various faculties, 00- habit and cuftom produce thefe effeds, and in what dily as well as intelkaual, in order to promote his hap- pinefsj, S E N [ 150 1 SEN Senfe?. plnefs, alij vouchfafes to conduct him to tills noble end, not only by the deductions of reafon, but alfo by the force of inttinCt and fenfation, which are more powerful and efficacious principles. Thus nature, by a fenfaiion of pain, inftantaneoudy apprifes us of what might prove hurtful to us 5 and, on the contrary, by an agreeable fenfaiion, gently leads us to whatever may tend to the prefervation of our exiftence, and to the perfect date of our faculties, thefe being the two points on which our happinefs depends. Our faculties can neither be of ufe, nor difplay themfelves farther than as we exercife them ; motion or action is therefore fo necefiary to us, that without it wre mutt inevitably fink into a deplorable flats of infenfibility and languor. On the other hand, as we are weak and limited creatures, all exceffive and violent aCtion would impair and deltroy our organs 5 we muft therefore ufe only moderate motion or exercife, iince by thefe means the ufe or perfection of cur facul¬ ties is reconciled with our chief inteieft, which is felf- prefervation. Now it is to this happy medium, I mean to a moderate exercife of our faculties that the author of our nature has fo wifely annexed pleafure. The plealures of fenfe are thus confined within nar¬ row limits ; for they cannot be much increafed without pain, or often repeated without lofing their reliffi, at lead in a great meafure ; nor can they be long conti¬ nued, partly for the fame reafon, and becaufe they ex- hauft the mind, or rather the nervous fyftem. Hence we fee that our animal appetites are confined within a narrow range, as is evident from the effects of excefs in eating and drinking. All our fenfitive powers are impair¬ ed ; whilft, on the contrary, our intellectual powers are ftrengihened and improved by ufe and exercife. And in proportion as we indulge our fenfitive powers, our de¬ fires of indu'gence increafe, whilft the pleafures, which are the objeCts of thefe defires, become regularly lefs poignant. Thefe, indeed, are wife regulations of na¬ ture ; for it would feem as if fire intended to whifper gently to us in this way, by means of pradical expe¬ rience, that we are not born folely for the enjoyment of pleafure, at leaf! not for that of the pleafures of the fen- fes ; for all of them, as we have already remarked, if much indulged, lead to liftlefsnefs and dxfgufi, and fome- times to confiderable pain. And indeed, juft as plea¬ fure paffes thus readily into trouble and pain, fo does the fudden ceffation of pain, at 1 aft when this has been confiderable, produce often extraordinary pleafure. So that we may here apply the beautiful allegory of the di¬ vine Socrates, “ that although pleafure and pain are con¬ trary in their nature, and have their faces turned differ¬ ent ways, yet that Jupiter hath tied them fo together, that he who lays hold of the one draws the other along with it.” We have juft faid, that the fudden ceflation of pain, at leaft when this has been confiderable, produces often extraordinary pleafure. But this opinion fecms to be denied in a late inquiry concerning tafte. “ Among the pleafures of fenfe,” fays Mr Knight, <{ more parti- Senfes, cularly among thole belonging to touch, there is a cer-—V'—“ tain clais, which, though anting from negative caufes, are neverthelefs real and pofiuvc plealures : as when we gradually iink from any violent or exceffive degree of adion or irritation into a fbte of tranquillity and repute. . I lay gradually ; for ii the nanfition be hidden and ab¬ rupt, n vviii not be pleaiant ; the pleaiitre arifing from the inverted aCtion of the nerves, and not from the ut¬ ter ctflbiion ot aCtion. From this inverted aCtion ariies the gratification which we receive from a cool breeze, ivhtn the body has been excefiively heated ; or from the rocking of a cradle, or the gentle motion of a boat, or eafy carriage, after having been fatigued with violent exercife. Such, too, is that which twilight, or the gloomy (hade of a thicket, affords to the eye after it has been dazzled by the blaze of the mid-day fun j and fuch, likewife, is that which the ear receives from the gradual diminution of loudnefs of tone in mufic.” That pleafure follows a gradual ceff.tion of any violent ac¬ tion or irritation, we mean not to deny ; but we are at a lofs to comprehend how' it follows, that the tranfition from ftrong pain, if it be fudden and abrupt, wall not be pleafant. But although the pleafures of fenfe be thus limited, thefe limits are very d fferent with refpeft to the differ¬ ent fenfes. Some of them are foon exhaufted, and do not any longer diftinguifli well the objeCfs that corre- fpond to them \ nor aie they pleafed with thofe objeCfs which were at firft very agreeable, and which they di- ftinguiffi with fuffiefent accuracy $ whilft others conti¬ nue to perform their funftions longer, and enjoy a more continued pleafure. Thus the fenfes of fmell and of tafte are almoft immediately fatiated ; the (enle of hear¬ ing more ffowly; but the fight is in this refpeCt the laft of all to be fatigued or fatia ed : wl.ilft the pleafures that arife from the exercife of our mental faculties are by far the moil durable of all. “ Exercife of the mind is as neceflary as that of the body to preferve our ex¬ iftence. 1 he fenfes of other animals, being more quirk than ours, are fufficient to direfl them to follow what is agreeable to their nature, or to (bun whatever is con¬ trary thereto. But we are endowed with reafon in or¬ der to fupply the deficiency of our fenfes ; and pleafure prefents herfelf as an incitement to txercif., in order to keep the mind from a ftate of hurtful inatlivity. Plea¬ fure is not only the parent of fports and amufements, but alfo of arts and fciences: and as the whole univerfe is, as it were, forced by our induftry to pay tribute to our wants and d£fires, w7e cannot but acknowdedge our obligation to that law of nature, which has annexed a degree of pleafure to w hatever exercifes without fatiguing the mind. The pleafure accompanying it is fometimes fo great that it tranfports the very foul, fo that fhe feems as it wrere difengaged from the body. We know what is recorded in hiftory concerning Archimedes (a), and fcveral other geometricians both ancient and modern. If we (a) When Syracufe was taken by the Romans under Marcellus, Archimedes was in his ftudy, fo intent upon fome geometrical problems, that he neither heard the clamour of the Romans, nor perceived that the city was ta- , ken. In this tranfport of ftudy and contemplation a foldier came on him with his drawn fword ; Archimedes, on feeing him, befovght him to hold his hand till he had finiffied the problem he was about. But the foldier, deaf to .his intreaty, ran him through the body, although Marcellus, upon entering the city, had given orders that ArchF i«edes Ihould be fpared, 3 ScnfH * Theorie des Senti- S' E N~ r 1 vve doubt tbe truths of fuch fa6ls, we muft at ieaft ac- knowlege their probability, fince we meet every day with a number of fimilar examples. When we fee a chefs-player fo deeply immerfed in thought as to be in a manner loft to his outward fenfes, ftiould we not ima¬ gine him to be wholly engroffed with the care of his own private affairs, or of the public weal? but the ob- je-3 of all this profound meditation is the pleafure of ex- ercifing the mind by the movement of a piece of ivory. From this exercife of the mind alfo arifes the pleafure w'e fometimes take in refined and delicate fentiments, which, after the manner of Virgil’s ftiepherdefs, (£V fugit ad fa/ices, fed fe cupit ante videri), are fometirnes artfully concealed, but fo as to afford us the pleafure of difcovering them From fome of the foregoing remarks we alfo fee that 'able* a I'ot only pnicular Smlitivf. lea., but all the leaves placed on the fame footftalk,-v~~~ dole ^ themfelves up. I he vapour of burning fulphur has alfo this effect on many leaves at once, according as they are moie or lefs expofed to it 5 but a bottle of very acrid and fulphureous fpirit of vitriol, placed under, the branches unftopped, produces no fuch effeft. Wetting tlie leaves with (pirit of wine has been obferved alio to have no effeft, nor the rubbing oil of almonds over them ; though this laft application deftroys many plants. J I rom the preceding experiments the following con- cmfions may be fairly drawn : 1. The contraction of the paits of the fenfitive plant is occafioned by an exter¬ nal foice, and the contraction is in proportion to the force. 2. All bodies which can exert any force affeCt the fenfitive plant j fome by the touch or by agitation, as the wind, rain, &c. ; fome by chemical influence, as heat and cold. 3. Touching or agitating the plant pro¬ duces a greater effea than an incifion or cutting off a part, or by applying heat or cold. Attempts have been made to explain thefe curious phenomena. Dr Darwin, in the notes to his admired poem, entitled, 17ie Botanic Garden, lays it down as a principle, that “ the fleep of animals confifts in a fuf- penfion of voluntary motion j and as vegetables are fub- jeCt to fleep as well as animals, there is reafon to con¬ clude (fays he) that the various aftion of clofing their petals and foliage may be juftly aferibed to a voluntary power j for without the faculty of volition fleep would not have been neceffary to them.” Whether this defi¬ nition of fleep when applied to animals be juft, we (hall not inquire ; but it is evident the fuppofed analogy be¬ tween the fieep of animals and the deep of plants has led Dr Darwin to admit this aftonilhing conclufion, that points have volition. As volition preiuppofes a mind or loul, it were to be wifhed that he had given us fome in¬ formation concerning the nature of a vegetable foul, which can think and will. We fafpeCf, however, that this vegetable foul will turn out to be a mere mechani¬ cal or chemical one ; for it is affe&ed by external forces uniformly in the fame way, its volition is merely paflive, and never makes any fuccefsful refiftance agninft thofe caufes by which it is influenced. All this is a mere abufe of words. The fleep of plants is a metaphorical expreflion, and has not the leaft refemblance to the fleep of animals. Plants are faid to deep when the dowers or leaves are contra natural fentiments properly exprelfed ? The truth is, fuch execution is too delicate for an ordinary genius • U 2 and Sentiment*. SEN [ i Sentiments, and for that reafon the bulk of writers, inftcad of ex- v preffing a paflion as one does who feels it, content themfelves with defcribing it in the language of a fpec- iator. To awake paflion by an internal effort merely, without any external caufe, requires great fenfibility j and yet that operation is neceffary, not lefs to the wri¬ ter than to the aftor; becaufe none but thofe wrho ac¬ tually feel a paffion can reprefent it to the life. The writer’s part is the more complicated : he muff add compofftion to paffion : and muff, in the quickeft luc- ceflion, adopt every different character. Eut a very humble flight of imagination may ferve to convert a writer into a fpectator, fo as to figure, in fome obfcure manner, an adtion as paffing in his fight and hearing. In that figured fituation, being led naturally to write like a fpeblator, he entertains his readers with his owm retledlions, with cool defcription, and florid declama¬ tion ; inftead of making them eye-witneffes, as it were, to a real event, and to every movement of genuine paf¬ fion. Thus moft of our plays appear to be caff in the fame mould •, perfonages without character, the mere outlines of paffion, a tirefome monotony, and a pompous declamatory ffyle. Ihis defcriptive manner of reprefenting paflion is a very cold entertainment j our fympathy is not raifed by defcription wx muff firft be lulled into a dream of reality, and every thing muff appear as pafling in our fight. Unhappy is the player of genius who afts a part in w'hat may be termed a defcriptive tragedy; after af- fuming the very paflion that is to be reprelented, how is he cramped in adtion, when he muff utter, not the fentiments of the paflion he feels, but a cold defcription in the language of a byftander ? It is that imperfec¬ tion, undoubtedly, in the bulk of our plays, which con¬ fines our llage almoft entirely to Shakefpeare, notwith- llanding his many irregularities. In our late Englilh tragedies, we fometimes find fentiments tolerably w'ell adapted to a plain paflion : but we muff not in any of them expedt a fentiment expreflive of charadfer: and, upon that very account, our late performances of the dramatic kind are for the moff part intolerably in- fipid. Eut it may be proper to illuffrate this fubjedf by ex¬ amples. The firft examples {hall be of fentiments that appear the legitimate offspring of paflion ; to which fliall be oppoled w'hat are defcriptive only, and illegiti¬ mate 5 and in making this comparifon, the inftances iliall be borrowed from Shakefpeare and Corneille, who for genius in dramatic compofition Hand uppermoft in the rolls of fame. I. Shakelpeare (hall furnifh the firft example, being of fentiments didlated by a violent and perturbed pal- .fion : Lear. -— — —Filial ingratitude ! Is it not as if this mouth fliould tear this hand For lifting food to’t r—But I’ll puniflr home ; No, I will weep no more.———In fuch a night, To (hut me out!- -Pour on, I will endure. In fuch a night as this! O Regan, Gonerill, Your old kind father, whofe frank heart gave all— O ! that way madnefs lies; let me Ihun that) Jtfo more of that. Kent. Good, my lord, enter here. Lear. Prithee, go in thyfdf, feek thine own cafe, 56 J SEN This tempeft will not give me leave to ponder On things would hurt me more ;—but I’ll go in } ^ In, boy, go firft. You houfelefs poverty Nay, get tiiee in ; I’ll pray, and then I’ll fleep Poor naked wretches, wherefoe’er you are, That bide the pelting of this pitilefs ftorm ! How ftiall your houleleis heads, and unfed fides, Y our loop’d and window’d raggednefs, defend you From feafons fuch as thefe ! O I have ta’en Too little care of this ! take phyfic, Pomp j Expofe thyfelf to feel what wuetches feel, I hat thou may'it ftrake the fuperflux to them, And fliow the heav’ns more juft. King Lear, a61 iii. fc. 5. With regard to the French author, truth obliges us to acknowledge, that he deferibes in the ftyle of a fpec¬ tator, inftead of exprefling paflion like one who feels it; which naturally betrays him into a tirefome mono¬ tony, and a pompous declamatory ftyle. It is fcarcely neceffary to give examples, for he never varies from that tone. vVe ftrall, however, take two paffages at a ven¬ ture, in order to be confronted with thofe tranferibed above. In the tragedy of Cinna, after the confpiracy was difeovered, Afmilia, having nothing in view but racks and death to herlelf and her lover, receives a par¬ don from Auguftus, attended with the brighteft circum- ftances of magnanimity and tendernefs. This is a lucky fituation for reprefenting the paflions of furprife and gra¬ titude in their different flages, wEich feem naturally to be what follow. Thefe paflions, raifed at once to the utmoft pitch, and being at firft too big for utterance, muft, for fome moments, be expreffed by violent gef- tures only : fo foon as there is vent for words, the firfl: expreflions are broken and interrupted : at laft, we ought to expe6t a tide of intermingled fentiments, occa- floned by the flu6luation of the mind between the tw’O paffions. JEmilia is made to behave in a very different manner ; with extreme coolnefs ftie deferibes her own fi¬ tuation, as if flie wrere merely a fpe61ator j or rather the poet takes the talk off her hands : Et je me rends, Seigneur, h ces hautes bontes: Je recouvre la vue aupres de leurs clartes. Je connois mon forfait qui me fembloit juftice j Et ce que n’avoit pu la terreur du fupplice, Je fens naitre en mon ame un repentir puiffant, Et mon coeur en fecret me dit, qu’il y confent. Le ciel a refolu votre grandeur fupreme; Et pour preuve, Seigneur, je n’en veux que moi-meme» J’ofe avec vanite me donner cet eclat, Puifqu’il change mon coeur, qu’il veut changer 1’etat, Ma haine va mourir, que j’ai crue immortelle ; Elle eft morte, et ce cceur devient fujet fidele 5 Et prenant deformais cette haine en horreur, L’ardeur de vous fervir fuccede a fa fureur. A61 v. fc. 3. So much in general on the genuine fentiments of paf¬ fion. We proceed to particular obfervations. And, firft, paflions feldom continue uniform any confiderable time : they generally flu61uate, fwelling and fubfiding by turns, often in a quick fucceflion j and the fenti¬ ments cannot be juft unlefs they correfpond to fuch fluc¬ tuation. Accordingly, a climax never fliows better than in exprefling a fwelling paflion : the following paf¬ fages may fuflice for an illuftralion. Aimer ia. SEN [157] SEN fiVnttrreiif'j. j4Jtnci'L(l> -—■■ 11 o w hafl thou charm d The wildnefs of the waves and rocks to this j That thus relenting they have giv’n thee back To earth, to light and life, to love and me ? Mourning Bride, act i. fc, I would not be the villain that thou think’ll For the whole fpace that’s in the tyrant’s grafp, And the rich earth to boot. Macbeth, a£t iv. fc. 4. The following palTage expreffes finely the progrefs of conviftion. Let me not ftir, nor breathe, left I diffolve That tender, lovely form, of painted air, So like Almeria. Ha 1 it finks, it falls j I’ll catch it e’er it goes, and graip her ihade. ’Tis life ! ’tis warm ! ’tis the ! ’tis (he herfelf! It is Almeria ! ’tis, it is my wife ! Mourning Bride, aft ii. fc. 6. In the progrefs of thought our refolutxons become more vigorous as well as our paftions. Va, quitte deformais le dernier des humains, Sentiment^; Paffe pour me venger en de meilleures mains. u““* Le Cid, aft i. fc. 7. Thefe fentiments are certainly not the firft that are fuggefted by the paflion of refentment. As the firlt movements of refentment are always direfted to its ob- ieft, the very fame is the cafe of grief. Yet with rela¬ tion to the fudden and fevere diftemper that leized Alexander bathing in the river Cydnus, Quintus Cur- tius deferibes the firft emotions of the army as direfted to themfelves, lamenting that they were left without a leader, far from home, and had fcarce any hopes of re¬ turning in fafety : their king’s dirtrefs, which muft na¬ turally have been their firft concern, occupies them but in the fecond place according to that author. In the Aminta of Taffo, Sylvia, upon a report of her lover’s death, which (he believed certain, inftead of bemoaning the lofs of her beloved, turns her thoughts upon herfelf, and wonders her heart does not break : Ohirne, ben fon di faftb, Poi che quefta novella non m’uccide. Aft iv. fc. 2. If ever I do yield or give confent, By any aftion, word, or thought, to wed Another lord 5 may then juft heav’n ftiow’r down, &c. Mourning Bride, aft i. fc. 1. And this leads to a fecond obfervation, That the dif¬ ferent ftages of a paflion, and its different direftions, from birth to extinftion, muft be carefully reprefented in their order •, becaufe otherwife the fentiments, by being mifplaced, will appear forced and unnatural.— Refentment, for example, when provoked by an atro¬ cious injury, difeharges itfelf firft upon the author : fen¬ timents therefore of revenge come always fiift, and muft in fome meafure be exhaufted before the perfon injured think of grieving for himfelf. In the Cid of Corneille, Don Diegue having been affronted in a cruel manner, exprefles fcarcely any fentiment of revenge, but is total¬ ly occupied in contemplating-the low fituation to which he is reduced by the affront : O rage ! b defefpoir ! b vieilleffe ennemie ! N’ai-je done tant vecu que pour cette infamie ? Et ne fuis-je blanchi dans les travaux guerriers, Que pour voir en un jour fletrit tant de lauriers ? Mon bras, qu’avec refpeft tout 1’Efpagne admire, Mon bras qui tant de fois a fauve cet empire, Tant de fois affermi le trbne de fon roi, Trahit done ma querelle, et ne fait rien pour moi ! O cruel fouvenir de ma gloire paffe ! Oeuvre de tant de jours en un jour effacee ! Nouvelle dignite fatale a mon bonheur ! Precipice eleve d’ou lombe mon honneur ! Faut-il de votre eclat voir triompher le comte, Et mourir fans vengeance, ou vivre dans la honte ? Comte, fois de mon prince a prefent gouverneur, Ce haut rang n’admet point un homme fans honneur } Et ton jaloux orgueil par cet affront infigne, Malgre le choix du roi, m’en a fu rendre indigne. Et to:, de mes exploits glorieux inftrument, Mais d’un corps tout de glace inutile ornement, Fer jadis tant a eraindre, et qui dans cette offenfe, M’as-fervi de parade, et non pas de defenfe, In the tragedy of Jane Shore, Alicia, in the full pur- pofe of deftroying her rival, has the following reflec¬ tion : Oh Jealoufy ! thou bane of pleafing friendlhip, Thou worft invader of our tender bofoms 5 How does thy rancour poifon all our foftnefs, And turn our gentle nature into bitternefs ! See where Ihe comes ! Once my heart’s deareft blefling^ Now my chang’d eyes are blafted with her beauty, Loathe that known face, and ficken to behold her. Aft iii. fc. 1. Thefe are the refleftions of a cool fpeftator. A paflion, while it has the afeendant, and is freely indulged, fug- gefts not to the perfon who feels it any fentiment to its own prejudice : refieftions like the foregoing occur not readily till the paflion has fpent its vigour. A perfon fometimes is agitated at once by different paflions j and the mind in that cafe, vibrating like a pendulum, vents itfelf in fentiments that partake of the fame vibration. This we give as a third obfervation : Queen. Would I had never trod this Englifh earth, Or felt the flatteries that grow upon it! Ye’ve angels faces, but heav’n knows your hearts. What (hall become of me now ? wretched lady ! I am the moft unhappy woman living. Alas ! poor wenches, where are now your fortunes ? [7b her women. Shipwreck’d upon a kingdom, where no pity, No friends, no hope, no kindred, weep for me : Almoft no grave allow’d me. Henry VIII, aft iii. fc. I. Othello. Oh devil, devil ! If that the earth could teem with woman’s tears, Each drop (he falls wrould prove a crocodile. Out of my fight ! Dcfdemona. I will not ftay t’offend you. \Goingv Lodovico. Truly, an obedient lady : I do befeech your lordfhip, call her back. Oth. Miftrefs—— S E N nts; Def. My lord. ’ Oth. What would you with her, Sir > Lod. Who, I, my lord ? _ Oth. Ay ; you did wifli that I would make her turn. Sir, (he can turn and turn, and yet go on ; And turn again. And (lie can weep, Sir, weep j And flic’s obedient : as you fay, obedient: Very obedient—proceed you in your tears— Concerning this, Sir,—oh well painted paflion !—• I am commanded home—get you away, I’ll fend for you anon—Sir, I obey the mandate, And will return to Venice. Hence, avaunt ! [F.xit Defdemona, Othello, a<5t iv. fc. 6. JEmilia. Oh ! my good lord, I would fpeak a word with you. Othello. Yes, ’tis ./Emilia—By and by.—She’s dead. ’Tis like {he comes to fpeak of Caflio’s death ; ihe noife was high.—Ha ! no more moving ? otili as the grave. Shall {lie come in ? wer’t good ? I think fhe {firs again—No—what’s the beft ? If {he come in, {lie’l!, fare, fpeak to my wife: My wife ! my wife ! what wife ? I have no wife 5 Oh inlupportable ! oh heavy hour ! Othello, aft v. fc. 7. A fourth obfervation is, That nature, which gave us paffions, and made them extremely beneficial when mo¬ derate, intended undoubtedly that they ftiould be fub- jefted to the government of reafon and confidence. It is therefore againft the order of nature, that paflion in any cafe fhould take the lead in contradiftion to reafon and confcience : fuch a Hate of mind is a fort of anarchy which every one is afhamed of and endeavours to hide or diflemble. Even love, however laudable, is attended with a confcious fliame when it becomes immoderate : it is covered from the world, and difclofed only to the beloved objeft : Et que 1’amour fouvent de remors combattu Paroiflfe une foiblefle, et non une vertu. Boileau, l'Art Poet, chant, iii. 1. 101. O, they love leaft that let men know they love. Two Gentleman of Verona, aft i. fc. 3. Hence a capital rule in the reprefentation of immoderate paltions, that they ought to be hid or diffembled as much as poflible. And this holds in an efpecial manner with refpeft to criminal paflions : one never counfels the com- miflion of a crime in plain terms ; guilt muft not appear in its native colours, even in thought; the propofal muft be made by hints, and by reprefenting the aftion in fome favourable light. Of the propriety of fentiment upon fuch an occafion, Shakefpeare, in the Tctnpef, has given us a beautiful example, in a fpeech by the ufurping duke of Milan, advifing Sebaftian to murder his brother the king of Naples : Antonio. — What might, Worthy Sebaflian,— O, what might—no more. And yet, methinks, I fee it in thy face What thou fliouldft be : the occafion fpeaks thee, and My ftrong imagination fees a crown Dropping upon thy head. Aft ii. fc. 2. A pifture ©f this kind, perhaps ftill finer, is exhibited 58 ] S £ N in King John, where that tyrant folicits (aft m. fc. 5.), Hubert to murder the young prince Arthur; but it is too long to be inferted here. II. As things are beft ihuftrated by their contraries, we proceed to faulty fentiments, difdaining to be in¬ dexed for examples to any but the moft approved au- tn.ois. i he fir ft clafs {hall confift of fentiments that ac¬ cord not with the paflion ; or, in other words, fenti¬ ments that the paflion does not naturally fuggeft. In tne fecond clafs (hall be ranged fentiments that may be¬ long to an ordinary paflion, but unfuitable to it as^tinc- tuied by a fingular charafter. Thoughts that properly are not fentiments, but rather deferiptions, make a ti.ud. oentiments tnat belong to the paflion repre- hntcu, but aie faulty as being introduced too early or too late, make a fourth. Vicious fentiments expofed in their native drefs, inftead of being concealed or dif- guifed, make a fifth. And in the kft clafs {hall be col- lefted fentiments fuited to no charafter nor paflion, and therefore unnatural. . I he firjl clafs contains faulty fentiments of various kinds, which we {hall endeavour to diftinguifti from each other. 1. Of fentiments that are faulty by being above the tone of the paflion, the following may ferve as an ex¬ ample : Othello. O my foul’s-joy ! If alter every tempeft come fuch calms, May the winds blow till they have waken’d death : And let the labouring bark climb hills of feas Olympus high, and duck again as low As hell’s from heaven ? Othello, aft ii. fc. 6. This fentiment may be fuggefted by violent and in¬ flamed paflion ; but is not fuited to the fatisfaflion, how¬ ever great, that one feels upon efcaping danger. 2. Inftance of fentiments below the tone of the paf- fion. Ptolemy, by putting Pcmpey to death, having incurred the difpleafure of Csefar, was in the utmoft dread of being dethroned : in that agitating fituation, Corneille makes him utter a fpeech full of cool reflec¬ tion, that is in no degree expreffive of the paflion. Ah ! fi je t’avois cm, je n’aurois pas de maitre, Je ferois dans le trone ou le ciel m’a fait naitre ; Mais e’eft une imprudence aflez commune aux rois, D’ecouter trop d’avis, et fe tromper an choix. Le Deftin les aveugle au bord du precipice, Ou fi quelque lumiere en leur ame fe glifle, Cette fauffe clarte dont il les eblouit, Le plonge dans une gouffre, et puis s’evanouit. La Mart de Pompee, aft iv. fc. 1. 3. Sentiments that agree not with the tone of the paflion ; as where a pleafant fentiment is grafted upon a painful paffion, or the contrary. In the following inftances, the fentiments are too gay for a ferious paf- fion : No happier talk thefe faded eyes purfue •, To read and weep is all they now can do. Eloifa to Abelard, 1. 47. Again ; Heav’n firft taught letters for fome wretch’s aid, Some bamlh’d lover, or fome captive maid : s & N L 150 J S E 1st Sentiment!. They live, thsy fpeak, they breathe what love infpires, vr* ' Warm fiom ihe foul, and faithful to its fires } The virgin’s wifli without her fears impart, Excufe the biuih, and pour cut all the heart; Speed ihe foft intercourfe from foul to foul, And waft a figh from Indus to the pole. Eloifa to Abelard, 3. Thefe thoughts are pretty : they fuit Pope, but not Eloifa. Satan, enraged by a threatening of the angel Gabriel, anfw’ers thus : Then when I am thy captive, talk of chains, Proud limitary cherub ; but ere then Far heavier load thyfelf expect to feel From my prevailing arm, though heaven’s King Ride on thy wings, and thou with thy compeers, Us’d to the yoke, draw’ll his triumphant wheels In progrefs thro’ the road of heav’n Jlar pav'd. Faradife LoJ}, book iv. The concluding epithet forms a grand and delightful image, which cannot be the genuine offspring of rage. 4. Sentiments too artificial for a ferious palhon. The firlt example is a fpeech of Percy expiring. O, Harry, thou haft robb’d me of my growth : I better brook the lofs of brittle life, Than thofe proud titles thou haft won of me : They wound my thoughts worfe than thy fword my flefti. But thought’s the flave of life, and life time’s fool j And time, that takes furvey of all the wmrld, Muft have a flop. Eirjl Part, Henry IV. a£I v. fc. 9. The fentiments of the Mourning Bride are for the moft part no lefs delicate than juft copies of nature : in the following exception the pidlure is beautiful, but too artful to be fuggefted by fevere grief. A/rneria. O no ! Time gives increafe to my afflic¬ tions. The circling hours, that gather all the woes Which are diffus’d through the revolving year, Come heavy laden with th’ oppreffive weight To me ; with me, fucceffively, they leave The fighs, the tears, the groans, the reftlefs cares, And all the damps of grief, that did retard their flight 5 They flrake their downy wungs, and fcatter all The dire colledled dews on my poor head ; Then fly with joy and fwiftnefs from me. Aft i. fc. 1. p* es, yes, I know to mourn : I’ll fluice this heart, Sentmerts, The fource of wo, and let the torrent in. ' v~—' Aft v. fc. IT. Pope’s elegy to the memory of an unfortunate lady, expreffes delicately the moft tender concern and forrow that one can reel for the deplorable fate of a perfon of worth. Such a poem, deeply ferious and pathetic, re- jefts with difdain all fiftion. Upon that account, the following paffage deferves no quarter ; for it is not the language of the heart, but of the imagination indulging its flights at eafe, and by that means is eminently dif- cordant wuth the fubjeft. It would be a ftill more fe- yere cenfure, if it fliould be aferibed to imitation, copy¬ ing indifcreetly what has been faid by others : What though no weeping loves thy afties grace, IN or pohih d marble emulate thy face ? What though no facred earth allow thee room, Nor hallow’d dirge be mutter’d o’er thy tomb ? et thall thy grave with rifing flow’rs be dreft, And the green turf lie lightly on thy breaft : There fhall the morn her earlieft tears beftovv, There the firft rofes of the year {hall blow 5 While angels with their filver wings o’erfhade The ground, now facred by thy relict made. 5. Fanciful or finical fentiments. Sentiments that degenerate into point or conceit, however they may amufe in an idle hour, can never be the offspring of any ferious or important paffion. In the Jerufalem of Taffo, Tancred, after a Angle combat, fpent wuth fatigue and lofs of blood, falls into a fwoon j in which fituation, un- derftood to be dead, he is difeovered by Erminia, who w7as in love wuth him to diftraftion. A more happy fituation cannot be imagined, to raife grief in an inftant to its higheft pitch 3 and yet, in venting her forrow7, fhe defeends moft abominably into antithefis and conceit even of the loweft kind : E in lui verso d’inefficabil vena Lacrime, e voce di fofpiri mifta. In che mifero punto hor qui me men a Fortuna ? a che veduta amara e trifta ? Dopo gran tempo i’ ti ritrovo a pena Tancredi, e ti riveggio, e non fon villa Vifta non fon da te, benche prefente T’ trovando ti perdo eternamente. Canto xix. ft. 105= Armida’s lamentation refpefting her lover Rinaldo is in the fame vicious tafte. Vid. canto xx. flan. 124, 125, 126. In the fame play, Almeria feeing a dead body, wdrich fhe took to be Alphonfo’s, expreffes fentiments {trained and artificial, which nature fuggefts not to any perfon upon fuch an occafion : Flad they or hearts or eyes, that did this deed ? Could eyes endure to guide fuch cruel hands ? Are not my eyes guilty alike with theirs, I hat thus can gaze, and yet not turn to ftone ? —I do not weep ! The fprings of tears are dry’d, And of a fudden I am calm, as if All things were well 3 and yet my hufband’s mur- der’cl! Queen. Give me no help in lamentation, I am not barren to bring forth complaints : All fprings reduce their currents to mine eyes, That I, being govern’d by the wat’ry moon, May fend forth plenteous tears to drown the world, Ah, for my hufband, for my dear lord Edward. King Richard III. aft ii. fc. 2, Jane Shore utters her laft breath in a witty conceit: Then all is well, and I {hall fleep in peace ’Tis very dark, and I have loft you now Was there not fomething I would have bequeath’d you ? But: [Dies. Aft v. jfio ] SEN Font infenfiblement % mon inimitie Succeder———Je ferois fenfjble a la pitie } sithalie, aft ii. fc. 7. Sentm'ier.tsi. SEN ■Sentiments. But I have nothing left me to bellow, Nothing but one fad figh. Oh mercy, Heav’n ! Guilford to Lady Jane Gray, when both were con¬ demn’d to die : Thou Hand’d: unmov’d ; Calm temper fits upon thy beauteous brow; Thy eyes that flow’d fo fad for Edward’s lofs, Gaze unconcern’d upon the ruin round thee, As if thou had’d refolv’d to brave thy fate, And triumph in the midd of defolation. Ha ! fee, it fwells, the liquid crydal rifes, It darts in fpite of thee——but I will catch it, Nor let the earth be w^et with dew fo rich. Lady Jane Gray, aft iv. near the end. The concluding fentiment is altogether finical, unfuit- able to the importance of the occafion, and even to the dignity of the paflion of love. Corneille, in his Ex a men of the Cid, anfwering an ob¬ jection, That his fentiments are fometimes too much re¬ fined for perfons in deep didrefs, obferves, that if poets did not indulge fentiments more ingenious or refined than are prompted by paflion, their performances would of¬ ten be low, and extreme grief would never fugged but exclamations merely. This is in plain language to al- fert, that forced thoughts are more agreeable than thofe that are natural, and ought to be preferred. The fecond clafs is of fentiments that may belong to.an ordinary paflion, but are not perfeftly concordant with it, as tinftured by a Angular charafter. In the lad aft of that excellent comedy The Carelefs Hujband, Lady Eafy, upon Sir Charles’s reformation, is made to exprefs more violent and turbulent fenti¬ ments of joy than are confident with the mildnefsof her charafter. Lady Eafy. O the foft treafure! O the dear re¬ ward of long-defiring love.—T hus! thus to have you mine, is fomething more than happinefs; ’tis double life, and madnefs of abounding joy. The following indances are defcriptions rather than fentiments, which compofe a third clafs. Of this defcriptive manner of painting the paflions, there is in the EUppolytus of Euripides, aft v. an illudri- ous indance, viz. the fpeech of Thefeus, upon hearing of his fon’s difmal exit. In Racine’s tragedy of Efher, the queen hearing of the decree iffued againd her people, mdead of expreflxng fentiments fuitable to the occafion, turns her attention upon herfelf, and defcribes wTith ac¬ curacy her own fituation. Jude ciel! tout mon fang dans mes veines fe glace. Aft i. fc. 3. Again, Aman. C’en ed fait. Mon orgueil ed force de plier. L’inexorable Amen ed reduit a prier. Efher, aft iii. fc. 5. Athalie. Quel prodige nouveau me trouble et m’em- barralTe ? $La douceur de fa voix, fon enfance, fa grace, Thus. O de ma paflion fureur defefperee ! Brutus of Voltaire, aft iii. fc. 6. What other are the foregoing indances but defcribing the paflion another feels ? The fourth clafs is of fentiments exprefled too early or too late. Some examples mentioned above belong to this clafs. Add the following from Venice Preferv'd, aft v. at the clofe of the fcene between Belvidera and her father Priuli. The account given by Belvidera of the danger die w’as in, and of her hulband’s threatening to murtier her, ought naturally to have alarmed her relenting fa¬ ther, and to have made him exprefs the mod perturbed fentiments. Indead of which, he diffolves into tender- nefs and love for his daughter, as if he had already de¬ livered her from danger, and as if there were a perfeft tranquillity : Cand thou forgive me all my follies pad ! I’ll henceforth be indeed a father 5 never, Never more thus expofe, but cherilh thee. Dear as the vital warmth that feeds my life, Dear as thofe eyes that w7eep in fondnefs o’er thee: Peace to thy heart. Immoral fentiments expofed in their native colours, indead of being concealed or difguifed, compofe the ffth clafs. The Lady Macbeth, projefting the death of the king, has the following foliloquy : ■ -The raven himfelf’s not hoarfe That croaks the fatal entrance of Duncan Under my battlements. Come, all you fpirits That tend on mortal thoughts, unfex me here, And fill me from the crown to the toe, top full Of dired cruelty j make thick my blood, Stop up th’ accefs and paffage to remorfe, That no compunftious vifitings of nature Shake my fell purpofe. Macbeth, aft i. fc. 7. This fpeech is not natural. A treacherous murder was never perpetrated even by the mod hardened mifcreant without compunftion : and that the lady here mud have been in horrible agitation, appears from her invoking the infernal fpirits to fill her with cruelly, and to flop up all avenues to remorfe. But in that date of mind it is a never-failing artifice of felf-deceit to draw the thicked veil over the wicked aftion, and to extenu¬ ate it by all the circumdances that imagination can fug¬ ged : and if the crime cannot bear difguife, the next at¬ tempt is to thrud it out of mind altogether, and to ruih on to aftion without thought. This lad was the huf- band’s method. Strange things I have in head, that will to hand ; Which mud be afted ere they mud be fcann’d. Aft iii. fc. 5. The lady follows neither of thefe courfes, but in a de¬ liberate manner endeavours to fortify her heart in the commiflion of an execrable crime, without even attempt¬ ing to colour it. This, w'e think, is not natural; w-e & hope I SEN fertiment*. hope there is no fuch wretch to be found as is here re- prefented. The lajl clafs comprehends fentiments that are unna¬ tural, as being fuited to no character nor paflion. Thefe may be fubdivided into three branches: firft, fentiments unfuitable to the conflitution of man, and to the laws of his nature 5 fecond, inconfiftent fentiments j third, fen¬ timents that are pure rant and extravagance. When the fable is of human affairs, every event, eve¬ ry incident, and every circumftance, ought to be natu¬ ral, otherwife the imitation is imperfect. But an im- perfedl imitation is a venial fault, compared with that of running crofs to nature. In the Hippolytus of Euri¬ pides (adl; iv. fc. 5.), Hippolytus, withing for another felf in his own fituation, “ How much (fays he) fhould I be touched with his misfortune !” as if it were natural to grieve more for the misfortune of another than for one’s own. Ofmyn. Yet I behold her—yet—-and now no more. Turn your lights inward, eyes, and view my thoughts j So (hall you ftill behold her—’twill not be. O impotence of light! mechanic fenfe Which to exterior objefts ow’ft thy faculty, Not feeing of election, but neceflity. Thus do our eyes, as do all common mirrors, Succeffively refleff fucceeding images. Nor what they would, but muft $ a ftar or toad $ Juft as the hand of chance adminifters ! Mourning Bride, adt ii. fc. 8. No man in his fenfes, ever thought of applying his eyes to difcover what paffes in his mind ; far lefs of bla¬ ming his eyes for not feeing a thought or idea. In Mo- liere’s l'Avars (a£t iv. fc. 7.) Harpagon, being robbed of his money, feizes himfelf by the arm, miftaking it for that of the robber. And again he expreffes himfelf as follow; Je veux aller querir la juftice, et faire donner la que- ftion a toute ma maifon; 3l fervantes, a valets, & fils, a fille, et it moi aufli. This is fo abfurd as fcarcely to provoke a fmile, if it be not at the author. Of the fecond branch the following example may fuffice: "■ ■ ■ ■ Now bid me run, And I will ftrive with things impojjible. Yea, get the better of them. Julius Cafar, aft ii. fc. 3. Of the third branch, take the following famples. Lu¬ can, talking of Pompey’s fepulchre, - ■ ■■ — Romanum nomen, et omne Imperium magno eft tumuli modus. Obrue faxa Crimine plena deftm. Si tota eft Herculis Oete, Et juga tota vacant Bromio Nyfeia ; quare Unus in Egypto Magno lapis ? Omnia Lagi Kura tenere poteft, fi nullo cefpite nomen . Haeferit. Erremus populi, cinerumque tuorum, Magne, metu nullas Nili calcemus arenas. Lib. viii. 1. 798. Thus, in Rowe’s tranflation : Where there are feas, or air, or earth, or Ikies, % Where’er Rome’s empire ftretches. Pompey lies. Vol. XIX. Part L SEN Far be the vile memorial then convey’d ! Nor let this ftone the partial gods upbraid* Shall Hercules all Oeta’s heights demand, And Nyfa’s hill for Bacchus only ftand •, While one poor pebble is the warrior’s doom That fought the caufe of liberty and Rome ? If Fate decrees he muft in Egypt lie, Let the whole fertile realm his grave fupply. Yield the wide country to his awful ftiade, Nor let us dare on any part to tread, Fearful we violate the mighty dead. The following paflages are pure rant. Coriolanus, fpeaking to his mother, What is this ? Your knees to me ? to your correfted fon ? Then let the pebbles on the hungry beach Fillop the ftars : then let the mutinous winds Strike the proud cedars ’gainft the fiery fun : Murd’ring impoflibility, to make What cannot be, flight work. Coriolanus, aft i. fc. 3. Ccefar. ——Danger knows full well, That Csefar is more dangerous than he. We were two lions litter’d in one day, And I the elder and more terrible. Julius Ccefar, aft ii. fc. 4. Ventidius. But you, ere love mifled your wand’ring eyes, Were fure the chief and beft of human race, Fram’d in the very pride and boaft of nature, So perfeft, that the gods who form’d you wonder’d At their own fkill, and cry’d, A lucky hit Has mended our defign. Dryden, Allfor Love, aft i. Not to talk of the impiety of this fentiment, it is ludi¬ crous inftead of being lofty. The famous epitaph on Raphael is not lefs abfurd than any of the foregoing paffages : Raphael, timuit, quo fofpite, vinci, Rerum magna parens, et moriente mori. Imitated by Pope, in his epitaph on Sir Godfrey Knel- ler : Living, great Nature fear’d he might outvie Her works j and dying, fears herfelf may die. Such is the force of imitation; for Pope of himfelf would never have been guilty of a thought fo extrava¬ gant. SENTINEL, or Sentry, in military affairs, « private foldier placed in fome poft to watch the ap¬ proach of the enemy, to prevent furprifes, to flop fuch as would pafs without orders or difeovering who they are. They are placed before the arms of all guards, at the tents and doors of general officers, colonels of regiments, &c. SENTINEL Perdu, a foldier polled near an enemy, or in fome very dangerous poft where he is in hazard of being loft. All fentinels are to be vigilant on their pofts; neither are they to fing, fmoke tobacco, nor fuffer any noife to be made near them. They are to have a watchful eye over the things committed to their charge. They are not to fuffer any light to remain, or any fire to be X made, [ 1 Sentiments II Sentinel. SEP [ 162 ] SEP made, near their polls in the night-time ; neither is any fentry to be relieved or removed from his poll but by the corporal of the guard. They are not to fuffer any one to touch or handle their arms, or in the night-time to come within ten yards of their poll. No pei (on is to flrike or abufe a fentry on his poll ; but when he has committed a crime, he is to be relie¬ ved, and then puniihed according to the rules and ar¬ ticles of war. A fentinel, on his poll in the night, is to know no¬ body but by the counter-fign : when he challenges, and is anfvvered, Relief, he calls out, Stand, relief l ad¬ vance, corporal! upon which the corporal halts his men, and advances alone within a yard of the fen try’s fire¬ lock (firfl ordering his party to reil, on which the fentry does the fame), and gives him the counter-fign, taking care that'no one hear it. SEPIA, the Cuttle-fish, a genus of animals be- longing to the clafs of vermes. See Helmintholcg F Index. The officinal cuttle affords the cuttle-bone of the Amps, which was formerly uled as an abforbent. The bones are frequently flung on all our flicres ; the animal very rarely. The conger eels, it is faid, bite oit their arms, or feet ; but it is added they grow again, as does the lizard’s tail (Plin. ix. 29.). They are preyed upon by the plaife. This fifh emits (in common with the other Ipecies), when alarmed or puifued, the black li¬ quor which the ancients fuppefed darkened the circum¬ ambient wave, and concealed it from the enemy. The endanger’d cuttle thus evades his fears, And native hoards of fluid fafety bears. A pitchy ink peculiar glands fupply, • Whofe fhades the {harped beam of light defy. Purfu’d, he bids the fable fountains flow, And, wrapt in clouds, eludes th’ impending foe. The fifh retreats unieen, while felf-born night, With pious fhade befriends her parent’s flight. The ancients fometimes made ufe of it inftead of ink. Perfius mentions the fpecies in his defeription of the noble iludent. Jam liber, et bicolor poftis membrana capillis, Inque manus charUe, nodafque ven t arundo. 'Turn quenmur, craffus calamo quod pendent humor ; Nigra quod infufa venefcat fepia lympha. At length, his book he fpreads, his pen he takes j His papers here in learned order lays, And there his parchment’s fmoother fide difplays. But oh ! what croffes wait on fludious men ! The cuttle's juice hangs clotted at our pen. In all mq life fuch fluff I never knew, So gummy thick—D.lute it, it will do. Nay, now 'tis water ! Dryden. This animal was effeemed a delicacy by the ancients, and is eaten even at prefent by the Italians. Rondele- tius gives us two receipts for the drefling, wdrich may be continued to this day. Athenceus alfo leaves us the method of making an antique cuttle-fiflr faufage 5 and we learn from Aritlotle, that thofe animals are in highell feafon when pregnant. SEPIARIiE, (from fepes, “ a hedge”), the name of the 44th order of Linnaeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method, confifting of a beautiful colleflion of woody plants, fome of which, from their fize and elegance, Sep* are very proper furniture for hedges. See Botany II Index. ° ScPticc- SEPS, a fpecies of Lacerta. See Erpetology Index. SEPJ ARITE, in Natural Hi/lory, an old term for a variety of iron-llone, called alfo Indus Helmontii. This mineral is of a round compreffed fonn, and is internally divided by lepta or thin partitions of lime fpar or pyri¬ tes •, hence the name. SEPT AS, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs of lleptandria ; and in the natural fyfttm ranged under the 13ih order, Succulenta\ Ste Botany Index. SEPTEMBER, the ninth month of. the year, con- fifling of thirty days } it took iis name as being the fe- venth month, reckoning from March, with which the Pt»mans began their year. SEPTENNIAL, any thing lafling feven years. SEPTENNIAL FJechons. Blackllone, in his Com¬ mentaries, vol. i. p. 189. lays, (after obferving that the utfnoil extent of time allowed the fame parliament to fit by tire fiat. 6. W. and M. c. 2. was three years), “ But, by the flatute 1 Geo. I. ft. tt. 2. c. 38. (in or¬ der profeffedly to prevent the great and continued ex- pences of frequent eleclions, and the violent heats and animofities confequent thereupon, and for the peace and fecurity of the government, juft then recovering from the late rebellion), this terra was prolonged to feven years ; and what alone is an inftance of the vaft au¬ thority of parliament, the very fame houfe that was chofen for three years enacled its own continuance for feven.” SEPTENTRIO, in AJlronomy, a conftellation, more ufually called urfa minor. In cofmography, the term feptentrio denotes the fame with north : and hence feptentrional is applied to any thing belonging to the north ; as feptentrionalfgns, pa¬ rallels, &c. SEPTICS, are thofe fubftances which promote pu- trefaclion, chiefly the calcareous earths, magnefia, and tefcaceous powders. From the many curious experi¬ ments made by Sir John Pringle to afeertain the fptic and antifeptic virtues of natural bodies, it appears that there are very few fubftances of a truly feptic nature. Thcfe commonly reputed fuch by authors, as the al¬ kaline and volatile falls, he found to be ro wife feptic. However, he difeovered fome, where it feemed leaft likely to find any fuch quality •, thefe were chalk, corn- man fait, and teftaceous powders. He mixed twenty grains of crabs eyes, prepared with fix drams of ox’s gall, and an equal quantity of water. Into another phial he put an equal quantity of gall and water, but no crabs- eyes. Both thefe mixtures being placed in the furnace, the putrefaction began much fooner, where the powder was, than in the other phial. On making a like expe¬ riment with chalk, its feptic virtue was found to be much greater than that of the crabs-eyes : nay, what the doc¬ tor never met with before, in a mixture of two drams of flefli. with two ounces of water and thirty grains of pre¬ pared chalk, the fleih ivas refolved into a perfeft mucus in a few days. To try whether the teftaceous powders would alfo difTolve vegetable fubftances, the doClor mixed them with barley and water, and compared this mixture with another of barley and water alone. After a long ma¬ ceration y SEP [ i ceration by a fire, the plain water was found to fwell the barley, and turn mucilaginous and lour 5 but that with the powder kept the grain to its natural fize, and though it foftened it, yet made no mucilage, and re¬ mained fweet. Nothing could be more unexpedled, than to find fea fait a hallener of putrefaction ; but the fa£t is thus $ one dram of fait preferves two drams or freth beef in two ounces of water, above thirty hours, uncorrupted, in a heat equal to that of the human body ; or, which is the fame thing, this quantity of fait keeps ilelh Ivveet twenty hours longer than pure water •, but then half a dram of fait does not preferve it above two hours long¬ er. Twenty-five grains have little or no antifeptic vir¬ tue, and ten, fifteen, or even twenty grains, manif’eftly both haften and heighten the corruption. The quan¬ tity which had the mold putrefying quality, was found to be about ten grains to the above proportion of flefh and water. Many inferences might be drawn from this experi¬ ment : one is, that fince lalt is never taken in aliment bevoml the proportion of the corrupting quantities, it would appear that it is fubfervient to digeltion chiefly by its feptic virtue, that is, by foftening and refolving meats ; an action very different from what is commonly believed. It is to be obferved, that the above experiments were made with the fait kept for domeftic ufes. See Pringle’s Obferv. on the Difeafes of the army, p. 348, et feq. SEPTIZON, or SepTizonium, in Roman antiqui¬ ty, a celebrated maufoleum, built by Septimius Severus, in the tenth region of the city of Rome : it was fo call¬ ed from feptem and 'zona, by reafon it confided of fe- ven iiories, each of which was furrounded by a row of columns. SEPTUAGESIMA, in the kalendar, denotes the third Sunday before Lent, or before Quadragefima Sun¬ day : fuppofed by fome to take its name from its being about feventy days before Eafler. SEPTUAGINT, the name given to a Greek ver- fion of the books of the Old Teftament, from its being fuppofed to be the work of feventy Jervs, who are ufual- ly called the feventy interpretrs, becaufe feventy is a round number. The hiflory of this verfion is exprefsly written by Aridseas, an officer of the guards to Ptolemy Philadel- phus, the fubdance of whole account is as lollovs : — Piolemy having ere6ted a fine library at Alexandria, which he took care to fill with the mod curious and valuable books from all parts of the world, was inform¬ ed that the Jews had one containing the laws of Mofes, and the hidory of that people ; and beiitg dedrous of enriching his library with a Greek tranflation of it, ap¬ plied to the high-pried of the Jews 5 and to engage him to comply with his requed, fet at liberty all the Jews whom his father Ptolemy Soter had reduced to davery. After fuch a dep, he eafily obtained what he defired •, Eleazar the Jewidi high-pried fent back his ambafiadors with an exaft copy of the Mofaical law, written in letters of gold, and dx elders of each tribe, in all feventy-two •, who were received with marks of refpefl by the king, and then conducted into the ide of Pharos, where they were lodged in a houfe prepared for their reception, and fupplied with everything ne- 63 ] s E P cell ary. They fet about the trandation without lofs ofSeptuagint. time, and finidied it in feventy-two days; and the whole " v being read in the prefence of the king, he admired the profound wifdom of the laws of Mofes : and lent back the deputies laden with prefents, for themfelves, the high- pried, and the temple. Aridobulus, who was tutor to Pcolemy Phyfcon, Philo who lived in our Saviour’s time, and was contem¬ porary with the apodles, and Jofephus, fpeak of this tranflation as made by feventy two interpreters, by the care of Demetrius Phalereus in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus. All the Chridian writers, during the firlt 15 centuries of the Chridian era, have admitted this ac¬ count of the Septuagint as an undoubted fact. But fince the reformation, critics have boldly called it in quedion, becaufe it was attended with circumflances which they think inconflflent, or, at lead, improbable. Du Pin has alked, wrhy were feventy-two interpreters employed, fince twelve would have been fufficient ? Such an objeftion is trifling. We may as well alk, why did King James I. employ fifty-four tranllators in rendering the Bible into Englilh, lince Du Pin thinks twelve would have been lufficient ? 1. Prideaux objedfs, that the Septuagint is not writ¬ ten in the Jewilh, but in the Alexandrian, dialed ; and could not therefore be the work of natives of Paleftine. But thefe dialeds were probably at that time the fame, for both Jews and Alexandrians had received the Greek language from the Macedonians about 50 years before. 2. Prideaux farther contends, that all the books of the Old Teflament could not be tranflated at the fame time ; for they exhibit great difference of flyle. To this it is fufficient to reply, that they were the work of fe¬ venty-two men, each of whom had feperate portions af- figned them. 3. The Dean alfo urges, that Andreas, Aridobulus, Philo, and Jofephus, all diredly tell us, that the law was trandated without mentioning any of the other fa- cred books. But nothing was more common among writers of the Jewidi nation than to give this name to the Scriptures as a whole. In the New Tedament, law is uled as fynonymous with what we call the Old Tefla¬ ment. Befides, it is exprefsly laid by Aridobulus, in a fragment quoted by Eufebius (Pra-p. Evan. 1. 1.), that the whole Sacred Scripture was rightly trandated through the means of Demetrius Phalereus, and by the command of Philadelphus. Jofephus indeed, fays the learned Dean, afferts, in the preface to his Antiquities, that the Jewidi interpreters did not tranflate for Ptolemy the whole Scriptures, but the law only. Here the evidence is con¬ tradictory, and we have to determine, whether Arido¬ bulus or Jofephus be mod worthy of credit. We do not mean, however, to accufe either of forgery, but only to inquire which had the bed opportunities of knowing the truth. Aridobulus was an Alexandrian Jew, tutor to an Egyptian king, and lived within 100 years after the tranflation was made, and certainly had accefs to fee it in the royal library. Jofephus was a native of Palefline, and lived not until 300 years or more after the trarfla- tion was made, and many years after it was burnt along with the wfliole library of Alexandria in the wars of Julius Caefar. Suppodng the veracity of thefe two wri¬ ters equal, as we have no proof of the contrary, which ef them ought we to confider as the bed evidence ? Ari- X 2 ftobulus % Septuagint. * Blair's l.eclureson ike Canon, Stilliug- Jitet’s 0) i- gints Sa- n rl "f rsrt f I n Tiorf-c rvf r\\\7 r!i*#-1c xa; i • i r- n head to foot. The parts of my drefs which leemed moft to attradl their notice were my buckles, buttons, and dockings 5 for neither men nor women in this coun¬ try wear any thing of the kind. With refpeft to the club of my hair, they feemed utterly at a lots in what view to ccnfider it ; but the powder which I wore they conceived to be employed ior the purpofe of deftroy- ing vermin. Moft of the children, when they faw me, ran away in the meft perfedl ccnfternation j and on the whole, I appeared as ftngular an animal, and J dare lay had the honour of exciting as much cunclity and at¬ tention, as a lion or man-tiger juft imported from abroad, and introduced into a country town in England on a market-day. Every time I vifited the harem, I was furrounded and laughed at by this curious mob, who, on my entering the gate, followed me clofe to the very chamber to which 1 was proceeding, and on my return univerfally efcorted me out. “ The greateft part o£ the women were uncommonly Fat and unwieldy j had black and full eyes, round faces, with fmall nofes. They were of different complexions ; fome very fair, fome fallow, and others again perfedt Negroes. “ One of my new patients being ready to receive me, I was defired to walk into her room j where, to my great furprife, I faw nothing but a curtain drawn quite » acrofs the apartment, fimilar to that of a theatre which feparates the ftage from the audience. A female do- meftic brought a very low ftool, placed it near the cur¬ tain, and told me I was to lit down there, and feel her miftrefs’s pulfe. “ The lady, who had by this time fummoned up cou¬ rage to fpeak, introduced her hand from the bottom of the curtain, and defired me to inform her of all her com¬ plaints, which Ihe conceived I might perfedlly do by merely feeling the pulfe. It was in vain to afk her where her pain was feated, whether in her ftomacb, head, or back 5 the only anfwer I could procure v as a requeft to feel the pulfe of the other hand, and then point out the feat of the difeafe, and the nature of the pain. “ Having neither fatisfied my curiofity by exhibiting her face, nor made me acquainted with the nature of her complaint, I was under the neceftity of informing her in pofitive terms, that to underftand the difeafe it was abfolutely neceffary to fee the tongue as well as to feel the pulfe ; and that without it I could do nothing ior her. My eloquence, or rather that of my Jewilh in¬ terpreter, was, however, for along time exerted in vain ; »nd I am perfuaded Ihe would have difmiffed me without any further inquiry, had not her invention fupplied her with a happy expedient to remove her embnrraffment. She contrived at laft to cut a hole through the curtain, through which (he extruded her tongue, and thus com¬ plied with my injunction as far as it was neceffary in a medical view, but moft effeftually difappointed my cu¬ riofity. 41 I was afterwards ordei-ed to look at another of the prince’s wives, who was affefted with a fcrophulous ‘Welling in ner neck. Ihis lady was, in the fame man¬ ner as the other, at firft excluded from my fight 5 but as fiie was obliged to (how me her complaint, I had an Vol. XIX. Part I. 69 ] SEE. opportunity of feeing her face, and obferved it lo be Seragliii very handfome.” IS It is curious to obferve the ftrange and childifti no-1 , tions of perfons who have been wholly fecluded from the world. All the ladies of the harem expefted that our author fhould have inftantly difeovered their com¬ plaints upon feeling the pulfe, and that he could cure every difeafe infiantanecufiy. He found them proud and vain of their perfons, and extremely ignorant. “ A- mong many ridiculous queftions, they alked my inter¬ preter (fays Mr Lemprieie) if I could read and write ; upon being anfwered in the affirmative, they expreffed the utmoft lurprife and admiration at the abilities of the Chriftians. There was not one among them who could do either 5 thefe rudiments of learning are indeed only the lot of a few of their men, who on.that ac¬ count are named Ta/bs, or explainers of the Mahometan lew.” It is melancholy to refleCl on the fituation of thefe unfortunate women. Being confidered as the mere in- ftruments of pleafure, no attention is paid to the im • proven!ent of their minds. They have no employment to occupy their time. Their needle-work is per'brmcd by Jeweffes j their food is drtfled, and their chambers taken care of, by flaves and domeftics. They have r.o amufement but a rude and barbarous kind of melan¬ choly mufic, without melody, variety, or tafte ; and converfation with one another, which muft indeed be very confined, uniform, and inanimate, as they never fee a new objeft. Excluded from the enjoyment of frefh air and exercife, fo neceffary for the fupport of health and life ; deprived of all fociety but that of their fellow fufferers, a fociety to which moft of them would prefer fblitude iifelf 5 they are only to be confidered as the moft abjeft of flaves-—flaves to the vices and ca¬ price of a licentious tyrant, who exafts even from his wives themfelves a degree of fubmiffion and refperit which borders upon idolatry, and which God and na¬ ture riever meant ftiould he paid to a mortal. SERAI, a building on the high-road, or in large ci¬ ties in India, ereded for the accommodation of travel¬ lers. SERAPH, or Seraphim, fpirits of the higheft rank in the h erarchy of angels, who are thus called from their being fuppoled to be moft inflamed with divine love, by their nearer and more immediate attendance at the throne of God, and to communicate their fervour to the remoter and inferior orders. Seraphim is the Hebrew plural of feraph. See Angel. _ SERAPHIC, burning or inflamed with love or zeal, like a feraphim : thus St Bonaventure is called the fera~ ptiic do£lor, from his abundant zeal and fervour. SERAPIAS, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs of gynandria; and in the natural fyftem arranged under the feventh order Or chid etc. See Botany Indtx. SERAPION, a phyfician of Alexandria. He and Philinus of the ifle of Cos were both fcholars of Hero- philus, and were founders of the empiric fed 5 which happened about 287 B. C. SERA PIS, in Mythology, an Egyptian deity, who was worfhipped under various names and attributes, as, the tutelary god of Egypt in general, and as the patron of feveral of their principal cities. Tacitus informs us, that he was worfhipped as a kind of univerfal deity that reprefenied Efculapius, Ofiris, Jupiter, and Pluto : and Y he S E R Scrapis he was fometimes taken for Jupiter Ammon, the Sun, _ M and Neptune : and the honours that were rendered to i ' Y ‘ . him at Alexandria were more folemn and extraordinary than thofe of any other place. Plutarch and Clemens of Alexandria, as well as Ta- * Tac. #//?.citus*, inform us, that -while the firft Ptolemy was em- lib. iv. ployed in fortifying Alexandria with walls, adorning it Cpiut?'de with temples and llately buildings, there appeared to 1/ids et Oft him in his deep a young man of extraordinary beauty, ride. Clem, of a flature more than human, admonifhing him to dif- AleX' in patch into Pontus fome of his mod; trufty friends to / o rep. bring from thence his ftatue : he affured him, that the city and kingdom which pofleffed it Ihould prove hap¬ py, glorious, and powerful. The young man having thus fpoken, difappeared, mounting up into heaven in a blaze of fire. Ptolemy difcovered his vifion to the priefts j but find¬ ing them ignorant of Pontus, he had recourfe to an A- thenian, who informed him that near Sinope, a city of Pontus, there was a temple much reforted to by the natives, which was confecrated to Pluto, wdrere he had a rtatue, near which Hood that of a woman. Ptolemy, neglecting the injunctions of the apparition, it again appeared to him in a menacing attitude \ and the king immediately difpatched ambaffadors to the Serapian mo¬ narch, loaded with prefents. The king of Sinope con- fented ; but his fubjeCts oppofed the removal of the fta¬ tue. The god, however, of his own accord, as we are informed, conveyed himfelf to the ambaflador’s ftiip, and in three days landed in Alexandria. The ftatue of Se- rapis was eredted in one of the fuburbs of the city, where a magnificent temple wras afterwards reared. The ftatue of Serapis, according to Macrobius, wras of a human form, wfith a bafket or buftiel on his head, fignifying plenty 5 his right hand leaned on the head of a ferpent, whofe body was wxmnd round a figure with three heads, of a dog, a lion, and a wTolf j in his left hand he held a meafure of a cubit length, as it were to take the height of the waters of the Nile. The figure of Serapis is found on many ancient medals. The famous temple of Serapis at Alexandria was deftroyed by order of Theodofius j and the celebrated ftatue of this deity w^as broken in pieces, and its limbs carried firft in triumph by the Chriftians through the city, and then thrown into a fierce fire, kindled for that purpofe in the amphitheatre. As the Egyptians afcri- bed the overflowing of the Nile, to which was owing the fertility of their country, to the benign influence of their god Serapis, they concluded, that nowr he was deftroyed, the river would no longer overflow, and that a general famine wmuld enfue ; but when they obferved, on the contrary, that the Nile fwelled to a greater height than had been known in the memory of man, and thereby produced an immenfe plenty of all kinds of provifions, many of the pagans renouncing the w'or- ihip of idols, adored the God of the Chriftians. SERENA gutta, the fame as amaurojls. See Me¬ dicine, N° 360. SERENADE, a kind of concert given in the night bv a lover to his miftrefs, under her window. Thefe fometimes only confift of inftrumental mufic, but at other times voices are added : the mufic and fongs com- pofed for thefe occafions are alfo called fercnades. SERENE, a title of honour given to feveral princes and to the principal magiftrates of republics. The king SEE of Britain, the republic and doge of Venice, and the Serene children of the king of Spain, are called mqft ferene ; H and when the pope or the facred college write to the , Serge* emperor, to kings, or to the doge, they give them no other title. In like manner, the emperor gives no other title to any king, except to the king of France. SERENUS, Sammonicus, a celebrated phyfician in the reigns of the emperors Severus and Caracalla, in and about the year 200. He wrote feveral treatifes on hiftory and the wTorks of nature; but there is only one of them extant, which is a very indifferent poem on the Remedies of Difeafes. He was murdered at a feftival by the order of Caracalla. He had a library that con¬ tained 62,000 volumes, which Quintus Serenus Sam¬ monicus his fon gave to Gordian the Younger, to whom he was preceptor. SERES (Ptolemy) j a people of the Farther Afia j bounded on the weft by Scythia extra Imaum j on the north and eaft, by Terra Incognita $ and on the fouth, by India extra Gangem. According to thefe limitr, their country anfwers nearly to Cathoy or North China. Other authors vary greatly in placing them, though the generality agree in placing them far to the eaft. Mela places them between the Indi and Scythse 5 and perhaps beyond the Indi, if wre diftinguifh the Sinae from them. The ancients commend them for their cotton manufac¬ tures, different from the produce of the bombyces or filk-worms, called feres by the Greeks 5 whence /erica, « filk.” SERGE, a woollen quilted fluff, manufa&ured on a loom with four treddles, after the manner of rateens, and other fluffs that have the whale. The goodnefs of ferges is known by the quilting, as that of cloths by the fpinning. Of ferges there are various kinds, deno¬ minated either from the different qualities thereof, or from the places where they are wrought. The moft confiderable is the Eon don ferge, now highly valued abroad, particularly in France, where a manufafture is carried on with confiderable fuccefs, under the title of ferge fagon de Londres. The method of making the London ferge we {hall now deferibe : For wool, the longeft is cholen for the warp, and the fliorteft for the woof. Before either kind is ufed, it is firft fcoured, by putting it in a copper of liquor, fomewhat more than lukewarm, compofed of three parts of fair water and one of urine. After having flayed long enough therein for the liquor to diffolve, and take off the greafe, &c. it is ftirred brilkly about with a wooden peel; taken out of the liquor, drained, and waftied in a running water, dried in the {hade, beaten with flicks on a wooden rack to drive out the coarfer duft and filth, and then picked clean with the hands. Thus far prepared, it is greafed with oil of olives, and the longeft part, deftined for the warp, is combed with large combs, heated in a little furnace for the purpofe. To clear off the oil again, the wool is put in a liquor compofed of hot water, with foap melted therein : whence being taken out, wrung, and dried, it is fpun on the wheel. As to the ftiorter wool, intended for the woof, it is only carded on the knee with {mall cards, and then fpun on the wheel, without being fcoured of its oil. It muft be remarked, that the thread for the warp is al¬ ways to be fpun much finer, and better twilled than that of the woof. The wool both for the warp and t 17° 1 S E R [ I Serge, t’ue woof being fpun, and the thread divided into fleams, Sergeant. tUot of the woof is put on fpools (unlefs it have been 1 fpUn upon them) fit for the cavity or eye of the flmttle j and that for the warp is wound on a kind of wooden bobbins to fit it for warping. When warped, it 15 ened with a kind of fize, whereof that made oi the ftireds of parchment is held the beft j and when dry is put on the loom. When mounted on the loom, the workman railing and lowering the threads (wdiich are palled through a reed), by means of four treddles placed underneath the loom, which he makes to aft tranfverlely, equally, and alternately, one after another, with his feet, in propor¬ tion as the threads are raifed and lowered, throws the (buttle acrofs from one fide to the other j and each time that the Ihuttle is thrown, and the thread of the woof is croffed between thofe of the warp, ftnkes it with the frame to wdiich the reed is fattened, through thofe teeth the threads of the warp pafs *, and this ftroke he repeats twice or thrice, or even more, till he judges the eroding of the ferge fufficiently clofe : thus he proceeds till the warp is all filled with woof. The ferge now taken off the loom is carried to the fuller, who fcours it in the trough of his mill with a kind of fat earth, called fuller's eartn, firft purged o all ftones and filth. After three or four hours fcouiing, the fuller’s earth is wattied out in fair water, brought by little and little into the trough, out of which it is taken when all the earth is cleared ; then, with a kind of iron pincers or plyers, they pull off all the knots, ends, draws, &c. flicking out on the furface on either fide j and then returning it into the fulling trough, where it is worked with water fomewhat mors tnan lukewarm, with foap diiTolved therein for near two hours : it is then wattied out till fuch time as the water becomes quite clear, and there be no figns of foap left \ then it is taken out of the trough, the knots, &c. again putted off, and then put on the tenter to dry, taking care as fall as it dries to ftretch it out both in length and breadth till it be brought to its juft dxmenfions. When well dried, it is taken off the tenter, and dyed, (horn, and preffed. r i r -jr SERGEANT, or Serjeant at Law, or oj the Coif, is the higheft degree taken at the common lawr, as that of Doftor is of the civil law ; and as thefe are fuppofed to be the mott learned and experienced in the practice of the courts, there is one court appointed for them to plead in by themlelves, which is the common pleas, where the common law of England is moft ftriftly ob- ferved : but they are not reftrifted from pleading in any other court, where the judges, who cannot have that honour till they have taken the degree of ferjeant at law, call them brothers. SERGEANT at Arms, or Mace, an officer appointed to attend the perfon of the king ; to arreft traitors, and fuch perfons of qilality as offend ; and to attend the lord high fteward, when fitting in judgement on a traitor. Of thefe, by ftatute 13 Richard II. cap. 6. there are not to be above 30 in the realm. There are now nine at court at tool, per annum falary each *, they are catt¬ ed the king's fergeants at arms, to diftinguifli them from others : they are created with great ceremony, the per¬ fon kneeling before the king, his majefty lays the mace on his right fhouldcr, and fays, Rife up,fergecnt at arms, 71 ] ■ s E R and efqaire for ever. They have, befules, a patent fur the office, which they hold for life. They have their attendance in the pretence-chamber, _ where the band of gentlemen-penfioners wait j and, re¬ ceiving the king at the door, they carry the maces be¬ fore him to the chapel door, whillt the band ot penfioners ftand foremoft, and make a lane for the king, as they alfo do when the king goes to the houfe of lords. _ There are four other fergeants at arms, created m the fame manner j one, who attends the lord chancellor- a fecond, the lord treafurer j a third, the fpeaker of the houfe of commons 5 and a fourth, the lord mayor of London on folemn occafions. . , They have a confiderable ftiare of the xees^o. honour, and travelling charges allowed them when in waiting, viz. five (hillings per day when the court is within ten miles of London, and ten (hillings when twenty miles from London. The places are in the lord chamberlain s gl There are alfo fergeants of the mace of an inferior kind, who attend the mayor or other head officer of a C°YCommon SERGEANT, an officer in the city of London, who attends the lord mayor and court of aldermen on court days, and is in council with them on all occafions, within and without the precinfts or liberties of the city. He is to take care of orphans eftates, either by taking account of them, or to fign their indentures, before then pafling the lord mayor and court of aldermen : and he was likewife to let and manage the orphan eftates, ac¬ cording to his judgement to their beft advantage, bee Recorder. j m •„ Sergeant, in War, is an uncommiffioned officer in a company of foot or troop of dragoons, armed with an halbert, and appointed to fee difeiphne obferved, to teach the foldiers the exercife of their arms, to order, ftraiten, and form their ranks, files, &c. He receives the orders from'the adjutant, which he communicates to his officers. Each company generally has two fer- ^ SERGEANTY (Serjeantia), fignifies, in law, a fer- vice that cannot be due by a tenant to any lord but the king : and this is either grand fergeanty, or petit. 1 he firft is a tenure by which the one holds his lands of the king by fuch fervices as he ought to do in perfon to the king at his coronation j and may alfo concern matters military, or fervices of honour in peace ; as to be the king’s butler, carver, &c. Petit fergeanty is where a man holds lands of the king to furnifti him yearly with fome fmall thing towards his wars ; and m effeft pay¬ able as rent. Though all tenures are turned into foccage bv the 12 Car. II. cap. 24. yet the honorary fervices 01 grand fergeanty ftill remain, being therein excepted. See KNIGHT-Service. . , r „ SERIES, in general, denotes a continual iucceluon. of things *m’the fame order, and having the fame rela¬ tion or conneftion with each other : in this fenfe wre lay, a feries of emperors, kings, biftiops, &c. In natural hiftory, a feries is ufed for an oruer or iub- divifion of fome clafs of natural bodies j comprehending^ all fuch as are diftinguiffied from the other bodies 01 that clafs, by certain charafters which they poffefs m common, and which the reft o( the bodies of that cal. have not. ^ > r. Y 2 C1-) Series, Sergeant il Series. Series. S E R [ 172 ] S E R (1.) SERIES, in Arithmetic or Algebra, a rank or progreffion of quantities which fucceed one another ac¬ cording to fome determinate law. For example, the numbers putting as before A, B, C, D, &c. for the terms of the ferics, and m, n, />, q for given quantities, wre ihall have another recurring feries, if we fuppofe them fo related that Series. 3> 5> 7> 9> ”, I3» I5» &c- conftitute a feries, the law of which is that each term exceeds that before it by a given number, viz. 2. A- gain, the numbers 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192, &c. eonflitute a feries of a different kind, each term being the produdl of the term before it, and the given num¬ ber 2. (2.) As the law according to which the terms of a feries are formed may be infinitely varied, there may be innumerable kinds of feries ; we fhall enumerate a few of the moil common. 1. Arithmetical Series. The general form of a feries of this kind is a, a-\-d, a-\-2d, «+ 3 d, «+4&cc' m A-f-« C-\-q D=o, m B-b« C-{-/> D + 1? Frzo, wz C-}-» D+/> F^0,. The two feries of quantities fin. a, fin. 2 a, fin. 3 a, &tc. and cof. a, cof. 2 a, cof. 3 a, &c. are both recurring, as is manifeft from the law which conne&s the quantities one with another. (See Algebra, §. 35 8.y. (3.) As in general it is the him of the terms of a fe¬ ries which is the objed of inveiligation, it is ufual to conned them by the iign -f or —, and to apply the name feries to the expreflion thus formed. Accor¬ dingly i+S + i + T + P ‘ + -^1 + 2 (« l)^- (where n denotes the number of terms) is called an arith¬ metical feries j and in like manner and its law is that the difference between any two ad¬ jacent terms is the fame quantity, viz. d. The firft of the two preceding examples is a feries of this nature. 2. Geometrical Series. Its general form is a, ar, a r*, a A, a rA, &c. In this kind of feries each term is the produd of that which precedes it and a conftant number r, which is called the common ratio of the terms. The fecond of the above examples is a particular cafe of a geometrical feries. 3. Harmonic Series is that in which the firft of any three of its confecutive terms is to the third, as the dif¬ ference between the firft and fecond to the difference between the fecond and third : hence we readily find that putting a and b for its two firft terms, its general form will be a, b, a b a b ab l a—b' 3 a—2 b' 4 a—3 b' , &c. If we fuppofe az=.i and b-=.\, we get 1, It t> t> h &-c* as a particular example of a harmonic feries. 4. Recurring Series. Let its terms be denoted by A, B, C, D, E, F, Sec. Then, we fhall form a recurring feries, if m and n being put for given quantities, we take C=:f« B, H—m C-\-n D, D=:otB4-«C, FzztfzD-i-rcE. For example, let us fuppofe Am, B=:2 x, m—4 x*, n—^ x; then C=iox’1, D = 38#3, £=154 a4, Fzr 614 x5, fo that the firft fix terms of the feries are I, 2 X, XO X*, 38 A?3, 154 A4, 614 A5. We have here fuppofed each term to be formed from the two which come immediately before it; but the name recurring feries is given to every one in which the terms are formed in like manner from fome afligned number of the terms which precede that fought. Thus, I+v+i+i’'‘ + ^T—r is a geometrical feries. (4.) A feries may either confift of a definite number of terms, or their number may be fuppofed greater than any that can be afligned, and in this cafe the feries is faid to be infinite. The number of terms of a feries may be infinite, and yet their fum finite. This is true: for example, of the feries which is equivalent to unity, or 1. (5.) We have already treated of feveral branches of the do&rine of feries in the articles Algebra, Fluxions and Logarithms 5 and in particular we have given four different methods for expanding a quantity into a feries, viz. 1. By Divifion or Evolution. (See Algebra, § 78, and § 260.). 2. By the Method of Indeterminate Coefiicients. (Al¬ gebra, § 261.). 3. By the Binomial Theorem. (Algebra, § 263— § 269.). 4. By Taylor's Theorem. (Fluxions, § 66—§ 72.). We fhall here treat briefly of another branch of the theory, namely, how to find the fum of any propofed number of terms of certain feries, or the fum of their terms continued ad infinitum, when that fum is finite. (6.) There is a great analogy between the terms of a feries and the ordinates of a curve which are fuppofed to ftand upon the axis at equal diftances from one ano¬ ther, the firft ordinate reckoned from the extremity of the axes being analogous to the firft term of the feries, the-fecond ordinate to the fecond term, and fo on. From this analogy it follows immediately, that like as the nature of a curve is indicated by an equation ex¬ prefling the value of an indefinite ordinate in terms of its correfponding abfeiffa, fo alfo the nature of a feries may be ihown by an equation which Ihall exprefs the relation between any term j and the number that de¬ notes the place or order of that term in the feries. In conformity SEE. [ 173 ] Series, conformity to this method, putting the fymbolsTV), ' X(2), To), &c. to denote the terms of any feries whatever, we may exprefs it generally thus. T<«), 4- T(z), To), • • • -j- T t’') where the characters (x), (2), are meant to denote the place or order of the terms to which they are joined, (the firit term being fuppofed to have the place x, the fecond term the place 2, and fo on) and (x)) is put for any indefinite number. The nature of the arithmetical feries o -|— (# -j-* “f“ (hx —2 d) —|— f^ T" 3 » will be defined by the equation Tw = —1)(T;4-0(T'4-2X‘y+3') I * 2 X * 2 * 3 &c. X • 2 • 3 Problem I. It is propofed to find the fum of n terms of the feries of which the general term is the firit func¬ tion. By putting 1, 2, 3, &c. to n fucceflively for w, it appears that the feries to be fummed is 1 -f 2 + 3+4 ‘ * ‘ txt Xti-f-i) —I)‘y , Now, as —-2_J—— — 2—we have, by put¬ ting in this formula 1, 2r 3, • • • to « fucceffively for vy 1 • 2 2 • 3 2=-—— 3=^ J 2 4'5 1 • 2 2 2’3 "T 2 3-4 n—1— S E K .i)« (n—2)(«—-x) Series. Let the fum of the quantities on each fide of the fign =: be now taken 5 then, obferving that each of the frac¬ tions on the right hand fide, with the exception of «(«-}-i) . ' ——, occurs twice, once with the fign -f, and again with the fign —, by which it happens that their aggregate is =0, it is evident that w’e have . . . «(«-4-1) Prob. II. It is propofed to fum n terms of the fe¬ ries having for its general term the fecond funClion ^(■y-j-x) 1*2 This feries, by fubftituting 1, 2, 3, &c. fucceflively for 71, is found to be 1 ‘ 2,2 • 3 , 3J_4 . . . ■ «(«+i)_ I • 2*1 • 2*1 “2 ‘ I • 2 * We now, following the mode of proceeding employed in laft problem, put the expreflion —v- A under this 1*2 form, 7l(71 -j- I) (71 2) (7! l)7>(71-pi) i • 2 • 3 i • a7! ’ to which it is evidently equivalent, and, fubftituting x, 2, 3, &c. fucceflively for 71, find — ^ o, 1 • 2 I • 2 * 3 2 * 3_ 2 • 3 • 4 I • 2 I ‘ 2 ‘ 3 3‘4=_3: 4 * 5 x • 2 1 • 2 ,• 3 4 ‘ 5 4 ‘ 5 ‘ ^ , x • 2 1 • 2'3 1 ’ 2 • 3 ~ 1 • 2 * 3’ 2 * 3 ‘ 4 ■ i • 2 • 3’. 3‘ 4 * 5 i • 2 • 3’ - - - ” 3 • 2 * 3 3 ‘ 2 -"l I * 2 In this problem, as in the former, it appears that each quantity on the right fide of the equations, except «(ra-|-1) (n-4-2) . i.s —— ’ occurs twice, and with contrary figns 3 therefore, taking the aggregate of the terms on each fide, we have 1^-1 171 + 314,415... »(»+■) , I * 2 1 I * 2 I * 2 1 I * 2 r 1*2 _n(n + i)(»+2) 1 • 2. * 3 (9.) It will be obvious, by a little attention to the folutions of thefe two problems, that in each the terms of the feries to be fummed are thd differences betwixt tho adjacent S E R Series. adjacent terms of another feries, namely, that which has for its general term the fundlion next in order to the general term of the feries under confideration ; that is, the terms of the feries whofe general term is v, are the differences betwixt thofe of the feries having —J \ 2— l01, !ts general terms j and, again, the terms of this laft are the differences of the terms of the feries having —^ ^°r Senera^ term« NowT as the fum of the differences of any feries of quantities whatever which begins with o muff neceffarily be the laff term of that feries *, it follows, that the fum of all the terms of each of the feries we have confidered muff be equal to the laft term of the next following fe¬ ries ; and this term is neceffarily the expreflion formed by fubftituting n for v in its general term, that is, the fum of the feries • • • -J-», which has v for its ^ ^ : and the fum of the feries [ I7+ ] S E R general term, is 2*3 ,3*4 + 4 «0+0 I • 2 ’ I * 2 • I • 2 i5 ”(”+0(” + 2) I • 2-3 The next feries which has —^c 4~ 2) for jts 1 • 2 ■ 3 & neral term, as well as all that fucceed, will be found to have the very fame property, as may be proved as fol¬ lows. Let /> denote any term of the feries of natural numbers 1, 2, 3, &c. Then, becaufe v + /> v—1 + 1 ~ + if we multiply thefe equals by the product of all the fac¬ tors v, U-J-I V-f-2 &c. to *+/>- I • 2 • 3 "^+0(^4-2) • P 1 0+/’—0 'p we get V = J 1 * 2* 3 • • (/>4-0 I (^—• • • (v+fi—l) i I • 2 - 3--- (^+1) Now, if in this identical equation we fubftitute the numbers 1, 2, 3, &.c. to n fucceflively for v, the re- fults obtained from its firft member ^(^+0(^ + 2) ••• (t) +/>--1) l' 2-f-p will be a feries having this fun£Hon for its general term, and the terms of which will evidently be the difference between the terms of another feries having the firft part of the fecond member of the equation, viz. i-2-3 •••(/+!) ’ for its general term : Hence it will happen, as in the Series. two foregoing problems, that the fum of all the terms v— of the former feries will be equal to the laft term of the latter ; which conclufion may be expreffed in the form of a theorem, as follows : Theorem. The fum of n terms of a feries having for its general term the funftion, v (^4-1) (^-f2) • • • (v+fi—1) I • 2 * 3 * * ' P is equal to « 0-f-i)(ft-}.2) Q+/0 Z-2-3---0+I) Or, fetting afide the denominators of the terms, WTe may exprefs the theorem thus : The fum of n terms of a feries, having for its general term the exprejjion is equal to n (”4-0 (” + 2) •••(?;+/.) We fiiall here give a few particular cafes of this laft general formula. x- 1 +2+3+4* * * -f ” __ « (n-p.x) II. i- 2-f2-3-f3-4-f4*5--* +«(”+I) _ n (tf-f 1) («+2) “ 3 III. 1 3-44-3-4- 5 •••+*(«+!) («+2) _r?(«+x)(ff + 2) (« + 3) 4 (10.) By means of the above general theorem we may find the fum of any number of terms of a feries com- pofed of the powers of the terms of an arithmetical pro- grefiion, the general term of which will, in the fimpleft cafe, be vp, p being a given number. The manner of doing this will appear from the following problems. Pros. III. It is propofed to find the fum of n terms of the feries of fquares 14-44-94-164-25&c. or i*4-2i+3*+4*+5*+ &c. The general term of this feries being vP, we put it under this form, v (^4-1)—v ; hence we get by fub* ftituting 1, 2, 3, &c. for v, i*=rl • 2—1, 2*=2- 3—2, 3*= 3 * 4—3> 4*—4 * 5—4. («+l)—tt. Therefore adding, wre find I*+2*+3*+4» ••••+«* __C x *24-2*34-3 •44-4* 5 •••4-«(«4-i) L —(4 + 2+3 +4 * * ’ +”)• But * x'or example, let the quantities be 0, a, b, r, then it is manifeft that —0) 4-(£—-fl) + + (d—c)zz el 4 Seiies. S E R But by the general theorem (9.) 1 • 2-f-2'3+3 * 4* " +” C” + 0 [ 175 1 Corollary. s E R We have found (Pros. I.) that n (« + i) 1 + 2+3 +4 * ’ +n= » Series. and, ! + 2 + 3 + 4 ‘ * * +«— > therefore, comparing this with the refult juft now ob' tained, it is evident that therefore i1^-2*4-3*+4!1 * * *+«* h(«4-i)(« + 2) //(r/jfx) ”3 2 «(« + i) (2« + i) - 6 We might have arrived at the fame conclufion by confidering that fince t>\ the general term of the fenes, is equivalent to v (4_c vz-\-dv3 4- &c. where a and b, &c. denote given numbers j namely, by transforming it into a funftion of the form A-j-B u-|-C v (“y+O+D v (■y+x) (i’+2)+ &c. where A, B, and C, &c. denote conftant quantities. Our limits, however, will not allow us to go into particulars. (12.) The next clafs of feries we {hall confider, com¬ prehends fuch as may be formed by the fucceflive fub- ftitution o{ a, a + i, a+ 2, &c. {a being put for any given quantity whatever) in the feries of funftions 1 * * } &c» ®(x>4-i)’ t>(‘y4-1)C^, + 2), ^(,;y + I)C‘y + 2)C‘y+3) We {hall begin with the firft of thefe. Prob. V. It is propofed to find the fum of « terms of the feries 1 , l I i l &c. a(a+iy + (« + 2)(« + 3) which is formed by fubftituting tf + i, «+2, &c, fucceflively for v in the general term ^ Whatever be the value of v} we have therefore, get 1 — 1 1 ^(v-J-x)"** v ^4-1 ’ proceeding as in the foregoing problems, we X _I X c(—l) 1 ^ , A - 0+00+-2)0+3) •••o+7)‘ “ecaule ———— — ——, therefore, multiplying _T . , c(1 + ^) i' *' + 2 Now the latter fide of this equation is a general expref* by , we have fi“n for. lbe dificrtnce between any two adjacent terms of a feiies whole general term is 20+1)’ 1 ^(^-|-l)(-U-}-2) 4_£_ 2 l_v (v + I 0 + 0 0+O0+2) }, L'VV+ J ) ^ + 2) • • • (*'+/"—1) * and hence, by fubftituting a, a-J-i, tf-f 2, &c. fuccef- therefore the difference between the firft and laft terms ^ ^ J L V 4 V, 1 C » ■» H L* s~. 4- X-* Zl.« — ^ ■ 1 1 =. r_i £ 7 "0+00+2) Tt«0 + l) O + lJ0+2)j* of this ieries muff be the fum of the feries whole gene¬ ral term is the fun&ion on the other fide of the equa¬ tion, viz. 0 + 00 + 2)0 + 3) ) 0 + 3)1 ’ = 4 L O+OO+2) 0 + 2)( I = . | £_ 0+2)0+3)(fl+4) T lo+oo o+3)o+iy} +3) *',(T'+I)t.*,+ 2) • • . 0“O)' Hence we have the following very general theorem. Theorem. Let a denote any number whatever, and bet 1, 2, 3 ... y be a feries of numbers, each of which exceeds that before it by unity ; the fum of n terms of a feries formed by fubfituting the numbers a, a-f-i, a-f 2, &c. to a-J-n—1 fuccejjively for v in the funBion O+fl—1)0+«)0+*+ 0 ~T{ («+«—1)04-«)”" 0 + «) Hence it appears that the terms of the feries to be fum- med are the halves of the differences of the terms of the fpries *'0 + 00 + 2) • • • 0+0 is equal to 0 /7(fl+l)0+2) . • . («+/>—!) I L (a+n^a+n+^^a+n^). .^-\.(a + n+p—\) Corollary, l» — S E Pt [I Senes. ^ CoroLlart. The fame feries continued ad infinitum is equal to p 2)••*(«+/>—0* (14.) We fliall now give a few examples of the ap¬ plication of this theorem. Example 1. Required the fura of n terms of the feries 1 - 1 1 + ,&c. 2 ’ 3 ' 4 ' 5 3 ‘ 4 ’ 5 ’ 4 * 5 * 6 • 7 1 he terms of this feries are evidently produced by the fuccefli^e fubditution of the numbers 2, 4, c, &c. for v in the function Ex. 2. Required the fum of the feries 1 }■ + + ,&c. i-4-7 4-7*io 7-io-i31io'i3-x6 continued ad infinitum. By a little attention it will apoear that its terms are produced by the fubftitution of .lie numbers y, i-i-^ 2-f, &c. fucceffively for v in the function 3^(3^+3)(3^+6)~ 27t)(^ + i)(y4-2) ’ In this cafe then a—\,p=2, therefore the fum is 1 1 1 1 2X 27 -fx 4 24 {15.) When the funftion from which the feries is derived has not the very form required in the theorem, it may be brought to that form by employing fuitable transformations, as in the two following examples. Ex. 3. It is propofed to find the fum of the feries 1 . 1 1 1 “ + ~ g -f 7- +> I*4 2-5 3,() 4-7 continued ad infinitum. This feries is evidently formed by the fubflitution of the numbers 1, 2, 3, &c. fucceffively for v in the func- tl0n vfv 4- 3)' exPre^10n» however, does not in ils prefent form agree with the general formula, becaufe the fadtors v-j-i, v-f-2 are wanting; therefore to tranf- lorm it, we multiply its numerator and denominator by (fo-f-l 2), and it becomes ^O-f-OOy-f-2) ^+i)C^+2)w+3)5 We next affiime its numerator Vo^. XIX. Part I. 77 1 SEE 0+i)0+2)=A(«+2)(i,+3)+Bi>-j-3) + C, and by multiplying get ^ + 3 ^ + 2 = + (5 A + B) + (6A+3 B-f-C> j therefore, that v may be indeterminate, we mull make A=i, 5A-fB=3, 6A4-3B-j-C=2, from which equations we get A=ri, B=a cA— 2 C—2—6 A— 3 B = 2, fo that ^ . 0-f 2)Q+3)—20+3)4- 2 ^-f-l)(^-f-2)(?; + 3); therefore, comparing this expreffion with the general formula, we have fl~2,/>—3, and the fum required __x y ^ » Ti.2 • 3 • 4' ^+3) i>0+0(fo+2)(*'-}-3) __ I 2 —- ^O+OO+^O+s) Thus it appears that the propofed feries is refolvable in¬ to three others, the general terms of which all agree with the theorem. Now the fum of the infinite feries whofe general terra is — ^ appears by the theorem to be or 1, becaufe a=i, and the fum of the infinite feries whofe general term is — 2 2 , . ,7—;—is in like manner found to be — 4- -i- -- Zl3 j anc} lap]yj the finite feries whofe general term is —X v(v-}-i)(v-{-2) O-j-3) . • 2 I 1 , r 13 7WT;— “ j tiiereiore, colledling thefe into one* the fum of the propofed feries is 1—th^ r 2 1 9 iS’ ' anlwer. Ex. 4. Required the fum of the infinite feries. 1 _2 . 3 , 4 2"3’4 * 3 ’ 4‘5 4'5'6 3• 6• 7 +, &c. The terms of this feries are evidently formed by the. fubfhtution of the numbers 2, 3, 4, fucceffively in the fundtion Now v—r~ >' T5+1T ‘ * T T | I . . . '6TT_r'3"T7 &c. 6h]6—262, + Although the fum of the feries we have been confider- ing is infinite, yet it evidently increafes very flowly •, indeed it is a l:mit to all fuch as have a finite fum j for every Series f+'T" Now this laft being evidently a geometrical feries, of 1 which the common ratio is .1, its fum is SEE. [i Series. every infinite feries, the terms of which decreafe fafter than the reciprocals of an arithmetical progreflion, is al¬ ways finite. (17.) We have already explained what is meant by a recurring feries, (2.) we lhall now treat briefly, firft, of their origin, next of the way in which they may be fummed, and lallly, of the manner of determining the general term of any particular leries. The feries which is produced by the developement of a rational algebraic fraflion has always the property which conftitutes the charadfleriftic of the clafs called Recurring, (2.) and on the other hand, any feries hav¬ ing that property being propofed, an algebraic fra&ion may be found by the expanfion of which the feries ihall be produced. The fraction —1 fthh—. for example, by dividing the 1—x—x numerator by the denominator is converted into the infi¬ nite feries. 1 -{- 3 #-{-4 7 ^3 -f-11 +18 ^ > &c. which is of fuch a nature that if T, P, 1 ", denote any three of its fucceeding terms, their relation to one ano¬ ther is expreffed by the equation T"r=T**-|-T' *. If we employ algebraic divifion to convert the frac¬ tion into a feries, the law of its terms will not appear fo readily as if we ule the method of indeterminate co¬ efficients. By this method we aflume the fraction = A-TB tt-f-C as+P *3 + E 4-&c. and hence, multiplying by the denominator, and bring¬ ing all the terms to one fide, as explained in Algebra, ^ 261, we have A + Bl -f-Cl +D7 — 1—A > x—B y P_C 5-^-f &c. “O, -O —a 3 -b) and hence, A—irro, C—B—-A~o, B—A 2 = 0, D—C—B—o, &c. From thefe equations it appears that the law of the fe¬ ries is fuch as we have affigned. The equation expreffing the relation which fubfifts among a certain number of fucceeding terms of a recur¬ ring feries, is called its fcale of Relation. The fame name is alfo fometimes given to the equation exprefling the connexion of the coefficients of the terms. Thus the fcale of relation of the foregoing feries is either T"=T*-|-T'*\ where T, T', and T" denote any three fucceeding terms of the feries, or it is R=p+a. where P, Q and R denote their numeral coefficients. (18.) We come next to Ihew how the fum of any pro¬ pofed number of terms of a recurring feries may be found. Let the feries continued to n terms be T(i)-j-T(»)-|-T(?) • • • -f-T(«-i)-}-T(«-ii4-T («), where the charafters T(i), T(i), &c. denote the fuccef- five terms, and the numbers (1), (2), &c, their order 79 ] s e It or place ; and as whatever number of terms is contained in the fcale, the manner of fumming the feries is the fame, we ffiall in what follows, for the fake of brevity, fuppofe that it confifts of three, in which cafe it may be expreffed thus, p T(K-i)-j-y T(«“i)-j-r T{"> —o, where p, q, r denote certain given quantities. The fcale of relation affords the following feries of equations, p T(ij + ^T(»)-f-r T(3)—o, /> T;i)-j-y T(3)+ r T(4)—o, p Tn)-j-^T(4;-j-r T;s)=z:o, T(«—X)-f-y T(K—T(») 2=0. Taking now the fum of thefe equations, we get p (Tfij-f-TtD-J-To) • • • -f-T(«-x))' Seiies, -f-y(T(x)4-T(j)-f-T(4)• • • +T(«-x)) > . 4-r(T(3)-j-T(4)-j-T(S) * * •-j-T(«) ) 3 :o. But, putting s for the fum of n terms of the feries, this equation may manifeftly be expreffed thus, p (x—T(>») —T(«—1))' +r is~ Plence, after redudfion, we find sz •T(») T(n-i)) l -T(i)—T(n>) i =0. -T(i)—T(2i) 3 />(T('i—1 )-f-T («)) -j-y (T(1)+ F («)) -|-r(T( i)-f-T(t)) p ff-y-j-r From which it appears that in this cafe the fum de¬ pends only on the two firft and the two lait terms of the feries. Example. It is propofed to find from this formula the fum of n terms of the feries 1-j-2x-f 3 v* 4 A’3-j-5 A’4-f &c. its fcale of relation being A* T(»-l) 2 X T(n-I) -f-T!«) —O. Here p—x*, q——2 X, rrri, therefore, obferving that the lait two terms of the feries muff be (//--—1) a’1"'^ and ax”-1, we have, after fubftiLuting and reducing, 1—(/?-}-1) a”-}-77 a” I—2 X -j- X1 This formula will not apply in the cafe of a~i, be caufe then the numerator and denominator are each —o : but in fuch cafes as this we may find the value of the fonftion which exprefles the fum by what is delivered at § 90, Fluxions. (19,) The procefs by which we have determined the value of n terms of the feries T( 1 )-j- T(i;-f- Tn)-f- &c. will alfo apply to the finding the rational frafHon from which the feries may be deduced, which is alio the fura of the feries continued ad infinitum. For rfi this cafe the equation from which we have deduced the fum being /> (T(i;-{--T(1)+ffi(3)+ &c-)7 -j-y ( F1)-j- lo)-J- ! (4)-|- Sec.) >• = 0, '•)3 4-r (TfJ74-T(4)-|-T(i;-I- Sec Z 2 that * Series. S E R [ that is, ps-\-q (j—T(i))-f-r —T(i))=ro, ivc have For example, let it be required to find the fraftion, which being developed produces the feries i -f- lx-{-3‘V1 -}-4^3+j &c. the fcale of relation of which is X7, T (n-i) IX T(«-1) -J- T (») -}- o. Here/—q-=--2x, r=i, T(D=i, T(i)=2X) there- lore, lubftituting in the formula, we get 80 ] I 2X-\-X* (i—x)* /or the fraaion required, or for the fum of the feries continued ad infinitum. (20.) We come now to the laft branch of the theory of recurring feries which we propofed to confider, name¬ ly, how to find in any cafe the general term. We lhall begin with the molt fimple, and fuppofe the fraaion to be -——, which being expounded into a fe¬ ries by divifion, is a-\-apx-\-a fix x7, -\-ap% #3-j-, &c. here it is immediately manifeft that the general term is a pn 1 ~n~1 Next let us fuppofe the fraaion to be 1 — ctx — Let the two roots of the quadratic equation 1—a.x /3.v* — 3 be ^ at — —, fo that 1—px — o, and t—qx p q ^ —0 j therefore, 1—ax—,3x2~ (1—/^)(i—qx)f thus, we have a-j-frx a-j-bx 1—ax—fix2 (i_/x)^i—qX)' Let us affume this expreffion equal to —+-2- I—px 1—qx' * where P and £ denote quantities which are to be inde¬ pendent of x, then, reducing to a common denominator we have ’ °+hx __ p-f-Q—(?P+/Q )x {l—px)(l-~qx) (I—p x)(l—q x) ’ Hence, that x may remain indeterminate, we muft make P+Q=*, ??+/»Q——b, and from thefe equations we get p __ q— aq-\-b ~p-q'*.~ p~—q £Jow, by the operation of divifion, we find 1 —px Q ; I —q X' therefore, fince S E R = P+P/.v-f.P/*^-f, &c. — &c. a-\-bx __ P p X —xx—3xz 1 — px ‘ 1 —qx' a -{- bx it fol¬ lows that the developemont of the fraaion - _ which proceeds according to the powers of x, is (P + ^)P/>4-Q,'7) tf + CP/^-f-Otf*) x* +cp^+q.?3)^34-, &c. And here it is evident that the general term is fP*”-1 Let us take as a particular example the fraaion iZ-.xZdTx^' which» when expanded into a feries, be¬ comes 1 -\-0 X-\-2 X7 -\-2 X* -{-6 X* IO Xs -f" 2 2 ai® -j-q 2 frd -J— 86 .v® -j—, £kc. Here, from the equation 1—x—2 we get .r— and a;——x, fo that 1—2x and 1 -f-x are divilors of the funaion 1—x—2 xzf that is, 1—x—2 at2 — (1-f-A;''; (r—2x) ; hence/——i,q=2, and fince a~i,b~ 1 j therefore P= |, Q — f, and the general term (P/*-1 -i- Q_y" *) at"-1 becomes by fubftituting where the fign + is to be taken when n is an odd number ; but the iign — when n is even. Sometimes the values of / and q will come out ima¬ ginary quantities 5 thefe, however, will be found always to deftroy one another when fubftituted in the peneral term. Let us next fuppofe the fraaion which produces a re-- curring feries to be a + b x-\-c x7 I a X /3 x2—y A3 * T 1 1 1 , 1 Let x—x — —, x — ~ be the three roots of the cubic equation 1—u.x—(&x2—yx3~of then the deno¬ minator of the fraaion will be the produa of the three faaors 1—px, 1—qx, x—r X. We muft now affume the fraaion equal to the expref¬ fion — +-£-+-5-- l—px 1—qx 1—r x ' in which P, Q, R denote quantities which are indepen¬ dent of x. The three terms of this expreffion are next to be re¬ duced to a common denominator and colleaed into one, and the coefficients of the powers of x in the numerator of the refult are to be put equal to the like powers of> in the propofed fraaion, we ffiall then have Series. P + Series. ' S E K [ P+Q^j-Rrrtf, q r P4-/»r C^4-/)?R—f, and by thefe equations the values of P, Q, R may be found. P O R — be now refolved into fe- -r x Let I—px I—qx I- ries by divifion 5 then, adding the like powers of .v in each we have (p+Q.+R)+(P/!,+Q.?+R rV-f-(P/>H~Q.'7* -j-R &c. for the feries which is the developement of the fraflion ci "b x —c x* I X X /3 X* y X 3 and here the general term is evidently and in the very fame manner may the general term be found in every cafe in which the denominator of the fraftion admits of being refolved into unequal fa&ors. (21.) Let us now fuppofe the fraction to have the form the denominator being the produft of two equal factors ; this fraftion cannot be decompofed into other fraclions, the denominators of which are the fimple factors of its denominator. ^Ve rnay, however, transform it into two, which ihali have their numerators conftant quantities by proceeding as follows : Aflume the numerator P+O (1—/>*), then, that x may remain indeterminate, we muft have P -J- O = r? —/> Q=b, therefore Q= — P=a+~. P ^P The aflumption of fl-f £ xrrP-f-Q (i_a gives us therefore a -\-b .v P Q 181 ] S E R (22.) In general, whatever be the form of the frac¬ tion from which a recurring feries is derived, to deter¬ mine the general term we muft decompofe the fra&ion into others which may be as fimple as poflible ; and pro¬ vided it be rational, and the higheft power of x in the numerator at reaft one degree lefs than the higheft power in the denominator, it may be always decompofed into others having one or other of thefe two forms P (1—pxy (1—/>.?)*■*" 1 —p x' Now,, putting the firft term of the latter fide of this equation under the form P (r—^.v)-2, it is refolved by the binomial theorem into the feries P(I+2Px + 3Plxi'b4PZx3 + , &c.) j the other fraction ^ 1 —px being expanded into a feries P+Q/'*+Q/>5*2+, &c. J herefore, the complete developement of —^ x is (1—p x)* p+&+(2 P+Q)/>*-K3 P-f£)/>V+, &c. and here the general term is manifeftly (n P-\-QJpr'~Ix”-1, or, fubftituting for P and Q their values, ^ npa-p(n—i)b~^pn-’-xn~'i. 1—p x’ (i—q xY' y in which expreffions P, £), p, and q, denote quantities independent of x. Each partial fraction gives a recur¬ ring feries, the general term of which will be fufficient- ly obvious and as the feries belonging to the original fraftion, is the fum of thefe feries, fo alfo its general term will be the fum of all their general terms. We have now treated of fome of the more general methods of fumming feries which admit of being ex¬ plained by the common principles of algebra 5 but the fubjett is of great extent, and to treat of it fo as to give a tolerable notion of its various branches, would require more room than could with propriety be fpared on fych a work as ours. (23). The fluxionaty calculus affords a method, al- moft the only general one we poffefs, of fumming feries. The general principles upon which it is applied may be ftated briefly as folkws. Since the fluent of any fluxion containing one variable quantity may always be expreffed by a feries, on the contrary every feries may be regarded as the expreffion of a fluent: when any feries then is propofed, we muft endeavour to find the fluxional expreflion of which that feries is the fluent; and as w'e can always find the fluent of a fluxion, at leaft by approximation, within given limits j we may thence determine, if not the exaft, at leaft the approxi¬ mate value of any infinite feries. We lhall now fhew how this principle may be applied in fome particular cafes. PROEr.EM I. It is propofed to find the fum of n terms of the feries X-f- 'lx1 -f-3#3 -j-4*4 ‘ • +nx”. Let the fum be denoted by s. Then, multiplying all the terms by — we have J JC • • • • 0 ~ — x-\-2xx-)r'3)x'ix-\-i\x^x • • - xn~* x Let the fluent of both fides be now taken, and the re- fult is .. /j' % Now the feries on the right-hand fide of this equa¬ tion is a geometrical progreflion, the fum of which is ftmm^mftft "t" ^ known to be 1— , (Algebra, § 106). Therefore^ 1—x fs X __ X A«+2 'J X * I X ’ Series, a»el S E R and, taking the fluxions, j- x x— (« -f-1) v" 4’n xn^lx x (l—ar)* Hence we find i _ x—-\-nxn^z S~ (i—a;)2 [ JB2 ] S E R Series V -f V > l — X and taking the fluents, j- r= ^ — log. (i—.t) -f-c — loR- ( 1 —x) x ' log, (I—A?) + C. To determine the conftant quantity c, let us take This refult agrees with that formerly found (17.) of xz=o, then, in this cafe all the terms of the feries va- this articled niih fo that j=o, aifo log. rrrlog. 1 — o j and Problem II. It is propofed to fum the infinite feries ^ince general —, &c.^rr—x — log. (1—at) log. ( X — A?) X / x* x\ 2 AT3 T I I I I I 0 I f- j L, &C. 3 5 7 9 ii We may confider this feries as a particular cafe of the more general feries, a._iL+^_£.4. &c 3 + 5 7 ' ’ namely, that in which x~I. Putting therefore the fum —and taking the fluxions, we have —x^-j-v4—*6-f-, &c.). Now the feries in the parenthefis is obvioufly the de- —, &c. when « —o, then 1 : therefore o = —1 -\-c, and c = i ) hence it appears that iog- (1— .log.(x—.v) + l (1—x) log. (1—x) + 11 velopement of the rational fraction 1 -j- x1 therefore, Example, Let x~\, then our formula gives 11 11 I * 2 * 2 2 • 3 * 2J 3 • 4 * 23 ‘ 4 • 5 ’ 24 4-, &C, s — —- , and taking the fluent Jrrarc (tan. — .v) — 1 — Nap. log. 2~.3o68528. radius being unity. (Fluxions § 60.) Now when x—o, all the terms of the feries vanifli, fb that in this cale j-~o ; and as when x—o, arc. (tan. o j therefore 6’, the conftant quantity added to complete the fluent is o, and we have Amply s — arc. (tan. —x), and when *•—1, then j-—-1- a quadrant “.7853982. Problem IV. Let the feries to be fummed be OT-j-2 m ttz-d-i , I ~L_ — x 4 X 1 n ^«4-i H 4- 2 xi 4-, &C. Putting s for this fcries let all its terms be multiplied by xn—i fo that the exponent of X the expreflion it was put to reprefent, we get .„wi— 2 sxm-1 -f- (« — I ).r a? x' tn x xv :(« — ■x-y Ai i—x r (i- and this, after redu£lion, becomes • . , n—1 • (n — i)a? tnx s _| sx = i 4 x x i—x (1—xy Ihisfluxional equation being of the firft degree, and firft order, its primitive equation may be found (from the general formula given in Fluxions, § 182.) to be 1 , a * „ ■> . mxx"-x , xxn 1 s~-—— X/ i (n—i)xxy'-z-\ h fr ; 1 ^ Lv ' ^ i—x (i~x)2S’ and this again, by remarking t\\ztj\n—l^xxn~z~xn~'lt and that J'mxxr'~’i mx* , mxxn 1—x «(i—ac) J »(i—a;)1’ may be reduced to r-— T ^j_ mx n — m p xn x »(i—at) nxn~xJ (1—x'y' The remaining fluent P-—*-. t/ ( 1 x } Fluxions, and it mult be fo taken, that after being multiplied by —it fhall vanilk when x~o \ for then this hypothefis will make the whole funfKon which exprefles the value of r vanith, except its firft term 1, as it ought to do. Example. Let us fuppofe zz—2, then, value of one or more terms by means of others which are given, and which may be either at equal or unequal intervals from one another, the places of the given terms as well as of thofe fought being fuppofed known. It is eafy to fee that this problem may be applied to the conftruftion of logarithmic tables ; for we may re¬ gard the logarithms of the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. ad infinitum as the terms of a particular feries of which the numbers themfelves are then the indices. Ha- ving given the logarithms of fome numbers we may by interpolating deduce from them the logarithms of others. Again, in aftronomy we may confider the numbers which exprefs the fucceffive obferved pofitions of a ce- leftial body as the terms of a feries, their indices being the intervals of time between the obfervations, and fome aflumed epoch, and the problem we are confidering will enable us to determine the pofition at any inftant different from the times of aftual obfervation, provided the intervals between the obfervations be fmall, and the inftant for which the pofition is fought not very remote from thofe at which the obfervations were made. (25.) With a view to illuftrate the nature of the pro¬ blem to be refolved, let us confider fome particular cafe, as for example the arithmetical feries <7, a-\-d, a -f- id, a-\-^d, a-\-t[d, &c. Let t and t’ be two given terms of the feries, which are at any diftance from one another, and let n and n1 be their indices, or numbers which denote their places in may be found by J 109. the feries. Alfo let ij be any term whatever and x its index. Then by the nature of an arithmetical feries, p Xz X J (I—l (1—xy t-V iZ^+2 los- C1— tz=a-j-(n—i)d, <7-J-(z2'—i)d, t/=za-l-(x—i)d, Now, as there are here three equations, each involving the quantities a and d, we^may eliminate both thefe quantities by the common rules, (Algebra, Seff. VII.) and this being done, rve get ( x—n') () — (//—tz) (y—/') 5 and hence we find this expreftion, and 2X n r xz x __(2—m)x J (1 — x)z ~ i( 1—, r- log. (l—x), the fluent being here taken as direfted. In this cafe then, after collefting the terms,* we get j-, or 1 + m-l-i , m-l-2 x -| + j &c. 3 (2—m) log. ([—xy ( 24.) There is a branch of the do&rine of feries which is of confiderable importance in pure mathematics as well as in many phyfical inquiries, and in the fcience of aftronomy ; it is called the Interpolation of feries. Fo interpolate a feries is to interpofe among its terms others which fhall be fubjedl; to the fame law, or which fhall be formed in the fame manner as the original terms of the feries; or in other words, it is to find the which is a general formula for interpolating any arith¬ metical feries, and it is obfervable, that it is entirely in¬ dependent both of the firft term and common difference. Example. The yth term of an arithmetical feries is 15, and the 12th term is 25 : It is required to find the 10th term. Here «=7, n'—\2, Amo ; t—15, t'zz 25, y is fought. Therefore by the formula, 2 3 y=-X 15+JX 25=21, the anfwer. (26.) The mode of inveftigation by which we have found a formula for the interpolation of an arithmetical feries will apply alfo to others, if the law according to which the terms are formed be known ; in general, however, the law of a feries to be interpolated is either not Series. ^trte-. Plate ccCclxxvi: S E It t i not known, or it is not taken into account, and we only confider the abfolute magnitudes of certain terms, and the numbers cxpreffing their places in the feries. To refolve the problem generally with thefe data, it is ufual to proceed as follows: Let a llraight line, AB, and a point A in it, be affumed as given in pofition, and let there be taken the fegments AD, AD', AD", AD"', &c. proportional to the numbers denoting tl e places of the terms of a feries reckoned from any term aflfumed as a fixed origin, and at the points D, D', D" let there be ere£ted perpendiculars proportional to the terms themfelves. Let us now fuppofe a curve to pafs through C, C', C", C'", &c. then, if it be fo chofen that its curvature may vary gradually in its progrefs from point to point, without any very abrupt changes of inflexion, and moreover, if the terms (wLich we may fuppofe to be either at equal or unequal didances) are pretty near to one another, it is eafy to conceive, that if AP be taken equal to the number exprefling the place of a term between C"D", C^D'" any two others, the term itfelf will, if not exaftly, at lead be nearly ex- prerfed by P£), the ordinate to the curve. As an infinite variety of curves may be found that fhall pafs through the fame given points j in this refpeft the problem is unlimited •, it is, however, convenient to affiime fuch as are fimple and tra&able. The parabolic clafs poffefs thefe properties, and accordingly they are commonly employed. Let us then exprefs the ordinates CD, C'D', C"D", C'"D"', &c. which are the given terms of the feries by /, /', t", t"\ &c. and the abfciflae AD, AD', AD", AD'", or the numbers denoting the order of the terms by n, n", &c. Put y for PQ, a term to be interpolated, and x for AP its place. Then, confidering x and y as indefinite co-ordinates, a parabolic curve that ihall pafs through the points C, C', C", C'", &c. will have for its equa¬ tion y—-j-> &c. the number of terms on the right-hand fide being fup- pofed equal to that of the given points, and A, B, C, &c. being put to denote conftant quantities. To de¬ termine thefe we mud confider that when x~ti, then y—t, and that when xzzri, then y—t' and fo on, there¬ fore, fubdituting the fucceflive correfponding values of x and y we get t —A-f-B/z -j-Cn* -j-D«? -f-, &c. t' =A-j-B«' -j-Cn'* -}-D/iM -f-, &c. t"=A + Br>" +C«"2 +D«"5 -f, &c. ^"=A-f B«'" -{-Cw'^-fDw"'3 +, &c. &.C. &c. this feries of equations mud be continued until their number be the fame as that of the coefficient, A, B, C, D, &c. If w’e nowT confider t, t'. t", &c. and a, &c. as known, and A, B. C, &c. as unknown quan¬ tities, we may determine thefe lad by eliminating them one after another from the above equations, as is taught in Algebra, Se£L XVII. And the values of A, B, C, &c. being thus determined and fubdituted in the ge¬ neral equation, we fhall have a general expreffion for y in terms of x the number denoting its place and known a 84 ] S E R quantities 5 and this is in fubdance the folution original- Series, ly given of the problem by Sir Ifaac Newton, who pro- 11 ' v'-” pofed it in the third book of his Principia wdih a view to its application in adronomy. * A celebrated foreign mathematician (Lagrange) has, in the Gainers de l Pcole Normale, given a different form to the expreflicn fur //. He has ohferved that fince, when x becomes w. n, n" n'", &c. fucceflively, then 7/ becomes t, t', t", t'", &c. It follows that the es- preffion for y mull have this form. yrr^Z-f^/'-f + , &c. where the quantities p, y, &c. mud be fuch func¬ tions of#, that if we put x—ri, then u~i and/3—o, y—o, &c. and if we put x—n', then x—O, P—i', y—o, &c. and again, if we make x,—ri,f, then x~o} /3—o, y~ I, &c. and fo on. Hence it is eafy to con¬ clude that the values of *, p, y, &c. mud have the form (x—7i')(«;—n") (x—7/") ^ * (7/—77')(77—77")(77—s'") ’ ^ C* (# 77) (# 7?")(# 72"') ** (77' 77) (7l' 77")(tj' 77"')’ ^ ^ . — (*—«) (x—d) (x—n'") y (72" 77)(«" Tl)(Tl" 77"')’ 5 _ (#—7?) (#—77') (#—72"'() 6 («"'——77') (77'"—77")' 4 &c. and here the number of faflors in the numerator and de¬ nominator mud be each equal to the number of given points in the curve. This formula would be found to be identical with that which may be obtained by the method indicated in lad article, if we were to take the a dual produff of the faffors and arrange the whole ex¬ preffion according to powers of x. It poffeffes however , one advantage over the other, viz. that of admitting of the application of logarithms. We diall now drew the application of this formula. Ex. J Having given the logarithms of IOI, 102, 104, and 105, it is required to find the logarithm of 103. In this cafe we may reckon the terms of the feries forward from the fird given term, viz. log. 101, fo that we have t —log. toi —2.oc>432T4, 77 =ro, /'=r log. 102=2.0086002, n'z=i, y =log. 103= term fought, x—2, t"= log. 104=^.0170333, »"=3> /'"=log. i05=:2.02ii893, 77"'=4. Subdituting nowT in the general formpla wre get IX—IX—3 I 2 X 1 X 2 I X—3 X—4 2X—T X—2 TX—2X—3 3 = 3 X 2 X —I 2_x 1 ><-—I 4x3x1 / 21' 2t" t"' Therefore y= — -g-+ — + = 2.0128372 the anfwer. 3 1 '6’ Ek; s E R [ 185 ] S E R Series, 2. Given a comet's diftance from the fun on the Seringapa- following days at 12 at night, to find its diftance De- . ta”1* , cember 20th. December 12. diftance 301, Dec. 24. diftance 715, 21. 620, 26. 772. Here we lhall eftimate the places of the terms from the time of the firft pofition, viz. December 12. There¬ fore t = 301, « = o, T/ is fought, AT = 8, t' ~ 620, n' rz 9, t" — 715, n" — 12, t"'— 772, n,n zz 14. In this cafe the general formula gives us — —— A 45’y 3’ 35* therefore # , 64^ V — 7—f* 63^ 45 2H' , 8/"' T+35-’ = 586.3 the anfwer. We fhall conclude this article with a brief enumera¬ tion of the beft works on the fubjedt which we have been treating of. Ars ConjeBandi, (Jac. Bernoulli). Methodus Dif¬ ferentia Us, (Newton). Methodus Incrementorum, (Tay¬ lor). Methodus Differentia Us, five TraBatus de Sum- mat ione ct Interpolatione Serierum, (Stirling). Injlitu- tiones Calcul. Dff. (Euler). Emerfon's Method of In¬ crements. The differential method, (fame author). Mif- cellanea Analytica (De Moivre). The various writings of Landen and Simpfon. Theone des FonBions Analy- tiques, (Lagrange). Du Calcul des Derivation, (Arbo- gart). Traite des differences et des Series, (a fequel to Lacroix’s work on the Calcul Differential, &c.). Dr Hutton’s Mathematical and Philofophical Tradts. An Effay on the Theory of the various orders of Lo¬ garithmic Tranfcendents, with an Inquiry into their applications to the Integral Calculus, and the Summa¬ tion of Series, by W. Spence, &c. &c. SERING APAT AAl, the capital of Myfore, formerly the dominions of Tippoo Sultan, is fituated in an ifiand of the Cavery river, about 290 or 300 miles from Ma¬ dras, and in N. Lat. 12° 32' and E. Long. 96° 47', about four miles in length, by one and a half in breadth, acrofs the middle, where it is likewife highefl, whence it gradually falls and narrows towards the extremities. The weft end of the ifland, on which there is a fort of confiderable ftrength, Hopes more, efpecially towards the north •, and the ground riling on the oppofite fide of the river commands a diftindt view of every part of the fort. The fort and outworks occupy about a mile of the weft end of the ifland, and are diftinguilhed by magnificent buildings, and ancient Hindoo pagodas, contrafted with the more lofty and fulendid monuments lately raifed in honour of the Mahometan faith. The great garden, called the haul Bang, covers about as much of the eaft end of the illand as the fort and out¬ works do of the weft ; and the wdiole intermediate fpace, except a fmall inclofure on the north bank near the fort, Vol. XIX. Part I. was, before the laft war, filled with houfes, and formed Seringapa*' an extenfive fuburb, of which the greateft part was de- tam. ftroyed by Tippoo to make room for batteries to de-^cl‘n^1>i>m', fend the ifland when attacked by the combined forces y*““ of Earl Cornwallis and the Mahratta chiefs in Februa- ry 1792. Ihis fuburb, or town of modern ftrudlure, is about half a mile fquare, divided into regular crofs ftreets, all wide, and lhaded on each fide by trees. It is furrounded by a ftrong mud wall, contains many good houfes, and feems to have been preferved by the Sultan for the accommodation of merchants, and for the con¬ venience of troops ftationed on that part of the ifland for its defence. A little to the eaftward of the town is the entrance to the great garden, which was laid out in regular lhady walks of large cyprefs trees, and abounding with fruit-trees, flowers, and vegetables of every defcription. It poffeffed all the beauty and ele¬ gance of a country retirement, and was dignified by the maufoleum of Hyder, and a fuperb new palace built by his fon. This noble garden was devoted to deftruffion^ and the trees which had (haded their proud raafter, and contributed to his pleafures, were formed into the means of prote£ling his enemies in fubverting his empire. “ Be¬ fore that event, fo glorious to the arms of England, this infulated metropolis (fays Major Dirom) muft have been the richeft, moft convenient, and beautiful fpot poffeffed in the prefent age by any native prince in In¬ dia } but when the allies left it, the Sultan’s fort and city only remained in repair amidft all the wrecks of his former grandeur, the ifland prefenting nothing but the appearance of wretched barrennefs. Tippoo is a man of talents, enterprife, and great wealth ; but, in the opi¬ nion of our author, the remaining years of his ill-fated life will be unequal to renew the beauties of his ter- reftrial paradife.” This prediftion was more than veri¬ fied in the fate of Tippoo j for he loft his life in brave¬ ly defending his capital, which was taken by affault in 1799 by the Britifli troops under General Baird. See India, N° 183. SERINGHAM, an ifland of Indoftan, formed about fix miles north-weft of Trinchinopoly by the river Ca¬ very, which divides itfelf into two branches : that to the northward takes the name of Coleroon, but the fouthern branch preferves its old name the Cavery. Each of thefe rivers, after a courfe of about 90 miles, empty themfelves into the fea ; the Coleroon at Devi- cottah, and the Cavery near Tranquebar, at about 20 miles diftance from one another. In this ifland, facing I rinchinopoly, ftood a famous pagoda furrounded by feven fquare walls of ftone, 25 feet high and four feet thick. The fpace between the outward and fecond walls meafured 31 o feet, and fo proportionably of the reft. Each inclolure had four large gates, with a high tower •, which were placed, one in the middle of each fide of the inclofure, and oppofite to the four cardinal points. The outward wall was about four miles in cir¬ cumference, and its gateway to the fouth was ornament¬ ed with pillars, fome of which were (ingle ftones 33 feet in length and five in diameter ; while thofe that formed the roof were ftill larger ; and in the inmoft inclofure were the chapels.—About half a mile to the eaft; was another large pagoda called Jumbihijlna, which had but one inclofure. The pagoda of Seringham xvas held in great venera¬ tion, from a belief that it contained the identical image A a of S E R Serin t ham of the god Wiftnou worfhipped by Brama ; and pilgrims II came here from all parts of India with offerings of mo- i SelPe''ls- j-Q plocul:e abfolution. A large part of the reve¬ nue of the iiland was allotted for the maintenance of the Bramins who inhabited the pagoda; and thefe, with their families, formerly amounted to no fewer than 40,020 perions, ail maintained by the fuperffitious li¬ berality of the adjacent country. SERIOLA, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs fyngenefia, and in the natural fyffem ranged under the 49i.h order, Compojitce. See Botany Index. SE1UPHIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs fyngenefia. See Botany Index. SERIPHUS, in Ancient Geography, one of the Cy¬ clades or iffands in the /Egean fea, called Saxurn Seri- phium by Tacitus, as it all a rock ; one of the ulual places of banilhment among the Romans. The people, Seriphii ; who, together witn the Siphnii, joined Greece againft Xerxes, were almoft the only illanders who re- fufed to give him earth and water in token of fubmif- fion, (Herodotus). Seriphia Kana, a proverbial faying concerning a perfon who can neither ting nor fay ; frogs in this ifland being laid to be dumb, (Pliny). SERMON, a difeourfe delivered in public, for the purpofe of religious inffrudlion and improvement. Funeral SERMON. See FUNERAL Orations. SERON OF almonds, is the quantity of two hun¬ dred weight; of anile feed, it is from three to four hun¬ dred 5 ot Caffile foap, from two hundred and a half to three hundred and three quarters. SEROSITY, in Medicine, the watery part of the blood. SERPENS, in AJlroTiGmy, a conffellation in the northern hemifphere, called more particularly Serpens Ophiuchi. The liars in the conftellation Serpens, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 185 in Tycho’s, 13 } in He- velius’s, 22 5 and in the Britannic catalogue, 64. SERPENS Biceps, or Double-headed Snake ; a monffer of the ferpent kind, of which fome individuals are de- feribed by naturalifts. Serfentes, Serpents, in the Linnaean fyftem of zoo¬ logy, an order of animals belonging to the clafs of atn- phibia. See Ohiology. The ferpent has been always conffdered the enemy of man ; and it has hitherto continued to terrify and annoy him, notwithftanding all the arts which have been pradlifed to deftroy it. Formidable in itfelf, it deters the invader from the purfuit $ and from its fi¬ gure, capable of finding flicker in a little fpace, it is not eafily difeovered by thofe who would venture to encounter it. Thus poffeffed at once of potent arms, and inacceflible or fecure retreats, it baffles all the arts of man, though ever fo earneftly bent upon its deftrudlion. For this reafon, there is fcarcely a country in the world that does not Hill give birth to this poi- fbnous brood, that feems formed to quell human pride, and reprefs the boafls of fecurity. Mankind have driven the lion, the tiger, and the wolf, from their vicinity j but the fnake and the viper flill defy their power. Their numbers, however, are thinned by human af- fiduity 5 and it is pofiible fome of the kinds are wholly deftroyed. In none of the countries of Europe are they fufficiently numerous to be truly terrible. The various malignity that has been aferibed to European ferpents S E R of old is now utterly unknown ; there are not above Serf three or four kinds that are dangerous, and their poi-“*"v fon operates in all in the fame manner. The drowfy death, the ftarting of the blood from every pore, the infatlable and burning thirft, the melting down the folid mafs of the whole form into one heap of putrefac¬ tion, faid to be occaffoned by the bites of African ler- pents, are horrors with which we are entirely unac¬ quainted, and are perhaps only the creatures of fancy. But though we have thus reduced thefe dangers, ha¬ ving been incapable of wholly removing them, in other parts of the world they itill rage with ail their ancient malignity. In the warm countries that lie within the tropics, as well as in the cold regions of the north, where the inhabitants are few, the ferpents propagate in equal proportion. But of all countries thole re¬ gions have them in the greateft abundance where the fields are unpeopled and lertile, and where the climate fupplies warmth and humidity. All along the fwampy banks of the river Niger or Oroonoko, where the kin is hot, the forefts thick, and the men but few, the fer¬ pents cling among the branches of the trees in infinite numbers, and carry on an unceafing war againft all other animals in their vicinity. Travellers have allured us, that they have often feen large fnakes twining round the trunk of a tall tree, encompaffing it like a wreath, and thus rifing and defeending at pleafure.— We are not, therefore, to rejedf as wholly fabulous the accounts left us by the ancients of the terrible devafta- tions committed by a fingle ferpent. It is probable, in early times, wFen the arts were little known, and man¬ kind were but thinly fcattered over the earth, that fer¬ pents, continuing undifturbed pofl'efibrs of the foreft, grew to an amazing magnitude } and every other tribe of animals fell before them. It then might have hap¬ pened, that ferpents reigned the tyrants of a diftridl for centuries together. To animals of this kind, grown by time and rapacity to 100 or 150 feet in length, the lion, the tiger, and even the elephant itfelf, were bui feeble opponents. That horrible feetor, which even the commoneft and the moft harmlefs fnakes are ftill found to diffufe, might, in thefe larger ones, become too powerful for any living being to withftand •, and while they preyed without diftinftion, they might thus alfo have poifoned the atmofphere around them. In this manner, having for ages lived in the hidden and un¬ peopled foreft, and finding, as their appetites were more powerful, the quantity of their prey decreafing, it is poffible they might venture boldly from their retreats into the more cultivated parts of the country, and carry confternation among mankind, as they had before de- folation among the lower ranks of nature. We have many hiftories of antiquity, prefen ting us fuch a pic¬ ture, and exhibiting a whole nation finking under the ravages of a fingle lerpent. At that time man had not learned the art of uniting the efforts of many to effeft one great purpofe. Oppofing multitudes only added new vidrims to the general calamity, and increafed mu¬ tual embarraffment and terror. The animal wTas there¬ fore to be fingly eppofed by him who had the greateft ftrength, the beft armour, and the meft undaunted cou¬ rage. In fuck an encounter, hundreds muft have fal¬ len ; till one, more lucky than the reft, by a fortunate blow, o.r by taking the monfter in its torpid interval, and furcharged with fpoil, might kill, and thus rid his country [ <86 ] S E R Serpens, country of tlie deftroyer. Such was the original oc- Serpent. CUpation of heroes \ and thofe who firft obtained that ^ name, from their deftroying the ravagers of the earth, gained it much more defervedly than their fucceffors, who acquired their reputation only for their fldll in de- ftroying each other. But as we defcend into more en¬ lightened antiquity, we find thefe animals lefs formi¬ dable, as being attacked in a more fuccefsful manner. We are told, that while Regulus led his army along the banks of the river Bagrada in Africa, an enormous fer- pent difputed his paffage over. We are affured by Pliny, that it was 120 feet long, and that it had deftroyed many of the army. At laft, however, the battering engines were brought out againft it 5 and thefe affailing it at a diilance, it was foon deftroyed. Its fpoils were car¬ ried to Rome, and the general was decreed an ovation for his fuccefs. There are, perhaps, few fafts better afcertained in hittory than this: an ovation was a re¬ markable honour 5 and was given only for fome fignal explait that did not deferve a triumph : no hiftorian would offer to invent that part of the dory at lead, without being fubjefl to the mod diameful deteddion. The dcin was kept for feveral years after in the Capi¬ tol ; and Pliny fays he faw it there. At prefent, in¬ deed, fuch ravages from ferpents are fcarcely feen in any part of the world •, not but that, in Africa and Ame¬ rica, fome of them are powerful enough to brave the aflaults of men to this day. —Ncqueunt, explcri cor da tuendo Ternbi/es oculos, vultum villofaque fetis PcEiora.— Virgil. We have given a place to the preceding remarks, not fo much for their accuracy as to diow what were formerly the fentiments of mankind concerning this tribe of animals. SERPENT, a mufical indrument, ferving as a bafs to the cornet, or /mail Jhawm, to ludain a chorus of fingers in a large edifice. It has its name ferpent from its figure, as confiding of feveral folds or wreaths, which ferve to reduce its length, which would otherwife be fix or feven feet. It is ufually covered with leather, and confifls of three parts, a mouth-piece, a neck, and a tail. It has fix holes, by means whereof it takes in the compafs of two oflaves. Merfennus, who has particularly defcribed this in¬ drument, mentions fome peculiar properties of it, e. gr. that the found of it is drong enough to drown 20 robud voices, being animated merely by the breath of a boy, and yet the found of it may be attempered to the foftnefs of the fweeted voice. Another pecu¬ liarity of this indrument is, that great as the didance between the third and fourth hole appears, yet whe¬ ther the third hole be open or diut, the difference is but a tone. Serpent, in Mythology, wras a very common fymbcl of the fun, and he is reprefented biting his tail, and with his body formed into a circle, in order to indicate the ordinary courfe of this luminary, and under this form it was an emblem of time and eternity. The fer¬ pent was alfo the fymbol of medicine, and of the gods which prefided over it, as of Apollo and /Efculapius : and this animal was the object of very ancient and gene¬ ral worfiiip, under various appellations and charaders. S E Pt In mod ®f the ancient rites we'find fome allufion to Serpent, the feipent, under the feveral titles of Ob, Ops, Py- * thon, &c. This idolatry is alluded to by Moles, (Lev. xx. 27.). The woman at Endor who had a familiar fpi- rit is called Oub, or Ob, and it is interpreted Pythonif- fa. The place where die redded, fays the learned Mr Bryant, feems to have been named from tbe wordiip then indituted ; for Endor is compounded of En-ador, and fignifies fotix Pythonis, “ the fountain of light, the oracle of the god Ador, which oracle was probably founded by the Canaanhes, and had never been totally fuppreffed. His pillar was alfo called Abbadir, or slb- adir, compounded of ab and adir, and meaning the ferpent deity Addir, the fame as Adorus. In the orgies of Bacchus, the perfons who partook of the ceremony ufed to carry ferpents in their hand»j and with horrid fereams call upon Eva ! Eva ! Eva, being, according to the writer juft mentioned, the fame as epha, or opha, which the Greeks rendered ophis, and by it denoted a ferpent. Thefe ceremonies and this fymbolic w'orihip began among the Magi, who were the fons of Chus} and by them they wrere propagated in various parts. Wherever tbe Amonians founded any places of worfiiip, and introduced their rites, there was generally fome dory of a ferpent. There was a legend about a ferpent at Colchis, at Thebes, and at Delphi •, and likewife in other places. The Greeks called A- pollo himfelf Python, which is the fame as Opis, Oupis, and Oub. In Egypt there was a ferpent named Thermuthis, which was looked upon as very facred ; and the natives are faid to have made ufe of it as a royal tiara, with which they ornamented the datues of Ifis. The kings of Egypt wore high bonnets, terminating in a round ball, and furrounded with figures of afps ; and the prieds likewife had the reprefentation of ferpents upon their bonnets. Abadon, or Abaddon, mentioned in the Revelations xx. 2. is fuppofed by Mr Bryant to have been the name of the Ophite god, with whofe worfiiip the world had been fo long infedled. This wordiip began among the people of Chaldea, who built the city of Ophis upon the Tigris, and were greatly addicted to divination, and to the wordiip of the ferpent. From Chaldea the wor¬ diip paffed into Egypt, where the ferpent deity was called Canoph, Can-epb, and C’neph. It had alfo the name of Ob or Oub, and was the fame as the Bafilifcus or royal ferpent, the fame as the Thermuthis, and made ufe of by way of ornament to the ftatues of their gods. The chief deity of Egypt is faid to have been Vulcan, who was ftyled Opas. He was the fame as Ofiris, the Sun, and hence was often called Ob-el, or Pytho-fol , and there were pillars facred to him, with curious hie- roglyphical inferiptions bearing the fame name *, whence among the Greeks, who copied from the Egyptians, every thing gradually tapering to a point was ftyled obelos, or obelifeus. As the wordiip of the ferpent began among the fons of Chus, Mr Bryant conjectures, that from thence they were denominated Ethiopians and Aithiopians, from Ath-ope or Ath-opcs, the god whom they wordiipped, and not from their complexion : the Ethiopes brought thefe rites into Greece, and called the idand where they firft eftablidied them, El/opta, Sohs Serpentis infula, the fame with Eubcea, or Oubaia, i. e. “ the ferpent idand.” A a 2 The [ 1S7 ] S E R [ 188 ] S E R Serpent The fame learned writer difcovers traces of the ferpent SerrlLus wor^"1P among the Hyperboreans, at Rhodes, named v Ophiufi, in Phrygia, and upon the Hellefpont, in the ifland Cyprus, in Crete, among the Athenians, in the name of Cecrops, among the natives of Thebes in Boeo- tia, among the Lacedemonians, in Italy, in Syria, &c. and in the names of many places, as well as of the peo¬ ple where the Ophites fettled. One of the moft early herdies introduced into the Chriftian church was that of the Ophitte. Bryant’s Analyfis of Ancient Mytho¬ logy, vol. i. p. 43, &c. p. 473, &c. Serpent Stones. See Cornu Ammonis, and SNAKE- Stones. Sea-SERPENT. See SEA Serpent. SERPLNTARIA, Snake-root j a fpecies of Aristolochia. See Botany and Materia Medi- ca Index. SERF ENT ARI US, in AJlronomy, a conftellation of the northern hemifphere, called alio Ophiuchus, and anciently ./Efculapius. The ftars in the conftellation Serpentarius, in Piolemy’s catalogue, are 29 ■, in Tycho’s 15 j in Hevelius’s 40 ; in the Britannic catalogue they are 74. SERPENTINE, in general, denotes any thing that refembles a ferpent j hence the worm or pipe of a ftill, twilled in a fpiral manner, is termed a ferpentine worm. SERPENTINE Stone, a fpecies of mineral belonging to the magnefian genus. See MINERALOGY Index. Serpentine verfes, are Inch as begin and end with the fame word. As, Ambo Jlorentes eetatibus, Arcades ambo. SERPENTINE, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to have a ferpentine tongue, if it is always frifking and moving, and fometimes palling over the bit, inftead of keeping in the void fpace, called the liberty of the tongue. SERPICULA, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs moncecia. See Botany Index. SERPIGO, in Surgery, a kind of herpes, popularly ■called a tetter or ringworm. See Surgery. SERPULA, a genus belonging to the clafs of vermes and to the order of teftacea. See Conchology Index. SERRANUS, Joannes, or John de Serres, a learn¬ ed French Proteftant, was born about the middle of the 16th century. He acquired the Greek and Latin lan¬ guages at Laufanne, and devoted himfelf to the ftudy of the philofophy of Ariftctle and Plato. On his return to France he ftudied divinity. He began to diftinguilh himfelf in 1572 by his writings, but was obliged to for- fake his country after the dreadful maffacre of St Bar¬ tholomew. He became minifter of Nifmes in 1582, but was never regarded as a very zealous Calvinift : he has even been fufpe&ed, though without reafon, of having aftually abjured the Proteftant religion. He was one of the four clergymen whom Henry IV. confulted about the Romifti religion, and who returned for anfwer, that Catholics might be faved. He wrote afterwards a trea- tife in order to reconcile the two communions, entitled De Jide Catholica, Jive de principiis religionis Chri/Hancs, commnniomnium Chrijhancrum confenfu, femper et ubique rails. This wrork was difliked by the Catholics, and received with fuch indignation by the Calvinifts of Ge¬ neva, that many writers have affirmed that they poifon- ed the author. It is certain at le^ft that he died at Geneva in 1598, at the age of 50. His principal Scrranus wrorks are, 1. A Latin tranllation of Plato, publilhed ll by Henry Stephens, wEich owes much of its reputation ^ervantlcn7 to the elegance of the Greek copy which accompanies v" it. 2. A Treatife on the Immortality of the Soul. 3. De Jlatu religionis et re 'pubhcce in Francia. 4. Me~> moire de la yne guerre civile et derniers troubles de France Jous Charles IX. Ffc. 5. Invent aire general de I'Hi/ioire de France, illujlre par la conference de l'Eg life et de FEmpire, itfe. 6. Rccueil de chofe memorable ave¬ nue en France fous Henri II. Franfois II. Charles IX. Henri III. Thefe three hiftorical treatites have been juftly accufed of partiality and paffion j faults which it is next to impoffible for a contemporary writer to avoid, elpecially if he bore any part in the tranfadlions which he deferibes. His ftyle is exceedingly incorrect and inelegant j his miftakes too and mistfatements of fails are very numerous. SERRATED, in general, fomething indented or notched in the manner of a faw j a term much ufed in the defeription of the leaves of plants. See Botany Index. SERRATULA, Saw-wort, a genus of plants be¬ longing to the fyngenefia clafs, and in the natural fyftem ranged under the 49th order, Compojitce. See Botany Index. SERRATUS, in Anatomy, a name given to feve- ral mufcles, from their refemblance to a faw. See A- NATOMY, Table of the Mufcles. SERRISHIEHDAR, in Bengal, keeper of records or accounts. SERTORIUS, Quintus, an eminent Roman ge¬ neral j (fee Spain), under the biftory of which his ex¬ ploits are related. SERTULARIA, a genus belonging to the clafs of vermes, and to tire order of zoophyta. See HelmiN* THOLOGY Index. SERVAL, Mountain Cat. See Felis, Mammalia Index. SERVANDONI, John Nicolas, a celebrated ar- chiteil, was born at Florence in 1695. He rendered himfelf famous by his exquifite tafte in architeilure, and by his genius for decorations, fetes, and building. He wTas employed and rewarded by moft of the princes in Europe. He w’as honoured in Portugal with the order of Chrift : In France he was architedl and painter to the king, and member of the different academies efta- blilhed for the advancement of thefe arts. He received the fame titles from the kings of Britain, Spain, Poland, and from the duke of Wirtemberg. Notwithttanding thefe advantages, his want of economy was fo great, that he left nothing behind him. He died at Paris in 1766. Paris is indebted to him for many of its orna¬ ments. He made decorations for the theatres of London and Drefden. The French king’s theatre, called la, falle des Machines, was under his management for feme time. He was permitted to exhibit fome (hows confid¬ ing of fimple decorations: Some of thefe were aftonifti- ingly fublime ; his “ Defcent of iEneas into Hell” in particular, and his “ Enchanted Foreft,” are well known. Fie built and embelliftted a theatre at Chamber for Marefchal Saxe ; and furniftied the plan and the model of the theatre royal at Drefden. His genius for fetes was remarkable ; he had the management of a great number in Paris, and even in London. He condu£ie4 one S E R Servandoni, one at Lifbon given an account of a viftory gained by , the duke of Cumberland. He was employed frequently by the king of Portugal, to whom he prefented feveral elegant plans and models. The prince of Wales, too, father to the prefent king, engaged him in his fervice ; but the death of that prince prevented the execution of the defigns which had been projefted. He prefided at the magnificent fete given at Vienna on account of the marriage of the archduke Jofeph and the Infanta of Parma. But it would be endlefs to attempt an enume¬ ration of all his performances and exhibitions. SERVANT, a term of relation, lignifying a perfon who owes and pays obedience for a certain time to another in quality of a mailer. As to the feveral forts of fervants : It was obferved, under the article Liberty, that pure and proper flavery does not, nay cannot, fubfiit in Britain : fuch we mean whereby an abfolute and unlimited power is given to the mailer over the life and fortune of the Have. And indeed it is repugnant to reafon, and the principles of natural law, that fuch a Hate ihould fubfiif anywhere. See Slavery. The law of England therefore abhors, and will not endure, the exiilence of flavery within this nation : fo that when an attempt wTas made to introduce it, by Hatute i Edw. VI. c. 3. which ordained, that all idle vagabonds fliould be made Haves, and fed upon bread, water, or fmall drink, and refufe-meat ; fliould wear a ring of iron round their necks, arms, or legs; and fliould be compelled, by beating, chaining, or otherwife, to perform the work affigned them, were it ever fo vile ; the fpirit of the nation could not brook this condition, even in the moft abandoned rogues j and therefore this flatute was repealed in two years afterwards. And now it is laid down, that a flave or negro, the inflant he lands in Britain, becomes a freeman j that is, the law will protefl him in the enjoyment of his perfon and his property. Yet, with regard to any right which the mafler may have lawfully acquired to the perpetual fervice of John or Thomas, this will remain exaftly in the fame flate as before : for this is no more than the fame flate of fubjeflion for life which every apprentice fubmits to for the fpace of feven years, or fometimes for a longer term. Hence, too, it follows, that the infamous and unchriftian praflice of withhold¬ ing baptifm from negro-fervants, left they fliould there¬ by gain their liberty, is totally without foundation, as well as without excufe. The law of England a£fs upon general and extenfive principles : it gives liberty, rightly underftood, that is, proteftion, to a Jew, a Turk, or a Heathen, as well as to thofe who profefs the true religion of Chrift ; and it will not diffolve a civil obligation between mafter and fervant, on account of the alteration of faith in either of the parties ; but the Have is entitled to the fame protection in England before as after baptifm ; and, whatever fervice the Hea¬ then negro owed of right to his American mafter, by general, not by local law, the fame (whatever it be) is he bound to render when brought to England and made a Chriftian. 1. The firft fort of fervants, therefore, acknowledged by the law7s of England, are menial fervants ; fo called from being intra mania, or domeftics. The contraft betrveen them and their mafters arires upon the hiring. If the hiring be general, without any particular, time s e R limited, the law conftrues it to be a hiring for a year ; upon a principle of natural equity, that the fervant lhall ferve and the mafter maintain him, throughout all the revolutions of the refpe&ive feafons j as well when there is work to be done, as when there is not: but the con¬ trail may be made for any larger or fmaller term. All fingle men between 12 years old and 60, and married ones under 30 years of age, and all fingle women between 1 2 and 40, not having any viable livelihood, are com¬ pellable by two juftices to go out to fervice in huf- bandry or certain fpecific trades, for the promotion of honeft induftry ; and no mafter can put away his fer¬ vant, or fervant leave his mafter, after being fo retained, either before or at the end of his term, without a quar¬ ter’s warning ; unlefs upon reafonable caufe, to be allow¬ ed by a juftice of the peace : but they may part by con- fent, or make a fpecial bargain. 2. Another fpecies of fervants are called apprentices, (from apprendre, to learn) 5 and are ufually bound for a term of years, by deed indented or indentures, to ferve their mafters, and be maintained and inftruiled by them. This is ufually done to perfons of trade, in order to learn their art and myftery j and fometimes very large fums are given with them as a premium for fuch their inftruftion ; but it may be done to hufband- men, nay, to gentlemen and others. And children of poor perfons may be apprenticed out by the overfeers,.. with confent of two juftices, till 24 years of age, to fuch perfons as are thought fitting j -who are alfo com¬ pellable to take them : and it is held, that gentlemen of fortune, and clergymen, are equally liable with others to fuch compulfion : for which purpofes our ftatutes have made the indentures obligatory, even though fuch parifh-apprentice be a minor,. Apprentices to trades may be difeharged on reafonable caule, either at the requeft of themfelves or mafters, at the quarter- feffions, or by one juftice, with appeal to the feflions j who may, by the equity of the ftatute, if they think it, reafonable, diredl reftitution of a rateable (hare of the money given with the apprentice : and parhh-appren* tices may be difeharged in the fame manner by two juftices. But if an apprentice, with whom lefs than io- pounds hath been given, runs away from his mafter, he is compellable to ferve out his time of abfence, or make fatisfaftion for the fame, at any time within feven years after the expiration of his original contrafl. See Ap¬ prentice and Apprenticeship. 3. A third fpecies of fervants are labourers^ who are only hired by the day or the week, and do not live intra mcenia, as part of the family, concerning whom the fta¬ tutes before cited have made many very good regulations 5 I. Direfting that all perfons who have no vifible effefts may be compelled to work ; 2. Defining how long they muft continue at work in fumrner and in winter: 3. Pu- nithing fuch as leave or defert their work : 4, Empower¬ ing the juftices at feffions, or the Iheriff of the county, to fettle their w’ages: and, 5,. Inflifting penalties on 1 fuch as-either give or ex aft more wages than are fo fet¬ tled. 4. There is yet a fourth fpecies of fervants,- if they may be fo called, being, rather in a fuperior, a minifterial, ca¬ pacity *, fuch as fexvards, fadiors, and bailiffs ; whom, however, the law confiders as fervants pro tempore, with regard to fuch of their afts as affeft their mailer’s or enu- player’s property. [ 189 ] Servant;. S E R [ >90 ] SEE •Servant II Servetus. As to the manner in which this relation sftefts the matter, the fervant himfelf, or third parties, fee the ar¬ ticle Master and Servant. For the condition of fervants by the law of Scotland, fee Law. SERVETISTS, a name given to the modern Anti- trinitarians, from their being fuppofed to be the followers of Michael Servetus-, who, in the year 1553, was burnt at Geneva, together with his books. SERVETUS, Michael, a learned Spanith phyfi- cian, w-as born at Villaneuva, in Arragon, in 1509. He was lent to the univertity of Touloufe to Itudy the civil law. The Reformation, which had awakened the moft polifhed nations of Europe, direfted the attention of thinking men to the errors of the Romifh church and to the Rudy of the Scriptures. Among the reft Ser¬ vetus applied to this ftudy. From the love of novelty, or the love of truth, he carried his inquiries far beyond the other reformers, and not only renounced the falfe opi¬ nions of the Roman Catholics, but went fo far as to queftion the doctrine of the Trinity. Accordingly, af¬ ter (pending two or three years at Touloufe, he deter¬ mined to go into Germany to propagate his new opi¬ nions, where he could do it with moft fafety. At Ba- fil he had fome conferences with Oecolampadius. He w-ent next to Stralburg to vifit Bucer and Capito, two eminent reformers of that town. From Strafburg he went to Flugenau, where he printed a book, intitled De Trinitatis Erroribus, \n 1531. The enfuing year he publilhed two other treatifes on the fame fubjedt : in an advertifement to which, he informs the reader that it was not his intention to retraft any of his former fen- timents, but only to ftate them in a more diftindt and accurate manner. To thefe two publications he had the courage to put his name, not fufpecting that in age when liberty of opinion was granted, the exercife of that liberty would be attended with danger. After publiihing thefe books, he left Germany, probably find¬ ing his doftrines not fo cordially received as he expedt- ed. He went firft to Baftl, and thence to Lyons, where he lived two or three years. He then removed to Pa¬ ris, where he ftudied medicine under Sylvius, Fernelius, and other profefibrs, and obtained the degree of mafter of arts and dodlor of medicine. His love of controverfy involved him in a ferious difpute with the phyficians of Paris-, and he wrote an Apology, which was fuppreffed by an edidl of the Parliament. The mifunderftanding which this difpute produced w-ith his colleagues, and the chagrin which fo unfavourable a termination occaftoned, made him leave Paris in difguft. He fettled two or three years in Lyons, and engaged with the Frellons, eminent printers of that age, as a corredtor to their prefs. At Lyons he met with Pierre Palmier, the archbiftiop of Vienne, with whom he had been ac¬ quainted at Paris. That prelate, who was a great en- courager of learned men, preffed him to accompany him to Vienne, offering hira at the fame time an apartment in his palace. Servetus accepted the offer, and might have lived a tranquil and happy life at Vienne, if he could have confined his attention to medicine and lite¬ rature. But the love of controverfy, and an eagernefs to cftablifh his opinions, always poffeffed him. At this time Calvin wTas at the head of the reformed church at Geneva. With Servetus he had been acquainted at Pa¬ ris, and had there oppofed his opinions, For 16 years 2 Calvin kept up a correfpondence with him, endeavour- Servetm. ing to reclaim him from his errors. Servetus had read""v ‘ the works of Calvin, but did not think they merited the high eulogies of the reformers, nor were they fufficient to convince him of his errors. Fie continued, however, to confult him ; aud for this purpofe fent from Lyons to Geneva three queftions, which refpedted the divinity of Jefus Chrift, regeneration, and the neceffity of baptifm. To thefe Calvin returned a civil anfwer. Servetus treat¬ ed the anfwer with contempt, and Calvin replied with warmth. From reafoning he had receurfe to abufive language -, and this produced a polemical hatred, the moft implacable difpofition in the world. Calvin having obtained fome of Servetus’s papers, by means, it is faid, not very honourable, lent them to Vienne along with the private letters which he had received in the courfe of their correfpondence. The confequence was, that Servetus was arrefted -, but having efcaped from prifon, be refolved to retire to Naples, where he hoped to praftife medicine with the fame reputation which he had fo long enjoyed at Vienne. Fie imprudently took his route through Geneva, though he could not but know that Calvin was his mortal enemy. Calvin informed the magiftrates of his arrival; Servetus was apprehended, and appointed to ftand trial for herefy and blafphemy. It was a law at Geneva, that every accufer fhould fur- render himfelf a prifoner, that if the charge ftiould be found falfe, the accufer ftiould fuffer the puniftiment in which he meant to involve the accufed. Calvin not choo- fing to go to prifon himfelf, fent one of his domeftics to prefent the impeachment againft Servetus. The articles brought againft him were collefted from his writings with great care -, an employment which took up three days. One of thefe articles was, “ that Servelus had denied that Judsea was a beautiful, rich, and fertile country ; and affirmed, on the authority of travellers, that it was poor, barren, and difagreeable.” He was alfo charged with “ corrupting the Latin Bible, which he was em¬ ployed to correft at Lyons, by introducing imperti¬ nent, trifling, whimfical, and impious notes of his own through every page.” But the main article, which was certainly fatal to him, w^as, “ that in the perfon of Mr Calvin, minifter of the word of God in the church of Geneva, be had defamed the doftrine that is preach¬ ed, uttering all imaginable injurious, blafphemous words againft it.” Calvin vifited Servetus in prifon, and had frequent conferences with him : but finding that, in oppofition to all the arguments he could employ, the prifoner re¬ mained inflexible in his opinions, he left him to his fate. Before fentence w^as paffed, the magiftrates of Geneva confulted the minifters of Bale, of Bern, and Zurich and, as another account informs us, the magiftrates of the Proteftant Cantons of Switzerland. And to ena¬ ble them to form a judgment of the criminality of Ser¬ vetus, they tranfmitted the writings of Calvin, with his anfwers. The general opinion was, that Servetus ought to be condemned to death for blafphemy. He w-as ac¬ cordingly fentenced to be burnt alive on the 27th of Oftober 1553. As he continued alive in the midft of the flames more than two hours, it is faid, finding his torment thus protracted, he exclaimed, “ Unhappy wretch that I am ! Will the flames be infufticient to terminate my mifery ! What then ! Will the hundred pieces of gold, and the rich collar which they took from me, . S E R [ Srrvetus, me, not purchafe wood enough to confume me mor< e~ quickly !” “ Though the ientence of death was paffed againft Servetus by the magiftrates of Geneva, with the approbation of a great number of the magiitrates and minilters of Switzerland, yet it is the opinion of molt hiltorians that this dreadful fentence was impofed at the inftigation of Calvin. This aft of feverity for holding a fpeculalive opinion, however erroneous and abfurd, has left a ftain on the charafter of this illuitrious reformer, which will attend the name of Calvin as long as hiftory fh'all preferve it from oblivion. The addrefs and art which he ufed in apprehending Servetus, his inhuma¬ nity to him during his trial, his diffimulation and ma¬ levolence after his condemnation, prove that he was as much influenced by perfonal hatred as by a defire to fupport the interett of religion, though probably, du¬ ring the trial, Calvin believed he was performing a very pious aftion. This intolerant fpirit of Calvin and the magillrates of Geneva gave the Roman Catholics a fa¬ vourable opportunity to accufe the Proteftants of incon- fiftcncy in their principles, which they did not fail to embrace. “ How could the magiftrates (fays the au¬ thor oi the Diflwnnaire des Herejies), who acknowledged no infallible interpretation of the Scriptures, condemn Servetus to death becaufe he explained them differently from Calvin ; fince every man has the privilege to ex¬ pound the Scripture, according to his own judgment, without having recourfe to the church? It is a great injuflice to condemn a man becaufe he will not fubmit to the judgment of an enthufiaft, who may be tvrong as well as himfelf.” Servetus was a man of great acutenefs and learning, and well verfed in the arts and fciences. In his own profeffion his genius exerted itfelf with fuccefs. In his traft intitled Chrijlianifmi Reflitutio, publifhed in 1553, he remarks, that the whole mafs of blood pafles through the lungs by the pulmonary artery and vein, in oppofition to the opinion which was then univerfally entertained, that the blood pafles through the partition which divides the two ventricles. This was an impor¬ tant fiep towards the difcovery of the circulation of the blood. His works confift of Controverfial Writings concern¬ ing the Trinity; an edition of Pagninus’s Verfion of the Bible, with a preface and notes, publiflied under the name of Michael Villanevanus ; an Apology to the Phyficians of Paris; and a book intitled Ratio Syruporum. Molheim has written in Latin a Hiftory of the Herefy and Misfortunes of Servetus, which was publifhed at Helmftadt, in 4to, in 17 28. From the curious details which it gives it is extremely interefting. SERVIA, a province of Turkey in Europe, bound¬ ed on the north by the rivers Danube and Save, which feparate it from Hungary ; on the eaft, by Bulgaria ; on the weft, by Bofnia : and on the fouth, by Albania and Macedonia. It is about 190 miles in length from eaft to wreft ; 95 in breadth from north to fouth ; and is divided into four fangiacates. Two of thefe were ceded to the Chriftians in 1718, who united them into one. I his continued till 1739, when the Turks were viftorious ; and then they were abandoned to the Turks by the treaty of Belgrade. Belgrade is the ca¬ pital town. SERV ICE, in Law, is a duty which a tenant, on account of his fee, owes to his lord. 191 1 8 E R There are many divifions of fervices 3 as, 1. Into per- Service, fonal, where fomething is to be done by the tenant1-—'/—--1 in perfon, as homage and fealty. 2. Real, fuch as ■wards, marriages, &c. 3. Accidental, including he- riots, reliefs, and the like. 4. Entire, where, on the alienation of any part of the lands by a tenant, the fer¬ vices become multiplied. 5. Frank-fervice, which was performed by freemen, who were not obliged to perform any bafe fervice, but only to find a man and horfe to at¬ tend the lord into the army or to court. 6. Knight’s fervice, by which lands were anciently held of the king, on paying homage, fervice in war, &c. As in every free and well regulated fociety there muft be a diverfity of ranks, there muft be a great number of perfons employed in fervicc, both in agri¬ culture and domeftic affairs. In this country, fervice is a contraft into which the fervant voluntarily enters ; and the mafter’s authority extends no farther than to the per/ formance of that fpecies of labour for which the agree¬ ment was made. “ The treatment of fervants (fays that refpeftable p moral hi Mr Paley), as to diet, difeipline, and accom- Mo7al and modation, the kind and quantity of work to be re- Political quired of them, the intermiffion, liberty, and indulgence PhUofiphy, to be allowed them, muft be determined in a great mea-P lure by cuftom ; for where the contraft involves fo ma¬ ny particulars, the contxafting parties exprefs a few per¬ haps of the principal, and by mutual underftanding refer the reft to the known cuftom of the country in like cafes. “ A fervant is not bound to obey the unlawful com¬ mands of his mafter ; to minifter, for inftance, to his un- lawful pleafures ; or to affift him in unlawful praftices in his profeflion ; as in fmuggling or adulterating the ar¬ ticles which he deals in. For the fervant is bound by nothing but his own promife ; and the obligation of a promife extends not to things unlawful. “ For the fame reafon, the mafter’s authority does not juftify the fervant in doing wrong ; for the fervant’s own promife, upon which that authority is founded, would be none. “ Clerks and apprentices ought to be employed entire¬ ly in the profeffion or trade which they are intended to learn. Inftruftion is their wages ; and to deprive them of the opportunities of inftruftion, by taking up their time with occupations foreign to their bufinefs, is to de¬ fraud them of their wages. “ The mafter is refponfible for what a fervant does in the ordinary courfe of his employment; for it is done under a general authority committed to him, which is in juftice equivalent to a fpecific direftion. Thus, if I pay money to a banker’s clerk, the banker is ac¬ countable : but not if I had paid it to In’s butler or his footman, whofe bufinefs it is not to receive money. Upon the fame principle, if I once fend a fervant to take up goods upon credit, whatever goods he after¬ wards takes up at the fame fhop, fo long as he conti¬ nues in my fervice, are juftly chargeable to my ac¬ count. “ The law of this country goes great lengths in in¬ tending a kind of concurrence in the mafter, fo as to charge him with the confequences of his fervants con- duft. If an innkeeper’s fervant rob his guefts, the innkeeper muft make reftitution ; if a farrier’s fervant lame your horfe, the farrier muft anfwer for the da¬ mage ; ■S- E R t 192 ] S E R mage J and ftili farther, if your coachman or carter ' drive over a paffenger in the road, the paflenger may recover from you a fatisfaftion for the hurt he fuffers. But thefe determinations ftand, I think, rather upon the authority of the law, than any principle of natural juftice.” There is a grievance which has long and juftly been complained of, the giving of good chara&ers to bad fervants. This is perhaps owing to careleffhefs, to a de¬ fire of getting rid of a bad fervant, or to miftaken com- paffion. But fuch careleffnefs is inexcufable. When a man gives his fanftion to the character of a bad fervant, he ought to refledl on the nature and confequences of what he is doing. He is giving his name to a falfehood j he is deceiving the honeft man w’ho confides in his vera¬ city } and he is deliberately giving a knave an opportu¬ nity of cheating an honeft man. To endeavour to get quit of a bad fervant in this way, is furely not lefs cri¬ minal than concealing the faults and difadvantages of an eflate which is advertifed for fale, and afcribing to it advantages which it does not poffefs. In this cafe, we know the fale wmuld be reduced, and the advertifer dif- graced. Many mailers give characters to fervants out of compaflion ; but it is to this miltaken compalfion that the diforderly behaviour of fervants is perhaps principal¬ ly owing : for if the punilhment of difhonelty be only a change of place (which may be^ a reward inltead of a puniihment), it ceafes to be a fervant’s intereft to be true to his trull. We have faid above that a mailer’s authority over his fervant extends no farther than the terms of contraCl j by which we meant, that a mailer could give no unrea- fonable orders to his fervant, or fuch as was inconfillent with the terms of contraft. But the relation between a mailer and fervant is certainly clofer than the mere terms of a contraCl : it is a moral as well as a legal relation. A mailer of a family ought to fuperinlend the morals of his fervants, and to rellrain them from vices. This he may do by his example, by his influ¬ ence, and authority. Indeed every man pofleffed of authority is guilty of criminal negligence if he does not exert his authority for promoting virtue in his inferiors j and no authority is fo well adapted for this purpofe as that of mailers of families, becaufe none operates with an influence fo immediate and conllant. It is wonder¬ ful how much good a nolfleman or gentleman of for¬ tune can do to his domellics by attending to their mo¬ rals and every mailer may be a blelfing to individuals and to fociety, by exerting prudently that influence which his lituation gives him over the conduft of his fervant. Choral SERVICE, in church-hillory, denotes that part of religious wmrlhip which confills in chanting and fing- xng. The advocates for the high antiquity of finging, as a part of church-mufic, urge the authority of St Paul in its favour (Ephef. chap. v. ver. 19. and Co- lof. chap. iii. ver. 16.). On the authority ofwdiichpaf- fages it is aflerted, that fongs and hymns were, from the elfablifhment of the church, fung in the affemblies of the faithful 5 and it appears from undoubted tellimony, that finging, which was pradlifed as a facred rite among the Egyptians and Hebrews, at a very early period, and which likewife conllituted a confiderable part of the re¬ ligious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans, made a part of the religious w'orlhip of Chrillians, not only b«- l fore churches were built, and their religion efiablilhed by Serv law, but from the firlt profeflion of Chriltianity. How- ever, the era from whence others have dated the intro- dudlion of mufic into the fervice of the church, is that period during which Leontius governed the church of Antioch, z. e. between the year of Chrill 347 and 356. See Antiphoky. From Antioch the pradlice foon fpread through the other churches of the Eall ; and in a few ages after its firlt introdudlion into divine fervice, it not only re¬ ceived the fandtion of public authority, but thofe were forbid to join in it who were ignorant of mufic. A canon to this purpofe was made by the council of Lao- dicea, which was held about the year 372 J and Zona- nas informs us, that thefe canonical lingers w7ere rec¬ koned a part of the clergy. Singing was introduced into the weltern churches by St Ambrofe about the year 374, who was the inllitutor of the Ambrofian chant ellablilhed at Milan about the year 386; and Eufebius (lib. ii. cap. 17.) tells us, that a regular choir, and method of finging the fervice, wTere firlt eltabliihed, and hymns ufed, in the church at Antioch, during the reign of Conllantine, and that St Ambrofe, who had long refided there, had his melodies thence. This was about 230 years afterwards amended by Pope Gregory the Great, who ellablilhed the Gregorian chant; a plain, unifonous kind of melody, which he thought confiftent W’ith the gravity and dignity of the fervice to which it was to be applied. This prevails in the Ro¬ man church even at this day : it is know-n in Italy by the name of canto fermo ; in France by that of plaitt chant; and in Germany and moft other countries by that of the cantus Gregorianus. Although no fatisfac- tory account has been given of the fpecific difference between the Ambrofian and Gregorian chants, yet all writers on this fubjeft agree in faying, that St Am¬ brofe only ufed the four authentic modes, and that the four plagal were aftenvards added by St Gre¬ gory. Each of thefe had the fame final, or key-note, as its relative authentic j from which there is no other difference, than that the melodics in the four authen¬ tic or principal modes are generally confined within the compafs of the eight notes above the key-note, and thofe in the four plagal or relative modes, with¬ in the!'compafs of eight notes below7 the fifth of the key. See Mode Ecclefiallical w riters feem unanimous in allowing that Pope Gregory, who began his pontificate in 590, col¬ lected the mufical fragments of fuch ancient pfalms and hymns as the firll fathers of the church had appro¬ ved and recommended to the firll Chrillians j and that he felefted, methodized, and arranged them in the or¬ der which was long continued at Rome, and foon adop¬ ted by the chief part of the wellern church. Gregory is alfo faid to have banilhed from the church the canto Jjgurato, as too light and diffolute ; and it is added, that his own chant was called canto je> mo, from its gravity and fimplicity. It has been long a received opinion, that the eccle¬ fiallical tones were taken from the reformed modes of Ptolemy j but Dr Burney obferves, that it is difficult to difeover any conneflion between them, except in their names ; for their number, upon examination, is not the fame : thofe of Ptolemy being leven, the ec- clefiaRical eight; and indeed the Greek names given to S E K [ iQ3 1 S E R Service, tlie eccleriaftical modes do not agree with thofe of Pto- lemy in the fingle inftance of key, but with thofe of higher antiquity. From the time of Gregory to that of Guido, there was no other diftindtion of keys than that of authentic and plagal •, nor were any femitones ufed but thofe from E to F, B to C, and occafionally A to B b. With refpedl to the mufic of the primitive church, it may be obferved, that though it confided in the finging of pfalms and hymns, yet it was performed in many dif¬ ferent ways j fometimes the pfalms were fung by one perfon alone, whilft the reft attended in filence; fome¬ times they were fung by the whole affembly •, fometimes alternately, the congregation being divided into fepa- rate choirs; and fometimes by one perfon, who repeated the firft part of the verfe, the reft joining in the clofe of it. Of the four different methods of finging now reci¬ ted, the fecond and third were properly diftinguifhed by the names of fymphony and antiphony; and the latter was fometimes called refponfaria, in which women were allowed to join. St Ignatius, who, according to So¬ crates (lib. vi. cap. 8.), converted with the apoftles, is generally fuppofed to have been the firft who fuggefted to the primitive Chriftians in the Eaft the method of finging hymns and pfalms alternately, or in dialogues j and the cuftom foon prevailed in every place where Chri- ftianity was eftablifhed ; though Theodoret in his hiftory (lib. ii. cap. 24.) tells us, that this manner of finging was firft praftifed at Antioch. It likewife appears, that al- moft from the time when mufic was firft introduced into the fervice of the church, it was of twro kinds, and con- fifted in a gentle inflexion of the voice, which they term¬ ed plain fong, and a more elaborate and artificial kind of mufic, adapted to the hymns and folemn offices con¬ tained in its ritual *, and this diftin£tion has been main¬ tained even to the prefent day. Although we find a very early diftinftion made be¬ tween the manner of finging the hymns and chanting the pfalms, it is, however, the opinion of the learned Martini, that the mufic of the firft five or fix ages of the church confifted chiefly in a plain and Ample chant of unifons and oftaves, of which many fragments are ftill remaining in the canto fermo of the Romiffi miffals. For with refpedl to mufic in parts, as it does not ap¬ pear, in thefe early ages, that either the Greeks or Ro¬ mans were in poffeffion of harmony or counterpoint, which has been generally afcribed to Guido, a monk of Arezzo in Tufcany, about the year 1022, though others have traced the origin of it to the eighth century, it is in vain to feek it in the church. The choral mufic, which had its rife in the church of Antioch, and from thence fpread through Greece, Italy, France, Spain, and Germany, was brought into Britain by the fingers who accompanied Auftin the monk, when he came over, in the year 596, charged with a commiflion to convert the inhabitants of this country to Chriftianity. Bede tells us, that when Auftin and the companions of his mif- fion had their firft audience of King Ethelbert, in the ifle of Thanet, they approached him in proceffion, fing¬ ing litanies ; and that afterwards, when they entered the city of Canterbury, they fung a litany, and at the end of it Allelujah. But though this wTas the firft time the Anglo-Saxons had heard the Gregorian chant, yet Bede likewife tells us, that our Britiffi anceftors had been in- ftrutted in the rites and ceremonies of the Gallican Vol. XIX. Part i. church by St Germanus, and heard him fing Allelujah Service. many years before the arrival of St Auftin. In 680, v John, praecentor of St Peter’s in Rome, was fent over by Pope Agatho to inftrutt the monks of Weremouth in the art of finging 5 and he was prevailed upon to open fchools for teaching mufic in other places in Northum¬ berland. BenediA Bifcop, the preceptor of Bede, Adrian the monk, and many others, contributed to diffeminate the knowledge of the Roman chant. At length the fuc- ceffors of St Gregory, and of Auftin his miffionary, having eftabliflied a fchool for ecclefiaftical mufic at Can¬ terbury, the reft of the ifland was furniftied with ma¬ ilers from that feminary. The choral lervice was firft introduced in the cathedral church of Canterbury; and till the arrival of Theodore, and his fettlement in that fee, the pra£lice of it feems to have been confined to the churches of Kent} but after that, it fpread over the W'hole kingdom $ and we meet with records of very ample endowments for the fupport of this part of public wwlhip. This mode of religious worffiip prevailed in all the European churches till the time of the Reforma¬ tion : the firft deviation from it is that which followed the Reformation by Luther, W'ho, being himfelf a lover of mufic, formed a liturgy, wffiich wras a mufical fervice, contained in a work entitled Pfalmodia, h. e. Cantica facra Veteris Ecclejice felefta, printed at Norimberg in 1553, and at Wittemberg in 1561. But Calvin, in his eftablilhment of a church at Geneva, reduced the whole of divine fervice to prayer, preaching, and finging ; the latter of wffiich he reftrained. He excluded the offices of the antiphon, hymn, and motet, of the Romith fer¬ vice, with that artificial and elaborate mufic to which they were fung j and adopted only that plain metrical pfalmody, which is now in general ufe among the re¬ formed churches, and in the parochial churches of our owm country. For this purpofe he made ufe of Marot’s verfion of the Pfalms, and employed a mufician to fet them to eafy tunes only of one part. In 1553, he di¬ vided the Pfalms into paufes or fmall portions, and ap¬ pointed them to be fung in churches. Soon after they wrere bound up with the Geneva catechif-j 5 from which time the Catholics, who had been accuftomed to fing them, w'ere forbid the ufe of them, under a fevere pe¬ nalty. Soon after the Reformation commenced in Eng¬ land, complaints were made by many of the dignified clergy and others of the intricacy and difficulty of the church-mufic of thofe times : in confequence of which it was once propofed, that organs and curious finging Ihould be removed from our churches. Latimer, in his diocefe of Worcefter, went ftill farther, and iffued in¬ junctions to the prior and convent of St Mary, forbid¬ ding in their fervice all manner of finging. In the reign of Edward VI. a commiffion was granted to eight bi- fliops, eight divines, eight civilians, and eight common . lawyers, to compile a body of fuch ecclefiaftical laws as ftiould in future be obferved throughout the realm. The refult of this compilation was a wTork firft; publiflred in 1571 by Fox the martyrologift, and afterwards in 1640, under the title of Reformatio Legum Ecclefajlicarum. Thefe 32 commiffioners, inftead of reprobating church- mufic, merely condemned figurative and operofe mu¬ fic, or that kind of finging which abounded with fugues, refponfive paffages, and a commixture of vari¬ ous and intricate proportions 5 which, whether extempo¬ rary or written, is by muficians termed defiant. Howr- B b ever. s E R [ 194 1 vS E S Service ever, notwitManding the objeflions againft choral mu- Set-vinide ^C’ anC^ t^E ^oine t^le reformed churches, the compilers of the Englifh liturgy in 1548, and the king himfelf, determined to retain mufical iervice. Ac¬ cordingly the ftatute 2 & 3 Edw. VI. cap. 1. though it contains no formal obligation on the clergy, or others, to uie or join in either vocal or inllrumental mu- tic in the common prayer, does clearly recognife the practice of tinging ; and in lefs than two years after the compiling of King Edward’s liturgy, a formula vvascom- poled, which continues, with fcarce any variation, to be the rule for choral fervice even at this day. The author of this work was John Marbecke, or Marbeike ; and it was printed by Richard Grafton, in 1550 under the title of the Book of Common Prayer, noted. Queen Mary laboured to re-dlablifh the Romifh choral tervice; but the acceffion of Elizabeth was followed by the aft of uni¬ formity ; in confequence of which, and of the queen’s injiin&ions, the Book of Common Prayer, noted by Mar¬ becke, was confidered as the general formula of choral fervice. In 1560, another mufical fervice, with fome additions and improvements, was printed by John Day ; and in 1565, another colle&ion of offices, with mufical notes. Many objections were urged by Cartwright and other Puritans againtt the form and manner of cathe¬ dral fervrcc, to which Hooker replied in his Ecclefiafti- cal Polity. In i 664, the ftatutes of Edward VI. and Elizabeth, for uniformity in the Common Prayer, were repealed ; and the Directory for Public Worfhip, which allows only of the finging of pfalms, eftablifhed. But upon the reftoraiion of Charles II. choral fervice was again revived, and has fince uniformly continued. See , on this fubjeCt Hawkins’s Hiftory of Mufic, vol. i. p. 404. vol. ii. p. 264. vol. iii. p. 58—468, &c. vol. iv. P- 44—347- SERVICE-Tree. See SoRBUS, BoTANV Index. SERVITES, a religious order in the church of Rome, founded about the year 1233, by feven Florentine mer¬ chants, w ho, with the approbation of the bilhop of Flo¬ rence, renounced the world, and lived together in a-re- ligious community on Mount Senar, two leagues from that city. SERVITOR, in the univerfity of Oxford, a ftudent who attends on another for his maintenance and learn¬ ing. See Sizar. SERVITUDE, the condition of a fervant, or rather flave. Under the declenfion of the Roman empire, a new kind of fervitude was introduced, different from that of the ancient Romans : it confided in leaving the lands of fubjugated nations to the firil owners, upon condition of certain rents, and fervile offices, to be paid in ac¬ knowledgement. Hence the names of fervi cen/iti, a- fcriptitu, and oddiEti glebce ; fome whereof were taxable at the reafonable difcretion of the lord ; others at a cer¬ tain rate agreed on j and others were mainmortable, who, having no legitimate children, could not make a will to above the value of five pence, the lord being heir of all the refi ; and others were prohibited marrying, or going to live out of the lordffiip. Moft of thefe ferVices exided lately in France ; but they were long ago abo- lidied in England. Such, however, was the original of our tenures, &c. See Slave. Servitude, in Scots Law. See Law, Part III. Se£E in. 2 SERVIUS, Maurus Honoratus, a celebrated Servius grammarian and critic of antiquity, who flourilhed about !J the time of xYrcadius and Honorius now chiefly known Selhon. by his Commentaries on Virgil. There is alfo extant a piece of Servius upon the feet of verfes and the quan¬ tity of fyllables, called Centimetrum. SERUM, a thin, tranfparcnt, faltiffi liquor, which makes a confiderable part of the mafs of blood. See Anatomy and Chemistry Index. SESAMOIDEA OSSA, certain fmall bones fome what refemblmg the feeds of lefamum, whence their name. They are placed at the under part of the bones of the lad joints of the fingers and toes. SESAMUM, oily grain , a genus of plants be- longing to the clafs didynamia } and in the natural fyi- tem ranging under the 20th order, Luridce. See Bo¬ tany Index. SESELI, meadow SAXIFRAGE 5 a genus of plants belonging to the clafs pentandiia ; and in the natural fydem ranging under the 45th order, XJ?nbeUatce. See Botany Index. SESOSTRIS, king of Egypt. See Egypt, p. 591. SESQUI, a Latin particle, fignifying a whole and a half; which, joined with altera, ter%a, quanta, &c. is much ufed in the Italian inufic to exprefs a kind of ra¬ tios, particularly feveral fpecies of triples. SESg) UI-Alter ate, in Geometry and Arithmetic, is a ratio betwxen two lines, two numbers, or the like, w here one of them contains the other once, with the addition of a half. Thus 6 and 9 are in a fefqui-alterate ratio ; fince 9 contains 6 once, and 3, whith is half of 6, over; and 20 and 30 are in the fame ; as 30 contains 20, and half 20 or 10. Ses^UI Duplicate ratio, is when of two terms the greater contains the lefs twice, and half the lefs remains; as 15 and 6 ; 50 and 20. SESQUI Tertional proportion, is when any number or quantity contains another once and one third. SESSILE, among botanids. See Botany. SESSION, in general, denotes each fitting or affem- bly of a council, &c. SESSION of Parliament, is the feafon or fpace from its meeting to its prorogation. See Parliament. Kirk-SESSION, the name of a petty ecclefiaflical court in Scotland. See KlRK-Sef/ion. Sessions for weights and meafures. In London, four judices from among the mayor, recorder, and al¬ dermen (of whom the mayor and recorder is to be one), may hold a feffion to inquire into the offences of felling by falfe weights and meafures, contrary to the datutes ; and to receive indiffments, puniffi offenders, &c. Char. King Charles I. Court of Session. See Law, Part III. Se£l ii. . Court of ^itarter-SeSSIGNS, an Engliffi court that mud be held in every county once in every quarter of a year ; which, by datute 2 Henry V. c. 4. is appointed to be in the firft week after Michaelmas-day, the firff week after the epiphany, the fird week after the clofe of Eader, and in the week after the tranflation of St Tho¬ mas the martyr, or the 7th of July. It is held before two or more judices of the peace, one of which mud be of the quorum. The jurifdiftion of this court, by 34 Edward III. c. T. extends to the trying and determining all felonies and trefpaffes whatfoever: though they fel- S E S S flion, dom, it ever, try any greater offence than fmall felonies iefterce- , within the benefit of clergy ; their commiffion provid- v ing, that if any cafe of difficulty arifes, they flrall not proceed to judgement, but in the prefence of one of the juftices of the courts of king’s bench or common-pleas, or one of the judges of affize : and therefore murders, and other capital felonies, are ufually remitted for a more folemn trial to the affizes. They cannot alfo try any new-created offence, without exprefs power given them by the ftatute which creates it. But there are many offences and particular matters which, by parti¬ cular flatutes, belong properly to this jurifdicffion, and ought to be profecuted in this court; as, the- fmaller mildemeanors againft the public or commonwealth, not amounting to felony ; and efpecially offences I'elating ta the game, highways, alehoufes, baflard children, the fettlement and provifion for the poor, vagrants, fervants wages, and Popiffi recufants. Some of thefe are pro¬ ceeded upon by indiffment : others in a fummary way, by motion, and order thereupon j which order may for the mod: part, unlefs guarded againft by particular fta- tutes, be removed into the court of king’s-bench by writ of certiorari facias, and be there either quafhed or confirmed. The records or rolls of the feffions are committed to the cuftody of a fpecial officer, denomi¬ nated cujlos rotulorum, who is always a juftice of the quorum j and among them of the quorum (faith Lam- bard) a man for the moft part efpecially picked out, either tor wifdom, countenance, or credit. The nomi¬ nation of the cujlos rotulorum (who is the principal offi¬ cer in the county, as the lord-lieutenant is chief in military command) is by the king’s fign manual : and to him the nomination of the clerk of the peace be¬ longs •, which office he is exprefsly forbidden to fell for money. In moft corporation-towns there are quarter-feffions kept before juftices of their own, within their refpe&Le limits 5 which have exadftly the fame authority as the general quarter-feffions of the county, except in a very few inftances ; one of the moft confiderable of which is the matter of appeals from orders of removal of the poor, which, though they be from the orders of corporation^ juftices, muft be to the feffions of the county, bv fta¬ tute 8 and 9 William III. c. 30. In both corporations and counties at large, there is fometimes kept a fnecial or petty feffion, by a few juftices, for difpatching fmaller bufmefs in the neighbourhood between the times of the general feffions ; as for licenfing alehoufes, palling the account of parifh officers, and the like. SESTERCE, Seste RTius, a filver coin, in ufe a- mong the ancient Romans, called alfo {imply nummus, and fometimes minimus fejlcrtius. The feftertius was the fourth part of the denarius, and originally contained two affes and a half. It was at firft denoted by LLS *, the two L’s fignifying two librae, and the S half. But the librarii, afterwards converting the two L’s into an li, exprqffed the feftertius by HS. The word feflertius was firft introduced by -way of abbreviation for femifler- Uus, which fignifies two, and a half of a third, or, lite¬ rally, only half a third •, for in expreffing half a third, it was underftood that there wmre two before. Some authors make two kinds of fefterces j the lefs called feflertius, in the mafeuline gender ; and the great one, called fejlertium, in the neuter : the firft, that we have already deferibed ) the latter containing a thoufand s E S of the other. Olliers will have any fuch diftindHon of SeftEr gieat and little fefterces unknown to the Romans : fef-1 v tertius, lay they, was an adjefhve, and lignified cxyg/^y- tius, or two aftes and a halt} and when ufed in the plu¬ ral, as in quinquaginta fejlertium, or fefertia, it was only by way ot aobreviation, and there was always under¬ ftood centena, millia, &c. I his matter has been accurately ftated by Mr Raper, in the following manner. The fubftantive to which feftertius referred is either as, or pondus ; and fefertius as is two affes and a half j fefertium pondus, two pon- dera and a half, or two hundred and fifty denarii. When the denarius paffed for ten affes, the feftertius of two affes and a half was a quarter of it ; and the Romans conti¬ nued to keep their accounts in thele fefterces long after the denarius palled for fixteen affes } till, growing rich, they found it more convenient to reckon by quarters of the denarius, which they called nummi, and ufed the words minimus and fefertius indifferently, as fynonymous terms, and fometimes both together, as fefertius mini¬ mus ; in which cale the word frfertius, having loft its original fignificalion, was ufed as a fubftantive ; for fef- tertius nummus was not two nummi and a half, but' a fingle nummus of four affes. They called any fum un¬ der two thoufand fefterces fo many fefertii in the malcu- line gender 5 two thoufand fefterces they called duo or bina fefertia, in the neuter ; fo many quarters making five hundred denarii, which was twice the feftertium ; and they faid dena, vicena, &c. fefertia, till the fum amounted to a thoufand feftertia, which was a million of fefterces. But, to avoid ambiguity, they did not ufe the wzulzx fef ertinm in the Angular number, when the whole fum amounted to no more than a thoufand fefterces, or one feftertium. They called a million of fefterces dccies nummum, 01 decies ffertium, for decies centena millia nummorum, or fefertiorum (in the mafeuline gender), omitting centena millia for the fake of brevity. They likewife called the fame fum decies ffertium (in the neuter gender) for decies centies ffertium, omitting centies for the fame reaion ; or limply decies, omitting centena milha fe/lertium, or centies fefertium ; and with the numeral adverbs dec es, vicies, centies, millies, and the like, either centena millia or centies was always un- derftood. Thefe were their moft ufual forms of ex- preflion ; though for bina, dena, vicena fefertia, they fre¬ quently faid bina, dena, vicena niill;a nummum. It the confular denarius contained 60 troy grains of fine filver, L was worth fomewhat more than eight-pence farthing and a half fterlii g; and the as, of 16 to the denarius, a little more than a half-penny. To reduce the ancient fefterces of two aftes and a half, when the denarius paffed for 16, to pounds fterling, multiply the given number by 5454, and cut off fix figures on the right hand for decimals. To reduce nummi fefertii, or quarters of the denarius, to pounds fttrling ; if the given fum be con¬ fular money, multiply it by 8727, and cut off fix figures on the right hand for decimals; but for imperial money diminifh the faid produft by one-eighth of itfelf. Phil. 'I rank vol. Ixi. part ii. art. 48. To be qualified for a Roman knight, an eftate of 400,000 feferces was required 5 and for a fenator, of 800,coo. Authors alfo mention a copper feferce, worth about one-third of a penny Englifh. SESTERCE, or frfertius, was alfo ufed by the ancients B b 2 for [ 195 ] 19 Seftos i' Seth. SET [ for a thing containing two wholes and an half of ano¬ ther, as as was taken for any whole or integer. SESTOS, a noted fortrefs of European Turkey, fituated at the entrance of the Hellefpont or Darda¬ nelles, 24 miles fouth-weft of Gallipoli. This place is famous for the loves of Hero and LeaNDER, lung by the poet Mukeus. SESUViUM, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs icofandria. See Botany Index. SET, or Sets, a term ufed by the farmers and gar¬ deners to exprefs the young plants of the white thorn and other Ihrubs, with which they ufe to raife their quick or quick-fet hedges. The white thorn is the belt of all trees for this purpofe 5 and, under proper regula¬ tions, its fets feldom fail of anfwering the farmer’s utmoft expectations. SET-off, in Lave, is an aft whereby the defendant ac¬ knowledges the juftice of the plaintiff’s demand on the one hand ; but, on the other, fets up a demand of his own, to counterbalance that of the plaintiff, either in the whole, or in part : as, if the plaintiff fues for 10I. due on a note of hand, the defendant may fet off 9I. due to hirnfelf for merchandife fold to the plaintiff j and, in cafe he pleads fuch fet-off, muff pay the remain¬ ing balance into court. This anfwers very nearly to the compenfatio or ftoppage of the civil law, and depends upon the ffatutes 2 Geo. II. cap. 22. and 8 Geo. II. cap. 24. SETACEOUS WORM, in Natural HiJlorijy a name given by Dr Lifter to that long and llender water- worm, which fo much refembles a horfe-hair, that it has been fuppofed by the vulgar to be an animated hair of that creature. Thefe creatures, fuppofed to be living hairs, are a peculiar fort of infeCts, which are bred and nouriftied within the bodies of other infefts, as the worms of the ichneumon flies are in the bodies of the cater¬ pillars. Aldrovand deferibes the creature, and tells us it was unknown to the ancients j but called feta aquatica, and vermis felarius, by the moderns, either from its figure rcfembling that of a hair, or from the fuppofition of its once having been the hair of fome animal. We gene¬ rally fuppofe it, in the imaginary ftate of the hair, to have belonged to a horfe •, but the Germans fay it was once the hair of a calf, and call it by a name fignifying vitulus aquaticus, or the “ water calf.” Albertus, an author much reverenced by the common people, has declared that this animal is generated of a hair ; and adds, that any hair thrown into ftanding water, will, in a very little time, obtain life and motion. Other authors have diffented from this opinion, and fup¬ pofed them generated of the fibrous roots of water- plants j and others, of the parts of grafshoppers fallen into the w^ater. This laft opinion is rejefled by Al¬ drovand as the moft improbable of all. Standing and fjul wTaters are moft plentifully ftored with them j but they are fometimes found in the cleareft and pureft fprings, and fometimes out of the water, on the leaves of trees and plants, as on the fruit-trees in our gardens, and the elms in hedges. They are from three to five inches long, of the thicknefs of a large hair •, and are browm upon the back, and white under the belly, and the tail is white on every part. SETH, the third fon of Adam, the father of Enos, was born 3874 B. C, and lived 912 years. 5 ] S E V SETHIANS, in church-hiftory, Chriftian heretics j Setluans fo called becaufe they paid divine worfhip to Seth, SevJance whom they looked upon to be Jefus Chrift the fon of ' ’ God, but who wTas made by a third divinity, and fub- ftituted in the room of the two families of Abel and Cain, which had been deftroyed by the deluge. Thefe heretics appeared in Egypt in the fecond century ; and as they were addidfed to all forts of debauchery, they did not want followers •, and continued in Egypt above 200 years. SETIMO, a town of Italy, in the province of Pied¬ mont, fituated on the river Po, eight miles north of Turin. SETON, in Surgery, a few horfe hairs, fmall threads, or large packthread, drawn through the fkin, chiefly the neck, by means of a large needle or probe, with a view to reftore or preferve health. Experience ftrews that fetons are ufeful in catarrhs, inflammations, and other diforders, and particularly thofe of the eyes *, to thefe may be added fevere headachs, with ftupor, drow’finefs, epilepfies, and even apoplexy itfelf. See Surgery. SETTEE, in fea-language, a veffel very common in the Mediterranean with one deck and a very long and (harp prow. They carry fome two mafts, fome three, without top-mafts. They have generally two mafts, equipped with triangular fails, commonly called lateen fails. The leaft of them are of 60 tons burden. They ferve to tranfport cannon and provifions for (hips of war and the like. Thefe veffels are peculiar to the Medi¬ terranean fea, and are ufually navigated by Italians, Greeks, or Mahometans. SETTING, in Afronomy, the withdrawing of a ftar or planet, or its finking below the horizon. Aftrono- mers and poets make three different kinds of felting of the ftars, viz. the Cosmical, Acronycal, and Heli¬ acal. See thefe articles. Setting, in the fea language. To fet the land or the fun by the compafs, is to obierve how the land bears on any point of the compafs, or on what point of the compafs the fun is. Alfo when two (hips fail in fight of one another, to mark on wdrat point the chafed bears, is termed fetting the chace by the compafs. Setting, among fportimen, a term ufed to exprefs the manner of taking partridges by means of a dog pe¬ culiarly trained to that purpofe. See Shooting. Act of SETTLEMENT, in Britifh hiftory, a name given to the ftatute 12 and 13 Will. III. cap. 2. whereby the crown was limited to his prefent majefty’s illuftrious houfe •, and fome new provifions were added, at the fame fortunate era, for better fecuring our reli¬ gion, laws, and liberties : which the ftatute declares^ to. be the birthright of the people of England, according, to the ancient doftrine of the common law. SEVEN Stars, a common denomination given to the duller of ftars in the neck of the fign Taurus, the bull properly called the Pleiades. They are fo called, from their number feven, which appear to the naked eye, though fome eyes can difeover only fix of them , but by the aid of telefcopes there appears to be a great multitude of them. SEVENTH, in Mvfc, an interval called by the Greeks heptachordon. See INTERVAL. SEVERANCE, in Law, the fingling or fevering two or more that join or are joined in the fame writ or ac¬ tion. Severn. S E V [i Severance tion. As if two join in a writ, de liberlate probanda, and the one be afterwards nonfuited } here feverance is permitted, fo as notwithftanding the nonfuit of the one, ’ the other may feverally proceed. There is alfo feverance of the tenants in aflize ; when one, two, or more difl'eifees appear upon the writ, and not the other. And feverance in debt, where two exe¬ cutors are named plaintiffs, and the one refufes to pro- fecute. We alfo meet with feverance of fummons, fe¬ verance in attaints, &c. An eftate in joint tenancy may be fevered and deftroyed by deftroying any of its unities. 1. That of time, which refpefts only the original com¬ mencement of the joint eftate, cannot indeed (being now part) be affe&ed by any fubfequent tranfaftion. But, 2. The joint-tenants eftate may be deftroyed without any alienation, by merely difuniting their poffeftion. 3.. ITe jointure may be deftroyed, by deftroying the unity of title. And^ 4. By deftroying the unity of intereft. SEVERIA, a province of the Ruffian empire, with the title of a duchy, bounded on the north by Smo- lenfko and Mufcovy, on the eaft by Vorotinffii and the country of the Coffacks, on the fouth by the fame, and on the weft by Zernegovia. It is a country over¬ run with woods, and on the fouth part is a foreft of great length. Novogrodec, or Novogorod, is the capi¬ tal town. St SEVERINA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in Lower Calabria, with an archbilhop’s fee. It is very rvell fortified, and feated on a craggy rock, on the river Neetoj in E. Long. 17. 14. N. Lat. 39. 15. SEVERING, a town of Italy, in the territory of the church, and in the Marche of Ancona, with a bi- ftiop’s fee. It has fine vineyards, and is feated between two hills on the river Petenza, in E. Long. 13. 6. N. Lat. 43. 16. SEVERN, a river of England which rifes near Plimlimmon Hill in Montgomeryffiire, and before it enters Shropftiire receives about 30 ftreams, and paffes down to Laudring, where it receives the Morda, that flows from Ofweftry. When it arrives at Monford,, it receives the river IVdon, paffing on to Shrewftjury, which it almoft furrounds, then to Bridgeworth •, afterwards it runs through the fkirts of Staffordftiire, enters Wor- /ucombe's cefterfhire, and paffes by Worcefter ; then it runs to E^gli/b Tewkefbury, where it joins the Avon, and from thence Gazetteer, to Gloucefter, keeping a north-wefterly courfe, till it falls into the Brirtol Channel. It begins to be.naviga- ble for boats at Welchpool, in Montgomery (hire, and takes in feveral other rivers in its courfe, befides thofe already mentioned, and is the fecond in England. By the late inland navigation, it has communication with the rivers Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Oufe, 1 rent, Derwent, Humber, Thames, Avon, &c. which navigation, includ¬ ing its windings, extends above $00 miles in the counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Lancafter, Vi eftmore- land, Chefter, Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c. A canal from Stroud-Water, a branch of the Severn, to join the Thames, was projefled and executed for the purpofe of conveying a tunnel 16 feet high and 16 feet wide, under Sapperton Hill and Hay- ley-Wood (very high ground), for two miles, and a quarter in length, through a very hard rock, which was lined and arched with brick. This ftupendous under¬ taking was completed, and boats paffed through it the 97 ] s E v 21 ft of May 1789. By this opening, a communication is made between the river Severn at Framiload and the ^ Thames near Lechlade, and will be continued over the Thames near Inglefham, into deep water in the Thames below St John-Bridge, and fo to Oxford, &c. and Lon¬ don, for conveyance of coals, goods, &c. It is now na¬ vigable from the Severn to Themsford, by way of Stroud, Cirencefter, Cricklade, &c. being filled with water for that purpofe near 40 miles. SEVERUS, Cornelius, an ancient Latin poet of the Auguftan age ; whofe /Etna, together with a frag¬ ment I)e nwrte Ciceronis, wrere publiftied, with notes and a profe interpretation, by Le Clerc, 12mo, Am- fterdam, 1703. They w7ere before inferted among the Catalecia Virgilii publiftied by Scaliger j whole notes, with others, Le Clerc has received among his Severn, Severus. VJ VX 11. Severus, Septimus, a Roman emperor, who has been fo much admired for his military talents, that fome have called him the moft warlike of the Roman emperors. As a monarch he was cruel, and it has been obferved that he never did an a£t of humanity or forgave a fault. In his diet he was temperate, and he always ftiowed himfelf an open enemy to pomp and fplendor. He loved the appellation of a man of letters, and he even com- pofed an hiftory of his owm reign, which fome have praifed for its corredlnefs and veracity. How'ever.cruel Severus may appear in his puniftiments and in his re¬ venge, many have endeavoured to exculpate him, and obferved that there was need of feverity in an empire where the morals were fo corrupted, and where no lefs than 3000 perfons wrere accufed of adultery during the fpace of 17 years. Of him, as of Auguftus, fome were- difpofed to fay, that it would have been better for the world if he had never been born, or had never died. See Rome. N° 372. Se VEBua's Wall, in Britilh topography, the fourth and laft barrier eredled by the Romans againft the in- curfions of the North Britons.. See the articles Adrian,. and Antoninus's Wall. We learn from feveral hints in the Roman hiftoriansf that the country between the walls of Hadrian and An»- toninus continued to be a feene of perpetual war and lub- je£t of contention between the Romans- and Britons, from the beginning of the reign ot Commodus to the ar¬ rival of the emperor Septimius S.verusin Britain, A.D. 206. This laft emperor having iubdutd the Maeatae, and repul fed the Caledonians, determined to ereft a fironger and more impenetrable barrier than any of the- former, againft their future incurfions. Though neither Dio nor Herodian make any-men¬ tion of a w'all built by Sevetus in Britain for the pro- teftion of the Roman province, yet we have abundant evidence from other writers-of equal authority, that he really built fuch a wall. “ He fortified. Britain (fays- Spartian) with a wall drawn crofs the iftand from fea. to fea ; which is the greateft glory of his reign. After the wall w'as finiftied, he retired to the next ftation (York), not only a conqueror, but the founder of an eternal peace.” To the fame purpofe, Aurelius Vi&or and Orofius, to fay nothing of Eutropius and Caffiodo- rus : “ Having repelled the enemy in Britain, he foi- tified the country, wrhich was fuited to that purpofe, with a w-all drawn crofs the ifland from fea to fea. —-*• “ Severus drew a great ditch, and built a ftrong wall, & fortified S E v f ! Severu?- ^rtified with fevcral turrets, from fea to fea, to protccl that part of the ifland which he had recovered from the yet unconquered nations.” As the refidence of the emperor Severus in Britain was not quite four years, it is probable that the tno laft of them were employed in building this w’all $ according to which account, it was begun A. D. 209, and finifhed A. I). 211. This wall of Severus was built nearly on the fame tia£l with Hadrian’s rampart, at the diiiance only of a few paces north, i he length of this wall, from Cou- fin’s houfe near the mouth of the river Tyne on the eait, to Boulnefs on the Solway frith on the weft, hath been found, from two actual menfurations, to be a little more than 68 Englifh miles, and a little lefs than 74 Roman miles. X o the north of tne wall was a Dioad and deep ditch, the original dimenfions of which cannot now be afeertained, only it feems to have been larger than that of Hadrian. The wall itfelf, which flood on the fouth bmitv of the ditch, was built of freeftone, and where the foundation was not good, it is built on piles of oak ; the interflices between the two faces of this wall is filled with broad thin ftones, placed not perpendicu¬ larly, but obliquely on their edges j the running mortar or cement was then poured upon them, which, by its great ftrength and tenacity, bound the whole together, and made it firm as a rock. But though thefe mate¬ rials are fufficiently known, it is not eafy to guefs where they were procured, for many parts of the wall are at a great diflance from any quarry of freeftone } and, though ftone of another kind was within reach, yet it docs not appear to have been anywhere ufed. The height of this wall was 1 2 feet befides the parapet, and its breadth S feet, according to Bede, who lived only at a fmall diftance from the" call end of it, and in whofe time it was in many places almoft quite entire. Such was the wall eredted by the command and under the direc¬ tion of the emperor Severus in the north of England ; and, confidering the length, breadth, height, and foli- dity, it was certainly a work of great magnificence and prodigious labour. But the wall itfelf was but a part, and not the moll extraordinary part, of this work. The great number and different kinds of fortreffes which were built along the line of it for its defence, and the military ways with which it was attended, are (till more worthy of our admiration, and come now to be de¬ fer! bed. The fortreffes which were erecled along the line of Severus’s wall for its defence, were of three different kinds, and three different degrees of ftrensth ; and xvere called by three different Latin words, which may be tranflated Jiatwns, cnjlles, and turrets. Of each of thefe in their order. _ Vhejiationes, ftations, rvere fo called from their lia¬ bility and the Hated refidence of garrifons. They were alfo called cajlra, which hath been converted into c/ie/Ires, a name which many of them ftill bear. Thefe were by far the larged, ftiongeft, and n oft magnificent of the fortreffes which were built upon the wall, and were de¬ fined for the head-quarters of the cohorts of troops which were placed there in garrifon, and from whence detachments were fent into the adjoining caftles and tur¬ rets. Thefe ffations, as appears from the -eftiges of them which are ftill vifible, were not all exadlly of the fame figure nor of the fame dimenfions ; fome of them being exactly fquares, and others oblong, and fome of ys 1 s e v them a little larger than others. Thefe variations were no doubt occafioned by the difference of fituation and other circumftances. The ftations were fortified with deep ditches and ftrong walls, the wall itfelf coinciding witn and forming the north wall of each ftation. With¬ in the ftations were lodgings for the officers and foldiers in garnfon 5 the fmalleif of them being fufficient to con¬ tain a cohort, or 600 men. Without the walls of each ftation was a town, inhabited by labourers, artificers, and others, both Romans and Britons, who chofe to dwell under the proteftion of thefe fortreffes. The num- ber og the flations upon the wall was exaftly 18; and 5 t ley had been placed at equal diilances, the interval between every two of them would have been four miles and a few paces: but the intervention of rivers, marfhes and mountains y the conveniency of fituations for tiength, profpeft, and water ; and many other circum- kances to us unknown, determined them to place thefe ftations at unequal diftances. The fituation which was always chofen by the Romans, both here and everywhere elfe m Britain where they could obtain it, was the gen¬ tle declivity of a hill, near a river, and facing the me¬ ridian fun. Such was the fituation of the far greateft part of the ftations on this wall. In general, we may obferve, that the ftations flood thickeft near the two ends and in the middle, probably becaufe the danger of mvafion was greateft in tbefe places. But the reader will form a clearer idea of the number of thefe ftations their Latin and Englifh names, their fituation and di¬ ftance from one another, by infpe&ing the followino- fabie, than we can give him with equal brevity in any. other way. The firft column contains the number of the ftation, reckoning from eaft to weft ; the fecond contains its Latin,_ and the third its Englifh name ; and the three laft its diftance from the next ftation to the weft of it, in miles, furlongs, and chains. N°;Lat.in Name. Englifh Name. M. i F. i C. Segedunum Pons /Elii Condercum Vindobala Hunnum Cilurnum Procolitia Borcovicus Vindolana TEfica Magna Amboglana Petriana Aballaba Congavata Axelodunum 17 jGabrofentumlBrunibrugh 18 iTunnocelum Boulnefs Coufin’s-houfe Newcaftle Benwell hill Rutchefter Plalton-chefters W alwick-chefters Carrawbrugh Houfefteeds Little-chefters Great-chefters Carrvoran Burdofwald Cam beck Watchcrofs Stanwix Brugh 9 5 3i 7 8 3i 8 4 6f o 8 6 9 4! 9 1 Length of the wall 68 3 3 . 'Lhe cqJleHa, or caftles, were the fecond kind of for¬ tifications which were built along the line of this wall for its defence. Thefe caftles were neither fo large nor ftrong O Severn; S E V [ J llror.g as the Nations, but much more numerous, bein'-*- ~ no fewer than 81. The thape and dimennons of the caftles, as appears from the foundations of manv of them which are ftill vifible, were ex aft fquares of 66 feet every way. They were fortified on every fide with thick and lofty walls, but without any ditch, except on the north fide; on which the wall itfelf, railed much above its ufual height, with the ditch attending it, formed the fortification. The caftles were fituated in the intervals between the ftations, at the diftance of about feven fur¬ longs from each other ; though particular circumftances fornetimes occafioned a little variation. In thefe caftles guards were conftantly kept by a competent number of men detached from the neareft ftations. ^ The turret, or turrets, were the third and laft kind of fortifications on tire wall. Thefe were ftiil much fmall er than the caftles, and formed only a fquare of about i 2 feet, Handing out of the wall on its fouth hde. Being fo final], they are more entirely ruined than the ftations and caftles, which makes it difficult to difcover their exaft number. They flood in the in¬ tervals between the caftles; and from the faint veftiges o'a few of them, it is conjeftured that there were four of them between every two caftles, at the diftance of about 300 yards from one another. According to this conjefture, the number of the turrets amounted to 324. They were defined for watch-towers and places for fentinels, who, being within hearing of one another, could convey an alarm or piece of intelligence to all parts of the wall in a very little time. Such were the ftations, caftles, and turrets, on the wall of Severus ; and a very confidevable body of troops was conftantly quartered in them for its defence. 'The ufual complement allowed for this fervice was as follows ; 1. Twelve cohorts ©f foot, confifting of 600 men each, - . . ^2oo 2. One cohort of mariners in the ftation at Boul- nefs, * - - - 600 3. One detachment of Moors, probably equal to a cohort, - . - 600 4. Four aim or wings of horfe, confifting, at the loweft computation, of 400 each, - 1600 10,000 For the conveniency of marching thefe troops from one part of the wall to another, with the greater eale and expedition, on any fervice, it was attended with two military ways, paved with fquare ftones, in the moft fo- lid and beautiful manner. One of thefe ways was fmall- er, and the other larger. The fmaller military way run clofe along the fouth fide of the wall, from turret to turret, and caftle to caftle, for the ufe of the foldiers in relieving their guards and centinels, and fuch fervices. 1 he larger way did not keep fo near the wall, nor touch at the turrets or caftles, but purfued the moft di- ref! courfe from one ftation to another, and was defign- ed for the conveniency of marching larger bodies of troops. It is to be regretted, that we cannot gratify the read¬ er s curiofity, by informing him by what particular bo¬ dies of Roman troops the feveral parts of this great work were executed ; as we were enabled to do with regard 99 1 S E V 10 the wall of Antoninus Pius from inferiptions. For Severn?, though it is probable that there were ftones with inferip- —y—~ tions of the fame kind, mentioning the feveral bodies of troops, and the quantity of work performed by each of them, originally mferted in the face of this wall, yet none of them are now to be found. There have indeed been dilcovered, in or near the ruins of this wall a great number of fmall fquare Hones, with very ftmrt and generally impei-fedl, inferiptions upon them ; men¬ tioning particular legions, cohorts, and centuries; but wuhout diredly afferting that they had built any part ot the wall, or naming any number of paces. Of thefe infciiptions, the reader may lee no fewer than twenty- nine among the Northumberland and Cumberland in- fenptions in Mr Horfley’s Britannia Romana. As the ftones on which thefe inferiptions are cut are of the fame Hi ape and fize with the other facing-ftones of this wall, it is almoft certain that they have been originally placed in^the face of ft. It is equally certain, from the unifor¬ mity of thele inferiptions, that they vrere all intended to intimate feme one thing, and nothing fo probable as that the adjacent wall was built by the troops mention¬ ed in them. This was, perhaps, fo well underftood, that it was not thought neceffary to be expreffed ; and the diftance oi thefe inferiptions from one another Ihow- ed the quantity of work performed. If this was really the cafe, we know in general, that this great work was executed by the fecond and fixth legions, thefe being the only legions mentioned in thefe inferiptions. Nowq if this prodigious wall, with all its appendages of ditches,' ftations, caftles, turrets, and military ways,' was execu¬ ted in the fpace of two years by two legions only, which, when moft complete, made no more than 1 2,000 men^ how greatly muft we admire the {kill, the induftry, and excellent difeipline of the Roman foldiers, who were not only the valiant guardians of the empire in times of war, but its moft afiive and ufeful members in times ©f peace ? 1 his waft oi Severus, and its fortrefles, proved an impenetrable barrier to the Roman territories for near 2co years. But about the beginning of the 5th cen¬ tury, the Roman empire being aflaulted on all fides, and the bulk of tbeir forces withdrawn from Britain' the Maeatm and Caledonians, now called Scots and PiSIs became more daring; and fome of them breaking through the wall, and others failing round the ends of it, they carried their ravages into the very heart of Provincial Britain. Thefe invaders were indeed feveral times re. pulfed after this by the Roman legions fent to the relief of the Britons. The laft: of thefe legions, under the command of Gallio of Ravenna, having, w-ith the affift- ance of the Britons, thoroughly repaired the breaches of Severus’s wall and its fortrefies, and exhorted the Bri¬ tons to make a brave defence, took their final farewell of Britain. It foon appeared, that the ftrongeft walls, and ramparts are no fecurity to an undilciplined and daf- tardly rabble, as the unhappy Britons then were. The Swots and Putts met with little refiftance in breaking through the wall, while the towns and caftles were tamely abandoned to their deftruftive rage. In many places they levelled it with the ground, that it might prove no obftrmftion to their future inroads.—From this time no attempts were ever made to repair this noble work. Its beauty and grandeur procured it no refpeft in the dark and taftelefs ages which fucceeded. It be¬ came I ■is E V t 200 Sevignc. came tlic common quarry for more than a llioufand 1 years, out of which all the towns and villages around were built j and is now fo entirely ruined, that the pe¬ netrating eyes of the moil poring and patient antiqua¬ rian can hardly trace its vanilhing foundations. SEVIGNE', Marie de Rabutin, Marquise de, a French lady, was born in 1626. When only a year old fhe loft her father, w7ho was killed in the defcent of the Englifh on the ille of Rhe, where he commanded a company of volunteers. In 1644 Ihe married the mar¬ quis of Sevigne, wTho wras (lain in a duel by the cheva¬ lier d’Albret, in 1651. She had by him a fon and a daughter, to the education of whom lire afterwards re- ligioufly devoted herfelf. Her daughter was married in 1669 to the count of Grignan, who condu&ed her to Provence. IVIadame de Sevigne confoled herfelf by ■writing frequent letters to her daughter. She fell at laft the vi&im to her maternal tendernefs. In one of her vifits to Grignan, {he fatigued herfelf fo much du¬ ring the ficknefs of her daughter, that Ihe was feized with a fever, which carried her off on the 14th of Ja¬ nuary 1696. We have twro portraits of Madame de Sevigne ; the one by the compte de Buffi, the othei by Madame de la Fayette. The firft exhibits her delefts j the fecond her excellencies. Bufli defcnbes her as a lively gay coquette, a lover of flattery, fond of titles, ho¬ nour, and diftinftion : M. de la Fayette as a w7oman of wit and good fenfe, as poffeffed of a noble foul, form¬ ed for difpenfing benefits, incapable of debafing herfelf by avarice, and bleffed with a generous, obliging, and faithful heart. Both thefe portraits are in feme mea- fure juft. That fhe was vain-glorious, appears evident from her owrn letters, wThich, on the other hand, ex¬ hibit undoubted proofs of her virtue and goodoefs of This illuftrious lady was acquainted wdth all the wits of her age. It is faid that fire decided tlm famous dif- pute between Perrault and Boileau concerning the pre¬ ference of the ancients to the moderns, thus,. “ The an¬ cients are the fineft, and we are the. prettieft. She left behind her a moft valuable colleftion of letters, the beft edition of which is that of 1775, in 8 vols i2mo. Siecle de ^ « Thefe letters (fays Voltaire) are filled with anecdotes, Louis XlV. with freedom, and in a natural and animated tom. ii. ftyle. are an excellent criticifm on ftudied letters of wit, and ftill more on thofe fiailious letters which aim at the epiftolary ftyle, by a recital of falfe fentiments and feigned adventures to an imaginary correfpondent.” It were to be wifhed that a proper feleaion had been made of thefe letters. It is difficult to read eight vo¬ lumes of letters, which, though inimitably written, pre- fent frequent repetitions, and are often filled with trifles. What makes them in general perhaps fo interefting is, that they are in part hiftorical. They may be looked on as a relation of the manners, the ton, the genius, the fafhions, the etiquette, which reigned in the court of Louis XIV. They contain many curious anecdotes no¬ where elfe to be found : But thefe excellencies would be ftill more ftriking, were they fometimes ftripped of that multitude of domeftic affairs and minute incidents which ought naturally to have died with the mother and the daughter. A volume entitled Sevigniana was pub- liffied at Paris in 1756, which is nothing more than a colle&ion of the fine fentiments, literary and hiftorical Sevifle. ] S E V anecdotes, and moral apophthegms, fcattered throughout thefe letters. SEVILLE, a large and populous city of Spain, ftands on the banks of the Guadalquiver, in the midft of a rich, and to the eye a boundlefs, plain ; in W. Long. 50 5', N. Lat. 370 20'. This city is fuppofe.d to have been founded by the Phoenicians, who gave it the name of Hifpalis. When it fell under the power of the Romans, it was called Julia ; and at laft, after a variety of corruptions, was called Sebil/a or Sevilla; both of which names are retained by the Spaniards. The Romans embelliftred it with many magnificent edifices j of which fcarce any veftige now remains. The Gothic kings for fome time made it their refidence : but in procefs of time they removed their court to Toledo ; and Seville was taken by ftorm foon after the vi&ory obtained at Xeres over the Gothic king Rodrigo.— In 1027, Seville became an independent monarchy; but was conquered 70 years afterwards by Yufef Al- moravides, an African prince. At laft it was taken by Ferdinand III. after a year’s fiege; and 300,000 Moors were then obliged to leave the place. Not- withftanding this prodigious emigration, Seville conti¬ nued to be a great and populous city, and foon after it was enlarged and adorned with many magnificent build¬ ings, the chief of which is the cathedral. Seville arri¬ ved at its utmoft pitch of grandeur a little after the dif- covery of America, the reafon of which was, that all the valuable produdlions of the Weft Indies were carried thither. Its court was then the moft fplendid in Eu¬ rope ; but in the courfe of a few years all this grandeur difappeared, owing to the impediments in navigating the Guadalquiver. The fuperior excellence of the port of Cadiz induced government to order the galeons to be ftationed there in time to come. Seville is of a circular form, and is furrounded by a wall about five miles and a half in circumference, con¬ taining 176 towers. The ditch in many places is filled up. The ftreets of Seville are crooked and dirty, and moft of them fo narrow that two carriages can fcarcely pafs one another abreaft. Seville is faid to contain 80,268 fouls, and is divi¬ ded into 30 pariihes. It has 84 convents, wdth 24 hof- pitals* . . . . Of the public edifices of this city the cathedral is the TownfendPi moft magnificent. Its dimenfions are 420 feet in \tr\g\h, Travels, 263 in breadth within the walls, and 126 feet in height, vol. ii. It has nine doors, 80 altars, at which 500 maffes are daily celebrated, and 80 window's of painted glafs, each of which coft 1000 ducats. At one angle ftands a tower of Moorifti workmanftiip 350 feet high. On the top of it is the giralda, or large brazen image, which, with its palm branch, weighs near one. ton and a. half, yet turns as a w7eather-cock with the flighteft variation of the wind. The whole w7ork is brick and mortar. The paffage to the top is an inclined plane, which winds about in the infide in the manner of a fpiral ftaircafe, fo eafy of afcent that a horfe might trot from the bot¬ tom to the top ; at the fame time it is fo wide that two horfemen may ride abreaft. What appears very unac¬ countable, the folid mafonry in the upper half is juft as thick again as that in the lower, though on the outfide the tower is all the way of the fame dimenfions. In the opinion of Mr Swinburne, this cathedral is inferior to 1 York- Seville JSot/rgo- anne's Tra vels, vol. f Vol. ii. p. 318- Swin¬ burne's Travels, P- ?8j. Toiunfejid's Travels, vol. ii. p. 326. s E V [ 2CI York minfler. Its treafures are ineftimable ; one altar with all its ornaments is folid fiilver j of the fame metal are the images of St Ifidore and St Leander, which are as large as the life ; and a tabernacle for the hoft more than four yards high, adorned with 48 columns. Be¬ fore the choir of the cathedral is the tomb of the cele¬ brated Chriflopher Columbus, the difeoverer of Ame¬ rica.^ Hfs monument confills of one (lone only, on which thefe words are inferibed, A Caftella y Arragon otro mundo d:o Colon; that is, “ T<* Caftile and Arra¬ gon Columbus gave another world an infeription fimple and expreffive, the juftnefs of which will be ac¬ knowledged by thofe who have read the adventures of t ins inullnous but unfortunate man. I he cathedral was begun by Don Sancho the Brave, about the clofe of the 13th century, and nnithed by John II. about an hundred years after. To the cathedral belongs a library of 20,030 volumes, colkfted by Hernando the fon of Co¬ lumbus 3 but, to the difgrace of the Spaniards, it has fcarcely received any addition fmee the de&th of the founder. The organ in this cathedral is a very inge¬ nious piece of mechanifm f. “ I was much pleafed (fays Mr Townfend in his interefting travels) with the con- ftmflion of a new organ, containing 5300 pipes, with 110 flops, which latter, as the builder told me,’is 50 more than are in the famous one of Haerlem ; yet, fo ample arc the bellows, that when ftretched they limply the full organ 15 minutes. The mode of filling them wdh air is Angular 3 for, inflead of working with his bands, a man walks backwards and forwards along an inclined plane of about 15 feet in length, which is ba¬ lanced in the middle on its axis 3 under each end is a pair of bellows, of about fix feet by three and a half. Thefe communicate with five other pairs united by a bar 3 and the latter are fo contrived, that when they are in danger of being overftrained, a valve is lifted up, and gives them relief. Faffing 10 times along the inclined plane fills all thefe vefiels.’’ I he Canos de Carmone, or great aqueduct of Se¬ ville, is reckoned by the hilforians of this city one of too,oco of reals, or about 370,000!. At prefent (1787), no more than 1700 workmen are employed, and 100 horfes or mules 3 but formerly 3000 men were engaged, and near 400 horfes. This falling off is attributed by Mr Swin¬ burne to a praclice which the direftors followed, of adulterating the tobacco with the red earth of Alma- zarron. When Mr Townfend vifited this manufacture, they had changed their fyfiem. From the year 1780! he informs us, the annual fale of tobacco from Brazil has been 1,500,000 pounds, purchafed from the Portu- guefe at three reals a pound 3 and of fnuff from the pro¬ duce of their own colonies 1,600,000 pounds, befide agars (a) to a very confiderable amount. They have lying by them more than 5,000,000 pounds of fnuff un¬ fold j but.as it will not fuffer by age, they are not un- eafy.at this accumulation. Befides the peculiar kind of fnuft with which Spain was accuflomed to fupply the market, they have lately introduced the manufafture of rappee. In this branch alone are employed 220 perfons old and young, with 16 mules. “ All the workmen (continues Mr Townfend) depofit their cloaks at the door ; and when they go out are fo ffriaiy examined, that they have little chance of being able to conceal tobacco 3 yet they fometimes venture to bide it about their perfons. i\n officer and a guard is always attending to take delinquents into cuftody ; and that they may prevent refiftance, no workman is per¬ mitted to enter with a knife. Were it not for this pre¬ caution, the confequence of a detedion might be fatal. The whole bufinefs is conduded by a diredor, with a lalary of 40,000 reals a-year, and 54 fuperior officers, affiffed by as many fubordinate to them. For grinding their fnuff, they have 40 mills, each confiffing of a ftone roller, moved by a large horfe or mule, with the traces faffened to a beam of eight feet in length, in the angle of 45 degrees, confequently lofmg precifely half his force.” Before Mr Townfend left Seville, according to his ufual pradice, which was truly laudable, be enquired into the prices of labour and provifions. As a piece of C c curious (a) Thefe are little rolls of tobacco which the Spaniards fmoke without a pipe. S E W [ 202 ] SEW Seville il Sewer. curious and ufeful information, and as an example to other travellers, we prefent them to our readers. They i are as follows : Day-labourers 4-^ reals, about L. o Carpenters from 7 to 11 Joiners, if good work¬ men, 24 or o Weavers, if good workmen, 15 reals, about o Bread, for 3 lb. of 16 oz. 16 quar¬ tos, or o fometimes 28 quartos, or o Beef, 30 quartos for 32 oz. per lb. about o Mutton, 38 do. do. o Kid, 24 do. o f or o \ to o 0 10- 4 9 Pork from 36 to 42 quartos, do. 4i ?¥ 4t Sfi 3i SU The price of wheat has at different periods been very remarkable. In 1652, it fold at the rate of 15s. the buflrel ; and in 1657, ^ low as IS- 4id- per bulhel, reckoning the fanega at 109^ lb. and the bufhel at 70. SEVUM MINER ALE, mineral tallow •, a fubflanee fomewhat refembling tallow, found on the fea-coafls of Finland in the year 1736. It burns with a blue flame, and fmell of greafe, leaving a black vifcid matter which cannot eafily be confumed. It is extremely light 5 be¬ ing only of the fpecific gravity of 0.770 ; whereas tal¬ low is not lefs than 0.969. It is partly foluble in high¬ ly rectified fpirit of wine; but entirely fo in expreffed oils when boiling. It is met with in fome of the rocky parts of Perfla, but there it appears to be mixed with petrolmum. Dr Herman of Strafhurg mentions a fpring in the neighbourhood of that city which contains a fub- itancc of'this fort diffufed through it, feparating, and capable of being collected on ebullition.—A fat mineral matter refembling butter or tallow has lately been ex¬ tracted from peat in Lancafhire. See Peat. SEWAURY, a Hindoo word uied in Bengal, and iignifying the train of attendants that accompany a na¬ bob or great man. SEWER, in the lloufehold, an officer who arranged on the table the diflies of a king or nobleman. Sewer is alfo a paffage or gutter made to carry wa¬ ter into the fea or a river, whereby to preferve the land, &c. from inundations and other annoyances. Court of ComtniJJioners of Se WEES in England, a tem¬ porary tribunal, erected by virtue of a commiffion un¬ der the great feal; which formerly ufed to be granted pro re nata at the pleafure of the crown, but now at the diferetion and nomination of the lord chancellor, lord treafurer, and chief juftices, purfuant to the ftatute 23 Hen. VIII. c. 5. Their jurifdiftion is to overlook the repairs of fea-banks and fea-walls, and the cleanfmg of rivers, public ftreams, ditches, and other conduits, whereby any ■waters are carried off; and is confined to inch county or particular diftrift as the commiffion {hall exprefsly name. The commiffioners are a court of re¬ cord, and may fine and imprifon for contempts ; and in the execution of their duty may proceed by jury, or up¬ on their own view, and may take order for the removal of any annoyances, or the fafeguard and confervation of the fewers within their commiffion, either according to the laws and cufloms of Romney-marffi, or otherwiie at Sewer, their own diferetion. They may alfo affefs fuch rates —-v—— or fcots upon the owners of lands within their diltridl as they ihall judge neceffary : and if any perfon refufes to pay them, the commiffioners may levy the fame by di- ftrefs of his goods and chattels; or they may, by ftatute 23 Hen. VIII. c. 5. fell his freehold lands (and by the 7 Ann. c. jo. his copyhold alfo), in order to pay fuch fcots or affeffments. But their conduft is under the controul of the court of King’s-bench, which will pre¬ vent or punifti any illegal or tyrannical proceedings. And yet in the reign of King James I. (8th Nov. 1616.), the privy-council took upon them to order, that no ac¬ tion or complaint Ihould be profecuted againft the com¬ miffioners unlefs before that board ; and committed fe- veral to prifon rvho had brought iuch adtions at common law, till they fhould releafe the fame : and one of the reafons for difeharging Sir Edward Coke from his cffice- of lord chief-juftice, was for countenancing thofe legal proceedings. The pretence for thefe arbitrary meafures \vas no other than the tyiant’s plea of the neceffity of unlimited powers in works of evident utility to the pub¬ lic, “ the fupreme reafon above all reafons, which is the falvation of the king’s lands and people.” But now it is clearly held, that this (as well as all other inferior jurifdidtion) is fubjedl to the difcrelionary coercion of his majefty’s court of King’s-bench. Common SEWERS, in Rome, were executed at a great Fcrgufon's expence. It was propofed that they fhould be of fuffi- K}y"‘cu\ cient dimenfions to admit a waggon loaded with hay. '' 1 When thefe common fewers came to be obftiucled, or out of repair, under the republic, the cenfors contradf- ed to pay a thoufand talents, or. about 193,000!. for clearing and repairing them. They were again in dif- repair at the acceflion of Auguftus Csefar, and the re- inftating them is mentioned among the great works of Agrippa. He is find to have turned the courfe of feven rivers into thefe fubterraneous paffages, to have made them navigable, and to have actually paffed in barges under the ftreets find buildings of Rome. Thefe works are ftill fuppofed to remain ; but as they exceed the power and refources of the prefer t city to keep them in repair, they are quite concealed, except at one or two places. They were in the midft of the Roman great- nefs, and ftill are, reckoned among the wonders of the world ; and yet they are faid to have been works of the elder Tarquin, a prince whofe territory did not extend, in any direftion, above 16 miles ; and, on this fuppofi- tion, they muft have been made to accommodate a citj that was calculated chiefly for the reception of cattle, herdfmen, and banditti. Rude nations fometimes execute works of great magnificence, as fortrtffes and temples, for the purpofes of wTar and fuperftition ; but feldom palaces, and ftill more feldom works of mere convenience and cleanlinefs, in which for the moft pait they are long defective. It is not unreafonable, therefore, to queftion the authority of tradition in refpeft to this ftngular mo¬ nument of antiquity, which fo greatly exceeds what tie heft accommodated city of modern Europe could un¬ dertake for its own conveniency. And as thofe works are ftill entire, and may continue fo for thoufands of years, it may be fufpe&ed that they were even prior to the fettlement of Romu’us, and may have been the re¬ mains of a more ancient city, on the ruins of which the followers of Romulus fettled, as the Arabs now hut cr encamp SEX (2 encamp cn tlie ruins of Palmyra and Salbcck. .Livy owns, that the common fewers were not accommodated to the plan of Rome, as it was laid out in his time 5 they were carried in direftions acrofs the ilreets, and paffed under buildings of the greateid antiquity. This derange¬ ment indeed he imputes to the baity rebuilding of the city after its deftrudtion by the Gauls; but hade, it is probable, would have determined the people to build on their old foundations, or at lead not to change them fo much as to crofs the direction of former fireets. SEX, the property by which any animal is male or female. Lavater has drawn the following charafteriflic di- flinctions between the male and female of the human fpecies. “ The primary matter of which women are conftitu- ted appears to be move flexible, irritable, and elaftic, than that of man. They are formed to maternal mild- hefs and affecflion ; all their organs are tender, yielding, eafily wounded, fenflble, and receptible. Among a thoufand females there is fcarctly one without the ge¬ neric feminine fignsq the flexible, the circular, and the irritable. “ They are the counterpart of man, taken out of man, to be fubjeft to man ; to comfort him like angels, and to lighten his caves. ‘ She fliall be faved in child¬ bearing, if they continue in faith, and charity, and holi- nefs, with fobriety” (x Tim. ii. 15.). This tendernefs, this fen Ability, this light texture of their fibres and or¬ gans, this volatility of feeling, render them fo eafy to condutt and to tempt ; fo ready of fubmiflion to the enterprife and power .of the man ; but more powerful through the aid of their charms than man with all his flrength. The man was not firfi tempted, but the wo¬ man," afterward the man by the woman. And, not on¬ ly eafy to be tempted, Are is capable of being formed to the pureft, nobleft, molt feraphic virtue $ to every thing which can deferve praife or affedfion. Highly fenfible of purity, beauty, and fymmetry, fhe does not always take time to refleft on internal life, internal death, internal corruption. ‘ The woman faw that the tree was good for food, and that it was pleafant to the eyes, and a tree to be defired to make one wife, and Are took of the fruit thereof.’ (Gen. iii. 6.). “ The female thinks not profoundly •, profound thought is the power of the man. Women feel more. Senfibi- lity is the power of woman. They often rule more ef- fedfually, more fovereignly, than man. They rule with tender looks, tears, and fighs ; but not with paflion and threats 5 for if, or when, they fo rule, they are no longer women, but abortions. They are capable of the fweeteft fenfibility, the mofl profound emotion, the utmoft humi¬ lity, and the excefs of enthufiafm. In their countenance are the figns of fanftity and inviolability, which every feeling man honours, and the effefts of which are often miraculous. Therefore, by the irritability of their nerves, their incapacity for deep inquiry and firm decifion, they may eafily from their extreme fenfibility become the moft irreclaimable, the mofl rapturous enthufiafts. i heir love, flrong and rooted as it is, is very changeable ; their hatred almofl incurable, and only to be effaced by con¬ tinued and artful flattery. Men are moft profound 5 v-'omen are more fublime. “ Men moft embrace the whole ; women remark in¬ dividually, and take more delight in felefling the mi- 03 ] SEX nutiae which form the whole. Man hears the burfling thunder, views the deflruflive bolt with ferene afpeft, u and Hands erefl amidft the fearful majefty of the ftream- ing clouds. Woman trembles at the lightning, and the voice of diftant thunder 5 and {brinks into herfelf or finks into the arms of man. Man receives a ray of light Angle, woman delights to view it through a prifm in all its dazzling colours. She contemplates the rainbow as the promile of peace ; he extends his inquiring eye over ' the whole horizon. Woman laughs, man fmiles ; wo¬ man weeps, man remains filent. Woman is in anguifti when man weeps, and in defpair when man is in anguifti; yet has fhe often more faith than man. Man without religion, is a difeafed creature, who would perfuade him- felf he is well, and needs not a phyfician j but woman without religion, is raging and monftrous. A woman with a beard is not fo difgufting as a woman who afls the freethinker ; her fex is formed to piety and religion ; to them Chrift firft appeared ; but he was obliged to prevent them from too ardently, and too haftily, em¬ bracing him : ‘ Touch me not.’ They are prompt to receive and ieize novelty, and become its enthufiafts. The whole world is forgotten in the emotion caufed by the prefence and proximity of him they love. They fink into the mofl incurable melancholy, as they alfo rife to the moft enraptured heights. “ Male fenfation is more imagination, female more heart. When communicative, they are more communi¬ cative than man ; when fecret, more fecret. In gene¬ ral they are more patient, long-fuffering, credulous, be¬ nevolent, and modeft. Woman is not a foundation on which to build. She is the gold, filver, precious ftones, wood, hay, ftubble (1 Cor. iii. 1 2.) ; the materials for building on the male foundation. She is the leaven, or more expreflively the oil to the vinegar of man : the fe~ cond part of the book of man. “ Man ftngiy is but half man j at leaft but half hu¬ man •, a king without a kingdom. Woman, who feels properly what (he is, whether ftill or in motion, refts upon the man } nor is man what he may and ought to be, but in conjun&ion with woman \ therefore, ‘ it is not good that man fliould be alone, but that he flrould leave father and mother, and cleave to his wife, and they two fliall be one flefli.” They differ alfo in their exterior form and appear¬ ance. “ Man is the moft firm ; woman the mofl flexible. Man is the ftraighteft ; woman the moft bending. Man {lands ftedfaft : woman gently retreats. Man furveys and obferves; woman glances and feels. Man is fe- rious •, woman is gay. Man is the tailed: and broadeft; woman the fmalieft and weakeft. Man is rough and hard; woman fmooth and loft. Man is brown; wo¬ man is fair. Man is wrinkly ; woman is not. The hair of man is more ftrong and fliort ; of woman more long and pliant.- The eyebrows of man are compreffed ; of woman lei's frowning. Man has moft convex Hires ; woman moft concave. Man has moft ftraight lines ; woman moft curved. The countenance of man taken in profile is more feldom perpendicular tnan that ol the woman. Man is moft angular ; woman moft round.” In determining the comparative merit of tire tvr0 c fexes, it is no derogation from female excellency that it^'^ differs in kind from that which diftinguiftres the male^ part of our fpecies : and if, in general, it ftrould be C c 2 found ^ E X [ 204 ] SEX found (whit upon an impartial inquiry will moll cer- “ tainly be found) that women fill up their appointed circle of aclioa with greater regularity than men, the claim of preference cannot jaftly be decided in our fa¬ vour. In the prudential and economical parts of life, it is undeniable that they rile far above us : and if true fortitude of mind is belt dilcovered by a cheerful rtfig- nalion to the meafures of Providence, we (hall not find leafoil, perhaps, to claim that moil lingular of the hu¬ man virtues as our peculiar privilege. There are num¬ bers of the other fex who, from the natural delicacy of their conllitution, pafs through one continued feene of fufFering from their cradles to their graves, with a firm- nefs of refutation that would deferve fo many ilatues to be ereified to their memories, if heroifm were not efteem- ed more by the fplendor than the merit of aiflions. But whatever real difference there may be between the moral or intelleflual powers of the male and fe¬ male mind, Nature does not feem to have marked the diftinftion fo ilrongly as our vanity is willing to ima¬ gine •, and after all, perhaps, education will be found to conllitute the principal fuperiority. It mult be acknow¬ ledged, at leall, that in this article we have every ad¬ vantage over the fofter fex that art and induftry can pofijbly fecure to us. The moft animating examples of Greece and Rome are fet before us, as early as we are capable of any obfervation ; and the noblell cotnpo- fitions of the ancients are given into our hands almoft as foon as we have firength to hold them 5 while the employments of the other fex, at the fame period of life, are generally the reverie of every thing that can open and enlarge their minds, or fill them with juft and rational notions. The truth of it is, female education is fo much worfe than none, as it is better to leave the mind to its natural arid uninltruifted fuggeftions, than to lead it into falfe purfuits, and contract its views, by turning them upon the lowed and moft trilling objedls. We feem, indeed, by the manner in which we fuffer the youth of that fex to be trained, to confider women agreeably to the opinion of certain Mahometan doctors, and treat them as if we believed they had no fouls: why clfe are they v Bred only, and completed to the tafle Of luilful appetence, to ling, to dance, To drefs, and troul the tongue, and roll the eye. Milton. This ft range negleft of cultivating the female mind can hardly be allowed as good policy, when it is con- fidered how much the intererl of feciety is concerned in the rectitude of their underftandings. That feafon of every man’s life which is moll fufceptible of the ftrong- eft impreffions, is neceffarily under female direction ; as there are few inflances, perhaps, in which that fex is not one of the fecret fprings which regulates the mofl important movements of private or public tranfadlions. What Cato obferves of his countrymen is in one refpedl true of every nation under the fun : “ The Romans (faid he) govern the world, but it is the women that govern the Romans.” If it be true then (as true beyond all peradventure it is) that female influence is thus extenfive, nothino- cer¬ tainly can be of more importance than to give it a pro¬ per tendency, by the afliflance of a Well-diredled edu¬ cation. Far are we from recommending any attempts to render women learned ; yet furely it is neceffary they Sex fhould be railed above ignorance. Such a general tine- il ture of the moil ufeful iciences as may ferve to free the ^est'us* mmd rrom vulgar prejudices, and give it a relifh for the ~ rational exerche ol its powers, might very jullly enter into a plan or female erudition. That lex might be taught to turn the courle of their refleftions into a pro¬ per and advantageous channel, without any danger of rendering them too elevated for the feminine duties of life. In a word, they ought to be conlidered as defign- ed by Providence for ufe as well as {how, and trained up, not only as women, but as rational creatures. S'EX of Be es. See Bee. Sex of Plants. See Botany Index. SEXAGENARY, fomething relating to the num¬ ber fixty : thus fexagenary or fexagefimal arithmetic is a method of computation proceeding by fixties j fuch is tnat ufed in the divifion of a degree into fixty minutes, of the minute into fixty feconds, of the fecond into fixty thirds, &c. Alfo fexagenary tables are tables of pro¬ portional parts, (bowing the product of two iexagenaries that are to be multiplied, or the quotient of the two that are to be divided. SEXAGESIMA, the fecond Sunday before Lent,- or the next to Shrove-Sunday 5 io called as being about the 60th day before Eaiier. SEXAGESIMALS, or Sexagesimal. Fraclions, fractions whole denominators proceed in a fexagecuple ratio ; that is, a prime, or the firit minute —; a fe¬ cond = t'S'Vo' ? a third = tt^ooo- Anciently, there were no other than fexagefimais uied in aflronomy ; and they are frill retained in many cafes, though decimal arithmetic begins to grow in dfe now in aflronomical calculations. In thefe fra&ions, which fome call nfro- nomicalfraShons, the denominator being always 60, or a multiple thereof, is ufually omitted, and the numera¬ tor only written down : thus 40, 59/ 32", 50"', 16 is to be read, 4 degrees, 59 minutes, 32 feconds, 50 thirds, 16 fourths, &.c. SEXTANS, Sextant, afixth part of certain things. The Rom ans having divided their as into 1 2 ounces or uncia, the fixth part of that, or two ounces, was the fexlans —Sextans was alfo a meafure which contained two ounces of liquor, or two cyathi. Sextans, in /IJlronomy, a conflellation of the fouthern hemifphere, made by Helvelius out of unformed liars. In Hevelius’s catalogue it contains 11, but in the Britannic catalogue 41 liars. SEXTANT, in Mathematics, denotes the fixth part of a circle, or an arch comprehending 60 degrees. The word fextant is more particularly ufed for an afironomical inllrument made like a quadrant, except¬ ing that its limb only comprehends 60 degrees. The ufe and application of the fextant is the fame with that of the quadrant. See Quadrant; and Navigation, p. 699, &c. SEXTTLE, Sextilis, the pofition or afpeft of two planets when at 60 degrees dillance, or at the diftance of two figns from one another. It is marked thus (*). See Aspect. SEXTIUS, Quintus, a Pythagorean pbilofopher, flouriihed in the time of Augullus. He feemed formed to rife in the republic ; but he Ihrunk from civil ho¬ nours, and declined accepting the rank of fenator when it was offered him by Julius Cgefar, that he might have sex r time to apply to philofophy. It appears that he willied )S to eltablith a fchool at Rome, and that his tenets, though — c’nefly drawn from the doarines of Pythagoras, in fome particulars refembled thofe of the Stoics. lie foon found himfelf involved in many difficulties. His laws were tinaured, with great feverity •, and in an early period of this eftabliffiment, he found his mind fo haratTed, and the harffinefs of the doarines which hb widied to eftabliffi fo repulfive to his feelings, that he had nearly worked himfell up to fuch an height of def- peralion as to relolve on putting a period to his ex- iflence. . Of the fchool of Sextius were Fabianus, Sotion, Fla- vianus, Craflitius, and Celfus. Of his works only a few fragments remain ; and whether any of them form¬ ed a part of the work which Seneca admired fo much, cannot now be determined. ^Some of his maxims are valuable. Fie recommended an examination of the ac¬ tions or the day to his fcholars when they retired to red ; he taught, that the road to heaven (^adq/lra) was by frugality, temperance, and fortitude. He ui'ed to recommend holding a looking glafs before perfons difor- dered with paffion. Fie enjoined his fcholars to abftain from animal food. SEXTON, .a church-officer, thus called by corrup¬ tion of the Latin//cry?*, or Saxon figerjlone, which de¬ notes the fame. His office is to take care of the veffels, veftments, &c. belonging to the church ; and to attend tae minifter, church-warden, &c. at church. Fie is ufually chofcn by the parfon only. Sextons, as well as panda clerks, are regarded by the common law as per¬ sons who have freehold in their offices ; and, therefore, though they may be puniffied, yet they cannot be de¬ prived, by ecclefiaftical cenfures. Jhe office of fexton in the pope’s chapel is appro¬ priated to the order of the hermits of St Auguftine. He is generally a birtrop, though foinetimes the pope only gives a biffiopric, in partibus, to him on whom he confers the noft. He takes the title of Prefeci of the Pope's Sacrify, and has the keeping the veffels of gold and diver, the relics, &c. When the pope fays mafs, the fexton always tafies the bread and wine fir 11. If it be in private he fays mafs, his holinefs, of two wafers gives him one to eat ; and, if in public, the cardinal’ who affilfs the pope in quality of deacon, of three wa- fers, gives him one to eat. When the pope is delperately fick.^ he adminiflers to him the facrament of extreme Un&ion, &c. and enters the conclave in quality of fir ft conclavift. I iie ofii e of a fexton in Sweden is fometimes fingu- lar. ^ During M. Outhier’s ftay at Stockholm in 1736 ie villted the church of St Clara, and during divine fer- viccjhe obferved a fexton going about with a long rod waking thofe perfons xvho had fallen afleep. 1 I UPLE, in Mufic, denotes a mixed fort of tri- Pie^ which is beaten in double time. SEX L US EMrrRTcu5, a famous Pyrrhonian philo- fopher, lived in tbe fecond century, under the reign of Antoninus the Debonair. He was a pbyfician of the feel of the Empirics, and is faid to have been one of the preceptors of Antoninus the philofopher. There are fill extant his Pvrrhonian Inftitutions, and a large work agamft the mathematicians, &c. The belt edition of Sextus Empiricus is that of Fabricius in Greek and La- fiiij printed at Leiplic in 1718, folio. 05 ] S F O SEXUAL IST/F,, among botanical writers, thofe Sexuallftae who have eltablilhed the claffes of plants upon the dif- „ II Lrences of the fexes and parts of irudlification in plants, , ^^orza’ , according to the modern method j as Linnaeus, &c. -V—11 SjcZAWUL, a Hindoo word, ufed in Bengal to exprels an officer employed at a monthly falary to col- ledl the revenues. SFORZA, James, was the founder of the illuftri- ous houfe of Slorza, which adled fo confpicuous a part in Italy during the 15th and 16th centuries, which gave fix dukes to Milan, and contradled alliances with almoft eve¬ ry Sovereign in Europe. James Sforza was born on the 28 th of May 1369, at Catignola, a fmall town in Italy, lying between Imola and Faenza. Flis father was a day labourer, or, according to Commines, a flroemaker. A company of ioldiers happening one day to pals through Catignola, he was leized with the defire of ac¬ companying them to the wars. “ I will go (faid he to hnnjelf), and dart my hatchet againft that tree, and if it dick fall in the wood, I will immediately become a foldier.” The hatchet accordingly (luck fall, and our adventurer enlifted; and becaufe, fays the Abbe de Choifi, he haa thrown the axe with all his force, he affumed the name of Sforza ; for his true name was Giacomuzzo, or James Attendulo, He rofe rapidly in the army, and foon became commander of 7000 men. He defended timcaufeoi Jane II. queen of Naples for many years, and was made conftable of her kingdom. He was cre¬ ated Count of Catignola by Pope John XXII. by way of paying a debt of 14000 ducats which the church of Rome owed him. Flis exploits became every day more illuftrious : He obliged Alphonfo king of Arragon to raife the fiege of Naples1; and reduced feveral places tnat had revolted in Abruzzo and Le Labour ; but while in purfuit of his enemies he was unfortunately drowned in the river Aterno on the 3d January 1424, at the age of 54 years. His heroic qualities, and the continual ais in which he was engaged, did not prevent him from forming an attachment to the fair fex. In his youth he feil in love with a woman called Lucia Ticzana, whom he married alter the had born him feveral children. He married afterwards Antoinette Salembini, who brought him feveral excellent eftates; ftie bore him Bofio Sfor- ■^a, compte ol Santa-Flor, a warrior and governor of Orvietta for Pope Martin V. His third wife was Ca¬ tharine Alopo, fifter of Rodolpho, grand chamberlain to the fovereign of Naples. Flis laft wife, for he was feur times married, was Mary Marzana, daughter to the duke of Seffa. She bore him Charles Sforza, who way general of the order of Auguftines, and. archbiftiop of Milan. Sfgrza, Francis, the fon of James Sforza by Lucia Frezana, was born in 1401, and trained up by Ins father to the profefllon of arms. At the age of 23 he defeated the troops of Braccio, who difputed with him the paffage of the Aterno. In this aftion his father was drowned, and Francis, though illegiti¬ mate, fuccecded him. He fought fuccefsfully againft the Spaniards, and contributed a great deal both towards railing, the fiege of Naples, and to the viflory which was gained ever the troops of Braccio near Aquila in 1425, where that general was killed. After the death of Queen Jane, in 1435, he efpoufed the interefts of the duke, of Anjou, to whom fhe had left her crown, and by his courage and abilities ably fupported that un-, fortunate Sforza li Shadow. S H A [2 fortunate prince. He made himfelf mailer of feveral places in Ancona, from which he was driven by Pope , Eugenios IV. who defeated and excommunicated him ; but he foon re-eftabliihed his affairs by a victory. His re¬ putation was now fo great, that the pope, the Venetians, and the Florentines, chofe him for their general againft the duke of Milan. Sforza had already conduced Ve¬ netian armies againfl that prince, though he had efpou- fed his daughter. The duke dying in ^ie inha¬ bitants of Milan invited Sforza, his fon-in-law, to iead them againft that duke. But, after fonre exertions in their favour, he turned his arms againft them.elves, laid fiege to Milan, and obliged them to receive him as duke, notwithftanding the rights of Charles duke of Or¬ leans, the fon of Valentine of Milan, In 146^, Corn's XI. who hated Orleans, gave up to Sforza the rights which the crown of I ranee had over Genoa, and even put into his hands Savona, a town belonging to that re¬ public. The duke of Milan foon after maoe himlelf mafter of Genoa. He died in 1466, with the reputa¬ tion of a man w ■ho was willing to fell his blood to ths beft purchnfer, and who was not too fcrupulous an ob ferver of his word. His fecond wife was Blanche Marie, natural daughter of Philip Marie duke of Mi¬ lan. She bore him Galeas Marie, and Ludovic Mane, dukes of Milan, Philip Marie count of Pavia, Sforza Marie duke of Bari, Afcagne Marie bifhop of Pavia and Cremona, and a cardinal. He was taken pnfoner by the troops of Louis XII. and confined for fome time in the tower of Bourges. He was a cunning man, and deceived Cardinal d’Amboife when that prelate afpired at the papacy. His daughters were Hyppolita, married to Alphonfo of Arragon, afterwards king of Naples j and Elizabeth, married to William marquis of Mont- ferrat. He had beftdes feveral natural, children. ' SHACK, in ancient cuftoms, a liberty of winter- pafturage. In the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, the lord of the manor has {hack, i. e. a liberty .of feeding his fheep at pleafure in his tenants lands during the fix winter months. In Norfolk, fhack alfo extends to the common for hogs, in all men’s grounds, from the end of harveft till feed-time. Whence to go a-Jhack, is to feed at large. . , - ., SHACKLES, aboard a fhip, are thofe oblong iron rings, bigger at one end than at the other, with which the ports are (hut faft, by thrufting the wooden bar of the port through them. There is alfo a fort of (hackles io lift the hatches up with, of a like figure, but fmaller. They are faftened at the corners of the hatches. SHAD, a fpecies of Clupea. See Ichthyology In¬ dex. , c . c SHADDOCK, a fpecies of Citrus, the fruit ot which is of a very large fize, and of a very grateful tafte. In the Weft Indies it is eaten after dinner to give a zeft to the wine. ... SHADOW, in Optics, a privation or diminution of light, by the interpoftiion of an opaque body ; or it is a plane where the light is either altogether obftruaed, or greatly weakened, by'the interpofition of feme opaque body between it and the luminary. Shadow, in Painting, an imitation of a real ftiadow, effeaed bv gradually heightening and darkening the co¬ lours of fiich figures as by their difpofitions cannot re- ceive any direft rays from the luminary that is fuppoicd ,10 enlighten the piece. 06 ] S H A Shadow, in PerfpeBive, the appearance of an opaque ShaJoW, body, and a luminous one, whole rays diverge (e. gr. a , candle, lamp, &c.), being given ; to find the jfiit ap¬ pearance of the ihadow, according to the laws ot per- fpeftive. The method is this : From the luminous bo¬ dy, which is here confidered as a point, let fall a per¬ pendicular to the perlpe&ive plane or table ; i. e. find Ihe appearance of a point upon which a perpendicular, drawn from the middle of the luminary, falls on the per- fpedhve plane ■, and from the feveral angles, or 1 ailed points of the body, let fall perpendiculars to Lne plane. Thefe points, whereon the perpendiculars fall, conned! by right lines, with the point upon which the perpen¬ dicular let fall from the luminary falls j and continue the lines to the fide oppofite to the luminary. Laltly, through the raifed points draw lines through the centre , of the luminary, interfedling the former} the points or interfeftion are the terms or bounds of the ftiadow. SHADOWS, Coloured, a curious phenomenon in optics, which was oblerved by Profeffor Scheriter ot ^ i- enna, and afterwards by Count Rumtord, who made the dilcovery while profecutmg his experiments on light. “ Defirous,” fays the count, “ of comparing the in- tenfity of the light of a clear olue fky by aay with that of a common wax candle, I darkened my room, and letting the day-light from the north, coming through a hole near the top of the wundow-fhutter, fall at an an¬ gle of about 70° upon a fheet of very fine white paper, I placed a burning wax candle m fuch a pofiiion tn..^ its rays fell upon the fame paper, and, as near as I could guefs, in the line of refleftion of the rays of day-light from without •, when, interpofing a cylinder of wood, about half an inch in diameter, before the centre of the paper, and at the diftance of about 2 inches from its furface, I was much furprifed to find that the two fha- dows projedled bv the cylinder upon the paper, in- ftead of being merely fhades without colour, as I ex- pe&ed; the one of them, that , which, correfponding with the beam of day-light, was illuminated by the can¬ dle, was yellow ; wTile the other, correfponding to the light of the candle, and confequently illuminated by the light of the heavens, was of the moft beautiful blue that it' is poflible to imagine. This appearance, which was not only unexpended, but wras really in itfelf in the higheft degree ftriking and beautiful, I found upon repeaLed trials, and after varying the experiment in every way I could think of, to be fo perfeaiy permanent, that it is abfolutely impoflible to produce two fhadows at the fame time, from the fame body, the one anfwering to a beam of day-light, and the other to the light of a can¬ dle or lamp, without thofe ftiadows being coloured, the one yellow.’, and the other blue. Jf the candle be brought nearer to the paper, the blue ftiadow will become of a deeper hue, and the yel¬ low ftiadow will gradually growr fainter ; but if it be re¬ moved farther off, the yellow fhade will become ot a deeper colour, and the blue ftiade will become fainter j and' the candle remaining ftationary in the fame place, the fame varieties in the ftrength of the tints of the colour¬ ed ftiadows may be produced merely by opening the window fhutter a little more or lefs, and rendering the illumination of the paper, by the light from without, ftronger or weaker. By either of thefe means, the co¬ loured ftiadov.’S may be made to pafs through all the gra¬ dations of fhade, from the deepeft to the lighteft, and 4 S H A [ 2 Shadows vice verfa ; and it is not a little amufing to fee fhadovvs c !lr thus glowing with all the brilliancy of the puretd and , Sh^ias'.moft intenfe prifmatic colours, then palling fuddenly through all the varieties of lhade, preferving in all the molt perfect purity of tint, growing ftronger and faint- * Phi!. er> ang vaniihing and returning, at command '1 ranf. The count is clearly of opinion, that the caufes of the colours of thefe (hadows arife from the dilferent qualities of the light by which they are illuminated ; but he does not think it lb evident how they are produced. Perhaps it may be faid, however, that all the phenomena of co¬ loured lhadows which the count enumerates may be ac¬ counted for by the theory of Profeffor Scherffer. SHADWELL, Thomas, defcended of an ancient family in Staffordlhire, was born in 1640, and educated at Cains college, Cambridge. He then was placed in the Middle Temple to ftudy the laws ; where having fpent fome time, he travelled abroad. Upon his return home, he became acquainted with the molt celebrated perfons of wit in that age. He applied himfelf chiefly to dramatic writing, in which he had great fuccefs 5 and upon the revolution was made poet laureat and hifto- riographer to King William and Queen Mary, in the room of Mr Dryden. Thefe employments he enjoyed till las death, which happened in 1692. Eefide his drama¬ tic writings, he compofed feveral other pieces of poetry ; the chief of which are his congratulatory poem on the prince of Orange’s coming to England ; another on Queen Mary ; his tranflation of Juvenal’s 10th fatire, &c. Mr Dryden treafs him with great contempt, in his fatire called Mac-F/ecno. The belt judges of that age, however, gave their telfimony in favour of his co- raedies 5 which have in them fine ftrokes of humour ; the characters are often original, ftrcngly marked, and well fufta’ned. An edition of his works, with fome account of his life and writings prefixed, was publiflied in 1 7 20, in 4 vols 8vo. SHAFRAS, or Suffras, Gregory Savarof, an Armenian merchant, remarkable only as the perfon who fold the large and celebrated diamond which is now fet in the imperial fceptre of Ruflia. Shah Nadir, an Indian prince, had two principal diamonds in his throne, one of them denominated the St/n of the Sea, and the other the Moon of the Mountain. When that prince was affaffinat- ed, many precious ornaments belonging to the crown were pillaged, and privately difpofed of by the foldiers who fliared the plunder. See Diamond, under Minera¬ logy, where the account given of this diamond is fomewhat dilferent. - Shafras, who was called Milllonjhik at Aftracan, then had his refidence at Balfora, with two of his brothers. A chief of the Avganians one day applied to him, and prepefed to fell the diamond already mentioned for a very moderate furn (probably the Moon of the Moun¬ tain), together with a very large emerald, a ruby of confiJerable fize, and other precious Hones of lefs value. Shafras was aftonithed at the ofrer •, and giving out that he had not a fuflicient fum to purchafe them, he re- quelled time to confult with his brothers on the fub- je£l. The vender did not again make his ap eam.nce, probably from fufpicious motives. Shatras, with the ap¬ probation of his brothers, went diredfly in fearch of the It ranger with the jewels, but by that time he had left Balfora. Shafras, however, accidentally met him at Bagdad, and paid him 50,000 piaflres (8958I. 6s. 8d.) 07 J S H A for all his jewels. Shafras and his brothers being well Shafras aware that the moil; profound fecrecy was abfolutely ne- , celfary, refolved to remain at Balfora. ^naje^iry At the expiration of 12 years, Shafras fet off with the larged of the jewels, dire&ing his route through Sham and Conftantinople, and afterwards through Hun¬ gary and Silefia to the city of Amilerdam by land, where he publicly offered them for fale. It is reported that the Britiih government was among the bidders. The Ruffian court fent for the large dia¬ mond, with an offer to reimburfe all reafonable expen- ces, if the price could not be agreed on. When the dia¬ mond arrived, Count Panin, the Ruffian minider, made the following offer to Shafras. Beddes the patent of hereditary nobility, which the vender demanded, he was to receive an annual penfion of 6000 rubles during life, 500,000 rubles in cafh (1 12,500!. Sterling), one- fifth of which was to be payable on demand, and the remainder by indalments in the courfe of ten years. He alfo claimed the order of nobility for his brothers, per- fiding fo obdinately in his demands, that the diamond was returned. Shafras was now very much perplexed. He had in¬ volved himfelf in expences, was forced to pay intered for confiderable firms of borrowed money, and he faw no profpetd of felling the jewel to advantage. The nego- ciation was recommenced with Rudia by Count Gre¬ gory Grigorievilfh Orlof, afterwards created a prince of the empire; and the diamond was purchafed for 450,000 rubles (105,250!.) ready, money, together with a grant of Ruffian nobility. We are informed that 120,000 rubles (27,000!.), fell to the {hare of the ne- gociators, for commidion, intered, and fimilar expences. Shafras fettled at Ailracan ; and his riches, which by inheritance devolved to his daughters, have been in a great mealure diffipated by the extravagance of his fons- xn law. SHAFT of a Column, in Building, is the body thereof between the bale and capital ; fo called from its draightnefs. See Architecture. Shaft, in mining, is the pit or hollow entrance into the mine. In the tin mines, after this is funk about a fathom, they leave a little, long, fquare place, which is called a fhavible. Shafts are funk fome ten, fbme twenty fathoms deep into the earth, more or lefs. Of thefe drafts, there is the landing or working draft, where they bring up the work or ore to the fur face ; but if it be worked by a horfe engine or whim, it is called a whim jhaft; and where the water is drawn out of the mine, it is indif¬ ferently named an engineJhaft, or the rod-fkaft. See P>I INK. Shaft. See Trochilus, Ornithology Index. SHAFTESBURY, a town of Dorletfhire in Eng¬ land, in W. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 51. c. It Hands on a high hill, and is built in the form of a bow. It en¬ joys a ferene wholefonae air, and has a fine profpeft. It is a good thoroughfare, is governed by a mayor, and fends two members to parliament. This town is fup- pofed to have been built in the 8th century, and to have been enlarged by King Alfred; and had 12 churches, be- fides a Benedictine monadery, in the time of the Saxons, but has now only three. St Edward the martyr was buried here. It had three mints before the corqued, and, in the reign of Henry VIII. was the fee of a fuf- fragnrj S H A [ 2c Shan, fbury fragan bifliop. It was incorporated by Oueen Elizabeth Shagreen. and Charles and is governed by a mayor, recorder, ' 1 twelve aldermen, bailiffs, and a common-council. It contains about 320 houfes, many of which are of free-ftone. Water is fo fcarce, that it ufed to be fupplied from Motcomb ; but it was obtained more commodioufly in 1718, by means of engines, which raifed the water above 300 feet perpendicular, and conveyed it to a large ciftern in the middle of the town, from the diflance of two miles. Yet even this is laid afide, and they have dug feveral pits, in which they preferve the rain-water •, and the poor get their living to this day by fetching it in pails or on horfes. It gives the title of earl to the noble family of Cooper. Shaftesbury, Earl of. See Cooper. SHAG. See Pelicanus, Ornithology Index. SHAGREEN, or Chagreen, in Commerce^ a kind of grained leather prepared of the Ikin of a fpecies of Squalus, and much ufed in covering cafes, books, &c. The beft is that brought from Conftantinople, of a brownilh colour •, the white is the worft. It is ex¬ tremely hard ; yet, when ffeeped in water, it becomes very foft and pliable ; whence it is of great ufe among cafe-makers. It takes any colour that is given it, red, green, yellow, or black. It is frequently counterfeit¬ ed by morocco, formed like fhagreen 5 but this lad is diftinguilhed by its peeling off, which the firit does not. The following is the method of preparing fliagreen, as it is deftribed by Profeffor Pallas. “ All kinds of horfes or affes fkins, which have been drtfled in fuch a manner as to appear grained, are, by the Tartars, called fcuwer, by the Perfians fog re > and by the Turks fagri, from which the Europeans have made fhagreen or chagrin. The Tartars who re fide at Aflracan, with a few of the Armenians of that citv, are the only people in the Ruffian empire acquainted with the art of making fliagreen. Thofe who follow this occupation not only gain confiderable profit by the fale of their production to the Tartars of Cuban, Aflra¬ can, and Cafan, who ornament with it their Turkey leather boots, flippers, and other articles made of lea¬ ther, but they derive confiderable advantage from the great fale of horfes hides, which have undergone no other procefs than that of being feraped clean, and of which feveral thoufands are annually exported, at the rate of from 75 to 85 roubles per hundred, to Perfia, where there is a fcarcity of fuch hides, and from which the greater part of the fhagreen manufactured in that country is prepared. The hind part only of the hidej however, which is cut cut. in the form of a crefcent about a Ruffian ell and a half in length acrofs the loins, and a fhort ell in breadth along the back, can properly be employed for fhagreen. The remaining part, as is proved by experience, is improper for that purpofe, and is therefore rejected. “ The preparation of the fkins, after being cut into the above form, is as follows :—They are depofited in a tub filled with pure water, and buffered to remain there for feyeral days, till they are thoroughly foaked, and the hair has dropped off. They are then taken from the tub, one by one, extended on boards placed in an oblique dire&ion againft a wall, the corners of 8] S H A them, which reach beyond tire edges of the board, be- Shagreen.- ing made faff, and the hair with the epideimis is then v—'—- feraped off with a blunt iron feraper called urah. TLe fkins thus cleaned are again put in pure water to foak. \\ iien ah the fkrns have undergone this Dart of the pro- ctfi, they are laRe^r from the water a fecond tune, fpread out one after the other as before, and the fiefh tr ie is feraped with the fame kind of inftrument. They are carefully cleaned alio on the hair fide, fo that no¬ thing remains but the pure fibrous tiffue, which ferves for making parchment, confiding of coats of white me¬ dullary fibres, and which has a refemblance to a fwine’s bladder foftened in water. Aker this preparation, the workmen take a cer¬ tain kind of frames called pd/%i^ made of a firaight and a icmicircmar piece of wood, having nearly tire fame form as the fkins. On lliefe the fkins are extended in as fmooth and even a manner as poffible by means of cords; and during the operation of extending them,' they are feveral times bcfprinkled with water, that no part of them may be dry, and occafion an unequal ten- fion. After they nave been all extended on the frames, they are again moiftened, and carried into the houfe, where the frames are depofited clofe to each other on the floor with the flefli fide of the fkin next the ground. The upper fide is then thickly beftrewed with the black exceedingly fmooth and hard feeds of a kind of goefe foot (chenopodium albumf which tire Tartars call alabuta, and which grows in abundance, to about the height of a man, near the gardens and farms on the fouth fide of the Volga ; and that they may make a firong impreffion on the fkins, a piece of felt is fpread over them, and the feeds are trod down with the feet, by which means they are deeply imprinted into the foft fknrs. The frames, without fhaking the feeds, are then carried out into the open air, and placed in a re¬ clining prfition againft a wall to dry, the fide covered with the feeds being next the wall, in order that it may be ftieltered from tire fun. In this ftale the fkins muff be left feveral days to dry in the fun, until no appear¬ ance of moifture is obferved in them, when they are fit to be taken from the frames. When the impreffed feeds are beat off fiom the hair fide, it appears full of inden¬ tations or inequalities, and has acquired that impreffion which is to produce the grain of the (hagreen, after the flans have been fubjedled to the laft fmoothing or fera- pmg, and have been dipped in a ley, which will be men¬ tioned hereafter, before they recene the dye. u Rhe operation of fmoothing is performed on an in¬ clined bench or board, which is furnifhed with an iron hook, and is covered with thick felt of fheep’s wool, on which the dry fkin may gently reft. The fkin is fufpended in ti e middle of the bench or board to its iron bock, by means of one of the holes made in the edge of the fkin for extending it in its frame as before mentioned ; and a cord, having at its extremity a ftone or a weight, is attached to each end of the fkin, to keep it in its pofition while under the hands of the workman. It is then fubje&ed to the operation of fmoothing and feraping by means of two different rn- ftruments. The firft ufed for this purpofe, called by the Tartars tokar, is a piece of fharp iron bent like a hook, with which the furface of the fhagreen is pretty clofeiy feraped to reinove all the proje } S H A could not have entertained had this adtion been at that SL;i, time viewed in the fame criminal light as it is at prefent. fyea- Shakefpeare leftified his refentment againft Sir Thomas, by writing a fatirical ballad, which exafperated him fo much, that the procefs was carried on with redoubled violence j and the young poet, in order to avoid the puniflnnent of the law, was obliged to make his efcape. This ballad would be confidered as a curious relick, on account of its being the firlt produftion of Shakefpeare j it w'ould alfo be interefting to peruie a poem which could irritate the baronet to io high a degree. Tradition has preferved the firft ftanza : A parliamente member, a juftice of peace, At home a poor fcarc-crow, at London an affe. If lowfie is Lucy, as fome volke mifcalle it, Then Lucy is lowfie whatever befall it: He thinks himfelf greate, Vet an affe in his Rate, We allowe by his ears, but with affes to mate. If Lucy is lowfie, as fome volke mifcalle it, Sing lowfie Lucy whatever befall it. If the reft of the ballad was of a piece with this ftan¬ za, it might aftift us to form fome opinion of the inita- bility of the baronet, but will enable us to form no idea of the opening genius of Shakefpeare. Thus expelled from his native village, he repaired io London, where he was glad to accept a fuboidinate of¬ fice in the theatre. It has been faid that he w'as firft engaged, while the play was aifting, in holding the horfes of thofe whp rode to the theatre but this itory refts on a {lender foundation. As his name is found print¬ ed among thofe of the other players before fome old plays, it is probable that he was fome time employed as an aftor j but we are not informed what charadfers he played 5 wre are only told, that the part which he acted belt was that of the Ghoft in Hamlet; and that he appeared in the charadter of Adam in As you /ike it. If the names of the adtors prefixed to Ben Jonfon’s play of Every Man in Ins Humour were arranged in the fame order as the peifons reprefented, which is very pro¬ bable, Shakefpeare played the part of Old Knowell, We have reafon therefore to fuppofe, as far as we can argue from thefe few fadts, that he generally reprefented old men. See Malone’s Chronology, in his edition of Shakefpeare. But though he was not qualified to ftiine as an ac¬ tor, he was now in the fituation which could moft ef- fedfually roufe thofe latent fparks of genius which af¬ terwards burft forth with fo refplendent a flame. Be¬ ing well acquainted with the mechanical bufinefs of the theatre and the tafte of the times; poffeffed of a know¬ ledge of the cbaradlers of men refembling intuition, an imagination that ranged at large through nature, fe- ledling the grand, the fublime, and the beautiful j a ju¬ dicious caution, that difpofed him to prefer thofe plots which had already been found to pleafe ; an uncommon fluency (a) The beautiful red Turkey leather is dyed with cochineal prepared in the fame manner.^ Profeffor Gme- lin junior, in the flcond part of his Travels through Ruftia, explains the herb tfcliagar.n by artemifia having doubtlefs been deceived by the appearance the plant acquires after it has been dried. Befides, this artemijia is found only in the middle of Siberia, and never on the w7eft fide of the Irtifch. S H A [ 2 Shake- fluency and force of expreflion •, he was qualified at once ipeare. to ec]ipfe all who had gone before him. " Notwithftanding the unrivalled genius of Shake- fpeare, moil of his plots were the invention of others; which, however, he certainly much improved, if he did not entirely new-model. We are affured, that prior to the theatrical compofitions of Shakefpeare, dramatic pieces were written on the following fubjedts, viz. King John, King Richard II. and III. King Henry IV. and V. King Henry VIII. King Lear, Antony and Cleopatra, Meafure for Meafure, the Merchant of Venice, the Taming of a Shrew, and the Comedy of Errors- Among his patrons, the earl of Southampton is par¬ ticularly honoured by him, in the dedication of two poems, Venus and Adonis, and Lucrece ; in the latter efpecially, he expreffed himfelf in fuch terms as gives countenance to what is related of that patron’s di- ftinguilhed generofity to him. In the beginning of King James I.’s reign (if not fooner) he was one of the principal managers of the playhoufe, and conti¬ nued in it feveral years afterwards} till, having ac¬ quired fuch a fortune as fatisfied his moderate wifhes and views in life, he quitted the ftage, and all other bufinefs, and palled the remainder of his time in an ho¬ nourable eafe, at his native town of Stratford, where he lived in a handforne houfe of his own purchafing, to which he gave the name ol New Place; and he had the good fortune to fave it from the flames in the dread¬ ful fire that confumed the greateft part of the town in 16x4. In the beginning of the year 1616, he made his will, wherein he teftified his refpeft to his quondam partners in the theatre : he appointed his youngefl: daughter, jointly with her hufband, his executors, and bequeathed to them the bed part of his eftate, which they came into the poffeffion of not long after. He died on the 23d of April following, being the 53d year of his age ; and was interred among his anceftors on the north fide of the chancel, in the great church of Stratford, where there is a handfome monument eredled for him, infcribed with the following elegiac diftich in Latin : Judicio Pylium, genio Socratem, arte Maroncm, Terra tegit, Populus jiueret, Olympus habet. In the year 1740, another very noble one was raifed to his memory, at the public expence, in Weftminfter ab¬ bey ; an ample contribution for this purpofe being made upon exhibiting his tragedy of Julius Csefar, at the theatre-royal in Drury-Lane, April 28th 173^’ . Nor muft we omit mentioning another teftimony of the veneration paid to his manes by the public in gene¬ ral, which is, that a mulberry-tree planted upon his eilate by the hands of this revered bard, was cut down not many years ago ; and tbe wood being converted to feveral domefiic ufes, was all eagerly bought at a high price, and each fingle piece treafured up by its purcha- fer as a precious memorial of the planter. The chamber of Shakefpeare as a dramatic writer Has been often drawn, but perhaps never with more ac- curacv than by the pen of Dr Johnfon : “ Shakefpeare (fays he) is above all writers, at leaf!; above all modern writers, the poet of nature •, the poet that holds up to his readers a faithful mirror of manners and of life. I ] S H A His characters are not modified by the cufloms of par- $ ticular places, unpraftifed by the retl of the world j by h the peculiarities of ftudies or profeffions, which can operate but upon Imall numbers; or by the accidents of tranfient falhions or temporary opinions: they are the genuine progeny of common humanity, fuch as the world will always fupply, and obfervation will always find. His perfons adl and fpeak by the influence of thofe general paffions and principles by which all minds are agitated, and the whole fylfem of life is continued in motion. In the writings of other poets, a charadler is too often an individual; in thofe of Shakefpeare, it is commonly a fpecies. “ It is from this wide extenfion of defign that fo much inftrudtion is derived. It is this which fills the plays of Shakefpeare with piadfical axioms and domef- tic wifdom. It was faid of Euripides, that every verfe was a precept •, and it may be laid of Shakefpeare, that from his works may be colledled a fyflem of civil and economical prudence. Yet his real power is not fhown in the fplendor of particular pafl’ages, but by the pro- grefs of his fable, and the tenor of his dialogue ; and he that tries to recommend him by feledl quotations, will fucceed like the pedant in Hierocles, who, when he of¬ fered his houfe to fale, carried a brick in his pocket as a fpecimen. “ Upon every other flage the univerfal agent is love, by whofe power all good and evil is diftributed, and every adlion quickened or retarded. But love is only one of many pafilons ; and as it has no great influence upon the fum of life, it has little operation in the dra¬ mas of a poet who caught his ideas from the living world, and exhibited only what he faw before him. He knew that any other paflion, as it was regular or exor¬ bitant, was a caufe of happinefs or calamity. “ Charadlers thus ample and general were not eafily difcriminated and preferved •, yet perhaps no poet ever kept his perfonages more diftindl from each other. “ Other dramatifls can only gain attention by hyper¬ bolical or aggravated characters, by fabulous and unex¬ ampled excellence or depravity, as the writers of bar¬ barous romances invigorated the reader by a giant and a dwarf j and he that fiiould form his expeftations of human affairs from the play, or from the tale, would be equally deceived. Shakefpeare has no heroes, his fcenes are occupied only by men, who a=jeare- When he undertook the oflice of a commentator, every anomaly of language, and every exprefiion that was cur- rently in ufe, were confidered as errors or corruptions, and the text was altered or amended, as it w^as called, at pleafure. Pope is openly charged with being one of the great corrupters of Shakefpeare’s text. Pope was fucceeded by Theobald, who collated the ancient copies, and rectified many errors. He w-as, however, a man of narrow comprehenfion and of little learning, and what is worfe, in his reports of copies and editions, he is not to be truifed without examination. From the liberties taken by Pope, the edition of Theo¬ bald was jultly preferred, becaufe he profeffed to adhere to the ancient copies more ftridfly, and illuitrated a few’ paffages by extrafts from the writers of our poet’s age. Still, however, he was a confiderable innovator j and whue a few arbitrary changes made by Pope were deteffcd, innumerable fophitfications were lilently a- dopted. Sir Thomas Hanmer, who comes next, was a man of critical abilities, and of extenfive learning. His correc¬ tions are commonly juft, but fometimes capricious. He is cenfurable, too, for receiving without examination al- moft all the innovations of Pope. The original and predominant error of Warburton’s commentary, is acquiefcence in his firft thoughts j that precipitation which is produced by confcioufnefs of quick difcernment j and that confidence which prefumes to do, by furveying the furface, what labour only can perform, by penetrating to the bottom. His notes ex¬ hibit fometimes perverfe interpretations, and fometimes improbable conjeftures j he at one time gives the author more profundity of meaning than the fentence admits, and at another difcovers abfurdities where the fenfe is plain to every o*ker reader. But his emendations are iikewife often happy and juft ; and his interpretation of obfcure pafl'tges learned and fagacious. It has indeed been (aid by his defenders, that his great objeift; was to difplay his owm learning ; and certainly, in fpite of the clamour raifed againft him for fubftituting his own chimerical conceits inftead of the genuine text of Shakefpeare, his wrork increafed his reputation. But as it is of little value as a commentary on Shakefpeare, fince Warburton is now gone, his work will probably foon fink into oblivion. In 1765 Dr Johnfon’s edition, which had long been impatiently expe&ed, avas given to the public. His vi¬ gorous and comprehenfive underftanding threw more light on his author than all his predecefibrs had done. The chara&er which he gave of each play is generally juft. His refutation of the falfe glofies of Theobald and Warburton, and his numerous explications of involved and difficult paffages, entitle him to the gratitude of eve¬ ry admirer of Shakefpeare. The laft editor is Mr Malone, who was eight years employed in preparing his edition. By collating the moft authentic copies, he has been careful to purify the text. He has been fo induftrious, in order to difcover the meaning of the author, that he has ranfacked many volumes, and trufts that, befides his additional illuftra- tions, not a fingle valuable explication of any obfcure paftage in thefe plays has ever appeared, which he has not inferted in his edition. He rejefts Titus Andro- riicus, as well as the three plays formerly mentioned, as s H A not being the authentic productions of Shakefpeare. To Stake; the whole he has added an appendix, and a copious glof- ih)eare fary.—Of this w’ork a lefs expenfive edition has been pub- s]jaJ,ar!S liihed in 7 vols 1 2mo, in w'hich the general introduClory 1 t— - obfervations prefixed to the different plays are preferved, and the numerous notes abridged. This judicious commentator has certainly done more for the elucidation and covreftion of Shakefpeare than all who came before him, and has followed with indefati¬ gable patience the only road which a commentator of Shakefpeare ought to obferve. Within 50 years after our poet’s death, Dryden fays that he was become “ a little obfolete j” and in the be¬ ginning of the 18th century Lord Shaftefbury complains of his rude unpoliflied ftyle, and his antiquated phrafe and wit. Thefe complaints were owing to the great re¬ volution which the Englifh language has undergone, and to the want of an enlightened commentator. Thefe complaints are now removed, for an enlightened com¬ mentator has been found in Mr Malone. We have only farther to add, that in the year 1790 a copious index to the remarkable paflages and words in the plays of Shakefpeare was publifhed by the Re¬ verend Mr Ayfcough; a gentleman to whom the lite¬ rary world is much indebted for feveral very valuable keys of knowledge. In fine, the admirers of Shake¬ fpeare are now, by the labours of feveral eminent men, furnifhed with every help that can enable them to under- ftand the fenfe and to tafte the beauties of this illuftrious poet. SHAKLES. See Shackles. SHALE, in Mineralogy, a kind of Schistus, of a black colour and flaty ftruCture, or a clay hardened into a ftony confiftence, and fo much impregnated with bitumen that it becomes fomewhat like a coal. The acid emitted from ihale, during its calcination, uniting itfelf to the argillaceous earth of the fhale, forms alum. About x 20 tons of calcined fhale will make one ton of alum. The fhale, after being calcined, is fteeped in water, by which means the alum, which is formed during the calcination of the finale, is diflblved : this diflblved alum undergoes various operations before it is formed into the alum of the fhops. Watfon’s Che¬ mical Effays, vol. ii. p. 315.. See Alum, Chemistry Index. This kind of flate forms large ftrata in Derbyfhire $ and that which lies near the furface of the earth is of a fofter and more fhivery texture than that which lies deeper. It is alfo found in large firata, generally above the coal, in moft coal counties of this kingdom. SHALLOP, Shalloop, or Sloop, is a fmall light veflel, with only a fmall main-maft and fore-maft, and lug-fails, to haul up, and let down, on occafion.—Shal¬ lops are commonly good failers, and are therefore often ufed as tenders upon men of war. SHALLOT, or Eschalot. See Allium, Bota¬ ny and Gardening Index. SHAMANS are wizards or conjurers, in high re¬ pute among feveral idolatrous nations inhabiting dif¬ ferent parts of Ruffia. By their enchantments they pretend to cure difeafes, to divert misfortunes, and to * foretel futurity. They are great obfervers of dreams, by the interpretation of which they judge of their good or bad fortune. They pretend like wife to chiromancy, and to foretel a man’s good or ill fuccefs by the lines of. hi$*> r 213 1 S H A [ 21 Shamble', liis hand. By thefe and fuch like means tliey have a Shamois. very great alcendancy over the under Handings, and a ' " ~v great influence on the condudl, of thofe people. SHAMBLES, among miners, a fort of niches or landing places, left at fuch diftances in the adits of the mines, that the fhovel-men may conveniently throw up the ore from fhamble to fhamble, till it comes to the top of the mine. SHAMOIS, Chamois, or Shammy, a kind of lea¬ ther, either dreffed in oil or tanned, much efteemed for its foftnefs, pliancy, &c. It is prepared from the fkin of the chamois, or fhamois, a kind of rupicapra, or wild goat, called alfo ifard, inhabiting the mountains of Dau- phiny, Savoy, Piedmont, and the Pyrenees. Befides the foftneis and warmth of the leather, it has the faculty of bearing foap without damage j which renders it very ufe- ful on many accounts. In France, &c. fome wear the fkin raw, without any preparation. Shammy leather is ufed for the purifying of mercury, which is done by paffing it through the pores of this fkin, which are very clofe. The true chamois lea¬ ther is counterfeited with common goat, kid, and even with fheep {kins, the pradlice of which makes a particu¬ lar profeftion, called by the French chamoifure. The laff, though the leafl eflcemed, is yet fo popular, and fuch vafl quantities of it are prepared, efpecially about Orleans, Marfeilles, and Tholoufe, that it may be proper to give the method of preparation. Manner ofJhamoifng, or of preparing fbeep, goat, or hid [kins in oil, in imitation of Jhamtny.— The fkins, being waffled, drained, and fmeared over with quicklime on the flefhy fide, are folded in two le'ngthwife, the wool out¬ wards, and laid in heaps, and fo left to ferment eight days, or, if they had been left to dry after flaying, then fifteen days. Then they are waflied cut, drained, and half dried ; laid on a wooden leg, or horfe, the wool dripped off with a round daff for that purpofe, and laid in a weak pit, the lime whereof had been ufed before, and has led the great- ed part of its force. After 24 hours they are taken out, and left to drain 24 more •, they are then put in another dronger pit. This done, they are taken cut, drained, and put in again, by turns; which begins to difpefe them to take oil ; and this praftice they continue for fix weeks in fummer, or three months in winter : at the end where¬ of they are walked out, laid on the wooden leg, and the furface of the fk:n on the wool fide peeled off, to render them the fofter 5 then made into parcels, fleeped anight in the river, in winter more, dretched fix or feven over one another on the wooden leg, and the knife paffed flrongly on the dedi fide, to take off any thing fuper- fluous, and lender the fkin fmooth. Then they are deeped, as before, in the river, and the fame operation is repeated on the wool fide *, they are then thrown into a tub of w^ater, with bran in it, which is breuTed among the fkins till the greateft part flicks to them, and then feparated into diflindl tubs, till they (’well, and rife of themfelves above the water. By this means the re¬ mains of the lime are cleared out; they are then wrung out, hung up to dry on ropes, and fent to the mill, with the quantity of oil neceffary to fcour them : the bed oil is that of dock-fifh. Here they are firft thrown in bundles into the river for 12 hours, then laid m the mill-trough, and fulled without oil till they be well foft- 2 4 ] S II A ened j then oiled wth the hand, one by one, and thus Sliamcls formed into parcels of four fkins each ; which are mill- ^ li ^ ed and dried on cords a (econd time ; then a third ; and then oiled again, and dried. This procefs is repeated as often as neceffity requires ; when done, if there be any moidure remaining, they are dried in a Hove, and made up into parcels wrapped up in wool 5 alter feme time they are opened to the air, but wrapped up again as before, till fuch time as the oil feems to have loft all its lorce, which it ordinarily does in 24 hours. The fkins are then returned from the mill to the chamoifer to be fcoured •, which is done by putting them in a lixi¬ vium of rvood-afhes, working and beating them in it with poles, and leaving them to fteep till the ley hath had its effcdl ; then they are wrung out, fteeped in another lixivium, wrung again ; and this is repeated till all the greafe and oil be purged out. When this is done, they are half dried, and paffed over a (harp-edged ironinftru- ment, placed perpendicular in a block, which opens, foftens, and makes them gentle. Laftly, they are tho¬ roughly dried, and paffed over the fame inftrument again ; which finithes the preparation, and leaves them in form of lhammy. Kid and goat (kins are fhamoifed in the fame manner as thofe of Iheep, excepting that the hair is taken off without the ufe of any lime ; and that when brought from the mill they undergo a particular preparation called ramal/ing, the moft delicate and difficult of all the others. It conftils in this, that, as foon as brought from the mill, they are fteeped in a fit lixivium, taken out, ftretched on a round wooden leg, and the hair is feraped off with the knife •, this makes them Imooth, and in working to call a kind of fine knap. The difficulty is in feraping them evenly. SHANK, or SHANK-Pa inter, in a (hip, is a fliort chain faftened under the foremaft-fliroTids, by a bolt, to the ffiip’s fides, having at the other end a rope faftened to it. On this fhank-painter the whole weight of the aft part of the anchor refts, when it lies by the {hip’s fide. The rope, by which it is hauled up, is made fall about a timber head. Shank, in the manege, that part of a horfe’s fore leg which lies between the knee and the fetlock. SHANKER, or Chancre, in Medicine, a malignant ulcer, ufually occafioned by force venereal diforder. See Medicine, N° 350. SHANNON, the largeft river in Ireland, and one of the fineft in the Britifh dominions, not only on account of its rolling 2CO miles, but alfo of its great ‘depth in moft places, and the gentlenefs of its current, by which it might be made exceedingly ferviceable to the improvement of the country, the communication of its inhabitants, and confequently the promoting of inland trade, through the greateft part of its long.courfe. But the peculiar prerogative of the Shannon is its fitu- ation, running from north to fouth, and feparating the province of Connaught from Leinfter and Munfter, and of confequence dividing the greateft part of Ireland in. to what lies on the eaft and that on the weft of the ri¬ ver ; watering in ils paffage the valuable county of Leitrim, the plentiful {hire of Rofcommon, the fruitful county of Galrvay, and the pleafant county of Clare 5 the fmall but fine {hire of Longford, the King’s coun¬ ty, and fertile county of Meath in Leinfter, the popu¬ lous county of Tipperary, the fpacious {hire of Lime- S H A [2 Shanfci it rick, and the rough but pleafant county of Kerry in ii Munder j vifiting 10 counties in its paflage, and having ')- on its banks the following remarkable places, viz. Lei¬ trim, Jameftown, Lanefborough, Athlone, Clonfert, Killaloe, and Limerick ^ at 20 leagues below the latter / it fpreads gradually feveral miles in extent, fo that fome have conlidered its expaniion as a lake. It at Lift joins its waters to the fea, being navigable all that way for the larged veiTels. SHANSCRIT, the language of the Bramins of Hin- doftan. See Philology, feet. v. SHARE of a PLOUGH, that part which cuts the ground ; the extremity forwards being covered with a (harp-pointed iron, called the point of the Jhare, and the end of the wood behind the tail of the Jhare. SHARK. See Squalls, Ichthyology Index. SHARON, a name common to three cantons of Pa- lefdne. The firit lay between Mount Tabor and the fea of Tiberias; the fecond between the city ot Ctefarea of Paled in e, and Joppa ; and the third lay beyond Jordan. To give an idea of perfect beauty, Ifaiah laid, the glory of Lebanon and the beauty of Carmel mud be joined to the abundance of Sharon. (Ifaiah xxxiii. 9. xxxi. 2.). The plains of Sharon are of vad extent ; and, when furveyed by the Abbe Mariti a few years ago, they were (own with cucumbers; and he informs us, that fuch a number is annually produced, as not only to fiippiy the whole neighbourhood, but alfo all the coads of Cyprus and the city of Damietta. In the middle of the plain, between Arfus and Lydda, rifes a finall mountain, upon the ridge of which there is a fmall village called Sharon, from the name of the ancient city whole king was con¬ quered bv Jolhua. SHARP, James, archbilhop of St Andrew’s, was born of a good family in Banffshire in 16^8. He devoted himfelf very early to the church, and was educated for that purpofe in the univerlity of Aber¬ deen. When the folemn league and covenant was framed in 1638, the learned men in that feminary, and young Sharp in particular, declared themfelves decid¬ edly aga-inlt it. To avoid the infults and indignities to which he was fubje£ted in confequence of this condudf, he retired to England, where he contracted an acquain¬ tance with fome of the molt celebrated divines in that country. At the commencement of the civil wars he returned to Scotland. During his journey thither, he acciden¬ tally met with Lord Oxenford, who was fo charmed with his converfation, that he invited him to his houfe. While he relided with that nobleman, he became known to the earl of Rothes, who procured him a profefforlhip at St Andrew’s. By the intereft of the earl of Craw¬ ford he was foon after appointed minifter of Crail; where he conduftcd himfelf, it is faid, in an exemplary manner. Sharp had always inclined to the caufe of royalty, and had for fome lime kept up a con-efpondence with his exiled prince. After the death of the proteClor he began to declare himfelf more openly, and feems to have enjoyed a great lhare of the confidence of Monk, who was at that time planning the redoration of Charles II. When that general marched to London, the prelbyte- rians fent Sharp to attend him in order to fupport their interefts. At the requeft of General Monk and the chief prefbyterians in Scotland, Mr Sharp was si s h A fent over to the king at Breda to procure from him, if Sharp. poffible, the eftabliihment of prelbyterianifov On his ' v— return, lie affured his friends that “ he had found the king very affedhonate to Scotland, and refolved not to wrong the fettled government of the church : but he ap¬ prehended they were miftaken who went about to eifa- blilh the prelbyterian government.” Charles was foon after reftored without any terms. All the laws paffed in Scotland fince the year 1633 were repealed ; the king and his numbers refolved at all ha¬ zards to rebore prelacy. Mr Sharp, who had been commiffioned by the Scotch preibyterians to manage their interebs with the king, was prevailed upon to aban¬ don the parly ; and, as a reward for his compliance, he- was made archbilhop of St Andrew’s. This conduct rendered him very odious in Scotland ; he was accufed of treachery and perfidy, and reproached by his olfl friends as a traitor and renegado. The abfurd and wan¬ ton cruelties which were afterwards committed, and which were imputed in a great meafure to the archbidrop, rendered him bill more detebed. Nor is it probable that thefe accufations were without foundation : the very circumbance of his having been formerly of the prefty- terian party would induce him, after forfaking them, to treat them with feverity. Befides, it is certain, that when after the rout at Pentland-hills he received an order from the king to bop the executions, he kept it for fome time before he produced it to council. There was one Mitchell a preacher, and a defperate fanatic, who had formed the debgn of taking vengeance for thefe cruelties by affabinating the archbibiop. Pie fired a pibol at him as he was fitting in his coach ; but the bibiop of Orkney, lifting up his hand at the moment, intercepted the ball. Though this happened in the midb of Edinburgh, the primate was fo much detebed, that nobody bopped the affabin ; who, having walked leifurely home, and thrown off his difguife, returned, and mixed unfufpedted with the crowd. Some years after, the archbifbop obferving a man eyeing him with keennefs, fufpecled that he was the affaffin, and ordered him to be brought before him. It was Mitchell. Two loaded pibols were found in his pocket. The primate offered him a pardon if he would confefs the crime ; the man complied ; but Sharp, regardlefs of his promife, condufted him to the council. The council alfo gave him a folemn promife of pardon if he would confefs his guilt, and difeover his accomplices. They were much difappointed to hear that only one man was privy to his purpofe, who was fince dead. Mitchell was then brought before a court of jullice, and ordered to make a third confebion, which he refufed. Pie was imprifoned for feveral years, and then tried. His own confeffion was urged againb him. It was in vain for him to plead the illegality of that evidence, and to appeal to tbe promife of pardon previouby given. The council took an oath that they had given no fuch promife ; and Mitchell was condemned. Lauderdale, who at that time governed Scotland, would have pardoned him, but the primate in- fibed on his excution ; obferving, that if afiaffins were permitted to go uripunifhed, his life mub be continually in danger. Mitchell was accordingly executed. Sharp had a fervant, one Carmichael, who by his cruelty had rendered himfelf particularly odious to the zealots. Nine men formed the refolution of waylaying him in Magus-moor, about three miles from St An¬ drew’s*. S H A l 21 drevv’s. While they were waiting for this man, the primate himfelf appeared with very few attendants, This they looked upon as a declaration of heaven in their favour 3 and calling out, “ the Lord has delivered him into our hands,” they ran up to the carriage. They fired at him without effeft 3 a circumftance which was afterwards imputed to magic. They then difpatched him with their fwords, regardlefs of the tears and intreaties of his daughter, who accompani¬ ed him (a). Thus fell Archbilhop Sharp, whofe memory is even at prefent detefled by the common people of Scotland. His abilities were certainly good, and in the early part of his life he appears with honour and dignity. But his conduft afterwards was too cruel and infincere to merit approbation. His treatment of Mitchell was mean and vindidlive. How far he contributed to the meafures adopted againft the prelbyterians is not cer¬ tain. They were equally cruel and impolitic 3 nor did their effe&s ceafe with the meafures themfelves. The unheard-of cruelties exercifed by the minifters of Cha. II. againft the adherents of the covenant, railed fuch a flame of enthufiafm and bigotry as is not yet entirely extin- "guiflied. Sharp, Dr John, archbifhop of York, was defcend- ed from the Sharps of Little Norton, a family of Brad¬ ford Dale in Yorklhire 3 and was fon of an eminent tradefman of Bradford, where he w’as born in 1644. He wras educated at Cambridge, and in 1667 entered into orders. That fame year he became domeftic chap¬ lain to Sir Heneage Finch, then attorney-general. In 1672 he w7as collated to the archdeaconry of Berkfhire. In 1675 he was inftalled a prebendary in the cathedral church of Norwich 5 and the year following was infti- tuted into the reflory of St Bartholomew near the Royal Exchange, London. In 1681 he was, by the intereft of his patron Sir Heneage Finch, then lord high chancellor of England, made dean of Norwich 3 but in 1686 was fufpended for taking occafion, in fome of his fermons, to vindicate the do&rine of the church of Eng¬ land in oppofition to Popery. In 1688 he wTas fworn chaplain to King James II. being then probably reftored after his fufpenfion for it is certain that he wras cha¬ plain to King Charles II. and attended as a court cha¬ plain at the coronation of King James II. In 1689 he was declared dean of Canterbury 3 but never could be perfuaded to fill up any of the vacancies made by the deprived biftiops. Upon the death of Dr Lamplugh, he was promoted to the fee of York. In 1702 he preach¬ ed the fermon at the coronation of Queen Anne 3 and the fame year was fworn of the privy-council, and made lord almoner to her majefty. He died at Bath in 1713 3 and w?as interred in the cathedral of York, where a mo¬ nument is ere&ed to his memory.—His fermons, which 6 ] S H A wrere colle&ed after his death and publfthed in 7 vols 8vo, are juftly admired. '' Sharp, Abraham, an eminent Englifti mathemati¬ cian, and aftronomer, was born at Little Horton, near Bradford, in the year 1651. He was put apprentice to a merchant at Manchefter 3 but fo ftrongly was he inclined to the ftudy of mathematics, that he foon found his fituation both irkfome and difagreeable. By the mutual confent, therefore, of his mafter and himfelf, he quitted the bufinefs of a merchant. He then removed to Liverpool, where he wholly devoted himfelf to ma¬ thematical ftudies, and where, for a iubfiftencc, he taught writing and accounts. Soon after this a merchant from London, in whofe houfe the celebrated Mr Flamfleed then lodged, enga¬ ged Mr Sharp to be his book-keeper. With this emi¬ nent aftronomer he foon contradfed an intimate friend- ftiip, and by his recommendation he obtained a more pro¬ fitable employment in the dock-yard of Chatham, where he continued till his friend and patron called him to his afliftance. Mr Sharp was chiefly employed in the conftru&ion of the mural arch, which he finifhed in the courfe of 14 months fo entirely to the fatisfa£lion of Mr Flamftecd, that he fpoke of him in terms of the highefl praife. In the opinion of Mr Smeaton, this w^as the firft good inftrument of the kind, and Mr Sharp the firft artift who cut delicate divifions on alrronomi- cal inftruments. When this inftrument was conftrudled, Mr Sharp was but 25, and Mr Flamfteed 30 years of age. Mr Sharp aflifted his friend in making a cata¬ logue of nearly 3000 fixed ftars, with their longitudes and magnitudes, their right afcenfions and polar dift- ances, with the variations of the fame while they change their longitude by one degree. But from the fatigue of conftantly obferving the ftars by night, in a cold thin air, added to a weakly conftitution, his health was much impaired 5 for the recovery of wLich he requefted leave to retire to his houfe at Horton, where, as foon as he felt himfelf re¬ covering, he began to fit up an obfervatory of his owm, and the telefcopes he made ufe of were all of his own conftruflion, and the lenfes ground and adjufted with his owm hands. It w?as about this time that he aftifted Mr Flamfteed in calculating moft of the tables in the fecond volume of his Hifloria Ccrlejlis, as appears by their letters, to be fcen iu the hands of Mr Sharp’s friends at Horton. The mathematician, fays Dr Hutton, meets with fome- thing extraordinary in Sharp’s elaborate treatifc of Geo¬ metry Improved; by a large and accurate table of feg- ments of circles, its conftruftion and various ufes in the folution of feveral difficult problems, with compendious tables for finding a true proportional part ; and their ufe in thefe or any other tables exemplified in making logarithms. Slisrp- (a) Such is the account given by all our hiftorians of the murder of Archbifhop Sharp 3 and that he fell by the hands of fanatics, whom he perfecuted, is certain. A tradition, however, has been preferved in different fa¬ milies defcended from him, which may be mentioned, and is in itfelf certainly not incredible. The primate, it feems, who, when minifter of Crail, wras peculiarly fevere in punilhing the fin of fornication, had, in the plenitude of his archiepifcopal authority, taken notice of a criminal amour carried on between a nobleman high in office and a lady of fome fafhion wffio lived within his diocefe. This interference was in that licentious age deemed very impertinent 3 and the archbilhop’s defcendants believe that the proud peer inftigated the deluded rabble to muir- lier their anceftor. I S H A logarithms, or their natural numbers, to 60 places of fi¬ gures j there being a table of them for all primes to 1100, true to 61 figures. His concife treatife of Polye- dra, or folid bodies of many bafes, both of the regular ones and others ^ to which are added, 12 new ones, with various methods of forming them, and their exaOl dimenfions in furds or fpecies, and in numbers •, illuftra- ted with a variety of copper-plates, neatly engraved by his own hands. Indeed, few of the mathematical in- ftrument makers could exceed him in exadly gra¬ duating or neatly engraving mathematical or aftiono- mical inftruments. He poffeffed a remarkably clear head for contriving, and an extraordinary hand for executing any thing, not only in mechanics, but likewife in drawing, waiting, and making the molt beautiful figures in all his calculations and conllruc- tions. The quadrature of the circle was undertaken by him for his own amufement, in the year 1699) deduced from two different feries, by which the truth of it was proved to y 2 places of figures, as may be feen in Sherwin’s 1 a- bles of Logarithms. In the fame book may likewife be feen bis ingenious improvements on the making of logarithms, and the conftruding of the natural fines, tangents, and fecants. Mr Sharp kept up a correfpondence with moff of the eminent mathematicians and affronomers of his time, as Flamfteed, Newton, Halley, W allis, Hodgfon, &c. the anfvvers to whofe letters are all written on the backs or empty fpaces, of the letters ne received, in a fhort hand of his own invention. Being one of the moft accurate and indefatigable computers whoever exilled } he was many years the common refource for Flamfteed, Sir Jonas Moor, Halley, and others, in all forts of trou- blefome and delicate calculations. Mr Sharp was never married, and fpent his time as a hermit. He was of a middle ftature, very thin, of a weakly conftitution j but remarkably feeble during the laft 3 or 4 years before his death, which happened on the 18th of July 1742, in the 91ft year of his age. He was very irregular as to his meals, and uncommon¬ ly fparing in his diet, which he frequently took in the following manner. A little fquare hole, refembling a window, formed a communication between the room where he ufually ftudied, and another where a fervant could enter; and before this hole he had contrived a Hiding board. It often happened, that the breakfaft, dinner, and fupper, have remained untouched, when the fervant has gone to remove what was left,—fo deeply was he engaged in calculations. Sharp, in Mufic. See Interval. SHASTAH, the fame as SHASTER. SHASTER, Shastah, or Bedang, the name of a facred book, in high eftimation among the idolaters of Hindoftan, containing all the dogmas of the religion of the bramins, and all the ceremonies of their worfliip j and ferving as a commentary on the VedaM. The term Shajler denotes “ fcience” or “ fyftem” *, and is applied to other works of aftronomy and philofo- phy, which have no relation to the religion of the Indians. None but the bramins and rajahs of India are allowed to read the Vedam •, the prefts of the Banians, called Shuderers, may read the Shafter j and the people, in ge¬ neral, are allowed to read only the Paran or Pouran, which is a commentary on the Shafter. Vol. XIX. Part I. S H A The Shafter is divided into three parts: the firft con- Shaftpr. taining the moral law of the Indians •, the fecond, the *' rites and ceremonies of their religion; and the third, the diftribution of the people into tribes or claffes, with the duties pertaining to each clafs. The principal precepts of morality, contained in the firft part of the Shafter, are the following : that no ani¬ mal be killed, becaufe the Indians attribute fouls to brute animals as well as to mankind 5 that they neither hear nor fpeak evil, nor drink wine, nor eat flefh, nor touch any thing that is unclean ; that they obferve the feafts, prayers, and walhings, which their law preicribes j that they tell no lies, nor be guilty of deceit in trade; that they neither opprefs nor offer violence to one ano¬ ther 5 that they celebrate the folemn feafts and fafts, and appropriate certain hours of ordinary deep to cultivate a difpofition for prayer j and that they do not fteal or de¬ fraud one another. The ceremonies, contained in the fecond part of the Shafter, are iuch as thefe : that they waih often in the rivers, hereby obtaining the pardon of their fins} that they mark their forehead with red, in token of their re¬ lation to the Deity ; that they prefent offerings and prayers under certain trees, fet apart for this purpofe j that they pray in the temples, make oblations to their pagodas or idols, firg hymns, and make proceffions, &c.j that they make pilgrimages to diftant rivers, and efpecially to the Ganges, there to wafti themfelves and make offerings 5 that they make vows to particular faints, according to their refpeftive departments; that they render homage to the Deity at the firft fight of the fun ; that they pay their refpeft to the fun and moon, which are the two eyes of the Deity •, and that they treat with particular veneration thofe animals that are deemed more pure than others 5 as the cow, buffalo, &c.; becaufe the fouls of men have tranfmigrated into thefe animals. The third part of the Shafter records the diftribu¬ tion of the people into four claffes : the firft being that of the bramins or priefts, appointed to inftruft the peo¬ ple.; the fecond, that of the kutteris or nobles, who are the magiftrates; the third, that of the {hudderis or merchants; and the fourth, that of the mechanics. Each perfon is required to remain in the clafs in which he was born, and to purfue the occupation affigned to him by the Shafter. According to the bramins, the Shafter was imparted by God himfelf to Brahma, and by him to the bramins ; who communicated the contents of it to the people. Modern writers have given us very different accounts of the antiquity and importance of the Shafter. Mr Holwell, who had made confiderable progrefs in the tranflation of this book, apprehends, that the mytholo¬ gy as well as the cofmogony of the Egyptians, Greeks,, and Romans, was borrowed from the dodrines of the bramins, contained in it, even to the copying of their exteriors of worftiip, and the diftribution of their idols, though grofsly mutilated and adulterated. With refpeft to the Vedam and Shafter, or feriptures of the Gen- toos, this writer informs us, that Vedam, in the Mala¬ bar language, fignifies the fame as Shajler in the Shan- ferit and that the firft: book is followed by the Gen- toos of the Malabar and Coromandel coafts, and alfo of the ifland of Ceylon. The Shafter is followed by the Gentoos of the provinces of Bengal, and by all the £ e Gentqos [ 217 ] S H A [ 21 Shaft^r. Gentoos of the reft of India, commonly called India Proper, along the courfe of the rivers Ganges and Jum¬ na to the Indus. Both thefe books (he fays) contain the inftitutes of their refpeiftive religion and worftiip, as well as the hiftory of their ancient rajahs and princes, often couched under allegory and fable. Their anti¬ quity is contended for by the partifans of each ; but he thinks, that the ftmilitude of their names, idols, and great part of their worlhip, leaves little room to doubt, nay plainly evinces, that both thefe feriptures were ori¬ ginally one. He adds, if we compare the great purity and chafte manners of the Shafter with the great ab- furdities and impurities of the Vedam, rve need not hefitate to pronounce the latter a corruption of the former. With regard to the high original of thefe feriptures, the account of the bramins is as follows. Brahma (that is, “ Mighty Spirit”), about 4866 years ago, allumed the form of man and the government of Indo- ftan. He tranflated the divine law (defigned for the reftoration of mankind, who had offended in a pre-ex- iftent ftate, and who are now in their laft feene of pro¬ bation, to the dignity from which they were degraded) out of the language of angels into the well known Shan- ferit language, and called his tranflation the Chartah Bhade Shaft ah of Binnah, or the Six Scriptures of Divine Words of the Mightij Spirit. He appointed the bramins, deriving their name from him, to preach the word of God •, and the doftrines of the Shafter were according¬ ly preached in their original purity 1000 years. About this time there was publifhed a paraphrafe on the Char¬ tah Bhade 5 and about 500 years afterwards, a fecond expofition, called the Aughtorrah Bhade Shaft a, or Eigh¬ teen Books of Divine Words, written in a character com¬ pounded of the common Indoftan and the Shanfcrit. This innovation produced a Ichifm among the Gen¬ toos ; on which occafion, it is faid, thofe of Coroman¬ del and Malabar formed a feripture of their own, which they pretended to be founded on the Chartah Bhade of Bramah, and called it the Vedam of Bir- mah, or Divine Words of the Mighty Spirit. The ori¬ ginal Chartah Bhade was thrown aftde, and at length wholly unknown, except to a few families; who can ilill read and expound it in the Shanfcrit charadler. With the eftablifhment of the Aughtorrah Bhade, and Vedam, which, according to the Gentoo account, is 3366 years ago, their polytheifm commenced j and the principles of religion became fo obfeure, and their ce¬ remonies fo numerous, that every head of a family was obliged to keep a bramin as a guide both in faith and practice. Mr Holwell is of opinion, that the Chartah Bhade, or Original Scriptures, are not copied from any other fyftem of theology, promulgated to or obtruded upon mankind. The Gentoos do not attribute them to Zoroafteiq and Mr Holwell fuppofes, that both Zoroafter and Pythagoras vifited Indoftan, not to inftruft, but to be inftrudled. - From the account of Mr Dow, we learn, that the books which contain the religion and philofopby of the Hindoos are diftinguifhed by the name of Bedas; that they are four in number, and like the facred writings of other nations, faid to be penned by the Divinity. Beda, he fays, in the Shanfcrit language, literally fig- nifies fcience ; and thefe books treat not only of religion and moral duties, but of. every branch of philofophic 8 ] s H A knowledge. The bramins maintain, that the Bedas Shallcr. are the divine laws, which Brimha, at the creation of ——v~~“ the world, delivered for the inftiuclion of mankind j but they affirm, that their meaning was perverted in the firft age by the ignorance and wickednefs of fome princes, whom they reprefent as evil fpirits, who then haunted the earth. The firft credible account we have of the Bedas is, that about the commencement of the Cal Jug, of which era the year 1768 wras the 4886th year, they were written, or rather colledted, by a great philofopher and reputed prophet, called Bedfs Muni, or Bedfs the In- fpired. The Hindoos (fays Mr Dow) are divided into two great religious fedts: the followers of the dodtrine of Bedang, which is the original Shafter, or commentary upon the Bedas ; and thofe who adhere to the principles of the Neadirfen. The original Shafter is called Be¬ dang, and is a commentary upon the Bedas. This book, he fays, is erroneoufty called in Europe the Vedam. It is aferibed to Beafs Muni, and is faid to have been re- vifed fome years after by one Serrider Swami, fince which it has been reckoned facred, and not fubjedt to any farther alterations. Aimoft all the Hindoos of the Decan, and thofe of the Malabar and Coromandel coafts, are of this feet. The followers of the Bedang Shafter do not allow that any phyfical evil exifts j they maintain that God created all things perfedtly good j but that man, being a free agent, may be guilty of moral evil, which may be inju¬ rious to himfelf, but can be of no detriment to the gene¬ ral fyftem of nature. God, they fay, being periedtly benevolent, never puniflied the wicked otherwife than by the pain and afflidlion which are the natural confe- quences of evil adlions 3 and hell, therefore, is no other than a confcioufnefs of evil. The Neadirfen Shafter is faid to have been written by a philofopher called Goutam, near four thoufand" years ago. The bramins, from Mr Dow’s account of their facred books, appear to believe invariably in the unity, eternity, omnifcience, and omnipotence of God j and the polytheifm of which they have been accufed is no more than a fymbolical worfhip of the divine attri¬ butes, which they divide into three claffes. Under the name of Brimha, they worftiip the wifdom and creative power of God j under the appellation of Bifhen, his pro¬ vidential and preferving quality; and under that cf Shibah, that attribute which tends to defiroy. As few of our readers may have an opportunity of perufing the Shafter, we {hall, by way of fpecimen, fub- join a paffage from it, which, though it contains fome metaphyficai myfteries concerning the creation, yet dif- covers views of God fo enlightened that they would not difgrace more refined nations, d he paffage which we fhall quote is the firft chapter of the Shafter, which is a dialogue between Brimha the Wifdom of the Divini¬ ty, and Narud or Reafon, who is reprefented as the fen of Brimha. Narud defires to be inftrudled by his fa¬ ther ; and for that purpofe puts the following queftions to him : “ Narud.. O father ! thou firft of Gcd, thou art faid to have created the world, and thy fon Narud, aftonilh- e^at what he beholds, is defirous to be inftrudted hew ail thefe things were made. “ Brimha. Be not deceived, my fon ! do not imagine that S HA [21 that I was the creatoir of the world, independent of the Divine Mover, who is the great original effence and creator of all things. Look, therefore, only upon me as the inftrument of the great will, and a part ot his being, whom he called forth to execute his eternal de- figns. “ Name!. What fir all we think of God ? “ Brimha. Being immaterial, he is above all concep¬ tion } being invifible, he can have no form •, but, from what we behold in Ins works, we may conclude that he is eternal, omnipotent, knowing all things, and prefent everywhere. “ Narud. How did God create the world ? u Brimha. AfFedtion dwelt with God from all eter¬ nity. It was of three ditterent kinds 5 the cieative, tne preferving, and the deftrudtive. I his firft is reprefent- ed by Brimha, the fecond by Biihen, and the third by Shibah. You, O Narud ! are Uught to worlhip all the three in various ihapes and likenefies, as t^ie Crea¬ tor, the Preferver, and the Deftroyer. The a Teftion of God then produced power, and powder, at a proper con¬ junction of time and fate, embraced goadnefs, and pro¬ duced matter. The three qualities then adting upon matter, produced the univerfe in the following manner: From the oppofite adtions of the creative and deftrudlive quality in matter, felf-motion firft arofe. Self-motion was of three kinds; the firft inclining to plafticity, the fecond to difeord, and the third to reft. _ The difeord- ant adlions then produced the Akafii (a kind of celeftial element), which invifible element pofleffed the quality of conveying found •, it produced air, a palpable ele¬ ment fire, a vifible element j water, a fluid element j and earth, a folid element. “ The Akafti difperfed itfelf abroad. Air formed the atmofphere j fire, collefting itfelf, blazed forth in the holt of heaven •, water rofe to the fuvface of the earth, being forced from beneath by the gravity of the latter element. Ihus broke forth the rvoild from the veil of darknefs, in which it was formerly comprehend¬ ed by God. Order rofe over the univerfe. The feven heavens w’ere formed, and the feven wmrlds were fixed in their places •, there to remain till the great diffolution,* when all things {hall be abforbed into God. “ God feeing the earth in full bloom, and that vege¬ tation was ftrong from its feeds, called forth for the firft time intelledf, which he endued with various organs and ' ftiapes, to form a diverfity of animals upon the earth. He endued the animals with five fenfes ; feeling, feeing, fmelling, tafting, and hearing; but to man he gave re- ftle&ion, to raife him above the beafts of the field. “ The creatures were created male and female, that they might propagate their fpecies upon the earth. I'lvery herb bore the feed of its kmd, that the world •might be clothed with verdure, and all animals provided with food. “ Name!. What doft thou mean, O father ! by Intel- left ? “ Brimha. It is a portion of the great foul of the umvetfe breathed into all creatures, to animate them for a cei'tain time. “ Narud. What becomes of it after death ? “ Brimha. It animates other bodies, or returns, like a drop, into that unbounded ocean from which it firft arofe. 9 ] S H A “ Narud. Shall not then the fouls of good men re- Shatter, ceive rewards ? nor the fouls of the bad meet with pu- , ^ nifhment ? “ Brimha. The fouls of men are diftinguhhed from thofe of other animals; for the firft are endued with rea- fon, and with a confcioufnefs of right and wrong. If therefore man {hall adnere to the firft, as far as his powers {hall extend, his foul, when difengaged from the body by death, {hall be abforbed into the divine efience, and tliall never more reanimate ftefli : But the fouls or thofe who do evil are not, at death, difengaged from all the elements. They are immediately clothed with a body of fire, air, and akafh, in which they are for a time puniftied. in hell. After the ieafon of their gnel is over, they reanimate other bodies j but till they lhall arrive at a ftate of purity they can never be abforbed in¬ to God. “ Narud. What is the nature of that abforbed ftate which the fouls of good men enjoy after death ? “ Brimha. It is a participation of the divine nature, where all paffions are utterly unknown, and where con- fcioulnels is loft in blifs. “ Narud. Thou fayeft, O father, that unlefs the foul is perfeftly pure it cannot be abforbed into God : now, as the aftions of the generality of men are partly good and partly bad, whither are their {pints fent immediate¬ ly after death ? “ Brimha. They muft atone for their crimes in hell, where they muft remain for a fpace proportioned to the degree of their iniquities ; then they rife to heaven to be' rewarded for a time for their virtues ; and from thence they will return to the world to reanimate other bodies. “ Narud. What is time ? “ Brimha. Time exifted from all eternity with God : but it can only be eftimated fince motion was produced, and only be conceived by the mind, from its own con- ftant progrefs. “ Narud. How long {hall this world remain ? “ Brimha. Until the four jugs {hall have revolved. Then Rudder (the lame with Shibah, the deftroying quality of God), with the ten fpirits of diffolution, {hall roll a comet under the moon, that {hall involve all things in fire, and reduce the world into afhes. God {hall then exift alone, for matter will be totally annihi¬ lated.” Thofe who defire more information on this fubjeft may confult Dow’s Hiftoiy of Indoftan, and HolwelPs Interefting Hiftorical Events. SHAW, Dr Thomas, known to the learned world by his travels to Barbary and the Levant, was born at Kendal in Weftmoreland about the year 1692. He was appointed chaplain to the Englifti coniul at Algiers, in which ftation he continued for feveral years ; and from thence took proper opportunities of travelling into different parts. He returned in 1733 ; was elefted fel¬ low of the Royal Society •, and publiihed the account of his travels at Oxford, folio, 1738. In 1740 he was nominated principal of St Edmond-hall, which he raifed from a ruinous ftate by his munificence ; and was regius profeffor of Greek at Oxford until his death, which happened in 1751. Dr Clayton, bifiiop of Clogher, having attacked thefe Travels in his Defcription of the Eaft, ©r Shaw publiflied a fupplement by way of yin- E e 2 dication, S H E [ 220 ] SHE Sbawia clicatlon, which is incorporated into the fecond edition of his Travels, prepared by hirafelf, and publifhed in S' a'hin^. 4to, 1757. SHAVVIA, a genus of plants, belonging to the clafs fyngenefia, and order polygamia fegregata, ot which the charafters are the following •, the calyx is imbricated wdth five or fix leaves, the three interior of which are larger 5 the corolla is five-cleft j there is one oblong feed. One fpecies only has been diicovered, which is a native of New Zealand. SHAWLS, are woollen handkerchiefs, an ell wide, and near two long. The wool is fo fine and filky, that the whole handkerchief may be contained in the tw’o hands clofed. It is the produce of a Tibet fheep ; but fome lay that no wool is employed but that of lambs torn from the belly of their mother before the time of birth. The nroft beautiful drawls come from Cafhmire : their price is from 150 livres (about fix gui¬ neas) to 1200 livres (or 50I. llerling). In the Tranfadlions of the Society for Encouraging Arts, Manufaftures, &c. for the year 1792, we are in¬ formed that a drawl counterpane, four yards fquare, manufactured by Mr P. J. Knights of Norwich, was prefen ted to the fociety ; and that, upon examination, it appeared to be of greater breadth than any goods of equal finenefs and texture that had ever before been pre- fented to the fociety, or to their knowledge woven in this country. The drawls of Mr Knights’s manufaiffure, it is faid, can fcarcely be diilinguifhed from Indian drawls, though they can be afforded at one-twentieth part of the price. When the drawl is 16 quarters fquare, Mr Knights fays it may be retailed at 20I. ; if it con¬ fided of 12 quarters, and embroidered as the former, it will cod 15I. j if plain, with a fringe only, a drawl of 16 quarters fquare may be fold at 81. 8s. j if 12 quar¬ ters and fringed, at 61. 6?. Mr Knights maintains, that his counterpane of four yards fquare is equal in beauty, and fuperior in ftrength, to the Indian counterpanes, which are fold at 200 gui¬ neas. The principal confumption of this cloth is in train-dreffes for ladies j as likewife for long fcarfs, in imitation of the real Indian fcarfs, which are fold from 60I. to Sol. j whereas fcarfs of this fabric are fold for as many drillings, and the ladies fquare drawls in pro¬ portion. SHEADING, a riding, tything, or divifion, in the ide of Man ; the whole idand being divided into fix {headings j in every one of which is a coroner or chief condable, appointed by the delivery of a rod at the an¬ nual convention. SHEARBILL, the RJiynchops Nigra of Linnaeus, the Black Skimmer of Pennant and Latham, and Cut¬ water of Catefbv. See Ornithology Index. SHEATHING, in the fea-language, is the cafing that part of a drip which is to be under water with fir- board of an inch thick *, firft laying hair and tar mixed together under the boards, and then nailing them on, in order to prevent worms from eating the drip’s bot¬ tom.—Ships of war are now generally dreathed with copper: but copper dreathing is liable to be corroded by the aclion of fait water, and fomething is dill want¬ ing to effeft this purpofe. It is very probable that tar tnight anfwer very well. In the Cornifh mines, copper or brafs pumps are often placed,in the deepeft parts, and are confequently expo- Shtbbeare, fed to the vitriolic or other mineral waters with which Sheathing feme of thefe mines abound, and which are known to have a much ffronger effect dn copper than fea water. __ Thefe pumps are generally about fix feet long, and are fcrewred together, and made tight by the interpofition of a ring ot lead, and the joinings are afterwards tarred. One ot thefe pumps was fo much corroded as to render it unfit for ufe j but the fpots of tar, which by accident had dropped on it, prelerved the parts they covered from the abtion of the water. Thefe projected in tome places more than a quarter of an inch •, and the joints were lb far defended by the thin coat of tar, that it was as perfeft as when it came from the hands of the manufadurer. If tar thus effedually defends copper from thefe acrid waters, can there remain a doubt of its preferving it from the much milder waters of the fea * SHEATS, in a Ihip, are ropes bent to the clews of the fails, ferving im the kwer iails to haul aft the clews of the fail ; but in topfails they ferve to haul home the clew of the fail dole to the yard-arm. SHEAVE, in Mechanics, a folid cylindrical wheel, fixed in a channel, and moveable about an axis, as be¬ ing ufed to raife or increafe the mechanical powders ap¬ plied to remove any body. SHEBBEARE, John, a political writer, was born at Bideford in Devonfhire, in the year 1709. He re¬ ceived the rudiments of his education at the free gram¬ mar fchool of Exeter. It has been often obferved, that the future life of a man may be gathered from his pue¬ rile charader ■, and accordingly Shebbeare, while a boy at fchool, gave the ftrongeft indications of his future eminence in mifanthropy and learning, by the extraor¬ dinary tenacioufnefs of his memory and the readinefs of his wit, as w7ell as the malignity of his difpofition ; be¬ ing univerfally regarded as a young man of furprifing genius, while at the fame time he was defpifed for his malicious temper. About the age of 16, Shebbeare was bound appren¬ tice to an eminent furgeon in his native town, under wEom he acquired a confiderable fhare of medical know’- ledge. His talent for lampoon appeared at this early period, and he could not forbear from exercifing it on his mailer $ but the chief marks for the arrows of his wit w ere the gentlemen of the corporation, fome of whom laughed at fuch trifjes, while fuch as were irritable often commenced profecutions againft him, but without fuc- cefs. He wras frequently fummoned to appear at the feffions, for daring to fpeak and wrrite difrefpedfully of the magiflrates ; but the laugh w as always on the fide of Shebbeare. When his time was out, he fet up for himfelf, then difeovering a tafle for chemiftry *, foon after which he married an amiable young woman with no fortune, but of refpedable connedions. Failing in bufinefs at Bide¬ ford, he went to Briftol in 1736, entering into partner- fhip with a chemifl, and never afterwards vifited his na¬ tive town. The attention of the public was, in the year 1739, attraded by an epitaph to the memory of Thomas Co¬ ffer, Efq. M. P. for Briftol, in which he contrived to raife emotions of pity, grief, and indignation. In the fol¬ lowing year he publifhed a pamphlet on the Briftol wraters, after which w^e know little or nothing refpeding him for a number of years. He was at Paris in 1752, where he obtained, it is faid, the degree of doftorin medicine, 3 S H E [ 22 a fa&, however, which many are difpofed to queftion. About this time he began to emerge from obfcunty, and draw the attention of the public, by pamphlets written with fuch virulence and celerity as it would be di-iicult to equal in the molt intemperate times. . In J754 he commenced his career with a work denomina¬ ted the Marriage AEl, a political novel, in which he treated the legiflature with fuch freedom that he was ap¬ prehended, but foon after fet at liberty. The molt celebrated performances, however, were a feries of letters to the People ot Itmgland, wuitten in a vigorous and energetic ftyle, well calculated to make an impreffian on common readers j and they, were of courfe read with avidity, and diligently circulated. They galled the miniltry, who atfirft were too eager to puniih the author. When the third letter wras publitr- ed, warrants were iffued by Lord Holderneffe in Maich 1756, to take up both the publilher and the author •, a prosecution which appears to have been dropt. On the 1 2th of January 1758, the fame nobleman figned a ge¬ neral warrant for apprehending the author, printer, and publifhers of a wicked, audacious, and trealonable libel, entitled, “ A fixth letter to the people of England, on the progrefs of national ruin, in which is {hewn that the prefent grandeur of France and calamities cx this nation are owing to the influence of Hanover on the councils of England and then having found, to feize and apprehend, together writh their books and PaPers' . . . . . Government having received intormation that a. ie- venth letter was in the prefs, all the copies w;ere feized and ruppreffed by virtue of another warrant, dated Ja¬ nuary 23. In Eafter term an information was filed againft him by the attorney-general, and on the 17th of June the information was tried, when Shebbeare was found guilty ; and on the 28th of November he received fentence, by which he w'as fined 5I. ordered to ftand in the pillory December 5. at Charing Crofs, to be con¬ fined three years, and to give fecurity for his good be¬ haviour for feven years, himfelf in 500!. and twro others in 250I. each. During his confinement, he declared he never received as prefents more than 20 guineas from all the world. He was detained in prifon during the whole time of the fentence, and with fome degree of rigour } for when his life was in danger from a bad ftate of health, and he applied to the court of king’s-bench for permiffion to be carried into the rules a few hours in a day 5 though Lord Mansfield acceded to the petition, the prayer of it was denied and defeated by Judge Fofter. At the ter¬ mination of the time of his fentence,.a new reign com¬ menced •, and (hortly afterwards, during Mr Grenville s adminiftration, a penfion of 200I. a-year was granted him by the crown, through the influence of Sir John Philips \ and he ever after became devoted to. the fer- vice of government. He was of courfe abufed in almolt every periodical work,.which he feems in general to have had the good fenfe to neglefh Dr Smollet intro¬ duced him, in no very refpe&ful light, under the name of Ferret, in Sir Launcelot Greaves ; and Mr Hogarth made him one of the group in the third eleftion print. ' During the latter part of his life he feems to have written but little. He ftrenuoufly fupported the mini- ftry during the American war, having publilhed, in i ] SHE 1775, an anfwer to the printed^ fpeech of Edmund Shebbeare, Burke, Efq. fpoken in the houfe of cammons, April 19. | I774> wherein he inveftigates his knowledge of polity, legiflature, human kind, hiftory, commerce, and finance j his arguments are examined ; the conduft of adminiftra¬ tion is boldly defended, and his talents as an orator clear¬ ly expofed to view. An effay on the origin, progrefs, and eftabliftiment of National Society •, in which the principles of government, the definition of phyfical, mo¬ ral, civil, and religious liberty contained in Dr Price’s obfervations, &c. are examined and controverted j to¬ gether with a juftification of the legiflature in reducing America to obedience by iorce. _ His publications of a fatirical, political, and medical nature, amount to 34, befides a novel called Filial Piety, in which hypocrify and bluftering courage are very properly chaftii'ed. He died on the ill of Augult 1788, leaving behind him the chara&er of a benevolent man among thofe who were beft acquainted with him 4 a charafter which, from the manner he fpeaks of his connections, he probably deferved. SHEEP, in 'Zoology. See Ovis and Wool. i Amongit the various animals with which Divine Pio-^h^c ^ vidence has ftored the world lor the ufe of man, none to be found more innocent, more uleful, or more vah-1* 0£ purpofes* able, than the iheep. The fheep fupplies us with food and clothing, and finds ample employment lor our poor at all times and feafons of the year, whereby a variety of manufactures of woollen cloth is carried on without interruption to domeftic comfort and lofs.to friendly fociety or injury to health, as is the cafe with, many other occupations. Every lock of rvool that grows on its back becomes the means of fupport to ftaplers, dyers, pickers, fcourers, fcriolers, carders, combers, fpinners, fpoolers, warpers, queelers, weavers, fullers, tuckers, burlers, (hearmen, prefiers, clothiers, and packers, who, one after another, tumble and tojs, and twift, and bake, and boil, this raw material, till they have each extracted a livelihood out of it •, and., then comes the merchant, who, in his turn, {hips it (in its higheft ftate of improvement) to all quarters of the Mobe, from whence he brings back every kind of riches to his country, in return tor this valuable commodity which the ftieep affords. . . Befides this, the ufeful animal, after being deprived of his coat, produces another againft the next year ; and when we are hungry, and kill him for food, he gives us his {kin to employ the fell-mongers and parch¬ ment-makers, who fupply us with a durable material for fecuring our eftates, rights, and poffeflions ; and if our enemies take the field againft us, fupphes us with a powerful inftrument for roufing our courage to repel their attacks. When the parchment-maker has taken as much of the {kin as he can ufe, the glue-maker comes after and picks up every morfel that is left, and tnere- with fupplies a material for the carpenter and cabinet¬ maker, which they cannot do without, and which is effentially neceffary before we can have elegant furniture in our houfes-, tables, chairs, looking-glaffes, and. a hundred other articles of convenience : and when tne winter nights come on, while we are deprived of tne cheering light of the fun, the fheep fupplies us with an artificial mode of light, whereby we preferve every plea- fure of domeftic Cbciety, and .with who.e ainftance we can continue our work, or write or read; and improve our. SHE [ ^!ieeP- our minds, or enjoy the focial mirth of our tables. 222 ] SHE An- Account of the Spar.ifli woolled iheep otlier part of the ilaughtered animal fupplies us with an ingredient neceffary for making good common foap, a ufeful llore for producing cleanlinefs in every family, rich or poor. Neither need the horns be thrown away; for they are converted by the button-makers and turners into a cheap kind of buttons, tips for bows, and many ufeful ornaments. From the very trotters an oil is ex¬ tracted ufeful for many purpofes, and they afford good food when baked in an oven. Even the bones are ufetul alfo •, for by a late inven¬ tion of Dr Higgins, they are found, when reduced to allies, to be an ufeful andeffential ingredient in the com- petition of the fineft artificial (tone in ornamental work for chimney-pieces, cornices of rooms, houfes, &c. which renders the compofition more durable by effec¬ tually preventing its cracking (a). If it is objeCted to the meek inoffenfive creature, that he is expenfive while living, in eating up our grafs, &c. it may be anfwered that it is quite the contrary ; for he can feed where every other animal has been be¬ fore him and grazed all they could find ; and that if he takes a little grafs on our downs or in our fields, he amply repays us for every blade of grafs in the richnets of the manure which he leaves behind him. He pro¬ tects the hands from the cold wintry blatt, by providing them with the foftefi: leather gloves. Every gentle¬ man’s library is alfo indebted to him for the neat bind¬ ing of his books, for the fheath of his fword, and for cafes for his inftruments ; in thort, not to be tedious in mentioning the various ufes of leather, there b hardly any furniture or uteniil of life but the theep contri¬ butes to render either more ufeful, convenient, or orna¬ mental. As the tlieep is fo valuable an animal, every piece of information concerning the proper method of managing it muff be of importance. It will not therefore be ufe- lefs or unentertaming to give fome account of the man¬ ner of managing (lieep in Spain, a country famous for producing the bell wool in the world. In Spain there are two kinds of fheep : the coarfe- fiieep, wEich always remain in their native country, and are houfed every night in winter; and the fine-woolled fiieep, which are always in the open air, and travel every fummer from the cool mountains of the northern parts of Spain, to feed in winter on the fouth- ern warm plains of Andalufia, Mancha, and Eftrema- dura.. Of thefe latter, it appears from accurate com- Sheep, putations, that there are about five millions (b) ; and —y— that the wool and tlefii of a flock of 10,000 fheep pro¬ duced yearly about 24 reals a-head, about the value of x 2 Engliih fixpences, one of which belongs to the owner, three to the king, and the other eight are allow¬ ed for the expeiices of pafture, tythe?, fhepherds, dogs, iak, (hearing, 6ec. ien thoufand fheep form a flock, which is divided into ten tribes, under the management or one perfon, who has abfolute dominion over fifty fhep¬ herds and fifty dogs. M. Bourgoanne, a French gentleman, who refidedofScgov;.-, many years in Spain, and direCled his inquiries chiefly to the civil government, trade, and manufactures, of that country, gives the following account of the wan¬ dering flieep of Segovia. “ It is (fays he) in the neigh- bouring mountains that a part of the wandering fheep anne's Tra- feed during the fine feafon. They leave them in the '^’vo1, i“ month of OCIober, pafs over thofe which feparate the^ '^’ two Caitiles, crofs New Caftile, and difperfe themfelves in the plains of Eftramadura and Andalufia. For fome yeais paft thofe of the two Caftiles, which are within reach of the Sierra-Morena, go thither to pafs the win¬ ter •, which, in that part of Spain, is more mild ; the length of their day’s journey is in proportion to the pafture they meet with. They travel in flocks from 1000 to 1200 in number, under the conduCl of two fhepherds ; one of whom is called the Mayoral, the other the Zagal. When arrived at the place of their deftination, they are diffributed in the pafiures previoui- ly afligned them. They return in the month of April; and whether it be habit or natural inftinCl: that draws them towards the climate, which at this feafon becomes moft proper for them, the inquietude which they mani- feft might, in cafe of need, ferve as an almanac to their conductors.” Mr Arthur Young, in that patriotic work which he condufted with great induftry and judgement, the An¬ nals of Agriculture, gives us a very accurate and inte- refling account of the Pyrenean or Catalonian flieep. “ On the northern ridge, bearing to the weft, are theof dualo- paftures of the Spanifh flocks. This ridge is not, how-nia. An~ ever, the whole; there are two other mountains, quite in a different fituation, and the fheep travel from one another as the pafturage is ftiort or plentiful. I exa-p° mined the foil of thefe mountain paftures, and found it in general ftony ; what in the weft of England would be (a) Any curious perfon would be much entertained to fee the manufaftory of bone-afh, now (about 1794) car¬ ried on by Mr Minifh of White-chapel, New Road, wherein the bones of fheep and cows undergo many ingenious proceffes. 1. Ihere is a mill to break them ; 2. A cauldron to extraCI their oil, marrow, and fat ; 3. A reverbe¬ ratory to heat them'red hot; 4. An oven for thofe bones to moulder to aihes; A ftill to colleCt the fumes of the burnt bones into a brown fluid, from whence hartfhorn is made ; 6. Furnaces for making parts thereof into Glauber’s falts ; 7. A fand heat containing twelve jars, for collecting a cryftallizing vapour into fal-am- moniac. \n.^ie I6th century the travelling flieep were eftimated at feven millions : under Phillip HI. the number was diminiflied to two millions and a half. Uftariz, who xvrote at the beginning of the 18th century, made it amount to four millions. Ihe general opinion is, that at prefent it does not exceed five millions. If to this num¬ ber the eight millions of ftationary fheep be added, it will make nearly thirteen millions of animals, all managed contrary to the true interefts of Spain, for the advantage of a few individuals. For the proprietors of ftationary flocks afto have privileges which greatly referable thofe of the members of the Mefta. According to Arriquebar, 'Spain contains eight millions of fine-wcolled flieep, ten millions of coarfe-woolled, and five hundred thoufand buffs, oxen, and cows. 4 SHE [ 22 be called a Jlone brajh, with fome mixture of loam, and in a few places a little peaty. The plants are many of them untouched by the flieep j many ferns, narciflhs, violets, &.c. but burnet (poterium fanguiforba) and the narrow-leaved plantain (piantago lanceolata) were eaten, as may be fuppofed, dole. I looked lor trefoils, but found fcarcely any : it was very apparent that foil and peculiarity of herbage had little to do in rendering thefe heights proper for flieep. In the northern parts of Eu¬ rope, the tops of mountains half the height of thele (for we were above fnow in July) are bogs, ail are fo which I have feen in cur iflands, or at leaft the pro¬ portion of dry land is very trifling to that which is ex¬ tremely wet: Here they are in general very dry. Now a great range of dry land, let the plants be what they may, will in every country fuit flieep. The flock is brought every night to one fpot, which is fltuated at the end of the valley on the river I have mentioned, and near the port or paffage of Picada : it is a level fpot fliel- tered from all winds. I he foil is eight or nine^ inches deep of old dung, not at air inclofed from the fieedom from wood all around, it feems to be choien partly for fafety againft wolves and bears. Near it is a very large ftone, or rather rock, fallen from the mountain. I nis the fhepherds have taken for a flielter, and have built a hut againft it \ their beds are flieep fkins, and their door lo fmall that they crawl in. I faw no place for fire ; but they have it, fince they drefs here the flelh of their fheep, and in the night fome times keep, off the bears, by whirling fire-brands: four of them belonging to the flock mentioned above lie here. I viewed their flock very carefully, and by means of our guide and in¬ terpreter, made fome inquiries of the fhepherds, which they anfwered readily, and very civilly. A Spaniard at Venafque, a city in the Pyrenees, gives 600 livres French (the livre is lo^d. Englifli) a-year for the paf- turage of this flock of 2000 fheep. In the winter he fends them into the lower parts of Catalonia, a journey of 12 or 13 days, and when the fnow is melted in the fpring, they are conducted back again. I hey are Uie' whole year kept in motion, and moving from fpot to fpot, which is owing to the great range they everywhere have of pafture. They are always in the open air, ne¬ ver houfed or under cover, and never tafle of any food but what they can find on the hills. “ Four fhepherds, and from four to fix large Spanifn dogs, have the care of this flock : the latter are in France called of the Pyrenees breed; they are black and white, of the fize of a large wolf, a large head and neck, arm¬ ed with collars fluck with iron fpikes. No wolf can ftand againft them but bears are more potent adverfarres : if a bear can reach a tree, he is fafe ; he rifes on his hind legs, with his back to the tree, and fets the dogs at de¬ fiance. In the night the fhepherds rely entirely on their dogs •, but on hearing them bark are ready with fire-arms, as the dogs rarely bark if a bear is not at hand. I was furprifed to find that they are fed only with bread and milk. The head ftiepherd is paid 1 20 livres a-year wages and bread ; the others 80 livres and bread. Put they are allowed to keep goats, of which they have many which they milk every day. Their food is milk and bread, except the flefh of fuch flieep or l imbs as accidents give them. The head fhepherd keeps on the mountain top, nr an elevated fpot, from whence he can the better fee around while the flock 3 ] SHE traverfes the declivities. In doing this the flieep are ex- Sheep. , pofed to great danger in places that are ftony } for by " « walking among the rocks, and efpecially the goats, they move the ftones, which, rolling down the hills, acquire an accelerated force enough to knock a man down, and fheep are often killed by them ; yet we faw how alert they were to avoid fuch ftones, and cautiouf- ly on their guard againft them. I examined the fheep attentively. They are in general polled, but fome have horns; which in the rams turn backwards behind the ears and projea half a circle forward; the ewes horns turn aifo behind the ears, but do not projefl.. the legs white or reddith } fpeckled faces, fome white, fome reddifh *, they would weigh fat, I reckon, on an average, from 15 lb. "to 18 lb. a quarter. Some tails fliort, fome left long. A ferv black ftieep among them : fome with a very little tuft of w’ool on their foreheads. On the whole they refemble thofe on the South Downs; their legs are as fhoit as thofe of that breed j a point which merits obfervation, as they travel fo much and fo well. Their fhape is very good , round ribs and flat ftraight backs; and would with us be reckoned handfome fheep ; all in good order and flefh. In order to be ftill better acquainted with them, I defired one of the fhepherds to catch a ram for me to feel, and examine the wool, which I found very thick and good of the carding .011, as may be fuppofed. 1 took a fpecimen of it, and alfo of a boggit, or lamb ol left year. In regard to the mellow foftnefs under the fkin, which, in Mr Bakewell’s opi¬ nion, is a ftrong indication of a good breed, with a dii- pofition to fatten, lie had it in a much fuperior degree to many: of our Englifh breeds, to the full as much lo as the South Downs, which are for that point'the Left fhort-woolled fheep which I know in England. Ihe fleece was on his back, and weighed, as a guefied, about 8 lb. Englifh but the average, they fay, of the flock is from four to five, as I calculated by 1 educing the Ca¬ talonian pound of 12 oz. to ours or 16, and is all fold to the French at 30s. the lb. French. This ram had the wool of the back-part of his neck tied cuofe, and the upper tuft tied a fecond knot by way of ornament; nor do they ever fliear this part of’the fleece for that reafon . we faw feveral in the flock with this fpecies of decora¬ tion. They faid that this ram would fell in Catalonia, for 20 livres. A circumftance which cannot be too much commended, and deferves univerfal imitation, 1, the extreme docility they accuftom tnem to. Vv hen I defired the ftiepherd to catch one of his rams, I fuppofed he would do it with his crook, or probably not be able to do it at all; but he walked into the flock, and Angl¬ ing out a ram and a goat, bid them follow him, which they did immediately and he talked to them wrhile they were obeying him, holding out his’ hand as if to give them fomething. By this method he brought m^, the ram, which I caught, and held without difficulty.” 5 The beft fort of ftieep for fine wool are thofe bred What flieep in Herefordfhire, Devonfhire, and Worcefterfhire ; but produce the they are fmall, and black-faced, and bear but a fmall beft wool, quantity. Warwick, Leicefterfhire, Buckingham, and Northamptonfhire, breed a large-boned fheep, of the beft fliape and deepeft wool we Have. I he maifhes of Lincolnfhire breed a very large kind of fheep, but their wool is not good, unlefs the breed be mended by bringing in flieep of other counties among them, which is a fcheme of late very profitably followed there. In llus-. SHE [ 224 j SHE Sheep- tliis county, it is no uncommon thing to give fifty gui- neas for a ram, and a guinea for the admiflion of an ewe to one of thefe valuable males, or twenty guineas for the ufe of it for a certain number of ewes during one feafon. Suffolk, alfo breeds a very valuable kind of fheep. The northern counties in general breed flieep with long but hairy wool: however, the wool which is taken from the neck and fhoulders of the York (hire fheep is ufed for mixing with Spanifh wool in fome of their fineft cloths. Wales bears a fmall hardy kind of fheep, which has the belt tafted flefh, but the word wool of all. Never- thelefs it is of more extenfive ufe than the fineft Sego- vian fleeces ; for the benefit of the flannel manufacture is univerfally known. The fheep of Ireland vary like thofe of Great Britain j thofe of the fouth and eaft be-, ing large and their flefh rank : thofe of the north and the mountainous parts fmall and their flefh fweet. The fleeces in the fame manner differ in degrees ef value. Scotland breeds a fmall kind, and their fleeces are coarfe. But the new Leicefterfhire breed is the moft fafhion- able, and of courfe the moft profitable breed in the ifland. Jofeph Altom of Clifton, who raifed himfelf from a plough-boy, was the firft who diftinguifhed him¬ felf in the midland counties of England for a fuperior breed of fheep. How he improved his breed is not known ; but it was cuftomary for eminent farmers in his time to go to Clifton in fummer to choofe and purchafe ram lambs, for which they paid two or three guineas. This man was fucceeded by Mr Bakewell j and it may reafonably be fuppofed that the breed, by means of Al- tom’s flock, had paffed the firft ftage of improvement before Mr Bakew’ell’s time. Still, however, it muft be acknowledged, that the Leicefterfhire breed of fheep owTes its prefent high ftate of improvement to the ability 6 and care of Mr Bakewell. Account of “ The manner in which Mr Bakewell raifed his fheep Mr Bake- to the degree of celebrity in which they defervedly ftand, well’s is> notwithftanding the recentnefs of the improvement, and its being done in the day of thoufands now living, Midland a *n difpute j even among men high in the pro- Countiet, feflion, and living in the very diitriCl in which the im- vol. i. provement has been carried on ! p.382. “ Some are of opinion that he effe&ed it by a crofs How^it is wfth th6 Wiltfhire breed ; an improbable idea, as their fuppofed he f°rin altogether contradiCls it: others, that the Ryeland improved breed were ufed for this purpofe \ and with fome ftiow lt’ of probability. If any crofs whatever wras ufed the Rye- land breed, whether we view the form, the fize, the wool, the flefh, or the fatting quality, is the moft pro¬ bable inftrument of improvement. “ Thefe ideas, however, are regiftered merely as mat¬ ters of opinion. It is more than probable that Mr Bake¬ well alone is in poffeflion of the feveral minutiae of im¬ provement *, and the public can only hope that at a proper time the fads may be communicated for the diredion of future improvers. “ Whenever this fhall take place, it will moft probably come out that no crofs with any alien breed whatever Jhas been ufed j but that the improvement has been ef- fe£led by fele£ling individuals from kindred breeds j Sheep, from the feveral breeds or varieties of long-woolled fheep, with which Mr Bakcwell was furrounded on almoft every fide, and by breeding, inandin (c), with this fe- ledlion : folicitoufly feizing the fuperior accidental va¬ rieties produced ; aflbciating thele varieties ; and ftill continuing to feleft, with judgement, the fuperior indi¬ viduals. s “ It now remains to give a defeription of the fnperior Defcription clafs of individuals of this breed, efpecially ewes and of hls ewes wedders, in full condition, but not immoderately The rams will require to be diftinguifhed afterwards. “ The head is long, fmall, and hornlefs, with ears fomewhat long, and ftanding backward, and with the nofe fhooting forward. The neck thin, and clean to¬ ward the head ; but taking a conical form ; ftanding low, and enlarging every way at the bafe j the fore-end altogether fhort. The bofom broad, with the fhoulders, ribs, and chine extraordinary full. The loin broad, and the back level. The haunches comparatively full to¬ ward the hips, but light downward j being altogether fmall in proportion to the fore-parts. The legs, at pre¬ fent, of a moderate length } with the bone extremely fine. The bone throughout remarkably light. The carcafe, when fully fat, takes a remarkable form 5 much wider than it is deep, and almoft as broad as it is long. Full on the fhoulder, wideft on the ribs, narrowing with a regular curve towards the tail j approaching the form of the turtle nearer perhaps than any other animal. The pelt is thin, and the tail fmall. The wool is fhorter than long wools in general, but much longer than the middle wools j the ordinary length of ftaple five to feven inches, varying much in finenefs and weight.” 9 This breed furpaffes every other in beauty of form ; Fatten r«- fhey are full and weighty in the fore quarters $ and are markabiy remarkable for fmallnefs of bone. Mr Marfhall, who wel1* has been of fo much benefit to agriculture and his coun¬ try by his publications, informs us, in his Rural Economy of the Midland Counties, that he has feen a rib of a fheep of this breed con trailed with one of a Norfolk fneep : the difparity w^as linking j the latter nearly twice the fize ; while the meat which covered the for¬ mer was three times the thicknefs : confequently the proportion of meat to bone was in the one incompara¬ bly greater than in the other. Therefore, in this point of view, the improved breed has a decided preference : for furely while mankind continue to eat flefh and throw away bone, the former muft be, to the confumer at leaft, the more valuable. The criterions of good and bad flefh while the ani¬ mal is alive differ in different fpecies, and are not pro¬ perly fettled in the fame fpecies. One fuperior breeder is of opinion, that if the flefh is not loofe, it is of courfe good •, holding, that the flefh of flieep is never found in a flate of hardneis, like that of ill-flefhed cattle : w'hile others make a fourfold diftinflion of the flefh of fheep j as loofenefs, mellownefs, firmnefs, hardnefs : con- fldering the firft and the laft equally exceptionable, and the fecond and third equally defirable ; a happy mixture of the two being deemed the point of perfedlion. (c) Inandin is a term ufed in the midland counties of England to exprefs breeding from the fame family, 3 //"/■yw: Plate CCCCLXXX (nn ar—■■ ■***.*■«<^-,**<- Plate C C C (1-XXXL1 K\ /f I Wh 1 % m I 1 i "\\ m i': V. : j;'■ w1' *■ k 81-^ S'if if Bql.'ts . li, Mifr/ir// ////// * SHE t 225 ] SHE Sheep. Midland Counties, vol. i. P- 398* io How the rams are reared. The fle(h of ftieep, when flaughtered, is well known J to be of various qualities. Some is compofed of large coarfe grains, interfperfed with wide empty pores like a {ponge : others, of large grains, with wide pores filled with fat j others, of fine clofe grains, with fmaller pores filled with fat : and a fourth, of clofe grains, without feny intermixture of fatnefs. The flefli of fheep, when dreffed, is equally well known to pofTefe a variety of qualities : fome mutton is coarfe, dry, and infipid ; a dry fponge, affording little or no gravy of any colour. Another fort is fomewhat firmer, imparting a light-coloured gravy only. A third plump, fhort, and palatable j affording a mixture of white and red gravy. A fourth likewife plump and well-flavoured, but difeharging red gravy, and this in various quantities. It is likewife obfervable, that fome mutton, when dreffed, appears covered with a thick, tough, parch¬ ment-like integument j others with a membrane compa¬ ratively fine and flexible. But thefe, and fome of the other qualities of mutton, may not be wholly owing to breed, but in part to the age and the flate of fatnefs at the time of (laughter. Examined in this light, whe¬ ther we confider the degree of fatnefs, or their natural propenfity to a ftate of fatnefs, even at an early age, the improved breed of Leicefterfhire fheep appears with many fuperior advantages. The degree of fatnefs to which the individuals of this breed are capable of being raifed, will perhaps appear incredible to thofe who have not had an opportunity of being convinced by their own obfervation. “ I have feen wedders (fays Mr Matfhall) of only two fhear (two or three years old) fo loaded with fat as to be fcarcely able to make a run 5 and whofe fat lay fo much with¬ out the bone, it feemed ready to be fhaken from the ribs on the fmalleft agitation. . “ It is common for the fheep of this breed to have fuch a projection of fat upon the ribs, immediately be¬ hind the fhoulder, that it may be eafily gathered up in the hand, as the flank of a fat bullock. Hence it has gained, in technical language, the name of the fore- flank; a point which a modern breeder never fails to touch in judging of the quality of this breed of fheep. “ What is, perhaps, flill more extraordinary, it is not rare for the rams, at leaf! of this breed, to be ‘ cracked on the back ^ that is, to be cloven along the top of the chine, in the manner fat fheep generally are upon the rump. This mark is confidered as an evidence of the belt blood. “ Extraordinary, however, as are thefe appearances while the animals are living, the fadts are ftill more flri- king after they are flaughtered. At Litchfield, in Feb¬ ruary 1785, I faw a fore quarter of mutton, fatted by Mr Princep of Croxall, and which meafured upon the ribs four inches of fat. It muft be acknowledged, how¬ ever, that the Leicefterfhire breed do not produce fo much wool as moft other long-woolled ftieep.” As the pradlice of letting rams by the feafon is now become profitable, it may be ufeful to mention the me¬ thod of rearing them. “ The principal ram-breeders fave annually twenty, thirty, or perhaps forty ram lambs •, caflration being feldom applied, in the firft inftance, to the produce of a valuable ram, for in the choice of thefe lambs they are led more by blood or parentage, than by form ; on Vol. XIX. Part I. which, at an early age, little dependence can be placed. Their treatment from the time they are weaned, in July or Auguft, until the time of (hearing, the firft week in June, confifts in giving them every indulgence of keep, in order to pufh them forward for the (how ) it being the common praftice to let fuch as are fit to be let the firft feafon, while they are yet yearlings—provincialiy ‘ fharhogs.’ “ Their firft pafture, after weaning, is pretty gene¬ rally, I believe, clover that has been mown early, and has got a fecond time into head j the heads of clover being confidered as a moft forcing food of ftieep. After this goes off, turnips, cabbages, colewort, with hay, and (report fays) with corn. But the ufe of this the breeders feverally deny, though colleftively they may be liable to the charge. “ Be this as it may, fomething confiderable depends on the art of making up, not lambs only, but rams of all ages. Fat, like charity, covers a multitude of faults $ and befides, is the beft evidence of their fatting quality which their owners can produce (z. e. their natural pro¬ penfity to a ftate of fatnefs), while in the fatnefs of the (harhogs is feen their degree of inclination to fat at an early age. “ Fatting quality being the one thing needful in gra¬ zing flock, and being found, in fome confiderable de¬ gree at leaft, to be hereditary, the fatteft rams are of courfe the beft ; though other attachments, well or ill placed, as to form or fafhionable points, will perhaps have equal or greater weight in the minds of fome men, even in this enlightened age. Such fhearlings as will not make up fufticiently as to form and fatnefs, are either kept on to another year to give them a fair chance, or are caftrated, or butchered while fharhogs.” From the firft letting, about 40 years ago, to the fum8 year 1780, the prices kept gradually riling from fifteen Mr Bake- fhillings to a guinea, and from one to ten. In 1780 well re- Mr Bakewell let feveral at ten guineas each •, and, what^^ ^ is rather inexplicable, Mr Parkinfon of Quarndon let one the fame year for twenty-five guineas j a price which then aftonifhed the whole country. From that time to 1786 Mr Bakewell’s flock rofe rapidly from ten to a hundred guineas j and that year he let two thirds of one ram (referving one third of the ufual number of ewes to himfelf) to two principal breeders, for a hundred guineas each, the entire fervices of the ram being rated at three hundred guineas l Mr Bakewell making that year, by letting twenty rams on¬ ly, more than a thoufand pounds ! Since that time the prices have been ftill rifing. Four hundred guineas have been repeatedly given. Mr Bake¬ well, this year (1789) makes, fays Mr Marfhall, twelve hundred guineas by three rams (brothers, we believe) *, two thoufand of feven ; and of his whole letting, full three thoufand guineas! Befide this extraordinary fum made by Mr Bakewell, there are fix or feven other breeders who make from five hundred to a thoufand guineas each. The whole amount of moneys produced that year in the midland counties, by letting rams of the modern breed for one feafon only, is eftimated, by thofe who are adequate to the fubjeft, at the almoft incredible fum of ten thoufand pounds. Rams previous to the feafon are reduced from the cumbrous fat ftate in which they are fhown. The ufual F f time SHE [ 226 ] SHE Sheep- time of fending them out is the middle of September. They are conveyed in carriages of two wheels with The treat- fPrinSs> or hung in flings, 20 or 30 miles a-day, fome- ment of times to the diftance of 200 or 300 miles. They are the rams not turned loofe among the ewes, but kept apart in a of theh°1Ce inclot*ure’ where a couple of ewes only are admit- icwes. once• Vvrhen the feafon is over, every care is taken to make the rams look as fat and handlome as poflible. In the choice of ewes the breeder is led by the fame . criterions as in the choice of rams. Breed is the firlt objedf of confideration. Excellency, in any fpecies or variety of live-dock, cannot be attained with any degree of certainty, let the male be ever fo excellent, unlels the females employed likewife inherit a large proportion of the genuine blood, be the fpecies or variety what it may. Hence no prudent man ventures to give the higher prices for the Hifhley rams, unlels his ewes are deeply tinffured with the .Dithley blood. Next to breed is flelh, fat, form, and wool. -After the lambs are weaned, the ewes are kept in common feeding places, without any alteration of paf- ture, previous to their taking the ram. In winter they are kept on grafs, hay, turnips, and cabbages. As the heads of the modern b:eed are much finer than moll others, the ewes lamb with lefs difficulty. The female lambs, on being weaned, are put to good keep, but have not fuch high indulgence ffiown them as the males, the prevailing practice being to keep them from the ram the firit autumn. At weaning time, or previoully to the admiffion of the ram, the ewes are culled, to make room for the thaves or {headings, whofe fuperior blood and falhion intitle them to a place in the breeding flock. In the work of culling, the ram-breeder and the mere grazier go by fomewhat different guides. The grazier’s guide is principally age, feldom giving his erves the ram after they are lour ihcar. The ram-breeder, on the con- trary, goes chiefly by merit j an ewe that has brought him a good ram or two is continued in the flock fo long as ffie will breed. There are inflances of ewes ha¬ ving been prolific to the tenth or twelfth year j but in general the ewes of this breed go off at fix or feven {hear. In the praflice of fome of the principal ram-breeders, the culling ewes are never fuffered to go out of their bands until after they are flaughtered, the breeders not only fatting them, but having them butchered, on their premifes. There are others, however, who fell them ; and fometimes at extraordinary prices. Three, four, and even fo high as ten guineas each, have been given for thefe outcafts. There are in the flocks of feveral breeders ewes that would fetch at auflion twenty guineas each. Mr Bake- well is in poffeflion of ewes which, if they were now put up to be fold to the beff bidder, would, it is eftimated, fetch no lefs than fifty each, and perhaps, through the 13 prefent fpint of contention, much higher prices. Inftru publiftied a fmall Mifcellany, without his name. He then for a time wandered about, to ac¬ quaint himfelf with life, and w?as fometimes at Lon¬ don, fometimes at Bath, or any place of public refort ; but he did not forget his poetry. He publiftied, in 1740, his “ Judgement of Hercules,” addreffed to Mr Lyttleton, whofe intereft he fupported with great warmth at an eleftion ; this was two years afterwards followed by the “ School-miftrefs.” Mr Dolman, to whofe care he was indebted for his eafe and leifure, died in 1745, and the care of his fortune now fell upon himfelf. He tried to efcape it a while, and lived at his houfe with his tenants, who were diftantly related ; but, finding that imperfedl poffeffion inconvenient, he took the whole eftate into his own hands, an event which rather im¬ proved its beauty than increafed its produce. Now be¬ gan his delight in rural pleafures, and his paffion of ru¬ ral elegance ; but in time his expences occafioned cla¬ mours that overpowered the lamb’s bleat and the lin¬ net’s fong, and his groves were haunted by beings very different from fauns and fairies. He fpent his eftate in adorning it, and his death was probably haftened by his anxieties. He was a lamp that fpent its oil in blazing. It is faid, that if he had lived a little longer, he would have been affifted by a penfion ; fuch bounty could not have been more properly bellowed, but that it wTas ever afked is not certain ; it is too certain that it never was enjoyed.—He died at the Leafowes, of a putrid fever, about five on Friday morning, Feb. 11. 1763 ; and was buried by the fide of his brother, in the churchyard of Hales-Owen. In Shenftone n Sheridan. SHE In his private opinions, our author particular left, and hated all religious difputes. Ten- dernefs, in every fenfe of the word, was his peculiar characteriftic ; and his friends, domellics, and poor neighbours, daily experienced the effedts of his benevo¬ lence. This virtue he carried to an excefs that feemed to border upon weaknefs ; yet if any of his friends treated him ungeneroufly, he was not eafily reconciled. On fuch occafions, however, he ufed to fay, “ I never will be a revengeful enemy $ but I cannot, it is not in my nature, to be half a friend.” He was no economill; for the generofity of his temper prevented his paying a proper regard to the ufe of money : he exceeded there¬ fore the bounds of his paternal fortune. But, if we confider the perfect paradife into which he had con¬ verted his ellate, the hofpitality with which he lived, his charities to the indigent, and all out of an eftate that did not exceed 300I. a-year, one Ihould rather wonder that he left any thing behind him, than blame his want of economy : he yet left more than fufficient to pay all his debts, and by his will appropriated his whole eftate to that purpofe. Though he had a high opinion of many of the fair fex, he forbore to marry. A paffion he entertained in his youth was with difficulty furmount- ed. The lady was the fubje£l of that admirable pafto- ral, in four parts, which has been fo univerfally read and admired, and which, one would have thought, mull have foftened the proudeft and moft obdurate heart. His works have been publiffied by Mr Dodlley, in 3 vols 8vo. The firft volume contains his poetical works, .which are particularly diftinguifhed by an ami¬ able elegance and beautiful fimplicity ; the fecond vo¬ lume contains his profe works; the third his letters, &c. Biog. DiB. SHEPPEY, an ifland at the mouth of the river Medway, about 20 miles in circumference. It is fepa- rated from the main land by a narrow channel; and has a fertile foil, which feeds great flocks of ffieep. The borough-town of Queenborough is feated thereon ; be- fides which it has feveral villages. SHERARDIA, a genus of plants belonging to the telrandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬ der the 47th order, Stellatce. See Botany Index. SHERBET, or SherBIT, a compound drink, firft brought into England from Turkey and Perfia, conlift- ing of water, lemon-juice, and fugar, in which are dif- folved perfumed cakes made of excellent Damafcus fruit, containing an infufion of fome drops of rofe water. Another kind of it is made of violets, honey, juice of raifins, &c. SHERIDAN, Thomas, D. D. the intimate friend of Dean Swift, is faid by Shield, in Cibber’s “ Lives of the Poets,” to have been born about 1684, in the county of Cavan, where, according to the fame autho¬ rity, his parents lived in no very elevated ftate. They are defcribed as being unable to afford their fon the ad¬ vantages of a liberal education ; but he, being obferved to give early indications of genius, attracted the notice of a friend to his family, who fent him to the college of Dublin, and contributed towards his fupport while he remained there. He afterwards entered into orders, and fet up a fchool in Dublin, which long maintained a very high degree of reputation, as well for the attention beftowed on the morals of the fcholars as for their pro¬ ficiency in literature. So great was the eftimation in Vol. XIX. Part I. [ 233 ] SHE adhered to no which this feminary was held, that it is afferted to have produced in fome years the fum of loocl. It does not appear that he had anv confiderable prefer¬ ment; but his intimacy with Swift, in 1725, procured for him a living in the fouth of Ireland w'orth about 150I. a-year, which he went to take pofieffion of, and, by an aft of inadvertence, deftroyed all his future expeftations of riftng in the church ; for being at Corke on the 1 ft of Auguft, the anniverfary of King George’s birth-day, he preached a fermon, wffiich had for its text, “ Sufficient for the day is the evil thereof.” On this being known, he wras ftruck out of the lift of chaplains to the lord lieutenant, and forbidden the caftle. This living Dr Sheridan afterwards changed for that of Dunboyne, which, by the knavery of the farmers, and pow-er of the gentlemen in the neighbourhood, fell fo lowr as Sol. per annum. He gave it up for the free fchool of Cavan, where he might have lived well in fo cheap a country on 8cl. a-year falary, befides his fcho¬ lars ; but the air being, as he faid, too moift and un- wholefome, and being difgufted with fome perfons who lived there, he fold the fchool for about 400I. ; and ha¬ ving foon fpent the money, he fell into bad health, and died Sept. 10. 1738, in his 55th year. Lord Corke has given the following charafter of him: “ Dr Sheridan u^as a fchool-mafter, and in many in- ftances perfeftly vHl adapted for that ttation. He w^as deeply verfed in the Greek and Roman languages, and in their cuftoms and antiquities. He had that kind of good nature which abfence of mind, indolence of bo¬ dy, andfcareleffnefs of fortune, produce ; and although not over ftrift in his owm conduft, yet he took care of the morality of his fcholars, whom he fent to the univer- fity remarkably well founded in all kinds of claffical learning, and not ill inftrufted in the focial duties of life. He was flovenly, indigent, and cheerful. He knew books much better than men ; and he knew the value of money leaft of all. In this fituation, and with this difpofition, Swift faftened upon him as upon a prey with which he intended to regale himfelf whenever his appetite fliould prompt him.” His Lordffiip then mentions the event of the unlucky fermon, and adds: “ This ill-ftarred, good-natured, improvident man, re¬ turned to Dublin, unhinged from all favour at court, and even baniffied from the caftle. But ftill he remain¬ ed a punfter, a quibbler, a fiddler, and a wit. Not a day paffed without a rebus, an anagram, or a madrigal. His pen and his fiddleftick were in continual motion ; and yet to little or no purpofe, if we may give credit to the following verfes, which fhall ferve as the conclu- fion of his poetical charafter : “ With mufic and poetry equally blefs’d, “ A bard thus Apollo moft humbly addrefs’d ; “ Great author of poetry, mufic, and light, “ Inftrufted by thee, I both fiddle and wwite ; “ Yet unheeded I fcrape, or I fcribble all day, “ My tunes are neglefted, my verfe flung away. “ Thy fubftitute here, Vice-Apollo difdains “To vouch for my numbers, or lift to my ftrains. “ Thy manual fign he refufes to put “To the airs I produce from the pen or the gut: “ Be thou then propitious, great Phoebus, and grant “ Relief, or reward, to my merit or want. Gg Sheridan. “ Tho* Sheridan, Sheriff. 'Blackjt. Gotnment. vol. i. P- 33P- S H E r 234. j S H E which it is hard to conceive that the judges would have coun¬ tenanced by their concurrence, or that Fortefcue would have inferted in his bock, unlefs by the authority of fome datute ; and alfo, becaufe a datute is exprefsly referred to in the record, which Sir Edward Coke SHE l 2 tells us he tranfcribed from the council book of 3d March, 34 Hen. VI. and which is in fubftance as fol¬ lows. 5The king had of his own ^ authority appointed a man fheriff of Lincolnfliire, which ^office he refufed to take upon him ; whereupon the opinions of the judges Tvcre taken, what Ihould be done in this behalf.. And the twm chief juftices, Sir John Fortefcue and Sir John Prifot, delivered the unanimous opinion of them all; that the king did an error when he made a peifon Jlieriff that was not chofen and prefented to him accord¬ ing to the ftatute J that the perfon refufmg was liable to no line for difobedience, as if he bad been ono °f the three perfons chofen according to the tenor of the flatute j that they would advife the king to have re- courfe to the three perfons that were chofen ai-coiding to the ftatute, or that fome other thrifty man be in- treated to occupy the office for this year j and that, the next year, to efchew fuch inconveniences, the order of the ftatute in this behalf made be obferved.” But, notwith- ftanding this unanimous refolution of all the judges of England, thus entered in the council-book, and the ftatute 34&and35 Hen. VIII. c. 26. § 61. which exprefsly recognizes this to be the law of the land, lome 01 our writers have aftirmed, that the king, by his prerogative, may name whom ue pleaies to be iheiift', whether cho¬ fen by the judges or not. This is grounded on a very particular cafe in the fifth year of Queen Elizaoeth, when, by reafon of the plague, there was no Michael¬ mas term kept at Weftminfter •, fo that the judges could not meet there in crajlino animarum to nominate the fhe- riffs : whereupon the queen named them herfelf, with¬ out fuch previous affembly, appointing for the moft part one of two remaining in the laft year’s lift. .And this cafe, thus circumftanced, is the only authority in our books for the making thefe extraordinary iheriffs. It is true, the reporter adds, that it was held that.the queen by her prerogative might make a ftienff wdtnout the cledlion ofthe judges, non objlante aliquo Jiatuto in contra- rium; but the doftrine of non obflante, which fets. the prerogative above the laivs, was effedtually demoliftved by the bill of rights at the revolution, and abdicated Weftminfter-hall when King James abdicated the king¬ dom. However, it mult be acknowledged, that the pradtice of occaftonally naming wdiat are called pocbct- fheriffs, by the foie authority of the crown, hath uni¬ formly continued to the reign ot his prefent majefty $ in which, it is believed, few fif sny) inftances have oc¬ curred. , Sheriffs, by virtue of feveral old ftatutes, are to con¬ tinue in their office no longer than one year ; and yet it hath been faid that a fheriff may be appointed durante bene placito, or during the king’s pleafure •, and fo is the form of the royal writ. Therefore, till a new ffie- riff be named, his office cannot be determined, unlefs by his own death, or the demife of the king} in ivhich laft cafe it wTas ufual for the fucceffor to fend a new writ to the old fheriff; but now, by ftatute 1 Anne ft. I. c. 8. all officers appointed by the preceding king may hold their offices for fix months after the king’s demife, unlefs fooner difplaced by the fucceffor. We may farther obferve, that by ftatute 1 Ric. II. c. II. no man that has ferved the office of fheriff for one year can be compelled to ferve the fame again within three years after. We ftiall find it is of the utmoft importance to have 3- ] 3 H E • the fheriff appointed according to law, when we confi- der his power and duty. dLhefe are either as.a judge, as the keeper of the king’s peace, as a minifterial officer of the fuperior courts of juftice, or as the king’s bailiff. In his judicial capacity he is to hear and determine all. caufes of 40 {hillings value and under, in his county- court : and he has alio a judicial power in divers other civil cafes. He is likewife to decide the eleftions of knights of the ftiire, (fubjeft to the controul of the Houfe of Commons), of coroners, and of ve*derors 5 to judge of the qualification of voters, and to return fuch as he (hall determine to be duly, clewed. As the keepers of the king’s peace, both by com¬ mon law and fpecial commiflion, he is the firft man in the county, and fuperior in rank to any nobleman therein, during his office. He may apprehend, and commit to priion, all perfons who break tne peace, o: attempt to break it •, and may bind any one in a recog¬ nizance to keep the king’s peace. He may, and is bound, ex ojjicio, to purfue and take all traitors, mur¬ derers, felons, and other mildoers, and commit them, to gaol for fafe cuftody. He is alfo to defend his coun¬ ty againft any of the king’s enemies when they come into the land } and for this pufpofe, as well as mr keeping the peace and purfuing felons, he may com¬ mand all the people of his county to attend him j which is called the pqffe comitatus, or power of the county j which fummons, every perion above 15 years old, and under the degree of a peer, is bound to attend upon warning, under pain of fine and imprifonment. though the fheriff is thus the principal confervator of the peace in his county, yet, by the exprefs direftions of the great charter, he, together with the conftabie, coroner, and certain other officers of the king, are for¬ bidden to hold any pleas of the crown, or, in other words, to try any criminal offence. For it would be highly unbecoming, that the executioners of juftice fhould be alfo the judges •, fliould impofe, as well as levy, fines and amercements j fliould one day condemn a man to death, and perfonally execute him the next. Neither may he aft as an ordinary juftice of the peace during the time of his office*, for this would be equally incon- ftftent, he being in many refpefts the fervant of the juf¬ tices. In his minifterial capacity, the fheriff is bound to ex¬ ecute all procefs iffuing from tne king’s courts of juf¬ tice. In the commencement of civil caufes, he is to ferve the writ, to arreft, and to take bail 5 when the caufe comes to trial, he muft fummon and return the jury; when it is determined, he muft fee the judgment of the court carried into execution. In criminal mat¬ ters, he .alfo arrefts and imprifons, he returns the jury, he has the cuftody of the delinquent, and he executes the fentence of the court, though it extend to death itfelf. As the king’s bailiff, it is his bufinefs to preferve the rights of the king within his bailiwick ; for fo his coun¬ ty is frequently called in the writs : a word introduced by the princes of the Norman line *, in imitation, of the French, whofe territory is divided into bailiwicks, as that of England into counties. He muft feize to the king’s ufe all lands devolved to the crown by attainder or efeheat 5 muft levy all fines and forfeitures; muft feize and keep all waifs, wrecks, eftrays, and the like, unlefs G g 2 they SHE [2 they be granted to fome fubjea; and muft alfo colleft the king’s rents within his bailiwick, if commanded by procefs from the exchequer. 3 To execute thefe various offices, the ffieriff has under him many inferior officers; an under-ffieriff, bailiffs and gaolers, who muff neither buy, fell, nor farm their offices, on forfeiture of 5001. The under-ffieriff ufually performs all the duties of the office ; a very few only excepted, where the per- lonm prefence of the high ffieriff is neceffary. But no Uj ^ier^ abide in his office above one year: and if he does, by ftatute 23 Hen. VI. c. 8. he for¬ feits 2001. a very large penalty in thofe early days. And no under-ffieriff or ffieriff’s officer ffiall praftife as an at¬ torney during the time he continues in fuch office : for this would be a great inlet to partiality and oppreffion. But thele lalutary regulations are ffiamefully evaded, by practifing m the names of other attorneys, and putting in ffiam deputies by way of nominal under-ffieriffs: by rea.on of which, fays Dalton, the under-ffieriffs and bai¬ liffs do grow fo cunning in their feveral places, that they are able to deceive, and it may well be feared that ma¬ ny of them do deceive, both the king, the high ffieriff, and the county. 6 ’ bHERiF*, in Scotland. See Law, Part iii. fedl. 3. * ^J^^-kOCK, William, a learned Engliffi divine in the 17th century, was born in 1641, and educated at Eton fchool, where he diftinguiffied himfelf by the vigour of his genius and his application to fludy. Thence he was removed to Cambridge, where he took his de¬ grees. In 1669 he became rector of the pariffi of St George, Botolph-lane, in London ; and in 1681 wascol- Hted to the prebend of Pancras, in the cathedral of St Paul s. He was likewife chofen mailer of the Temple, and had the reftory of Therfield in Hertfordffiire. Af¬ ter the Revolution he was fufpended from his preferment for refufing the oaths to King William and Queen Ma- xy ; but at laft he took them, and publicly juliified what he had done. In 1691 he was inllalled dean of St Paul s. His Vindication of the Doarine of the Trinity engaged him in a warm controverfy with Dr South and others. Biffiop Burnet tells us, he was “ a clear, a po- hte and a ftrong writer; but apt to affume too much to himlelf, and to treat his adverfaries with contempt.” He died m 1707. His works are very numerous: a- mong thefe are, 1. A Difcourfe concerning the Know¬ ledge of Jefus Chnft, again!! Dr Owen. 2. Several pieces againlf the Papilts, the Socinians, and Diffenters. 3. A pradical Treatife on Death, which is much ad- 4' A- practical Dilcourfe on Providence c A otrhfrwirksifC°Urfe ^ thC FUtUie Judgraent» and Sherlock, Dr Thomas, biffiop of London, was the Ion of the preceding Dr William Sherlock, and was born in 1678. He was educated in Catharine hall, ambndge, wffiere he took his degrees, and of which he became mailer : he was made mailer of the Temple very young, on the refignation of his father; and it is xemaikable, that this malterffiip was held by father and Z tc7 7$ T-e than 7° ’’ears- He ™ the head of the^ oppofition againll Dr Hoadley biffiop of Bangor ; during which conteft he publiffied a great « Gro" P1!iCe« rHe artta1ckcd the famous Collins’s Grounds and Reafons of the Chriftian Religion,” in 36 ] SHE a courfe of fix fermons, preached at the Temple church, Sherlock, which he infilled “ Ihe Ufe and Intent of Prophecy in Sherriffe. the feveral Ages of the World.” In 1728, Dr Sherlock ' was promoted to the biffiopric of Bangor; and was tranflated to Saliffiury in <1734. In 1747 he refufed the archbiffiopric of Canterbury, on account of his ill flute oi health ; but recovering in a good degree, ac¬ cepted the lee of London the follow ing year. On oc- cafion of the earthquakes in 1750, he publiffied an ex¬ cellent Palloral Letter to the clergy and inhabitants of London and Weltminlter : of wffiich it is faid there were printed in 410, 5000 ; in 8vo, 20,000 ; and in i2mo, about 30,000 ; befide pirated editions, of which not lels than 50,000 were fuppoled to have been fold. Under the weak Hate of body in which he lay for feveral years, he reviled and publiffied 4 vols of Sermons in Bvo, wffiich are particularly admired for their ingenuity and elegance. He died in 1762, and by report worth ijo.oool. “ His learning,” fays Dr Nicholls, “ was very extenlive: God had given him a great and an un- deritanding mind, a quick comprehenfion, and a folid judgment. Thefe advantages of nature he improved by much indullry and application. His fkill in the civil and canon law was very confiderable ; to which he had added fuch a knowledge of the common law of England as few clergymen attain to. This it was that gave him that influence in all caufes where the church was con¬ cerned ; as knowing precifely what it had to claim from its conllitutions and canons, and what from the com¬ mon law of the land.” Dr Nicholls then mentions his conllant and exemplary piety, his warm and fervent zeal in preaching the duties and maintaining the doctrines of Chrillianity, and his large and diffufive munificence and charity; particularly by his having given large fums of money to the corporation of clergymen’s fons, to feveral of the hofpitals, and to the fociety for propagating the gofpel in foreign parts; alfo his bequeathing to Catha- rine-hall in Cambridge, the place of his education, his valuable library of books, and his donations for the founding a librarian’s place and a fcholarlhip, to the a- mount of feveral thoufand pounds. SHERRIFFE of Mecca, the title of the defen¬ dants of Mahomet by Haffan Ibn Ali. Thefe are di¬ vided into feveral branches, of which the family of Ali Bunemi, confining at lealt of three hundred individuals, enjoy the foie right to the throne of Mecca. The Ali Bunemi are, again, fubdivided into two fubordinate branches, Darii Sajid, and Darii Barkad; of wffiom fometimes the one, fometimes the other, have given fovereigns to Mecca and Medina, wffien thele wrere fepa- rate Hates. Not only is the Turkilh fultan indifferent about the order of fucceflion in this family, but he feems even to foment the diffenfions which arife among them, and fa¬ vours the flrongetf, merely that he may weaken them all. As the order of fucceffion is not determinately fixed, and the ffierriffes may all afpire alike to the fo- yereign pow'er, this uncertainty of right, aided by the intrigues of the T. urkiffi officers, occalions frequent re¬ volutions. The grand ffierriffe is feldom able to main¬ tain himfelf on the throne ; and it Hill feldomer happens that his reign is not difturbed by the revolt of his near- ell relations. T. here have been inilances of a nephew fucceeding his uncle, an uncle fucceeding his nephew ; and SHE L" 237 ] SHE SherrifiV. and fometxmes of a perfon, from a remote branch, com- —jng jn room 0f the reigning prince of the ancient houfe. . . When Niebuhr was in Arabia, in 1763, the reigning Sherriffe Mefad had fitten fourteen years on the throne, and, during all that period, had been continually at war with the neighbouring Arabs, and with his own neareft relations fometimes. A few years before, the pacha of Syria had depofed him, and raifed his younger brother to the fovereign dignity in his dead. Hut after the departu e of the caravan, Jafar, the new Iherrifte, not being able to maintain himfelf on the throne, was obli¬ ged to refign the fovereignty again to Meiad. Achmet, the fecond brother of the Iherriffe, who was much belo¬ ved by the Arabs, threatened to attack Mecca while Niebuhr was at Jidda. Our traveller was foon after in¬ formed of the termination of the quarrel, and of Ach- met’s return to Mecca, where he continued to live peace¬ ably in a private chara&er. Thefe examples (how that the Muffulmans obferve not the law which forbids them to bear arms againit their holy places. An Egyptian bey even prefumed, a few years fmce, to plant fome fmall cannons within the compafs of the Kaaba, upon a fmall tower, from which he fired over that facred manfion,upon the palace of Sherriffe Mefad, with whom he was at variance. The dominions of the fherriffe, comprehend the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jambo, Taaif, Sadie, Ghunfude, Hali, and thirteen others lefs confiderable, all lituated in Hed- jas. Near Taaif is the lofty mountain of Gazvan, which according to Arabian authors, is covered with fnow in the midft of fummer. As thefe dominions are neither opulent nor extenfive, the revenue of their fovereign can¬ not be confiderable. He finds a rich refource, however, in the impofts le¬ vied on pilgrims, and in the gratuities offered him by Muffulman monarchs. Every pilgrim pays a tax of from ten to an hundred crowns, in proportion to his ability. The Great Mogul remits annually fixty thoufand rou- pees to the fherriffe, by an aflignment upon the govern¬ ment of Surat. Indeed, fince the Englifh made tliem- felves mafters of this city, and the territory belonging to it, the nabob of Surat has no longer been able to. pay the fum. The fherriffe once demanded it of the Englifh, as the poffeffors of Surat ; and, till they fliould fatisfy him, forbade their captains to leave the port of Jidda. But the Englifh difregarding this prohibition, the fherriffe complained to the Ottoman Porte, and they communicated his complaints to the Englifh ambaffa- dor. He at the fame time opened a negociation with the nominal nabob, who refides in Surat. But all thefe fteps proved fruitlefs : and the fovereign of Mecca feems not likely to be ever more benefited by the contribu¬ tion from India. The power of the fherriffe extends not to fpiritual matters j thefe are entirely managed by the heads of the Sherriffe* clergy, of different fesffs, who are refident at Mecca. Shetland^ Rigid Muffulmans, fuch as the Turks, are not very fa- v vourable in their fentiments of the fherriffes, but fufpedt their orthodoxy, and look upon them as fecretly attach¬ ed to the tolerant feci of the Zeidi. SHETLAND, the name of certain iflands belong¬ ing to Scotland, and lying to the northward of Orkney. There are many convincing proofs that thefe iflands were very early inhabited by the Pi »0' *2 VJ until Shiloh come. All Chriftian commentators agree, that this word ought to be underflood of the rvlefliah, or Jefus Chrift j but all are not agreed about Its literal and grammatical fignification. St Jerome, who tranflates it by ^ui mittendus ejl, manifeflly reads Shiloach “ fent,” inilead of Shiloh. The Septuagint have it xv iXS-,) Til xiroKttftivx xvtm } or, Eiwj av sAfbi a xtto- xiirxi, (as if they had read tW indead of nbur), i. e. “ Until the coming of him to whom it is referved or, “ Till we fee arive that which is referved for him.” It mud be owned, that the fignification of the He¬ brew word Shiloh is not well known. Seme trandate, “ the fceptre fhall not depart from Judah, till he comes to whom it belongs tStv or 'bu; initead of fbx 'b. O- thers, “ till the coming of the peace maker 3” or, “ the pacific j” or, “ of profperity,” nbizr profperatus efl. Sha- lah fignifies, “ to be in peace, to be in prolperity others, “ till the birth of him who fhail be born of a woman that fhall conceive without the knowledge of a man,” or icbu; fecundina, Jluxus * ; otherwiie, “ the fceptre fliall not depart from Judah, till its end, its ruin ; till the downfal of the kingdom of the Jews,” bxip or nbw it has ceafcd, it has finished f. Some Rabbins have taken the name Silok or Shiloh, as if it fignified the city of this name in Paleftine : “ The fceptre diall not be taken away from Judah till it comes to Shiloh ; till it (hall he taken from him to be given to Saul at Shiloh.” But in what part of Scripture is it faid, that Saul was acknowledged as king or confecrated at Shiloh ? If we would underhand it of Jeroboam the fon of Nebat, the matter is dill as uncertain. The Scripture mentions no aflembly at Shiloh that admitted him as king. A more modern author derives Shiloh from nba>, fatigare, which t’ometimes fignifies to be weary, to fuffer ; “ till his la¬ bours, his fufferings, his paffion, {hall happen.” But not to amufe ourfelves about feeking out the grammatical fignification of Shiloh, it is fufficient for us to flrow, that the ancient Jews are in this matter agreed with the Chridians : they acknowledge, that this word dands for the MeJJiah the King. It is thus that the paraphrads Onkelos and Jonathan, that the an¬ cient Hebrewr commentaries upo,n Genefis, and that the Talmudids themfelves, explain it. If Jefus Chrid and his apodles did not make ufe of this paffage to prove the coming of the Mediah, it was becaufe then the com¬ pletion of this prophecy was not fufficiently manifed. The fceptre dill continued among the Jews •, they had dill kings of their own nation in the perfons of the He- rods •, but foon after the fceptre was entirely taken arvay from them, and has never been redored to them lince. The Jews feek in vain to put forced meanings upon this prophecy of Jacob j faying, for example, that the fceptre intimates the dominion of drangers, to which they have been in fubjeflion, or the hope of feeing one day the fceptre or fupreme power fettled again among themfelves. It is eafy to perceive, that all this is con¬ trived to deliver themfelves out of perplexity. In vain 4-2 ] S H 1 likewife they take refuge in certain princes of the cap- Shlbh tivity, whom they pretend to have fubfided beyond the H. Euphrates, exercifing an authcrily over their nation , little differing from abfolute, and being of the race of David. This pretended fucceffion of pdnees is per¬ fectly chimerical 5 and though at certain times they could ihow a fucceflion, it continued but a dicrt time, and their authority was too obfeure, and too much li¬ mited, to be the objedt of a prophecy fo remarkable as this was. SHINGLES, in building, fmall pieces of wood, or quartered oaken boards, fawn to a certain fcantling, or, as is more ufual, cleft to about an inch thick at one end, and made like wedges, four or five inches broad, and eight or nine inches long. Shingles are ufed indead of tiles or dates, efpecialiy for churches and fteepies ; however, this covering is dear; yet, where tiles are very fcarce, and a ligi t co¬ vering is required, it is preferable to thatch •, ana where they are made of good oak, cleft, and not fawed, and well feafoned in water and the fun, they make a fure, light, and durable covering. The building is fird to be covered all over with boards, and the (hingles nailed upon them. SHIP, a general name for all large veffels, particu¬ larly thofe equipped with three mads and a bowfprit ; the mads being compofed of a lowermad, topmad, and (top gallant-mad : each of theie being provided with yards, fails, &c. Ships, in general, are either employed for war or merchandife. SHIPS of War are vefiels properly equipped with ar¬ tillery, ammunition, and all the necefiary martial wea¬ pons and indruments for attack or defence. They are didinguiflied from each other by their feveral ranks or claffes, called rates, as follows : Ships of the fird rate mount from 100 guns to no guns and upwards; fecond rate, from 90 to 98 guns; third rate, from 64 to 74 guns 5 fourth rate, from 50 to 60 guns •, fifth rate, from 32 to 44 guns •, and fixth rates, from 20 to 28 guns. See the article Rate. Vefiels carrying lefs than 20 guns are denominated Jloops, cutters, fre-jhips and bombs. It has lately been propofed to reduce the number of thefe rates, which would be a faving to the nation, and alfo productive of feveral material advantages. In Plate CCCCLXXX. is the reprefentation of a fird rate, with rigging, &c. the fcveral parts of which are as follows : Parts of the hull.—Fig. 1. A, The cathead 5 B, The ^ fore-chain-wales, or chains •, C, The main-chains ; ^,CcctLxxjr The mizen-chains ; E, The entering port j F, The I- hawfe-holes •, G, The poop-lanterns j H, The chefs- tree ; I, The head ; K, The ftern. I, The bowfprit. 2, Yard and fail. 3, Gammon¬ ing. 4, Manrop. 5, Bobday. 6, Spritfail-dieets. 7, Pendants. 8, Braces and pendants. 9, Halliards. 10, Lifts. 11, Clue-lines- 12, Spritfail-horfes. 13, Bupt- lines. 14, Standing lifts. 15, Bowfprit-fliroud. 16, Jib-boom. 17, Jibday and fail. 18, Halliards. 19, Sheets. 20, Horfes. 21, Jib-guy. 12, Spritfail-topfail yard. 23, Horfes. 24, Sheets. 25, Lifts. 26, Braces and pendants. 27, Cap of bowfprit. 28, Jack ftaflf. 29, Truck. 30, Jack flag—31, Forernajl. 32, Run¬ ner and tackle. 33, Shrouds. 34, Laniards. 35, Stay and laniard. 36, Preventer-day and laniard. 37, Wool-ding of the mad. 38, Foreyard and fail. 39^ Horfes. SHI [ SSIp. Horfes, 40,' Top. 41, Crowfoot. 42, Jeers. 43, —-v Yard-tackles. 44, Lifts. 45, Braces and pendants. 46, Sheets. 47, Foretacks. 48, Bowlines and bridles. 40, Fore buntlines. 30, Fore leechlines. 51, Pre¬ venter-brace. 5 2, Futtock-flrrouds.—53, Foretof) vnqft. .'4, Shrouds and laniards. 55, Foretop-fail yard and fail. 56, Stay and fail. 57, Runner. 58, Back- ftays. 59, Halliards. 60, Lifts. 61, Braces and pen¬ dants. 62, Horfes. 63, Clew-lines. 64, Bowlines and bridles. 65, Reef-tackles. 66, Sheets. 67, Buntlmes. 68, Crofs trees. 69, Cap. 70, Foretop-gallant-maft. 71, Shrouds. 72, Yard and fail. 73, Backftays. 74, Stay. 75, Lifts. 76, Clewlines. 77, Braces and pen¬ dants. 78, Bowlines and bridles. 79, Flag-ftaff. 80, Truck. 81, Flag-ftay-ftaff. 82, Flag of the lord high admiral.—83, Mainmajl. 84, Shrouds. 85, Laniards. 86, Runner and tackle. 87, Futtock-flirouds. 88, Top-lantern. 89, Crank of ditto. 90, Stay. 91. Pre¬ venter-Hay. 92, Stay-tackles. 93, Woolding of the mad. 94. Jeers. 95, Yard-tackles. 96, Lifts. 97, Braces and pendants. 98, Horfes. 99, Sheets. 100, Tacks. 101, Bowlines and bridles. 102, Crow-foot/ 103, Cap. 104, Top. 105, Buntlines. 106, Leech¬ lines. 107, Yard and fail.—108, Main-topmajl. IC9, Shrouds and laniards. 1 ro, Yard and fail, it1* iut- tock-fhrouds. 112, Backftays. 113, Stay. 114, Stay- fail and halliards. 115, Tye. 116, Flalliards. 117, Lifts. 118, Clewlines. 119, Braces and pendants. 120* Horfes. 121, Sheets. 122, Bowlines and bridles. 123, Buntlincs. 124, Reef-tackles. 125, Crofs-trees. 126, Cap.—127, Maintop gallantmqft. 128, Shroud, and laniards. 129, Yard and faik 130, Backftays. 131, Stay. 132, Stay fail and halliards. 133, Lifts. 134, Braces and pendants. 135’ Bowlines and bridles, 136, Clewlines. 137, Flagftaff. 138, Truck. 139 Flagftaff-ftay. 140, Flag liandard.—141, Mhenmaji. 142^ Shrouds and laniards. 143, Cap. 144, Yard and fail. 145, Block for fignal halliards. 146, Sheet, 147, Pendant lines. 148, Peckbrails. 149, Stayfail. 1 50, Stay. 151, Derrick and fpan. 152, Top. 153, Crofsjack yard. 154, CroLjack lifts. 155, Crofsjack braces. 156, Crofsjack flings.—157, Mi^entop-majh 1 58, Shrouds and laniards. X 59, Yard and fail. 160, Backftays. 161, Stay. 162, Halliards. 163, Lifts. 164, Braces and pendants. 165, Bowlines and bridles. 166, Sheets. 167, Clewlines. 168, Stayfaik 169, Crolstrees. 170, Cap. 171, Flagftaff. 172, Flagftaff- ftay. 173, Truck. 174, Flag, union. 175, Enfign- ftaff. 176, Truck. 177, Enfign. 178, Stern ladder. 179, Bower cable. Plate Fig. 2. Plate CCCCLXXXI. is a vertical longitudi- tccclxxxi. nal feftion of a firft rate fliip of war, rvith references to F‘g- 2. the principal parts, which are as follorvs: A, Is the head, containing,— 1, The ftem ; 2, The knee of the head or cutwater 5 3, l he lower and upper cheek; 4, The trail-board; 5’ J figure > 6’ I he gratings; 7, The brackets ; 8, T.he falfe ftem *, 9, I he breafl hooks *, 10, The haufe holes ; 11, The bulkhead forward } 12, The cathead 5 13, The cathook 5 14, Ne- ceffary feats 3 15, The manger within board 3 16, The bowfprit. B, Upon the forecaflle—17, The gratings 3 18, 1 he partners of the mart 3 19, The gunwale 3 20, The bel¬ fry 3 21, The funnel for fmoke 3 22. The gangway go¬ ing off the forecaftle 3 23, The forecaftle guns. 43 1 3 H 1 C, In the forecaftle—24, The door of the bulkhead forward 3 25, Officers cabins 3 26, Staircale 3 27, Fore¬ top-fail iheet bits 3 28, The beams 3 29, The carlings. D, The middle gun deck forward—30, The fore¬ jeer bits 3 31, The oven and furnace ot copper 3 32, The captain’s cook room 3 33, The ladder or way to the forecaftle. E, The lower gun-deck forward—34, The knees fore and aft 3 35, The fpirketings, or the firft ftreak next to each deck, the next under the beams being called clamps ; 36. The beams of the middle gun deck tore and aft 3 37, The carlings of the middle gun-deck fore and aft; 38, The fore-bits 3 39, The after or main ^^3 40. The hatchway to the gunner’s and boatfwain’s ilore-rooms 3 41. The jeer capilan. F, The orlop—42, 43, 44, The gunner’s, boatfwain’s, and carpenter’s ftore-rooms 3 45, The beams of the lower gun-deck 3 46, 47* Ihe pillars and the nders, foie and aft; 48, The bulkhead of the ftore-rooms. G, The hold—49, 50, 51, The foot-hook rider, the floor rider, and the ftandard, fore and aft 3 52, ihe pillars 3 53, The ftep of the foremaft 3 54, The kelfon, or falfe keel, and dead rifing 3 55, The dead-wood. H, At midfhips in the hold—56, The floor timbers 3 57, The keel; 58, The well 3 59, The chain-pump; 60, The ftep of the mainmaft 3 61, 62, Beams and car- lings of the orlop, fore and aft. I, The orlop amidfhips—63, ihe cable tire ; 64, The main hatchway. K, The lower gun-deck amidfliips—65, The laddef leading up to the middle gun-deck 3 66, ihe lower tire of ports. L, The middle gun-deck amidftiip—67, The middle tire of ports 3 68, The entering port 3 69, The main jeer bits 3 70, Twifted pillars or ftanchions 3 71, The capftan 3 72, Gratings 3 73, The ladder leading to the upper deck. M, The upper gun-deck amidfnips—74» ihe main- topfail-flieet bits 3 75, The upper partners of the main¬ maft 3 76, The gallows on which fpare topmafts &c. are laid 3 77, The foreffieet blocks 3 78, The rennets 3 79, The gunwale 3 80, The upper gratings 3 8r, The drift brackets; 82, The pifs dale 3 83, The cap¬ ftan pall. ' N, Abaft the mainmaft—84, The gangway off the quarterdeck 3 83, i he bulkhead of the coach 3 86, i he ftaircafe down to the middle gun-deck 3 87, ihe beams of the upper deck 5 88, The gratings about the main¬ maft 3 89, The coach or council-chamber 3 90, The ftaircafe up to the quarterdeck. O, The quarterdeck—91, The beams 3 92, The car- lings 3 93, The partners of the mizenmaft 3 94, The gangway up to the poop 3 05, ihe bulkhead of the cuddy. P, The poop—96, The trumpeter’s cabin ; 97, The taffarel. £>, The captain’s cabin. R, The cuddy, ufually divided for the mafter and fe- cretary’s officers. S, The ftate-room, out of which is made the bed¬ chamber and other conveniences for the commander hi chief 3 98, The entrance into the gallery 3 99, Ihe bulkhead of the great cabin 3 x 00, The ftern lights and after galleries. T, The ward-room, allotted for the lieutenants and H h 2 marine SHI ^marine officers: ioi, The lower galleryj 102 " Peerage and bulkhead of the wardroom; 103, The v.-hipftaff, commanding the tiller j 104, The after flair- caie leading down to the lower gun-deck. V, Several officers cabins abaft the mainmaft, where the foldiers generally keep guard. v . , I he gun room—105, Ihe tiller commanding the rudder ; 106, Ihe rudder; 107, The flern-poit : 108, .1 he tiller tranlom ; 109, Ihe leveral tranfoms, viz. 1, 3’ 4> 5 > no, Ihe gun-room ports, or flern-chafe; ill, I ne bread-room icuttle, out of the gun-room; 11 2, I he main capftan ; 113,! he pall of the capftan ; 114, The partner ; 115, The bulkhead of the bread- room. X, The bread-room. y, J ne fleward’s room, where all proviflons are weighed and ferved out. Z, 1 he cockpit, where are fubdivifions for the purfer, the iurgeon, and his mates. A A, Ihe platform or orlop, where provifion is made for the wounded in the time ot fervice; 116, The hold ftbaft the main-maft ; 117, Ihe ftep of the mizen-maft ; 11 8, Ihe kellon, or falle keel; 119, The dead wood, or riling. Ships of war are fitted out either at the expence of the flate or by individuals. Thofe fitted out at the pub¬ lic expence are called King1sJhips, and are divided into Jhips of the /me, frigates, Jloops, &c. For an account of each of thefe, fee the rei'peftive articles. Ships of war fitted out by individuals are called privateers. Sec the article Privateer. Armed-SHIP. See ARMED-Ship. Bomb-SniP. See Bomb Veffels. Double-Snip. See SniP-Building. Fire-Snip. See Fire-Ship. Hofpital-SniP, a veffel fitted up to attend on a fleet of men of war, and receive their fick or wmunded ; for which purpole her decks fliould be high, and her ports fufficiently large. Her cables ought alfo to run upon Plate ccccLxxxrx, the upper deck, to the end that the beds or cradles may be more commodioufly placed between decks, and admit a free paffage of the air to difpeife that which is offenfive qr corrupted. Merchant-Snip, a veflel employed in commerce to carry commodities of various forts from one port to another. The largeft merchant ftvips are thofe employed by the different companies of merchants who trade to the Eaft indies. They are in general larger than our 40 gun {hips; and are commonly mounted with 20 guns on their Upper-deck, which are nine pounders; and lix on their quarter-deck, which are fix pounders. Regifer-SniP. See REGISTER-Ship. Store-SHIP, a vefiel employed to carry artillery or na¬ val ftores for the ufe of a fleet, fortrefs, or garrifon. Tranfport-SniP, is generally ufed to conduft troops from one place to another. Befides the different kinds of (hips abovementioned, which are denominated from the purpofe for which they are employed, veffels have alfo, in general, been named according to the different manner of rigging them. It would be an endlefs, and at the fame time an unneceffary talk, to enumerate all the different kinds occclxxxi 0f veffels with refpeS to their rigging ; and there- fore a few only are here taken notice of. Fig. 3. [ 244 ] SHI The is zfjip which would be converted into a bark by flap¬ ping the mieen mail of its yards and the fails belong¬ ing to them. If each mart, its correfponding topmait and topgallant-maft, inftead of being compoied of le- parate pieces of wood, w-ere all of one continued piece, then this veflel with very little alteration would be a polacre. Fig. 4. repiefents a fnow ; fig. 5. a b i/a rule r 1 fig. 6. a brig; fig. 7. a ketch; fig. 8." a fchooner; fig. 9. a foop; fig. 10. a ‘xebec ; fig. 11. a galliot; fig.p^c“ 1 2. a digger ; fig. z gailey under fail; fig. 14. ditto fc' rowing. Ships are alfo fometimes named according to the dif¬ ferent modes of their conflrudtion. Thus we fay, a cat- built fliip, &c. To Ship, is either ufed actively, as to embark any perfon or put any thing aboard ihip : or paffively, to re¬ ceive any thing into a fhip; as, “ we (hipped a heavy fea at three o’clock in the morning.” io Snip, alfo implies to fix any thing in its place; as, to Ihip the oars, that is, to put them in their row- locks ; to Ihip the fvvivel guns, is to fix them in their fockets ; to Ihip the handfpokes, &c. Machine for drawing Bolts out of Snips, an inftru- ment invented by Mr William Hill for this purpofe. His account of which is as follows *. * _ r “ Fir ft, The ufe of this machine is to draw the kelfon tiJislftbe and dead wrood bolts out, and to draw the knee of the Society for head bolts—Secondly, The heads of the kelfon boltsthe Encou~ heretofore were all obliged to be driven through the kel- fon, floor-timbers, and keel, to get them out; by this ac. voi. * means the kelfon is often entirely deftroyed, and the large hole the head makes materially wounds the floors; and frequently, when the bolt is much corroded, it fcarfs, and the bolt comes out of the fide of the keel. Thirdly, The dead-wrood bolts that are driven with tw-o or three drifts, are feldom or never got out, by which means the dead- wood is condemned, when fome of it is really fer- viceable.—Fourthly, In drawing the knee of the head- bolts, fometimes the knee ftarls off, and cannot be got Plate to again, but furs up, and with this machine may be drawn in ; for it has been proved to have more power in flat ting a bolt than the maul.” In fig. 1. “ A, A, reprefent tw© ftrong male ferews, Piate working in female ferews near the extremities of the cccdxxaijfc cheeks, againft plates of iron E, E. C C is the boltFlS-1* to be drawn; which, being held between the chaps of the machine at DD, is, by turning the ferews by the lever B, forced upwards out of the wood or plank of the fliip. F, F, are two dogs, with hooks at their low¬ er extremities; which, being driven into the plank, ferve to fupport the machine till the chaps have got fall hold of the bolt. At the upper part of there dogs are rings pa fling through holes in a collar, moveable near the heads of the lerews. Fig. 2. is a view of the upper fidefi^ 2 of the cheeks when joined together ; a, a, the holes in * which the ferews wrork ; b, the chaps by wffiich the bolts are drawn. Fig. 3. The under fide of the cheek : a, a, y the holes in which the ferews work ; b, the chaps by *** ^ which the bolts are drawn, and where the teeth that gripe the bolt are more diftinftly Ihown. Fig. 4. OneF- of the cheeks feparated from the other, the letters refer- ^ ring as in fig. 2. and 3. This machine was tried in his majefly’s yard at Dept¬ ford, and was found of the greateft utility. “ Firft, it drew a bolt that was driven down fo tight as only to go one SHI f 245 1 SHI double beaded maul, tickliih fituatlon, tbe after-yards mufl be braced for- Ship, ward, and the fore-yards the contrary way : ihe will lay l< -t lafe, as the buoy can De kept on the lee quarter, or fup- pole the helm is aport, as long as the buoy is on the larboard quarter. With the helm thus, and the wind right aft, or nearly lb, the ftarboard main and foie bra¬ ces Ihould be hauled in. This luppofes the main braces to Itead forward. . When the fnip begins to tend to leew’ard, and the Tending to buoy gomes on the weather-quarter, the firft thing tolefwars-»j££j, and £ufttoip.uTx, becaufe by them the whole fabric was begirt or lurrounded. In both thefe fides the rowers had their places, call- ed and s^A/nt, in Latin Jbri and tran/lra, placed above one another ; the lowed; was called and thofe that laboured therein B-xhupiet ; the middle, and the men fyXioi ; the uppermoft S-gavw, whence the rowers were termed S-getvm**. In thefe apartments were fpaces through which the rowers put their oars : thefe were fometimes one continued vacuity from one end to the other, called Tgct perhaps doubling, the breadth of veffels, and forming their bottoms flat and w^ell furniflied wfith Advantages kpels, they muft, in the JlrJl place, become much ftea- of a fliip of dier, roll little, if any, and be enabled to carry greatly a fmall / more fail, and that in a better direction, at the fame of time that they would be in no danger of being dHinaft- ed or overfet, unlefs the mafts were of a moil extraor¬ dinary height indeed. Secondly, They would have little or no occafion for ballaft, and if any was ufed, could incur Ids danger from its ftiifting. Thirdly, That there would be much more room upon deck, as well as ac¬ commodation below; the breadth being fo much in- creafed without any diminution of the height above the load-water line. Fourthly, That they would deviate much lefs from the intended courfe, and penetrate the water much eafier in the proper direftion : for doubling the breadth, without any increafe of weight, w’ould di- minifli the depth or draught of w'ater erne half*, and though the extent of the direftly oppofing furface would be the fame as before, yet the veffel in moving would meet with half the former refiftance only ; for fo great is the difference between the preffure, force, or reaftion, of the upper and the under water. Fifthly, That they would by this means be adapted for yling unfupported in docks and harbours w*hen dry, be ren¬ dered capable of being navigated in (hallow water, and of being benefited by all the advantages attending that very important circutnftance ; and it is particularly to be obferved, that making veffels which may be naviga¬ ted in (hallow water, may, in many refpefts, juftly be regarded as a matter ©f equal importance with increa- fing the number of harbours, and improving them, as ha¬ ving identically the fame effedls with regard to naviga¬ tion j at the fame time, that the benefits which would refult from fuch circumftances are obtained by this means without either expence, trouble, or inconvenience: be¬ fides, it would not only enable veffels to enter many ri¬ vers, bays, and creeks, formerly inacceftible to (hips of burden, but to proceed to fuch places as are moft landlocked, where they can lie or ride moft fecvwe, and with lead expence of men and ground tackle. As Ihips of war would carry their guns well by being fo fteady, there could be but little occafion for a high Properties topfide, or much height of hull above water; and as i Ships, little or no bailaft would be required, there would be —v— no neceflity, as in other veffels, for increafing their weight on that account, and thereby prefling them deeper into the water. Thefe are very important cir¬ cumftances, and would contribute much to improve the failing of luch veffels.” From whence it appears, that there would be united, what has hitherto been deemed irre- concileable,the greateft poflible (lability, which is nearly as the area of a tranverfe feftion of the immerfed part of the body at the midlhip frame : and a body that is broad and (hallow is much differ than one of the fame capaci¬ ty that is narrow and deep. A (hip of this conftru&ion may take in a confiderable cargo in proportion to her fize \ but if deeply loaded will not fail faft, for then the area of a ftftion of the immerfed part at the midlhip frame will be very confiderable ; and as the fails of fuch a (hip muft neceffarily be large, more hands will there¬ fore be required. The lefs the breadth of a drip, the fewer hands will be and tefbe neceffary to work her j as in that cafe the quantity of fail navigated wull be lefs, and the anchors alfo of lefs weight. We (hall w‘t^ iew gain much (fays M. Bouguer) by making the extreme • breadth, no more than the fifth or fixth part of theNavire. length, if, at the fame time, we diminilh the depth pro¬ portionally } and Hkcwife this moft furprifing circum- llance, that by diminiftiing thefe two dimenfions, or by increafing the length, a (hip may be made to go fome- times as fall: as the wind. In order to obtain the preceding properties, very op-imp^ble pofite rules muft be followed *, and hence it appears to to unite all be impoflible ta conftrudl a drip fo as to be poffeffed ©ftiie q11®1'- them all. The body, however, muft be fo formed, that l'es niflthe as many of thefe properties may be retained as poffible,famC U8‘ always obferving to give the preference to thofe which are moft required. If it is known what particular trade the (hip is to be employed in, thofe qualities are then principally to be adhered to which are mod effentially neceffary for that employment. It may eafily be demonftrated that fmall (hips will Small drips not have the fame advantages as large ones of a (imilar interior to form, wflien employed in the fame trade : for a large i^omt of drip will not only fail fafter than a fmali one of a fimi-failing, lar form, but will alfo require fewer hands to work her. Hence, in order that a fmall (hip may poffefs the fame advantages as a large one, the correfponding dimenfions will not be proportional to each other. The reader will fee in Chapman’s ArchiteBura Navalis Mercatoria am¬ ple tables of the feveral dimenfions of (hips, of different claffes and fizes, deduced from theory combined with experiment. Tables of the dimenfions of the princi¬ pal (hips of the Britifh navy, and of other (hips, are contained in the Ship-builder’s Repofitory, and in Mur¬ ray’s Treatife on Ship-building. Chap. II. Of the different Plans of a Ship, When it is propofed to build a (hip, the propor¬ tional fize of every part of her is to be laid down j from whence the form and dimenfions of the timbers, and of every particular piece of wood that enters into the con- ftruftion, is to be found. As a (hip has length, breadth, and depth, three different plans at leaft arc neceffary to exhibit SHIP-BUILDING, 255 28 Half breadth plan or horizon¬ tal plane. 29 Body plan, or projec¬ tion. 3° . The various lines laid down on Different exhibit the form of the feveral parts of a ihip : thefe are Fians of a are ufuaUy denominated iht jheer plan, the half breadth t J ^ . and body plans. i*j The jheer plan or draught, otherwife called the plan Sheer of elevation, is that feftion of the (hip which is made draught, or by a vertical plane palling through the keel. Upon «. evation. pjan are down the length of the keel j the height and rake of the llem and {tempo!! ; the fkuation and height of the midihip and other frames ; the place of the malts and channels j the projection of the head and quarter gallery, and their appendages; and in a {hip of war the poiition and dimenfions of the gun-ports. Se¬ veral imaginary lines, namely, the upper and lower height of breadth lines, water lines, &c. are alfo drawn in this plane. The half breadth or, foor plan, or, as it is frequently called the horizontal plane, contains the feveral half¬ breadths of every frame of timbers at different heights *, ribbands, water lines, &c. are alfo deferibed on this plane. 'Ihe body plan, or plane of projeBion, is a feftion of the {hip at the midfhip frame or broadert place, perpen¬ dicular to the two former. The feveral breadths, and the particular form of every frame of timbers, are deferibed on this plane. As the two fides of a {hip are fimilar to each other, it is therefore unnecerTary to lay down both ; hence the frames contained between the main frame and the idem are deferibed on one fide of the middle line, commonly on the right hand fide, and the after frames are deferibed on the other fide of that line. Several lines are deferibed on thefe planes, in order the more readily to a!fift in the formation of the timbers j thefe plans Pr*nc’Pa^ which are the following : The top-timber line, is a curve limiting the height of the {hip at each timber. The top-timber half breadth line, is a feclion of the fliip at the height of the top-timber line, perpendicular to the plane of elevation. The height of breadth lines, are two lines named the vpper and lower heights of breadth. Thefe lines are deferibed on the plane of elevation to determine the height of the broadeft part of the {hip at each timber 3 and being deferibed in the body plan, limit the height and breadth of each frame at its broadeft part. Main half breadth, is a feClion of the fhip at the broadeft part, perpendicular to the ftieer plan, and re- prefents the greateft breadth at the outfide of every timber. Water lines, are lines fuppofed to be deferibed on the bottom of a {hip when afloat by the furface of water; and the uppermoft of thefe lines, or that deferibed by the water on the fhip’s bottom when fufficiently load¬ ed, is called the load water line. According as the {hip is lightened, {he will rife higher out of the water ; and hence new wTater lines will be formed. If ftie be lightened in fuch a manner that the keel may preferve the fame inclination to the furface of the water, thefe lines will be parallel to each other 3 and if they are pa¬ rallel to the keel, they will be reprefented by ftraight lines parallel to each other in the body plan 3 otherwife by curves. In the half breadth plan, thefe lines are curves limiting the half breadth of the {hip at the height of the correfponding lines in the ftieer plan. In or¬ der to diftinguifh thefe lines, they are ufually drawn in gvecn, Different Plans of a Ship. Ribband lines, are curves on a fhip’s bottom by the in- terfedlion of a plane inclined to the plane of elevation 3 and are denominated diagonal or horizontal, according , as they are meafured upon the diagonal, or in a direc¬ tion perpendicular to the plane of elevation. Both thefe anlwer to the fame curve on the ftiip's bottom, but give very different curves when deferibed on the half breadth plan. Frames, are circular pieces of timber bolted toge-Frames, ther, and raifed upon the keel at certain diftances, andc°mPofec* to which the planks are faftened. A frame is compofed of one floor-timber, two or three buttocks, and a top- futtocks, timber on each fide : which being united together, form andtoptim- a circular inclofure, and that which inclofes the greateft her. fpace is called the tnidjhip or main frame. The arms of the floor-timber of this frame form a very obtufe an¬ gle 3 but in the other frames this angle deereafes with the diftance of the frame from midftiips. Thofe floor- timbers which form very acute angles are called crutches. The length of the midfhip floor-timber is in general about half the length of the main frame. 2 A frame of timbers is commonjy formed by arches of Sweeps of circles called fweeps. There are generally five fweeps :t'^ 1se^ra* ift, The floor fweep ; which is limited by a line in the a body plan perpendicular to the plane of elevation, a little above the keel 3 and the height of this line above the keel at the midihip frame is called the dead riflng. The upper part of this arch forms the head of the floor timber. 2d, The lower breadth fweep ; the centre of which is in the line reprefenting the lower height of breadth. 3d, The reconciling fweep. This fweep joins the two former, without interfering either 3 and makes a fair curve from the lower height of breadth to the . riling line. If a ftraight line is drawn from the upper edge of the keel to touch the back of the floor fweep, the form of the midftiip frame below the lower height of breadth will be obtained. 4th, The upper breadth fweep ; the centre of which is in the line reprefenting the upper height of breadth of the timber. This fweep deferibed upwards forms the lower part of the top tim¬ ber. 5th, The top timber fweep is that which forms the hollow of the top timber. This hollow is, however, very often formed by a mould, fo placed as to touch the up¬ per breadth fweep, and pafs through the point limiting the half breadth of the top timber. The main frame, or as it is ufually called dead-flat, ^ denoted by the charafler 0. The timbers before dead-frames flat are marked A, B, C, &c. in order 3 and thofe abaft dead-flat by the figures 1, 2, 3, &c. The timbers ad¬ jacent to dead-flat, and of the fame dimenfions nearly, are diftinguilhed by the characters (A), (B), &c. and (1), (2), &c. That part of the {hip abaft the main frame is called the after body ; and that before it the fore body. All timbers are perpendicular to the half breadth plaf, Thofe timbers whofe planes are perpendicular to the fl\eer plan, are called fquare timbers ; and thofe whofe planes are inclined to it are called canted timbers. The rifng line, is a curve drawn in the fheer plan, at the heights of the centres of the floor Iweeps in the body plan. As, however, this line, if drawn in this • manner, would extend beyond the upper line of the figure, it is therefore ufually fo drawn that its lower part may touch the upper edge of the keel. This is per¬ formed by taking the heights, of each of the centres in the ^54 S H I P - B U Plans'o'fa t^ie 'body p"la,1» from t5le height of the centre of the Sh p. a ^weeP dead-flat, and fetting them off on the corre- -y— -r fponding timbers in the flieer plan from the upper edge of the keel. Ha/f breadth of the rifing, is a curve in the floor plan, which limits the diflances of the centres of the floor fweeps from the middle line of the body plan. 'Ihe rifng of the floor, is a curve drawn in the fheer plan, at the height of the ends of the floor timbers. It is limited at the main frame or dead flat by the dead rifing, and in flat flnps is nearly parallel to the keel for fome timbers afore and abaft the midfliip frame ; for which reafon thefe timbers are called flats : but in ftiarp fhips it rifes gradually from the main frame, and ends on the ftem and poft. Cutting-down line, is a curve drawn on the plane of elevation. It limits the depth of every floor timber at the middle line, and alfo the height of the upper part of the dead wTood afore and abaft. Timber and room, or room and fpace, is the diftance between the moulding edges of two timbers, which muff always contain the breadth of two timbers and an inter¬ val of about two or three inches between them. In forming the timbers, one mould ferves for two, the fore- fide of the one being fuppofed to unite with the aftfide of the other, and fo make only one line, which is called ,, the joint of the timbers. Principal In order to illuffrate the above, and to explain more pieces that particularly the principal pieces that compofe a fliip, it compote a VVJH be neceflaiy to give a defeription of them. Thefe Plate pieces are for the mofl: part reprefented according to the cccdxsxiv. order of their difpofition in fig. x. Fig. r. A, Reprefents the pieces of the keel to be fecurely bolted together and clinched. B, the llernpoft, which is tenanted into the keel, and connected to it by the knee G. E, The back of the poll, which is alfo tenanted into the keel, and fecurely bolted to the poll *, the intention of it is to give fufficient breadth to the port, which fel- dom can be got broad enough in one piece. C is the falfe poll, which is fayed (b) to the fore part of the fternpoft. C, The ftem, in two pieces, to be fcarfed together. The ftem is joined to the fore foot, which makes a part of both. H, The apron, in two pieces, to be fcarfed together, and fayed on the infide of the ftem, to fupport the fcarf thereof j and therefore the fcarf of the apron muft be at fome diftance from that of the ftem. I, The ftemfon, in two pieces, to fupport the fcarf of the apron. D, The beams which fupport the decks •, and F the knees by which the beams are faftened to the Aides of the fliip. K, The wing tranfom : it is fayed acrofs the ftern¬ poft, and bolted to the head of it, and its extremities are faftened to the fafhion pieces. L, Is the deck tran¬ fom, parallel to the wing tranfom. M, N, Two of the lower tranfoms : thefe are faftened to the fternpoft and falhion pieces in the fame manner as the wing tranfom. Q, The knee which faftens the tranfom to the (hip’s I L D I N G. fide. And, O, The fafhion piece, of which there is Different one on each fide. The keel of the faftiion piece is con- Plans of a nefled with the dead-wood, and the head is faftened to , ^ the wing tranfom. R, S, Breaft-hooks : thefe are fayed in the infide to the ftem, and to the bow on each fide of it, to which they are faftened with proper bolts. There are gene¬ rally four or five in the hold, in the form of that marked R, and one in the form of that marked S, into which the lower deck planks are rabbeted : There is alfo one im¬ mediately under the haufe holes, and another under the fecond deck. T, The rudder, which is joined to the fternpoft by the rudder irons, upon which it turns round in the googings, faftened to the fternpoft for that purpofe. There is a mortife cut in the head of the rudder, into which a long bar is fitted called the tiller, and by which the rudder is turned. U, A floor timber : it is laid acrofs the keel, to which it it faftened by a bolt through the middle, V, V, V, V, The lower, the fecond, third, and fourth futtocks. W, W, The top timbers. Thefe reprefent the length and fcarf of the feveral timbers in the mid- ftiip frame. X, The pieces wdrich compofe the kelfon. They are fcarfed together in the fame mariner as the keel, and placed over the middle of the floor timbers, being (cored about an inch and a half down upon each fide of them, as reprefented in the figure. Y, The feveral pieces of the knee of the head ; the lowrer part of wdrich is fayed to the ftem, and its keel is fcarfed to the head of the forefoot. It is faftened to the bow by two knees, called cheeks, in the form of that reprefented by Z •, and to the ftem, by a knee called a flandard, in the form of that marked ®. a, The cathead, of which there is one on each fide of the bow, projefting fo far as to keep the anchor clear of the drip when it is hove up. b, The bits, to which the cable is faftened when the (hip is at anchor. d. The fide counter-timbers, which terminate the (hip abaft within the quarter gallery. e, e, Two pieces of dead wood, one afore and the other abaft, fayed on the keel. Fig. 2. is a perfpe&ive reprefentation of a (hip fra- pig. 2> med and ready for the planking j in which A, A is the keel ; B, the fternpoft ; C, the ftem •, K, L, M, the tranfoms 5 F, F, F, F, F, F, the ribbands. Chap. III. Containing Preliminary Problems, &c. The general dimenfions of a (hip are the length, breadth, and depth. To afeertain thofe dimenfions that will bed anfwer ^ the intended purpofe is, no doubt, a problem of confi-tlona| derable difficulty 5 and, from theory, it may be drown menfions that there are no determinate proportions fubfifting be- a ft11? tween the length, breadth, and depth, by which thefe dimenfions may be fettled*, yet, by combining theory ferrf(j fr*oin and praflice, the proportional dimenfions may be ap-theory proximated to pretty nearly. combined _^s with prac¬ tice ; (b) 'Yofay, is to join two pieces of timber clofe together. 4 S H I P - B U I L D I N G. Preliminary As fiiips are conftru&ed for a variety of different ^ Problem*, p^rpofes, their principal dimenfions muff therefore be i ' altered accordingly, in order to adapt them as nearly as poflible to the propoled intention ; but lince there is no fixed ixandard whereby to regulate thefe dimenfions, the methods therefore introduced are numerous, and in 37 a great meaiure depend upon cultom and fancy, and alib With regard, however, to the proportional dimen- cirdet!ie ^ons» they perhaps may be inferred from the circle. Thus, if the extreme breadth be made equal to the dia¬ meter, the length at the load water line, or the difiance between the rabbets of the item and poll at that place, may be made equal to the circumference of the fame circle j and the depth of the hold equal to the radius, the upper works being continued upwards according to circumftances. A (hip formed from thefe dimenfions, with a bottom more or lefs full according as may be judged neceffary, will no doubt anfwer the propofed in¬ tention. Neverthelefs, one or other of thefe dimenfions may be varied in order to gain fome effential property, which the trade that the veffel is intended for may re¬ quire. * Practical The following hints are given by Mr Hutchinfon * Seaman- towards fixing rules for the belt conftrudKon of (hips Jhip, page bottoms. 1. “ I would recommend (fays he), to prevent (hips f See Book bottoms from hogging f upwards amidflfip, to have the ii. chap. 2. fore and after part of their keels deep enough, that the upper part may be made to admit a rabbet for the gar- board tlreak, that the main body and bearing part of the fhips bottoms may be made to form an arch down¬ wards in their length, fuppofe with the fame fireer as their bends, at the rate of about 2 inches for every 30 feet of the extreme length of the keel towards the mid- ftiip or main frame, which may be reckoned the crown of the arch ; and the lower part of the keel to be made ftraight, but kid upon blocks fo that it may form a re¬ gular convex curve downwards at the rate of an inch for every 30 feet of the extreme length of the keel, the lowefi: part exaftly under the main frame j which curve, I reckon, is only a fufficient allowance for the keel to become ftraight below, after they are launched afloat, by the preffure of the water upward againft their floors amidlhip, which caufes their tendency to hog. And certainly a ftraight keel is a great advantage in failing, as well as to fupport them when laid upon level ground or on ftraight blocks in a repairing dock, without taking damage. 2. “ As fquare fterned {hips, from experience, are found to anfwer all trades and purpofes better than round or pink fterned (hips, I would recommend the fore part of the fternpoft, on account of drawing the water lines in the draught, only to have a few inches rake, that the after part may ftand quite upright per¬ pendicular to the keel : and for the rake of the ftem I would propofe the rabbet for the budding ends for the entrance, and bows from the keel upwards, to form the fame curve as the water line from the ftem at the har- pin towards the main breadth, and the bows at the har- pin to be formed by a fweep of a circle of half the three- fourths of the main breadth j and the main tranfom to be three-fourths of the main-breadth ; and the buttocks, at the load or failing mark afi, to be formed, in the fame manner as the bows at the harpin, with a fweep of a circle of half the three fourths of the main breadth, to 255 extend juft as far from the ftem and ftern poft as to ad- Preliminary mit a regular convex curve to the main frame, and from ProbIems- thefe down to the keel to form regular convex water'- v f lines, without any of thofe unnatural, hollow, concave ones, either in the entrance or run 5 which rules, in my opinion, will agree with the main body of the fhip, w'hetber (he is defigned to be built full for burden or (harp below for failing. 3. “ This rule for raking the ftem will admit all the W'ater-lines in the (hip’s entrance to form convex curves all the way from the ftem to the midlhip or main frame, which anfwers much better for failing as well as mak¬ ing a (hip more eafy and lively in bad weather. And the bowrs ftiould flange off, rounding in a circular form from the bends up to the gunwale, in order to meet the main breadth the fooner, with a fweep of half the main breadth at the gunwale amidfhips j which will not only prevent them greatly from being plunged under water in bad weather, but fpread the (landing fore-rigging the more, to fupport thefe material mafts and fails forward to much greater advantage than in thofe over (harp bowed (hips, as has been mentioned. And as the fail¬ ing trim of (hips in general is more or lefs by the ftern, this makes the water lines of the entrance in proportion the (harper to divide the particles of water the eafier, fo that the (hip may prefs through it with the lead re¬ finance. 4. “ The run ought to be formed (horter or longer, fuller or (harper, in proportion to the entrance and main body, as the (hip is defigned for burden or failing fall. The convex curves of the water lines fhould leffen gra¬ dually from the load or failing mark aft, as has been mentioned, downwards, till a fair ftraight taper is form¬ ed from the after part of the floor to the fternpoft be¬ low, without any concavity in the water lines; which will not only add buoyancy and burden to the after body and run of the fhip, but, in my opinion, will help both her failing and (leering motions j for the preffure of the water, as it clofes and rifes upon it to come to its level again, and fill up that hollow which is made by the fore and main body being preffed forward with fail, will impinge, and aft with more power to help the drip forward in her progreftive motion, than upon thofe un¬ natural concave runs, which have fo much more flat dead wood, that muft, in proportion, be a hinderance to the ftern being turned fo eafily by the power of the helm to (leer the (hip to the greateft advantage.” Many and various are the methods which are employ¬ ed to deferibe the feveral parts of a (hip. In the follow¬ ing problems, however, thofe methods only are given which appear to be moft eafily applied to praftice, and which, at the fame time, will anfwer any propofed pur- pofe. Problem I. To deferibe in the plane of elevation the (beer or curvature of the top timbers. Let OR (fig 3.) be the length of the (hip between pjate the wing tranfom and the rabbet of the ftem. Thencccclxxxv. (nice it is generally agreed, efpecially by the French Fig. 3. conftruftors, that the broadeft part of the (hip ought 38 to be about one-twelfth of the length before the main ^ ^Place frame or dead flat; therefore make F© equal to five-mam frame twelfths of QR, and © will be the ftation of the main about one- frame j fpace the other frames on the keel, and from twekh be- thefe points let perpendiculars be drawn to the keel.^j^6^ Let ©P be the height of the (hip at the main frame, the thin YF '2^6 Preliminary Problems. 39 Method of defcribing the toptim her line. 40 The idem, Fig 3- 41 and poft. Fig- 3- 4* Main half breadth line. F'g- 4- S H I P-B U VF the height at the aftermoft frame, and RK the height at the Item. Through P draw EPL parallel to the keel j defcribe the quadrants PGI, PMN, the radius being P0 ; make PH equal to EF, and PO equal KL, and draw the parallels GH, OM : Divide ' GH fimilar to 0C, and OM limilar to 0R. Through thefe points of divifion draw lines perpendicular to EL, and the feveral portions of thefe perpendiculars contain¬ ed between EL and the arch will be the rifings of the top-timber line above EL. A curve drawn through thefe points will form the top-timber line. This line is more eafily drawn by means of a curved or bent ruler, fo placed that it may touch the three points F, P, and K. Pros. II. To defcribe the Hem. Let K (fig. 3.) be the upper part of the Rem, through which draw KS parallel to the keel, and equal to twice KR : Through the termination of the wales on the Rem draw TW parallel to £)R. Then from the centre S, with the diRance SK, defcribe an arch : Take an extent equal to the neareR diftance between the parallels WT, QR j and find the point W, Rich that one point of the compafs being placed there, the other point will juR touch the neareR part of the above arch •, and from this point as a centre defcribe an arch until it meets the keel, and the Rem will be formed. Pros. III. To defcribe the RernpoR. Set off QV (fig. 3.) for tb-j rake of the poft : draw VX perpendicular to the keel, and equal to the height of the wing tranfom, join OX, and it wdll reprefent the aft fide of the poft. Prob. IV. To defcribe the half breadth line. Let MN (fig. 4.) be the given length : Make N0 equal to five-twelfths of MN } draw the line 0P per¬ pendicular to MN, and equal to the propofed extreme half breadth. Let ME be the round aft of the ftern or wfing tranfom ; make EO perpendicular to MN, and equal to the given half breadth at the ftern, which is generally between two-thirds and three-fourths of the main half breadth ; and defcribe the arch MO, the centre of which is in the middle line. Space the frames (A), A, B, &c. and (1), 1, 2, See. From the centre 0, wfith the radius 0P, deferibe the quadrant PRS; defcribe alfo the quadrant PCT. Through the point O draw ORU parallel to MN; divide the ftraight line RU fimilar to M0 5 and through thefe points of di¬ vifion draw lines perpendicular to MN, and meeting the arch. Transfer thefe lines to the correfpondent frames each to each, and a curve drawn through the extremities will reprefent that part of the fide contain¬ ed between the main frame and the ftern. Again, through Q, the extremity of the foremoft frame, draw QV parallel to MN. Or make PV a fourth or third part of PU, according as it is intended to make the fhip more or lefs full towards the bowT. Divide VC fimilar to ©C ; through thefe points draw lines perpendi¬ cular to MN, and terminating in the quadrantal arch : Transfer thefe lines to the correfponding timbers in the fore part, and a curve drawn through the extreme points will limit that part of the fhip’s fide contained between P and Q. Continue the curve to the next timber at X. From 0 draw QZ perpendicular to QX ; make the angle ZNQ equal to ZQN, and the point Z will be the centre of the arch forming the bow. Remark, I L D I N G. if it is prepofed that the breadth of the fhlp at the frames PreHminary adjacent to the main frame ftiall be equal to the breadth i Hroblems.. at the main frame } in this cafe, the centres of the qua- ^ drantal arches will be at the points of interfeftion of thefe frames with the line MN ; namely, at (A) and (1). Alfo, if the height of the ftiip at the frames (A) and (1) is to he the fame as at dead flat, the quadrantal arches in fig. 3. are to be deferibed from the points of interfeftion of thefe frames with the line EL. Thefe rules, it is evident, are variable at pleafure j and any perfon acquainted with the firft principles of mathematics may apply Calculation to find the radii of the feveral Iweeps. Prob. V. To defcribe the main frame or dead flat. 4- This frame is that which contains the greateft fpace, Ofthe mid- and the particular form of each of the other frames de-®’’P ^rame* pends very much on it. If the fhip is intended to carry a great burden in proportion to her principal dimenfions, this frame is made very full } but if Ihe is intended to fail faff, it is ufually made flisrp. Hence arifes diverfity of opinions refpe61ing its form ; each conftruftor ufing that which to him appears preferable. In order to fave repetition, it is judged proper to explain certain opera¬ tions which neceffarily enter into all the different me¬ thods of conftruffing this frame. In the plane of the upper fide •of the keel produced, General draw the line AB (fig. 5.) equal to the propofed breadth prerepts for ofthe fhip j bileft AB in C, and draw AD, CE, and ^etcnh‘no BE, perpendicular to AB. Then, fince the two fideSp' of a fhip are fimilar, it is therefore thought fufficient to b ^ defcribe the half of each frame between the main frame and the ftern on one fide of the middle line CE, and the half of each of thofe before the main frame on the other fide of it. The firft half is called the after-body, and the other the fore-body. The after-body is com¬ monly deferibed on the left fide of the middle line j and the fore-body on the right fide of it: hence the line AD is called the fde line of the after body, and BE the fide line of the fore body. Make AD and BF each equal to the height, of the fliip at the main frame. Make AG, EG, and AH, BH, equal to the lower and upper heights of breadth refpeftively, taken from the fheer plan. Let 1 I be the load rvater line, or line of floata¬ tion when the fhip is loaded, and KK the height of the riling line of the floor at this frame. Make CN, CO, each equal to half the length of the floor timber, and N, O, will be the heads of the floor timber, through which draw perpendiculars to AB. Make Cot, E ot, each equal to half the thicknefs of the fternpoft, and C«, Et?, equal to half the thicknefs of the ftern, and join mm, nn. Method I. Of defcribing a main frame.—From the centre a (fig. 5 ), in the lower breadth line, defcribe the lower breadth fw’eep G e ■, make N b equal to the propofed radius of the floor fweep, and from the centre b defcribe the floor fweep N f Let the radius of the reconciling fweep be A.g, equal to about the half of AC j then make A h equal to N b, and A m equal to G a. Now from the centre a, wfith an extent equal to g ot, defcribe an arch, and from the centre b, with the extent g h, defcribe an arch interfefting the former in c, which will be the centre of the reconciling fweep ef. Join N ot by an inverted curve, the centre of which may be in the line b N produced downwards j or it may be joined S H I P-B U Frelimin*- joined by two curves, or by a ftraight line if there is ry ?ro. little rifing 5 and hence the lower part of the main frame blems. ^ wU1 ^ Jefcj-Jbed, “ In order to form the top timber, make F k equal to fuch part of the half breadth, agreeable to the propo- fed round of the tide, as one-feventh j join H and make k i equal to about two-thirds of H £ : make the angle H i l equal to f H /; and from the centre / at the diftance /H defcribe the arch H i; and from the centre 0, the interle&ioh of / /, and k F produced, defcribe the arch and the top timber will be formed. II. To defcribe a main frame of an intermediate ca¬ pacity, that is, neither too fat nor too jharp.—Divide the Fig. 6. line AX (fig. 6.), which limits the head of the floor timber, into three equal parts ; and make a b equal to one of them. Divide the line d B, the perpendicular diftance between the load water line and the plane of the upper fide of the keel, into feven equal parts } and fet off one of thefe parts from d \.o c, and from c to m. Let GH be the lorver deck, join G m, and produce it to q. Draw the ftraight line V a, bifea it in n, and from the points n, a, defcribe arches with the radius G q interfe&ing each other in P, which will be the centre of the arch // a. The centre of the arch V n is found by defcribing arches downwards with the fame radius. With an extent equal to once and a half of B e, de¬ fcribe arches from the points b,e, interfefting each other in A, and from this point as a centre defcribe the arch cb ; make a lequal to dm, and join A rra, A /. Then, in order to reconcile two arches fo as to make a fair curve, the centres of thefe arches and of the points of contaft mufl be in the fame ftraight line. Hence the point k will be the centre of the arch dm, and 0 the centre of the arch a l. The arch / w is defcribed from the centre A. To form the top timber, fet back the tenth part of the half breadth from K to S upon the line of the fe- cond deck j then with an extent equal to two-thirds of the whole breadth defcribe an arch through the points S and H, the upper height of breadth. Again, make MI equal to the fifth part of the half breadth ; defcribe an arch of a circle through the points S and T, taking the diagonal GB for the radius. As this arch is in¬ verted in refpeft of the arch , Y q, l r, Kr, in the frame, equal to the lines Ob, N n, M e, L ?n, in the fquare, each to each refpeftively ; and through the points G, p, q, r, r, b, defcribe a curve. The remaining part of the frame may be defcribed by the preceding methods. V. To defcribe the main frame of a Jhip intended to be a faf failed.—The principal lines being drawn as be¬ fore, let the length of the floor-timber be equal to half the breadth of the ftiip, and the rifing one-fifth or one- fixth of the whole length of the floor-timber, which lay off from x to E, fig. 9. Through the point E draw the Fig. $ line T x perpendicular to GC, and d E perpendicular to AG. Join T d, which bifeft in B, and draw BF per¬ pendicular thereto, and meeting CG produced in F, from the centre F, at the diftance FT, defcribe the fe- micircle T, and draw7 the perpendicular p-q. From the middle of A/* draw7 the perpendicular r s, and from the middle of Ar draw the perpendicular t u. Make n pg, each equal io ln : make the diftances py, r b, each equal to ag; r F, £ E, each equal to a b; and t x equal to a it.. Then a curve drawn through the points a, S5, y, F, x, T, will form the under part of the midfliip frame. We ftiall finifti thefe methods of defcribing the main K k frame SHI P-B U Prchmina- frame of a fnip with the following remark from M. Vial biems.* du C]ail'boJs *• “ It leems (fays he) that they have af- fe&ed to avoid ftraight lines in naval archite&ure j yet, * Arcbitec geometrically fpeaking, it appears that a main frame tz,re Na- formed of ftraight lines will have both the advantage P- 22- and fimplicity over others.” To illuftrate this, draw the ftraight line M N (fig. 9.) in fuch a manner that the mixtilineal fpace Mad may be equal to the mix- tilineal fpace DNY. Hence the capacity of the main frame formed by the ftraight lines MN, NY will be equal to that of the frame formed by the curve M a D Y ; and the frame formed by the ftraight lines will for the moft part be always more fufceptible of receiving Traite tie a bow that v/ill eafily divide the fluid, ft is alfo evi- ForZZf dent’ that the Carg° Cr ballaV being lower in the frame p. 601. ’ formed of ftraight lines than in the other, it will there¬ fore be more advantageoufly placed, and wall enable the ihip to carry more fail (c) 3 fo that having a bow equal¬ ly w7ell or better formed, the will fail fafter. Tp. Prob. VI. I o defer!be a ftern having a fquare tuck. Let AB (fig. II.) be the middle line of the poft, and let CD be drawn parallel thereto atadiftance equal to half the thicknefs of the poft. Make CE equal to the height of the lower part of the faftiion-piece above the keel: make CT equal to the height of the extre¬ mity G of the tranfom above the plane of the keel pro¬ duced, and CH equal to the height of the tranfom on the poft, HT being equal to above one-ninth or one- tenth of GT, and deferibe the arch GH, the centre of which will be in BA produced : make EK equal to five-twelfths of ET : through K draw KL perpendicu¬ lar to CD, and equal to EK ; and with an extent equal to EL deferibe the arch EL. Make GI equal to the half of ET, and from the centre I deferibe the arch GM, and draw the reconciling curve ML,—Let the curve of the fafhion-piece be produced upwards to the point reprefenting the upper height of breadth as at O. Make ON equal to the height of the top-timber, and BN equal to the half breadth at that place, and join ON. Through N and the upper part of the counter, let arches be deferibed parallel to GH. The tafferel, windows, and remaining part of the ftern, may be finilh- ed agreeable to the fancy of the artift. ”• In fig. 12. the projection of the ftern on the plane of elevation is laid down, the method of doing which is obvious from infpeCtion. _ II the tranfom is to round aft, then fince the falhion- pieces are always fided ftraight, their planes will inter- , the Iheer and floor planes in a ftraight line. Let rccclxxxvii. G/ M*) be the interaction of the plane of the fa- Fig. 14. Ihion-piece with the floor plane. From the point g draw g\V perpendicular to gM : make yk equal to the height of the tuck, and W£ being joined will be the interfec- tion of the plane of the fafliion-piece with the fheer plane. Let the water lines in the flieer plane produced meet the line k W in the points a, s, ht and draw the per¬ pendiculars aa.,fs, hk. From the points <7, r, h (fig. 14.) draw lines parallel to G6o- to interfeCl each correspond¬ ing water line in the floor plane in the points 3, 2, 1. I L D I N G. From the points G, 3, 2, I, in the floor-plane draw Preiimma. -ines perpendicular to g M, interfeCling the water lines rY Pro- (fig. 13.) in the points G, 3, 2, 15 and through thefe , points deferibe the curve G 3 2 1 and WG 3 2, v—' 1 k will be the projeCHon of the plane of the faftiion- piece on the flieer plane. Through the points G, 3, 2, 1 (fig. 13.) draw the lines GF, 3 A, 2 S, 1 H, per- Fi? ,, pendicular to W k ; and make the lines WF, « A, j- S h H, equal to the lines g G, « 3, J- 2, /i i (fig. 14!) re’ fpeCliveiy, and \\ I'ASH ^ will be the true form of the plane of the aft fide ot the fafliion-piece. When it is m its proper pofidon, the line WF will be in the fame plane with the flieer line ; the line a A in the fame plane with the water line a 3 j the line s S in the fame plane with the water line j- 2 j and the line /i H in the fame plane with the water line /i 1. If lines be drawn from the fcveral points of interfeClion of the water lines with the rabbet of the port (fig. 13.), perpendicular to g M, and curved lines being drawn from thefe points to G, 3, 2, 1 (fig. 14.) refpeCtively, will give the form r and dimenfions of the tuck at the feveral water lines. g’ 4* I rob. \ II. Fo bevel the faftuon-piece of a iquare tuck by water-lines. As the fafliion-piece both rakes and cants, the planes of the water-lines will therefore interfect it higher on the aft than on the fore-fide : but before the heights on thi fore-fide can be found, the breadth of the timber muft be determined 5 which let be £ n (fig. 1 s-.). Then as it cants, the breadth in the direCb'on of the water¬ line will exceed the true breadth. In order to find the true breadth, form the aft-fide of the faftiion-piecc as di- reCIed in the laft problem. Let t $ (fig. 13.) be the aft-fide of the rabbet on the pv outfide of the poft, WM the common lecHon of the plan '6’ 3’ of the fafliion-piece and the ftieer-plan. Before this laft line can be determined, the feveral water-lines r, 2. 3, 4, and 3, muft be drawn parallel to the keel, which may reprefent fo many tranfoms.~_Let thefe water-lines be formed and ended at the aft-fide of the rabbet, as in hft’ I4- where the rounds aft of the leveral tranfoms are deferibed, limiting the curves of the water-lines. Now the line WM muft rake fo as to leave room for half the thicknefs of the poft, at the tuck : in order to which, produce to r; make half the thicknefs of the poft j through r draw a line parallel to g M to interfeft gQ\x\b : then with the radius rb, from x the point of the tuck as a centre, deferibe an arch, and draw the line WM juft to touch the back of that arch. 1 he line WM being drawn, let any point h in it be aflumed at pleafurc 1 from k draw h y perpendicular to g M : through y draw ?// (fig. 14.) parallel to g G, in- terfedling the line M / drawn perpendicular to g Pvl in the point _/! From IVI draw M2 perpendicular to 7/ and from ?/ draw y n perpendicukr to WM (fig. 13.). Make M n (fig. 15.) equal to M i (fig. 14.) ; then MI (fig. 15.) being equal to y k (fig. 13.), join » 1, and the angle 1 n M will be the bevelling to the horizontal plane. Again, make M a, M/ (fig. 1 5.) refpe&ively equal ioy n (fig. 13.) and M/(fig. 14.), and join ss/j and ,1 (CX h y n0i a gen,era^ ruIe’ that lowering the cargo of a flflp augments her ftability. This is demonftrated by' Zr PUbb,hed by M- de Goiropy ll'is S« I* Navi S HIP-BUILBIN G, blems Tig. 15. preliniina- and the angle M 2; f will be the bevelling to the Iheer- rv tJro" plane. The bevelling being now found, draw the line a b (fig. 15.) parallel to £a % or b n being the fcanlling of the timber. Then n sc will be the breadth of the timber on the horizontal plane, and 2; e its breadth on the Iheer-plane, and a c what it is within a fquare. Now as the lines ^ G, <7 3, j 2, h 1, y i, reprefent the aft-fide of the falhion-piece on the horizontal plane (fig. 14.)i dotted lines may be drawn parallel to them to reprefent the fore-fide, making nx (fig. 15.) the per¬ pendicular diftance between the lines reprefenting fore and aft fides of the fafhion-piece. By thefe lines form the fore-fide of the falhion-piece in the fame manner as the aft-fide was formed. The water-lines on the fore- fide of the plane of the fafhion-piece muft, however, be firft drawn in fig. 13. thus : Draw the lines e b, cd pa¬ rallel to WM, and whofe perpendicular diftances there¬ from may be equal to 0 c and z e (fig. 15.) refpeftive- ly. Draw a line parallel to a A through the point where the line cd interfe&s the fifth water-line. Draw a line parallel to A through the point wdiere the fourth water-line interfefts the line cd', \n like manner proceed with the other Water-lines. The fore-fide of the fafhion-piece is now to be defcribed by means of thefe new water-lines, obferving that the diftances in the floor-plane muft be fet off from the line c b, and not from WM, as in the former cafe 5 and a curve defcrib¬ ed through the points 5, 3, 2, 1, where thefe diftances reach to, wrill reprefent the fore-fide of the fafhiori-piece. The neareft diftance between the points 3, 3, 2, 1 and the aft fide of the faftiion-piece is what the bevelling is beyond the fquare when both flock and tongue of the bevel are perpendicular to the timber. Make M /> (fig. 16.) equal to the breadth of the timber, and M 5 equal to the perpendicular diftance of the point 5 (fig. 13.) from the aft-iide of the fafhion-piece, and join 5 fi. In like manner proceed with the others, and the bevellings at thefe parts will be obtained j but, in order to avoid confufion, the perpendiculars 4, 3, 2, (fig. 13.), inftead of being laid off from M (fig. 16.), were fet off from points as far below M as the other ex¬ tremities of the lines drawn from thefe points are below the point p. Prob. VIII. To defcribe the tranfoms of a round poop. The tranfoms are faftened to the ftern-poft in the fame manner that the floor-timbers are faftened to the keel, and have a rifing called the flight fimilar to the ri¬ ling of the floor-timbers. The upper tranfom is called the wing tranfom, the next the deck tranfom, and the others \\\e firfl,feco}id, and third tranfoms in order. The wing tranfom has a round aft and a round up : the round op of the deck tranfom is the fame as that of the beams. The fafhion-piece of a fquare tuck muft be firft de¬ fcribed, together with the three adjacent frames, by the method to be explained. The part of the fterp above the wfing tranfom is to be defcribed in the fame manner as before, and may therefore be omitted in this place. The part below the keel of the fafhion-piece is alfo the Plate fame in both cafes. Let fig. 17. reprefent the fafhion- ' piece of a fquare tuck, and the three adjoining frames. 0 7' Divide the interval AB into four equal parts in the points C, D, E, and draw the perpendiculars AF, CG, Fie. 16. DH, El, and BK ; thefe will be portions of water-lines Prelirr anfwering to the feveral tranfoms. 17 iJ Let thefe water-lines be defcribed on the ftoor-plam ; (fig. 18.), in which ABC repreients the wing tran-pj„, jg lom. Defcribe the arch b C to reconcile the curves b Ab and CE. Let Lbc^ be the water-line anfwering to the lower part of the fafhion-piece, the diftance be¬ tween the points L and A being equal to the excefs of the projection of the point A beyond that of B (fig. 20.). Draw7 CK (fig. 18.) perpendicular to AM, and make the angle KCM equal to about 25 degrees, and CN will be the projection of the faftiion-piece on the floor-plane. Make AB (fig. 19.) equal to ABFig. (fig. 17.). Divide it into four equaT parts, and draw the perpendiculars AF, CH, DI, EK, and BG. Make AF equal to CM, and BG equal to MN, and draw the curve FHIKG, having a lefs curvature than the fa- fhion-piece of the fquare tuck scpgn. Make MO MP, M£), equal to CH, DI, and EK refpeCtively. Divide AL (fig. 18.) into four equal parts, and to thefe points of divifion draw curves through the points O, P, O, fo as to partake partly of the curvature of A b CE and partly of that of LNF, but moft of the curvature of that to which the propofed curve is near¬ eft ; and hence the form of the feveral tranfjms will be obtained. In order to reprefent the curve of the fafhion-piece on the plane of projection, make the lines AF, CG, DH, El, and BK, (fig. 17.) refpeCtively equal to the perpendicular diftance of the points C, O, P, Q, and N. From the line AN (fig. 18.), and through the extremi¬ ties of thefe lines, draw the curve FGHIK. It remains to lay down the projection of the fafhion- piece on the plane of elevation. In order to which, di¬ vide the line AB, fig. 20. (equal to AB, fig. 17.) into FC. 2c. four equal parts, and through the points of divifion draw the perpendiculars AF, CG, DH, El, and BK j make AF (fig. 20.) equal to the perpendicular diftance of the point C from the line BL (fig. 18.). In like man¬ ner make the lines CG, DH, El, and BK (fig. 20.) re¬ fpeCtively equal to the perpendicular diftances of the points O, P, £), and N, from the line BL (fig. 18.) ; and a curve drawn through thefe points will be the pro¬ jection of the fafhion-piece on the plane of elevation. Pros. IX. To defcribe the intermediate frames in the after body. For this purpofe the midfhip and ftern frames muft be drawn in the plane of projection. As the main frame contains the greateft capacity, and the ftern frame is that having the leaft, it hence follows that the form and dimenfions of the intermediate frames will be between thefe ; each frame, however, partaking moft of the form of that to which it is neareft. Let ACDE (fig. 21.) be the main frame on the Fig, 21. plane of projection, and FGH the ftern frame \ and let there be any convenient number of intermediate frames, as nine. Draw the floor ribband CF, and the breadth ribband GD. Divide the curves CD, EG, each into the fame number of equal parts, as three, in the points K, M ; L, N 5 and draw7 the fecond and third ribbands KL, MN. In order to divide thefe ribbands fo as to form fair curves in different feCIions, various methods have been propofed. One of the beft of thefe, being that which is chiefly employed by the French conftruc- K k 2 tors -6o S H I P-B U r’relimina- tors is by means of an equilateral triangle, which is con- *7 ftrufted as follows. . biem;, ^ Draw the line ME (fig. 22.), limited at M, but pro- Pg 2„ duced towards E : take M i equal to any convenient extent j make I, 2 equal to thxice that extent, 2, 3 equal to five times, and 3, 4 equal to feven times the above extent} and continue this divilion to E, always increaling by two, until there be as many points as there are frames, including the main and ftern frames. Up¬ on ME defcribe the equilateral triangle MSE, and draw lines from the vertex S to each point of divifion •, then the line SM will be that anfwering to the main frame, and SE that correfponding to the poll ; and the other lines will be thofe anfweiing to the intermediate frames in order. ^ Let fig. 23. be the projeftion of part of the ftern on ^ the plane of elevation, together with the eighth and ninth frames. From the points L, N, G, (fig. 21.) draw the lines LO, NP, G(^, perpendicular to the plane of the upper edge of the keel. Make AB (fig. 23.) equal to AF (fig. 21.), and draw the waterline BCD. Draw the line BC (fig. 22.) lb that it may be parallel to the bafe of the triangle, and equal to CD (fig. 23.), which produce indefinitely towards H. Make BD equal to EC (fig. 23.), and draw the dotted line SD (fig. 22.). The ribband FC (fig. 21.) is to be ap¬ plied to the triangle, fo that it may be parallel to the bafe, and contained between the line MS and the dot¬ ted line SD. Let cf reprefent this line \ then transfer the feveral divifions from cf to the ribband CF (fig. 21.), and number them accordingly. Again, make EF (fig. 23.) equal to LO (fig. 21.), and draw the water line FGH; make BF (fig. 22.) equal to FG (fig. 23.), and draw the dotted line SF $ apply the fecond ribband LK to the triangle, fo that the extremity K may be on the line SM, and the other extremity L on the dot¬ ted line SF, and making with SM an angle of about 624 degrees. Let hi be this line, and transfer the divi¬ fions from it to the ribband KL. In like manner make IK (fig. 23.) equal to NP (fig. 21.), and draw the wa- ter line KLM. Make EG (fig. 22.) equal to KL (fig. 23.), and draw the dotted line SG j then the ribband MN is to be applied to the triangle in fuch a manner that its extremities M and N may be upon the lines SM, SG refpedlively, and that it may make an angle of about 68 degrees with the line SM ; and the divi- iions are to be transferred from it to the ribband MN. The fame procefs is to be followed to divide the other ribbands, obferving to apply the fourth ribband to the triangle, fo that it may make an angle of 86 degrees with the line SM ; the fifth ribband to make an angle of 6 3 degrees, and the fixth an angle of 60 degrees with the line SM. The quantities of thefe angles are, however, far from being precifely fixed. Some conftru£!ors, in applying the ribbands to the triangle, make them all parallel to its bafe j and others vary the meafures of thefe angles according to fancy. It may alfo be remarked, that a different method of dividing the bafe of the triangle is ufed by fome. It is certainly proper to try different I L D I N G. methods 5 and that is to be preferred which bell anfwers PreHmina. the intended purpofc. ry ,‘l0~ Befide the frames already mentioned, there are other ^n15' . two laid down by fome conllruftors in the feveral plans, called balance frames. The after balance frame is placed at one fourth of the length of the ftrip before the Hern- poll •, and the other, commonly called the loofframe, at one fourth of the (hip’s length aft of a perpendicular to the keel from the rabbet of the Item. Let the dotted line at X, between the fifth and fixth frames, (fig. 23.) be the place of the after balance frame in the plane of elevation. Then, in order to lay down this frame in the plane of projection, its reprefentation mull be previoufly drawn in the triangle. To-accomplilh this, draw the line SV (fig. 22.) fo that the interval 5V may have the fame ratio to 5 6 (fig. 22.) that 5 X has to 5 6 (fig. 23.) (d). Then the feveral points in the ribbands in the plane of projeftion anfwering to this frame are to be found by means of the triangle in the fame manner as before. The loof frame is nearly of the fame dimenfions as the after balance frame, or rather of a little greater ca¬ pacity, in order that the centre of gravity of that part of the (hip may be nearly in the plane of the midfhip frame. Hence the loof frame may be eafily drawn in the plane of projection, and hence alfo the other frames in the fore body may be readily defcribed. Prob. X. To deicribe the frames in the fore body. Draw the middle line of the ftem AB (fig. 24.) j p;g> ^ make AC, BD each equal to half the thicknels of the ftem, and draw the line CD ; defcribe alfo one half of the main frame CEFGHI. Let e E^F, ^ G, h H, be water lines at the heights of the ribbands on the main frame ; alfo let a be the termination of the floor ribband, and b that of the breadth ribband on the ftem. Divide the interval a b into three equal parts in the points c, d, and draw the ribbands a E, c F, G, and b H. Make e i, fh, gl, hm (fig. 24.) equal to ei,fh, g l, hm (fig. 21.) refpeCtively, and draw the curve Ciklm, which will be the projeClion of the loof frame. Or fince it is neceffary that the capacity of the loof frame ftiould be a little greater than that of the after balance frame, each of the above lines may be increafed by a propor¬ tional part of itfelf, as one tenth or one twentieth, as may be judged proper. ConftruCt the triangle (fig. 25.) in the fame manner as fig. 22. only obferving, that as there are fewer frames in the fore than in the after body, its bafe will therefore be divided into few^er parts. Let there be eight frames in the fore body, then there wfill be eight divifions in the bafe of the triangle befide the extremes. Let fig. 26. reprefent the ftem and part of the fore- body in the plane of elevation, and let O be the place of the loof frame. Divide the interval 4, 5 (fig. 25.) fo that 4, 5 may be to 4 Z as 4, 5 to 4, o (fig. 26.), and draw the dotted line SZ, which will be the line de¬ noting the loof frame in the triangle. Draw the lines AB, CD, EF, GH (fig. 26.) paral-Fjg. 2g. lei to the keel, and whofe perpendicular diftances there- from may be equal to C <7, C c, Cdy G^, (fig. 24.) the interfeClions (d) It is evident, from the method ufed to divide the bafe of the triangle, that this proportion does not agrea sxaCUy with the conflruClion : the difference, however, being fmall, is therefore negleded in praCtice, S H I P-B U Prelimina- inteircftions of thefa lines with the rabbet of the Item, >•* Pro- namely, the points I, K, L, M will be the points of blems' termination of the feveral ribbands on the ftem in the ' v ' plane of elevation. Divide 8 A (fig. 25.) fo that 8 B, 8 C, 8 D, and 8 E, may be refpe&ively equal to BI, DK, FL, and HM (fig. 26.), and draw the dotted lines SB, SC, SD, SE (fig. 25.). Apply the ,edge of a flip of card to the firlt ribband (fig. 24.), and mark thereon the extremities of the ribband a, E, and alfo the point of interfe&ion of the loot frame. Then ap¬ ply this flip of card to the triangle in Inch a manner that the point a may be on the dotted line SB, the point E on the line SM, and the point anfwering to the loof frame on the dotted line SZ ; and mark upon the card the feveral points of interfeftion of the lines S 1, S 2, &c. Now apply the card to the ribband a E (fig. 24.) as before, and transfer the feveral points of divi¬ sion from it to the ribband. In like manner proceed with the other ribbands ; and lines drawn through the correfpondmg points in the ribbands will be the piojec- tion of the lower part of the frames in the fore body. The proje&ions of the top-timbers of the feveral frames may be taken from the half breadth plan j and hence each top-timber may be eafily deferibed. In large fhips, particularly in thofe of the French navy, a different method is employed to form the top- timbers in the fore body, which is as follows . Plate LPt jji (fig, 27.) be one fourth of the breadth of cccekxsix. the ^.[p) and& draw IK parallel to AB. Take the ‘S‘ 27‘ height of the foremoft frame from the plane of eleva¬ tion, and lay it off from A to B : from the point B draw BH perpendicular to AB, and equal to half the length of the wing tranfom. Let E be the place of the breadth ribband on the main frame, and F its place on the ftem at the height of the wing tranfom. With a radius equal to five fixths of half the greateft breadth l8 of the (hip deferibe the quadrant EFG (fig. 28.) : Make EH equal to EG (fig. 27.), the point F being at the height of the wing tranfom. Through H draw HO perpendicular to EH, and interfeaing the circum¬ ference in O j then draw OL parallel to HE, and EE parallel to HO. Divide EL into as. many equal parts as there are frames in the fore body, including the mam frame, and from thefe points of divifiondraw the per¬ pendiculars 11, 22, &c. meeting the circumference as in the figure. Take the diftance 11, and lay it off from G (fig. 27.) towards F to the point 1 ; and from the fame point G lay off towards F the feveral per¬ pendiculars contained between the ftraight line and the curve to the points 2, ^nd through thefe points draw lines parallel to EG. Fig- 29. Take any line AB (fig. 29.) at pleafure : divide it equally in two in the point 8 divide 8 B in two parts in the point 7, and continue this method of divifion un¬ til there are as many points as there are frames in the fore body, including the main frame. Upon AB con- ftrueft the equilateral triangle ACB, and draw the lines C 8, C 7, &c. Place a Hip of card on the parallel « K 8 (fig. 27.), and mark thereon the points oppofite to a, K, and 8 ; and let them be denoted accordingly. Then apply this flip of card to the triangle, io that the point a, which is that anfwering to the rabbet of the ftem, may be on the line AC; that the point anfwer¬ ing to K may be on C 8, and the extremity 8 on the liiTe CB ; and mark on the card the points of intsifec- I L D I N G. 261 tion of the lines C 7, C 6, &c. and number them ac- Prelimina- cordingly. Now apply this flip of card to the feventh rye"0J parallel (fig. 23.), the points being on the line CD, and mark °on this parallel the point of interfe&ion 7 j Aide the card down to the fixth parallel, to which tratft- fer the point N° 6. In like manner proceed with the other parallels. The point K, at the interfe&ion of the line IK with the' eighth parallel, is one point through which the eighth frame paffes. From this point upwards a curve is to be deferibed fo as to reconcile with the hnver part of this frame already deferibed, and the upper part, forming an inverted arch, which is to terminate at H. This top-timber may be formed by two fweeps, whofe. radii and centres are to be determined partly from cir- cumftances and partly according to fancy. It how¬ ever may be more readily formed by hand. Let LM (fig. 27.) be the line of the fecond deck at the main frame, and let LN be the difference of the draught of water, if any. Make GN (fig. 28.) equal to LN : draw NM perpendicular to GN, meeting the circle in M j and through the points G and M draw the parallels GV and MV 5 divide GN as before, and from the feveral points of divifion draw perpendiculars terminating in the curve. Transfer thefe perpendicu¬ lars from L upwards (fig. 270> anc^ through the points thus found draw the lines 11, 22, &c. parallel to LM. Apply a flip of card to the eighth parallel, and mark upon it the point anfwering to the ftem, the eightlj and main frames : carry this to the triangle, and place it fo that thefe points may be on the correfponding lines. Then the points of interfeftion of the lines C 7, C 6, &c. are to be marked on the card, which is now to be applied firft to the eighth parallel (fig. 27..), then to the feventh, &c. transferring the feveral points of divi¬ fion in order as before. Draw the line HO (fig. 27.) j mark its length on a flip of card, and apply it to the triangle, fo that it may be parallel to its bate, and its extremities one on the eighth and the other on the main frame : mark on the card the points of interfeftion of the feveral intermedi¬ ate lines as before ; then apply the card to HO, and transfer the divifions. There are now three points determined through which each top-timber muft pafs, namely, one in the breadth ribband, one in the fifth, and one in the upper ribband. Through thefe curves are to be deferibed; fo as to reconcile with the lower part of the frame, and partake partly of the curvature of the eighth frame,., and partly of that of the main frame, but moft of that of the frame to which it is neareft : and hence the plane of projection is fo far finiftied, that it only re^ mains to prove the feveral frames by water lines. Another method of deferibing the frames in the' body plan is by fweeps. In this method it is neceffary, in the firft place, to deferibe the height of the breadth lines, and the rifing of the floor, in the plane of eleva¬ tion. The half breadth lines are next to be deferibed in the floor plan. The main frame is then to be deferi¬ bed by three or more fweeps, and giving it fuch a form’ as may be moft fuitable to the fervice the ihip is defign- ed for. The lower, upper, and top-timber heights of breadth, and the rifings of the floor, are to be fet upon the middle line in the body plan, and the feveral half breadths are then to be laid off on lines drawn through * theffc: 262 SHIP-BUILDING. Prelimma- thefe points perpendicular to the middle line. A mould ry Pro¬ blems may then be made for the mam frame, and laid upon the feveral rifings, as in whole mouldings, explained in Chapter V. with this difference, that here an under breadth fweep is defcribed to pafs through the point which limits the half breadth of the timber, the centre of ivhich will be in the breadth line of that timber. Ihe proper centres for all the frames being found, and the arches defcribed, the bend mould muft be fo pla¬ ced on the riling line of the floor, that the back of it may touch the back of the under breadth fweep. But the general practice is, to defcribe all the floor fweeps with compaffes, as well as the under breadth fweeps, and to reconcile thefe two by a mould which is an arch of a circle, its radius being the fame with that of the reconciling fweep by which the midfhip frame was formed. It is ufual for all the floor fweeps to be of the fame radius; and in order to find their centres a line is formed on the floor plan for the half breadth of the floor. As this line cannot be defcribed on the furface of a fhip, it is therefore only an imaginary line. In- Jfead of it fome make u^e of a diagonal in the body plane to limit the half breadth of the floor upon every rifing line, and to ereft perpendiculars at the feveral in- terfedfions, in the fame manner as for the midfhip frame. After the fweeps are all defcribed, recourfe is had to moulds, or fome fuch contrivance, to form the hollow of the timbers, much in the fame manner as in whole moulding 5 and when all the timbers arc formed, they muff be proved by ribband and water lines, and altered, if neceflary to make fair curves. The preceding methods of defcribing the feveral planes or fe&ions of a fhip being well underftood, it will be a very eafy matter to conflruft draughts for any propofed fhip : and as the above planes were de¬ scribed feparately and independent of each other, it is therefore of little cenfequence which is firft defcribed. In the following application, however, the plane of ele¬ vation will be fiifl: drawn, then part of the floor plan, and laftly the body plan : and in connedting thefe plans the moft rational and Ample methods will be employed. Chap. IV. Application of the foregoing Rules to the Cotijlruhlion of Ships. oECT. I. To confruffi a Ship intended to carry a conf- derab/e Burden in Proportion to her general Dimen- fons, and to draw little Water. Dimensions. .Length between the wing tranfome and a per¬ pendicular from the rabbet of the ftem at the height of breadth line Main half breadth moulded Half breadth at the height of breadth line at the flern Top-timber half breadth Height of the ftem above the upper edge of the keel - ' _ 1 Height of the breath line at the ftem Height of the breadth line at the ftern Upper height of breadth at the main frame Lower height of breadth Height of middle line of wales at the ftem 2 F. In. 80 o 11 o 7 6 10 6 17 o 13 6 12 3 7 4 5 10 10 o Height of middle line of wales at the -main frame Height of middle line of w’ales at the ftern Breadth of the wales Height of top-timber at midftiips —— — —.— at ftern F. In. Application 5 jq of the tore¬ ro f, 8oinS R-ules to the Con- 1 V ftrr etion of 14 O Ships. Draw the line ab (fig. 30.) ecjual to 80 feet, from Plate a convenient fcale : divide it into as many equal parts CCCCXC. plus one as there are to be frames, which let be 16, J0, and through each point of divifion draw7 perpendiculars. Make be equal to 17 feet, the perpendicular height of the top of the ftem above the upper edge of the keel, and defcribe the ftem by Prob. II. Make ad equal to joy feet, the height of the middle line of the wales at the ftern, and a e equal to the propoled rake of the poft, which may be about 2 feet: join de; and draw the line f g reprefenting the aft-fide of the poft. De¬ fcribe the counter and ftem by Problem VI. and Vlf, Make 0^ equal to 14 feet, the top-timber height at the main frame, and ih equal to 18 feet, the height at the item ; and through the three points c, h, k, defcribe the curve limiting the top-timbers by Problem I. Make b d equal to 10 feet, the height of the middle line of the wales at the ftem, and 0H equal to 6 feet 10 inches, the height at the main frame j and the curve r/H d being delcribed will reprefent the middle line of the vyales. At the diftance of lof inches on each fide of this line draw two curves parallel thereto, and the wales will be completed in this plan. Make b l equal to 13-f feet, the height of the breadth line at the ftem j am equal to 12-*- feet, the height at the ftern ; and 10 K0 equal to 5 feet 10 inches and 7 feet 4 inches re- fpedtively ; and draw the upper breadth line /K wz and lower breadth line /1 m. Krom the line a b lay down¬ wards the breadth of the keel, which may be about one foot, and draw the line L t parallel to a b. Let the line L ?•, which is the lower edge of the keel, reprefent alfo the middle line of the floor plan. Pro¬ duce all the perpendiculars reprefenting the frames : make 0 M (fig. 31.) equal to 11 feet, the main half Fig. 31, breadth at midftiips \ through m (fig. 30.) draw the ^ line m N perpendicular to ab, and make />N equal to 7 i feet, and draw the main half breadth line NM r by Problem IV. Defcribe alfo the top-timber half breadth line POr, 00 being equal to io-\ feet, and form the projedting part of the ftem q r s t. In order that the top-timber line may look fair oft the bow, and to prevent the foremoft top-timbers from being too fliort, it is neccflary to lift or raife the fheer from the round of the bow to the ftem. For this pur- pole the following method is ufually employed : Pro¬ duce the circular theer before the ftem in the plane of elevation at pleafure; then place a batton to the round of the bow in the half breadth plan, and mark on it the ftations of the fquare timbers and the fide of the ftem ; apply the batton to the fheer plan, and place it to the fheer of the fhip, keeping the ftations of the timbers on the batton well with thofe on the Iheer plan for feve¬ ral timbers before dead-flat, where they will not alter; then mark the other timbers and the flem on the fheer line produced j through thefe points draw lines parallel to the keel, to interfedf their correfpcnding timbers and the ftem in the fheer plan : then a curve defcribed thefe laft points will be the fheer of the fhip round the Application the bow, lifted as required : and the heights of the tim- eoingSRules ^ers thus lengthened are to be transferred to the body to the Con- Plan as before’. ffru&ion of Draw the line AB (fig. 32.) equal to 22 feet, the Ships, whole breadth ; from the middle of which draw the 1 perpendicular CD : make CE equal to half the thicknefs cccclxxx’x. of the Pofl’ and CF eclual that of the ftem, and Fi£, 32. frorn the points A, E, F, B, draw lines parallel to CD. Make AG, EG each equal to 14 feet, the height at the main frame, and draw the line GG parallel to AB. Make GH, GH each equal to half afoot, the difference between the main and top timber half breadths. From A and B fet up the heights of the lower and upper breadth lines to I and K, and draw the ftraight lines IK? IK. Let CL be the rifing at the main frame, and ©5 0 the extremities of the floor timber. Hence, as there are now five points determined in each half of the main frame, it may be very eafily defcribed. Make CM equal to L$, join M®, and draw the other ribbands NO, PO. In order, however, to fim- plify this operation, the reflilineal "diftancc ®I was trifedled, and through the points of divifiou the lines NO, PQ were drawn parallel to the floor ribband M ®. ^ Take the diflance be (fig. 30.), and lay it off from F to (fig. 32.) j alfo make Fb (fig. 32.) equal to F u 30.) •, through b draw b c parallel to AB, and equal to Fit (fig. 31.). In like manner take the heights of each top-timber from fig. 30. and lay them off from C towards D (fig. 32.) ; through thefe points draw lines parallel to AB, and make them equal each to each, to the correfponding half breadth lines taken from the floor-plan : Then through the feveral points <7, c, &c. thus found, draw a line a c H, which will be the projedlion of the top-timber line of the fore body in the body plan. Proceed in the fame manner to find the top-timber line in the after body. Transfer the height of the main-breadth line on the ff-m bl (fig 30.), from F to 7/(fig. 32.). Transfer abo the heights of the lower and upper breadth lines at timber F (fig. 30.), namely, FW, FX, from F to e and/(fig. 32.) ; through which draw the parallels eg, fj!» them equal to FS (fig. 31.), and draw the ftraight line g h. In this manner proceed to lay down the portions of the extreme breadth at each frame, both in the fore and in the after body in the body plan, and draw the upper and lower breadth lines dh K, dg I in the fore body and K 2', I i in the after body/ Hence the portions of the feveral top-timbers contained between the top-timber and main breadth lines may be eafily de¬ fcribed. It was before remarked that their forms were partly arbitrary. The m:dihip top-timber has generally a hollow, the form of which is left entirely to the artift, though in fome fihips, especially fmall ones, it has none. Pc is the common praftice to make a mould for this hol¬ low, eitner by a fweep or fome other contrivance, which is produced confiderably above the top-timber line, in a ftraight line or very near one. The midfhip top-timber is formed by this mould, which is fo placed that it breaks in four with the back of the upper breadth fweep. 1 he other top-timbers are formed by the fame mould, obferving to place it fo that the ftraight part of it may be parallel to the ftraight part of the midfhip timber, and moved up or down, ftill keeping it in that direftion till it juft touches the back of the upper breadth fweeo. S H I P - B U I L D I N G. Some conftru&ors begin at the after timber, after the mould is made for the midfhip top-timber, becaufe they think it eafier to keep the ftraight part of the mould pa¬ rallel to this than to the midihip timber j and by this means the top fide is kept from wfinding. Others, again, make a mark upon the mould where the breadth line of the midihip timbei ciofles it, and with the fame mould they form the after timber: this will occafion the mark that was made on the mould when at the main frame to fall below the breadth line of the after timber, and therefore another mark is made at the height of the breadth line at the after timber ; the ftraight part of the mould is then laid obliquely acrofs the breadth lines of the top-timbers in fuch a manner that it may interfeft the breadth line of the midfhip timber at one of thefe marks and the breadth line of the after timber at the Ocher maik 5 then the feveral interfeFlions of the breadth lines of the timbers are marked upon the mould ; which muff now be fo placed in forming each timber, that the proper mark may be applied to its proper breadth, and it mu ft be turned about fo as juft to touch the upper breadth fweep. Any of thefe methods may make a fair fide, and they may be eafily proved by forming another intermediate half breadth line. The remaining parts of the frames may be de*ibed by either of the methods laid down in Problems IX. and X. . In order, however, to illuftrate this ftill far- tuer,. it is thought proper to fubjoin another method of forming the intermediate frames, the facility of which wfill recommend it. Take FZ (fig. 30.), and lay it from Fto £ (fig. 3 2.) 3 then deferibe the lower part of the foremoft frame/ ma¬ king it more or lefs full according as propofed ; and in¬ terfering the ribbands in the points /, m, n. Deferibe alfo the aftermoft frame o,/>, y. Make «/3(fig. 30.) equal to F r (fig. 32.), and produce it to a (fig. 31.) • alfo draw y a and e£ (fig. 30.) equal to E r and E s (fig. 32.) refpeaively ; and produce them to b and c : Make I7 e, F/ i: R (fig. 31 •) equal to M /, N w, P n (fig. 32.) each to each. Let alfo ® h, © /, © h, and 9 4 9 m, 9 n (fig. 31.) be made equal to M ©, NO, PQ, and Mo, Ny, P/. (fig. 32.) j then through thefe points trace the curves a enh lb, rfim c, and r R k np, and they will be the projeftions of the ribbands in the floor plane. Now transfer the feveral intervals of the frames contained between the middle line and the rib¬ bands (fig. 31.) to the correfponding ribbands in the body plan (fig. 32.). Hence there wfill be five points given in each frame, namely, one at the lower breadth line, one at each ribband, and one at the keel 3 and confequently thefe frames may be eafily defcribed. In order to exemplify this, let it be required to lay down the frame E in the plane of projedlion. Take the in¬ terval E n (fig. 31.), and lay it from M to u (fig. 32). Lay off alfo E v, E e (fig. 31.) from M to v and from * to n (fig. 32.) 3 then through the points F, u, v, n and the kwer breadth line deferibe a curve, and it will be the reprefentation of the frame E in the body plan. In like manner the other frames may be de¬ fcribed. ihe ribbands may now be transferred from the body plan to the plane ot elevation, by taking the feveral heights of the interfe£iion of each ribband with the frames, and laying them off on the correfponding frames in the floor plan 3 and if the line drawn through thefe peints. Application ot the fore¬ going Rules to the Con- ftruftion of Ships. s64. SHIP-BUILDING. Application points make a fair curve, it is prefumed that the curves .t^e <0!’e’of the frames are rightly laid down in the body plan, to1 the Con! Only one thefe ribbands, namely, the firft, is laid ftruAion ofdown in fig. 30. Thefe curves may alfo be farther pro- Ships, vcd, by drawing water lines in the plane of elevation, ' ' ‘ and in the body plan, at equal diftances from the upper edge of the keel. Then the diftances between the mid¬ dle line of the body plan, and the feveral points of in- terfeftion of thefe lines with the frames, are to be laid off from the middle line in the floor plan upon the cor- refponding frames j and if the line drawn through thefe points form a fair curve, the frames are truly drawn in the body plan. In figs. 30. and 32. there are drawm four water lines at any equal diftances from the keel, and from each other. Thefe lines are then transferred from fig. 32. to fig. 31. j and the lines pafling through thefe points make fair curves. The tranfoms are defcribed by Problem VIII. it is therefore unneceffary to repeat the procefs. A rifing line of the floor timbers is commonly drawm in the plane of elevation. As this is intended only as an introduftory example, feveral particulars have therefore been omitted ; which, however, will be exemplified in the following feftion. Sect. IV. To defcribe the federal Plans of a Ship of War propofed to carry 80 Guns upon two Decks. As it is propofed in this place to fhow the method of defcribing the plans of a (hip of a very confiderable fize, it therefore feems proper to give the dimenfions of every particular part neceffary in the delineation of thefe plans. The feveral plans of this ftiip are contained in figs 33, and 34. But as it would very much confufe the fi¬ gures to have a reference to every operation, and as the former example is deemed a fufficient illuftration, the letters of reference are upon thefe accounts omitted in the figures. Plate CGCCXCI. Figs- 33. & 34- Principal Dimensions. Ship Build- j^engt}s%—Length on the gun or lower deck Cl s Kepoji tVi,. off navt nf tbf* rabbet nf the ftem tory. from the aft part of the rabbet of the ftem to the aft part of the rabbet of the poft Length from the foremoft perpendicular to dead flat Length from the foremoft perpendicular to timber Y Length from after perpendicular to timber 37 Room and fpace of the timbers Length of the quarter-deck from the aft part of the ftern - Length of the forecaftle from the fore part of the beak-head Length of rouncfthoufe deck from the aft part of the ftern Heights.—Height of the gun or lower deck from the upper edge of the keel to the under fide of the plank at dead flat Height of the gun or lower deck from the upper edge of the keel to the under fide of the plank at foremoft perpendicular Height of the gun or lower deck from the F. In. 182 © 63 II|: 4 84- 4 3 2 95 49 51 8 24 26 upper edge of the keel to the under fide of the plank at after perpendicular Height from the upper fide of the gun-deck plank to the under fide of the upper deck plank, all fore and aft Height from the upper fide of the"! apore upper deck plank to the under fide > of the greater deck plank j Height to the under fide of forecaftle plank, afore and abaft Height from the upper fide of the! afore quarter-deck plank to the under > , r. fide of the round-houfe plank j a a Height of the low^er edge of the main wales at foremoft perpendicular Height of the lowTer edge of the main wales at dead flat Height of the kwer edge of the main wales at after perpendicular Height of the lower edge of the channel wales at ioremoft perpendicular Height of the lower edge of the channel wales at dead flat Height of the low-er edge of the channel whales at after perpendicular Height of the upper fide of the wing tran- fom - Height of the touch of the lower counter at the middle line Height of the touch of the upper counter at the middle line Height of the top-timber line at the after part of the ftern timber Breadths.—Main wales in breadth from lower to upper edge Channel w-ales in breadth from loiver to up¬ per edge - - - Waift rail in breadth Diftance betw-een the upper edge of the chan¬ nel wales and the under edge of the waift rail Sheer rail in breadth Diftance between the theer rail and the rail above from timber 13 to the ftern Diftance between the iheer rail and the rail above from timber 7 to timber 11 Diftance between the ftieer rail and the rail above from timber C to the forepart of beak-head ... And the faid rail to be in breadth Plank ftieer to be in thicknefs Centres of the inajls.—From the foremoft per¬ pendicular to the centre of the mainmaft on the gun-deck From the foremoft perpendicular to the centre of the foremaft on the gun-deck From the after perpendicular to the centre of the mizenmaft on the gun-deck Stem. The centre of the fweep of the ftem abaft timber P - - Height of ditto from the upper edge of the keel - Stem moulded , - - F. In. Application ot the fore- 06 a going Rule* >5 to the Con- ItruPtion of Ships. 6 10 6 11 6 6 6 9 6 10 24 20 26 32 29 28 33 3<5 44 4 3 o 34 ® 4 2 9 o 6 2 5 1 4 1 2 o 6 o 2^ 103 20 28 26 1 1 3. Forera&it l SHIP-BUILDING. Application Foremofl: part of the head afore the perpen- of tbe forc- dictilar fo'the Con- Height of ditto from the upper edge of the ftru6tion of keel - - - Ships Stern-poJ}.—Aft part of the rabbet afore the •u., v—— perpendicular on the upper edge of the keel Aft part of the port abaft the rabbet at the upper edge of the keel Aft part of the port abaft the rabbet at the wing tranfom - Stern port fore and aft on the keel Ditto fquare at the head Counters.—The touch of the lower counter at the middle line, abaft the aft part of the wing tranfom - . - Round aft of the lower counter Round up of the lower counter The touch of the upper counter at the middle line,, abaft the aft part of the wing tran¬ fom - Round aft of the upper counter Round up of the upper counter Aft part of the (tern-timber at the middle line, at the height of the top timber line, abaft the aft part of the wing tranfoni F. In. 2 4 S8 3 3 4 265 12 9 3i 10 afore abaft Round aft of the wing tranfom Round up of the wing tranfom Draught of water.—Load draught of" water from the upper edge of the keel Channels.—Foremoft end of the fore channel afore timber R - The channel to be in length And in thicknefs at the outer edge The dead eyes to be 12 in number, and in dia¬ meter - Foremod end of the main channel afore tim¬ ber 9 - - . The channel to be in length And in thicknefs at the outer edge The dead eyes to be 14 in number, and in diameter Foremoft end of the mizen-channel abaft tim¬ ber 27 - - - The channel to be in length And in thicknefs at the outer edge The dead eyes to be 7 in number, and in dia¬ meter - - - F. In. Applieati«n q g of the fore- , goin» Rule* ® iiho the Con- ftmrtion of Ships. 20 20 I O 37 o o 4i o 10 38 o O 4-5 2 4 20 O o 4 1 9 Dimensions of the feveral Parts of the Bodies. Tore Bodij. Lower height of breadth Upper height of breadth Height of the top-timber line Height of the riling line * Height of the cutting down Main half breadth Top-timber half breadth Half breadth of the riling Length of the lower breadth fvveeps Fir ft diagonal line Second ditto Third ditto Fourth ditto Fifth ditto - - . Sixth ditto - * Seventh ditto - - . Timbers Names. Ft. In. 22 6 24 10 37 5 o o 2 3* 24 i’j 20 II 8 7 '9 7 *3 20 23 4r 24 8 24 C Ft. In. 22 6 24 IO 37 7 o 54- 2 34 24 54 20 10 8 4 18 9 7 8-1 13 84 19 11 23 44 24 8 24 i4 Ft. In. 22 7 24 IO 38 O 3 10 2 34 24 44 20 9 6 54 f3 4i 19 2 23 0 24 44 24 o L j P | 'J W Ft. 23 24 3 8 9 2 24 20 *7 7 12 *7 21 23 In. O 104 5 10 !i8 8 o4 6 9 3 1 1 7 84 3 23 20 5 Ou r5 6 10 *5 18 54 21 In. I I 34 I 6 10 24 o 7 tfide II 3 3 1 11 24 23 9 Ft. 25 26 39 10 22 10 6 20 18 14 3 7 11 *7 4 2 94 Ft. In. 26 IO 44 4 44 27 40 17 o 17 10 12 7 4 6 8 34 11 5 13 84 Ft. In, 28 8 29 40 11 16 20 1 of-18 64 * Rifing height 11 feet 10 inches at dead flat, from which all the other rifings muft be fet off. 12 o 3 44 6 o 7 14 7 VoL. XIX, Part I. LI 266 SHIP -BUILDING. After Body. Timbers Names. *3 J7 21 25 29 33 35 37 Lower height of breadth Upper ditto Height of the top-timber line Height of the cutting down Height of the rifing Main half breadth Half breadth of the rifing Top-timber half breadth Topfides half breadth Length of lower breadth fvveeps Firfl: diagonal Second ditto Third ditto Fourth ditto Fifth ditto Sixth ditto Seventh ditto Ft. In. 22 6 24 10 37 5 2 3i o 24 24 5i 8 6 20 11 19 2 7 9 13 9 20 o 23 4l 24 8 Ft. In. 22 6 24 10 37 5 2 si o 8 24 4! 8 3 20 10 19 2 7 8; 13 8i 19 Hi 23 3 24 7 Ft. 22 24 37 2 1 24 7 20 In. 6 10 6 S'? 9i 4i 9 9i Ft. In. 20 7 24 II 37 10 2 3i 3 6* 24 3i 6 10 20 9 19 o 7 7 13 6 x9 74 23 24 18 7 13 J9 22 24 7 5 1 o 6 Ft. 22 25 38 2 6 24 5 20 x7 7 12 18 21 23 In. 9 1 3 4 o I 3i 7 1 2i 6 1 11 6i Ft. 23 25 38 2 10 23 2 20 *9 16 6 11 16 20 22 In. Oi 4 11 7i 1 8 3 7 o 7 2 6 3 3i 23 9* Ft. 27 25 39 3 *7 23 2 x9 18 H 5 9 J4 18 20 23 In. Ft. 7i 24 8 8 5 o oi' 6 5 4 5 9 7 2 o- 26 40 5 In. 6 3 6 24 Ft. 25 27 41 8 21 10 Outfidp l8 2 J7 12 4 7 11 *5 6\ 18 o 5 7 7 5i 3i 2 8i In. ioi Ft. 26 27 42 16 15 9 2 4 7 11 *4 18 20 8 10 ioi 10 8-i 8^ 4 4 8i 16 o !x8 In. 9t 9 o ioi 11 11 81 1 5 7 5 o 11 Ft. In. 28 3 28 8 42 6 15 oi J4 3 4 8 o 7 O II I 6 o 8 8i Diagonal Lines for both the Fore and After Bodies. Fore and After Bodies. Height up the middle line Dittance from the middle line on the bafe line Height up the fide line Names of the Diagonal Lines. ill 2d Ft. 6 11 4 8 In. Ft. I I In. 4 3d Ft. In 5i 15 6 4th 5th 6th 7th Ft. 20 In 8 9v Ft. In.Ft 31 In. 23 5i 27 5 6 7 12 74 Ft. In. 43 9 S2 81 I. Of the Sheer Draught or Plane of Elevation. Fig 33- Draw a ftraight line (fig. 33.) to reprefent the up¬ per edge of the keel, eredt a perpendicular on that end to the right, and from thence fet off 182 feet, the length on the gun-deck, and there ereft another perpendicular j that to the right is called the foremof perpendicular, and the other the after one : upon thefe two perpendiculars all the foremoft and aftermoft heights muff be fet off, which are expreffed in the dimenfions. Then fet off the diftance of the main frame or dead flat from the foremoft perpendicular, and at that place eredt a third perpendicular, which muft be diftingufthed by the charadter 0. From dead flat the room and fpace of all the timbers muft be fet off; but it will on¬ ly be neceffary to eredl a perpendicular at every frame timber ; which in the fore body are called deadfat, A, C, E, &c. and in the after body (2), 1, 3, 5, &c. : hence the diftance between the frame perpendiculars wall be double the room and fpace expreffed in the dimen¬ fions. Then fet off the heights of the gun-deck afore at midfliip or dead flat, and abaft from the upper fide of the keel ; and a curve deferibed through thefe three points will be the upper fide of the gun-deck. Set off the thicknefs of the gun-deck plank below that; and another curve being drawn pai'allel to the former, the gun-deck will then be deferibed at the middle line of the ftreer plan. The centie of the ftem is then to be laid dowm by means of the table of dimenfions ; from which centre, with an extent equal to the neareft diftance of the upper edge of the keel, deferibe a circle upwards : deferibe alio another circle as much without the former as the ftem is moulded. Then fet off the height of the head of the ftem, with the diftance afore the perpendicular, and there make a point ; and within that fet off the moulding of the ftem, and there make another point : from this laft mentioned point let a line pafs downwards, interfering the perpendicular at the height of the gun- deck, and breaking in fair with the inner circle, and the after part of the ftern is drawn. Draw another line from the foremoft point downwards, parallel to the for¬ mer, and breaking in fair with the outer circle ; then the whole ftem will be formed, except the after or low¬ er end, which cannot be determined till hereafter. The ftern-poft muft be next formed. Set off on the upper edge of the keel a fpot for the aft part of the rabbet taken from the dimenfions, and from that for¬ ward fet off another point at the diftance of the thick¬ nefs S H I P-B U Applkationnefs of the plank of the bottom, which is four inches and of the fore a jiajf. an^ from this laft-mcntioned point draw a line fo01theRConSuPwards interfedling the perpendiculars at the height of ftrudtion of'he lower deck 5 then fet up the perpendicular the Ships, height of the wing tranfom, and draw a level line, and ' " where that line interfedls, the line firft drawrn wall be the aft fide of the wing tranfom 5 on the upper part of the middle line fet olf from that place the diftance of the aft fide of the ftern-polt 3 fet off alfo the diftance of the after part from the rabbet on the upper edge of the the keel, and a line drawn through thefe two points will be the aft fide of the poll. A line drawn parallel to the firft drawn line at the diftance of four inches and a half, the thicknefs of the plank on the bottom, will be the aft fide of the rabbet: and hence the ftern-poft is de- fcribed, except the head, which will be determined af¬ terwards. From the dimenfions take the feveral heights of the upper deck above the gun-deck, afore, at midftiip, and abaft, and fet them olf accordingly 3 through thefe points defcribe a curve, which will be the under fide of the upper deck 3 defcribe alfo another curve parallel thereto, at the difiance of the thicknefs of the plank, and the upper deck will be then reprefented at the middle line of the fhip. Set off the height of the lower counter, at the mid¬ dle line, from the upper edge of the keel, and drawr a horizontal line with a pencil 3 then on the pencil line fet off the difiance the touch of the lorver counter is abaft the aft fide of the wing tranfom : from this point to that where the fore part of the rabbet of the ftern- poft interfedfts the line drawn for the upper part of the wing tranfom, draw a curve at pleafure, which curve wall repreient the louver coitnter at the middle line. The height of the upper counter is then to be fet off from the upper edge of the keel, and a horizontal line is to be drawn as before, fetting off the diftance the touch of the upper counter is abaft the aft fide of the wing tranlbm j and a curve deferibed from thence to the touch of the lowrer counter will form the upper counter at the middle line. • Both counters being formed at the middle line, the upper part of the ftern timber above the counters is to be deferibed as follows : On the level line drawn for the upper fide of the wing tranfom fet off the diftance of the aft fide of the ftern timber at the middle line from the aft fide of the wing tranfom, at the height of the top-timber line, and erefl a perpendicular : then up¬ on this perpendicular, from the upper edge of the keel, fet off the height at the middle line of the top-timber line at the after fide of the ftern timber 3 through this point draw a ftraight line to the touch of the upper counter, and the upper part of the ftern timber will be deferibed. As the ftern rounds two ways, both up and aft, the ftern timber at the fide xvill confequently alter from that at the middle line, and therefore remains to be re¬ prefented. Take the round up of the upper counter from the dimenfions, and fet it belorv the touch at the middle, and with a pencil draw a level line 3 take alfo the round aft, and fet it forward from the touch on the touch line, and fqnare it down to the pencil line laft drawn, and the point of interfeflion will be the touch of the upper counter at the fide. In the fame manner find the touch of the lower counter 3 and a curve, fi- I L D I N G. 267 milar to that at the middle line, being deferibed from Application the one touch to the other, will form the upper counteroi the^rf* , _ , 7 11 froinp- Rules at the fine. . _ . to the Con- Take the round up of the wing tranfom, and fet it itrudtion of off below the line before drawn for the height of the Ships, wing tranfom, and draw another horizontal line in pen- v r cil : then take the round aft of the wing tranfom, and fet it forward on the upper line from the point repre- fenting the aft fide of the wing tranfom 3 fquare it down, to the lower line, and the interledlion will be the touch of the wing tranfom : then a curve, fimilar to that at' the middle line, being drawn from the touch of the wing tranfom to the touch of the lower counter at the fide, will be the lower counter at the fide. Draw a line from the upper counter upwards, and the whole ftern timber at the fide will be reprefented. Bui as the ftraight line drawn for the upper part of the fide tim¬ ber ftiould not be paiallel to that at the middle line, its rake is therefore to be determined as follows. Draw a line at pleafure, on which fet off the breadth of the ftern at the upper counter 3 at the middle of this line fet off the round aft of the upper counter, then through this point and the extremities of the ftern de¬ fcribe a curve. Now take the breadth of the ftern at the top-timber line, and through the point where that breadth will interfedt the curve for the round aft of the ftern draw a line parallel to that firft drawn, and the di¬ ftance from the line laft drawn to the curve at the mid¬ dle of the line is the diftance that the fide timber muft be from the middle line at the height of the top-timber line. The Iheer is to be deferibed, which is done by fet¬ ting off the heights afore, at midfhips, and abaft 3 and- a curve deferibed through thefe three points will be the fheer. But in order that the fheer may correfpond exadfly with the dimenfions laid down, it will be necef- fary to proceed as follows : The perpendicular repre- fenting timber dead flat being already drawn, fet off from that the dillances of the other frame timbers, which is double the room and fpace, as the frames are only every other one 3 and ereft perpendiculars, writing the name under each : then on each of thefe perpen¬ diculars fet off the correfponding heights of the top- timber line taken from the table of dimenfions for con- firlifting the bodies 3 and through thefe points a curve being deferibed, will reprefent the fbeer of the {hip or top-timber line agreeable to the dimenfions. The quarter-deck and forecafile are next to be de¬ feribed, which may be done by taking their refpeftive heights and lengths from the dimenfions, and deferibing their curves. In the fame manner alfo, the round- houfe may be drawn. The decks being deferibed re- prefenting their heights at the middle, it is then ne- ceffary to reprefent them alfo at the fide. For this purpofe take the round of the decks from the dimen¬ fions, and fet them off below' the lower line drawn for the middle3 and a curve deferibed both fore and aft, ob- ferving to let it be rather quicker than the former, will be the reprefentation of the decks at the fide. The ports come next under confideration. In the placing of them due attention muft be paid, fo as to preferve ftrength 3 or that they fhall be fo difpofed as not to weaken the fhip in the lead, which is often done; by cutting off principal timbers, placing them in too large openings, having too fhort timbers by the fide of L 1 2 them, 288 S H I P - B U ^ppi:ca‘:or*them, &c. The frames reprefented by the lines al- 'oin'eKides^ea<^y drawn mud be firft confulted. Then with a V)1 the Cor!- pencil draw two curves, for the lower and upper parts itmdtion ofof the lower deck polls, parallel to the line reprefent- Ships. ing the low’er deck ; the dillances of thefe lines from ^,e are t0 bc taken from the dimenfions, obfer- ving, however, to add to thefe heights the thicknefs of the deck, as the deck line at the lide reprefents the under part of the deck. The foremolt port is then to be deferibed, cbferving to place it as far aft as to give fufficient room for the manger : the molt convenient place will therefore be to put it- between the frames R and T, and equally di- dant from each. It will then be placed in the moll con¬ spicuous point of ftrength, as it will have a long top- timber on the aft fide and a long fourth futtock on the lore fide of it. The fecond port may be placed in like manner between the next two frames, ■which will be be equally well Situated for ftrength a-, the former ; and by proceeding in this manner, the ports on the gun deck may alfo be placed, taking care to have two frames be¬ tween every two ports, all fore and aft. The upper deck ports are then to be deferibed 5 and in order to difpofe of them in the ftrongeft fituation polfible, they mull be placed over the middle between the gun-deck ports, fo that every frame in the fhip will run up to the top of the fide, by their coming between a gun and upper deck port; and every port will be between the frames, which will in a great meafure con¬ tribute towards the ftrength of the (hip. With regard to the ports on the quarter deck, It is not of fuch ma¬ terial confequence if they cut the head of the frame, as in placing them the fitualion of the dead eyes mull be confidered, placing a port where there is a vacancy be¬ tween the dead eyes large enough to admit of one ; ob¬ serving always to place them as nearly as poftible at equal diftances from each other ; and where it happens that they do not fall in the wake of a frame, then that frame muft by all means be carried up to the top of the fide. The neceffary length of the round houfe being de¬ termined in the dimenfions, it may be fetoff; obferving, however, to let it be no longer than is juft fufficient for the necefiary accommodations, as the ftiorter the round-houfe the works abaft may be kept lower, and a low fnug ftern is always accounted the handfomeft. Then fet off the round of the deck at the foremoft end, below the line drawn ; the deck at the fide may be de¬ feribed by another curve drawn quite aft. Now, from the point for the round of the deck to the ftern-timber, draw a curve parallel to the top-timber line, and that will be the, extreme height of the top of the fide abaft, which height continues to range fair along to the fore¬ moft end of the round-houfe, and at that place may have a fall about 14 inches, which may be turned off with a drift fcrpll. At the fore part of the quarter¬ deck, the topfide may have a rife of 14 inches, which may alfo be turned off with a fcroll. But as the raifing of the topfide only 14 inches at that place will not be fufficient to unite with the heights, abaft, it will there¬ fore be neceffary to raife 14 inches more upon that, and break it off with a fcroll inverted c-n the firft fcroll, and continue thefe two lines, parallel to the top timber line, to the diftance of about feven feet aft. At the foxemoft end of the round-houfe there is a break of 14, I L D I N G. inches already mentioned ; and in order to make that tpp'irafkn part uniform with the breaks at the foremoft end of the'ft .the fo,e- quarter-deck, there muft be fet down 14 inches more below the former; and at thefe two heights continue two m-uoHoriVf" curves parallel to the top-timber line, from the aft part Ships, of the ftern to the ends of the two curves already drawn '——v~—■ J at the foremoft end of the quarter-deck. If they ftiould happen not to break in fair with them, they muft be turned off with a round ; but to make them appear more handfome, the lower line may be turned off with a fcroll. Thefe lines being drawn will reprefent the up¬ per edges of the rails. The height of the top fide at the fore part of the flftp muft next be confidered ; which, in order to give proper height for the forecaftle, muft have a rife there of 14 inches, the break being at the after end of the fore¬ caftle, and turned off as before. But as this part of the thip is ftill confiderably lower than the after part, it will be neceffary to give another of eight inches upon the former, and turn it oft' with a fcroll inverted. Hence this part of the fhip will nppeajr more uniform to the al¬ ter part. The finifhing parts, namely the wales, ftern, head, rails, &c. remain to be deferibed. The wales may be firft drawn ; and as the ftrength of the ftiip depends very much on the right placing of them, great care muft therefore be taken that they may be as little as poffible rvounded by tbe low'er deck ports, and to placed that the lower deck bolts fliall bolt in them, and alfo that they come as near as poffible on the broadeft part of the fhip. In the firft place, therefore, the height of breadth lines muft be chofen for our guide. Thefe heights of breadth are to be taken from the di¬ menfions, and fet off on the refpedfive frames, and curves drawn through thefe points will be the upper and lower heights of breadth lines. The height of the wales may be now’ determined ; which in general is in fuch a manner that the upper height of breadth line comes about fix Indies below their upper edge, and the wales are then placed right upon the breadth lines. Take the heights and breadths of the wales afore, at midfhips, and abaft, from the table of dimenfions ; draw curves through the points thus found, and the wales will be reprefented. The channel wales are then to be defciibed. They are principally intended to ftrengthen the top fide, and mufl be placed between the lower and upper deck ports; and the lower end of them at midihips fhould be placed as low as poffible, in order to prevent them from being cut by the upper deck ports afore and abaft. Take their heights and breadths from the dimenfions ; lay them off, and deferibe curves through the correfpond- ing points, and the channel wales will be reprefented. Lay off the dimenfions of the wafte rail found in the table ; and through the points draw a line parallel to the top timber line all fore and aft. This rail terminates the lower part of the paint work on the top fide, as all the work above this nxl is generally painted, and the work of the top fide below it payed with a varnith, ex¬ cept the main wales, which are always payed wdlh pitch. Take the draught of w7ater from the dimenfions, and dra-w the load water-line, which is always done in green. Divide the diflance between the load water-line and the upper edge of the keel into five equal parts, and through thefe points draw four more water-lines, itet .Application of S H I P - 3 U Set off the centres of the mafts on the gun-deck; 010°eRule?t‘r rj^e raay hkewife be taken from the dimenfions. to'the Cot! ^et all° ^ e centre °f the bovvfprit, letting it be ftnwftion of four feet from the deck at the after part of the ftein, Ships, which will give fufficient height for a light and airy fi- ' ^ gure. Drawr the knight-heads fo as to be fufficlently high above the bovvfprit to admit of a chock between them for the better fecurky of the bowfprit. The timber heads may alfo be drawn above the forecahle, obferving to place the molt convenient for the timbers of the frame, feeing thofe which come over the upper deck ports, as they may be allowed long enough to form handfome heads. There fliould be one placed abaft the cat-head, to which the foremoft block is to be bolted, and there may be two ports on the forecaftle formed by them, and placed where it is molt convenient to the dead eyes. Defcribe the channels, taking their lengths and thickneffes from the dimenfions, and place their upper edges well with the lower edge of the llieer rail. The dead eyes may then be drawn, obferving to place them in fuch a manner that the chains may not interfere with the ports •, and the preventer plates mult all be placed on the channel wales, letting them be of fuch a length that the preventer bolt at each end may bolt on each edge of the channel wales. It muil alfo be obferved to give each of the chains -and preventer plates a pro¬ per rake, that is, to let them lie in the direclion of the fhrouds, which may be done in the following man¬ ner : Produce the malt upwards, upon which fet off the length of the malt to the. lower part of the head ; thefe It raight lir.es drawn from that point through the centre of each dead eye will give the direction of the ch ains and preventer braces. The fenders may be then drawn, obferving to place them right abrealt of the main hatchway, in order to prevent the {hip’s fide from being hurt by whatever may be hoilled on board. The proper place for them will therefore be at timber 3 ; and the diitance between them may be regulated by the diflance between the ports. The chelt tree may alfo be drawn, which muft be placed at a proper diflance abaft the foremaft, for the conveniency of hauling home the fore tack. It may therefore be drawn at the aft fide of timber C from the top of the fide down to the upper edge of the channel wales ; and the fenders may reach from the top of the fide down to the upper edge of the main wales. As the fenders and cheft-tree ate on the out- fiJe of the planks, wales, &c. the lines reprefenting the wales, &c. fhould not be drawn through them. Draw the fleps on the fide, which mull be at the fore part of the main drift or break, making them as long as the diftance between the upper and lower deck ports will admit of. They may be about fix inches afunder, and bve inches deep, and continued from the top of the fide down to the middle of the main wales. In order to dtferibe the head, the height of the beak- head mud he firit determined, which may be about two feet above the upper deck. At that place draw a hori¬ zontal line, upon which fet off the length of the beak- head, which may be 7^ feet abaft the fore part of the ftem, and from thence fquare a line up to the fore- enfi’e deck ; which line wnll reprefent the aft part of the beak head, and will likewife terminate the foremaft end I L D I N G. 2$g of the forecafile. The length of the head may nftw be Application AV.* aaw Lilt 1JV.CIU JIJ ajT 1UJ W UC determined, which by the proportions will be found to0^.1^2 fore be 15 feet fix inches from the fore part of the fiem. Set it oft from the fore part of the ftem, and ereft a per- ftruAion of pendicular, which will be the utmoft limits of the figure Ships, forward : then t?.ke the breadth of the figure from the proportions, which is four feet four inches, and fet it off forward ; and another perpendicular being drawn will Ihow the utmoft extent of the hair bracket forward, or alt part of the figure. Then draw the lower cheek, let¬ ting the upper edge be well with the upper edge of the main wales, and the after end ranging well with the beak-head line } fet off the depth of it on the ftem 5 which is about x 1 inches, and let a curved line pafs from the after end through the point on the ftem, and to break in fair with the perpendicular fnft drawn for the length of the head, the fore part of the curve will then reprefent the pofition of the figure. The upper cheek, may next be drawn ; but, in order to know the exaft place of it on the ftem, the place of the. main rail muft firft be fet off on the ftem, the upper- edge of which may be kept on a level with the beak- head 5 then fetling off the depth of it below that, the place for the upper cheek may be determined, letting it be exactly in the middle between that and the lower cheek ; then, by drawing curves for the upper and lower edges of the cheek from the after end parallel to the lower cheek, to break in fair with the perpendicular, drawn for the back of the figure : then the upper cheek vyill be formed. The upper part may run in a ferpen- tine as high as where the Ihoulder of the figure is fuppo- fed to come, at which place it may be turned oft' with a fcroil. The diftance from the fcroll to the heel of the figure is called the hair bracket. I he head of the block may be formed by continuing the line at the breaft round to the top of the hair-brac¬ ket, obferving to keep the top of it about fix inches clear of the under fide of the bowfprit. Having the diftance fet off on the ftem for placing the main rail, it may next be deferibed, keeping the bag of it as level as poflible for the conveniency of the gratings, and letting the foremoft end rife gradually according to the rile of the upper cheek and hair bracket, and may turn off on the round of the fcroll before drawn for the hair-bracket. To form the after end, fet off the lize of the head of the rail abaft the beak-head line, and erect a perpendicular •, then defcribe the arch of a circle from that perpendicular, to break in fair with the lower fide of the rail in the middle, and alfo another from the beak-head perpendicular, to break in fair with the upper fide ot the rail at the middle, obferving to continue the head of it fufficiently high to range with the timber heads above the forecaftle. I he bead timbers are nexttobe drawn, placing the ftem n timber its own thicknefs abaft the ftem, and the foremoft muft be fo placed that the fore fide may be up and down with the heel of the block or figure, which has not yet been fet off.. Take therefore the diftance from the *■ breaft; to the heel on a fquare w’hich is feven feet, and erefl a perpendicular from the lower part of the lower ■ cneek to the lowTer part of the upper cheek *, which per¬ pendicular will terminate the foremoft end of the lowers cheek and the heel of the figure, and will alfo termi¬ nate the lower end of the hair-bracket: then, by conti¬ nuing the fame perpendicular from the upper part cH the v 270 SHIP-BU Application the lower deck to the under part of the main-rail, the 'ujin^Rults^0re t-^ie forem°h head timber will be defcribed ; to'the Con- anc^ ^7 letting off its thicknefs aft, the other fide may ftruiftion tf be drawn. The middle head timber may be fpaced be- Ships. tween the two former ones •, and there may alfo be one 1 timber placed abaft the ftem, at a diftance from the ffem, equal to that between the others, and the lower end of it may itep on the upper edge of the lower rail. To defcribe the middle and lower rails, divide the diftance between the lower part of the main rail and the upper part of the upper cheek equally at every head timber j and curves being defcribed through thefe points will form the middle and lower rails. The alter end of the lower rail muft terminate at the after edge of the after head timber. The cat-head ought to be reprefented in fuch a man¬ ner as to come againft the aft fide of the head of the main rail, to rake forward four inches in a foot, and to fteeve up 54- inches in a foot, and about one foot fix inches fquare. The lower part of it comes on the plank of the deck at the fide, and the fupporter under it muft form a fair curve to break in with the after end of the middle rail. The hawfe holes muft come between the cheeks, which is the moft convenient place for them; but their place fore and aft cannot be exaftly determined until they are laid down in the half-breadth plan. The knee of the head is to project from the breaft of the figure about twro inches $ and particular care muft be taken that in forming it downwards it be not too full, as it is then liable to rub the cable very much : it may there¬ fore have no more fubftance under the lowTer cheek at the heel of the figure than is juft fufficient to admit of the bobftay holes, and may be 34 feet diftant from the ftem at the load wrater-line, making it run in an agreeable fer- pentine line from the breaft down to the third water line, where it may be 14 feet from the ftem. By con¬ tinuing the fame line downwards, keeping it more di¬ ftant from the ftem as it comes down, the gripe wall be formed. The lower part of it muft break in fair with the under part of the falfe keel \ and the breadth of the gripe at the broadeft place will be found by the pro- pot tions to be 44 feet. As the aft part of the gripe is terminated by the fore foot, or foremoft end of the keel, it will now be proper to finiftt that part as fol¬ lows : From the line reprefenting the upper edge of the keel fet down the depth of the keel, through which draw a line parallel to the former, and it will be the low’er edge of the keel. From that point, where the aft fide of the ftem is diftant from the upper edge of the keel by a quantity equal to the breadth of the keel at midfhips, erect a perpendicular, which wall limit the foremoft end of the keel 5 and the after or lower end of the ftem may be reprefented by fetting off the length of the fcarf from the foremoft end of the keel, which may be fix feet. Set down from the line reprefenting the lower edge of the keel the thicknefs of the falfe keel, which is feven inches ; and a line drawn through that point parallel to the lorver edge of the keel will be the under edge of the falfe keel, the foremoft end of which may be three inches afore the foremoft end of the main keel. The head being now7 finifhed, proceed next to the fiern, the fide and middle timbers of which are already drawn. 1 From the fide timber fet off forward 14 feet, 4 I L D I N G. the length of gallery, and draw a pencil line parallel to Applicatlort the fide timber 5 draw' alio a line to interfedt the touch ot .t*1e^or,e* of the upper counter at the fide, producing it forwards parallel to the ftieer as far ais the pencil line firft drawn jftiuftion of and this line will reprelent the upper edge of the gal- Ships, lery rim. From which fet dowm eight inches, the " ' v ‘ breadth of the gallery rail, and draw7 the lower edge of the rail. At the diftance of eight inches from the fore fide of the fide timber diaw a line parallel thereto and from the point of interfedion of this line with the upper edge of the gallery rim, draw a curve to the middle timber parallel to the touches of the upper coun¬ ter, which line will reprefent the upper edge of the up¬ per counter rail as it appears on the fheer draught. The lower edge of this rail may be formed by fetting off its depth from the upper edge. In the fame manner the lower counter rail may be defcribed : then take the diftance betw'een that and the upper counter rail, and fet it off below the rim rail ; and hence the rail that comes to the lower ftool may be drawm, keeping it pa¬ rallel to the rim rail. Underneath that, the lower fi- nifhing may be formed, making it as light and agreeable as pofiible. Set off from the middle timber on the end of the quarter-deck the projedtion of the balcony, wftiich may be about two feet, and draw a line with a pencil paral¬ lel to the middle timber. On this line fet off a point 14 inches below the under fide of the quarter-deck, from which draw a curve to the fide timber parallel to the upper counter rail, which curve will reprelent the lower fide of the foot fpace rail of the balcony as it ap¬ pears in the {beer draught. Take the diftance between the point of interfeftion of the upper edge of the upper counter with the mid¬ dle line, and the point of interfedlion of the under fide of the foot fpace rail w7ith the middle line, which fet up on a perpendicular from the upper edge of the rim rail at the foremoft end. Through this point draw7 a line parallel to the rim rail to interfedf the lowrer part of the foot fpace rail, and this line will reprefent the low7er edge of the rail that comes to the middle ftool, and will anfvver to the foot fpace rail. Then between this line and the rim rail three lights or failles may be drawn, having a muntin or pillar between each light of about 14 inches broad, and the low7er gallery will be finiftied. Set off the depth of the middle ftool rail above the line already drawn for the lower edge, and the upper edge may be drawn. Then fet off the fame depth above the curve drawn for the lowTer edge of the foot fpace rail, and the upper edge of that rail may then be drawn. The quarter-piece muft be next defcribed, the heel of which muft ftep on the after end of the middle ftool. Draw a line with a pencil parallel to the middle timber, and at a diftance therefrom, equal to the projedlion of the balcony. Upon this line fet up from the round- houfe deck the height of the upper part of the ftern or taff rail, which may be four feet above the deck. At that height draw with a pencil a horizontal line, and from its interfedlion with the line firft drawn defcribe a curve to the middle ftool rail, obferving to make the lower part of this curve run nearly parallel to the fide timber, and the low7er part about three inches abaft the fide timber •, and this curve vdll reprefent the aft fide of the quarter-piece at the outfide. There fet off the thick- SHIP-BUILDING. Application nefs gf the quarter-piece, which is one foot fix inches, ^oin^Rul'~ a^ore t^le curve already drawn j and another curve be- foTh-= Con- defcrihed parallel to it from the lower part to the ftrudHon of top of the fiieer, and the quarter-piece at the outfide Ships. will be reprefented. On the horizontal line drawn for v" ■■■' the upper part of the tafF-rail fet off forward the thick- nefs of the tafF-rail, which is one foot; then draw a curve down to the head of the quarter-piece parallel to the firfl, and that part of the taff-rail will be defcribed. Infiead of a fair curve, it is cufiomary to form the upper part of the taff-rail with one or two breaks, and their curves inverted. Either way may, however, be ufed according to fancy. Set off the depth of the taff-rail, which may be about 3^- feet, on the line drawn for the projection ; from the upper part, and from this point, defcribe a curve as low as the heel of the quarter-piece, and about five inches abaft it at that place ; obferving to make it run nearly parallel to the after edge of the quarter-piece ; and the after part of the quarter-piece, wrhich comes neareft to the fide, will be reprefented. Set up on the line drawn for the projection of the balcony the height of the upper part of the balcony or bread rail, which is 3^ feet from the deck ; fet off the thicknefs of the rail below that, and defcribe the balco¬ ny, keeping it parallel to the foot fpace rail, and termi¬ nating it at the line drawn for the after part of the quar¬ ter-piece neareft the fide ; and the whole balcony will then be reprefented. The upper gallery is then to be defcribed. In order to this, its length muff be determined, which may be 11 feet» Set off this diftance from the fide timber for¬ ward with the fheer •, and at this point draw a line pa¬ rallel to the fide timber, which line will reprefent the fore part of the gallery. Then take the diftance be¬ tween the upper part of the foot fpace rail and the up¬ per part of the breaft rail on a perpendicular, and fet it off on a perpendicular from the upper part of the middle itool rail on the line drawn for the fore part of the gal¬ lery, from which to the fore part of the quarter-piece draw a ftraight line parallel to the rail below, which line will be the upper edge of the upper rim rail ; and its thicknefs being fet off, the lower edge may alfo be drawn. From the upper edge of that rail fet up an ex¬ tent equal to the diftance between the lower rim rail and middle ftool rail, and defcribe the upper ftool rail, the after end of which will be determined by the quar¬ ter-piece, and the fore end by the line for the length of the gallery. There may be three falhes drawn between thefe two rails as before ; and hence the upper gallery will be formed. The upper finilhing fhould be next drawn, the length of which may be if foot lefs than the upper gallery. Draw a line parallel to the rake of the ftern for the fore end of it, and let the. upper part of the lop fide be the upper part of the upper rail, from which fet down three inches for the thicknefs of the rail, and defcribe it. Defcribe alfo another rail of the fame length and thick¬ nefs as the former, and eight inches below } from the end of which a ferpentine line mav be drawn down to the upper ftool rail, and the upper finilhing will be com¬ pleted. The ftevn being now finlfhed, the rudder only re¬ mains to be drawn. The breadth of the rudder at the lower part is tc be determined from the proper liens, and 271 fet off from the line reprefenting the aft part of the Application ftern-poft 5 which line alio reprefents the fore part of the rudder. Then determine on the lower hance, ting it be no higher than is juft fufficient, which may beftru&ion of about one foot above the load water-line, and fet off its Ships, breadth at that place taken from the proportions. Then *—-“v'—’*-* a line draw from thence to the breadth fet off at the lower part will be the aft fide of the rudder below the lower hance. There may alfo be another hance about the height of the lower deck. The ufe of thefe breaks or hances is to reduce the breadth as it rifes toward the head. The aft part may be drawn above the lower hance, the break at the lower hance being about ten inches, and the break at the upper hance fix inches.—- The back may be then drawn. It is of elm, about four inches thick on the aft part. That thicknefs be¬ ing fet off, and a line drawn from the lower hance to the lower end, will reprefent the back. The head of the rudder flrould be as high as to receive a tiller above the upper deck. Therefore fet off the fize of the head above the upper deck, and draw a line from thence to the break at the upper hance, and the aft part of the rudder will be reprefented all the way up. The beard¬ ing Ihould be drawn, by felting off the breadth of it at the keel from the fore fide of the rudder, which may be nine inches. Set off alfo the breadth at the head of the wing tranfom, which may be a foot. Then a line » being drawn through thefe two points, from the lower part of the rudder to about a foot above the wing tran¬ fom, and the bearding will be reprefented. As the bearding is a very nice point, and the working of the rudder depending very much upon it, it Ihould always be very particularly confidered. It has been cuftomary to beard the rudder to a ftiarp edge at the middle line, by which the main piece is reduced more than neceffary. The rudder Ihould, however, be bearded from the fide of the pintles, and the fore fide made to the form of the pintles. The pintles and braces may next be drawn. In order to which determine the place of the upper one, which muft be fo difpofed that the ftraps fliall come round the head of the ftandard, which is againit the head of the ftern-poft on the gun-deck, and meet at the middle line. By this means there is double fecurity both to the brace and ftandard. To obtain thofe advantages, it muff therefore be placed about four inches above the wing tranfom : the lecond muft be placed juft below the gun- deck fo as to bolt in the middle of the deck tranibm, and the reft ‘may be fpaced equally between the lower one, which may be.about fix inches above the upper edge of the keel. The number of them is generally feven pair upon this clafs of (hips j but the number may¬ be regulated by the diftance between the fecond and up¬ per one, making the diftance between the reft; nearly the fame. The length of all the braces will be found by felting off the length of the lower one, which may be eight feet afore the back of the ftern-poft, and alfo the length of the third, which is four feet and a half afore the back of the Itern-poft ; and a line drawn from the one extremity to the other will limit the intermedi¬ ate ones, as will appear on the ftieer draught. The braces -will feem to diminifti in length very much as they go up; but when meafured or viewed on the fiiape of the body, they will be nearly of an equal length. The length of the firaps of the pintles which come £7'2 H I P - B U I L D X N G. a prlication come upon •o; the fore- tj,e prt Rules tVie rudder mny all be within four inches fide of the rudder; and the rudder be- vo the Con- iuo a ^at furface» ^iey will all appear of the proper -iirudlion of lengths. Slup?. II. Of the ha If threadth and body plans.—The half- w p}an nr.utl pe fifti drawn. Then produce the lower edge of the keel both ways, and let it alfo rcpre- fent the middle line of the half-breadth plan. Produce all the frames downwards, and alio the fore and after perpendiculars. Then from the place in the (beer-plan, where the height of breadth-lines interfedl the ilem, (quare down to the middle line the fore and aft part of the rabbet and the fore part of the ilem. Take from the dimenfions what the Hem is fidcd at that place, and fet off half of it from the middle line in the half-breadth plan, through which draw a line parallel to the middle line through the three lines fquared down, and the half breadth of the Hem will be reprefented in the half¬ breadth plan. Take the thicknefs of the plank of the bottom which is 4-’- inches, and defcribe the rabbet of the Hem in the half-breadth plan. From the points of interfeftion of the height of breadth lines with the counter timber at the fide, and with the counter timber at the middle line, draw lines perpendicular to the middle line of the half-breadth plan, from which fet off the half breadth of the counter on the line firff drawn ; and from this point to the inter- feflion of the line lafi drawn, with the middle line draw a curve, and the half breadth of the counter will be re¬ prefented at the height of breadth, which wall be the broadeft part of the Hern. Take the main half breadth of timber dead flat from the dimenfions, and lay it off from the middle line on dead flat in the half-breadth plan. Take alfo from the dimenfions the main half breadth of every timber, and fet off each from the middle line on the correfponding timbers in the half-breadth plan. Then a curve drawn from the end of the line reprefenting the half breadth of the counter through all the points, fet oft on the tim¬ bers, and terminating at the aft part of the Hern, will be the main half-breadth line. Take from the dimen¬ fions the top-timber half breadth, and defcribe the top- timber half-breadth line in the half-breadth plan, in the fame manner as the main half-breadth line. Take from the dimenfions the half breadth of the ri¬ ling, and fet it off from the middle line on the corre¬ fponding timbers in the half-breadfh plan, obferving, where the word outjide is expreffed in the tables, the half breadth for that timber muff be fet oft' above or on the outfide of the middle line. Then a curve drawn through thefe points wall be the half breadth of riling in the half-breadth plan. . It will now be neceffary to proceed to the body plan, ccccxcn. I^raw a horizontal line (fig. 35.), which is called the Fig. bafe line, from the right hand extremity of which ere£t a perpendicular. Then fet off on the bafe line the main half breadth at dead flat, and ereft another per¬ pendicular, and from that fet eff the main half breadth again, and ereft a third perpendicular. The firft per¬ pendicular, as already .obferved, is called the fide line of the fore body •, the fecond the middle line y and the third the fide line of the after body. * Take from the dimenfions the heights of the diago¬ nals up the middle line, and fet them from the bafe up thg middle line in the body plan, Take alfo their di- 3 fiances from the middle line on the bafe* and fet them Applifatisc off. Set off alfo their heights up the fide lines, and07t‘14^8^ draw the diagonals. Then take from the fheer plan the heights of the lower height of breadth line, and fet them (t,u6tiou of off upon the middle line in the body plan ; through Ship', thefc points lines are to be drawn parallel to the bafe,' ““v and terminating at the fide lines. In like manner pro¬ ceed with the upper height of breadth line. The riling is next to be fet off on the body plan ; it mufl, however, be firft deferibed in the ftieer plan : Take, therefore, the heights from the dimenfions, and fet them off on the correfponding timbers in the (beer plan, and a curve deferibed through thefe points will be the fifing line in the (heer plan. Then take from the dimenfions the riling heights of dead flat. Set it off in the body plan, and draw a horizontal line. Now take all the riling heights from the Iheer plan, and fet them off in the body plan from the line drawn for the rifing height of dead flat, and draw horizontal lines through thefe points. Take from the half-breadib plan the half breadths of the rifing, and fet them off from the middle line in the body plan, and the centres of the floor fweeps of the correfponding timbers will be obtained. From the half-breadth plan take the main half- breadth lines, and fet them off from the middle line in the body plan on the correfponding lines before drawn for the lower height of breadth ; and from the extremi¬ ties of thefe lines fet off towards the middle line the lengths of the lower breadth fweeps refpe&ively. Take from the dimenfions the diftance of each frame from the middle line on the diagonals, and fet them off from the middle line on their refpeftive diagonal lines. Now thefe diftances being fet off, and the lower breadth and floor fweeps defciibed, the Ihape of the frames be¬ low the breadth line may eafily be drawn as follows : Place one point of a compafs in the diftance fet off for the length of the lower breadth fweep, and extend the other to the point which terminates the breadth, and defcribe an arch of a circle downwards, which will in- terfedl the points fet off on the upper diagonal lines, letting it pafs as low as convenient. Then fik one point of the compaftes i*n the centre of the floor fweep, and extend the other to the point fet off on the fourth diago¬ nal, which is the floor head •, and defcribe a circle to interfeft as many of the points fet off on the diagonals as it will. Then draw a curve from the back of the lower breadth fweep, through the points on the diago¬ nals, to the back of the floor fweep. Defcribe alfo another curve from the back of the floor fweep through the points on the lower diagonals, and terminating at the upper part of the rabbet of the keel, and that part of the frame below the breadth will be formed. In like manner deferibe the other frames. Through the extremities of the frames at the low'er height of breadth draw lines parallel to the middle line, and terminating at the upper height of breadth line, and from thence fet off the upper breadth fweeps •, now fix one point of the compafs in the centres of the upper breadth fweeps fucceflively, and the other point to the extremities of the frames, and deferibe circles upwards. Then from the fheer plan take off the heights of the top-timber lines, and fet them off in the body plan, drawing horizontal lines ; upon which fet off the top- timber half breadths taken from the correfpoading tim¬ bers 5 H I P - B U Apptieatlonbers in tbe h£ilf-breatlth plan j and by dcfcribing curves of the fore- from jjacj, 0f jj-jg Upper breadth fweeps through the fo the Con6-5 P0,nts ^et on t^e Seventh or upper diagonal j and in- (trudtion of terfedling the top-timber half-breadths, the timbers will Ships. then be formed from the keel to the top of the fide. *~y " The upper end of the timbers may be determined by- taking the feveral heights of the upper part of the top fide above the top-timber line, and fetting them off above the top-timber line on the correfponding timbers in the body plan. The lower parts of the timbers are ended at the rabbet of the keel as follows : With an ex¬ tent of four inches and a half, the thicknefs of the bot¬ tom, and one leg of the compaffes at the place where the line for the thicknefs of the keel interfedls the bafe line ; with the other leg defcribe an arch to interfeft the keel line and the bafe. Then fix one point at the inter- fe&ion of the arch and keel, and from the point of in- terfeftion of the keel and bafe defcribe another arch to interfedl the former. Then from the interfedlion of thefe arches draw one ftraight line to the interfedlion of the keel and bafe, and another to the interfeftion of the lower arch and the keel, and the rabbet of the keel will be deferibed at the main frame. All the timbers in the middle part of the {hip which have no rifing ter¬ minate at the interfeftion of the upper edge of the rab¬ bet with the bafe line ; but the lower part of the tim¬ bers, having a rifing, end in the centre of the rabbet, that is, where the two circles interfeft. Thofe timbers which are near the after end of the keel muff be ended by fetting off the half breadth of the keel at the port in the half-breadth plan, and defcribe the tapering of the keel. Then at the correfponding timbers take off the half breadth of the keel; fet it off in the body plan, and defcribe the rabbet as before, letting every timber end where the two circles for its refpeftive rabbet in- terfedt. To defcribe the fide counter or ftern timber, take the height of the wing tranfom, the lower counter, up¬ per counter, and top-timber line at the fide; from the {beer plan transfer them to the body plan, and through thele points draw horizontal lines. Divide the diftance between the wing tranfom and lower counter into three equal parts, and through the two points of divifion draw two horizontal lines. Draw alfo a horizontal line equidiftant from the upper counter and the top-timber line in the Iheer plan, and transfer them to the body plan. Nqw, from the point of interfeftion of the aft fide of the ftern timber at the fide, with the wing tranfom at the fide in the fheer plan, draw a line perpendicular to the middle line in the half-breadth plan. Draw alfo perpendicular lines from the points where the upper and lower tranfoms touch the ftern-poft ; from the points of interfeflion of the ftern timber with the two horizontal lines drawn between, and from the interfeftion of the ftern timber with the horizontal line drawn between the upper counter and top-timber line. Then curves muft be formed in the half-breadth plan for the ftrape of the body at each of thefe heights. In order to which, be¬ gin with the horizontal or level line reprefenting the height of the wing tranfom in the body plan. Lay a flip of paper to that line, and mark on it the middle line and the timbers 37, 35, 33, and 29 ; transfer the flip to the half-breadth plan, placing the point marked on it for the middle line exa&ly on the middle in the Vol. XIX. Part I. I L D I N G. half-breadth plan, and fet off the half breadths on the correfponding timbers 37, 35, 33, and 29, and defcribe a curve through thefe points, and to interfed the per¬ pendicular drawn from the fheer plan. In like manner proceed with the horizontal lines at the heights of the counters, between the lower counter and wing tranfom, above the upper counter and top-timber line j and from the interfedlions of the curve drawn in the half-breadth plan, with the perpendicular lines drawn from the flieer plan, take the diftances to the middle line, and fet them off on the correfponding lines in the body plan ; then a curve deferibed through the feveral points thus fet off will be the reprefentative of the ftern timber. 'I he round-up of the wing tranfom, upper and lower counter, may be taken from the (beer draught, and fet off at the middle line above their refpedtive level lines in the body plan, by which the round-up of each may be drawn. The round aft of the wing tranfom may alfo be taken from the (beer plan, and fet off at the middle line, abaft the perpendicular for the wing tran¬ fom in the half-breadth plan, whence the round aft of the wing tranfom may be deferibed. Ihe after body being now finiftied, it remains to form the fore body; but as the operation is nearly the fame in both, a repetition is therefore unneceffary, ex¬ cept in thofe parts which require a different procefs. The foremoft timbers end on the ftem, and confe- quently the method of deferibing the ending of them differs from that ufed for the timbers ufed in the after body. Draw a line in the body plan parallel to the middle line, at a diftance equal to the half of what the ftem is fided. In the ftieer plan take the height of the point of interfeftion of the lower part of the rabbet of the ftem with the timber which is required to be ended, and fet it off on the line before drawn in the body plan. Then take the extent between the points of interfeflion of the timber with the lower and upper parts of the rabbet, and with one leg of the compaffes at the extremity of the diftance laid off in the body plan defcribe a circle, and the timbers may then pafs over the back of this circle. Now, by applying a {mail fquare to the timber, and letting the back of it in- terfedt the point fet off for the lower part of the rabbet, the lower part of the rabbet and the ending of the timbers will be deferibed. The foremoft timbers differ alfo very much at the head from thofe in the after body : For fince the ftiip carries her breadth fo far forward at the top-timber line, it therefore occafions the two foremoft frames to fall out at the head beyond the breadth, whence they are called knuckle timbers. They are thus deferibed z The height of the top-timber line being fet off in the body plan, fet off on it the top half breadth taken from the half-breadth plan, and at that place draw a perpen¬ dicular 5 then from the flieer plan take the height of the top of the fide, and fet it off on the perpendicular in the body plan : Take alfo the breadth of the rail at the top-timber line in the ftieer plan, and fet it off be¬ low the top-timber line at the perpendicular line in the body plan, and the ftraight part of the knuckle timber to be drawn will be determined. Then from the lafi- mentioned point fet off defcribe a curve through the points fet off for the timber down to the upper breadth, and the whole knuckle timber will be formed. It will M in hence 273 Application oi the fore¬ going Rules to the Con- ftruction of Ships. 274 S H I P - B U Application hence be feen tlrat lliofe timbers forward will fall out ^oin'^Rides beyonc^ tbe 111 a'n breadth with a hollow, contrary to the to'the Con- re^ t^e toP ^e> which falls within the main breadth flru&ion of with a hollow. Ships. The fore and after bodies being now formed, the wa- J ter lines muft next be defcribed in the half-breadth plan, in order to prove the fairnefs of the bodies. In this draught the water lines are all reprefented parallel to the keel; their heights may, therefore, be taken from the Iheer plan, and transferred to the body plan, draw¬ ing horizontal lines, and the water lines will be repre¬ fented in the body plan. In (hips that draw more wa¬ ter abaft than afore, the water lines will not be parallel to the keel; in this cafe, the heights muft be taken at every timber in the ftieer plan, and fet off on their cor- relponding timbers in the body plan j and curves being defcribed through the feveral points, will reprefent the water lines in the body plan. Take the diftances from the middle line to the points where the water lines interfefd the different timbers in the body plan, and fet them off on their correlponding timbers in the half-breadth plan. From the points where the water lines in the ftieer plan interfedl the aft part of the rabbet of the flernpoft draw perpendi¬ culars to the middle line of the half-breadth plan, and upon thefe perpendiculars fet oft' from the middle line the half thicknefs of the fternpoft at its correiponding water line •, which may be taken from the body plan, by fetting off the fize of the poft at the head and the keel, and drawing a line for the tapering of it ; and where the line fo drawn interfcfls the water lines, that will be the half thicknefs required : then take an extent in the compaffes equal to the thicknefs of the plank, and fix one point where the half thicknefs of the poft in- terfefls the perpendicular, and with the other defcribe a circle, from the back of which the water lines may . pafs through their refpeftive points fet oft', and end at the fore part of the half-breadth plan, proceeding in the fame manner as wdth the after part. A line drawn from the water line to the point fet off for the half thicknefs of the poft will reprefent the aft part of the rabbet of the poft •, and in like manner the rabbet of the ftem may be reprefented. The water lines being all defcribed, it will be feen if the body is fair j and if the timbers require any alteration, it fhould be complied with. The cant-timbers of the after body may next be de¬ fcribed in the half-breadth plan ; in order to which the cant of the fafhion-piece muft firft be reprefented. Ha¬ ving therefore the round aft of the wing tranfom re¬ prefented in the half-breadth plan, and alfo the ftiape of a level line at the height of the wing tranfom ; then fet off the breadth of the wing tranfom at the end, which is one foot four inches, and that will be the place where the head of the faftiion-piece wall come : now to determine the cant of it, the fhape of the body muft be confidered ; as it muff be canted in fuch a manner as to preferve as great a ftraightnefs as is poflible for the fhape of the timber, by which means the timber will be much ftronger than if it were crooked •, the cant muft alfo be confidered, in order to let the timber have as little bevelling as poflible. Let, therefore, the heel of the timber be fet off on the middle line, two feet afore timber 35 ; and then drawing a line from thence to the point fet off on the level line for the wing tranfom, the I L B I N G. cant of the fafliion-piece will be defcribed, and will be Application found fituated in the beft manner poflible to anfwer the01 lt:,e berore mentioned purpoies. ,0 t,“ Coi)_ The cant of the faftiion-piece being reprefented, the ftuufhoricf cant of the other timbers may now be eafily determi- Ship?, ned. Let timber 29 be the foremoft cant timber in the after body, and with a pencil draw timber 28 ; then obferve- how many frames there are between timber 28 and the faftiion-piece, which will be found to be nine, namely, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, and 37. Now divide the diflance between timber 28 and the falhion- piece on the middle line into 10 equal parts : Divide al¬ io the correfponding portion of tiie main half-breadth lines into the fame number of equal parts ; and ftraight lines joining the coirefponding points at the middle line with thofe in the hall-breadth line will reprefent the cant timbers in the after body. The line drawn for the cant of the fafliion-piece re- prefents the aft fide of it, which comes to the end of the tranfoms ; but in order to help the cenverfion with regard to the lower tranfems, there may be two more fafliion-pieces abaft the former •, therefore the foremoft faftiion-piece, or that which is already defcribed in the half-breadth plan, may only take the ends of the three upper tranfoms, which are, the wing, filling, and deck : the middle fafhion-piece may take the four next, and the after fafhion-piece the lower ones: therefore fet off in the half-breadth plan the Tiding of the middle and after fafliion-piece, which may be 13 inches each ; then by drawing lines parallel to the foremoft fafhion-piece, at the aforefaid diftance from each other, the middle and after falhion-piece will be reprefented in the half-breadth plan. The fafliion-piece and tranfoms yet remain to be re- prefented in the (beer plan ; in order to which, let the number of tranfoms be determined, which, for lo large a buttock, may be feven below the deck tranfom : draw them with a pencil, beginning with the wing, the upper fide of which is represented by a level line at its height j fet off its fiding below that, and draw a level line for the lower edge. The filling tranfom follows; which is merely for the purpofe of filling the vacancy between the under edge of the wing and the upper part of the deck plank : it may therefore be reprefented by draw¬ ing two level lines for the upper and lower edge, leaving about two inches between the upper edge and lower edge of the wing tranfom, and four inches between the lower edge of the gun-deck plank ; then the deck tran¬ fom muft be governed by the gun-deck, letting the un¬ der fide of the gun-deck plank reprefent the upper fide of it, and fetting off its fiding below that ; the under edge may alfo be drawn : the tranforas below the deck may all be fided equally, which may be 11 inches j they muft alfo have a fufficient diftance between to admit the circulation of the air to preferve them, which may be about three inches. The tranfoms being now drawn with a pencil, the fa¬ fliion-piece muft next be defcribed in the fheer plan, by which the length of the tranfoms as they appear in that plan will be determined. As the foremoft fafliion- piece reaches above the upper tranfom, it may therefore be firft defcribed : in order to wdiich, draw a fufficient number of level lines in the fheer plan 5 or, as the wa¬ ter lines are level, draw therefore one line between the upper water line and the wing tranfom, and one above S H I P - B U Application the wins trauioiTi at the intended height of the head of the fore- 0f t}le faihion-piece, which may be about five feet: then going Rules ^ ftdidit. of ihefe two level lines, and transfer ftruftion of them to the body plan 5 and take off two or three tim- Ships. bers and run them in the half-breadth plan, in the fame w—-v manner as the water lines were done , then from the point where the line drawn for the cant of the faihion- piece, in the half-breadth plan, interfeefs the level line drawn for the head of the faihion-piece, draw up a per¬ pendicular to the faid line in the Iheer plan, making a point. Again, from the interfeclion of the cant line, with the level line for the wing tranfom in the half- breadth plan, draw a perpendicular to the wing tranfom in the Iheer plan. Alfo draw perpendiculars from the points where the cant line in the half-breadth plan in- terfedfs the level line below the wing tranfom, and alfo the water lines to the correfponding lines in the Iheer plan ; then a curve deferibed through thefe points will be the reprefentation of the foremoft faihion-piece in the Iheer plan. In the fame manner the middle and after falhion-pieces may be deferibed 5 obferving to let the middle one run up no higher than the under part of the deck tranfom, and the after to the under fide of the fourth tranfom under the deck. The tranfoms may now be drawn with ink, as their lengths are limited by the falhion-pieces. Neither the head nor the forefide of the Iternpolt are yet deferibed ; take, therefore, from the dimenfions, the breadth of the poll on the keel, and fet it off on the upper edge of the keel from the aft fide of poll. I he head of the poll mull next be determined, which mull juft be high enough to admit of the helm-poll tranfom and the tiller coming between it and the upper deck beam 5 the height therefore that is neceffary will be one foot nine inches above the wing tranfom. Now draw a level line at that height, upon which fet off the breadth of the fternpoft at that place, taken from the dimen¬ fions, and a line drawn from thence to the point fet off on the keel will be the forefide of the fternpoft •, obfer¬ ving, however, not to draw the line through the tran¬ foms, as it will only appear between them. The inner poll may be drawn, by fetting off its tbicknefs forward from the fternpoft, and drawing a ftraight line as be¬ fore, continuing it no higher than the under fide of the wing tranfom. The cant timbers in the after body being deferibed, together with the parts dependent on them, thofe in the fore body may be next formed •, in order to which, the foremoft and aftermoft cant timbers mull be firft deter¬ mined, and alfo the cant of the foremoft ones. The foremoft cant timber will extend fo far forward as to be named ^; the cant on the middle line may be one foot four inches afore fquare timber W, and on the main half breadth line one foot nine inches afore timber Y 5 in which fituation the line may be drawn for the cant ; the aftermoft may be timber Q. The cant timbers may now be deferibed in the fame manner as thofe in the after body, namely, by (pacing them equally be¬ tween the cant timber ferving 2/8 S H I P - B u Application ferving to keep the beams upon one-deck as nearly as °oin'x Rutf"- P0^ble over ^ie beams of the other, for the conve- to Tlfe Con-5 Iliency of pillaring, as they will then fupport each ftrucftion of Other. Ships. The hatchways are to be placed exactly over thofe ^ ^ on the lower deck, each over each ; and therefore, where there is a beam arm in the lower deck there mult alfo be one above it in the upper deck, and the lame in the middle deck in three-deck (hips. It com¬ monly happens in flaps of the line that there cannot be a whole beam between the deck breaft hook and the beam that fupports the itep of the bowfprit, becaufe the bowfprit paffes through that place: in this cafe, there muft be a beam arm placed, letting the end come equal¬ ly between the beam and the bi-eaft hook : but in blips that the bowfprit will allow7 of a whole beam, then the ports and the relt of the beams mult be confulted in or¬ der to fpace it; and w'hen it fo happens that the fore mall comes in the wake of a port, then a beam arm muft be neceffarily introduced. Having placed the beams according to the difpofi- tion of the other beams below7, the ladderways fhould be contrived : there ftiould be one next abaft the fore hatchway, which is a ftngle laddemay , and one next afore the main hatch, which is a double ladderway •, the ladders Handing the fore and aft w7ay. There Ihould alfo be another ne^t abaft the after hatch, and one over the cockpit correfponding with that on the lower deck. The capftans are next to be confidered ; the after one is already placed on the lower deck, the barrel of which muft pafs through the upper deck to receive the whelps and drumhead there, it being a double capftan. In (hips having three decks, the upper part of each capftan is in the middle deck ; but in fhips with one deck there is only this one capftan, the upper part of which is placed on the quarter deck. The foremoft capftan Ihould be placed in the molt convenient fpot, to admit of its being lowered down to the orlop out of the way of the long boat: it may7 therefore be placed between the main and fore hatchways the beam under the fixth port of the low7er deck may form the aft fide of its room, and the beams on each fide of it fhould be placed exactly over or under the beams on the other decks, and they (hould be at a diftance from each other fufficient to let the drumheads pafs between them. The centre of the capftan Ihould then be placed in the middle between the beams which compofe its reomj and the partners flrould be fitted in fuch a manner as to fhift occafionally when wanted, which is by letting them be in two pieces fitted together. The partners on the low7er deck, wherein the capfian fteps, muft be fupport- ed by a pillar on the orlop deck, the lower part of which may be fitted in an oak chock ; fo that when the pillar is taken away, and the capftan lowered dowm, that chock ferves as a ftep for the capftan. Thofe two beams on the orlop, by having the pillar and chock upon them, have therefore the whole w7eight of the capftan prefting downwards : for the fupport of them, there fhould be a carling placed underneath the fere and aft w7ay, with three pillars, one under each beam, and one between7, all of them being ftept in the kelfon, by which the orlop deck will be well fupported in the wake of the capftan, and the other decks -will feel no ftraln from it. 2 l L b l N G. The fire hearth is next to be difpofed} which is Application placed differently according to the fize of the Ihip. Inn; ihefoie- three-deckers it is found moil convenient to place it on the middle deck ; whence there is much more room un- ftruftion of der the forecaftle than there would have been had it Shirs, been placed there. In all two-deck flaps it is placed un- 1~"—w— •' der the forecaftle, becaule on the deck underneath the bits are in the way. It is alfo under the forecaftle in one-deck flaps, though confined between the bits: in this cafe it fliould be kept as near as poflible to the after bits, that there may be more room between it and the fore¬ moft bits to make a good galley. The pofitions of the niain-topfail-flieet bits are next to be determined ; the foremoft of which muft be fo placed as to let its forefide come againft the aft fide of the beam abaft the main hatchway, and to pafs down to the lower deck, and there fiep in the beams : admit¬ ting it to be a ftiaight piece, it would come at the aft fide of the lower deck beam the fame as it does at the upper deck beam, in confequence of thofe two beams ranging well up and down with each other : it muft therefore have a call under the upper deck beam, by which the lower part may be brought forward fufficient to flop in the lower deck beam. The aftermoft muft be placed againft the forefide of the beam abaft the mart, and ftep on the beam below ; but there is no ne- ceflity to provide a crooked piece as before, for the beam of the upper deck may be moved a little farther aft, till it admit of the bit Hopping on the lower deck beam, unlefs the beam comes under a port, as in that eafe it muft not by any means be moved. The crofs pieces to the bits ffiould be on the forefide, and in height from the upper deck about one-third of the height between it and the quarter deck. With regard to the heads of the bits, the length of the flrip’s.wafie fliould be confidered ; and if there is length enough from the forecaflle to the foremofl bits to admit of the fpare geer being flowed thereon without reaching far¬ ther aft, the quarter deck may then run fo far forward that the head7 of the foremoft bits fhall tenon in the foremoft beam •, this gives the mainmaft another deck, and admits of the quarter deck being all that the longer : but if there is not the room before mentioned, then the quarter deck muft run no further forward than the after bits, w7hich will then tenon in the foremoft beam ; and the foremoft bits muft have a crofs piece let on their heads, which is termed a horfe, and will be for the pur- pofe of receiving the ends ol the fpare geer. The length of the quarter deck being now deter¬ mined, the beams are then to be placed. For this pur- pofe the feveral contrivances in the quarter deck muft be previoufiy confulted. It is neceffary to obferve, that there are neither carlings nor lodges, the cal lings of the hatches excepted, in the quarter deck, tound-boufe, and forecaftle ; as they would weaken inftead of ftrengthen- ing the beams, which fliould be as fmall as the fize of the fhip will permit, in order that the upper works may be as light as pcffible. Hence, as there are to be nei¬ ther carlings nor lodges, the deck will require a greater number of beams, and a good round up, as cn the con¬ trary the deck will be apt to bend with its own weight. The moft appi'oved rule is therefore to have double the number of beams in the quarter deck as there are in a fpace of the fame length in the upper deck. Then proceed to ffiift the beams to the beft advan¬ tage, Application tage, confulting the hatchways, ladder-ways, mads, bits, of the fore- wheel, &c. With refped to the ladder-ways on the going £uiesquarter decks of all {hips, there fnould be one near the ftru'fhon 0f fore part of the great cabin for the officers, and an- Ships. other near the foremoit end of the quarter deck, con- v filling of double ladders for the conveyance of the men up from the other decks in cafes of emergency ; and Jikewife one on each fide of the fore part of the quarter deck from the gangway : and in every th; p of the line all the beams from the foremoit ladder-way to the awer one fhould be open with gratings, botu for the admiffion of air, and for the greater expedition of conveying diffe¬ rent articles in the time of acihon. Two fcuttles are to be diCpofed one on each fide of the mainmaft, if it happens to come through the quar¬ ter deck, for the top tackles to pafs through, to hook to the eye bolts drove in the upper deck tor that pur- P°fe. The (leering wheel fhould be placed under the fore¬ part of the roundhoufe, and the two beams or the quar¬ ter deck, which come under it, fhould be .placed con¬ formable to the two uprights, fo that they may tenon in them. The quarter deck beams fhould oe kneed at each end with one hanging and one lodging knee j which adds greatly to the ftrength of the fide. Ine hanging knees which come in the great caoin may be of iron 5 their vertical arms to be "two-thirds of the length of that of wood, and to reach the fpirketing. It fhould be obferved, that the beam abaft, which comes under the fereen bulkhead, fhould round aft agreeable to the round of the bulkhead, for the fupport of the lame. . The forecaflle beams fhauld be placed according as the works of the deck will admit. 1 lie hatchways are therefore to be confidered firil. ihere fhouid be one for the funnel of the fire hearth to pafs through, and one for the copper to admit of vent for the (learn j ana alfo one or two over the galley as the forecaitle will admit of. The fore-topfail-fheet bits fhould be fo dif- pofed as to come one pair on the fore and one on tne aft fide of the mall, to let into the fide of the forecaftle beams, and flep on the upper deck beams below : there fhould alfo be a ladder-way at the fore part of the fore¬ caftle for the conveniency of the fore part of the (hip. The beams may now be placed agreeable thereto, their number being four move than there are in a fpace in the upper deck equal in length to the forecaftle j and where there happens to be a wide opening between the beams, as in the cafe of a hatchway, maft room, &c. then half a beam of fir may be introduced to make good the deficiency. The foremoft beam fhould be of a breadth fufficient to take the aft fide of the inboard arms of the catheads, as they are fecured upon this beam by being bolted thereto. Every beam of the forecaftle fhould be kneed at each end with one hanging and one lodging knee ‘ the vertical arms of the hanging knees fliould reach the fpirketing, and the knees well bolted and carefully clenched. Proceed to the roundhoufe ; the fame things being obferved with refpeff to the beams as in the quarter deck : for as the roundhoufe beams are fided very fin all, it hence follows that they muft be near to each other. Let therefore the number of beams on the roundhoufe be four more than in the fame length of the quarter SHIP-BUILDING. 279 deck ; every other beam being of nr for hghtnefs, and Application every oak beam may be kneed at each end with one hanging and one lodging knee ; the hanging knees abaft(.”n^3 may be of iron, their vertical arms to be in length two ftm<51 ion of thirds of thofe of wood. The roundhoufe ffiould always Ships, have a great round up, both for ftrength and convenien- v J cy. There muft be on the roundhoufe a ftnall pair of knee-bits on each fide of the mizenmaft, turned round and fcarfed over each other, and bolted through the maft carlings. There muft alfo he a companion on the round- houle placed over the middle of the coach, in order to give light thereto. With regard to placing the roundhoufe beams, the uprights of the fleering wheel and the mizenmaft are to be obferved j as when the beams which interfere wi th thofe parts are properly fpaced, the reft may be difpofed of at diferetion, or at an equal diftance from each other, and retting the beam over the fereen bulkhead have a proper round aft, agreeable to the quarter deck beam underneath. The upper parts of the inboard works being now de- feribed, proceed next to the lower parts, or to thofe which come below the lower deck. Draw in the orlop, by taking the heights afore, at midfiiips, and abaft, between that and the gun-deck, from the dimeniions, and a curve defended through thefe points will repre- fent the upper part of the deck. Set off the thicknefs of the plank below, and the under fide of the plank will be reprelented. As this deck does not run quite for¬ ward and aft as the other decks, the length of it muft: be therefore determined ; for this purpofe let the after beam be placed at a fufficient diftance from aft to ad¬ mit of the bread rooms being of a proper fize for the fliip, which will be under that beam of the gun-deck that comes at the fecond part from aft. The after beam being drawn in, proceed to fpace the other beams, placing them exaftly under thofe of the gun-deck ; and that which comes under the foremoft beam of the gun- deck may terminate the fore part of the orlop. Draw the limber ftrake, by fetting off its thicknefs above the cutting down line, and a line drawn parallel thereto will reprefent the limber ftrake. That part of the orlop which is over the after magazine, fpirit room, and fiffi • room, and alfo that which is over the fore magazine, is laid with thicker planks than the reft: of the deck j which is for the better fecurity of thofe places, the planks being laid over the beams j but in the midffiips, from the fore part of the fpirit room to the aft part of the fore magazine, the beams are laid level with the fur- face of the deck, and the planks are rabbeted in from one beam to the other. In order to reprefent the orlop as juft deferihed, the dimenfions of the different apartments above mentioned muft be determined : Let the aft fide of the after beam be the aft fide of the after magazine, and from thence draw the bulkhead down to the limber ftrake ; and the forefide of the third beam may be the forefide of the af¬ ter magazine, drawing that bulkhead likewife, which will alfo form the aft fide of the fifh room; the forefide of the fifh room may be drawn from the aft fide of the fifth beam, which will alfo reprefent the aft fide of the fpirit room \ then the forefide of the fpirit room may be drawn from the forefide of the fixth beam. Hence from the forefide of the fixth beam quite aft the deck will :aS« Offifoit"^i11 be rePrfent,ed1hy the two lines already drawn, and going Rules, e uPPer ^lde the beams will be represented by the to the Con- lower line. ftrudlion of Proceed next to the fore part of the orlop, letting the , S i‘ps- forefide of the after bits be the aft part of the foremofl: magazine, drawing the bulkhead thereof, which will come to the aft fide of the fixth beam $ therefore, from the fixth beam to the foremoft end of the orlop, the plank and beams will be reprefented juft in the fame manner as before mentioned for the after part of the orlop : then the midihip part of the deck will be re¬ prefented by letting the upper line be the upper fide of the plank, and likewife the upper fide of the beams; and the lower line will reprefent the lower edge of the plank, only drawing it from beam to beam, and obferv- ing not to let it pafs through them. The hatchways, &c. may now be reprefented on the orlop, letting the main, fore, and after hatchway, be exaftly under thofe of the gun-deck : there muft be one over the fiih room, and one over the fpirit room. I here muft be two fcuttles over the after magazine for the paflage to the magazine and light room. There ihould alfo be one afore the fourth beam from forward for the paflage to the fore magazine, and one abaft the fecond beam for the paffage to the light room. The bulkheads for the fore and after parts of the well may be drawn from the lower deck beams to the orlop, and from thence to the limber ftrake in the hold. The thot lockers may alfo be reprefented, having one afore and one abaft the well : there ftiould alfo be one abaft the foremoft magazine, the ends of which may be formed by the after bits. The fteps of the marts may be drawn in by continuing their centres down to the limber ftrake ; and likewife two crutches abaft the mi- zen ftep divided equally between that and the after part of the cutting down: the bread hooks may alfo be drawn letting them be five in number below the lower deck hook, and all equally divided between that and the fore ftep. Hence every part of the inboard is defcribed as far as neceffary. Chap. V. Of the Method of Whole-moulding. 46 Method of Having now finifhed the methods of laying down the whole- feveral plans of a {hip, any farther addition on this fub- MurrJfs mi£ht .aPPear u?neceffary. _ We cannot, however, Ship-Build-propriety, omit to defcribe the method called ing. whole-moulding, ufed by the ancients, and which ftill continues in ufe among thofe unacquainted with the more proper methods already explained. This method will be illuftrated by laying down the feveral plans of a long-boat; the length of the keel being 29 feet, and 4-, breadth moulded nine feet. Applied to Draw the ftraight line PO (fig. 37.) equal to 29 alo^hoat.fee^ t]ie extreme length of the boat, and alfo to repre- €CCCXCrilk.nt,the upper edge of the keel. Let 0 be the ftation Fig. 37. °r tbe midfhip frame. From the points, P, 0, and O, draw the lines PT, 0M, and OS, perpendicular to PO. Make 0M, 0N, equal to the upper and lower heights of breadth refpeftively at the main frame, PT the height of breadth at the tranfom, and OS the height at the Item. Defcribe the curve TMS to reprefent the flieer or extreme height of the fide, which in a ftiip would be called the upper height of breadth line, or up¬ per edge of the wale. Through the point N draw a SHIP-BUILDING. curve parallel to TMS, to reprefent the breadth of the Method of upper ftrake of a boat, or lovver edge of the wale if in ^ Hoie- a {hip. The dotted line TNS may alfo be drawn to re- ,roouiding‘ prefent the low-er height of breadth. / Set off the rake of the port from P to p, and draw the line p t to reprefent the aft fide of the port 5 then T t wall reprefent the round-up of the tranfom. Set off the breadth of the port from p to r, and from T to s, and draw the line r s to reprefent the forefide of the port, which may either be a curve or a ftraight line at pleafure. Set up the height of the tuck from p to k. Let ^ X be the thicknefs of the tranfom, and draw the line ZX to reprefent the forefide of the tranfom. There is given the point S, the height of the ftieer on the forefide of the Item ; now that fide of the item is to be formed either by fweeps or feme other contri¬ vance. Set off the breadth of the Item, and form the aft fide of it. Set up the dead-rifing from 0 to d, and form the ri- fing line r i s. Draw the line KL parallel to PO to reprefent the lower edge of the keel, and another to re¬ prefent the thicknefs of the plank or the rabbet. The rabbet on the poll and item may alfe be reprefented • and the ftations of the timbers affigned, as 0, (i), I? 2, 3> 4> 5* 6> 7> 8> 9 * and 0, (A), A, B, C, D, E,’ F,’ G, H ; and the {beer plan will be completed. I he half-breadth plan is to be formed next; for this purpofe the perpendiculars TP, 9, 8, &c. muft be pro¬ duced. Upon M0 produced fet off the half breadth from the line KL to R (fig. 38.) j fet off alfo the half Fig.35L breadth at the tranfom from K to b, and defcribe the extreme half-breadth line b RX, making the forepart of the curve agreeable to the propofed round of the tranfom. We may next proceed to form the timbew in the body plan. Let AB (fig. 39.) be the breadth mould- Fig. ed at 0. Ereft the perpendicular CD in the middle of the line AB ; draw the line mn diftant therefrom the half thicknefs of the port, and xy the half thicknefs of the ftern. Then take off the feveral portions of the perpendiculars 0, 1, 2, &c. intercepted between the upper edge of the keel and the rifing line in the flieer plan, and fet them up from C upon the line CD ; through thefe points draw lines parallel to AC 5 take off alfo the feveral lower heights of breadth at 0, 1, 2, &c. from the ftieer plan ; and fet them up from C upon the middle line in the body plan ; and draw lines parallel to AC through thefe points : Then take off the feveral half breadths correfponding to each from the floor plan j and fet them off on their proper half-breadth lines from the middle line in the body plan. Conftruft the midfliip frame by Problem V. the form of which will in fome meafure determine the form of the reft. For if a mould be made on any fide of the middle line to fit the curve part of it, and the rifing line, or that marked bend mould (fig. 40.), and laid in Fig. 4^. fuch a manner that the lower part of it, which is ftraight, may be fet upon the feveral rifing lines, and the upper- part juft touch the point of the half breadth in the breadth line carrefponding to that rifing upon which the mould is placed, a curve may then be drawn by the mould to the rifing line. In this manner we may proceed fo far as the rifing line is parallel to the lower height of the breadth line. Then a hollow mould muft be made, the upper end of which is left ftraight, as that fWh0]'1 .lhal marked hollovo mould (fig. 40.). This is applied moulding *n a manner» that fome part of the hollow may v-.. 1.. touch the fide of the keel, and the ftraight part touch the back of the curve before defcribed by the bend mould j and, beginning abaft, the ftraight part will al¬ ways come lower on every timber, till we come to the midftiip timber, when it comes to the fide of the keel. Having thus formed the timbers, fo far as the whole mouldings will ferve, the timbers abaft them are next formed. Their half breadths are determined by the flieer and fioor plans, which are the only fixed points through which the curves of thefe timbers muft pafs. Some form thefe after timbers before the whole is moulded, and then make the hollow mould, which will be ftraighter than the hollow of either of thefe timbers. It is indifferent rvhich are firft formed, or what methods are ufed j for after the timbers are all formed, though every timber may appear very fair when confidered by itlelf, it is uncertain what the form of the fide will be, • In order to find which, wre muft form feveral ribband and water lines } and if thefe do not make fair curves, they muft be redlified, and the timbers formed from thefe ribband and water lines. In ufing the hollow mould, when it is applied to the curve of each tim¬ ber, if the ftraight part is produced to the middle line, we ftiall have as many points of interfeclion as there are timbers ; and if the heights above the bafe be transferred to the correfponding timbers in the ftieer plan, a curve pafling through thefe points is what is called a rijingjlrait. This may be formed by fixing a point for the aftermoft timber that is whole moulded, and transferring that height to the (beer plan. The curve murt pafs through this point, and fall in with the rifing line fomewhere abaft dead fiat *, and if the feve¬ ral heights of this line be transferred from the fheer to the middle line in the body plan, thefe points will re¬ gulate what is called the hauling down of the hollow mould. The timbers in the after body being all formed, thofe in the fore body are formed in the fame manner, by transferring the feveral heights of the rifing and breadth lines from the Iheer to the body plans ; the half breadths correfponding to each height muft alfo be transferred from the floor to the body plan. The fame hollow mould will ferve both for the fore and after¬ body ; and the level lines, by which the water lines to prove the afterbody were formed, may be produced into the fore body, and by them the water lines to prove the fore body may be defcribed. Another method of proving the body is lay ribband lines, which are formed by le&ions of planes inclined to the flieer plan, and interfeaing the body plan diago¬ nally, as before obferved, of which there may be as many as may be judged neceffary. As this has been already explained, we fliall therefore lay down only one, repre- fented in the body plan by the lines marked d i a. Thefe are drawn in fuch a manner as to be perpendi¬ cular to as many timbers as conveniently may be. After they are drawn in the body plan, the feveral portions or the diagonal intercepted between the middle line and each timber muft be transferred to the floor plan. Thus, fix one foot of the compaffes in the point where the diagonal interfefts the middle line in the body plan ; extend the other foot to the point where the diagonal in¬ terjects the timber ; for example, timber 9 : Set off the VOL. XIX. Part I. SHIP-BUILDING. 281 fame extent upon the perpendicular reprefenting the plane Method of timber 9 from the point where it interfedts the line of Who!e* KL on the floor plan : in like manner proceed w-ith all f1-011 the other timbers both in the fore and after body j and thefe ftiall have the points through which the curve muft: pafs. If this ftiould not prove a fair curve, it muft be altered, obferving to conform to the points as nearly as the nature of the curve will admit : fo it may be car¬ ried within one point, and without another, according as we find the timbers will allow. For after all the ribband lines are formed, the timbers muft, if needful, be altered by the ribband lines : this is only the reverfe of forming the ribband lines 5 for taking the portions of the feveral perpendiculars intercepted between the line KL and the curve of the ribband line in the floor plan, and fetting them off upon the diagonal from the point where it interfe&s the middle line, we ftiall have the points in the diagonal through which the curves of the timbers muft pafs. Thus the diftance between the line KL and the ribband at timber 3 on the floor plan, when transferred to the body plan, will extend on the diagonal from the middle line to the point where the curve of timber 3 interfeds that dia¬ gonal. The like may be faid of all the other timbers j and if feveral ribband lines be formed, they may be fo contrived that their diagonals in the body plan ftiall be at fuch diflances, that a point for every timber be- ing given in each diagonal, will be fufficient to deter¬ mine the form of all the timbers. In ftalioning the timbers upon the keel for a boat, there muft be room for two futtocks in the fpace be¬ fore or abaft @ ; for which reafon, the diftance between thefe two timbers will be as much more than that be¬ tween the other as the timber is broad. Here it is between 0 and (A) \ wftiich contains the diftances be¬ tween 0 and (1), and the breadth of the timber be- fides. The timbers being now formed, and proved by rib¬ band and water lines, proceed then to form the tranfom faftiion-pieces, &.c. by Problem VL This method of whole- moulding will not anfwer for the long timbers afore and abaft. They are generally canted in the fame manner as thofe for a ftiip. In or¬ der to render this method more complete, w-e ftiall here deferibe the manner of moulding the timbers after they are laid down in the mould loft, by a rifing fquare, bend, and hollow mould. It was ftiown before how to form the timbers by the bend and hollow moulds on the draught. The fame method muft be ufed in the loft; but the moulds muft be made to their proper fcantlings in real feet and inches. Now when they are fet, as before diredted, for moulding each timber, let the middle line in the body plan be drawn acrofs the bend mould, and draw a line acrofs the hollow mould at the point where it touches the upper edge of the keel j and let them be marked with the proper name of the timber, as in fig. 40. The graduations of the bend mould will therefore be exadlly the fame as the narrowing of the breadth. Thus, the diftance between 0 and 7 on the bend mould is equal to the difference between the half breadth of tim¬ ber 7 and that of 0. The height of the head of each timber is likewife marked on the bend mould, and alfo the floor and breadth firmarks. The floor firmark is in that point where a ftraight edged batten touches the N n back 282 SHIP-BUILDING. Method of Whole- moulding-. back of die bend mould, the batten being fo placed as to touch the lower edge of the keel at the fame time. The feveral filings of the floor and heights of the cutting-down line are marked on the riling fquare, and the half breadth of the keel is fet off from the fide of it. The moulds being thus prepared, we lhall apply them to mould timber 7. The timber being firll properly tided to its breadth, lay the bend mould upon it, fo as may bell anfwer the round according to the grain of the wood j then lay the riling fquare to the bottom of the bend mould, fo that the line drawn acrofs the bend mould at timber 7 may coincide with the line repre- fenting the middle of the keel upon the riling fquare 5 and draw a line upon the timber by the fide of the fquare, or let the line be fcored or cut by a tool made for that purpofe, called a rafeing knife (e) ; this line fo rafed will be the fide of the keel. 1 hen the fquare mull be moved till the fide of it comes to 7 on the bend mould, and another line muft be raifed in by the fide of it to reprefent the middle of the keel. Ihe other fide of the keel mult likewife be rafed after the fame manner, and the point 7 on the riling fquare be marked on each fide of the keel, and a line rafed acrofs at thefe points to reprefent the upper edge of the keel. From this line the height of the cutting-down line at 7 muft be let up, and then the rifing fquare may be ta¬ ken away, and the timber may be raifed by the bend mould, both infide and outfide, from the head to the floor firmark, or it may be carried lower if neceflary. After the firmarks and head of the timbers are markea, the bend mould may likewife be taken away, and then the hollow mould applied to the back of the fweep in fuch a manner that the point 7 upon it may interfeft the upper fide of the keel, before fet off by the rifing fquare; and when in this pofidon the timber may be rafed by it, which will complete the outfide of the timbers. J he infide of the timbers may likewife be formed by the hollowr mould. The fcantling at the keel is given, by the cutting down before fet off. ihe mould muft be fo placed as to touch the fweep of the infide of the tim¬ ber formed before by the bend mould, and pafs through the cutting down point. The ufe of the firmarks is to find the true places of the futtocks ; for as they are cut off three or four inches Ihort of the keel, they muft be fo placed that the futtock and floor firmarks may be compared and co¬ incide. Notwithftanding which, if the timbers are not very carefully trimmed, the head of the futtock may be either within or without its proper half breadth ; to prevent which a half breadth ftaff is made uie of. The half breadth ftaff may be one inch fquare, and of any convenient length. Upon one fide of it are fet off from one end the feveral half-breadths of all the timbers in the after body, and thofe of the fore body upon the oppofite fide. On the other two tides are fet off the feveral heights of the ftteer, the after body on one fide, and the fore body on its oppofite. I wo fides of the ftaff are marked half breadths, and the other two fides heights of the fheer. The ftaff being thus prepared, and the floor timbers faflened on the keel, and levelled acrofs, the futtocks Pra<£bce muft next be fattened to the floor timbers ; but they °‘ shll)* mult be fet firft to their proper half breadth and height. U1 tling* , The half breadth llaff, with the afliflance of the ram- ^ line*, ferves to fet them to the half breadth j for as thaptc” ' the keel of a boat is generally perpendicular to the ho¬ rizon, therefore the line at which the plummet is fuf- pended, and which is moveable on the ram line, will be perpendicular to the keel. Whence we may by it fet the timbers perpendicular to the keel, and then fet them to their proper half breadths by the rtafl': and when the two firmarks coincide, the futtock will be at its proper height, and may be nailed to the floor timbers, and alfo to the breadth ribband, which may be fet to the height of the (beer by a level laid acrofs, taking the height of the fheer by the flaff from the upper fide of the keel 5 by which means we (hall difeover if the rib¬ band is exaftly the height of the flieer ; and if not, the true height may be fet off by a pair of compaffes from the level, and marked on the timbers. Chap. VI. Of the Practice of Ship-building. The elevation, projeftion, and half breadth plans, of a propofed fhip being laid down on paper, we muft next proceed to lay down thefe feveral plans on the mould loft of the real dimenfions of the fhip propofed to be built, and from which moulds for each feparate part are to be made. The method of laying down thefe plans, from what has been already faid, will, it is prefumed, be no very difficult talk to accomplifn, as it is no more than enlarging the dimenfions of the original draughts; and with refpedl to the moulds, they are very eafily formed agreeable to the figure of the feveral parts of the fhip laid down in the mould loft. Blocks of wood are now to be prepared upon which the keel is to be laid. Thefe blocks are to be placed at nearly equal diflances, as of five or fix feet, and in fuch a manner that their uppar furfaces may be exactly m the fame plane, and their middle in the fame ftraight line. This laft is eafily done by means of a line ftretch- ed a little more than the propofed length of the keel; and the upper planes of thefe blocks may be verified by a long and ftraight rule ; and the utmoft care and pre¬ caution muft be taken to have thefe blocks properly bedded. Each block may be about fix or eight inches longer than the keel is in thicknefs; their breadth from 12 L 14 inches, and their depth from a foot to a foot and half. The dimenfions of the keel are to be taken from the mould loft, and the keel is to be prepared accordingly. As, however, it is feldom poffible to procure a piece of wood of fufficient length for a keel, efpecially if for a large (hip, it is, therefore, for the moft part neceffary to compofe it of feveral pieces, and thefe pieces are to be fcarfed together, and fecurely bolted, fo as to make one entire piece. It muft, however, be obferved, that the pieces which compofe the keel ought to be of fuch lengths, that a fcarf may not be oppofite to the flep of any of the mafts. Rabbets are to be formed on each fide of the keel to receive the edge of the planks next to * (e) The term rafeing is ufed when any line is drawn by fuch an inftrument inflead of a pencil S H I P - B U Prafllce to it, or garboard ftrake, and the keel is to be laid on ot p- ^|le blocks ,bui!ti'' The ftem, and the pod, and the feveral tranfoms be¬ longing to it, are to be prepared from the moulds, and rabbeted in like manner as the keel, to receive the ends of the plank. The tranfoms are to be bolted to the pod at their middle, each at its refpcftive height, ta¬ ken from the elevation in the mould loft, and the ex¬ tremities of the tranfoms are to be firmly corniecfed with the faihion-pieces. Both Item and poft are then to be eretted, each at its refpective extremity of the keel. The tenons at the heel of each being let into mortifes prepared to receive them, and being fet to their proper rakes or angles with the keel, are to be fupported by props or thcres. Pieces of wood called dead wood are to be laid upon and fixed to the upper fide of the keel towards the fore and aft parts of it; the deepnefs of the dead wood increafing with its didance from the mid¬ dle, agreeable to the propofed form of the cutting- down line. A line is to be dretched from the middle of the head of the dem to that of the pod, called the ram line, upon which is a moveable line with a plummet affixed to it. The midfhip and other frames are to be erected upon the keel at their proper dations. The extremities of each frame are fet at equal didances from the vertical longitudinal fefldon of the drip, by moving the frame in its own plane until the plumb-line coincides with a mark at the middle between the arms of each frame j and although the keel is inclined to the horizon, yet the frames may alfo be fet perpendicular to the keel by means of the plumb-line. The (bores which are fup- porting the frames are now to be fecurely fixed, that the pofition of the frames may not be altered. The rib¬ bands are now to be nailed to the frames at their pro¬ per places, the more effeddually to fecure them •, and the intermediate vacancies between the frames filled up with Plate filliutj timbers. For a perfpedtive view of a (hip framed, cccclxxxiv. fee ?> to’ ’ The frames being now dationed, proceed next to fix on the planks, of which the wales are the principal, being much thicker and dronger than the red. The harpins, which may be conlidered as a continuation of the wales at their fore ends, are fixed acrofs the hawfe pieces, and furround the fore part of the drip. The planks that inclofe the (hip’s (ides are then brought about the timbers; and the clamps, which are of equal thick- nefs with the wales, fixed oppofite to the wales within the (hip. Thefe are ufed to fupport the ends of the beams, and accordingly dretch from one end of the (hip to the other. The thick duff or drong planks of the bottom within board are then placed oppofite to the feveral fcarfs of the timbers, to reinforce them through¬ out the dup’s length. The planks employed to line the (hip, called the celling or foot-waling, is next fixed in the intervals between the thick duff of the hold. The beams are afterwards laid acrofs the (hip to fupport the decks, and are connefted to the fide by lodging and hanging knees: the former of which are exhibited at F, I L D I N G. 283 Plate CLXIX. See alfo the article Deck ; and the I’raAca hanging-knees, together with the breadth, thicknefs, oi S!1,P- and pofition of the keel, door timbers, futtocks, top- ■ .. ' < timbers, wales, clamps, thick duff, planks within and without, beams, decks, &c. The cable-bits being next erefted, the carlings and ledges, reprefented in Plate CLXIX. are difpoied be¬ tween the beams to drengthen the deck. The water¬ ways are then laid on the ends of the beams throughout the (hip’s length, and the fpirketing fixed clofe hbove them.—The upper deck is then planked, and the Jlring placed under the gunnel, or planjheer, in the waid. Then proceed next to plank the quarter-deck and forecadle, and to fix the partners of the mads and cap- derns with the coamings of the hatches. The breqjl- hooks are then bolted acrofs the dem and bow within- board, the hep of the foremad placed on the kelfon, and the riders fayed to the infide of the timbers, to re¬ inforce the ddes in different parts of the (hip’s length. The pointers, if any, are afterwards fixed acrofs the hold diagonally to fupport the beams} and the crotches da¬ tioned in the after hold to unite the half timbers. The feps of the mainmad and capderns are next placed ; the planks of the lower decks and orlop laid •, the navel- hoods fayed to the hawfe holes j and the knees of the head, or cut-water, connefted to the dern. The figure of the head is then erefted, and the trail-board and cheeks fixed on the fide of the knee. The taffarel and quarter-pieces, which terminate the diip abaft, the former above and the latter on each (i,de, are then difpofed, and the dern and quarter galleries framed and fupported by their brackets. The pumps, with their well, are next fixed in the hold ; the limber boards laid on each fide of the kelfon, and the garboard frake fixed on the (hip’s bottom next to the heel with¬ out. The hull being thus fabricated, proceed to feparate the apartments by bulkheads or partitions, to frame the pert-lids, to fix the catheads and chefs-trees j to form the hatchways and fcuftles, and fit them with pro¬ per covers or gratings. Next fix the ladders at the dif¬ ferent hatchways, and build the manger on the lower deck, to carry off the water that runs in at the hawfe- _ holes when the (hip rides at anchor in a fea. The bread-room and magazines are then lined ; and the gunnel, rails, and gangways fixed on the upper part of the (hip. The cleats, kevels, and ranges, by which the ropes are faffened, are afterwards bolted or nailed to the (ides in different places. The rudder, being fitted with its irons, is next hung to the ftern-poft, and the tiller or bar, by which it is managed, let into a mortife at its upper end. The feuppers, or leaden tubes, that carry the water off from the decks, are then placed in holes cut through the (hip’s (ides j and the fandards bolted to the beams and (ides above the decks to which they belong. The poop lanthorns are laft fixed upon their cranes ever the ftem, v and the bilge-wai/s or cradles placed under the bottom to conduct the (hip fteadily into the water whilft launching. N n 2 As (f) In (hips of war, which are a long while in building, it has been found that the keel is often apt to rot be¬ fore they are finilhed. Upon this account, therefore, feme builders have begun with the floor timbers, and added the keel afterwards. 284. S II I P - B U ninTsTn t 'As t^ie var‘olls P*£Ces which have been mentioned the M i" a1bover are explained at large in their proper places, it is awl Rad- therefore fuperHucus to enter into a more particular de- der. fcnption of them here. Chap. VII. Of Improvements in the Majls and Rudder. 4S Improve- An account of a method for refloring malls of Ihips U1 when vvou^ed> or otherwife injured, in an eafy, cheap, and expeditious manner, by Captain Edward Pakenham 49 of the royal navy, has been publiihed in the tenth vo. Of wound- volume of the Tran fa ft ions of the Society for the En- Cap™ainS ^ courage.nient of Arts, &c. Captain Pakenham intro- Pakenham. dLlces hiS invention with the following obfervations : Page 209. “ Among the various accidents which Ihips are liable to at lea, none call more for the attention and exertion of the officer than the fpeedy refitting of the malls ; and having obferved, in the courfe of lad war, the very great dellruftion made among the lower mads of our Chip’s from the enemy’s mode of fighting, as well as the very great expence and delay in refitting a deet. after an aftion, particularly acrofs the Atlantic—a very limple expedient has fuggeded itlelf to me as a refource m part; which appears lb very fpeedy and fecure, that the capacity of the meaned failor will at once conceive it. I therefore think it my duty to date my ideas of the advantages likely to refult from it; and I lhall feel rnylelf exceedingly happy Ihould they in any wife con¬ tribute to remedy the evil. “ My plan, therefore, is, to have the heels of all lower mads fo formed as to become the heads : but it h not the intention of the above plan to have the fmall- ed alteration made in the heels of the prefent lower mads -y for as all line-of-battle drips mads are nine inches in diameter larger at the heel than at the head, it will follow, that by letting in the treffel-trees to their pro¬ per depth, the mall will form its own cheeks or hounds; and I Hatter m^felf the following advantages will refult from the above alteration. Fird, I mud beg to obferve, that all linc-of-battle drips bury one third of their lower mads, particularly three-d: ckers ; it t! ercfore follows, that if the wounds are in tire upper third, by turning the mad fo as to make the heel the head, it will be as good as newr ; for, in eight aftions I was prefent in lad war, I made the following obfervations : “ That in the faid aftions fifty-eight lower mads were Wounded, and obliged to be drifted, thirty-two of which had their wounds in the upper third, and of courfe the drips detained until new mads were made. And when it is confideved that a lower mad for a 90 or 74 dands government in a fum not lefs, I am informed, than 2000I. or 2300I. the advantages acrofs the At¬ lantic refuhing from the aforelaid plan will be particu¬ larly obvious ; not to mention the probability of there being no fit fpars in the country, wffiich was the cafe in the indances of the Ifis and Princefs Royal ; and as I was one of the lieutenants of the Ifis at that time, I am more particular in the circumdance of that drip. The Ifis had both her lower mads wounded above the cathar pins in her aftion with the Casfar, a French 74 ; and as there were no fpars at New York, the Ifis was j detain/-d five weeks at that place.—HVow, if her mads / had been fitted on the plan I have propofed, I am corr» I L D I N G. fidcnt dre would have been ready for fea in 48 hours; Improve, and as a further proof, I beg leave to add, that the ments whole deet, on the glorious 12th of April, had not the th^ lead accident ot any confequence except what befel their lower mads, which detained them between eight * • • t - 1 and ten weeks at Jamaica. The delay of a drip while a new mad is making, and probably the fleet being detained for want of that fliip, v.inch frequently occurred in the courfe of lad war, the taking oi fhipwrights from other work, with a variety of inconveniences not neceffary to mention here, mud be obvious to every officer that has made the fmalled obfervations on fea-aftions. “You will further obferve, that this fubditute is formed on the mod Ample principle, fitted to the mean¬ ed capacity, and calculated to benefit all drips, from a fird-rate down to the Imalled merchantman, in cafes of an accident by drot, a Ipring, a rottennefs, particularly as thefe accidents generally happen in the upper third of the mad and above the cheeks. “ might probably be objefted, that a difficulty and fome danger might arife from the wounded part of the mad being below ; but this will at once be obviated, when it is remembered, that as the wounded part is be¬ low the wedges, it may with eafe be both fifhed, cafed, and fecured, to any dze or degree you pleale, with the addition of its being wedged on each deck.” Fig. 41. reprefents a mad of a fird-rate in its proper Pla'e date, the figures reprefen ting its thicknefs at the diffe-CCCCXCnr> rent divifions. Fig. 42. the fame mad inverted, the heel forming the head, and the treffd-trees let into their proper depth, Pig- 4** the additional thicknels of the mad forming its own cheeks. ^g* 43-1^e propofed mad, the figures reprefenting Fig. 43. the ihicknefs of the mad in the propoied alterations; a, the heel made Iquare ; b, the letting in of the trtffel- trees ; c, the third proportion of thicknefs continued up to where the fourth is in the prefent mad, or at lead fome little didance above the lower part of the cheeks, which is always looked upon as the weaked part of the mad ; and by its being fo proportioned, the mid, when turned, will be nearly as drong in the partners as be¬ fore. As the e\pence of a mad is much greater than is ge¬ nerally imagined, it is therefore thought proper to lub- join the following datement of the ieveral articles ufed in making a 74 gun (hip’s mainmad. Value. Papers on Naval Ar. X1 chiteclure. ppait a. Fillies for a fpindle, 21 inches, 2 nails of two mads, - - L. 101 Two fide fillies, 22 inches, 2 ditto, - 133 Fore and aft fifties, 22 inches, 2 nails of one mad, ... Filh 1 2iy inches, 1 nail of half a mad > On the fore part Iron J 3 qrs. 19 lbs. Aries load baulk, 2 loads 22 feet, Breadihning 1 2 loads 7 feet, > Dantzic fir timber. C Cheeks J 4 loads 2 feet, \ Iron, 5 cwt. 2 qrs 24 lb. Knees, elm timber, 13 feet. Iron, 2 qrs. 141b. 66 29 3 32 II 20 8 o o 3 30 J3 8 J 2 1 18 o J7 10 J 9 5 7 4 o 2 6 Carried over B. 385 17 8 Improve¬ ments in the M afts and Rud- dc. S II I Brought over L, Hoops and bolts on the body, 13 cwt. I qr. 16 lb. TrefTel-trees, ftraight oak timber, fecond fort, 2 loads 10 feet, Iron, 3 qrs. 10 lb. Crofs trees, flraight oak timber, fecond fort, 1 load 12 feet, Iron, 2 qrs. 2 lb. Cap, elm timber, 1 load 24 feet, Iron, 2 cwt. 141b. Fallings, boliters, bollins, and Dantzic fir, 1 load 2 feet, Workmanfhip, - P-B U Value. 385 17 8 18 15 10 2 1 3 5 I4 o 14 4 6 2 19 5 7 8 78 6 o Main-topmafl: of a 74 gun fiilp, Main-top-gallant-maft, 513 6 50 16 8 11 Principles of Nxml Arrhiiec ture, p. 50. so Mr Gor¬ don’s plan 01 budduig malts. F‘?- 44- l'g- 45- Fig. 46. In order to leffen the enormous expence of marts, a propofrl was made fome years ago to conftrufl them hollow ; and the author having premifed feveral experi¬ ments which he had made, proceeds as follows: “ Galileo taught us, that the refirtance or rtrength of a hollow cylinder is to that of a full cylinder, con¬ taining the fame quantity of matter, as the total diame¬ ter of the hollow one is to the diameter of the full one •, and thefe experiments (how us, that the rtrength or re¬ firtance of two or more pieces of wood, failened toge¬ ther at each end, and connected by a pillar, pillars, or framing, increafes, at lead to a certain degree, cceteris paribus, as the dittance between them and number of pillars, provided the force is applied in the line or direc¬ tion of the pillars. “ It is furprifing that this difeovery of Galileo has not been made fubfervient to more ufeful purpofes. It is particularly applicable to the conftmflion of marts, as not requiring that the hollow cylinder (hould be made of one folid piece of wood (g). “ However, the foregoing experiments teach us, that the fame advantages may be obtained by other forms be- fides that of a cylinder •, and that perhaps not only in a fuperior degree, but likewife with greater facility of exe¬ cution ; as by adopting a fquare figure, but more parti¬ cularly by conftrurting them of feparate pieces of wood, placed at proper diitances from each other, in the fol¬ lowing or any other manner that may be found moft convenient. Fig. 44, 4^, and 46. exhibit each the tranfverfe feflion of a mart, in which the fmall circles reprefent the trees or upright pieces of wood, and the lines the beams or framing of wood, which are employ¬ ed at proper places and at proper diftances from each other, for conne&ing them together. Perhaps folid frames of wood, placed at proper didances from each other, and filling up the whole dotted fpice, would an- fwer better j in which event, the mart could be rtrong- I L D I N G. 28 ly hooped with iron at thofe places, and the upright Improve- trees formed fquare, or of any other convenient form. ments m “ B will be evident to thofe acquainted with this fub- Rud- je£t, that fuch marts would be greatly ftronger than ‘ der. common ones containing the fame quantity of materials. —y——J It is likewife evident that they would be lefs apt to fpring, as being fupported on a more extended bafe, and affording many conveniences for being better fecured j and that they might be conftru&ed of fuch wood as at prefent would be deemed altogether improper for marts: a circumftance of importance to Britain at all times, but more particularly now, when there is fuch difficulty in procuring wood proper for the kind of marts in common nfc ” . . . , 51 An improvement in the rudder has lately taken place An im- in feveral (hips, particularly in fome of thofe in the fer-p!iovement vice of the Eaft India Company. It will, however, be^r fUd' neceffary previoufly to deferibe the ufual form of the rudder, in order to rtiow the advantages it poffeffes when conftrufted agreeable to the improved method. N° I. (fig. 47.) reprefents the rudder according to Paperson the common method of conftru&ion •, in which AB is Naval Ar-. the axis of rotation. It is hence evident that a fpaeeckiteclure, confiderably greater than the tranGerfe feefion of thepart'' rudder at the counter mull be left in the counter for the*^' rudder to revolve in. Thus, let CAB (N° 2.) be the fe&ion of the rudder at the counter ; then there muft be a fpace fimilar to CDE in the counter, in order that the rudder may be moveable as required. Hence, to prevent the water from wafiiing up the rudder cafe, a rudder coat, that is, a piece of tarred canvas, is nailed in fuch a manner to the rudder and counter as to co¬ ver the intermediate fpace : but the canvas being con¬ tinually wafhed by the fea, foon becomes brittle, and unable to yield to the various turns of the rudder with¬ out breaking ; in which cafe the (hip is of courfe left pervious to the waves, even of three or four feet high ; in fatt, there are few men bred to the fea who have not been witneffes to the bad effefts of fuch a fpace being- left fo ill guarded againft the ftroke of the waves; and many {hips have, with great probability, been fuppofed to founder at fea from the quantity-of water (hipped between the rudder and counter. It was to remedy this deleft that the alteration above alluded to took place •, which confilts in making the upper part AFG (fig. 48. N° I.) of the rudder ABD Fig. 4?».. cylindrical, and giving that part at the fame time a cart forward, fo that the axis of rotation may by that means be the line AD, parting as ufual from E to D, through the centres of the braces which attach the rud¬ der to the rtern-poft, and from E to A through the axis of the cylinder AFG, in order that the tranfverfe fec- tion KH (N° 2.) at the counter may be a circle revolv¬ ing upon its centre ; in which cafe the fpace of half an inch is more than fufficient between the rudder and the counter, and confequently the necertity of a rudder coat entirely done away. But as it was foiefeen, that if the rudder (g) The ftrength of thefe cylinders would be ftill further augmented by having folid pieces of wood placed within them at proner dirtances, and fecurely faftened to them, in the fame manner, and on the fame principles, that nature has furn.fhed reeds with joints j and for anfwering, in fome vefpefts, the fame purpofe as the pillars i® > the experiments alluded to. 286 SHIP-BUILDING. Load wa- rudder by an accident was unfliipped, this alteration ^ d sh^’s miSht er>danger the tearing away of the counter, the Capacity.3 *s made much larger than the tranfverl'e feftion of the cylindric part of the rudder, and the fpace between filled up with pieces of wood fo fitted to the counter as to be capable of withflanding the fhock of the fea, but to be eafxly carried away with the rudder, leaving the counter, under fuch circumflances, in as fafe a ftatc as it would be agreeable in the prefent form of making rud¬ ders in the navy. Cpiap. VIII. Up on the Pojltion of the .Load-water Line) and the Capacity of a Ship. See Hydro- The weight of the quantity of water difplaced by the dynamics, bottom of a thip is equal to the weight of the fhip with its rigging, proviflons, and every thing on board. If, therefore, the exadh weight of the fhip when ready for fea be calculated, and alfo the number of cubic feet in the fhip’s bottom below the load-water line, and hence the weight of the water fhe difplaces } it wall be known if the load-water line is properly placed in the draught. Ship-Build- The pofition of the fhip in the draught may be either efs Repo- 0n an even keel, or to draw moft water abaft 5 but an even keel is judged to be the beft pofition in point of velocity, when the fliip is conflrucled fuitable thereto, that is, when her natural pofition is fuch. For when a fhip is conftrudled to fwim by the ilern, and when brought down to her load-water made to fwim on an even keel (as is the cafe with moft (hips that are thus built), her velocity is by that means greatly retarded, - and alfo her ftrength greatly diminifhed : for the fore¬ part being brought down lower than it fhould be, and the middle of the fhip maintaining its proper depth in the water, the after part is by tlfat means lifted, and the fhip is then upon an even keel : but in confequence of her being out of her natural pofition, the after part is always prefling downwards with a confiderable ftrain, which will continue till the fhip’s fheer is entirely broken, and in time would fall into its natural pofition again : for which reafon we fee fo many fhips with bro¬ ken backs, that is, with their (beers altered in fuch a manner that the fheer rounds up, and the higheft part is in the midfhips. Such are the difadvantages arifing from not paying a due attention to thcfe points in the conftruflion of a draught j therefore, when the load-water line is found to be fo fituated at a proper height on the draught, ac¬ cording to the weight given for fuch a fhip, and alfo drawn parallel to the keel, as fuppofing that to be the beft failing trim, the next thing is to examine whether the body is conftrufted fuitable thereto, in order to avoid the above-mentioned ill confequences. In the firft place, therefore, we muft divide the fhip equally in two lengthwife between the fore and after perpendiculars 5 and the exafl number of cubic feet in the whole bottom beneath the load-water line being known, we muft find whether the number of cubic feet in each part fo divided is the fame ; and if they are found to be equal, the body of the fhip may then be [ • ' • • • : • faid to be conftnufted in all refpecls fuitable to her fwim- Lcad-v/a-. ming on an even keel, let the fhape of the body be ter Line whatever it will j and which will be found to be her ^ 3 natural pofition at the load-water line. But if either . of the parts fhould contain a greater number of cubic feet than the other, that part which contains the great- eft will fwim the moft out of the water, and confe- quently the other will fwim deepeft, fuppofing the fhip in her natural pofition for that conftruftion. In order, therefore, to render the fhip fuitably ccnftrucled to the load-water line in the draught, which is parallel to the keel, the number of cubic feet in the lefs part muft be fubtracled from the number contained in the greater part, and that part of the body is to be filled out till it has increafed half the difference of their quantities, and the other part is to be drawn in as much : hence the two parts will be equal, that is, each will contain the fame number of cubic feet, and the fhip’s body will be conftrufted in a manner fuitable to her fwimming on an even keel. If it is propofecl that the {hip laid down on the draught (hall not fwim on an even keel, but draw7 more water abaft than afore, then the fore and after parts of the fhip’s body below the load-water line are to be compared ; and if thefe parts are unequal, that part which is leaf! is to be filled out by half the difference, and the other part drawn in as much as before. It will be neceflary, in the firfl: place, to calculate the weight of a fhip ready equipped for fea, from the know¬ ledge of the weight of every feparate thing in her and belonging to her, as the exaft weight of all the timber, iron, lead, mails, fails, rigging, and in fhort all the materials, men, provifions, and every thing elfe on board of her, from which we (hall be able afterwards to judge of the truth of the calculation, and whether the load- water line in the draught be placed agreeable thereto. This is indeed a very laborious talk, upon account of the feveral pieces of timber, &c. being of fo many dif¬ ferent figures, and the fpecific gravity of fome of the timber entering the conftru&ion not being precifely de¬ termined. In order to afeertain the ■weight of the hull, the tim¬ ber is the firft thing which comes under confideration ; the number of cubic feet of timber contained in the whole fabric muft be found ; which wre ftiall be able to do by help of the draught and the principal dimenfions and fcantlings; obferving to diftinguith the different kinds of timber from each other, as they differ confider- ably in weight 5 then the number of cubic feet contain¬ ed in the different forts of timber being reduced into pounds, and added, will be the weight of the timber. In like manner proceed to find the weight of the iron, lead, paint, &c. and the true weight of the whole will be found. In reducing quantity to weight, it may be obferved See Hydrtt- that a cubic foot of oak is equal to 66 pounds, and the dynamics. fpecific gravity of the other materials is as follows : Water being 1000 Oak is 891.89 Lead is «■ Dry elm 702.70 Iron - 7643 Dry fir 648.64 4 ^3 S H I P - B U Load-wa¬ ter Line and Ship’s Capacity. Hates CCCCXC- ccccxcr. -S2 , Eftimate of the weight of the eigh¬ ty gun fliip before laid down. An EJlimate of the Weigh of the Eighty Gun Ship in Plates CCCCXC. and CCCCXCI. as filed for Sea, with Six Months Provfons. Weight of the Bull. N° of Ft. N° of lb?. Ottbtrfoaot661b-l0j4*497 3-oSo2 Fir timber at 48 lb. tol the cubic foot _) Elm timber at 52 lb. to^ the cubic foot Carve work and lead work Iron work, rudder irons, 7 chain-plates, nails, &c. ^ Pitch, tar, oakum, and7 paint - - j Cook-room fitted with fire 7_ hearth S Sum 4457 520 213936 27040 4651 88254 17920 16123 Ton'. Lb?. 1428 2082 95 160 3568726 12 2 39 8 171 894 7 443 1593 406 Weight of the Furniture. N° of lbs. Complete fet of marts and yards, with the fpare geer 1 Anchors with their rtocks, and 7 mafter’s ftores P‘:8SinS Sails, complete fet, and fpare Cables and hawfers Blocks, pumps, and boats Sum 5 16x000 39996 69128 3 2008 73332 620 56 Ton?. Lb''. 71 i960 17 1916 30 1928 14 648 32 J652 27 1576 437520 195 720 Weight of the Guns and Ammunition. Guns with their carriages Powder and Ihot, powder barrels, &c. - - - Implements for the powder Ditto for guns, crows, handfpikes,") &c. - - - \ } 377034168 714 116320 6500 21573 Sum - - - 1521427 Weight of the Officers Stores, b'c. 51 2080 2 2020 9 I4I3 Carpenter’s ftores Boatfwain’s ftores Gunner’s ftores Caulker’s floras Surgeon and chaplain’s eftefls Sum 20187 2 11X2 8964 520C I IO96 66559 232 I747 9 27 9 952 4 4 2 720 4 2x36 Weight of the Provifons. Provifions for fix months for 700 7 men, with all their equipage § Water, calks, and captain’s table Sura 858970 933900 29 1599 383 1(>50 416 2060 1792870J800 870 I L D I N G. Weight of the Men, b'c. N° of lbs. Seven hundred men with their 7 efTe£b, including the officers > 316961 and their eftedls - j Ballaft - - 1478400 Sum 1795361 287 Load-wa¬ ter-Line and Ship’s Tons. Lbs. , Capacity, ^ 141 1121 660 8oi 11 2X Recapitulation. The hull 'The furniture Guns and ammunition Officers ftores Provifions Weight of the men and ballaft: Sum 35687261593 406 437520 521427 66559 1792870 i79536i 195 720 232 1747 29 1599 800 870 Sox X121 81824633652 1983 Agreeable to the above eftimate, we find that the eighty gun ffiip, with every thing on board and fit for lea, when brought down to the load-w’ater line, weighs 8,182,463 pounds, or nearly 3653 tons. It may now be known if the load-water line in the draught be pro¬ perly placed, by reducing the immerfed part of the bo¬ dy into cubic feet. For if the eighty gun ftiip, when brought down to the load-water line, weighs 3653 tons, the quantity of vrater difplaced muft alfo be 3653 tons: now a cubic foot of fait water being fuppofed to weigh 74 pounds, if therefore 8182463 be divided by 74, the quotient is 110573, the number of cubical feet which fixe muft difplace agreeable to her weight. It is now neceflary to find the number of cubic feet contained in the llrip’s bottom below the load-water line by calculation. If the bottom was a regular folid, this might be very eafily done ; but as it is otherwife, we muft be fatisfied with the following method by ap¬ proximation, firft given by M. Bouguer. Take the lengths of every other of the lines that re-^53^ ^ prefent the frames in the horizontal plane upon the up- ca]Cyi;Unii, per water line 5 then find the fum of thefe together, the contents with half the foremoft and aftermoft frames. Now mul-of the bot- tiply that fum by the diftance between the frames, andtomo* £- the produft is the area of the water line contained be- tween the foremoft and aftermoft frames : then find the area of that part abaft the after frame, which forms a trapezium, and alfo the poll and rudder ■, find alfo the area of that part afore the foremoft frame, and alfo of the ftem and gripe ; then thefe areas being added to that firft found, and the fum doubled, will be the area of the furface of the whole water lin£. The reafon of this rule will be obvious to thofe acquainted with the firft principles of mathematics. The areas of the other water line may be found in the fame manner: then the fum of all thefe- areas, except that of the uppermoft and lowermoft, of which only one half of each muft be taken, being multiplied by the di¬ ftance between the water lines (thefe lines in the plane of elevation being equidiftant from each other), and the produft will be the folid content of the fpace contained between the lower and load-water lines. Add ^8 SHIP-BUILt)ING. ter Lile' v Add ^ °f the loWef Water line to the area °f and Ship’s ^ "PPer ride of thc keel J multiply half that fum by Capacity. _ e dmance between them, the produft will be the fo~ " ■ kd content of that part between the lower water line and upper edge of the keel, fuppofing them parallel to each other. Eut if the lower water line is not parallel to the keel, the above half fum is to be multiplied by the diftance between them at the middle of the fhip. The folid contents of the keel muft be next found, by multiplying its length by its depth, and that produft by the breadth. I hen the fum of thefe folid contents will be the number of cubic feet contained in the im- merfed part of the Ihip’s bottom, or that part below the load water line. ►c H Determination of the number of Cubic Feet contained in the Bottom of the Eighty Gun Ship. See Plates CCCCXC. and CCCCXCI. 34 Applied to The fore body is divided into five, and the after bo- ginflnp!7' dy int° ten’ eclual Parts in the Horizontal plane j be- fides the parts contained between the foremoft timber and the ftem, and the aftermoft timber and the poll. The plane of elevation is alfo divided into five equal parts by water lines drawn parallel to the keel. Thefe water lines are alfo defcribed upon the horizontal plane. It is to be obferved that there muft be five inches add¬ ed to each line that reprefents a frame in the horizontal plane for the thicknefs of the plank, that being nearly a mean between the thicknefs of the plank next the water and that on the lower part of the bottom. Second Water Line abaft Dead Fiat. 'frame dead flat is 23 feet 10I inches, the half of which is frame (4) frame 3 frame 7 frame n frame 13 frame 19 frame 23 frame 27 frame 3 r Ft. In. frame 35 is 8 feet 6 inches, the half of which is 11 23 23 23 23 23 23 22 20 !7 iot lot ^ O-y lot H 3a 5 10 8 Sum Diftance between the frames Produfl: Area of that part abaft frame 3 5 rudder and poll Sum 4 3 219 n 10 11 2397 4 31 7 5 5 2434 4 2 Area of the 2d water line from dead flat aft 4868 8 -n T3 -C H Upper Water Line abaft Dead Flat. 'frame dead flat is 24 feet 10 inches, one- half of which is ... frame (4) - ... frame 3 - ... frame 7 - - - . frame 11 frame 15 frame 19 - . . frame 23 - - . frame 27 - frame 31 frame 35 is 16 feet 3 inches, the half of which is ^ . Ft. In. 12 24 24 24 24 24 24 23 22 20 8 5 10 10 10 10 9i 5 10 9 11 -c ■T3 H Third Water Line abaft Dead Fiat. frame dead flat is 22 feet it inches—half 11 frame (4) - . _ frame 3 ... frame 7 . _ . frame 11 frame 13 „ _ . frame 19 . . frame 23 - . . frame 27 - . _ frame 31 [frame 35 is 4 feet 3 inches—half 22 22 22 22 21 20 *9 16 11 2 it ii Ji 1 5 8i 31 5 H Area of that part abaft frame 35 rudder and poft 19° 8^ 10 11 2081 8 5 6 Sum - Diftance between the frames Produft - Area of that part abaft frame 35 1 rudder and poft Sum - . . 236 7 10 11 2101 7t 2 Area of the load water line from dead flat aft - - . . 5332 Area of the 3d water line from dead flat aft 4203 Fourth Water Line abaft Dead Flat. frame dead flat is 20 feet 1 inch—half frame (4) frame 3 - _ 2666 21- r! 1 frame 7 - . _ frame 11 frame 15 - . 2582 8t 78 o 5 6 H 10 20 20 !9 r9 J9 °t 1 1 11 7i o Load-wa¬ ter Line and Ship’s Capacity. Carry over 108 Brought Load-wa* ter Line and Ship's Capacity. « ”o a />er or Load water Line afore Dead Flat. Ft. In. 2% Load-wa¬ ter Line and Ship’s rS 'frame dead flat is 24 feet 10 inches—half 12 5 ,Capadty-, 4) H frame E frame I . frame N - . frame f) .frame W is 15 feet I inch—half Sum - - - _ Diftance between the frames Product - Area of the part afore frame W Item and knee Sum - . _ Multiply by - _ . Area of the load water line from dead flat forward - 24 10 24 8| 24 o 21 lof 7 64 XI5 441 10 11 *259 80 *343 2687 6 Second Water Line afore Dead Flat. « frame dead flat is 23 feet 1 of inches—half 11 11* 23 10 •6 C3 S -Q D A H frame E frame I _ _ _ frame N - _ . frame Q _ frame W is 11 feet 11 inches—half Sum - Diftance between the frames Produft - . Area of the part afore frame W, with the ftem and knee Sum 23 5 22 c 19 11 5 Hi I07 10 11 II73 9 43 9 1217 Area of the fecond water line from dead flat forward 2435 « CJ 45 cd -Q QJ Third Water Line afore Dead Flat. frame dead flat is 22 feet li inch—half frame E - . . frame I frame N - _ frame Q _ _ . frame W is 7 feet—half II 22 21 20 l6 3 1 8 1 6 Sum - Diftance between the frames Product - _ Area of the part afore W, with the ftem and gripe - _ Sum 94 10 11 1031 10 25 10 1057 Area of the third water line from dead flat forward . . O Q 2115 4 Fourth 29° SHIP-BUILDING. Load-wa* ter Line and Ship’s Capacity. Fourth Water Line afore Dead Flat. ■£ f frame dead flat is 20 feet I inch—half .£2 | frame E ! frame I . - - - ^ j frame N "ii j frame Q - - - ^ l, frame W is 2 feet nine inches—half Sum - - - - - Diftance between the frames Product - - - - Area of part before W, with the Item and gripe . - Sum - - Area of fourth water line from dead flat for¬ ward - - - Fifth Water Line afore Dead Flat. f frame dead flat is 17 feet 2 inches—half ^ j frame E » - - ■a ™age o* it is alfo called the flip's burthen ; and it is totally a different from the weight of the whole as fire floats in the water. It is perhaps bed expreffed by calling it the loeight of the cargo. It is of importance, becaufe it is by this that the merchant or freighter judges of the fitnefs S H I P-B U Tomage of of the ihip for his purpofe. By this government judge a Ship. 0f t|le requifite for tranfport fervice, and by^ this t.*. ^ ^ revenue charges on the fhip computed. It is no lefs difficult to anfvver this queftion by any general rule which ffiall be very exaft, becaufe it depends not only on the cubical dimenuons of the flap’s bottom, but alfo on the fcantling of her whole frame, and in ihort on the weight of every thing which properly makes part of a flap ready to receive On board her cargo. The weight of timber is variable ; the fcantling of the frame is no lefs fo. We muft therefore be contented with an average value which is not very remote from the truth ; and this average is to be obtained, not by any mathematical difcuflion, but by obfervation of the burthen or cargo actually received, in a great variety of cafes. But fome fort of rule of calculation muft be made out. This is and muft be done by perfons not ma¬ thematicians. We may therefore expert to find it inca¬ pable of being reduced to any principle, and that every builder will have a different rule. Accordingly the rules given for this purpofe are in general very whimfical, meafures being ufed and combined in a way that feems quite unconne&ed with ftereometry or the meafurement of folids. The rules for calculation are even affefted by the interefts of the two parties oppofitely concerned in the refult. The calculation for the tonnage by which the cuftoms are to be exaftcd by government are quite different from the rule by which the tonnage of a tranf¬ port hired by government is computed •, and the fame fhip hired as a tranfport will be computed near one half bigger than when paying importation duties. Yet the whole of this might be made a very Ample bufinefs and very exaft. When the fhip is launched, let her light water line be marked, and this with the cubical contents of the immerfed part be noted down, and be ingroffed in the deed by which the property of the (hip is conveyed from hand to hand. The weight of her marts, fails, rigging, and fea-ftores, is moft eafily obtained } and every builder can compute the cubical contents of the body when immerfed to the load water line. The difference of thefe is unqueftionably the bur¬ then of the (hip. It is evident from what has been already faid in the laft chapter, that if the number of cubic feet of water which the (hip difplaces when light, or, which is the fame, the number of cubic feet below the light water line, found by the preceding method of calculation, be fubtra£fed from the number of cubic feet contained in the bottom below the load water line, and the remainder reduced to tons by multiplying by 74, the number of pounds in a cubic foot of fea water, and divided by 2240, the number of pounds in a ton, the quotient will be the tonnage. But as this method is very troublefome, the follow¬ ing rule for this purpofe is that which is ufed in the king’s and merchants fervice. Let fall a perpendicular from the forefide of the ftem at the height of the hawfe holes (h), and another per¬ pendicular from the back of the main port: at the height 56 Common rule. I L D I N G. 291 of the wing tranfom. From the leng th between thefe two Tonnage of perpendiculars deduft three-fifths of the extreme breadth a ailT- (x), and alfo as many times 2| inches as there are feet in the height of the wing tranfom above the upper edge of the keel •, the remainder is the length of the keel for tonnage. Now multiply this length by the extreme breadth, and the produft by half the extreme breadth, and this laft produft divided by 94 is the tonnage re¬ quired. Or, multiply the length of the keel for tonnage by the fquare of the extreme breadth, and the product di¬ vided by 188 will give the tonnage. Calculation of the Tonnage of an Eighty Gun Ship. I. According to the true method. 57 The weight of the (hip at her launching Tons. Ibs.^alcuJatm* draught of w'ater . - 1593 40^nageofthe The weight of the furniture 195 720 eighty gun (hip. The weight of the (hip at her light water mark - - 1788 1126 The weight of the (hip at the load w’ater mark «■ - - 3^52 Real burthen - 1864 857 II. By the common rule. Length from the forefide of the ftem at Ft. Inch, the height of the hawfe holes, to the aft fide of the main poft, at the height of the wing tranfom - 185 Three-fifths of the extreme breadth is - - . 29 f. 9i in. Height of the wing tranfom is 28 f. 4 in. which mul¬ tiplied by 2 a inches is 6 8^ Sum 36 6 36 10 Length of the keel for tonnage 149 Extreme breadth - - 49 Produft - . - - 74*6 I0i Half the extreme breadth - 24 10 94)184185 81 Burthen according to the common rule - - 1959 929 Real burthen - - 1864 857 Difference - - 95 72 gs Hence an eighty gun (hip will not carry the nage Are is rated at by about 95 tons. As the body of™”^11,^ this (hip is fuller than in (hips of war in general, there istonnage 0f therefore a nearer agreement between the tonnages found fhips of war by the two different methods. It may be obferved that gieatei-, (hips of war carry lefs tonnage than they are rated at by the common rule, and that moft merchants (hips carry | ^ t}ian O o 2 a the truth. (h) In the merchant fervice this perpendicular is let fall from the fore fide of the ftem at the height of the wing tranfom, by reafon of the hawfe-holes being generally fo very high in merchant drips, and their items alfo having a great rake forward. (1) The breadth underitood in this place is the breadth from outfide to outfide of the plank. S HI P-B U of a great deal more. In confirmation of this, it is thought ' proper to fubjoin the dimenfions of feveral Ihips, with the tonnage calculated therefrom. I. Audacious offeventy-four guns. Length on the gun deck - j68 f. o in. Length of the keel for tonnage - 138 o Extreme breadth - . 46 9 Depth of the hold - I9 9 Launching draught of water ^ ^ 0 Load draught of water ^ abaft 21 6 The weight of the (hip at her launching draught of water 1509 t. 6781bs. The weight of the furniture 120 1500 Weight of the fhip at her light wTater mark - - . Weight of the fhip at her load water mark Real burthen By the common rule. Length of the keel for tonnage Extreme breadth Product - - _ Half the extreme breadth 1629 2178 2776 498 1146 560 138 f. o in. 46 9 64Ji 23 4* 94)150803 Tonnage according to the common rule 1604 643 Real burthen - - 1146 560 Difference . I L D I N G. Tonnage Real tonnage 806 1096 Tonnage ef 984 1670 | a Ship. Difference 3. A Cutter. Length of the keel for tonnage Extreme breadth Launching draught of water Load draught of water 4 a^or,.e 0 \ abaft The weight of the cutter at her launch- ing Weight of the furniture Weight of the cutter at her light water mark Weight of the cutter at her load water mark J?8 574 58 f. cin. 29 o 5 10 9 8 9 o 12 o 147 t. 640 lbs. 9 *99 Real burthen 156 839 266 1970 no 1131 By the common rule. Keel for tonnage Extreme breadth Produft Half extreme breadth Tonnage by the common rule Real tonnage 58 f. 29 1682 94)24389 458 83 Difference 259 1024 no 1131 148 2133 2. An Kajl Indiaman. Length between the perpendiculars for¬ ward and aft Length of the keel for tonnage Extreme breadth Depth in hold Launching draught of water Load draught of water ^ The rveight of the fhip at her launching draught of water _ - 6o2t. 2ii61bs The weight of the furniture - 50 124 Weight of the fhip at her light water mark - - Weight of the fhip at her load water mark - - 1670 132f. Sin. IOC o 38 o 16 o 7 10 II 10 19 8 20 8 Real burden By the common rule. Keel for tonnage Extreme breadth Produift Half extreme breadth ’ 984 1670 105 f. 38 3999 J9 94)758io The impropriety of the common rule is hence mani- feft, as there can be no dependence on it for afeertaining the tonnage of veffels. We fhall now fubjoin the following experimental method of finding the tonnage of a fhip. Conftrudl a model agreeable to the draught of the Experf- propofed fhip, to a fcale of about one fourth of an inch mental me* to a foot, and let the light and load water lines bethod.ofde~ marked on it. Then put the model in water, and load it until the furface of the water is exaflly at the light nageof" water line j and let it be fufpended until the water veflefs* drains off, and then weighed. Now fince the weights of fimilar bodies are in the triplicate ratio of their ho¬ mologous dimenfions, the weight of thesAip when light is, therefore, equal to the produft of the cube of the number of times the fhip exceeds the model by the weight of the model, which is to be reduced to tons. Hence, if the model is conftrufted to a quarter of an inch fcale, and its weight expreffed in ounces j then to the conflant logarithm 0,4893556, add the logarithm of the weight of the model in ounces, and the fum will be the logarithm of the weight of the fhip in tons. Again, the model is to be loaded until the furface of the water coincides with the load water line. Now the. model being weighed, the weight of the fhip is to be found by the preceding rule : then the difference be¬ tween the weights of the fhip when light and loaded is the tonnage required. It SHIP-BUILDING. Tonnage of It will alfo be worth while to add the following ex- . i a6l rule of Mr Parkins, who was many years foreman of the Ihipwrights in Chatham dockyard. i. For Men of War. Take the length of the gun-deck from the rabbet of the ftem to the rabbet of the ftern-polt. of this is to be affumed as the length for tonnage, — L. Take the extreme breadth from outfide to outfide of the plank •, add this to the length, and take ^ of the fmn $ call this the depth for tonnage, D. Set up this height from the limber Itrake, and at that height take a breadth alfo from outfide to outfide of plank in the timber when the extreme breadth is found, and another bi'eadth in the middle between that and the limber ftrake; add together the extreme breadth and thefe two breadths, and take y of the fum for the breadth for tonnage, = D. Multiply L, D, and B together, and divide by 49. The quotient is the burthen in tons. The following proof may be given of the accuracy of this rule. Column 1. is the tonnage or burthen by the king’s meafurement ; col. 2. is the tonnage by this rule ; and, col. 3. is the weight adlually received on board thefe fifips at Blackftakes: Victory London Arrogant Diadem Adamant Dolphin Amphion Daphne 100 guns. 90 74 64 50 44 32 20 2162 1845 1614 1369 io44 879 667 429 i839 IJ75 1308 1141 870 737 554 329 1840 ^77 I3,4 965 886 75S 549 374 2. For Ships of Burthen. Take the length of the lower deck from the rabbet •f the ftem to the rabbet of the ftern-poft j then yj of this is the length for tonnage, rz L. Add the length of the lower deck to the extreme breadth from outfide to outfide of plank ; and take T3T of the fum for the depth for tonnage, rr: D. Set up that depth from the limber ftrake, and at this height take a breadth from outfide to outfide. Take another at y of this height, and another at y of the height. Add the extreme breadth and thefe three breadths, and take the 4th of the fum for the breadth for tonnage, =r B. Multiply L, D, and B, and divide by 36!. The quotient is the burthen in tons. This rule refts on the authority of many fuch trials, as the following: King’s Meafm. Northington Indiaman 676 Granby Indiaman 786 Union coallier 193 Another coallier 182 Rule. i°53 1179 266 2 54 A&ually recd. on bd. 1064 JI79 289 277 Chap. X. Of the Scale of Solidity. By this fcale the quantity of water difplaced by the bottom of the fhip, for which it is conrtru&ed, anfwer- ing to a given draught of water, is eafily obtained 3 and alfo the additional weight necefiary to bring her down to the load water line. In order to conftrudt this fcale for a given Ihip, it is neceflary to calculate the quantity of water difplaced by the keel, and by that part of the bottom below each water line in the draught. Since the areas of the feve- ral water lines are already computed for the eighty gun fliip laid down in Plates CCCCXC. and CCCCXCI. the contents of thefe parts may hence be eafily found for that Ihip, and are as follow. 293 Scale of Solidity. Draught of water. Water difplaced in Cubic feet. I tons. lbs. Keel and falfekeel Dift. bet. keel 1 andjth w. line 3 Sum Dift. 5th and! 4th w. line 3 Sum Dift. 4th and 1 3d w. line 3 Sum Dift. 3d and 2d w. line J, Sum Dift. 2d andl ill w. line 3 Sum 2 f. 3 in. 4 1 6 4 4 1 ^ 5 4 1 14 6 4 1 18 7 4 1 22 8 660.9 8583.il 9243ao! 18657.8yy 279oi*7t? 23574-6H 51476.2^ 27812.1 ^ 79288.3^ 3I285-7txf II0573aii 21 1855 283 1233 3°5 848 6x6 828 921 1676 778 I795 1700 1231 9x8 1775 2619 766 XO33 I2i8 3652 1984 Conftruft any convenient fcale of equal parts to re- prefent tons, as fcale N° 1. and another to reprefent feet, as N° 2. Draw the line AB (fig. 36.) limited at A, but pro-r duced indefinitely towards B. Make AC equal to the 60 ^ depth of the keel, 2 feet 3 inches from fcale N° 2. and'Conftruc- through C draw a line parallel to AB, which will re- tion of the prefent the upper edge of the keel 3 upon which fet off*?1.1® °/io' Cc equal to 21 tons 1855 lbs. taken from fcale N° !• [h^ihipof Again, make AD equal to the diftance between the eighty lower edge of the keel and the fifth water line, namely, guns. 6 feet 4 inches, and a line drawn through D parallel to AB will be the reprefentation of the lower water line 3. and make D b equal to 305 tons 848 lbs. the corre- fponding tonnage. In like manner draw tire other wa¬ ter lines, and lay off the correfponding tonnages ac¬ cordingly : then through the points A, c, b, e, f g, //, draw the curve Acbefgh. Through h draw h B perpendicular to AB, and it will be the greateft limit of the quantity of water expreffed in tons difplaced by the bottom of the fliip, or that when the is brought down to the load water line. And fince the thip dif- places 1788 tons at her light water mark, take there¬ fore that quantity from the fcale N° 1. which being laid upon AB from A to K, and KL drawn perpendi¬ cular to AB, will be the repiefentation of the light watea 294 Scale of water line for tonnage. Hence the fcale will be com- . Soll;llty- pleted. 6l Let it now be required to find the number of cubic Ufe of the feet difplaced when the draught of water is 17 feet, and above fcale. the number of additional tons neceffary to bring her down to the load water mark. Take the given draught of water 17 feet from the fcale N° 2, which laid from it will reach to I; through which draw the line IMN parallel to AB, and inter¬ fering the curve in AC j then the difiance IM applied to the fcale N° r, will meafure about 2248 tons, the dif- placement anfwerable to that draught of water } and MN applied to the fame fcale will meafure about 1405 tons, the additional weight neceflfary to bring her down •to the load water mark. Alfo the neareft diftance be¬ tween M and the line KL wall meafure about 460 tons, the weight already on board. It will conduce very much to facilitate this operation to divide KB into a fcale of tons taken from the fcale N° r, beginning at B, and alfo h'L, beginning at h. Then wdien the draught of water is taken from the fcale N° 2, and laid from it to I, as in the former example, and IMN drawn parallel to AB, and interfering the curve in M. Now through M draw' a line perpendicu¬ lar to AB, and it wrill meet KB in a point reprefenting the number of tons aboard, and alfo h L in a point de¬ noting the additional weight neceffary to load her. Again, if the weight on board be given, the corre- fponding draught of water is obtained as follows. Find the given number of tons in the fcale KB, through which draw a line perpendicular to AB ; then through the point of interferion of this line with the curve draw another line parallel to AB. Now the diftance between A and the point where the parallel interfered AH being applied to the fcale N° 2, will give the draught of water required. _ Any other cafe to which this fcale may be applied will be obvious. Book II. Containing the Properties of Ships, &c. Chap. I. Of the Equilibrium of Ships. Since the preffure of fluids is equal in every direc¬ tion, the bottom of a (hip is therefore ared upon by the fluid in which it is immerfed ; which preffure, for any given portion of furface, is equal to the produr of that portion by the depth and denfity of the fluid : or it is equal to the weight of a column of the fluid whefe bafe is the given furface, and the altitude equal to the difiance between the furface of the fluid and the centre of gravity of the furface preffed. Hence a floating body is in equilibrio between two forces, namelv, its gravity and the vertical preffure of the fluid ; the hori¬ zontal preffure being deftroyed. Piate Let ABC (fig. be any body immerfed in a fluid ccccxciv, vvhofe line of floatation is GH : hence the preffure of the fluid is exerted on every portion of the furface of the immerfed part AFCH. Let EF, CD be anv two fmall portions contained between the lines ED, FC, parallel to each other, and to the line of floatation GH : then SHIP-BUILDING. Ships. the preffure exerted upon EF is expreffed by EF X IE, Equilibri- IK being the depth of EF or CD ; the denfity of the ur*i of fluid being iuppofed equal to 1. In like manner the 1 preffure upon CD is equal to CDxIK. Now fince the preffure is in a dire£tion perpendicular to the furface, draw therefore the line EL perpendicular to EF, and DM perpendicular to DC, and make each equal to the depth IK, below the furface. Now the effort or preffure of the fluid upon EF will be expreffed by EF x EL, and that upon CD by CD X DM. Complete the paral¬ lelograms ON, OS, and the preffure in the direction EL is refolved into EN, EO, the firft in a horizontal, and the fecund in a vertical direftion. In like manner, the preffure in the direction DM is refolved into the preflures DS, Df). Hence the joint effect of the pref- fures in the horizontal and vertical direflions, namely, EF x EN, and EF X EO, will be equal to EF X EL : For the fame reafon, CD X DP-}-CD X HQ^CD X DM. But the parts of the preffures in a horizontal di- reflion EFx EN, and CD xDP, are equal. For, be- caufe of the fimilar triangles ENL, ERF, and DPM, . EL EF DM DC TT DSC, we have —=— and Hence DM X CS=DP X DC,and EL X FRzrrEN X EF. Now fince EL—DM, and FR—CS, therefore EL X FR¬ OM x CS=DP x DC=EN X EF. Hence fince EF x EN~DP x CD, the effefts of the preffures in a horizon¬ tal direction are therefore equal and contrary, and con- fequently deftroy each other. The preffure in a vertical dire£lion is reprefented by EO X EF, DO X DC, &c. which, becaufe of the fimi¬ lar triangles EOF, ERF, and DEM, DSC, become EL x ER, DM x E>S, &c. or IK x ER, IK x E>S, &c. By applying the fame reafoning to every other portion of the furface of the immerfed part of the body, it is hence evident that the fum of the vertical preffures is equal to the fum of the correfponding dilplaced columns of the fluid. Hence a floating body is preffed upwards by a force The weight equal to the weight of the quantity of water difplaced ^lP and fince there is an equilibrium between this force and th^of the the weight of the body, therefore the weight of a float-quantity of ing body is equal to the weight of the difplaced fluid water dif- (k). Hence alfo the centre of gravity of the bodyP'ace^- and the centre of gravity of the difplaced fluid are in the fame vertical, otherwife the body would net be atcentreof reft. gravity of both are in Chap. II. Upon the Efforts of the Water to bend a Feffel. When it is faid tliat tile prclTure of the water upon Thtovie the immerfed part of a veffel counterbalances its weight, complette, it is fuppofed that the different parts of the veffel are fo bar clofely connefted together, that the forces which tranih'ted upon its furface are not capable of producing any change, by VVati'on. For we may eafily conceive, if the connexion of the parts were not fufficiently firong, the veffel would run the rifk either of being broken in pieces, or of fuffering fome alteration in its figure. The veffel is in a fituation fimilar to that of a rod AB 62 (k) Upon this principle the weight and tonnage of the 80 gun ihip laid down were calculated. SHIP-BUILD IN G» Efforts of the Water to bend a Veflel. Plate ccccxcv, Fig. 51. 64 The caufe of a fiii p’s hogging. and fag- ging- Praciicnl Seaman- Jbip, p. ij AB (fig. 50O, which being afted upon by the forces A a, Cc, Dd, may be maintained in equilibrio, provided it has a fufficient degree of itiffnefs : but as foon as it begins to give way, it is evident it muft bend in a convex manner, fince its middle would obey the forces C c and D d, while its extremities would be ac¬ tually drawn downwards by the forces A a and B b. The veffel is generally found in luch a lunation ; and fince fimilar efforts continually aft vvhilft the velf-1 is immerfed in the water, it happens but too often that the keel experiences the bad eftedt of a drain. It is therefore very important to inquire into the true caufe of this accident. For this purpofe, let us conceive the velfel to be di¬ vided into two parts by a tranfverfe fedlion through the vertical axis of the velfel, in which both the centre of gravity G (fig. 51.) of the whole veflel and that of the immerfed part are Ihuated : fo that one of them will reprefent the head part, and the other that of the Hern, each of which wall be conlidered feparately. Let g be’the centre of gravity of the entire weight of the fir ft, and 0 that of the immerfed part correfponding. In like manner, let y be the centre of gravity of the whole after part, and w that of its immediate portion. Now it is plain, that the head will be adled upon by the two forces g m and 0 n, of which the firft will prefs it down, and the latter pufli it up. In the fame man¬ ner, the Item will be prefled down by the force y p, and puftied by the force mv. But thefe four forces will maintain themfelves in equilibrium, as well as the total forces reunited in the points G and O, which are equi¬ valent to them ; but whilft neither the forces before nor thofe behind fall in the fame direction, the veffel will evidently fuftain efforts tending to bend the keel upwards, if the two points 0 u are nearer the middle than the two other forces g tn and y^. A contrary effeft would happen if the points 0 and a were more dii- tant from the middle than the points g and y. But the firft of thefe two caufes ufually takes place jilmoft in all veffels, fince they have a greater breadth towards the middle, and become more and more narrow towards the extremities ; whilft the weight of the veffel is in proportion much more confiderable towards the extremities than at the middle. From whence we fee, that the greater this difference becomes, the more alfo will the veffel be fubjeft to the forces which tend to bend its keel upwards. It is therefore from thence that we muft judge how much ftrength it is neceffary to give to this part of the veffel, in order to avoid fuch a confequence. If other circumftances would permit either to load the veffel more in the middle, or to give to the part immer¬ fed a greater capacity torvards the head and Item, finch an effeti would no longer be apprehended. But the deftination of moft veffels is entirely oppofite to fuch an arrangement: by which means we are obliged to ftreng th¬ en the keel as much as may be neceffary, in order to avoid fuch a difafter. We ftrall conclude this chapter with the following pra&ical obfervations on the hogging and fagging of {hips by Mr Hutchinfon of Liverpool: “ When {hips with long floors happen to be laid a- dry upon mud or fand, which makes a falid refiftance ' againft the long ftraight floors amidfhips, in comparifon with the two ftiarp ends, the entrance and run meet with 295 little fupport, but are prefled down lower than the flat Efforts of of the floor, and in proportion hogs the fliip amid- !^e vvater {hips which is too well known from experience to oc- caixon many total Ioffes, or do fo much damage by hogging them, as to require a vaft deal of trouble and expence to fave and repair them, fo as to get the hog taken out and brought to their proper flreer again : and to do this the more effedlually, the owners have often been induced to go to the expence of lengthening them y and by the common method, in proportion as they add to the burden of thefe {hips, by lengthening their too long ftraight floors in their main bodies amidfhips, fo much do they add to their general weaknefs to bear hardfhips either on the ground or afloat; for the fcant- ling of their old timber and plank is not proportionable to bear the additional burden that is added to them. “ But defebts of this kind are beft proved from real and inconteftable facts in common pradtice. At the very time I was writing upon this fubjedt, I was called upon for my advice by the commander of one of thofe ftrong, long, ftraight floored {hips, who was in much trouble and diftradtion of mind for the damage his fliip had taken by the pilot laying her on a hard, gentle {lop¬ ing fand, at the outfide of our docks at Liverpool, where it is common for {hips that will take the ground to lie for a tide, when it proves too late to get into our wet docks. After recommending a proper {hip carpenter, I went to the fliip, which lay with only a fmall keel, yet was greatly hogged, and the butts of her upper works ftrained greatly on the lee fide ; and the feams of her bottom, at the lower futtock heads, vaftly opened on the weather fide : all which ftrained parts were agreed upon not to be caulked, but filled with tallow, putty, or clay, &c. with raw bullocks hides, or canvas nailed with bat- tons on her bottom, which prevented her finking with the flow of the tide, without hindering the preffure of water from righting and clofing the. feams again as {he floated, fo as to enable them to keep her free with pumping. This veffel, like many other inftances of {hips of this conftrublion that I have known, was faved and repaired at a very great expence in our dry repair¬ ing docks. And that their bottoms not only hog up¬ wards, but fag (or curve) downwards, to dangerous and fatal degrees, according to the ftram or preffure that prevails upon them, will be proved from tne follcuAing fadts: “ It has been long known from experience, that when flilps load deep with very heavy cargoes or materials that are flowed too low, it makes them fo very labour- fome at fea, when the waves run high, as to roll away ' their mails 5 and after that misfortune caufes them to labour and roll the more, fo as to endanger their work¬ ing and llraining themfelves to pieces : to prevent which, it has been long a common prablice to leave a great part of their fore and after holds empty, and to flow them as high as poffible in the main body at mid- fhips, which caufes the bottoms of thefe long ftraight- floored {hips to fag downwards, in proportion as the weight of the cargo flowed there exceeds the preflure of the water upwards, fo much as to make them danger- oufly and fatally leaky. “ I have known many inflances of thofe ftrong ftnps of 500 or 600 tons burdens built with long ftraight floors, on the eaft coaft of England, for the coal and timber trade, come loaded with timber from the Baltic to .< '296 SHIP.BUILDING. YhffwS0f t0 ^,'verP00^ where they commonly load deep with to bendT r0Ck ^alt» w^ic^ ’1S t0° heavy to fill their holds, fo that Veffd. *°r the above reafons they flowed it high amidfhips, v—~v—^ an(l left large empty fpaces in their fore and after holds, which caufed their long ftraight floors to fag down- w7ards, fo much as to make their hold ftaunchions amid- fliips, at the main hatchway, fettle from the beams three or four inches, and their mainmafls fettle fo much as to oblige them to fet up the main rigging when rolling hard at fea, to prevent the marts being rolled away j and they were rendered fo leaky as to be obliged to return to Liverpool to get their leaks flopped at great expence. And in order to fave the time and expence in difcharg- ing them, endeavours were made to find out and flop their leaks, by laying them alhore dry on a level fand ; but without effedl: for though their bottoms wrere thus fagged down by their cargoes when afloat, yet when they came a-dry upon the fand, fome of their bottoms ' hogged upwards fo much as to raife their mainmafts and pumps fo high as to tear their coats from their decks j fo that they have been obliged to difcharge their car¬ goes, and give them a repair in the repairing dock, and in fome to double their bottonas, to enable them to carry their cargoes with fafety, flowed in this manner. From this caufe I have known one of thefe ftrong fhips to founder. _ “ Among the many inftances of fhips that have been diftreffed by carrying cargoes of lead, one failed from hence bound to Marfeilles, which was foon obliged to put back again in great diftrefs, having had four feet water in the hold, by the commander’s account, owing to the fliip’s bottom fagging down to fuch a degree as made the hold ftaunchions fettle fix inches from the lower deck beams amidfhips ; yet it is common with thefe long ftraight floored fhips, w'hen thefe heavy car¬ goes are difcharged that make their bottoms fag down, then to hog upwards : fo that when they are put into a dry repairing dock, with empty holds, upon ftraight blocks, they commonly either fplit the blocks clofe fore and aft, or damage their keels there, by the w’hole xveight of the fliip lying upon them, when none lies up¬ on the blocks under the flat of their floors amidfhips, that being hogged upwards; which was the cafe of this fhip’s bottom j though fagged downwards fix inches by her cargo, it wras now found hogged fo much that her keel did not touch the blocks amidfhips, which occafion- ed fo much damage to the after part of the keel, as to oblige them to repair it j which is commonly the cafe with thefe fhips, and therefore deferving particular notice.” In order to prevent thefe defeats in fhips, “ they fhould all be built with their floors or bottoms length- wife, to form an arch with the proje£ling part down¬ wards, which will naturally not only contribute greatly to prevent their taking damage by their bottoms hog¬ ging and ftraining upwards, either aground or afloat, as has been mentioned, but will, among other advantages, be a help to their failing, fleering, flaying, and waring.” Chap. III. Of the Stability of Ships. When a veffel receives an impulfe or preffure in a horizontal direftion, fo as to be inclined in a fmall degree, the vefiel will then either regain its former pofition as the preffure is taken off, and is in this cafe i faid to be poffeffed of ft ability 5 or it will continue in Stability of its inclined flate ; or, laftly, the inclination will increafe Sh'Ps- until the veffel is overturned. With regard to the firft' Cafe, it is evident that a fufficient degree of liability is neceffary in order to fuftain the efforts of the wind j but neither of the other two cafes mull be permitted to have place in veffels. Let CED (fig. 52.) be the feflion of a fhip palling Fig. 5a. through its centre of gravity, and perpendicular to the * flieer and floor plans j which let be in equilibrium in a fluid ; AB being the water line, G the centre of gra¬ vity of the whole body, and g that of the immerfed part AEB. Let the body receive now a very fmall inclination, fo that a E £ becomes the immerfed part, and y its centre of gravity. From y draw y M perpen¬ dicular to a b, and meeting g G, produced, if neceffary, in M. If, then, the point M thus found is higher than G the centre of gravity of the whole body, the body will, in this cafe, return to its former pofition, the preffure being taken off. If the point M coin¬ cides wdth G, the veffel will remain in its inclined flate ; but if M be below G, the inclination of the veffel will continually increafe until it is entirely over- fet. The point of interfe&ion M is called the metaccnter, and is the limit of the altitude of the centre of gravity of the whole veffel. Whence it is evident, from what has already been faid, that the liability of the veffel in- creafes with the altitude of the metacenter above the centre of gravity : But when the metacenter coincides with the centre of gravity, the veffel has no tendency whatever to move out of the fituation into which it may be put. I hus, if the veffel be inclined either to the right or left fide, it will remain in that pofition until a new force is impreffed upon it: in this cafe, therefore, the veffel would not be able to carry fail, and is hence un¬ fit for the purpofes of navigation. If the metacenter is below the common centre of gravity, the veffel will inftantly overfet. As the determination of the metacenter is of the ut- moft importance in the conftrudlion of fhips, it is there¬ fore thought neceffary to illuftrate this fubjed more par¬ ticularly. Let AEB (fig. 52.) be a feflion of a (hip perpen¬ dicular to the keel, and alfo to the plane of elevation, and parting through the centre of gravity of the fliip, and alfo through the centre of gravity of the immerfed part, which let be ^. Now let the fhip be fuppofed to receive a very fmall inclination, fo that the line of floatatidn is a, b, and y the centre of gravity of the immerfed part a E £. From y draw y M perpendicular to a b, and interfering GM in M, the metacenter, as before. Hence the preffure of the w’ater will be in the direflion y M. In order to determine the point M, 'the metacenter, the pofition of y with refpe6t to the lines AB and g G, muft be previoufly afeertained. For this purpofe, let the fhip be fuppofed to be divided into a great number of feftions by planes perpendicular to the keel, and pa¬ rallel to each other, and to that formerly drawn, thefe planes being fuppofed equidiftant. Let AEB (fig. 55.) Fig. 53. be one of thefe feftions, g the centre of gravity of the immerfed part before inclination, and y the centre of gravity of the immerfed part when the fhip is in its inclined ftate j the diftance^y between the two centres of Su'SiUty'of of gravity m each feftion is to be found. Let AB be . 6h’^‘ . the line of floatation of the fltip when in an upright Bate, and a b the water line w'hen inclined. Then, be* caufe the weight of the Arp remains the fame, the quantity of water difplaced will alfo be the fame in both cafes, and therefore AEBrrctf E by each fuflaining the fame part of the whole weight of the fliip. From each of thefe take the part AE b, which is common to both, and the remainders AO a, BO b will be equal ; and which, becaufe the inclination is fuppofed very final!, may be confidered as reftilineal triangles, and the point O the middle of AB. Now, let H, I, K, be the centres of gravity of the fpaces AO a, AE and BO refpeftivelv. From thefe points draw the lines H /$, I z, and K k, perpen¬ dicular to AB, and let IL be drawn perpendicular to EO. Now to afcertain the diftance yxIf+BO£xK£. Hcnce by expunging the term AE 6x1**from each of thefe equations, and comparing them, we obtain AEBXytf = AEB x^O—BO 6 x K k—AO* x H A Now, fince the triangles AO a, BO b, are fuppofed infinitely fmall, their momentums or produrfs, bv the infinitely little lines H/z, K k, will alfo be infinitely finail with refpeft to AEBx^O ; which therefore be- ing rejedled, the former equation becomes AEB X y y =r AEB xg o, and hence yq—gQ. Whence the centres of gravity y,g, being at equal diftances below AB, the infinitely little line yg is therefore perpendicu¬ lar to EO. For the lame reafon g y, fig. $2. maybe confidered as an arch of a circle wrhofe centre is 1VI. do deteimine the value of g y, the momentum of aEb with refpefl to EO muft be taken, for the fame reafon as before, and put equal to the momentums of the two parts AO <7, AE b; and we fliall then have * E b xgy, or AEB x^ y = AEB x IL-f-AO z? x 06. But fince g is the common centre of gravity cf the two fpaces AE 6, BO 6, we fliall haveAE6xIL—BO 6 XO£—O, or AP:6xIL=:B06x0L Hence AEB X98 SHIP-BUILD IN G. Fig. 56. 66 Diftance of the centre of gravity from the ftem cr item. * Bcvout's Lie cha¬ in que, ait. 279- Centre of vertical fe&ion palling through the keel, and dividing Gravity. the into tw0 equal ,and fimilar parts, at a certain di- ■^“y ' ftance from the ftern, and altitude above the heel. In order to determine the centre of gravity of the immerfed part of a drip’s bottom, vve muft begin with determining the centre of gravity of a feftion of the fhip parallel to the keel, as ANDFPB (fig. 56.), bounded bv the parallel lines AB, DFf and by the equal and fi- milar curves AND, BPF. If the equation of this curve were known, its centre of gravity would be eafily found : but as this is not the cafe, let therefore the line CE be drawn through the middle C, E, of the lines AB, DF, and let this line CE be divided into fo great a number of equal parts by the perpendiculars TH, KM, &c. that the arches of the curves contained between the extremities of any two adjacent perpendiculars may be confidered as ftraight lines. The momentums of the trapeziums DTHF, TKMH, &c. relative to the point E, are then to be found, and the fum of thefe momentums is to be divided bv the fum of the trapeziums, that is, by the furface ANDFPB. The diftance of the centre of gravity of the trape- •l . _UEx(DF+2TH) zium FHFD from the point E is— DF-}-TH *, For the fame reafon, and becaufe of the equality of the lines IE, IL, the dillance of the centre of gravity Ol the trapezium TKMH from the fame point E will be fIEx(TH + 2KM) IE fIEx(4TH + 5KM) iTH + KSr+IE'0r- TH-t-KM • In like manner, the diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium NKMP from the point E will be f IE X (KM-f-zNP) xieX(7KM+8NP) KM+Np-+2lE’0r ra+NP ’ &.C. Now, if each diftance be multiplied by the furface of the correfponding trapezium, that is, by the product o half the fum of the two oppofite fides of the trapezium into the common altitude IE, we fhaU have the momen- lums of thefe trapeziums, namely, I Ej1 X (DF-p 2 PH), IE|* x (4 TH+ 5 KM) -5 IE]1 x (7 KM + .8 NP), &c. Flence the fum of thefe momentums will be -s fKf x (DF-f- 6 TH+ 12 KM + 18 NP + 24 QS -f-14 AB). Whence it may be remarked, that if the line CE be divided into a great number of equal parts, the fadtor or coefficient of the laft term, which is here 14, will be = 2 + 3 (tf—2) or 3 «—4, n being the number of perpendiculars, . Thus the general _expreflion of the fum of the momentums is reduced to IE|2 X L 3 n—4 TH -f 2 KM + 3 NP + 4 &s +1 &c--“ + '~6~~ X AB. The area of the figure ANDFPB is equal to IE X (-! DF -F TH + KM + NP + , &c + i AB); hence the diftance EG of the centre of gravity G from one of the extreme ordinates D F is equal to IE x DF+TH+ 2 KM4-3 NP +, &c. 67 Rule lor the diftance 4 DF 4- IH 4-KM + NP-f, &C , . tre"of Sra' Whence the following rule to find the diftance of the vity from centre of gravity G from one of the extreme ordinates ere of the DF. To the fixth of the firft ordinate add the fixth extreme of the laft ordinate multiplied by three times the num- ordmates. ber of ordinates minus four 5 then the fecond" ordinate, Centre of twice the third, three times the fourth, &c. the fum , Gravity. ^ will be a firft term. Then to half the fum of the ex- v treme ordinates add all the intermediate ones, and the fum will be a feccnd term. Now the firft term divided by the fecond, and the quotient multiplied by the in¬ terval between two adjacent perpendiculars, will be the diftance fought. Thus, let there be feven perpendiculars, whofe va¬ lues are 18, 23, 28, 30, 30, 21, o, feet refpe&ively, and the common interval between the perpendiculars 20 feet. Now the fixth of the firft term 18 is 3 ; and as the laft term is o, therefore to 3 add 23, twice 28 or 56, thrice 30 or 90, four times 30 or 120, five times 21 or 1055 and the fum is 397. Then to the half of i8-|-o, or 9, add the intermediate ordinates, and the fum will be 141. Now 397 X 2~, or = 39 feet 141 ^ 4 ^ four inches nearly, the diftance of the centre of gravity from the firft ordinate. Now, when the centre of gravity of any feftion is de¬ termined, it is eafy from thence to find the centre o£ gravity of the folid, and confequently that of the bottom of a fliip. The next ftep is to find the height of the centre °* of gravity of the bottom above the keel. For .this pur- pofe the bottom muft be imagined to be divided into 0fgravity feftions by planes parallel to the keel or water-line, above the (figs. 57, 58.). Then the folidity of each portion con-^eb ^ tained between two parallel planes will be equal to half W* 5 the fum of the two oppofed furfaces multiplied by the diftance between them 5 and its centre of gravity will be at the fame altitude as that of the trapezium abed, (fig. 58.), which is in the vertical feftion palling through the keel. It is hence obvious, that the fame rule as before is to be applied to find the altitude of the centre of gravity, with this difference only, that the word perpendicular or otdinate is to be changed into fe&ion. Hence the rule is, to the fixth part of the loweft feftion add the product of the fixth part of the uppermoft feflion by three times the number of feftions minus four ; the fecond feftion in afeending twice the third, three times the fourth, &c. the fum will be a firft term. To half the fum of upper and lower fee- tions add the intermediate ones, the fum will be a fecond term. Divide the firft term by the feccnd, and the quotient muliiplied by the diftance between the fe&ions- will give the altitude of the centre of gravity above the keel. With regard to the centre of gravity of a ftiip, whe¬ ther it is confidered as loaded or light, the operation becomes more difficult. The momentum of every dif¬ ferent part of the ftnp and cargo muft be found fepa- rately with refpeft to a horizontal and alfo a vertical plane. New the fums of thefe two momentums being divided by the weight of the flffp, will give the altitude- of the centre of gravity, and its diftance from the ver¬ tical plane ; and as this centre is in a vertical plane paf- fing through the axis of the keel, its place is therefore determined. In the calculation of the momentums, it ’ muft be obferved to multiply the weight, and not the magnitude of each piece, by the diftance of its centre of gravity. , r A more eafy method of finding the centre of gravity of Cer.ire of Gravity. 69 A mecha- rical me¬ thod for afcertain- ing the centre of gravity of a ftiip. of a ftiip is by a mechanical operation, as Follows: Con- ftruft a block of as light wood as poftible, exa£lly fimilar to the parts of the propofed draught or fttip, by a fcale of about one-fourth of an inch to a foot. The block is then to be fufpended by a filk-thread or very fine line, placed in different fituations until it is found to be in a itate of equilibrium, and the centre of gravity will be pointed out. The block may be proved by fattening the line which fufpends it to any point in the line join¬ ing the middles of the ftem and poft, and weights are to be fufpended from the extremities of this middle line at the ftem and poft. If, then, the block be properly conftrufted, a plane patting through the line of fulpen- fton, and the other two lines, will alfo pafs through the keel, ftem, and poft. Now, the block being fufpended in this manner from any point in the middle line, a line is to be drawn on the block parallel to the line or iut- penfion, fo that the plane patting through thefe two lines may be perpendicular to the vertical plane o^ the ihip in the direction of the keel. I he line by which the block is fufpended is then to be removed to fome other SHIP-BUILDING. 29 convenient point in the middle line ; and another hne Cent™ o is to be drawn on the block parallel to the line impend-1 ^ , ing it, as before. Then the point of interfedlion of this line with the former will give the pofttion of the centre of gravity on the block, which may now be laid down in the draught. Chap. V. Application of the preceding Rules to the Determination of the Centre of Gravity and the Height of the Metacenter above the Centre of Gra¬ vity of a Ship of 74 Guns. In fig- 59* are laid down the feveral fe&ions in a ho-Fig. rizontal direftion, by planes parallel to the keel, and at equal diftances from each other, each diftance being 10 feet o inches 4 parts. I. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the upper Horizontal Setiioli. To find the diftance of the centre of gravity of the plane 8 <§• 0 G from the firft ordinate 8 g. Ordinates. Feet. In. P 14 9 17 l 18 9 19 10 20 21 21 21 21 21 21 7 1 6 7 7 7 4 20 10 19 9 17 4 J3 1 Double Ord. Feet. In. P. 29 6 O 34 3 37 6 39 8 4l 3 1 ft Faflors 4 11 42 43 43 43 43 _ 42 8 41 9 39 34 10 J3 1 ft Produ&s. 2d Fa&ors. Feet. In. P. o o I o I o I o I 6 1 O I 6 1 o 1 o I 0 I o I o I o I . 34 75 119 165 211 258 3°3 346 389 2d Products, Feet. In. P. 14 9 O 3 6 8 3 3 o 3 3 3 34 37 39 41 42 43 43 43 43 426 8 459 474 451 42 8 41 9 26 2 6 ((3X15) —4) X § i79 04 39 34 J3 291 1 3 3897 3 Now 582 2 6 1 3S97 3 1 2807 • 2; X 10 0 4- . - •■-IT X 10-03 = 7°-5* Hence the'drftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane S g 0 G from the firft ordinate, 8 g, is Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of ftern-poft, Diftance of the centre of gravity from the aft fide of poft, Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR ^ 8 from its ordinate AR, Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the ftern-poft, Diftance of the centre of gravity of this plane from the aft-fide of the ftern-poft Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium G 0 y y from its ordinate G o, Diftance of this ordinate from the aft-fide of the poft, Diftance of the centre of gravity of this trapezium from the aft fide of the poft, Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feaion of the ftern-poft from the aft part of the poft, Diftftnce of the centre of gravity of the feaion of the ftern from the aft fide of the poft, P p 2 o o o o 6 6 6 6 o o o o 6 554 4 3 Feet. 7°*5 13-S 84.0 8.42 0.58 9.0 5-44 I53-78 159.22 0.29 169.76 The ’-*> 300 Centre of Gravity, S H I P - B U I L D I N G. Tp.e aieasof tiiefe feveral planes, calculated by the common method, will be as follow 5558.90 for that of the plane, and its momentum 5558.9 X 84 rr J99.13 for that of double the trapezium AR^8, and its momentum 109.12 XQ =r 214.59 of double the trapezium G oyy, and its momentum 214.59 x i s0.22 1= o.y y for that of the leftion of the Ifern-polt, and its momentmm 0.77x0.29 — 0.77 for that of the feftton of the Item, and its momentum 0.77 x 169.76 zo 5974.16 Sum - , 466947.6000 1792.1700 34x67.0236 0.2233 I3°-7I52 5°3037-7321 Now£2ifHii = 84-2> th' d;ftance "f 1,16 “f gravity of the whole Mion front the aft fide of the dern-poft, II. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the fee and Horizontal SeBion. To find the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 fnG from its firft ordinate 8/ Ordinates. Double Ord. 1. Faflors. Feet. In. Pt 112 3 JS 3 5 18 10 19 10 20 7 21 o 21 2 21 O 20 IO 20 6 Feet In. Pts. 39 10 18 6 J5 9 11 2 o o 3 6 o 3 o 6 9 6 o o 6 22 4 30 6 34 10 37 8 39 41 42 42 42 41 41 39 8 37 ° 7 5 31 22 6 o o 6 o o 6 o o 6 o o o o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 I. Products. 2. Faft. Feet In. Pt'. 389 Of 0 I O I 6 1 o I O I 0 I o I o I 6 1 o I o I o I O I 30 6 69 8 113 1 i59 ° 205 10 2S2 3 296 4 33^ 8 376 1 410 10 436 4 444 ° 410 7 2. Products. Feet In. Pts. II 2 2 30 6 34 10 37 8 6 ((3X15)—4) X 7 153 5 6 °i 39 41 42 42 42 41 41 1 39 8 37 o 3i 7 11 2 273 2 3 546 4 6 3698 5 3 S23 11 6 Hence the difknee of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8fn G from its firft ordinate 8n ^2LJ3 x = 3S9M3 x J0 = __523 11 6 . _ 523 95 J r Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the ftern-poft Diftance of the centre of gravity of the above plane from the aft fide of poft Difiance of the centre of gravity of double the trapezium AR/8 from its ordinate AR Diftance of this ordinate from aft fide of ftern-poft Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft - Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium before the ordinate G» from that ordinate Diftance ot that ordinate from the aft fide of the poft Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fe&ion of the ftern-poft from the aft fide of the poft Diftance of the centre of gravity of the feaion of the ftem from the aft fide qf the poft 70.79 X3-S 84.29 8.38 °-57 8'93 5-74 jS3-73 l59'S2 0.29 169.76 Centre of Gravity. The Centre of Gravity. SHIP-BUILDING. The areas of thefe feveral planes being calculated, will be as follow 5255.22 for that of the plane jiG, and its momentum 5255.22X 84.29 = 153.11 for that of double the trapezium AR f%, and its momentum 153.11 X 8.95 r= 182.40 the area of the trapezium before, and its momentum 182.40 X l59-52 — 0.77 the area of the fedlion of the fternpoft, and its momentum 0.77x0.29 rz 0.77 the area of the fection of the ftem, and its momentum 0.77 X 169.76 = 5592.27 Sum ... 301 Centre of Gravity. 442962.4938 I37°-3345 29096.4480 0.2233 150.7152 473560.2148 Now -'^T= 84.68. the diftance of the centre of gravity of the whole fe&ion from the aft-fide of the 5952.27 ftern-poft. V III. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the third Horizontal SeElion. Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 e G from its firlt ordinate 8 e. Ordinates. Feet. In. Pts. 676 7 1 1 3 3 9 o o 11 15 17 18 *9 19 20 20 19 8 19 1 18 1 16 3 13 2 8 4 Double Ord. Feet. In. Pt‘. !3 3 ° 3 2 2 6 6 6 o o 4 2 2 7 4 23 30 34 36 33 39 40 40 39 3 3 36 32 26 ill Faftors. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1 ft Produfb. 2d Faft. 2d Produfts. Feet; In. Pts. Feet. In. Pts. 2 2 6 OF 676 23 60 102 146 I92 237 280 320 354 382 397 391 3 4 7 o 6 o o o 4 1 10 6 342 10 23 3° 34 3^ 33 39 / 3 2 2 6 6 6 40 o 40 o 39 4 38 2 36 2 32 7 26 4 16 9 o ((3x15)—4)x£=: 114 5 6 04- 846 242 5 3 484 10 6 3347 469 10 6 Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 T 288729.2052 Q ' . 3365.4212 ^'79> t*ie diftance of the centre of gravity of the whole fe&ion from the aft fide of the VI. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the Jixth Horizontal Scttion. Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 £ f G from its fnft ordinate 8 b. Ordinates. Double Ord. x. Factors. 1. Produdls. 2. Fafl. 2. ProduiSh. Feet. In. L. IOO 2 4 7 10 12 13 12 10 7 4 5 5 3 1 1 3 9 7 8 6 1 7 2 10 1 6 o o 6 9 3 o 9 o o 6 o 3 6 Feet. In. L. 2 0 0 4 fo o 8 10 o 14 20 24 26 27 27 25 21 J4 9 5 3 7 3 2 6 7 2 4 1 2 2 9 1 Off X 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Feet In. L. 040 4 10 o 17 80 43 81 9 10 11 12 J3 121 *59 193 2!7 228 2X0 10 I55 IO 110 6 74 9 6 (3X 15)—4^Xff 21 4 1 1 X I I 1 I r 1 1 1 1 1 Feet. In. I O 4 JO 8 IO 7 3 2 6 7 2 4 1 M 20 24 26 27 27 25 21 M 5> 5 x L, O o o o 6 6 o 6 o o o o 6 •o JI7 4 3 234 8 6 i639 9 3 Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 Z> o G fr 1639 9 3 1630.77 — ■— X xo o 4 — --A-O- x 10.03 = 232 1 3 232.14 J Diftance of this ordinate from aft fide of poft - . . Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of the plane from the aft fide of the poft is Dithmce of the centre of gravity of the trapezium AR b 8 from its ordinate AR Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft - . Diftance of the centre of gravity of the trapezium from the aft fide of the poft Diftance of the centre of gravity of the foremoft trapezium from the ordinate G t Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of poft 232 1 9 om its firft ordinate 8 b is 70.84 Diftance of the Diftance of the Diftance of the 2328.3642 for 21.52 for 15.04 the 0.77 the 0.77 the centre of gravity of this trapezium from the aft fide of the poft centre of gravity of the feSion of the poft from its aft fide centre of gravity of the feaion of the ftem from the aft fide of the poft I he areas of thefe planes will be found to be as fellow : that of double the plane 8 £ z G, and its momentum 2328 3642 -j- 84. the area of double the trapezium AR b 8, and its momentum 21.52 X area of the foremoft trapezium, and its momentum 15.04 X 156.7 — area of the feaion of the poft, and its momentum O.77 X 0.29 — area of the feaion of the ftem, and its momentum 0.77 X 169.76 ~ 34 = 7.46 = 2366.4642 Sum *4-34 6.88 0.58 7.46 2.92 *53 78 156.70 0.29 169.76 i96374-2366 160.5392 2356.7680 0.2233 130 7152 199022.4823 Nov* S H I P - B U I L D I N G. 3°5 Centre of y f Now 199022,4^23 ^ 8 the diftance of the centre of gravity of the whole from the aft fide of the port. , Gravity.^ 2366.4643 VII. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the feventh Horizontal Sefiion. Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the plane 8 // G from Its firft ordinate 8 a. Ordinates. Double Ord. 1. Fadors. 1. Produfts. 2. Faft. 2 Produd?, Feet. In. Lin 080 I I i 7 1 10 2 1 2 I I IO i 8 I I 9 o 8 o 8 Feet. In. L. 140 3 3 9 2 2 9 4 2 6 4 4 4 4 o-J 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Feet. In. Lin. 0 2 8 2 3 6 6 11 4 16 10 20 10 22 9 33 4 J7 4 13 6 J3 4 14 8 16 o 17 4 o o 6 o o o o o o o o o o ot I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I Feet. In. Lin. 080 ((3x15)—4) x 7 9 1 4 o o 6 6 o 6 o o o o o o o 18 36 5 6 205 4 6 35 72I5 6-45 0.1 Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of double 205 4 6 this plane from its firft ordinate is' 1° 0 4 2°5*37 —i7X2x,0-83= * ‘ • The diftance of this ordinate from aft fide of poft = Hence the diftance of the centre of gravity of this plane from the aft fide of the poft is Diftance of the centre of gravity of double the rectangle AR a 8 from its ordinate AR Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft Diftance of the centre of gravity of this re£t- angle from the aft fide of the poft Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fore- moft re&angle from its ordinate 7' 7 * 7' Diftance of this ordinate from the aft fide of the poft Diftance of the centre of gravity of this re£t- angle from the aft fide of the poft Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fec- tion of the poft from its aft fide Diftance of the centre of gravity of the fee- tion of the ftem from the aft fide of the poft - Now, the areas of thefe feveral plans being calculated will be as follows. Vol. XIX. Part L 352.2536, the area of double the plan 8a^G, and its momentum 352.2536x72*i5:::: 254x5 17.1570, the area of double the rectan¬ gle AR a 8, and its mo¬ mentum 17.1570 x 7-03= the area of the foremoft reft- angle, and its momentum 3-325° X i55;03~ p , the area of the fe£tion ot the poft, and its momentum 0.77x0.29= the area of the feCtion of the ftem and its momentum 0.77 X 166.76= 3*325°> 0.77, °77> 9 3 120.6137 5i5*4747 0.2233 130.7152 7-°3 1.25 I53-78 I55*°3 0.29 169.76 374-275^ Sum 26182.1242 Then 26i82-i242_ ^ the diftance of the 374.2756 centre of gravity of the whole feCtion from the aft fide of the poft. VIII. Determination of the Centre of Gravity of the eighth Plane. This plane is equal in length to the feventh horizon¬ tal plane, and its breadth is equal to that of the keel. The diftance between the feventh and eighth planes is three feet, but which is here taken equal to 2 feet 11 -| inches. Diftasm** 3oS c,"1" of Diflaace behveen the aft Gde of the pofl and i-—^ the firft: ordinate - _ . Fourteen intervals between the fifteen ordi¬ nates, each interval being 10.03 feet Dillance of the laft ordinate from the fore foot S H I P - B U I L D I N G. Hence the length of the eighth plane is Which multiplied by the breadth ■1 he produfl is the area of this plane 1 he dillance of its centre of gravity from the aft fide of the pod, being equal to half its length, is - - - 1o-j> 140.42 2.2 j 56.12 J-33 208. Ilor. Plane?. 208.00 3 74-2 7 2366.46 3365 42 4160.50 4939-27 5592-27 5974-I6^ (3 X 8) ifl Fact. 1 It Pi'oclucts. rd 1 act. 2(1 Produtfls. r 3467 374-27 473292 10096.26 16678.00 24696.35 33553-62 -4) X ? i99I3-87 '78.06 x 10079.96 ci 1 1 1 1 1 1 ci 104.00 374-27 2366.46 3365-42 4169. CO 4939-27 5592-27 2987 08 23898.27 The centres of gravity of thefe eight planes being found, the didance of the centre of gravity of the bot¬ tom of the diip from the aft fide of the pod, and alfo its altitude, may from thence be eafily determined. From the principles already explained, the didance of the centre of gravity of the bottom from the aft fide of the pod, is equal to the fum of the momentums of an infinite number of horizontal planes, divided by the fum of thefe planes, or, which is the fame, by the folidity of the bottom. As, however, we have no more than eight planes, we mud therefore conceive their momcn- tums as the ordinates of a curve, whofe didances may be the fame as that of the horizontal planes. Now the fum of thefe ordinates minus half the fum of the extreme ordinates being multiplied by their didance, gives the furface of the curve -, of which any ordinate whatever re- prefents the momentum of the horizontal plane at the fame altitude as thefe ordinates j and the whole furface will reprefent the fum of the momentums of all the hori¬ zontal planes. Kor.Plar.es. Facd. Producds. I Momentums. FhA Prodiud? 5974.16 of 2987.08503037.73 of 5592.27 I 5592.27,473560.21 I 4939.27 I 4939.27422084.77 I 4169.50 i 4169-5° 357735-21 1 3365-42 1 336542288729.20 1 2366.46 1 236646199022.48 1 374.27 1 374-27 21682.12 1 208.00 oi 104.00 16236.48 oi 23898.27 25i5j8.86 473560.21 422084.77 357735-21 288729.20 199022.48 21682.12 8118.24 2022451.09 Now ~2■ —5—71 ^=084.63, the didance of the centre 23898.27 t of gravity of the bottom of the diip from the aft fide of the pod. The height of the centre of gravity of the bottom above the lower edge of the keel may be determined by the fame principles. Thus, To one-fixth of the lowermod horizontal feflion add the produft of one-fixth of the uppermod feftion by three times the number of fedlions minus four the fe- cond fe&ion in afcending, twice the third, three times the fourth, &c. ; and to half the fum of the extreme planes add all the intermediate ones. Now the fird of thefe fums, multiplied by the didance between the planes or feftions, and divided by the fecond fum, gives the altitude of the centre of gravity of the bottom of the ftiip above the lower edge of the keel as required. ,T 110070.06 NoW * 2'5>5—i3-5885 the height of the centre of gravity of the bottom of the diip above the lower edge of the keel. _ We have now found the didance of the centre of gra¬ vity of the bottom of the diip from the aft fide of the pod, and its altitude above the lower edge of the keel. Hence the fliip being fuppofed in .an upright pofition, this centre of gravity will neceffarily be in the vertical longitudinal feftion which divides the diip into two equal and fimilar parts ; the pofition of this centre is therefore determined. T • • 70 It now remains to find the height of the metaGenter ^ctl-rmina- above the centre of gravity ; the expreffion for this alii-tlon ot the 1 A,3 ^ height of tude, as found in Chap. III. is —• which w-e fliallthe meta* V center now apply to determine the metacenter of the Chip ofabove die 74 guri;;> whofe centre of gravity we have already found.""*- 6W. of the Plane of Floatation. Cub. of Ordinates. II57I9-342 Ordinate at 10.03 ^eet the ordi¬ nate 8^=14, of which the cube is 64, and 64 xi - - 32. Ordinate at 10.03-feet afore the ordi¬ nate G 0—6, cube of which is 216 108. 115859.442 10-°3 1162070.20326 Produdl 2i6xi Sum Difiance between the ordinates Produdt Crnfre of Gravity. Pioducl Half the cube of the after- moif ordinate Half the cube of the thick- nefs of the ftem S H I P - B U 1162070.20326 32> 0.14 Sum - - 32.14 Diitance between the ordinates 3.0 Prod u ft ... 96.42 Half the cube of the fore- moft ordinate - 108. Half the cube of the thick- nefs of the ftem - .14 Sum - - 108.14 Diftance between the ordinates 5.5 Produft x 2 fif x - - rfy*x 594-77 1162761.39326 2325522.78652 775174.26217 The folidity of the bottom is 2527-]; tons =70018.67 cubic feet: hence JjJJ-L.2—— j I.0y feet t]ie V 70018.67 ' altitude of the metacenter above the centre of gravity of the bottom of the Ihip. APPENDIX. When a fnip is built, flie muft be fitted with mafts, yards, fails, ropes, and blocks, or, in other words, the muft be rigged before Ore can go to fea. To complete this article, it may therefore be thought neceffary to treat of the art of rigging vefiels; but rve have elfe- where (fee MA ST-Rigging, Rope-Making, find Sail) ftiown how the feveral parts of a Ihip’s rigging are made ; and the art of putting them properly together, fo as to make the fnip belt anfwer the purpofe for which ftie is intended, depends upon a juft knowledge of the impulfe and refiftance of fluids, and of the theory and praftice of feamanftiip. (See RESISTANCE of Thuds and Seamanship). Nothing, therefore, of the fubjeft is left to us here, except we were to ftate in few words the progredive method of rigging fhips 5 but there is no one undeviating mode which is purfued, as the nature of the operation is fuch that all the parts of it may be ad¬ vancing at the fame time. We fhall therefore take our leave of Jhifss and (hip-building with a fewr general ob- lervations on fail-mnhing, and refer our readers for far¬ ther information to the very elegant work on the E/e~ ments and PraBice of Rigging and ScarnanJljip in two volumes quarto. Sails are made of canvas, of different textures, and are extended on or between the mafts, to receive the wind that forces the veffel through the water. They are quadrilateral or triangular, as has been elfewhere de- feribed, and are cut out of the canvas doth by cloth. The width is governed by the length of the yard, gaff, boom, or ftay} the depth by the height of the maft. I L D I N C. 307 Appendix. In the valuable work to which we have juft referred, the^ following directions are given for cutting fails. “ -^he width and depth being given, find the number of cloths the width requires, allowing for Teams, tabling on the leeches, and flack cloth j and, in the depth, al¬ low for tabling on the head and foot. For fails cut Iquare on the head and foot, with gores only on the leeches, as fome topfails, &c. the cloths on the head, between the leeches, are cut fquare to the depth ; and the gores on the leeches are found by dividing the depth of the fail by the number of cloths gored, which gives the length of each gore. The gore is fet down from a fquare with the oppofite felvage 5 and the canvas being cut diagonally, the longeft gored fide of one cloth makes the fliorteft fide of the next 5 confequently, the firft gore being known, the reft are cut by it. In the leeches of topfails cut hollow, the upper gores are long¬ er than the lower ones ; and in fails cut with a roach leech, the lower gores are longer than the upper ones. This muft be regulated by judgment, and care taken that the whole of the gores do not exceed the depth of the leech. Or, by drawing on paper the gored fide of the fail, and delineating the breadth of every cloth by a convenient fcale of equal parts of an inch to a foot, the length of every gore may be found with precifion. Sails, gored with a fweep on the head or the foot, or on both, have the depth of their gores marked on the felvage, from the fquare of the given depth on each cloth, and are cut as above ; the longeft felvage of one ferving to meafure the fliorteft felvage of the next, be¬ ginning with the firft gored cloth next the middle in fome fails, and the firft cloth next to the maft leech in others. For thofe gores that are irregular no drift rule can be given ; they can only be determined by the judge¬ ment of the fail-maker, or by a drawing. “ In the royal navy, mizen topfails are cut with F-lcments three quarters of a yard hollow in the foot 5 but, in theaml Prac~ merchant fervice, top and topgallant fails are cut with^L^l more or lefs hollow in the foot. Flying jibs are cvA caul Sea- with a roach curve on the ftay, and a three-inch gore,nailJhipi in each cloth, fliortening from the tack to the due.voJ'^ p'i,r* Lower ft adding-fills are cut with fquare leeches, and 1 topmaft and topgallant-maft ftudding fails with goring leeches. “ The length of reef and middle bands is governed by the width of the fail at their refpeftive places 5 the leech- linings, buntline-cloths, top linings, maft-cloths, and cor¬ ner-pieces, are cut agreeably to the depth of the fail 5 each cloth and every article fhould be properly marked with charcoal, to prevent confufiOn or miftake. Sails that have bonnets are cut out the whole depth of the fail and bonnet included, allowing enough for the ta- blings on the foot of the fail and head and foot of the bonnet. The bonnet is cut off after the fail isfewed to¬ gether. If a drabler is required, it is allowed for in the cutting out the fame as the bonnet. _ When the cloth is thus properly cut, the different pieces are to be joined together in the form of a fail; and for doing this properly we have the following di¬ rections in the work already quoted. “ Sails have a double flat feam, and fnould be fewed with the belt Englifh made twine of three threads, fpun 360 fathoms to the pound, and have from one hundred and eight to one hundred and fixteen flitches in every yard in length. 1 he tw ine for large fails, in the royal navy, is waxed Q, ft 2 by 3°S S H I P - B U Appendix.^ by band, with genuine bees wax, mixed with one fixth ' part of clear turpentine ; and, for fmall faih, in a mix¬ ture made with bees wax, 4 lb. hogs lard $ lb. and clear turpentine 1 lb. In the merchant fervice, the twine is dipped in tar (l), foftened with a proper proportion of oil. “ It is the erroneous practice of fome failmakers not to few the feams any farther than where the edge is creafed down for the tabling •, but all fails Ihould be fewed quite home to the end, and, when finilhed, fnould be well rubbed down with a rubber. In the merchant fervice feams are fometimes made broader at the foot than at the head, being ftronger. Broad feams are not allowed to be made on courfes, in the royal navy, but goring leeches are adopted in lieu of them. Boom mainfails and the fails of Hoops generally have the feams broader at the foot than at the head. The feams of courfes and topfails are ftuck or Hitched up, in the middle of the feams, along the whole length, with double foaming twine j and have from 68 to 72 Hitches in a yard. In the merchant fervice it is common to Hick the feams with twTo rows of Hitches, when the fail is half worn, as they will then laft till the fail is worn out. “ The breadth of the feams of courfes, topfails, and other fails, in the royal navy, to be as follow, viz. cour¬ fes and topfails, for 50 gun fliips and upwards, one inch and a half, and for 44 gun (hips and under, one inch and a quarter, at head and foot j all other fails, one inch at head and foot. “ The tablings of all fails are to be of a proportion- able breadth to the fize of the fail, and few'ed at the edge, w'ith 68 to 72 Hitches in a yard. Thofe for the heads of main and fore courfes to be four to fix inches wide ; for fprit courfes and mizens, drivers, and other boom fails, 3 to 4 inches wide 5 for topfails, 3 inches to 4 inches and a half; topgallant and fprit topfails, 3 inches j royal fails, 2 inches and a half; jib and other Hayfails, 3 inches to 4 inches and a half, on the flay or hoiit j and for fludding fails, 3 inches to 4 inches on the head. Tablings on the foot and leeches of main and fore courfes to be 3 inches to 5 inches broad ; fprit courfe and topfails, 3 inches j topgallant and fprit top- fails, 2 inches and a half; royals, 2 inches 5 fore leeches of mizen, driven and other boomfails, 3 inches and a half io 4 inches 5 after leech, 3 inches; and on the foot 2 or 3 inches. Tablings on the after leech of jibs and other Hayfails to be from 2 to 3 inches broad ; and, on the foot, 2 to 2 inches and a half: on fludding fail leeches one inch and a half to two inches and a half; and on the foot, from one to two inches. “ Main and fore courfes are lined on the leeches, from clue to earing, with one cloth feamed on and Huck or Hitched in the middle, and have a middle band half way between the lower reef band and the foot, alfo four buntline cloths, at equal diflances between the leeches, the upper ends of which are carried under the middle band, that the lower fide of the band may be tabled up¬ on or fewed over the end of the buntline pieces. They have likewife two reef bands 5 each in breadth one third I L D I N G. of the breadth of the canvas; the upper one is one fixth Appendix, of the depth of the fail from the head, and the lovver band is at the fame diflance from the upper one ; the ends go four inches under the leech linings, which are feamed over the reef bands. All linings are feamed on, and are ftuck with 68 to 72 flitches in a yard. “ Main, fore, and mizen, topfails have leech linings, malt and top linings, buntline cloths, middle bands and reef bands. The leech linings are made of one breadth ei cloth, fo cut and fewed as to be half a cloth broad at the head, and a cloth and a half broad at the foot j the piece cut out being half the breadth of the cloth at one end, and tapering to a point at the other. The middle bands are put on half way between the lower reef and foot, the buntline cloths join the top-linings, and the buntline cloths and top-linings are carried up to the lower fide of the middle band, which is tabled on them. The maft lining is of two cloths, and extends from the foot of the fail to the lower reef, to receive the beat or chafe of the maft. The middle band is made of one breadth of canvas, of the fame number as the top lining. It is firft folded and rubbed down, to make a creafe at one third of the breadth j then tabled on the felvage, and ftuck along the creafe •, then turned down, and tabled and ftuck through both the double and fingle parts, with 68 to 72 flitches in a yard. It is the opi¬ nion of many, that middle bands fliould not be put on until the fail is half wrorn. “ Main and fore topfails have three and fometimes four reef bands from leech to leech, over the leech li¬ nings ; the upper one is one eighth of the depth of the fail from the head, and they are the fame diftance afun- der in the royal navy, but more in the merchant fervice. The reef bands are each of half a breadth of canvas put on double ; the firft fide is ftuck twice, and the laft turn¬ ed over, fo that the reef holes may be worked upon the double part of the band, which is alfo ftuck with 68 to 72 flitches in a yard. “ The top lining of topfails is of canvas, N° 6 or 7. The other linings of this, and all the linings of other fails, fliould be of the fame quality as the fails to which they belong. “ Top-linings and m&ft cloths are put on the aft fide, and all other linings on the fore fide, of fails. Mizens are lined with one breadth of cloth from the clue five yards up the leech, and have a reef band fewed on, in the fame manner as on other fails, at one fifth the depth of the fail from the foot ; they have alfo a nock-piece and a peek-piece, one cut out of the other, fo that each contains one yard. Mizen topfails of 50 gun fliips and upwards have three reefs, the upper one is one eighth of the depth of the fail from the head, and the reefs are at the fame diftance afunder. Mizen topfails of ftiips of 44 guns and under have two reefs one feventh part of the depth of the fail afunder, the upper one being at the fame diftance from the head. Main and main top ftudding fails have each one reef, at one eighth of the depth of the fail from the head. Reef bands ftiould not be put on until the fail is fewed up, a contrary praftice being very erroneous. Lower Hay- fails, (l) The dipping of the twine in tar, we are perfuaded, is a very bad pra&ice, for the reafon afligned in Rope- Maki^g. See that article, N° 32, S HIP -BUILD IN G. FI ate C C C C JLXXX1V. <7 FTKCE, S of tlie HULL,. ri.'dc c'cccj.xxxv s HIP-B UIXjD IN G o i ^ ■ !~7~ SHIP-BUILDING. r> Plate CC Cr.LXXX.VL W^Tfrr/n Sci/lfy?, . SHIP B UIBDHNH Plate CCC C LXXXni. TIT7>tnh ScuTp} HlZ Tr*m . S HIP - B L' l L D IX Gr. Plate ccccxrn. ± s. ■ . SHir-Br tLDIX(i . Plate CCCCXCV. * S H I P - B U fails, fore top and main top idayfails, and flying jibs, have clue-pieces two yards long. Square tack ftayfails, have half a breadth of cloth at the fore part, with a clue-piece containing two yards, and a peek-piece, con¬ taining one yard. “ Sails have two holes in each cloth, at the heads and reefs of courfes, topfails, and other Square fails j one hole in every yard in the Hay of flying jibs, and one in every three quarters of a yard in the {lays of fquare tack and other ftayfails. Thefe are made by an inftrument called a pegging awl, or a ftabber, and are fenced round by Hitching the edge to a fmall grommet, made with log or other line } when finifhed, they lliould be w7ell ilretched or rounded up by a pricker or a marline fpike. Reef and head holes of large fails have grommets of twelve-thread line, worked round with. 18 to 2i flitches; fmaller fails have grommets of nine- thread line, with 16 to 18 flitches, or as many as (hall cover the line, and Imaller holes in proportion.. Ihe holes for marling the clues of fails and the top brims of topfails have grommets of log-line, and fhould have from 9 to 11 flitches; twelve holes are worked in each cloth. Main courfes have marling holes from the clue to the lower bow line cringle up the leech, and from the clue to the firft buntline cringle on the foot, fore courfes have marling holes one eighth of the depth of the fail up the leech, and from the clue to the firft buntline cringle at the] foot. Main and fore topfails have marling holes three feet each way from the clue and at the top-brims. Spritfails, mizen topfails, lower ftayfails, main and fore top ftayfails, and jibs, have marling holes two feet each way from the clues. All other fails are fewed home to the clues. Marling holes of courfes are at three fourths of the depth of the tab- lings at the clues from the rope, and thofe of topfails are at half the depth of the tablings at the clues and top brim from the rope.” The rope, which is fewed on the edges of fails to prevent their rending, and which is called bolt-rope, fhould be well made of fine yarn, fpun from .the heft Riga rhine hemp well topt, and fewed on with good Englifh made twine of three threads, fpun 200 fathom to the pound } the twine in the royal navy is dipped in I L D I N G. a compofition made with bees-wax, 4 5 lbs. and clear turpentine one pound } and in the mer¬ chant fervice, in tar foftened with oil. They fhould be floved in a ftove by the heat of a flue, and not in a ba¬ ker’s oven or a ftove tub ; and tarred in the bell Stock¬ holm tar. The flexibility of them fhould be always con- fidered, in taking in the flack, which muft reft on the judgment of the failniaker. “ Bolt ropes of courfes, topfails, and all other fails, fhould be neatly fewed on through every buntline of the rope ■, and, to avoid ftretching, the rope muft be kept tightly twifted while fewing on, and care taken that neither too much nor too little flack is taken in j they are to be crofs Hitched at the leeches every twelve inches in length \ at every feam, and in the middle of every cloth at the foot, with three crofs-ftitches: four crofs- flitches (hould be taken at all beginnings and faftenings off-, the firft flitch given twice, and the laft three times. Srr^n fidk It a vp two crofs flitches at every feam, and three Appendix. at every faftening off. “ On main and fore courfes two inches flack clot A fhould be allowed in the head and foot, and one inch and a half in the leeches, in every yard in length. Topfails are allowed 3 inches flack in every cloth in the foot, one inch and a half in every yard in the leech, and two inches in every cloth left open in the lop brim.. Mi¬ zen courfes have two inches flack in every yard in . the foremoft leech, but none in the after leech or foot. Spritfail courfes have no flack cloth. Jibs have four inches flack in every yard in the flay, one inch in every cloth in the foot, and none in the leech. Stayfails have three inches flack in every yard in the ftay, one inch in every cloth in the foot, but none in the leech, lopgallant fails have two inches flack in every cloth in the foot, and one inch in every yard in the leech. Studding fails have an inch and a half flack in every yard in . goring leeches, but no flack in fquare leeches, and one inch in every cloth in the head and foot.” Thefe dire&ions for failmaking, we truft may be ufe- ful. They are indeed very general, but the failmaker will find every inftru£lion that he can want, in the Ele¬ ments of Rigging and Seamanjhip, a wo*k which we there¬ fore recommend to his attention. S H I Ship's Form Gauge, an inftrument recommended by Mr Hutchinfon as fit to afeertain any alteration in the bottom of a fhip, by its hogging or fagging; and alfo to regulate the flowage of a fhip. “ All (hips (fays he) of any confequence are built with flaunchions fixed from the kelfon to the middle of all the lower-deck beams fore and aft, in order to lup- port them in their exafl, regular height, as well as ttye whole frame of the fhip in the regular form in which fhe was built upon the flocks j yet notwithftanding thefe flaunchions, it is proved from experience that our (hips bottoms, hitherto, by the preffure of water, and impro¬ per ftowage, have generally been hogged upwards, or fagged downwards, and moft about the midfhip frame or main body of the fhip, which is commonly about the fore part of the main hatchway; which naturally makes SHI it the heft place at which to fix the fhxp’s form gauge, Ship-, where either the hogging or fagging of her bottom may ^ be obferved and feen fooneft and bell, to regulate the ftowage of heavy materials to the greateft advantage, to as to keep her bottom nearly in the fame form in which fhe was built. “ The gauge I recommend is nothing more than a narrow plate of iron divided into inches and quarters like the Aide of a carpenter’s rule. Let this be fixed to the after fide of the ftaunchion now mentioned, with its upper end projefting two or three inches above the ftaunchion } a groove being cut out for it in.the after fide of the lower-deck beam, and a mark being made (when the fhip is on the flocks) at the part of the beam which correfponds to the o on the gauge. Vv hen the fhip alters in her fhape, the gauge will Aide up and dowi»f I SHI [ 310 ] SHI down In tills groove, and the quantity of hogging or fagging will be pointed out on the gauge by the mark on the beam. The ftowage may then be fo managed as to bring this mark to coincide again with the o, or to approach it as near as we fee neceffary.” SlUP~Money, was an impofition charged upon the ports, towns, cities, boroughs, and counties of this realm, in the reign of King Charles I. by writs, com¬ monly called /hip-writs, under the great feal of Eng- land, in the years 1635 and 1636, for the providing and furnilhing of certain Ihips for the king’s fervice, &.c. which was declared to be contrary to the laws and fia- tutes' of this realm, the petition of right and liberty of the fubjeft, by flat. 17 Car. I. c. 14. See B/acifone's Commentaries, vol. iv. p. 30. SHIP-Shape, according to the fafhion of a drip, or in the manner of an expert failor 5 as, The mail is not rigged ihip-fhape ; Trim your fails (tiip-lhape. Stowing and Trimming of SHIPS, the method of dif- pofing of the cargo in a proper and judicious manner in the hold of a (hip. A Ihip’s failing, fleering, flaying, and wearing, and being lively and comparatively eafy at fea in a florm, depends greatly on the cargo, ballaft, or other mate¬ rials, being properly flowed, according to their weight and bulk, and the proportional dimenfions of the built of the fliip, which may be made too crank or too ftiff to pafs on the ocean with fafety. Thefe things render this branch of knowledge of fuch confequence, that rules for it ought to be endeavoured after, if but to prevent, as much as poffible, the danger of a fhip overfetting at fea, or being fo labourfome as to roll away her marts, &c. by being improperly flowed, which is often the cafe. When a fliip is new, it is prudent to confult the builder, who may be fuppofed bell acquainted with a fhip of his own planning, and rnofl likely to judge what her properties will be, to advife how the cargo or mate¬ rials, according to the nature of them, ought to be dif- pofed of to advantage, fo as to put her in the beft fail¬ ing trim ; and at every favourable opportunity after¬ wards it will be proper to endeavour to find out her beft trim by experiment. Ships muft differ in their form and proportional di¬ menfions ; and to make them anfwer their different pur- pofes, they will require different management in the flowage, which ought not to be left to mere chance, or done at random, as goods or materials happen to come to hand, which is too often the caufe that fuch impro¬ per ftowage makes {hips unfit for fea l therefore the flowage fliould be confidered, planned, and contrived, according to the built and properties of the fliip, which if they are not known fliould be inquired after. If ftie is narrow and high-built in proportion, fo that flie will not fhift herfelf without a great weight in the hold, it is a certain fign fuch a fliip will require a great part of heavy goods, ballaft, or materials, laid low in the hold, to make her ftiff enough to bear fufficient fail without being in danger of overfetting. But if a ftiip be built broad and low' in proportion, fo that flie is ftiff and will fupport herfelf without any weight in the hold, fuch a fliip will require heavy goods, ballaft, or materials, flow¬ ed higher up, to prevent her from being too ftiff and labourfome at fea, fo as to endanger her marts being rolled away, and the hulTworked loofe and made Ship- leaky. ' In order to help a fliip’s failing, that flie fliould be lively and eafy in her pitching and afcending motions, it fliould be contrived by the ftowage, that the princi¬ pal and weightieft part of the cargo or materials ftiould lie as near the main body of the ihip, and as far from the extreme ends, fore and aft, as things will admit of. For it ftiould be confidered, that the roomy part of our {hips lengthwife forms a fweep or curve near four times as long as they are broad 5 therefore thofe roomy parts at and above the water’s edge, which are made by a full harping and a broad tranfom to fupport the ftiip fteady and keep her from plunging into the fea, and alfo by the entrance'Wd run of the ftiip having little or no bearing body under for the preffure ©f the water to fupport them, of courfe ftiould not be flowed with hea¬ vy goods or materials, but all the neceffary vacancies, broken How-age, or light goods, ftiould be at thefe ex¬ treme ends fore and aft; and in proportion as they are kept lighter by the ftowage, the ftiip will be more lively to fall and rife eafy in great feas; and this will contri¬ bute greatly to her working and failing, and to prevent her from ftraining and hogging ; for which reafon it is a wrong praftice to leave fuch a large vacancy in the main hatchway, as is ufual, to coil and work the cables; which ought to be in the fore or after hatchway, that the principal weight may be more eafily flow ed in the main body of the {hip, above the flatteft and loweft floorings, where the preffure of the water a£ls the more to fupport it. Improved Capfan of SHIPS.—A capftan has been contrived by Mr Bofwell, which works without re¬ quiring the meffenger or cable coiled around it, to bd ever furged ; an operation which is neceffary with com¬ mon capftans, and is always attended with delay, and frequently with danger. This capftan has been appro¬ ved by fome gentlemen conne£ted with the Britiih navy. A model of this machine was prefented to the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, and Mr Bofi well received the gold medal of the fociety for Ins in¬ vention *. . * Tranf tot For the information of thofe unacquainted with ma-'Sc7. Phil ritime affairs, Mr Bofwell gives an account of the man--S'- XXX1‘ ner in which cables are hauled on board of large fliips.2 For the purpofe of {hewing the advantage of his impro¬ ved capftan, cables, he ebferves, above a certain diame¬ ter are too inflexible to admit of being coiled round a capftan; in {hips udrere cables of fuch large dimenfions are neceffary, a fmaller cable is employed for this pur¬ pofe, wduch is called the me(fetiger, the two ends of which are made fall together fo as to form an endlefs rope, which, as the capftan is turned about, rolls round it in unceafing fuccefllon, paffing on its courfe to the head of the {hip, and again returning to the capftan. To this returning part of the meffenger, the great cable is made fail by a number of fmall ropes called nippers, placed at regular intervals; thefe nippers are applied, as the cable enters the hawfe hole, and are again re¬ moved as it approaches the capftan, after which it is lowered into the cable tier. The meffenger, or any other rope coiled round the capftan, muft defeend a {pace at every revolution equal to the diameter of the rope or cable ufed ; this circum- ftance 2 SKI [3 Sliip. ftance brings the coils in a few turns to the bottom of v-—'-' the capftan, when it can no longer be turned round, till the coils are loofened and raifed up to its other extre¬ mity, after which the motion proceeds as before. This operation of drifting the place of the coils of the mef- lenger on the capftan is called /urging the meffenger. It always caufes confiderable delay ; and when the mef¬ fenger chances to dip in changing its pofition, which fometimes happens, no fmall danger is Incurred by thofe who are employed about the capdan. One method of preventing the necefirty of furging, by placing a horizontal roller beneath the mefienger when i; firft enters on the capdan, adds confiderably to the labour in turning the capftsn, and the great friction which the meffenger mult fuffer, mult occalion a very great wear and injury to the mtffenger. Another method to prevent furging was, that for which Mr Piucknet obtained a patent. In this way a number of upright lifters, placed round the capftan, were made to rife in fucceffion as the capftan turned round by a circular inclined plane placed beneath them; a method Mr Bofwell thinks fuperior to the former ; but dill the wrear of the meffenger from the lateral friction in rifing again!! the whelps of the capftan re¬ mains undiminilhed. A third method propofed by Captain Hamilton, left the lateral frtdlion, and wear of the meffenger again!! the whelps of the capftan, as great as in the others, ha¬ ving alfo the inconvenience of caudng the coils to be¬ come loofe as they afeend, the upper part of the barrel being nearly one third lefs in the diameter than the lower part. In Mr Bofwell’s method of preventing the neceftity of furging, none of the lateral friflion of the meffenger or cable again!! the whelps of the capftan, can poffibly take place, and of courfe the wear of the meffenger oc- cadoned thereby will be entirely avoided, while it per¬ forms its purpofe with a lefs moving power than any of them. His method condfts in the fimple addition of a fecond fmaller barrel or capftan of lefs dimenfions to the large one ; hedde which it is to be placed in a fimilar manner, and which need not in general exceed the dze of a half barrel cafk. The coils of the meffenger are to be paffed alternately round the large capftan and this fmall barrel, but with their dire&ion reverfed in the different barrels, fo that they may crofs each other in the inter¬ vals between the barrels, in order to have the more ex- tendve contaf! with, and better gripe on each barrel. To keep the coils diftinfl, and prevent their touching each other in paffing from one barrel to the other, pro- jecling rings are fattened round each barrel at a diftance from each other equal to about two diameters of the meffenger, and the thicknefs of the ring. Thofe rings fhould be fo dxed on the two barrels that thofe on one barrel fhould be exa£!ly oppodte the middle of the in¬ tervals between thofe on the other barrel; the only cir- cumftance which requires particular attention in the conftruftion of this capftan. The rings fhould projef! about as much as the meffenger from the barrels, which may be formed with whelps, and in every other refpef!, not before mentioned, in the ufual manner for capftan barrels. The ftnall barrel fhould be furnifhed with fall¬ ing palls as well as the large one; a dxed iron fpindle afeending from the deck will be the bei! for it, as it Shi u] SHI will take up lefs room. The fpindle may be fecured be¬ low the deck, fo as to bear any ft rain, as the fmall bar- ^ rel need not be much above half the height of the large barrel; the capftan bars can eadly pafs over it in heav¬ ing round, when it is thought dt to ufe capftan bars on the fame deck with the fmall barrel. As two turns of the mtffenger round both barrels will be at leaf! equi¬ valent to three turns round the common capltan, it will fcarcely ever be neceffary to ufe more than four turns round the two barrels. That which prevents the lateral fri£lion of the mef¬ fenger in Mr Bofwell’s double capftan is, that in it each coil is kept diitind! from the reft, and mul! pafs on to the fecond barrel before it can gain the next elevation on the drft, by which no one coil can have any influence in railing or depreffmg another; and what each iepa- rate coil defeends in a dngle revolution it regains as much as is neccffavy in its paffage between the barrels when in the air, and free from all con tad! with any part of the apparatus, it attains a higher elevation without a poffibility of friftion or wear. It is equally applicable in large and in fmaller veffels, in the former of which meffengers are neceffary, from the dze of the cables; but in the latter alfo, where cables can be managed with the fame eafe as meffengers. The fame principle may be alfo eadly applied to wind- laffes by having a fmall horizontal barrel placed paral¬ lel to the body of the windlafs, and havings both dtted with rings in the fame way as is propofed for the cap¬ ftan, The place for the fmall horizontal barrel is for¬ ward, juft before the windlafs, and it fhould alfo be furnilhed with catch polls. Beddes the advantages now dated, the improved cap¬ ftan is dmple in its conilruclion can be dtted up at dnall expence, is eadly repaired, and requires but little room. A reprefents the common capftan; B, another of fmaller dimendoivs ; C the coils of the meffenger paffing ccccxtiV“ alternately round the large and fmall capftans, but with the dieeflion reverfed on the different barrels, fo that they may crofs each other in the interval between them ; DDDD, are projefling rings round each barrel, fo fixed on the two barrels, that thofe on one barrel fhould be exaflly oppodte the middle of the intervals between thofe on the other barrel. Machine for meafuring a Ship's Way .—'We. have al¬ ready deferibed a variety of machines or inflruments which have been propofed for this purpofe under the article Log. In this place, therefore, we fhall confine ourlelves to the machine invented by Francis Hopkin- fon, Efq. Judge of the Admiralty in Pennfylvania.—1 ions of the After having fliown the fallacies to which the common ''■‘'/'‘f/• log, and alfo that particular kind of inftrument invent-^/ Society, ed by M. Saumarez, are liable, he proceeds to defcriberol. ii. p. his own machine as follows : lt50- This machine, in its moft dmple form, is reprefented by dg. 5. wherein AB is a ftrong rod of iron moveable ‘ ' on the fulcrum C. D is a thin circular palate of brafs rivetted to the lower extremity of the rod. E a hori¬ zontal arm connected at one end with the top of the rod AB by a moveable joint F, and at the other end with the bottom of the index H, by a like moveable joint G. H is the index turning on its centre I, and travelling over the graduated arch K; and L is a ftrong fpring, bearing againft the rod AB, and con- ftantly counteracling the preffure upon the palate D. The,, Plate Fig. 5- Fig. 6. Fig. 7. SHI [3 The rod AB fhould be applied clofe to the cut-water or Item, aud fhould be of fuch a length that the palate D may be no higher above the keel than is neceffary to fecure it from injury when the veffel is aground, or fails in thoal water. As the bow of the (hip curves inward towards the keel M, the palate D will be thrown to a dittance from the bottom of the vefl’el, although the perpendicular rod to which it is annexed lies clofe to the bow above ; and therefore the palate will be more fairly ached upon. The arm E ihould enter the bow fomewhere near the hawfe hole, and lead to any con¬ venient place in the forecaftle, where a Smooth board or plate may be fixed, having the index H, and graduated arch K, upon it. It is evident from the figure, that as the (hip is urged forward by the wind, the palate D will be preff- ed upon by the refitting medium, with a greater or lefs force, according to the progreflive motion of the (hip $ and this will operate upon the levers fo as to immediate¬ ly affedt the index, making the lead increafe or diminu¬ tion of the Chip’s way vifible on the graduated arch ; the fpring L always counteracting the preffure upon the palate, and bringing back the index, on any relax¬ ation of the force imprefled. This machine is advantageoufiy placed at the bow of the (hip, where the current firft begins, and ads fairly upon the palate, in preference to the ftern, where the tumultuous doling of the water caufes a wake, vifible to a great diftance. The palate D is funk nearly as low as the keel, that it may not be influenced by the heaping up of the water and the dafliing of the waves at and near the water line. The arch K is to afcertain how many knots or miles (he would run in one hour at her then rate of failing. But the graduations on this arch mutt be unequal; becaufe the refiftance of the fpring L will increafe as it becomes more bent, fo that the index will travel over a greater fpace from one to five miles than from five to twelve. Lattly, The palate, rod, fpring, and all the metallic parts of the inftrument, ihould be covered with a ftrong yarnifti, to prevent ruft from the corrofive quality of the fait water and fea air. This machine may be confiderably improved as fol¬ lows : Let the rod or fpear AB (fig. 5.) be a round rod of iron or fteel, and inftead of moving on the ful¬ crum or joint, as at C, let it pafs through and turn freely in a focket, to which focket the moveable joint mutt be annexed, as reprefented in fig. 6. The rod mutt have a (boulder to bear on the upper edge of the focket, to prevent its (lipping quite down. The rod mutt alfo pafs through a like focket at F, fig. 5. The joint of the lower focket mutt be fixed to the bow of the (hip, and the upper joint or focket mutt be connect¬ ed with the horizontal arm E. On the top of the up- permoft focket let there be a fmall circular plate, bear¬ ing the 32 points of the mariner’s compafs j and let the top of the rod AB come through the centre of this plate, fo as to carry a fmall index upon it, as is repre¬ fented in fig. 7. This fmall index mutt be fixed to the top of the rod on a fquare, fo that by turning the in¬ dex round the plate, the rod may alfo turn in the foc- kets, and of courfe carry the palate D round with it ; the little index always pointing in a direCHon with the face of the palate. The fmall compafs plate fhould not be fattened to the top of the focket, but only fitted tightly on, that it may be moveable at pleafure, Sup- 12 ] SHI pofe then the intended port to bear S. W. from the SI. place of departure, the palate mutt be turned on the foC-'“""—V ket till the fouth-weft point thereon looks direftiy to tae (hip’s bow; fo that the fouth-weft and north-eatt line on the compafs plate may be precifely parallel with the (hip’s keel, and in this pofition the plate mutt: remain during the whole voyage. Suppofe, then, the (hip to be (ailing in the direCt courfe of her intended voyage, with her bowfprit pointing fouth-wett. Let the little index be brought to the fouth-weft point on the compafs plate, and the palate D will necelfarily prefent its broad face toward the port of deftination j and this it mutt always be made to do, be the (hip’s courfe what it may. If, on account of unfavourable winds, the (hip is obliged to deviate from her intended courfe, the little index mutt be moved fo many points from the fouth- weft line of the compafs plate as the compafs in the binnacle (hall (how that (he deviates from her true couife j fo that in whatever direCHon the (hip (hall fail, the pa¬ late D will always look full to the fouth-weft point of the horizon, or towards the port of deftination, and confequently will prefent only an oblique furface to the refitting medium, more or lefs oblique as the (hip devi¬ ates more or lefs from the true courfe of her voyage. As, therefore, the refiftance of the water will operate lefs upon the palate in an oblique than in a direCt pofition, in exaCI proportion to its obliquity, the index H will not (how how many knots the veflel runs in her then courfe, but will indicate how many (he gains in the direCt line of her intended voyage Thus, in fig. 9. if the (hip’s courfe lies in the direCHon of the . - line AB, but (lie can fail by the wind no nearer than11**’ AC; fuppofe, then, her progre(five-motion fuch as to perform AC equal to five knots or miles in an hour, yet the index H will only point to four knots on the graduated arch, becaufe (lie gains no more than at that rate on the true line of her voyage, viz. from A to B. Thus will the difference between her real motion and that pointed out by the index be always in proportion to her deviation from her intended port, until (he fails in a line at right angles therewith, as AD j in which cafe the palate would prefent only a thin (harp edge to the refitting medium, the preffure of which (hould not be fufficient to overcome the friCHon of the machine and the bearing of the fpring L. So that at whatever rate the (hip may fail on that line, yet the index will not be affeCIed, (bowing that (he gains nothing on her true courfe. In this cafe, and alfo when the veffel is not under way, the aCHon of the fpring L (hould caufe the index to point at O, as reprefented by the dotted lines in fig. 5. and 8. As the truth of this inftrument mutt depend on the equal preffure of the refitting medium upon the palate D, according to the (hip’s velocity, and the propor¬ tionable aCHon of the fpring L, there fhould be a pin or ferew at the joints C and F, fo that the rod may be readily unfhipped and taken in, in order to clean the palate from any foulnefs it may contraCl, which would greatly increafe its operation on the index H, and there¬ by render the graduated arch falfe and uncertain. Further, the fpring L may be expofed too much to injury from the fait water, if fixed on the outfide of the (hip’s bow. To remedy this, it may be brought under cover, by conftruCHng the machine as reprefented by fie. 8. where AB is the rod, C the fulcrum or centre ofFlg.S. s H 1 [ ; Ship, 0f Its motion, D the palate, E the horizontal arm * leading through a frnall hole into the forecaftle j M is a ftrong chain faftened at one end to the arm E, and at the other to a rim or barrel on the wheel G, which by means of its teeth gives motion to the femicircle I and index H, The fpring L is fpiral, and enclofed in a box or barrel, like the main-fpring of a watch. A fmall chain is fixed to, and palling round the barrel, is fallen- ed by the other end to the fuzee W. This fuzee is connefted by its teeth with the wheel G, and counter- a&s the motion of the palate D. N, N, are the two fockets through which the rod AB pafles, and in which it is turned round by means of the little index li. S is the fmall compafs plate, moveable on the top of the upper focket N. The plate S hath an upright rim round its edge, cut into teeth or notches, fo that when the index R is a little raifed up, in order to bring it round to any intended point, it may fall into one of thefe notches, and be detained there; otherwife the preffure of the water will force the palate D from its oblique pofition, and turn the rod and index round to the direftion in which the {hip {hall be then failing,— Should it be apprehended that the palate D, being placed fo far forward, may affe£t the {hip’s tleerage, or obflrudf her rate of failing, it Ihould be conlidered that a very fmall plate will be fufficient to work the machine, as one of three or four inches in diameter would pro¬ bably be fufficient, and yet not large enough to have any fenfible effedl on the helm or {hip’s way. The greatefl difficulty, perhaps, will be in gradua¬ ting the arch K, (if the machine is conftrudted as in fig. 5.) 5 the unequal divifions of which can only be af- certained by aflual experiment on board of each ffiip refpeftively, inafmuch as the accuracy of thefe gradu¬ ations will depend on three circumftances, viz, the pofi¬ tion of the fulcrum C with refpedl to the length of the rod, the fize of the palate D, and the ftrength or bearing of the fpring L. When thefe graduations, however, are once afcertained for the machine on board of any one veffel, they will not want any future alte¬ rations, provided the palate D be kept clean, and the fpring L retains its elafticitv. But the unequal divifions of the graduated arch will be unnecefiary, if the machine is conftru&ed as in fig. 8 ; for as the chain goes round the barrel L, and then winds through the fpiral channel of the fuzee W, the force of the main fpring muft operate equally, or nearly fo, in all pofitions of the index, and confequently the divifions of the arch K may in fuch cafe be equal. After all, it is not expe&ed that a {hip’s longitude can be determined to a mathematical certainty by this inftrument. The irregular motions and impulfes to which a {hip is continually expofed, make fuch an ac¬ curacy unattainable, perhaps by any machinery : But if it fhould be found as we {latter ourfelves it will on fair experiment, that it anfwers the purpofe much better ihan the common log, it may be confidered as an acqui- fition to the art of navigation. It fliould be obferved, that in afcertaining a {hip’s lon¬ gitude by a time-piece, this great inconvenience occurs, that a fmall and trifling miflake in the time makes a very great and dangerous error in the diflance run : Whereas the errors of this machine will operate no far¬ ther than their real amount; which can never be great Vol. XIX. Part I. U3 ] SHI or dangerous, if corrected by the ufual obfervations made by mariners for correcting the common log. A like machine, made in its Ample form (as at fig. 5.), fo conflruCted as to {hip and unfliip, might occaiionaily be applied alongfide about midlhips, in order to afcer- tain the leeway ; which, if rightly ihown, will give the {hip’s precife longitude. As to fea currents, this and all other machines hitherto invented muft be fubjeCt to their influence ; and proper allowances muft be made according to the (kill and knowledge of the navigator. Laftly, Some dd’cretion will be neceffary in taking ob¬ fervations from the machine to be entered on the log¬ book : that is, the moft favourable and equitable mo¬ ment fliould be chofen for the obfervation ; not whilft the flnp is rapidly defcending the declivity of a wave, or is Hiddenly checked by a liroke of the fea, or is m the very act of plunging. In all cales, periods may be found in which a thip proceeds with a true average velocity; to difcover which, a little experience and at¬ tention will lead the Ikilful mariner. It has been obferved of the machine now defcribed, that an ingenious mechanic would probably conftruCl it to better advantage in many refpects. The author only meant to fuggeft the principle j experiment alone can point out the beft method of applying it. He is fen¬ fible of at leaft one deficiency, viz. that the little index R, fig. 4. will not be ftrong enough to retain the palate D in an oblique pofition when the Ihip is failing by the wind 5 more efpecially as the compafs plate S, in whofe notched rim the index R is to fall, is not fixed to, but only fitted tight on the focket N. Many means, how¬ ever, might be contrived to remedy this inconvenience. SHIP Wreck. A French author has lately propofed fome methods of faving the lives of perfons fhipwrecked near the coaft. He obferves, that the moft proper means for faving the crews of ftiipwrecked veflels is, to eftabliih a rope of communication from them to the {bore. To a bomb or cannon ball fhould be faftened the end of a rope, extended afterwards in a zig-zag di¬ rection before the mortar or cannon, or fufpended on a piece of wood raifed feveral feet. But as it was necef¬ fary to know if the cord would not break by the force of the explofion and the velocity of the motion, the author thought it proper to confult profeffional men. He ac¬ cordingly wrote to fome officers of the artillery in gar- rifon at La Fere in France, and they almoft all replied that the rope would infallibly break. Not deeming this anfwer fatisfaflory, he happily con ceived the idea of making the experiment on a fmall fcale. He caufed a piece of the barrel of a mufket to be filed into the form of a fmall mortar of 18 lines in length internally •, and having tied a packthread to a common ball of lead, he made an experiment which perfedly fucceeded, as did many others which he after¬ wards repeated, even with the ftrongeft charges of powder. This fuccefs he communicated to the officers of artillery, who replied, that there was a great difference between a quarter of an ounce of powder and four or five pounds employed for a bomb ; and were ftill of opi¬ nion that the rope would break. Having already made experiments, he was ftill dif- pofed to doubt the truth of this affertion, and therefore tried a four-inch mortar with a ball of the fame calibre, and 18 ounces of powder, with a rope only three or R r four SHI [ si ohip four lines in diameter, and his fuccefs was equally flat- t j ^ tering as before. Thefe experiments were repeated by . v. ' ■ order of government at La Fere, four times with an eight-inch mortar, and three times with one of twelve inches, all of which happily fucceeded. The fame author goes on to obferve 5 “ It ought to be remembered, that a veflfel is never caft away, or perilhes on the coaft, but becaufe it is driven thither againft the will of the captain, and by the violence of the weaves and the wind, which almoft always blow's from the fea towards the {bore, without which there would be no danger to be apprehended : confequently in thefe circumftances, the wind comes al¬ ways from the fea, either dire&ly or obliquely, and blows towards the fhore. “ iff, A common paper kite, therefore, launched from the veflfel and driven by the wind to the fhore, would be fufEcient to fave a crew of 1500 feamen, if fuch were the number of a {hip of war. This kite would convey to the fhore a ftrong packthread, to the end of which might be affixed a cord, to be drawn on board by means of the firing of the kite ; and with this cord a rope, or as many as ffiould be neceflfary, might be conveyed to the (hip. “ 2d, A fmall balloon, of fix or feven feet in diame¬ ter, and raifed by rarefied air, w'ould be alfo an excellent means for the like purpofe. Being driven by the wind from the veflel to the fhore, it would carry thither a firing capable of drawing a cord with which feveral ropes might be afterwards conveyed to the veflfel. Had not the difcovery of Montgolfier produced any other benefit, it would be entitled on this account to be con- lidered as of great importance. “ 3dly, A fky-rocket, of a large diameter, would be of equal fervice. It W'ould alfo carry, from the veflel to the fhore, a firing capable of drawing a rope after it. “ Laflly, A fourth plan for faving the crew of a {hip- wrecked veflel, is that of throwing from the veflel into the fea an empty calk with a cord attached to it. The wind and the waves would drive the calk to the fhore, and afford the means of eftablifhing that rope of com¬ munication already mentioned.” The author juft quoted fays, that he announced his difcovery in a French journal in January 1794. It is, however, to be obferved, that the method he propofes of conveying a rope to the fhore, by faftening it to a bullet or bomb, to be afterwards fired from a cannon or mor¬ tar, was propofed feme years ago by a ferjeant or of¬ ficer of artillery at Woolwich, and it is faid, fimilar ex- > periments were made at Portfmoutfi, and fucceeded *. ™l-iv- SHIRAUZ. See Schiras. • ' 247‘ SHIRE, is a Saxon word fignifying a divifion ; but a county, comitatus, of the fame import, is plainly deri¬ ved from comes, “ the count of the Franks that is, the earl or alderman (as the Saxons called him) of the fliire, to wffiom the government of it wTas entrufted. This he ufually exercifed by bis deputy, ftill called in Latin vice-comes, and in Engliffi the fheriff, Jhrievc, or Jhire- reeve, fignifying the “ officer of the fliire upon whom, in procefs of time, the civil adminiftration of it totally devolved. In fome counties there is an intermediate di¬ vifion between the fhire and the hundred •, as lathes in Kent and rapes in Suflfex, each of them containing about three or four hundred a-piece. Thefe had formerly their lathe-reeves and rape-reeves, adling in fubordina- 4 ] S H O lion to the fliire-reeve. Where a county is divided into Shift three of thefe intermediate jurifdiftions, they are called 11 trilhings, %vhich were anciently governed by a trilhing , sfi°a(f reeve. Thefe trithings ftiil fubfift in the large county v of York, where, by an eafy corruption, they are deno¬ minated ridingsi the north, the eart, and the weft ridings. SHIRL, Shorl, or Cockle, a fpecies of mineral. See Mineralogy Index. SHIRT, a loofe garment, commonly of linen, worn next the body.—Some doubt the propriety of changing the linen wffien a perfon is lick. Clean linen promotes perfpiration 5 and it may be renewed as often as the pa¬ tient pleafes, wffiether the diforder be of the acute or the chromcal kind. Except during a crifis in fevers, whilft the patient is in a fweat, a change of linen, if well dried and warmed, may be daily ufed. Shirts wrere not worn by the Jews, Greeks, or Romans, but their place wTas fupplied by thin tunicce of wool. The want of linen among the ancients made frequent walhings and ablutions necefiary. SHIVER, a name given by miners to fome of the ftrata which accompany coal. See Schistus, Minera¬ logy Index. SHIVERS, in the fea language, names given to the little rollers, or round wheels of pulleys. SFIOAD, among miners, denotes a train of metal¬ line ftones, ferving to diredt them in the difcovery of mines. SHOJD-Stones, a term ufed by the miners of Cormvall and other parts of this kingdom, to exprefs fuch loofe mafles of ftone as are ufually found about the entrances into mines, fbmetimes running in a ftraight courfe from the load or vein of ore to the furface of the earth. Thefe are ftones of the common kinds, appearing t@ have been pieces broken from the ftrata or larger maf- fes; but they ufually contain mundic,or marcafitic mat¬ ter, and more or lefs of the ore to be found in the mine. They appear to have been at fome time rolled about in water, their corners being broken off, and their furface fmoothed and rounded. The antimony mines in Cornwall are always eafily dif- covered by the ftioad-ftones, thefe ufually lying up to the furface, or very nearly fo : and the matter of the ftone being a white fpar, or debafed cryftal, in which the native colour of the ore, which is a fhining bluifh black, eafily difeovevs itfelf in ftreaks and threads. Shoad-ftones are of fo many kinds, and of fuch va¬ rious appearances, that it is not eafy to deferibe or know them ; but the miners, to whom they are of the greateft ufe in the tracing or fearching after new mines, diftin- guiflr them from other ftones by their wreight ; for if very ponderous, though they lock ever fo much like common ftones, there is great reafbn to fufpebl that they contain fome metal. Another mark of them is their be¬ ing fpongy and porous ; this is a fign of efpecial ufe in the tin countries ; for the tin fhoad-ftones are often fo porous and fpongy, that they refemble large bodies thoroughly calcined. There are many other appear¬ ances of tin fhoads, the very hardeft and firmeft ftones often containing this metal. When the miners, in tracing a flioad up hill, meet with fuch odd ftones and earths that they know not well what to make of them, they have recourfe to van¬ ning, that is, they calcine and powder the ftone, clay, or whatever elfe is fuppoftd to contain the metal 5 and then \ S II O [ 31 Sanal tlicn wafliihg it in an inftrument, prepared for that pur- S]|l pofe, and called a vanning Jhovc/, they find the earthy matter vvalhed away, and of the remainder, the ftony or gravelly matter lies behind, and the metalline matter at the point of the (hovel. If the perfon who performs this operation has any judgement, he eafily difcovers not only what the metal is that is contained in the fiioad, but alfo will make a very probable guefs at what quan¬ tity the mine is likely to yield of it in proportion to the ore. SHOAL, in the fea language, denotes a place where the wTater is (hallow ; and likewife a great quantity of fifties, fuch as a Jhoal of herrings* SHOCK, in Eleclricity. The effecf of the explofion of a charged body, that is, the difcharge of its eleftricity on any other body, is called the eleBricJhock. SHOE, a covering for the foot, ufually of leather. Shoes, among the Jew's, w'ere made of leather, linen, rufh, or wood ; thofe of foldiers were fometimes of brafs or iron. They were tied with thongs which pafifed un¬ der the foies of the feet. To put off their (hoes was an nft of veneration •, it was alfo a fign of mourning and humiliation : to bear one’s (hoes, or to untie the latchets of them, wras confidered as the meanell fervice. Among the Greeks (hoes of various kinds wrere ufed. Sandals were worn by women of diftindlion. The La¬ cedemonians wore red (hoes. The Grecian (hoes gene¬ rally reached to the middle of the leg. The Romans ufed two kinds of (hoes *, the ca/ceus, which covered the whole foot fomewhat like our (hoes, and was tied above with latchets or llrings 5 and the folea or flipper, which covered only the foie of the foot, and was faftened with leathern thongs. The calceus was always wmrn along with the toga when a perfon went abroad : dippers w'ere put on during a journey and at feafts, but it was reckon¬ ed effeminate to appear in public with them. Black (hoes were worn by the citizens of ordinary rank, and white ones by the women. Red (hoes were fometimes worn by the ladies, and purple ones by the coxcombs of the other fex. Red (hoes ivere put on by the chief magiftrates of Rome on days of ceremony and triumphs. The (hoes of fenators, patricians, and their children, had a crefcent upon them which ferved for a buckle \ thefe were called calcci lunati. Slaves wore no (hoes ; hence they were called cretati from their dufty feet. Phocion alfo and Cato Uticenfis went without (hoes. The toes of the Roman (hoes were turned up in the point } hence they were called calcci rojlrati, rep a mil, &c. In the 9th and 10th centuries the grcateft princes of Europe wore wooden (hoes, or the upper part of lea¬ ther and the foie of wood. In the reign of William Rufus, a great beau, Robert, furnamed the horned, ufed (hoes with long (harp points, (luffed with tow, and twifted like a ram’s horn. It is faid the clergy, being highly offended, declaimed againff the long-pointed (hoes with great vehemence. The points, however, continued to increafe till, in the reign of Richard II. they were of fo enormous a length that they were tied to the knees with chains, fometimes of gold, fometimes • of filver. The upper parts of thefe (hoes in Chaucer’s time were cut in imitation of a church window. The long-pointed (hoes were called crachowes, and continued in fafhion for three centuries in fpite of the bulls of popes, the decrees of councils, and the declamations of the clergy. At length tha parliament of England in- 5 ] S H O terpofed by an aft A. D. 1463, prohibiting the ufe of (hoes or boots with pikes exceeding two inches in length, and prohibiting all (hoemakers from making (hoes or boots with longer pikes under fevere penalties. But even this was not (ufficient; it was neceffary to de¬ nounce the dreadful fentenceof excommunication againff; all who wore (hoes or boots with points longer than two inches. The prefent fafhion of (hoes was intro¬ duced in 1633, but the buckle was not ufed till 1670. In Norway they ufe (hoes of a particular conftruftion, confiding of two pieces, and without heels; in which the upper leather fits clofe to the foot, the foie being joined to it by many plaits or folds. The (hoes or dippers of the Japanefe, as we are in¬ formed by Profeffor Thunberg, are made of rice-ffraw woven, but fometimes for people of diffinftion of fine flips of ratan. The (hoe confiffs of a foie, without up¬ per leather or hind-piece; forwards it is croffed by a ftrap, of the thicknefs of one’s finger, which is lined ■with linen ) from the tip of the (hoe to the ffrap a cy¬ lindrical firing is carried, which paffes between the great and fecond toe, and keeps the (hoe faff: on the foot. As thefe (hoes have no hind-piece, they make a noife when people walk in them like dippers. When the Ja¬ panefe travel, their ffioes are furnidied with three firings made of twilled draw, with which they are tied to the legs and feet, to prevent them from falling off. Some people carry one or more pairs of dices with them on their journeys, in order to put on new, when the old ones are worn out. When it rains, or the roads arc- very dirty, thefe dices are foon wetted through, and one continually fees a great number of worn-out ffioes lying on the roads, efpecially near the brooks, where travel¬ lers have changed their (hoes after waffling their feet. Inftead of thefe, in rainy or dirty weather they wear high wooden clogs, which underneath are hollowed out in the middle, and at top have a band acrofs like a ftir- rup, and a ftring for the great toe fo that they can walk without foiling their feet. Some of them have their draw (hoes faffened to thefe wooden clogs. The Japanele never enter their houfes with their (hoes on ; but leave them in the entry, or place them on the bencli near the door, and thus are always barefooted in their houfes, (o as not to dirty their neat mats. During the time that the Dutch live at Japan, when they are fome¬ times under an obligation of paying vifits at the houfes of the Japanefe, their own rooms at the faftory being likewife covered with mats of this kind, they wear, in¬ ftead of the ufual (hoes, red, gi-een, or black flippers, which, on entering the houfe they pull off: however; they have (lockings on, and ffioes made of cotton fluff with buckles in them, which (hoes are made at Japan, and can be wafhed whenever they are dirty. Some have them of black fatin, in order to avoid waffling- them. Shoe of an Anchor, a fmall block of wood, convex on the back, and having a fmall hole, fufficient to con¬ tain the point of the anchor fluke, on the forefide. It is ufed to prevent the anchor from tearing or wounding the planks on the (hip’s bow, w-hen afeending or de~ feending •, for which purpofe the (lioe Aides up and down along the how between the fluke of the anchor and the planks, as being prefied clofe to the latter by the weight of the former. To SHOE, an Anchor, is to cover the flukes with a R r 2 broad S H O r 3 Ehceptak- broad triangular piece of plank, whefe area cr fupeifices « ... Is much laiger than that of the flukes. It is intended to give the anchor a fhonger and furer hold of the bot¬ tom in very foft and oozy ground. SHOEMAKERS machine for working at in a ftard- ing pofiure. A machine for tins purnofe was invented by M.r 1 hcroas Paiker, who, on the 22d of November, 1S04, attended a committee appointed by the Society of Arts, and informed them that he had made ufe of this apparatus for twelve months, and found it very ufeful. fie observed that all the work of fhoe-making may be done with it (landing ; but that in fome parts thereof he found an advantage in ufing along with it a high flool ", and that prior to the ufe of this machine, he ne¬ ver faw or heard of a fimiiar invention ; and that he found it of great fervice to his health. He eflimated the colt of fuch a machine at tw'o gui¬ neas. ecccxevi. ^ate CCCCXCVI. fig. 1. T, a bench (landing on ' u f°ur about four feet from the ground. V, A circular cufliion affixed to the bench, in the centre of which cufliion is an open fpace quite through the bench, through which hole a leather (trap U is brought up from below. This (trap holds the work and lad firm upon the cufliion in any pofition required, by means of the workman’s foot placed upon the treadle W. X, Shews the lad upon the cufliion, with the drap holding it firm. Y, An implement ufed in clofing boots. Z, A (mail flat leather cudiion, ufeful in adjufling the lad and drap. L, The dioe-lad fliewm feparate from the cufliion. The round cufliion is formed of a circular piece of wood, covered with leather or fluffed with wool or hair to give it fome elafticity. Another machine for the fame purpofe has been in¬ vented by Mr Holden of Fettleworth in Suflex, and the following account of it was prefented to the Society of Arts. He obferves that the fitting poflure had fo great¬ ly injured his health, as to render it neceflary to give up his bufinefs, and in this difficulty he invented the ma¬ chine which he found to anfwer the purpofe fully, as it enabled him to refume his work with the recovery of his health. He recommends it as the quickeft way of clofing all the thread work, and he adds, that he has made 1800 or 2000 pairs of (hoes with the machine, and flill continues to employ it. The following is a defeription of the machine. Kg. a. Fig. 2. A, The bed for the clofing block, and to lay the flioe in, whilft fewnng. B, The clofing block. C, A loofe bed to lay the flioe in rvbilft ditching j the lowrer part of which is here exhibited reverfed, to fbe'v how it is placed in the other bed A. D, The hollow or upper part of the loofe bed C, in which the flioe is laid while flitching. E, A table on which the tools wanted are to be laid. F, An iron femi-circle, fixed to each end of the bed A, to allow the bed to be raifed or depreffed. This half circle moves in the block G. H, Another iron femi-circle, with notches, which catch upon a tooth in the centre of the block, to hold the bed in any angle required. This femi-circle moves fidevvife on trvo hooks in ftanles at each end of the bed. I, The tail or Item of the bed A, moving in a cylin- 6 ] S H O dricai hole in the pillar, enabling the bed to be turned Shoemak- in any required direction, and which, with the move- ers ment F, enables the operator to place the flioe in any , N. pofition neceflary. . K, The pillar, formed like the pillar of a clawtable, excepting the two fide legs being in a direct line, and the other leg at a right angle with them. L, 1 he (emi-circle H, (hewn feparately, to explain how it is conne&ed with the ftaples, and how the notches are formed. M, The tail or (tern of the bed A, and the lower part of the bed N, (hewn feparately, to explain how the upper part of the bed is raifed cr deprefied occafion- aily. HorJr-SuOL. See Farriery, N° 131. SHOOTING, in the military art. See Artillery> Gunnery, and Projectiles. Shooting, in fportmanfliip, the killing of game by shcoting m the gun, with or without the help of dogs. iportmaa- Under this article we (hall lay down all the rules which are neceflary to be obferved in order to ren¬ der one accompliflied and fuccefsful in the art of (hoot- ing- . . 2 The firfl: thing which the fportfman ought to attend Diredlions to is the choice of his fowling-piece. Conveniency re-for cho°* quires that the barrel be as light as poffible, at the fame ^ng a. fowi’ time it ought to poflefs that degree of (Irength which in8 PleCe’ will make it not liable to burft. Experience has pro¬ ved, that a thin and light barrel, which is of equal thicknefs in every part of its circumference, is much lefs liable to burft than one which is conflderably thicker and heavier, but which, from being badly filed or bored, is of unequal ftrength in different places. It is alfo of importance to determine of what length the barrel ought to be, in order to acquire that range which the fportfman has occafion for. On this fubjed we have received- the following information from an ex¬ perienced fportfman. We have, at different times, com¬ pared barrels of all the intermediate lengths between 28 and 40 inches, and of nearly the fame caliber, that is to fay, from 2 2 to 26 ; and thefe trials were made both by firing the pieces from the (boulder, and from a firm block, at an equal diflance, and with equal weights of the fame powder and of the fame (hot. To avoid every poffibility of error, the quires of papef at which we fired were fixed againfi: planks inflead of being placed againfl the wall. From thefe trials fre¬ quently repeated, we found that the (hot pierced an equal number of (beets, whether it was fired from a barrel of 28, 30, 3 2, 34, 36, 38, or 40, inches in length. Nay more, we have compared two barrels of the fame caliber, but one~of them 33, and the other 66 inches long, by repeatedly firing them in the fame manner as the others, at different dilfances, from 45 to 100 paces, and the refults have always been the fame, i. e. the barrel of 33 inches drove its (hot through as many fheets of paper as that of 66 did. The conclufion from all this is, that the difference of 10 inches in the length of the barrel, which feems to be more than is ever infilled up¬ on among fportfmen, produces no fenfible difference in the range of the piece ) and therefore, that every one may pleafe himfelf in the length of his barrel, without either detriment or advantage to the range. It may agpear as an objection *o this, that a duck-gun which is five oi fix feet long kills at a greater diftance than « Slioemakers MA-CHINE. Plate CCCCXC\ J • . /. yVTjirr'h 7 t>a Id 1 S H O [ 317 ] s H O Slioct'nj. 3 Projjer length of the barrel 4 Caliber. Length and form of the flock. than a fowling-piece ; but this is not owing to its length, but to its greater weight and thicknefs, which give it fuch additional ftrength, that the (hot may be increafed, and the charge of powder doubled, trebled, and even quadrupled. But a barrel of five or fix feet length would be very inconvenient for fowling. Thofe who confult the appearance of the piece, lightnefs, and the eafe with which it is managed, will find, that a barrel from 32 to 38 inches will anfwtr bed. The next thing to be confidered is, of what dimen- flons the caliber or bore of a fowling-piece ought to be. This matter has been fubjeffed to experiment, and it has been found, that a barrel of 22 or 24, which is the larged caliber ufually employed in fowling-pieces, throws its fliot as clofely as one of the fmalled caliber, viz. of 30 or 32 (a). As to the length and form of the dock, it may be laid down as a principle, that a long dock is preferable to a fhort one, and at the fame time rather more bent than ufual •, for a long dock fits firmer to the dioulder than a fhort one, and particularly fo when the (hooter is accudomed to place his left hand, xvhich principally fupports the piece, near to the entrance of the ramrod into the dock. It is certain, however, that the dock may be fo form¬ ed as to be better fuited to one man than another. For a tall, long-armed man, the dock of a gun fliould be longer than for one of a lefs datura and diorter arm. That a draight dock is proper for him who has high fhoulders and a diort neck ; for, if it be much bent, it would be very difficult for him, efpecially in the quick motion required in diooting at a dying or running ob- jeft, to place the butt of the gun-dock firmly to the ftioulder, the upper part alone would in general be fix¬ ed ; which would not only raife the muzzle, and confe- quently (hoot high, but make the recoil much more fen- fibly felt, than if the wdiole end of the dock were firm¬ ly placed on his fhoulder. Befides, fuppofing the (hoot¬ er to bring the butt home to his (boulder, he would fcarcely be able to level his piece at the objeft. On the contrary, a man with low fhoulders, and a long neck, requires a dock much bent; for if it is draight, he will, in the aft of lowering his head to that place of the dock at which his cheek fhould red in taking aim, feel a condraint which he never experiences, when by the effeft of the proper degree of bent, the dock lends him fome affidance, and, as it were, meets his aim half way. Having now defcribed the fowling-piece which has been found to anfwer bed, it will next be proper to give fome indruftions for the choice of gunpowder, fhot, and 5 wadding. Beft pun- The various kinds of gunpowder are well known j powder. in the opinion of fome experienced fportfmen, Her- vey’s battle-powder is the bed. Thofe who wifh to ex-i amine the drength of powder, may determine it by dry¬ ing fome of it very well, and then trying how many flieets of paper it will drive the fhot through, at the di¬ fiance of xo or 12 yards. In this trial we fliould be careful to employ the fame fized (hot in each experiment, Shootings the quantity both of the fliot and the powder being re- v gulated by exaft weight j otherwife we cannot, even in this experiment, arrive at any certainty in comparing the drength or different povvTders, or of the fame powder at different times. <7 Powder ought to be kept very dry, for every degree ^ kept of moidure injures it j and if confiderable, the faltpetredlT' is dhTolved, and the intimate combination of the feveral ingredients is entirely deitroyed. It is obferved, that arter firing with damp powder the piece becomes very foul, which feems to arife from the diminution of the aftivity of the fire in the explofion. Flafks of copper or tin are much better for keeping powder in than thofe ma le of leather, or than (mail cafks. Their necks ought to be imall and well flopped with cork. S The patent milledJhot is now very generally ufed, and s’ze °f is reckoned fuperior to any other. The fize of lheaiot‘ fliot mud vary according to the particular fpecies of game which is the objeft'of the fportfman’s purfuit, as well as be adapted to the feafon. In the fird month of partridge (hooting, N° 1. is mod proper •, for fince at this time the birds fpring near at hand, and rve feldom fire at more than the diflance of 40 paces, if the diooter takes his aim but tolerably well, it is almofl impoflible for a bird at this diflance to efcape in the circle which the fhot forms. As hares fit clofer, and are thinly covered with fur at this feafon, they may eafily be killed with this fhot at 30 or 33 paces. N° 1. is equally proper for (hooting fnipes or quails. About the beginning of Oftober, when the partridges are flronger, N° 3. is the mod pro¬ per fhot to be ufed. Many fportfmen ufe no other du¬ ring the w’hole feafon. I he direftions which have now been given refer only to the patent fliot. _ We (hall now fubjoin a table, which will (hew at one view the number of pellets compofing an ounce weight of each fort of fhot, the patent and the common, begin¬ ning with the fmalled fize. N° 8. 7 X 1 2 3 4 5 N° 7. 6 5 4 3 2 Batent Shot. x ounce id. (b) id. ib id. id. id. id. Common Shot. ounce id. id. id. id. id, id. 620 480 300 220 180* 157 10 5 83 350 260 235 190 140 • - - no “ - " 95 0 For a fowling-piece of a common caliber, which is Pr°p a t’on from 24 to 30 balls to the pound weight, a dram and aof Powder 0 and Hi t in quarter, tpe charge, • (a) In fpeaking of the fize of the caliber, we mean by 22 or 24, that fo many balls exaftly fitting it weigh iud one pound ; and every caliber is marked in the fame way, 5 J - (b) 1 he reader will obferve that the patent fliot has no N° 6, the X being fubflituted in its place, and that the. numbers do not follow each other in the order of progreffion ; The reafon of this we cannot aflign, 'Shooting. lo Wadding. ir Powder and iliot to be flight ly rammed down. Directions for loading and tiring. S H O [ '3 ^quarter, or at moft a dram and a half, of good powder ; and an ounce, or an ounce and a quarter of (hot, is fuf- fleient. But when (hot of a larger fize is ufed, fuch as N° 5. the charge of (hot may be increafed one-fourth, for the purpofe ol counterbalancing in fome degree what the fize of the fhot lofes in the number of pellets, and alio to enable it to garnifh the more. For this purpofe the fportfman will find a meafure marked with the proper gauges very convenient to him. An inftrument of this nature has been made by an ingenious artii! of London, Egg, of the Haymarket. A confequence of overloading with fhot, is the pow¬ der has not fufficient ftrength to throw it to its proper diftance 5 for if the objeft fired at be diftant, one-half of the pellets compofing the charge, by their too great quantity and weight, will ftrike againft each other, and fall by the way ; and thofe which reach the mark will have imall force, and will produce but little or no ef- fe£L Fbe ufe of the wadding is to carry the fhot in a body to a certain diftance from the muzzle of the piece. It ought to be of foft and pliable materials. The beft kind of wadding, in the opinion of an experienced fowler, is a piece of an old hat; but this cannot be obtained in fufficient quantity. Next to it nothing is better than foft brown paper, which combines fupplenefs with con¬ fidence, moulds itfelf to the barrel, and never falls to the ground within 1 2 or 15 paces from the muzzle of the piece. Tow anfwers very well, and cork has been extolled for poffeliing the peculiar virtue of increafing the range and clofenefs of the Ihot. The wadding ought to be quite clofe in the barrel, but not rammed too hard ; for if it be rammed too clofe, or be of a rigid fubftance, the piece will recoil, and the fhot will fpread too much. On the other hand, if the wadding be very loofe, or is compofed of too foft mate¬ rials, fuch as wool or cotton, the difeharge will not pof- fefs proper force. In loading a piece, the powder ought to be ffightly rammed down by only preffing the ramrod two or three ' times on the wadding, and not by drawing up the ram¬ rod and then returning it into the.barrel with a jerk of the arm feveral times. For when the powder is vio¬ lently comprefied, fome of the grains mull; be bruxfed, which will prevent the explofion from being quick, and will fpread the (hot too wide. In pouring the powder into the barrel, the meafure ought to be held fo as that the powder may fall moft readily to the bottom. That no grains may adhere to the fides of the barrel, the butt-end of the piece may be ftruck againft the ground. The (hot ought never to be rammed down with force : it is fufficient to ftrike the butt-end of the gun againft the ground as before. Then the wadding is to be put down gently. A fportfman ought never to carry his gun under his arm with the muzzle inclined downwards, for this practice loofens the wadding and charge too much. Immediately after the piece is fired it ought to be re¬ loaded ; for while the barrel is ftill warm, there is no danger of any moifture lodging in it to hinder the pow¬ der from falling to the bottom. As it is found that the coldnefs of the barrel, and perhaps the moifture con- denfed in it, diminiffies the force of the powder in the firft Ihot; it is proper to fire off a little powder before ■the piece is loaded. Some prime before loading, but 4 18] S H O this is not proper unlefs the touch-hole be very large. Shoots. Alter every difeharge the touch-hole ought to be prick-v ' ed, or a Imall feather may be inferted to' clear away any humidity or foulnefs that has been contrafted. The fportfman having loaded his piece, muft next prepare to fire. lor this purpofe he ought to place his hand near the entrance of the ramrod, and at the fame time grafp the barrel firmly. The muzzle ftrould be a little elevated, for it is more ufual to Ihoot low than high. This direction ought particularly to be at¬ tended to when the objeft is a little diftant; becaufe fhot as well as ball only moves a certain diftance point blank, when it begins to deferibe the curve of the na- rabola. P Practice foon teaches the fportfman the proper di-Diftance fiance at which he fhould ftroot. The diftance at which the he ought infallibly to kill any kind of game with patentfportfman fhot, N° 3. provided the aim be well taken, is from 25 ^ht 10 35 Paces for the footed, and from 40 to 43 paces for the winged, game. Beyond this diftance even to 50 or 55 paces, both partridges and hares are fometimes kill¬ ed ; but in general the hares are only flightly wounded, and carry away the fhot; and the partridges at that di¬ ftance prefent fo fmall a furface, that they frequently ercape untouched between the fpaces of the circle*. Yet it does not follow that a partridge may not be killed nnh N 3. patent fhot at 60 and even 70 paces diftance, but then thefe fhots are very rare. In fhooting at a bird flying, or a hare running acrofs,How tbe it is neceffary to take aim before the objeft in proper- aim is to be tion.to its diftance at the time of firing. If a partridgetaken‘ flies acrofs at the diftance of 3° or 35 paces, it will be fufficient to aim at the head, or at moft but a fmall [pace before it. If it be 50, 60, or 70 paces diftant, it is then requifite to aim at leaft half a foot before the head.. The fame practice ought to be obferved in fhooting at. a hare, rabbit, or fox, when running in a crofs direftion ; at the fame time making due allowance for the diftance and fwiftnefis of the pace. Another thing to be attended to is, that the fhooter ought not involuntarily to flop the motion of the arms at the mo¬ ment of pulling the trigger; for the inftant the hand flops in order to fire, however inconfiderable the time be, the. bird gets beyond the line of aim, and the fhot will mifs it. A fportfman ought therefore to accu- ftom his hand while he is taking aim to follow the ob- jehen Richard III. cut off that nobleman as an obftacle to -I- -his ambitious fchemes, Jane Shore was arrefted as an accomplice, on the ridiculous accuiation of witchcraft. This, however, terminated only in a public penance j excepting that Richard rifled her of all her little pro¬ perty : but whatever feverity might have been exercifed towards her, it appears that fhe was alive, though fuf- ffciently wretched, under the reign of Henry VIII, when Sir Thomas More faw her poor, old, and fhrivel- led, without the leaft trace of her former beauty. Mr Rowe, in his tragedy of Jane Shore, has adopted the popular Rory related in the old hiftorical ballad, of her perifhing by hunger in a ditch where Shoreditch now Rands. But Stow affures us that Rreet was fo named before her time. SHORT. See Schorl, Mineralogy Index. SHORLING and Morling, are words to diffin- guifh fells of Rieep ; Jbor/ing being the fells after the fleeces are fhorn off the ftteep’s back ; and mor/ing, the fells Read off after they die or are killed. In fome parts of England they underftand by a Jhorling, a ffieep whofe face is flrorn off) and by a morling, a Rieep that dies. SHORT, James, an eminent optician, was born in Edinburgh on the 10th of June, O. S. in the year 1710. At ten years of age, having loll his father and mother, and being left in a ftate of indigence, he was received into Heriot’s Hofpital, (fee EDINBURGH, Public Build¬ ings, N° 16.), where he foon difplayed his mechanical genius in conftrufting, for himfelf, little chefls, book- cafes, and other conveniences, with Rich tools as fell in his way. At the age of twelve he was removed from the Hofpital to the High School, where he fhowed a confiderable taRe for claffical literature, and generally kept at the head of his forms. In the year 1726 he was entered into the univerfity, where he paffed through the ufual courfe of education, and took his mafler’s de¬ gree with great applaufe. By his friends he w^as intended for the church j but , after attending a courfe of theological le&ures, his mind revolted from a profeflion which he thought little Rat¬ ed to his talents j and he devoted his whole time to ma¬ thematical and mechanical purfuits. He had been for¬ tunate enough to have the celebrated M‘Laurin for his preceptor j who having foon difeovered the bent of his genius, and made a proper eftimate of the extent of his capacity, encouraged him to profecute thofe Rudies in which nature had qualified him to make the greateft fi¬ gure. Under the eye of that eminent mafier, he began in 173210 conftruft Gregorian telefcopes j and, as the profeffor obferved in a letter to Dr Jurin, “ by taking care of the figure of his fpecula, he was enabled to give them larger apertures, and to carry them to greater perfe&ion, than had ever been done before him.” (See Optics, N° 89.). In the year 1736 Mr Short was called to London, at the defire of Queen Caroline, to give inflru£Hons in mathematics to \Villiam duke of Cumberland ; and im¬ mediately on his appointment to that very honourable office he was elefted a fellow of the royal fociety, and patronized by the earls of Morton and Macclesfield. In the year 1739 he accompanied the former of thofe noble lords to the Orkney ifles, where he was employed in adjufting the geography of that part of Scotland: and happy it was for him that he was fo employed, as he Short might other wife have been involved in a feuffie which !i took place between the retainers of Sir James Stewart ,Shortfor(?> of Barra and the attendants of the earl, in which fome of the latter were dangeroufly wounded. Mr Short having returned to London, and finally efifbliflied hhnfelf there in the line of his profeffion, was in 1742 employed by Lord Thomas Spencer to make for him a reflector of twelve feet focus, for which he received 600 guineas. He made feveral other telefcopes of the fame focal diRance with greater improvements and higher magnifiers j and in 1752 finiflied one for the kmg of Spain, for which, with its whole apparatus, he received r 200I. This was the noblefi inflrument of the kind that had then been conRru&ed, and perhaps it has never yet been furpaffed except by the aftoniftiing re¬ flectors of Herfchel. See Telescope. Mr Short ufed to vifit the place of his nativity once every two or three years during his refidence in Lon¬ don, and in 1766 he vifited it for the laft time. On the 15th of June 1768 he died, after a very fhort ill- nefs, at Newington Butts, near London, of a mortifica¬ tion in his bowels, and was buried on the 2 2d of the fame month, having completed, within a few days, his fifty-eighth year. He left a fortune of about 20,000k of which 15,oool. was bequeathed to two nephews, and the refl in legacies to his friends. In gratitude for the Ready patronage of the earl of Morton, he left to his daughter the lady Mary Douglas, afterwards countefs of Aboyne, xoool. and the reverfion of his fortune, fhould his nephews die without iffue ; but this reverfionary le¬ gacy the lady, at the defire of her father, generoufly re- linquiffied by a deed in favour of Mr Short’s brother Mr Thomas Short and his children. Mr Short’s emi¬ nence as an artift is univerfally known, and we have of¬ ten heard him fpoken of by thofe who were acquainted with him from his youth, as a man of virtue and of very amiable manners. SlIORT-Hand Writing. See STENOGRAPHY. SHORT-Jointed, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to be fhort-jointed that has a flrort paflern 5 when this joint, or the paflern is too ftiort, the horfe is fubjeCl to have his fore-legs from the knee to the cornet all in a ftraight line. Commonly your fhort-jointed horfes do not ma¬ nege fo well as the long-jointed •, but out of the manege the fliort-jointed are the befl for travel or fatigue. SHORT-SiglitedneJs, a certain defedl in vifion, by which objects cannot be diftinCtly feen unlefs they are very- near the eye. See Optics, N° 142. SHORTFORD, q. d. fore-clofe, an ancient cuftom in the city cf Exeter, when the lord of the fee cannot be anfwered rent due to him out of his tenement, and no diflrefs can be levied for the fame. The lord is then to come to the tenement, and there take a Rone, or fome other dead thing off the tenement, and bring it before the mayor and bailiff, and thus he muff do feven quarter days fucceflively ; and if on the feventh quarter- day the lord is not fatisfied of his rent and arrears, then the tenement fliall be adjudged to the lord to hold the fame a year and a day 5 and forthwith proclamation is to be made in the court, that if any man claims any title to the faid tenement, he muff appear within the year and day next following, and fatisfy the lord of the faid rent and arrears : but if no appearance be made, and the rent not paid, the lord comes again to the court, S H O [ Shot, court, and prays that, according to the cuilom, —v 1 faid tenement be adjudged to him in his demefne as of fee, which is done accordingly, fo that the lord hath from thenceforth the faid Itf.iement, with the appurte¬ nances to him and his heirs. SHOT, a denomination given to all forts of balls for fire-arms : thofe for cannon being of iron, and thofe for guns, piftols, &c. of lead. See Shooting. Cafe Shot formerly confided of all kinds of old iron, nails, mufket-balls, ftones, &c. ufed as above. Shot of a Cable, on (hip-board, is the fplicing of two cables together, that a (hip may ride fafe in deep waters and in great roads; for a (hip will ride eafier by one (hot of a cable, than by three (hort cables out ahead. Grape-SHOT. See GRAPE-Shot. Patent-milled SHOT is thus made : Sheets of lead, whofe thicknefs correfponds with the fize of the lliot required, are cut into fmall pieces, or cubes, of the form of a die. A great quantity of thefe little cubes are put into a large hollow iron cylinder, which is mount¬ ed horizontally and turned by a winch ; when by their fr’uflion againft one another and againft the fides of the cylinder, they are rendered perfedly round and very fmooth. The other patent fiiot is call in moulds, in the fame way as bullets are. Shot Flaggon, a fort of fiaggon fomewhat bigger thart ordinary, which in fome counties, particularly Derby- fiiire, it is the cuftom for the hoft to ferve his guefts in, after they have drank above a {hilling. Small Shot, or that ufed for fowling, {hould be well lized, and of a moderate bignefs : for {hould it be too great, then it flks thin, and fcatters too much ; or if too fmall, then it hath not weight and ftrength to pe¬ netrate far, and the bird is apt. to fly away with it. In order, therefore, to have it fuitable to the occafion, it not being always to be had in every place fit for the pur- pofe, we (hall fet down the true method of making all forts and fizes under the name of mould-Jhot. Its prin¬ cipal good properties are to be round and folid. Take any quantity of lead you think fit, and melt it down in an iron vefiel j and as it melts keep it ftirring with an iron ladle, Ikimming off all impurities whatfo- ever that may arife at the top : when it begins to look of a greenifh colour, ftrew on it as much aunpigmentum Or yellow orpiment, finely powdered, as will lie on a {hilling, to every 12 or 14 pound of lead j then ftirring them together, the orpiment will flame. The ladle {hould have a notch on one fide of the brim, for more eafily pouring out the lead *, the ladle mufi remain in the melted lead, that its heat may be the fame with that of the lead, to prevent inconveniences which otherwife might happen by its being either too hot or too cold : then, to try your lead, drop a little of it into water, and if the drops prove round, then the lead is of » proper heat; if otherwife, and the {hot have tails, then add more orpiment to increafe the heat, till it be found fufficient. Then take a plate of copper, about the bignefs of a trencher, which mull be made with a hollownefs in the middle, about three inches compafs, within which mult be bored about 40 holes according to the fize of the ihot which you intend to caft: the hollow bottom {hould be thin; but the thicker the brim, the better it will re¬ tain the heat. Place this plate on a frame of iron, over a tub or veffel of water, about four inches from the wa- 323 ] S H 0 the ter, and fpread burning coals on the plate, to keep the lead melted upon it: then take fome lead and pour it gently on the coals on the plate, and it will make its way through the holes into the water, and form itfelt into {hot ; do this till all your lead be run through the holes of the plate, taking care, by keeping your coals alive, that the lead do not cool, and fo flop up tire hbles. While you are calling in this manner, another perfon with another ladle may catch fome of the {hot, placing the ladle four or five inches underneath the plate in the water, by which means you will fee if they are defec¬ tive, and reftify them. Your chief care is to keep the lead in a juft degree of heat, that it be not fo cold as to ftop up the holes in your plate, nor fo hot as to caufe the {hot to crack : to remedy the heat, you muft refrain working till it is of a proper coolnefs j and to remedy the coolnefs of your lead and plate, you muft blow your fire ; obferving, that the cooler your lead is, the larger will be your {hot j as the hotter it is, the fmallcr they will be. After you have done calling, take them out of the water, and dry them over the fire with a gentle heat, ftirring them continually that they do not melt} when dry, you are to feparate the great fhot from the fmall, by the help of a fieve made for that purpofe, according to their feveral fizes. But thofe who would have very large {hot, make the lead trickle with a flick out of the ladle into the water, without the plate. If it ftop on the plate, and yet the plate be not too cool, give but the plate a little knock, and it will run again j care muft be had that none of your implements be greafy, oily, or the like \ and when the fhot, being feparated, are found too large or too fmall for your pur¬ pofe, or otherwife imperfect, they will ferve again at the next operation. The fizes of common {hot for fowling are from N° I to 6, and fmaller, which is called muftard feed, or duft fhot •, but N° 5 is fmall enough for any {hooting what- foever. The N° 1 may be ufed for wild geefe •, the N° 2 for ducks, widgeons, and other water fowl * the N° 3 for pheafants, partridges after the firft month, and all the fen-fowl ; the N° 4 for partridges, wood¬ cocks, &c. 5 and the N° 5 for fnipes and all the fmaller birds. Tin-Cafe SHOT, in artillery, is formed by putting a great quantity of fmall iron {hot into a cylindrical tin-, box called a cannifter, that juft fits the bore of the gun. Leaden bullets are fometimes ufed in the fame manner •, and it muft be obferved, that whatever number or fizes of the (hots are ufed, they muft weigh with their cafes nearlv as much as the fhot of the piece. SHOVEL, Sir Cloudesly, was born about the year 1650 of parents rather in the lower rank of life. He was put apprentice to a ftioemaker j but difliking this profeflion, he abandoned it a few years after, and went to fea. He was at firft a cabin boy with Sir Chrifto- pher Mynns, but applying to the ftudy of navigation with indefatigable induftry, his fkill as a feaman foon raifed him above that flation. The corfairs of Tripoli having committed great out¬ rages on the Englifh in the Mediterranean, Sir John Narborough was fent in 1674 to reduce them to rea- fon. As he had received orders to try the effefts of negociation before he proceeded to hoftilities, he fent Mr S f 2 Shovel, Shot, Sh >vc!. S H O , [ 324 1 S II R Sli&vel Shovel, who was at that time a lieutenant in his fleet, s, ^Lt to demand fatisfaftion. The Dey treated him with ‘ ' . a great deal of difrefpeft, and fent him back without an anfwer. Sir John dilpatched him a fecond time, with orders to remark particularly the fituation of things on fliore. The behaviour of the Dey was worfe than ever. Upon Mr Shovel’s return, he informed Sir John that it would be poflible, notwithftanding their fortifl- cations, to burn all the {hips in the harbour. The boats were accordingly manned, and the command of them given to Lieut. Shovel, who feized the guardfhip, and burnt four others, without lofing a man. This aftion fo terrified the Tripolins, that they fued for peace.— •Sir John Narborough gave fo favourable an account of this exploit, that Mr Shovel w’as foon after made captain of the Sapphire, a fifth rate drip. • In the battle of Bantry-Bay, after the revolution, he commanded the Edgar, and, for his gallant behaviour in that adlion, was foon after knighted by King William. Next year he was employed in tranfporting an army in¬ to Ireland ; a fervice wdiicb he performed with fo much diligence and dexterity, that the king raifed him to the rank of rear-admiral of the blue, and delivered his commiflion with his own hands. Soon alter he wTas made rear-admiral of the red, and (hared the glory of the victory at La Hogue. In 1694, he bombarded Dunkirk. In 1703, he commanded the grand fleet in the Mediterranean, and did every thing in his power to aflift the Protefiants who were in arms in the Ce- vennes. Soon after the battle off Malaga, he was prefented by Prince George to Queen Anne, who received him gracioufly, and next year employed him as commander in chief. In 1705 he commanded the fleet, together with the earls of Peterborough and Monmouth, which wTas fent into the Mediterranean $ and it was owing to him chief¬ ly that Barcelona w^as taken. After an unfuccefsful attempt upon Toulon, he failed for Gibraltar, and from thence homeward with a part of the fleet. On the 22d of October, at night, his (hip, with three others, was call away on the rocks of Scilly. All on board perifh- ed. His body was found by feme fiihermen on the ifland of Scilly, who ftripped it of a valuable ring, and afterwards buried it. Mr Paxton, the purfer of the Arundel, hearing of this, found out the fellows, and obliged them to difeover where they had buried the body. He carried it on board his own drip to Portf- meuth, from whence it was conveyed to London, and in¬ terred with great folemnity in Weftminfter Abbey. A monument was aftenvards erefled to his memory by the dire&ion of the ‘queen. He married the widow of his patron, Sir John Narborough, by whom he left tvro daughters, co-heireffes. SHOVELER, a fpecies of Anas. See Anas, Or¬ nithology Index. SHOULDER-blade, a bone of the fhoulder, of a triangular figure, covering the hind part of the ribs, called by anatomiffs the fcapula and omoplata. See Ana¬ tomy. SHOUT, CLAMOUR, in antiquity, wTas frequently ufed on ecclefiaftical, civil, and military cccafions, as a fign of approbation, and lometimes of indignation.— Thus as Cicero, in an affembly of the people, wras ex- pofing the anogance of L. Antony, who had had the impudence to caufe himfelf to be inferibed the patron Shout of the Romans, the people on hearing this raifed a (hout . H to (how their indignation. In the ancient military dif.Shiew’fbury; cipline, (bouts wrere ufed, 1. Upon occafion of the ge¬ neral’s making a fpeech or harangue to the army from his tribunal. This they did in token of their approving what had been propofed. 2. Before an engagement, in order to encourage and fpirit their own men, and fill the enemy with dread. This is a praftice of great an¬ tiquity *, befides which, it wants not the authority of reafon to fupport it; for as mankind are endowed with two fenfes, hearing and feeing, by which fear is raifed in the mind, it may be proper to make ufe of the ear as well as the eye for that purpofe. Shouts were alfo raifed in the ancient theatre, when wflrat was afted pleaf- ed the fpedlators. It wTas ufual for thofe prefent at the burning of the dead to raife a great (hout, and call the dead perfon by his name before they fet fire to the pile. SHOWER, in Meteorology, a cloud condenfed into Rain. SHREWMOUSE. See Sorex, Mammalia In- dex. SHREWSBURY, the capital of Shropfhire in Eng¬ land. This town, the metropolis of the county, grew up out of the ruins of Uriconium, anciently a city, now a village called Wroxeter, about four miles from it. The Saxons called it Scrobbes Berig, from the flmrbs that grew about it ; and from thence the prefent name of Shrewjbury is fuppofed to have been formed. It is pleafantly fituated upon a hill near the Severn, over which there are two handfome bridges. It was a place of note in the Saxon times j after which it was granted by William the Conqueror, together with the title of earl and mod of the county, to Roger de Montgomery, who built a caflle upon the north fide of it, where the Severn, that encompaffes it on all other fides, leaves an opening. His fon Robert built alfo a wall acrofs this neck of land, when he revolted from Henry I. We learn from doomfday-book, that at that time, when a widow of this town married, (lie paid 20 (hillings to the king, and a virgin 10. The above-mentioned Roger founded alfo, and endowed here, a Benediftine mona- ftery and a collegiate church. When old age came up¬ on him, he quitted the world, and fpent the reft of his days as a monk in the abbey, and when he died was in¬ terred in its church. From the hiftory of this church and monaftery, it appears that ecclefiaftical benefices about that time wTere hereditary. The abbey became fo rich afterwards, that the abbot was mitred, and fat in parliament. Befides this abbey, in after times there w'ere three others, viz. a Francifcan, Dominican, and Augu- ftin *, and likewife twro collegiate churches, one dedi¬ cated to St Chad and the other to St Mary. In the conteft between the emprefs Maud and Stephen, this town and its governor William Fitz-Allan fided with the emprefs. In Henry III.’s time, a part of it was burnt down by the Welch j and in Richard II.’s reign a parliament was held in it. At a place called Battle¬ field, near this town, Henry Percy the younger, furnam- ed Hotfipur, was killed in an engagement with Henry IV. againft whom he had rebelled. The king after¬ wards built a chapel upon the fpot, and endowed it for the fupport of two priefts to pray for the fouls of the ilain. Two of Edward IV.’s fons were born here-, namely, S H R [ 325 ] S H B Shrewsbury namely, Richard, duke of York, wnoirt Perkin War- !! beck afterwards perfonated, and who was murdered in Shropflure. t|ie 'power . an(l George Plantagenet, who died before V his brothers. Here find broke out the fweating-fick- nefs, which carried off great numbers fo fuddenly, that thofe who were feized with it either died or recovered in the fpace of 24 hours. In the beginning of the civil wars, King Charles I. came hither, and formed an army, with which he marched towards London } but wras met by the parliament’s forces at Edgehill. He continued here from the 20th of September to the 12th of Octo¬ ber, during which time he wras joined by Prince Rupert, and many of the gentry and nobility of thefe parts. This town anciently gave title of earl to the Montgo¬ meries, and afterwards to the Talbots, by w’hom it is flill retained. Here is a free grammar-fehool, with three mailers, and feveral ufhers, well endowed by Edward VI. and Queen Elizabeth, and not inferior to many colleges in the univerfities. It has a good library and chapel, and there are feveral fcholarlhips appropriated to it in the univerfity of Cambridge. Here are alfo fe¬ veral hofpitals, alms-houfes, and charity-fchools. This town is one of the moll flourilhing in England, having two great weekly markets for corn, cattle, and provi- fions; and another for Welch cottons and flannels, of which great quantities are fold. A great trade is car¬ ried on with the Welch, who bring their commodities hither, as to the common mart of both nations. The town is large and well-built, and the fituation extreme¬ ly pleafant. There is a very beautiful w^alk called the quarry, between the town walls and the Severn, delight¬ fully lhaded with row's of lime-trees, fo that it is not in¬ ferior to the Mall in St James’s Park. The town is alfo noted for its gallantry and politenefs, being full of gentry, for whom there are always balls and aflemblies once a-week all the year round.—Here is a fine houfe and gardens, which belonged to the earl of Bradford ; and in the neighbourhood, at Wroxeter, the Roman highway, called Watllng-ftreet, may be feen for feveral miles, where Roman coins are frequently found. In Shrewlhury are 1 2 incorporated trading companies •, and the corporation has a power to try even capital caufes of itfelf, except high treafon. It is laid that thigh-bones of dead men have been found here a yard long, and teeth three inches round and three long. SHRIKE. See Lanius, Ornithology Index. SHRIMP. See Cancer, Entomology Index. SHRINE, in Eccleftq/lical Hi/iory, a cafe or box to hold the relics of fome faint. SHROPSHIRE, a county of England, bounded on the fouth by Worcefterlhire, Herefordlhire, and , Radnorfhire ; on the north, by Chefhire; on the eaft, by Staffordfliire •, on the weft, by Montgomeryfhire and Denbighflure, in Wales. Its length is between 49 and 50 miles, its breadth about 38, and its circumference about 210. It is an inland county, containing 890,000 acres, 167,639 inhabitants, and 15 hundreds, in which are 170 parithes, and 15 market towns. It makes a part of three biftioprics, viz. Hereford, Coventry and Litchfield, and St Afaph. Some part of it lies on the north, and fome on the fouth fide of the Severn. Be- fides the Severn, it is alfo watered by the Tetvd or Te- fidiauc, as it is called in Welch, which flow’s from the mountains of Radnorlhire \ and by the Tern, which has its rife and name from one of thofe pools called tearnes, in Staffordthire. All thefe abound with filh, efpecially Sluopfhirs trouts, pikes, lampreys, graylings, carp, and eels. The air, efpecially upon the hills, wdth which the county . ^ a abounds, is very wholefome. There is as great a diver- fity of foil as in moft other counties. On the hills, where it is ptior, is very good pafture for ftreep j and in the low grounds, where it is very rich, along the Severn in particular, there is plenty of grafs for bay and black cattle, with all forts of corn. This county is abundant¬ ly provided with fuel, having in it many extenfive mines of coal; it has alfo mines of lead and iron. Over moft of the coal-pits in this county lies a ftratum ce layer of blackith porous rock, of which, by grinding and boiling, they make pitch and tar, which are rather better than the common fort for caulking fhips, as they do not crack, but always continue dole and fmooth. Quarries of lime-ftone and iron-ftone are common in the county, and the foil in many places is a reddilh clay. The abundance of coal and iron-ftone in this county has given rife to numerous manufaftories. As it lies upon the borders of Wales-, it was ancient¬ ly full of caftles and w'alled towns. On the fide next that country there was an almoft continued line of caftles, to guard the county againft the inroads and de¬ predations of the Welch. The borders here, as thofe between England and Scotland, wTere called marches, and there w'ere certain noblemen entitled barones mar~ chicc, marchiones de marchia Walhce, “ lords of the marches, or marquifles of the marches of Wales,” who wTere veiled wdth a fort of palatine jurifdiftion, held courts of juftice to determine controverfies, and enjoyed many privileges and immunities, the better to enable and encourage them to protefl the county againft the incurfions of the Welch, and to maintain order amongft: the borderers •, but they often abufed their power, and were the gveateft of tyrants. As to the ecclefiaftical government of the county, the far greater part, namely, all that belongs to the bi- fhoprics of Hereford, and of Litchfield and Coventry, is under the jurifdiflion and vifitation of the archdeacon of Shrew’lhury or Salop, and is divided into feveral deanries. The Oxford circuit includes in it this county, which fends 12 members to parliament, viz. two for the {hire, and two for each of the following towns, Shrewfbury, Ludl aw, Wenlock, and Biftiop’s Caftle. SHROVE-Tuesday, is the Tuefday after Quin- quagefima Sunday, or the day immediately preceding the firft of Lent ; being fo called from the Saxon, word thrive, which fignifies “ to confefs.” Hence Shrove- Tuefday fignifies Confeflion-Tuefday 5 on which day all the psople in every parifli throughout England (during the Romilh times) were obliged to confefs then- fins, one by one, to their own parilh-priefts, in their own parifh-churches j and, that this might be done the more regularly, the great bell in every parilh was rung at ten o’clock (or perhaps fooner), that it might be heard by all, and that they might attend, according to the cuf- tom then in ufe. And though the Romifti religion has now given way to the Proteftant religion, the cuftom of ringing the great bell in our ancient parifh-churches, at leaft in fome of them, ftill remains, and obtains in. and about London the name of Pancake bell 5 perhaps, becaufe after the confeftion it was cuftomary for the fe¬ veral perfons to dine on pancakes or fritters. Mod churches^ S H R [ 3 Shrouds, churches, indeed, have rejefted that cuilom of ringing the bell on Shrove-Tuefday j but the ufage of dining on pancakes or fritters, and fuch like provifion, ftill continues. SHROUDS (fcrud Sax.), a range of large ropes ex¬ tending from the mart heads to the right and left fide of the (hip, to fupport the mails, and enable them to carry- fail, &c. '1 he fhrouds as well as the fails are denominated from the malls to which they belong. Thus they are the main, fore, and mizen Ihrouds 5 the main-top-mall, fore- top-maft, or mizen-top mall Ihrouds j and the main-top¬ gallant, fore-top-gallant, or mizen-top-gallant Ihrouds. The number of Ihrouds by which a malt is fultained, as well as the fize of rope of which they are formed, is al¬ ways in proportion to the fize of the malt and the weight of the fail it is intended to carry. Bowfprit Ihrouds are thofe which fupport the bowfprit. Bumkin Ihrouds are thofe which fupport the bumkins. Tuttock Ihrouds are Ihrouds which conned the efforts of the topmaft (hrouds to the lower Ihrouds. Bentinck Ihrouds are additional Ihrouds to fupport the malts in heavy gales. Preventer Ihrouds are fimilar to bentinck Ihrouds, and are uftd in bad weather to eafe the lower rigging. See Mast and Sail. SHRUB,a little, low, dwarf tree, or a woody vegetable, of a lize lefs than a tree j and which, inllead of one fingle Hem, frequently from the fame root puts forth feveral fets or Items. See Plant and Tree. Such are privet, phillyrea, holly, box, honey-fuckle, &c. Shrubs and trees put forth in autumn a kind of buttons, -or gems, in the axis of the leaves j thefe buttons are as fo many little ova, which, coming to expand by the xvarmth of the following fpring, open into leaves and flowers. By this, together with the height, forne diitin- guilh Ihrubs from fuffrutices, or under Ihrubs, which are low bulhes, that do not put forth any of thefe buttons, -as fage, thyme, &c. The two hardiell Ihrubs we are poffeffed of are the ivy and box ; thefe Hand the feverity of our lharpelt winters unhurt, while other Ihrubs perifli, and trees have their folid bodies fplit and torn to pieces. In the hard winter of the year 1683, thefe two ffirubs fuffered no injury any where; though the yews and hollies, which are generally fuppofed very hardy, rvere that winter in fome places killed, and in others llrippcd of their leaves, and damaged in their bark. Furze-bufhes were found to be fomewhat hardier than thefe, but they Sometimes perifhed, at leaft down to the root. The broom feemed to occupy the next ftep of hardinefs be¬ yond thefe. This lived where the others died, and where even this died, the juniper Ihrubs w'ere fometimes found unhurt. This lall is the only Ihrub that ap¬ proaches to the hardinefs of the box and ivy, but even it does not quite come up to them \ for while they fuffer nothing in whatever manner they are expofed, the ju¬ niper, though it bears cold well under the fhelter of other trees, yet cannot bear the viciffitudes of heat and cold ; infomuch that fome juniper fhrubs were found half dead and half vigorous •, that fide which faced the mid-day fun having perilhed by the fucceffive thawings and freezings of its fap •, while that which w'as not ex¬ pofed to the viciflhudes of heat had born the cold per- feftly well. Such (hrubs as are not hardy enough to de- 2 6 ] S I A fy the winter, but appear half dead in the fpring, may Sbmb often be recovered by Mr Evelyn’s method of beating .!! their branches with a (lender hazel-wand, to ftrike off S‘^m' f the withered leaves and buds, and give a free paffage to the air to the internal parts. Where this fails, the me¬ thod is to cut them down to the quick, and if no part of the trunk appears in a growing condition, they mud be taken off down to the level of the ground. Philofophi- cal Tranfadlions, N° 165. SHUTTLE, in the manufadlures, an inftrument ufed by the weavers, which guidesr the thread it contains, either of woollen, filk, flax, or other matter, fo as to make it form the woofs of Huffs, cloths, linens, ribbands, &c. by throwing the (huttle alternately from left to right, and from right to left, acrofs between the threads of the warp, which are ftretched out lengthwife on the loom. In the middle of the (buttle is a kind of cavity, called the eye or chamber of the (buttle ; wherein is inclofed the fpoul, which is a part of the thread deftined for the woof; and this is wound on a little tube of paper, rufli^ or other matter. The ribband-weaver’s (buttle is very different from that of mod other weavers, though it ferves for the fame purpofe : it is of box, fix or feven inches long, one broad, and as much deep; (hod with iron at both ends, which terminate in points, and are a little crooked, the one towards the right, and the other towards the left, reprefenting the figure of an c/2 horizontally placed. See Weaving. SIALOGOGUES, medicines which promote the (a- livary difcharge. SIAM Proper, by fome called Upper, (to diftinguifli Boundaries it from the Lower Siam, under which are often inclu- and extent, tied Laos, Cambodia, and Malacca), is bounded on the north by the kingdoms of Pegu and Laos; on the ea:l by Cambodia and Cochin-China ; on the fouth by Ma¬ lacca and the bay of Siam ; and on the weft by the ocean. But as the opinions of geographers are extreme¬ ly various concerning the fituation and extent of mod of the inland countries of Afia and Africa, neither the ex¬ tent nor boundaries of Siam are yet accurately known. By fome it is fuppofed to extend 550 miles in length, and 250 miles in breadth; in fome places it is not above 50 miles broad. The winds blow' here from the fouth upon the coaftwejutoi- of Siam, in March, April, and May ; in April the rains begin, in May and June they fall almoft without cea- fing. In July, Auguft, and September, the winds blow from the weft, and the rains continuing, the rivers over¬ flow their banks nine or ten miles on each fide, and ff>r more than 150 miles up the dream, At this time, and more particularly in July, the tides are fo flrong as to come up the river Menan as far as the city of Siam, which is fituated 60 miles from its mouth; and (ometimes as far as Louvo, which is 30 miles higher. The winds blow from the weft and north in Odlober, when the rain ceafes. In November and December the winds blow dry from the north, and the waters being in a few days reduced to their ancient channels, the tides become fo infenfible, that the water is frefti at the mouth of the river. At Slam there is never more than one flood and one ebb in the fpace of 24 hours. In January the wind blows from the call, and in February from the eaft and fouth. When the wind is at eaft, the S I A C 327 1 Siam, the current fets to the weft j and, on the contrary, v—v ^ when the wind is at weft, the currents run to the eaft- ward. . . a As this country is titivated near the tropic, it muit neceffarily be very hot; but yet, as in other places nearly of the fame latitude, when the fun is vertical and fhines with a moft intenfe heat, the inhabitants are fo fkreened by the clouds, and the air is fo refreftied by a deluge of rain that overflows the plains which the people chiefly inhabit, that the heat is very fupportable. 1 he cool eft wind blows in December and January. Vegetable The vegetable produce of this country is chiefly rice p.oduc- and wheat, befides tropical and a few European fruits, tiuns* The Siamefe prepare the land for tillage as foon as tne earth is fuflaciently moiftened by the floods, ft hey plant their rice before the waters rife to any conftderable height, and, as they rife flowly, the rice keeps pace with them, and the ear is always above the water. They reap their corn when the water retires, and fometimes go in boats to cut it while the waters are upon the ground. They alfo fow rice in feveral parts of the king¬ dom that are not overflowed, and this is thought better tafted, and will keep longer than the other j but they are forced to fupply thefe fields conftantly with water, while the rice is growing, from bafins and ponds that lie about them. They have no European fruits except oranges, le¬ mons, citrons, and pomegranates. They have bananas, Indian figs, jaques, durions, mangoes, mangoftans, ta¬ marinds, ananas, and cocoa nuts} they have alfo abun¬ dance of pepper and fugav-canes. Ihe mountains aie covered with trees which make good mafts. 1 he ve¬ getable of greateft ufe in the country is the bamboo, which grows chiefly m marftiy foils, and is often found of a prodigious fize. Cotton trees are found in great numbers 5 and others that yield ca/>oc, a very fine cot¬ ton wool, but fo ftiort as to be unfit for fpinning, though it anfwers very well for ftuffing mattreffes and pillows. There is no country where elephants abound more than in Siam, or where they are held in greater venera¬ tion. They have a few horfes, fjieep, and goats, be¬ fides oxen and buffaloes ; but they have no good ani¬ mal food except the flefh of hogs, their beef and mutton being of a very indifferent quality. Defmption The Siamefe are of fmall ftature, but well proportion- of the inha- ed j their complexions are fwarthy : the faces of both tvitants. men and women are broad, and their foreheads, fud- denly contra£!ing, terminate in a point, as well as their chins. They have fmall black eyes, hollow jaws, large mouths, and thick pale lips. Their teeth are dyed black, their nofes are ftiort and round at the end, and they have large ears, which they think very beautiful. Their hair is thick and lank, and both fexes cut it fo ftiort that it reaches no lower than their ears 5 the wo¬ men make it ftand up on their foreheads j and the men 6 {have their beards. Dxefs. People of diftin&ion wear a piece of calico tied about their loins, that reaches down to their lenees.— The men bring up this cloth between their legs, and tuck it into their girdles, which gives it the appearance of a pair of breeches. They have alfo a muffin ftiirt without a col¬ lar, with wide fleeves, no wriftbands, and the bofom 0- pen. In winter they wear a piece of fluff or painted S I A . 4 Anitniils. linen over their (boulders, like a mantle, and wind it a-, , bout their arms. The king of Siam is diftinguhhed by -wearing a veft of brocaded fatin, with ftraight fteeves that reach down to the wrift, under fuch a Hurt as we have juft defcri- bed, and it is unlawful for any fubjeft to wear this drefs unlefs he receives it from the king. They wear flippers with piked toes turned up, but no ftockings. The king fometimes prefents a military veft to the ge¬ nerals ; this is buttoned before, and reaches to the knees •, but the fleeves are wide, and come no lower than the elbow's. All the retinue of the king, either in war or in hunting, are clothed in red. Ehe king weaiS a cap in the form of a fugar-loaf, encompafied by a co¬ ronet or circle of precious (tones, and thofe of his officers have a circle of gold, filver, or of vermilion gilt, to di- ftlnguifh their quality, and thefe caps are fattened with a ft ay under the chin •, they are only worn when they are in the king’s prefence, or when they prefide in courts of juftice, and on other extraordinary occafions. They have alfo hats for travelling ^ but, in general, few peo¬ ple cover their heads notwithftanding Lne fcorching heat of the fun. The women alfo wrap a cloth about their fmiddle, which hangs down to the calf of their legs. They co¬ ver their breads with another cloth, the ends of which hang over their (boulders. But they have, no garment correfponding to a (liift, nor any covering for theu heads but their hair. The common people are al- moft naked, and wear neither (hoes nor flippers. The women wear as many rings on the three laft fingers of each hand as they can keep on, and bracelets upon their wrifts and ancles, with pendants in their ears (haped like a pear. _ _ 7 For an inferior to ftand before a fuperior is deemed Manners infolent; and therefore (laves and people of inferior and cu- rank fit upon their heels, with their heads little in-ll;0n:is-* dined, and their joined hands lifted up to their fore¬ heads. In paffing by a fuperior they bend their bodies, joining their hands, and lilting them toward their heads in proportion to the refpeft they would (how\ "When an inferior pays a vifit, he enters the room (looping, proftrates himfelf, and then remains upon his knees, fitting upon his heels without fpeaking a word till he is addreffed by the perfon whom he vifits j for he that is of the higheft quality muft always (peak firft. If a perfon of rank vifits an inferior, he walks upright, and the mafter of the houfe receives him at the door, and waits on him fo far when he goes away, but never far¬ ther. The higheft part of the houfe is efteemed the moft honourable, and no perfon cares to lodge under ano¬ ther’s feet. The SiameE indeed have but one dory, but the rooms rife gradually, and the innermoft, which are the higheft, are ahvays the moft honourable. When the Siamefe ambaffador came to the French court, feme of his retinue were lodged in a floor over the am- baffador’s head ; but they no fooner knew it, than they were ftruck with the greateft confternation, and ran down tearing their hair at the thoughts of being guil¬ ty of what they confidered as fo unpardonable a crime. The Siamefe never permit fuch familiarities as are praftifed by gentlemen in Europe. Eafinefs of accefs, and Siam. S I A [ 328 ] ■and affability to Inferiors, Is In that part of the world another, • thought a fign of weaknefs, and yet they take no no¬ tice of fome things which would be looked upon as ill breeding among us; fuch as belching In company, which no man endeavours to prevent, or fo much as holds his hand before his mouth. They have an extra¬ ordinary refpeft for the head, and it is the greateft af¬ front to ftroke or touch that of another perfon ; nay, their cap muff not be ufed with too much familiarity ; for w'hen a fervant carries it, it is put on a flick and held above his head 5 and when the mailer Hands Hill the flick is fet down, it having a foot to Hand upon. They alfo Ihow their refpeft by lifting their hands to the head 5 and therefore, when they receive a letter from any one for whom they have a great refpeft, they im¬ mediately hold it up to their heads, and fometimes lay g it upon their heads. Genius and They are elfeemed an ingenious people, and though difpofitions. rather indolent than adlive in difpolition, they are not addicted to the voluptuous vices wdrich often accompa¬ ny a flate of eafe, being remarkably chafte and tempe¬ rate, and even holding drunkennefs in abhorrence.-— They are, howTever, accounted infolent towards their inferiors, and equally obfequious to thofe above them j the latter of which qualities appears to be particularly inculcated from their earlieft youth. In general, their behaviour is extremely modell, and they are averfe to loquacity. Like the Chinefe, they avoid fpeaking in the firll perfon : and w-hen they addrefs a lady, it is al¬ ways with fome refpeftful epithet, inlinuating perfonal accomplilhments. No man in this country learns any particular trade, but has a general knowdedge of all that are commonly pra&ifed, and every one vrorks fix months for the king by rotation ; at which time, if he flrould be found per¬ fectly ignorant of the bufinefs he is fet about, he is doomed to fuffer the baftinado. The confequence of this burdenfome fervice is, that no man endeavours to excel in his bufinefs, left he fhould be obliged to praCtife it as long as he lives for the benefit of the crown. The government of this country is extremely op- preffive, the king being not only fovereign but proprie¬ tor of all the lands, and chief merchant likewife ; by which means he monopolizes almoft the whole traffic, to the great prejudice of his fubjeCts. The crown is faid to be hereditary, but it is often transferred by re¬ volutions, on account of the exorbitant abufe of powTer in thofe who exercife the royal office. In his palace, the king is attended by wmmen, who not only prepare his food, and wait on him at table, but even perform the part of valets, and put on all his clothes, except his cap, which is confidered as tco facred to be touched by any hand but his own. He ffiowTs himfelf to the people only twice a-year, when he diflributes his alms to the talapoins or priefts: and on thofe occafions he always appears in an elevated fituation, or mounted on the back of an elephant. When he takes the diverfion of hunt¬ ing, he is as ufual attended by his wmmen on foot, pre¬ ceded by a guard of 200 men, wffio drive all the people from the roads through which they are to pafs ; and when the king flops, all his attendants fall upon their faces on the ground. All their proceedings in law are committed to wri¬ ting, and none is fuffered to exhibit a charge againft 9 Govern ment. V3 Forms of procefs. S I A without giving fecurity to profecute it, and Siam. anfwer the damages if he does not prove the fat! againft ' the perfon accufed. When a perfon intends to profe¬ cute another, he draws up a petition, in which he fets forth his complaint, and prefents it to the nai, or head of the band to which he belongs, who tranfmits it to the governor 5 and if the complaint appears frivolous, the profecutor, according to the laws of the country, fhould be puniffied 5 but the magiftrates generally en¬ courage profecutions on account of the perquifites they bring to their office. Every thing being prepared for hearing, the parties are feveral days called into court, and perfuaded to agree 5 but this appears to be only a matter of form. At length the governor appoints a day for all parties to attend ; and being come into court, the clerk reads the procefs and opinion of his affociates, and then the governor examines upon what reafons their opinions are founded ; which being explained to him, he proceeds to pafs judgement. When fufficient proofs are wanting, they have re-,x’r;ai or- courfe to an ordeal trial, like that of our Saxon ance-deal. ftors: both the plaintiff and the defendant walk upon burning coals, and he that efcapes unhurt is adjudged to be in the right : fometimes the proof is made by put¬ ting their hands in boiling oil ; and in both thefe trials, by fome peculiar management, one or the other is faid to remain unhurt. They have alfo a proof by water, in which he who remains longeft under it is efteemed in¬ nocent. They have another proof, by fwallowing pills, which their priefls adminifter with fevere imprecations ^ and the party who keeps them in his ftomach without vomiting is thought to be innocent. All thefe trials are made in the prefence of the magi¬ ftrates and people 5 and the king himfelf frequently di- refts them to be performed, when crime comes before him by way of appeal. Sometimes he orders both the informer and prifoner to be thrown to the tigers : and the perfon that efcapes by his not being feized upon by tbofe hearts, is fufficiently juftified. They maintain the do&rine of trajifmigration, belie-geijgi013a ving in a pre-exiftent ftate, and that they lhall pafs into opinions, other bodies till they are fufficiently purified to be re¬ ceived into paradife. They believe likewife that the foul is material, but not fubjeft to the touch ; that it retains the human figure after quitting a body of that fpecies 5 and that when it appears to perfons with whom it was acquainted, which they fuppofe it to do, the wounds of one that has been murdered will then be vi- fible. They are of opinion that no man will be eter¬ nally puniihed •, that the good, after feveral tranfmigra- tions, will enjoy perpetual happinefs j but that tbofe who are not reformed will be doomed to tranfmigration to all eternity. They believe in the exiftence of a Su¬ preme Being •, but the objects of their adoration are de¬ parted faints, whom they confider as mediators or inter- ceffors for them j and to the honour of this numerous tribe both temples and images are erefled. The men of this country are allowed a plurality ofjv]arriag«j, women ; but excepting one, who is a wife by contrafl, the others are only concubines, and their children deem¬ ed incapable of any legal inheritance. Previous to eve¬ ry nuptial contrafl, an aftrologer muft be corifulted, who calculates the nativity of the parties, and deter¬ mines whether their union is likely to prove fortunate ox sib r 3: Slam ov ot tier wife. When his prognoftication is favourable, II the lover is permitted to vilit his miltrefs three times, at ^Sibemco. t},e 0[.' which interviews the relations being pre- fent? the marriage portion is paid, when, without any religious ceremony periormed, the nuptials are reckon¬ ed complete, and foon after confummated. A few days after the talapoin viiits the married couple, fprinkles them with wTater, and repeats a prayer for their pro- fperity. Tunerals. The praftice in Siam refpe&ing funerals, is both to burn and bury the dead. The corpfe being laid upon the pile, it is fuffered to burn till a confiderable part is confumed, when the remainder is interred in a burying- place contiguous to feme temple. The reafon which they give for not burning it entirely to allies is, that they fuppofe the deceafed to be happy when part of his remains efcapes the fire. Inllead of a tombllone, tjiey ere£t a pyramid over the grave. It was formei !y the cullom to bury treafure with the corple \ but long¬ er experience evincing, that the facrilegtous lignt in w7hich, robbing the graves was confidered aid not pre¬ vent the crime, they now7 difeontinue the ancient prac¬ tice, and inllead of treafure bury only painted papers 15 and other trifles. Rivers. Xhe twTo principal rivers are tire Memtn and the Me- con, which rife in the mountains of Tartary, and run to the fouth ; the former palling by the city ot Siam, falls into the bay of the fame name, in the 13th de¬ gree of north latitude ; and the latter running through Laos and Cambodia, difeharges itfelf into the Indian <5 ocean in the pth degree of north latitude. Defcrip- The capital of the country is Siam, called by the na¬ tion of the t;ves Siyot/ioija, fituated in the 101 ft degree ofeaft longi- capital. tudej andjn 14th degree of north latitude, being al- moft encompaffed hy the branches of the river Menan. It is about 10 miles in circumference within the walls, bst not a fixth part of the ground is occupied by buildings. In the vacant fpaces there are near 300 pagodas or temples, round which are fcattered the convents of the priefts and their burying-places. The ftreets of the ' city are fpacious, and fome have canals running through them, over which is a great number of bridges. I ne houfes Hand on pillars of the bamboo cane, and are built of the fame materials : the communication between different families, during the winter feafon, being carried on as in other tropical countries hy means of boats. I he grounds belonging tothefeveral tenements are feparated by a pallifado, within which the cattle are houfed in barns, ere&ed likewife upon pillars, to preferve them from the annual inundation. SIBBALD1 A, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs of pentandria, and to the order of pentagynia ■, and in *he natural fvffem arranged under the 35l^or^el‘ Senticofee See Botany Index. SIBENICO, or SEBENICO, the name of a city and province of Dalmatia. ’1 he province of Sibenico runs along the fea for more than 30 n iiesj reaches in iome places above 20 miles within land, and comprehends above 70 iflands. The city of Sibenico is fituated near the mouth of the river Cherea, in the gull of Venice, 3^ miles north of Soalatto, and 2 ij fouth-eaft of Zara. E. Long. 16® 46', N. Lat. 440 17'. It belongs to the Venetians. It is defended on one fide by a caffle, which held out againft repeated attacks of the Turks, and to* wards the fea by a fort. VOL. XIX. Part I. *9 1 S 1 B SIBERIA, a large country, comprehending the moft Siberia. ^ northerly parts of the Ruffian empire in Alia. It is ^ bounded on the eaft by the eaftern ocean ; on the fouth B0ur,Varies by Great Tartary \ on the weft by Ruffia j and on the and extent, north by the Frozen ocean. It is about 2000 miles in length from eaft to weft, and 750 miles in breadth from north to fouth. 2 At what time this country was firft inhabited, or Conquered' by whom it was peopled, we are entirely ignorant but writings have been found in it when it was difeover- 1 u 1 ' ’ ed, which fhows that it muft have been early known to a civilized people *. 1 he Ruffians, irom whom we have *Bell s received our knowledge, knew nothing of it before the Travels. middle of the 16th century. In the reign of John Bafi- lowilz I. indeed, an incurfion had been made into Siberia, and fome Tartar tribes fubdued : but tbefe conquefts wrere not permanentand we hear cf no further communica¬ tion between Ruffia and Siberia till the time of John Bafilowitz II. It was opened again at that time by means of one Anika Strogonoff, a Ruffian merchant, who had eftabliftied fome lalt-works at a town in the government of Archangel. lifts man carried on a trade with the inhabitants of the north-weft parts of Siberia, who brought every year to the town above- mentioned large quantities of the fineft furs. I hus he acquired a very confidcrable fortune in a Ihort time } when at laft the czar, perceiving the advantages which would accrue to his fubjefts from having a regular in- tercourfe with Siberia, determined to enlarge the com¬ munication which was already opened. With this view he fent into Siberia a body of troops, which croffed the Yugorian mountains, that form part of the north-eaftern boundary of Europe. They feem, however, not to nave palled the Irtiffi, or to have penetrated farther than the weftern branch of the river Oby. Some iartar tribes were laid under contribution, and a chief named Yediger confented to pay an annual tribute of 1000 fables. But this produced no lafting advantage to Ruffia j for, foon after, Yediger was defeated and taken prifoner by Kutchum Khan, a defendant of the great Jenghiz Khan : and thus the allegiance of this country to Ruf¬ fia was difi’olved. For fome time we hear of no fiyther attempts made by the Ruffians on Siberia 3 but in 1577 the founda¬ tion of a permanent conqueft was laid by one \ ermac Temofeeff, a Coffack of the Don. This man was at firft the head of a party of banditti who infefted the Ruffians in the province of Cafan ; but being defeated by the troops of the czar, he retired wJth 6000 of his followers into the interior parts of that province. Con¬ tinuing his courfe ftill eaftward, he came to Orel, the moft eafterly of all the Ruffian fettlements. Here he took up his winter-quarters : but his reftlefs genius did not fuffer him to continue for any length of time in a ftate of ina&ivity 5 and from the intelligence _ he procured concerning the fituation of the neighbouring Tartars of Siberia, be turned his arms towards that quarter. _ 3 Siberia was at that time partly divided among a num-State of her of feparate princes, and partly inhabited by the vari- ous tribes of independent Tartars. Of the former Kut- of- t^Ruf. chum Khan.was the moft powerful fovereign. Plis do-flan con. minions confifted of that tra£l of country which nowqueft. forms the fouth-weftern part of the province of Tobolfk ; and ftretched from the banks of the Irtifh and Oby to X t thofe \ SIB f 33° ] ' SIB thole of the Tobol and Tura. His principal refidence was at Sibir, a fmall fortrefs upon the river Irtilh, not far from the prefent town of Tobollk, and of which fome ruins are Hill to be feen. After a courfe of unre¬ mitted fatigue, and a feries of viftories which almoft ex¬ ceed belief, but of which we have not room to give the detail, our intrepid adventurer dlfpoffelTed this prince of his dominions, and feated himfelf on the throne of Sibir. The number of his followers, however, being greatly re¬ duced, and perceiving he could not depend on the affec¬ tion of his new fubjefts, he had recourfe to the czar of Mufcovy, and made a tender of his new acquilitions to that monarch, upon condition of receiving immediate and effedtual fupport. This propofal was received with the greatell fatisfaftion by the czar, who granted him a pardon for all former offences, and lent him the required fuccours. Yermac, however, being foon after drowned in an unfuccefsful excurfion, the Ruffians began to lofe Siberia, their footing in the country. But frelh reinforcements -v— being feafonably fent, they not only recovered their ground, but puihed their conquefts far and wide j where- ever they appeared, the Tartars were either reduced or exterminated. New towns were built, and colonies were planted ©n all fides. Before a century had well elapfed, ail that vaft traft of country now called Siberia, which ffretches from the confines of Europe to the Eaftern ocean, and from the Frozen fea to the prefent frontiers of China, was annexed to the Ruffian dominions. ^ The air of Siberia is, in general, extremely piercing, Climate, the cold there being more fevere than in any other part of the Ruffian dominions. The Siberian rivers are frozen very early, aijid it is late in the fpring before the ice is thawed (a). If the corn does not ripen in Auguft, there is little hope of a harveft in this country j and in the (a) M. Gmelin, M. Muller, and two other philofophers, fet out in the year 1733 to explore the dreary regions of Siberia, by deiire of the emprefs Anne of Ruffia. After {pending nine years and a half in obferving every thing that was remarkable, they returned to Peterfburgh ; and an account of this journey was publiffied by M. Gmelin. In order to examine how far the froft had penetrated into the ground, M. Gmelin, on the 18th of June, at a place called Jacutia, ordered the earth to be dug in high ground ; they found mould to the depth of 11 inches, under which they met with loofe fand to twro feet and a half further, after which it grew harder, and at half a foot deeper fo hard as fcarcely to give way to the tools j fo that the ground Hill remained unthawed at not lefs than the depth of four feet. He made the fame experiment in a lower fituation 5 the foil was 10 inches deep, after that a loofe fand for twro feet and ten inches, below which all was frozen and hard. At Jacutia the inhabitants preferve in cellars feveral forts of berries, which they reckon among their dainties, perfectly good and frefh the whole year, though thefe cellars are fcarcely a fathom deep. At the fortrefs of Argun, in little more than 50 degrees of latitude, the inhabitants relate that the earth in many places is never thawed above a yard and a half, and that the internal cold of the earth will fcarcely permit a well to be dug, of which they bring an inftance that happened not long before the author’s arrival at that place. They defigned to fink a well near a houfe at fome diftance from the river Argun, for which purpofe they thawed the earth by degrees, and dug fome fathoms till they had penetrated a fathom and half below the level of the river, but found no fpring. Hence perhaps we may venture to affert, that befides the great elevation of the earth in thefe countries, there is another caufe, per¬ haps latent in the earth itfelf, of this extraordinary cold, naturally fuggefted to us by confidering the cavity of an old filver mine at Argun, which being exhaufted of its ore, now ferves the inhabitants in fummer lime for a cellar to keep their provifions : this place is fo extremely cold as to preferve fleih meats from putrefaction in the hotleft fummers, and to fink the mercury in De Lille’s thermometer to 146 and 147. The author travelling from Nerfchoi towards Argun, to vifit the works of the filver mines in that place, Augult 1735, came to the river Or- kija, near Solonifchaia, on July the iff, from whence he arrived a little before dark at the village of Seventua, dif- tant from the river 27 leagues. In this journey he and his fellow travellers for more than four leagues felt it vaftly cold j foon after they came into a warm air, which continued lome leagues •, after which the cold returned ; and thus are travellers fubje&ed to perpetual viciffitudes of warmth and cold. But it is oblerved in general, that the eafiern parts are colder than the weftern, though fituated in the fame latitude ; for as in thofe eaftem regions fome irafts of land are much colder than the reft, their effefts muft be felt by the neighbouring parts. And this con- •jefture is favoured by the therrnometrical obfervations made with M. de L’llle’s inftrument in all parts of Siberia, in which the mercury was deprefied to the 226th degree, even in thofe parts that lie very much towards the foulh, as in the territory cf Selinga, which faid degree aniwqrs in Fahrenheit’s thermometer to about 55.5 below o, but the fame thermometer fometimes indicated a much greater cold. At the fort of Kiringa, on Feb. 10. I73^> ^ in the morning, the mercury ftoed at 240, which anfwers nearly to 72 below o in Fahrenheit’s. On the 23d of the fame month it was a degree lower. At the fame place, December 11. at three in the afternoon, it flood at 254 in D' Lifle’s thermometer, and very near 90 in Fahrenheit’s j on December 29. at four in the afternoon, at 263 , on November 27. at noon, at 270 5 January 9. at 275, which feveral depreffions anfwer in Fahrenheit’s to 99.44, 107.73, and 113.65 ; on January 5. at five in the morning, at 262 5 an hour aftei at 281, but at eight o’clock it returned to 2$o, and there remained till fix in the afternoon, and then rofe by degrees till an hour before midnight, when it flood at 202. So that the greateft depreffion of the mercury anfwers in Fahrenheit’s thermo¬ meter to 120.76 degrees below o, which is indeed very furprifing, and what nobody ever imagined before. While this cold lafted at Jenifea, the fparrows and magpies fell to the ground, ftruck dead, as it were, with the froft, but revived if they were foon brought into a warm room. The author was told alfo that numbers of wild beafts were found in the woods dead and fluff with the froft, and feveral travellers had their blood and juices quite frozen in their veffels. The air itfelf at that time was fo dilmal, that you would think it changed to ice, as ;L was a thick Jcg, which was not diffipable by anv exhalations, as in the fpri^g and autumn, and the author could fcarcely ftanu three minutes in the porch of his houfe for the cold. 5 Soil and produce, S I S [ 33 Siberia, the province of Jenifeifk it is fometimes covered with fnow before the peafants can reap it. To defend the inhabitants againft this extreme feverity of the climate, Providence feems more liberally to have dealt out to them wood for fuel and furs for clothing. As the win¬ ter days in the north parts of Siberia laft but a tew hours, and the ftorms and flakes of fnow darken the air fo much, that the inhabitants, even at noon, cannot fee to do any thing without artificial lights, they fleep away the greateft part of that feafon. Thefe fevere winters are rapidly fucceeded by lum- mers, in which the heat is fo intenfe that the Tungu- fians, who live in the province of Jakutlk, go almolt naked. Here is fcarcely any night during that feafon ; and towards the Frozen ocean the fun appears continual¬ ly above the horizon. The vegetables and fruits of the earth are here extremely quick in their growth. The whole traft of land beyond the 6oth degree of north latitude is a barren wafte ; for the north part of Siberia yields neither corn nor fruits ; though barley is known frequently to come to perfeflion in Jakutlk.— For this reafon, the inhabitants of the northern parts are obliged to live on fifh and flefh, but the Ruffians are fupplied with corn from the fouthern parts of Siberia, where the foil is furprifingly fertile. The countries be¬ yond the lake of Baikal, efpecially towards the eaft, as far as the river Argun, are remarkably fruitful and plea- fant ; but fuch is the indolence of the inhabitants, that feveral fine trails of land, which would make ample returns to the peaf^nt for cultivating them, lie negleft- ed. The paftures are excellent in this country, which abounds in fine horned cattle, horfes, goats, &c. on which the Tartars chiefly depend for fubfiffence. How¬ ever, there are feveral fteppes, or barren rvaftes, and un¬ improvable trails in thefe parts •, and not a Angle fruit tree is to be feen. There is great variety of vegetables, and in feveral places, particularly near Krafnoia Slobo- da, the ground is in a manner overrun with afparagus of an extraordinary height and delicious flavour. I he bulbs of the Turkilh bundes, and other forts of lilies, are much ufed by the Tartars inftead of bread, ihis want of fruit and corn is richly compenfated by the great quantities of wild and tame beafts, and fowls, and the infinite variety of fine fiflr which the country af¬ fords (b). In that part of Siberia which lies near the Icy fea, as rvell as in feveral other places, are woods of pine, larch, and other trees; befides which, a confiderable quantity of wood is thrown affiore by the waves of the Icy fea ; but whence it comes is not yet ascer¬ tained. Befides the wild fowl with which Siberia abounds, there is a prodigious number of quadrupeds, fome of 6 Wild beads. i ] SIB which are eatable, and others valuable for their fkins Siberia, or furs. The animals moff valued for their {kins are the black fox, the fable, the hyena, the ermine, the fquirrel, the beaver, and the lynx. The {kin of a real black fox is more elleemed than even that of a fable. In the country near the Frozen ocean are alfo blue and white foxes. The fineft fables come from Nertfhinlk and Ja- kutik, the inhabitants of which places catch them in the mountains of Stannowoi Krebet. The tributary nations were formerly obliged to pay their taxes in the {kins of foxes and fables only. But now the feins of fquirrels, bears, rein-deer, &.c, and fometimes money, are received by way of tribute ; and this not only from thofe who live near the Lena, but alfo In the govern¬ ments of Ilinfk, Irkutzk, Selenginfk, and Nertfliinfl;. When the Tartars firfl: became tributary to Rufiia, they brought their furs indiferiminately as they caught them, and among them were often fables of extraordinary value •, and formerly, if any trader brought with him an iron kettle, they gave him in exchange for it as many fables as it would hold. But they are now better acquainted with their value. They fell their fables to fmugglers at a very high price, and pay only a ruble in- Head of a {kin to the revenue officers, who now receive more ready money than fables, by way of tribute. The fubje&s plead the fcarcity of furs, and indeed not with¬ out fome appearance of truth. ^ Siberia has ftill other and more valuable treafures than Minerals, thofe we have yet mentioned. The filver mines of Ar¬ gun are extremely rich ; the filver they produce yields fome gold, and both of thefe are found among the cop¬ per ore of Koliwan. This country is alfo particularly rich in copper and iron ore. The former lies even up¬ on the furface of the earth ; and confiderable mines of it are found in the mountains of Pi£tow, Koliwan, Plo- {kau, Wolkerefenfk, Kufwi, Alepaik, and feveral others, and in the government of Krafnoiarik. (c). Ixon is {fill more plentiful in all thefe places, and very good 5 but that of Kamenlki is reckoned the beft. Several hun¬ dred thoufand puds of thefe metals are annually ex¬ ported from the frnelting houfes, which belong partly to the crown, and partly to private perfons. Molt of them lie in the government of Catharinenburg. The Tartars alfo extract a great quantity of iron from the ore. 8 The topazes of Siberia have a fine luftre •, and in open Precious fandy places, near the river Argun, as well as on theft°nes- banks of other rivers and lakes, are found fingle fmall pieces of agate. Here are alfo carnelians and green jaf- per with red veins. The latter is chiefly met with in the deferts of Gobifkoi. Q The famous marienglas, or lapis fpecularis, greatMarien- T t 2 quantities gl^- (b) The oak, though frequent in Ruflia, it is faid, is not to be found through this vaft region nearer than the banks of the Argun and Amur, in the dominions of China. The white poplar, the afpen, the black poplar, the common fallow, and feveral fpecies of the willow, are very common. The Norway and filver fir form great forefts j but the former does not grow beyond the 60th degree of north latitude, and the latter not beyond 58 degrees. To this dreary region of Siberia, Europe is indebted for that excellent fpecies of oats called Avena Sibirica ; and our gardens are enlivened with the gay and brilliant flowers brought from the fame country. (c) The copner mines of Koliwan, from which gold and filver are extradled, employ above 40,000 people. The filver mines of Nertflfinfk, beyond Lake Baikal, employ above 14,000. The whole revenue arifing from thefe .mines, according to Mr Coxe. is net Itfs than 679,182!. 13s. S I B [ 332 1 S I B Siberia. Magraets. Salt lakes and fprings it. Cm'ioficies. 13 . Mountain quantmes of wliich are dug up in Siberia, is by fome called Mufcovy or Ruffian glafs. It is a particular fpcci^s of transparent done, lying in ftrata like fo many fheeis of paper. The matrix, or done in which it is found, is partly a light yellow quartz, or marcaffia, and partly a brown indurated fluid ; and this done contains in it all the fpecies of the marienglas. To render the marienglas fit for ufe, it is fplit with a thin two-edged knife ; but care is taken that the laminae be not too thin. It is ufcd for windows and lanterns all over Si¬ beria, and indeed in every part of the Ruffian empire, and looks very beautiful its ludre and clearnefs fur- p a ding that of the fined glafs, to which it is particularly preferable for windows and lanterns of drips, as it will dand the-explofion of cannon. It is found in the greated plenty near the river VVitim. Siberia affords magnets of an extraordinary fize, and even whole mountains of loaddone. Pit-coal is alio dug up in the northern parts of this country. The kamennoe maflo, a yellowidr kind of alum, unctuous and fmooth to the touch, like tophus, is found in the moun¬ tains of Krafnoiarfk, Ural, Altai Or, Jenifea, Baikal, Bar- gudk, Lena, and feveral others in Siberia. In this country are not only a great number of fredi water lakes, but likewife feveral whofe waters are fait; and thefe reciprocally change their nature, the fait fome- times becoming frefh, and the frefh changing into laline. Some lakes alfo dry up, and others appear where none were ever leen before. The fait lake of Yamufha, in the province of ToboHk, is the mod remarkable of all, for it contains a fait as white as fnow, confiding entirely of cubic cry dais. O ic finds alfo in Siberia faline fprings, fait water brooks, and a hill of fait. Siberia affords many other things which deferve notice. That ufeful root called rhubarb grows in vaft quantities near the city of Seleginfk. The curious mammuth’s bones and horns, as they are called, which are found along the banks of the Oby, Jenefei, Lena, and Irtifh, are unquel- tionably the teeth and bones of elephants. But whether thefe elephants teeth and bones were conveyed to thefe northern regions by the general deluge, or by any other inundation, and were by degrees covered with earth, is a point which might lead us into long and very fruitlefs difqulfitions •, we (hall therefore only obferve, that fuch bones have likewife been found in Ruffia, and even in feveral parts of Germany. A kind of bones of a dill larger fize than thefe have alfo been dug up in Siberia, and feem to jiave belonged to an animal of the ox kind. The horn of the whale called narwhal has been found in the earth near the rivers Indigirka and Anadir •, and the teeth of another fpecies of whales, called wolrofs, about Anadirfkoi. The latter are larger than the com¬ mon fort, which are brought from Greenland, Archan¬ gel, and Kola. The chain of Siberian mountains reaches from that of Werchoturie towards the fouth as far as the neigh¬ bourhood of the city of Orienburg, in a continued ridge, under the name of the Uralian mountains •, but from thence it alters its direction wedward. Thefe mountains are a kind of boundary between Ruffia Proper and Si¬ beria. Another chain of hills divides Siberia from the coun' ry of the Calmucks and Mongolians.—Thefe moun¬ tains, between the rivers Irtidr and Ooy, are called the Altaic or Goldeh Mountains, which name they after¬ wards lofe, particularly between the river Jenefei and the Baikal lake, where they are called the Sayanian Siberia mountains. ' The inhabitants of Siberia confid of the Aborigines v 1 ^ , or ancient inhabitants, the Tartars, and Ruffians, com- l4 puted at 3,500,000. Inhabitants. Some of thefe nations have no other religion but that of nature •, others are Pagans or Mahometans, and fome of them have been converted to Chridianity, or rather only baptifed by the Ruffian miffionaries. SIBTHORPI A, a genus of plants belonging to the clafs of didynamia, and to the order of angiolpermia ; and in the natural fydym claffed with thofe the order of which is doubtful. See Botany Index. SIBYLS, in pagan antiquity, certain women faid to have been endowed with a prophetic fpirit, and to have delivered oracles, diowing the fates and revolu¬ tions of kingdoms. Their number is unknown. Plato fpeaks of one, others of two, Pliny ot three, ALlian otpriere's four, and Varro of ten ; an opinion which is univerfally Diciionaty. adopted by the learned. Thefe ten Sibyls generally re¬ dded in the foilow'cd places, Perfia, Libya, Delphi, Cumae in Italy, Erythrcea, Samos, Cumae in Aiolia, Marpeffa on the Hellefpont, Ancyra in Phrygia, and Tiburtis. The mod celebrated of the Sibyls is that of Cumae in Italy, whom fome have called by the different names of Amalthaea, Demiphile, Herophile, Daphne, Manto, Phemonoe, and Deiphobe. It is faid, that Apollo became enamoured of her, and that to make her fenfible of his paffion he offered to give her whatever die diould alk. The Sibyl demanded to live as many years as die had grains of fand in her hand, but unfor¬ tunately forgot to alk for the enjoyment of the health, vigour, and bloom, of which die was then in poffeffion. The god granted her requed, but die refufed to gra¬ tify the paffion of her lover though he offered her per¬ petual youth and beauty. Some time after Hie became old and decrepit, her form decayed, melancholy palenefs and haggard looks fucceeded to bloom and cheerfulnefs. She had already lived about 700 years when iEneas came to Italy, and, as fome have imagined, die had three centuries more to live before her years were as numerous as the grains of fand which die had in her hand. She gave jEneas indruiffions how to find his father in the infernal regions, and even conduced him to the en¬ trance of hell. It was ufual for the Sibyl to write her prophecies on leaves, which die placed at the entrance of her cave ; and it required particular care in fuch as con- fulted her to take up thefe leaves before they were dif- perfed by the wind, as their meaning then became in- comprehenfible. According to the mod authentic hi- dorians of the Roman republic, one of the Sibyls came to the palace of Tarquin the Second, with nine volumes, which die offered to fell for a very high price. The mo¬ narch difregarded her, and die immediately difappeared, and foon after returned, when die had burned three of the volumes. She afked the fame price for the remain¬ ing fix books 5 and when Tarquin refufed to buy them, die burned three more, and dill perfided in demanding the fame fum of money for the three that were left.—- This extraordinary behaviour adoniflied Tarquin ; he bought the books, and the Sibyl indantly vanilhed, and never after appeared to the world. Thefe books were preferved with great care by the monarch, and called the Sibylline verfes. A college of prieds was appointed to have the care of them and fuch reverence did the Romans S I c r 3.33 1 S I c Sibyl* siciiy. Boundaries and extent. ftiftory du¬ ring trie fa bulous ages. Romans entertain for thefe prophetic books, that they were confulted with the greateit folemnity, anu only , when the ftate feemed to be in danger. When the Ca¬ pitol was burnt in the troubles of Sylla, the Sibylline verfes which were depofited there penihed in tne con¬ flagration •, and to repair the lofs which the republic feemed to have fudained, commiffioners were immediate¬ ly fent to different parts of Greece to collect whatever verfes could be found of the infpired writings or the Si¬ byls. The fate of thefe Sibylline verfes which were collected after the conflagration of the capitol is un¬ known. There are now many Sibylline verfes extant, but they are reckoned univerfally fpurious j and it is evi¬ dent that they were compofed in the fecond century by fome off the followers of Chriftianity, who wifhed to con¬ vince the heathens of their error, by afliftmg the caule of truth with the arms of pious artifice. # _ SICE’dA, a name given to any inebriating liquor by the Helleniftic Jews. St Chryfoilom, 'LTeodoret, and Theophilus of Antioch, who were Syrians, and who therefore ought to know the fignification and natuxe or “ ficera,” affure us, that it properly fignifies palm-wine. Pliny acknowledges, that the wine of the palm tree was very well known through all the end, and that it was made by taking a bufliel of the dates of the palm-tree, and throwing them into three gallons of water ; then fqueezing out the juice, it would intoxicate like wine. The wine of the palm tree is white : when it is diuim new, it has the tafte of the cocoa, and is Iweet as honey. When it is kept longer, it grows iirong, and intoxicates. After long keeping, it becomes vinegar. SICILIAN, in Mufic, denotes a kind of gay fpnght- ly air, or dance, probably invented in Sicily, fomewhat of the nature of an Englifh jig ; uiually marked with the charafders | or -g-. It confids of two drains j the firft of four, and the fecond of eight, bars or meafures. SICILY, is a large blind in the Mediterranean lea, adjoining to the fouthern extremity of Italy, and ex- tends fro m latitude 36J 25' to latitude 38 ^5 ’ aiK from longitude 12° 50' to longitude 16 5' ead from London. Its greated length 210 miles, breadth 133, circumference 6do-, its form triangular, the three an¬ gles beino- the promontories of Pelorum, Pachynum, and Lilybseum, or as they are now called the Faro, Capo Paffara, and Capo Boco. It is divided from Italy oy theftraits of Medina, reaching from the Power of fa¬ ro which is the mod northerly part of the idand, to the Capo dell' Arm/, or the Cape of Arms, the mod fouth¬ ern part of Calabria. Thefe draits, by the Latins called Frctum S/culum, by the Italians II Faro di ftna, and by us the Faro of Me fin a, are between 1 2 and 1 5 miles over in the broaded places, and in the nar¬ rowed about a mile and an half-, infomuch that when Medina was taken by the Carthaginians, many of the inhabitants are faid to have faved themielves by fwim- ming to the oppolite coad of Italy. Hence has aulen an opinion that the idand of-Sicily was originally join¬ ed to the continent, but afterwards feparated by an earth¬ quake or fome other natural caule. Phis reparation, however, is reckoned by the mod judicious among the ancients to be fabulous -, and they content themfelves with fpeaking of it as a thing faid to have happened. Anciently this idand was called Sicania, Sicilia, and Trinacria or Triquetra,- the two former it had from the Sicani and Siculi, who peopled a confiderable part of Sicily, the country \ the two latter from its triangular figure. Its fird inhabitants, according to the mod refpedtable ancient authors, were the Cyclopes and Ltedrigones, who are faid to have fettled in the countries adjoining to Mount Etna 3 but of their origin we know nothing, except what is related by the poets. After them came the Sicani, who called themfelves the original inhabi¬ tants of the country ; but feveral ancient hidorians in¬ form us that they came from a country in Spain wa¬ tered by the rivet Siconus. Diodorus, however, is of opinion, that the Sicani were the mod ancient inhabi¬ tants of this bland. He tells us that they were in pof- feffion of the whole, and applied themfelves to cultivate and improve the ground in the neighbourhood of Etna, which was the mod fruitful part of the idand . tiiey built feveral fmall towns and villages on the hills to fc-> cure themfelves againlt thieves and robbers j and were governed, not by one prince, but each city and didrift by its own king. Thus they lived till Etna began to throw out dames, and forced them to retire to the wed- ern parts of the Aland, which they continued to inhabit, in the time of Thucydides. Some irojans, affer the dedruftion of their city, landed in the idand, fettled among the Sicani, and built the cities of Eryx and E- geifa, uniting themielves with them, and taking the ge¬ neral name V Elymi or Elymaei. They were after¬ wards joined by fome Phocenfes, who fettled heie on their return from the liege of Troy. After the Sicani had for many ages enjoyed an un- didurbed poffedion of the whole of Sicily, or fuch parts of it as they chofe to inhabit, they were vidted^by the- Siculi, who were the ancient inhabitants ot Auionia properly fo called ; but being driven out from thence by the Opici, they took refuge in the idand of Sicily. Not being contented with the narrow bounds allowed them by the Sicani, they began to encroach upon their neighbours j upon which a war enfuing, the Sicani were utterly defeated, and confined to a corner 01 the idand, the name of which was now changed irom Sicaaia into that of Sicilia. . , About 300 years after the arrival of the Siculi, the idand fird began to be known to the Greeks, who cda-. blilhed various colonies, and built many cities in diffe¬ rent parts of the idand , and it is only from tne time of their arrival that we have any hidory of the idand. The fird of the Greeks that came into Sicily were the Chalcidians of Euboea, under the conduft of Thucles, who built Naxus, and a famous altar of Apollo, which, as Thucydides tells us, was dill Handing in his time without the city. The year after, which was, accord¬ ing to Dibnyfius Hahcarnaffenfis, the third ot the 17I'1 CHympiad, Archias the Corinthian, one of the Hera- clidte, laid the foundations of Syracufe. Seven years after, a new colony of Chalcidians founded Leontini and Catana, after having driven out the Siculi, who in¬ habited that traft. About the fame time Larnis, with a colony from Megara, a city of Achaia, fettled on the river Pantacius, at a place called Trotilum, where his adventurers lived fome time in common with the Chal¬ cidians of Leontini -, but, being driven from thence by the Leontines, he built the city of Ihapfus, where he died Upon his death, the colony left Thapfus ; and under the conduft of Hyblon king of the Siculi, found- ed Megara Hybkea, where they redded 245 years, till 4 A \ \ SIC Sicily. [ 534 Swin¬ burne's Travels in the Two Si¬ cilies, vol ii, p. 176. .3 Grecian colonies in Sicily. they were driven out by Gelon tyrant.of Syracufe. Du¬ ring their abode at Megara, they fent one Pamilus, who was come from Megara in Achaia, their original city, to build Selinus. This city was founded about 100 years after the foundation of Megara. Antiphemus and Entimus, the former a Rhodian, the other a Cre¬ tan, led each a colony of their countrymen, and jointly built the city of Gela on a river of the fame name, efta- blifhing in their new fettlement the Doric cultoms, about. 45 years after the founding of Syracufe. The inhabitants of Gela founded Agrigentum 108 years af¬ ter their arrival in Sicily, and introduced the fame cuf- toms there. A few years after, Zancle was built by the pirates of Cumee in Italy ; but chiefly peopled by the Chalcidians, Samians, and lonians, who chofe rather to feek new fettlements than live under the Perfian yoke. Some time after, Anaxales, tyrant of Rhegium, drove out the ancient proprietors ; and, dividing his lands amongft his followers, called the city MeJJana or MeJJenc, which was the name of his native city in Pelo- ponnefus. The city of Plimera was founded by the Zancleans under the direction of Eucleides, Simus, and Sacon } but peopled by the Chalcidians and fome Syra- culan exiles, who had been driven out by the contrary faftian. The Syracufans built Acrse, Chafmenac, and Cama- rina; the firft 70 years, the fecond 90, and the third J35> a^ter the: foundation of their own city. This is the account which Thucydides, a molt judicious and exa£t writer, gives us of the various nations, whether Greeks or Barbarians, who fettled in Sicily. Strabo counts among the ancient inhabitants of Sicily the Mor- getes, who being driven out of Italy by the Oenotrians, lettled in that part of the ifland wdrere the ancient city of Morgantium flood. The Campani, who aflumed the name of Mamertini, that is, invincible warriors, and the Carthaginians, who fettled very early in Sicily, ought likewife to be counted among the ancient inhabitants of the ifland. .Before this period the hiflory of Sicily is blended with fables like the early hiflory of almoft every other country. After the fettlement of the Greeks* in the ifland, its various revolutions have been traced from their feveral fources by many writers ; but by none with greater accuracy than Mr Swinburne. From his ac¬ count of his .Travels in the Fwo Sicilies, wTehave there¬ fore taken the following concife hiflory of this king¬ dom, which will at once gratify fuch of our readers as intereft themfelves in the fate of a generous people who long ftruggled in vain for freedom; and at the 1’.me time aftord them a fpecimen of the entertainment they may receive from the very elegant work of the author. “ Ariftocracy prevailed at flrft in the Greek fettle¬ ments, but foon made way for tyranny-, wdiich in its turn was expelled by democracy. One of the earlieft deftroyers of common liberty was Phalaris of Agrigen- tum, who reigned 600 years before Chrift : his example was contagious *, a legion of tyrants fprung up, and not a commonwealth in the ifland efcaped the lafli of an ufurper. Syracufe was moft opprefled and torn to pieces by diflenfion ; as its wealth and preponderance in the general fcale dield out a greater temptation than other cities to the ambition of wicked men. It requires the combined teflimony of hiftorians to enforce our be- 4 S I G lief or its wonderful profperity, and the no lefs extraor- Sicily. dinary tyranny of fome of its fovereigns. Thefe Gre-' cian colonies attained to fuch excellence in arts and faiences as emboldened them frequently to vie with the learned and ingenious in the mother country j nay, often enabled them to bear away the palm of victory : there needs no ftronger proof of their literary merits than a bare recital of the names of Archimedes, Theocritus, Gorgias, and Charondas. But the Sicilian Greeks were not deftined to en-Carthagi- joy the fweets of their fitualion without moleftation. nianscon- Very foon after their arrival, the inhabitants of the fluer &reat neighbouring coaft of Africa began to afpire to a tharepart °f U' of Sicily. Carthage fent large bodies of forces at dif¬ ferent times to eflablilh their powder in the ifland, and about^ 500 years before the Chriftan era had made themfelves mailers of all the weftern parts of it. The Siculi retained pofleflion of the midland country, and the fouthern and eaftern coafts were inhabited by the Greeks. ^ “ About that time Gelo was chofen prince of Syra- Gd0 cho« cufe on account of his virtues, which grew ftill morefen kinS* confpicuous after his exaltation ; had the example he fet been followed by his fucceflbrs, the advantages of freedom would never have been known or wiihed for by the Syracufans. The Carthaginians found in him a vi¬ gorous opponent to their projeft of enflaving Sicily, a project invariably purfued but never accompliflied. “ Hiero fucceeded his brother Gelo, and, contrary Is fu„feecIed to the ufual progreflion, began his reign by a difplay by Hiero.C of bad qualities. Senfible of his error, and improved by experience, he afterwards adopted more equitable meafures. At his death the Syracufans threw off the yoke, and for flxty years revelled in all the joys of freedom. Their peace was, however, difturbed" by the Athenians and the Carthaginians. The latter plunder¬ ed Agrigentum, and threatened ruin to the reft of the Grecian ftates 5 but a treaty of peace averted that ftorm. The Athenians, under pretence of fupporting their a!- lies the people of Segefta, but in reality from a thirft of dominion, invefted Syracufe with a formidable land and naval armament under the command of Nicias ; in confequence of a ralh indigefted plan, ill conducted at¬ tacks, and inadequate fupplies, their whole hoft was cut to pieces or led away into captivity. “ Syracufe had fcarcely time to breathe after her vie- Dion>fin? tory ere inteftine wars broke out, and railed Dionyflus the elder to fupreme command. Avarice, defpotifm, and cruel-antl ty, marked every day of his reign ; but his military en-younger‘ terprifes were crowned with conftant fuccefs. He died in peace, and bequeathed a powerful fovereignty to a fon of his name tainted with the fame and worfe vices, but not endowed with equal capacity and martial abili¬ ty : in fuch hands the rod of tyranny ceafed to be for¬ midable, and the tyrant was driven out of Sicily by the patriotic party ; but matters were not fufficientiy fettled for popular government, and Dionyfius refumed the feeptre for a while, till Timoleon forced him into perpe¬ tual exile.” s Liberty feemed now to be eftabliflied on a permanent A^nthocles bafis; but in Syracule luch profpefts always proved il- the tyrant, lufory. Agathocles, a tyrant more inhuman than any preceding ufurper, feized the throne, and deluged the country with blood. He was involved in a perilous conteft with the Carthaginians, who obtained many ad¬ vantages S I c [ 335 ] SIC 9 Pyrrhus king of Epirus de¬ ceives the Sicilians. Sicily, vantages over him, drove his troops from poll; to poft, ■—y—^ and at hft blocked up his capital. In this defperate fituation, when all foreign helps were precluded, and hardly a refource remained at home, the genius of A- gathocles compaffed his deliverance by a plan that was imitated among the ancients by Hannibal, and among the moderns by the famous Cortes. He embarked with the flower of his army) forced his way through innu¬ merable obftacles; landed in Africa-, and, having burnt his fleet, routed the Carthaginians in a pitched battle, and laid their territory wafte. Carthage feemed to be on the brink of ruin, and that hour might have marked - her downfal had the Sicilian hoft been compofed of pa¬ triotic foldiers, and not of ungovernable affaflins j difeord pervaded the vidlorious camp, murder and riot enfued j and the tyrant, after beholding his children and friends butchered before his face, efcaped to Sicily, to meet a death as tragical as his crimes deterved. Anarchy now raged throughout the ifland, and every faftion was reduced to the neceflity of calling in the af- fiftance of foreign powers •, among whom Pyrrhus king of Epirus took the lead, and reduced all parties to fome degree of order and obedience. But ambition foon prompted him to invade thofe rights which he came to defend ; he cart off the mafic, and made Sicily feel un¬ der his fway as heavy a hand as that of its former op- preflbrs 5 but the Sicilians foon alTumed courage and IO ftrength enough to drive him out of the ifland. The Ma- About this period the Mamertini, whom Mr Swin- mertini fur- bm-jm indignantly ftyles a crew of mifereants, furprifed ''^and^fre Medina, and, after a general maffacre of the citizens, affifted by eflablhhed a republican form of government. Their com- the Ro- monwealth became fo troublefome a neighbour to the mans; Greeks, that Hiero II. who had been railed to the chief command at Syracufe in confideration of his fupe- rior wifdom and warlike talents, found himfelf neceflita- ted to form a league with Carthage, in order to deflroy this neft of villains. In their diitrefs the Mamertini implored the afliftance of Home, though the fenate had recently punifhed with exemplary feverity one of their own legions for a fimilar outrage committed at Ilhegium. The virtue of the Romans gave way to the temptation, and the defire of extending their empire be¬ yond the limits of Italy, caft a veil over every odious circumflance attending this alliance. A Roman army eroded the Faro, relieved Medina, defeated the Car¬ thaginians, and humbled Hiero into an ally of the re¬ public. Thus began the firfl Punic war, which wras carried es rife toon for many years in Sicily with various fuccefs. The genius of Hamilcar Barcas fupported the African caufe under numberlefs difappointments, and the repeated overthrows of his colleagues 5 at lafi, finding his exer¬ tions ineffectual, he advifed the Carthaginian rulers to purchafe peace at the price of Sicily. Such a treaty wras not likely to be obferved longer than want of ftrength fhould curb the animoflty of the vanquiihed party: when their vigour was recruited, Hannibal i’on of Hamilcar ea- I2 lily perfuaded them to refume the conteft, and for 16 The fecoml years waged war in the heart of the Roman territories. Tunic war Meanwhile Hiero conducted himfelf with fo much pru¬ dence, that he retained the friendfinp of both parties, and preferved his portion of Sicily in perfect tranquillity. He died in extreme old age, belove.l and refpeCted both at home and abroad. 11 which the Irrft Punic war. railed by Hannibal. His grandfon Hieronymus, forfaking this happy line Sicily, of politics, and contrafting an alliance with Carthage,~y— fell an early victim to the troubles which his own folly had excited. Once more, and for the laft time, the Sy- racufans found themfelves in poffeflion of their indepen¬ dence : but the times were no longer fuited to fuch a fyftem 5 difienfions gained head, and diftradted the pub¬ lic councils. Carthage could not fupport them, or pre¬ vent Marcellus from undertaking the fiege of Syracufe, immortalized by the mechanical efforts of Archimedes, and the immenfity of the plunder. See Syracuse. 13 The Sicilians after this relinquiflied all martial ideas, Sicily con- and during a long feries of generations turned their at-fl“erse<^y tention folely to the arts of peace and the labours °fcens"aiui agriculture. Their pofition in the centre of the Ro-afterwards man empire preferved them both from civil and foreign by the Nor- foes, except in two inftances of a fervile war. The ra-mans'> pacity of their governors was a more conftant and in- fupportable evil. In this ftate of apathy and opulence Sicily remained down to the 7th century of our era, when the Saracens began to difturb its tranquillity. The barbarous nations of the north had before invaded and ravaged its coafts, but had not long kept poffeflion. The Saracens were more fortunate. In 827 they avail¬ ed themfelves of quarrels among the Sicilians to fubdue the country. Palermo was cholen for their capital, and the ftandard of Mahomet triumphed about 200 years. In 1038 George Maniaces was fent by the Gteek em¬ peror with a great army to attack Sicily. He made good his landing, and pufhed his conquefts with vigour : his fuccefs arofe from the valour of fome Norman troops, which were at that time unemployed and ready to lell their fervices to the bell bidder. Maniaces repaid them with ingratitude } and by his abfurd conduft gave the Muffelmans time to breathe, and the Normans a pretext and opportunity of invading the Imperial dominions in Italy. Robert and Roger of Hauteville afterwards con¬ quered Sicily on their own account, not as mercenaries; for having fubftantially fettled their power on the con¬ tinent, they turned their arms againft this ifland in obe¬ dience to the dictates of zeal and ambition. After ten years ftruggle, the Saracens yielded up the rich prize, and Robert ceded it to his brother Roger, who affumed the title of Great Earl of Sicily, ruled the ftate with wifdom, and ranks defervedly among the greateft cha- rafters in hiftory. He raifed himfelf from the humble Ration of a poor younger fon of a private gentleman, to the exalted dignity of a powerful monarch, by the foie force of his own genius and courage ; he governed a na¬ tion of ftrangers with vigour and juftice, and tranfmitted his poffeiTions undifputed to his pofterity. Such an af- femblage of great qualities is well intitled to our admi¬ ration. T4 He was fucceeded by his fon Simon, whofe reign was Under the ILorf, and made way for a fecond fon called Roger. In 1127 this prince joined to his Sicilian poffeffions the^”1^* whole inheritance of Robert Guifcard (fee Naples, narchc. " N° 23.), and affumed the regal ftyle. The greatelt part of his reign was taken up in quelling revolts in Ita¬ ly, but Sicily enjoyed profound peace. In 1154 his fon William afeended the throne, and paffed his life in war ana confufion. William II. fucceeded his father, and died without iffue. Tancred, though bafely bom, rvas eledled his fucccffor, and after him his fon William III..who was vanquiftied by Henry of Swabia. During the r \ SIC [ .33^ ] SIC , Sicily. t^e troubles that agitated tbe reign of bis fon the cm- ~'v peror Frederic, peace appears to have been tbe lot of Sicily. A fhort-lived (edition, and a revolt of tbe Sa¬ racens, are the only commotions of which we read. For greater fecurity, the Saracens were removed to Puglia 400 years after the conqueft of Sicily by their anceflors. Under Conrad and Manfred Sicily remained quiet j and from that time the hiftory of Sicily is related under the 15 article Naples, N° 20, &c. Is at length At the death of Charles II. of Spain, his fpcils be- -Xf came an objeft of furious contention j and at the peace niafcls. ' Utrecht, Sicily was ceded to Viftor duke of Savoy, who, not many years after, was forced by the emperor Charles VI. to relinquifh that fine ifland, and lake Sar¬ dinia as an equivalent. But as the Spaniards had no concern in thefe bargains, they made a fudden attempt to recover Sicily, in w'hich they failed through the vi¬ gilance of the Englifh admiral Byng. He deffroyed their fleet in 1718, and compelled them to drop their fcheme for a time. In 1734 the Spanifh court refumed their defign wuth fuccefs. The infant Don Carlos drove the Germans out, and was crowned king of the two Si¬ cilies at Palermo. When he palled into Spain to take poffeflion of that crown, he transferred the Sicilian dia¬ dem to his fon Ferdinand III. of Sicily, and IV. of Naples, and it has ever fince remained in the poueflion 1(; of the fame family. Account of Sicily is feparated, as we have already obferved, frcm the ftraits Italy by a narrow fcrait called the Ftfro This ot Meffina. ftrait is ftill remarkable for the rapidity of its currents and the irregular ebbing and flowing of the fea, which fometimes rufhes in with fuch violence as to endanger fhips riding at anchor. Anciently it was much more remarkable for Scylla and Charybdis, the one a rock, and the other a whirlpool, between which it was very dangerous to fleer, and concerning wTuch fo many fables have been related by the ancients. Scylla is a rock on the Italian fide, oppofite to Cape Pylores, which runs out into the fea on the Sicilian fide. Mr Brydone in¬ forms us, that the navigation of the Arabs is not even yet performed without danger. He alfo informs us, that the noife of the current which fets through the ftraits may be heard for feveral miles, like tbe roaring of feme large impetuous river confined between narrow banks. In many places the w7ater rofe into whirlpools and eddies, which are dangerous to (hipping. The current fet ex- a£tly for the rock of Scylla, and W’ould certainly have carried any thing throivn into it againft that point. Our author, however, is by no means of opinion that the ftrait is fo dangerous as the ancients have reprefented it •, though he thinks that the ftrait is now probably much wider than formerly, which may have diminiftied the danger. There are many fmall rocks, which (how their heads near the bafe of the large ones. Thefe are pro¬ bably the dogs deferibed by the ancient poets as howling round Scylla. The rock is near 200 feet high, and has a kind of caftle or fort built on its fummit with a town called Scy/la or Scig/io, containing 300 or 400 inhabi¬ tants on its fouth fide, which gives the title of prince to a Calabrefe family. The following account of thefe rocks and whirlpools is.given by the celebrated naturalift Spallanzani. He in¬ forms us, that Scylla is a lofty rock, 12 miles from Mef¬ fina, rifing almoft perpendicular from the fea on the (bore of Calabria, beyond which is the (mall city of the Sici fame n